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The Ingenious Mr. Pyke
AlsobyHenryHemming MisadventureintheMiddleEast InSearchoftheEnglishEccentric Together AbdulnasserGharem ForBB Copyright©2015byHenryHemming. PublishedintheUnitedStatesbyPublicAffairs™,aMemberofthePerseusBooksGroup Allrightsreserved. PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica. FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2014byPrefacePublishing RandomHouse,20VauxhallBridgeRoad,LondonSW1V2SA AnimprintofTheRandomHouseGroupLimited Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermissionexceptinthecaseofbriefquotationsembodied incriticalarticlesandreviews.Forinformation,addressPublicAffairs,250West57thStreet,15thFloor,NewYork,NY10107. PublicAffairsbooksareavailableatspecialdiscountsforbulkpurchasesintheU.S.bycorporations,institutions,andotherorganizations.For moreinformation,pleasecontacttheSpecialMarketsDepartmentatthePerseusBooksGroup,2300ChestnutStreet,Suite200,Philadelphia, PA19103,call(800)810-4145,ext.5000,[email protected]. Theauthorandpublishergratefullyacknowledgethepermissiongrantedtoreproducethecopyrightmaterialinthisbook.Everyefforthasbeen madetotracecopyrightholdersandtoobtaintheirpermission.Thepublisherapologizesforanyerrorsoromissionsand,ifnotifiedofany corrections,willmakesuitableacknowledgementinfuturereprintsoreditionsofthisbook. TextsetinBemboBookMTStdbyPalimpsestBookProductionLimited,Falkirk,Stirlingshire AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress. LibraryofCongressCatalogControlNumber:2014952648 ISBN:978-1-61039-578-6(e-book) FirstEdition 10987654321 ‘Thefactis,ifImayputthepointinasomewhatcomicalway,thatIhavebeenliterallyattachedbyGod toourcity,asiftoahorse–alargethoroughbred,whichisabitsluggishbecauseofitssizeandneedsto bearousedbysomesortofgadfly.Yes,inme,Ibelieve,Godhasattachedtoourcityjustsuchacreature – the kind which is constantly alighting everywhere on you, all day long, arousing, cajoling, or reproachingeachandeveryoneofyou.Youwillnoteasilyacquireanothersuchgadfly.’ SocratesinPlato’sTheDefenceofSocrates CONTENTS Author’sNote Introduction PARTI HowtoBecomeaWarCorrespondent HowtoEscape HowtoBecomeInvisible PykeHunt,Part1 HowtoRaiseYourChild(andPayforIt) PARTII HowtoResolveanEpidemicofAnti-Semitism,aRoyalScandalandtheThreatofFascism HowtoPreventaWar PykeHunt,Part2 HowtoDefeatNazism PykeHunt,Part3 HowtoChangetheMilitaryMind PykeHunt,Part4 HowtoSucceedinAmerica PykeHunt,Part5 HowtoWintheWarwithIce HowtoSurvive HowtoLive PykeHunt,Part6 Epilogue,or,HowtoThinkLikeaGenius Notes ListofIllustrations Acknowledgements Index AUTHOR’SNOTE Inwhatfollowsdirectspeechistakenverbatimfromeithercontemporaryaccountsormemoirs. INTRODUCTION February1948 MrsHopkins,thedailyhelp,knewverylittleaboutthemanwhohadtakenroomsonthetopfloor,soshe wasunsurewhattomakeofthenoteonhisdoor.ShecouldtellyouthathisnamewasGeoffreyPyke.He wasjustoversixfeettall,woreabatteredHomburgoverhisbaldingpateandwalkedwiththestoopofa man recovering from illness. He was bearded, middle-aged and lean. He had large feet, spoke with a deepandmusicaltimbreandreceivedanunusualamountofpostfromoverseas.Asfarasshewasaware, hewasagoodlodger,inthesensethathetookinfewguests,kepttohimselfandwasneverlatewithhis rent. But like most of those who encountered this man or heard stories about him – from the fellow residentshepassedonthestairsofthisboardinghouseallthewaytotheKingofEngland–MrsHopkins wasneverreallysurewhohewas. BythetimeGeoffreyPykehadmovedtoHampstead,shortlybeforetheendoftheSecondWorldWar, hehadcollectedanunlikelysetoflives.Overthepasttwodecadeshehadbeendescribedaseverything from eccentric genius to war correspondent, jailbreaker, bestselling author, educationalist, speculator, mass-observer,advertisingcopywriter,politicalactivist,militaryinventorandscientist,whileforthose inMI5,theBritishSecurityService,PykewasthoughttobeanundercoverSovietagentwhohadgone quietinrecentyears.Ineachofthesedescriptionstherewas,itwouldlateremerge,atleastanelementof truth. Thenoteonhisdoorwasbrief:‘Pleasedonotwakeme.’ Giventheappallingweatheroutsidethiswasnotsurprising.Londonwascakedwithsnowand,with so many Londoners unable to get to work, Pyke’s decision to sleep in was understandable. But Mrs Hopkinswasconfusedbyhiscurtainsbeingdrawnwellintothedaywhilehislightsremainedon,asthey hadbeensinceherarrivalthatmorning.Somethingwasnotright.Ataroundmiddaysheknockedonhis door. Nothing. Andagain. Perhapssheshoutedhisnamebeforetryingthehandle,onlytofindthatthedoorwasunlocked. As usual his room was a mess, a papery metropolis of maps and journals, newspapers, statistical compendiums,lettersstampedwiththewords‘MostSecret’andheapsofnotes,manyofthemonfeathery papertoppedwithatropical-bluegovernmentcrest.Hisbedhadbeenproppedupatoneend,anattempt toimprovehiscirculation,andelsewhereMrsHopkinstookinthefamiliarsightoftabletops,shelvesand sectionsoffloorburiedbeneathstrataofsardinetins,biscuitpackets,ashtrays,copiesofTheTimes and theDailyWorker,anoccasionaldunningletter,cupsoflapsangsouchong,half-emptybottlesandmoreof thatnotepapercobwebbedwithhisspideryhandwriting. Atlastshesawhim.Hewasstretchedoutinachairbythewindow,armsloosebyhisside.Hisbeard hadgoneandforoncehelookedindifferenttotheworld.Nexttohimtherewerethreesealedlettersanda sheetofpaperbearingamessage. Outside,Hampsteadremainedblankwithsnowandnothingmuchmoved.Inthewiderworldsoldiers werestillreturningfromwarwhilerefugeestriedtomaketheirwayhome.Societywasrearrangingitself after six years of armed conflict, genocide and upheaval; it was starting to rebuild and reconfigure according to new indices of fear and hope, but it would do so without this man. Late on Saturday, 21 February 1948, aged fifty-four, Geoffrey Pyke had taken his own life. As Time magazine put it the followingweek,‘itwastheonlyunoriginalthinghehadeverdone.’ This is the story of a man described in his Times obituary as ‘one of the most original if unrecognised figuresofthepresentcentury’.GeoffreyPykewashailedbyJ.D.‘Sage’Bernalasnotonlyageniusbut ‘oneofthegreatest[...]geniusesofhistime’.LancelotLawWhyte,whohelpeddevelopthejetengine, comparedhimtoEinstein,addingthat‘Pyke’sgeniuswasmoreintangible,perhapsbecauseheproduced notone,butanendlesssequenceofideas’.Ascientistwhoworkedalongsidehimfelthe‘stoodoutamong hisfellowsliketheNorthFaceoftheEigerinthefoothillsoftheAlps’.Foranotherthiswas‘thesortof manwhowouldhaveinventedthewheel’.Everyoneseemedtoagreeonthequalityofhismind,yetfew could understand why he had committed suicide. Fewer still had any inkling that he might have led a doublelife. DuringtheSecondWorldWar,withoutanymilitarybackgroundorrelevantqualifications,Geoffrey PykewasappointedDirectorofProgrammesatCombinedOperations.Asoneofthe‘right-handmen’of itsbuccaneeringchief,LordLouisMountbatten,hewasresponsibleforastreamofschemes,feintsand military inventions including the idea, known as PLUTO, for an oil pipeline under the English Channel and another proposal whose advantages, for Prime Minister Winston Churchill, were ‘so dazzling that theydonotatthemomentneedtobediscussed’.OfanotherplanChurchillwrote,‘Neverinthehistoryof humanconflictwillsofewimmobilisesomany.’Bothhadattheirheartaningenioususeofice.Itwas alsoaroundthistimethatKingGeorgeVIheardaboutPykeandbecameknownforhisimpersonationof Mountbatten’s most colourful boffin, which involved exaggerated strokes of the royal chin (at the time Pykeworeagoatee). ThathewasthesubjectoflivelystoriestoldbyDickieMountbattentohiscousintheKinghintsata bright and unbuttoned personality. To look at, Pyke was certainly distinctive. Friends described his ‘immensenaturaldignity’.Onemancomparedhimto‘aRussianprinceling’.FortheNobelPrize-winning playwrightEliasCanetti,hewas‘likeafigureonaByzantineicon’.Bytheendofthewartherewasa richfolkloreofstoriesaboutPykeandhisvariouswardrobemalfunctions–itmightbehisfliesgetting stuckopen,hispreferencefornosockswhatevertheweather,orhisuseofashoestringinsteadofatie. Hewascapableofstandingoutinanysetting,afluorescentthreadonahessiansacknomatterwherehe went,andinmanywayshecultivatedthisimageofhimselfastheoddmanout.Butthesetalestoldtothe KingwerebuiltuparoundmorethanthewayPykeconductedhimselforhissartorialidiosyncrasies.At theirheartwashisextravagantabilitytosolvealmostanyproblemputtohim.Strangerstill,hissolutions seemedtowork. Geoffrey Pyke had a genius for innovation. He was one of the great innovators of the twentieth century,bothinthestaggeringrangeofhisradicalideasandinhistechnique.Hewasinvolvedinthebirth of – to name just five – a revolutionary kindergarten based on Freudian psychoanalysis, the Mass Observation movement, a pioneering charity, the NHS and the ‘Devil’s Brigade’ – the maverick American-CanadianCommandounittowhichtoday’sUSandCanadianSpecialForcestracetheirorigin, andwhichprovidedtheinspirationforQuentinTarantino’s2009filmInglouriousBasterdsaboutaband of Allied guerrillas wreaking havoc behind enemy lines. He brought into the world a galaxy of ideas withouthavinganyparticularexpertiseorevenauniversitydegree.Hereliedinsteadonanintuitiveand crystal-sharpunderstandingofwhatmattered,whyitmattered,andwhatheasaprivatecitizencoulddo aboutit. Thoughout his life, Pyke arrived at the cutting edge of the great issues of the day and, as a consequence,hiscareer–ifcareeristherightword–canbeseenasanalternativechronicleofthefirst halfofthetwentiethcentury,anageofextremesinwhichthepossibilitiesofpoliticsandscienceseemed to stretch further out to the horizon than ever before. Pyke lived according to the spirit of these times; indeed,hestrovetoembodywithinhimselftheboldideathatitwaspossibletorewirehumansocietyand to produce a world without war or want in which the future and everything it stood for would be embracedlikeanoldfriend. Original,eccentric,ambitious,Pykelikedtogetthemeasureofhisaudiencebymakingthemlaugh.He wasagadfly:aperpetualoutsiderwithanoseforwhathecalledhumbug.Hisresponsetosolemnitywas tolookforthejoke,andmoreoftenthannotthiswaswherehefoundtheseedsofhissolutions;or,ashe putit,‘Itistheconcealedtruththatmakesthejest.’Hecouldbeinfuriatingaswellasfunny,andattimes his company was sobering: indeed, the US Deputy Solicitor-General, Oscar Cox, likened Pyke to ‘the voiceofConscienceinSpring’. Althoughamanofsupremegifts,Pykewasnotahouseholdnameatthetimeofhisdeathandformany Britons today the first Pyke who comes to mind will be his cousin Magnus Pyke, the amiable 1970s scientific populariser. Geoffrey Pyke remains, as he was at his death, one of the most original yet unrecognised figures of the twentieth century. His genius was for coming up with radical ideas, not for seeingthemthroughtocompletion.Hehadnointerestinhislegacy,hencetherearemanypartsofhislife thathaveremainedunexploredsincehissuicide.Onlynow,followingthereleaseofpreviouslyclassified documentsbyMI5,canthisman’sextraordinarystorybetoldinfull. InAugust2009mostofMI5’smaterialonPykeenteredthepublicdomain.Thishoardofdocuments offers an entirely new perspective on his life. MI5 suspected him of being a German spy in the First WorldWarand,duringthenextwar,whileintheemployofCombinedOperations,hewasthoughttohave been a senior Comintern official working undercover for the Soviet Union. MI5 even discovered his Sovietcodename–‘ProfessorP.’–andafterhisdeathfoundevidenceofaconnectionbetweenhimand SovietagentsGuyBurgessandAnthonyBlunt. The case against him was detailed and substantial. It was based on intelligence drawn from MI5 informants,scrapsofoverheardconversations,interceptedlettersandtheresultsofSpecialBranchand MI5 observations of Pyke in which he was shadowed through the streets of London. His career in CombinedOperationswascurtailed,yetatnopointdidheunderstandtheextentofMI5’ssuspicions,no chargewaseverbroughtagainsthimanduntilnowthetruthoftheseallegationsandofPyke’srealidentity haveremainedamystery. ThisbookisasmuchaboutwhetherGeoffreyPykewasaSovietagentduringhistimeworkingforthe Britishgovernment–and,ifso,why,howandtowhatend–asitisanaccountofthewayhethought. Onlybycombiningthesesometimesdisparatestrandsofhislifecanwegetasenseofhisbeguiling,selfdestructivegeniusandtheextenttowhichitwasaproductofthesocietythatheinhabited.Herewasa man who saw the world into which he had been born as a kaleidoscope of challenges, problems and questions,manyofwhichhadnotyetbeenasked.Forthisreason,whatfollowsisarrangedaroundMI5’s effortstounderstandwhohewasaswellasthegreatproblemshetookonduringhislifetime,problems whichobsessedhim,motivatedhimandultimatelydefinedhim. InthethroesofadolescencePykebegantobelievethathewascapablenotjustofidentifyingthemost urgentproblemsfacedbyhisgenerationbutoffindingsolutionstothem.Whetheritwasthedesignofa newmotorcyclesidecar,howtomakeafortunebytradingcopperfuturesorfindingawaytoavertthe outbreakofwar,Pykewasconvincedthathecouldcomeupwithananswerifhecameatthequestionin the right way. It was an approach which he refined throughout his life, and one which he felt could be learntbyanyone.Wecanallthinklikegeniuses,heinsisted,butonlyifwearepreparedtolookfoolish nowandagain. Hisoutlookwasparticular,boldandexactinganditwasnotwithoutrisks.Oneofthefirstproblems hesetouttosolveverynearlyledtohisdeath.Itwasthesummerof1914.Theworldhadgonetowar. GeoffreyPykewasatwenty-year-oldCambridgeundergraduatewhofoundhimselfdrawnirresistiblyto theimpossible. PARTI HOWTOBECOMEAWARCORRESPONDENT On 1 September 1914 Geoffrey Pyke left the offices of one of the country’s best-selling newspapers in something of a daze. What he had just suggested to the News Editor of the Daily Chronicle was so outlandish,soapparentlysilly,thathehadgivenlittlethoughttothepossibilitythatitmightbetakenup. Now,ashemadehiswaythroughthehurly-burlyofFleetStreet,withbodiesbrushingpastandthehumof horsemanurebuffetinguparoundhim,hebrokeintoasweat.Thethoughtjammedinhisheadwassimple enough:thatasaresultoftheconversationwhichhadjustfinishedhemightbetakenoutsideaforeignjail before the end of the month and shot. Gazing up at the soot-streaked palaces on either side of him, buildings which no longer impressed him as they had done earlier, Pyke wondered if he had made a terriblemistake. Ithadbeguntwomonthsearlier,inJuly1914,soonafterhehadfinishedhissecondyearatCambridge wherehis‘abilitiesmadehimconspicuous’andhewasthoughttobe‘extremelyclever’.Pykewastaller thanmostandgangly,withamatofdarkhairsetaboveaplayfulexpression,someonewhothrivedunder pressureandexudedthehard-wonconfidenceofaboywhohadbeenbulliedatschoolbeforeblossoming atuniversity. AftertheexcessesofMayWeek–thedancing,theshowsandthesunnyeveningsspent‘ragging’about – he had set off with a friend on a walking tour of Norway and Sweden. Like most of their contemporaries,neitheronesawtherecentassassinationofArchdukeFranzFerdinandindistantSarajevo asareasontocalloffthetrip. His companion was fellow Cambridge undergraduate Philip Sargant Florence, breezy and broadshouldered, who was three years older than him, half-American and had grown up in an eccentric household.Generallyhewashardenedtothequirksofothers,yetatanearlystageintheirjourneySargant Florencedetectedachangeinhisfriend.Ifsomepeoplebecomeamorecautiousversionofthemselvesin a foreign setting, Pyke seemed to do the opposite, and in this case Sargant Florence was partly responsible. They had come to know each other through meetings of the Cambridge Heretics, a debating society thatSargantFlorencehadco-foundedseveralyearsearlierandwhichwasfamousbythenforitslively, free-flowing discussions. Recent speakers included the poet Rupert Brooke and the author G. K. Chesterton,andoverthepastyearPykehadbecomeanavidmember.Forhimtheopen-mindedrigourof the Heretics’ discussions was a revelation, and was a lifetime away from his miserable experiences at Wellington College, the militaristic public school where he had spent two unhappy years before Cambridge.Itwasalsoatonicagainstthesadnessofhislifeathomewherehewasneverreallyableto escapetheghostofhisfatherortheall-too-realpresenceofhiswidowedmotherMary,wholikedtotell herfourchildrenthatifshecouldswaptheirlivesforthatoftheirlatefathershewould. LionelPykeQC Pyke’sfather,Lionel,hadbeenaprecociousbarristerwhotooksilkattheageofthirty-eightbefore runningunsuccessfullyforParliamentasaLiberalcandidate.HehadbecomeLeaderoftheAdmiraltyBar beforehisunexpecteddeathattheageofforty-fourfromarespiratorycondition.Geoffrey,hiseldestson, was five at the time. This was the defining trauma of Pyke’s life. It left him reaching for father figures throughouthislife,andatthesametimeitbroadenedthepossibilitiesofhispersonality.Hecouldfashion thememoryofhisfatherashelikedandeventhenhewasnotleftwitharigidtemplateofhowtobehave. The loss of his father seemed to produce in Pyke a Herculean drive: he latched on to new ideas with enthusiasm, and none more so than those outlined in a sensational talk he had heard in Cambridge just daysbeforesettingoutforNorway. TheCambridgeHereticshadbeenaddressedbythelegendaryfounderofFuturism,FilippoMarinetti, in what was breathlessly described by the Cambridge Magazine as ‘one of the most amazing meetings Cambridge has ever known’. Pyke had been aware of the larger-than-life Marinetti. Only a fortnight earlier he had included the Futurist’s onomatopoeic sound-poem ‘Pont’ in a special edition of Mandragora,theundergraduatemagazinethatheco-edited.Butthiswasthefirsttimehehadseenand heardtheItalianinfullflight.Theeffectwaslikethatofabaptism. Mandragora,MayWeek1914 Marinetti’sspeechtothe‘spellbound’Heretics,deliveredentirelyinFrench,‘butwithsuchfluency, energy and clarity that few failed to follow his every word’, seemed to be a primal howl against convention, sentimentality and the dumb worship of tradition. These were the targets picked off each week by the Heretics. You might think he was preaching to the choir. What set his talk apart was Marinetti’sunderlyingenjoindertohisaudiencetodomorethanattackthepast:theyshouldrevelaswell inthepossibilityofanelectrifiedfuturedefinedbymachines,speedandthelimitlesspotentialofhuman agency.Onlyweekslater,inScandinavia,Pykelaunchedhimselfathisnewsurroundingslikeazealous discipleofMarinetti. Sargant Florence would watch, bemused, as his friend ran up to farmers they passed and ask in puppyishGermanhowaparticularmachineworked,whyitwasthere,whetheritcouldbeimproved,and, moreoftenthannot,ifhecouldhaveago.Ononeoccasion,whenthetwohikersspiedinthedistancea team of Norwegian lumberjacks escorting logs downstream, Pyke jogged off to join in. Perhaps he felt there was a better way to move the logs, or maybe he wanted to improve his understanding of the lumberjacks’technique.Inanyevent,hewassoonhoppingfromtrunktotrunk,‘causedalogjam,andwas almostdrowned’. Pyke was, by his own account, ‘very young, and a firm believer that everything was possible till provedtheoppositebyoneself,andthatthemadderthescheme,thebetterthechancesofsuccess’.The experience of being abroad for him seemed to slough off any vestiges of adolescent self-consciousness untiltherewasnothingleftbutplayfulcuriosity. Itwasinthisspirit,intheSwedishportofMalmo,soonafterthelumberjackincident,thatPykebegan torunatfulltilttowardstheendofaquay.AheadofhimwastheferrytoCopenhagen.SargantFlorence wasonboard.Momentsearlierithadbeguntopullaway.Stillgatheringspeed,GeoffreyPykereached theedgeofthequayandjumped. Itisamomentworthsavouring.Suspendedinmid-airisabespectacledyoungmanwitharucksackon hisback.Thesunanglesdownonhisforeheadandtheairaroundhimisspicedwiththetangofdiesel fumes.Passengersontheferrystare,facespresumablyblankasitisnotyetclearwheretheparabolaof hisjumpwilltakehim. Pyke’sleapoutovertheharbourwaterswasatypicallyboldandbravuramove,thekindofimpulsive actthatwouldhavemadeMarinettiproud.Withoutanywayofknowinghowfartojump,orhow high, Pykehadplungedhimselfintothisuncertainty,consciousthateverysecondspentditheringwouldreduce hischancesoflandingontheferry.Hewasnotassuredofsuccessbutthechanceofiteasilyjustifiedthe smallriskofdrowning.Onlywhenhehadlaunchedhimselfofftheedgeofthequayandbeguntoflydid herealise–couldherealise–thattheferrywasoutofreach,andratherthanlandheroicallyonboardhe felllikeadeadweightintothescum-toppedwatersofMalmoharbour. Bobbing about, Pyke yelled at Sargant Florence over the din of the engine to wait for him in Copenhagen. He took the next ferry across the Öresund and arrived in the harbour area of Nyhavn, popular with sailors and prostitutes, where he found his friend amid the purplish shadows of another glorioussummerevening.Inwaysthatneithercouldhaveforeseenthecomplexionoftheirtripwasabout tochange. WaitingfortheminCopenhagenwasSargantFlorence’ssister,Alix.Elfin,tallanddark,shetoowas aCambridgeHereticanddoubtlessshespentthenightbringingbothmenuptospeedonwhathadbeen happeningintherestofEuropesincetheirdeparture.TherewasAustria-Hungary’sultimatumtoSerbia, theKaiser’ssupportfortheAustrians,Russia’sbackingofSerbia,France’sresolvetoweighin,Britain’s refusaltoruleherselfout,andmorerecently–moreominously–theKaiser’sdecisiontocutshorthis ownholidayintheNorwegianfjords. Notlongafter,on28July,thesethreeCambridgeHereticsheardthatAustria-Hungaryhaddeclared waronSerbia.Thiswasnotanelaborate‘newspaperscare’.Itwasreal.Ithadbegun.Therefollowed across Europe more than forty declarations of war and orders to mobilise. In Paris the word heard on every street corner was ‘incroyable’. ‘The world is gone mad,’ wrote Winston Churchill to his wife. There were drunken celebrations in Berlin, Paris and Vienna as youthful crowds bawled out patriotic songslateintothenight.Asyoungmenbegantobecalledup,thousandsofrushedmarriagestookplace overthatswelteringweekend.InCopenhagen,meanwhile,PhilipandAlixSargantFlorencetookaship backtoBritain.Pykeremainedwherehewas. RatherthanreturntoLondonhechosetosendatelegramtotheheadofficeofReuters,newsagencyof theBritishEmpire,offeringhisservicesasacorrespondent.Itwasarecklessmove:thelongerhestayed inDenmarktheharderitwouldbetofindashipbacktoBritain,andhewasnotevenassuredofareply fromReuters,letaloneapositiveone. Reuters,itturnedout,wasfacingtheworstcrisisinitshistory.ItsarrangementwiththeBerlin-based WolffNewsAgencywasonthebrinkofcollapse,whichwouldsoonopenupenormousgapsinitsnewsgatheringservice.Lettercodes,wherebyReuterscorrespondentsusedcodetoreducethelengthoftheir telegramsbacktoLondon,weresoontobecomeillegal,whichwouldforcecoststosoar,whiletheillconceivedReutersBankwasindirestraitsnowthatitsmanager,aHungarian,hadbeenconscriptedinto the Austro-Hungarian Army. Shortly before the outbreak of war the company’s senior management had decidedthatonlyahandfulofwarcorrespondentscouldbesentintothefield.Otherwisetheymustrely onfreelancers,knowneitheras‘String’or‘Special’Correspondents. Justdaysaftermakingthisdecision,Reutersreceivedanofferofcorrespondencefromanunknown twenty-year-old in Copenhagen. He was English and appeared to be literate. In that strange hiatus betweentheoutbreakofwarandBritain’sentryintoit,withtheshapeofthewarhanginginthebalance, ReutersagreedtotakeonPykeasaSpecialCorrespondent. Pykewouldlaterrefertohimselfwithprideas‘Reuters’specialcorrespondentinDenmarkatthetimeof the outbreak of war’. It was an audacious coup, born of little more than his being prepared to look foolish.But,ashesoondiscovered,writingthetelegramhadbeentheeasypart;findingsomenewswas goingtobemoredifficult. ThoughPykeoncedescribedCopenhagenas‘theAthens’towhichNorwegiansflocked‘whentheir own barren hills did not provide enough intellectual intercourse’, his initial experience of Danish conversationwasSpartan.‘Woebetidehimwhofindshimselfacorrespondentonthosesilentshores,’he groaned.ThepeopleofCopenhagenseemedtohaveperfectedtheabilityto‘answerthemostpointed of questionswithadiscreetevasion,andthemostsubtlebyignorance’.Insteadhelookedbeyondthecityfor news, where he learnt that four German warships and a handful of U-boats had been seen to the south. NowhehadthematerialforhisfirstReutersdispatch.Itwouldalsobeoneofhislast. InLondonitwasnotedthat:‘FourGermandestroyerswerealsoreportedoffHammerfest,apparently boundfortheWhiteSea.Reuters’correspondentatCopenhagenstatedthatontheafternoonofAugust5 threeGermansubmarinesweresightedatthesouthernoutletofthesound.Theyappeartohavetakenup theirpositionthereasasortofadvanceguard.’ This was first-rate news. In Reuters there must have been murmurs of congratulation for those who hadgivenPykehisopportunity.Nowtheywantedmore. In a confident and expansive mood, Pyke cast his net wider and over the coming days met Edward Lyell Fox, a young American with a high forehead who was later described by Special Branch as ‘a rather seedy individual’. Fox was a twenty-six-year-old Special Correspondent with only a handful of pieces to his name, mostly travel and sports. As Pyke would later find out, he was not everything he appearedtobe. Atonepointintheirconversation,nodoubttoimpresstheyoungEnglishman,Foxletonthathewas abletosmuggleuncensoredmaterialintoandoutofGermany.TheimplicationsforPykewerestunning. TherewerenoBritishcorrespondentsinBerlinanditwasillegalforBritish,FrenchorRussiannationals toenterthecountry.EditorsonFleetStreethadgivenupallhopeofgettinguncensoredcorrespondence outofGermany,andyet‘thedesiretoknowthetruthofwhatwasgoingonatthattimeintheinteriorof Germanywasintense,’wrotePyke.‘Thefloodgatesofnewshadclangedto,andnotawordthatcouldbe prevented,orhadnotapurposeinit,wasleavingGermany.’IfFoxwastobebelieved,thenPykehad onlytofindwillingcorrespondentsinGermanywhocouldpasstheirreportstoFoxbeforehetookthem out to Copenhagen. Pyke would then courier this material to London. On Fleet Street the bidding war wouldbefrenzied.AllPykeneededwasalistofcorrespondentsinGermany. On17August,ataquartertoeightintheeveninginCopenhagen,Pykesentthefollowingtelegramto ReutersinLondon(thebreakswereaddedbythecensor,wholetitpass):‘Havemeansofuncensored communication interior Germany | literary and telegraphically | send name address of trustworthy intelligentindividuals|notpressBureaux|toactascorrespondentsthere.’ Iftherewasareplyheneversawit.ByrevealingthepositionofwarshipsinhisfirstReutersdispatch PykehadpublicisedsensitiveGermannavalintelligence.AfterthepublicationofthisreportGermany’s Minister to Denmark had made a formal complaint, which had by now percolated through various diplomaticchannels.Pykewastoldtopackhisrucksackandleave.Crestfallen,hesailedtoGreenock, Scotland,arrivingduringthelastdaysofAugust. Ithadbeenafascinatingadventure,butonewhichappearedtohaverunitscourse.Atleast,thatwas theimpressionPykegaveformostofthejourneyhome.YetbythetimehereachedLondonhismoodwas transformed. He had come up with a new plan, one so outrageous that just the thought of it made him smile. * Pykehadspentmostofhischildhood,includingthelongandunhappyyearsafterhisfather’sdeath,inan elegantKensingtontownhousewithawhitestuccoedfacade.Itwasfromthishouse,severaldaysafter hisreturnfromCopenhagen,thathesetoutforFleetStreet.Wemayneverknowwhetheritwascharm, luck,personalconnectionsoracocktailofallthreewhichwasresponsible,butsomehowhehadsecured an interview with Ernest Perris, News Editor of the Daily Chronicle, a newspaper with a circulation exceedingthatofTheTimesandDailyTelegraphcombined. Likemosteditors,Perriswasatthattimeinastateofsustainedshockafterthepublicationthreedays earlier of the ‘Amiens Dispatches’. These were two frank assessments of the British Expeditionary Force’sfirstengagementsofthewar–atLeCateauandMons–byveterancorrespondentArthurMoore forTheTimesandHamiltonFyfefortheWeeklyDispatch.Ordinarilytheywouldnothavebeenpublished butbothhadbeenapprovedbythecensor,F.E.Smith,laterLordBirkenhead,whoevenaddedlinesabout theurgentneedforreinforcements. The‘AmiensDispatches’hadsentshockwavesripplingacrossthecountry,underminingsomeofthe popularbeliefinaswiftandeasyvictoryforBritainandherallies.InParliamentthedecisiontopublish thesereportswasslammedasdefeatist.ChurchillwroteafuriouslettertothepublisherofTheTimes.Yet theshockonFleetStreetwasasmuchenviousasitwasoutraged.TheChronicle,forone,hadrecently assured its readers that ‘the censorship that we exercise over our news will not affect its value’. The AmiensDispatcheshadshownthattobenonsense.Perrisneededtostrikebackwithvitalnews,tolethis readersseethewarasitreallywas.Hewasdesperateforascoop,whichwaswhyhewasevenprepared tomeetthiscallowundergraduate. ‘Yes,yes,whatisityouwant?’Perrisbegan.‘Quickly,please,I’vegotnotimetospare.’ Asiftoemphasisethepointhepickedupapairoftelephonereceiversanddictatedforeigntelegrams intoeach.Next,asPykeremembered,he‘rangabellcunninglyhidundertheedgeofthetable,glanced abouthiminalldirectionsatonce,firstatarowoflargeclockdialsshowingthehourinParis,Berlin, Vienna,Petrograd,Berne,Madrid,Belgrade,Antwerp,andAmsterdam,frowned,lookedatthelargewall map, gave instructions to a pallid, overworked clerk for yet another foreign cable to go, and repeated, “Yes,quickly,please,I’mbusy.” Pyke’splanwasingeniousandalittlemad,andoverthenexttenminuteshedidhisbesttoexplainit. HowtoGetaJobasaWarCorrespondent(asanInexperiencedTwentyYear-Old) FormanyyoungmenlikePyke,whohadgrownupinupper-middle-classEdwardianLondonandlikedto read, the idea of being a war correspondent had a heroic and at times breathless appeal. In 1912 the journalistPhilipGibbsdescribeditas‘thecrownofjournalisticambition,andtheheartofitsadventure and romance’. The life of a war correspondent seemed to combine the most attractive elements of explorer, spy and best-selling author. Marinetti had been a war correspondent several years earlier in Libya,ashadChurchillinSouthAfrica,andby1914Pykedescribedhimselfas‘absolutelydeterminedto beacorrespondentsomewhere’. Butwhere? On his way back from Denmark Pyke had pored over a map of the world in the hope of finding a newsworthyspotwhichdidnotyethaveafullcomplementofcorrespondents.Yetwheneverhefounda likely destination his ambition foundered on his almost complete lack of journalistic experience. Apart fromahandfulofReutersdispatches,bytheageoftwentyhehadwrittennomorethantwoshortstories,a handfulofbookreviews,forty-twolinesofdoggerelandvariousinterviews,includingonewiththeactor HenryLytton(thenplaying‘Ko-Ko’inTheMikado),allfortheCambridge Magazine or Mandragora, bothofthemparochialuniversitypublications.NobodyonFleetStreetcouldmistakehimforaseasoned correspondent,andeventheywerefindingithardtogetwork. ThenovelistArthurRansome,adecadeolderthanPyke,aRussianspeakerandtheauthorofbooks andnumerousarticles,wasunabletopersuadeanyBritishnewspaperstotakehimon.Indeed,whatwas sometimes known as the ‘Street of Adventure’ had been besieged since the outbreak of war by a ‘procession of literary adventurers’. There were ‘scores of new men of sporting instincts and jaunty confidence,eagertobe“inthemiddleofthings,”willingtogooutonanytermssolongastheycouldsee “a bit of fun”.’ Pyke spoke no foreign language fluently, he had published no books and had left the countryjusttwice.Hedidnotstandachance. Theproblemappearedtobeintractable,unless,thatwas,hecouldturnitupsidedown.Ratherthan lookforawaypasthisinexperienceheplaceditattheheartofthispuzzle.Insteadoftryingtoidentify townsorcitieswheretherewerenotenoughcorrespondents–butwheretheresoonwouldbe–heneeded tolookforaplaceinwhichcorrespondentswouldalwaysbeinshortsupplyandwherehemightnever faceanycompetition. He looked at the map afresh. No matter how long the war went on there were unlikely to be many correspondentsinReykjavik,surely.OrinTimbuktu,forthatmatter.‘Suddenlyitcametome.Wehadno correspondentsinBerlin.Supremeassofallasses–ofcourse–Berlin;theveryplace;nocompetition; noeditorwouldsaywithanairoftiredresignationthathewasalreadyverywellservedthere,andhad no necessity for further assistance, though of course he was very grateful, etc. etc. No difficulty at all, exceptofgettingthere,andoutagain.’ GeoffreyPyke,SpecialCorrespondentinBerlin. Hisheartmusthavelurchedatthethought.ToproduceasinglereportfromtheGermancapitalwould be the journalistic scoop of the war. Berlin was the last place where anyone would think to go as an Englishwarcorrespondent,yettherewereeditorsonFleetStreetwhowouldselltheirgrandmothersfora streamofreliablenewsfromtheheartoftheGermanReich. Of course, most of Pyke’s contemporaries would have dismissed this idea as fantasy the moment it enteredtheirminds.ItwasthoughttobeimpossibletogetintoGermanyasanEnglishman,impossibleto movearoundandimpossibletogetone’sreportsout. Orwasit? PykeknewthatoncehewasinGermanyhecouldpasshisreportstoFox,theAmerican,whocould smugglethembacktoFleetStreet.Allhehadtodowasgetinandoutagain.Whilehedidnot,asyet, knowhowtodothis,heassuredPerristhattherewasaplanbutithadtoremainsecret.Justashehad doneinMalmoharbourastheferrybegantopullaway,Pykedidnotintendtogetboggeddownindetails. Hewantedtojump. Inoutline,atleast,itwasanimpressiveproposition.ThethoughtofanEnglishwarcorrespondentin Berlin bristled with the kind of paradoxical ingenuity which Pyke so admired in others. He liked the challengeofit.‘Gloryofgloryathavingsomethingtodothatseemedimpossible,’hewrote,‘something necessitatingallthevirtuesandallthevicesimaginable,somethingforwhichonewouldhavetobealert and cautious, receptive and sceptical, something that would necessitate twenty-four hours’ work and twenty-fivehours’watchfulnessaday,andaboveallthingsthecolossalhumouroftheidea.’Butitwas hardtoseehowhecouldactuallyspirithimselfintothecountry,letaloneoutagain. For a moment Pyke’s idea hung in the air between him and Perris, there to be embraced as a stroke of brilliance or swatted aside as an adolescent daydream. As far as we know, Pyke had given a good accountofhimself.HavinggoneuptoCambridgeas‘anexcessivelyshyyouth’hehadrapidlygrowninto himself,speakingregularlyinUniondebatesbeforemovingontotheHeretics.Whilehemighthavehad theoccasionaloff-dayduringhisfirstyearattheUnion,hisspeechesbecamefunnierwithpracticeand morefluent.TheCambridgeReviewnotedPyke’s‘finevoice’,describinghimas‘agood elocutionist’; theCambridgeMagazinecomparedhisdeliveryto‘asoftandpleasingsong’;whileforGranta,‘[Pyke] probablydoessomethinkinginhissparemoments.’ Ernest Perris spoke for the next half-hour, pacing the room, dropping occasionally into his swivel chairandswingingalegoverthearm.Helikedtheplan,yes,hewasintriguedbyit,hegotthehumourof it.PerrisenjoyedtheideaofhavingaChroniclecorrespondentinGermany,inthewaythathelikedthe thoughtofsettingupapracticaljoke,butitwashardtosaywhethertheyoungmansittinginfrontofhim wouldbeabletopullitoff. Perris later described his visitor on that day as ‘a rather brilliant but erratic youth of twenty-one’ (Pykewastwenty),whohad,Perrisunderstood,done‘brilliantlyatCambridge,buthasalwaysbeenillbalanced’.PykehadinfactscrapedthroughhisonlyCambridgeexaminationninemonthsearlierwitha Third.Whileinatimeofpeacethisapparentimbalancemighthavecountedagainsthim,bySeptember 1914thejournalisticlandscapehadchanged.ThefirstscoopofthewarhadcometotheDailyTelegraph fromanunknownAmericanfreelancerafterhehadoverheardthedoormanattheUSEmbassyconfirmthe GermanadvanceintoBelgium.JustasPerrisneededascoop,heappreciatedthatitmightcomefroman unusual source. His main hesitation concerned the idea of sending an inexperienced correspondent into enemyterritoryonwhatmightlaterbedescribedasafool’serrand. PerrisofferedPykethefollowingterms:PerriswouldpublishanymaterialthatPykecouldgetoutof GermanyandwouldpaythestandardrateofferedtoSpecialCorrespondents,buthecouldnotofferPyke a position on the Chronicle’s staff. Nor would the paper be legally responsible for him. It would, however,makeacontributiontohisexpenses. Pykeaccepted. ‘Righto!’concludedPerris.‘Let’sleaveitatthat.’ PerrisurgedPykeashelefttotakecareofhimselfinGermany.Ifhefeltsomeonewasontohim,or hadeventheslightestsuspicionthathewasbeingwatched,hemustleaveimmediately.Pykesteppedout oftheofficesoftheChroniclefeelingpunch-drunkandonhiswaydownFleetStreetbegantosweat. Overthenexttwelvedayshepreparedforhisjourneywiththeurgencyofamanfightingforair.He readuponGermany,GermansandGermanfrontiers.HespentthenightinaprintshoponFleetStreet.He wenttoTilburywithaChronicleemployeetomeetasailor.Hefoundthenamesofmenwhohadmanaged togetoutofGermanyandtravelledthelengthofthecountrytopicktheirbrains:‘someknewalittle,most knewnothing,oneknewalot.’ On 12 September, a forgettable and blowy day in London, Pyke said goodbye to his mother, his brotherandtwosisters,tellingthemthathehadbeentakenonasaChronicleSpecialCorrespondentand wasofftoStockholm.Thiswastrue.PerrishadacceptedhimasaSpecialCorrespondent,and,yes,he plannedtogotoStockholm.Onlyitwasnotthewholetruth. As Pyke waited on the platform at King’s Cross for the train to Newcastle, where he would take a boattoNorway,hismindturnedagaintothemissionahead.Ifcaught,thebesthecouldhopeforwastobe sentbacktoEnglandwiththeGermanequivalentofacliproundtheear.Morelikely,hewouldspendthe remainderofthewarinprison.ConfidentthathostilitieswouldbeoverbyChristmas,thisdidnottrouble him–andbesides,severalmonthsinaGermanjailmightmakeforaninterestingsetofarticles. Therewasanotherpossibleendingtothisadventurewhichuntilthenhehadcontrivedtoignore.Pyke knewthatwhathehopedtodomightbeconstruedasespionage.WhilehehadnotheardofEnglishmen beingexecutedforspying,thewarwasbarelyamontholdandtherewasnoreasonwhytheymightnot startwithhim.Indeed,hemightnotlivetoseehistwenty-firstbirthday–thethoughtofwhich,hewrote, was‘likeahotironsearingmysoul’. LessthantwoweekslaterGeoffreyPykesettleddowntoacoldbeerinacafédeepinsidetheGerman Empire.BythentheBritishintelligenceagencylaterknownasMI6,orSIS,wasunabletogetevenoneof its agents into the country. This untrained twenty-year-old, incapable of speaking fluent German and thoughttobe‘unbalanced’,hadsomehowsucceededwhereMI6hadeitherfailedorhadnotdaredtotake the risk. It was a breakthtaking achievement, not least because it had been done entirely on his own initiative. Pyke had defied the received wisdom of the day, according to which Germany was an impenetrablefortress.Indoingsohehadsethimselfupforthegreatjournalisticscoopofthewar.What baffledeveryonewhoheardaboutthis–asmanysoonwould–washowonearthhehadmanagedtoget himselfintoGermanyinthefirstplace. HowtoSmuggleOneselfintoWartimeGermany Pyke’sfirststepwhenfacinganyproblem,includingthisone,wastosetoutexactlywhathewantedtodo. Initssimplestformhisaimwasasfollows: IwanttosmugglemyselfintoGermany. His next step was to imagine a response to that. Not any kind of reply, but the sort of reaction you mightexpectfromanolder,wiservoiceofauthority.Itwouldmostlikelybealongthelinesof:You’re mad,you’llgetcaught.Thiswasthevoiceofrealityrespondingtofantasy. Havingsetthetwoagainsteachother,itwastimetopullthisexchangeapart. Itwasallverywellsaying‘you’llgetcaught’,butwherewouldthishappen?Atthefrontier,youmight think,wherehewasboundtobepickedoutbytheguards.Buthowwouldtheycatchhim? IfhearrivedatarecognisedbordercrossinghemighteitherrevealhimselftobeanEnglishjournalist –whichwasunlikely–oraGermanofficialcouldworkthisoutforhimself.Yettodosohewouldneed tobeonthelookoutforpeoplelikePyke.‘Ofcourse,iftheGermanswereexpectingEnglishjournaliststo comeintoGermanyafterthewarhadbrokenout–thenIshouldprobablygetcaught.Butthepointwas, werethey?Wouldtheybeaswideawakeasallthat?’ Alreadythechancesofgettinginappearedtobebetterthanhe’doriginallythought.Whatwasmore,if heenteredthecountryatWarnemünde,asleepyGermanportontheBaltic,ratherthantheKielCanal,the guardswouldbemorerelaxed.Atleast,thiswaswhathehadheardinCopenhagen,whereWarnemünde wasreferredtoasthe‘backdoor’toGermany. ButeveniftheguardsatWarnemündewerenotonthelookoutforEnglishjournaliststheymightbe interestedinanyonewholookedobviouslyEnglish,RussianorFrench. ThisledtoPyke’snextquestion:towhatextentcouldhedistancehimselffromthesenationalities? A German suit would help. Yet perhaps his greatest advantage here was an inherited one. Geoffrey Pyke’s maternal great-grandfather had been a French Count. His grandfather on the other side was the Warden of London’s Central Synagogue. He came from high-born Franco-Anglo-Jewish stock and had grown up within London’s haute juiverie. Both his parents were Sephardic Jews whose ancestors had settledlongagoinsouthernSpainbeforebeingforcedtoleaveaftertheAlhambraDecreeof1492.They hadmovedtoHollandandlatertoLondon,wheretheDutchnametakenbyone,Snoek,wastranslatedas Pike(the‘i’laterbecamea‘y’).WhichwastosaythatGeoffreyPykehadanaturallydarkcomplexion and, while he did not strike everyone he met as being Jewish, nor did he match a German guard’s approximationofaruddy-cheekedEnglishmanorindeedastubblyFrenchman.Therewasanambiguityto hislookswhichmightbeputtogooduse.Lateroninhislifeitwouldworkagainsthim. In theory, at least, he had made a good start. The combination of heading for Warnemünde, his appearance and the fact that the German guards would not be on the lookout for undercover English journalistsallbodedwell.Buttheydidnotgethimacrossthefrontier. Manyyearslater,Pykewrotethat‘thecorrectformulationofaproblemismorethanhalfwaytoits solution’.Perhapshehadnotformulatedtheproblemcorrectly. IwanttosmugglemyselfintoGermany.You’remad,you’llgetcaught. Theword‘smuggle’couldbeimprovedupon.Itimpliedphysicalconcealment,yettheremightnotbe anyneedforthis.TheonlyreasonPykewasnotallowedintoGermanyatthatmomentwasbecauseofhis nationality.Herewasthebreakthroughheneeded.Ifhecouldassumeadifferentnationalityhewouldbe welcomedintoGermanyasanEnglishmanwouldbeinpeacetime.HeknewthatUS Consulates across Europe were by then overrun with Americans who had left home without a passport and consequently neededdocumentation.ToclaimanAmericanpassportPykehadonlytopresenthimselfatanAmerican Consulate with valid papers, a passable American accent and a plausible account of his fictional Americanidentity. Hehadagoodearandhadspentmuchofthesummerwithhishalf-American friend Philip Sargant Florence,sotheaccentwouldbeeasy.Findingvalidpaperswasmoreofaproblem.HerePerriscameto hisaidbysendingaChronicleemployeewithhimtothedocksatTilburywheretheyfoundanAmerican sailornamedRaymundEggletonwhowaswillingtopartwithhisbirthcertificate–forasmallfee. ThefinalpieceinthisdeceptivelysimplejigsawwasPyke’soccupation.Asawillowyundergraduate hewouldstruggletopassasasailor.PykewasajournalistwithaFuturist’sinterestinmachinessohe decided to pass himself off as a print-machine salesman. On the remote chance that he might face awkwardquestionsabouttheprint-machinebusinesshespentanightinthebowelsofFleetStreetboning uponhowthesemachinesworked. SeveraldaysafterarrivinginScandinaviahewalkedintotheUSConsulateinStockholmposingas RaymundEggleton.HeworeaGermansuit,aSerbianfelthatandbootsmadefromRussianleatherthat wouldbewornoutbytheendoftheyear.Buttherewasaproblemwithhisperformance,forheleftthe consulatewithoutanewlaissez-passer. This was what he had feared more than anything: travelling as far as Sweden only to learn that his fantasticplanwasimpossible.Othersmighthaveturnedback.Hedecidedtotryagain.Afterdepositinga sealed parcel in Stockholm’s Grand Hotel, probably containing his English papers, he went to the US Consulate in Gothenburg where he gave his second turn as Eggleton. It worked. He was handed an AmericanpassportandseveraldayslaterhesteppedontotheferryatFalsterIslandboundforGermany. Youcanimaginetheexplosivecompressionofnervousexcitementthatbuiltupinhisslenderframeas that ship steamed into German waters. After only a few hours it arrived at Warnemünde, the tiny hodgepodgeportthathehadheardsomuchabout. Oncetheferryhaddockedhefollowedthetrailoffellowpassengersdownthegangplankintoanewly builtwoodenCustomsshed.AroundhimhecouldseeLandwehrtroopsingaudyredandblueuniforms, theirgunsglintinginthehalf-light.Upaheadwerepolicemencheckingpapers.WhenhisturncamePyke handedoverhisAmericanpassport. Itwasinorder,andhewaswavedthrough.NowallhehadtodowasgettoBerlinandfindsome news. WhilemostofthenewarrivalsfromDenmarktookthetraintoHamburgandcontinuedfromtheretothe capital,PyketookaseatonaBummelzugheadingeasttoStettin.Thesericketytrainsstoppedeveryfew milesandwerenotoriouslyuncomfortable.TheywerealsoamongthelastplacesinGermanywhereyou mightexpecttofindanundercoverEnglishman.ThoughPykewastravellingonavalidAmericanpassport hefacedanewandevenmorepotentthreat:thatsomeoneheencounteredmightdetecthisEnglishnessand raisethealarm,leavingPykeatthemercyofanangrymob. By late September 1914 a siege mentality had set in across Germany. ‘The people know; they are absolutelyconvincedthatourenemiesforcedustofight,’explainedoneGerman,‘andnothing,nomatter whatmaybetheoutcomeofthisterriblestruggle,canchangethatconviction.’Inanynationwhosepeople feel that they have been attacked unjustly and know that their borders are closed there is this same tendencytolookfortheenemywithin.SincethedeclarationofKriegsgefahrzustand–‘imminentdanger of war’ – issued in late July, anyone who did not look right, sound right, or who merely acted in an unusual manner ran the risk of being singled out and branded as a foreign agent. The American AmbassadortoGermanydescribedthisfebrileatmosphereinwhich‘peoplewereseizedbythecrowds inthestreets;andinsomeinstances,onthetheorythattheywereFrenchorRussianspies,wereshot.’ AllthiswasbeforeEnglandjoinedthewar.TheEnglishwereloathedinawaythatmadetheRussians and French seem like old friends with whom there had been a regrettable misunderstanding – largely becausetheGermanidentificationwithEnglandwassomuchstronger.Warfeltlikemoreofabetrayal. Gott strafe England – May God punish England – was already an informal greeting between German troops (the response was: ‘He will punish them’). The British Embassy was stoned. The American AmbassadorwasspatatbecausehewasmistakenforanEnglishman.(Theculprit,alawyer,apologised whenherealisedhismistake.)BythetimePykesatdowninanear-emptyBummelzugboundforStettin therewasanewbogeymaninGermany:theundercoverEnglishman. AsthetrainpulledoutofthestationPykenoticedasluggish,heavysetmanheffalumpingtowardshim. Itwasanoff-dutyGermansoldier.Hehadapinkneckandahalf-grownmoustache,andratherthankeep tohimselfduringthelongjourneyeasthehaddecidedtokeepPykecompany. While it was improving rapidly, Pyke’s German remained limited. He must have been hoping for a deafoldmantositoppositehim,aTrappistmonk,perhaps–anyone,really,otherthanaGermansoldier. After a perfunctory greeting the soldier unfastened his belt and bayonet, swung both onto the rail above,slumpeddownintohisseatandbegantotalk.Pykefeltawaveofrelief.Thissoldieronlywanted tobeheard.Hemustbe‘divorced,’thoughtPyketohimself,‘whichwaspossible,sinceheneverstopped talking. [. . .] It was twenty-three and a half minutes before he stopped, and then it was only to take a breath.’ The soldier seemed to become most agitated when speaking about his commanding officer, referredtovariouslyasderschweinhundandverfluchteschafskopf–literally,‘thepig-dog’and‘cursed sheep’s head’. As the train bobbled along, the invective continued, the flow punctuated by ‘spitting at what,fromagrammaticalaspect,wasthecrucialpointofeverysentence’.Pykenoddedsympathetically, makingsuretoaddtheoccasional‘Achso’or‘Naturlich’. Itseemedtobegoingwell.TherewasnosignthattheEnglishmanwasexpectedtoconverseandthe soldierlookedateaseinhiscompany.Indeed,afteranhourorsoheworehimselfoutandfellasleep. Pyke pretended to do the same, but kept one eye on the landscape passing by, noting the freshly dug vegetable patches and ageing postmen. This last detail he saw as evidence of the younger ones having beencalleduptothefront.SuchwasthenewsblackoutfromGermanythatevendetailslikethesewere valuable.Alreadyhemighthaveenoughforashortdispatch. After another hour, as the train began to pull away from a station, the soldier awoke with a start. Bleary-eyed, he asked Pyke if this was Stettin. It was not. Either the young Englishman misheard or he thoughtitwouldbeamusingtoputthesoldieroutatthewrongstation. ‘Ja,ja,’repliedPyke. Inanexplosionofarmsandlegsthesoldiergatheredhisthingsandhoppeddownontotheline.Ashe did so his trousers fell down. He had forgotten his belt and bayonet. Staggering after the gently acceleratingtrain,onehandholdinghistrousersup,thesoldieryelledupatPyketothrowthemdown,but indoingsoPykeaccidentallyhitthesoldieracrosstheshins. WorriedthatthedisgruntledsoldiermightcableaheadtoStettin–hisdestinationandthefinalstop– aboutthisunusualpassenger,Pykeknewthatitwouldbeunwisetolingerthere.Onarrivalherushedto buyaticketforthenexttraintoBerlinbeforeturninghisattentiontofood.Hehadnoteatenallday,butthe thoughtofenteringarestauranthadbecometerrifying.Inhismindhewasunmistakablyandunbearably English. He needed some kind of disguise or prop. Yet it was hard to see how he could find one in a railwaystation. With a copy of that day’s Berliner Tageblatt tucked under his arm Pyke strode into the station restaurantandtookaseat.Thepaperworkedsowellasadisguisethateventhewaitertooknonoticeof him.Nowhefrozeatthethoughtofcallinghimover. ‘Ifelthorriblyuncertain.IwasnowreallyinGermany.ThiswasGermany,allaroundme.Thisgreat hallwasGerman,thistablewasGerman,andthesewereGermansallaroundme.Ugh!Whatwouldnot theysayiftheyknewIwasEnglish?’ThetraintoBerlinleftinlessthantwenty-fiveminutesbutstillhe couldnotbringhimselftosummonthewaiter.‘Severaltimesthewordsroseinmythroat,buteachtime theyfailedtogetfurther.Itriedlookingangry,Itriedlookingpathetic,hungry,helpless,wealthy,hurried, important,alltonopurpose.Theober[waiter]wentbusilyon.’Perhapsheshouldwavehisarmsabout, makeanotherface,hecould... ‘SuddenlyIheardmyownvoiceringingoutsharpandclearacrosstheroom:“Herrober.”Thedeed wasdone.Itwaslikejumpingintoacoldswimmingbath.’Thewaitercameover.Pykeorderedinwhat hecalleda‘wiselylaconic’manner,torethroughhisfoodandcaughttheBummelzugtoBerlin. Afteranenervating,sleeplessnighthewokeuptofindhiscarriagefullofcommutersboundforthe capital.Theyweresilentandself-absorbed,yetdottedamongthemhesawmembersoftheonesectionof German society he feared above all: teenagers. Pyke’s research had left him convinced that the typical Germanteenager’smixtureofchildishcuriosityandnear-adultauthoritymadehimorhermostlikelyto detectanimpostor.Worse,theKaiserhadrecentlyissuedaproclamationurgingtheyouthofGermanyto challengeanyonewholookedsuspiciousandwherepossiblehavethemarrested. Opposite Pyke was a teenager, his schoolbooks open, whose gaze seemed to wander. Or was this Pyke’simagination?‘Isawbythatvacantstareinhiseyeandtheunconsciousmovementofhislipsashe looked at me over the top of his book that he was reciting all the crimes I was to be accused of, the various nationalities I was to be damned with: there are such a lot that lead you straight to Hell in Germanyatthepresentday.Yes,Iwassureofit,hewouldgivemenopeaceuntilIwassafelyunderlock and key, and booked to face a firing squad – with himself present by special permission – the next morning.Hewould–Hedidn’t.Hegotoutatthenextstation.Inthismanner,then,didIenterintothecity ofBerlin,ahumbletravellerbyBummelzug.’ LessthanamonthaftertellinganincredulousErnestPerrisattheChroniclethathehopedtobecome the paper’s undercover Berlin correspondent, an idea which even Pyke had originally laughed at, this enterprisingtwenty-year-oldhadmadeittotheGermancapital.Noneofhisfamilyorfriendsknewwhere hewasorwhathehaddone.Topulloffthewar’smostdaringpieceofjournalismPykeonlyhadtofinda placetostay,writeadispatchandpassitontotheAmericancorrespondentEdwardLyellFox.Hewas desperatelyclosenow. AnyvisitortoBerlinin1914wouldhavebeenstruckbythecity’sglorious,teemingvitality.Morethan any other European capital this was a modern metropolis full of contrasts. Berlin was home both to a thrivingsalonsocietyandapoliticallyemancipatedproletariat.Prussianaristocratsandothervestigesof an imperial past occupied the same energetic space as the pioneering Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics,thenrunbyAlbertEinstein,andasmanyasfortyhomosexualbars.Berlinwasalsoaterminus formigrants,sotherewasnothingunusualaboutthesightofaweary-lookingyoungtravellerwandering aboutinsearchofaplacetostay. WedonotknowwherePykeslept,onlythatitwascheapandwasnottheHotelAdlon.Knownasthe ‘American Headquarters’, this was where the likes of Edward Lyell Fox were staying. Having found a bedPykenowfacedtheproblemoffindingmorejournalisticmaterial. He could write about what he had seen during his journey, about the restaurant and the train. An account of the soldier’s complaints could be worked into a longer piece on the reality of life in the GermanArmy,andanyofthiswouldhaveelectrifiedaBritishnewspaper-readingpublic.Buthewanted a broader range of voices. Pyke had made this journey to do more than provide a clipped summary of politicaldevelopments.Instead,hewantedtogaugepopularopinionandgivehisreadersasenseofwhat ordinaryBerlinerswerereallythinking. While his ability to understand the language was improving, his spoken German remained poor. To surviveinBerlinasanundercovercorrespondenthehadtoliveoffoverheardscraps.Sofarashewas concerned,therewasonlyoneplacetodothis. ‘The first thing to do in Berlin is to go to a beer café,’ he later wrote. ‘The second thing to do in Berlinistogotoabeercafé;andthethirdthingtodoinBerlinistogotoabeercafé.Nottodrinkbeer. No. For even though the beer is light as the fluff off a dove’s wing, and is served so cool that the hot moistureofthecrowdedroomcausesthesidestodrip,neverthelessitiswisertodrinkonlysomuchthat youshallnotbethoughtanunsociablecurmudgeon[...]Takeasiphere,andlisten,asipthere,andlisten again;smackyourlipsoccasionallyandloudly,andyouwillbelookeduponasatemperatedrinker,who enjoyshisdrinktotheuttermost.Andalsoyouwillhearmanyinterestingthings.’ OnFleetStreettherewasabeliefthatiftheBritishandFrenchcouldholdofftheGermanadvance untilChristmas,theRoyalNavy’sblockadeofGermanportswouldbringtheenemytoitsknees.Bylate September, then, Berlin should have been starting to totter. Pyke was expecting food shortages and a prevailingmoodofdiscontent.Perhapshewasinthewrongplace. ‘Ilistenedtothementalkingincafés.Iheardnodespair.’Ifanything,theywere‘somewhatboisterous intheirlackofit.’InsteadthefeelinginBerlincouldbesummedupbytherecruitmentpostersalloverthe city in which General Wachs roared at passers-by: ‘Do not say “Yes – but,” say “Yes – SURE!”’ EverywherethespiritwasbullishandopenandPykehadnotroublepickingupthemaintalkingpoints. These included rampant Anglophobia and an atavistic fear of Cossacks galloping in from the east. But stillnohintofdespair.PerhapsthenavalblockadewashavingmoreofaneffectontheGermaneconomy? HavingfinishedoffanotherbeerPykewenttothebathroomtoconsultthemapinhisBaedekerbefore makinghiswayacrossBerlintotheBourse.HerethebeercaféswerejammedwithPrussianbusinessmen having lunch. They had lolling, full-cheeked faces and heads with flat backs. He sat among them like ‘Danielinaveritabledenoflions’,listeninghard,sippingmorebeer.Yettohisdisappointmenttheone subjectthesemendidnotdiscussoverlunchwaswork. Geoffrey Pyke wound his way back to his hotel that evening at the end of his first day as an undercovercorrespondentinBerlin.Hedidnotyethaveenoughforthefront-pagedispatchthathehad envisaged,buthewasmakinggoodprogress. On the morning of Sunday, 27 September 1914, less than a week after his arrival in Germany, Pyke encountered the might of the German Army. He had joined the weekly exodus out of the city centre to CharlottenburgPark,takingwithhimapackedlunchandtwobottlesofPilsner.Havingfoundaquietspot attheedgeofthewoodhesettleddownforwhatturnedouttobeanafternoonofmilitarytrainspotting. Two months earlier, in a great centrifugal migration away from the centre of Germany, millions of soldiershadbeenmovedtotheWesternandEasternfronts.Nowafreshlandslideoftroopswasbeing senttostemadistantRussianadvance.Camouflagedbythetrees,Pykegluggedcontentedlyathisbeeras thesecondgreatmobilisationoftheGermanArmytookplacebeforehim.Trainaftertrainrolledpastata mandatorytwentymilesperhour,eachcarriage‘packedwithrowafterrowofsoldiers.Theystoodatthe door,leaningoutoveroneanother’sshoulders,singingcheerfullyandsturdilythosewonderfulGerman marching songs that make one’s very breathing keep time to them. Each truck sang the same, and right downthetrain–morethanaquarterofamilelong–roseandfellthewordsofthe“WachtamRhein.” God!withwhatfervourtheyshoutedit,andyetitwasstillmusic.’Littledidanyofthemknowthatoneof thepeopleenjoyingtheirsongswasanamateurEnglishspywhowashavingapicnic. Itwasastirringsight,onethatmadeithardtoimagineBerlinbeingcapturedbyRussianforces.The ironywasthatPerrisandPykehadagreedbeforehandthatthemostlikelymajorstoryduringhistimein BerlinwouldbethearrivalofRussiantroopsintheGermancapital.Theyhadevengonetothetroubleof establishingacodeforPyketocommunicateviaanopenchannelthedirectionandintensityoftheRussian onslaught.Pykehadallowedthisscenetoplayoutinhismind.Hewouldhangonuntiltheeleventhhour, with‘theboomsofRussiancannonsontheeastsideofBerlinasIleftitbythewest’,havingwrittena ‘dispatchwhichwastoadorn,yes–Iconfess–Idecideditwastoadornawholepageofthemorning paper.’ ThattheNewsEditorofamajorBritishnewspaperwaspredictingtheRussiancaptureofBerlinfor September1914isareminderoftheresoluteandattimesblindingoptimismonFleetStreet.Theimageof Pyke delivering a dispatch in the teeth of a Russian advance hints at something else: his own giddy ambition and a yearning for the kind of affirmation that would come with front-page heroics. It was a senseofrecognitionheneverreceivedathome.Yetthisrawambitionwasdovetailedincreasinglywitha growingself-awareness,assuggestedbythewords‘yes–Iconfess–’. When Pyke left Charlottenburg Park later that day the troop trains were still in transit, and the following morning he returned to watch yet more of them pass by, soldiers stuffed in like socks in a drawer, until at last the convoy had rolled past. After making several back-of-an-envelope calculations abouthowmanytroopswereonthemovehetookatrainbackintoBerlin.Inhishotelroomhesettled downtowrite. It was about six o’clock in the evening. Outside, in the gloaming, lamps were being lit. His first dispatchwouldtaketheformofalettertoPerris.Hehadcompletedthefirstparagraphofthisnotewhen heheardthedooropenbehindhim. Pykespunround.Twomenwerestandinginthedoorway.Theywereaboutsixfeetawayfromhim. One had bewitching eyes and a long black beard. The other had a fat face with jowls that looked like muttonchops. ‘Bitte,kommenSiemit,’saidthebetter-lookingone.‘Comewithme,please.’ Pykestoodup,positioninghisbodybetweenthetwomenandthehalf-writtenletteronthedesk. ‘Aber wollen Sie nicht Platz nehmen?’ he replied. ‘Won’t you sit down?’ Yet this was far too accommodating, he told himself. He needed a retort worthy of an indignant Raymund Eggleton. ‘Wer sind?’Pykecorrectedhimself.‘Whoareyou?’ Noresponse. Insteadthetalleronerepeatedhisinstruction,addinganunequivocal‘Jetzt.’‘Now.’ Pykecouldonlythinkofthewretchedletterbehindhim.Hadtheyseenit?Itwashardtosay. Theycouldnotseethroughthechair’sback.Ifhecouldgetahandtothenoteonthedeskhemightbe abletodisposeofit.Tryingtokeephisshouldersstill,heextendedanarmbackwards. ‘Whereisyourauthority?’PykeaskedinGerman,strainingnowtowardstheletter. Theseniordetectiveproducedacircularmetallicemblem.BynowPykehadgotafingertothepaper. Buthecouldnotgetanypurchaseonit. Time was running out. The first detective had repeated his instruction for the third time, adding ‘Unmittelbar’–‘immediately.’HehadalsotakenasteptowardsPyke.‘Itwouldnotbelongbeforehe haddoneanother.Infourstepshewouldbetouchingme.[...]Hewouldbeonmelikeaflash.Hishands wouldseizemyarm–wouldtwistitback.Ju-jitsu.Theyteachthepolicethatsortofthingincontinental countries.’Pykehadtodosomethingtomovethefocusofsuspicionawayfromthedesk. Withalurchhestrodepastthetwodetectivesandoutintothecorridor,switchingoffthelightsashe went. Surprised, thinking that Pyke was about to make a run for it – this was his hope – the detectives followedhimoutintothecorridor.Yetashewatchedthemleavehesawonelockthedooranddropthe keyinhispocket.Hemustbeplanningtogoback–inwhichcasehewouldfindtheletter. Withluridfinality,Pyke’smindracedaheadtohisexecution.Hehadreadcountlessadventurestories inwhichtheherowascaptured,putbeforeafiringsquadandofferedablindfold.Usuallyherefused– beforepullingoffadaringescape.HowwouldPykerespondwhenaskedthesamequestion? Ashepicturedhisfinalmomentstheseniordetectiveledhimaway,beforeaskinghimwherehehad beenearlierthatday. HehadnotbeentoCharlottenburgtowatchtrooptrains. ‘ToPotsdam,’Pykereplied.‘Toseethepictures.ThereisaremarkablyfineVelazquezthere.’ Thedetectiveknewtheone.Infact,he‘kneweverythingtherewastoknowaboutVelazquez. When notarrestingcriminalsheabsorbedhimselfinVelazquez.Therewasfervourinhisvoiceashementioned thename.Itwashishobby,sohetoldme,anditwasapleasuretohimtomeetsomebodywhotookan interestinthegreatmaster.’ Pykecoaxedmoreoutofhimandastheycontinueddownthestreethefeltthedetective’sgriploosen, untilhewasnolongerbeingrestrained.Wasthishischancetoescape?Bothdetectiveswerearmed.It wasnotworththeriskand,besides,hemightyetbeabletotalkhiswayoutofthissituation. At the police station the wide-eyed Cambridge undergraduate was led into an office reeking of cigarette smoke and sausage meat. Around him was a phalanx of overweight policemen whose bellies seemedtovaryaccordingtorank–thefatter,themoresenior. ‘You’llbeshot,youknow,’saidone. Theroombuckledupwithlaughter. Pyke rearranged himself mentally, laughed and asked why anyone would think that. Again the room roared. ‘Thissortofinfantilesparringwentonfortwentyminutes.Itwaslatenow,andyettheseportlytubs seemedtohavenothingtodo,exceptdrinkbeer,eatsausage,turnaroaringgasstillhighersothatthevery sausagebegantosweat,andtospitcontemplativelyandrepeatedly.’ Thedetectivewiththedarkeyesreappeared. ‘HerrPyke,’hebegan. Theworldseemedtostop. HowcouldhehaveknownPyke’sname?TherewasnothingonPyke’spersontosuggestthathehad gonethroughlifewiththismoniker,inwhichcasethedetectivemusthavebeentippedoff.Butbywhom? Experiencingjoltsofbetrayalamidarisingtideoffear,Pykewasthenledoutsidebytheplumperof thetwodetectives,theonehehadcometothinkofas‘MuttonChop’,andtogethertheytookacabacross town. This gave his captor a chance to prattle on about the iniquities of Sir Edward Grey, Britain’s Foreign Secretary, until at last they pulled up inside the glass-covered courtyard of the Alexanderplatz Polizeigefängnis,aprisonforcommoncriminals.Thescenenowdescendedintofarce.‘MuttonChop’did nothaveenoughmoneyforthefareandaskedPyketopaythecabdriver. Hedidsoand,seeingthathewouldhavenoneedformoneywherehewasgoing,tippedthedriver extravagantly.Enjoyingthelookonhisface,hethendidthesametoMuttonChop,thankinghimasyou mightaporter.Oncehehadenteredtheprisonhismoodbecamemoresober. Hispocketswereemptied,hewasgivenachitfortheircontentsandintheearlyhoursofTuesday,29 September1914,GeoffreyPykewasshownintoanemptycellwithoutanylights.Ithadslickwallsthat werecoldtothetouch.Whenthedoorclosedbehindhimhewasconsumedbyauniverseofdarkness. Therewasnobodytospeakto,onlythedistantmoanofaninmatewhohadlosthismind.Thenextday Pykewaslefttoconfronthismortality.Hisaccountofthatmorningremainsanextraordinarypassage: OutsideIcouldhearBerlinthrobbingwiththenoiseofmotorsandtrams.Ithoughtofallthosepeople,free,andwithlivesto lead.Ithoughtofthemanxiousaboutrelativesatthefront,anxiousaboutthenextmeal,anxiousabouttheirownfateinthefarofffuture,uncertainwhethertheyshouldmarrysomebody,cheatsomebody,benefitsomebody,wonderingwhatwouldhappen tothemiftheyweremarried,cheated,orwhattheywoulddowithmoneyifleftthem,andifitwouldbenecessarytoreturna kindness if done them by the living. I envied them their doubt. I solved their problems for them. I lived their lives for them, directingtheirenergies.Imarriedthem;Idivorcedthem;Iwasmotherandfathertotheirchildren;sonanddaughtertotheir parents.Igavethemfortunes;Ihelpedthemspendit.Igavethempoverty;Ihelpedthembearit.Igavethempolitics;Imade them socialists. I gave them philosophies, and made them supermen. I gave them a hundred religions, and but one commandment – Thou shalt not kill. I gave them everything they could want and took it away again immediately, that they shouldknowitsvalue.Igavethemknowledgeofgood,andtwiceasmuchofevil.Icreatedworlds,inwhichmenlivedwith intensity,andanytendencytowardsbecomingamoralandmentaljelly-fishwasfollowedwithdeathbyinanition.Imouldeda universeandputinitworldsotherthanours,andbeingsunlikeus,andsuperiortous;Idestroyedit.I...Iawokewithasob, asmyheadslippedoffmyhands,andIfellagainsttheoppositewall. WhichwashowGeoffreyPykecametobeawaitingexecutioninaGermanprisoncelljusttwoweeks beforehewasduebackatCambridgetostarthisfinalyear.PerrisattheChronicle would assume that PykehadbeenunabletogetintoGermanyandhadreturnedtoEngland.Hismother,meanwhile,imagined himtobeinStockholm. Hewasimprisonedandalone,anditseemedthatnobodywhocaredabouthimknewwherehewas. BeforeleavingLondonhehadrealisedthatsomethinglikethismighthappen.Pykeunderstoodthattopull offaschemeofthiskindhemustbepreparedtofail,andthatgiventhestakesinvolvedhisfailurewould be spectacular. In setting out for Berlin he had taken an enormous risk. His plan to pull off the great journalisticscoopofthewarhadmetwithstunninginitialsuccess,andasatwenty-year-oldamateurspy hehadgotfurtherthananyprofessionalBritishintelligenceagentwouldduringtheentirewar.Buthehad beenbetrayed.Thoughhedidnotknowwhowasresponsible,allthatmatteredjustthenwasthathisplan hadfailedandnowhewassettopaywithhislife. HOWTOESCAPE TeddyFalkwasalugubrious,full-lippedEnglishcivilservantwhospokeexcellentGermanandlikedto say his prayers at night. He was reliable, precise and scrupulously honest, and in the hours after the outbreakoftheFirstWorldWarhemadewhathelaterdescribedas‘aterriblemistake’.Falkhadbeenon holidayinGutersloh,northwestGermany,whenthenewsbroke.Othersmighthavemadeadashforthe frontier, yet Falk chose to surrender his passport to the local authorities for safe keeping. Days later, BritainwasatwarwithGermanyandTeddyFalkrealisedthathehadeffectivelyimprisonedhimself. He was arrested, accused of being a British spy – which he was not – and after a spell in solitary confinement was bundled off to Ruhleben Trabrennbahn, a former racecourse in the leafy outskirts of BerlinwhichhadbeenconvertedintoacampforthoseBritishcivilianswhohadbeenonGermansoilat the start of the war. By Christmas Day 1914 what the British press had taken to calling ‘Ruhleben Concentration Camp’ was home to 4,000 ‘specimens of Homo britannicus’, as Falk explained. ‘There werewhitesandcolouredgentlemen,Boers,Canadians,Australians,andoddmentsfromoutlyingcorners of the Empire, mechanics, officials, merchants, music-hall artists, musicians, and members of every calling you could imagine, from the estate owner to the lion-tamer, or the person pointed out to me as beinganotoriousinternationalthief,andtheproprietorofabrothel.’ Ruhleben was ill-thought-out, cold, dirty and cramped: a muddy ten-acre enclosure in which there wasnopossibilityofprivacy.Thefoodwasfoulandmeagre,whichhadthecuriouseffectofmakingthe detaineeswantmoreofwhattheyloathed.Yetmostofthecamp’sinhabitantsthrewthemselvesintotheir new life with purpose and endeavour. They organised clubs and societies, a prisoner police force, language classes, religious services, musical performances and a roster of sporting events. Later there would be a camp newspaper, a postage system and in time Ruhleben became a self-governing state, a LittleBritaininwhicheveryinhabitantwasdeterminedtomakethemostoftheirunhappysituation.Teddy Falkwasdifferent;hekeptapart. TeddyFalkduringhistimeintheMilitiaBattalionoftheKing’sShropshireLightInfantry Since the moment of his arrest Falk found himself stymied by a ‘sense of hopeless depression’. He washauntedbythethoughtthathadhereactedtotheoutbreakofwarwithalittlemorenoushewould nowbefightingontheWesternFront.Hewasalsomissinghiswife,whohadbeensevenmonthspregnant at the start of his detention. Falk made no effort to hide his gloom and soon became known around Ruhlebenasthe‘CampPessimist’.HisreactiontothegossipthatflewaroundRuhlebenonashivering nightinJanuary1915wasthereforecharacteristic. ThestorywasthatanEnglishmanwhohadsneakedintoGermanysoonaftertheoutbreakofwarhad beencaught,leftinsolitaryconfinementforsixteenweeks–anunheard-ofstretch–andwasnowbeing transferredtoRuhleben.Falkwasjustamazedtohearthathewasstillalive.‘WhytheGermansdidnot shoot him offhand, which they would have been entitled to do, I ignore.’ By the end of the war this unhappycivilservantwouldbegladtoknowthatthisman’slifehadbeenspared,indeedhewouldfeela bondofcamaraderiewithhimthatonlywarcanproduce. OnthenightthatGeoffreyPykewasledintoRuhlebentherewassnowunderfoot.Thebootshehad wornsinceLondonhadholesinthemfromthehourshehadspentpacinghisprisoncell,sowithevery stephewouldhavefeltthesnowstingingthesolesofhisfeet.Thishardlymattered.Afterhewashanded abowlandadiaphanous,soddentowelPykewasshownintoadormitoryfullofmen.Hefoundhimself surroundedbypeopleforthefirsttimeinmonthsanditfeltelectric.Newsofhisarrivalspreadfastand hewassoonatthecentreofamobofdetainees,allofthemaskingforthelatestnewsfromEngland. There was a neat symmetry to this. Pyke had set out to report on life in Germany to the English in England;nowhewasrelayingthenewsfromEnglandtotheEnglishinGermany.Atleast,thiswaswhat hewantedtodo.Havingspokentoonlyahandfulofpeopleoverthepreviousfourmonths,andrarelyfor morethanafewseconds,Ruhleben’snewestarrivalkepttrippingoverhiswords. Thisdidnothingtodullhisexcitementatbeinginthecompanyofsomanyofhiscountrymen.Afterthe crowdhaddispersedeventheangriestconversationinthedistancewas,forhim,alullaby.‘Iwouldlie onmybackonmysack,andjustlistentopeopleborrowingspoonsfromeachother,orcursingeachother for mutual coffee slopping. A universal shout of laughter would make me warm with delight, and a continual cry to someone to shut up or to make peregrinations Hellwards would make me pause over everydelectablesyllable.’ Later that night the sentries came round to turn out the lights. The hubbub of questions, jokes and storieswasreplacedbyachorusofsnoresthat‘madethewholeloftvibrate’.‘Allnightlongthedoorsat the end banged, with people going out to the latrines, and every time great flakes of wind-borne snow wouldrushin,andswirlabout,finallysettlingdownevanescentandwetonsomehuddledform.’Itmight havebeencoldandcrampedbutPyke’smovetoRuhlebenhadremovedfromhismindagreatweight:he wasnolongerlivinginfearofexecution.Theproblemwasthat,likeTeddyFalk,hewasnotsurehow thishadhappened,orindeedwhy. ByrecordingtroopmovementsinCharlottenburgParkandwritingtheseupinareportthathehopedto sendbacktoLondon,Pykewasguiltyofespionage.Hadthisbeenestablishedincourtatanypointafter theexecutioninlateOctober1914ofCarlLody,aGermanagentactiveinBritain,thenhewouldhave facedafiringsquad.PykewasarrestedtowardstheendofSeptemberbutwasnevertried. WhenaskedtoexplainhistransfertoRuhlebenhereachedforvaguetermsabouttheGermanEmpire tossing him about and ‘finally vomiting me, in a fit of either weariness, mercy or disgust, to this day I knownotwhich,intoaconcentrationcampforinternedcivilians’.Weariness,mercyordisgust.‘Disgust’ wasthereforeffect,alongwith‘weariness’,forlettingaprisonerstewinacellwasnevergoingtowear downtheGermanReich.GivenPyke’sfragilementalconditionbyJanuary1915‘mercy’seemsthemost likelyexplanation. Bythenthisgregarioustwenty-year-oldhadspentsixteenweeksinaroomthesizeofabilliardtable. Ithadspaceforlittlemorethanabedandalatrine(madebyGeorgeJenningsandCo.,whichbecame‘my one and only connection with the United Kingdom’), and to begin with he was deprived of exercise as wellascompany;hehadnothingtoread,nowritingmaterialandwasalonewithhisthoughts. ‘I swear to you that to think too much is a disease, a real, actual disease’, wrote Dostoyevsky. For Pyke,tothinktoomuchandbeimprisonedwithhisthoughtswasakindoftorture.‘Itisnotthemonthsthat countinsolitaryconfinement,’hewrote,‘butthequartersofanhour.Everytenminutesiseternity.’Ofone momentinthatcell:‘Icouldfeel,andknowthatIwasfeeling,sixhundreddifferentthings.Icouldthink, and reverse my thoughts a dozen times before one half-second of time had passed.’ He took to reciting Kipling’s ‘If’ and Carroll’s ‘Jabberwocky’ over and over, adding words and syllables or delivering certainlinesatthetopofhisvoice–‘ONE,TWO!ONE,TWO!ANDTHROUGHANDTHROUGH...’ –beforedroppingtoamousywhisperasifperformingsomemadFuturistpoem–‘thevorpalbladewent snicker-snack! / He left it dead, and with its head / He went galumphing back.’ He ran through halfrememberedconversationswithCambridgefriendsuntiltheyweresorealthat‘I could almost hear the voices, and could foresee the points where laughter, jibe, criticism, agreement, pause, uproar were to come.’AloneinhiscellhedeliveredbarnstormingspeechestotheCambridgeUnionbeforetakingona differentcharactertotearapartwhathadjustbeensaid‘withallthesarcasmofaVoltaire’.Extendinghis armsbeforehim,heimaginedrowingdowntheCam–hesatatnumberseven–andinhismindtracedthe journeyalongeachbend,imaginingthecoachonabicycleshoutinginstructionsfromthetowpathandthe echoingclatteroftheoarsastheypassedunderabridge.Onfinishingtheseimaginaryrowingsessionshe wouldresumehispacingonlytofind,tohisamusement,thathemoved‘withthatrollpeculiartoafterrowingstiffness’. Pykewasalsoveryhungry.Hedescribedhow‘realhunger[...]hasbeenknowntomakementhink very seriously about the rights of property, and a few have become so unbalanced as to become socialists’.Onlylaterwouldthegentlesarcasmofthisremarkbecomeclear.Itseemsthatduringthese fourmonthsofconcentratedlonelinesstheseedsofapoliticalepiphanyweresown.Itwouldbeseveral decadesbeforeitborefruit. ByChristmasDay1914,‘Inolongerevenhadanyrootedobjectiontoinsanity.Iwasfastgettingto thatpointwherethedoubtarisesastowhetherafterallmadnessisnotthetruesanity.’ByJanuaryhewas ‘sinkingfast’,‘quicklybecomingabroken-downcreature’andbytheendofthemonthhewastransferred toRuhleben. Modern studies have shown that just ten days in solitary confinement will cause most prisoners to experiencesomekindofmentaldeterioration.Twomonthsisoftenenoughtoinduceaseverecollapse. Pykehadlastedfourmonths.Itisnotsurprisingthathewasshowing‘signsofmentalbreakdown’. Onthefaceofit,then,histransferwasanactofclemency.Buttherewasmoretoitthanthat. In 1916, an MI5 officer was told that Pyke had been transferred to Ruhleben after ‘various highly placedpersons’campaignedforhisrelease.WeknowthatbeforethewarPykehadspent‘jollyevenings’ intheroomsofBertrandRussell,thephilosopher,andthoseofCharlesOgden,co-founderoftheHeretics andeditoroftheCambridgeMagazine.ButnoneofhisEnglishfriendspetitionedtheGermangovernment for they had no idea of his whereabouts. Instead, according to MI5, his life had been spared after the AmericanAmbassadorinBerlin,JamesW.Gerard,amoustachioedNewYorker,‘movedinthematter’. GerardcertainlyhadformwhenitcametoextricatingBritonsfromsolitaryconfinement.Beforebeing takentoRuhlebenTeddyFalkhaddiscovered,onhisreleasefromisolation,‘thatIowedmyliberationto thestepstakenbyMrGerard,theUSAAmbassador’.InPyke’scase,however,itseemsthatGerardnot onlyplayedapartinsecuringhisreleasebuthadalsobeeninstrumentalinhisarrest. Pykewasaddressedbythedetectiveas‘HerrPyke’,soweknowthattheGermanpolicehadbeen tippedoff.Butbywhom?MauriceEttinghausen,anEnglishbooksellerwhowouldgettoknowPykein Ruhleben,explainedinhismemoirsthatthisCambridgeundergraduatewas‘givenawaybytheAmerican representativeinBerlin’–namelyGerard. How could Gerard have known about Pyke? From Edward Lyell Fox. He was, after all, the only person in Berlin with full knowledge of Pyke’s plan. He was also working undercover for the German government. ItturnsoutthatEdwardLyellFoxwasbothapaidpropagandistfortheGermansandagovernment courier, which is perhaps why he was so expert in moving material across borders. The unsuspecting EnglishmanhadinadvertentlyaskedaGermansecretagenttosmuggleintelligenceoutofthecountry. EitherFoxtippedoffthepoliceormentionedtoGerardwhatPykewasupto.Onceithademerged that Pyke was not an agent provocateur but a harmless adventurer now in danger of being shot, the Americanambassadorintervenedtosavehislife. Pykeknewpartsofthisnarrativebutnotallofit,andcertainlyhadnoinklingthatFoxwasworking for Germany. In those first few weeks in Ruhleben he tried to forget about his time in Berlin and concentrateinsteadonhisnewsurroundingsandtheforgottenpleasuresofconversation–whichledtoan encounterwithadepressedcivilservantnamedFalk. TeddyFalkdescribedPykeas‘overgrown,tendingtostoop,shortsighted,butextremelyobservant’.He wasunlikeanyonehehadevermet,‘apessimistandacynicinaffairswhichconcernedtheheartandthe soul,butinthingsmaterialhewasthemostimaginativeoptimistIhaveevercomeacross.’Pykehadalso shownhimselftoberemarkablyresisilient. ThoughPykehaddescribedhimselfasanatheistsincetheageofthirteen,eitherhelookedJewishin the eyes of the camp staff or it emerged that his parents were, for on his first night he was taken to Ruhleben’sonlyJewishbarrack,‘theoldestanddirtieststableinthecompound’.Astherewasnoroom onthegroundfloorhewasgivenamattressintheloft.WhenGerard,theUSAmbassador,wastakenona tourofRuhlebenandshownthismakeshiftdormitoryhe‘recoiledwithashudder’.Thebeamswereso low that Pyke was unable to walk around upright. ‘The atmosphere was as thick as cheese,’ he wrote. ‘Thewholeplacestank,andyoucouldtaketheair,andcutitintochunks,throwitaboutandstamponit, andyetitseemedaboutthesameviscidityasmud.’ForjournalistIsraelCohen,oneoftheluckyoneson the ground floor, the loft with ‘its little windows, its stifling atmosphere, its dismal light and its fetid smells,gavetheimpressionofaveritable“BlackHoleofCalcutta.”’Twoweeksafterhisarrivalinthe freezing, stinking loft of Ruhleben’s Jewish barrack, Pyke contracted what was described by a fellow detaineeas‘doublepneumonia’. In the days before antibiotics pneumonia was a far more deadly disease than it is today, and had contributed to the death of Pyke’s father Lionel fifteen years earlier. His son was up against both pneumoniaandtheapathyofthecamp’smedicalstaff. Known as ‘Dr Von Aspirin’, for his habit of prescribing patients two aspirins regardless of the symptoms,theRuhlebencampdoctorrefusedinitiallytoseePyke.Insteadhetoldthemennursinghimthat hisofficewasopeneverymorningbetweennineandten,andthatthepatientwaswelcometovisithim then. The patient, of course, could not move. Only when the camp commandant heard about Pyke’s conditionwasDrVonAspirinorderedtoseehim. ‘Thedoctor’smentalityasregardsmyselfwhenhearrivedwas,Ishedead?Ifnot,whynot?Hegave metwoaspirins,andremarkedthatIwastooilltobemoved,remarkingalittlelaterintheweekthatI wasn’tillenough.Hehadmebothways.Henevercametoseemeagain.’ After ten days Pyke’s fever fell away. He had survived, but at a price. For the next two weeks he convalesced in the loft, gazing up at the low-slung beams, and as he considered his predicament he became overwhelmed by what he called a sense of ‘misery and futility’. It was unlike anything he had experienced before. This feeling was unrelenting, suffocating, and soon he was desperate ‘to do something – anything – to avoid more of it’. His friends in the loft tried to lift his spirits: they ‘did everything that human kindness and superhuman ingenuity could devise, but nevertheless I felt stifled, crushed,comatose’.YetitwashardtoseewhatPykecoulddo. Escape was out of the question; indeed, by the time of his arrival in Ruhleben this belief was so entrenchedthateventhesubjectofgettingoutofthecamphadbecometaboo.Asmostdetaineesagreed, Ruhlebenwasexceptionallywellguardedanditslocationhundredsofmilesfromneutralterritorymadeit impossible to get home. The era of daring getaways, they told each other, had finished with the NapoleonicWars.Thiswasanewkindofwar,theywenton,amorescientificwarinwhichescapewas nolongertechnicallypossible. ThepopulationofRuhlebenincludedmenlikeJamesChadwick,thephysicistwhowouldlaterwina NobelPrize,andJohnMasterman,whowentontodirecttheDoubleCrossoperationduringtheSecond WorldWar:intelligent,reasonablemenwhowerefullofimagination.Therewasnogoodreasontodoubt theircollectivewisdom.Butashelayinthecoldandstinkingloft,Pykehimselfdaredtothinkthatthese peoplewerewrong.PerhapsescapefromRuhlebenwasmerelyaproblem,andassuchtherewasbound tobeasolution. ‘Before a problem can be solved it must be detected,’ he later wrote, and ‘it is easier to solve a problemthanitistospotwhatistheproblem(asthewholehistoryofscienceandtechnologyshows). Almostanyfoolcansolveaproblemandquiteanumberdo.Todetecttherightproblem–atleastsoI have found – requires what [H. G.] Wells calls the daily agony of scrutinising accepted facts.’ This attitudehadspiritedhimintoGermany.Nowhehopeditmightgethimout.Hismotivationthistimewas altogether different: he was drawn not by the intellectual thrill of confounding expectations, though this remainedsatisfying,butthefearhehadthathisbodycouldnotsurviveafullwinterinRuhleben. Hisfellowdetaineeswereright,hetoldhimself,insofarasitwasascientificwar.Thiscalledfora scientific escape. If he approached the question in a suitably scientific manner, scrutinising every assumptionwithinthecampandtestinghistheoriesbygatheringevidenceandconductingexperiments,he wasconfidentofbeingabletofindawayout. ToalmostanyotherRuhlebendetaineethecaseagainstsuchafantasywasoverwhelming.ByMarch 1915 not one Briton had escaped from Germany. Pyke’s idea was radical to the point of being absurd. Indeed,itwassodaringthatheresolvednottomentionittoanyone.‘Whenmenhavenothingtodoall daylongbuttalk,theybecomesogarrulousthatitbecomesimpossibletokeepeventheslightestandleast importantbitofnewslockedupinsideone.’Ifhisfellowinmateslearntthathewasplottinganescapeit wouldbeonlyamatterofhoursbeforetheauthoritiesoverheardthegossip.Yetforallthis,Pykebeganto toywiththeideaoftakingonaco-conspirator:preferablyonewhospokeGerman. Soon after Pyke’s arrival the camp authorities gave the detainees permission to take their daily constitutional in the grassy no-man’s-land between the two fences that surrounded the camp. Pyke describedthesceneoutthereas‘likeabankholidaycrowdonHampsteadHeath,onlymorecrowdand less holiday and no Heath’, and it was in this area one morning that Pyke bumped into Falk. The civil servantlooked‘verygloomyaboutsomething’.Pyke,alsofeelingdown,unburdenedhimself.Ashedid sohenoticedFalk’seyeslightup. AccordingtoPyketheatmosphereinRuhlebenwascharacterisedby‘whatseemedtomeaninsane belief in the inevitable fact of our muddling through somehow’. It was rare to hear anyone suggest that they were feeling depressed or low. Pyke’s decision to do so marked him out in Falk’s opinion as a fellow ‘realist’, and from that day on they took their daily walks together. During one of these Falk mentionedthathespokefluentGerman. Onthefaceofit,theymadeanoddcouple.Falkwasamarriedmaninhislatethirtieswhohadspent hisearlyyearsinBradford;Pykewasatwenty-one-year-oldbachelorwhohadgrownupinasalubrious pocketofwestLondon.FalkwasadevoutChristian,PykewasanatheistraisedbyanobservantJewish mother.Falkwasanex-serviceman;Pykehadamistrustofallmilitarymen.YetFalkwassomeonewho keptthefulldetailsofhispasttohimself.ThoughborninBradford,hisparentswerebothGermanandhis motherwasJewish.ItisunclearwhetherhewasraisedasaChristianorchosetoconverttothatreligion, butthismayshedsomelightontheaffinityhefeltforPyke,ayoungmanhelaterdescribedas‘essentially English,andatthesametimeessentiallyJewish’.FalkwasnotonlyEnglishandJewish,butGermanas wellandlatterlyChristian. Ruhleben was a place which lent itself to personal reinvention, a levelling environment in which muchofone’slifeuntilthencouldbemadetofeelperipheral.PykeandFalkweredrawntogethermainly by their conversation. Both relished debate and were habitually sceptical. At the same time they complemented each other: Pyke was an optimist in material matters while Falk was more negative. In theirdiscussionstheyoungermancametobethevoiceoffantasywhiletheolderonerepresentedreality, a duality which made their exchanges loud and lively. It was not long before Pyke realised that Falk wouldmaketheperfectco-escapee.Lessclearwashowheshouldbringthisup.Hesimplycouldnottell whetherTeddyFalkwouldevercountenancesuchathing. IfPykemisreadthesignsandwasrebuffedtherewaseverychancethatFalkmightspreadtheword about what he was planning. Their relationship began to resemble a courtship. ‘We were both very careful, and approached the matter delicately. It was quite a month before I dared even get on to the subject,’recalledPyke.‘Atfirstweusedtodiscussthestateofaffairsprevailingoutside;andthen,when wandering round the camp, I pointed to a part of the fence and remarked, “That’s not very carefully guarded,isit?Lookhowslackthatsentryis.OnemightbeabletogetoutthereifOnewasfairlysharp aboutit.”“Yes,”Falkwouldreply,“butwhatwouldOnedowhenOnehadgotout?”’ Thatwouldbeitfortheday.ThenextmorningthediscussionmightedgeforwardontowhatOnemight doifOnegotonto,say,atrain.WasOnerequiredtoshowapassport?Pyketrackeddownaninmatewho had recently been allowed to take a train into Berlin and who explained in the course of a long conversationthatyouwerenotrequiredtoshowyourpapersoneveryGermantrain.Pykepassedthison toFalkthenextday. Theycarriedonlikethisforsometime,creepingforwardintheirimaginaryescape,untilatlastPyke crossed the Rubicon. He changed the ‘One’ in their conversations to ‘I’. Falk ‘made no sign of having observedthechange.’ Thiswasremarkable.Herewasamanwhoseresponsetotheoutbreakofwarhadbeentohandinhis passport,andwhohadathomeawifeandayoungchild,achildwhomhehadneverseen.Nowitseemed thathewaspreparedtoriskhislifebyattemptinganescape. ‘Thenextmorningwewerebothalittleshy,’wrotePyke.‘Bothofushadexperiencedtheeffectof wakingupindaylightimmediatelyconsciousofourlastnight’splanasanewfactorinlife,andneitherof uswasquitecertainastowhetherintheotherthisfeelinghadnotoverswampedthedeterminationofthe precedingevening.’Inatestymood,Falkranthroughalistofobjectionstothescheme.‘Byadmittingthat he had been foolish the night before,’ felt Pyke, Falk was offering him a way out. He did not take it. Instead he demolished each of Falk’s objections. Their courtship was over. Bound together by the intimacyofconspiracy,thetwoinmatesbegantoplottheirroutebacktoLondon. Several months later, at about seven o’clock one summer’s evening, with most detainees out on the exercise ground, Geoffrey Pyke and Teddy Falk met as agreed in front of Ruhleben’s main grandstand. BothworesuitscutinaGermanstyle.Neitheronesaidverymuch.Insilencetheyscannedthehorizon withnervousintent.Itwasaclear,warmeveningandtheskywasblankandblue.Beyondthefencesthey couldseepoplarsbytheriverbank,andfromtimetotimeatrainmumbledbyonitswaytoBerlin.The conditionswereperfect.Theirescapewouldbegininlessthanthirtyminutes. ‘Ifeltartificiallycalmaboutthewholematter,’wrotePyke,evertheoptimist,‘andmoreofacaptive thanever.Thesunwasgettinglow,thoughitwouldbeanothertwohoursbeforeitset.Somethingvery terrible was going to happen to me, and quite soon. In half an hour’s time Falk and I would either be shakinginthegripofacoupleofGermansoldiers,orthepossibilityofatotallynewlifewithouthorizon wouldextendbeforeus.Itwaslikewaitingforreincarnation,withthealternativeofdeath.’ Falk,thepessimist,wascopinglesswell.‘Inviewofthedangeroftheundertaking,IconfessthatI feltqualmswhenthedatefixedcamenearerandnearer.’IndeedFalk‘loathed’theideaofescape,given thatthelikelihoodofbeingtrippedupby‘someunluckycoincidence’wasinhismind,‘infinitelygreater thanthepossibilityofsuccess’. ‘Farmorecouragewasneededfromhim,’agreedPyke,‘thanfromme,forhethoughthewasgoingto hisdeath,whereasIwasbythensoconfidentthatIshouldbeinLondoninthreeweeks,thatIarrangedthe wholethingsoastobehomeintimefortheschoolholidaysofmyyoungerbrotherandsister.’ ForWallaceEllison,aRuhlebenitewhohadagreedtojointheirescapeparty,thefearofcapturehad provedtoomuch.‘Ihadastrongpresentiment–Icangiveitnomoredefinitename,thatthreewereone toomanyforsuchanenterprise.’Hehadpulledoutthedaybefore,whichhadonlycompoundedFalk’s anxiety.AmuchgreaterconcernwashowmanyGermansentrieswouldbetryingtostopthem. In March, when Pyke had first resolved to escape, the idea of doing this was outlandish mainly because up to that point nobody had tried to escape from Ruhleben. Things had changed since then. A fifty-two-year-oldengineerfromDumfrieshadspentfourteendaysontherunbeforebeingpickedupnear theDutchfrontierandhauledofftoBerlin’sStadt-VogteiPrison(wherePykehadspentafewdays).None ofthedetaineeshadheardofhimsince.Duringthepasttendaystherehadbeenafurtherfiveattemptsto getoutofRuhleben,eachofwhichhadfailed.Notonlydidthisconfirmtheprevailingbeliefthatescape wasimpossible,ithadledtofifteenextrasentriesbeingpostedtotheouterfencejustbeforePykeand Falkhopedtobreakout. Pyke did not share this news with Falk. Instead he ‘behaved extremely caddishly’, as he put it, by keepingittohimself.Hewasconvincedthathisfriendwouldpullout,givenhisconcernforhiswifeand child.ThisstrikesadifferentnoteinourunderstandingofPyke.Evenasitsuggestsacertainruthlessness, it is a reminder of just how desperate he was to get out. His body had not fully recovered from his pneumonia,asituationthathemighthavekeptfromFalk,andhewasincreasinglyuncertainthathislungs and heart could withstand much longer in Ruhleben. So he kept this information from Falk and instead assuredhimthathewouldbeabletospiritthembothoutofcamp. ‘You make it safe first,’ Falk had said long ago, ‘and I’ll come.’ It had always been Pyke’s responsibilitytofindawayoutofRuhleben,whereuponFalkwouldtakeover.Duringthepastfewweeks Pykehadfinalisedhisplan.Itinvolvedjustoneimplement–apieceofstiffwire–whichwasnowinhis pocket,alongwithmoneyandasmuchfoodashecouldeasilyconceal. Halfanhourhadelapsed,anditwastimetosettheplaninmotion.Slowly,neithertoofastnortoo slow,thetwomenenteredtheexercisegroundbetweenthetwofences.Thebarriersoneithersideofthem were eight feet tall and topped with barbed wire. Armed sentries patrolled 250-yard-long beats and beyondtheouterfencewasastretchofopengroundwatchedoverbyfurthersentriesarmedwithrifles andequippedwithsearchlights.Itwasanimpressiveset-up,wellthoughtoutandmeticulous.Butthere wereflaws. Pykehadnoticedthatduringthedaythesentries’attentionwasfocusedontheouterfence–theonly barrierbetweentheexercisingdetaineesandtheworldbeyond–whileatnight,witheveryonebackin theirbarracks,theguardsconcentratedontheinnerfence.Sotoescapeonewouldideallycrosstheinner fencebydayandtheouterfencebynight.Thiswasanelegantsolution:ithadthepleasingsymmetryofa pared-downmathematicalequationandtheadvantageoftakingyouovertheopengroundbynightwhenit waspoorlylit.Itwasalsototallyimpractical. Youwouldneedtohideinno-man’s-landwhiledayturnedtonightand,naturally,thecampauthorities had done their best to make that impossible. Not only was the area between the fences patrolled at all times,butthesolitarybuildinginthisinterstitialzonewasregularlycheckedbypassingsentries. Thatbuildingwasatinywoodenkiosk,sixfeetacrossatitswidestpoint,whichwasusedtostore athleticsequipment.Evenifadetaineedidmanagetohideinthereonenighthecouldnotescapebecause itwaslockedfromduskuntildawn.Orsoitseemed. AsPykeandFalkmilledaboutwithotherprisonersontheexercisegroundtheyheardabell.Itwas 7:45p.m.:timetoreturntotheirbarracks.Thetwomenjoinedacolumnofinmatestrudgingbacktotheir huts–butatthelastmomentbrokeawaytowardsthekiosk. Ithadbegun. Havingpulledawaybothmenexpectedtoheartheshoutofasentryorthecrackofarifle,asthunder followslightning.Buttherewasnothing. Reachingthekiosk,theynippedinsideandpulledthedoorshut. Stillnothing. ‘Ifeltanaturalcalm,’wrotePyke,‘asifIwasobservingtheworkingsoffatethroughatelescope.’ Anymomentnowthesentrywouldopenthedoorforhisfinalinspectionofthekioskbeforeboltingitshut forthenight.AccordingtoPyke’splannotonlywouldheandFalkbeabletodealwiththebolt,butwhen thesentryopenedthedoortheywouldbeinvisible. Pykehadnoticedthatthesentrieswerelackadaisicalinthewaytheyboltedthedoor.Ratherthanpush theboltrightalongandpullitdowntheymerelythrewithalfwayacross.Hehadalsonoticedahollow knotinoneofthedoor’stimbers.Usingapieceofstiffwirehehadfoundthatonecouldopenthebolt frominsidethekiosk.ButPyke’sgreatestdiscoverywastodowiththepositionofthewindowinrelation totheentrance. Thesmallbuildingshookasthedoorswungopen.StandinginthedoorwaywasauniformedGerman sentry,soclosethatPykecouldseethecolourofhiseyes.Theywerepaleblueandfleckedwithgold.For amomentnothinghappened.Theeveningsuncastthesentry’sfaceinasickly,jaundicedlight.Thesmell ofathleticsequipmentfilledtheairlikeareminderofchildhoodandeachofthethreemeninthattinyhut wasstilllikeastatue.Thesentry’sgazeregisterednothing–itwasasifhecouldnotseePykeandFalk. IntheweeksfollowinghisrecoveryfrompneumoniaPykehadbeenreminded–wedonotknowhow –oftheopticaleffectofabrightlightbehindasolid.Herealisedthatifyouweretolookintothiskiosk lateonasummer’sevening,giventhattheonlywindowwasonitswesternsideandthedoorwasonthe east,itwouldbeveryhardtomakeoutwhatwasbeneaththewindowsill,inthewaythatwhenthesun breaksthehorizonitisdifficulttofocusonthelandscapeimmediatelybelow.Thiswasnottosaythatyou would be invisible if you crouched beneath the window, as Pyke and Falk now did, but you would be hardtosee.Themorepertinentquestion,andtheoneonwhichtheirescapenowhinged,waswhethera Germansentrymightexpecttofindtwodetaineeshidingthere. ‘Ifyouaregoingtoturnyourhandtoout-manoeuvringorout-cheatingapersonorpersons,youshould have very definite ideas as to their mentality,’ wrote Pyke. Rather than study the bars to your cell, considerthemindthatmadethem.Tothebestofhisknowledge,thesentriesatRuhlebenwerethekindof menforwhomtheideaoftryingtohideoutinthishutwassoidioticastobebeyondeventheeccentric Englishmentheywererequiredtoguard. Trustinginallthis,FalkandPykeremainedstock-stillbeneaththewindow.Theirbodieswerepartly covered by scraps of netting and anything else that had been to hand. They were not obscured, but the combinationofthesunandthesentries’habituallethargymightbeenoughtomaketheminvisible. TheGermanwithdrew.Thedoorclosedwithawhoomph.Theboltwasdraggedroughlyacrossand thetwodetaineeslistenedtothesoundofthesentry’sbootscrunchingoverthegravel. ThefirstpartofPyke’splanhadworked.Ithadbeenutterlyaudacious,simpleandbrave.Nowthe two men remained motionless on the floor of the kiosk while a band of sunlight moved sleepily up the wall,thecolourbecomingfullerandmoregolden,untilitreddenedandbegantofade.At9:30thecamp’s electricarc-lightscameonwithawide-awakehumandabuglesoundedforthechangeofsentries. Timetomove. ThenextstageofPyke’splanwasclumsier.Theyhadtogetfromthekioskovertheouterfenceand acrosstheopengroundbeyond.Hehadbeenunabletofindaningeniouswayunderoraroundthisfence andinsteadhadtakentoconductingexperimentsalongitsperimetertofindtheleastnoisyplacetoclimb over.Todothishehaddisturbedthefence,asifbyaccident,toseehowthesentriesreacted. Theresultshadbeenstrange.Rattlesofaboutthesameintensityinthesameplaceeliciteddifferent responsesatdifferenttimes.Heconcludedthatsomeofthesentriesweremoreswitched-onthanothers. SincethenPykehadworkedoutwhichsentrieswerelessattentive,whentheywereondutyandwhere. Basedonthishewasconfident that the sentry now operating the searchlight over the area by the kiosk waseitherlazy,sleepyorhardofhearing. Hehadalsoestablishedthatduringthesentrychangeovertheno-man’s-landbetweenthefenceswas unguardedforapproximatelyoneminute.PykeandFalkpickedthemselvesupandtookofftheirbootsso thattheycouldmovemorequietlyoverthegravel.Pykeproducedhispieceofstiffwireandslippedit throughtheknotinthedoorbeforeworkingtheboltbacktowardsthehinge.Thedoorswungopen. Infrontofthemtheexercisegroundwaswhitishandempty.Wide-eyed,strungout,thetwodetainees boltedthedoorbehindthemandpaddedoverthegraveltowardstheouterfencebeforeclawingtheirway tothetopofthewire.ForFalk‘therattlingwiresseemedloudascrackingwhipstockstomyears,butit wasonlymybadconscience’. Stillnoshots,noshouts. They had both made it over the outer fence when they saw the spike of a sentry’s helmet heading towards them. Again it was time to put their faith in elementary optics. Trusting that at night the eye is betteratpickingoutmovementthanfamiliarshapes,theylayverystillnearthefence.Falkwatchedasthe new sentry ‘walked on, for we were already in the shadow, and the glare of the lamps in his eyes rendereditimpossibletoseefarintotheoutergloom,asPykehaddiscoveredpreviously’.Againtheir escapedependedononeofhissmall-scaleexperiments. Now they had to reach the safety of the woods beyond, which required crossing the open ground withoutbeingpickedupbythesentry’ssearchlight.Thetrickwastomovewithoutflailingyourlimbs.To do this, Pyke had developed two bespoke crawls: the ‘crab-crawl’, which allowed you to ‘proceed in onedirection,andyetkeepone’seyesfixedonasentryinanyother’;andthe‘caterpillar’,which,despite itsname,wasthefasterofthetwo,and‘dependedonliftingthekneeatacertainpointinthemovement.’ BothwerefineintheorybutdifficulttopractiseinRuhlebenwhereprivacywasimpossibleandeven thelatrineslackeddividingwalls.Pyke’ssolutionwascharacteristicallysimple.Hepractisedhiscrawls infullviewoftheguardsandhisfellowdetainees.Whenaskedwhyhewaswrithingaboutonthefloorhe explainedthatthesewereexercisesforaweakheartwhichhadbeensuggestedtohimbyDrSörgersund, aDanishdoctorwhomhehadinvented. Oncethereliefsentryhadmovedonalittle,thetwosuitedescapeesbegantocrab-crawlacrossthe openground.Soontheirelbowswereachingandtheirbrowswetwithsweat.Asearchlightbeamswung lazily across the open ground. It would be on them in a moment. With a spurt both men propelled themselvesoverthelaststretch,reachingthewoodsjustbeforethebeammovedharmlesslypast. PykeandFalkhadescapedfromRuhleben,andhaddonesoscientifically.Everydetailofthisescapewas rootedinPyke’srefusaltotakeanyassumptionsforgranted,whetheritwastheideathatthekioskwastoo smalltobeusedasahidingplaceorthatitwasimpossibletocrawlacrosstheopengroundwithoutbeing seen.Thisscepticismhadledtohypotheses,experimentsandproofsandnowbothmenappearedtobe free.IfthelessonofPyke’sjourneyintoGermanywastothinkwithoutfearoffailure,thengettingoutof Ruhlebenunderlinedtheimportanceofchallengingwhatyouweretold.FalkwasinaweofhowPykehad done this, praising his ‘positive genius’ for an escape based on ‘sheer hard thinking and acute observation’.Buttheywerenotyetoutofthewoods–ineverysense. Asthetwomencaughttheirbreath,Pykenoticedinthenear-distancetheflickeringdartofaflashlight. Itwasalittlemanandhisdog.Toooldtofight,thispatrioticBerlinerandhiscompanionwoulddotheir bit for the Vaterland each night by patrolling the woods beyond the camp, never taking the same route twice.ThisunpredictabilityplacedthemoutsidePyke’smeticulousplans. Keepinglow,thetwoEnglishmenhurtledthroughtheundergrowth.‘Howthetwigsunderfootcracked! Itwasasthoughathousandsquibshadbeenletoff.’Havingmadeittotheothersideofthetreesandaway fromtheflashlighttheysawtotheirhorrorafreshsetoffences. Thereseemedtobenothingtodoexcepttrytoscrambleover.AtthefirstfenceFalkusedPykeasa step,yetthislefttheyoungermanstuck.Theproblem,accordingtoFalk,wasthesizeofPyke’sfeet.They were ‘exceptionally large’ so he was unable to scale the wire mesh. ‘Seeing him in difficulty,’ wrote Falk,‘Iputmyhandsthroughthenettingandclenchedthem.Pykesteppedontomyknucklesandclimbed over.’ They took on the second fence in a similar fashion, only to spot a third. As if caught up in an allegorical fable, this third and final fence was ‘the biggest we had yet come across. It was something worse than tall.’ The barbed wire ran along a series of brackets set on a cruel overhang. Again the LondonerpresentedhimselfasaclimbingframefortheYorkshiremanwhoscrambledover‘withagreat dealofdifficulty’,beforeitwasPyke’sturn.Hesenthimselfshootingskywards,butonreachingthetop wasunabletohoisthislegover.Foramomenthewassuspendedinthewirelikeaflyinaweb,suittorn, legsakimbo,stuckinano-man’s-landbetweendetaineeandfugitive.Thesummerbeforehehadleaptout overMalmoharbourtocatchthedepartingferryandagain,foraninstant,itwasunclearhowthiswould end.Thiswasbecomingarefraininhislife.Thethrillofachallengeoftenprovedirresistible.Heseemed to live without any fear of the future or indeed of failure; he was someone who jumped first and made calculationslater.Onthisoccasiongravitywasagainsthimandhecamecrashingdownonthewrongside ofthefence. With his heart thumping against his chest Pyke picked himself up and again clambered up to the barbed-wireoverhangbeforefallingbackdown.OntheothersideofthefenceFalklookedonindespair, tellinghisfriendhowexposedtheywereandwhataneasytargettheywouldmakeforapassingsentry. Thislastremark–likepepperunderPyke’snose–seemedtopowerhimuptotheoverhang.‘Ihadgotto thetop;Ihadgotoverthestrandofwirethatleantback;Ihadnotanounceofstrengthleft.Icoulddono more.Ijustheldon,balancingmyself.Belowmewasmyfriend;hewaslookingupatmeandhisface wassingularlyintense,andIsawthatthebootblackinghadleftasmudgebelowhismouth.Hemustbe sayingsomething,forhislipsweremoving.Itwasodd,forIcouldhearnothing.Thensuddenlyhisface grewlarger,andIbegantodream.Ifelthimcatchme,andinamomentIhadcometo.’ Shattered, full of adrenalin, the two men jogged away from the fence towards the banks of the canalisedRiverSpreewheretheyputontheirbootsandtriedtowalkalongthetowpathasifnothinghad happened. Yet before they could relax they saw ahead the glow of what looked like a cigar. ‘Was it a constable?’thoughtFalk.‘Itwastoolatetofly.Towalkonwastheonlychance.Icalledoutacheery good evening as we passed a gentleman in white flannel trousers. He responded, stared, and vanished. Wouldhegivethealarm?’ Theycouldnotriskit.Thetwopanickedfugitivesslippedoffthetowpathandforseveralhoursmade their way through back gardens and allotments before reaching Charlottenburg Park, where Pyke had watched the troop trains ten months earlier. With dawn coming on they found a sheltered sandpit and settleddowntorest.Falksaidhisprayersandfellasleep,yetPykeremainedawake. Atthespeedofanexpresstrainhebegantoprocesstheeventsofthelastfewhours,untilatlasthelay downwithhishandsbehindhishead,‘watchingthestarsfadeawayinthefaceofthefirstglimmeringof thefirstday’.Helaterdescribedthosemomentsinhislifewhenhehadidentifiedaproblem,solvedit and realised his solution as ‘rare beatitudes which nothing can excel’. Here was one of these. The confidencewhichhadbeenleachedoutofhimduringfourmonthsinsolitaryconfinementwasflooding back,andinthisnewmoodPykebegantofeelthatanythingwaspossible:hemightevenbeabletoslip outofGermanyundetected. HOWTOBECOMEINVISIBLE OneofthefirstquestionsthatPykehadaskedhimselfaftermakingthedecisiontoescape,inMarch1915, washowtogetoutofGermanyasfastaspossible.Butreallythiswasthewrongquestion.Foritwas preciselywhattheGermanauthoritieswouldexpecthimtoaskwhenponderinghisfirstmove.Ifheand Falkweretoslipoutofthecountryunnoticedtheymustconfoundexpectationsateveryturn.Thepolice would anticipate them taking the fastest train to nearby neutral territory – Holland, Switzerland or Denmark–whichwaswhytheyhadtodotheopposite. They could travel away from London towards Romania, or aim for a non-neutral country, such as Austria-Hungary,andfromtherecontinuetoItaly,whichatthatstageofthewarwasneutral. ThiswasthefirstplanthatFalkandPykeagreeduponinRuhleben,andwiththeaidofanout-of-date school atlas they had worked out a route to the Austro-Hungarian frontier, only to read in a German newspaperthatseveralarmyunitshadbeenstationednearby.Theterritorytheyhadhopedtowalkthrough wouldbesaturatedwithsoldiers,sotheplanwasabandoned. Next Pyke had turned his attention to the Baltic coast and developed what became known between Falk and him as ‘The Baltic Scheme’. His idea was to move to the coast as slowly as possible – preferablyonfoot–beforestealingaboatandsailingtoFalsterIslandinDenmark.Thisideaalsohadto bescrappedaftertheyreadinanewspaperthatforsecurityreasonsitwasnolongerpermittedtomoor smallboatsofftheBalticcoast.Pyke,however,foundithardtoletgoofthescheme. SomeoftheoptionsPykeandFalkconsideredastheyplannedtheirescape ‘Irepeatedtomyselfcountlesstimes,“Well,ifwecan’tgetboatsthere,wemusttakeboatswithus,” without quite grasping the meaning of the phrase. [. . .] How to take boats with us? Then I saw it – portablecanoes.’ He had seen an advertisement for portable canoes in a magazine that was lying around the camp. RatherthanattempttosneakoutofGermanyundetected,heandFalk,perhapswithsomeotherescapees, could leave in broad daylight posing as friends on a canoeing holiday. Indeed, the more of them in the canoe,thebetter.WithhalfadozencanoeiststheycouldpretendtobeaGesangverein,orsingers’club, andpaddleoutofthecountrysingingpatrioticGermansongs.Pykeevenputhismindtochoosinganame forthisclub,onesoGermanthatitwouldmakeeventhemostpatrioticGermanbaulk.Bythenitwaslate May 1915, and earlier that month a German U-boat had torpedoed the SS Lusitania off the coast of Ireland,sparkingoutragearoundtheworldatthelossofmorethan1,000civilianlives.Hewouldcall theirclubtheLusitaniaVerein–theLusitaniaSingingClub. All he needed now were fellow canoeists. Wallace Ellison, an economics lecturer at Frankfurt University,doubledupwithlaughterwhenheheardtheplan,asdidFalk,beforetellingPyketogrowup. YetoverthefollowingdaysFalkandEllisonbothfellinlovewiththeideaandinearlyJunetheyagreed togoaheadwithit. Again, there was a catch. The advertisement for portable canoes had disappeared. Though Pyke searchedthrougheverybininRuhleben,hedidsoinvain.TheLusitaniaVereinwasdissolvedbeforeit couldsingitsfirstsong. Inthedaysthatfollowedacripplingsenseofdoubtsetin.Theyhadspenttwomonthstryingtofinda routeoutofGermanybuthadfailedsofar.Pyke’sresponsewastoinstilinhimselfanewsteeliness.He urged himself to ‘go forward from one discouragement to another automatically as if by instinct’, to becomeemotionallylessattachedtohisideas.Healsoquestionedthelevelofhisambition.Perhapstheir plansweretoomodest;itwastimetobemorebrazenandconsider‘somethingutterlyandhopelesslymad andimpossible’. AtthispointPyketurnedtohisgreatboyhoodpassion:detectivefiction.Itwasnogoodcomingatthe questionofhowtogetoutofGermanywiththementalityofaSherlockHolmes,thaticonofenlightened Victorianrationality,who,inPyke’sopinion,wouldlastnomorethanafewminutesinwartimeGermany. TheyneededtoadopttheapproachofthatsuavechameleonArsèneLupin,theliterarycreationofConan Doyle’scontemporaryMauriceLeblanc. Lupin was a very different detective from Holmes. He was dashing, duplicitous and reckless: a gentleman-thiefandtrickster.‘ThegreatcharmaboutArsèneisyouneverknowquitewhoorwhereheis. ItisjusttheoppositewithHolmes.Arsènehardlyeverissopuerile,sobanalastothinkoftheideaof disguisinghimself.Hesimplybecomestwopeopleatonce.Heissimplytheprinceofcriminalsandthe chief of police at the same time, and nobody can say whether the chief of police took to crime, or the princeofcrookstoguardingthepropertyofthepublic.Andthewholethingworksbeautifully.’ Thekeytosolvingthisproblem,Pykerealised,wastoreformulatehisoriginalquestion.Ratherthan askwhichdisguisewouldallowhimandFalktotravelunnoticedfromRuhlebentoneutralterritory,the questionshouldbe:howwouldweliketoappearintheeyesofthosewhomeetus?Thedifficultywas that they needed different characters for different situations. Pyke asked himself what Lupin would do. Thatwaseasy.Hewouldinventastringofcharactersandintheeyesofhisbeholdersbeeachofthemat thesametime.Therewasnoneedforcostumechanges;insteadtheywouldsimplyaltertheiraccountsof whotheywere. Itwouldbeanextremetestoftheirabilitytoplaycertainpartsandimprovise.Neithermanwasan actor, but both agreed to the plan. If escaping from Ruhleben had been a scientific exercise, then extricating themselves from Germany looked set to be theatrical. Pyke was about to be given a crash courseinbeingtwodifferentpeopleatthesametime,orhowtoleadadoublelife. OnthemorningafterbreakingoutofRuhlebenthetwofugitiveswokeupinasandpitinCharlottenburg Parkfeelinghungryandsore.Havingbrushedeachotherdown,theysteppedoutoftheundergrowthonto SpandauerStrasseandbegantowalktowardsthecentreofBerlin.Theperformancehadbegun. Forbothmen,movingfreelydownapavementlikethisfeltexquisiteanddoubtlesstheywouldhave preferredtosaynothingandmerelymarvelatthesensationofbeingunencumberedbythesightofwire fencesandsentries,buttodosomighthavemarkedthemout.Insteadtheystartedtoplaythepartsoftwo friendsdiscussinglastnight’sbeeryantics.Astheycamewithinearshotofseveralpassingpedestrians, PykeexclaimedhammilyinGerman,‘Andwhathappenedthen?!’ ‘Oh,’Falkreplied,‘shegotfuriouslyangryand...’ Hecarriedonlikethisuntilthepassers-bywereoutofearshot,beforestartingupagainasthenextset ofBerlinersapproached. Butthenwhat? Well,letmetellyou,she... This staggered conversation became gradually more absurd until both men were creased up with genuinelaughter,whichofcoursemadetheirperformanceallthemoreplausible.Feelingconfident,they agreedtotakeatramintothecentreofBerlinratherthanwalk.Itwasonlywhenthetramhadsetoffthat theyrealisedtheirmistake. Nexttothemwasaclutchofmeninmilitaryuniform,includingonewhostaredatPyke’sclotheswith myopicintent.Heglancedatthesoldier’sshoulderstrapandsawared‘E’onayellowbackground:the insigniaofthe‘ElisabethRegiment’.ThetwoescapeeswerestandingnexttoagroupofRuhlebensentries whosejobithadbeenthenightbeforetopreventtheirescape. Thesentrycontinuedtostare.Pykelookedaway.Thepassengersswayedthiswayandthatlikewheat inthebreezeassunlightfloodedintothecarriage,untilatlastthesentryappearedtoloseinterest.Pyke andFalkhadagreedbeforehandthattheymustnevertakeanunnecessaryrisk,andatthenextstoptheygot offtoboardthefollowingtram. In the city centre, Falk led Pyke at a brisk march to a smart-looking restaurant, whereupon, as they crossedthethreshold,bothmentransformedthemselvesagain. ‘My dear sir,’ began Falk in a bullying tone, ‘to tell you the truth, I did not enjoy inspecting your unfinishedjerry-builthousesatsucharidiculoushour.’ Pykedidhisbesttolookembarrassedandaccommodating. ‘Webothlooklikelow-lifes,’Falksteamedon,‘andbesides,a5percentmortgageinwartimeisa poorinvestment.’ Having previously been two old friends they were now property developers back from an earlymorninginspectionofoneofPyke’sbuildingsites. ‘Waiter,’ Falk bellowed with the disdain of a pompous Junker. A man appeared. ‘Show us the lavatory,andthenwe’llhavebreakfast.’ Andwhatwouldtheylikeforbreakfast? ‘Omelette?’Falkenquired.Thewaiternodded.‘Good,’hesaid.‘Omelettefortwothen.’ PykemighthavebeensurprisedbyjusthowwellFalkwasplayingthispart,butintruththiswasa character he knew well. His wife, Helena von Recklinghausen, came from a high-born German family, andnodoubtthischaracterwasacompositeofthevariousrelativeshehadgottoknow. InthewashroomtheykeptuptheactwithFalkdoingmostofthetalking.YetbackatthetablePykefelt hislackofsleepstartingtocatchupwithhim.Hefoundithardtothinkofanythingotherthanthestrange, andattimeshallucinatory,qualityofthesceneunfoldingbeforehim.‘Everything looked different, even whenitwasbuthalfconsumed,andIfeltperplexedthatIsawnothinginthefacesofotherstoshowthat theytoorecognisedthechangethathadcomeovertheworld.Itwasourfirstrealmealforthegreaterpart ofayear;ourfirstmealwithatablecloth.Thiswasourfirstwaiterforthattime.Onewantedtohithimon theshirtfronttoseeifitwasreal.’ Beforehecoulddothis,thewaitercameoverwithabasketofbread.Pyke’seyeslitup,andatonce Falksawwhatwasabouttohappen.‘BeforePykecouldstretchouthiseagerhandtograspthetempting rolls I abruptly told the waiter to remove them. “I never eat bread before noon now that the country is shortofit,norshallyouinmycompany,”Isaid.Wehadnarrowlyescapedapitfall.Neitherofushadthe police-stampedbread-tickettoproducewhichthewaiterwouldhavedemanded.’ Insilencethetwofugitivestorethroughtheirhamomelette,followedbytwocafésaulait,beforeFalk paid,usingsomeofthemoneyhehadamassedinRuhleben.Overthelastfewmonthshehadsethimself up as the camp’s unofficial money-transfer agent without arousing any suspicion. Detainees would give himsmallsumstotransfertotheirwivesbackinEngland.Falkkeptthemoneyandsentapostcardtohis banker, instructing him to transfer the amount from his account to the inmate’s wife. ‘Before long,’ he wrote,‘mypocket-bookwaswelllinedwithnotes.’ Havingfinishedtheirbreakfast,theEnglishmenlitupcigarsandinacloudofsmokestrolledoutof therestaurantintoabalmyBerlinmorning.Itwastimeforanotherchangeofcharacter.Astheycontinued awayfromtherestaurant,unknowntoanyofthepassers-by,theymetamorphosedagain.Thistimeitwas intoapairofwell-heeledfriendsabouttoembarkonawalkingtour–forwhichtheywouldneedcamping gear. Their shopping spree began with two umbrellas – ‘great big fat things, that looked as if a boy of twelve had tried to roll them, in deference to parental orders, and had done it as badly as possible on purpose’ – before they moved on to Wertheim’s, Berlin’s palatial answer to Selfridge’s and Bloomingdales. Here they ordered rucksacks, felt-covered aluminium water bottles, dark green Loden cloaks,acollapsiblecooker(Pykespentforeverdeliberatingoverwhichonetobuy),analuminiumknife, a clothes brush, a spoon and fork, an electric flashlight, handkerchiefs, several hunks of chocolate and, mostimportantofall,aluminouscompass. As well as being the most valuable item on their list the compass was the most suspicious. Anticipatingthis,Falkhadpreparedaletterfromanimaginarybrotheratthefrontaskinghimtofindone. InWertheim’sopticaldepartmenttheBritishcivilservantproducedhisfakeletterandaskedtheassistant inabefuddledtone‘whetherhehadanynotionwhatkindofathingaluminouscompasswas,asIhadno ideawhattheylookedlike’.Hewasdulygivenone. The two Englishmen then began an anxious wait while their purchases were packed up. It was, for Falk,‘likesittingonhotcoals’.ThecashierannouncedthetotalandFalkpaid.Atwhichthegirllooked upandsaid,‘Nameandaddress,please?’ Pyke’sheartalmoststopped. Withoutmissingabeat,Falkconjuredupboth. ‘Blumenthal,LuetzowStrasse,21.’ Pykewasastonishedbythespeedwithwhichhiscompanionhaddonethis. ThetwomenstaggeredoutofWertheim’sladenwithgearbeforemakingtheirwayacrossPotsdamer Platz.Yetbeforetheyhadcrossedthesquaretheynoticedinthedistanceafamiliar-lookingfigure.Itwas the Ruhleben Camp Commandant, Baron Von Taube. Whether or not he noticed the two men weighed downwithcampinggearonthemorningaftertwoofhisdetaineeshadbrokenout,hedidnotmakethe connection. EagertogetoutofBerlinassoonaspossible,PykeandFalkcontinuedtoPotsdamerBahnhofwhere theydidnotbuyticketsforthefrontier–thatwastoopredictable–butfortheHarzMountainsincentral Germany. The carriage was full, and to deflect attention from Pyke, whose deficient German remained their Achillesheel,Falkchattedenthusiasticallytohisfellowpassengerswhilehiscompaniondidhisbestto look absorbed by a book he had bought in the station. Its jacket illustration showed a team of German soldierscheerfullybayonetingahuddleofpathetic-lookingBritishTommies.ArsèneLupinwouldhave beenproud. GoslarliesatthefootoftheHarzMountainsandremainstothisdayapopularhikingdestination,sothere wasnothingunusualontheafternoonofSaturday,10July1915aboutthesightoftwoBerlinersstruggling under the weight of their brand-new camping gear. Both were whey-faced and whip-thin. One was apparently‘acompactbourgeoisJew–bynameBlumenthal’whilehisyoungerfriend,muchtaller,wasa bespectacledGentiledubbed‘HerrReferendar–akindofassistantunder-magistrate’whosufferedfrom aweakheartandhadworkedhimselfintosuchafrenzyoverthelastfewweekspreparingforhisexams thathewasoftentooexhaustedtotalk.IncasetheRuhlebenauthoritieshadtoldthepolicetolookoutfor twomentravellingtogether,oneofthemtallandJewish,theothershortandChristian,PykeandFalkhad swappedreligions. Havingstockeduponsupplies–ham,cheese,cocoa,chocolate,sausages,eggs,driedsoups,matches, stringandsoap–theywentfordinnerinBrusttuch,whichwas,andstillis,thegrandesthotelinGoslar. Therefollowedafeastwhichbegantowashawaysomeofthedepressingmemoriesoftheirmonthsin Ruhleben,amealwhichtheywerebothenjoyinguntiltheproprietorcameovertoaskpolitelyaboutthe foodandwhethertheyplannedtostayforlonginGoslar.Blumenthalexplainedthat,withregret,theyhad toleavebeforesunset.Confusedbythisdesiretohikeafterconsuminganenormousmeal,theproprietor suggested that they should spend the night in the hotel. Blumenthal thanked him but explained that their holidaywassoshortandtheyweresokeentosleepunderthestarsthattheymustrefuse. Abedthatnightwouldhavebeenheaven,but,asoneneededvalidpaperstostayinaGermanhotel,it wouldhavebroughttheirescapetoanend. Theypaidfortheirmealandslippedoutintoawarm,bustlingstreet.Asharpclimbtookthemoutof Goslartothesaddleofapine-cladhillwheretheypausedtowatchthesunset.Beforethematimelineof valleys plunged into the distance and, as the sky became an imperial purple and the insects began to cluster,theywerefreeforamomentfromthenervousrealityoftheirnewlivesasfugitives.Withthesky gently darkening they found a sheltered spot where they cooked ham and eggs on their new gas stove beforewrappingthemselvesintheirLodencloaksandsmokinglongintothenight.Forthefirsttimesince leavingRuhlebenbothmenexperienced‘afeelingofdelicioussecurity’. Theyawokethenextdaytothesoundofbirdsongwhile‘a bright sun streamed through the fragrant dew-spangled pines’. During the next twelve hours Falk and Pyke managed to cross most of central Germany by train, often sharing a carriage with off-duty soldiers to whom Falk cheerfully read out excerptsfromhisnewspaper.ThatnighttheyreachedthemountainousTeutoburgForest,whichstretched likeawoodedflyoveracrossnorth-westGermanytowardstheDutchfrontier.Holland,neutralthroughout thewar,wastheirdestination. After reading in a newspaper that since the outbreak of war the Teutoburg Forest had become deserted,theyhaddecidedtousethiswoodlandlikealadderinagameofSnakesandLadders.Itwould take them undetected to within striking distance of the Dutch frontier. For the first few days the plan worked magnificently. Amid heavy rain, the two Englishmen squelched down empty forest trails and encounterednobody.Butinsomewaysitworkedtoowell,foritwassoquietthattheybecameoverly confident.Theysoonagreedtotakeashortcutwhichwouldinvolveleavingtheforestforafewhours.As they ventured down a quiet country lane, away from the protection of the trees, they began to talk in English.Notlongafterthattheyheardbehindthemacrack. It was a boy on a bicycle who had just run over a twig. Having crept up on them and apparently overheardtheirconversationhenowracedofftowardsthenearestvillage,turningoccasionallyasifto memorisetheirfaces.ThetwoEnglishmenshotoffintheoppositedirection. Thiswasbad,theyagreed–itmustneverhappenagain.Infuturetheywouldmarchbynightandleave theforestonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Forseveraldaysthisnewregimeseemedtowork,untiltheir sixthdayontherunwhentheychosetospendthedayrestingupnearabilberrybush. Soonaftersettlingdowntheyheardinthedistancethecheerfulclamourofchildrenrushingtowards them,yetbeforetheycouldmoveawaytheyweresurrounded.Theirmistakewasnotthattheywerehiding by a bilberry bush but that bilberries were in season. ‘Fugitives please note,’ Falk later wrote, ‘avoid ripefruitwhenselectinghidingplaces.’ Forthenexthourthechildrenplayedbythebushandateitsberriesbeforealittlegirlcaughtsightof thetwostubblymen.Shestopped. ‘Gotmanybilberries,Elsa?’askedFalkinhisgentlestvoice. Sheputherfingerinhermouthandgiggled,beforebeingjoinedbyafellowberry-picker. ‘Well,Gretel,andwhataboutyou?’Falkpersevered.‘Haveyougotmany?’ One by one the children came to stare at the strange-looking men sprawled out on the forest floor. Nobodyknewquitewhattodo,andaftermorenervouslaughtertheyoungstersranoff. Againthetwomenfled,headsbuzzingwiththeimpossiblecalculationsofthefugitive.Howwould thesechildrendescribewhattheyhadseen?Wouldtheybebelieved,andifsowhatwouldbethelikely response?Thesamewentfortheboyonthebicycle.PerhapsthehotelproprietorinGoslarhadalerted the authorities, or had they already been contacted by Wertheim’s? By now, surely, the Ruhleben camp commandant had tipped off the police. There were times when it could feel as if the entire German populationmightbeafterthem.Yettherewereother,morepressingproblemstoconsider.Onewasthe deterioratingconditionofPyke’sheart;anotherwastheirdwindlingsupplyoffood,asituationthatPyke hopedtoremedywiththehelpofArsèneLupin.HeaskedhimselfwhatLupinwoulddointhissituation. Thatwaseasy.Asagentleman-thief,naturally,hewouldthieve. Inthedaysafterthebilberry-bushincidentPyketriedoutanewcharacter,thatofpettythief.Hisfirst haulwasmodest:someunripepotatoesfromafield.Butsoonhegraduatedtolowlyfarmsteadswherehe scavengedforscrapsoffoodleftoutsideandfilledtheirbottlefromwater-butts.Falkpreferredtokeep watch,admitting,‘Ilackedthenerveforthiskindofenterprise.’ Pykefoundhisnewtaskexhilarating.Afteronlyafewdayshewas‘extremelyaddictedtostealing’. ‘Burglaryisthemostabsorbingworkimaginable.Everyinstantyouarereadytoseeanirateownerina night-capissueforth,shoutingandbellowing,andthencomesthegreatmomentwhenonehastodecide whethertocrouchdownwithnotafingermoving,asrigidasarock,everyparticleofwhite,evenone’s hands,coveredup,trustingtoluckthathewillnotseeyou,orwhethertoboltashardaspossibleintothe darkness,trustingtoluckthathewillnotcatchyou.’Itwashardtosaywhetherhisenjoymentstemmed from the satisfaction of providing himself and Falk with food or whether there a part of him which relishedthethrillofdeceitinthenameofaworthwhilecause. Ofcourse,thiswasnotwithoutrisk,andonlytwodaysintoPyke’snewcareerasapettythiefheand Falkmadetheirthirdmistake:theyforgottowindontheirwatchesonenight.Havingfoundacottagewith asizeablewater-butt,Pykecrepttowardsit,thinkingitwasaboutmidnight.Whenhehadalmostreached thebuildingthedoorswungopenandanangry-lookingwomanstrodeout. ‘The idea that I always followed on these occasions was the Red Indian dictum that anything that movesistwiceaseasilyseenasanythingstill.’Hefroze.Yetshecontinuedinhisdirection.Inanother fewsecondsshewouldbeuponhim.AtthispointFalkdecidedtointervene. AsHerrBlumenthal,Falkcamebouncingoutoftheundergrowth,fullofbluffbonhomie.Thewoman turned in fright. ‘In suave tones I explained that we were members of the Imperial Pedestrian Touring Club,slightlybelatedandverythirsty.“Well,youlookagentleman,”shereplied,“buttotellyouthetruth Ithoughtyourfriendhadcometostealmycows.”Pykewithdrewintotheshadowsundercoverofthis conversation.Withacheerful“Good-night”Ifollowedhimleisurely.’ Nowtheywereinaspin.Unsureofthetimeortheirlocation,theywalkedoninwhattheyhopedwas thedirectionofHolland.Downdesertedcountrylanes,wheretheirgreatestfearwasasilentgendarme comingupbehindthemonabicycle,theylookedforaplacetohide.Buttheroadonlybecamewiderand thelandscapemorecongesteduntiltheyarrivedattheoutskirtsofSaerbeck,atowntheyhadbeenatpains toavoid. It was now past midnight and rather than turn back they agreed to march on. Having sliced clean through this town they found no shelter on the other side, and instead walked into Emsdetten, an even largertown.Againtheydidnotbreaktheirstrideincaseanyonenoticedthehesitation.‘Howourboots echoedinthosesilent,cobbledstreets!’ They encountered no gendarmes in Emsdetten, no nightwatchmen, dogs or insomniac vigilantes, but walked without a word through to the country west of the town where they found a wood in which to sleep. It was here, less than a day later, that Falk and Pyke separated for the first time since leaving Ruhleben. Theirobjectiveforthenightwassimple:theyhadtocrossthemightyMax-ClemensCanal,justundera mileaway.Yettoswimthiscanaltheywouldneedalltheirstrengthandbynowbothmenwereflagging. Between them they had just one slice of sausage, a lump of cheese smaller than a matchbox and two biscuits,allofwhichhadtolastuntilHolland,somefifteenmilesaway. PykeofferedtogetfreshsuppliesinEmsdetten,aplanthatFalkdescribedas‘suicidal,inviewofhis extremelydefectiveGerman’.HeofferedPykehisshareoftheirrationsbuttheyoungermanwouldnot budge.FinallyFalkvolunteeredtoreturntoEmsdetten.Itwasaterriblerisk,onethatflewinthefaceof everyprinciplewhichtheyhadagreedupon,butthereseemedtobelittlechoice. UsingaGillettesafetyrazorandadropofwaterFalkgavehimselfacrudeshavebeforePykelicked himclean,straightenedhistieandreshapedhishat. ‘You’lldonicelynow.’ ‘IfI’mnotbackinthreeorfourhours,’repliedFalk,‘youmustcrawlonasbestyoucan.’ ‘You’llgetcaughtrightenough,’Pyketeased.‘Seeyouinprisonlater.’ Withthat,TeddyFalkwalkedintoEmsdetten.Allwasnotashehadhoped.ItwasaCatholicholiday which meant that almost every shop was shut. As Falk roamed the streets with a look of growing consternationonhisface,acrowdofboysbegantofollowhim,pepperinghimwithawkwardquestions. AgainitwasthechildrenofGermanywhoseemedalivetothefactthatsomethingaboutthesetwomen wasnotquiteright. FalkwasabouttogiveupwhenhecameacrossashoprunbyaProtestantfamily.Behindthecounter was‘abuxomdame’whostaredinsilence.Hebeganbyaskingforfourpoundsofchocolate. ‘Fourpounds!’sheexclaimed.‘Surelyyoucan’teatallofthat?’ ‘Notatall,’Falkreplied.‘Thetruthis,it’smyfiancéewhoissofondofit,and,well,Iwanttospoil her. Now,’ he said, producing a notebook, ‘let me see what my housekeeper wanted. Ah,’ he went on, ‘sugar,margarine,soupsquares,andcheese.Doyouhaveanysausagesorham?’ Thewomanshookherhead. ‘No–whatapity.Andnowhereelseintown?’ Noagain. ‘Thisdreadfulwar.Yourhusbandisatthefront,ofcourse?’ Hecarriedonlikethisinthemountingcertaintythatassoonashestopped,herinterrogationwould begin.Atlasthepausedforbreath.SheaskedwhathisbusinesswasinEmsdetten. ‘Mybusiness,madam?Ihavebeensentbythegovernmenttorepairthecanallocks.Yes,apoundof sugarandoneofmargarine,please.’ ‘Whichcanal?’ ‘Why, the one to the west, a few miles out.’ The Max-Clemens Canal. ‘You never heard of it? RemarkablehowfewpeopleImeetonmyjourneysseemtoknowtheirnativetownswell.I’lltaketwo poundsofthatcheese,please.’ ‘It’s strange that nobody ever mentioned the canal to me in all these years that I’ve been here,’ the womansaid. Falkhadalmosteverythingheneededandwasabouttopaywhenhesawapacketofbiscuits.Could hebuythesewithoutabreadticket?Hestaredlonginglyatthebiscuitsbeforemusingoutloud,‘I’dliketo takemychildrensomeofthesehome...’ ‘Ithoughtyoujustsaidyouwereengaged,’camethereply. Shehadgothim.Hehadindeedsaidthathewasengagedandnowhewastalkingaboutchildren.It wasarareslipfromthislight-footedcivilservant.Mostpeopleatamomentlikethiswouldfeelaflush intheircheeksandperhapsclamup,butnotTeddyFalk. Instead,withjustahintofmelodrama,heleanedforward,grabbedthecounterwithbothhandsand whispered:‘She’smysecondone.Butdon’tyoutellanybody.Andnowforthebill,please.’ Thisseemedtowork. ‘WhereshouldIsendtheparcelto?’sheasked,perhapstestinghimonelasttime. ‘Madam,’hesaid,pausingforthought,‘inthesedaysthosewhocannotfightatthefrontmusthelpby assisting to economise labour. Although my physician has beseeched me not to over-exert my feeble frame, I intend to carry that parcel home myself, heavy though it is. I wish your husband a safe return home.’ Perhapsitwasthementionofherhusbandthatdidit,forasFalklefttheshopkeepergavehimacigar. The two fugitives ate well that evening and later that night arrived at the Max-Clemens Canal. No wondertheshop-keeperhadsoundedsoconfused.Thecanalhadlainderelictforyears.Allthatremained wasagrassytroughthattheywereabletowalkacrosseasily. * InspiteofjusthavinghadasubstantialmealandbeingclosetotheDutchfrontier,bothmenwerestarting tofrayattheends.AftertwelvedaysontherunFalkfoundhimselfhauntedbywhathecalled‘thathunted feeling’. When he was playing the part of Herr Blumenthal he was confident and calm, and could improvisehiswayoutofmostsituations,yetinthoselongueursbetweenperformancesheexperienceda creepingsenseofparanoia.Pyke’sdiscomfortwasphysicalratherthanpsychological:hisheartseemedto begettingweakereveryday.Fordifferentreasonseachmanwasbecomingaddledandreckless,andon thenightaftercrossingtheMax-ClemensCanal,astheymarchedthroughtherain,thetwofugitivesmade noattempttotalkquietly.Insteadtheyenteredintoafull-bloodeddebateon‘therespectivemeritsofour universities, the probable duration of the war, the progress of religious thought, or women’s suffrage’. Indeed,theywereenjoyingtheirconversationsomuchthattheyfailedtonoticethattheroadhadbecome increasinglywellkempt.Nordidtheypausetoinvestigatethewalloflightonehadseenbeyondthetrees orthestrangehummingsound.Insteadtheycarriedon,theirvoicesatalismanagainsttheunfamiliarityof theirsetting,thedarknessandtherain,onlytoturnthecornerandfindthatnighthadbecomeday. Beforethemastartlingscenewasilluminatedbyaconcentrationofelectricarc-lamps.Whathadbeen ahumwasnowaroar.Fiftyyardsawaywasacordonofarmedsentries,bayonetsglintinglikeshark’s teeth,guardinganenormousfactory.IntheirattempttoslipoutofGermanyundetectedFalkandPykehad walked up to one of the world’s largest munitions factories. The road before them led directly and irresistiblytowardsitandtheyknewthattopause,evenforasecond,wouldbetoinvitesuspicion.So they continued, like two cartoon characters who have run off a cliff, until they reached the sentries guardingthefactory. ‘Goodevening,’Falkgruntedatoneoftheuniformedmen. Noreply. They carried on past the soldiers into the heart of the factory complex. The sound of the plant was thunderousnow.Oneithersideofthemwasadystopicsprawlofbright-lithuts,barracksandchimneys. Theyweresurroundedbymunitionsthatwouldsoonberainingdownontheirfellowcountrymenbutwere unabletostopandstare.Insteadeachmansummonedupanartificialcalmandcontinuedalongtheroad untiltheyarrivedatabarrierblockingtheirpath. ForFalk,itwasallover.‘Thismustbetheendofourjourney,Ifelt.Wehadhadnotimetoconsult whenafiguresteppedforth,andapologisingfordelayingusflungopenthebarrier.’Theymarchedonin silencebeforebeingenvelopedagainbythenight. Thesentriesmusthavemistakenthemfortwoengineerscomingoffduty.Laterthatnighttheysettled downinadankcopse,perhapswonderingtothemselveswhattheyhadtodotogetcaught. Pykewokeupthenextmorningamidthesoundofpoundinghooves.Hewasalsoawareofajabbingpain inhisabdomen.ItwasFalkdigginghimintheribs. ‘Getyourlegsin,youfool,’Falkwhispered.‘Thereisasquadronofcavalryallaroundus.’ Pykepressedhisbodydeepintoaclumpofsoddenheatherandlaystillasthedampspreadthrough his clothes. Beyond the undergrowth horses and men were busying about. ‘There was nothing exciting aboutthis.Therewasnodramaticsuspense.Ifyouwerecaught,youwerecaught,atruismthatseemedto covereverything.Thegroundwasstilljustaswet,theairjustascold,andtheheatherrootsjustasrough asbeforethesegentlemenonhorsesmadetheirpresenceheard.’Indeed,hewassounmovedthathefell asleep. WhenPykecametoagainthecavalrysquadronwasstillthere.Therewasnowayoutofthis,hetold himself,beforestartingtopicturetheinterrogationthatwasboundtobegin.Whowouldaskthequestions? Probablythemanissuingorders,‘averystifffrightfulPrussian’whohadjustshouted: ‘SectionAwillnowsendamantoseeifthiscopseisclearoftheenemy.’ Hewasreferringtothecopsetheywerein. Itwasnotverybig. Pressing himself deeper into the heather, Pyke watched as a mounted soldier advanced into their wood.Hewas‘aboredyoungfarmer,hisbellyencircledwithabeltwith“Gottmituns”inscribedonit’, God with us, who was carried about by a ‘beautiful jet-black beast’. Like hobbits hiding from a ringwraith the two Englishmen pulled their loden cloaks over them and pressed themselves harder into the undergrowth.Themountedsoldierpassedbywithinseveralmetresofthembeforecarryingonoutofthe copse.Afterthisthesquadrongathereditselfupandrumbledoffintothedistanceasiftowar. Thatnightthewindpickedupandthetwomenmarchedintowhatfeltlikeatyphoon.Thelandscape lookeddifferentnow.Ithadbecomeachopped-up,muddlingmess,adismalmatrixoffieldsandpatches ofpineaboutakilometresquare,delineatedbybarbed-wirefencesandditches.Theywereonedgenow. Attheslightestsound,anythingatall,theywoulddroptothegroundasiffelledbymachine-gunfire. Pyke’s condition was getting worse. Walking felt like rowing through molasses and every twenty minutesFalkstoppedtolethimcatchhisbreath.Hewouldcountdowntheten-minutebreakwhilePyke layverystill‘withtheonewishthatthelastofthetenminutesmightnevercome.Inafewminutesthe earth became spongy and it was even harder to go on. I remember keeping my eyes on Falk, and wonderingwhyoneshouldwalkonone’sfeetinsteadofone’shands.’Hewaslistingnow.Nothingwas quiteasitseemedastheyenteredtheGildehauserVenn,apeatbognotoriousforswallowinguptravellers whostrayedfromthepath.Inthisanaemic,moonlessgloomasilverypuddlecouldbecomeasandyhump, andbackagain.WasthelightaheadthedawncomingonorthenearbytownofOchtrup?Theworldhad become monochrome and empty, a ghostly hinterland, and Pyke could no longer tell where they were goingorwhy,whichwaywasup,howthiswouldend,whenallatoncehefelthisheart‘giveasickening leap,asifitwouldbreakitselfagainstmyribs,andtheskyandheathhaddisappeared.Greatmassesof earthwerebeinghurledabout,andonehitmyheadsothatitalmostfelloffmyneck.’ Heappearstohavehadamildheartattack. Falkwasjustbehind.‘Hesuddenlypitchedforwardontohisfaceandlaymotionless.Ibelievedhim tobedead.WhatwasItodo?Inonebriefhourdawnwouldbeuponus,andwithitdetectionwascertain unless – I could conceal the corpse, remove all means of immediate identification, and march on.’ Elsewherehewrote:‘Ishallneverforgettheterrorofthatmoment.Thedeathlysilenceofthenight,&the prostratefigureoutstretchedonthecarttrack.’ AccordingtoPyke,theGerman-bornYorkshiremanmadethegrimdecisiontoabandonPyke’scorpse andcarryontofreedombuthadnotgonefarwhenherememberedfromhisdaysasanAssistantDistrict Commissioner in Nigeria that the jaws of those men he had seen executed always dropped. Pyke’s had not.Perhapshewasstillalive.Falkracedbacktoseehisfriend’seyelidstwitchinginthebreeze. Pyke came to, Falk helped him to his feet and together they carried on into the night. Yet the GildehauserVennseemedreluctanttogivethemup.AtonepointPykehadtousehisropetohaulFalkout ofaquagmire.Finally,justbeforedawn,theyescapeditsclutches,andagainthelandscapechanged. With the night starting to run out, for it was the height of summer, the two Englishmen crossed an ornatewoodenbridgewhichledintolandscapedparkland.Bytheircalculationstheywerelessthanthree miles from the Dutch frontier. Any moment now, they told each other, they might encounter the initial cordon of sentries. They continued through the darkness of a wood with Pyke leading the way, ‘for my sightandearswerekeener.Everytenpaceswewouldstopandlisten.Wecouldneverhearanything,but wealwaysdidstopnevertheless.IneverknewwhethermyfingerswouldtouchasentryorifImighthave theluckpossiblytotouchhisriflefirst.TheideacametomethatImighttouchitsogentlythathewould not notice it, and then I should stand still, trying not to complete the step I should be in the process of taking,tryingnottobreathe.’ The wood was interrupted by a railway line and, as there appeared to be no sentries, they crossed using a version of the crab-crawl before passing over a road on the other side in a similar fashion. Immediatelytheyadmonishedthemselvesfortheirsloppytechnique.Whenitcametotheactualfrontier, theytoldthemselves,theymusttakemorecare. Justthentheysawthatthetreeswerestartingtoshowupagainstapewter-colouredsky.Dawnwas coming on. In a mad rush they looked for a suitable place to hide but could only find a dip marked by severallow-hangingfirs.Itwasnotideal,butitwoulddo.Asthesunbrokethehorizontheyhunkered downinanticipationofwhattheytoldeachothermightbethelastdayoftheirlives.Itwas23July1915. FourteendaysafterleavingRuhlebeninthemostscientificmannerpossible,PykeandFalkhadsmuggled themselves theatrically and fortuitously to within half a mile of the Dutch frontier. They had saved one another’slivesonmorethanoneoccasion.Now,lessthanadayafterFalkhadalmostdrownedinapeat bogandPyke’sheartattack,theyfacedtheirgreatestchallengeyet. The two men spent much of the next day swimming in uncertainty. It was impossible to say precisely wherethefrontierwas,whetherthesentriesondutywouldbesleepyLandsturmorsniperswithordersto shoot on sight, or if they should expect live wires, ditches, dogs, automatic alarms or bells on wires. Indeed,therewaslittletheycoulddootherthansitstillandwaitforthenight. NearingsunsetPykedescribedhismoodas‘rathergarrulous’.BothheandFalklaughedatthesightof agrim-lookingreaperscythinganearbyfield–surelyhehadcomeforthem.Asdarknessfelltheyheard thesoundofGermansoldiersinthedistancesingingamarchingchorus. ‘Thenewguardcomingonduty,’saidonefugitivetotheother. ‘Theresoundsenoughofthem.Lookscheerfulfortonight.’ Theyagreedtosetoutinfifteenminutes.Asthetensiongrew,Pykechattednervouslyaboutwhathe plannedtodobackinLondon.Notwantingtotemptfatelikethis,Falkchangedthesubject.Hebeganto talkabouthisteeth,andhowmanydayshehadgonewithoutbrushingthem,whenPykeheardthecrackof atwig. ‘Instead of turning round, I put my hand up to my hat, which was fixed in the twigs, and holding it steady, turned my head round inside its brim . . . Behind me, so close that I noticed the texture of his trousers,wasasoldier,whowasholdingasidethebranchesandstoopingdownoverus...’ ‘MyGod,’falteredPyke.‘It’sallup.’ ThesoldiercontinuedtolookdownatFalkandPyke.Hewasalargeman,madetoseemlargerbyhis positionabovethem.Inonehandheheldarifle.Intheotherhesteadiedabicycle.Hestoodverystilland said nothing. For a moment the three men looked at each other, puzzled, curious and a little afraid to differentdegrees,beforethesoldieraskedinagutturalGermanaccentwhattheyweredoing. ForPykethiswastoomuch.HisimaginationspunawayfromthesceneuntilhewasbackinhisgreenwalledcellinBerlin.Falk,meanwhile,metamorphosedonceagainintoBlumenthal,thebourgeoisJewish Berliner. ‘Well,HerrDoktor,’hebeamedatPyke.‘It’sabouttimeweweregoingon.’Turningtothesoldier: ‘It’sabitlate,isn’tit?’ WithTiggerishconfidenceFalkbouncedtohisfeetandmadetoleave. ‘Whatareyoudoinghere?’thesoldieraskedagain,firmly. Falk gave him everything he had – the Imperial Pedestrian Touring Club, their walking holiday, his friend’sexams,theexhaustionresultinginPykenotbeingabletospeaksomuchandthelineaboutboth menbeingunfitforactivemilitaryservice.Thesoldierlookedunimpressed.Neitherbeforethewar,nor duringit,hadtheGerman-Dutchfrontierbeenapopularhikingdestination.Evenifithadbeen,thesetwo looked like vagrants, not hikers. To Pyke, in his gloom, Falk’s story sounded like one of those improbable,ramblingliesthatyoutellateacher,inwhichyourattlealongatgreatspeed‘untilafullstop isreachedinthemiddleofasentence,andyouwaitfortheverdict’. Pykecouldnotwait.HeknewalltoowellaboutbeingarrestedinGermanyandwantedtogetthenext partoutoftheway.‘IachedwiththethoughtthatIwasnothingbutafatuousdreamerafterall;thatitwas impossible for anybody ever to escape the great arm of Prussian organisation; that I might have known they’dcatchushere.’ ‘ThatisnosatisfactoryexplanationastowhyyouareinHolland,’saidthesoldier. Silence.Constellationsofcalculationsexplodedineachman’smind. Wasthisatrick? ‘IhavenobusinessinHollandofanysort,’Falkwavered.‘ThisisGermany.’ ‘Not at all,’ the soldier replied. ‘What’s more, you will have to come with me to see the frontier sectionCommandantatLosser;youareprobablysmugglers.’ LosserwasinHolland–theneutralterritorytheyhadbeenaimingforallalong. MorestupefiedsilenceandanxiouslooksbetweenFalkandPyke,Pykeandthesoldier,thesoldier andbothofthem,FalkandthesoldierandbackoncemoretoPyke. ‘Ifyoudon’tbelieveme,’hesaid,‘lookatthis.’Heremovedhishelmettorevealtheredcockadeof theDutchmilitary. AtthisFalkleaptup,grabbedhimbythelapelsandbegantorockhimbackandforth,pleading,‘Is thisreallyHolland?’ OnlywhenthesoldierfailedtopushhimawaydidbothEnglishmenrealisethattheyweresafe.‘No Germansoldiercanbeshakenbyatramp,’explainedFalk. ‘Youseethatred-roofedcottageoverthere?’Thesoldierpointedatabuildingsomefiftyyardsaway. ‘That cottage is in Holland. The rain from its roof drips off into Germany. We call this the three-posts corner.’Nowhisexpressionbecamequizzical.‘HowdidyougetthroughtheGermansentriesalongthe roadandrailwayline?TheyshotaRussianofficerwhotriedtogetacrosslastmonth’. Theiranswerwassimpleandimplausible:theyhadcrawledovertheGerman-Dutchfrontierthenight beforewithoutamoment’sthought.Therailwaylineandroadthattheyhadcrossedabsent-mindedlyhad beentheactualfrontier.TheGermancavalryunitwhichhadalmostriddenoverthemastheyhidbeneath theirlodencloakshadprobablybeenaborderpatrol. Despiteitsbizarreconclusion,FalkandPykehadpulledoffthefirstescapefromGermancaptivityof the Great War. There would be seventy-two attempted getaways from Ruhleben in total, all of which exceptthisandtwootherswouldfail. Realisingwhattheyhaddone,thetwoescapeesturnedtoeachotherinshock.Hadthissceneplayed outtodaytheymighthaveembraced–perhapstherewouldhavebeentears.Instead,theyshookhands.‘To him I feel only as those who have been hunted for together, who have lain shuddering in hiding with a priceupontheirheads,canfeel,’wrotePyke.Theywereboundtogetherbyahard-woncomplicityandthe knowledgethateachoneowedhisfreedomandhislifetotheother.Thetwo‘realists’ofRuhlebenhad usedscienceanddetectivefictiontofindawayoutofGermany,andindoingsohaddevelopedanacute understandingbothofoneanotherandthesocietywhichtheyhadjustleft.Theirescapewasamonument to counter-intuition and the intellectual bravery it requires. As well as doing the opposite of what had been expected at every turn they had had the courage to contemplate escape in the first place, without whichnoneofthiswouldhavebeenpossible. ForPykethelasttwomonthshadbeenthefinaltestinayear-long,self-taughtapprenticeshipintheart ofsolvingproblems.HehadlearnttosetasidethefearoffailureorridiculeandtoendurewhatH.G. Wells had called the ‘daily agony’ of scrutinising accepted facts. He had come to appreciate the importanceofaskingtherightquestionandensuringthathiswordingwascorrect.Hehadalsocometo understandsomethingabouttheftandthenatureofdisguise.Eachlessonwasrootedinthelandscapeof hismindfortherestofhislife.Indeed,thisadventuretellsusmorethananyotheraboutthemanhewould laterbecome. OldeDaalhuis,theDutchsoldier,ledthemawayfromthefirsandwhentheyreachedthefrontierpost heaskedcheekilyiftheywantedtomeettheGermansentries. ‘No,’cametheemphaticreply. InOverdinkeltheypickedupbeersandcigarsforthejourneytoLosser. ‘Gott strafe England,’ teased the Dutch sergeant as they walked in – ‘May God punish England.’ Satisfiedthattheywerenotsmugglers,hemadethemcoffeeandsandwichesbeforefindingthemahotel forthenight. ‘Oh, the joy of that first bath!’ exclaimed Falk. ‘Our host, Mr Smid, looked after us in a most exemplarymanner,andwesleptthatnightinfeatherbeds,risingnextdaytofindcleanunderwearinour rooms.’ That morning, with a pathetic fallacy that would almost certainly be edited out of a novel, the sun shoneafterafortnightofheavyrain.Falkwenttochurchtogivethanksfortheirdeliverance,Pykebegan towriteuptheirescape,andlaterthatdaytheytookthetraintoAmsterdam. BynowbothmenhadrunoutofmoneysoPykewiredErnestPerrisattheChronicle. No doubt he wasastonishedtohearfromhimandsentover‘agenerouscheque’.Beforethatarrivedtheypersuaded theBritishConsultolendthem£10tosecurearoomintheHotelDoelen.Althoughthishappenedtobe wheremostofAmsterdam’sGermanintelligenceagentswerebased,thetwofugitiveswouldnotbethere longenoughtoarousetheirinterest. That evening Pyke and Falk were picked up by a group of fellow Britons who took them out for a slap-upcelebratorymeal.ThefollowingdayPykesenthiscabletotheChronicle.Atthestartofthewar, as Reuters’ Special Correspondent in Copenhagen, Pyke had dreamt of writing a dispatch for the front pageofanationalnewspaper.Nowhewasinthatrarepositionofbeingnotonlytheauthoroffront-page nationalnewsbutalsoitssubject. TheDailyChronicle MONDAY,JULY26,1915. A‘DAILYCHRONICLE’ CORRESPONDENT’S ESCAPEFROMRUHLEBEN TRAMPBYNIGHTTHROUGHTHEENEMYCOUNTRY. SUFFERINGINAPRISONCELL. WereceivedlastnightthefollowingcablefromMrGeoffreyL.Pyke,whostartedoutfromEngland shortlyafterthewarbrokeout,inordertostudyeconomicconditionsinGermany. AMSTERDAM.July25. AftertenmonthsofimprisonmentinGermanyIrejoicetoannouncethatIhaveescaped,andatlast findmyselfinhospitableHolland. [continuesforanother1,500words] There followed a strangely stilted report of his escape, including details he contradicted in later accounts, such as a line about Berlin being ‘mainly peopled by women’. The story published by the Chronicle was in fact a heavily edited version of Pyke’s 3,000-word telegram. It was the young journalist’sfirstexperienceofnewsbeingshapedtofitanagenda,anditleftadentinhisrelationship withPerris. Another problem was the consequence of the meal that Pyke had enjoyed on his first night in Amsterdam.ThemenwhohadtakenhimandFalkoutwerejournalistsworkingfortheChronicle’srivals. EithertheyrenegedonanagreementnottoreporttheescapeorPykehadfailedtolaydownguidelines.In any event, what should have been a sensational scoop for the Chronicle was anything but, as Perris discoveredtohisdismayoverthenextfewdays. TheTimes. MONDAY,26JULY,1915. CIVILIANS’ESCAPEFROMRUHLEBEN. FORTNIGHT’STRAMPTOHOLLAND. TheManchesterGuardian MONDAY,JULY26,1915. ENGLISHMENESCAPEFROMGERMANCAMP. AMAZING‘WALKINGTOUR’FROMBERLIN. THESCOTSMAN MONDAY,JULY26,1915. PRISONERSESCAPE. ADVENTUROUSJOURNEYFROMRUHLEBEN. DailyMail MONDAY,JULY26,1915. ESCAPEFROMRUHLEBEN. TheDailyTelegraph TUESDAY,27July,1915. DARINGESCAPE FROM RUHLEBENCAMP. JOURNALIST’SADVENTURE. TheAberdeenFreePress. TUESDAY,JULY27,1915. FIGHTFORFREEDOM ANESCAPEFROMRUHLEBEN FUGITIVES’ADVENTUROUSJOURNEY ThestoryoftheirescapewentaroundthecountrylikearumourinRuhleben,andtwodaysafteritbroke FalkandPyketookamailpacketfromHollandbacktoEngland.Falkwatchedforthecoastlineandwhen itcameintosightbegantocry.Pyke,retracingthejourneythathisancestorMosesSnoekhadmadeinthe eighteenthcentury,wasbelowdeck,beingseasick.AtTilburytherewasatelegramwaitingforhim,not from his mother or an overjoyed relative, but from Robert Donald, Editor of the Chronicle, who had writtentocongratulatehimonhissafereturn.ItwasagesturethatPykeneverforgot,yetitwouldtake morethanthistorepairhisrelationshipwiththenewspaper. Inthedaysthatfollowed,PykeandFalkwerereceivedbythePrimeMinister,HerbertAsquith, and foraninstanttheybecamecelebrities.Yetforthoseworkinginasecretgovernmentdepartment,onethat didnotofficiallyexist,thestoryoftheirescapejarred. Likemostwell-informedBritons,thestaffofwhatwouldsoonbecomeMI5werecertainthatescape from Ruhleben camp was more or less out of the question. The idea that two bedraggled Englishmen, includingonewhodidnotspeakfluentGerman,hadtravelledincognitofromRuhlebenintothecentreof Berlinseemedtobeimpossible.TothenmakeitallthewaytotheDutchfrontierwasinconceivable,and subsequentlytocrawlintoHolland,asthesetwoclaimedtohavedone,wastrulybeyondbelief.Their escapedidnotaddup,unless,thatwas,theyhadbeenhelpedalongtheway. PYKEHUNT,PART1 Bythesummerof1915MajorVernonKellwasonthelookoutforadifferentkindofGermanspy.Kell wasalantern-jawedasthmaticwhokeptaparrotathomeand,sinceitsinception,hadbeenDirectorof MO5(g), the War Office department later renamed MI5. He had started the war on a high after the dramatic arrest of twenty-two suspected German agents, many of them employed by NachrichtenAbteilung,or‘N’,theGermanAdmiralty’sintelligenceservice. Sincethenthelandscapehadchanged.Kell’sdepartmentwasnowupagainstboth‘N’anditsmilitary counterpart, Sektion IIIb, an adjustment reflected in the new wave of German spies being sent over to Britain.Withthewarnomorethanayearold,thelatestagentstendedtobenon-Germanswhohadspent time inside a German jail, travelled on an American passport and posed as salesmen. When Geoffrey PykereturnedtoEnglandinJuly1915hewasanon-GermanwhohadspenttimeinaGermanjailandhad posedasasalesmanwhiletravellingonanAmericanpassport.ItwasnotlongbeforeKell’sdepartment madetheconnection. The Department of Prisoners of War was the first to ask MO5(g) about Pyke after he had failed to appearataroutineHomeOfficeappointment.‘Wedonotappeartohaveanypapersabout“Pike”,’came thereply. HadtheSecurityServicecheckedthespellingtheywouldhavefoundabulgingPersonalFiledevoted to this young man. It contained copies of telegrams he had sent from Copenhagen the previous year, evidenceofhisillegalentryintoGermanydisguisedasRaymundEggleton,andanaccountofanMO5(g) investigationintoPyke’suncle,whohadcabledhisnephewabouthisgrandmother’shealth–atelegram whichwasthoughttobeacodedmessage. InsteadhisPersonalFilewentunopenedand,whiletherewerethoseinKell’sdepartmentwithgrave suspicions about the nature of Pyke’s so-called ‘escape’, there were no grounds on which to have him arrestedortoaskforhisletterstobeopened.Aswellasbeingmedicallyunfitformilitaryservice,Pyke couldnotbecalledupnowthathehadbeenimprisonedbytheenemy.Instead,hewaslefttofinishhis universitydegree–atleastfornow. Cambridge felt like a very different city to the one Pyke remembered from before the war. By September1915itsundergraduatepopulationwasaquarterofwhatithadbeen;hiscollege,Pembroke, was dominated by an Officer Training School, and the streets were filled with convalescent soldiers, manyofthemmissinglimbsorsufferingfromtheeffectsofpoisongas.Itwasimpossibletoescapethe war,andratherthanlosehimselfinhislawdegreePykefoundhismindwanderingbackattheslightest provocationtoRuhleben.Inhissparetimehewroteabouthisexperiences.Hesentfoodparcelstohis fellow detainees, including one with a false bottom that contained a detailed account of his escape; unfortunately the recipients were so excited by the food that they failed to look for any hidden compartment. KeepinganeyeonhimatPembrokewashistutor,W.S.Hadley,whorecognisedachangeinPyke.It worried him. Towards the end of that Michaelmas term Hadley took an unusual step. He contacted the localChiefConstableaboutPyke,explainingthathewas‘notadesirablepersontohavehere’andthatthe policeshouldkeepaneyeonhim. Thisisstrange,largelybecauseHadleymentionednothingspecificaboutPyke’sbehaviour.Nordid he attempt to have him sent down. Clearly the university rules and the laws of the land had not, to his knowledge, been broken. Instead we are left the outline of a vague animus. For this patrician figure of authority there was something about Geoffrey Pyke – and he was either unwilling or unable to put his fingeronpreciselywhat–thatmadehimsuspicious.Perhapsithaditsrootsinhisintelligencecombined with the unusual nature of his escape, or maybe his Jewishness changed the way Hadley thought about him. Whateveritwas,theChiefConstabledidnothingaboutHadley’snoteuntilheread,severaldayslater inalocalnewspaper,aboutapubliclecturethatPykehadgiveninaidoftheRuhlebendetainees.Itwas anaccountofhisescape,atalkthathewouldgiverepeatedlyoverthecomingyears.Whatconcernedthe ChiefConstablewasnotthelecturebutitsintroduction. Eminent literary critic Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch had told a full house at the Guildhall that what GeoffreyPykemightgoontosay‘neitherincludednorsuggestedanycontroversialmatter.Ifitdid,that platformwouldbenoplaceforhim,andifheonlyguessedorbelievedthatitdid,hewouldnotbethere, andheimaginedthatinspiteofthingsfoolishlysaidfromtimetotime,theywereaunitednation.’The room had thundered with applause before Pyke stood up to speak. As far as the newspaper report allowed,hedidnotsuggestany‘controversialmatter’.YetfortheChiefConstablethepossibilitythathe mighthavedonewasenoughinitself. ‘You must remember,’ wrote the historian A. J. P. Taylor, ‘that the civilian enthusiasts for the First World War developed a hysteria almost wholly absent in the second.’ Even in Cambridge, with its tradition of dissent and religious nonconformity, public expressions of anything less than outright patriotismwererare.Britainhadbeengrippedbyadesireforcollectivedisciplineanddisplaysofpublic unityandthemeresuggestionthatonewascapableofdelivering‘controversialmatter’wasserious. TheChiefConstableinCambridgedecidedtocontacttheHomeOfficeaboutPyke.Hefollowedup hisinitialcallwithalettertotheInspectoroftheConstabularyaskingforPyke’scorrespondencetobe monitored.ThematterwaspassedontoMO5(g),whereVernonKellorganisedawarrantforPyke’spost tobeopened. PykewasdescribedbytheCambridgeChiefConstable–whonevermethim–as‘averyunsettled sort of person’. Add this to Hadley’s account of him as ‘not a desirable person’, or Quiller-Couch’s warning that he might deliver ‘controversial matter’, and a picture emerges of an individual who was hardtoplace,singularandirregular.ForthoseintheHomeOffice,thePoliceandtheSecurityService this,togetherwithhisdubious‘escape’,wasmorethanenoughtowarrantaletter-check. Itrevealedalmostnothing,forPykewasnolongerlivingathome.Onlywhenfreshreportscamein fromthemostunlikelyquarterdidMI5realisewherethisyoungmanwasandwhathemightbeupto. Admiral Denison could not believe his eyes. This retired naval officer, who had spent more than three decades at sea, had witnessed a feat of sailing in Falmouth Harbour so astonishing that it raised his hackles.Earlierthatdayamanwhoclaimedtohaveno‘previousknowledgeofyachting’hadaskedhim, asSeniorNavalOfficeratFalmouth,forpermissiontotakehisyachtbeyondtheharbourlimits.Denison then watched in disbelief as this novice succeeded ‘in manoeuvring, single-handed, the 10-ton yacht in Falmouth Harbour; but to anybody with a knowledge of yachting this feat is so remarkable, if not impossible, as to throw considerable doubts on the whole story’. This was not the only problem that AdmiralDenisonhadwithGeoffreyPyke’sstory. Pykehadalsoclaimedthattheyachtwashis,butdidnotproduceproofofownership.Thentherewas hisletterofintroductionfromAdmiralCharlesNapier,apparentlyafamilyfriendfromhisfather’sdays asLeaderoftheAdmiraltyBar,whichhehadfailedtoshowDenison‘untilthedayheleft(15June),and it would appear that he had then completed the business on which he was engaged and for which it is possiblethisintroductionwastobeusedasacover’.Coverforwhat,exactly? On21June1916,Denison’sreportonthesuspiciousbehaviourof‘GeoffreyPike’ashesailedout beyondtheharbourlimits–perhapstodelivermaterialorpickupfreshinstructions–arrivedonthedesk of one of MI5’s longest-serving officers, Reginald ‘Duck’ Drake, head of ‘G Branch’, who was responsible for cases of suspected espionage, sedition or treason. This time the misspelling of Pyke’s surnamewascorrectedstraightaway. Drake found the report ‘disquieting’. He began by asking the Chief Constable in Bodmin for more informationonPyke’s‘movementsandassociatesatFalmouth,andifpossible,hispresentwhereabouts’. In his letter he included an outline of Pyke’s escape from Germany, stressing that this story contained ‘awkwardgapsinmaterialpoints,somuchso,thattherearesuspicionsthathis“escape”waseffected with the collusion of the German authorities’. After this, Drake contacted the country’s best-known detective. Basil ‘Spycatcher’ Thomson was the flamboyant head of Special Branch and the Criminal InvestigationDepartment(CID),amanwhosecareerhadincludedstintsasanIowanfarmer,Governorof DartmoorPrisonandAssistantPrimeMinisterofTonga.Thoughnotoriousfortakingcreditwhereitwas notdue–beforetheendofthewarDrakewouldrefertohimasa‘dirtydog’–‘Spycatcher’Thomson wasafinedetective. Drake set him to work on Geoffrey Pyke, asking him to find out precisely what this ‘unsettled’ undergraduatewasdoinginFalmouthand,inparticular,whetherhehadrecentlyvisitedHarwich.German agentsworkingfor‘N’hadbeenknowntovisitmajorportsandseeingthatPykehadbeenactingstrangely atFalmouth,‘whencehedisappearedundercircumstancesrathersuspicious’,evidenceofhimatHarwich wouldbeenoughforanarrest. Even before Thomson could begin his investigation, Drake received further intelligence from CornwallwheretheMI5DistrictIntelligenceDirector,whosepurviewincludedFalmouth,hadreported thesuspicious‘movementsofaboatownedbyPIKE’.Againtheword‘suspicious’wasleftundefined, theambiguityonlyaddingtoitspotency. TwodayslaterDrakeheardbackfrom‘Spycatcher’Thomsonafterhehadcompletedalonginterview withPerrisattheChronicle.ThomsonfeltasthoughhehadthemeasureofPyke,describinghimashaving done ‘brilliantly’ at Cambridge and someone who ‘boasts of having no nationality; he is a friend of Bertrand Russell; is concerned in the editorship of the Cambridge Magazine; and is probably a Sinn Feinerandeverythingelsethatgoeswiththatclassofmind.HisfatherisaK.C.whodoesnotatallshare hisson’sviews.’ ThiswaslargelybecauseLionelPykehadbeendeadforseventeenyears.Otherwisethissectionof Thomson’s report on Pyke reads like an MI5 checklist of undesirable anti-war affiliations, which only confirmedtheirinitialsuspicions.BertrandRussell,forexample,wasknowntoMI5asapacifistanda prominent member of the Union of Democratic Control (UDC), one of many organisations campaigning againsteithermilitaryconscriptionorthewaritself,allofwhichhadbecomemoreofaworryinlightof thenewGermanpolicyofRevolutionierungspolitik,designedtoslowdowntheBritishwareffortfrom within.OneofthefewmainstreampublicationsfullysympathetictoRussellandthoseofhisilkwasthe CambridgeMagazine.Thomsonwasabsolutelyrightabouthisinvolvement. Pyke’sformaltitlewasLondonAdvertisingManager,yetheappearstohavehadaninformaleditorial role as well in a magazine that had changed beyond recognition from the light-hearted university publicationforwhichhehadwrittenbeforethewar.By1916itwasleanerandmoreinternationalistwith anationwidecirculationof20,000.Itsoutputwaslaterdescribedas‘adazzlingdisplayofDissentatits most aridly intellectual level’. Thomas Hardy, for one, ‘read the Magazine every week’, as it would ‘enableonetoseeEnglandasbareandunadorned,herchancesinthestrugglefreedfromdistortionbythe glamourofpatriotism’. TheCambridgeMagazine–andthesamecouldbesaidofPyke–wasnotjustanti-warbutopposed to the principle of defensive nationalism on which war had been waged. Pyke’s claim that he had no nationalitywasnotarejectionofhiscountrysomuchasaprotestagainsttheideawhichpermeatedparts ofFleetStreetwherebyGermanswereallinherentlymilitaristicandshouldbefoughttothelastman.The CambridgeMagazinepushedforanegotiatedarmisticeratherthanaknockoutblow,onthegroundsthat this would make for an enduring peace. Pyke later acknowledged that this stance marked him out as ‘almostatraitortomycountry’.Yethedidnotwaver.Tellinglythefearofbeingcalledatraitorwasnot enoughtochangehispoliticalposition. While Thomson’s report gives us a fascinating glimpse of the man Geoffrey Pyke was becoming, it suppliedMI5withlittletogetitsteethinto–butforonedetail.PerrishadrevealedthatPyke‘intended goingtoScandinavia’and‘inthemeantimehemeanttolearnhowtomanageaboat,andforthatpurpose wasgoingdowntoCornwall’. WhatwasheplanningtodoinScandinavia?WhyhadhetoldPerris?Moreimportantly,howdidthe boatfitin? As Drake considered his next move, two Cornish policemen tracked down Pyke to St Mawes, a fishingvillageacrossthewaterfromFalmouth,wheretheybegan‘secretobservations’.Everydaythey watched Pyke leave his boarding house, walk to the harbour and take out his yacht. As Perris had suggested, he seemed to be in training. One night the two policemen stole onto his boat in the hope of findingincriminatingmaterialbuttheycameawayempty-handed. Unlike Admiral Denison, however, the local policemen were less than impressed with Pyke’s seamanship.‘WithreferencetohishandlingtheYacht,Ihaveseenhimsailingitonsixoccasions,’wrote PCTonkin,‘and Ithinkthathehasnopracticalknowledgeofsailingher,anditisonlybygoodluckthat hehasnotcometosomemisfortune.’ Otherwisetherewaslittletoreport.Draketoldthemtokeepaneyeonhim,asPykewas‘quitelikely to do something foolish as he loves notoriety’, and ‘should he transgress in any way, he should be prosecuted immediately’. Yet before Drake’s message could reach Cornwall the two policemen had a breakthrough. Onthemorningof6July1916,justdaysafterthestartoftheBattleoftheSomme,thebloodiestbattle in British history, these two Cornish policemen watched Geoffrey Pyke leave St Mawes, noting with hopefulprecisionthecolourofhisbag(yellow)andtheinitialsonhiscase(thoseofhisfather).Theythen calledontheguesthousewherehehadbeenstaying. ‘WhilstMrPykewasoutinhisyacht,yesterday,’thelandladyexplained,‘atelegramcameforhim. When he came in, he read it and said that he had to go to Scandinavia in a few days’ time and that he wouldbeleavingthismorning.’Perriswasright.PykereallywasplanningtogotoScandinavia.Even moreremarkably,heappearedtobeactingoninstructions. BythetimethisreportarrivedwithMI5inLondon,Pykehadbeengoneforthreedays,andevenwhen leavingCornwallhehadsomehowattractedfurthersuspicion.AsignalsofficeratStAnthonywhoknew nothingabouttheallegationsagainsthimcontactedMI5toreportthisyoungman’s‘suspicious’behaviour. ThisleftDrakeinaspot.HedidnotknowwhyPykewasheadingtoScandinavia,withwhomhewas incontact,norwasheawareofhowfarhehadtravelled.AllheknewwasthatPykemustbestopped. On13July1916thefollowingdirectivewasissuedtoallBritishports,theForeignOffice,theHome Office,thePermitOffice,ScotlandYard,theFrenchHighCommand(GQG),GlasgowPoliceandMI1c (laterknownasMI6orSIS). PYKE,Geoffrey Britishsubject,ofJewishorigin,age21. Early in the war he was interned at Ruhleben, from whence he managed to escape. Latterly he has been staying at St Mawes,Cornwall. HeleftStMawesbytheBristol-Manchestertrainonthe6thinstant.Hispresentwhereaboutsarenotknown. HeshouldnotbeallowedtoleavetheUnitedKingdom. Atsomepointintheweeksthatfollowed,Pykeattemptedtoleavethecountrybutwasstopped.Nothing survives from this incident apart from the covering slip on the CID report which includes an angry scribblednote,probablyfromThomson: ‘Couldn’tthisyouthbenaileddownbyuseoftheMilitaryServiceAct?’ Pykeonboardhisyacht ‘Heisunfitforservice,’wentDrake’sreply. So why was Pyke trying to get to Scandinavia? It is possible that he hoped to sail into northern Germany,perhapstowriteanotherarticleforPerrisortogathermaterialforasecondbook:inthespace oflessthanayearthistwenty-two-year-oldhadbecomeabest-sellingauthor. Pyke’s account of his German adventure, To Ruhleben – And Back, was published by Constable in January 1916 to critical acclaim. He had written it in his spare time during his first term back at Cambridge. Just two months after publication it had gone into its fourth impression and an American edition had come out with Houghton Mifflin. Later that year a ‘Popular Edition’ came out; a new cloth edition followed in 1917; and eventually it would be described as ‘one of the First World War’s best sellers’. More recently, eighty-seven years after its initial publication, this book was reissued by the AmericanpublisherMcSweeney’s. ‘Hewritesextraordinarilywell,’wentthePunchreview,describingToRuhleben–AndBack as ‘a piece of expansive writing’. The Times called it ‘a very fine story of a great and perilous adventure’. ‘The narrative of his escape is indeed thrilling,’ according to the Chicago Tribune. ‘Very exciting and very well told,’ wrote the reviewer in the Manchester Guardian. ‘“Thrilling” has become a kind of courtesyepithettoapplytoanadventurewelldescribed,’beganthereviewinCountryLife,whereitwas BookoftheWeek,‘butwecanapplyitsincerelytoMrGeoffreyPyke’sbook.MrPykenotonlyhadthe pluck and the resource to carry out a nerve-shattering enterprise; he also has the ability to relate it brilliantly.’ Thebookbelongedtotheliteraryzeitgeistwhileatthesametimetranscendedit.By1916theBritish readingpublicwasswampedwithwarnovels,someofwhichwouldbereadforyearstocome,likeJohn Buchan’sTheThirty-NineStepsandGreenmantle,whiletheotherswereformulaicrompscentredona self-deprecating, plucky hero who made light of the worst situations. To Ruhleben – And Back had elements of all this but was more expressive, better written and contained the rudiments of a Bildungsroman.Italsohadtheconsiderableadvantageofbeingtrue. TheonlydrawbackwasthatPyke’slanguagecouldbetooshowy.But,asthecriticinPunchputit,the author was ‘too young and too clever (both charmingly venial faults) to write simply’. The Spectator echoedthis.‘Ifsometimeshisirreverentclevernessisalittleoppressive,wemayrememberthathewas onlyinhissecondyearasaCambridgeundergraduatewhenthewarbrokeout.’ If the language was occasionally too much, the story that Pyke told was imbued with personal modesty. Only Teddy Falk knew the truth of their escape and, as he would later write, Pyke failed to allude in this book to his ‘indomitable doggedness’ or his ‘great courage in combating the physical distresscausedhimbyaweakheart’. ThisalladdstoourimageofthemanPykewasstartingtobecome,onewhohadtheimaginationand galltothinkofsmugglinghimselfintoanenemynationaswellasthecouragetoactuallydoit.Healso hadthemodestytodownplayhisownphysicalbravery,andtheliterarynoustowriteabest-sellingbook inlessthantwomonths.ThoughhehadbeensubjectedtofourmonthsofsolitaryconfinementinBerlin and had almost died in Ruhleben for want of medical attention, he was prepared to campaign for a negotiatedpeacewithGermany–evenifthismeantbeingcastasapariahintheeyesofhisfamily.In short,hewasbecomingaprincipledadventurerwhoseemedtobeunencumberedbytheneedtoconform. TheyearafterPyke’sattempttoleavethecountrytheSecurityService’sinterestinhimsplutteredbackto lifewhentheDetectiveSuperintendentatCIDaskedangrilywhysomeonelikePyke,whohadescaped fromRuhleben,shouldbeallowedtoedita‘pro-Germanpublication’suchastheCambridgeMagazine. VernonKell’sresponsewastosummon‘Spycatcher’Thomsonagain. HeaskedhimtofindoutwherePykewasliving.ThomsonorderedanobservationtobeginonPyke’s familyhomeinKensington,andseveraldayslateritwasestablishedthatPykehadlefthometheprevious yearafteranexplosiverowwithhismother. TheirquarrelaroseoutofMaryPyke’sreactiontoheryoungestsonRichard’sdecisiontobecomea conscientiousobjector.Ratherthanriskthesocialstigmaofhavingachildwhochosenottofight,shehad co-optedrelativesandfriendsintotalkinghimdown.Pykeloathedtheideathathismotherwouldrather heryoungersonfoughtagainsthiswillthanthatsheshouldbethesubjectofsocialdisapproval.Aftera noisyargumentPykelefthomeforthelasttime.Yetasweshallsee,thisrowbelongedtoabroaderand moretroublingsequenceofconfrontationsbetweenGeoffreyandMary,andthatforsometimePykehad beenlookingforanexcusetoleavehome. Having worked out where Pyke was not living, MI5 discovered that he had been put up for membership of a new club that they were keeping tabs on. The ‘1917’ was a Soho members’ club describedbyVirginiaWoolfas‘thecentreoflife’.Herhusbandcalleditthe‘zenithofdisreputability’. Named after the February Revolution of 1917, which led to the collapse of the Russian monarchy, the club’s appeal went beyond traditional Bloomsbury and attracted figures like Ramsay MacDonald, SiegfriedSassoonandHenryNevinson,aswellasBertrandRussell,MaynardKeynesandafullhouseof Stracheys and Sitwells. Which is not to say that the 1917 was ostensibly glamorous. One member described the ‘overpowering aroma of stale cat’; Virginia Woolf complained about how ugly everyone was(shefoundmostpeopleugly).‘Eachtimethedooratthe1917Clubopens,afreshdeformityenters.I sitinacornerandstareinakindoftrance,asthoughonehadfallentothebottomofsomeawfulpitina nightmare.Andthey’reallquiteyoung–thecominggeneration–whichmakesitseemworse.’ Well known among these younger habitués of the 1917 was Geoffrey Pyke, author, escapee, undercover correspondent, minor Bloomsberry (as members of the Bloomsbury Group were sometimes known)andkeymemberofstaffattheanti-warCambridgeMagazine. Owing to his modicum of fame, whenthenewsofhisengagementappearedintheDailySketchitwasaccompaniedbyaphotographof hisfiancée–whichwascutoutandaddedtohisever-expandingMI5PersonalFile. DAILYSKETCH. SATURDAY,MAY25,1918. MargaretChubbonherengagementtoPyke,photographbyHoppé Pyke had only met Margaret Chubb for the first time five months earlier. A doctor’s daughter from Kent,shehadreadHistoryatOxfordbeforetakingupapositionintheWarOfficeasDeputyAssistantto the Chief Controller of the Queen Mary’s Army Auxiliary Corps. She was level-headed, brave and beautifuland,withoutmeaningto,hadshatteredPyke’sresolvetoavoidmarriage. AsateenagerhewouldoftenquoteBernardShawtohissiblings,indeedthereweretimeswhenShaw was the equivalent of a distant father-figure with a penchant for epigrams. In particular, Pyke liked to repeatShaw’sopinionsonmarriage,tellinghisbrotherandsistersthatitwasadottyVictorianinstitution inneedofreform.Soeveryonewassurprisedtohearabouthisengagement–including,itseems,Pyke himself. SeveralweeksafterMargarethadacceptedhisproposalshefoundhimdrawingupalistofreasons whytheyshouldnotgetmarried.Itwasinhisnaturetodoubt,andtorationalisethisdoubtwithhimself beforepresentingittoanyoneelse,yetonthisoccasionMargaretwasabletotalkhimround. Severalmonthslater,on8June1918,theyweremarriedinaLondonregisteroffice.MaryPykewas notinvited.AfterahoneymoonintheEnglishcountryside–PykewasstillonMI5’sblacklistsoevenifhe hadwantedtohewouldhavebeenunabletoleavethecountry–thenewly-wedssetupinasmallflaton BouverieStreet,justastone’sthrowfromtheofficesoftheChronicle.Forperhapsthefirsttimeinhis life Pyke described himself as content. His wife was everything that his mother was not: universityeducated, balanced, loving, undemanding and employed. She had a calming effect on him, and this appearedtobeamarriageofequals.BothhusbandandwifesharedamanifestsensethatBritishsociety wasabouttoenterapost-warageinwhicheverythingtheytookforgrantedcouldberecast,traditions sundered and the rules of life written again. But it was not until they had a child that their role in this becameclear. DuringtheGreatWar,MI5neverfoundevidenceofPykedoinganythingmoresuspiciousthanmaking planstogosailingofftheScandinaviancoast.TherewascertainlynoproofthatheandTeddyFalkhad escapedfromRuhlebenwithGermanassistance.Nonetheless,hisnamewasretainedforsomeyearsina ‘SpecialFile’ofthosebannedfromtravellingoverseas. ItwouldbejustundertwentyyearsbeforehecametotheattentionofMI5againand,thoughtheworld wascolouredthenbyanewsetofconcerns,theirsuspicionsaboutthismanweredoggedbysomeofthe sameprejudices.FortheBritishSecurityServiceitseemedthattheproblemwithGeoffreyPykewasnot somuchhisirreverence,hisclevernessorhisJewishness–thoughthecombinationofallthreedidlittle toendearhim–itwasthesensethattheyneverquiteknewwhathewasgoingtodonext. HOWTORAISEYOURCHILD(ANDPAYFORIT) Pyke’sreactiontothebirthofhissonDavidinthesummerof1921wastobookhimselfanappointmentto see a psychoanalyst. Although Dr James Glover became ‘so charmed and so overwhelmed that the analysisfellapart’,Pykecameawaywithwhathewanted.HehadgonetoGloverforaFreudianinsight intoaproblemthathadbeentroublinghimforyears,namely,howtogiveyourchildatrulyenlightened upbringing.Manyparentsmayaskthemselvesasimilarquestionastheyfaceparenthoodforthefirsttime. FewwillgoasfarasPykeintheirpursuitofananswer.Itwasnotthathefelttheresponsibilityofbeinga parentmorethananyoneelse,ratherthathewasstartingfromscratch.Asheadjustedtohisnewlifeasa father,totheresponsibility,thewonderandtheoccasionalsleeplessnights,hisoverridingdesirewasthat hisson’schildhoodshouldhavenothingincommonwithhisown. Althoughhewrotesomuchduringhisadultlife–toadegreethatsuggestsacompulsion,graphomania –amongthemillionsofwordsthatPykecommittedtopaperalmostnonerefertohisupbringingortohis mother. His younger brother Richard compensated for this omission with his first book, The Lives and Deaths of Roland Greer, published in 1928, a roman à clef that focused to the exclusion of all else (includingaplot)ontherelationshipbetweenthefourPykesiblingsaschildrenandtheirmotherMary, barelydisguisedinthenovelas‘Myra’. LionelandMaryPyke,seated,withtheireldestdaughterDorothy WritteninthewakeofMary’sdeath,whileRichardunderwentpsychoanalysis,itisastarkandoften unforgiving portrait of a woman unable to reconcile herself to widowhood. ‘What had been even in favourable circumstances a hasty temper and a shrew’s tongue were transformed by grief, a sense of isolation,andahatredforallwomenwhowerenotbereaved,intosavagemisogynyandalashingspeech thatknewnothingofconventions.Halfofherwasdead,andfourghostsstayedtomockher.Asghoststhey hauntedher;asatghostsshelungedatthem;likeghoststheylefthernospiritualpeace.’Intimeshegrew toloveherchildren,butitwasabullying,paranoidkindoflove,thatofadictatortowardsthemasses. ‘Myrawasconsumedbythefeelingthatshemustfight.Itwasonlythusthatherlovefoundanoutlet.And fight she did – relatives and servants, strangers and tradesmen; brothers, sisters, mother, children.’ Richarddescribedher‘hurricaneshakings’andthememoryofher‘fistflourishedvillainouslyunderhis nose,herteethclenched,hereyesflashingcrazypassion,andherfacedarkredwithmurder’.Hiselder brotherborethebruntofthis.ForRichardthemostexplosiverelationshipinthathousehold,theonethat seemedtoembodyitsimmanenttension,wasbetweenMaryandGeoffrey–orMyraandDaniel. In the book, Daniel is ‘irresistibly impelled by his mother’s widow-hood and his cruelly exploited ambitiontofillafather’splace,andtoassumeresponsibilitiesfromwhichheshouldhavebeenexempt for many years’. As well as being told, from the age of five, that he was the man of the house, Daniel became Myra’s ‘only formidable opponent, if not her equal’. In one exchange, aged fourteen, Daniel / Geoffreyphysicallyrestrainshismother‘withanexpressionofutterhorror,suchashemighthavewornif forcinghimselftotouchamutilatedcorpse’.Keepingholdofher,‘hepushed his elbows outwards and forcedthemup,thustwistingherwristsroundandholdingthemdown’.OnwrigglingfreeMyrabeganto beat him ‘on the side of his head as hard as she could’. Richard later described to a friend how his ‘mother chased them round the dining-room table with a carving knife, and once held Richard out of a third-floorwindowtofrightenhimintogoodbehaviour’. Theeffectofallthisonthefoursiblingswasprofound.Asateenager,Pykemaintainedthathewould never have children for nobody should endure what he had gone through. From an early age the Pykes begantodistancethemselvesfromtheirmotherandtookto‘playingatporkbutchersanddrawingcrosses’ in the face of her growing religious conservatism. The more she urged her sons to provide her with Jewish daughters-in-law the stronger their determination to do otherwise. Mary’s elder daughter convertedtoChristianity,brokealltieswithhermotherandlefthomeinherearlytwenties;bothofher sonsbecamecommittedatheists;onerefusedtotalktoherforthelastyearsofherlife. ThePykesiblings:(lefttoright)Dorothy,Richard,GeoffreyandEvelyn For Richard, this troubled and at times violent upbringing also had the effect of oversensitising all four children. ‘Not only could their emotions be roused far more easily, but they were roused to a far higherpitch,andfaroftener,thanshouldhavebeen.’AswellasechoingMary’sManicheanmoodswings the children became familiar from an early age with inconsistency and contradiction. If, as F. Scott Fitzgeraldwrote,‘thetestofafirst-rateintelligenceistheabilitytoholdtwoopposingideasinmindat thesametimeandstillretaintheabilitytofunction’,thenthePykechildrenwereprecocious. Of course it was hard for Mary to raise four children in the more straitened circumstances which followedLionel’sdeath.Herneuralgiacameandwentandshewastragicallyunabletoresolveherselfto thedeathofherbelovedhusband.Perhapsitisunfairtohighlightherviolentoutburstsandthewayher childrenturnedagainsther.Butshemademistakes,andforPykeoneofthemostegregiouswasherchoice ofwhere,agedthirteen,heshouldgotoschool. Bythen,Pyke’satheismandlackofdisciplinewerecausinghismotherrealconcern.Afterfivehappy yearsboardingatStEdmund’s,Hindhead,apreparatoryschoolinSussex,PykewasnotsenttoaJewish day-school in London, where so many of his cousins went. Instead his mother packed him off to WellingtonCollege,the‘militaryLycée’inBerkshirewhichembodiedthesporty,strict,empire-building ethosofanineteenth-centurypublicschool,andwhere,atMary’sinsistence,Pykewastobetreatedasan observantJew.HewasforbiddenfromattendinglessonsorplayingsportsontheJewishSabbath,hehad towearslightlydifferentclothesfromtheotherboysandkosherfoodwaspreparedforhimateverymeal. AllthisinaschoolwheretherehadneverbeforebeenapractisingJew. He later recalled the sensation of ‘running as fast as your panting breathing will allow you, with a rabbleofrespectablepeoplethunderingandshoutingafteryou.Youhaveonlygottoseearealman-hunt onceinyourlife,forallyoursympathytogotothehunted.’Thisstrangespectacle,headded,‘canalways beseenatanyreallygoodpublicschool’. Like sharks scenting blood, packs of teenage boys will pick up on the slightest difference in their ranksandevenwithouthisJewishnessparadedlikethis,theyoungGeoffreyPykewastheoddoneoutat Wellington.Hewastallerthanmostandbrighter.Hewasnogoodatgames.Noneofhisfamilyhadbeen inthemilitary.Hisfatherwasdead.Helovedtoread.Hedidnotliveinthecountryandhadnevershotan animal. The bullying that followed was relentless and at times systematic. As well as opportunistic attacks – his brother referred to ‘malicious devils’ brandishing ‘wetted towels’ – there were moments whenwholesectionsoftheschoolchasedhimalongthecorridorsyelling‘JewHunt!’orjust‘PykeHunt!’ Aftertwomiserableyears,Marytookhimout,anduntiltheageofeighteenPykewastutoredathome beforegoinguptoCambridgein1912. FiveyearslaterhewasaskedtogiveatalkatWellingtonabouthisescapefromRuhleben.Havingrun through the first set of lantern slides he described his arrest and the moment when he was told that he wouldbeshotinthemorning.TheyoungWellingtonianswererapt.‘Yetwhenthingswereattheirworst inGermany,’hetoldthem,‘evenwhenIwasquitecertainI’dbetakenoutandshotasaspy,Iwasnever quitesounhappy,neversocompletelymiserableasI’dbeenwhenIwasaboyhereatWellington.’ Itwasnotjustthebullyingandthecasualanti-Semitismwhichhadwornhimdown,somuchasthe unimaginative teaching and relentless emphasis on discipline for discipline’s sake. George Orwell, briefly at Wellington soon after Pyke, described the school as ‘beastly’. The author, politician and publisher Harold Nicolson, another contemporary, described being ‘terribly and increasingly bored’ there.‘Oneceasedsocompletelytobeanindividual,tohavenaybutacorporateidentity.’Nicolsonlater ‘blamedtheWellingtonsystemforretardinghimmentallyandsocially’.NaturallyPykedidnotwanthis sontoendureanythingsimilar.Sowheretosendhiminstead? Perhapsthiswasthewrongquestion.TheproblemmightnotbewithWellingtonpersebuttheEnglish educationalsystemasawhole. Theearly1920swaslaterdescribedbyEvelynWaughas‘themost dismal period in history for an Englishschoolboy’.Theexpression‘sparetherodandspoilthechild’wasnotyetahistoricalcuriosity andinschoolsupanddownthecountrytheghostofDrArnoldstalkedthebattlements.Arnoldwasthe Rugby schoolmaster who had done more than any other to change the character of so many English schools – until ‘an English public schoolboy who wears the wrong clothes and takes no interest in football,isacontradictioninterms’,asLyttonStracheyhadpointedoutseveralyearsearlier.‘Yetitwas notsobeforeDrArnold;willitalwaysbesoafterhim?’TheassumptionformostBritishparentswasthat yes,itwould.Thecharacteroftheseinstitutionsappearedtobeentrenched,thepeoplerunningthemhad littleincentivetochangeanditwashardtoseewhyorhowthingswouldevolve. As he had done in the face of those who believed that no Englishman could slip into Germany undetected,orthatescapefromRuhlebenwasimpossible,Pykechallengedtheseverities.Inthemonths afterDavid’sbirthhereachedapivotalrealisation.Togivehissontheeducationhewantedforhimhe mustsetuphisownschool.Ofcoursehehadnoexperienceofteachingandonlyanamateurinterestin educational theory. Even if he was able to get down on paper a convincing outline of a radical new establishment, it was hard to see how he could persuade any parents to offer their children for this scholasticexperiment.Thiswasariskhewouldhavetotake. Over the following months he developed the blueprint for a new kind of school, one that would go furtherthanexistingprogressivemodelssuchasBedales,Abbottsholme,TheKingAlfredSchoolorSt Christopher’s in Letchworth Garden City, and take in children at a younger age. It drew on the painful lessons he had learnt growing up and combined them with ideas filleted from Rousseau, contemporary philosophy,psychologyandFreudianpsychoanalysis.Underpinningitallwashisardentbeliefthateach ofusarrivesintheworldasascientistinthemaking,thataschildrenwearenaturallyinquisitiveand will conduct experiments in order to understand the world around us. This new school would be revolutionaryandscientific.Itwouldalsobehugelyexpensivetosetup.IfDavidPykewastohavethe ultra-modernupbringinghisparentswantedthentheywouldhavetoraisealotofmoney,andfast.Inmany waysthiswasanevengreaterchallenge. PykeandhissonDavidin1922 Pyke’s job at the time was poorly paid and precarious. He had been employed by the Cambridge Magazinesince1916,andwhilehehadalwaysseenthisasacauseasmuchasalivelihood,identifying withitsinternationalistanti-warperspective,thedemandforsuchpublicationshadevaporatedsincethe TreatyofVersailles.In1922,Pykewasaskedtodisposeofitsmostvaluableasset,aweeklysurveyof theforeignpress.HesoldittotheManchesterGuardian,andlaterthatyearthemagazinefolded.Very soon after, another pillar in his life began to totter: Mary Pyke told her children that she was dying of cancer. Havingrefusedtoseeherduringthepreviousfiveyears,Pykenowvisitedherinthenursinghome– inbodyifnotinspirit.Hehadcutheroutofhissentimentalattachmentswithsuchfinalitythatnowitwas asifhewasseeingherforthefirsttime.Marydidnotseemtonotice.Indeed,asshelaytheresurrounded by her four uncomplaining children, her sense of family, as Victorian as it was Jewish, was at last satisfied.Overthedaysthatfollowedherfacegreyed,thecancerspreadandthedailydosageofdrugs wasincreased.Herstreamofcomplaintsaboutthenursingstaffpeteredout,andon18August1922,aged 57,shedied. Her corpse was taken to Willesden Green Cemetery where just one exception was made to the orthodox Jewish ritual. Following her instructions, Mary Pyke was buried wearing her wedding ring. Pykefoundthefuneralshockingandlonely,andwouldlaterurgehissontostayawayfromhis,describing itas‘asillybusiness’. ThedeathofhismotherandtheendoftheCambridgeMagazineproducedinPykeanoverwhelming urgetogetaway,andthenextmonthhispassportapplicationwasfinallyapproved.Hehadbeenremoved from MI5’s Blacklist. Yet this was not in response to fresh intelligence which exonerated him from suspicion–indeed,fivemonthslaterMI5wouldrefusearequestfromthePassportOfficetoremovehim from their ‘Special File’ – but he was free to leave the country and did so at once, setting off with MargaretfortheSwissAlps. Geographically,emotionally,sexually,theyhadneverfeltsofree.Thoughmarriedandinlove,neither claimedaproprietorialholdontheother.EvenifthiswentagainstthegospelaccordingtoShaw, who wrote that ‘a real marriage of sentiment [. . .] will break very soon under the strain of polygamy or polyandry’,thePykesprofessedaloosersexualmorality,notinabohemianspiritoflaissez-fairebutas partofwhattheysawasamorescientificapproachtolife. ThePykesonhoneymoon Theword‘scientific’hadaparticularresonancebythen.Onceconfinedtomachinesandlaboratories, therewasafashionablenewsensethatascientificperspectivecouldbeappliedtoeverything.Science could do away with all traditional assumptions – indeed, the word had come to stand for a youthful rejection of what one’s parents had taken for granted. Shaw envisaged a society dominated by scientifically minded ‘engineer-inventors’; H.G. Wells referred to ‘scientific samurais’, the men and women of tomorrow who would rise to the top by dint of their ruthless intellectual technique, slicing throughathicketofoutdatedprejudices.WhiletherewasnothingnewaboutthisurgetocastoffVictorian certainties–journalists,novelistsandplaywrightshadbeendoingthissincetheturnofthecentury–by theearly1920sthisprojecthadapronouncedurgency.Theblindslaughterofthetrenchesseemedtobe evidence of what happened when society was run according to traditional precepts. The Soviet Union, dazzlinginitspotential,suggestedthatitwaspossibletoreinventanancientnationalongmorescientific lines.Thiswasnottosaythatascientificattitudemustalwaysbeleft-wing,onlythatitimpliedstarting fromscratch.ForthelikesofGeoffreyandMargaretPyke,scienceallowedforamodernperspectiveon everything from sexual morality to warfare, the education of children and, of course, the business of makingalotofmoneyquickly. In late 1922, having sublet his Bloomsbury flat at 41 Gordon Square to Maynard Keynes, the renowned economist who had recently made and lost a fortune in currency trades, Pyke began a meticulousandwhathecalled‘highlyscientific’studyofthefinancialmarkets.Thiswaswherehehoped tomakehismoney.Whileitistemptingtoimaginehimdiscussingsomeofhisideaswithhisnewtenant, Keynes, the economic heavyweight of the twentieth century, there is no evidence of this. Nor did he consult any of his cousins who worked in the City, preferring instead to come at this subject as an outsider,ascientificsamuraiinsearchofanoriginalinsight. The Pykes had moved from Gordon Square to Cambridge where they got to know one of Keynes’s protégés,abrilliantyethormonallychargedundergraduatenamedFrankRamsey.Earlierthatyear,aged nineteenandalreadyamemberoftheCambridgeApostles,perhapsthebestknownofalluniversitysecret societies, Ramsey had produced the first English translation of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein’s TractatusLogico-Philosophicus,afeatmadeevenmoreremarkablebythefactthathewasthenstudying mathematics (and would later be awarded a stunning First). Ramsey was owlish and precocious, a prodigyforwhomthesolutionofphilosophicalandmathematicalproblemscameeasily.Socialrelations weremoreconfusing,andnonemoresothanthosewhichinvolvedwomen. FrankRamsey Duringthefirstfewmonthsof1923RamseysawthePykesdailyandatthesametimebecameaclose friendofPyke’sbrotherRichard,thenreadingEconomicsatKing’sCollege.Indeed,Ramseygottoknow GeoffreyandMargaretsowellthattheyaskedhimtobecomeDavid’sgodfather–meantinastrictlynonreligioussenseforthePykesandRamseyweredeterminedatheists.WhetherornotRamseyaccepted,he waskeentomaintainhiscloserelationshipwiththePykefamily.BythatstageofhislifeFrankRamsey hadbecomeinfatuatedwithMargaretPyke. Unawareofhisfeelings,thePykesinvitedhimtocomeawaywiththemoverEastertoLakeOrta,in thefoothillsoftheItalianAlps.NotingwithapprovalthatPykeclaimedno‘proprietaryrights’overhis wife,sothatifshe‘announcedshewasgoingoffwithsomeoneelsehewouldbepleasedbecauseshe wasgoingtobehappy’,Ramseyaccepted. Pyke’sstudyofthemarketswasacquiringgreaterfocus.Hehadhomedinoncommoditiesfuturesand inparticularthemetalsmarket,wherehestudiedtherelationshipbetweenthepricesoftin,copperand leadasiftheywerethemovementsoftheRuhlebensentries.Hewantedtoknoweverythingaboutthem. He drew graphs charting their fluctuations and discussed these with friends from the London School of Economics.YetbythetimehesetoffforItalynopatternshademergedandheappearedtobenocloserto generatingthefortuneheneededforhispioneeringschool. In the romantic setting of Lake Orta, Ramsey’s feelings for Margaret became overwhelming until at last he decided to act. One hot afternoon the two of them went out together on the lake before settling downtoread.Unabletoconcentrateonhisbook,RamseygazedoveratMargaret,thinkingtohimselfhow ‘superlativelybeautiful’shelookedinherhornglasses.Atlasthebrokethesilence. ‘Margaret,willyoufuckwithme?’heasked. Either she did not hear or, more likely, could not believe what he had said. Ramsey repeated the question. ‘Doyouwantmetosayyesorno?’ ‘Yes,’heexclaimed,‘orIwouldn’taskyou!’ ‘Doyouthinkoncewouldmakeanydifference?’sheasked. ‘I don’t know, perhaps that is the question[.] I haven’t thought it out,’ he admitted. ‘I just want to frightfully.’ Margaretwasbothopen-mindedandinoffensive.Shesaidsheneededtimetothinkitover.Ramsey’s response was to tell her that his psychoanalyst had warned him that if he did sleep with her he would probablybeunabletoperform.Relievedathavinggotthisoffhischest,Ramseythenwentforawalkby thelakefeeling‘awfullypleasedathavingsomechance’. On his return Margaret’s response was a polite no. But this was not a total rejection. Back in Cambridgehekissedherforthefirsttimeand‘thencameawonderfulafternoonwhensheletmetouch her breasts, partly (I discovered) because she thought it was genuine curiosity’. Sadly we do not have Margaret’sversionofevents. Just before setting off for Austria that summer to find Ludwig Wittgenstein and talk him out of philosophical retirement – a trip that would change the course of twentieth-century philosophy – Frank RamseywenttostaywiththePykes.HewasdismayedtofindthatMargaretignoredhimentirely,until ‘GeofftoldmeasitwerefortuitouslythatheprobablyonlyhadtwoyearstoliveandIunderstoodM’s behaviourandfeltfullofloveforGandpity.’ TherearenootherreferencestoPyke’slife-threateningillnessexceptforanotehewrotearoundthis timeexplaininghowthenewsofhisdeathshouldberelayedtoDavid.‘Theadaptationshouldbegradual andunaccompaniedbyanyshock.’Hisson‘willtendtofeelittragicjustsomuch[...]asthematteris treatedtragicallybythose[with]whomhecomesincontact’. Thistellsussomethingabouthowthenewsofhisownfather’sdeathwasconveyed.Evenattheend ofhislife,thoseclosetoPykesuggestedthathehadneverfullyrecoveredfromtheshockoflosinghis fatheranditseemsthatthewaythisnewswashandledplayedamajorpartinthis.Asforhisillness,all weknowisthatbythetimeRamseyreturnedfromAustriaseveralmonthslaterPykehadrecovered.Yet Ramsey’sinfatuationwithMargarethad,ifanything,becomeworse. Theyoungphilosopherdecidedtoclearthingsupwithaletter.‘Iwroteandaskedherif(1)Imight caressherbreasts(2)seeherprivateparts(3)ifshewouldmasturbateme.’Margaretwasnotwonover bythisbullet-pointapproach–indeed,shefoundRamsey’sletterdeeplyupsetting–andfornowhewas forcedtokeephisdistance. MeanwhilePykeputthefinishingtouchestohisfinancialmodel.Aftermonthsofpainstakingresearch, hehaddevelopeda‘tentativehypothesis’abouttherelationshipbetweenthepricesofcopperandtin,two staplesoftheLondonMetalExchange.Hehadfoundaninversecorrelationbetweenthetwoprices.Put simply,ifthepriceofonewentup,theothertendedtogodown.Withinanyfuturesmarketamathematical relationshipofthissimplicitywasthephilosopher’sstone.Ifaccurate,hestoodtoearnafortune. Usingmoneyhehadbeenleftbyarelativeandsomeoftheproceedsfromhisbook,inthesecondhalf of1923GeoffreyPyketookthegreatestfinancialgambleofhislife.Asanewcomertothemetalsmarket hegambledhissavingsonthebasisofahome-madefinancialmodel. DuringMarch1924threeversionsofanunusualadvertisementappearedinsuccessiveissuesoftheNew StatesmanandNation.‘WANTED—’,eachonebegan,‘anEducatedYoungWomanwithhonoursdegree –preferablyfirstclass–orequivalent,toconducttheeducationofasmallgroupofchildrenaged2½–7, asapieceofscientificworkandresearch.’Thesuccessfulapplicant,itwenton,wouldreceivea‘liberal salary’. Pyke’sfinancialmodelhadworked.Duringthefirstsixmonthsoftradinghewassaidtohaveearned £20,000(morethan£600,000intoday’smoney);RamseynotedthatPyke‘nowmade£500forevery£1 the price rose, and so expected to make much more’. To generate these spectacular returns he had acquired debt, some of which was unsecured by real assets, but this was in the nature of this kind of speculationandinitselfwasnotworrying.Farmoreimportant,justthen,wasthebusinessoffindingthe rightheadteacherforDavid’snewschool. The notices in the ‘Staggers and Naggers’ worked in the sense that they caused a stir. By 1924 the supplyofteachersfaroutstrippedthedemand,sotohaveateachingpositionadvertisedinthiswaywas remarkable.SeveralreadersofNature,whereasimilarversionofthenoticehadappeared,assumedthat itwastheworkofwhite-slavetradersplanningtoselltheunwittingapplicantsintobondage.Otherswere intrigued by the lines about preference being ‘given to those who do not hold any form of religious belief’, and that work would be preceded by six to eight months of paid training. Training in what, exactly? NathanIsaacs,aprecociousandself-effacingGermanJewwhohadfoughtfortheBritishduringthe warandbeengassedatPasschendaele,foundhiscuriositypiquedbyadifferentline.Theadvertisement had called for a woman who had ‘hitherto considered herself too good for teaching’. Isaacs thought immediatelyofhiswife,Susie. Shetookonelookanddismisseditastheworkofacrank.Yetintheweeksthatfollowedshespoke by chance to Dr James Glover, the psychoanalyst who had tried to analyse Pyke and was now on the school’s board. He suggested that at the very least Susie should meet with Pyke. She looked at the advertisementagain. SusieIsaacs,thenthirty-nine,wasawiryLancastrianwiththickblondehairandapalecomplexion whohadahabitofjuttingoutherchinwhenanimated.Shewasintelligent,bookishanddriven.Shehada rebelliousstreak.Afterhermotherhaddiedwhenshewassix,shewasraisedbyherfather,animposing Methodist preacher, who took her out of school when he heard that she had become a Fabian and an atheist. Following his death in 1909, independent at last, she went to the University of Manchester and wasawardedaFirstinPhilosophybeforetakingherMaster’sdegreeatNewnhamCollege, Cambridge. The following year she married the botanist William Brierley, but the marriage soon broke down, whereuponshewenttoLondontodevelopherinterestinpsychoanalysisandwritewhatwouldbecomea bestselling introduction to psychology. In 1921 she was psychoanalysed in Vienna by Otto Rank, a followerofFreud(whomshehadhopedtobeanalysedby),beforegivingalecturelaterthatyearthat wouldchangeherlife. IthadtakenplaceattheWorkers’EducationalAssociation,inLondon,andintheaudiencehadbeen NathanIsaacs,tenyearsherjunior.Hepursuedher,andsoontheyfellinlove.Thoughtheteacher-student dynamicneverreallydisappeared,theybecameatightfitintellectually,withNathanmoreaccommodating and perhaps lighter on his feet. Even if it meant that her teaching position had to end, Susie agreed to marriage. SeveralyearslatertheybothwenttomeetPykeforthefirsttime.Thethreeofthemclickedalmost immediately.Thesubjectofthatfirstconversationrangedfromtheboundariesofself-understandingand repressed sexual urges to the impact of childhood on one’s adult psyche. Each one was fluent in the language of psychoanalysis, and over the following months Pyke ‘lived almost as one of us’, wrote Nathan, who went on to call him ‘undoubtedly an educational genius!’ Susie’s feelings were more complicated. Asever,Pykedidnotimaginethathehadalltheanswers.HewantedSusieandNathantohelpfillin the gaps and provide fresh angles on the existing problems, and out of these passionate, lively conversations during the summer of 1924 came Susie’s appointment as Principal of the new school. Several months later, on 7 October, the three-year-old David Pyke was joined in a gabled former oast houseinCambridgebynineboysbetweentheagesoftwoandfour.Girlswouldsoonfollow.Itwasthe first day of term at Malting House School, one of the boldest experiments in pre-school education anywhereintheworld. * Imagineyourselftobeoneofthosechildren.Whatwouldyouhavenoticedasyoubegantoexplorethe newschoolforthefirsttime?Foronething,alackofclassrooms.Insteadyouwouldhaveventuredintoa vast play area dominated by a piano (which you could play whenever you liked) and a space beyond filledwithnothingbutcushionsandmattresseswhereyoucouldtakeanap.Youwouldhavealsofound that all the shelves and cupboards had been lowered to be at your height, something you had probably never seen before. Otherwise you might have been amazed by the piles of books, bulbs, beads, shells, countersandwoodenblocksforyoutoinvestigatewheneveryouliked,aswellasthemechanicallathe, two-handledsaw,Bunsenburners,gramophoneplayerandtoolsfordissectinganimals–allofwhichyou couldusewiththeminimumofsupervision.Asyouwouldsoonfindout,fromanimprobablyearlyage childrenattheMaltingHouseweretobecomefamiliarwithboththeprinciplesandrealityofscientific experimentation. The area you would have been most intrigued by – the one which children at Malting House spent moretimeinthananyother–wasthegarden.FollowingRousseau’sideathatthemostbeneficialchild developmenttakesplaceoutside,innature,whichwaswhyearlyMaltingHouseliteraturereferredtothe children as ‘plants’, the garden had been transformed over the summer into an edenic playground. You could climb the trees and look after the hens, rabbits, mice, salamanders, silkworms and snakes. You weregivenagardenplottolookafterandcouldmakebonfirestoseehowdifferentmatterburned.You could also clamber over a state-of-the-art climbing frame, which had been shipped in from abroad, or jumparoundonthelopsidedsee-sawwithadjustableweights(toillustratemechanicalbalance).Ifallthis failed to capture your imagination you could always play in the giant sandpit which was sometimes floodedandturnedintoapond. Ifyouwereaparticularlyobservantchild,youmighthavenoticedthatineachroom,atalevelwhich you could not reach, there were books which the adults liked to write in. The Malting House was a scientificexperimentasmuchasaschool,andassucheverythingwastoberecorded.Whichchildplayed withwhat,when,how,andthequestionstheyasked,allofthiswasjotteddownduringthedayandtyped uplateron.Tooofteninthepast,feltPyke,judgementsaboutchilddevelopmenthadbeenmadefirstand supporting evidence found later. He wanted to spin this round. His school would be an environment in whichalmostalladultinfluenceswereremoved,leavingchildrentobeobservedintheir‘natural’state. Thisdecisiontorecordeverythingwouldbesignificant,andexplainswhyMaltingHousewentontohave such a lasting impact on British education. Yet what really distinguished it from other pre-schools and explainswhyitattractedthebrightesttoddlersinCambridge,includingthegrandsonoftheNobelPrizewinningchemistSirErnestRutherfordandthechildrenofthephilosopherG.E.Moore,hadtodowith whathappenedwhenachildaskedaquestion. Earlyonintheschool’shistoryoneofthechildrenaskedthenameofthefunny-lookingboxintowhich adultssometimestalked.Hewasnottoldthatitwasatelephone.Insteaditwassuggestedthattogether theycallit‘atelephone’.Greatemphasiswasplacedonallowingthechildrentofeelasthoughtheywere discoveringtheworldforthemselves,eveniftheywereoftenbeingsteeredtowardsthecorrectanswers. Havingworkedoutwhattocallitoneofthechildrenaskedwhatitwasfor.ThestaffatMaltingHouse never responded to a question like this with a straightforward statement of fact, and instead had been drilledtosay,‘Whatdoyouthink?’or,theirfavourite,‘Let’sfindout!’Soratherthanbeingtoldwhatthis so-called‘telephone’wasfor,thechildrenwereaskedtothinkofallthepracticalusestowhichitcould beput. Here was another thread in the school’s philosophy: discovery must be allied to utility. This was probablyinspiredbyH.E.Armstrong’stheoryofheuristics,inwhicheffectivelearningwasassociated with discovery as well as action. Rather than be told that it was important to learn, say, how to write, because that was what you were meant to do, the children were encouraged to see that writing would allowthemtosendletterstotheirfriendsorletthecookknowwhattheywantedonthelunchmenu.(Once theyhadlearnthowtowritetheyorderedalmostnothingbutchicken.)Latertheywouldbeencouragedto budgettheseweeklymenus,dothewashing-up,maketheirownclothesorrepainttablesandchairs.As well as helping them to discover the world for themselves, there was a desire to give the children as muchautonomyaspossible. Onthedaythatoneofthechildrenaskedaboutthetelephone,itwasagreedthatthisstrangeboxcould be used to invite their friends from outside the school over for tea. Now that they had an incentive to masterit,theysetaboutcallingthesefriendsandlearninghowtokeeprecordsoftheirnumbers.Without anytimetabletogetintheway,theyspenttherestofthedaytacklingfurtherquestionsaboutthetelephone, atonepointfollowingthewirewhichcameoutofitroundtheschoolandouttothestreet.Latertheywent onanoutingtothelocaltelephoneexchangetomeettheoperatorandsolvetheriddleofwhytherewasa femalevoicestuckinthereceiver. Whereverpossible,thedirectionandspeedoflearningwasgeneratedbythechildren.Indeedthere were no ‘teachers’ at Malting House, just ‘co-investigators’. It was a learning environment without timetablesorformalinstruction,oneinwhichcuriosityandfantasywererewarded.Thecontrasttomost 1920skindergartenswasacute.AtMaltingHouseeachchildwasseenas‘adistinguishedforeignvisitor who knows little or nothing of our language or customs’, as Pyke put it. ‘If we invited a distinguished strangertoteaandhespilledhiscuponthebesttableclothorconsumedmorethanhisshareofcake,we shouldnotupbraidhimandsendhimoutoftheroom,’heexplained.‘Weshouldhastentoreassurehim thatallwaswell.’Inotherwords,thereweretobenopunishments,areminderoftheinfluenceofFreud ontheschool. Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis was seen by those in Bloomsbury and beyond as the defining scientific discovery of the age. At its heart was the idea that we bury in our unconscious the memory of shocking or traumatic experiences, only for these memories to resurface later as nervous conditions.TheeffectofFreud’stheorycouldalreadybeseenincontemporaryliterature,philosophyand thetreatmentofpost-traumaticstress,yetby1920nobodyhadthoughttoapplyFreudianpsychoanalysisto education. Around the time of David Pyke’s birth in 1921 this began to change. The Institute of Psychoneurology’s‘Children’sHome’hadopenedinMoscow–Stalin’ssonVasilywasoneofthefirst pupils – and later that year A. S. Neill’s Summerhill school opened in Germany. Like the innovators behindbothoftheseinstitutions,Pykewantedthechildrenathisschooltocomeawaywithouttraumatic memoriestosuppress,noranyassociationbetweenpunishmentandeithersexualityorthenaturalfunction of their bodies. Yet by 1924 neither Summerhill nor the Moscow institute had written up the results of theirendeavours.ByrecordingeverythingatMaltingHouse,Pykehadgonefurtherthaneitherschool.His wasthefirstvalidexperimentintotheideaofreorganisingeducationinthelightofFreud. The lack of structure and discipline at Malting House was not without problems. Though the children therewerebrighterthanmost–theaverageIQin1926was131–asurprisingnumbershowedsignsof psychological imbalance. Susie Isaacs later described their initial intake as ‘the ten most difficult children in Cambridge’. Her account of 31 October 1924, is typical: ‘B., as on one or two previous occasions,hitmeinanger.Itriedpassiveresistance,buthewentfurther,andhitmeseveraltimes,hard, stingingblowswiththeopenpalm,andwasgleefulwhenhethoughthehadreallyhurtmeand“mademe cry”.’ She concluded with studied detachment: ‘The method of remaining passive did not appear the answer.’ ‘ImustsayIcan’tmakeoutthepointofit,’wroteJamesStrachey,oneofFreud’sfirsttranslators,who had married Pyke’s friend Alix Sargant Florence and had a niece and nephew at the school. ‘All that appearstohappenisthatthey’re“allowedtodowhatevertheylike”.Butaswhattheylikedoingiskilling oneanother,MrsIsaacsisobligedfromtimetotimetointerveneinasweetlyreasonablevoice:“Timmy, pleasedonotinsertthatstickinStanley’seye.”There’soneparticularboy(age5)whodomineers,and bulliesthewholeset.Hischiefenjoymentisspitting.HespatonemorningontoMrsIsaacs’sface.Soshe said:“Ishallnotplaywithyou,Philip,”–forPhilipistypicallyhisname[Philipwasalsothenameof Strachey’sbrother-in-law]–“untilyouhavewipedmyface.”AsPhilipdidn’twantMrsIsaacstoplay with him, that lady was obliged to go about the whole morning with the crachat upon her.’ Though Stracheynevervisitedtheschool,andloathedSusieIsaacsforhersometimesseriousmanner,hisaccount wasnottoowideofthemark. Aswellasspittingagreatdeal,thechildrenwouldoftengangupononeoftheirclassmatesandshout ‘funnyface’atthembeforelockinghimorherinthehenhouseorshuttingthemoutoftheschoolaltogether. Thevictimmightchangefromdaytoday,buttheurgetodothiswasconstant.Aswellasupsettingthe childwhohadbeensingledout,thiswasbecomingexpensive.Thechildrenwhowerelockedouttended tobreakawindowontheirwaybackin.Othershaddevelopedatasteforsmashingplateswhenthings didnotgotheirway.Theschool’sFreudianapproachensuredthatadultscouldnotcensureachildifthey didthis,orindeediftheytooktoomuchinterestinanother’sturdsorgenitals.TheMaltingHousewas rapidlybecomingknownaroundCambridgeasa‘pre-genitalbrothel’.PykeandSusiehadhopedthatif thisbehaviourwassimplyignoreditwouldloseitsappeal.Theywerewrong. TowardstheendofthefirsttermPyke’seducationalexperimenthadreachedacriticalpoint.Overthe pastsevenweeksvaluableinsightshadbeengainedintowhathappenswhenyougiveapackoftwo-tofour-year-oldsalmosttotalfreedom.Thenumberofstoriesandimaginativegamestheyinventedshotup. ThechildrenhadalsobeguntoshowthekindofscientificcuriositythatPykeandSusiehadpredicted.But bynowtheywereinopenrebellionagainsttheadults.Itwasbecomingthelawofthejungleandforthe firsttimeintheshorthistoryofMaltingHouseitseemedasthoughthisboldventurehadrunitscourse. Pykesawthingsdifferently.Afterall,itwasnomorethanacaseofidentifyingandreformulatingthe problemstheyfaced:solutionswereboundtofollow. HowtoTameaGroupofWildChildren Pyke began with the question of how to prevent the children from ganging up on each other without explicitlyforbiddingit,forthiswoulddolittletocurbtheoriginaldesire.Ratherthanbanit,heturnedit intomoreofagame.How?Byvolunteeringhimselftobe‘funnyface’. OverthedaysthatfollowedPykespentmanyhourslockedintheMaltingHousehenhouseasoneof thechildren’sprisoners–astrangeechoofhissolitaryconfinementinBerlin. It worked. The game lost its sting and when he suggested that those children who had shut him up shouldtakeaturninthehenhousetheyrapidlylostinterest. There was also the problem of ‘spitting or excremental talk’. Again it contradicted the school’s principlestopunishthechildrenforthis,soinsteadheinstructedthestafftowithdrawtheirhelpassoon as it began, and in some cases they ‘explicitly requested that there be no more such talk, and only one child in the lavatory at a time’. If a game became violent, rather than stand idly by, the adults would immediately start a different game. Pyke also introduced a handful of guidelines: children must be punctual;materialhadtobeputawayafteruse;nobodywastoendangerthemselvesorothers. Thesesoundliketinyadjustments,noneofthemcommensuratewiththecrisisatMaltingHouse,but togethertheyworked.Susienotedwithapprovalthat‘theindividual aggressiveness of the children has grownmuchless’and,severalweekslater,thattherewasanew‘pleasureinco-operativeoccupation’. Something else changed at Malting House towards the end of that first term. Whether or not any of the children noticed, there was a different chemistry between two of the adults. Just as the school was a testinggroundforexperimentalattitudesandideas,thesetwoindividualshadlongbelievedthatmarriage was not an expression of exclusive physical ownership and that ‘the sexual act’, to quote one of their Cambridgefriends,wasreally‘likeakiss’and‘merelyademonstrationofaffection,moreviolent,more pleasurablebutessentiallyofthesamenature’.Butneitherhadyetputthisattitudetothetest. That summer, in Vienna, Frank Ramsey had lost his virginity to ‘a charming and good-natured prostitute’andhadbeenpsychoanalysedbyoneofFreud’sdisciples,TheodorReik,inthehopeofending his obsession with Margaret Pyke. As Lytton Strachey gossiped to his brother James, Ramsey had left Vienna thinking he was ‘cured of such wishes. On returning and meeting her, however, he was more bowledoverthanever,butaskedhertogotobedwithhim–whichshedeclined.’ Ramsey’sinfatuationwasnowcommonknowledgearoundKing’sCollege.Pykeevenjokedaboutit with Ramsey’s mother – which Ramsey resented terribly. Maynard Keynes warned Ramsey around this time that the rumours about him and Margaret Pyke could damage his chances of being offered a fellowshipatKing’s,advicewhichmighthavehelpeddrivehimintothearmsoftheundergraduateLettice Baker. Ratheramazingly,BakerwasthensleepingwithPyke’sbrotherRichard,stilloneofRamsey’sclose friends.ItseemsthatthisCambridgeprodigymadeahabitoffallingforwomenwhoweresleepingwith oneofthePykebrothers.Margaretwasatlastoffthehook,butthisgavewaytoanewcomplicationinher life:herhusbandandSusieIsaacshadbeguntohaveanaffair. PykehadbecomeoverwhelmedbythefantasyofhavingfoundinSusiethecompletemodernwoman, similartoMargaretbutmorecombativeandonewhounderstoodthepainoflosingaparentatayoung age. They were drawn together by the music of their conversation. The psychoanalyst John Rickman described Pyke and Susie in full flight as like ‘watching a fine exhibition of ballroom dancing, the movement of their minds was in such close touch that it seemed as if a single figure moved in the intellectualscene,sheskilledinphilosophicalmethodfollowedhissternerlogic,heyieldedtohermore subtlepsychologicalintuition’.Thelongerthisdancewentontheclosertheybecame,untiltheirintimacy in conversation felt like an open infidelity. ‘Geoffrey turned more and more to Susie as a confidante,’ Nathanlaterwrote,‘astoonewhowasmoreimportanttohimthananyoneelse,astothewomanhehad beenlookingforandhopingforalltheseyears.Susiewasn’tlessdrawntohim,letussay.’ Theyslepttogetherforthefirsttimeinlate1924,andwhileSusieadmittedlaterthat‘shedidn’tfeel anyoverpoweringlongingforintercourse,shewasquitereadyforit’.ByMarch1925theDirectorand thePrincipalofMaltingHousewere‘infullandopenlovewithoneanother’,withSusiedescribingher ‘very real love’ for Pyke. Rather than wink at this infidelity, Margaret gave it her ‘blessing and active encouragement’.Nathan,however,remainedinthedarkfornow. Sexually it was a disappointment. Pyke later conceded that ‘he had not been a very satisfactory physicallover’,andifhisbrother’snovelisanythingtogoby,wemayhavesomeideawhy.InTheLives and Deaths of Roland Greer, Richard Pyke described his fictional self being unable to ‘rise to the occasion’andhaving‘secretdifficulties’in‘sexualmatters’.Headdedthathiselderbrother‘understood toowell’thesedifficulties‘becausetheywerehisowntoo,thoughheoverleaptthembyatourdeforce– amethodwhichcannotbeimparted’.Eitherthistourdeforcecouldnotalwaysberelieduponorheand Susienaturallygrewapart:afterayearoftheaffairshe‘decidedtogonofurther’andbythestartof1926 theirrelationshipwasnolongerphysical. Eventhen,asNathan,theunlikelychronicleroftheaffair,recalled,‘thedrawtheywereexercisingon oneanotherwasmorepowerfulthanever’.Tomostobserversitseemedasthoughtheirliaisonhadended amicablyandthattheschoolwouldnotsuffer,buttherewasastormonitsway.Itwouldtestnotonlythe fragilenatureoftheirrelationshipbuttheveryexistenceoftheschooltheyhadmadetogether. Byearly1926theMaltingHouseexperimentwasinfullbloom.Havingovercomethoseinitialdifficulties it was now winning international plaudits from leading educationalists of the day such as Jean Piaget, whowouldsoonpayanapprovingvisit,aswellasMelanieKlein,thepsychoanalystandexpertinchild psychology.KleinevenperformedatMaltingHouseoneofthefirstpsychoanalysesofaBritishchildon DavidPyke,thenagedfour.Yettheywereatcrosspurposesthroughout.Davidhadrecentlybeengivenan oldbusconductor’strayandwasdeterminedtosellKleinaticketforhisbus.Shewasonlyinterestedin finding out whether he had seen his parents having sex, which he might have done, only not with each other. As the prestige of Malting House grew, so did Pyke’s stock within Cambridge. The physicist and engineer Lancelot Law Whyte later described him as one of the leading lights of 1920s Cambridge, alongsideSirErnestRutherford,PeterKapitzaandE.M.Forster.Hewasaplayfulconversationalist,an entertainingbaubleonthetreeofacademiclifewho‘lookedlikeanAssyrianking’andwas,ifnothing else, a doer in a city full of thinkers. ‘Philosophers have only interpreted the world,’ wrote Marx, ‘the pointistochangeit.’PykedidnotjusttalkoverteaontheHighStreetaboutthepossibilityofmakinga fortune on the stock market – because it looked so easy – or the need to revolutionise education by applyingthelessonsofFreud.Thisthirty-three-year-olddidthesethings–andtheyworked.Noneofit seemedtobeafluke.Hissuccesswastheresultofhissmallinheritance,dazzlingself-confidenceanda capacityforlaboriousresearch. PyketakingabreakduringoneofhismanySwissholidays By now his Cambridge social circle had expanded beyond undergraduate friends such as Philip SargantFlorence,thenonhiswaytobecomingarenownedeconomictheoristandwhosechildrenwereat Malting House, or his editor at the Cambridge Magazine, C. K. Ogden. Newer Cambridge friends includedthefilm-makerIvorMontaguandthecoupleattheendoftheMaltingHousegarden,Phyllisand Maurice Dobb, he a young economist at Trinity College. There was also crystallographer J. D. ‘Sage’ BernalandhiswifeEileen,whohadrecentlybecomeinvolvedinPyke’sfinancialoperation,aswellasJ. B.S.Haldane,thelegendarybiologistwhohadjoinedtheMaltingHouseboard,andhiswifeCharlotte, wellknownforherliterarysalons. ItisinterestingthatatleastfiveofthesenewfriendseitherjoinedtheCommunistParty,workedfor Sovietintelligenceordidboth.Adecadelatertherewouldbenothingremarkableabouthavingsomany CambridgefriendswhosubscribedtodialecticalmaterialismandsawtheUSSRasabeaconofradiant utopian possibility. But during the mid-1920s it was unusual – in the General Strike of May 1926, in which the Moscow National Bank aided some of the striking miners, almost half of the city’s undergraduateswerethoughttohavebeeninvolvedineffortstobreakthestrike. Although he had a number of Marxist friends there is no evidence that by 1926 Pyke shared their politicalviews.SincehispoliticalepiphanyinBerlinhehadremainedclosetotheFabianismofSidney andBeatriceWebbandShaw,andhadcorrespondedwithallthree,buthedidnotgivehimselfthetimeto takeanyofthisfurther.Ifnothingelse,hewas‘intenselydistracted’bothbytheschoolandthenewfound complexityofthosefinancialdealingsonwhichMaltingHousedepended. In the early days Pyke had been making straightforward directional bets on whether the price of a certainmetalwouldriseorfall,guidedbyhishypothesisabouttherelationshipbetweencopperandtin. Aswithcomedy,thekeytothiswastiming.Generallyhegotitrightbutoccasionallyhelostmoney.To reducethescopeforerrorPykehadconcoctedanewtradingsystem.Hewasnowmakingwhattraders todaywillcall‘relativevaluearbitragetrades’using‘advance-dateddoubleoptions’.Evenbymodern standardsthisisanexotictrade.Atthetimeitwaspioneering.Ratherthanbetonwhetherthepricesof copper and tin were going up or down, he now predicted the deviation between the two. As he later explainedincourt,‘itnolongermadeanydifferencewhetherpriceswentupordownaslongastheydid notseparateorseparateinonedirection.’Comparedwithhisearlierdealingsthiswas‘immensely less speculative’.Heincreasedhismarginsaccordinglyandusedsomeofthenewprofitstoemployateamof researchersinofficesoffChanceryLane.Thiswasallgoingwelluntilherealisedthathewouldsoonbe facinganenormousbillforincometax. Having poured his profits into either the school or increasing his holdings in the metals market, he was unable to pay. He sought the advice of a barrister: D. N. ‘Johnny’ Pritt KC, later described by a Soviet defector as ‘one of the chief recruiting agents for Soviet underground organisations in the UK’. PrittassuredPyke,inanswertohisquestion,thatitwasperfectlylegaltoalterhisoperationsothathe was no longer trading as an individual but through a series of companies. This would turn his taxable incomeintoacapitalgain,meaningthattherewouldbelesstaxtopay.Buttherewasmoretothisplan.If he set off these gains against losses incurred by buying options on the companies’ shares from the shareholdersthenhecouldreducethemoneyheowedtoalmostnothing. Pykedulysetuptwocompanies,OrcusandSiona(amisspellingof‘ciona’,astationaryseacreature whichsitsonthebottomoftheoceanandfeedsoffpassingplankton),andbegantobuyoptionsfromhis shareholders at exorbitant prices. Whether or not Pritt knew that each of the shareholders was an acquaintanceofPykebyoneremove,oranemployee,isunclear.Thenewsystemworked.Pykenolonger facedacripplingtaxbill,whilehisswayinthemetalsmarketcontinuedtogrow.Hadhesettledupwith just one of his three brokers on Christmas Day 1926, when he was said to hold a quarter of all tin reserves in Britain, he would have walked away with a trading profit of over £20,000. But he saw no reasontodothis. ThoughhenevervisitedthetradingringoftheLondonMetalExchangehewasbynowsowellknown therethathehadanickname,‘Candlesticks’,aftercablinginatradefromtheSwisstownofKandersteg. EventheeditorofMetalBulletinhadheardof‘Candlesticks’andwas‘certainlyimpressedbyhismarket activities’.Lessimpressed,however,wasagroupofheavyweightAmericancopperproducers. In October 1926 there was a historic meeting of the world’s most powerful copper magnates. Between themtheycontrolledupto90percentoftheglobalcoppersupplywithminesinAfrica,SouthAmerica and across the United States, yet they did not control the price of copper and, as they resolved at this meeting,thatneededtochange. TheUnitedStateswasenteringaperiodoffrenziedfinancialspeculation.Withthelargestbubblein Americanfinancebeginningtoform,thesecopperproducerswantedtotakestepstoprotectthemselves againstpriceshocks,whichwereusuallycausedbytheactivitiesoflonespeculators. Using the WebbPomerene Trade Export Act of 1918, originally designed to boost the American war effort by granting immunitytocertainexportcompaniesfromstandardanti-trustregulation,theyformedacartelofhistoric proportions.CopperExportersIncorporated(CEI)waslaterdescribedas‘themostformalcartelinthe twentiethcenturyinAmericanindustry’.Itwaspowerfulandcoordinatedandhadbeenformedwiththe sole aim of stabilising the copper price. The best way to do this was by flushing out speculators like ‘Candlesticks’ in London. First the CEI needed greater control of the market, which would take a little time.Havingstartedoutwithambitionstodonothingmorethanpayforhisson’senlightenededucation, thescaleofPyke’ssuccesshadturnedhimintoatarget. * Just before this copper cartel came into being, Pyke reached a momentous decision. David was now approachinghissixthbirthdayandinayearorsowouldneedtogotoanewschool,unless,thatwas, MaltingHousecouldbeadaptedtoaccommodatehimandotherchildrenofhisage.Pykedecidedtoturn theschoolintoaninternationalinstituteforeducationalresearchwhichcouldcareforchildrenalltheway throughtouniversity.Ithadalwaysbeeninhisnaturetotakeideastoanextreme,andnowhewoulddo thesametohisgroundbreakingschool.Sohebegantospend. PykeappointedNathanIsaacsastheschool’sresearcher-at-largeon£500ayear,tellinghimto‘run awayandreadandwrite’onquestionslike‘Whydochildrenask“why”?’Atenormousexpense,hehired stenographers to record every word the children spoke. He also lavished more than £1,000 on advertisementsfortheschool’sfirstscientificappointee,andarrangedforaselectioncommitteemadeup of Sir Ernest Rutherford, J. B. S. Haldane and Sir Percy Nunn. When the Daily Express heard that a scienceteacherhadbeenemployedbyakindergartentheysenttheirCrimesReportertoinvestigate.This typeofprurientinterestintheschoolpersuadedPykeoftheneedtopublicisehisworkinasympathetic light. During the summer of 1927 he commissioned a promotional film from a prestigious production company which specialised in battle scenes and wildlife documentaries. Despite their obvious qualifications for the job, they found the task somewhat challenging. ‘In all our experiences of photographingeverykindofwildcreature,notexceptingculturesofbacilli,theproblemofphotographing children in their wild state proved the most difficult to tackle,’ grumbled one cameraman. ‘Whereas animalscanbemoreorlesslocalisedandcontrolledbyfood,andbacillimustremainwithintheconfines ofatest-tubeorpetrie-dish[sic],nosuchartificialfixitycouldbeobtainedwiththechildren.’Eventually thechildrenlostinterestinthecameras,andwererecordeddissectingSusie’srecentlydeceasedcat–‘It fairmakesyousick,doesn’tit?’acameramanwhisperedtohisproducer–aswellasstartingabonfire thatgotoutofhandandburnttheschoolcanoe.‘EvenGeoffreyPykewasabitupsetaboutthat.’Tendays latertheyhadenoughmaterialtocutahalf-hour-longfilm. TwoyoungscientistsatMaltingHouse ‘Remarkably interesting and altogether delightful,’ was the Spectator’s verdict on Let’s Find Out, afterinitialscreeningsinManchesterandLondon,where500peoplecametowatchitintheMarbleArch Pavilion.Thechildrenappearedtobe: ‘having the time of their lives, wading up to their knees trying to fill a sandpit with water, mending a tap with a spanner, oilingtheworksofaclock,joyouslyfeedingabonfire,dissectingcrabs,climbingonscaffolding,weighingeachotheronaseesaw,weaving,modelling,makingpottery,workinglathes–infactdoingallthosethingswhicheverychilddelightsindoing.At Malting House School children’s dreams come true. The school is equipped with the most extensive apparatus, which will stimulatethenaturalcuriositypossessedbyeverychild.[...]Thereisnodiscipline.Therearenopunishments.Childrenmay hitoneanothersolongastheyonlyusetheirhands,butIbelievequarrelsarerareand,thoughitseemsalmostunbelievable withtheunendingopportunitieswhichmustoccur,therehasneverbeenanaccidentofaseriousnature.Thechildrenareleftto form their own opinions, tastes, and moral codes. After having seen this film, on the photography of which the British InstructionalFilmsaretobecongratulated,Icameawaywishingwithallmyheartthatmyowndullschooldayshadbeenas theirsare,andthateducationcouldbemadesuchanadventureforeverychild. ‘Co-investigator’SusieIsaacswiththechildrenofMaltingHouse Much of this was an accurate reflection of the radical educational experiment Pyke had set up. For most children it really was as if their dreams had come true. But as a promotional film there was no mentionofanyoftheschool’sdifficulties. ‘Moulds are wrong,’ Pyke had once said, ‘and shaping is wrong, whatever it may aim at.’ Yet his beliefthateverychildwasascientistinthemakinghadpermeatedtheschool,andalthoughhescoffedat theideaofparentspressingtheirculturalinheritancesontotheirchildren,hewasgentlymouldinghisson andtheotherchildrenatMaltingHouseintoidealisedversionsofhimself:free-thinkerswithscientific outlookswhocouldonedayreminisceonhealthyandnon-traumaticchildhoods.Therewasnothingwrong with this, perhaps, but it illustrates one of the small slippages between theory and practice at Malting House. Amoretellinggaphadopenedupbetweenhowthechildrenweresupposedtoreacttoalifewithout rulesandhowtheyactuallyreacted.Beyondacertainageitwasclearthatsomechildrenneededclearer boundaries. ‘We want to be made to do definite things as they are in other schools,’ one seven-year-old complainedatafractiousstaffmeeting,havingjustthreatenedtohitoneofthegrown-ups.Thissamechild wasaskedwhyhewantedtobemadetododefinitethings. ‘Becausewedon’tdoanythingotherwise.Afterall,what’saschoolfor?’ Hewasthenaskedtodrawupatimetable,whichhedid,beforesumminguphisfeelingsasfollows: ‘IwanttobemadetodowhatIwanttodo.’Thisperfectlyembodiesthesometimesparadoxicalnatureof ourrelationshipwithrules,nomatterhowoldweare.Thesechildrenwantedboundaries,boundariesof theirownchoosing,butboundariesallthesame,andtheywantedthemtobeenforced.Thiswentagainst theschool’sphilosophy. Anotherproblem,thoughlessobvious,wastheextentofPyke’slargesse.Evenhewouldlateradmitto managingtheschoolduringthisperiod‘extravagantly’and‘irrespectiveofmoney’.Althoughhecontinued tospendwithinhismeans,hisliquiditywasgreatlyreduced.Whilehewasnotindebt,hehadneverbeen sovulnerablefinancially. Havinggainedcontrolofmostoftheworld’ssupply,theCEIcartelsqueezedupthepriceofcopperfrom £54atonearlierthatyearto£60byOctober.Pykehadneverseenthepricebehavelikethis.Norhadhe everpittedhimselfagainstaninternationalcartel.Itwouldbeaseveretestofhismarketprowess. Earlierthatmonthhehadboughtalargequantityofcopperand,later,asizeableholdingoftin.The marketwasup.Accordingtohismodel,thenextmoveshouldhavebeentosellhiscopperonthebasis that the price would soon drop. But he did not. Second-guessing the cartel, he hung on to the copper, thinkingthattheCEIwasonlyinterestedingrowingorstabilisingtheprice,adecisionhelaterdescribed asamixtureof‘imbecilityandcommercialrashness’. Theorderofsubsequenteventsishardtoreconstruct.Eitherthecartelfloodedthemarketwithcopper oroneofPyke’sbrokersgotwindofhisexposureandbegantooffload,withotherbrokersfollowingsuit. Mostlikely,itwasacombinationofthetwo.Thepriceofcopperplummeted,followedbythepriceoftin andlead,leavingPykewithnochoicebuttoholdontowhathehadinthehopeofweatheringthestorm. Withthemetalsmarketinfreefalloneofhisbrokersaskedforcover.Hopelesslyover-leveragedandwith very little liquidity, Pyke had no way of providing it short of selling up. Doing so, of course, would merelydepressthepricefurtherandworsenhisposition.Ashestalled,hisothertwobrokerscameinfor cover.ItwasatthispointinthehistoryofMaltingHousethatSusieIsaacsresigned. ThedifficultiesbetweenherandPykehadbecomemorepronouncedoverthelasttenmonths.Ithad begunwithtriflesovermissedappointmentsandtheghostofadisagreementaboutwhowastakingmore creditforthesuccessoftheschool.Periodsofcalmwouldbepuncturedbyrowsinwhichbothhurled torrents of half-remembered slights at each other before apologising and carrying on as if nothing had happened. The subtext to this was the way in which their affair had ended. Pyke resented the idea that Susiehadbothstarteditandfinishedit,whichseemedtoinduceinherascintillaofguilttoaddtoany feelingsofinadequacyshemighthavehadowingtotheirdifficultiesinbed.WhensheheardthatPykehad gonetoSwitzerlandtoseeanotherwomanaftertheendoftheiraffairshehadfeltapangofjealousy.All thishadthestrangeeffectofmakinghernotonlymoretolerantofhisunreasonablebehaviourinbetween rows,butangrierwhentheycametoargue. ‘Idon’twanttohurtyou,’hetoldher,aftershehadbeguntocry.‘ButI’vebeenhurttoo.There’sa limittoendurance.You’vepushedaknifeinmeandscreweditround!’ Shehaddonenosuchthing,butwhentheworldappearedtobecollapsingaroundhimPykelookedfor ascapegoat.Susiewastheobvioustarget. By now Nathan knew about the affair and, following Susie’s resignation, he sent Margaret a sixtyeight-pageletterinwhichhedescribedhimselfas‘quitenaturallydisplaced’and‘fullofadmirationfor Geoff’.‘I’venoresentmentagainstGeoff,’hewenton,feelingonlythathisjudgementhadgoneawry.The crux of the problem, he explained – Pyke’s greatest asset and at the same time the source of his selfdestruction–was‘thefreeplayofthatmagnificentinstrument,hismind.[...]MorethananyoneelseI know[he]needstobeonhisguardagainsttheverypowersofhismind.’Magnificentitmighthavebeen, butitwashardtoseehowevenPykecouldfindawayoutofthemesshewasnowin. AfamilyportraittakenshortlybeforePyke’sfinancialcrash ThefirstdeclineandfallofGeoffreyPykewashaltingandslow;itlastednearlytwoyearsandbytheend there seemed to be no further to fall. Unable to provide cover to his three brokers, Pyke’s trading companieshadallgoneintoliquidationbythestartof1928.Assoleguarantorhefacedclaims against himof£72,701,morethan£2.2millionintoday’smoney.Hehadnowayofpayingitback. Pyke did everything possible to save Malting House, making advance payments to the staff and disappearingtoSwitzerlandfortwomonthstodelaytheissueofwrits.Cambridgefriendsralliedround and donations came in from parents as well as the likes of Siegfried Sassoon, Victor Rothschild and VictorGollancz.Butitwasnotenough. Aftertheschoolreceivedaglowingwrite-upintheNewYorkTimes,Pykeappliedforagrantfromthe LauraSpelmanRockefellerTrustwithacoveringlettersignedbyagroupofworthieslaterdescribedas ‘possibly the greatest galaxy of academic figures of the day ever assembled for a private fund-raising scheme’.Itwastonoavail. The year after his personal financial crash Pyke was declared bankrupt, and in January 1929 the publicbankruptcyhearingsbegan.Lawyersactingforthebrokerspickedoverhisactivitiesinwhatfelt like a protracted judgement on his life and on the school into which he had poured at least £11,000 – referredtowitheringlyincourtashis‘greatscheme’. CertainlytherewereproblemsintheconceptionofMaltingHouse.Atleastoneofthechildrenthere, Jack Pole, who went on to become a renowned historian, would look back on his time there with bitterness.Yetforthemajorityofchildrenthiswasasunny,magicalperiodthatcouldonlybeappreciated once it had passed. One teacher wrote of the school that she had ‘never seen so much pleased concentration,somanyshrieksandgurglesandjumpingsforjoyashere’.Itwasinthefieldofeducational theory, however, that the impact of Malting House was most keenly felt on account of the mountainous records kept from the start. As Pyke had always hoped, the school became a starting point for further research.Whathemaynothaveappreciated,giventheunhappyendtotheirrelationship,wasthatmostof thisanalysiswouldbedonebySusieIsaacs. Her study of the Malting House data formed the basis of her books, Social Development in Young Children and Intellectual Growth in Young Children, which secured her reputation as arguably ‘the greatestinfluenceonBritisheducationinthetwentiethcentury’.Thesamedataprovidedtheimpetusfor SirPercyNunn’sDepartmentofChildDevelopmentattheUniversityofLondonthatwentontoplayakey roleinthedevelopmentofprimaryeducationinpost-warBritain. YetforthebarristersintheBankruptcyCourtin1929theonlyquestionthatmatteredwaswhetherthe school had played a part in Pyke’s tax-reduction scheme. Without full details of his accounts, it is impossibletosayonewayoranother.Whatdoesbecomeclearfromthetranscriptofhisexaminationis that Pyke was determined not to be pinned down. He was in escapologist mode. Even when the most damningevidencewasreadouttohimaboutthetaxadvicehehadreceivedfromtheSovietstoogeD.N. Pritt,hewouldnotyieldtoitsmeaning.Pykewasontopofhisfactsandlightonhisfeet,exceptionally so.Heinfuriatedhisexaminersbypickingaparttheirquestions,atonepointinformingabarristerthatthe questionhehadjustbeenaskedwasinfactastatementdeliveredwithaquestioninglilt.Anothertimehe askedthebarristertoimprovethewordingofhisinquiry. ‘Quibblingagain?’camethereply. ‘Accuracy,’saidPyke. ‘No,quibblingagain.’ ‘No,onemeaningtoonequestion.’ Andonitwent. At one point he was accused of presenting the court with a ‘tissue of falsehoods’, and there is no doubt that he was obscuring some key details in the arrangements between him and those shareholders from whom he had bought share options at inflated prices. Yet before the truth of this could be established,attheendofaparticularlylongsession,Pykecollapsed. Owingtothebankrupt’s‘indisposition’,describedelsewhereasa‘sudden illness’, the hearing was adjourneduntilthefollowingmonth.OnlydaysbeforehewasdueincourtagainPykewrotetosaythathe wasill.Thedateofthehearingwaspushedbackonceagainandthenightbeforehewasduetoappear,22 April1929,Pykemighthavetriedtokillhimself. Anotesignedbytwodoctorsshortlyafterwardsdescribedhimas‘dangerouslyillandinmyopinion [he]maynotlivethroughthenight’.Thereisnofurtherclueastowhathappened,onlythepossibilitythat hehadattemptedsuicide.ThesessionwasadjournedoncemoreandPykewasmovedtoanursinghome inMuswellHill,fromwhereasignedaffidavitwassenttothecourtdescribingthepatientas‘suffering from paranoia (bordering on insanity), amnesia, fits of melancholia and incapability of severe mental effort’,sothat‘hewillnotbefittoattendtoanybusinessorlegalaffairsforatleasttwelvemonths’. WhilethereisaminutechancethatPykehadeitherfooledorpersuadedadoctortowritethisnote, nowthatthebarristerswereclosingin,thiswasalmostcertainlyagenuinebreakdown.Sincehehadbeen struckbywhatwasthoughttobepneumoniainRuhlebenhehadexperiencedperiodicboutsofchronic inertiaaccompaniedbyanoverpoweringsenseofmelancholy,sobadthatthereweretimeswhenhecould not get out of bed. The strained circumstances of watching his life fall apart might have induced or exacerbatedoneoftheseepisodes. InJuly1929MargaretPykeconfirmedtothecourtthatherhusbandwas‘borderinguponinsanity’.In thesamemonththeschool’sscientificappointeesuedhimforunpaidwages.Itwasalsoaroundthistime thatMaltingHousecloseditsdoorsforgood. GeoffreyPykewasbankrupt,hewasbeingsued,hisexperimentalschoolhadclosed,hewaslivingin anursinghomeandhadbeendescribedasborderlineinsane.Butstillhehadnotreachedrockbottom. Duringthewinterof1929,withtheglobaleconomyenteringmeltdown,hiswifelefthim. Wewillneverknowallthereasonsforthis.Pyke’saffairwithSusiemusthaveplayedapartintheir separation,andthereisthepossibilitythatMargarethadanabortionintheyearsafterDavid’sbirth,and thatitwasPykewhohadfirstsuggestedthis.Yetweknowthatshewasneveragaininarelationshipwith aman,andthatratherthangetdivorcedtheyremainedamicablyseparatedfortherestoftheirlives. In a potted biography of Margaret Pyke published long after her death the reader is told that ‘her husbanddiedin1929’.Hedidnot.Andyet,aversionofPykecametoanend.Duringhisfirstthirty-five yearsasanenergeticFuturistinlovewiththescientificmethod,GeoffreyPykehadtrickedhiswayinto andoutofanenemynationandhadtastedlifeasacorrespondent,best-sellingauthor,minorBloomsberry, financialspeculatorandradicaleducationalist.Hehadriddenwavesofdesireandrejection,jealousyand lust,livingthroughoutasifwithonelayerofskinremoved,andasaparenthehadstakedeverythingon the possibility of providing his son with an upbringing that was better than his own. His life was characterisedbyapropensityfortakingenormousriskstoachievetheseeminglyimpossible.Herewas someone who inhabited the world as if it were an enormous game in which the rules were still being workedout.Nowthatgameseemedtobeover.Inmanywaysithelpstothinkofthismomentinhislifeas adeath,forifhewastoreturntothestagehewouldneedtodosoasamanreborn. PARTII HOWTORESOLVEANEPIDEMICOFANTI-SEMITISM,AROYAL SCANDALANDTHETHREATOFFASCISM BythetimeAdolfHitlerbecameChancellorofGermany,in1933,GeoffreyPykewaslivinginadamp, ramshacklecottageintheDevil’sPunchbowl,deepintheSurreyHills.Hehadbecomearecluse,orwhat hismotherwouldcallaluftmensch,literally‘amanintheair’,adreamerwhodoesnotconcernhimself withmaterialthingsandappearstobedriftingalongwithoutanypurpose.Yetthatwouldsoonchange. ItwasMargaretRussell,acousinofBertrandandfriendofPyke’sfromhisdaysatthe1917Club, whohadhelpedtoarrangehistenancyatthecottage.Itsceilingswerefamouslylow,areminderperhaps of the Jewish barrack at Ruhleben, and there was neither running water nor electricity. But at twelve shillings a month the cottage was, if nothing else, affordable. During the four years since his financial collapse Pyke had survived on handouts from friends, what little remained of his inheritance and the occasionalcommissiontowriteadvertisingcopyforJackBeddingtonatShell,whereotherssuchasJohn BetjemanandBenNicholsonwerealsohelpingtoreinventthebrand.Yetthemoneywasneverenough and for the first time in his life, as the Western world ground deeper into economic recession, this unemployedbankruptexperiencedtheimprisoningausterityofpoverty. Sincehisbreakdownin1929PykehaddriftedapartfromhisCambridgefriendsandlostsomeofhis amourpropre.Heworeabeardandwentaboutthecottageinadilapidatedelephant-greyHomburghat. Hewroteandreadmorethanbefore.Heconsideredhispurposeinlife.Whenhismoodwasupheplayed Mozartrecordsatfullblast,yetwhenitwasdownanddescendedintooneofthosedeadeninglullswith whichhehadbecomefamiliar,thereweretimeswhenhefeltunabletomove. Hisson,David,wasnowattheDragonSchoolinOxford,andduringtheholidayslivedmostlywith his mother at Balcombe Place in West Sussex. This was home to the remarkable women’s rights campaigner Lady Denman, who had recently appointed Margaret the Secretary of her National Birth ControlCouncil.Thiswasatatimewhenbirthcontrolremainedanoutrésubject.Davidlaterrecalled being driven in Lady Denman’s chauffeured Rolls-Royce from Balcombe to his father’s cottage. Sometimes he arrived to find him accompanied by Marjorie Edwards, aquiline and attractive, who cookedforhimandtyped.Otherwisehisfather’sonlycompanionappearedtobehisdog,Judy. Though he was cut off geographically and saw less of his friends, Pyke remained in touch with the worldbeyondthroughnewspapersdeliveredtothenearbyvillageofThursley.Itwasthroughthesethathe read with growing interest about the political developments in Germany. The rise of fascism was a subjectthatseemedtomattertohimmorethananyother,andinparticularthetreatmentofGermanJews. JustaftertheendoftheGreatWar,HitlerhadconfidedtoafriendthathefoundGermananti-Semitism much too ‘emotional’. He felt that it would never amount to anything more than short-lived pogroms. Insteadhewantedtogivethismedievalsuperstitionamore‘scientific’backbone–toproducewhathe called,inachillingphrase,an‘anti-Semitismofreason’. InthetwoyearsafterHitlerbecameChancelloramassofdiscriminatorylawswerepassedaimedat belittling, excluding and vilifying German Jewry. Pyke read in the newspapers about new laws that prohibited Jews from working in the civil service, state-run schools, universities and hospitals; soon GermanJewswouldbeunabletousepublicswimmingpoolsincertaincities,employGermansundera particular age, marry or have an affair with a non-Jew, fly the German flag or refer to themselves as citizens of Germany. Yet for the most part this statutory discrimination during the first two years of Hitler’sreignelicitedlittleornointernationaloutrage. Inpart,thiswasbecausetheselawshadfailedtoinspireanypopulartorrentsofanti-Semitism.When GoebbelscalledforanationwideboycottofJewishbusinessesimmediatelyafterHitler’saccessionthe responseoftheGermanpeoplewasapathetic,tosaytheleast.Inthemonthsthatfollowed,almostevery attack on Jewish shops was orchestrated by the state. Just as Oswald Mosley failed in his attempts to transform British anti-Semitism into a wild, out-of-control force, it seemed that most Germans viewed anti-SemitismasaNaziticwhichtheywerelargelypreparedtoignore. It was hard to see why this might change, especially given the standing of Jews in German society. WhenHitlerreceivedhisIronCross,itwasontherecommendationofaJewishofficer–oneofmorethan 100,000 Jews in the German Army. German Jews had enjoyed full legal equality with their fellow citizenssince1869andwerefarmoreassimilatedthantheircounterpartsinRussiaorEasternEurope. Yetbytheendof1934PykehadbecomefixatedbytheissueofNazianti-Semitism.Itconcernedhim,and that it did so was a telling reflection on his own relationship to Jewishness and just how much it had changed. Inhisbest-sellingbookToRuhleben–AndBack,publishedin1916,Pykenotonlyomittedthefact thathehadbeenheldinRuhleben’sJewishbarrackbutmadeapointelsewhereinthebookofdescribing thetenacityofGermanteenagersas‘frightful’,‘intense’and‘Semiticinitspersistency’.Inprint,atleast, Pyke had learnt to ape some of the casual anti-Semitism of Edwardian England. Seven years after publication,hisbrotherRichardlookedoninembarrassmentasPykerowedwithaJewish barber who hadsuggestedthathelookedJewish.Itwasmorethancoincidencethatthisargumenttookplacewithboth brothersenroutetotheirmother’sfuneral. Pyke’spricklyrelationshipwithhisownJewishnesswasboundupwiththosecomplicatedfeelingshe had about his mother. For as long as he could remember, Jewishness and Mary Pyke were inseparably intertwined,sotocutheroutofhislifeimpliedtheneedtocauterisehisJewishidentity.Jewishritual, Jewish dress, Jewish culture, the gossipy provincialism of the well-off West London Sephardic communityinwhichhehadgrownup:allthisremindedhimofhismotherandasayoungmanhewanted nothingtodowithit.Onlyintheyearsafterherdeathdidthischange. By 1935 Pyke could describe himself, without drowning in qualifications and parentheses, as an Englishman and a Jew. In notes from a meeting with Sir Isaac Woolfson, an interview which he hoped would be confidential, he said, ‘I have been told – and I find it true of myself – that a Jew can keep everythingbutajoke’(beforeassuringWoolfsonthathewouldtrynottomakehimlaugh). This self-identification as both Englishman and Jew changed the way that Pyke read the news from NaziGermany.Hesawthesedevelopmentsfromtheperspectiveofboththeoppressorandtheoppressed. ThoseyearsspentrunningawayfromhisownJewishnesshadgivenhimanunderstandingofthemindset whichcouldmakeapersonchasesomeonedownthecorridoryelling‘JewHunt!’–ashadhappened to him at Wellington. He could play the bumptious Little Englander as well as the Jewish intellectual and understoodthat‘the Jews among all the persecuted are probably the only people who marry and breed with the consciousness that their children and grandchildren and great-grandchildren will probably be persecuted’.Thedifferencehere,anditiscrucial,wasthatPykedidnotseethisasinevitable. Bylate1934hewasconvincedthatNazianti-Semitismwasaproblemofsuchminatorypotentialthat itmustbesolved.Hisfranticattemptstodosowouldchangehispoliticalperspectiveforever,stinging himoutofhisearlyretirement,whereupon,asthejournalistClaudCockburnputit,he‘zig-zaggedacross the1930slikeforkedlightning’. HowtoEndAnti-Semitism Firstofall,why?Settingasideeverythingweknowtoday,why,bylate1934,wasitimportanttoendNazi discriminationagainstGermanJews? Hisanswerwasrootedintwohistoricalparallels,thefirstofwhichwastheexecutionof‘witches’in medieval Europe. Witches were believed to possess the magical ability to harm others, and, in a surprisinglysimilarway,theNaziattitudetowardsJewswasrootedintheideathatthemembersofthis minorityhadathreatening,unnaturalpowerwhichallowedthemtooutperformtheirGentileneighbours. ‘Belief in contemporary Germany that the dangerous quality ascribed to Jews is transmitted to their children,whomustthereforeinschoolbeseparatedfromotherchildren,beliefintheextraordinarypower whichsosmallaproportionasthe1percentJewishpopulationinGermanyisaccusedofpossessing, bears a striking resemblance to the dangerous powers ascribed to witches.’ Who was to say that the modern-dayGermanswouldnothavetheJewsexpelledormurdered,astheirancestorshaddonetosocalledwitches?AsPykelaterexplainedintheNewStatesmanandNation,thingshadbecomesobadin theMiddleAgesthatinsomeEuropeantowns‘theguiltywereroastedinaspeciallypreparedoven’.He wasboldenoughtoimplythatsomethingsimilarcouldhappeninmodern-dayGermany. Thestrengthofhisconvictioncamefromasecondhistoricalparallel,thatoftheTurkishgovernment’s genocidalassaultonArmenianTurksduringtheGreatWar.Morethanamillionmenandwomenmayhave been murdered. Pyke was interested in what had happened in the years immediately beforehand. The Turkishgovernmenthad,heexplained,‘bamboozled’itspeoplewithpropaganda.Atlength,thepeopleof Turkey had been told that Armenian Turks were not only different but dangerous, and mass persecution didnotbegin–couldnotbegin–untilTurkishsocietyhadbeensoldthismyth. ‘One thing is clear,’ wrote Pyke. ‘Our susceptibility to myths is a world danger. Because the applicationofsciencetohumanbehaviourhascomesolatethemythisregardedaslessdangerousthan the bacillus. It is doubtful whether such a belief is justified.’ In the same way that the Turks had been bulliedbytheirgovernmentintothinkingofArmeniansasdangerousanddifferent,itseemedasthoughthe GermanswerebeingbamboozledintoseeingJewsinasimilarway.Pyke’sfearwasthat,ashadbeenthe caseinTurkey,thismightbeapreludetogenocidalassault. At the time this was a hysterical analysis. It was certainly not one you would find rehearsed in the mainstream British press. Germany was one of the most modern nations on Earth, a land of dynamic theatre,artandpoetry.Scientificallyandindustriallyitwasoneofthemostadvancedpolitiesanywhere intheworld.AparallelinvolvingTurkeyorindeedmedievalEuropeseemedfar-fetched.YetPykewas convincedbythelogicofhisanalogy. Hehadidentifiedtheproblem.Nowforthesolution. Againhereachedintothepast,fixinguponthe1735WitchcraftAct,‘aneventwhichmaycometobe regardedasoneofthethreeorfourmostsignificanteventsinthehistoryoftherace’.Itwas,hewenton, ‘perhaps the first result in the Christian era of the impact of science on social behaviour’. Rather than dismisswitchcraftassuperstitiousnonsensethepredecessorsofmodern-dayscientistshadshownittobe so.Onceithadbeenmadeclearthatthemythofwitchcraftmadenosensethelawsprohibitingitwere soonrepealed.Whynotdothesameforthemythofanti-Semitism? Only the year before, Pyke’s great idol, Bernard Shaw, had said on the subject of the Nazi discriminationagainstJews:‘Itisidletoargueagainstthissortofinsanity.’Hewasright,inthesensethat you would achieve little by arguing against it. Instead, you should demonstrate how it worked. Rather thanattackthemyth,explainhowitwasmade.OrasPykeputit:‘Theanswertothosewhotrytoinciteus isnot,“Whatyousayisuntrue,”but“Aha,Icantellyouwhyyousaythat.”’ His solution was to ‘demilitarise’ the Nazi myth of anti-Semitism by showing the world how it worked.Theeffectwouldbelikehavingamagictrickexplained–everyonewouldfeelabitsillyfornot havingseenwhatwasgoingonearlier.Pykeproposedaninternationalcentredevotedtoexploringand explodingthemythofanti-Semitism.Theworkmustbedonebyacademics,for‘people will take from themwhattheywon’ttakefromtheirownpoliticalleaders’,andthefindingswouldbetaughtinschools. Eventuallyanti-Semiteswouldgothewayofflat-Earthers:theywouldbeseenfirstaswrong,thenoldfashionedandfinallymad.‘Letamanbethoughttobederangedandyouisolatehimasnoprisoncando,’ noted Pyke, words which had particular weight from someone who had spent four months in solitary confinementandhadsincebeendeclaredborderlineinsane. WhileorganisationssuchastheWorldAllianceforCombatingAnti-Semitismaideditsvictimsand pushedforboycottsofGermangoods,andtheBritishgovernmentwasofferingsanctuarytothoseGerman Jews who excelled in science and art, none of these measures addressed the taproot of this largely Christian affliction. This is what set Pyke’s solution apart. In Germany the Nazis would soon open a Forschungsabteilung Judenfrage – a ‘Research Department for the Jewish Question’. Pyke was proposingtheopposite.AsaJewhewouldlaunchaninstitutedevotedtothe‘NaziQuestion’. Hewasrealisticaboutwhatitcouldachieve.Atnopointdidhebelievethatitsfindingswouldbring aboutaDamasceneconversionfortheAdolfHitlersandAlfredRosenbergsoftheworld.Yetheheldout therealhopethatitsworkcouldaffect‘themarginalconvert’,theordinaryGerman,‘themanwhounless somethingisdonemaytomorrowbecomeananti-Semite’. ForthediplomatandpoliticianSirAndrewMcFadyean,thisideahadtoit‘atouchofgenius’,though Pyke was perhaps less impressed by his own handiwork. All he had done was look to the past for analogies. Socrates once warned that the advent of writing and reading would lead to ‘forgetfulness in the learners’souls,becausetheywillnotusetheirmemories’.Thesolutiontothisproblemhadbeenhidden inplainview.AsPykesawit,hewasmerelythefirstonewhohadgonetothetroubleoflookingforit. AsMcFadyeanwentontosay,whatreallymadethissolutionremarkablewasthatnobodyhadthoughtof itbefore. At the start of 1935, with most of his debts written off, Pyke began to raise money for a myth-busting scientific institute devoted to the study of anti-Semitism. The initial response was hesitant. Professor DavidKeilin,QuickProfessorofBiologyatCambridge,assuredPykethatasaJewhehadfoundthemost effective response to Jew-baiting was not academic analysis but ‘commonsense and sense of humour’. TheMarquessofReading,thefirstpractisingJewintheBritishcabinet,explainedthatforsimilarreasons hewasunabletolendhisnametothescheme.Indeed,manyofthoseEnglishJewsfirstapproachedby Pykesuggestedthataninstitutelikethismightinfactmakemattersworse.Theseweremenwhohadlearnt tothinkofanti-SemitismasifitwasrainduringanEnglishsummer:aregrettablefactoflifewhichshould beendured,laughedatandotherwiseignored.Theywereinaminority. AftersixmonthsoffundraisingPykehadthebackingofLordLytton,theFabianleaderSidneyWebb andprominentEnglishJewssuchasLordMelchett,SirRobertWaley-CohenandSirAlbertBeit,allof whomprovidedmoney,adviceandfurtherintroductions.Thelargestcheque,for£200,camefromVictor Rothschild,thetwenty-four-year-oldpolymathandheirtoabankingdynasty,whohadhelpedPykeearlier withMaltingHouse.NeithermancouldhaveguessedthedecisiverolethatRothschildwouldlaterplayin Pyke’slifewhenservingasanMI5officer. By July 1935, with the project still gathering momentum, Pyke met another secular Jew devoting himselftothefutureoftheJewishpeople.ChaimWeizmannwasaZionistwhohadplayedapartinthe genesis of the Balfour Declaration of 1917, and as such belonged to the long tradition of Jews on the religious periphery, from Herod to Herzl, who have changed Jewish history. Before rushing off to the 1935 World Zionist Conference in Lucerne, Weizmann gave Pyke a tip. To win over reluctant English Jews he must get the backing of at least one overseas Jewish community. Weizmann suggested South Africa, adding that he had a number of contacts there. Pyke agreed, renewed his passport and in SeptembersetoffforJohannesburg. OneofhisfirstintroductionswastoGeneralSmuts,theformerSouthAfricanPrimeMinisterwhohad helped found the League of Nations. Smuts was taken by the idea and agreed to lend his name to what Weizmanncalleda‘reallygoodcause’.Forthenextfourmonths,Pykewasonthedrawing-roomcircuit, deliveringstumpspeechestoSouthAfricanJewsabouttheneedforascientificinstitutedevotedtothe studyofanti-SemitisminthefaceofworryingNazidiscrimination.Hefinishedeachtalkwiththesame plaintiveline:‘Doyouknowofanybetterproposal,morepractical,moreimmediate?Ifyoudo,Iwill chuckthisandworkforthat.Butifyoudonot,Iaskyoutopromisetogiveasmuchasyoupossiblycan.’ Pykewasinhiselement.Hehadspentmuchofhisadultlifepresentingordefendingunusualideasto thoughtfulstrangers.Hewasapowerful,livelyspeakerwholikedtopunctuatehismostseriouspassages withmomentsofcomedy–usuallyinspiredbyShaw.Herevelledinreversal.Resistance,hetoldhimself, wasduetoalackofimagination,anditwasessentialtoteasetheaudienceintoseeingtheworldupside down. TheresponsetoPyke’sSouthAfricanfundraisingwasoverwhelming,andinJanuary1936hereturned to Britain with pledges worth £8,000. Admittedly these had all come on the condition that he raise a further£72,000elsewhere–whichwaswhatheplannedtodoinBritainandtheUnitedStates.Yetinthe months that followed the project’s momentum began to fade. Pyke found himself unable to secure the necessary four- or five-figure sums, and, as progress slowed, several South Africans withdrew their support. Perhaps there was another way of doing this? Could he not produce a scientific analysis of antiSemitismbyhimself? InalettertoTheTimesinthesummerof1936,concerningtheconnectionbetweenanti-Semitismand thelawsagainstwitchcraft,Pykehintedthathemightdojustthat.HefollowedupinSeptemberwithan extendedpieceintheNewStatesmanandNationwhichreadliketheprécisofabook.ByNovemberhe hadwrittenadeconstructionofanti-Semitismthatrantomorethan100,000words.Butjustashebeganto revisehismanuscript,hisattentionwasdraggedelsewhere. Before he could finish this book or work out where he had gone wrong with his fundraising, Pyke becamecaughtupinthesolutionoffirstoneproblem,thenanother,eachoneincrementallymoreurgent thanthelast.Thiswashowhisgrasshoppermindworked.Hewas,heoncewrote,‘a mere dreamer of brilliant ideas’. Steering a solution through to completion was always less attractive than the magical prospectofidentifyingafreshproblemandsolvingit. DrAlfredBlunt,BishopofBradford,wasnotafraidofcontroversy.AtaregionalDiocesanconference on1December1936,thisforthrightbishopaskedhisfellowclergywhetherthenewmonarch,Edward VIII, was fully aware of the religious significance of his role as Defender of the Faith for, if he was, ‘someofuswishthathegavemorepositivesignsofsuchawareness’. This was a none-too-subtle reference to the possibility of the King marrying his mistress, Wallis Simpson,atwice-marriedBaltimoreanwithmilkyskinandalean,unforgivingface.Blunt’sremarkslit thetouchpaperonthegreatestroyalscandalofthetwentiethcentury.Thoughthestoryhadbeenkeptoutof theBritishpressuntilthen,bytheendoftheweeknewspaperswerejammedfullwithopinionpieceson the subject and photographs of the couple taken during the summer. The interest was such that people would queue in the street to buy the evening paper. It was a perfect storm of national introspection, touching on issues of class, sex, monarchical deference, British identity, religious propriety and the constitutionalimplicationsofthismarriage.Therewasalsoahungertofindouthowthisromancewould endandhowtherestoftheworldhadreactedtothenews. ‘Societyissuspendedinmid-air,’theKingtoldAlfredDuffCooper,amemberoftheCabinet,holding up a chair to make his point. ‘Nobody knows what is right.’ Nobody knew, and yet everyone had an opinion. The King’s Private Secretary assured the Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, that ‘there is little doubtwhattheopinionofthepeoplewouldbe’.TheLabourleader,ClementAttlee,wasconfidentthat hisfeelingsmatchedthoseofhisentireparty,‘withtheexceptionoftheintelligentsiawhocanbetrusted totakethewrongviewonanysubject’.‘Idoknowpublicopinioninthiscountry,’insistedBaldwin,later describedbytheKingas‘theGallupPollincarnate’.Allthesame,DuffCooperremarked,‘itwascurious howeverybodywhohadsoughttheviewsoftaxidrivers,hairdressers,hospitalnurses,clerksorservants hadheardexactlywhattheywantedtohear,thatistosaytheirownopinion’. ObservingallthisfromhiscottageintheDevil’sPunchbowl,Pykehadanidea.Lessthanaweekafter theBishopofBradford’sspeech,withthecountryapparentlydividedbetweenthosewhothoughttheKing shouldmarryandotherscallingforhisabdication,ChurchilliansagainstBaldwinians,Cavaliersagainst Roundheads,PykewrotealettertotheNewStatesmanandNation. Undertheheading‘KingandCountry’hecalledfor‘theanthropologicalstudyofourowncivilisation of which we stand in such desperate need’. One of the reasons why the King’s potential marriage had turnedintoacrisiswasthatnobodyquiteknewwhatBritishpublicopinionwas,andtowhatextentthe presshadreflecteditor‘evokedandmoulded’it.‘Anthropologistsandpsychologistsallovertheworld are studying the reactions of primitive tribes to sexual situations,’ Pyke wrote, so why not study the BritishtribeanditsreactiontotheSimpsonaffair,asexualsituationifevertherewasone?Alreadyit wasclearthatwithinthisparticulartribemanywere‘unabletotoleratetheimageofaQueen–whose chief function together with her Consort would be to be an object of idolisation – who has previously beenmarriedtotwomenwhoarestillalive.’Acomprehensivestudywouldbuildonobservationslike thistoprovideamassofinformationabouthowtheBritishthoughtandfelt,whichunconsciousmotives drovethemintimesliketheseandhowpoliticiansornewspapereditorswereabletoexploitthem. PerhapsasimilarstudycouldbeginintheUnitedStates,iffornootherreasonthantounderstandhow Americans were responding to British hostility towards ‘that woman’. Pyke’s worry was that some of thoseontheothersideoftheAtlanticmightinterpretthisantipathytowardsMrsSimpsonas‘anaspersion on themselves’, leading to anti-British feeling that could manifest itself ‘on some future occasion’ in a ‘refusal to co-operate and perhaps a revengeful suspicion of motive’. Although there was at least a correlation between this idea and the American refusal three years later to join Britain against Nazi Germany, the thrust of Pyke’s letter lay elsewhere. He had called for an anthropological study of the Britishand,foronce,hegotexactlywhatheaskedfor. ThemagazinewhichcarriedPyke’sletterwentonsaleinLondononaglum,coldmorning,several daysaftertheabdicationofEdwardVIIIandonlyhoursbeforehisyoungerbrotherBertiewasswornin asKingGeorgeVI.InahouseinBlackheaththisletterwasreadwithamixtureofexcitementandanxiety byagroupofSurrealistpoetsledbyaDailyMirrorreporter,CharlesMadge,andayoungfilmmakerat the GPO Film Unit, Humphrey Jennings. Over the next few days both wrote to the New Statesman and NationtosaythattheyhadbeenthinkingalongverysimilarlinestoPyke. Their letter was seen in early January by Tom Harrisson, an Old Harrovian and self-taught anthropologist then labouring in a Bolton cotton mill while observing the local working class. He had picked up a copy of the magazine to admire his first (and last) published poem, ‘Coconut Moon’, a choppySurrealistodetohissweetheart,‘Zita’,whohadsincerunoffwithanotherman.Ithadappeared justbelowMadgeandJennings’sresponsetoPyke’sletter.HarrissonimmediatelycontactedMadgeand Jennings,andthetriowrotetotheNewStatesmanandNationwithwhatwaseffectivelyamanifestofor what would become Mass Observation (M-O). Out of this suitably surreal juxtaposition of letter and poem,thekindofaccidentaltextualbricolagewhichMadge,JenningsandHarrissonenjoyedsomuch,a newmovementwasborn. AcknowledgingtheirdebttoPyke’scallforan‘anthropology of our own people’, Madge, Jennings and Harrisson explained that their study of the British tribe would take on subjects like ‘shouts and gestures of motorists’, ‘the aspidistra cult’, ‘bathroom behaviour’, ‘female taboos about eating’ and, tellingly,‘anti-Semitism’.Alongwiththeirunderlyingemphasisongatheringmountainsofrawdata,on observationandanalysisastwodistinctstages,thisinclusionofanti-Semitismsuggestsagreaterdebtto Pyke.Theywouldhavereadhispieceseveralmonthsearlieronanti-Semitism,andasformerCambridge undergraduatesitwasalsolikelythattheyknewaboutMaltingHouse.M-OwastofocusonwhatBritish peopledidasmuchaswhattheysaid.ThechildrenatMaltingHousewere‘undertrainedobservationout of school hours as well as in them’ and ‘practically all that they do, and much of what they say, is recorded’. M-Owentontobecomeauniqueandinfluentialorganisationdedicatedtosocialresearch,andwas employedduringthewarbytheMinistryofInformation.Pyke’sletterbroughtitintobeing.Itisjustabout possibletocallhimthefatherofM-O,thoughhewasanerrantfatheratbest,onewhowantednothingto do with the child’s upbringing. Madge kept him abreast of major developments and they corresponded briefly,butthereafterPykewasneverdirectlyinvolved.BythetimethethreeM-Ofoundershadwritten theirmanifestoPykehadmovedon:indeed,bythatpointhehadsethimselfaproblemwhichmadethe Abdication crisis feel like an interesting but essentially parochial distraction. The question Pyke now soughttoanswerseemedtoaffecttheveryfutureofEuropeancivilisation. Earlyin1937PyketravelleduptoLondontotake‘preliminarysoundingsofopinion’onanideawhich seemedtohimsoobviousthathewasamazedtolearnthatnobodyelsehadyetthoughtofit.Imagininghe wouldbegonefornomorethanaweekhelefthisdog,Judy,withhislandlord,andkeptthecottageopen. ButonemeetingledtoanotherandmorethantwoyearslaterPykehadstillnotreturnedtotheDevil’s Punchbowl.Judy,presumably,spenttherestofherdayswiththelandlord.NodoubtPykemissedher,but therewasnothinghewouldnotsacrificeforthesakeofthecausehehadtakenon. The scheme that would come to dominate his life was an attempt to change the way we give, a redefinition of voluntarism in the face of the fascist threat. Its target was Spain. The year before, a ‘PopularFront’coalitionofleft-leaningpartieshadwontheSpanishGeneralElectionbyawhisker.A cliqueofarmyofficersledbyGeneralFranciscoFrancohadsubsequentlyrisenupagainstthegovernment andthecountryhadspiralledintocivilwar.Whatfollowedwassavageandcomplicated,abloodymaze of reprisals and score-settling, with neighbours turning on each other as a mosaic of regional and sectariantensionswasuncovered. Fromafaritwassomethingelseentirely:awarofoppositesinwhichdemocracywaspittedagainst fascism,atheismagainstreligion,theproletariatversusthebourgeoisie.AsthejournalistMarthaGellhorn wrote,‘itwasoneofthosemomentsinhistorywhentherewasnodoubt’. ThisgrandnarrativeplayedtothethrottledaspirationsofPyke’sgeneration,onewhichhadgrownup during a military apocalypse and had since lived through an economic meltdown of unparalleled proportions.Formanythiseithersuggestedorconfirmedthatliberaldemocracywasnottheanswer.As supportforthefascistandcommunistalternativesgrew,sodidthebitterenmitybetweenthetwocamps. Withineachwasanirresistibleandmountingsensethattheywerenotonlytryingtoleadhumanitytothe promisedlandbutatthesametimepreventingitfrombeingdraggeddowntoperditionbytheenemy.It wasamillenarianage,anageofextremes,andinSpaintheforcesofgoodandevilseemedtobesharing abattlefieldforthefirsttime.ThisfeelingwasshoredupbytheideathatFranco’s‘Nationalist’rebels werebeingarmedbyGermanyandItaly,whiletheleft-wing‘Republican’governmentwasbackedbythe SovietUnion. Inthissense,whathadjustbeguninSpainappearedtobethefirstactinanewkindofstruggle,an internationalcivilwarinwhichfascistsallovertheworldwouldeventuallylineupagainstantifascists. IfyouwereopposedtoMosley’sBlackshirtsyouwerealsoatwarwithFranco’sBlueshirts,Mussolini’s Blackshirts,Hitler’sBrownshirts,Pelley’sSilvershirtsintheUnitedStatesorevenO’Duffy’sGreenshirts inIreland.Allegiancewasdeterminednotbynationalitybutbypersonalpolitics.‘Neverhastherebeena periodwhenpatriotism,inthesenseofautomaticloyaltytoacitizen’snationalgovernment,countedfor less,’wrotethehistorianEricHobsbawm.Pykewasphysicallyunabletofight,animpotencewhichmight haveinspiredhisactivism,buttherewasneveranydoubtinhismindaboutwhichsidehebelongedto. IntheweeksaftertheoutbreakoftheSpanishCivilWar,Baldwin’sConservativegovernmentmade thedecisionnottointervene,sparkingtheAidSpainMovement,analignmentofcharitablecommittees, organisations and other voluntary groups, ‘a de facto Popular Front’ geared towards providing the Spanish Republicans with everything the British government would not – except for arms. From the Cambridge Scientists Anti-War Group to the Basque Children’s Committee or Bloomsbury’s For IntellectualLiberty,thesepopularanti-fascistgroupsstagedacrescendoofralliesandfundraisersacross the country during the second half of 1936. Aid began to make its way to Spain and by the start of the following year ‘Spain Shops’ were sending money to the Republican government and British medical volunteersweremakingthejourneytoSpain.Soweresome500brave,idealisticyoungmenwhoformed theBritishBattalionoftheInternationalBrigades.Itseemedasifeverythingthatcouldbedonewasbeing done.Orwasit? HowtoGetAidtoSpainforFree In late 1936, Pyke had asked the mechanic who was fixing the clapped-out Armstrong car outside his cottagehowmuchthisvehiclewasworth.Themechanichadexplainedthatjustthenthesecond-handcar marketwasinaterriblestate.Thecountrywas‘coveredwithdumpsofoldmotorvehiclesofalltypes’ whichcouldbe‘boughtforasong’.Butratherthanbeingbought,reconditionedandputbackontheroad, mostwerebrokenupandsoldofftoscrapmerchants.Agrowingproportionofthisscrapmetalwaseven endingupinGermanywhereNazirearmamenthadcreatedabuoyantmarket. Overtheweeksthatfollowed,Pykecombinedthreebasicobservations:inBritaintherewereheapsof cheap second-hand vehicles, the sale of which was inadvertently boosting Nazi rearmament; there was popular support for the Spanish Republicans among British factory workers; and in Spain there was a needforcostlyambulancesandtransports.Outofthesecameanidea. Ifhecouldgethishandsonsomeoftheseoldvansandtrucksbeforetheywerescrappedandhave them transported to engineers who identified with the Republican cause and were willing to volunteer someoftheirsparetime,thenperhapsthesevehiclescouldbereconditioned,turnedintoambulancesand sentouttoSpain,allforverylittlemoney.Hecouldprovidematerialaidatafractionoftheretail cost. Factoryworkerswouldbedoingout-of-hoursprobonoworkinaidoftheSpanishRepublicans.Or,toput itanotherway,theBritishlabourmovementwouldbefightingfascismwithlabour,notwithcapital. Itwasabeguilingconcept,andonethatcouldeasilybeextended.Perhapstherewerefactoryowners whowerepreparedtocreditworkers’overtimetowardsthecostofgoodsproducedontheirpremises. Either Pyke would supply the raw materials to the workers, or volunteers would put in extra hours knowingthattheiremployerwoulddonategoodstothevalueoftheirlabour(aswellasdonatingtheuse oftheirmachinesandpremises). Hisplansforaninstitutedevotedtothestudyofanti-Semitismhadcollapsedduetolackoffunds,a failure which reflected in part the cause’s unfashionability. This new scheme was different. It required very little funding and was inspired by the political cause célèbre. Having come up with the idea it seemedthatallthatPykeneededtodowaspublicisetheschemeandcoordinatetheeffortsofhundredsof willingvolunteers. VoluntaryIndustrialAidforSpain(VIAS)wasformedinFebruary1937withPykeasHonorarySecretary andalmostnofundstoitsname.HeturnedforhelpfirsttoSageBernalandhispartner,theartcollector Margaret Gardiner. They gave a cheque for £15 which allowed Pyke to take rooms at No. 32 Great OrmondStreetinBloomsbury,aflatthatwoulddoubleupasPyke’shomeandtheVIASheadquarters. Hisnextstepwastocanvassfurtheropinions,ashealwaysdidwhenapproachinganewsubject.He soughtoutCambridgefriendslikeMauriceDobb,J.B.S.Haldane,theclassicistF.L.Lucas,Kingsley MartinattheNewStatesmanandNationandHaroldLaskiatLSE.Allagreedthattheideawasvaluable andthathemustfirstwinoverthetradesunions.Withnoexperienceofthelabourmovement,Pykewent toBernalforintroductionsandbytheendofthemonthhadcobbledtogetheraVIASAdvisoryCommittee made up of fourteen high-powered union men and for added respectability the Labour peer Lord Faringdon. OncetheinspirationforEvelynWaugh’s‘LordParakeet’inDeclineandFall,Faringdon,acampand flamboyantfigure,hadswappedthestudiednonchalanceofthe1920sforthecampaigningseriousnessof the1930s.AswellasbeingTreasurerofVIAS,afterthebombingofGuernicahewouldopenhishometo thechildrenofBasquerefugees.YetevenFaringdon’sinvolvementinPyke’scommitteefailedtomaskits political character. It was, as Pyke would admit, ‘hard-boiled’, with key figures like Joe Scott, Harry AdamsandJackTannereitherclosetotheCommunistPartyorcard-carryingmembers.Atthetimethis seemedunimportant.Theideabehindthenew‘PopularFront’mentalitywasthatleft-winggroupsshould pulltogetherinthefaceofthefascistthreat.But,asPykesoondiscovered,noteveryonesawitlikethat. Using new VIAS headed stationery he wrote to a high table of trades unions leaders explaining the concept,andpersuadedKingsleyMartintopublishappealsintheletterssectionoftheNew Statesman andNation.Whileeightoftheunionshecontactedagreedtobecomeinvolved,othersconfessedthatthey couldnotagreetoituntilVIAShadtheblessingoftheall-powerfulTradesUnionCongress(TUC). DepictedbythecartoonistLowasalumberingcarthorse,theTUCwasslowtoagreetoanything,let aloneaninitiativedreamtupbyabeardedbankruptwhohadneverdoneaday’smanuallabour.Pykemet with various officials, including the TUC General Secretary, Walter Citrine, most of whom, ‘failed to respondwithanytraceofenthusiasmthatIcoulddetect’.InalettertoBernal,hebemoanedthisdilatory progressand‘thecomplexityoftheorganisationoftheLabourmovement’.Littledidheknowthatwhile hewaswritingthatletterCitrinewasbusycontactingtheeightunionswhichhadagreedtoPyke’splanto highlightwhathebelievedtobeadangerousflaw. The Amalgamated Society of Woodcutting Machinists agreed with Citrine that the voluntary manufactureofgoods–nomatterhowworthythecause–seta‘verydangerousprecedent’.Perhapsmore alarmingforCitrinewasthepoliticalcharacterofPyke’scommittee.TheTUCleadershiphadresolvedto avoidanyendeavourwhichhadcommunistassociations,andinthisregard,asoneofhisstaffputit,the make-up of the VIAS Advisory Committee was ‘rather unfortunate’. Which was why the TUC formally rejectedVIAS. ForPyke,thiswasanobviousmomenttoabandontheproject.Intermsoftimeandmoney,hehadlost very little, and it was now clear that it was going to be extremely difficult to get this scheme up and running.Lettinggooftheideaatthisearlystagewasalsoprudentgivenhisfinancialsituation,whichwas now ‘desperate’. As he explained to Bernal and Gardiner, he was facing ‘complete destitution. I come undernoinsuranceorotherscheme,andthoughapparentlyintelligent,havenoprospectofajob’.Hedid notlikeaskingformoneyandhadbeguntoexhaustthegenerosityoffriends.Buthekeptgoing.Indeed,he redoubledhiseffortstopromoteanorganisationwhichdependedentirelyonvoluntaryaid. Hewasdrivenbythefailureofhisanti-Semitismworkand,perhapsmorethanthis,whathefelttobe theinadequacyoftheLeft’sresponsetotheSpanishCivilWar.PykewasconvincedthatVIAScoulddoa betterjobofconvertingthepopularsympathyfortheRepublicancauseintoactualaid.Inthetoneofhis letters,aswellasthequantity,itisclearthathewasexasperatedbyothercharities’lackofimagination. Whydidn’ttheyasktheirmembersforideasandlabour,ratherthanjustpressingthemformorecash?It annoyed him on account of the seriousness of the fascist threat. Everything that might be done must be done.‘Toforegoanyreasonableexperiment–socialormechanicalwhichmayhelptheSpanishpeople– istobetraythem.’Whydidhekeepgoing?Becausebytheendof1937GeoffreyPykehadgonetowar;he wasatwarwithfascismandassuchhehadnochoicebuttokeepfighting. Pykeintheearly1930s InspiteofTUCoppositionandlimitedfunds,Pyke’sbrainchildbegantofulfilsomeofitsextraordinary promise.Overthecomingmonthsworkersinfactoriesdottedalloverthecountrysigneduptothescheme and formed VIAS cells. By October 1938, the charity had shipped to Spain some twenty-five vehicles includingtwomobileblood-transfusionunits,andbytheendofthewarasmanyasseventyreconditioned vehicles had been donated. As well as mattresses for Basque refugees, ampoules of anaesthetic, antitetanusserumandnovocainetheyalsosentmicroscopes.EmployeesatR.&J.BeckInstrumentMakers, in Kentish Town, worked extra shifts on Sunday mornings until they had earned enough credit to send crates of microscopes out to Spain. Legend has it that while the ship carrying the first batch was torpedoed,othercratesmadeitthroughandtheseinstrumentswerethoughttobethefinestinSpain. EveryVIAScellwasdifferent.TheoneinCambridge,ledbythesinologistandembryologistJoseph Needham,managedtoproducejustonereconditionedmotorcycle,andeventhatwasastruggle.Needham describedtheSundayafternoonwhentheenormousHarleyDavidsontheyhadbeenworkingonshotoutof the garage and crashed through a nearby fence, causing extensive damage. The Manchester cell, by contrast, was getting through so many motorcycles that they had to start using space behind the nearby EcclesTradeCouncilbuilding. Pyke’scharitywasatriumphofsmall-scalevoluntarism,anditsfounderwasinnodoubtthatits‘real capital’ was the energy and frenetic enthusiasm of its volunteers. In some cases this led to greater politicisation.Oneofhisworkersrecalledtheeffectofthisworkonhiscolleagues.‘Theywerestarting tounderstandhowvitalitwasfortheworkingclasstohelponeanother,nomatterwhatcountrytheylived in.’ThiswasthePopularFrontasitshouldhavebeen.ThoseontheBritishLeftwereunitingtoproduce materialaidwhichwasgoingtothosewhoneededitinSpain. OneoftheVIAS‘socialentrepreneurs’nexttoareconditionedtruckbeforeitwassenttoSpain Justasthesefactorycellswererunbyvolunteers,sowasthecharity’sheadquartersonGreatOrmond Street. Pyke described those young men and women who came in after work as ‘social entrepreneurs’ (longbeforethetermbecamepopular).Theywroteletters,coordinatedshipmentsanddidbattlewiththe notoriouslychaoticVIAScard-indexsystem.AtthecentreofthisvortexofgoodintentwasPyke:drawn, balding,bespectacled,ofteninsandalsandeschewingformaldressashepaddedaroundtheflat.Yetfor allhiscommitmenttothecause,hewasaterriblemanager. Pyke’sstylewascircuitousandoftenlabour-intensive.Hetendedtospendtoolonglookingforajoke, analysing a joke or exploring apparently blind alleys. ‘I have not yet trained myself to keep my papers neatly,’headded,concedingelsewhere,‘Iamveryconscious,frommyexperience,thatIamnottheman torunthis,as,psychologically,Iamanhabitualprocrastinator’.Hecouldalsobeimpatient.Therewasan asperity to his urgency to aid the Republicans and he made no secret of his desire that VIAS should function with all the efficiency of a cut-throat capitalist operation. In a paper prepared for the Spain Campaign Committee of the Labour Party he described his charity as ‘damnably inefficient’, asserting ‘withcompleteconfidenceintheaccuracyofmydescription,thatifwehadtofaceindirectoppositiona GermanFascistconcernofthesamesize,weshouldbesimplywipedoutoftheway’. Out of this underlying dissatisfaction came the desire to apply himself more widely. For one of the firsttimesinhislifehehadteamsofworkersawaitinginstructionsand,afterreadingaboutsomeofthe issuesfacedbytheRepublicans,hebegantodesignsmall-scalepracticalsolutionstoparticularproblems which were then sent out to VIAS cells. In other words, Pyke began to invent and his inventions were realised. OnlearningthatmanyoftheroadsleadingtothefrontlineinSpainweretooroughforambulanceshe designedamotorcyclesidecarcapableofcarryingawoundedsoldier. Whenheheardaboutthedifficultyofgettinghotfoodtothefront,heproducedplansforaseparate sidecarwhichcouldkeeprationswarmbyusingtheheatoftheengine. Knowing that there were problems with the Republicans’ trains, he developed plans for a pedalpoweredlocomotiveinwhichthemotiveforcecamefromanengineroomofcyclingmen. Whenhewasnotinventing,hewouldlooktothepastforsolutionstocontemporaryproblems.With fuelinshortsupplyandfieldstobesown,Pykesentoutinstructionstohisvolunteersthattheyshouldlook for discarded horse ploughs hidden in hedgerows. These could be restored and sent out to Spanish farmers. He also read about a variety of moss which had been used during the Great War in lieu of cotton bandages.Self-sterilising,highlyabsorbentandreadilyavailablebothintheScottishHighlandsandparts of Spain, sphagnum moss was described by the War Office in 1919 as ‘one of the most valuable and cheapest surgical dressings for the relief of suffering in the case of sceptic wounds and surgical operations generally’. Since then, curiously, it had been overlooked. Anyone can forget, Pyke allowed, butacollectivefailuretofindoutwhathadbeenforgottenwas,inhisopinion,unforgivable. Using his VIASnetworkPykedistributedaguidetocollectingandpreparingsphagnummoss.Hegavetalksabout thisneglectedmaterialinParisandLondon,allofwhichmayhavecontributedtoitsuseseveralyears later, during the Second World War, when even the young Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret were reportedtobegatheringsphagnummossfromthemoorssurroundingBalmoral. ForayearandahalfVIASprovidedmaterialaidtotheSpanishRepublicansatafractionofitsretail cost. There were enthusiastic write-ups of its work in the Daily Worker, Left News, Tribune and Manchester Guardian, and even The Times mentioned VIAS motorcycle-ambulances on their way to Spain. The Spanish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Julio Álvarez del Vayo, who had helped to purchase arms from the Soviet Union, praised the work of VIAS. Yet by the winter of 1938, with Franco in the ascendant,itsactivitiesstartedtoslow. SincehisdecisiontotakeonNazianti-SemitismfouryearsearlieranewversionofGeoffreyPyke hademerged.Similartohis1920siteration,hewasintellectuallyadventurous,unafraidofextremesand alwaysonthelookoutforsloppyassumptions.Hetookgreatcaretoformulatehisquestionscorrectly,and whensearchingforsolutionswouldconductsmall-scaleexperimentsorseekinspirationinnewspapers, conversations,films,songsandanythingelsethathecouldfind.Hewouldalsominethepastforhistorical analogies. What had changed was that he was now capable of mechanical invention, and in a political sensehehadcomealive.YetfortheBritishSecurityServicetherewouldsoonbeaquestionmarkover howfarhehadtakenthisnewfoundpoliticalawareness. Buthewasnotthecompleteinventor,atleastnotyet.Pykemighthaveperfectedtheabilitytoidentify problemsandcomeupwithboldsolutions,buthehadfailedtomasterthenextstage–howtohavehis radicalideastakenupatthehighestlevel.Attimeshewouldcomplainthatitwaseveryoneelse’sfault, andthathelivedin‘acountrywhosedeepestsocialbeliefis,perhaps,thatnothingshouldeverbedone for the first time’. While there was some element of truth in this – the 1930s in Britain will not be rememberedasadecadeofepicscientificadvance–therealproblemwasthathehadnotyetunderstood thatresistancetoinnovationwasandisinnate.‘Wisdomislikegold,’hehadwritten,‘itisuselessifno onewillacceptitfromyou.’Pykewasperfectlygoodatfindingthisgold.Nowheneededtoimprovehis abilitytosellit–whichwaswhyhisnextchallengewassoapt. HOWTOPREVENTAWAR By the summer of 1939 Peter Raleigh was a man in need of an adventure. He had gone up to King’s College,Cambridge,severalyearsearlier,wherehehadfallenunderthespellofthehistorianandfellow KingsmanEricHobsbawm,thenaseniorfigureintheCambridgeStudentBranchoftheCommunistParty. ‘His quality of mind was such,’ wrote Raleigh, ‘the speed of his appreciation of a situation so extraordinary, his analysis of it so impeccably unemotional, that he was a natural guru for young Communists. He was also rather a nice man.’ Under Hobsbawm’s guidance Raleigh had become a probationary member of the Party, and in an ill-fated attempt to gain full membership had staged a fundraiserinaidoftheSpanishRepublicans.Itincludedasideshowcalled‘ShoottheDictator’,inwhich visitors took it in turns to take potshots at caricatures of Mussolini, Hitler et al. In a momentary lapse, Raleighhadaddedtothisrogues’galleryaportraitofStalin.Hewastakenasidebya‘ratherfoursquare earnestman’,DrArnoldKettle,andtold‘withgentlesolemnity’thatperhapshewasnotcutoutforParty membership. Several months later, in June 1939, Peter Raleigh returned to the Bloomsbury flat in which he had beenstaying,thehomeofadoctorwhohadvolunteeredinSpain,wherehewastoldthathehadavisitor. Raleighwasthenintroducedtoagaunt,wirymaninglassesandathreadbaresuit. Itwasdifficult,hefound,‘nottobemesmerisedbyGeoffreyPyke’shead’,andinparticular‘theshiny baldscalpwithitsin-builtcrease,asortofadultfontanelle’andthe‘tuftyblackbeardwavinguncertainly attheendofthechin’. The combination of Pyke’s appearance and the way he spoke – an opening salvo of questions and jokesfollowedbystreamsofideasandobservationsthatwouldwashoveryou,themeaningapparentand beguiling, leading up to a moment of high seriousness in which it felt as if you were being let in on a tremendous secret – all this made him come across as both ‘Mad Scientist and conspirator from The Secret Agent’. Raleigh was entranced. ‘Without knowing anything of what was to be asked of me, I volunteeredmyselfforwhateverGeoffreyhadinmind.’Itwouldbesometimebeforeherealisedwhat thiswas,andthatunwittinglyhehadagreedtosmugglehimselfintoNaziGermanyaspartofaprivate attempttoavertanotherworldwar. HowtoGiveGermany‘theFacts’ Fifteen months earlier, in March 1938, German troops had marched into Vienna in the wake of the AnschlussbetweenAustriaandNaziGermany.IntheweeksthatfollowedHitlerhadturnedhisattention to the Sudetenland, a little-known section of western and northwestern Czechoslovakia. With the indignationofamanwhohadsuccumbedlongagotoanenvelopingvictimhood,theGermanChancellor declaredinspeechafterspeechthattheSudetenlandbelongedtoGermany–untiltheSudeten‘issue’had becometheSudeten‘crisis’.Thedangerwasample.IfHitlerorderedhistroopsintoCzechoslovakia,as wellhemight,British,FrenchandevenSovietforcesmightcometotheaidoftheCzechs.Asingleorder fromHitlercouldtriggeranotherwar. ThisremainedthesituationonthemorningofMonday,29August1938,whichbeganinLondonwitha dribbleofrain.OnopeninghiscurtainsinGreatOrmondStreetPykelookedoutontoaflat,cloudyday. ‘Wakingup,withme,hasalwaysbeenaslowprocess,’heconfessed.Ratherthangetup,hedecided togothroughtheday’snewspapersinbed.OnpagenineoftheManchesterGuardianhereadanarticle thatwouldchangehislife. The paper’s former Berlin correspondent had written: ‘If the main facts of the conflict between the SudetenGermansandtheCzechsandoftheinternationalsituationasawholewereknowntotheGerman public Hitler would no longer be the “Fuhrer and Chancellor”. The fear of war is greater amongst the Germanpeoplethanamongstanyother,andiftheyknewthatHitlerhasbeen,andperhapsstillis,asmuch as considering a war of pure aggression, then neither his eloquence nor his measures of terroristic coercionwouldavailhimanylonger.’Thiswasarevelation.Iftheauthorwastobebelieved,thenHitler wouldlosethesupportoftheGermanpeopleoncetheyrealised,assomanyEuropeanshad,thathewas leadingthemtowar.OnecanimagineasmilespreadingacrossPyke’sface. ‘Formetheworldchangedwiththatsentence.Oneresponsefilledmymind:“Whynottellthem?Tell themthatHitlerisleadingthemtowar.”’‘Iforgottoaskmyselfwhetheranyonewouldtakeitonhimself to tell the German people. I felt only the necessity of their being told: told at once and loudly and repeatedlyandbytherightpeople.’‘ThecivilianpopulationofGermanyshouldbebombed,’hewenton, ‘NOT WITH BOMBS – which is about the best way to unite them against us – but with leaflets, etc., containingthetruth.Acontinualstreamofmessages(issued,too,aspubliclyaspossibleinthiscountry) givingtotheGermansfactswhichhavebeenconcealed,thatthereisnohopeforthemoruswhileHitler andtheNazisareinpower.’ Again he had identified the root of a problem in that lacuna which lies between the reality of a situation and how it is perceived. His task now was to reduce the gap, and in a Platonic sense show Germanytheworldbeyondthecave.Buthewouldneedtomovefast. Pyke’sfirstattempttogivetheGermanpeople‘thefacts’tooktheformofamessagetobesenttothe workers of Germany from a body representative of the British labour movement to say that Hitler was leading them to war. Again he failed to persuade the TUC to help, but on this occasion won over an affiliated body, the National Council of Labour. In late September, the night before Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain flew to Munich for the last time, this organisation released a version of Pyke’s message.ItwasfeaturedontheBBCNewsandappearedinthenextday’sManchesterGuardian.Butthis wasmuchtoolittle,toolate. ThoughanagreementwasreachedthefollowingdayinMunich,andtheimmediatethreatofwarwas diminished,HitlerremainedinpowerandsodidChamberlain.Anotherinternationalcrisiswasboundto flareupsoonerratherthanlater.Overtheweeksthatfollowed,Pykeplungedhimselfonceagainintothe questionofhowtopreventawarwithGermany.Herejectedtheideathatconflictwasinevitable,orthat theseeventswerebeyondhiscontrol.Insteadhechivviedhimselfintoapproachingthisproblemasifhe wasanewcomertothesituation,or,asheputit,beingaJewhehadtothinklikeanIshmaelite,adoptthe mentalityofanoutcastandreject‘thecommonassumptionsofthetimeastowhatisfeasibleandwhatis not’. Late in 1938 Pyke had his breakthrough. He had been intimidated, he realised, not by objective difficultiesbutbyNazipropagandaand,toalesserextent,bythethoughtofsoundingridiculous.This,of course,rancountertohisdearlyheldbelief‘thatamongthefirstdutiesofacitizen(ofthemodernworld) isawillingnesstomakeafoolofhimself.Butforthisbeliefitis,Ithink,doubtfulwhethertheideainmy mindofaprivateattempttopreventthewarwouldeverhavepassedintoaction.Formendonotthink purposefully of what they believe they can never hope to do and they do not do what they have never thought of.’ Pyke now had in mind a scheme that was ‘not only practicable’ but ‘ridiculously practical providingwetackleditprofessionally’. Hisplanwasradicalanddangerous–farmoresothanbroadcastingamessagetotheGermanworkers –andwouldbehardtoimplement.ItdependedonpersuadingatleasttenGerman-speakerstoenterNazi Germanyunderfalsepretencesandstaythereforanythinguptoamonthwhilecarryingoutundercover workonPyke’sbehalf.Thiswasnotaneasysell. FortheDirectorofSIS,Britain’sforeignintelligenceagency,therecentfailureofhisorganisationto penetrateNaziGermanyhadnothingtodowithfundingormotivation.‘Thefactofthematter,’hewrotein 1938,‘isthatduringthelasttwelvemonthsorso,thingshavebecomeverydifficultindeedinGermany.’ One of the only SIS agents in the country, Baron de Ropp, had recently been moved to Switzerland because of fears for his safety. For years, there had been no British agents in the country – indeed, the situation was so bad that SIS was by then forced to rely on aerial photographs for its military and industrialintelligence.If,byearly1939,itwastoodangeroustosendevenoneprofessionalintelligence agentintoNaziGermany,thendispatchingateamofamateurswassenseless. YetforPyketheriskwaseasilyoutweighedbytheconsequencesofsuccess.Ifhecouldfindenough peoplewhowerewillingtoenterGermanyonhisaccount,andhisplanactuallyworked,thenwarmight beforestalledandmillionsofliveswouldbesaved.Withthatinmind,Pykebegantolookforrecruits. * HestartedbycontactingseniorfiguresattheWorkers’EducationalAssociation,ToynbeeHall,LSEand University College London (UCL), asking them if they knew of any adventurous German-speakers who mightbewillingtogoonapaidexpeditiontoGermany.Ifso,theyshouldwritetohim.Inspiteofthe risks,almostimmediatelythelettersandtelegramsbegantoarriveatGreatOrmondStreet. One of the first to get in touch was Cedric Hentschel, a lecturer at UCL whose German and Polish parentshadnamedhimafterLittleLordFauntleroy,andwhosestudentslikedtorhyme:‘TheLecturesof Hentschel/Arereallyessential;/Nootherteacher/KnowssomuchaboutNietzsche’,althoughitwas Byron, really, where his expertise lay. Amy Cunningham, at LSE, was a friend of Hentschel whose teaching methods were described by colleagues as ‘unorthodox’ – sadly we do not know why. She too wrote to Pyke, as did Edith Lamb, the daughter of a trades-union official whose only weakness, worryingly, was her ability to speak German. John Gilbertson, a miner’s son who taught German at a boy’sschool,wasabetterlinguistbutwouldnotbeabletotravelforanotherfewweeks.StanleySmith wasanothermanwhotaughtGermanandwasonholidaywhenheheardaboutthescheme.‘Thethoughtof augmenting my modest salary as a teacher with activities of a kind reminiscent of Ashenden [Somerset Maugham’sfictionalBritishspy]appealedstrongly,’notleastbecausehehadrecentlybecomeengaged andwassavingupforaring. AswellasPeterRaleigh,theCambridgeundergraduatewho,forPyke,‘byashortheadisperhapsthe most brilliant of the team’, the amateur spymaster was contacted by a teacher from Bradford; a young architect;amanualworkerwhowasunabletotraveluntilhisbrokenfingerhadhealed,andsixorseven others, mostly young teachers and lecturers in German Studies, each one patriotic, curious and quietly courageous. A Miss Crowther was typical. She reminded Pyke of the formidable Lysistrata in Bernard Shaw’s Apple Cart. ‘Apparently rather gentle, but as firm as a rock underneath. I think if she came up againstaGestapoagentthattheGestapoagentwouldgettheworstofit.Yorkshireaccent.Nononsense abouther.Fullofbeansandenthusiasm.Isuspectwantingalittleadventureandalaudabledesiretobeof useandtodoherbit.Theobstacle:anagedwidowmother.’ More mysterious among the team of Pyke’s potential recruits was Fred Fuller, then living in Paris, whose ability to speak German was never questioned, and Marjory Watson, a stout, sallow-looking womaninherlatethirties,whowasapparentlyekingoutalivingasaGermantranslator.Watsonhadonce beendescribedtothepoliceas‘adrunkardandabadcharacter’.Morerecently,inApril1939,Special Branchhadreferredtoherasa‘womansuspectedofbeingaNaziagent’.MI5hadsubsequentlylabelled her‘unsuitableforemploymentinanycapacityundertheWarDepartment’.Itwouldlateremergethatthey wererightaboutWatson’sunsuitability,butforthewrongreasons. Itwasafascinatinggroup,aneatcross-sectionofthecominggenerationinBritainwhosemembers hailed from across the gamut of social and geographical backgrounds. But it was hard to see how this bandofwell-meaninglinguistscouldpossiblythwartHitlerinhisattemptstotakeGermanytowar. Pykegavenothingaway,totheextentthatmostofhisyoungrecruitsdidnotevenrealisetheywere partofalargerteam.Instead,theywerekeptapartfromeachotherandmerelytoldthattheywouldbe paidtovisitGermanyandinterviewordinaryGermans.Iftheanswerstotheirquestionsmatchedcertain criteria,amorecomplexoperationwouldbegin.Giventherisksinvolved,someoftheseyoungrecruits mighthavepulledoutinthefaceofsuchopacity,buttheyreportedtoamanwhoseemedtohavemastered theartofcharmingevasion.Pykecouldbatawaymostenquirieswithaself-deprecatingauthoritywhich theyounglinguistsfoundwinning. ‘Most of us, I suppose, regarded Pyke at the time as a harmless eccentric who had given us a paid opportunity for a holiday with a difference’, wrote Smith, later recalling Pyke’s ‘mischievous eyes twinkling behind his spectacles’, and how he held court ‘in his seedy office-cum-flat in Great Ormond Street’wherethefilingsystemwas‘stackedfruittraysfromfloortoceiling’. CedricHentschelwasequallytakenbyPyke,andwasevenmovedtopoetry: Withhisgauntframeandsquare-cutbeard HehadtheairofaRussianprinceling. Hisvoice,silkyandinsinuating, Camefromsomeorienttop-drawer, Acontrasttohisshabbyclothes, Tosocksmismatchedorsimplylacking. InafinebaritonehewouldhailmeasCeedrick, Thelengthenedvowelconferringextrastatus. Hentschelandtheotherswerenowreadytogo,buttherewasasnag.TheirSvengalihaddisappeared. On26July,StanleySmithwenttomeetPyke,ashadbeenarranged,onlytobetoldthathehadflownto Paris. InFranceweknowthathestayedattheRoyalHotel,offtheChamps-Élysées,andthathewasaway fortwonights.Theflight,at£6.6s.,wasexpensive.Pyke’sreasonsforgoingwerelessstraightforward. Onhisreturn,heexplainedthathehadgonetoseeanexiledGermanstatisticianandhadpumpedhim for advice on which questions to ask the German people. As Pyke wrote to Norman Angell, the Nobel Prize-winning author and campaigner, whom he had also seen in Paris, his journey had been ‘amply worthwhile’.Ithadalsoledtoseveralchangesintheiroperation. InthedaysafterhisParisiantrip,Pykeinstructedeachofhislinguiststovisitatacertaintimeahouse inBrixtonoroneinHampsteadwheretheyweremetbyaGermanémigréintroducedonlyas‘Professor Higgins’.FollowingthesuccessfulfilmofShaw’sPygmaliontheyearbefore,thisreferencewouldnot have been lost on them. In that version, Professor Higgins was played by Leslie Howard. Yet nobody seemedtoknowtheidentityofthemanPykehadplayingthepart. Smithdescribedhimas‘a34-year-oldGermanrefugee’.Othersremarkedonhisblondhair.‘Wehad toconversewithhim,’Smithexplained,‘andduringtheinterviewputtenquestionstohimandmemorise theanswers,whichwethenhadtopassontoPyke–orUncleGeoffreyashepreferredtobecalledfor the purposes of the exercise.’ It was a task at which Smith excelled, recalling every answer with schoolmasterlyease. YoumightnotthinktherewasanythingunusualaboutPykeaskinghislinguiststodothis–butforthe factthattheyhaddonesoalready.JustbeforehistriptoParis,PykehadtoldHentschelandCunningham totesttheirfellowlinguistslikethis.Nowhewasstartingagain.Everyonewastobeputthroughtheir pacesbythisanonymousGermanémigré. In another respect this episode jars. Throughout his life Pyke had shown himself to be wary of delegatingresponsibility,andwoulddosoonlyafterlongconsideration.Thisrefugeewasastrangerto him.HisnamedoesnotappearinanyofPyke’sletters,addressbooks,notesordiariesuntilafterhistrip toParis,whereuponitappearsmorethananyother. AugustbeganinLondonwithadownpourofrain.Withthenewspapersfullofspeculationaboutwhether JapanwouldjointheAxis,thunderclapsrangoutaroundthecapitallikethesoundofcollapsingbuildings. NoneofthisdampenedthecollectivedesiretoenjoythecomingBankHoliday,andonFriday,4August, withtheweatherimproved,somefourmillionholidaymakersleftthecapital.Thenextday,lostamongthe crowds, Stanley Smith and Amy Cunningham began separate journeys to Nazi Germany. Soon after, Cedric Hentschel and Peter Raleigh did likewise. High above Great Ormond Street, in his latest incarnation as amateur spymaster, Pyke was left to contemplate their fate, and the broader question of whetherhisschemestoodanychanceofsuccess.Theanswertothisdepended,toalargeextent,onthe qualityoftheideabehindit. Pyke’splan,infull,wastosendateamofuptotwodozenlinguistsintoNaziGermanytocarryouta Gallup-style survey of German attitudes to war. He had read in the Manchester Guardian that most Germans did not want Hitler leading them to war. He planned to prove it with a scientific survey of German public opinion. If the results were as expected, they would be publicised at the highest level. Initially he had envisaged their release through a major newspaper syndicate or news agency – at one pointhehadinmindtheAmericanInstituteofPublicOpinion,ortheBBC–yetbythetimeSmithand CunninghamsetoutfortheHookofHollandPykewascertainthathecouldgetthesurveyresultstothe WhiteHouseforUSPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelttouseinoneofhisweekly‘international’speeches. ThereweretwothingsonecouldsayaboutHitler’sresponsetotheresultsofthissurvey:itwouldbe furious and public. ‘You would then have got the attention of the whole world – the German people to some extent included – focused on this question: “How far are the German people behind Hitler – or not?”’ Details from individual interviews could be leaked in later speeches, reinforcing the notion that Hitlerdidnothavehiscountry’sfullsupport. EvenifmostGermansprovedtobeagainstHitlertakingthemtowar,andPyke’s‘conversationalists’ wereabletocompletetheirsurveywithoutbeingpickedupbytheGestapo–andweresomehowableto get their results out of the country (a problem that remained unsolved) – what were the chances of the survey results having the desired effect? What difference would it make if you could prove that most Germansdidnotwantwar? Bythesummerof1939,oneofthreethingsneededtohappentopreventawarwithGermany.Britain andFrancecouldagreetoturnablindeyetoHitler’seastwardexpansion.ThePolishgovernmentmight accept Hitler’s demands regarding the status of Danzig. Or Hitler could back down from military confrontation,asitcouldbearguedhehaddoneatMunich,onthebasisthattheresistancetowarwastoo greateitherwithinGermanyorwithout. Alreadythefirsttwooptionslookedunlikely.Britishforeignpolicycontinuedtogravitateawayfrom appeasementandtherewaseventhepossibilityofanAnglo-Sovietpact.NordidthePolishgovernment show any desire to accept Hitler’s demands; for Sir Edmund Ironside, inspecting Polish forces in July 1939,‘thewholenationhasmadeupitsmindtofight’withPoleseverywheregrippedbya‘madspiritof optimism’.Pyke’splanwasaimedsquarelyatthethirdoption:theideathatHitlermightcometoseean invasionofPolandasapoliticalmistake.Asuccessfulsurvey,ifpublicisedinternationally,mightatthe veryleastcausehimtohesitate.InitselfthiswouldbuytimeforGermany’sputativeenemies,Britainand France,bothrearmingatspeed.ItwouldalsoprovideashotinthearmfortheGermanopposition,which remained hamstrung by an inability to gauge its collective strength. For those millions of Germans still ambivalent about the possibility of war, the idea that it was imminent might push them into a state of opposition. Pyke also believed that the survey would make it harder, if hostilities broke out, for the British government to caricature the German people, as it had done during the last war, as a nation of bloodthirsty Huns, and that this might shorten the conflict or make post-war reparations less severe. UnknowntoPyke,thoseGermangeneralsmanoeuvringbehindthescenestoavertaninvasionofPoland would also benefit by gaining time, as would Adam von Trott and the Swedish businessman Birger Dahlerus, both trying to stave off the threat of war through high-level informal diplomacy. All this, however, was predicated on Pyke’s team being able to steal what he described as the ‘most carefully guardedofalltheNazisecrets’–Germanpublicopinion. Here was a plan which drew on all Pyke’s obsessions: gathering masses of data; operating undercover; solving political problems using a scientific method; disregarding popular assumptions; understanding the importance of public opinion; combating fascism by any means; putting one’s faith in untrainedamateurs;andnotonlyidentifyingaloomingcrisisbutdoingone’sutmosttoavertit.Aboveall, thiswascharacterisedbybreathtakingambition.‘Itwasaprivateattempttopreventthewar’,hewrote. ‘Itistruethatitonlystoodafaintchanceofsuccess,butthat,Ithinkyou’llagree,wasnotareasonfornot makingtheattempt.’ ItdidnottakelongfortheGermanborderguardstosensethatsomethingaboutAmyCunninghamwasnot quiteright.Afterbeingaskedhowmuchmoneyshewascarrying–fourteenEnglishshillings,tenGerman MarksandahandfulofRegisteredMarks–theLSElecturerwasescortedoutofthemainhallandhanded overtoasour-facedGermanwoman. ‘Inoticedthatshehadonalongwhitegarment,androundherwaistabeltwithabundleoftwelveor sokeys,’Cunninghamrecalled.‘Shetookmeintoabuilding,wentalongalittlecorridor[...]therewere abouteightsmalldoors,allverysimilar.Sheunlockedoneofthemandtoldmetogoin.Shethenlocked thedoorbehindus.’ ‘Takeoffyourclothes,’sheordered. Just weeks earlier, Pyke had asked various experts on Nazi Germany about the practicality of his scheme.OfthesethebestinformedwasundoubtedlySirRobertVansittart,PermanentUnder-Secretaryat theForeignOfficeformostofthe1930s,andby1939partofMI6’stop-secretZOrganisation,sometimes referredtoas‘Vansittart’sPrivateDetectionAgency’.Pykehadoutlinedhisscheme,towhichVansittart’s responsehadbeenemphatic. ‘Ridiculous,’ he had said. ‘The Gestapo will have them all within twenty-four hours.’ Amy Cunningham,itseemed,hadlastedonlyamatterofminutes. As instructed she removed her clothes and watched, naked, as the guard picked through her bag, somethingshedidwithstonyexactitude.AtonepointsheremovedthemirrorfromCunningham’scompact tocheckforhiddenmaterial.Therefolloweda‘verythorough’bodilyexamination,and‘whenshewas quitefinished,shepromptlywashedherhandswithmuchswishing.Thisannoyedmereallymorethanthe actualexamination.’ ‘Itmustbeveryunpleasantforyoutohavetoundressforeigners,’Cunninghamsnarled. ‘Onthecontrary,’camethereply. Therewasapause,beforethewoman’sarmswungupinaHitlersalute.Cunninghamwasfreetoenter theThirdReich. Neither Stanley Smith nor Marjory Watson had any such trouble at the frontier and were soon wandering the streets of Frankfurt-am-Main, unaware of each other, as they began to look for potential interviewees.OneofPyke’sgreatestworrieswasthatnobodywouldtalktothem.‘Itwasevenpartofthe general opinion of the time, that foreigners were watched, their contacts with the population noted and thosetowhomtheytalked,laterquestioned.’Hehadaskedhisamateurspiestosendhimcodedpostcards giving an indication of their progress. Each was to be addressed to ‘Uncle’ and sent to one of four different correspondents in England, all friends of Pyke, who would forward the messages to Great OrmondStreet.IftheywerefindingitimpossibletoengageordinaryGermansinconversationthenthey weretocomplaininthepostcardthatthetripwas‘boring’.Iftheinterviewsweregoingwell,theholiday was‘interesting’. ‘Quite an interesting town,’ went Smith’s first postcard. The following day: ‘It is an interesting old town’.‘Thisseemstobeaninterestingplace,’beganAmyCunningham’scardthedayaftershechecked intotheHotelNational.ButstillnowordfromHentschel. ‘MydearCedric,’wrotePyke,‘youhavedisappearedintotheblue.WhatisGermanylike?Itoughtto be most interesting to see at first hand. [. . .] We have not had a single word from you. Do the young women of Germany leave you so little time that you cannot even spare a moment to send us some postcards?’Atlastonearrived:‘Lifecontinuesstrenuous,’hemanaged,‘thoughinteresting.’ ‘It was not difficult to get Germans to talk,’ explained Smith. ‘For all their harsh and commanding exterior,[they]aresentimentalenoughunderneathandlovetalkingabouttheirfamilies.’Cunninghamwas amazed at ‘how much they have to get off their chests’. ‘I had ridiculously over-rated the difficulty of makingcontactwiththeGermanpopulation,’wrotePyke.Whathadmadethiseasierwasthateachofhis undercoverpollsterswasnotjustanothertourist,buttheembodimentofalovableGermanstereotype– theeccentricEnglishmanabroad. Beforelettingthemgo,Pykehadurgedeachmemberofhisteamtoplayuptotheirnationalcaricature. Eachoneshould‘gogrumblingincredulouslytoeveryone,refusingtobelievewhathewastoldortotake “no”forananswer,todisplayanundueandobsessiveconcernwithhisowncomfort,tobehaveasifhis own habits were fixed and sanctioned by the universe and that it was the place and concern of other peopletocontributetotheirsatisfaction.’Ashesawit,‘providingourbehaviourdidnotgobeyondthe limitofcredulityasconditionedbythebehaviour–real,exaggeratedormythical–ofourancestorswho had travelled in Germany, we were safe. We had something more than safety. We could use the myth positively.Itcouldbeusedtogiveuselbowroom–onemightalmostsaylebensraum–tomakecontact withGermansofeveryclass.’ Inspired by this advice, Raleigh had arrived in Germany carrying a full set of golf clubs. After ‘a tender farewell’ to his on-off girlfriend (and future wife) Ros, daughter of the Manchester Guardian Editor, C. P. Scott, he had made the relatively short trip to Frankfurt where he planned to play a lot of golf.Butitwasraining,soinsteadhesoughtoutthenearestcabaretbar.Hereheconductedaninterview with one of the bar’s hostesses, who was ‘very intelligent’ and, on account of the army officers who frequentedtheplace,particularly‘wellinformedonpolitics’. Raleigh soon found that cafés and bars were the best place to pick up strangers, the only problem beingthathewasrequiredtodrink‘endlesscoffeesorbeers.Leavingthecafétablefortheloowasboth physically necessary and a means of jotting down answers to questions. But the sheer number of beers involved–giventhat53percent,orwhateverthepercentagewas,ofthoseweinterviewedhadtobemen –meantthatIrarelygottobedsober.’ ‘Youareadisgustingpignottohavewritten,’ranPyke’sfirstnotetoRaleigh,inwhichhedisguised himselfasaratherWodehousian‘AuntMarjory’.‘DavidAllen’–codeforPyke–‘tellsmethathemay begoingabroadforafewdaysholidayalmostanydaynow.HeaskedmewhereyouwereandItoldhim youwereinFrankfurt.Hesayshehashalfamindtogosomewherelikethat,soyoumayhearfromhim.[. ..]Atanyrate,youmonsterofiniquity,thepurposeofthisletteristosaythatwearedyingfornewsof you,evenifitisonlyapicturepostcardofyourselfdrinkingflagonsofGermanbeer.’ PykesentthisclumsilycodedmessagejusttwodaysafterRaleighhadsetoutforGermany(itcrossed with his first postcard back to Pyke). Evidently time was passing slowly in London. The amateur spymasterwasdesperatetobeinthethickofthingsand,ashewaitedfornews,hebegantowonderifhe couldslideunnoticedintoGermanyashehaddonetwenty-fiveyearsearlier. * OnthedaythatRaleighreceivedPyke’snote,hehadastrangeencounteratbreakfast.Itbeganwhenhe engaged a young German in conversation, only to find out that he was in fact a fellow English tourist. There was something familiar about him: a lively intelligence and an adventurousness which Raleigh mighthaverecognisedinhimself. ‘DoyouknowamancalledGeoffreyPyke?’hetried. StanleySmithrepliedthathedid.Bothmensmiled.Astheyhadbothbeguntosuspect,theywerepart ofalargerteam.Whiletheyagreedthatitwouldbeamistaketooperateforlongasapair,Smith and RaleighdecidedtogotothegolfcourseatBadSchwallbachnowthattheweatherhadturned.Theyspent the rest of the day scooping balls out of bunkers under the watchful eye of the golf professional while conductingundercoverinterviewswithclubmembers. Amid the ‘sweet-smelling pines’, which kept getting in the way of Raleigh’s drives, there were momentswhenthethreatofwarfeltinexorablydistant.Thissunnyreveriewasbrokenonlyby‘therasp oftheMesserschmittfighterschasingtheirtailsintheblueskyabove’.Warwasclose–butnotsoclose astokeepPykeoutofthecountry. Justbefore13:00on13August,agroupofPyke’sconversationalistsmet,asinstructedbypostcard,at thethirteenthgreenofFrankfurt’smaingolfcourse.Theysawalankyfigureadvancingdownthefairway. Hewascarryingacanaryinacage.ItwasPyke.ToSmith,helooked‘asstrangeasaunicorn’. ‘ItshouldhavebeennosurprisethatGeoffrey’sdresswastheoppositeofwhatmostwouldexpect,’ reflectedRaleigh.‘WhereasinLondonyoufoundhimwalkingthestreetsinwrinkledtrousers,shapeless jacketover,maybe,apyjamatopwithwhatlookedlikeabootlaceattheneck,andsandal-shodfeet,here onasultryAugustdayonthegolf-courseheworethesmartestofdarkcitysuits.’ Thecanarywashisdisguise,aneye-catchingproptodeflectattention.Ithadworkedlikeacharm,and earlierthatdayGeoffreyPykehadbeenwelcomedintoNaziGermanyposingasacanarybuff. ThefollowingdayhesatdowninaFrankfurtcaféwithfiveofhisconversationaliststodiscusstheir findings.IfPykehadeverreceivedanykindofespionagetraining,hemusthaveforgottenit.Meetinglike thisinpublicwithallhisagentswasnottheworkofaprofessionalagent.‘Isupposethebestthatcould be said about this was that the Gestapo, if around, could hardly believe that we constituted any sort of threat to German security’, wrote a bemused Raleigh. Or was this by design? Pyke’s preference in disguise was always to hide onself in plain view and to behave as if incapable of subterfuge. If the Gestapowaslookingforpeoplewhohid,theymustbeoutintheopen.Besides,hewasfeelingimpatient andcouldnotwaittoheartheinitialresultsofhissurvey. Inlessthanaweek,eachofthefiveFrankfurtconversationalistshadquestionedasmanyastenGermansa day, making sure to vary the age of their interviewees as well as their occupation, gender and social background.Theyhadtriedtoshoehornintoeachexchangetendistinctquestions,alwaysinasetorder. ThesecoveredeverythingfromwherethesubjectgottheirnewstowhetherGermanywouldwinafuture war;didtheywantGermanytowin;whetherBritainshouldstanduptoHitler;howtheNazigovernment treatedtheworkers,theJews,theChurch;whetherterritorialconquestjustifiedanotherwar,and,atricky question, was the interviewee prepared to rise up against Hitler? ‘I only once reached that question,’ confessedRaleigh. The technique was demanding and risky, yet the survey’s success depended on it. Several months earlierPykehadbeengrantedpermissionbyDrGallup,founderoftheeponymoussurveyandheadofthe American Institute of Public Opinion, to imitate the Gallup technique ‘as closely as is possible in a totalitarianstate’.InreturnanyprofitsfromthepublicationofPyke’ssurveywouldgotoGallup. It made poor financial sense, but Pyke needed this Gallup connection to reinforce his survey’s credibilityandtomakeithardfortheNaziregimetodiscredititsresults.Inabroadersense,theGerman government would find it difficult to criticise the idea of attaching political weight to public opinion. Hitlerhadusedplebiscitestorubber-stampeverythingfromGermany’sexitfromtheLeagueofNations (95 per cent approval) through to the Anschluss with Austria (99.7 per cent approval). Just as the plebiscite had become a recognised political tool in recent years, so had Gallup surveys. Mass Observation,whichPykehadhelpedtobringabout,hadalsocometotheforewiththepublicationthat year of the bestselling Penguin Special Britain by Mass-Observation. Public-opinion polls had never beensofashionable,soscientificandsoplausible–whichwaswhyPykewasthrilledbywhathisteam hadfound. Accordingtotheirsurvey,mostGermansdidnotthinkHitler’sdesireforterritorialconquestjustified war.Thiswasremarkable.Nordidtheythinkthatwarwasimminent.‘Thoughtheyadmittedthepolitical situationwasdangerous,’explainedRaleigh,‘theyseemedtohaveperfectfaithinthefactthat[...]Hitler didn’twantwarandcouldobtainwhathewantedwithoutprecipitatingone.’Equallysurprising,andkey, wasthehighproportionofthoseinterviewedwhowereeitherfedupwiththegovernmentorprofessedno opinion.AmbivalenceabouttheNaziregime–givenitsnatureandtheeffortrequiredtobeanythingother thansupportive–suggestedthatthesesubjectswereclosertobeinganti-Naziinsentimentthanpro-Nazi. AsurprisingnumberofpeoplewantedawarjusttoseeGermanylose,asthiswouldmeantheendofNazi rule.Othersopenedupabouttheirdislikeofanti-Semiticdiscrimination,onemanconfidinginSmiththat hehadrecentlybeenplayingtheViolinConcertoinEMinorbyMendelssohn,abannedJewishcomposer. ‘Ifthat’sbadmusic,’hehadtoldhim,‘thenit’sabadgovernment.’ Of course, these were the results Pyke wanted his conversationalists to find. There is the small possibilitythathisteamdeliberatelyexaggeratedtheirfindings.Butgiventhelonganddetailedreports laterproducedbyeachone,andthememoirstheywrote,thisseemsunlikely. After several more days in Frankfurt, Pyke returned to London eager to flood Germany with more pollsters. Earlier that summer he had spoken to various statisticians, all of whom had agreed that he neededtheresultsofatleast1,000interviews,preferably1,500,forhissurveytobestatisticallyvalid. Sofarhehadjustunder100.Ifhewasabletoaddmorememberstohisteam,andtheycarriedonattheir present rate, then in a matter of weeks there would be enough data. But there was still the problem of gettingtheresultsoutofGermany. HowtoGettheResultsOutofGermany(withtheHelpofJosefGoebbels) TherearesomanyofusouthereinFrankfurtthatweshouldformateamandchallengethelocalgolf clubtoamatch. ThiswasthegistofwhatPeterRaleighhadjustsaid.Wedonotknowtheprecisewording,onlythat hewassittingontheterraceoftheFrankfurtGolfCourseandwastalkingtoPyke,andthatonhearingthis remarktheoldermanhadbeguntolaugh–yetalmostimmediatelyhisfacefroze. ‘Ifeltasepilepticsmustdowhentheyareabouttohaveanattack,aconditionofgreatbutgeneralised tenseness.Iknewthatarevelationwascomingintomymind,andthatthedetailswerefallingfastinto place.IconcentratedonthehorizonandinanotherbreathortwomymindwasquiteclearandIfeltas looseandcontentasIimaginepeopledowhentheyhavereceived[...]religiousrevelation.’ Pyke’sideawasingenious,ifalittlefar-fetched.Itisinterestingmainlyforwhatittellsusabouthis intellectualtechnique,andhowquicklyhewasabletodevelopanewidea. His first step was to take Raleigh’s joke seriously. Then he extrapolated it. Having imagined his pollstersformingateam,hepicturedthemtakingoneverygolfclubinthearea. Whatwouldhappennext? It would be a magnificent PR opportunity for the Nazi regime. ‘A lot of flap’ could be made about EnglandandGermany’ssharedloveofsportandfairplay,asevidencedbythisseriesofgolfmatches. Thenwhat?Pyke’spollsterscouldexploitNaziinterestinthissportingexchangebyinvitingateamof German golfers back to England. Crucially, they would have to make sure that both teams left from the sameairport.ThiswouldguaranteethepresenceofofficialGermanphotographersandcameracrewsat the airport. In turn, this would more or less rule out the possibility of Pyke’s pollsters being stripsearched,sotheycouldbringoutthesurveyresultsontheirpersons.Betteryet,itwouldmeanthatifthe Nazigovernmentevercametoquestionwhetherthissurveyhadactuallytakenplace,whichhehopedthey would,PykecouldcasuallyrefertothoseNazipublicationswhichhadrunthestory. This tickled him. Indeed, the idea ‘that the Nazi regime itself had been compelled to bring out of GermanywithoutknowingitthetruthaboutthefeelingsoftheGermanpeoplewouldmakeitridiculous.It wouldbeanexcellentjest.Ajestwhichwouldachieveanimportantpoliticalresult.Thelaughterwould beadoubleweapon.Itwouldconcentrateattention.Anditwouldmakethem[theNazis]lessparalysingly terrible.’ LaughterplayedanincreasinglyprominentpartinthewayPykecameupwithnewideas.Thisplan haditsrootsinamomentoflaughter,whileatthesametimeitmadeuseofthepoliticalpoweroflaughter whendirectedatsomeoneorsomething.Pykehadtrainedhimselftopauseeverytimehelaughedandto considerwhathadsethimoff.Indeed,laughterwasbecoming,forhim,agatewaytoinnovation,for,ashe wrote,‘itistheconcealedtruththatmakesthejest’. In the days after Pyke’s return to London, on 15 August, a German teacher called Lal Burton was dispatched to Hamburg – ‘I find it all interesting here’ – and Edith Lamb was cleared by Professor Higgins.TwomoreweretogotoBremen;FredFullerwasinBerlinwhereheteamedupwithoneofthe onlyrecruitsnevervettedbyHiggins,andonthedaythatLondonexperiencedtwomockair-raids,with SpitfiresswoopingdownonafleetofcorpulentFrenchbombers,StanleySmith’sfiancéewasgiventhe all-cleartojoinhiminGermany.TwodayslatershearrivedinFrankfurtladenwithcigarettes,moneyand a list of instructions for Pyke’s team – all of which she had ‘memorised perfectly’. None of these, however,couldpreparethelinguistsforwhathappenednext. Marjory Watson had been enjoying her evening until a ‘pale, wild-looking young man’ burst into the restaurant and began to shout. She had been conducting an interview with six Frankfurters who had all agreed that territorial gain did not justify another war, and had even come round to her point that the averageBritonenjoyedgreaterpoliticalfreedomsthantheirGermancounterpart.Theseweretypicalof the views she had already heard. The conversation had then moved on to rather less combustible questions,likethequalityofthewinegrownintheRhineland,onlyfortheyoungmantoflyintotheroom andshout:‘Wehavethenon-aggressionpactwithRussia.RibbentropisgoingthereonWednesdaytosign it!’ It was late on Tuesday, 21 August. Earlier that day talks on a putative military alliance between Britain, France and the USSR had collapsed and now Germany and Russia were to sign a pact of nonaggression to complement the recently finalised economic agreement. Fascism was to unite with communismor,asoneForeignOfficeofficialquipped,‘Alltheismsarewasms.’ Watsonexperiencedthepassivityofextremeshock.‘Therewasanalmosttangiblespiritofexcitement spreadingamongstthepeopleassembledroundthetable,andthehostilitytomycountry,latentamoment before,wasnowaliveineachpairofeyesthatencounteredmine.Thewirelesswasturnedon,andamidst abreathlesssilencetheclear,eventonesoftheannouncermadethatmomentouspronouncement,which was followed by the playing of the Deutschland and the Horst Wessel song. I felt quite stunned with horror,buttriedtolookasthoughthenewswasofbutlittleimportance.’ Hercompanionsbegantospeakovereachotherintheirexcitement.Warwasoutofthequestion... Theirchildrenwouldnotbesenttothefront...Englandwasfinished...Germanycoulddowhatshe likedinPoland...ThewoundofVersailleswouldhealatlastasGermanytookherrightfulplaceinthe world...Onebyonetheymadetheirexcusesandlefttocelebrate. ThefollowingmorningWatsonobservedthecrowdsgatheringaroundnews-sheetspinnedtokiosks and reading with ‘what I can only describe as gloating chuckles’. The national mood was transformed. ‘The word “England” seemed to be on everyone’s lips, and the attitude taken showed me beyond the possibilityofdoubtthatanymoreworkalongthelinesIhadbeeninvestigatingwouldnotonlybeuseless butactuallydangerous.’ Athalfpastthreeinthemorning,severalhoursaftertheannouncementofRibbentrop’striptoMoscow, PykedrovetotheofficesofTheTimestobuythatday’sfirstedition.Anxiousandconfused,hereturnedto hisflatandbydawnhadcomposedaseriesoftelegramstobesentlaterthatmorning.Heclimbedinto bedataboutsix,withatelephonealarmsetfornine. It rang. He came to. He called Sir Robert Vansittart, latterly of the Foreign Office and MI6, who mentionedthathehadbeenupuntiltwointhemorning.Pykechosenottosharehisownbedtime,asking onlythattheyshouldmeetassoonaspossible.Vansittartsuggestedtheytalkashewasdrivenintowork, whichwaswhy,atjustpastteno’clock,PykeclamberedintothebackofVansittart’schauffeuredcar.He wasnowsittingnexttooneofthefewmeninEnglandwhocouldhelphimextricatefromGermanyboth hisconversationalistsandtheirresults. ‘IfoundhimfullofthesamecharmasIdidlastyear–acharmwhichisquitepeculiartohim,’wrote Pyke in his diary. ‘Most unlike a Foreign Office official. Far from holding himself in and making a demonstrationofhisreserve,hehasalltheappearanceofgivinghimselfwithenthusiasmtowhateveris inhismindatthemoment.’Vansittart‘agreedstraightoffastothevalueoftheworkandthevalueofthe material’, before offering to instruct the British Consul in Berlin to contact Pyke’s conversationalists, collecttheirresultsandhavethemsenttoLondonbydiplomaticbag.Pykeagreed,andsuggestedalsothat hebeappointedKing’sMessengerinordertoflyouttoBerlinandmakesurethatthesurveyresultsmade itintothediplomaticbag.Vansittartrefused,perhapsrealisingthattherewasmoretothissuggestionthan thebeardedmanwaslettingon. AttheForeignOffice,Pykewashandedovertoadifferentkindofofficial–theoppositeofVansittart, ‘typicallyForeignOffice’–whoworriedaboutendangeringtheBritishConsulinBerlinandonlyagreed toVansittart’sinstructionswithreluctance.ThetelegramhadbeensenttotheBritishConsul,butstillPyke couldnotbringhimselftoorderhisconversationalistshome.OnlyaftercallingR.T.Clark,NewsEditor attheBBC,amanwiththeinsidelineonmostpoliticalcrises,didheacceptthatforthesafetyofhisteam hemustnowscuttletheoperation. BackatGreatOrmondStreetPykesentthetelegramshehadpreparedthenightbeforetoHentschelin Wiesbaden,FullerinBerlin,BrookinBremen,BurtoninHamburg,CunninghamandRaleighinFrankfurt (to whom he sent money as well). Each member of his team was told to get his results to the British Consul before leaving Germany immediately. He then cabled his network of English correspondents – Ridley, Webber, Hicks and Dowdall – telling them to telephone if any messages came through before takingamomenttowritetohisson,David,theneighteenandsoontowinaplaceatCambridge,toseeif hewouldaskhismothertoleaveLondon.‘Shewilllistentoyou.’Butnottohim. Laterthatsameday,inspiteofnotbeingappointedKing’sMessenger,Pykemadethedecisiontofly outtoBerlin.HecontactedhisfriendSidneyElliottatReynoldsNewstoseeifhewouldgivehimpress accreditation.Hewantedtobethepaper’sBerlincorrespondent.Twenty-fiveyearsafterhisfirstattempt with the Chronicle, Pyke hoped to have another go at being an undercover war correspondent in the Germancapital.Clearlythisepisodestillrankled. Yetbeforehecouldfindaflight,messagesbegantoarriveatGreatOrmondStreet.Hisplanswenton hold.Lamb,HentschelandRaleighweretogetherinFrankfurt.Theothershadalreadyleft.Foramoment, receivingonetelegramoutofchronologicalorder,PykeimaginedRaleightobemissing,whichledto‘a momentarylossofconsciousnessfromshock.OwingtoPeter’syouthandappearance,Iidentifyhimwith David, and the idea of his being in any danger is quite unendurable to me.’ Perhaps he also identified Raleighwithayoungerversionofhimself,havingbeenthesameagewhenhefirstsetoutforGermany. Raleighwasnotmissing,buthewasnotheadingforhomeeither. ThenightbeforeheshouldhavereturnedtoLondon,PeterRaleigh,inFrankfurt,hadmettheMexican Consulin‘aratherdrearynight-club’andhadpromisedtoplaytabletenniswithhimthenextday.‘Which ishowIfoundmyselfinagrandsuburbanvillaplayingping-pongwiththistinymanwhosechesthardly cleared the table, while outside in the garden confidential documents burned slowly in a brazier and flakesofashroseintothestillafternoonair.’Havingneverreceivedthemessageaboutgettinghisresults totheBritishConsulinBerlin,Raleighmerelyshovedtheminhispocketandmadeforthefrontier. Just before entering Holland the train stopped for German police to search everyone’s belongings. Raleigh was in trouble. Thinking fast, he took out his wallet where he found a picture of ‘a former girlfriendposingonaCornishbeachinatwo-piecebathingcostume’.Heslippedthisintohispassport andhoppedoffthetrainwiththesurveyresultsinhispocket.Oneofthesoldiersontheplatformstepped forwardandaskedtoseehispapers.OpeningRaleigh’spassport,hesawthepictureoftheex-girlfriend. There followed a colourful conversation ‘about the pleasures that were to be found in life’, before Raleigh was waved through to the station café where he sipped patiently at a cup of tea while the inspectioncontinuedonboard.Onceithadfinishedthetrainbegantopulloff,atwhichpointRaleighran backonwiththesurveyresultsstillinhispocket. Pyke’sreliefatthesafereturnofhisteamwaslittleshortofparental.‘IfeltsodelightedthatIalmost kissedheronthespot,’hewroteofseeingEdithLamb.‘ThemoreIseeofStanley[Smith],themoreI admirehisqualitiesandlikehim.’Lambhadbecome‘fullofquietself-confidence’.Cunningham,onthe other hand, appeared to have been ‘knocked out’ by the experience. The change in Raleigh was most compelling.‘Ifindhisposingdelightful.Hewillnot,Ithink,becapable,likemyDavidwould,ofsaying quitefranklythathefeltpleasedwithhimself.Ishallteasehimgentlysoastointroducehimtotheidea thatone’semotionsareasmuchfact,andaslittletobeashamedof,asabrickwall.’ Thatnight,astheconversationalistsswappedtalesofNaziGermany,ofcloseshaveswithmenand womenwhomighthavebeenwiththeGestapo,orthosewhohadguessedwhattheywereupto–they wouldneverknowforsure–allagreedthatoncetheresultshadarrivedbackfromBerlintheyshouldbe publicisedassoonaspossible.Warmighteruptatanymoment,butastheyknewfromMunichtheyear before,thecrisismightjustaseasilyblowover.Noneofthemwassurewhatthenextfewweekscould hold.NordidtheyhaveanyinklingthattheiroperationhadcometotheattentionofMI5. OnthedaythatRibbentropflewtoMoscow,ayoungwomaninGoldersGreenremarkedtoherneighbour that ‘there will be no war’. This was hardly unusual. All over the country similar and opposite views were exchanged, but this woman claimed to know that there would be no war because she was ‘in the Secret Service’. Her neighbour happened to be friendly with someone else who worked for British intelligence, and who soon established that this young woman was not part of MI5 or SIS. He also discoveredthatshewasreceivinglettersfromGermany,whichraisedtheindelicatepossibilitythatshe wasworkingforadifferent‘secretservice’. For most of the 1930s, MI5 was a small and often unloved government department which suffered periodicallyfromcuts.Itsgreatestcoupoverthelastfewyearshadbeentheinfiltrationandexposureofa Soviet spy ring in the Woolwich Arsenal. While MI5 did not possess the resources to follow up every leadthiscasehadpresented,itmanagedtoprosecutetheringleader,PercyGlading,whoturnedouttobe aSovietagent.WhatpiquedtheirinterestinthewomanfromGoldersGreenwasthatshehadafriendin commonwithGlading. ShehadtoldherneighbourthatshecouldbecontactedduringthedayonHolborn6119.Thisnumber waspassedontoB.2.b,theMI5Counter-Espionagesection,wherethesubscriberwasfoundtobeaman whohadcometoMI5’sattentionseveraltimesoverthelastfewyears–GeoffreyPyke. In February 1938, on the second day of criminal proceedings against Percy Glading and his accomplices,awelderhadgonetothepolicewithwhatappearedtobeanimportanttip-off.Thesummer before, he had seen Geoffrey Pyke in the offices of the Amalgamated Engineers Union where he was frequentlyinconversationwith‘Communists,particularlyJ.R.ScottandJ.R.Longworth’.Ofthesetwo, thewelderwenton,Scott‘wasinveryfrequenttelephoniccommunicationwithGlading’. ThewelderhadbeenfollowingtheGladingtrialinthepresswherehehadreadabouttheshadowy ‘Mr Stevens’ – to whom Glading seemed to report. Stevens’s identity was a mystery, one which the welderthoughthehadsolved.Hewondered‘ifPykewasidenticalwith“MrStevens”andifScotthad actedasintermediary’. LaterthatmonthanothermemberofthepubliccameforwardasaresultoftheGladingcasetoraise concernsaboutPyke.ThistimeitwasaninsuranceagentwhohadgonetoGreatOrmondStreettodiscuss Pyke’scottageintheDevil’sPunchbowl.‘AsIwasabouttoenterIheardPIKEreadaloud,asifdictating, “We have been attacking the AEC and we are now working on Negretti and Zambra.” PIKE asked me whenIenteredwhatIwantedandappeareddisturbedatmyappearance.Therewasnothingtoshowto whomhehadbeenspeaking,notypist,noreportthathecouldhavebeenreadingaloudandnoapparent telephone.’Thisinsuranceagent‘receivedabadimpression’anddecidednottoinsurethecottage.Only whenhereadabouttheGladingtrialdidhethinkthatPykemightsomehowbemixedupinallthis. SowhatwasPykeupto?Washerecordingasecretmessage,orrehearsingareporttogiveinacell meeting?Whowasthe‘we’hereferredto,orindeedtheAEC,andNegrettiandZambra? ‘AEC’waseithertheAssociatedEquipmentCompany,whichmadebusesandlorries,or‘AEU’–the Amalgamated Engineers Union – either misheard or wrongly transcribed. The other names are perhaps more revealing. Negretti and Zambra was the name of a company which specialised in gun-sights, aviationgauges,thermometersandflowmeters,andwhoseprincipalclientby1937wastheAirMinistry. At the time, most Russian espionage activity against Britain was geared towards the capture of scientificandtechnologicalintelligence.GladinghadprovidedhisSoviethandlerwiththeblueprintsof specialist military instruments, and, in the year that he was convicted, Mihel Kaptelsev, a Soviet agent attached to a trade delegation, had tried to acquire technical information from a Vickers Armstrong employee.Hisreplacement,AlekseiDoschenko,anotherSovietagent,didalmostexactlythesamething, approaching a worker at Rollston’s aircraft factory. Negretti and Zambra was precisely the kind of companythatSovietagentsmightbetoldto‘attack’.WasthiswhatPykewasupto?Indeed,washeusing hischarityasafronttoconcealtheseactivities? Pyke certainly understood that Voluntary Industrial Aid for Spain (VIAS) might be mistaken for a Communistfrontorganisation,andwentoutofhiswaytorefutetheidea.Hecharacteriseditinsteadas‘a strong autonomous body to the right of the CP [Communist Party]’. One trades union official described him as ‘particularly anxious that [VIAS] work should not get into the hands of the Communist organisation’.Ofcoursethisprovesnothing.Bydefinitiona‘front’organisationmustconcealitsagenda. Attheveryleast,Pyke’scharityhadclearCommunistassociations.Itwaslaterdescribedas‘closely linked’ to the Aircraft Shop Stewards National Council, a militant ginger group set up by a Comintern agent,andweknowthatthreeofitsmostenergeticfigures–HarryAdams,JoeScottandJackTanner– belonged to the Party and moved as one. This hints at the idea that Pyke’s charity might have been subvertedtoaCommunistagenda,withouthimnecessarilybeinginvolved. MI5,however,wasinnodoubtthatVIASwas‘under Communist control’ but they had no concrete evidence.TheirinterestinPykewassteppedupafterthesetwotip-offsfrommembersofthepublicand hiscasewastakenupbyJaneSissmore,thelegendaryMI5officerlaterdescribedbySovietagentKim Philbyasbeingalmostwithoutexception‘theablestprofessionalintelligenceofficereveremployedby MI5’. Sissmore began by asking for Pyke’s passport papers, presumably in the hope of identifying suspiciouspatternsoftravel.Nobodygotbacktoher,othercasescameupandthetrailwentcold. AlthoughPykewonderedoccasionallyifthe‘Englishsicherheitspolizei’,i.e.MI5,‘werelisteningin on the telephone conversations and opening the letters of all the organisations which by helping Republican Spain were trying to stem the Fascist tide’, in other words, organisations like VIAS, the realitywasfarlessimpressive.Staffandfundingcontinuedtobeinshortsupply,andforalmostayear Pyke fell off the MI5 radar. In 1939 he appeared in an SIS report on Spain, which remains classified, beforebeinglinkedtothewomaninGoldersGreenwhoboastedofbelongingtothe‘secretservice’. ThishadcometotheattentionofMI5inlateAugust1939,bywhichtimethissecretivegovernment departmentwasreadyingitselfforwarandmovingtoanewlocation.Evidenceofthesuspiciousremark wasfiledawayandforgottenabout,inpartbecauseitconcernedCommunistnetworksatthetimewhen theSovietthreatwasnotatoppriority. MI5’slongtimeDirector-General,VernonKell,theparrot-owningasthmaticwhohadaskedin1916 for Pyke’s post to be opened, had recently assured representatives of the Deuxième Bureau, the French equivalent of SIS, that ‘[Soviet] activity in England is non-existent, in terms of both intelligence and political subversion’. This was reflected in the fact that MI5 had just one officer working on Soviet espionageatthestartofthewar. Within the Foreign Office, MI6 and to a lesser extent MI5, there was a gently dismissive attitude towardstheideathatthefabricofBritishsocietymightberiddledwithSovietspies.Thinkinglikethis couldbetakenasevidenceofatouchinglyantiqueparanoia.Thesuspicionthathadhungforamoment overGeoffreyPykewasprobablyproofofnothingmorethanthepublic’stendencytosee‘redsunderthe bed’. ThemoodinLondonon30August1939waslivelyandindustrious.Windowswerebeingbusilyblacked out,barrageballoonshadbeguntobobupanddownandheapsofsandwereappearingonstreetcorners, theretofillsandbagsorputoutfiresoncethebombshadbeguntofall.Meanwhile,intheofficesofthe BBCGermanService,agroupofmenwentovertheirscriptforthelasttime. Broadcasting as ‘Peter Salter’ and ‘Stanley Fry’, Peter Raleigh and Stanley Smith proceeded to describe their ‘holiday’ in the Third Reich. Both men would later become well-known BBC foreign correspondents. Raleigh made his name in the Algerian Civil War while Smith, then known as Patrick Smith,wasformanyyearstheBBC’smaninRome.YettheirfirstBBCbroadcastprovedtobetheirleast accurate. StanleySmithhammingitupinNaziuniformwhileonholidayinGermany,1936 PeterRaleigh,in1940 Thescripttheyreadfromhadbeenliberallysupplementedandredactedbyamanintroducedtothem as a Foreign Office official. In fact he was Sir Campbell Stuart, Director of Propaganda to Enemy Countries,andfromthemomenthemetPykeandhisyoungchargeshetookagainstthem,dismissingSmith and Raleigh as ‘“pink” Cambridge undergraduates [‘pink’ meaning left-wing here], Grammar School boys, I should think of a scholarly disposition, but undoubtedly naive to a degree’. He described their script as ‘quite unsuitable’ and decided ‘to rewrite it almost entirely’. Raleigh and Smith remembered thingsdifferently,recallingonlythatthiscrustyofficialtoldthemtodescribeEnglandontheirreturnas ‘stiffwithuniformsandsandbags’–whichitwasnot. TwodayslaterGermanforcespouredintoPoland.‘OneofmypersonalcomplaintsagainstHitler,’ wroteRaleigh,was‘thathepaidnoattentiontoourbroadcast.’Thefollowingnightastormofstrange, bullyingintensitysweptoverthecapital,andthenextmorning,astensofthousandsofSundayservices beganalloverthecountry–vicarswelcomingthefaithful,announcingthefirsthymn,organpipesstarting toblast–thePrimeMinisterdeclaredinawearyvoicethatBritainwasatwarwithGermany. Theschemewaseffectivelyover.Thiscourageousbandoflinguists,alongwithProfessorHigginsand Pyke, had been just days away from releasing their preliminary findings, and their results were astonishing. Using a modified version of the Gallup technique, based on 232 completed conversations, theyestimatedthatjust16percentoftheGermanpopulationfeltthatterritorialconquestjustifiedwar.If therewasaconflict,incredibly,justoverathirdofthoseinterviewedwantedHitlerandGermanytolose. Only 19 per cent imagined Germany was capable of victory if facing an alliance of Britain, France, Russia and Poland, while more than half the German population felt the Nazi Party was unjust in its treatment of society, failing to treat rich and poor alike. Sixty per cent of those Germans they spoke to disapprovedofthegovernment’sattitudetowardsJews. Even today, given what we know, these results are startling. They are the result of the only serious attempt to gauge public opinion in Nazi Germany on the eve of war and are remarkable both for their contentandforthefactthattheyweregatheredatall.Pyke’samateurshadmanagedtoworkundetectedin anenvironmentsohostilethatithadscaredoffallprofessionalBritishintelligenceagents.Hisideathat the members of his team would not be found out if they presented themselves as indisputably and eccentricallyEnglish–friendly,loudandevenpompous–hadworkedperfectly. Theextendedaccountsoftheirinterviewsprovideadetailedandattimesmovingportraitofanation sleepwalkingtowardsthebrink.WemeetthecrookedtimberofGermanhumanity,fromreluctantgarage workersandgregariousroadsweepersthroughtotailors,innkeepers,waitersandlawyers,studentsand teachers, steel workers, shoemakers, artists and decorators, pianists and violinists, librarians and bookbinders,salesmenandfarmers;Catholics,Nazis,communistsandsocialists.Theyaregenerous,they arefunny,theyareserious,theyarehospitable.Thereisawide-eyedwomanwithenormoushandswho urgesRaleightofeelherbiceps;thesecretarywhowasonlyinterestedintalkingaboutthespeedofher touch-typing;themiddle-agedbusinessmanwhoreadTheTimeseveryday;thoseGermanswhopretended nottohearwhengreetedwith‘HeilHitler!’throughtotheball-bearingfactory-workerwithhispolitical viewsliftedstraightoutoftheNazinewspaperDerStürmer.Attimesthisdisparategroupseemedtobe unitedbynothingmorethanawillingnesstosharetheirthoughtswithafriendlyEnglishtourist. Buttherewereaspectsofthissurveyandhowitcameaboutwhichdidnotaddup.WhydidPykefly toParisinlateJuly?Whowasthemysterious‘ProfessorHiggins’andwhydidheplaysuchanimportant role? Was Marjory Watson a Nazi agent, as MI5 suspected, and how did the likes of Fred Fuller and Kenneth Spencer, his contact in Berlin, come into Pyke’s orbit? Moreover, where did the money come fromtofundthiselaborateoperation? Withonlyahandfulofpeopleawareofthesurvey,andmostofthemsworntosecrecy,thesewerenot questionsthatPykewasrequiredtoanswer.Instead,inthedaysaftertheoutbreakofwar,heturnedtothe future.Thequestionheaskedhimselfnowwasfamiliar:howshouldhefightfascism?Withthenationat warheknewthattherewas‘nohopeforprivateorganisationsandstilllessforprivateindividualslike myself’.Perhapsitwastimeforadifferentapproach. Meanwhile in MI5, now that the Soviet Union was in league with Nazi Germany, the focus of their counter-espionageactivitieshadbeguntoshift.LondonwasfastbecomingahubforSovietespionage,on a scale that the Security Service would not understand for years, and it would soon become clear that somehowGeoffreyPykewascaughtupinit. PYKEHUNT,PART2 In the early hours of a cold February morning in 1940 a volunteer police constable cycling through Bloomsbury heard a strange sound. He squeezed on his brakes and paused to listen. The streets were empty,unlitandsilent,apartfromthiselectronicflutteringnoise.Itsoundedlikeamessagebeingtapped outinMorsecode.Thepolicemanmadeanoteofthebuildingfromwhichitcameandpedalledbackto thestationasfastashecould.FifteenminuteslatertwoofficersfromSpecialBranchwereparkedoutside thehouse,strainingtohearmoreofthosetell-talesounds.Buttheyweretoolate.Thestreetwasagain dark,desertedandstill. AreportofthisincidentwaspassedontoMI5,followedbyalistofthoselivinginthehousefrom which the suspicious noise had come. The British Puppets Model Theatre had an office on the ground floor.Itwasprobablysafetorulethemout.ThepublisherMervyn,laterLord,Horderwasalsobasedin the building; as were a compositor, an architect and the cartoonist Arthur Ferrier, then drawing the glamourcartoonstrip‘OurDumbBlonde’fortheSundayPictorial;whiletheoccupantofroomsonthe secondfloorwasnoneotherthanGeoffreyPyke,nowdescribedbyMI5as‘aknownCommunist’. TwoSpecialBranchofficersweredispatchedtoinvestigate.TheyspoketothehousekeeperatNo.32 GreatOrmondStreet,aMrsLipschitz,whoexplainedthatPykewas‘inthehabitoflisteningtoforeign broadcasts even in the early hours of the morning’. But it was hard to imagine why these broadcasts wouldsoundsomuchlikeMorsecode. WhateverwasgoingoninPyke’srooms,itdidnotstop,andthreeweekslatermoresuspiciousnoises werereportedfromhisflat.Again‘investigationsfailedtoproduceanyevidenceoftransmitting,andthe casewasclosed’. By this stage of the war the country had been plodding for more than six months through what was knownastheBoreWaror,inAmerica,thePhoneyWar.AfterthedevastatingGermaninvasionofPoland, LondonhadnotbeenflattenedbytheLuftwaffe,assomanyhadpredicted.Indeed,therewasacautious sensethatthismightnothappenafterall.NoticeablyfewerLondonerscarriedaroundtheirrubbergasmasks and waves of evacuees had started to return to the capital. But all this began to change in early April1940afterGermanforceslaunchedOperationWeserübung,theirassaultonDenmarkandNorway. Notlongaftertherewas,inthecaseofGeoffreyPyke,whatMI5’sColonelMalcolmCummingcalled‘an interesting,orpossiblyevensignificant,development’. MI5’sLadySuperintendent,the‘ratherterrifying’MissDicker,hadreceivedajobapplicationfroma would-besecretarythatcameaccompaniedby‘aglowingtestimonialfromnootherthanGeoffreyPyke’. Equallyintriguingwastheidentityofthewomanwhohadsuggestedthattheapplicantshouldgetintouch with MI5: Philippa Strachey, sister of one of Pyke’s oldest friends, James Strachey. The woman who hopedtoworkatMI5wasoneofPyke’sundercoverpollsters,MarjoryWatson. ‘Theplotthickenedconsiderably,’Cummingwenton,‘withalook-uponMissWatson,who,wefind, istheproudpossessorofafat“PersonalFile”here.’Watson’sfilemadeoutthatshewasaNaziagent. VerysoonMI5wouldlearnthatduringthe1920sshehadbelongedtotheBritishUnionofFascists,had claimedtobe‘onexcellenttermswithalargenumberofNaziofficials’and‘neverceasedfromspreading German propaganda’. Meanwhile Pyke was supposed to be a Communist. Was their collaboration the strange fruit of the Russo-German pact? Was one duping the other? Or had MI5 and Special Branch simplygottheirwirescrossed? ‘In view of this rather curious link-up,’ remarked Cumming to MI5’s liaison with Military Intelligence,‘IthinkyouwillagreethatweoughttotrytogettothebottomofMasterPyke’sactivities.’ Malcolm Cumming was later described by a colleague as ‘a short man, not overly endowed with intellectual skills but intensely loyal to MI5. Like the policemen in John Buchan novels, he seemed as likely to be chasing the hero as the villain.’ He now recommended that Watson be asked to fill out the standardquestionnaireforpotentialMI5secretaries,‘inthehopethatwemightgleansomethingfromit’, beforecontactingSIStoseeif‘MasterPyke’wasworkingforthem. Meanwhile the complexion of the war changed further. The Wehrmacht had now achieved stunning victories not only in Denmark and Norway, but in Belgium, Holland and France. These had been so resounding that many observers were convinced that there must be an explanation beyond the purely military. Perhaps the Germans had had help from Fifth Columnists – Nazi agents hidden among the populationofthosecountriesunderattackwhopassedintelligencetotheadvancingforcesorcommitted smallactsofsabotage.InBritain,asthethreatofinvasiongrewduringMay1940,sodidthefeelingthat the country must be full of undercover fascist agents. With the population starting to be gripped by spy fever,atelephoneoperatorinaCityofLondonshippingfirmlistenedintoaconversationshefoundso suspiciousthatshewentstraighttothepolice. An unidentified man had called up Marjory Watson, then working as secretary to the Managing DirectoroftheUnitedBalticCorporation,whichforyearshadrunroutesbetweenLondonandtheSoviet Union. ‘Youseesomeofourmembersarenowinpower,’themanhadtoldher.‘Iwantedtogetintouchwith youtoseeifyouwouldgotoAmericatocontinueinstructing.’ Watsonhadrepliedthatshewas‘inanewpositionbutitwasquiteinteresting’. Themansaidthathewould‘bearherinmind’beforeasking‘ifshehadseenanythingof“Siegfried”’. Shehadnot.‘ButhisdutiesattheBBCareveryawkward,’shewenton,‘andIwillgetintouchwith himifpossible.’ Tothis,themansaidthathewasdoubtfulofSiegfriedbeing‘absolutelytrustworthy’. Thetelephoneoperatormadeanoteoftheman’snumber.ItwasHolborn6119–towhichtheonly subscriberwasGeoffreyPyke. Thisraisedallsortsofquestions.WhodidPykemeanby‘ourmembers’?Inwhatwaywerethey‘in power’? What sort of ‘instructing’ did he want Watson to continue in America and, if this was a continuation,whatinstructionhadsheimplementedsofar?Perhapsthesecommentsrelatedtothegroup hehadmentionedin1937‘attacking’thespecialistarmsmanufacturerNegrettiandZambra?Thenthere was‘Siegfried’attheBBC:whywashiswork‘awkward’?Whatmadehimuntrustworthy?Indeed,why wastheretheneedfortrustinthefirstplace?Moretothepoint,whowashe? Following further enquiries, Cumming at MI5 found out some of the details regarding Pyke’s undercoverpoll.Healsodiscoveredthat,accordingtoSirCampbellStuart,Pykehadbeentryingsince thentolaunchanalternativeversionofthispollusingAmericanconversationalists,andthatthiswould require him to travel to the US. This could explain his line about going to America, but Cumming also learntthathehadbeendeniedpermissiontovisittheUSaftertheideahadbeentorpedoedbySISwho wereworriedthatPyke’sundercoverworkwouldinterferewiththeirown.NordidPykeworkforthem. Inwhichcase,whywashestilltalkingaboutgoingtoAmerica? BytheendofMay1940,CummingunderstoodthefollowingaboutGeoffreyPyke:hewasa‘known Communist’connectedtoaconvictedSovietagent,PercyGlading.Hisroomshadonseveraloccasions been the source of what sounded like Morse code transmissions, and he was somehow connected to a woman in Golders Green who claimed to be part of a secret service (which was not British). Now he appearedtobeinsomeformoftrustorconspiracywithadifferentwoman,MarjoryWatson,possiblya Naziagentandapparentlyafascist,whohadworkedwithhimonanundercoverpollofGermanpublic opinionandhadsincetriedtogetajobatMI5withhishelp.Nowtheyandotherswere‘inpower’and planningtogotoAmerica.Itwasallasclearasmud. Evenifhehadtheinclination,CummingnolongerhadthetimetounravelPyke’sactivities.MI5was totteringaroundhim.TheSecurityServicewasbythendealingwithanaverageof8,000requestseach week,anunprecedentedfigure,mostofthemfromgovernmentdepartmentsseekingsecurityclearances.It was also suffering from increasingly doddery leadership. For Christopher Andrew, MI5’s official historian,itsadministrationwas‘closetocollapse’.CumminghadlittlechoicebuttoleavePyke’scase untiltherewasfreshintelligence.Hewouldnothavetowaitlong. One of the reasons MI5 was struggling to cope by May 1940 was the flood of reports coming in from membersofthepublicconvincedthattheyhadseenaGermanorItalianbehavingsuspiciously.‘Collarthe lot!’ was, ultimately, the response of the new Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. Soon thereafter the Chiefs of Staff ordered the internment of every male ‘enemy alien’ between the ages of eighteen and seventyandbytheendofJuly27,000menhadbeeninterned.Mosthadnopronouncedpoliticaloutlook, while some were openly fascist or indeed anti-fascist. One of the latter was Pyke’s friend ‘Professor Higgins’, the blond-haired German refugee who had appeared – a deus ex machina – to help with the undercoverpoll. PykewasconvincedthatHigginscouldnotbeaNaziagent.Insteadhesawhimas‘amuchpersecuted Germanpoliticalrefugeeofthefinestcharacter’.Hebegantocampaignforhisrelease. One of the first letters he wrote was to an elderly Tory MP, Leo Amery, an erudite, free-thinking Conservative known as the ‘pocket Hercules’ who had recently made the most important speech of his career. During a heated parliamentary debate on the military fiasco which had followed Germany’s invasionofNorway,AmeryhadquotedthewordsofOliverCromwellwitheloquentforce,directingthem atthePrimeMinister,NevilleChamberlain:‘Depart,Isay,andletushavedonewithyou.Inthenameof God,go!’ThreedayslaterChamberlainhadresignedandChurchill,Amery’scontemporaryatHarrow, someone he had once thrown into the school swimming pool, became Prime Minister. Amery was appointedSecretaryofStateforIndia–hehadhopedforsomethingmore–andjustoveramonthlaterhe receiveda‘veryagitatedletter’fromGeoffreyPyke. AmeryhadmetPyketheyearbefore,andrememberedhimas‘astrangecreature,Mephistophelianin appearance but with a brilliantly original mind’. He had taken to this wild-haired intellectual and was happy to help. On receiving Pyke’s letter, he wrote to the Parliamentary Under-Secretary at the Home Office,OsbertPeakeMP,urginghimtohaveHigginsreleased. Pykedidnotstophere.AftercontactingAmeryhedispatchedletterstoSirRobertVansittartandSir Richard Acland MP, both of whom also wrote to Osbert Peake, before Pyke wrote to him personally, stressinginobliquetermsthatHigginswas‘theonlymaninapositiontoperformthetaskwhichmaybe demandedofhim.Itis,therefore,oftheutmostimportancethatheshouldnotbesenttoCanada’,where many‘enemyaliens’werebeingdispatched. We know that he called Amery’s office repeatedly during the months that followed, as well as Peake’s. The name ‘Higgins’ appears in Pyke’s notebooks more than any other and is invariably underlinedoristhefirstitemonato-dolist.HigginslaterexpressedtoPykehis‘deepgratitudeforyour unceasing efforts on my behalf’, and his diaries and correspondence suggest that they were indeed unceasing. Pyke also sent Higgins money, a succession of regular payments, usually of £4 or £5, a respectablesum,whichiscuriousgivenhowshortofcashhehimselfappearedtobe. HigginswasnottheonlyGermanrefugeewhosereleasePykecampaignedfor.Healsowrotetothe Commandant of Onchan Internment Camp, on the Isle of Man, about a young Jewish German refugee named Heinz Kamnitzer, introducing himself as someone who had not only escaped from an internment camp but had smuggled messages into and out of them, all of which gave him ‘deep sympathy with the CommandantsofInternmentCamps’.Itwasanill-judgedice-breakerandCaptainSidneyKraulwasnot amused.Norwasheinclinedtobelievewhathehadjustread,givenwhoithadcomefrom. By the most unlikely coincidence Kraul had also been interned in Ruhleben in 1915 at the time of Pyke’s escape. Like most detainees, he had convinced himself that escape was impossible without Germanassistance.NowamanwhomKraulimaginedtobeatraitorwantedtoorganiseforoneofhis interneesamagazinesubscriptiontowhatPykelight-heartedlydescribedasthat‘organwhosedangerous revolutionarytendenciesrelievethetediumofthelivesofmanyLondonbankers’:theEconomist. Kraulsaidno,beforegoingtothetroubleofforwardingthislettertoMI5. ‘Pykeiswellknowntous,’camethereply,‘and,foryourguidance,wewouldsuggestthatextreme cautionmustbeusedinanydealingsyoumayhavewithhim.’ Never one to give up easily, Pyke continued to campaign for this refugee’s release and the words ‘Kamnitzer’and‘Heinz’appearinhisnotebooksalmostasfrequentlyas‘Higgins’.YearslaterPykewas madegodfathertoKamnitzer’sson.What’sstrangeaboutthisisthathehadonlyevermetthisrefugeeon twooccasionsbeforelaunchinghiscampaigntohavehimreleased. HowcanweexplainPyke’salmostobsessiveinterestintheplightofthesetworefugees?Oneofthefirst mentionsofKamnitzerinPyke’snotebookmayprovideaclue. ItwasmadeinlateJune1940andatfirstlookslikeanyother.ThereisKamnitzer’sname,misspelled once,followedbytheaddressofhisinternmentcamp.Butseveraldetailsstandout.Oneisthecolourof theink.ItisadistinctiveburntumberwhichappearsnowhereelseinPyke’spapers.Thelineofthescript isalsothickerthanusual,whichsuggeststhatthisentrywaswrittenusingsomeoneelse’spen. ThenthereisthespellingofthenameKamnitzer.Thefirstattempt,inPyke’sdistinctivehandwriting, is‘Chamnitzer’.Thisiscrossedoutandbeneath,inaverydifferenthand,amorescrupuloushand,isthe name‘Kamnitzer’nexttothefulladdress. ThatPykewrote‘Chamnitzer’showsthathewasnotcopyinghisnamefromaletterbuttakingitdown inconversation.Thedifferentinksuggeststhatthiswasnotoverthephonebutfacetofaceandthathehad borrowed a pen from his interlocutor. We can also speculate that he was speaking to a man who pronouncedthe‘K’ofKamnitzerinsuchawayastomakePykethinkofthe‘Ch’ofChemnitz,theeast Germantown.Thereisasubtledifferenceinpronunciationbetweenthetwo.The‘Ch’ofChemnitzisa soundyoudonotoftenhearinEnglish,onethatwouldcomemorenaturallytoanativeGermanspeaker. So it seems that this name might have been given to him by someone who knew Kamnitzer well enoughtopronounceandspellhisnamecorrectlyandwhowasprobablynotEnglish.Lesscleariswhy Pykekeptatthistaskforsolongandtowhatextentitwasafavourforahelplessrefugeeorajobhehad beenaskedtocarryout. InalettertoHiggins,Pykediscussedtheprospectofhisreleaseandmentioned‘allthoseinterestedin thematter’.InPyke’snotebooksthetextofatelegramreads:‘Higginsallpossiblestepswouldbetaken meanwhilefacilitaterelease.’NeitherlinesupportstheideathatPykewasworkingaloneandwasacting outofnothingmorethanpersonalfriendship. Atlast,afterayearofcampaigning,Pyke’shardworkpaidoff.HehadaskedAmerytocontactthe GeneralSecretaryoftheFabianSociety,JohnParkerMP,aboutHiggins,andhadagainmentionedittoSir StaffordCrippswhobroughtthemattertotheattentionoftheHomeSecretary,HerbertMorrison.Higgins was duly released. Several months later Kamnitzer was also freed, and again Parker was one of his refereesalongwithPyke’sfriendSirRichardAcland. Weareleftwiththesametroublingquestions:wasPyke’sinterestpurelypersonalorwasheworking onbehalfofothers,andifso,whom?PerhapsweshoulddowhatPykewoulddoatamomentlikethis. Weneedtoreformulatethequestion.WhowouldwanttoseeHigginsandKamnitzerreleased? ‘ProfessorHiggins’,themanwhohadvettedmostofPyke’spollsters,wasinfactahardenedcommunist ‘cadre’whooperatedunderthePartycover-nameBlonderHansor‘BlondJohn’.HisrealnamewasRolf Rünkel.HewasaseniorintelligenceoperativefortheGermanCommunistParty(KPD).Basedonclues inhispast,aswellasgapsinhisrecordattheCominternarchiveinMoscow,itseemsthatearlyoninhis career Rünkel was recruited by the NKVD, the Soviet security service. Certainly by the time of his releasefrominternmentontheIsleofMan,in1941,theGestapohadRünkelonalistofknowncommunist saboteursoperatingintheUSSRwhoshouldbetrackeddownduringOperationBarbarossa. Rünkel was a shortish, powerful-looking man who walked with the metronomic gait of somebody accustomed to carrying out orders. ‘The blond beast’, as he was known to his cell-mate on the Isle of Man,embodiedforsomethemostformidablekindofcommunist.Therewasadetachmentinthewayhe described his vision of a Soviet Germany, an ideological clarity which knew little of compromise. ‘Certainwordsweremissingfromhisvocabulary,’thatsamecell-matewrote,‘wordslikepity,tolerance, freedom.TheonlypurposeofhisexistencewastomaketheworldripeforCommunism,andif,toachieve thisideal,afewmillionsmoreorlesshadtodie,somuchtheworseforthem.’ Thesonofauniversityprofessor,RünkelhadgrownupinasmalltownoutsideEssenandinthelate 1920s had joined the secret apparatus of the KPD, the AM-Apparat or M-Apparat. He worked for the Party in Breslau and Berlin, and may have gone to Moscow several years later for his training. At the time, the Soviet Union had its sights firmly set on Germany, with Berlin the Comintern’s centre of European operations. Soviet agents working in Germany for the NKVD or its military intelligence counterpart,theGRU,weregivenlogisticalsupportbyGermancommunistsand,accordingtooneformer communist,by1930therewasaconsensusintheComintern‘thataSovietGermanywas“inthebag”.’ Thiswasnotwishfulthinking.TheKPDwonsixmillionvotesinthe1932elections.Haditsleaders ignoredinstructionsfromMoscowandbrokeredanalliancewiththeothergreatforceontheGermanleft, theSPD,theircoalitioncouldhavetakentheReichstag.ButMoscow’s‘ClassagainstClass’lineforbade thisandinsteadHitlercametopower. The KPD was forced underground and Rünkel was moved by the Party to Lower Silesia where he workedinanillegalnetworkforayearbeforefleeingtoPraguefollowingthearrestofothersinhisKPD Bezirksleitung–Partydistrictleadership.TheEuropethroughwhichhetravelledwasacontinentinflux. It was becoming once again a deracinated age and this suited Moscow perfectly. Cadres like Rünkel couldnowenterpartsofEuropewhichmightotherwisehavebeenoff-limits. InPrague,RünkelwasappointedheadofIntelligenceandAnalysisintheKPD’sAbwehrapparat–the intelligence section – and became a close assistant of Wilhelm Koenen, the most senior KPD figure in Prague. ‘Professor Higgins’ was also close to the NKVD agent Herbert Lessig, chief of Soviet intelligence in Czechoslovakia, and there is a chance that Rünkel might have spied on Koenen for Moscowataroundthistime. Otherwise his work involved vetting refugees, maintaining Party discipline and, during the latter stages of 1938, helping to spirit KPD members out of Czechoslovakia before the start of the Nazi occupation.HereheensuredthatwherepossibletheParty’spoliticalrivals,oftenSPDrefugees,would endupinthehandsofthelocalGestapo,soontobetakenoverbyAdolfEichmann,theNazibureaucrat laterdescribedbyHannahArendtastheembodimentofthe‘banalityofevil’. RünkelthenbecameoneofthefirstcommuniststobesmuggledoutofPrague,inDecember1938–a suremarkofhissenioritywithintheintelligenceApparat.HewentfirsttoFrance,wherehewasarrested andforcedtosignadocumentpledgingnevertoreturn.InMarch1939hearrivedinLondonandmovedin withKoenen,nowleaderoftheGermancommunistexilesinBritain.TheylivedinaBrixtonsafehouse whichhadbeensuppliedbysomeonewhowasalmostcertainlya‘closed’Partymember,LordFaringdon –stillTreasurerofPyke’sVIAS. ShortlyafterhisarrivalinLondonthisdevoutcommunist,bythenresponsiblefortheimprisonment, detentionandprobableexecutionofmanysocialistrivals,tookonthepartofProfessorHigginsinPyke’s survey.HelaterresumedhisworkintheRecordsDepartmentofwhatwouldbecometheCzechRefugee Trust Fund (CRTF), a government-funded body which supplied aid and visas to Czech refugees, where again he did everything he could to ensure that his fellow German communists were brought out of CzechoslovakiaattheexpenseofthoseaffiliatedtotheSPD. IfRünkelhadscruplesaboutthisworkthenhekeptthemtohimself.Hewasaprofessionalcommunist and, as former Party member Charlotte Haldane put it: ‘In the case of all non-Russian professional Communists,theStalinistsystemrequiresadisciplineandaloyaltyapartfromandaboveallloyaltiesto thePartymember’sfatherlandornation.’Hecouldbewarmandcharmingbutremainedutterlycommitted tothecommunistcause. RolfRünkel,otherwiseknownas‘ProfessorHiggins’or‘BlonderHans’ Itiseasy,then,toimaginewhowouldhavewantedhimtobereleased.Thesamegoesfortheother man on whose behalf Pyke campaigned with such tenacity, Heinz Kamnitzer. He had fled Germany in 1933,agedsixteen,afterhisfatherwastakentoBuchenwaldConcentrationCamp,makinghimoneofthe firstandyoungestJewishrefugeestoarriveinBritainfromNaziGermany.Aftertwoyearshemovedto Palestineand‘madealiyah’,somethinghisparents,bothcommittedZionists,hadalwayshopedfor.Yet histimeintheMiddleEastdidnotendwell.AfterworkingforaperiodasacarpenterinPalestinehelost his job, joined the illegal apparat of the Palestinian Communist Party and was forced to flee when he heardthatthepolicewereontohim. By late 1936 Kamnitzer was in London once again, surviving this time on a small stipend from the Palestiniancommunists.HisservicesasaPartycadrewerealsosoughtbytheGermanCommunistParty andin1938hewasforcedtochoosebetweenthetwo,ultimatelyallyinghimselftothelatter. BythisstageKamnitzerwaslivinginLawnRoadFlats,themodernistblockinHampsteadwhichalso housed Arnold Deutsch, the cosmopolitan, charismatic Soviet agent then running Kim Philby. NKVD recordsshowthatduringhistimeinLondon,DeutschrecruitedsometwentySovietagentsandhadcontact withalmostthirty.Wedonotknowtheidentitiesofallthoseagents,and,whileKamnitzermaywellhave beenoneofDeutsch’sagents,thereisnothingwhichhasbeendeclassifiedtoconfirmit. TowhomdidKamnitzerandRünkelmatter?TheymatteredtotheKPDandtoMoscow,whichcasts Pyke’scampaignfortheirreleaseinaratherdifferentlight. Atthetime,mostofthedetailsofKamnitzer’sandRünkel’sbackgroundswereunknowntoMI5.They were unaware of Deutsch’s activities and had no idea that Lawn Road Flats was a hub for Soviet espionage. Yet they knew where Kamnitzer’s loyalties lay, noting that he ‘associated with British and alien Communists’ and was one of the editors of Inside Nazi Germany, an anti-war newsletter later describedtoSpecialBranchas‘thepublishinghouseoftheCominterninGreatBritain’.Itwasonlyafter Kamnitzer’s1941releasefrominternment,towhichMI5raisednoobjection,thatintelligencecameinto saythatthisyoungGermanwas‘afanaticalCommunist’whose‘wholelifeis,inthewidestsenseofthe phrase,boundupinPartywork’. Rünkel was different in that MI5 knew more about him, and sooner. From late 1939 they had suspectedhimofbeinganNKVDagent.Thefollowingyearhisinternment-campcommandantdescribed him as ‘a fervent communist’ who ‘is stated to have been and still is a member of the Russian Secret Police’. A subsequent tip-off suggested he was a leading member of the N-Dienst – the intelligence service of the KPD in exile in Britain. MI5 even had a detailed account of his modus operandi in the CRTF,includingalistofmenwhomhehaddenounced.Soitwashardlysurprisingthatafterhisrelease frominternmentRünkelwasplacedundersurveillancebySpecialBranch,whichwashowMI5beganto connecthimwithPyke. ‘Ihavenowdefinitelyarrangedabouta“residence”foryoutocometodirectlyyouarereleased’,wrote PyketoRünkelshortlybeforehewasfreed.NotonlydidPykearrangeaplaceforRünkeltostay,healso paidhisexpensesuponhisreleaseandemployedhimtoperform‘privatesecretarialduties’.Pykewould laterofferKamnitzeranalmostidenticaljob. Rünkel’s‘residence’wasthehomeofBobbyCarter,anarchitectwhohadrecentlyjoinedtheParty.It wasapretty,delicatelyproportionedhouseonKeatsGroveinHampstead,whichwas,explainedPyke, ‘unfortunately,nowratherfull,andyoumayhavetosleepdownintheairraidshelterforthefirstfew daysuntilwehavediscussedwhatyou’dliketodoandwhereyou’dliketogoandsoon’. Pykealsomentionedthathehadarrangedthisaccommodation‘afterconsultingmycousin’.Yetthere isnoevidenceofhimbeingintouchwithanyofhiscousinsatthetime.HethentoldRünkelthathehad beenconsultingwith‘mutualfriends’abouthisfuture.‘Weknowhowdevotedlyyouworkedatforestry andhowyouenjoyedit,butweallnowfeelthatyoushoulddevoteyourenergiestosomethingevenmore usefultothepublicinterest.Atanyrateforamonthyouwillbemyguestandthiswillgivetimetodiscuss andmakeallarrangements.’ AgainthereisaclearsenseherethatPykewasactingasaconduitbetweenRünkelandothers.Oris thisacaseofseeing‘redsunderthebed’? Rünkel had played a crucial role in Pyke’s survey and had asked for no fee, so naturally the Englishmanwouldhavefeltindebtedtohim.What’smore,Pykeknewfirst-handaboutthehelplessnessof beingdetainedinaforeigncountryduringatimeofwar.ItisatleastpossiblethatPykewasdoingthisout of friendship and was simply unaware of Rünkel’s past. As a professional intelligence agent, it is not inconceivablethatRünkelwascapableofkeepingthisfromhiswell-meaningEnglishhost.Their‘mutual friends’mighthavebeenjustthat–friendstheyhadincommon. RünkelbecameapopularfixtureatNo.2KeatsGroveandwasadoredbytheCarters’children,who called him ‘Uncle Rünkel’ (he would later name his son after the Carters’ boy, Tom). While it was accepted there that Rünkel might disappear for up to a week on ‘work’, nobody pressed him too hard abouttheseunexplainedtrips. ‘B[obby]andIalwaysthoughtthatprobablyhewasaCommunistspy,’wroteCarter’swife,Deborah, ‘butwehadlearntnottoaskquestions.’Heruseoftheword‘learnt’hintsattheclosed,secretivenature oflifeattheextremesoftheBritishLeft.You‘learnt’nottoasktoomanyquestionsandtotrustthatwhile you might all be pulling in the same direction there were those with connections and duties which you couldneverunderstand,norshouldyoutryto.Foramovementrootedinanegalitarianideal,lifewithin thePartycouldbesurprisinglyhierarchicalandpronetoconspiracy.Beinginthepenumbraofallthis,as theCarterswere,waslikebelongingtothecongregationinamedievalchurch;Rünkelwasamanofthe cloth. AswellasRünkel’sgoingoffforunexplainedtrips,DeborahCarterrecalledtheirhouseguestbeing shadowedbySpecialBranch.‘Twoplain-clothesmenstoodoutsideourhouseuntilRolfwenttowork.’ Every day they ‘followed him to the bus and got in too and stayed outside the office where he worked until 5.30 when they knocked off and went home.’ Subtle it was not. Yet Rünkel did not find the experiencetootroubling,andwassooncheerilypointingouthistwoshadowstofriends. When Pyke heard about the two detectives trailing his friend he did not exactly panic – rather, he complained to the police. This led to a long interview with one of the men investigating Rünkel. Pyke followed up with a letter in which he offered to send him copies of Shaw’s Pygmalion and St Joan ‘wherethereisadramaticandIthinkyouwillagreesympatheticportraitofsomeofyourdistinguished predecessors–andtheirmethods’.Thepoliceman’sresponsewastotellMI5thattherewasprobablya stronger connection between Rünkel and Pyke than had previously been imagined. Again, Pyke hardly comesacrossasanexperiencedsecretagent. Towards the end of 1941 Special Branch’s observation of Rünkel was called off. Following Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, the shape of the war had changed and with it the scope of communistactivitiesacrosstheContinent,whichprovidedtheBritishauthoritieswithnewtargets. AtaroundthesametimethatSpecialBranchendeditsobservation,oneofMI5’sinformantswastold by a reliable source that throughout Europe communists had been instructed to ‘see to it that any revolutions or mutinies would lead not only to the downfall of Hitler, but to universal revolution in Europe’.InBritain,thesourcewenton,the‘nextimportantstep’was‘thepenetrationoftheCommunists intothekeypositionsofpropaganda(theBBC),theCivilDefence,warindustriesandtheArmy’.Already therewere‘somesignsofgoodsuccessinthisdirection,whichinthecomingweeksandmonthswillbe improvedupon’. MI5receivedthisintelligenceinNovember1941.Unbelievably,astheGermanArmydrovedeepinto the Russian steppe, orders were issuing out of Moscow concerning the political shape of Europe after Hitler’s defeat and the need for communists to infiltrate important British institutions. As the MI5 controllerofthissourceadded,withstonyunderstatement,‘Iconsiderthistobenotuninteresting.’ Overthetwenty-twomonthsleadinguptothereceiptofthisreport,startingwiththedebriefofanexGRU officer, MI5 had been given momentary, tantalising aperçus into the demi-monde of Soviet espionage. They had been told about Soviet moles in Whitehall, the inner workings of rezidenturas, Russian courier systems, methods of payment, letter codes, false identities and ‘decomposition’ work. TheyknewthattheNKVDclaimedtohavehad‘greatsuccess’inBritainduringthe1930s,andthatwhen a former Soviet intelligence agent was told that the CPGB was treated like any other British political party he was ‘genuinely astonished’ and ‘most emphatic that the existence of the Communist Party organisationisaveryrealdanger’.Oneseniorcommunistlatersaiditwasa‘colossaljoke’thattheParty wasnotcloseddownattheoutbreakofwarsinceHitlerandStalinwereinleaguewithoneanotheratthat point. But MI5’s approach continued to be libertarian and hands-off. It had a characteristically English preferenceforwatchingandwaitingratherthanstampingoutanysubversioninitsinfancy. Soon after this report was filed Pyke wrote to the Aliens War Service Department, the body responsible for granting work permits to ‘enemy aliens’, stressing the ‘complete reliability and trustworthiness – and a much rarer quality – discretion’ of Rolf Rünkel, ‘in my opinion a first-rate example of a person fit to be employed in work affecting the security of this country in the war.’ Kamnitzer,meanwhile,appliedforajobattheBBC.MI5wouldsoonremarkontheuncannynumberof GermancommunistsapplyingforpositionsattheCorporation’sGermanService.Othercommunistswere tryingtofindemploymentintradesunionsorgovernmentdepartments,andsowasGeoffreyPyke. Inearly1942hesetouttojoinamilitarycommandattheheartoftheAlliedwareffort.Onthefaceof it,thiswasbizarre.Theideaofabearded,‘pink’civilianwithabulgingMI5PersonalFileofferinghis services to the British military was little short of cartoonish. Pyke would never succeed – unless, that was,hecouldofferthemsomethingthatprovedimpossibletoturndown. HOWTODEFEATNAZISM On an insipid day in February 1942, Geoffrey Pyke approached the sentries standing outside No. 1a Richmond Terrace, the headquarters of Combined Operations, and asked to be let in. His chin was invisible beneath a goatee beard. He wore a wrinkled Homburg and no tie. Filing in and out of the building before him went bluff, clean-shaven officers from each of the three military services, some of whommusthavedoneadoubletakeatthesightofthisscarecrowlikefigure.Pykewashopingtospeakin privatewiththemostseniormaninthebuilding,CommodoreLordLouisMountbatten,thegreat-grandson ofQueenVictoria,laterdescribedbyhisbiographeras‘intenselyelitist’and‘proudofhisroyalbirth’. Pykewasasuspectedcommunistwhoserecentjournalismincludedthearticle‘AreToriesSadists?’What he hoped would be his passport into Mountbatten’s office was a document that he had written twenty monthsearlier.ItcontainedhisproposalsforhowtoturnthetideinthewaragainstagainstNaziGermany. NeitherPykenoranyoneinCombinedOperationscouldhavepredictedwhathappenednext.Indeed,it wouldtakeawildimaginationtoguessthatbygoingtoRichmondTerraceonthatdayPykewouldsetin motionatrainofeventsthatwouldleadtothecreationoftoday’sUSSpecialForces. HowtoTurntheTideintheWarAgainstNaziGermany ThiswasthequestionthatPykehadaskedhimselfbackin1940,asGermanforcespowerednorththrough DenmarkandNorway.Britainwasonthebackfoot.Theproblemfacedbythegovernment,ashesawit, was: ‘How can a weak and undeveloped power hold and put pressure (near to home) on a strong and alreadydevelopedpower?’ Aswellasputtingpressureontheenemy,thisweakerpowerneededtostrikebytheendoftheyear, butcouldnotcalluponlargesuppliesofmanpowerandphysicalresources–‘becauseyouwon’tgetthem andwehaven’tgotthem’.Inshort,thequestionappearedtobe:‘howtodosomethingwithnothingwhich wouldbesooffensiveastobeserioustotheenemyalmostatonce.’ PykewrotethisatthestartofMay1940,atatimewhenitwaswidelyacceptedthatmostofNorway wasunderGermancontrol. Orwasit? ThenextstageinPyke’sreasoningwassoimportantthathesetitoutincapitalletters: IN A FULL MILITARY SENSE THE GERMANS DO NOT OCCUPY THE COUNTRY. THEY ARE “OCCUPYING” THEPOPULATION,NOTTHECOUNTRY(withexceptionsnoted).THISMEANSTHATTHEGERMANSHAVENOT TIEDUPINNORWAYANUNDULYLARGEARMY. Fine,butcouldyounotsaythesamehistoricallyofanyoccupyingforce?Itwillalwaysbeimpossible physicallytooccupyeverysquaremetreofenemyterritory.YettheimplicationsinNorwaywerespecial. ThiswasthemostsparselypopulatedcountryinEurope.By‘occupying’nomorethanitstinypopulation, Germanforcescontrolledaminusculeproportionofthecountry’slandmass. Pykereformulatedtheproblemagain:‘Providingalwaysthatitcanbedonesimplyenough,weshould compel the Germans to occupy the country [Norway], completely in a full military sense, thus immobilisingmoremenandmaterialthanareimmobilisedatpresent.’Asitstood,Germanyhadallthe advantagesofcontrollingNorwayforafractionofthepotentialcost.ThisledlogicallyenoughtoPyke’s nextquestion:‘WhatarethefactorsthatwouldcompeltheGermans(withinthelimitsimposedonusby ourmilitarysituationelsewhereandassumedabove;i.e.onlyverysmallcallsforhelpfromNavy,Army orAirForce)fullytooccupyNorwayandtoputinafairlylargeamountofmenandmaterial?’ Theanswer:theymustbemadetofeelthattheirmilitarysuperioritywasthreatened.‘The Germans hadcompletemasteryonland.Theyhadpartialmasteryintheair.Ourmasteryonseawasincomplete.If we had complete mastery of one element we could perhaps use it to modify and even disrupt his superiorityintheothers.’Sowhichelement–land,airorsea? This appeared to be the next question, unless, of course, there was a fourth military element, one whichdidnotexist,inthesensethatithadnotyetbeenthoughtofasamilitaryelement.Thismightsound pointless,likesearchingforafourthprimarycolour.NonethelessPykepausedtoconsiderit.Remaining opentoquestionslikethisnomatterhowsillytheymightsoundwasarudimentarypartofhistechnique. ‘The mathematical physicists have given us the correct pattern of thought. They are always taking as a hypothesiswhatseemsabsurd,excludingtheappearanceofabsurdityfromtheirminds,andthenasking whathappensifitwereso,irrespectiveofwhetheritseemstobeso.Iamnotamathematicalphysicist.I canhardlyadd.Buttherehadbeenenoughpopularisationoftheirthoughtforeveryonetoknowhowthey think.’Inwhichcase,absurdasitmightsound,wasthereafourthmilitaryelementtoconsiderinaddition toland,airandsea? Pykecasthismindbacktoaconversationhehadhadrecentlywiththerenownedmilitarystrategist Basil Liddell Hart. In relation to the Spanish Civil War they had agreed that control of the Spanish Pyreneeswouldhavegivenonesideadistinctadvantage.Pykehadbeenremindedofthisconversationby areportintheEveningStandardwhichhadmentionedastrategicallyimportantroadinNorway.Nocar couldmovealongit‘withoutbeingbombedormachine-gunned’,andnorcouldanyoneescapetheroad because the surrounding country was buried beneath snow. ‘Note the obvious implication,’ he wrote. ‘They were tied to the road.’ (Note also that Pyke had once again taken inspiration from a detail in a newspaper.) Whattiedthemtotheroad?Snow.Itwasanimmobilisingfactor,oratleastitappearedtobe.Was thereawayofreimaginingsnowfromamilitarypointofview,andseeingitasanopportunityratherthan ahindrance? Intheory,yes.Ifyoucouldfindwaysofmovingthrough,intooroverthesnowwhichyourenemydid notpossessthenyouwouldhaveamilitaryadvantage.‘MasteryoftheSnowswasthenext,andoneofthe keyformulationsoftheproblem.Itwasnomerephrase.Itwassusceptibletoalmostarithmeticdefinition. It meant three things. (1) the ability to go up steeper slopes than could the enemy. (2) to move more quicklythanhecould,evenontheflat,and(3)theabilitytomovecross-country.’Youwouldneedaforce ofguerrillatroopsarmedwithspecialistvehiclesallowingthemtooutrun,outclimbandoutmanoeuvrethe enemy;‘totravelfastandfar,notthroughbutonthesnow,overanddowntheslopesoftheNorwegian mountains, able to carry arms for attacking, explosives to destroy bridges, tunnels, railway tracks, hydroelectricstations,etc.,etc.,equippedtomaintainthemselvesinanypartofthecountry,howeverhigh anddesolate,tolaunchfrequentattacksonvitalobjectssimultaneouslyorinquicksuccession.’ Pyke envisaged this force attacking ‘like pernicious gadflies’ – elsewhere he compared them to ‘a cloud of mosquitos’. When possible they could ski silently downhill towards their targets, an image whichgavePykeanideaforthisforce’smotto:‘TheAssyrianscamedownliketheWolfontheFold.’ Theirsnowmobilesshouldbeagileandlightlikeskiers–for‘howoftencouldanaeroplanehitaskilful skierzigzaggingrapidlydownahill?’Petroltanksforrefuellingcouldbedisguisedasfelledtrees.The vehiclesmightbedesignedtothrowupcloudsofsnowtoactasscreens.‘Principlesofattackshouldbe: (1)completesurprise(2)completeconfusion(3)completedistraction’and,mostimportantly,‘neverbe bravewhereforesightandintelligencecanbeusedinstead’. Twenty-fiveyearsaftersmugglinghimselfoutofGermany,Pykehadappliedhisprinciplesofescape to military insurgency. Outnumbered and outgunned, this tiny force would confound the enemy’s expectations in its style of attack and the way it had turned the inhospitable snowy conditions to its advantage. It was an idea that owed everything to a single conceptual reverse. Pyke had challenged himselftothinkofsnowasafourthmilitaryelementratherthananaturalhazard.Justasprehistoricman musthavethoughttohimselfoneday,asherowedacrossachoppysea,thatperhapshisenemy,thewind, couldbecomehisfriend–andwithoutthisitwouldhavebeenimpossibletoimagineasail–Pykehad donenothingmorethanreverseaneverydayassumption. The logic here was compelling, but without the revolutionary snowmobile it was merely science fiction.Pykemaintainedthatthemachineheenvisagedwas‘nomoreaninventionthanthetankin1915 wasaninvention.Thetankwasanadaptationtoamilitaryproblemofanalreadyexistingmechanism:the HoltTractorandtheDiplockCaterpillar.’AsnowmobilesuchastheArmsteadSnowMotor,withaFord tractorenginesetabovetwohelicallyflangedcylinderstocontrolitsdirectionandspeed,couldeasilybe adaptedtothestrategicneedsofguerrillawarfareinNorway,‘similartotheadaptationswhichanimals maketotheirenvironmentandtocompetitionwithoneanother’. TheArmsteadSnowMotor Pykeconcludedthat‘withrelativelyslighthelpfromhomeandwithoutprotectionfromtheair,asmall forcefromamaximumofabout4,000downeventoahandful–say50or100men–forsixmonthscould compeltheenemytodevotecontinuouslyresourcesofmenandmaterial500to1,000timesasgreatas those which would be needed from us’. The goal was simple: ‘Make every one of the 125,000 square milesofNorwegianterritorynotalreadyfullyoccupiedinthecompletemilitarysenseoftheterm,anarea fromwhichdangeroussurpriseattacksmaybelaunched.’ Yetthismustnotbeapreludetofull-scaleinvasion.‘FarfromwantingtodrivetheGermansoutof this area we want, under certain conditions, as many as possible of them to come in [. . .], to treat the NazisinNorthernNorwayasPharaohtreatedtheancientJews.Onnoaccountmustweletthesepeople go[...].Wewanttheenemytokeephisheadinthehalter.But,Isubmit,ifheshouldsucceedintakingit out,weshouldnotbesofoolishastoputoursin,merelybecausethehalterisempty.’ His proposal was ambitious and radical, a masterpiece of counter-intuitive military thought which combined a series of small technical innovations within a single daring strategy. It was elegantly paradoxical.Britainwouldstrikewhileonthebackfoot,‘militaryju-jitsu’,inPyke’sphrase.‘Consider thepoliticalconsequencesofhavingwonthewarwithouttheuseofoverwhelmingweapons.Letusshow theGermans,andindeedtheworld,thatwecanbeatthemevenwhenweareweaker.’ FourdaysafterthestartofBlitzkrieg,14May1940,asGermanforcesfoughttheirwaythroughthe Low Countries and France, Pyke finished his paper and had it typed up in double-spaced, narrowcolumnedtext(designedtomakeiteasiertoread).Hethendispatchedcopiestoagroupofindividuals who might be able to act upon it. Pyke had always been willing ‘to make a fool of himself’, as he remindedLiddellHartinhiscoveringnote,anditwouldsoonbecomeclearwhichwasmorefoolish:his strategy,ortheideaofanamateurlikehimsuggestingsuchathing. OneofthementoreceiveacopyofPyke’spaper,justdaysafterhislegendaryspeechintheHouse, wasLeoAmeryMP.Thiswell-turned-outTorymighthavebeenpoliticallypolesapartfromPyke,butthe twomencametogetherintheirintellectualcuriosityandthewaytheytalkedaboutthefuture.Amerywas an un-conservative Conservative, an amateur futurologist who had recognised as early as 1904 the militaryimportanceofairpower;inthefollowingsummerhewouldproposethatwhentheImperialWar Cabinetwasunabletomeetinpersonitsmembersshouldgathervirtuallybyusingtelevisionandradio, effectively presaging the modern-day Skype conference. (This plan was dismissed out of hand by Churchill’scurmudgeonlyscientificadviser,FrederickLindemann.) InPyke,Ameryhadfoundsomeonewhothoughtalongsimilarlinestohimself,yetwiththeambition andscientificrigourwhichhelacked.Hewas‘impressedbytheremarkableoriginalityandinventiveness ofhismind’,andwasnotonlysympathetictoPykebutloyal.Amery’sexperienceswithhistearawayson, John,whoseanti-communismwouldsoonmorphintofascism,hadmadehimmorepatient,andhenever tiredofPyke’sdemands,unlikeotherpoliticianswhodealtwithhim.PerhapshealsodetectedinPykea certainvulnerabilityfollowingaremarkhehadmadeearlierinthewar.‘Hetoldme’,wroteAmery,‘that he was a Jew and that he saw no prospect for Jews in the future except suicide.’ Amery was Jewish himselfandhadhelpedtodrafttheBalfourDeclaration.Thiscommentleftanimpression. PykedescribedAmeryas‘thesortofpersonwhodoesnoteasilycomeintothings,butthatwhenhe does, he bites’, which was what happened here. Pyke’s proposal ‘very naturally appealed to me as a skiing enthusiast’, explained Amery, who took it to the War Office, the Admiralty and to Sir Walter Monckton at the Ministry of Information. For now it would remain out of Churchill’s hands. ‘I am botheringthePrimeMinisterwithsomanythingsjustnowthatIreallycannotatthismomentapproach himonPyke’sbehalf.’ MoncktonfeltthathewasnottherightpersonforthisandafterbeingpressedbyPyke–withwhom‘it seemstobeallmytimeornone,andallitcannotbe’–hepassedtheproposalontoChurchill’sscientific adviser, Frederick Lindemann, soon to become Lord Cherwell. A lifelong bachelor, fastidious, teetotal and vegan, Lindemann could be prickly and difficult to get along with. Though by no means a great scientist,Lindemann’sskillwashisabilitytoexplainscientificconceptstonon-specialists.Havinglong agobefriendedChurchillhewasnowoneofhismosttrustedadvisers.Hisreactiontothisschemewould bepivotal. OverthenextmonthPykesentanarrayoffollow-upnotes,leftmessageswithsecretaries,attended meetingsandbylateJune1940hadmanagedtogethisproposalontothedesksofLindemann,theFirst Lord of the Admiralty, A. V. Alexander, and Major-General Bourne of the newly formed Combined Operations. None of them wanted anything to do with it. ‘Mr Pyke has here a number of fairly commonplace ideas,’ began Lindemann in his damning response; ‘he clothes them with so much garrulous, pseudoscientificblatherthatthereadingofitbecomesextremelywearisome.’Pykehadaddedtohisinitialplan twounrelatedschemes,oneforagrenadewithhookstocatchontotanktracks,theotherforsettingthe Thames on fire using floating petrol mines and underwater petrol tanks. ‘Others have thought of this,’ Lindemann sniffed. ‘Mr Pyke is able to dash off reams of this pretentious nonsense. I suggest that he would be better employed annoying the enemy instead of us, by feeding their espionage with bogus information.’ BourneatCombinedOperations,ormorelikelyajuniorofficer,gavePyke’sproposalsalittlemore thoughtbeforerulingthattheywere‘notconsideredpracticable’.Althoughthesnowmobileshadnotbeen designed,letalonebuilt,BournefeltthattheywouldbedifficulttolandandtheNorwegianterrainwas too precipitous for them. Alexander at the Admiralty echoed this strange conclusion, doubting ‘the circumstanceshehasinmindwouldenablethesevehiclestobeusefullyemployed’. PykehadcomeupagainstwhatEvelynWaughlatercalledthe‘measureless obstructive strength’ of military bureaucracy. ‘Unless all my skiing friends have informed me wrongly,’ protested Amery, ‘the maincharacteristicofalltheuplandregionsofNorwayispreciselythefactthattheyarenotprecipitous, butundulating.’HedisagreedtoowiththeideathatgettingthesnowmobilesintoNorwaywasunrealistic. Thischangednothing. The strategic proposal had been rejected not in strategic terms but on mechanical and logistical grounds.ItseemedthatAmerywastheonlyonetohavegraspedPyke’spremisethatitmightbemilitarily usefultothinkofsnownotas‘aqualityofweatherlikecold,rainandmud,whichmustbeenduredwith whateverprotectionwater-proofs,sheepskinsandgumboots,etc.canprovide’,butas‘amediumlikethe airandseawhich,ifwecanmasterit,canbemadeinapositivesensetoservetheveryendsofwar’. Having mastered snow you might find a situation in which – as Lenin almost said – ‘The worse the weatherfortheenemy,thebetterforus.’ Pyke claimed to be unsurprised by this rejection. ‘You won’t get it done,’ Bernal had warned him, addingthathewasappalledbythescleroticattitudeshehadencounteredinWhitehall.‘I,withanofficial position,haveformonthsbeentryingtogetthingsdonethat–believeitornot–areevensimpler.Ihave failed.Andsohaveallofourtype.Youwillfindthatthesimplestandmostobviousstatementsthatyou make, remarks that you would think at this stage would be taken as axiomatic – will be challenged, referredtoandfro,backandforth,atbesthundredsofletterswillbewritten:–nothingwillbedone.’ ‘Thewholecountry,’Pykelaterwrote,‘andbynomeansleasttheadministration,weresaturated,andhad been for years, with the defensive spirit, not to say the spirit of surrender, the inherent result of the Baldwin-Chamberlainepochofappeasement.’ Theproposalwasmothballed.ThoughAmeryrenewedtheircorrespondenceinFebruary1941,this cametonothing,anditwasnotuntilSeptemberofthatyear–shortlyafterRolfRünkelhadbeguntowork as Pyke’s secretary, and with the Soviet Union suffering terrible losses in the German onslaught – that Pyke sent Amery a revised and expanded proposal. It described how this guerrilla force could be deployedintheItalianAlpsorRomania,whereitcouldtargetoilrefineries,aswellasNorway,where targetswouldincludethecountry’shydroelectricplants. Amery sent a copy to General McNaughton, then Commander of the Canadian Corps, and to Field MarshalSirJohnDill,ChiefoftheImperialGeneralStaff.Justastheshapeofthewarhadchanged,so hadthemilitarymood,andonthisoccasionPyke’sideawasnotrejectedoutofhand. It was also around this time that Pyke moved into the flat of Cyril Ray in Albany, off Piccadilly. Spritelyandbrave,RaywasaManchesterGuardianwarcorrespondentwhowouldlaterbementioned in dispatches when covering the Allied advance into Europe and remains one of the only British journaliststoreceiveanAmericanArmycitation.AccordingtoMI5,Raywasalso‘aCommunist’. Earlier that year he had been embedded with the Fifth Destroyer Flotilla, the ‘Fighting Fifth’, then under the command of Lord Mountbatten – who had made a deep impression. For years afterwards the two would exchange Christmas cards and, after Mountbatten’s death, Ray labelled him ‘perhaps the greatest Englishman of the century, and all the more so for not being of English blood’. Pyke listened carefully to what Ray had to say about Mountbatten. ‘I heard things about him that made me say “Ecce Homo”.’Heevenlookedupabookco-writtenbyMountbattenbackin1931,An Introduction to Polo. What gave him hope was that this aristocratic young naval commander appeared to be hungry for new ideas,whethertheyconcernedpolotacticsoranti-submarinemeasures. HavingbeenstruckdownoverChristmaswithpleurisy,ashehadbeenseveraltimesinrecentyears, byFebruary1942Pykewasbackonhisfeetandontheattackonceagain.HeaskedAmeryifhewould takehisproposaltoMountbatten.‘Ifeelthat,andIthinkyou’llagree,itismostdesirablethisshouldbe dealtwithbyLordLouishimself.Theresistancetonewconceptionsissostrongthatifitisdealtwithby any member of his staff it may not stand the same chance. Could you ask him if he would 1) read the memorandumhimself,then2)seeme,himself?Isthisafeasiblerequest?’ Amery wrote to Mountbatten at once, and just three days later they sat down together for dinner in Amery’s house, whereupon he began to explain Pyke’s proposal with the pent-up enthusiasm of a man whofeelshehasbeenrightallalong.Hereferredoccasionallytothe‘brilliant’inventorbehindit,andat theendofthemealAmeryhandedhisguestacopyofPyke’sproposal.Laterthatnight,Mountbattenwrote himaletter. LordLouisMountbatten ‘Manyofthedescriptionsofhimaremerelylazyattemptstofoistonthepublicastockfigurefromthe waxworks’,PykewouldwriteofMountbatten.Tolookat,hewasmagnificent:tall,handsomeandstaglike.Yetbeneaththeglossyexteriorwasamanwhosometimesstruggledtobelong.Hehadbeenborna Germanprince:however,owingtohisgrandparents’morganaticmarriagehewasaPrinceofBattenberg rather than of Hesse, the former more junior than the latter. As a teenage naval cadet during the First World War he watched as his father, the First Sea Lord, was forced to step down on account of his German ancestry. He was a victim of the same xenophobic spirit which had contributed to his family’s decisionin1917tofollowtheircousinsintheBritishroyalfamilyinanglicisingtheirname.HisSerene Highness Prince Louis Francis Battenberg, then aged seventeen, became plain old Lord Louis Mountbatten,secondsonofthesuitablyBritish-soundingMarquessofMilfordHaven. After the war Mountbatten would appear in the press as an occasional sidekick to his cousin, the Prince of Wales, and for a moment was known as a playboy. But again the shoes do not quite fit. He wouldturnuptodancesinlargecrowdsandleaveearlytogohomeandread.Hewascuckoldedbyhis wife,EdwinaAshley,oneoftheworld’srichestheiresses,towhomMountbattenbemoanedhisinability toflirtor‘exciteyoumorethanIfearIdo’.Insteadhedevotedhimselftohisnavalcareer,determinedto emulatehisfatherandbecomeFirstSeaLord. FormanyintheAdmiralty,wherehisnicknamewas‘MasterofDisaster’,hewasthoughttolack‘sea sense’.Accordingtohisbiographer,PhilipZiegler,histechnicalabilitiesasanavalcaptainwerenever morethansecond-rate.ButheretainedwhatWallisSimpsoncalled‘extraordinarydrive’coupledwitha knack for keeping his reputation spotless, and by the start of the Second World War Lord Louis Mountbattenwasjustwherehewantedtobe:atthehelmofaship. Althoughhehadthreedestroyersgodownbeneathhim,whichmightsuggestadegreeofrecklessness – he was known to get carried away in the heat of the moment and to have a lust for speed – by the summer of 1941 he was thought to be having a ‘good war’. This spin had as much to do with skilful public relations as it was a reflection of his qualities as a leader. For all his lack of sea sense, Mountbatten was a decisive, forward-thinking commander with huge charisma. He could put anyone at easeandexudedthroughouthislifethebreezyself-confidenceofamanwhosleptwellatnight.Oneofthe mentorecognisetheseabilitiesasaleaderwasChurchill. ThePrimeMinistersawthathewaspopularbothwithhisnavalratingsandtheBritishpublicandin October1941summonedthe‘MasterofDisaster’toChequers.Overlunchheexplainedthathewanted him to take over Combined Operations, the military command responsible for Commando raids on occupiedEurope. Mountbattenwasunimpressed,anddescribedhimselfas‘damnedannoyed’atthejobofferashewas abouttotakecommandoftheaircraftcarrierHMSIllustrious,thenbeingrepairedintheUS. ‘You fool!’ Churchill shot back. ‘The best thing you can hope to do there is to repeat your last achievementandgetyourselfsunk.’ ThePrimeMinisterexplainedexactlywhatthenewjobentailed.‘Alltheotherheadquartersinthis countryarethinkingdefensively,yourjobwillbetothinkoffensively – to restore the offensive spirit.’ Mountbatten was to plan and launch a crescendo of raids against the European mainland, with the objective of preparing the ground for D-Day, set to be the world’s largest-ever amphibious assault. CombinedOperationswastodeterminewhichlandingcrafttouse,howtosupplyanarmyoperatingin occupiedterritory,whatlevelofaircovershouldbeprovidedandwheretomakelandfall.Thiswasno ordinarydeskjob. Mountbatten accepted, and over the following months he immersed himself in his new task, often sleeping in his office, and by the end of the year this hitherto small and unloved command had been transformed. When he took over there were just twenty-three people working at Combined Operations headquarters,includingmessengersandtypists.BythetimehesatdowntodinnerwithAmeryhehada staffofmorethan300. InhislettertoPykethatnight,Mountbattendescribedtheproposalas‘veryinteresting’,addingthathe wouldpassacopyontooneofhisofficers,whomPykeshouldgotosee.‘WhenIreturnhewillmakea reporttomeandIshallthenbeinapositiontojudgewhatournextstepsshouldbe.’ ItwouldbewrongtosaythatPykenowhadafootinthedooratCombinedOperations.Buthehadat leastestablishedtheexistenceofadoorandthepossibilitythatitmightopen. ‘MajorParks-SmithremindedmealittleofwhatthePrinceofWalesmusthavebeenlikeinthelastwar,’ PykeconfidedtoAmery,oftheCombinedOperationsofficerhewenttomeet.‘Verycharming,modestand doing his best, but not, I should say, an outstanding intellect.’ Pyke had watched as the major read his proposal. ‘Like Mephistopheles, striving by art and artifice for possession of his mind, I saw his open facelightupwithcompleteunderstanding.MajorParks-Smiththensuddenlyroseasifhewereaboutto come to attention. He needlessly lifted a bundle of papers from his desk; and with emphasis put them downagain.Hethenresumedhisseat.Unconsciouslyhewasexpressingthefactthathehadmadeuphis mind.Lateroncamethewords,“ImustgototheCCOandtellhimthisisimportant”.’ The CCO was Mountbatten, just back from Scotland. Yet rather than invite Pyke in to meet him he arrangedforacaptaininCombinedOperationstoseehimnext.Severaldayslaterhewascalledbackto meetacolonel,thenanothercolonel,followedbytwobrigadiers,includingMountbatten’sChiefofStaff, GeoffreyWildman-Lushington. Pyke seemed to enjoy this. ‘They knew, only too well for my liking, that they were but agents, and theirprincipalmightcancelthebargainatanymoment.’Bythesametokenheknewthathewasthereto pitchhimselftoMountbattenthroughtheseambassadors,ataskherelished.Sellingoneselfwasanart,he insisted, later referring to that moment in his life as ‘what my biographers will no doubt call my most matureperiod’.Indeeditwas,andthisartistrywasabouttobeputtoitsgreatesttest. The first time Pyke set eyes on Mountbatten was at a meeting in Combined Operations to discuss whether or not this proposal should be taken on. As directed, Pyke got up before ‘a vast gathering of nabobsandexperts’andwasasked‘toexpoundthewholeprojectatgreatlength’. Though he prided himself on being able to sell himself in an interview, Pyke had ‘very little’ experienceofmeetingslikethis,andwasnotalwaysverygoodatjudgingthecollectivecharacterofhis audience.Norwasheanacademicorprofessionalscientistwhohaddevotedhiscareertothestudyof snow,snowmobilesorguerrillawarfare.Rather,hewasanunemployedforty-eight-year-old,acivilian whohadbeguntoreaduponthesesubjectsinhissparetimelessthantwoyearsago.Yethisresearchhad been comprehensive, he had an excellent memory, he ‘bore himself with immense natural dignity’ and couldcommandattentionwhenhespokethankstohis‘superblyresonantvoice’. Standing up before a blur of khaki, Pyke ran through his proposal for what must have felt like the hundredth time. He fielded questions, and at last Mountbatten asked for a show of hands. Pyke’s pulse must have quickened. In the next few seconds he would find out whether Combined Operations was preparedtopursuehisidea. Forthemeninthatroomwhat,ifanything,wastheappealofPyke’splan?Partofitsattractionlayin thenoveltyofthescheme.ByFebruary1942GermanforceswerecontinuingtodrivedeeperintoRussian territory;RommelwasapparentlyunstoppableinNorthAfrica;GreeceandCretehadrecentlyfallen;and theJapanesewererampantinSouth-EastAsia.Pyke’splanoutlinedadaringBritishoffensiveinawar whichhadbeendominateduntilthenbyGermanvictories. It also proposed a new kind of military unit. At the start of the war there were just two British organisations devoted to guerrilla warfare: MI6’s Section D and MI(R). Neither was capable of operationsonthescalethatPykeenvisaged:instead,onewastooperate‘stay-behind’partiestoharryany occupyingNaziforcesinBritain;theotherspecialisedinindividualactsofoverseassabotage.Duringthe summer of 1940, SOE had come into existence, as well as the Commandos, whose activities were coordinatedbyCombinedOperations.Bothperformedsmall-scaleattacksagainstoccupiedEurope,the CommandosconcentratingoncoastalareasandSOEcarryingoutsabotageworkfurtherinland.Thoughhe was unaware of this division, Pyke had proposed, by chance, a hybrid unit: a Commando force performingSOE-stylesabotageinwhatwasseenasSOEterritory. As well as bringing into existence a new kind of force, this plan would divert enemy troops away from France, which was another attraction for those in Combined Operations given that they were preparingforD-Day.Indeed,thestrategyofdrawingenemytroopsuptoNorway,describedbyHitlerasa ‘zoneofdestiny’,wouldsoonbecomeanestablishedprincipleinAlliedmilitaryplanning.Laterthatyear, inthebuild-uptotheinvasionofNorthAfrica,MI5triedtogulltheGermansintothinkingthataninvasion ofbothNorwayandnorthernFrancewasabouttotakeplace;in1943theLondonControllingSection’s ‘Cockade’ plan again tried to divert German troops to Norway, and in 1944 Operation Fortitude North was an attempt to fool German commanders into thinking that a British Fourth Army of some 100,000 troopswasabouttoinvadeNorway.YetbyFebruary1942theideawasanoriginalone. No less attractive was the impact of Pyke’s plan on Germany’s economic and industrial capacity. Norway produced 30,000 tons of aluminium per year from just six plants, each connected to an HEP station.Pyke’sschemewouldknockoutsomefiftyHEPstations,includingthese. Thoughitwouldnothavebeendiscussedatthismeeting,hisplanwouldalsoallowtheAlliestostunt the growth of Germany’s atomic programme. The year before, a tenfold increase in the production of heavy water (deuterium oxide) had been reported at the Vemork HEP station in southern Norway. This wasthefirststeptowardsbuildinganatomicweapon.VemorkwasanotherofPyke’stargets. Buttherewereproblemswithhisproposal.Theall-importantsnowmobilehadnotyetbeeninvented. TherewasnoexitstrategywithwhichtoremovetheseeliteguerrillasfromNorway.Andofcoursethere wasthemanbehindit:aodd-lookingcivilianwithnomilitaryexperienceatall. WhenMountbattenaskedforashowofhands,theresultwasunanimous:Pyke’sschemewasjudgedto bepracticableandworthwhile,anditwasagreedthattheforcehehadproposedandtheirsnowmobiles shouldbedevelopedbyCombinedOperationswithoutdelay.Twenty-onemonthsafteritsinception,this planhadarrivedintherighthandsattherighttime.Committeeswereappointedtodealwithstaffingand resourcesandthemeetingdrewtoaclose,atwhichpointMountbattenaskedPyketojoinhiminhisoffice forwhatwastobetheirfirstfull-lengthconversation. Mountbatten’sroomswereprobablyinthebasementofNo.1aRichmondTerrace,spaciouswithoutbeing large,welllit,andwithabedinthecornerornextdoor.NodoubttheCCOlookedasheusuallydid, ‘handsomeandbreezy,likeBrightonatitsbest’.Pykewasamess.Hisshirtwasneithercrispnorclean andiftherewerecreasesinhistrouserstheywerenotofthemilitaryvariety.Therewasnopomadein whatwasleftofhisthinninghairandhisgoateehadbecomeovergrownandshaggy,lookinglikeseaweed onarock.Hiseyesspokeofafrenetic,restlessenergy.Onemanwhomethimaroundthistimedescribed them as ‘unusually expressive’; for another they were ‘thoughtful and serious’; while the poet and biographerPeterQuennellcalledthem‘burningeyes’. Thetwomensatdownoneithersideofadeskand,aslegendhasit,PykefixedtheCCOwiththose burningeyesandsaid:‘LordMountbatten,youneedmeonyourstaffbecauseI’mamanwhothinks.’ Pykewouldoftenstartconversationslikethis.Hewas‘tryingtosizeyouupbyyourreaction.Ifhe felt you were sympathetic he took you into his confidence’ – which was what he did to Mountbatten. Within this opening salvo were two questions to which he had an answer. He asked what Combined Operationslacked,andwhathecouldprovide.Thiscommandneededmoreinnovators,problem-solvers, free-thinkersorin-housedissidents,andthiswasapartthatPykecouldplaywithdistinction. Perhapstotestthis,Mountbattenaskedhimtosolveamilitaryproblemthatwastroublinghim.The mightyGermanbattleshipSSTirpitzhadrecentlylefttheBalticandwasnowatanchorinaNorwegian fjord.ItwasimperativethattheTirpitzdidnotbreakoutintotheAtlantic.MountbattenaskedPykewhat todo. ‘Theuntidymanwiththebeardhesitatedamoment,andthensaid:“Lowerthedensityofthewater aroundher.”Hedemonstratedhispointbycallingforabucketofwaterandasmallmodelofaship.It certainlysank.’Whetherornotheactuallyperformedademonstration–perhapsheaddedalcoholtothe watertolowerthedensity–whatmatteredwasthespeedwithwhichhehadcomeupwiththiscounterintuitive idea. The Tirpitz was not sunk by lowering the density of the surrounding water, yet this was preciselythekindofradical,innovativethinkingthatMountbattenwantedontap. InitiallyhehadbeenwaryofthemanaboutwhomAmeryhadraved.‘Imustconfess,though,thatafter PykecameandshowedhisveryoriginalturnofmindIbegantoappreciatetheunusualqualitiesofthat mind.Ilikedhismind,’wroteMountbatten,‘andIwaspreparedtosupporthim.’HesawPykeas‘achap with no scientific qualifications, but a crazy, independent thinker, and something of genius’. Everything abouthimappealedtoMountbatten’scharacteristicallyHessianaffinityforthosewhothoughtbeyondthe boundsofconvention.WhenaskedaboutPykelongafterthewar‘therewasgenuineaffection,aswellas genuinerespect,inMountbatten’svoicewhenheshookhisheadandmurmured:“Cleverchap,Pyke.Very cleverchap...”’ PykewasnolesstakenbytheCCO,anaffinityseenmostobviouslyinthebreathlessrhythmoftheir conversations.‘IfellintothehabitstraightawaywithyouoftalkingandwritingonwhattheUStelephone systemtermsa“persontoperson”basis,’hetoldMountbatten,addingelsewhere:‘Youalwaysrushme offmyfeet,weboththink–andtalk–sofast.’HefoundtheCCO‘asreceptiveasaspongeandasquick as a knife’, and congratulated him on running a command which had taken just three weeks to accept a proposalthathadbeenignoredbyrivalorganisationsforalmosttwoyears. ‘What I’ve done,’ replied Mountbatten, ‘is to take ordinary Service material, and make them more afraid to reject an idea than to accept it.’ Hearing this, for Pyke, was like discovering that they were related. ‘In face of a new idea,’ he had once written, ‘oughtn’t we to ask . . . “What is right with it”, beforeasking“Whatiswrongwithit”?’Hereweretheseedsofanunlikelyfriendship. Towards the end of that interview, on 23 February 1942, Mountbatten did something unusual: he offeredPykeajobatCombinedOperations.AswellaspushingaheadwithPyke’sproposalforaforceof snow-borneguerrillas,Mountbattenwantedhimonhandtosolveotherproblemsandhelpfosteranew spiritofcreativeinnovation.Histitlewastobe‘DirectorofProgrammes’butreally,asPykeexplained, hewouldbea‘SuggesterofProgrammes’. Heaccepted,butontheconditionthatthenewforce‘bepreparedwiththesamethoroughness,drive andimaginationastheGermanswoulddoit’.Thentherewasthequestionofpayment.Inhismemorandum ‘Pyke on Money’ the new Director of Programmes told Mountbatten that he was willing to work for nothingbut,ifhewastobepaid,itmustbeatthetoprate. ‘Mydearfellow,Iamonyourside,’repliedMountbatten,beforeaskinghimtonamehisprice. PykeconsultedBernalwhosuggestedaridiculoussum:£3,000ayear.Mountbattenpointedoutthathe himselfwasearningjust£1,977ayear.Theycompromisedon£1,500,makingPykeoneofthehighestpaidmembersofstaffatCombinedOperations. So began one of the strangest appointments of the war. For Elias Canetti, the Nobel Prize-winning playwright who had got to know Pyke over the previous year, it was ‘an extraordinary, wholly unbureaucraticarrangement,unthinkableinanyothercountryatwar’.Asuspectedcommunist,withclose connections to two men thought to be Soviet agents, had been given the ear of one of the Allies’ most seniormilitaryfigures. NewsoftheappointmentwouldalsocomeasashocktothoseinMI5,wherefreshintelligencehad justcomeinaboutPyke.ItwasstillnotcleartotheSecurityServiceswhetherthismanwasapatriotic boffinorsomeonewhosefirstloyaltywastoMoscow.Therewasalsotheslimpossibilitythathewasin factboth. PYKEHUNT,PART3 MilicentBagot,themostinfluentialwomaninMI5,wasquick,redoubtableandattimesimpatientwith thosewhocouldnotkeepup.ShesanginachoironTuesdayeveningsandwouldlaterinspiretheConnie SachscharacterinJohnleCarré’s‘GeorgeSmiley’novels.ShewasMI5’sexpertonSovietespionage andcommunismand,on6January1942,shereceivedanalarmingreport. Onthedaythat75,000peoplepiledintoWembleytowatchEnglandplayfootballagainstScotland, withtheproceedsgoingtoMrsChurchill’sAidtoRussiaFund,anSISreportontheinnerworkingsof Moscow’sCominternarrivedatMI5.Thereportconfirmedwhatshehadsuspected:Hitler’sinvasionof Russia had done little or nothing to change the scope or intensity of clandestine Soviet activities in Britain.ThereportalsosuggestedthattherewasaCominternpropagandabureauoperatingrightunderher noseinLondon.BagotbelongedtoF.2b,thesectionresponsibleformonitoringCominternactivities. The Comintern, or Communist International, had been set up in 1919 by Lenin with the task of destroyingcapitalism.OverthenexttwodecadesitsheadquartersinMoscowoppositetheKremlinhad becomeahavenforinternationaldissidentsandpoliticalrefugees,manyofwhomwentontostudyatthe Comintern’s Lenin School where revolutionaries were taught the finer points of Marxian dialectics, tradecraft,sabotage,agitpropandsecretcommunication.Thebrightestandbest,includingPyke’sfriend Percy Glading, were cherry-picked to join the NKVD or GRU before being sent back to their native countries,sometimesunderassumednames,tohelplocalCommunistPartiescarryoutMoscow’sbidding. Bagot had known for years about the threat posed by the Comintern. As early as 1933, MI5’s then DeputyDirectorofBBranch,GuyLiddell,wrotethat‘theCominternremainedamoreseriousproblem thantheNaziregime’.Sincethen,MI5hadinterceptedaglutofwirelesstrafficbetweentheComintern headquartersinMoscowandtheCPGB,viathe‘MASK’decrypts.Morerecently,anMI5informanthad expressedhisamazementat‘whatacomplicatedanddetailedApparattheCominternisbuildingforitself andconsolidatinginEngland’and‘whatvastsumsofmoneyitmusthaveatitsdisposal’. Yet the Security Service was thin on detail. Bagot could only guess at the extent of Comintern operations, which was why the latest report from SIS was so interesting. As well as revealing the existence of an undercover Comintern propaganda bureau in London, it suggested that one of its employees was Rolf Rünkel, and that he worked under a senior Comintern operative who went by the covername‘ProfessorP’. Bagotwasdeterminedtounmask‘ProfessorP’.ShebeganbyworkingthroughMI5’svoluminouscard index.Hercolleaguescouldlookthroughthesamematerial,yetnonehadtheabilitytoprocesswhatthey saw in quite the same way. Since 1931, when her position at Special Branch was transferred to MI5, Milicent Bagot had developed an intuitive understanding of communism. She knew the mindset of a ‘fellowtraveller’andhisorheremotionalattachmenttothecausejustassherecognisedthedead-eyed detachment of Party cadres. She had the imaginative capacity to suggest and hold in her mind a bewildering array of connections within this maze of names and incomplete biographies, and to find meaning where others saw mere coincidence. Using her considerable expertise, Bagot reached a conclusion on the identity of ‘Professor P’. As she wrote in an internal minute dated 21 January, ‘ProfessorP.is,Ithink,identicalwithGeoffreyNathanielPYKE.’ Hewas,inmanyways,aperfectfit.AvitalcluecouldbefoundinSpecialBranch’sinvestigationofRolf Rünkelinwhichthesubjectwasseentobe‘gatheringandtranslatingmaterialconcerningtheevolutionof Germanpublicopinion’forGeoffreyPyke.Thiswasthekindofworkyouwouldexpecttotakeplaceina propaganda bureau. Pyke also sounded like the sort of intellectual who might be given the nickname ‘Prof’ or ‘Professor’ by his friends. Further corroboration came from the smorgasbord of foreign Communists he was thought to be in touch with and the belief within MI5 that Pyke’s charity had been underCommunistcontrol. Bagot’sonlyconcernwasthattheSpecialBranchreportonRünkelmighthavebeenbasedonjustone source.Toclearthisupshesentoutaninternalminuteand,notlongafter,MI5’sEBranch,responsible for foreigners classified as ‘Alien’, provided her with fresh intelligence on Professor P. One of its anonymoussourceshadrecognisedthename. HedescribedProfessorP.as‘averyimportantmanintheCominternwhoworkedontheContinentfor atimeandalsoinGermany’.InBerlin,ProfessorP.waspartofwhatappearedtobean‘economicand scientificbureau’runbyProfessorVarga,laterknownas‘Stalin’sEconomist’,butwasactuallya‘large andcomprehensiveWeitverzweigte[wide-ranging]Apparat’whereCominternpropagandawasprepared anddistributedandcounterfeitingtookplace.OfProfessorP.’sworkinBritain,thesourcewarnedthathe ‘isdoingthesamejobtodayasheusedtodointhatApparat,providedofcourse,thatheisidenticalwith thepersonIhaveinmind’. Bagot’smentalpictureofthisfigurewasfillingoutfast.Butdidanyofthisnewintelligenceruleout an identification of ‘P.’ as Pyke? It depended really on whether Pyke could have been living in Berlin whileVarga’sbureauwasactive,betweenthemid-1920sand1933. Therewasnothingtorulethisout.MI5’sbiographyofPykecontainedagapwhichstretchedfromthe GreatWarthroughto1937,easilyencompassingtheperiodwhenProfessorP.wassaidtohavebeenin Berlin. Even today there is a similar fog in the middle of Pyke’s story, from his breakdown in 1929 through to the start of his work on anti-Semitism in 1934. While there are scraps of evidence here and theretosuggestthatduringtheseyearshewaslivinginatumbledowncottageintheDevil’sPunchbowl, longperiodsremainunaccountedfor.SoforBagotin1942,asmuchasforanyresearchertoday,itwasat leastpossiblethatGeoffreyPykehadspentsometimeinBerlinduringtheearly1930s.Theonlyquestion thatremainedwaswhetherthisidentificationofProfessorP.asPykemadesense. Verymuchso.ItishardtoimagineanyonegraspingthemurderouspotentialofNazianti-Semitismas earlyashedidwithoutthekindofaffinityforasocietywhichcomesfromhavinglivedwithinit.There were other details that Bagot was unaware of which would only have strengthened her conviction. As wellastheselectionofCominternagentswithwhomPykewasintouch,suchasPercyGladingandClaud Cockburn, the first two people he sought out in Paris, during the summer of 1939 – Richard Kisch and FrederickFuller–werealsoCominternagents. IftherewereotherswhomBagotsuspectedofbeingProfessorP.theirnameshavenotbeenreleased by MI5. By the middle of February 1942, just before Pyke was offered a job by Mountbatten, Bagot suspected this man of running an undercover Comintern propaganda bureau. All she needed now was proof. HOWTOCHANGETHEMILITARYMIND Lieutenant-General Archie Nye, a former barrister and favourite of Churchill’s, was surprised to see Mountbattenarrivewithadishevelledcivilianintow.ItwasearlyMarch1942andinamatterofdays Nye was due to chair a meeting of the Vice-Chiefs of Staff at which Pyke’s proposal would be on the agenda.Tooofteninthepastseniorarmyofficershadtakenonelookatthisplananddismisseditasa trussed-upproposalforasnowmobile.Mountbattenwasdeterminedthatthisshouldnothappenagain,and had engineered this meeting with Nye so that Pyke could talk him through his idea for a snow-borne guerrillaforceoperatingwithspecialistsnowmobilesbehindenemylinesinNorway.Nyewasquickon theuptakeandgraspedthepotentialoftheplanalmostatonce. Several days later, during the crucial meeting, Nye won over his fellow Vice-Chiefs of Staff to the benefitsofthescheme.AsifreadingfromascriptpreparedbyPyke–indeed,itwasnotuncommonfor civilservantsactuallytoprepareascript,sohemighthavebeenliterallyreadingfromPyke’snotes–he insisted that producing the snowmobile ‘was only part of the problem’. No less important was ‘the tacticalandstrategicalemploymentofthisparticularweapon’.ItwasagreedthattheWarOfficeshould look into its implementation. Only a month after asking Leo Amery to contact the CCO about his idea, Pyke’splanhadbeenacceptedbytheVice-ChiefsofStaff.Itwasamajorcoup. OnthesamedaythatNyemadethecaseforhissnow-borneguerrillaforce,Pykewassittingatadesk 300 yards away in Richmond Terrace, revelling in his new career as a highly paid civil servant. The contrast between this new job and his solitary existence in Great Ormond Street could not have been greater. He was surrounded now by conversations, questions, introductions and new faces. When junior soldiers entered his office they would salute before looking to see who was in there – an experience which never failed to make Pyke laugh. His colleagues in Combined Operations included celebrated figures such as the land speed record-holder Sir Malcolm Campbell, the Hollywood actor Douglas FairbanksJr,thenovelistandbiographerRobertHenriquesandthebusinessmanSirHaroldWernher,who employedhisownsecretaryandwalkedtoworkeachmorningfromtheDorchesterHotel. Indeed, from afar this command sounded like a glamorous, easygoing appointment. Certainly there were,asonememberofstaffputit,‘handsomesocialchapswhocouldalwaysbereliedupontosay“The champagne’s over here, Dickie,”’ men like the Cuban playboy and racing driver the Marquis de Casa Maury,thenMountbatten’sheadofintelligence.Buttheywereinaminority.Theatmosphereelsewhere wasbusyandsharp.EvelynWaugh,aliaisonofficeratCombinedOperations,describeditasa‘surrealist whirligig’. For the academic, journalist and one-time NKVD agent Goronwy Rees: ‘To join this fishflesh-fowlcompanywastofindoneselfalmostliterallyatseaorupintheair;onefeltoneselfhopelessly earthbound,aclumsyandanignorantlandlubber.’ Pykeexperiencednosuchdiscombobulation.Hewas‘excitedandelated’byhisnewsurroundings.It was,afterall,thejobofhisdreams.Hewasbeingpaidtoidentifyandsolveproblemswhichmighthelp the Allies in their fight against fascism, and as he settled into his new career he found the range of his thoughtexploding,swapping‘precautionforthelasciviousbeautyofprogress’. WordspreadfastaboutPyke’sabilitytosolveproblems.Likeschoolboysaskingtheclassswotfor help,officerssoonstartedtocometohimwiththeirknottiestquestions.TheafternoononwhichtheViceChiefsofStaffdiscussedhisproposalwastypicalinthissense.Pykehadbeenaskedearlierthatdayto workout‘howaplanecanmeasureitsdriftparticularlyoverenemycountrywhenvisibilityissuchthat neitherlandmarks[n]orstarsarevisible’.Hehadnoexpertiseinthis,buthehadatechniqueandusually itworked. Hebeganbystrippingtheproblemback.Inthepurestsenseitinvolvedahumanbeingmovingthrough theairwhowantstomeasurehisdistancefromstaticandinvisiblepointsbelow.Pykespunthisaround. Hepicturedastatichumanonthegroundtryingtomeasureinvisibleatmosphericconditionsabove.The outlineofasolutionnowemerged.Meteorologistsonthegroundmeasuredatmosphericconditionsusinga ‘ballon sonde’, a miniature balloon with a wireless device attached which was sent up into the sky, whereuponitrelayedasignalwithdetailsofthesurroundingweatherconditions.Bydoingthesamein reverse,surelyonecouldmeasurethedriftoftheaircraft.Ratherthanuseaballoontosendthedeviceup, allowgravitytotakeitdown.Onceithadreachedthegrounditcouldsendupasignaltotheplane’sradio operator. The difference between its position and that of the plane, given its speed, would allow for a calculation of the drift. ‘Prof J. D. Bernal FRS of the Ministry of Home Security, etc. etc. etc. thinks I havesolvedtheproblem,’PykeenthusedtoMountbatten,‘sodoesaSquadronLeaderoftheR.A.F.’ Buthedidnotstopthere.Pyke’sstylewastodevelophisfantasiesinfullbeforeparingthemback.He went on to imagine what would happen to this reverse ballon sonde after it had served its primary purpose. How should it be disguised? What would a German farmer make of it? How long before the enemy designed one itself? Was it possible to drop dummy versions over England to see how long it wouldtakebeforeconcernedmembersofthepublichandedthemintotheauthorities,togetasenseof theirlikelyfateinGermany?Aswellasallowinghisfantasiestoplayoutinextenso,Pykeunderstoodthe valueininnovationofconductingasmanysmall-scaleexperimentsaspossible. Whennotdealingwithotherpeople’sproblems,Pyketookonquestionsregardinghisproposedforce. OneofthesewasabouthowthisunitcouldstriketheoilfieldsnearPloestiinRomania.Itwastypicalof Pyke that this not only triggered a flood of ideas, but that he wanted his colleagues at Combined Operationstounderstandhowhehadarrivedatthem.Ratherthancirculateaprécisofhisproposalshe hadalongdiary-entrytypedupandpassedaround.FewpeopleinCombinedOperationshadeverread anythinglikeit.Hispaperwasdescribedas‘ingenious’,itsideas‘anadvanceonanyothermeansknown tous’anditwasagreedthat‘energeticandimmediatesupport’shouldbegiventothemandthatafulltime Planning,ResearchandDevelopmentbodyshouldbeestablishedtoinvestigatethesesuggestionsfurther. This diary included plans for training St Bernard’s dogs to take alcohol up to bored sentries, exhausts fittedtosnowmobilesinordertosoundlikebarkingdogsandguerrillaswhowouldenteroilrefineries disguisedasfiremenwhowouldcarryhosescapableofpropellingexplosiveelementsaswellaswater. Therewerereferencestodetectivestories,thrillers,humorists,lawyers,ashortfilmPykehadrecently seen,anAdmiraltyhandbook,theendemicfondnessfordogsinruralRomaniaand,ofcourse,therewere referencestotheworksofShaw.WhatthistextalsoprovidesisacompleteexampleofwhatPykemeant byhis‘auto-Socratic’technique. ThiswaswhenPyketackledaproblembyconductingeitheronpaperorinhisheadaconversation betweentwovoices.Onewasimaginativeandfulloffantasy,theothermoreconsidered,politeandwise – the Socrates figure, who rarely interrupted and would try to allow each fantasy to play out in full, alwaysaskingwhatwasrightwiththeideabeforemovingontowhatwaswrong.Itwasadifficulttrick, but one which seemed to unlock Pyke’s creativity and, now that he had a receptive audience for these thoughts,newideascametumblingoutofhimasneverbefore. BylateMarch1942Pykewas‘bombardingallofus’withproposalsand‘ifhecouldn’tgetustolistenby writing formally in the ordinary way, he’d write a memorandum or a letter that would compel your attention because it was so damned funny and so damned serious at the same time’. Of these the most widely read was almost certainly ‘Mr Pyke’s Second and Third Thoughts. A Recantation’, soon to be knownas:‘LatrinesforColonels’. Pykeprotestedthatthispaper‘wasnotasitunfortunatelyappearedtosomeajeud’esprit,butwasa desperately serious attempt by an amateur to work out a solution to a military tactical problem. The appearanceoflevityisduetotwobeliefsstilltobedisproved:(i)thatacertainlightnessofthoughtoften enablesonetojumpoverobstacles[...](ii)thattheGermansareontheirguardagainsteverythingbutthe undergradspirit.’ That ‘military tactical problem’ was how many troops each of his snowmobiles should carry. Pyke hadinitiallysuggestedthree–twotoperformtheactofsabotage,onetoguardthevehicle–onlytosee thathehadmadea‘colossalblunder’. Letusvisualisethesituation.Ourthirdman,oursentryistoguardthemachine.Guarditagainstwhom?Germans.German soldiers.NowifnoGermansoldierdoesinfactappearwehavewastedabout3dwt[deadweighttonnage]ofcarryingcapacity of the machine, a corresponding amount of aeroplane capacity, etc. etc. Should German soldiers come across our machine whatwouldbethesituation?Theywillseeaman.Theywillthinkhimafellowsoldier,aNorwegian,oranenemy.Thereareno otherpossibilities.Bycustomanddutytheywillatoncechallengehim.Theywillflashatorchonhim.Whateverourmenwear asawhitecoveringtherecanbenoquestiontomymindthattheymustwearuniform.Inafewseconds,therefore,our‘guard’ and‘sentry’willbediscoveredasanenemy. Now what are the alternatives to having our machine guarded while our ‘sappers’ are on the job? Obviously to leave it unguarded. But that is not enough. We can largely discount the consequences of the machine being discovered by a Norwegian.ForhewillthinkitaGermanmachine.This,Isubmit,isacluetoasolution,andoureffortsshouldhenceforth belargelydevotedtoitsperfection.Thesolutionis:-WemustmaketheGermansentrythinkitisaGermanmachine.The principlebywhichthisforcefightsmustbe:‘NevertaketoNorwayanymanormachinetoperformafunctionwhichwemay beabletomaketheenemyperformforus.’ SohowtomaketheGermansentrybelievethatthesnowmobilewasGerman? HemustbetoldthatitisGerman.Ahierarchicalcivilisationtendstoencouragepassivityofmindandtoinhibitscepticism expressingitselfinaction.Hemustbeforbiddentotouchthemachineortoattempttoinvestigateit.Hemustbeinducednot toreportandifpossiblenottotalkaboutwhathehasseen. Theobvioussolutionmightbetoplaceatarpaulinoverthemachinewithasignwhichsaid‘VERBOTEN’,orsomething like: GestapoResearchandDevelopmentInstitute S PECIALDEATHRAYDEPARTMENT AnysoldierhappeningonaninstallationoftheGestapoResearchInstitutewhomakesanymentionofitwillberelentlessly dealtwithwithtrueNationalSocialistruthlessness.Countersigned:GottfriedHecht,CommandantGestapo. Therearetwowaysofprocuringsilence.Oneistomakeathingsoextraordinary,soterrifyingthatnoonedaresmentionit; theotheristomakeitsoordinaryastomakeitnotworthmentioning. Perhapstheyshoulderectacanvastentoverthevehiclewithasignsaying: OFFICERS’LATRINE ForColonelsonly. LatrineAccomodationforotherRanksisprovided2km.totheSouth. Wenowhavetwotentativesolutions:theSecretResearchInsitituteDeathRayDepartment,andtheLatrine.Cantheybe combined? Easily.Putoneinsidetheother.IfasentrywasbraveenoughtoventureinsidethisColonels’latrine hewouldfindanobjectcoveredwithatarpaulinmarked‘DeathRayInstallation’.Hisresponse,surely, wouldbetoexitthetinystructureimmediately,chucklingperhapsatthecunningoftheGestapo. To prove the principle, they could erect similar tents in Britain, cover each with two layers, one prosaic,theotherforbidding,andseehowlongbeforetheywereenteredbyplacingatelephonenumber insidewhichshouldbecalledondiscovery. IfwearetobeattheGermanswemust,Isubmit,eitherbeoverwhelminglymorepowerful–tenofeverythingtotheirone –ORwemustbeatleastalittlenovelinourmethods.That,Isubmit,isprinciplenumberOne.Toachievethelatterwemust accept ancestral ways of doing things only after scrutiny, and only because this re-examination shows them to be the ways most suited to the specific occasion, and never because we have been influenced unconsciously by ancestor worship in the designofaction. YoucansenseheresomethingofthemissionPykefelthimselftobeon.‘Ancestorworship’was,for him, doing things in a particular way because that was how they’d always been done. He was not just providinganswersinCombinedOperationsbutimpartingprinciples.‘Icanteachanyonehowtodevise schemesforlatrinesforColonels,onlyiftheyaresufficientlyyoung-minded.’Thiswasallheaskedofhis newcolleagues. WhetherornothewasincontactwithaSoviethandler,passingoninformation,ortryingtoinfluence policyalongSovietlines,Pykewasalsodeterminedtoawakenthesemilitaryminds.AtMaltingHouse School his guiding principle had been that each of us is born inquisitive and rational. In Richmond Terrace he wanted to reconnect the men around him to their instinctive curiosity. One must ‘never, NEVERletupintheattempttoinsinuateintothemindsofoureldersthatnothingissocheap,andnothing soprofitableasagoodidea.Theymayaskforauthorityforthisimproperremark.LetthemaskHitler.Or GeneralJodel.OrletthemaskourRussianAllies,whostartingfromscratchonly20yearsago,areable now to be aggressive to the Germans because for so long they have been aggressive towards the unknown.’InWhitehall,hecomplained,itwasasthoughineveryroomthewritingwasonthewall,not ‘mene,mene,tekel,upharsin’but‘nothingshouldeverbedoneforthefirsttime’. After just ten days in Combined Operations Pyke distilled his concerns about this military attitude towardsnewideasintoapapercalled‘NewIdeasfortheArmy’.‘Thereis,atpresent,ampleevidenceto showthattheArmylacksmanyoftherighttypesoftechnicalweaponsnecessarytoconductasuccessful campaign.Therehasneverbeenanyshortageofnewideas,butthefactremains,thatpracticallytheonly progressmadeduringthefirst2½yearsofthepresentwar,hasbeenabelatedimitationoftheGermans. The object of the following notes, is to try and show in the case of the War Office and the Ministry of Supply,whynewideasareimpededandhowthisextremelyseriousposition,whichthreatensourvery existence, can be speedily rectified.’ He called for Development Boards to oversee the production of weapons prototypes, greater autonomy for junior officers, a more constructive attitude to problemsolving, more civilians in positions of executive responsibility and a greater emphasis on looking for ideasbeyondthemilitary.‘ItwouldbecontrarytocommonsenseandtotheexperienceoftheRussiansto believethatamongciviliansmineistheonlyheadintowhichgoodideasmayfall.’ ‘Much is very true,’ responded Mountbatten. Inspired by this, less than a fortnight later he asked a senior government scientist, Sir Henry Tizard, for the names of two scientists to join his staff. Tizard suggested Solly Zuckerman, the Oxford primatologist, and Pyke’s old friend J. D. Bernal. Pyke’s ideas werebeingacteduponfasterthaneverbefore,andinthiscasehissuggestionhadbroughtintoRichmond TerracetwomenwhowouldmakecrucialcontributionstotheplanningofD-Day. J.D.‘Sage’Bernal SollyZuckerman Aleadingcrystallographerandjackofmanyscientifictrades,SageBernalwasknowntofriendsand loversalikeforhis‘beautiful,humorous,hazeleyes’,hisdistinctivemaneofhairand–tosome–forhis earlyadvocacyoffreelove.‘Threeinabed,evenwhenitistwobedsplacedclosetogether,isalwaysa complicated matter,’ began one memorable diary entry for 1924. Bernal and Zuckerman were both cosmopolitanandambitious,theyhadgrownupontheculturalperipheryoftheBritishEmpire–Bernal inIreland,ZuckermaninSouthAfrica–andlikePykeeachonewaseitherJewishorofJewishancestry, aswellasopenlyleft-wing.BernalhadformanyyearsbeenamemberoftheCommunistParty. During the early years of the war Bernal and Zuckerman had been carrying out experimental work together at the Research and Experimental Headquarters, part of the Ministry of Home Security, where they measured bomb impacts using shelters occupied by themselves or some of Zuckerman’s monkeys (none of whom were injured). By early 1942, when they received the call from Mountbatten, they had become, according to Bernal’s biographer Andrew Brown, ‘the boffin equivalent of Gilbert and Sullivan’. Both were deeply disillusioned by the failure of the British military to make adequate use of the country’s scientific talent. After several impressive turns on the Brains Trust, a new BBC discussion programme, Bernal wrote an article on this in which he bemoaned the reluctance of the ‘British ruling class’ to ‘press things unduly, they will not take risks, they will not demand the impossible’. He was promptlystruckdownbythecommentator’scurse.Mountbatten,aprominentmemberoftherulingclass, offeredhimtheroleofScientificAdviseratCombinedOperations.Bernalaccepted,ontheconditionthat Zuckermancametoo.Unknowntohim,anidenticalletterhadalreadybeensenttohisfriend. Soon Bernal and Zuckerman were installed at Richmond Terrace, and along with Pyke these three became known as the ‘Department of Wild Talents’. For one of Mountbatten’s biographers ‘it is a reasonable assumption that a scouring of the free world at that time could not have turned up a more valuabletrio’. Mountbatten was soon telling stories to his cousin, King George VI, about his Department of Wild Talents.TheKing’s‘twofavouriteswerealong-hairedIrishmanandabeardedJew[BernalandPyke]; indeed so familiar did these characters become that the King would refer to them by gesture – either sweepinghishandthroughhishairorstrokinganimaginarybeard–ashiscousinregaledhimwiththeir latest madcap activities.’ The monarch was intrigued. Eventually he paid Richmond Terrace a visit. ‘Mountbattenintroduceduseachinturndescribingouractivitiesinafairlyflippantmanner,’recalledSir HaroldWernher.Zuckermanwasintroducedas‘Monkeyman’.Pykewasaway,yetBernalwaspresent andwithhishairinastateofcharacteristicdisarray. ‘Whereinthehelldidyoucomefrom?!’enquiredtheKing. Bernalwastakenabackbythisandbegantostammer. ThishadtheeffectofsettingofftheKing,whichinturnmadeBernal’sstammerworse. Foramomentthetwomenwerecaughtstammeringateachother,asifcommunicatinginhumanMorse code,beforeMountbattenintervened. While most in Combined Operations were bemused by the Department of Wild Talents, some were wary.Bernal,ZuckermanandPykespokedifferentlyfromtheircolleagues,dresseddifferently,laughedat different jokes, had few friends in common with anyone else in the building and were evidently of the Left.ItwaspartlytheirpresencewhichencouragedEvelynWaughtodescribeafictionalisedCombined Operationsasablendofofficers,‘experts,charlatans,plainlunaticsandeveryunemployedmemberof the British Communist Party’. All three members of Mountbatten’s ‘Department of Wild Talents’ had PersonalFilesatMI5,and,unknowntoanyoneinthebuilding,justdaysafterallthreewereinplace,one ofthistriowasplacedundersurveillancebyMI5. From 18 March this individual was followed to work each day by two ordinary-looking men, ‘watchers’fromMI5’sB.6section,wholingeredoutsideRichmondTerraceuntiltheendoftheday.They never went inside, nor did they ask about their subject’s job. Instead their task was to follow this man through London’s public spaces and observe the people he met, where he went and any suspicious behaviour. Theirreportsweredispassionateandprecisebutfarfromexhaustive.In1951,afterthedefectionof theSovietagentand‘CambridgeSpy’GuyBurgess,aninsider’saccountofasecretmeetinginCombined OperationswasfoundinBurgess’sflat.IthadtakenplacejustdaysaftertheMI5observationhadbegun andwasattendedbytwomembersoftheDepartmentofWildTalents.Thisraisesthepossibilitythatone ofthesethreemighthavebeenpassingintelligencetoMoscow. Themeetinginquestionwason19March1942andhadbeencalledtodiscussfurtherdetailsofPyke’s project.ItwaschairedbyMountbattenandincludedrepresentativesoftheSpecialOperationsExecutive (SOE)andeachofthethreeservices.Bernalwasthere,alongwithPyke,who,beforehispresentation, had asked for blackboard, chalk and ‘the largest physical map of Norway which you have got. Ditto Europe.DittoArcticRussia’,aswellas‘say6copiesofthetableofgradients’and‘umpteendrawing pins’. Everyone present was sworn to secrecy before Pyke gave an account of his idea and what had happenedtoitsofar. There followed a lengthy discussion in which it was agreed that the idea remained ‘desirable and practicable’andthattheforceshouldbereadyforthewinter.Sub-committeeswereformedtodevelopthe vehicle,studyweatherconditionsinNorwayandRomaniaanddesignsuitableexplosives;thislastsubcommitteeincludedrepresentativesfromSOEandMD1,alsoknownasChurchill’sToyShoponaccount of the strange – and often deadly – devices that it produced. But there were some on these sub- committees,andelsewhere,whohadbeguntoworrythatthisforcewouldnotbereadybytheendofthe year. On Saturday, 28 March, the morning after a heroic Commando raid on the dockyard at St Nazaire, MountbattenandhiswifewenttoChequers.AtsomepointoverthenextfewdaystheCCOtoldthePrime MinisteraboutPyke’sproject.Churchillleaptatit. AsPykerecalled,he‘displayedhisrealqualitiesbyhisimmediateandenthusiasticacceptanceofthe Plan.Ithinkhisreactionshouldgoontherecord.HesawthestrategicsignificanceofthePlaninaflash. Henomorecaredwhatsortofmachinedidthetrick,thanIdid.’ AlmosteverythingabouttheideaappealedtothePrimeMinister.ItechoedT.E.Lawrence’sMiddle Easterncampaignduringthelastwar–ChurchillhaddescribedLawrenceas‘oneofthegreatestbeings aliveinourtime’–anditsfocuswasNorway,whichforhimrepresentedunfinishedbusinessfollowing thedefeatofBritishforcestherein1940.Hewanted‘torollthemapofHitler’sEuropedownfromthe top’,whichmeantstartingwithNorway.Pyke’splanwasalsoemphaticallyChurchillian:brainswould saveblood,toborrowfromoneofhisspeeches.YetforallhisenthusiasmthePrimeMinistercouldnot changeBritain’sstrainedindustrialcapacity.Pyke’splanmadesense,butthereseemedtobeinsufficient Britishresourcestohaveitdeveloped. ItisunclearwhetherPyke,MountbattenorChurchillcameupwiththeidea,yetinthedaysafterthat conversationatChequersitwassuggestedthatthesesnowmobilesshouldbedesignedandmanufactured intheUnitedStates.Thiswaswithoutprecedent.ChurchillhadsentSirHenryTizardacrosstheAtlantic earlier in the war in order to strengthen Anglo-American ties and draw in the American scientific community, but until then a British military concept had never been outsourced like this to the United States. Pykesuggestedtakingthingsfurther.WhynotbringinotherAlliesandsetupa‘UnitedNationssnowwarfare board’? Norwegians, Canadians, Americans, British and Russians would all work together to create an international guerrilla force. His plan was welcomed in Combined Operations, save for the inclusionoftheSoviets.ThiswasnotthefirsttimethatPykehadpushedforgreatercollaborationwith Russia,norwoulditbethelast. Pyke knew somehow that in July 1941 the Soviet Union had ordered three Armstead snowmobiles, andfelt‘theyaresuretobeatworkonthem’.TheRussianshadgreaterexperienceofsnowwarfare,he went on, and could easily supply logistical support for assaults on Romania and Norway, as well as summertraininggroundsinNovayaZemlya,FranzJosefLandandSpitzbergen.‘Wearenowatthe59th minuteofthehour!’hetoldMountbattenon2April.‘Isubmitmosturgentlythat:-1.Wegoatoncetothe ChiefsofStaff[...]2.WethengoatoncetoMaisky[theSovietambassador],tellinghimthewholestory frankly,puttingeverycardonthetable.[...]Oncesatisfiedofourgoodfaith–ANDofoursecurity– Maisky, I am advised, would probably wire Stalin or Vorosholiv at once; and you’d get an immediate reply.’Thephrase‘Iamadvised’wasstriking.IncasehisopinionwasunclearPykecalledinthesame letterfor‘a101%honestandpersistenteffortbemadetosecurethecooperationoftheRussians’,adding that they were bound to like Combined Operations for it was ‘a small, vital, growing (if delicate) organisation.TheRussianshaveaslogan:-“Wearealwaysonthesideoftheembryo.”’ MountbattenandWildman-Lushingtonfeltotherwise,andhadheardaboutthelegendaryreluctanceof Soviet commanders to collaborate with their allies. They were more interested in gaining American support,anditispossiblethattheywereawareoftheimminentvisitoftwohigh-profileAmericansto whomtheideacouldbeproposed. HarryHopkinswasafarmboyfromIowawhowaslaterdescribedbyChurchillas‘themostfaithfuland perfect channel between the President and me’. Hopkins was President Roosevelt’s right-hand man, confidantandadviser.Hewasatenaciousnegotiator,aWashingtoninsiderwhodranktoomuchcoffee andwasoftenathisbestatanegotiatingtablewithanagendaandadeadline.Hehadbeendispatched overtheyearbeforetoseeChurchill.NowhehadbeensenttoLondonagain,accompaniedthistimeby GeneralMarshall,USArmyChiefofStaff,inordertodiscusstheAlliedinvasionofEurope. OnarrivalthetwomenwenttoDowningStreetwheretheymadethecaseforopeningasecondfront againstGermanyrightaway.‘Idoubtifanysinglethingisasimportantasgettingsomesortofafrontthis summeragainstGermany,’HopkinshadtoldthePresident.TheAmericansoutlinedtwoplans:Round-Up andSledgehammer.Thefirstwasanall-outassaultonEuropebyforty-eightinfantrydivisionstobeginin a year’s time, while Sledgehammer involved a smaller force mounting a heavy raid against a single Frenchport.ThiswastohappenbySeptember1942andwould,itwashoped,divertGermantroopsfrom Russia. The response at Downing Street was opaque, yet at dinner that evening, as Churchill got drunk and toldstoriesabouttheAmericanCivilWar,FieldMarshalBrookeexplainedtoHopkinsandMarshallthat itwouldbeimpossibletolaunchamajorassaultonEuropesosoonduetoalackoflandingcraftandthe necessaryintelligenceabouttheirtargets. This was not the response that either had been hoping for, and the following morning Hopkins met Churchillalonetostressagaintheneedforpromptaction.‘Churchilltookthisveryseriouslyandledme to believe that he didn’t fully take in before the seriousness of our proposals.’ But the Prime Minister remainednon-committal. WhileHopkinswasatDowningStreet,MarshallhadgonetoseetheBritishChiefsofStaffandwas wonoverbytheyoungest:Mountbatten.ChurchillhadappointedhimasthefourthChiefofStaffonlythe month before, much to the annoyance of those he had leapfrogged and two of the three existing Chiefs. WhileAirChiefMarshalSirCharlesPortalwelcomedhisarrival,SirDudleyPound,afellownavalman, resentedit.‘Ratherdoubtfulhowthatbusinesswillrun!’wroteFieldMarshalBrooke,laterdescribing Mountbatten’sappointmentas‘asnag’. General Marshall, on the other hand, harboured none of their prejudices and was drawn to Mountbatten’scan-dospirit.AttheendofthismeetinghearrangedtovisitCombinedOperations. ‘Thisisamazing,’MarshallwasreportedtohavesaidashewasshownaroundRichmondTerrace. LikemostseniorAmericanofficershehadneverseenmembersofallthreeservicesworkingtogetherlike this. ‘Well,afterall,weallspeakthesamelanguage,’repliedMountbatten.‘Cometothinkofit,sodoyou andwe.Whydon’tyousendmesomeAmericanofficers?’Lessthanamonthlater,nineAmericanofficers wereinstalledinRichmondTerrace. During this brief tour of Combined Operations, General Marshall was also introduced to Pyke. As prompted,thesuspectedSovietagenttoldtheUSArmy’sChiefofStaffabouthisplan.Thoughbemused byhisappearance,Marshallwasintriguedbywhathehaddescribedandleftthebuildingwithatwelvepagememorandumexplainingtheprojectinmoredetail.ThisdocumentwasamongMarshall’spapersas hetravelledtoChequersthenextday. With just four days to go, the Americans had so far failed to pin down the British. Both knew the importanceofreturningtotheUSwithcast-ironcommitments,andinthelessformalsettingofChequers theyhopedtogetthem.Hopkins,forone,wasinspiredbyhissurroundings.‘It’sonlywhenyouseethat country in spring,’ he recalled, ‘that you begin to understand why the English have written the best goddampoetryintheworld.’NorwashefeelingthecoldatChequersasmuchashehaddoneonhislast visit,havingrememberedtopacksomeheavyunderwear.Whileitwasdoingitsjobofkeepinghimwarm itwas,ashecabledRooseveltthatnight,‘itchinglikethedevil’. TherefollowedonthatfirstmorninginChequersaneventwhichwouldhavemadeHopkinsforgetall abouthisunderwear:theBritishsuggestedanewoffensiveagainsttheGermans. InthepresenceofHopkinsandMarshallaswellasChurchill,Nyeandtheever-presentLindemann (now Lord Cherwell), Mountbatten proposed that the Americans take on Pyke’s scheme. The US Army coulddevelopthenewsnowmobilesandtrainupaspecialistguerrillaforcetousethem.Whatwasnow knownasthe‘Plough’project–acodenamePykehadinsistedupontodisguisethefactthatthesenew snowmobiles would skim over the surface of the snow rather than plough through it – would be responsible for an operation in Norway before the end of 1942. Plough would be a snow-borne Sledgehammer, only less suicidal and far more damaging given its capacity to knock out HEP stations suchasVemorkwhereheavywaterwasbeingproduced. PloughwasnotwhatMarshallhadcomefor,andnorhadthemanChurchilllikedtocall‘LordRootof theMatter’,HarryHopkins.Buttheyneededtogohomewithsomething. Theyaccepted.Astheminutesofthismeetingshow,‘itwasagreedthattheUnitedStatesauthorities wouldundertaketodevelopandmanufacturethenecessaryarmouredfightingsnowvehicles(tobeknown by some suitable “cover” title, such as “snow ploughs”). It was further decided that Mr Pyke, the originator of the scheme, with one or two assistants should be flown to the United States as soon as possible after General Marshall’s return and work under his general direction.’ The Norwegians and CanadianswouldbeaskedtosendanofficerwithexperienceofsnowwarfaretoworkalongsidePyke, anditwasalsoagreedthatChurchillwouldaskStalintosendoveraRussianofficer. Thiswasstaggering.ThreemonthsearlierPykehadbeenbedridden,unemployedandinpossessionof aproposalthathadbeendismissedbyChurchill’sscientificadviseras‘pretentiousnonsense’.Now,with thatsameadviserintheroom,ithadbeentakenupbysomeofthemostpowerfulmenonEarth. At Churchill’s suggestion, Pyke was to be sent to the US to see his idea through to completion. Enormoussumswouldbepouredintoitsdevelopment.Men’sliveswouldberiskedonthebasisofhis logic.Itwasthekindofplottwistthatwouldfeelcontrivedinmanyanovel,andforPykeitwasevidence of the ‘ferocity of purpose’ at government level that he had always craved – the decisive, sudden and emphaticbackingforanewschemewhichhehadoncebelievedtobeimpossibleoutsideacountrylike theSovietUnion. SeeingthatPykewastogoona‘mostsecret’overseasmissionMountbattenhadhissalarytransferredto SOE,sometimesknownasChurchill’s‘SecretArmy’,andfromlateAprilhewasofficiallyemployedby this rival organisation and lent to General Marshall’s staff through Mountbatten. A new passport was madeforhimandtowardstheendofAprilthismostunusualSOEoperativewasreadytoleave. Unlikeothersemployedbythisorganisation,hewouldnotbeparachutedintoenemyterritorytohelp bringsuppliesandexpertisetothelocalresistance.InsteadhewasdestinedforWashingtonDC,where therewasperhapslessdesiretobegivenadvicebytheBritish. ‘IhaveafeelingthatperhapstheUSAArmymaynotbealtogetherourcupoftea,’Pykeconfidedto Mountbatten before his departure. ‘Military people, if I may say so, don’t really plan at all. What they callplanningistryingtoadaptwhattheyweretaughtinyouth,withtheminimumofalteration,towhat theycansee.That’swhytheyseesolittle.’ ThiswasthemilitaryapproachthatPykehadbattledagainstduringthelasttwomonthsinRichmond Terrace. He had suggested improvements to nearly every aspect of Combined Operations, from its administrativestructureandthewayitmightimpedefreshideasthroughtothechoiceofnewspapersin the officers’ club. His thoughts were not always welcomed, but on many colleagues he had made a positiveimpression.Inasix-sidepartingnotetoMountbatten,accompaniedbyShaw’s(almost)complete worksfortheCombinedOperationsHQLibrary–‘Ihopethattheinterestinthemwillbesuchthatbythe time I return they will all have been stolen’ – Pyke described the changes he had observed. While the George Medal was awarded to civilians for gallantry, he suggested a counterpart for ‘Distinguished Courage at the Desk’. The first medals, he told Mountbatten, should go to three majors in Combined Operations,includingaMajorWyatt,aboutwhomhewrote,‘Itrembleforhisfuture.Onlybysendinghim backtohisregimentwillhebesavedfrombecomingaBloomsburyintellectual.’ PykealsoremindedMountbattenofthemomentduringacriticalmeetingwhenhehadthankedPykeon behalfofthethreeservices‘forintroducinganewidea’.Thishadlefthimspeechless.‘Fornotfaroffhalf a century I have been on this unhappy planet. During, probably, all of that time I have been asking, “Why?”–“Whatfor?”“Sowhat?”and“Whydoyoudolikethat,whydoyounotdolikethis?”Ihaveput forwardacertainnumberofnewideas.Yourremarkatthismeetingwasthefirstoccasioninmylifewhen Ihavebeenthankedforintroducinganewidea.Hithertomyexperiencehasbeentobeheartilykickedin thepantsfordoingso.Iwascompletelytakenabackatthetime,sothatIcouldnotevensay“Thankyou”; youmustallowmetodosonow.’ This passage reveals something of the powerful bond that had formed between the two men. MountbattennotonlylistenedtoPyke’sideasbutthankedhimforputtingthemforwardanddidhisutmost tohavethemrealised.ByofferinghimajobatCombinedOperationshehadbroughtPyke,forthefirst time in his life, into the establishment, a feeling which resonated with a man who sometimes craved acceptance.Indeed,thetiebetweenthemwassoclosethatPykehadevenbeguntorefertoPloughasa jointcreation. ‘Whatevermayhappentoourschemenow,something,Ifeel,hasalreadybeenachieved,andthatis that the whole Department is now conscious of the fact that new ideas do exist outside, amongst the generalpublic,andthattheDepartmenthasthepowertoappreciatethemandtodrivethemthroughall resistancetothehighestauthorities.’ItwasanotheriterationofPyke’smostradicalidea:thereisnosuch thingasageniusfornewideas,andthatwithcareandhardworkanyonecoulddowhathedid.Withthat, Geoffrey Pyke set off for the United States, unaware that MI5 had just contacted Mountbatten about his newDirectorofProgrammes. PYKEHUNT,PART4 On19March–thedaythatCombinedOperationsagreedtogoaheadwiththePloughscheme–Special Branch filed a new report casting Pyke in a suspicious light once again. They had learnt of a covert organisation called the Inter-States Committee of Communist Groups in Great Britain (ISC), later described as a ‘hush-hush body’ that was ‘shrouded in secrecy’. Chaired by Harry Pollitt, the restored headoftheCPGB,itwasa‘channelthroughwhichthedifferentrefugeecommunistgroupshavecontact with Moscow’ and, as one man close to it observed, it ‘came near to being a little Communist International in itself’. For Special Branch, the existence of this body was evidence of just what ‘a dangerousexperiment’ithadbeenduring1939toallow‘somanyleadingCzech,GermanandAustrian Communists–manyofthembeingthemostexperiencedandtrustedCommunistsofCentralEurope,while otherswereforyearsthefrontierworkersoftheComintern’sillegalgroups–tofindarefugeinEngland’. Thesecommunistswerenowlayingthefoundationsforapost-warEuropethatwasinthralltoMoscow. Theysawthemselvesas‘therulersoftomorrow’,andwere‘closelyintouchwithLondonSovietcircles, whosawtheirimportanceatatimewhenothersthoughtthattheycountedforlittle’. OneoftheISC’sstrategieswastosetupémigréorganisationscalled‘FreeMovements’inthestyleof theFreeFrenchmovement.Theseweredesignedtolookandsoundlikegovernments-in-waiting,inthe hope that the Allies would instal them after the defeat of the Axis powers. In reality they were under hiddenCommunistcontrol. Inlate1941theGermancommunistsinBritainwereinstructedtostartaFreeGermanMovement.The onlyproblemwasthattheirarch-rivals,theGermansocialists,hadgottherefirstandwerenowonthe vergeofsettinguptheirveryown‘FreeGermanCommittee’.Thecommunistsdecidedtolaunchasmear campaign. ‘THE “FREE GERMAN” TRICK’ was the headline splashed over the front page of the left-wing SundayDispatchon8February1942,followedbyavirulentdenunciationofthissocialist-backedFree German Committee. ‘The men concerned must be watched,’ the article fumed, ‘and their activities curbed.’ SpecialBranchwascurioustoknowwhohadplacedthearticle,asthiswouldobviouslyleadthemto the ISC. They soon had a name. One of their informants assured them that the individual behind this SundayDispatcharticlewasalso‘saidtobeinchargeofCommunist“actionpropaganda”’.Hisname wasGeoffreyPyke. Pykeinthe1940s Couldthisbetrue?WasPykeboth‘ProfessorP.’andthemaninchargeofCPGBactionpropaganda? Duringthefirsttwoyearsofthewar,beforejoiningCombinedOperations,Pykehadcertainlybeenan activejournalist.Bylookingatwhathewroteandwhen,andthosetimeswhenhesuggestedanarticleor pushedforaparticularbooktobepublished,itmaybepossibletoseeifhewasworkingasacommunist propagandist. Early on in the war Pyke wrote a string of articles on one subject: the need to dig deep air-raid sheltersintheseamsofchalkoutsidethecapital.Tunnellingthroughchalkwasrelativelyeasyandinvery littletimevastundergrounddormitoriescouldbemadetohousethepopulationofLondoneachnight.As earlyasMay1939PykehadcalledforaRoyalCommissiontoexaminethequestion.Publicinquirieslike thisusuallyhappenedinresponsetoanoutcry–but‘itisnotessentialtohavethedisasterfirst’. BetweenDecember1940andlateApril1941Pykefollowedupwithaflurryoffurtherarticlesabout theneedfordeepchalkshelters–‘Perfectsafetyforamillioninsixmonths’,‘CheaperthanAndersons’, ‘ExpertsBack“SafetyinChalk”proposals’and‘BuildChalkSheltersNow,MrMorrison’–allofwhich appeared in the left-wing weekly Reynolds News. He gave an impassioned speech on the subject at a public meeting of Democratic Movement and he persuaded an Oxford statistician, E. J. Buckatzsch, to writeapieceinanacademicjournalinsupportofthem.HealsotriedtogetanarticleinTheTimes but wasturneddownonthegroundsthat‘itplayedstraightintothehandsoftheCommunists’. The chalk-shelter campaign had by then been taken up with great enthusiasm by the CPGB. It had ‘everything to it from our point of view’, explained Douglas Hyde, then News Editor of the MoscowbackedDailyWorker.‘Ithadtheappearanceofbeingacrusadeforgreatersafetyforthecommonpeople, whilstatthesametimeitspreadalarmabouttheprovisionsalreadymadebytheauthorities.Moreover,it gaveusanopportunitytousemanyofourcrypto-communistsonpublicactivity.’ These undercover communists included Dr Allan Nunn May, later imprisoned as a Soviet agent for betrayingatomicsecrets,aswellasJ.B.S.HaldaneandIvorMontagu,bothfriendsofPykewhowere laterrevealedtohavebeenSovietagents,belongingtothe‘X-Group’,aGRUespionagecell. AndthentherewasPyke. Aswellascampaigningfordeepchalkshelters,weknowthatbeforethewarhealsowenttogreat lengthstoencouragethepublisherVictorGollancztoputouttheanti-appeasementpamphletTHEY Lied, and the following summer lobbied him to lower the proposed price of Guilty Men, a book-length denunciation of British appeasement written pseudonymously by Michael Foot, Frank Owen and Peter Howard.HehadevenpersuadedtheeditorofTribune to pressure Gollancz into doing this, and at one pointhadlinedupAllenLaneatPenguintotakeonthebookincaseGollanczpulledout.Intheenditwas published through the Left Book Club at the price Pyke had pushed for and did more than any other publicationtoshapetheBritishunderstandingof1930sappeasement. WealsoknowthatPyketriedtopersuadeAllenLanetopublishabookbyProfessorAlfredMeusel, alleged by SIS to have once been Chief of the German Communist Party and a key member of the Communist‘anti-war’campaign.Aswellasthechalk-shelterpieces,Pykewrotenumerousarticleswhich moreorlessechoedthePartyline,whetheronthesubjectofinternedrefugeesorappeasement. EvenmoresuggestivewerehisfrequentmeetingswithSydneyElliott,EditorofReynoldsNews, and especially those moments when their relationship no longer resembled that of a typical freelance journalist and his editor. On the day of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, for example, while his conversationalistsobservedthegiddyreactioninGermany,Pykenotedinhisdiarythatthiswas‘amost brilliantmovewhichwill,Ithink,inthelongrunresultinthefallofChamberlain’,adding‘Imustmakea goodefforttopersuadeSydneyElliotttothisviewbeforehewriteshisleadingarticleforReynolds on Sunday. [. . .] Sydney is smart but influenced by the last person he has talked to and I suspect that the LabourPartypeoplehavebeentalkingtohim.’Pykeappearstohavebeenmoreinterestedinwhichline Elliotttookthanwhetherhehimselfwouldbecommissionedtowriteanarticle. ThereisalsothemysteryofwhatwasgoingoninPyke’sflat.AroundthesametimethatMI5wastold about the unusual noises sounding like Morse code we know that he had apparently ‘transformed the wholeofhistopfloorintoamonitoringstationforcollectingradiomessagesfromResistanceMovements all over Europe. He had gathered a substantial staff of refugees who could cope with the range of languagesanddialectsinvolved,andhadorganisedallthenecessaryreceivingequipmenttoenablehim toeditadailybulletinofnewsitemsfromvariouscornersoftheContinent.’ What was more, he appeared to have a second office, or propaganda bureau, in Piccadilly. The Special Branch report alleging that Pyke ran Communist ‘action propaganda’ also stated that he and Rünkel,‘aCommunistagentwithanunsavouryreputationamongrefugees’,operatedoutofaPiccadilly flat‘filledwithnewspapersandfilesofeverydescription’,includingsomewhichtheythoughtmighthave beenusedforthehatchetjobwhichappearedintheSundayDispatch. ThePiccadillyflatinquestionwasnotCyrilRay’s,butoneseveralhundredyardsawayonStJames’s Square.ItbelongedtoLeoMyers,awealthyOldEtonianwhohadrecentlyconvertedtocommunism.Just asMyersprobablygavemoneytothePartyhealsoofferedPykemoneyandaspaceinwhichtowork. WhenPykewasintheflatMyers‘paidallhisexpenses–rent,lighting,telephone,etc.’,andaccordingto MI5‘alsopaidPyke’spersonalbills,suchasthemilkbill’. For all this, having a wealthy Marxist pay for his milk, writing articles in support of deep chalk sheltersorgatheringnewsfromaroundEuropeisnotproofthatPykewasacrypto-communist.Innoway doeshisjournalisticrecordrevealhimtohavebeenrunning‘actionpropaganda’fortheCPGB.Articles calling for chalk shelters appeared in more right-wing papers such as the Daily Mail or Evening Standard. What was more, Pyke’s first offering on deep chalk shelters was published well before the communistcampaignbegan–indeed,hisoriginalarticlewasprobablywheretheirideacamefrom. Elsewherehewroteorsuggestedarticlesabouttheneedtoremovethe‘railings from not just some Londonsquaresbutallofthemandinperpetuity’;andcalledforamoreequitablesystemtodetermine which children should be evacuated to the United States. In other words, his views were socialist and Fabian as much as they were communist. They spoke to a broader sensibility which came alive in the wakeofDunkirkbutisrarelystressedinpopularaccountsofthatperiod. Intheearlysummerof1940,withaNaziinvasionseeminglyimminent,Britishsocietybegantobank totheleft.ThereweremanyofthoseoutsidetheCommunistPartywhocalledforradicalsocialchange. Captain Tom Wintringham, expelled from the Party two years earlier, argued for the creation of a ‘People’sArmy’underagovernmentwhichwasunafraidofrevolution.GeorgeOrwell,likePykeafriend ofWintringhamandLeoMyers(whohadalsoofferedhimmoneyandaspaceinwhichtowork),sawthe summerof1940as‘amomentatwhichthewillingnessforsacrificeanddrasticchangesextendednotonly totheworkingclassbuttonearlythewholeofthemiddleclass,whosepatriotism,whenitcomestothe pinch, is stronger than their sense of self-interest’. For men like Orwell, Wintringham and Pyke, establishingsocialismwasnotanalternativetowinningthewarbutaprerequisite.‘Onlyrevolutioncan save England, that has been obvious for years, but now the revolution has started, and it may proceed quite quickly if only we can keep Hitler out,’ wrote Orwell, adding famously: ‘I dare say the London gutterswillhavetorunwithblood.Allright,letthem,ifitisnecessary.Butwhentheredmilitiasare billetedintheRitzIshallstillfeelthattheEnglandIwastaughttolovesolongagoandforsuchdifferent reasons is somehow persisting.’ As Pyke’s friend Sir Stafford Cripps wrote to Sir Walter Monckton in September 1940, Russia and Germany seemed to represent ‘an attempt to get away from an effete civilisation which the countries we represent are desperately trying to cling on to and to revivify. It is indeed a revolutionary war and we are on the side of the past – for the moment [. . .] it will be more difficultthentomakeanychangewithoutarevolution[...]ifonlywewouldactintimetocreateanew order.Butwhypreachtotheconverted?’ Theseviewswerenotcommunistperse,butcutfromthesamecloth.Theywereinspiredbothbya socialist ideal and by the fear that the war might lead, ironically enough, to a more right-wing or even fascistgovernmentinBritain.WhilenoneofPyke’sarticlesestablishedhimasacommunistpropaganda chiefitseemsthatduringtheearlystagesofthewarhe,likesomanyothers,experiencedashifttotheleft whichresultedinhimpushingformoreradicalsocialreform. YetforMI5’sMilicentBagot,theideathathemightberesponsibleforcommunist‘actionpropaganda’ wasenough.IttalliedwithherearliersuspicionthathewasProfessorP.andshedecidedtoact. On15March1942,justasPykewasjoinedatCombinedOperationsbyBernalandZuckerman,Bagot wrote to Harry Hunter, head of MI5’s B.6, asking him to have Pyke placed under surveillance. Only a handful of MI5 suspects could be shadowed like this at any time. As Bagot knew, it was an expensive procedure.ButtheevidenceagainstPykehadbecomemuchtoostrongtoignore. * Justthreedayslater,onanovercastWednesdayinLondon,twoMI5‘watchers’tookuppositionoutside No. 19 St James’s Square. They had no photograph with which to identify their subject, just a written sketch: ‘Height:6’1”.Hair:black.Eyes:brown.Nodistinguishingmarks.HasbeendescribedasJewishin appearanceand“arathergrubby-lookinglittlemanwithablackbeard.”’ GivenPyke’sheight,thephrase‘littleman’isstriking.Alongwith‘Jewishinappearance’itwasthere totellthetwowatchersthattheirmanwouldstandoutinthiselegantpocketofLondon.Todayitreadsas something else: a reminder of MI5’s Achilles heel. For many of the staff at the Security Service the calculus of suspicion was calibrated by class. Secrecy and trust could be assumed within the upper reaches of society, so that anyone who spoke right, acted right and had gone to the right schools was beyondsuspicion–justoneofthereasonswhytheCambridgeSpiesgotawaywithsomuch.TheSecurity Servicewashamstrungbythismawkishdeferencetotheupperechelons.Jewishness,however,seemedto scramble their calculations of class. Though Pyke came from a distinguished family, had gone to WellingtonandCambridgeandsounded‘right’,beingbothJewishand‘Jewishinappearance’placedhim outside MI5’s traditional understanding of social background. Worse than that, it seemed to suggest for someofthemthatheshouldbewatchedmorecarefully. At a quarter past nine, a man matching Pyke’s description stepped out of the house – a ‘tall, thin- bearded man, the kind of hatless, rapidly moving vagrant, who, wherever he goes and whatever the season,besidesabundleofpapersbeneathhisarm,isalwayscarryingaheavyknapsack’.Heproceeded northtowardsPiccadilly.Invisibly,separately,thetwowatchersbegantheirpursuit. HisfirststopwasPiccadillyCircusTubeStationwhereheboughttwonewspapers–thatday’sand the previous day’s copy of The Times – all of which was carefully noted down and the transaction scrutinisedforclandestineexchanges.Nothing.Pykecontinuedeast,pastthespotwhereEroshadstood beforethewarandontotheiconicLyonsCornerHouseatthestartofCoventryStreet.Itwaslarge,noisy andwelcoming,alabyrinthofcafésandrestaurantsallexudingacosmopolitanclasslessness.Thesubject made his way to the Old Vienna Café on the mezzanine floor and ordered breakfast from a ‘nippy’ waitress.Perhapshewasabouttobemetbyacontact?Orwasthewaitresscommunicatinginsomekind ofcode?Hemetnobody.Hisinteractionswereunremarkable.AfterasolitarybreakfasthereturnedtoSt James’sSquare. Therefollowedforaystonearbybookshops,lunchaloneattheChanteclerRestaurantonFrithStreet, thenpopularamongscientistsandengineers,atriptoBootsthechemistandteaatanearbyChickenInn, oneofhisfavouritehaunts.Ataboutsixthetwowatcherscalleditaday,astheydideachevening.Pyke’s night-timeactivitieswouldremainamystery. OnThursday,afterhiscustomarybreakfastattheOldVienna,Pykeworkedfromhomeuntillunchtime whenheshotoutofthehouseandgotintoataxi.Thewatchersdidlikewise.Curiously,Pyke’scabpulled up on Frith Street, just ten minutes’ walk from his home. He must have been late for lunch – but with whom? MI5’smenfollowedhimintoMarsRestaurantandtookatablenearby,confidentthatPykewouldnot have recognised them. Each of these MI5 watchers had been chosen for his chameleonic ability to disappear into most crowds and, as their boss later wrote, for ‘looking as unlike a policeman as possible’.OneofthetwomenmadeanoteofPyke’scompanion,ashortishmaninhisfiftieswithblond hairandamoustache.Heworeabrigadier’suniformandmedalssuggestinghehadfoughtinthelastwar. Butthewatchersweretoofarawaytooverheartheirconversation. Afterthemealtheyfollowedthemoutside,atwhichpointthebrigadiertookacabtowardsWhitehall andPykedisappeared.Notforthelasttime,thewatchershadlosttheirtarget. ThenextdaytheypickedhimupagainashetookhisbreakfastattheOldViennaCaféandtrailedhim toRichmondTerracewheretheyspottedthesamebrigadierfromthelunchinSoho.Onanotheroccasion they trailed their man to the Ministry of Economic Warfare, where he was seen with an RAF officer beforecarryingontotheMinistryofInformationwherehespentmorethananhour.Afterthisherushed outintothestreetandhoppedintoataxibeforeagainbeing‘losttoobservation’. Bagot’s job when picking over the minutiae of these reports was to pinpoint the salient detail, the unremarkablefragmentwhichmightunlockamoresuspiciouspatternofbehaviour.Sheknewbynowthat PykehadcontactsinwhatshepresumedtobetheCabinetOffice,theMinistryofEconomicWarfareand theMinistryofInformation.Discreetenquiriescouldbemadetodeterminetheidentitiesofthebrigadier andtheRAFofficer.FornowtheMinistryofInformationemployeewouldremainunknown.Naturallyshe wasfrustratedbythelackofobservablelinksbetweenPykeandanyforeigncommunists,andshemight havebeguntodoubtherinstincts.Perhapsthismanwasmerelyawell-intentionedleft-winger‘alongNew Statesman lines’, as one MI5 report suggested, who possessed a strange ability to attract suspicion whereverhewent.Itwastooearlytosay.Bagotdecidedtokeeptheobservationgoing. The following Wednesday, having lost Pyke twice the day before, the two watchers had their first triumph.TheysawhimhavelunchwithawomantheyknewtobeacontactofRolfRünkel,andwhowas nowworkingasasecretarytoDavidAstor.Thenextdaytheyproducedanevenmorevaluablenuggetof intelligence. They had followed their subject to King’s Cross where he had lunch with a new contact. This man wastrailedtoahousenearGoldersGreen.Theydescribedhimas:‘Age38,5’10/11”,goodbuild,dark hair, sallow complexion, large hooked nose, clean shaven. Jewish appearance. Dress grey suit and overcoat, black soft felt hat. Carries a portfolio. Speaks with a pronounced foreign accent.’ Bagot identifiedhimimmediately. ThemanPykehadmetforlunchwasJürgenKuczynski,leaderoftheillegalGermanCommunistPartyin exile and one of the most important Soviet agents in Britain at that time. During the war he passed on informationtotheNKVD,theGRUandtheSovietEmbassyand,notoriously,helpedtosmuggleBritish atomicsecretstoMoscow.OncethephysicistKlausFuchshaddecidedtospyfortheSovietUnion,he wentfirsttoKuczynski,anditwasKuczynskiwholaterbroughtinhissister,Sonya,aGRUofficer,torun thisprizeasset.WhenworkingfortheOSS,theprecursoroftheCIA,Kuczynskiagainsuppliedvaluable intelligencetohissisterwholaterbecameanhonoraryColonelintheRedArmyandremainsthemost decoratedfemaleagentinRussianhistory.Indeed,theworkcarriedoutbythetwoKuczynskisiblingsin BritainchangedtheshapeoftheColdWar. WewillprobablyneverknowwhatJürgenKuczynskiandGeoffreyPykediscussedoverlunch,only that Pyke would have looked forward to the conversation. After their initial meeting he described Kuczynskias‘intellectuallyofthefirstorder’and‘resemblingFrankRamseyinhismethodofapproach’. Wealsoknowwhenthatfirstmeetingtookplace:whenPykeflewouttoParisinJuly1939hehadgoneto meetJürgenKuczynski. InthemonthsthatfollowedtheysaweachotherfrequentlyinLondon.‘Ifoundourconversationoftodaymostinterestingandstimulating,’wrotePyketoKuczynskiinlate1939.‘IhopeIshallseeyouagain. Imayringyouupinthenextfewdays.’TheyalsohadatleastonemutualfriendinLeoMyers,whosent moneytoKuczynskiaswellasPyke,andin1941Kuczynski’swife,Marguerite,hadbeguntoworkfor Pykeasaresearcher. Thoughtheywereconnectedinmanyways,thatlunchinKing’sCrosswasthefirstthatBagotknewof therelationshipbetweenPykeandKuczynski.WhileshehadnumerousreportsfromSIS,SpecialBranch and MI5 describing Kuczynski as ‘a rabid Communist’ known to be doing ‘espionage work among refugees’,andwhowas‘adirectagentofMoscow’,shewasalsoawareofjusthowharditwastopin thismandown. EarlyoninthewarMI5hadmanagedtogetKuczynskiinternedonthebasisthathewasspreading communist propaganda geared towards impeding the war effort – one anti-fascist German émigré described his internment as ‘a very good stroke of work’. Around the same time SIS reported that Kuczynski ‘has brought out of Germany the whole funds of the German Communist Party. It is a very importantsum.’Allegedly£200,000,roughly£6milliontoday,thismoneyhadapparentlybeentransferred to a Dutch bank account accessed by Kuczynski, his father and Professor Meusel – whose manuscript PykehadofferedtoAllenLane–andbetweenthemtheywererumouredtohaveinvesteditinAmerican securities.SISconcludedthattheprofitswereusedtofundcommunistpropagandainBritainsuchasthe anti-warpublicationInsideNaziGermany,editedbyHeinzKamnitzer.ButalmostassoonasKuczynski’s internment had begun letters poured in to the Home Office, pushing for his release. They came from membersoftheCommunistParty,fellow-travellers,andMPssuchasGeoffreyMander,RichardAcland, VyvyanAdamsandG.R.Strauss.Eventhe‘Red’DeanofCanterburyweighedin,aswellastheQueen’s cousinLilianBowes-Lyon.PykewasanotherofthosewhopetitionedforKuczynski’srelease.TheHome Officesuccumbedtothispressureandhewasfreed–muchtotheannoyanceofBagot. In the months that followed MI5 continued to receive reports describing him as an ‘extreme Communist and fanatically pro-Stalin’, ‘one of Moscow’s most brilliant and dangerous propagandists’ andamanwhowas‘inillegalcontactwiththeSovietSecretService’.Buttheyhadnoproof. RatherthanfocusonKuczynski,BagottriedtoidentifythegovernmentcontactswithwhomPykehad metduringthedaysleadinguptohislunchinKing’sCross.GuyLiddelltrackeddowntheRAFofficer. ColonelLennoxchaseduptheblond-haired,moustachioedbrigadier–whoturnedouttobeMountbatten’s ChiefofStaff,Wildman-Lushington;yetfornowthecontactattheMinistryofInformationcouldnotbe identified. BagotalsodelveddeeperintoPyke’shistory.Shereadabouthisfather,thebrilliantQCwhohadrun for Parliament, and about his escape from Ruhleben which had led to suspicions in MI5 that he was a German agent. Nothing she found ruled out the possibility of Pyke being ‘Professor P.’, not least his applicationforapassporttotraveltoEuropein1927.Buttherewasnodefinitivedetail,andinanoteto SpecialBranchshebetrayedaflashofdoubt.BagotreferredtothesourcewhichhadlinkedPyketothe CominternbureauinBerlinasonewhichinthepast‘hasnotalwaysprovedreliable’. Nonetheless,theconsensusinMI5wasthatPykeshouldhavenofurtherinvolvementwithCombined Operations, where, they presumed, he was merely being consulted from time to time. It was hard to imaginethathecouldhavebeenofferedajob. ColonelLennoxspoketoMountbattenoverthephoneandtoldhimthatPykewas‘possibly a knave and definitely a fool’ and should be dropped. His timing was unfortunate. Several days earlier Mountbatten had introduced Churchill to Pyke’s proposal and already plans were afoot to have it developedintheUSwithPykeoverseeingitsprogress. Lennoxknewnothingofthis,andnordidhereadhisaudienceatallwell.HetoldMountbatten that Pykeshouldgo,largelyonthegroundsofhisleft-wingpoliticaloutlook,buthadfailedtograsptheextent to which these views were shared by Mountbatten himself. At the time one of the closest friends and adviserstotheCCOwasthecommittedMarxistPeterMurphy;Mountbatten’swifewasreceptivetothe Left and had become increasingly pro-Soviet; it has even been suggested that Mountbatten was a keen student of the Week, edited by Comintern agent Claud Cockburn, and in 1936 had read excerpts to the King,EdwardVIII,stressingtheperilsofNazism.AcallfromMI5tosaythatoneofhismostintelligent, creative and industrious employees had communist sympathies was never going to scare him off. If anything,itmighthaveendearedhimtoMountbatten,whowaseverthecontrarian. TheCCOignoredMI5’ssuggestionthatPykeshouldbedropped.Hewasundernolegalobligationto act on this advice; and, anyway, he was under the impression that a separate branch of MI5 had given Pykesecurityclearance.Instead,hedideverythingtoensurethathistriptotheUSgotofftoagoodstart. Theschemewhichhadbeenproposedbythiscivilian–theirscheme–couldchangetheshapeofthewar andMountbattenwasnotpreparedtolettheunsubstantiatedconcernsoftheSecurityServicegetinthe way. HOWTOSUCCEEDINAMERICA Fromthesignsinrestaurantsandcafésinvitingyoutodrinkasmuchcoffeeasyouliked,throughtothe unbombed majesty of the city’s ramrod-straight avenues, Washington DC had an unreal and at times magical quality for anyone who had spent the early years of the war in London. There was a weightlessnesstolifewithoutairraids,rationingorthethreatofNaziinvasion.Thecitylookedhealthier andmoreaffluentthantheBritishcapital.Itspeoplewerebetterdressedandrosierinthecheek,theirway ofspeakingwasmoreconfidentanddirect,andsowasthemood,asGeoffreyPykediscoveredonarrival towardstheendofApril1942. GeneralMarshall,HarryHopkins,ChurchillandMountbattenhadagreedthatifPykewastobetaken seriouslybytheUSArmyhewouldhavetobeaccompaniedbyseveralBritishArmyofficers.Oneofthe menchosenwasMajorE.A.M.WedderburnoftheRoyalScots–Sandytohisfriends–abarristerin peacetime who suffered from a weak heart, asthma, bronchitis and gastric ulcers. In spite of all this, remarkably, he was a formidable mountaineer and one of the most respected instructors at the Winter WarfareSchoolinLochailort,Scotland.ThoughPykefoundWedderburninitiallydistant,hesoonwarmed tothisperspicaciousScot,praisinghis‘intelligence’and‘absoluteintegrity’. Thethirdmemberofthepartywasaltogetherdifferent.JustdaysbeforetheyleftfortheUS,Averell Harriman,Roosevelt’sSpecialEnvoytoEurope,hadsharedwithMountbattenhisfearthatatemporary officer like Wedderburn would not pack enough of a military punch on the other side of the Atlantic. Thoughabusinessmaninpeacetime,HarrimanunderstoodtheshibbolethsoftheAmericanmilitaryalltoo well. This third man should be ‘preferably from the Royal Tank Corps and of a rank not less than Brigadier’. By coincidence, just two weeks earlier Brigadier Nigel Duncan had joined Combined Operations fromtheRoyalTankCorps.Hewasaslender,uprightindividualwhospokeinshort,stammeredbursts. ForPykehewasboth‘WarOfficeparexcellence’and‘“StaffCollege”parexcellence.Heisnoteven awareofthisquality.Tochangehim,hewouldhavetobebornagain,andborndifferent.’ DuncanseemedtobeaperfectfitandwashastilyattachedtotheBritishmissionjustdaysbeforeits departurefortheUS.EffortsweremadetobringtheSandhurst-schooledbrigadieruptospeed.Hewas givenpaperstoreadandtoldbyGeneralNye–nolessthanViceChiefoftheImperialGeneralStaff– thatthePloughproject‘mayshortenthewarbyyears’.Buttherewasonlysomuchhecouldtakein. InWashingtonDCthethreeBritonsspenttheirfirstnightintheluxuriousWardimanParkHotel,oneof thelargesthotelsintheworld,beforemovingthenextday.Perhapsoneofthemhadpushedforamore centrallocation,asfortherestoftheirstaytheyoperatedoutoftheair-conditionedSheratonLeeHotel, on17thandL,twominutesfromtheWhiteHouse.ItwasalsooneblockfromtheSovietEmbassy. Pyke was thrilled by the sights and sounds of the American capital, even if he found the latter somewhat muted. Since crossing the Atlantic in ‘the bomb rack of a bomber’ he had become ‘slightly deaf’.Itwasasifhewashearingeverythingthroughafinelayerofcotton.Inconversationhehadalways prided himself on his ability to read his audience and adjust his message accordingly, yet now that the needtodosowasgreaterthaneverhefelthimselftobeatasmalldisadvantage. Perhapsthisdidnotmatter.HewasintheAmericancapitalonasecretgovernmentmissionwhichhad backingatthehighestlevel.Hehadneverfeltsorelevant.Amonghispaperswerelettersofintroduction to Harry Hopkins, also known as the ‘Assistant President’, and to William Stephenson, the British spymaster and head of British Security Coordination (BSC), who was to devise ‘adequate cover’ for Plough. Another letter was to Captain John Knox, Combined Operations Liaison Officer in the US, to whom Mountbatten stressed ‘the great importance which the Prime Minister and Mr Averell Harriman attach to this scheme which, indeed, has grown in importance in their minds since the departure of General Marshall and Mr Harry Hopkins’. In 1929, during Pyke’s bankruptcy hearings, one of the examining barristers had referred witheringly to the Malting House School as the bankrupt’s ‘great scheme’.NowMountbattendescribedPloughusingthesamephrase.‘IfMrPyke’sgreatschemecomes off,’ he continued, ‘“never in the history of human conflict will so few immobilise so many” (to paraphrasethePrimeMinister).’Suchisthenatureof‘greatschemes’. Pyke’staskwassimple.HewouldhavetowinovertheAmericanmilitarytothisnewidea.Forthe first time it seemed as though this restless, industrious innovator had been handed the chance to shape history. ThreedaysaftertheirarrivalthethreemembersoftheBritishmissionmadetheshortjourneythroughthe mountingheatofthedaytotheWarDepartment.Theywereledpastarmedsentriestoaroomcontaining fifteen US staff generals and colonels, including the Deputy Chief of Staff, Lieutenant-General Joseph MacNarneywhowastheretopresideoverthemeeting,aswellasGeneralEisenhower,AssistantChief ofStaffandheadofOperationsDivision,whohadbroughtalong‘alltheofficersofmystaffimmediately concerned’.TherewerealsoofficialsfromtheOfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment(OSRD),a powerfulnewgovernmentagencycoordinatingwar-relatedscientificresearchandindustrialengineering. It was a mighty display of military and scientific capital and, as requested, Pyke got up to introduce Plough. Nobody in the audience was used to being addressed by someone looking like this. The battered glasses,scragglyfacialhair,lackofuniform,themoreexpressiveandattimesmusicaldelivery–allthis set Pyke apart. But they had been warned. General Marshall had circulated a note about the project, describing the man behind it as ‘a very odd-looking individual’ who ‘talks well and may have an importantcontributiontomake’. ‘Noone,exceptHitler,haseverspokentosomanygeneralsforsolong,’Wedderburnlaterwroteof Pyke’s performance. Others referred to him ‘lecturing’ the room and resisting attempts by others to interrupt.Hehadalottogetthrough,certainly,andaswellasintroducingthegeneralstotheschemehe tried,nodoubt,todescribethebroaderphilosophybehindit.ThegadflyPykewasforeverhappytomake afoolofhimselfandelicitlaughter,confusionorangerif–andonlyif–itchallengedthepreconceptions of his audience. Yet by his own admission, on that day he ‘spoke badly’ and did not endear himself to everyoneinthatroom. Hispartialdeafnessmighthaveplayedapart;hemighthavebeennervous.Butwhatreallythrewhim wasthegrowingsenseashespokethattheroomwasnotwithhim.Whenhedescribedtheimportanceof internationalcollaborationandwide-rangingscientificresearch,helookedoutontoaseaofblankfaces. ItseemedthattheUSArmywasenthusiasticaboutPloughbutwantedtheprojectforitself.Heworried thatthegeneralshadfailedtograspthestrategicconceptbehindit,notbecauseitwastoocomplexbut, rather,‘becausetheideaistoosimple’. Inspiteofhisshakyperformance,bytheendofthatsession,wroteEisenhower,‘aworkingcommittee wasorganised,whichwillstartonthetaskofdevelopingsnow-sledswithoutdelay’.DayslaterProject Plough was divided in two. The elite Plough force would be trained up by the War Department’s OperationsDivisionunderGeneralEisenhower,whileBrigadier-GeneralRaymondW.Moses,Assistant ChiefofStaffandheadoftheArmy’sSupplyBranch,wouldoverseethedevelopmentofthesnowmobile byOSRD. ‘Thingshadtohappenfast,andtheydid,’beganDrVannevarBush,headofOSRD.‘[Palmer]Putnam carriedtheballthroughout,andhecertainlymadeitmove.’UnderPutnamwerethelikesofHartleyRowe andShermanWarner,experiencedindustrialengineerswhowouldlaterplaykeyrolesinthetheatomicbombresearchprogramme,theManhattanProject,atLosAlamos.ThePloughsnowmobilewasinsafe handsand,asPykewrotetoMountbatten,‘despitehirsuteappearanceofyourDirectorofProgrammes’ the project had been taken up with genuine enthusiasm. General Moses confirmed on 3 May that the Plough force would be operational by the end of the year, replete with snowmobiles each capable of carrying two men, food for thirty days, fuel for 250 miles, 600 rounds of ammunition, two rifles, one automaticweaponand100poundsofexplosives. Itwasathrillingclaim,andofapiecewiththecontagiousconfidenceoftheUSArmywhichPykehad beguntorelish.‘BecauseoftheAmericanattitudetotheunknownandtotheimpossible,eveninArmy circles,Ifindmyselfmoreathomeherethanathome,’hetoldMountbatteninthefirstofalongseriesof lettersbacktoLondon.ProvidedtheUSArmy’s‘hostilitytobasicresearch’couldbeovercome,‘wemay bereadyintimewith[a]practicableventure’. The Plough project was swimming in optimism, and it seemed as though Pyke had more or less succeededinwinningovertheAmericanmilitary.Indeed,afterthatfirstweekinWashingtonDCitwas hardtoseehowanythingcouldreallygowrong. Severaldaysaftertheseconfidentassessmentsoftheproject,SandyWedderburnarrivedatSodaSprings SkiResort,innorthernCalifornia,whereheexpectedtofindPyke.Itwasthefirstdayofaweek-longset oftestsondifferentsnowmobilestodeterminewhichoneshouldbeadaptedforthenewPloughvehicle. Bytheendofthefourthdaymostoftheproject’skeyplayershadarrivedinSodaSprings.Buttherewas stillnosignofPyke. Wedderburn was told that Pyke was finding the heat in the capital ‘trying’ and had decided to stay wherehewasratherthanendurehighertemperaturesontheWestCoast.Itwasanunusualexplanation.In fact,itbarelymadesense:aCalifornianskiresortwasmuchlesshumidthanWashingtonDC.ButPyke wasknownforidiosyncraticdecisionslikethis. ThosewhodidmakeittoCaliforniaweregivendemonstrationsofthevarioussnowmobiles.Firstthe Eliasson motorised toboggan – dismissed by Wedderburn as ‘little more than a winter sports toy’ – followedbytrack-layingvehicles,asingle-screwsnowmobileandtheBurgess,similartotheArmstead that Pyke originally favoured in that it was propelled by twin Archimedian screws. Yet this particular Burgesshadnotbeenusedallwinterandthesprocketsofthechaindrivehadwarped,meaningitwould needtoberepaired. Rather than wait to have this done, the assembled party discussed the vehicles they had seen and agreed that the new Plough snowmobile should be track-laying and amphibious, similar to the Tucker ‘SnoCat’.Pyke’sideaofusinganArchimedianscrewwas,theyfelt,adistraction.Toolittlewasknown aboutit. OncethisdiscussionhadendedColonelHoagformallyinstructedOSRD to ‘design, develop, build and test one or more pilot models of a track-laying, airborne, amphibious snow vehicle, to carry a payload of 1200 lbs up a 25-degree slope in deep snow, and have a maximum speed on level packed snowof35mph’.TheDNAofthenewPloughsnowmobilehadbeendecided.TwodayslaterPykefound out. ‘Iwishtosubmitmyresignationfromthismissionandworkinconnectionwithmyproject,’hecabled Mountbatten(notethatitwasnolonger‘our’project).‘IaskyoutohavemereturnedtoLondonbyair withinsomereasonabletimeasagreed.’ TheideathathehadbeenunabletocopewiththeCalifornianheatwasaninvention.Pykehadbeen keptawayfromthosetestsbydesign. Whatinfuriatedhimaboutthiswasthatheknewmoreabouttheevolutionofsnowmobilesoverthe lasttwentyyearsthanperhapsanyoneelseinNorthAmerica,possiblytheworld.Hehadstudiedevery snowmobilepatenteverfiledandduringhismonthsofintensiveresearchhadcompiledalistofsmallscaleexperimentstohelpdeterminewhichoftheexistingvehiclesshouldbeadapted.Yetratherthanhave thetestsobservedbyanexpertlikePyketheywereoverseenbytheformerChiefEngineerattheUnited FruitCompany,anavalarchitect,andtwoseniormilitarymenwhobetweenthemhadnoexperienceof snow warfare and knew almost nothing about snowmobiles. It was like organising a Combined OperationsconferenceonpolowithoutinvitingMountbatten.BrigadierDuncansawthingsdifferently. ShortlybeforesettingofffortheWestCoasthehadsentPykeanapparentlyartlessnotepromisingto returnhiscopyofShaw’sMajorBarbara,whichhehadnowreadthreetimes,addingthathewouldbe sightseeingthenextdayand,finally,‘Iamoffthisweek.’Hedidnotexplainwhereto. With Machiavellian efficiency this upright, unassuming soldier had taken control of the British Mission.AsDuncansawit,hewastheseniorofficeronamilitaryprojectwhich,bysomeoversight,still hadacivilianattached–atroublesomeoneatthat.KeepingPykeawayfromSodaSpringswas,forhim, nomorethananexpressionofrank. ‘I am sure Duncan sincerely believes he was sent out here to carry out my ideas at his discretion, according to his method,’ Pyke complained to Mountbatten, ‘and that, as we don’t agree, he had the authoritytoarrangethingswithoutreferencetome,includingtheauthoritytothinkmeunabletoendurethe heatofthesnowfields.BrigadierDuncanwould,Iamsure,leadhistanksintobattlewithbraveryand efficiency.Heis,Ihavenodoubt,agoodofficerinpeacetime.Butinmyopinionhedoesnotpossessthe qualitiesrequisiteforhelpingtobringmyideasintobeing.’Theproblem,hewenton,was‘thatDuncan notonlydoesnotbelieveinmypolicy;hedoesnotbegintounderstandit,anddoesnotreallyunderstand that there are two policies’. Duncan was ‘in fact so contra-suggestible that he would not understand anything I were to say. When I demur to his statements that 2 and 2 are 5, he thinks me no gentleman becauseIwon’tagreetheyare4½.’ThiswasnottosaythatDuncanwasatallslow:hisattitudewas‘due torigidityofintellect,notlackofit’.Hepossessed‘boththeextremecunningandtheextremesimplicity ofachild’,bothofwhichhehademployedtoforcePyke’sresignation. ButPykehadnointentionofactuallyresigning.Youdonotneedtolookhardbetweenthelinesofhis resignation letter, all 3,000 words of it, to see that this was a bluff. He wanted Mountbatten to choose betweenhimandDuncan,yettheCCOhadotherideas. ‘Onceacivilianhasjoinedafightingorganisationandinvolvedhiscountryinamajorprojectinwar he loses the ethical right of withdrawing,’ came the reply, testier than usual. Bernal was more direct. ‘Don’t be a bloody fool,’ he wrote. ‘Your resignation disastrous not only to scheme but to whole of scientificcollaborationinwareffort.[...]Icanhelponscientificsideifyouletmeknowwhatproblems are.’ YetneitherMountbattennorBernalwasrespondingtoPyke’s3,000wordexpositionofthesituation. Instead they had been sent a crude précis written by Captain Knox, through whom most of Pyke’s messageswent.Ashemusthaveknown,nocypherclerkwouldbepreparedtoencrypta3,000wordtext. InsteadKnoxhadcabledovertoLondonwhathefeltwasthesalientpoint:‘Pyke’s grievance is based entirelyupondifferenceswithDuncan.’ Mountbatten thought it ridiculous that Pyke should ‘allow personal grievances to interfere with the majorproject’andaskedKnoxto‘smoothoutdifferencesbetweenDuncanandPykeandgetteamspirit intothem.SurelyPykerealisesthatonlyrealhopeofgettinghisownschemethroughisbyusingBritish Brigadier. Advise Duncan to be above board with Pyke. I wish them to be friends and co-operate closely.’ The following night Knox took Pyke out to dinner and ‘during three and a half hours discussion, I appealedtoPykefromeverypointofview,butfailedtoalterhisdecision,whichhestatesistakenon fundamentaldifferencesandnotonpersonalgrounds’.PykethenwrotetoMountbattendescribinghimself as‘anxiousanddistressedlestyoucontinuetothinkIamorwouldleteitheryoudownorwhatbecameof ourjointconcept’.‘Ifirritationandimpatiencewereadequatecausesforchuckingthisproject,itwould neverhavesurviveditsfirst20months,’headded.‘Putbriefly,myreasonforresignationisthis:Iama dragonDuncan’spolicy;heisadragonmine.[...]Iamnotchuckingthejob,ithaschuckedme.Thereis no question of dropping the pilot, only of discarding the mascot. I am not a mascot. In London you generouslyletmebethepilot.’ Pyke’staskintheUShadchanged.ThePloughvehicleandthePloughguerrillaforcelookedsettogo ahead.Itwasuptohimtoensurethatbothliveduptotheirpromise,andtodothishehadtowrestback controloftheBritishMission.OtherwisetherewasadangerthatPloughwouldendupasaconfusedand watered-down translation of his original idea and as such would be militarily useless. Rather than withdraw his resignation, Pyke decided to hold out for a change of heart in London. As he waited, BrigadierDuncanranamok. ‘Macbeth’,asPykeandWedderburnnowreferredtohim,spentthedaysthatfollowedtravellingup anddowntheEastCoastmakinguninformeddecisionsonsnowmobiledesign.Earlierithadbeenagreed thatthevehiclemusttravelat35mphonlevelpackedsnow.Duncanapprovedplansforavehiclewitha maximum speed of just 20 mph. The difference did not bother him. He described the inferior specifications as ‘good enough for the very good reason that I do not think anything better can be obtained’.ThereisnomoreaccurateexpressionofthedifferencebetweenDuncanandPykewhenfaced withthemechanicallyunknown. The week after Pyke’s letter of resignation, Duncan approved OSRD’s proposal to produce an amphibioussnowmobileandlaterthatdaythecontracttobuildthesemachineswasgiventoStudebaker. GeneralJosephT.McNarneyandHenryStimson,theUSSecretaryofWar,thenapprovedEisenhower’s suggestion that the War Department build 860 of these new Plough vehicles, all designed to Duncan’s specifications,addingthattheseshouldbeready‘bytheearlyfallof1942’. MenfromOSRDnowscouredtheAmericasforsuitabletestsites,travellingasfarafieldasChileand Alaska,whilethesnowmobileacquiredanewname.Itwouldbecalledthe‘Weasel’afteradescription ofthismammalas‘veryactive,bold’andknownto‘turnwhiteinwinter’. Fromadistance,theWeaselappearedtobeonschedule.But,intheirrushtoproducethesevehicles, OSRD had failed to investigate alternative snowmobile design or tackle basic questions like whether thesevehiclescouldactuallyfitintotheplanesthatwouldcarrythem.‘TheAmericansareremarkable,’ wrotePyke,‘butmanyareratherinlovewiththeprocessofproductionforitsownsake.’Thingswere movingtoofast,andtherewasadangerthattheWeaselmightbecomeawhiteelephant. Pykewasdesperatetobeinvolvedinthedesignprocess–askingquestions,teasing,testing,probing, pushingforfurtherresearch–butwithDuncaninchargehewaspowerless.InsteadheandWedderburn stewed in their room in the War Department. They would ‘sit day after day and sometimes literally all day, with nothing to do’. In the heat of the capital, Pyke’s mind wandered to other more radical ideas. Occasionally they received a note from Duncan to say how well his work was going. Pyke’s response wastofireoffanotherletterofresignationtoLondon. ‘I’vemadenomistakes,’hecomplainedtoMountbatten,onthesamedaythatChurchill asked for a progressreportonPlough,‘becauseI’venothadthechancetodoanything.Yourassumption“Pykeisthe onlypersoncapableofseeingitthrough”,“Pykeisindispensable”isabitterjoketousatthisend.Could youhavebeenaninvisiblewitnessofwhathashappenedyouwouldrealiseit.Whathashappenedisthat Pyke, far from being “indispensable”, has in fact been dispensed with . . . gradually, skilfully and indisputably.’ Knox believed that ‘Duncan had behaved outrageously’. Field Marshal Sir John Dill, head of the BritishJointStaffMissionandthemostinfluentialBritoninWashingtonDC,‘wasshockedandsaidthat Duncan ought to be sent home at once’ – though Dill did little to bolster Pyke’s credibility by ribbing GeneralMarshallwheneverhesawhimforlisteningtoMountbatten’s‘tamelunatic’.Onlywhenaglutof delayedlettersfromPykereachedtheCCOinLondon,includinghisinitialletterofresignation,didthe situationclearup. ‘Atlastunderstandposition,’sighedMountbatten,beforeorderingDuncanbacktoLondon,promoting Wedderburn to Lieutenant-Colonel and declaring that ‘Pyke is now my sole representative of Snow Plough scheme’. He even followed up on Pyke’s reminder to bring in the Russians and obtained ‘sympathetic support’ for Plough from Molotov, the Soviet Foreign Minister. ‘In spite of my somewhat petulanttelegrams,’heassuredPyke,‘IhavenotlostfaithinyouandIfeelthatthemisunderstandingsthat havecroppeduparealreadydisposedof.’ At a stroke, control of the British Mission was back with Pyke. The Russians might be coming in. RelationswithMountbattenwererestored.Pyke’smoodsoared. Severaldayslater,however,itemergedthatMountbattenhadputthesesweepingdecisionsonhold. RatherthandismissDuncanbytelegramhewouldcomeouttoWashingtonDCtosortthingsoutinperson. PerhapshehadalsoheardaboutthesecuritymatterconcerningPyke:someofhissecretpapers,including areportontheInnerFrontinNorway,inanenvelopemarked‘OnHisMajesty’sService’,andadiaryon Romanialabelled‘Secret–forMrPykeonly’,hadgonemissing.Thoughtheyhadbeenunderlockand keyinthecapital’sGraftonHotel,theyhadsince‘vanishedintothinair’. Mountbatten boarded a plane for the the United States on 2 June 1942, where, it was noted at RichmondTerrace,‘hewillbedealingwiththematterofMrGeoffreyPykeandBrigadierN.W.Duncan’. Yettherewasanotherobjectivehehadbeengivenforthistrip. Onarrival,MountbattenwenttoGeneralEisenhowerforanupdateonPlough.Thetwomenhadhititoff in London and by that stage of the war Eisenhower was pushing for Mountbatten to become sole commanderoftheAlliedinvasionofEurope,suchwashisfaithintheCCO.Nodoubthewantedtogive himgoodnews.Butthiswouldnotbeeasy. Earlierthatday,EisenhowerhadreceivedasoberinganddetailedreportonPloughfromanofficerin OperationsDivisionwhichconcludedthattheprototypeWeaseldidnotmeetthenecessaryspecifications, on balance it would probably be easier to ask the Norwegian resistance to carry out the proposed sabotagework,andthattheUSArmyshouldhavenothingtodowithPlough. ‘I can’t sign that report,’ Eisenhower had complained to the author, Lieutenant-Colonel Robert T. Frederick. ‘Whynot,General?’ ‘BecauseItoldtheminLondonthatweweregoingaheadfullspeedwiththisproject.’ ThoughEisenhowermighthavementionedthisdamningreporttoMountbattenhedidnotdwellonit and instead whisked his visitor and Lt-Colonel Frederick off to the Russian Embassy where they met Litvinov, the Soviet ambassador. There followed an ‘animated discussion’ about Plough with Litvinov expressingastrongdesirefortheSovietstohavesomeofthesenewsnowmobilesoncetheywereready. Thefollowingday,4June1942,MountbattenmetDuncanandPykeseparately.Heconcludedthatthe formerhad‘(a)failedtoensurethatthemachinebeingdesignedcouldbecarriedinanyexistingformof aeroplane;(b)failedtopressformorethanonetypeofmachinetobeinvestigated;(c)failedtopressfor the formation of a Planning Staff to plan the project; (d) failed to press for the establishment of an IntelligenceDepartmenttocollectandcollateallthetopographicalandotherintelligenceoftheareain whichoperationsweretotakeplace.’Indeed,Duncanhadbehaved‘justlikeaschoolboy’,hetoldPyke. ‘TheServiceisfullofthem.Theybecomegreybeardsbuttheyremainschoolboys.Theydon’tgrowup.’ Pyke coined a term for this condition: ‘Duncanitis’. Symptoms included a tendency to be ‘charming, moderately sincere, sometimes energetic, but simply behind the times’. Though a curable disease, it seemedthatmostsufferersrefusedtreatment.BrigadierDuncanwassentbacktoLondon. Later that day there was a meeting on Plough in which Mountbatten explained to Eisenhower, McNarney, Frederick and several US staff colonels that from now on Pyke would be his sole representative on Plough. This was a risky move. Replacing a senior army officer with an irreverent civilianwasnevergoingtoendearMountbattentotheUSmilitary,andnordidthegentlecriticismofthe WarDepartment’sapproachtoPloughthathethendelivered,withPykechippinginoccasionally. ‘If I’d known you could do as well as that, I’d never have hung Duncan on you,’ said Mountbatten afterwardsofPyke’sperformanceinthatmeeting.‘IfImaysayso,’repliedPyke,‘wehavedroppedinto thehabitofplayingdoublestogether,andknowwithoutthoughtwhichshotstotakeandwhichtoleaveto theotherfellow.’YetforhisvisittotheWhiteHousefivedayslater,themeetingthatwoulddefinehis trip,Mountbattenwasonhisown. ChurchillhadgivenMountbattentwotasksintheUS.HewastogetPloughbackontrackandtopersuade Roosevelt, Hopkins, Marshall et al. that an all-out assault on Europe before the end of 1942 was unrealistic.Thetwowereentwined.IdeallyMountbattenwouldchannelAmericanenthusiasmforRoundUpandSledgehammerintoPloughandJupiter–thisbeingChurchill’splanfortheinvasionofnorthern Norway.Itwas,reflectedMountbatten,‘probablythemostimportantjobIhadtodointhewar’. TherearenominutesoftheconversationbetweenRoosevelt,MountbattenandHopkins–itwasnot thePresident’sstyletokeeppreciserecordsofmeetingslikethese–butweknowthattheyspokeforfive hoursandthatthetonewouldhavebeensympathetic.RooseveltwasfondoftheCCO,havinggottoknow himtheyearbefore.Indeed,MountbattenwasjustthekindofEnglishmanthatmostAmericanswouldtake to – he spoke clearly, was good-looking, of royal birth and possessed an American sense of optimism. Mountbatten’sstockhadrisenconsiderablysincehislastvisittotheUS,andonthedayofthemeetinghis portrait adorned the cover of that week’s Time magazine. But when it came to watering down the American enthusiasm for a major amphibious assault on occupied France before the end of the year he provedtobenomatchforthePresidentandHarryHopkins. ThoughhewonthemovertoPlough–RooseveltevenaskedtomeetPyke–thePresidentmaintained that US soldiers must see action in Europe before the Plough force would be ready. In Mountbatten’s account of the meeting, Roosevelt reminded him of Churchill’s assurances that ‘in the event of things goingverybadlyfortheRussiansthissummer,asacrificelandingwouldbecarriedoutinFrancetoassist them’.ThiswastheSledgehammerplanmootedbyHopkinsandMarshallinLondon.Followinghistalks the week before with Molotov, the Russian Foreign Minister, the President was more determined than evertomakethishappen. MountbattenassuredhimthattheBritishwouldbe‘readytofollowupacrackinGermanmoraleby landinginFrancethisautumn’,andthatsuchanoperationcouldbelaunchedattwomonths’notice.Just overtwomonthslater,MountbattenoversawOperationJubilee,thedisastrousAlliedraidonDieppe.It wasSledgehammerinallbutnameandresultedinnoterritorialgain,limitedenemylossesandthedeath orcaptureofmorethanhalfofthe6,000Alliedtroopsinvolved,mostofthemyoungCanadians.Evenif the mistakes made at Dieppe would go on to inform the landings on D-Day, this failure haunted Mountbattenfortherestofhislife. * PossiblyuneasyattheassuranceshehadgivenRoosevelt,Mountbattensetoffthenextdaybytrainfor Montreal.HewasduetomeettheCanadianGeneralStaffbeforeflyingbacktoLondon.Inthecarriage next to him was Geoffrey Pyke, bearded and talkative, and the author of the damning report on Plough, Lieutenant-ColonelFrederick,whowasbycontrastquietandwellturnedout.Frederickwasperhapsthe lastpersonyoumighthaveexpectedtohaveonthistrip–indeed,itmadenosenseforhimtobethere– butforGeneralEisenhower’sdecisionthedaybeforetoputhiminchargeofthePloughforce. ‘I was shocked,’ Frederick confessed. ‘It was beyond my comprehension that I should be the man picked.’Hewasastaffofficerinhismid-thirtieswithnoexperienceofcombat,workinginajobwhich ‘carriedtheratingofaglorifiedchiefclerk’.Nowhewastobuildfromscratchaforceofeliteguerrillas beforeleadingthemintobattleattheendoftheyear. Most historians of the Plough force agree that the idea for this unlikely appointment came from the Britishcamp.Ofthosewhogofurther,theconsensusisthatMountbattenwasresponsible.Butitseems thatPykewastheonewhoputthisideainhishead. Not only did the idea of appointing a scheme’s strongest critic as its chief advocate have an unmistakablyPykeanringtoit–heoftendescribedtheneedto‘embraceyourdefectsandproclaimthem virtues’ – but in a letter from Pyke to Mountbatten he referred to himself, in relation to Frederick’s appointment,as‘WarwicktheKingmaker’,the16thEarlofWarwickfamousforhismanoeuvringbehind thescenesduringtheWarsoftheRosestosetuporbringdownseveralEnglishmonarchs.Havinggotrid ofDuncan,Pyke,itseems,hadputFrederickonthethrone. ‘Bob’ Frederick turned out to be an inspired choice. He would go on to become one of the great military commanders of the Second World War. For now, just one day into his new job, he faced the monumentalchallengeofrecruiting,trainingandleadingaforcewhichexistedonlyonpaper.Hedidnot havethenecessaryinfantrytraining,knewlittleaboutparachuting,mountaineeringorwinterwarfare,and needed to win over colleagues who had read an unrelentingly negative report on this proposed unit – whichhehadwritten. InMontrealthethreemensatdownwiththeChiefoftheCanadianGeneralStaff,Lieutenant-General KennethStuart,towhomMountbattenoutlinedtheideabehindPlough.HethenhandedovertoPykeand Frederickandmadetoleave.BeforehecouldgoPykeaskedforawordinprivate. Either in the corridor or perhaps in a room next door, Mountbatten’s Director of Programmes explainedthathewasworkingonanewideathatwasbiggerthanPlough,andperhapsthebiggestideaof thewar.Hewouldsendoveradetailedproposaloncetheresultsofcertaintestshadcomein.TheCCO saidthathewouldbehappytolookatit. Asheleftthebuilding,Mountbattenwasmetby‘abatteryofpresscameras’.Weknowthisfromthe diariesofGuyLiddell,MI5’sDirectorofCounter-Espionage,whohappenedtobewalkingpastatthat moment. On several occasions over the last few years he had gone through Pyke’s Personal File, but LiddellhadnoinklingthatthesamemanhadjustbeeninconversationwithMountbatten.Veryfewpeople knewthatPykewasinCanadajustthen,letalonewhy. AsPykeandFrederickexplainedtoGeneralStuart,theyhadcometodiscusstheprospectofbringing intheCanadiansonPlough.OverthecomingdaystheAmericancolonelandtheBritishinventorendured abarrageofmeetings,explainingtheideatosoldiers,politicians,civilservantsandscientists.Although thereweremomentswhentheCanadiansseemedunsurewhattomakeofthisgregariouscivilian–during onemeetingaCanadiangeneralpassedanotetoFrederick,whilePykewasholdingforth,saying‘What thehelldoeshewant?’–generallytheideawasreceivedwithenthusiasm,andinthedaysthatfolloweda landmark decision was reached. It was agreed that this new military unit should be a joint AmericanCanadianforce.Thiswaswithoutprecedent,andwouldnothavehappenedbutfortheinterventionofa rule-breakingEnglishman. ThoughtherehadbeenanagreementearlierthatyearbetweenCombinedOperationsandtheCanadian GeneralStaffthatseveralCanadianofficerswouldworkontheproject,Duncanhadfailedtofollowup onit.WhenPykediscoveredhisoversight,hedecidednottogototheUSArmy,forfearthattheywould merelysitonit,buttocontacttheseniorCanadianofficerintheUS,Major-GeneralPopeandarrangea meetingwiththeGeneralStaff.Hehadignoredtheproperchannels.ButhewasdeterminedtoturnPlough into a multinational and collaborative enterprise, even if it meant breaking protocol. He was driven as muchbyhisinternationalismasamorepracticalsensethatCanadianswere‘experienced cold-weather people’andwouldprobablytaketothisschemewell,astheydid. In between their Canadian meetings, Pyke told Frederick about how this new force should operate. ThoughFrederickwasreceptivetotheseideas,thereweretimeswhenthemanbehindthembecametoo much.‘Thesonofabitchwon’tletmealone,’hegroaned.‘I’mwithhimalldayandhetalks,talks,talks. Almosteverythinghesaysmakessensebutafterawhilemyearscloseup.IstoplisteningbecauseIget numbandalthoughI’msurethatthethingsheissayingarebrilliant,Ijustcan’tabsorbthemanymore.’ ThiswasnottheonlytimeinhislifewhenPykedisplayedanon-the-spectruminabilitytoknowwhento stop. FrederickreturnedtoWashingtonDCaloneon13Junewithato-dolistfromPykethatwasalmost comic in its length. As with the volunteers of VIAS, staff at Malting House School or his conversationalists in Nazi Germany, Pyke assumed that everyone he worked with would share his own extraordinary work ethic. Several days later Pyke arrived in the capital and was pleased to find the Ploughforceshapingupashehadhoped.ThefateoftheWeaselwaslessclear.Asbefore,hewasfinding it difficult to discover how things were progressing. His calls were rarely returned, access was often deniedandthereweretimes,nowthat‘Macbeth’hadgone,whenhisghostseemedtolinger.Orwasthere someoneelsenowworkingagainsthimbehindthescenes? VannevarBush DrVannevar‘Van’Bushwas,by1942,America’smostseniorgovernmentscientist.HeranOSRD,the departmentresponsibleforproducingtheWeasel,yetbyhisownadmissionwas‘naturallysceptical’of Pyke’s project and later described it as merely ‘an instance of Churchill’s unbridled enthusiasm’. On Pyke,heconcededthatthisman‘hadlotsofideas,someofthemsuperficiallybrilliantandintriguing’and was ‘a consummate salesman of a sort’, but felt that he was ‘short on physics, especially short on engineering judgment’. This is a reminder that in America, especially in the sciences, higher academic qualifications mattered more than they did in Britain at the time where Pyke’s lack of formal scientific trainingmightmoreeasilybeoverlooked.ThiswasjustoneofthereasonswhyVanBushbegantoturn againstthisunqualifiedEnglishman. In the weeks before Mountbatten’s visit Pyke had complained to two OSRD employees about the developmentoftheWeasel,aconversationwhichhadleftBushincensed,lessforwhatPykehadsaidthan the fact that he was even speaking to a member of his staff. Vannevar Bush was a stickler for organisationalprotocol.HearguedthatashisdepartmentandtheBritishMissionwerebothattachedto theUSArmy,liketwotributariesofthesamerivertheymustnevermeet.Hewasallfor‘workingthrough channels’. Pyke was not. He believed in intellectual cross-fertilisation and stressed the importance of seekingoutthoseworkingbeyondone’sofficialmilieu.Inmanycompaniesyouwillfindsimilarattitudes, with some calling for greater interaction between departments while others might prefer compartmentalisation,butrarelyaretheseoppositeviewsheldwithsuchintensitybytwoseniorfigures onthesameproject. Bush labelled Pyke a ‘tyro’ – someone who ‘has a contempt for channels of authority and ducks aroundthem.[...]Everyonewhohaseverworkedinacomplexpyramidalorganisationrecognisesthat there occasionally appears somewhere on the ladder of authority a dumb cluck who has to be circumvented if there is to be any progress whatever. [. . .] He can throw any organisation, civilian or military, into confusion. His breed should be exterminated for the good of society.’ Bush was referring specificallyatthispointinhismemoirstoPyke. ShortlyafterPyke’sunauthorisedconversationwithoneofhisstaff,hedidthesamethingagainwith anotheremployee.ThistimeBushwenttoGeneralMosestocomplain,peppinguphisaccountofwhat had happened with phrases like: ‘I judge that Mr Pyke’s conversation was interspersed with many referencestopeopleinhighplacesandthattherewerescarcelyveiledthreatsinvolved.’Moses,sensibly, tooknoaction. Bush returned to OSRD where he ordered his staff to have ‘no formal contact whatever with this particularBritishMission’.Indeed,ifanyofthemsomuchasspoketoPyketheywere‘toputinmyfile promptly a full memorandum on the conversation’. It was one of the only times in his life when Bush issuedsuchanorderand,ashelaterwrote,‘itisfortunatethatIdid’. SoonafterMountbatten’sarrivalBushheardamorestartlingclaimaboutPyke.Anewlypromotedand perhapsover-confidentSandyWedderburnhadtoldamemberofBush’sstaffthatPykewas‘now sitting prettywithadirectliaisontothePresident’andthat‘iftheprojectdidnotmoveasPykewished,heads wouldroll’.WedderburnhadalsoclaimedthatPykehadplacedan‘explosivecharge’underBush,and thatifPloughdidnotmoveintherightdirectionhewouldlightthefuse.Bushreiteratedtohisstaffthat theymustkeepawayfromthisman,whichwaswhyPykefoundthereceptionsofrostyonhisreturnfrom Canada. UnawareofwhatWedderburnhadsaid,letaloneBush’sreaction,Pykefoundhimselfinaquandary. Hecouldignorethisreception,resignforasecondtime,orhecouldplayhistrumpcard:hecouldexplain thesituationtoanacquaintanceofhisattheWhiteHouse. Seen in these terms it was not a difficult decision to make. Pyke was starting to understand the subtletiesofpeople’sresistancetonewideasandtheimportanceofhavingsupportatthehighestlevel. SofarhehadfailedtogetthebackingofBush.ItseemedthattheonlywaytogetPloughmovinginthe rightdirectionwastowinoveranevenmorepowerfulbody.ThedangerwasthatbygoingtotheWhite HousehemightalsoalienatetheUSArmy,andultimatelythatwouldhaverepercussionsforbothhimand themanwhohadshownsuchfaithinhimoverthelastfivemonths:Mountbatten. Pyke sat down for lunch with the Economic Adviser to the President, Isidor Lubin, on 22 June 1942. Mountbattenhadtoldhimto‘befrankbothwiththePresidentandhisadvisers’,andatlunchthatdayPyke held nothing back. Disregarding everything Bush had ever said about ‘working through channels’ he explained to Lubin what had happened with Plough, concluding that ‘the organisational level of the AmericanArmyatthisstageofitsevolutionisnotadequatetotheworking-outofsuchaprojectasI’ve putbeforethem’.ThoughPykewasfulsomeinhis‘appreciationofthetreatmentwehavereceivedfrom every officer in the War Department and the US Army with whom we have had contact. From me as a civiliansuchacknowledgementisparticularlydue.Everykindnesshasbeenshownus,’hewenton,but ‘theydon’tunderstandwar.Theywillwin,ofcourse,butbyweightofnumbersandmaterial.Andbutfor theRussians,they’dloseeventhen.’ Lubinlistenedatlength,wassilentandatlastproposedasolution.‘Foronesoimperturbablehethen became quite enthusiastic and emphatic,’ recalled Pyke. Lubin’s plan was bold. He suggested that the British Government ask the Office of Lend-Lease Administration for assistance with Plough. Lubin’s friendthere,OscarCox,couldallocatethenecessaryfundsforexperimentsandproductioncosts,andthe mistakesofthelasttwomonthscouldberectified.Inotherwords,LubinandCoxwouldhelpPyketake PloughawayfromOSRDandtheUSArmyandhaveitdevelopedthroughLend-Leaseinstead. TheramificationsofthisslowlydawnedonPyke.‘ItmeantaCasteWar.Fornocasteevergivesup the slightest of its privileges without a struggle.’ By agreeing to Lubin’s plan he would initiate a battle betweentheWhiteHouseandtheWarDepartment,and‘wasalmostcertaintobeawarcasualtyinthat fight’.Itwas,however,ariskhewaspreparedtotakeinordertosavehisproject.Lubinpickedupthe telephone,calledCoxandarrangedforhimtoseePyke. OscarCoxwasabright-eyed,hard-workinglawyerfromMaineofwhomithasbeensaidthat‘inthis big,huskyMainelawyer,HarryHopkinshadfoundhisownHopkins’.Moreimportantly,whenitcameto rescuing scientific projects that had run aground in the military shallows, Cox had form. Back in May 1940 he had arranged a meeting between Hopkins and a scientist in need of state funding for atomic research – Vannevar Bush. That meeting led to the creation of OSRD and helped accelerate progress towardstheManhattanProject.NowCoxwasbeingaskedtotakeadifferentschemeawayfromthesame scientisthehadoncehelped,onbehalfofafast-talkingEnglishman. Pyke explained to Cox ‘with complete frankness our experience of the American Army, and of the sabotageeffortsofG-4inparticular’.IfhewasworriedabouthowCoxwouldrespond,heneednothave been. Cox was ‘receptive and enthusiastic’ and agreed with Lubin’s suggestion to ‘set up a parallel organisationwhichwouldactcompetitivelyontheArmy’. ThefollowingdayCoxcalledLubin.‘Thereisalottowhathesays,’hebegan.‘Theproblemis,how farit’sgoneandwhatcanbedoneaboutit.’TheyagreedthattheproblemwiththeArmyhandlingPlough was that ‘nobody wants to take it on because it is controversial and it will get them into trouble’. AlthoughtheyfoundPyke‘fascinating’,orasCoxdescribedhim,‘amazing’,bothmencouldseehowhe ‘woulddrivetheArmynuts’. TheyagreedthatLubinshouldexplainthesituationtoHopkins,whileCoxwouldbuttonholeJohnJ. McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War, and push to have a scientist placed in the War Department to get things moving from the inside. Pyke then sent Lubin and Cox copies of his damning report on the US Army’shandlingofPlough,whichhehadrecentlysubmittedtoMountbatten.Thiswasanotherdangerous move.‘Iamdoingthisafterthinkingthrice.MyChief,Ibelieve,showedittooneortwohighauthorities, butyouwillappreciatethatifitwereknownorevensuspectedthatIhadshownthistoyouoranyone else, the complications would be serious.’ Or as he told Cox, ‘you realise, I hope, that this is high explosive,andshouldbehandledgently.Itisbestdealtwithinthedarkinsolitude.’ LaterthatdaytwoofCox’syoungassistants,bothlawyers,visitedPykeinhishotelroom.Onewas GeorgeBall,whowouldgoontobeUnder-SecretaryofStateforEconomicandAgriculturalAffairs;the otherwasEugeneRostow,laterappointedbyPresidentLyndonJohnsonasUnder-SecretaryofState.It was another sweltering evening in the capital, and by midnight the three men were still talking. ‘We “clicked”inthefirsttenminutes,’wrotePyke.‘Iappliedmyusualtestsonthemtoseewhattheylaughed at’andconcludedthattheywere‘oursort’.ThetwolawyerswerenolesstakenwithPyke,seeinghimas ‘anunusuallygiftedandattractiveEnglishman’.‘Pyke could not write or talk without skyrocketing wit, interlardedwithquotationsfromShaw,Churchill,Tolstoy,theBible,orwhateveraptepigramhemight dredgefromhisvastarsenal,’wroteGeorgeBall,adding,‘itdidnotendearhimtothesoldiers’. His room that night was an echo chamber in which everyone seemed to agree on the Army’s antiscientific bias, its resistance to new ideas and the absurdity of Bush’s insistence on Pyke having no contactwithOSRDengineers.Intheheatofitall,Pykemadeathrowawayremark.Hesaidthatthings weresobadthatthereshouldbeanofficialinvestigationintothemethodsoftheWarDepartment.Itwasa commentthatwouldcomebacktobitehim. Overthecomingdays,CoxandLubininterviewedsomeofthoseworkingontheproject.Theylearntthat the design of the prototype Weasel was so bad that the snowmobile could not steer. An expert in tank productiontoldthemthattheidealdesignshouldinvolveArchimedianscrews,asPykehadsuggested.But before they could put together a report, Vannevar Bush heard of these White House enquiries. He also discoveredthattheyhadoriginatedwithPyke. ImmediatelyBushwenttotheUSSecretaryofWar,HenryStimson,anindomitableseventy-four-yearoldRepublicanwhowas,bythatstageofthewar,lessthanenamouredwiththeBritish,andhandedhim hisdocketofpapersonPykeandhiscontactswithOSRD.Someofthesereportsweretendentious,others riddledwithexaggerationsandomissions.Yetthegistofwhattheysaidwasaccurate:Pykewasdeeply criticaloftheWarDepartment’shandlingofPlough;hehadexpressedtheseconcernstothoseattheWhite House;andhadatonepointsuggestedthatthereshouldbeanofficialinvestigationintothemethodsofthe WarDepartment.ThesedocumentsalsoindicatedthatthereweresecurityconcernsregardingPyke. Stimson was livid. He summoned Field Marshal Dill to say that Pyke’s behaviour was ‘seriously upsettingfriendlyrelationsbetweentheUSandBritishArmies’.Thismanmust‘gohomeimmediately’. AsoneofCox’sassistantsremarked:‘TheWeaselbusinesshastakenaturnfortheacute.’ Mountbatten’srepresentativewasnowtreadingwater.Hesentanotherlonglettertohisbosstelling himhowmuchhewaslookingforwardtoreceivingacablefromLondontosaythathehadbeensacked. Hewouldthrow‘alargeandriotousdinnerheretocelebratemydismissal,invitingtoitfoeandfriend alike,allunitedincommonrejoicing,whereIshoulddanceonthetableamongthechampagneglasses’. Allhereallywantedtodojustthenwastoworkontheradicalnewideawhichhehadmentionedin Canada. By his nature, Pyke was forever more interested in the solution of fresh problems than the sloggingandschemingrequiredtosteeraprojectlikePloughthroughtocompletion.Yettocarryonwith hisnewworkheneededemotionalassurancesfromtheCCO.‘Itisveryverydifficulttothinkifyouare feelingangryandaggrieved,’hetoldhim.‘Theelanvitalgetsdrainedoff.Youmaybeabitstaggeredby thisletter.“MorePykerie.”Butthispsychologicalfactisthebasicone.PartofthedifficultyisthatwhileI canblowoffsteamtoyouaboutotherpeople,I’venoonetowhomIcanblowoffsteamaboutyou.’ With his world starting to collapse around him, Pyke was reaching out to the man to whom he had come to feel closer than perhaps any other. In Richmond Terrace this proximity had been a source of occasionalresentment.ShortlybeforePyke’sdeparture,severalofficershadevengonetothetroubleof disablingthemagneticlockonMountbatten’sdoorbecausetheywereannoyedabouttheamountoftime theDirectorofProgrammeswasspendinginthere.IfthereweremomentswhenPykesawhimselfasthe Figaro-figureinthisrelationship–nominallyjunioryetessentiallyincontrol–thereremainedagenuine camaraderie between the two and mutual admiration, all of which meant that Mountbatten would go to greatlengthstoresisthavinghimdismissed. Inthethickofthis,unawareofthecrisis,ChurchillcabledHopkins.‘Iamanxioustoknowwhatthe prospectsareofcarryingoutMountbattenPloughSchemethiswinterandwouldbegratefultohearhow developmentandplanningareprogressing.’Ploughwasindisarray,Hopkinsmighthavereplied.There was no snowmobile, no guerrilla force and those involved in the project were busy casting about for scapegoats. Pyke had rounded on a Norwegian officer involved in the project. Cox’s two assistants thought ‘Putnam Must Go’, a reference to an OSRD employee. Bush and Stimson were convinced that Pyke was the problem. Cox and Lubin, meanwhile, described Pyke as ‘the red herring of this affair’, which in their opinion had become an unflattering reflection of the War Department’s approach to scientificdevelopment. SeveraldayslaterBush’sdepartmentlaunchedafreshattackonPyke.Oneofitsemployeescirculated a punishing account of Pyke’s behaviour and character that was passionate and detailed, yet failed to makeseveralvalidcriticisms. OverthelastmonthintheUS,PykehadallowedthepowergiventohimbyMountbattentogotohis head,oftencomingacrossasobstreperousandbrittle.Temperamentallyhewasbettersuitedtoroaming aboutwithinanorganisation–suggesting,provoking,makingpeoplelaugh,solvingproblems,comingup with ideas – than ordering others around. The court jester had become king and, as almost everyone agreed, this had been a mistake. Knox described Pyke in the wake of Mountbatten’s visit as puffed up ‘withtheimpressionthathewastoruntheshowandcouldbossanyoneabout’.Asiftoprovethis,Pyke thenreferredtoKnoxinaciphertelegramtoLondonas‘thatdamnedoldwoman’.Thismessagepassed through SOE’s headquarters on Baker Street and ‘caused so much amusement on arrival’, wrote Mountbatten,‘thatIactuallyhadmylegpulledbypeopleintheLondonofficebeforethetelegramreached me!Yourtelegramunfortunatelyticklestheirsenseofhumour.’Knoxwaslessamused. Pykealsohadatendency,Mountbattenobserved,torush‘totheconclusionthateveryoneisouttobe an obstructionist, or, until they prove themselves otherwise, are congenital idiots’. His technique of openingaconversationwithablastofprovocativeremarksdidnotalwaysbringoutthebestinthosehe spoke to. ‘Most of the people he comes into contact with are all very busy,’ a friend of Mountbatten’s explained,andtothem‘hisopeninggambitsareoftenfrivolous,and,totheuninitiated,pointless;thatis halfthetrouble.’ ‘Ihavenotgonedeeplyintoprosandconsofcase,’FieldMarshalDilltoldMountbatten,‘butHarry Hopkins has taken full story as prepared by War Department and will, I know, ask you to recall Pyke before he further disturbs Anglo-American relations.’ Yet four days later, somehow, Pyke was still clingingon.‘Youdon’tsackmenowonlyoutofobstinacy,’heteasedMountbatten.‘Youaregamblingon my pulling something off somehow, sometime, whereupon you reckon to turn round in glee on all your critics.’Butthepressuresoonbecametoomuch. ‘Ithasbeenmadeabsolutelycleartomethatyourparticularschemewillprobablybestbeservedby yourrunningitfromhere,’Mountbattentoldhim.FirstGeneralMarshallandthenHopkinshadexplained that if he did not have Pyke recalled they would force him out. ‘I know both of them well enough to realisethatthiswasapolitewayofgivingmeanopportunityof“withdrawingmysonfromschoolbefore hewassentdown”.’ ThetoplineofthechargeagainstPykewasserious.AsaguestoftheUS,hehadinitiatedaWhite HouseinvestigationintothemethodsoftheWarDepartment.YetMountbattendidnothavehimsacked. HemerelyaskedhimtoreturntoRichmondTerracetocontinuehisworkonPloughfromthereand,inthe meantime,asapersonalfavour,‘toavoidentanglingusanyfurther’. Pyke felt a lift of relief. In spite of ‘the unspeakable misery of seeing the beautiful and delicately balancedplanIhadtakensolongtocreatecrushedintheclumsyandunthinkinghandsoftheDuncans, Hoags, Putnams etc.,’ he told Mountbatten, ‘I am like a soldier at the front delighted that having been wounded he is at last being sent home.’ He was also grateful for not being dismissed from Combined Operations. ‘This is your usual – your constitutional generosity – crystallised, maybe, round a seed of amour-propre to show the Americans that though you can be compelled to recall, you cannot be compelledtosackme.’ It had been a strange three months. Pyke had gone to America to win over the US military and shepherdPloughthroughtoitsconclusion.Hehadcertainlyfailedinthefirstofthesechallenges,andin the process caused a contretemps between the White House and the US Army which had threatened to disturb Anglo-American relations, but his efforts had been worthwhile. In the months after his removal fromWashingtonDC,hisideaswouldflourish. The Weasel, as we shall see, became a huge success and, around the time that Pyke was recalled, trainingbeganforthePloughguerrillaforce.RenamedtheFirstSpecialServiceForce(FSSF),thisunit wasafaithfulrenderingofPyke’sblueprint.FSSFrecruitswereselectedontheirabilitytoholdtheirown inthewildandwere‘trappers,guides,cowboys,lumberjacks,etc’.Ratherthansections,therewere‘war parties’;platoonswere‘bands’;battalions‘tribes’andasoneFSSFdocumentadded,thiselitenewforce might ‘possibly bring back a few “scalps”’ – a detail which later inspired the film-maker Quentin Tarantino to centre his 2009 film Inglourious Basterds on an imaginary FSSF that literally collected Germanscalps.Foritsbrandofguerrillawarfare,itsunconventionalrecruitsandthesightofCanadians fighting in the same unit as Americans, the FSSF was unique. Against a backdrop of bitter personal antagonism and inter-departmental strife, Frederick’s leadership and Pyke’s imagination, as well as his persistenceandpropensityforbreakingprotocol,hadallcombinedtoproducealegendarymilitaryunit.It isseentodayasthefatherofboththeUSSpecialForcesandtheirCanadianequivalent.GeoffreyPyke, the creative, opinionated and sometimes childlike Englishman, had left his mark on North American militaryhistory. PYKEHUNT,PART5 ItwasonlyafterPykeflewtotheUSthatMI5realisedhewasonthestaffatCombinedOperations.This was a shock, especially in light of the latest intelligence to come in from one of their most reliable sources–‘Kaspar’,thecodenamefortheAustrianaristocratJosefOttovonLaemmel.Justtwoweeks after Pyke had left for America Kaspar supplied further clues to suggest that he was a communist propagandachief. ‘PYKE is said to be mainly concerned with a Cutting Office which distributes to its contributors cuttings from newspapers of all kinds, above all economic ones, from all parts of the world,’ ran the summaryofwhathadbeenheard.‘Hecombineswiththiscommunistpropagandaworkandperhapsalso passesoninformation.AtanyrateheisincontactwithanumberofofficialsoftheGermanCommunist Party.’ThiswasnotthekindofindividualMI5wantedtohaveemployedbyCombinedOperations,let alonesenttotheUSonasecretgovernmentmission. ‘It would seem that Pyke was taken on without any previous consultation with us,’ wrote one MI5 officer to Major Bacon of C Branch, the MI5 section responsible for vetting candidates with jobs involvingtheOfficialSecretsAct.‘Ishouldbeinterestedtoknowhowthiscouldhappen.’ ‘We have only just started vetting the staff of Combined Operations,’ replied Bacon, ‘and have no trace of Pyke’s name being submitted to date.’ An earlier note from Richmond Terrace suggested that Pyke’snamehadbeensubmittedandlatercleared.Someone,somewhere,hadslippedup. MilicentBagotwasmoreinterestedinhowPykehadcometobeofferedthisjobinthefirstplace. ‘Ourrecordsgavenoindicationthathehasbeentrainedforsuchwork.’SheaskedBaconfor‘acopyof thecurriculumvitaewhichwaspresumablyputupwhenheappliedforthisemploymentor,failingthat,to discover the grounds for his selection?’ Bacon would search in vain, for Mountbatten had never asked Pyketosubmitaformalapplication. TheseMI5officerswerenottheonlyonesintriguedbyPyke’sappointment.Whilehewasawayinthe US,anMI5listeningdevicepickedupasuggestiveconversationbetweentheleaderoftheCPGB,Harry Pollitt,andWilfredMacartney,oneofthefirstBritishcommunistsconvictedofespionageandatrusted memberoftheComintern.MacartneyhadsaidtoPollittthatPyke–whowasknowntobothofthem–‘has gottheleftearofLouisMountbatten’. Pollittalreadyknew.‘Ihearit’samazing,whattheytakefromhim,’hereplied.‘He’sthefellowdown there.Ihearit’samazingtheinfluencehe’sgotwithMountbatten.’ OneofPyke’sneighbourslaterclaimedthatMountbattenandPykeweresoclosethattheCCO‘was unhappyifhedidn’thavethedailystimulusofaconversationwithhim’andwouldoftencometovisit PykeinHampstead‘inadullmood’and‘withoutanyescort’. Pollitt was right. Pyke’s influence with Mountbatten was amazing, but it was hard to say whether Pollitt’sandMacartney’sreactionindicatedthatPykemightbeaseniorCominternofficial,orwerethey simplybemusedbytheincongruityofthispairing?Itwasequallyhardtoplaceanotherexchangeinthis conversation.OneofthetwohadaskedwhetherPykewasinAmerica,towhichtheotherhadrepliedthat itwouldbe‘veryinteresting’toknow. Was Pyke engaged in undercover activities in the US? The answer to this, sadly, must remain a mystery.GiventheFBI’slimitedcapacityfordomesticcounter-intelligenceatthattime,theydidnothave a file on Pyke. Although we know, as Christopher Andrew has it, that ‘every section of the wartime administrationofFranklinD.RoosevelthadbeenpenetratedbySovietintelligence’,includingthevarious governmentdepartmentswithwhichPykeworked,itisimpossibletosaywhetherhewasinvolved.The precursor of the CIA, the OSS, was ‘the most penetrated intelligence agency in American history’ and wouldlaterbeinfiltratedbyPyke’sfriendKuczynski.MorerecentlyithasemergedthatastheUSSRand the US forged closer diplomatic ties, between 1942 and 1945, Soviet intelligence-gathering activities escalated.ButthenamesofmanyofthoseinvolvedremainhiddeninclosedRussianarchives.Ratherthan drowninaseaofspeculationweareleftwithwhatcanbeproved,namely,thatbythetimePykehadbeen recalledfromWashingtonDCMI5hadworkedoutwhattodowithhim. The month before his return, one of the only MI5 officers who knew him personally, Victor Rothschild,3rdBaronRothschild,anaccomplishedjazzpianist,scientist,collectorandMI5’sexpertin counter-sabotage, had been asked for his opinion on Geoffrey Pyke. What followed would prove decisive. ‘Heisaratherbrilliantandpersuasivetalker,’beganRothschild.‘Infacthepersuadedmetogivehim somemoneyforwhatInowrealisewasamostfantasticproject.’ThiswaseitherMaltingHouseSchool or,morelikely,Pyke’sschemetoexplodethemythofanti-Semitism,yetgiventhelatentanti-Semitismin somepartsofMI5itisunsurprisingthatRothschildchosenottoelaborateonthis.‘Heiseccentricand erratic.Heisclever,thoughhehaslittlejudgement.’Hehadstrongleft-wingsympathiesaswell,yet‘it would be idle for this office to try and prevent near-Communists from obtaining scientific posts in Governmentdepartments,evenifitwasconsidereddesirable.Manyscientists,particularlythosewhoare still young, have very Left views, and so many of these are already in Government departments that to attend to any particular one would not only be pointless, but would also bring a certain amount of opprobriumontoMI5,assomanypeopleareonlytooreadytoaccuseusofbeingBlimps.Ontheother hand,IfeelthatsomebodywhocombinesextremeLeftviewswithanerraticcharactershouldnotbeat CombinedOperationsheadquarterswhichmust,owingtotheoperationalnatureofitsactivities,beoneof themostsecretgovernmentdepartments.’Bernalshouldalsobedropped,Rothschildwenton,toavoida situation in which ‘somebody whose first loyalty may be to Moscow rather than this country is in a position where he may well get information of considerable interest to Moscow and which the Governmentmaynotwishthemtohaveatthemoment’. TheironyofallthiswasthatRothschild’sclosefriendAnthonyBlunt,whomhehadhelpedtobring into MI5, was at that time passing titantic quantities of information to Moscow. Rothschild had been blindedbybothfriendshipandclass.Pykeexuded‘Sovietspy’inthewaythatBluntneverwould.Indeed, RothschildwassoconvincedofhisjudgementonPykethathetookitupwithLordCherwell,Churchill’s scientific adviser, who agreed that something must be done about him. Ultimately it was decided that MI5’sDirector-General,SirDavidPetrie,shouldcontactMountbattenandpressurehimintodismissing bothPykeandBernal. ThiswashardlyanidealmomentforPyketoshowtheCCOhisradicalnewproposal.Bythenhehad causedhimmajorembarrassmentintheUS,threateningtoupsetAnglo-Americanrelations,andnowMI5 wantedhimdismissed.ButforPyketherewasnochoice.Hisnewschemehadthepotentialtochangethe shapeofthewar,andperhapsthefutureofwarfareitself.‘Eitheritisawashout,’hetoldMountbatten,‘or itisofvastlygreaterimportancethanthePloughschemecouldhavebeenatitsmostsuccessful.Ihopeit isawashout.’ HOWTOWINTHEWARWITHICE Duringthesummerof1942,inthetightandswampyheatoftheAmericancapital,GeoffreyPykecameup withaplantoendthewarbyusingice.Therewerejusttwoproblems.Onewasthathemightbesacked atanymoment,theotherwasthattoomanypeoplemightheartheideaandlaugh. For many of us, laughter is an involuntary response to an idea or situation which challenges our understandingofhowthingsshouldbewhile,atthesametime,posesnothreat.Ajokeisa‘safeshock’, and throughout the history of invention some of the boldest and brightest ideas have been met with laughter.Pykeknewthathewouldbeupagainsthis‘oldenemy’–‘theappearanceofabsurdity’.Hisonly chanceofhavingthisproposaltakenseriouslywastowinoveramanlikeMountbattenwhounderstood thatnewideascouldbebothusefulandfunny. IntheweeksafterbeingorderedbacktoLondon,Pykedisappeared.HedidnotreturntoBritain,and inOSRDarumourcirculatedabouthimbeingholedupinaNewYorkhotel,hardatworkonsomemad newscheme.Anotherstorywasthathehadcheckedhimselfintoa‘mentalinstitute’. InsteadhebegantoshootupanddowntheEasternSeaboardlikeamanwhohadlostsomething.He atesolitarymealsinhotels,exchangedtelegramswithanAustrianpolymerscientistlivinginAmericaand trackeddownobscuretextsonthepropertiesofice.HemadeatleastonetriptoLakeLouiseinCanada andontwoseparateoccasionswenttotheMayoClinicinRochester,Minnesota,complainingofchronic exhaustion. Again he had been poleaxed by his mystery illness, but after numerous tests the doctors could find nothingwrongwithhim.Theyconcludedthathewasinfinephysicalconditionforaforty-nine-year-old, apartfromaguminfectionwhichwouldrequiretheremovaloftwoteeth.Toalleviatehisconditionhe wasprescribedamildamphetamineandaphenobarbiturate.Thelatterwasmildlyaddictive,sometimes knownas‘adoctor’sbestfriend’,andatthesametimeadrugoftenfoundtohavetobeentakeninlethal quantitiesincasesofsuicide. OnhissecondvisittotheMayoClinic,inSeptember,Pykestayedforseveralweeks,andasheslid betweentheextremesofcompleteexhaustionandablissed-outchemicallyinducedhigh,hefinishedhis proposal.Giventheneedforsecrecy,hehadaskedWilliamStephensonofBritishSecurityCoordination to supply a trusted secretary, who now took his finished proposal to New York where it was sent to Londonbydiplomaticbag.On24Septemberanenormous,book-lengthdossierarrivedonMountbatten’s deskfromtheMayoClinic. ‘Itmaybegold:itmayonlyglitter,’readthenotestapledtothecover.‘Ihavebeenhammeringatit toolong,andamblinded.’ PykeknewthatinthepasttheCCOhadaskedjuniorofficerstogothroughhisproposals,especially thelongerones,andpresenthimwithasummary.Hedidnotwanthimtodothesamethingnow.‘You haveanableandadmirablestaff,’hewarned,‘butofthoseI’vemetyouaretheonlyPromethean.They canread,butnotwithyoureyes.’‘Youpromisedmehalfanhourofyourtime,’hewenton.‘Idon’taskso muchtobeginwith.Readonlythefirst33pages.Ifyoufinditnogood,sobeit.Chuckitaway.Butifyou findthebasicideasnewandgoodandimportanttothewar,thenyoumustreadontotheendofthehalf hour.’ Mountbatten was busy and might have put this vast memorandum to one side had it not been for its epigraph,takenfromoneofhisbelovedG.K.Chesterton‘FatherBrown’stories. Father Brown laid down his cigar and said carefully: ‘It isn’t that they can’t see the solution. It is that they can’t see the problem.’ ThisintriguedMountbatten.Perhapsmorethananyotherpairofsentencesitseemedtoembodyone strandofhisintellectualoutlook.Heturnedthepageandbegantoread. HowtoWintheBattleoftheAtlanticwithIce ChurchillwoulddescribetheBattleoftheAtlanticas‘thedominatingfactorallthroughthewar.Never for one moment could we forget that everything happening elsewhere, on land, at sea or in the air dependedultimatelyonitsoutcome.’Pyke’sproposaldescribedhowtheAlliescouldwinit. Hebeganwithaseriesofstarkassertions:Britain’sabilitytowagewardependedonthemillionsof tonsofvitalsuppliesitreceivedacrosstheAtlantic;mostoftheseweretransportedusingunarmedships mannedbycivilians;therewerenotenoughAlliedwarshipstoprotectthemall;overpartsoftheocean therewasnoaircover;AlliedshipswerebeingsunkintheAtlanticfasterthantheycouldbereplaced. Fewmilitarystrategistswouldarguewithanyofthis.June1942hadbeentheworstmonthyetinthe BattleoftheAtlantic,inwhichastaggering652,487tonsofAlliedshippinghadbeensunk,mostofitby submarines marauding in a hitherto anonymous strip of ocean now known as ‘U-Boat Alley’. It was impossibletowinthewarwithoutvictoryintheBattleoftheAtlantic.Nolessimportantwastheability tomountattacksonenemysupplylines.Alliedeffortsfellshortonbothduetoalackofaircover.Ineach ofthemajornavalexchangesofthewar–whetheritwastheattackatPearlHarbororthesinkingsofthe PrinceofWales,theRepulseortheBismarck–aircrafthadplayedthedecisiverole.Onlynowwasit becomingclearthatcontroloftheseasdependeduponmasteryoftheair.Sohowtoachievethisoverthe Atlantic? InanimaginaryworldChurchillmighthavewavedamagicwandtoconjureafleetofnewaircraft carriers,eachvesselmagicallyimmunetotorpedoes,comfortableinroughseas,requiringverylittlesteel to build and capable of accommodating long-range bombers and fighters. This was fantasy, of course. ThereseemedtobenorealisticsolutiontothesestrategicproblemsotherthanbuildingupAlliedmilitary strength using existing weaponry until victory was assured by weight of numbers. Pyke proposed somethingelse.Hehadfoundawaytoturnfantasyintoreality. Hisstartingpointwasadog-eared1924copyoftheNationalGeographicMagazinewhichcontained anaccountbyCaptainZeusleroftheNorthAtlanticIcePatrolofwhathadhappenedwhenhismenfired six-poundshellsataniceberg.Ratherthanshatteringintoicysmithereens,asyoumightexpect,giventhat iceisbrittle,thesebergsabsorbedtheshells.Nonepenetratedmorethanafewincheswhilesomefailed toexplode.Zeuslerhadbeenbemused.Pykewasintrigued. The article also touched on the history of collisions with icebergs, stressing that the sinking of the Titanicwasnotanisolatedincidentbutoneofhundredsofencountersbetweenboatandberginwhichthe vesselwouldalwayscomeoffsecond-best.Pykeaskedhimselfasilly-soundingquestion:wasitpossible toharnessthecolossalstrengthoficebergstotheAlliedwareffort? WhilePykehadbeenlefttostewinthecapitalasBrigadierDuncanmadeuninformeddecisionson Plough, he had begun to track down historical references to ice including the story of an American businessmanwhowantedtotowanicebergfromAlaskatoLosAngelestomakeicecream.Ithadcometo nothingand,besides,theicebergwouldhavemeltedafterreachingmoretemperatewaters–butthestory plantedinPyke’smindtheideaofmovingtheseapparentlyunsinkableobjects. At this point, Pyke had a fortuitous conversation with an old friend of Bernal, Professor Herman Mark, a charming Austrian scientist in his late forties who would later become known as one of the pioneersofpolymerscience.HehadtaughtinViennabeforemovingtoNewYorkataroundthetimeof the Anschluss (his father was Jewish), since when he had built up a laboratory at the Brooklyn PolytechnicInstitute.EarlierthatyearPykehadgothiminvolvedinthePloughproject,forMarkknew more about ice than almost any other practising scientist – though this was faint praise. By 1942 astonishinglylittlewasknownaboutthephysicalpropertiesofthisubiquitousmaterial. DuringtheirconversationMarkshoweredPykewithinformationaboutice,includingthefactthatit meltsatamuchslowerratewheninsulated.Wereyoutoplaceacubeoficesome300feetwideinwater heatedupto52°F.,itwouldmeltinlessthanaweek.Surroundthatblockwithawallofwoodjustone footthickanditwouldlosenomorethan0.9percentofitsvolumein100days. This appeared to change everything. Pyke pictured an Alaskan iceberg insulated by wood and hollowed out to store military materiel. Knowing that planes had performed emergency landings on the tops of icebergs in the past, perhaps the cap of the berg could be levelled off to form a runway? Effectivelythiswouldcreateafloatingairfield.TowoneoftheseintoU-BoatAlley,inthemid-Atlantic, andaircraftbasedonitcouldlaywastetonearbyenemysubmarines.Betterstill,itcouldbedoneata fractionofthecostofbuildinganewaircraftcarrierfromsteel.Giventhaticewassocheap,whynot buildanarchipelagoofthesecustomisedfloatingislands? ‘The war can be won either by having ten of everything to the enemy’s one (including the ships to carryit),’hewrote,‘ORbythedeliberateexploitationofthesuper-obviousandthefantastic.’Pykehad combinedthree‘super-obvious’ideas:icebergsarehardtodestroy;icemeltsslowlywheninsulated;ice ischeap. Itisalsobrittle,whichwaswhyacustomisedicebergalongtheselinescouldneverwork.Itlacked the necessary crush resistance to withstand powerful mid-Atlantic swells and would break up after reaching U-Boat Alley. The resistance of a material that could cope, such as high-grade reinforced concrete,was4,000poundspersquareinch(psi).Ice,atbest,hadaresistanceof1,300psi,makingit significantlyweakerthanevenlow-gradereinforcedconcrete. ThiswouldhavebeenagoodmomenttoabandonthistrainofthoughtandreturntoPlough.Manyof us, at this point, might have done so. Pyke had checked his fantasy against reality and found it to be unworkable.Buthedidnotletgo.Hesawthisasthekindofsetbackoneshouldexpectwhentacklinga problemofthismagnitude. Instead he took a step back and tried to unbutton his mind. He had to distance himself from every assumptionthathehadeverheldaboutice,tobanishfromhisimaginationthetraditionalusesoficeand tothinkofthismaterialinsteadasifhewereascientistwhohaddiscovereditforthefirsttime. What had happened to most other new materials following their initial discovery? Iron had been alloyed with other materials to produce steel; wire had been added to concrete to make reinforced concrete;rawcopper,asheknewfromhisdaysasacopperinvestor,hadbeensmeltedandrefined.In otherwords,eachofthesenewmaterialshadbeenartificiallystrengthened.Whynotdothesametoice? EarlierthatsummerPykehadpickedupacopyoftheforbiddinglytitledRefrigerationDataBookof the American Society of Refrigeration Engineers and had read that ‘frozen sand is harder than many kindsofrock’.Theimplicationswerefascinating.Itseemedtosuggestthatyoucouldstrengtheniceby addingmaterialssuchassandtothewaterbeforeitisfrozen. AtthispointPykehadararestrokeofluck.HeaskedProfessorMarktocarryoutseveralexperiments intoreinforcingice,onlyforthisAustrianscientisttosaythathehadalreadybegun. ‘ItoldhimthatwhenIworkedinapulpandpapermillinCanada,wefoundthattheadditionofafew per cent of wood pulp greatly increased the strength of a layer of ice.’ Not only was Pyke right about strengthening ice but he was speaking to perhaps the only man in the world to have already begun experimentsalongtheselines. Breathlessatthethoughtofwhatmightbejustaroundthecorner,PykeaskedMarktoconductfresh investigationsintothepropertiesoficemadefromwatertowhichsawdustorcorkhadbeenadded.The results were extraordinary. This reinforced ice was not only stronger than pure ice but the wood pulp formedasoggyprotectivelayerwhichslowedthespeedatwhichitmelted.Twobirdshadbeenkilled withonestone.Mark’steamwasnowproducingreinforcedicewhichmeltedslowlyandhadacrushing resistanceof3,000psi–agreatertensilestrengththanmanyvarietiesofreinforcedconcrete.Asquare columnofthisstrengthenedice,measuringjustoneinchacross,couldsupportamedium-sizedcar. Thesewereonlytheinitialresults.IntimeMark’steamwasboundtofindmorefecundcombinations ofwaterandwood-pulp.‘Thepossiblerepercussionsofhavingamaterialofthisqualitythatcanbemade inanydesiredshape,uniformandmonolithicallyANDwhichfloats,areobvious.’ Just before Mountbatten ordered him back to London, Pyke’s iceberg scheme underwent its final evolutionary leap. Rather than customise a natural berg, Pyke proposed to build an artificial one using reinforcedice.Justasarefrigeratingshipiskeptcoolbyaseriesofductswebbedoutoveritshullthis man-madebergwouldcontainductscapableofkeepingthetemperatureoftheicelowenoughforittosail throughtropicalwaters. The document he sent to Mountbatten seven weeks later was summarised by its title: Mammoth Unsinkable Vessel with functions of a Floating Airfield. This ‘berg-ship’ made out of reinforced ice wouldbecheaptobuildand,onaccountofitsgargantuansize,wouldbecapableofaccommodatingeven modernfightersandbombers.Itwouldmeasureatleast2,000feetfrombowtostern,makingittwiceas longastheoceanlinerQueenMaryandtwiceaswide;thiswouldbethelargestvesselevermadeby man.Whatwasmore,itwouldbeunsinkable. Waterweighseighttimeslessthansteelbutisheavierthanice.Aberg-shipcould not be sunk. To destroyit,anattackerwouldneedtobreakthevesselupintothousandsoftinypieces,allofwhichwould float,anddothisbeforetheinitialholesinthehullcouldbepatchedup.Herewasanotherstartlingclaim: ‘Abattleship,whenhit,hastogointoportforrepair.Thereisnosuchneedfortheberg-ship.Thedamage donebyprojectilescanberepairedatseaandinaveryshorttime.Alldamagewillbemadegoodby filling the hole with about five-sixths crushed ice and water replacing the refrigerating pipes (made of cardboard)andrefreezing.’ Theberg-ship,intheoryatleast,wasanastoundingimprovementonthemodernaircraftcarrier.Each onewouldbecheap,unsinkable,capableofcarryingheavybombersandequippedwithoneofthemost powerfulsecretweaponsinanywar:surprise.Untilthen,mostmajorbreakthroughsinnavaldesignhad occurredinpeacetime,andasaresultofthisfewsideshadevergonetowarwithatellingtechnological advantageovertheother.Theberg-shipwasdifferentinthatithadbeenconceivedduringawar.Weapons designed to sink ships of steel would have little or no impact. Magnetic mines would drift harmlessly past;torpedoeswouldperforatetheshipwithoutsinkingit.‘Itsadoptionbyonesidewillgiveadvantages ofsurprisethathave,Ibelieve,neveraccompaniedtheintroductionofanewstrategicmaterial.’ TherestofPyke’sproposalwasanimaginativejourneyintoaworldinwhichonesidehadmastered themilitarypotentialoficebeforetheother.ItisunlikelythatMountbattenreadtheselattersections.They containcolourfuldescriptionsofwhatPykecalledSuper-CooledWater,orLiquidIce,beingsprayedonto enemycoastaldefencesbeforebeingusedtoformicybarricadesaroundcitieslikeGenoa,Naplesand Hamburg. There are ice floes and dummy ice floes, each with tricksy neon-lit messages for Luftwaffe pilots,suchas‘Thisisarealfloe.Pleasewastebombsonit.’Pykeenvisionedhundredsofberg-ships lumberingaroundtheworldandintoenemyports,wheretheycouldmerrily‘smashupeveryshiptobe foundthere’. Lacing the proposal together were broader ideas about deception, the need to take ground without holdingitandtheimportanceofwinningcivilianheartsandminds.Someofthisextraneousmaterialhas sincebeendismissedassciencefiction,whichitwas,inthepurestsense.ButtounderstandPykeisto realisethateveryideahehadwassciencefiction–scienceinthefictionalstageofitsdevelopment.This is the passage through which every scientific idea must travel before it can be subjected to rigorous experimentation.WhatsetthisproposalapartwastheextenttowhichPykehadallowedhisimagination to race beyond the point at which most scientists would stop. This is why some of it felt outlandish or silly.‘OnewaytobeattheGermansispreciselybybeing–notmerelyfunny–butfunny,andasthorough as the Germans are. Do you think the men who conceived and built the Trojan Horse were stiff and solemnmen?’AgainhewaspointingMountbattentowardssomethingmorethancunningandintelligence orwhattheAncientGreekscalledmetis.Hisemphasiswasonlaughter,thegatewaytodeception,which ‘destroysGermanmorale’.Thegoalshouldbenotjust‘tobeatthembuttomakefoolsoftheminbeating them.’Againthereareechoeshereofhischildhood,ofbeingchaseddownthecorridoratWellingtonand therealisationthattheonlywaytoreallygetbackathisbullieswasbymakingthemlookridiculous. For all its flights of fancy Pyke’s scheme contained a brilliant military innovation. It proposed an unsinkable aircraft carrier made out of a cheap new material that could be produced quickly. Yet his paperwasmerelyastartingpoint,‘acatalystoftheideasofotherpeople.NOideaisagoodonewhich doesnotbreeditsownsuccessors.’ItwasuptoMountbattentograspitspotential.Ifhedidandwasable topressituponChurchillwithcharacteristicgustothentheschememightsurviveitsinfancy.Morelikely wasthatMountbattenwouldchuckleatthislatestinstalmentof‘Pyke’sNonsense’andsetitasidetofocus onmoreurgentandrealisticplans. Pyke’s only chance of beating his old enemy, the appearance of absurdity, was by winning over Mountbatten,whichwaswhytheproposalwasaimedspecificallyathim.Itsjokesandreferences,even thedeclarativenatureofitssentences,allweretailoredtotheCCO.‘Mystyleisareflection,notofme, butofthemanIamwritingto,’Pykehadexplainedtohim.‘Thatiswhymylettersandmemorandatoyou havebeenwhattheyare.’‘ThatIdothisisyourfault,’hewroteelsewhere.‘Youeggmeon.Youdon’t supposeIwritelikethistootherpeople–ordoyou?Iamnotclearinwhatleadershipconsists,butI know – to my cost – that you are a born stimulator of men.’ Mountbatten had become both patron and muse, which was why Pyke chose ‘Habakkuk’ as a cover-name for this proposal (misspelt by his Americansecretaryas‘Habbakuk’,thespellingthatstuck). HabakkukwastheOldTestamentprophetwhohadwarned:‘Beutterlyamazed,forIamgoingtodo something in your days that you would not believe, even if you were told.’ There is also a Donatello sculpture of the same name, a hollow-eyed Habakkuk who seems to stagger under the weight of his prophecy,andwhobearsanuncannyresemblancetoPyke.ButtheintendedreferencewastowhatPyke imagined to be Voltaire’s line on Habakkuk: ‘Il était capable de tout.’ So was Mountbatten. From a hospital bed in the Mayo Clinic, his mood mediated by powerful drugs, Pyke began to wait for a response. Within three hours of reading Pyke’s proposal, Mountbatten had arranged a conference in Richmond Terracetodiscussthepracticalityofthescheme.Hewascaptivated.HisstaffwentoverPyke’sdocument and agreed that it was ‘both sound and brilliant’. The problem was that Mountbatten might not be in a positiontodoanythingaboutit. The CCO’s reputation was at a wartime low. Two weeks after ordering Pyke back from the United States, Mountbatten had overseen the ‘sacrifice’ landing discussed with Roosevelt, the disastrous Commando raid on Dieppe. While the blame for the scale of the defeat was not entirely his – he had calledforapincerattackratherthanMontgomery’sfrontalassault–Dieppewasseenashis‘show’and in the weeks that followed he was openly rebuked by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Field MarshalSirAlanBrooke,andthePrimeMinisterhaddemandedafullexplanation. But it was not yet clear whether the fallout from Dieppe had fundamentally changed the dynamic between Mountbatten and Churchill. At the heart of their relationship had been a weakness for bold, daringideas,thekindofschemesthatmadethemgasp.Churchillwantedproposalsfrominventorswith ‘corkscrew minds’, and was open to all but the unlikeliest suggestions from his effervescent Chief of Combined Operations. In the past, when they had sat down to discuss these ideas, a curious thing had tendedtohappen.Usuallytwopeoplewhoknoweachotherthiswellwillassumecomplementaryroles, so that if one has a habit of getting carried away, the other is there to apply the brakes. Yet during a conferenceof‘Mahomet’and‘GodAlmighty’,astheywereknowninCombinedOperations,theopposite wasoftentrue.MountbattenandChurchillhadahabitofpushingeachotherskywards,whichwaswhy Brooke and his fellow Chiefs of Staff had come to dread Monday-morning meetings after one of Mountbatten’sweekendsatChequers. ChurchillandMountbatteninCasablancain1943 Overtheweekendof5December1942MountbattenintroducedChurchilltothemostdaringscheme yetfrom‘JohntheBaptist’–Pyke’snicknameinCombinedOperations.TheUSAmbassadorJohnWinant wasalsostaying,alongwithCherwellandRoosevelt’sspecialenvoy,AverellHarriman,butMountbatten wouldhaveexplainedthisideatoChurchillalone. Hejumpedatit.Indeed,bytheendoftheirconversationthePrimeMinisterhadbeenwonoverwith theforceofaninfatuation.Churchillwasentrancedbytheideaofafloatingairfieldmadeofice.Itwas just the kind of spectacular technological innovation that he would find irresistible throughout his premiership.Theatomicbomb,forexample,mightpossessmoredestructiveforcethananyotherweapon butitremained,forhim,justabomb.Hewasmoreintriguedbyproposalswhichpossessedaparadoxical eleganceandingenuity,andinthissensetheideathatMountbattenhadjustexplainedwaswithoutequal. EarlyonMondaymorningChurchillissuedanemphaticPersonalMinutetohisChiefsofStaff.‘The advantages of a floating island or islands are so dazzling that they do not at the moment need to be discussed,’hebegan.‘Iattachthegreatestimportancetothepromptexaminationoftheseideas,andevery facilityshouldbegiventoCCOfordevelopingthem.Hewillreporttomeweeklyonthesetting-upofthe organisationandthepreliminarywork.’Pykecouldnothavehopedformore. InthesameminuteChurchillgaveadetailedaccountofhowhefelttheseberg-shipscouldbebuilt. Either Mountbatten had slightly misunderstood the proposal or various elements had been lost in translationatChequers,forChurchilldescribedcustomisinganexistingiceberg.Thiswouldneverhave worked.‘Bombsandtorpedoeswouldcrackit,eveniftheycouldnotsinkit,’wroteonescientist,‘and natural icebergs have too small a surface above water for an airfield, and are liable to turn over suddenly.’Thatwasnotthepoint.WhatmatteredwasthatChurchill’simpulsiveandromanticimagination hadbeenseizedbytheideaofcreatingthesemammothairfieldsoutofice. LordCherwellwasthefirsttotrytotalkhimdown.Aswellashavingatrackrecordofrubbishing every scheme associated with Pyke, Cherwell had recently urged MI5 to have him dismissed. So his hostilitywastobeexpected.InalonglettertoChurchillheexplainedthatHabbakukshouldbeabandoned becausetoolittlewasknownaboutice.Couldn’ttheyuseconcreteinstead? ‘Prof,’ came the reply. ‘I have long thirsted for the floating island (see backpapers). It was always brokendown.Theiceschememustbereportedonfirst.Don’tstandinitsway.’ Though Pyke was never aware of it, there was further good news in the days that followed: the SecurityServicewasnolongeranglingforhisimmediatedismissal.AsMI5’sRogerFulfordexplainedto MilicentBagot,‘onstrictlysecuritygrounds’itwasnolonger‘practicabletoaskforPyke’sremovalfrom CCO,sincehewasnotforcertainamemberoftheCPGB’.Theyremainedconfidentofbeingabletoget himout,butnotnow.‘Mountbattenisliabletosuddenenthusiasmsforunorthodoxrecruitstohisstaff,and atthemomenthehasthisenthusiasmforPykeandBernal,’theirsourceinRichmondTerraceexplained. ‘Itwillnotlast.’Oncethismomenthadpassed,MI5’scontactwouldgentlysuggestthatworkbefound elsewhereforPyke.‘Ithinkthatthisisallwecandoforthemoment.’ Pyke, meanwhile, was busy anticipating the reaction to Habbakuk from the ‘collection of fools on whomChurchillhadtorelyfortheconductofthewar’,alsoknownastheChiefsofStaff.Heworriedthat theywouldtakeonelookatthisproposalandbrandMountbatten‘brilliant,butunsound’,ortheymight resenthim‘forhavinggonewithhissuggestiondirecttotheHeadmasterwithoutconsultingthePrefects’. Pykewasrighttosensethatitrequiredunusualconvictionfromhischieftoproposeanideaasradical asHabbakuk.Mountbatten’sreputationremainedfragile.AswellastheignominyofDieppe,somehad calledhischaracterintoquestionfollowingthereleaseofthefilmInWhichWeServe.Thiswasafine pieceofwartimepropagandastarringNoëlCowardasafictionalisedversionofMountbattenduringhis command of the destroyer HMS Kelly. Yet for the Canadian newspaper proprietor Lord Beaverbrook, amongothers,itsmackedofvanity.Afterthefilm’sreleasehehadstaggereduptoMountbattenataparty andtoldhimthathewasfinished.Hedislikedthefilm’ssimperingportrayalofMountbatten’sabilitiesas a naval commander as well as the sight of Coward – for Beaverbrook a ‘pansy’ and ‘war slacker’ – playingthewarhero.Nolessirksomewasthemomentinthefilmwhenthecamerazoomedinonthe1 September1939editionofoneofBeaverbrook’spapers,theDailyExpress,carryingtheheadline‘There willbenowarthisyear’. Beaverbrook’s outburst was just one instance of the burgeoning resentment some felt towards Mountbatten.Whileheremainedasdecisiveandcharmingasever,enjoyingthecontinuedloyaltyofhis colleagues, by December 1942 the ranks of those waiting for him to make a mistake had grown insidiously. His decision to back one of the wildest schemes of the war was a mark of supreme confidenceinbothPykeandhisownjudgement.Thelastthinghecouldaffordwasacostlyfiasco. TheresponsetoHabbakukatthatfirstChiefsofStaffmeetingwascautiouslyenthusiastic.‘Discussed Winston’s new project of making battleships and aircraft carriers out of ice!!’ wrote a bemused Field MarshalBrooke.ThenextdaythesamegrouplookedatPyke’splansinmoredetail,andbytheendofthat sessionHabbakukhadbeengivenanamberlight.‘Indiscussionthestrategicalvalueofthisprojectwas freely accepted,’ ran the official account, ‘but it was considered premature to go into questions of planning and construction until we were satisfied that it was in fact a practicable proposition.’ Further research was needed, for which the Habbakuk Directing Committee was formed. It met just three days later. In a more dispassionate world none of the men who attended that session would have arrived with fixed views on the practicality of the scheme. All would have waited for the results of the scientific research.Insteadtheyfollowedtheirgutinstincts.Whileforsometheideafeltfascinating,othersfound thenotionofashipoficehardtostomach.Asmanystudieshavesubsequentlyshown,howwefeelabout anideaismorethancapableofoverpoweringwhatweknow. Mountbattenwasattheforefrontofthoseinfavour,suchasPykeandBernal,aswellasscientistsand engineersfromtheadvisorypanelsincludingProfessorPippard,thenworkingonthe‘dambuster’bomb with Barnes Wallis. The opposition clustered around Lord Cherwell, unsurprisingly, as well as Sir CharlesGoodevefromtheAdmiraltyandBrigadierSirHaroldWernherofCombinedOperations,who feltthatHabbakukwent‘againstNature’andlaterconfessedthathe‘hadnofaithinitoritspromoterand consideredthatitwasawastebothoftimeandenergy’. Notwithstanding this antagonism, the Habbakuk Directing Committee agreed that reports and experimentswereneededandthatoneortwo‘enthusiasts’likePykeshouldgotoCanadatoinvestigate thepropertiesofreinforcediceandwhetheraberg-shipwaspractical.WiththebackingofMountbatten and Churchill, and the cautious enthusiasm of the Chiefs of Staff, the project was starting to gather momentum. On New Year’s Eve 1942, in a high-ceilinged bedroom just a stone’s throw from the gentle thrum of Piccadilly, an unusual meeting began. Propped up in bed amid a jumble of papers, ashtrays and empty milk bottles was Geoffrey Pyke in a pyjama coat. In a courtly semi-circle around him were a ViceAdmiral,aBrigadierandtwowild-hairedscientists.Oneofthese,SollyZuckerman,recalledPykeatthe heartofthis‘extraordinaryconference[...]looking,withhisstrangebeard,likesomejaundicedChrist’. Hisillnesshadstruckagain,butratherthandelayanyHabbakukdiscussions,Mountbatten, Wernher, Bernal and Zuckerman had come to see the Director of Programmes in the Albany bedroom he had borrowedfromhisfriendCyrilRay.ThoughRayhadbeenoutofthecountrywhenPykereturnedfrom America, he had managed to let himself in and had since taken over the main bedroom. Ray found the wholeincidentamusingandwashappyforhimtostayon. Bernalbeganbystressingthatinhisopinionthepossibilityofsuccessjustifiedallriskoffailure,for theintroductionofjustoneberg-shipcouldtransformtheBattleoftheAtlantic,andassuchtheCanadian trials should begin right away. The next report they considered, from an elderly engineer named Mr Spanner, was altogether more dour. Pyke and Bernal groaned as Mountbatten read out his pessimistic conclusions, protesting that Spanner had shown ‘a complete lack of imagination throughout his investigations’. Mountbatten agreed. For him ‘the success of a project of this nature was dependent on how determinedonewastodoit.IfMrSpannerwastoooldtotacklesuchaproblem,heshouldbepaidfor his services, and a man with a more fertile brain should be asked for an opinion.’ This was what they agreedtodo. YetitwasnotenoughtoliftPykeoutofhisdarkeningmood.Proppedupinbedlikeadyingpatriarch surroundedbyhisfamily,hiswordsstillslurredfollowingtheoperationonhisgumsintheMayoClinic, hecomplainedthattoomanyofthoseworkingonHabbakukhadnofaith.‘Mountbattentriedtoassurehim that work was proceeding as fast as it possibly could,’ recalled Zuckerman. ‘Pyke was not satisfied. “Without faith,” he kept protesting, “nothing will come of this project.” “But I have faith”, replied Mountbatten.“Yes,”saidPyke,“buthavetheothersgotfaith?”,andturningtoHaroldWernherheasked solemnly,“Haveyougotfaith,Brigadier?”PoorWernherdidnotknowwhattosay.’ ThefollowingweekCherwelllaunchedafreshattackonHabbakukthatwouldagaintestthefaithof thosebehindit.AtthiscriticalmeetingthePrimeMinister’sscientificadviserproducedasteamrollering display of destructive criticism. Each point was countered by Bernal or a convalescent Pyke – until Mountbatten snapped. As the minutes reveal, the CCO ‘outlined the state the war had now reached, stressingtheseriousnessoftheU-boatcampaign.Hepointedoutthatwhenaschemewaspresentedwhich might relieve this stalemate, it should not be turned down out of hand through incredulity and natural antipathy,buteveryfacilityshouldbegiventoproveitsworth.’ It is easy to forget when looking back at the period which stretches from the British victory at El Alameinin1942throughtoD-Daytwoyearslater,thatduringtheearlymonthsof1943theoutlookforthe Allieswasbleak.Inveryfewtheatresofwardidtheyhavecontrolofbothairandsea,andduringthelast yeartheyhadlost7.8milliontonsofshipping,mostofitintheAtlantic.Therewerefewindicationsthat thiswouldchange.‘Theonlythingthateverreallyfrightenedmeduringthewar,’wroteChurchill,‘was theU-boatperil.’Mountbatten’swordsproveddecisive,andCherwellbackeddown.Itwasalsoagreed thatgiventheurgencyoftheschemetheywouldneedChurchilltohelpgetthingsmovinginCanada. On14January1943aCanadiancivilengineernamedJackMackenziereceivedacallfromhisPrime Minister,whohadjustgotoffthephonewithChurchill.Hewantedhishelpindevelopingatopsecret Britishscheme. Mackenziewas‘smallinstatureandquietofmien’withaheadthatroseupoutofhisshoulderslikea block of weathered stone. When he first heard about Habbakuk his reaction was cool, to say the least. ‘Thisisanotherofthosemad,wildschemesthatwecomeincontactwithfrequently,’hegrumbledinhis diary.‘WhileonecannotsaythatitisnotpracticableIamquitesurethatifitweresuggestedinnormal circlesherewewouldnothavetheghostofachanceofgettingitbeforeevenaminorofficial.’ Thiswasominous.AsActingPresidentoftheNationalResearchCouncilofCanada,JackMackenzie wasoneofthefewCanadianswhocouldgiveHabbakuktheenergeticpushitsoneeded.Ofcoursehe was quite justified in dragging his heels. Little was known about either ice or reinforced ice. Again, it wasaquestionofimaginationaswellasfaith. Fourdayslater,havinginspectedtheplans,Mackenzieandhiscolleaguesmellowed.‘Thesoundness appeals more to us as we get deeper into the problem.’ Perhaps Habbakuk could work. Certainly he appreciatedthejaw-droppingnatureofPyke’sschemeandthatifthiswasgoingtohappen,workhadto beginimmediately. Mackenziesetoffrightawayfortheblinding,snowywildsofWesternCanadatogetthenecessary experiments started. He knew better than to issue orders from Ottawa and instead met the relevant engineers and scientists in person. Soon the Canadian side of ‘Project Habbakuk’ was under way. The Canadian Department of Finance approved a budget of £150,000 for Habbakuk’s development, largely due to Mackenzie’s lobbying, and in Banff and Jasper National Parks the first experiments began. Scientists from the universities in Winnipeg, Saskatoon and Edmonton began to direct teams of conscientiousobjectorsintheirinvestigationsintotheeffectsofstressorenemyfireongiantblocksofice andreinforcedice.OnafrozenlakeinaremotepartoftheCanadianRockiesworkwouldsoonbeginon ascaled-downmodelofthefirstberg-ship. Noneofthiswasmadeanyeasierbythesappingwintryconditions.‘WhenItellyouthatatBanffwe havetoopenuparoadfortymilesthroughthemountainswithsnowtenfeetdeep,takeinsupplies,secure ice-cuttingequipment,andallaccommodationsforastaffoftwentyorthirtywhichwehopetoassemble, youwillseethatwehavetomoverapidly,’wroteMackenzie. Nolessremarkablewasthelevelofsecurity.TheCanadianswenttogreatlengthstokeeptheproject secret.EachHabbakukresearchsitewasguardedbyMounties,whilenoneoftheconscientiousobjectors labouring in the cold on Pyke’s chef d’oeuvre were told what they were working on. Most were tough youngMennonitesandDoukhoborsunabletofightforreligiousreasons.Whiletheyknewtheirscripture andcouldtellyouaboutthebiblicalHabakkuk,nonewouldhearabouta‘Habbakuk’berg-ship.Formany months,nordidtheotherscientistsworkingontheproject,includingMaxPerutz. Bythatstageofthewar,Perutzcouldbeforgivenforhavingsomethingofapersecutioncomplex.This bespectacledcrystallographer,whowouldgoontowinaNobelPrizeforChemistry,hadlefthisnative AustriapartlyonaccountofhisJewishness,whichhadlimitedthenumberofacademicpositionsopento him,beforefindingaplaceatCambridge.Herehehadexcelled,firstunderBernalandlaterSirLawrence Bragg. He was awarded a Ph.D. and relished ‘the stimulus, the role models, the tradition of attacking importantproblems,howeverdifficult,thatCambridgeprovided.ItwasCambridgethatmademe,andfor that I am for ever grateful.’ By April 1940 everything seemed to be going right in his life. He had a girlfriend.HisparentshadmadeitsafelyoutofAustriatoEngland.Thestarsinhislifehadalignedand, justasitseemedthatnothingcouldgowrong,itdid–andspectacularlyso. InMay1940MaxPerutzwascalledbeforeanEnemyAliensTribunaltodeterminewhetherhewas sympathetictotheNaziregime.Tohisastonishmenthewasjudgedtobea‘CategoryB’alien:‘absolute reliability uncertain’. It is hard to imagine why. If Perutz’s criminal record played a part, we can only presume that the actual offence was never revealed. One night in Cambridge he had been arrested for ridinghisbicyclewithoutlights. TokeepBritainsafefromNaziFifthColumniststhistwenty-six-year-oldJewishcrystallographerwas shippedofftoQuebec,strip-searched,relievedofhispossessionsanddepositedinadetentioncampthat lookedoutovertheStLawrenceRiver.Hegavelectures,becamethe‘doyenofthecamp’sscholars’and was taught theoretical physics by fellow detainee Klaus Fuchs, the man who later went to Jürgen KuczynskitostartpassingatomicsecretstotheUSSR. PerutzwasnotreleaseduntilthefollowingyearwhenhereturnedtoCambridgetoresumehiswork onthestructureofhaemoglobin.Itlefthimfeelingdetached.‘Nobodywantedmyhelpforanythingrelated tothewarexceptfire-watchingontheroofofthelaboratoryatnight.’AllthischangedintheSpringof 1942 when he received a call from a man with a ‘gentle, persuasive voice’ who wanted advice on tunnelling through glacial ice. It was Pyke, then exploring an icy version of the Trojan Horse ruse in whichthePloughforcewouldpretendtowithdrawfromNorwaybutinsteadhidedeepwithinaglacier. LaterthatyearPerutzwascontactedagainbyPyke. ‘Thistime,hesizedmeupwithavolleyofprovocativeremarks,andthentoldme,withtheairofone greatmanconfidinginanother,thatheneededmyhelpforthemostimportantprojectofthewar.’Perutz dropped his haemoglobin work and agreed to conduct experiments for Pyke into the properties of reinforced ice. To do this he was given the use of a secret laboratory five floors below London’s SmithfieldMeatMarket. His new workplace had once been a refrigerated meat store and was lit by blue fluorescent lights, which gave it an eerie, futuristic atmosphere. Perutz and his six assistants, each one a muscular Commando,wentaboutinelectricallyheatedflyingsuits,whilethesoundtrackinthissubterraneanlair was the rhythmic grind of a generator, a wind tunnel and the concrete mixer which stopped the pulp compositefromdryingout.Itwaslikesomethingoutofasciencefictionnovel–andsowasthematerial theywereworkingwith. Perutzwasfascinatedbythepropertiesofthestrangenewsubstance,evenifhedidnotyetknowwhat itwasfor.‘Itcanbemachinedlikewoodandcastintoshapeslikecopper;immersedinwarmwater.’It wasbuoyantandcheapandverystrong.Byfreezingamixtureofwaterand4percentwoodpulp,Perutz wasmanufacturingreinforcedicethatwas‘weightforweightasstrongasconcrete’.Thisgavehimand LieutenantCommanderDouglasGrant,oneoftheCombinedOperationsofficersassignedtotheproject, an idea for what to name it. ‘In honour of the originator of the project, we called this reinforced ice “Pykrete”.’ Mountbattenwaseagertoseethismaterialforhimself,soavisitwasarrangedtoPerutz’slaboratory. Wearing civilian clothes to make sure they did not arouse the suspicions of the local meat porters, Mountbatten, Wernher and the Canadian High Commissioner were driven in an unmarked van from ScotlandYardtoSmithfieldMarketwheretheyweretakenundergroundandshownintoPerutz’slair.The baldingAustrianscientistledthemovertotwoblocksofice,onepure,theotherPykreteandproduceda hammer.Hethenaskedoneofhisgueststosmashtheblocks. Theclearerofthetwoshatteredeasilyenough.Thatwasice.YetwhenthehammerstruckthePykrete itpingedofftheicycompoundandfelltothefloor. Seeing is believing, and for many this demonstration was an epiphany. Not so Sir Harold Wernher, however–indeed,hewassodeterminedtoprovethematerial’sinherentweaknessthathetookouthis pistol and fired at the block of Pykrete. Still it did not shatter. As Perutz’s Commandos had recently discovered,abulletfiredfromarifleintoaPykreteblockonefootthickmerelyformed‘alittlecraterand wasembeddedwithoutdoinganydamage’.Ironically,givenhisreasonsforproducingthegun,theeffect ofWernher’sbulletwasonlytohardenthefaithofthoseintheroom.TheCanadianHighCommissioner, Vincent Massey, now called for construction on the first berg-ship to start immediately. Mountbatten agreed,butunderstoodthatforthistohappentheprojectneededanotherpushfromuponhigh.Hefilleda thermoswithoneofPerutz’ssamplesandsetoffforChequers. There was a large party staying that weekend, with guests ranging from the Duke and Duchess of Marlboroughto‘Bomber’HarrisandtheTurkishAmbassador.WhenMountbattenarrived,shortlybefore dinner,hewastoldthatthePrimeMinisterwasinthebath. ‘Good, that’s exactly where I want him to be,’ he replied, before bounding up the stairs into Churchill’sroom.Hecalledthroughtothebathroom:‘IhaveablockofanewmaterialwhichIwould liketoputinyourbath.’ It is unclear whether Churchill was still in the bath when Mountbatten strode into the room. Either way, the CCO went over to the tub and launched a block of Pykrete into the warm water. Apparently Churchill complained that this would make the bath cold, which suggests that he was either already soakinghimselforplannedtobedoingsoverysoon.Perhapsthisistheimagewewant,thatofChurchill inhisbath,facefullofwonderasaminiatureversionofPyke’sartificialicebergbobsaboutbetweenhis legs.Inthebathoroutofit,ontheweekendof18March1943thePrimeMinistersawforhimselfthe magicalsightofPykreteafloatinwarmwater. ‘Imusttellyouaboutourwonderfulnewplan,’hehadtoldtheUSPresidentinCasablancaearlierthat year. Admiral King, the Commander-in-Chief of the American fleet, also heard of the scheme while in Morocco,andsaidthatifHabbakukwasfeasibleitwould‘winthewaratoneblow’.Nowthathehad seenPykreteforhimself,Churchillwasmoredeterminedthanevertobringthisextraordinaryschemeto fruition.Itwouldbecomesomethingofanobsession. ThatmonthheandhisMinisterofWarProduction,OliverLyttelton,wereshownacross-sectionofa proposedberg-ship.Theywere‘bothenthusiasticandanxioustoknowtheapproximateearliestdate[by whichthe]firstship[was]likelytobecomplete’.Thousandsofmilesaway,onafrozenlakeinCanada, theauthorofthisschemewastryingtofindout. SoonafterthedecisiveHabbakukmeetingatwhichMountbattenhadclashedwithCherwell,bothBernal and Zuckerman had set out for North Africa to investigate why the RAF had failed to inflict greater damageonRommel’sretreatingAfrikaKorps.Thiswas‘operationalresearch’,themarriageofscientific analysisandmilitarypracticewhichBernalhadbeencallingforsince1939.Hewasinhiselement.But almostassoonastheylandedinCairo,Bernalwashandedatelegramcallinghimawayfromhiswork. MountbattenknewalltoowellwhathadhappenedthelasttimePykehadgonetoNorthAmericaona secretmilitaryproject.HehadalsocometobelievethatHabbakukmightbe‘the most important single ideaofthiswar’,andatthelastminutehaddecidedthatBernalmustjoinPykeinCanada.Itwasacanny move:PykelistenedtoBernal,whowasalsofarmoresensitiveinhisdealingswithothers. YetBernalturnedablindeyetothistelegramandinsteadaccompaniedZuckermantoTripoli.They spent the next week inspecting RAF bomb craters, and their work was going well until the night when BernalsatdownwithZuckermantoannouncethathewasleaving. ‘Hehadbeenjustasnervousabouttellingmeashealwayswaswhenmakingabreakwithoneofthe manywomenwhousedtofallinlovewithhim,’fumedZuckerman.‘Iwasappalledatthethoughtofbeing leftalone,withtheresponsibilityofcarryingoutnotonlytheenquiriesforwhichIhadbecometrained, but also those that he would have done. I spent hours that evening, pleading with him by candlelight – therewasnoelectricityinthehotel–nottogo,sayingthatHabbakukwasnonsense’. Zuckerman accused Bernal of being an emotional and scientific dilettante who was incapable of commitment.ThesamethingwouldhappenwithHabbakuk,hewarned.Bernalwouldgivehimselftoit untilthesituationbecamemoreserious,whenhewouldrunaway.‘Desbecamemoreandmoresilentas, in desperation, I added accusation to accusation. But all to no avail.’ Bernal had been asked to decide betweenCanadaandLibya,experimentationandanalysis,PykeandZuckerman.Hehadchosentheformer ineachcase.Zuckermanwouldneverforgivehim.‘Habbakuk,orratherPyke,provedthebeginningofthe partingofthewaysforBernalandme.’ FromakhakitentintheLibyandesertDesBernalwasdriventoCairowherehetookaplanetoAccra andspentthenightinastablewithashipwreckedsailor.OnAscensionIslandheswamoffabone-white beachinshark-infestedwatersandbynightdrankwhiskywithAmericanservicemen.Therefolloweda forcedlandingintheAmazonianforestsofBritishGuiana,acricketmatchinTrinidad,andlunchwithhis oldfriendProfessorMarkinsub-zeroNewYork.HerehefoundPyke,whohadalsofoundcrossingthe Atlanticharderthanexpected,andthenextdaythetwofriendsflewnorthtoOttawa. JackMackenzie,theCanadiancivilengineer,wasunsurewhattomakeofthem.‘BernalandPykeare aqueer-lookingteam,’hetried,describingPykeas‘amostunusualtype’,adding‘mostpeoplethinkheis absolutelymad.Heisnotmad.Hethinksinamostunorthodoxway.’MackenzieenjoyedPyke’saccount of getting into and out of Germany, calling him ‘a bit of a psychological expert’ whose ‘advice on commando tactics is very useful’. But he could not understand his wardrobe. ‘He lands in this country withoutanyglovesandwithonlyalightraincoattoembarkuponatripintotheArcticweather.’Nottobe outdone, Bernal was apparently ‘dressed like a tramp’ in ‘a little pair of corduroy trousers with a belt halfwaydownfromthewaist,andablueandgreenshirtlikealumberman’s’. MackenziewastoescorttheBritishmission,two-thirdsofMountbatten’sDepartmentofWildTalents, outtotheexperimentalsitesinwesternCanada,ajobhefoundinitiallyexhausting.‘TravellingwithPyke isliketravellingwithasmallchild’,hecomplained,forhe‘canneverfindanything[...]Hejustgoes throughhispocketsandthemostunusualthingscomeout–memos,tickets,dollarbills,etc.’Itcameasno surprise on the train out of Ottawa that Pyke had lost his ticket. Mackenzie had to buy him a new one, mutteringtohisdiary,‘IamstillperfectlysurethathistickettoJasperwillturnupsomeday.’ ThemoodchangedoncetheyarrivedatthefirstoftheHabbakukexperiments.Overthenextfewdays, coveringvastdistancesinbetween,thethreemenwitnessedtestsintohowPykretebondedwithpureice, the rates at which mixtures of water and wood pulp could be frozen, and the extent to which Pykrete displayedplasticflowor‘creep’.Everythingwasprogressingatremarkablespeed,asitneededto. Ithadtakensixtyyearsofscientifictestsandexperimentstoestablishbeyonddoubtthefundamental properties of concrete. The Habbakuk project demanded an equivalent understanding of Pykrete in less thanayearandforthisknowledgetobeincorporatedintothedesignoftheworld’slargestship.Thiswas research and construction on an almost Soviet scale, which was perhaps why it appealed so much to BernalandPyke.Itwasdaunting,certainly,aprojectofbrazenambition,butfromwhattheyhadseenso faritmightjustbepossible,abeliefthatwasonlystrengthenedbywhattheysawnext. OverthepastfewweeksthefrozensurfaceofPatriciaLakehadbecomeanoutdoorfactory.Onthis picturesquelakeinJasperNationalParklabourerswerenowworkingroundtheclockonascaled-down modeloftheHabbakukberg-ship.Theyhadbegunbylayingoutawoodenfloorontheiceintheshapeof avesselsixtyfeetlongandthirtyfeetwide.Whilethiswasnotthe1:10modelrequestedbytheBritish Admiralty(itwouldhaveneededtobe140feetlongerforthat)itwouldatleastanswerthequestionof whetheraself-refrigeratingberg-shipmadefromicewasatallpracticable. Oncethefloorhadbeenlaidoutitwassealedwithpitchbeforeworkbeganonthewalls.Tinsmiths installedawebofrefrigeratingductssandwichedbetweenblocksofice,whichwouldstoptheshipfrom meltinginwarmerwaters.Originallybrinecoolantwastobepumpedthroughtheducts,butsomeofthese hadbeendamagedenroutetothesitesocoldairwaspumpedthroughinstead.Withtheductssealedin place,justdaysbeforethearrivalofPyke,BernalandMackenzie,theouterblocksoficeweremoved intoposition. Itwasathrillingsight.TheicyvisionwhichhadcometoPykeinthepummellingheatofWashington DCinthesummerwasmaterialisingfast,andtheconstructionprovedtoberapidandintuitive.‘Theyare workinginthemostprimitivewayusingwheelbarrows,etc.,’BernalreportedtoLondon,addingthata 1,000 ton model would probably take no more than fourteen days to build, confirming Pyke’s assertion thatunskilledlabourerswithlittlespecialistequipmentcouldmakethesevesselsinverylittletime. Perhapstheonlydangerwasthatsomeofthelabourersmightlearnthattheywerebuildingthemodel ofashipdesignedtocarrybombersandotherweaponsofwar.Whenthenatureofthisproject,knownto thematthetimeas‘Noah’sArk’,wasrevealedmanyyearslateratleastoneofthesepacifistMennonites andDoukhoborsfeltthat‘hisprincipleshadbeenviolatedinthenameofscience’.Butsecuritywastight and it remained a secret. That same pacifist remembered the day when the site was visited by two Englishmenincludingonewithagoateebeard,thincoatandpork-piehatwhoapparentlyinspiredamong thelabourersalotof‘humoroustalk’. On8March1943,thedayaftertheyhadinspectedthemodelatPatriciaLake,MackenzieandthetwomanBritishmissionarrivedatLakeLouiseinBanffNationalPark,aplaceofastoundingnaturalbeauty. Valley walls slid into the water at graceful intervals while, beyond, a majestic vista swept off into a blueishdistance.YetwhenPykeandBernalarrivedthetranquillitywasshatteredrepeatedlybythesound of enormous explosions. A team of scientists and labourers was busy blowing up sections of ice and Pykrete to see how the berg-ships would respond to enemy fire. As before, progress was better than expected.‘TheLakeLouiseoutfithasdonearemarkablygoodjob,’concludedMackenzie.‘Veryvaluable informationhasbeenobtained.’ WorkonHabbakukatLakeLouise FurtherworkonHabbakukatLakeLouise TheirworkhadbeendoneandthethreemenwereduetoreturntoOttawa,whenMackenzienoticed thatthetwoBritishboffinshadbeguntogazelonginglyatthesnow-coveredmountainsaroundthelake. ‘HopeIlivelongenoughtoskionceagain,’Pykehadwrittentheyearbefore.Onthatmorningbothhe andBernaldecidedthattheywouldgotoseethenearbyglacier. Mackenzie,asever,couldnotunderstandwhattheywerewearing.‘Atteno’clocktheygotontheir skisandtheirspatsandstartedforVictoriaglacierwithoutawatchoranymethodofknowingwhattimeit was,’hewrote,beforedescribingPyke’sget-upas‘themostgrotesqueoutfit–alittlehatontopofhis headwithhismufflerandraincoatandapairofspats’. Lateritseemedasthoughthislackofsuitableclothinghadbeenhisundoing.Bernalhadreappeared two hours later by himself. ‘We thought probably Pyke had collapsed as he had not been feeling very well. However, Bernal said the only reason Pyke was not there was that he could not get him to come back.Hewasgoingonforanotherhourandshouldbebackabouttwo.Actuallyheshowedupjustattrain timeandlookingveryfit.’ ItturnedoutthatPykewasan‘excellentmountaineer’–oneofthelastthingsyouwouldexpectofa bookish forty-nine-year-old who was often so ill that he could not get out of bed. It suggests that his illness was periodic and did not make him generally infirm. On the train back from Lake Louise, Pyke reminiscedtoMackenzieaboutskiinginSwitzerlandduringthe1920s,inthedaysbeforehisbankruptcy, andtheoccasionwhenhehadrescuedapartyofstrandedskiersbyskiingdownamountainsideduringa snowstorm.Wereitnotforthoseskiingholidays,paidforwiththeprofitsfromhisspeculation,Pyke’s interest in snow and ice might never have taken hold. Now he was caught up in another life, a more impoverishedlife,andyetonethatcouldincludethesightofhundredsofmenlabouringinthefreezing coldtorealiseoneofhiscontributionstothewaragainstfascism. OntheirreturntoOttawa,BernalsentaneffusivetelegramtoLondondescribingthe‘greatenergyand enthusiasm’ everywhere they had been, and how ‘on a number of occasions work on the Habbakuk experimentshadcontinuedallnight’.Nomajorobstacleshadbeenencountered, excellent progress had beenmade.TheyhadalsolearntthatblocksofPykretewereessentiallyself-adhesive:youhadonlyto placethemnexttoeachotheratsuitablycoldtemperaturesforbondstodevelop,adiscoverywhichmight savethousandsofman-hourswhenbuildingthefull-scalevessels. The only problem was the unknown nature of ‘creep’. Creep was the rate at which Pykrete, or any othermaterial,changedshape–andtheextentofthatchange–whenexposedtoconsistentpressure.With littleornoresearchintotheratesofcreepinpureice,letalonePykrete,thiswasoneofseveralquestions thatrequiredHabbakukscientiststosteeroutintounchartedwaters.Whileitwaspossibletoestimatethe compressive,tensileandflexuralstrengthofbothpureiceandPykrete,therateofcreepwouldtakemuch longertounderstandasoneneededtomeasuretheeffectofsustainedpressureoveramatterofweeks. While it might be possible to build an enormous berg-ship, until the issue of creep had been resolved therewasadangerthatthisleviathanmightstarttosagunderitsownweightonceithadputouttosea. Thiswasaproblem,butPykesawnoreasontothinkthatitmightbeinsoluble. InLondonthemoodwasbecomingimpatient.BylateMarch1943theBattleoftheAtlanticwasgoingso badly that some in the Admiralty had proposed abandoning convoys altogether. The Canadian High CommissioneraskedMountbattentodrawupashortlistofpossiblesitesfortheconstructionofthefirst full-scaleberg-ship.Hisconcernwasthatthisshipwouldnotbefinishedbytheendofthatyear‘unless thenecessaryorganisationissetupatonceandproceedstoactineverywayasifsuccesswereassured’. Hewascallingforamentaladjustment.‘Ifathingissufficientlybadlyneeded,theriskoffailuredueto incompleteknowledgecanwellbetaken.’EvenifHabbakukmightprovetobeimpossible,‘the attempt wouldhavebeenworththecost’. Mountbatten showed this note to Churchill, who cabled the Canadian Prime Minister the following day.‘IamverymuchinterestedintheprojectcalledHabbakuk,’Churchillremindedhim,‘andammost anxioustohaveyourvehementsupport.TheChiefofCombinedOperationsisarrangingtosendMrPyke and Professor Bernal to you to tell the whole story. This is for you alone as the utmost secrecy is indispensable.’ Onthesameday,ChurchillwrotetohisChiefsofStaffwithnewsoftheprogressfromCanadaandhis wishthatanorderforthefirstberg-shipbeplaced‘withthehighestpriorityandforarrangementstobe madeforfurthershipstobebuiltwithoutdelayshoulditappearthattheschemeiscertainofsuccess.’ Towards the end of a month in which more than 100 Allied ships were lost, the Chiefs of Staff duly instructedtheAdmiraltyto‘initiateactioninaccordancewiththePrimeMinister’sinstructions’. Admiral Sir Charles Kennedy-Purvis, the Deputy First Sea Lord, then met his Director of Plans to discussHabbakuk.UntilthentheAdmiraltyhadbeenlukewarmonthescheme,yetinlightoftheinitial reports from Canada their position changed. On 27 March, Kennedy-Purvis agreed that ‘fundamentally, Habbakuk is practical politics’, and that three berg-ships might be ready in little over a year, each expectedtocostaboutthesameasastandarddestroyer.WiththeAdmiraltyapparentlybehindthescheme, oneofthelastobstaclestoHabbakuk’sdevelopmenthadbeenremoved. ThefollowingdayJackMackenziehaddinnerinOttawawithPykeandBernal,whoweretotellthe CanadianPrimeMinister‘thewholestory’,asperChurchill’stelegram,andon29Marchtheywentto meethim. ‘MrChamberlainhassentmesuchaniceletteraboutyou,’beganthePrimeMinister.Itisnotclear whether he realised his gaffe, only that the next awkward remark in that meeting came from Pyke. He drewthePrimeMinister’sattentiontohisowntrouserfly.Itwasopen.Inanattempttosmartenupforthis meetingPykehadboughtanewsuitthedaybeforewhichcamewiththelatestadvanceinflydesign–a zip.Perhapsfeelinganxiousbeforethemeeting,Pykehadpoppedintothenearestrestroomonlyforhisfly tobecomestuck(apparentlythiswasnotthefirsttimethatsomethinglikethishadhappenedtohim).The rootoftheproblem,heexplainedtothePrimeMinister,wasshoddyCanadianengineering. Inspiteofthis,themeetingwasthoughttohavegonewell.TheCanadiangovernmentformallyagreed totakeresponsibilityfortheconstructionofthefirstHabbakukberg-shipandforfurtherresearchrelated toPykrete.TheironlyconditionswerethattheBritishAdmiraltyshouldsupplynavalarchitectsandthat Pyke and Bernal should remain attached to the project. These terms were readily accepted, and the Canadian War Committee approved the expenditure of an initial $1 million on a full-scale berg-ship (roughly£6millionintoday’smoney)withMackenzieincharge. MackenzieapproachedtheMontrealEngineeringCompany,whichagreedtocarryouttheworkatno cost beyond their expenses, and during the weeks that followed, in April 1943, work on Habbakuk accelerated. Communications zinged back and forth between London, Cambridge, Ottawa and the five researchstationsinWesternCanadaabouthowmuchsteelandpulpwouldberequired,wheretosource it,howthiswouldaffectcosts,theidealdistancebetweenrefrigeratingductsinthewallsofPykrete,the size of the bulkheads and how to improve the ship’s manoeuvrability. A mechanical spreader was designed to speed up the manufacture of Pykrete in industrial quantities. Explosives tests continued in Canada.Perutzworkedouttheidealratioofwoodpulptowater.AtPatriciaLakethefinishedmodelwas cutawayfromtheiceandshowednosignsofmelting.Potentialconstructionsiteswerewhittleddownto oneinNewfoundlandandanotherontheStLawrenceRiver,anditwasagreedthatthesternandbowof the ship must be made from wood. Spaced out along each side of the vessel would be twenty-six enormouspropellerunits.WhilePykehadarguedthattheseobviatedtheneedforarudder–tosteerthe shiponecouldvarythepropulsivestrengthoneitherside–theAdmiraltyinsistedonhavingone.Itwas alsoduringApril1943thatMaxPerutztackledtheproblemofcreep. Pykretewasrobustinresponsetoasuddenapplicationofpressure,liketheimpactofahammeror bullet,butwhencompressiveforcewasappliedoveralongperiodithadatendencytosag.Althoughthe rate of creep was less pronounced in Pykrete than in ice – and after the first two weeks it tended to stabilise–asolutionwasneeded.PerutzconsultedSirLawrenceBraggatCambridge,tookawell-earned breakandatlastsolvedtheproblem.HediscoveredthatattemperaturesbelowfreezingPykrete’srateof creepwasgreatlyreduced.Heconcludedon4Maythat‘at-15°C.creepwillbenoobstacletothesafety ofthevessel’.Thistemperaturewaseasilyachievedinrefrigerationboats,andtherewasnoreasonto thinkthatthehulloftheproposedberg-shipcouldnotbecooledtothesameextent.Thiswasacritical advance,butnotonethatPykeandBernalwereabletoenjoyforlong. ThedayafterPerutzannouncedhissolutiontotheproblemofcreep,theAdmiraltyreceivedapreliminary reportontheviabilityofHabbakukfromtwonavalarchitects.Churchill’sinstructionhadbeentoplacean orderforthefirstberg-shipshoulditappearthattheschemeiscertainofsuccess.Ratherthanwaitto heartheanswerfromCanada,theAdmiraltyhadsentouttwoofitsownmentoinvestigate.Mountbatten would have objected, had he known, but he was on sick leave for the first time since taking over Combined Operations. ‘During the illness of CCO I require weekly reports on “Habbakuk”,’ Churchill had informed his Chiefs of Staff. However, nothing was sent to Downing Street which mentioned the Admiralty’sdecisiontocarryoutitsownstudy. The two naval architects concluded that ‘it will be impossible to complete the project next year’, beforegoingbeyondtheirengineeringbrieftosuggestthattheprojectwouldalsobeover-budget.Pyke andBernalwerefurious.TheyprotestedtoMountbattenthatthisconclusion‘hasinouropinionandas almost admitted by them, been arrived at by means of feeling [. . .] rather than by QUANTITATIVE investigations’.TheriskoffailureinHabbakukwasnomorethanwas‘customaryinsoundcommercial engineeringenterprises’. Theclashherewasbetweentwodifferentengineeringphilosophies.TheAdmiraltywantedtofollow the proven peacetime method of starting with research before moving on to design and finally construction. Pyke and Bernal called for all three stages to run in parallel, ‘to design without an exact knowledgeofthepropertiesofthematerialandtoplanconstructionwithoutadetaileddesign’.Owingto the pressure of time, and the lives this new invention could save, ‘the procedure for tackling this job successfullywillhavetobedifferentfromanythingthathasbeenundertakenbefore’. TheydispatchedthetelegramandsetoutforLondon,urgingMountbattennottomakeanyHabbakuk decisionsuntiltheywereback.Therefolloweda‘nightmarejourney’acrosstheAtlantic‘inanunheated bomb bay’ in the company of the British filmmaker and secret agent Sir Alexander Korda. On arrival, BernalwasaskedbyareporterfromtheEveningStandardwhathehadbeenuptoinNorthAmerica.‘I wishIcouldtellyou,’hereplied,‘butIcan’t.’ Whathemighthavesaidwasthathehadbeenworkingonthestrangestandmostambitiousideaofthe war, one which appeared to have been delayed by a critical Admiralty report, and was now back in Londontofireuphisboss,LordLouisMountbatten.OnthedayoftheirreturnPykeandBernalhadlunch with the CCO – only to be joined by an uninvited guest, Evelyn Waugh, then a Liaison Officer to Combined Operations, who ‘arrived rather tipsy’ and by his own admission ‘behaved rather badly’. Waughnotedthat,withPykeandBernalbackintheoffice,RichmondTerracewasonceagain‘anestof Communists’.YetovertheweeksthatfollowedMountbatten’sfaithintheprojectwasrenewed.Pykeand Bernal,workingnowasateam,wroteadetailedrebuttalofthereportfromtheAdmiralty.Buttheycould notundoallthedamagethatithaddone. InameetingoftheHabbakukStandingCommitteeon3Juneitwasagreedthattheprojectwasstill feasible,buttherewasanewnoteofcautionintheprojectedtimings.Itwasnolongerthoughtthatabergshipcouldbereadybytheendofthatcomingwinter.Therewas,atleast,fullagreementonthestrategic need for these vessels, particularly in the Pacific, and the importance of getting American planners involved.Habbakukhadregainedsomeofitsdrive.ButforChurchilltheprogresswasstilltoosluggish. ‘Well, Lord Louis, what is the situation?’ the Prime Minister had asked at the start of a meeting in Downing Street called to discuss Habbakuk. Cherwell was on his right. Elsewhere in the room were Mountbatten,SirStaffordCripps,Kennedy-Purvis,BernalandJackMackenzie,whodescribedthePrime Ministeronthatdayas‘alittleoldmaninazipperedsuitwithabigcigarinhismouth.Incidentallyhe doesnotsmoke–hechewsabouthalfacigar,smokesoneinch,throwsitaway,takesoutagoldcaseand startstheproceedingoveragain.’ Churchillat10DowningStreetinhisbespokezippered‘siren’suit Mountbattenexplainedthattheberg-shipswouldnotbereadythatyear,atwhich‘Churchillshowed very definite annoyance. He said he did not care whether the equipment would last over a month if he could get it on the coast of Norway. He went on a long dissertation on the value of having Habbakuks whichwasallverysound.HesaiditwasimpossibletoinvadeEuropewithoutafightercover,thatwhere afightercoverwasnowpossiblethedefenceswereimpregnable,thatifhehadHabbakukshecouldget intoNorwayandtheBayofBiscay,etc.,allofwhichweknew.’Mountbatten‘dancedaround’andagreed that Combined Operations should draw up a report on the idea of building modified Habbakuks from wood which would not be designed to last for long. Churchill also wanted a report on whether these Habbakukberg-shipscouldbeusedaspartofhisJupiterplanforattackingnorthernNorway. ItfelltoPyketoproducethisreport,ataskhedidnotappreciate.Hecontinuedtobelievethattheidea ofoccupyingnorthernNorwaywas‘fundamentallyfallacious[...]ItrustImaynotappearcriticalofthe authorsoftheJupiterMemoranda.Toalaymantheseappearamostcompetentsolutionofaproblem.But itisthewrongproblem.’ Dayslater,justafterthestartoftheAlliedinvasionofSicily,Churchillreturnedtotheideaofusing Habbakuks in an invasion of Norway. He told his Chiefs of Staff that if a cross-Channel invasion of northernFrancewasimpossibleforMay1944‘thenOperationJupitermustbeinplace,andthatforthis “HABBAKUK”wouldbeaninvaluableaid,anditwouldseemprudentinviewofalltheuncertainties aheadtomakethewooden“HABBAKUK”atacostof£2millionsnow.’ That was not the end of it. The Prime Minister had suggested at the recent Trident Conference in WashingtonDC,onthequestionofinvadingJapan,that‘“HABBAKUK”inoneofitsiceformsmightplay averyimportantpart’.ChurchillwouldnotletgoofthisideaandaskedforhislastnoteonHabbakukto be passed on to the Deputy Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary. General Ismay assured him that answers to his questions would be ready in time for the Quadrant Conference, in Quebec, where HabbakukwouldbeofficiallypresentedtotheAmericansforthefirsttime. In early August 1943, the Queen Mary set out for Quebec carrying a precious cargo: Churchill, Mountbatten, various British Chiefs of Staff, several Cabinet ministers and more than 200 military officials.Thefactthatthisjourneycouldevenbecontemplatedwasasignofjusthowmuchhadchanged intheBattleoftheAtlantic. OverthepasttwelvemonthsaraftofsmallimprovementsinAlliedweaponryandtacticshadtipped thebalanceinthistheatreofwar.AircraftcouldnowtravelfurtherandsomewereequippedwithLeigh Lights,connectedtocentimetricradar.Escortshipshadbecomemorenumerousandbetterequipped,with HF-DFmastsand‘Hedgehogs’tolaunchdepthchargesforeandaft.AgrowingnumberofBogue-class escortcarriersallowedforgreateraerialcover,whilenewanti-submarinetacticsdevisedbythelikesof Captain ‘Johnnie’ Walker, an expert U-boat hunter, were helping to turn the tide. Bletchley Park had gainedtheupperhandoverB-Dienst,itsGermanequivalent,givingtheAlliesbetterintelligenceonthe location,sizeanddirectionofU-boatwolfpacks.Nolesssignificantwastherecentrenewalofatreaty betweenBritainandneutralPortugalwhichallowedtheBritishtooperateanairbaseintheAzores,an archipelagointheheartoftheAtlantic.Inexchange,thePortuguesegovernmentreceivedsixsquadronsof HawkerHurricanes.Britainhadeffectivelygainedpossessionofalargeandunsinkableaircraftcarrierin akeystrategiclocation,soperhapstheynolongerneededonemadeoutofice. Thisstringofsmallvictories–diplomatic,tactical,technicalandindustrial–hadcombinedtochange thecomplexionoftheBattleoftheAtlantic,andbySeptember1943Alliedshippinglossesweretentimes fewerthanduringthesamemonththeyearbefore.Indeed,bytheendoftheyearAdmiralKarlDönitz, GrandAdmiraloftheGermanNavy,orderedallGermanU-BoatsawayfromtheNorthAtlantic.Allthis meantthatHabbakukwasnolongerneededtowintheBattleoftheAtlantic.Insteadithadbeengivena newpurpose. During the early stages of the Quebec conference there were detailed discussions about Operation Overlordandanuclearagreementwassigned.YetonseveralissuestheBritishandAmericandelegations foundthemselvesfarapart.Tempersweregettingshort,astheyhaddoneinameetingoftheCombined Chiefs of Staff on 19 August. Field Marshal Brooke suggested that the sixty or so junior staff officers presentbeaskedtoleavetheroomsothattheseniorAlliedcommanderscouldspeakofftherecord. This seemed to work, and the discussion became smoother. Mountbatten then went up to Brooke to remindhimthathehadpromisedtoallowhimtointroduceHabbakuk.Brookedulygavehimthefloor. ‘Dickie now having been let loose gave a signal, whereupon a string of attendants brought in large cubes of ice which were established at the end of the room,’ wrote Brooke. ‘Dickie then proceeded to explain that the cube on the left was ordinary pure ice, whereas that on the right contained many ingredientswhichmadeitfarmoreresilient,lessliabletosplinter,andconsequentlyafarmoresuitable materialfortheconstructionofaircraftcarriers.’ Churchillalsorecordedthescene:‘Heinvitedthestrongestmanpresenttochopeachblockoficein half with a special chopper he had brought. All present voted General Arnold into the job of “strong man”. GeneralHenryH.Arnold ‘Hetookoffhiscoat,rolleduphissleeves[inanotheraccountArnoldspatonhishands],andswung thechopper,splittingtheordinaryicewithoneblow.Heturnedround,smiling,andclaspinghishands, seized the chopper again and advanced upon the block of Pykrete. He swung the chopper, and as he broughtitdownletgowithacryofpain,forthePykretehadsufferedlittledamageandhiselbowshad beenbadlyjarred.Mountbattenthencappedmattersbydrawingapistolfromhispockettodemonstrate thestrengthofPykreteagainstgunfire.’ Brooke recalled that once Mountbatten had produced his pistol ‘we all rose and discreetly moved behindhim.Hethenwarnedusthathewouldfireattheordinaryblockoficetoshowhowitsplintered[. ..].Heproceededtofireandweweresubjectedtoahailoficesplinters!“There,”saidDickie,“thatis justwhatItoldyou;nowIshallfireattheblockontherighttoshowyouthedifference.”Hefired,and therecertainlywasadifference.’RatherthanbecomeembeddedinthePykretethebulletricochetedoff. Accounts differ as to precisely what happened next. In Churchill’s version of events the bullet narrowlymissedAirChiefMarshalSirCharlesPortal.InanotheritnickedAdmiralKing.Onehasthe bullet landing in Mountbatten’s stomach, elsewhere it takes a lump of plaster off the wall. Another accounthasGeneralHollisdivingforcoverunderatable,wherehe‘collided,skulltoskull,with[Field Marshal]AlanBrooke,approachingfromtheoppositedirection’. ‘Dickie,forGod’ssake,stopfiringthatthing!’criedBrooke. ‘The waiting officers outside,’ Churchill went on, ‘who had been worried enough by the sound of blows and the scream of pain from General Arnold, were horrified at the revolver shots, one of them cryingout,“MyGod!They’venowstartedshooting.”’ Calmwassoonrestored.ThankfullyPykretehadnotbeenresponsibleforthedeathorinjuryofany senior Allied commanders. Instead this incident seemed to enliven the mood and there followed a constructive discussion of Habbakuk. Though the original purpose of Pyke’s ships had been to win the BattleoftheAtlantic,inQuebectheywerepresentedtotheAmericansasoffensivevesselswhichwere cheapandunsinkableandcouldbeusedinoperationsagainstJapanandoccupiedEurope.Theconsensus wasthatiffurtherexperimentscouldshowthattheseberg-shipswerebothpracticalandcheapthenthey shouldbebuiltwithoutdelay. By the end of the conference the British Chiefs of Staff had agreed to construct two of the smaller berg-ships for use in the Pacific theatre and to continue experiments on a larger vessel. It was also decided that the Habbakuk project would become an Anglo-American-Canadian venture and that the LondonteamofHabbakukengineersandscientistsshouldbeflownovertoWashingtonDC. Mountbattenalsointroducedtwootherproposalsfromhis‘lunaticasylum’onRichmondTerrace:the conceptofafloatingharbourwhichcouldbetowedtonorthernFranceonD-Day;andtheideaoflaying an oil pipeline underneath the Channel to supply the Allied forces. Better known as Mulberry and PLUTO,theywouldbecometwoofthebest-knowninventionsofthewar.Andyet,ofthethreeideasfrom CombinedOperations,HabbakukwasseenbymanyofthoseinQuebectobethemostrealisticprospect. None had been quite so gripped by these ideas as Churchill, who now began to suggest building MulberryfloatingharboursoutofPykrete.Pyke,PerutzandotherswouldsoondrawupplansforD-Day landingstagesandbreakwatersconstructedfromPykrete,code-namedGogandMagog,aswellassmall non-propelledvesselsmadefromPykretetobeknownasMonitors. At last it seemed that Pykrete’s potential as a cheap, buoyant and revolutionary material had been recognised.AlmostayearafterPyke’sproposalhadfirstarrivedonMountbatten’sdesk,Habbakuk,orat leastthebasicconceptbehindit,wassettoplayamajorpartintheclosingstagesofthewar.Thatwas thegoodnewsfromQuebec.ThebadnewstookalittlelongertoreachLondon. HOWTOSURVIVE BythetimeheboardedtheQueenMary,beforeitsetsailforQuebec,Mountbattenhadbecomerestless. He longed for another naval command and over the next five days, as the ship zigzagged across the Atlantic,hetriedtocornertheFirstSeaLord,SirDudleyPound.‘Ifollowedhimlikeashadow,pacing thedecksforexercise,oruponthebridge.Healwaysseemedtobetalkingtosomeone.Itneveroccurred to me that he might be avoiding me. Then one day I did catch Pound alone. “I’ve finished my work at CombinedOperations,”Isaid,“andIthinkit’sabouttimeIwentbacktosea.”Hedidnotseemtotake anyinterestatall.’ThiswasbecauseheknewwhatwasinstoreforMountbatten. SoonafterthisencounterChurchilltoldtheCCOthathewastobecomeSupremeAlliedCommander, South-EastAsia.Hisappointmentwouldbegininlessthantwomonths.NotonlywasMountbattentobe deniedhisnavalcommand,butHabbakukwassettoloseitsmostenergeticadvocate. AlthoughAdmiralKinghadbeenimpressedbytheHabbakukideawhenhehadheardaboutitearlier that year, now that it was to be developed jointly by the US, Canada and Britain he wanted a detailed assessmentandaskedateamofUSnavalengineerstogoovertheprojectindetail.Thiswaswhenthings begantofallapart. Theyobjectedtothelumberingspeedoftheseberg-shipsaswellastheamountofsteelrequiredto build them, given that large refrigeration plants would need to be constructed to produce the Pykrete. Beneath these concerns lay a more stubborn and irrational reluctance. The naval engineers disliked the ideaofbuildinganaircraftcarrieroutofice.Oftenthegreatestchallengefacedbyaninnovatorisnotthe conceptionofanewideabut,rather,persuadingotherstoovercometheiroftenautomaticpreferencefor thestatusquo.AnotherproblemwasPyke. Jack Mackenzie, now directing the multinational Habbakuk project, knew that Pyke’s reputation in AmericaafterPloughwassonoxiousthathemustbekeptaway.Mountbattenwasgiventheunfortunate task of telling his Director of Programmes not to come out to Washington DC, adding that he had ‘consulted Bernal who entirely agrees’. ‘We are both so sorry.’ The idea of Bernal and Mountbatten combininglikethistokeephimawayfromHabbakukflattenedPyke.Indeed,hisrelationshipwithBernal wouldneverrecover. InspiteofMackenzie’sbestefforts,Pyke’soriginalconnectiontoHabbakuksoonbecameknownand, ashehadfeared,itdidnothingtoendeartheprojecttotheAmericans.EvenVannevarBush,theheadof OSRD, heard about Pyke’s involvement and later told Roosevelt, when asked for his opinion of Habbakuk,‘Ithinkitisthebunk.’Inhismemoirshealsodescribedthemomentwhenthetwomenbehind theschemecametohimforhelp. ‘Mountbatten and Pyke walked into my office,’ he began. ‘They had evidently just come from the WhiteHouse,therewasnopresentationofaproposal,norequestthatOSRDshouldstudyoneandadvise on it. Rather, Pyke told me the plan was approved and just what OSRD was now to do about it. [. . .] Mountbatten looked embarrassed but not nearly enough so. I listened. Then I told Pyke, no doubt with someemphasis,thatItookordersfromthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesandfromnooneelse,andthat endedtheinterview.’ Oneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofthisconversationisthatitnevertookplace.Atnopointduring thedevelopmentofHabbakukwerePyke,MountbattenandBushinthesamecountry.Bushhadcontrived toimaginethisencounter,andasapurefantasyitisrevealing.Theemphasisontakingordersfromthe AmericanPresident,ratherthantheseinterlopingEnglishmen,istelling.Itisareminderoftheresentment thatsomeAmericansfelttowardstheideaofbeingtoldtoworkonaBritishidealikeHabbakuk. AnotherreasonwhyPyke’sinvolvementintheprojectwassotroublesomewasthathecontinuedtobe seenasasecurityrisk,thankstothecartooncharacterSuperman.InlateMarch1943anexcitingnewplotline had emerged in the Superman daily cartoon strip, then syndicated to newspapers throughout North America and read by millions. Just as the Habbakuk prototype neared completion, the Man of Steel encounteredastrange-lookingiceberg. Superman™and©DCComics,29March1943 Thefollowingdaytheattackbegan. Superman™and©DCComics,30March1943 LuckilySupermanwasonhandtoputanendtothese‘fiendishlyclever’‘floatingfortresses’. Superman™and©DCComics,31March1943 ThesimiliaritybetweenthesefloatingfortressesandHabbakukwasastonishing.OneoftheCanadian engineers working on Habbakuk saw the cartoons and immediately sent copies to Jack Mackenzie. The chances of this being coincidence seemed to be infinitesimal. Earlier that year Pyke had been in New York, where those behind the comic strip lived – a detail which did nothing to remove any lingering suspicionaboutthemanresponsibleforHabbakuk. YetitwasBernalwhodeliveredthecoupdegrace.AdmiralKing’sengineershadgiventheircautious assessmentoftheprojecttothenewAmerican-Canadian-BritishHabbakukboard,afterwhichBernalwas called upon to counter their criticisms. He did no such thing. ‘Bernal, who had become so expert in proclaimingthepointsinfavourofHabbakuk,now,withhisJesuiticalmind,volunteeredtoproduceall the points against it as well,’ explained Mountbatten wearily. ‘The criticisms of the project were so powerfulthattheyturnedthescalesagainstit.’ ItwasnotthatBernalhadlostfaithinHabbakuk,butthathehadbecomeimpatientandwantedtobe backinLondonduringthebuild-uptoD-Day.PerhapsZuckermanwasright.Bernalreallydidfindithard toseeaprojectorrelationshipthroughtotheveryend.NewsofhisperformanceevenreachedChurchill whotoldMountbattenthat,infuture,‘youmustnotbringyourScientificAdvisers’tosuchmeetings. Habbakukremained‘practicalpolitics’,astheAdmiraltyhadputit,butthemomentumbehindithad evaporated. The projected cost of the scheme, the amount of steel required and the war’s adjusted strategicaimsallmilitatedagainstit,andsodidtheidentityofitsauthor.WithMountbattengone,Pyke excludedandBernalbored,ithadlostthreeofitsmostpassionatesupporters,andbyJanuary1944the BritishAdmiraltyandUSNavyhadceasedallworkinconnectionwithHabbakuk.Whatmighthavebeen the most ambitious ship ever produced by a nation at war, the world’s largest vessel, would remain in utero. For the moment Pyke did not have time to digest the scale of this defeat – his more immediate concernwassurvivingatCombinedOperationsnowthathisgreatsupporterhadleft. In the weeks after Mountbatten’s departure, Pyke circulated papers around Richmond Terrace on seeminglyeverythingfromtheidealwidthofatypescriptthroughtotheneedforahandbookof‘rusesde guerre’culledfromhistoryandliterature.‘Ifprofessionalhistoriansweretoobusy,school-boysshould be invited to undertake the task and thus to play, intellectually, a real and early part in the war by remedyingtheomissionoftheirelders.’HeproposedhavinganactordressupasHitlertotrickGerman unitsintowithdrawingfromsmallMediterraneanislands.Hesubmittedplansforgravity-propelledballbombstoberolleddownbeachesontocoastaldefencewalls.Hesketchedoutplansfordifferentvessels madefromPykrete.Hereturnedtothe‘TrojanHorse’ideaoftunnellingthroughglaciers.Buttheideainto whichhedevotedmostofhisenergyinthisfrenziedpost-HabbakukperiodwasreservedforMountbatten inhisnewroleasSupremeAlliedCommander,South-EastAsia. Pyke understood that one of the great problems that Mountbatten now faced was moving men and materials either from ships to the shore or across paddy fields and through dense jungle. He proposed large-borepipesthroughwhichcylinderscouldbepumpedcontainingeithersuppliesortroops,witheach soldier breathing from a handheld oxygen canister as his cylinder was shot down the tube. These pipelinescouldrunfromwarshipstoislandsoracrossinhospitableterrain,andwouldbecalledPowerDrivenRivers,asheexplainedinthe50-pageproposalhesenttoMountbatteninIndia.‘LikePlough,but unlikeHabbakuk,itisbothnewandorthodox,’hewenton.‘Soorthodoxandobviousthateveryonewill say“Poof,Icouldhavethoughtofthat”andfromthatthey’llslideintosayingtheydidthinkofit(almost), andstartonthereasonswhynothingshouldbedoneaboutit.’ But Power-Driven Rivers was not in the same league as his two earlier schemes, and Mountbatten was ‘perhaps not so obviously enchanted with the idea as he was with Plough and Habbakuk’, as Wildman-Lushingtondelicatelyputit.ItwasalsoturneddownbytheBritishChiefsofStaff,followinga presentationbyPykeandBernal.ButitwasMountbatten’srejectionwhichhadstungthemost. Pyke struggled to reconcile himself to not being invited out to South-East Asia, especially after learning that both Bernal and Zuckerman had been asked to go. His letters lost their verve. ‘Dear Mountbatten,’beganone,‘Dotheoldtermsstillapply?’ HisformerbosshadnotlostfaithinPykeorhisabilities,andinthecomingmonthshewrotetoSir CharlesLambe,DirectorofPlansattheAdmiralty,describingPykeasamanpossessing‘abraintwenty orthirtyyearsinadvanceofanyscientist’sandonethatisparticularlysuitableforplanning’.Heurged LambetokeepPyke‘infullesttouchwiththevariousplansinmyownfieldofoperations,tobeableto seetherelevantpapersandintelligence,andtocommunicatetomedirectly,anysuggestionshemayhave tomakeonthisandothersubjects’.ButhedidnotwantPyketojoinhisSouth-EastAsianCommand. ThetruthwasthatMountbattenhadbythenreceivedfartoomuchcriticismforhisdecisiontorecruit Pykeinthefirstplace.AsWildman-Lushingtonremindedhisboss,firmly,‘Idonotthinkyouwanthimout here.’ The issue had nothing to do with Pyke’s irreverence or moments of eccentricity but with his inabilitytoworkeasilyinagroup.Pyke’semotionalfragilityandheightenedsensitivitytobeingsidelined appeared to make this impossible. When he felt himself being marginalised he had a tendency to selfdestruct,andwouldeithercastaroundforascapegoatorbecomedifficultandbehave,asonecolleague putit,likean‘awkwardcuss’. AtypicalexamplewashisreactiontothenewsthathewasnottoattendakeyHabbakukmeetingat Downing Street shortly before the Quebec conference. Pyke had rounded on the officer he felt was responsible, the news of which soon reached Mountbatten. ‘I share with Professor Bernal the highest possible opinion of your brain,’ he told him, ‘and have often wondered that a man of such outstanding intellectshouldbeunabletoguidehiseverydaylifeinsuchamannerastoavoidfrictionforhimselfand allhissupporters.’ Pyke’sreplycameintheformofamocked-up‘ObituaryNoticeofLordLouisMountbatten’,datedto 2001,intheBritishSocialistRepublicoftheUSSR(whichheimaginedcomingaboutafteraCommunist uprisingin1949–50).Itcontainedalongandplayfullyabsurdconfessionfrom‘ourbelovedComradeand Commissar–habituallysocalm,sobenign,sodialectical’–Mountbatten.‘Ihadbelongedtoasetwithin acastewithinaclasswhichlackedtheexperienceoffrustration,’Pykehashimsay.‘Wehadonlytosee todesire,andhadonlytodesiretoobtainortodo.Sensationspoureddownthegulletofexperience,and yetleftthewholebodythirstyandexhausted.’TherefollowedadetailedcritiqueofthewayMountbatten ran Combined Operations, in which Pyke called him decisive without being reflective. ‘You are too arroganttorefusetoapologise...YouarethelivingdialecticalreverseofBluntschliin“Armsandthe Man”: and the Chocolate Soldier: – you always apologise. It is part of your technique.’ Nor was he ‘sufficiently hard-boiled’. At one point Pyke imagined Mountbatten describing himself as having ‘somethingoftheinnocentinme.[...]Mytechnicaladvisersevenreferredtome,amongthemselves,as PeterPan.Theywereright.ItwasaPeterPanage.OneofthemostvitalaccusationsagainsttheCapitalist systemisthatunderit,itwasforeverybodysovery,verydifficulttobecometrulyadult.’Thiswasthe sortofletteryoumightwriteintheheatofthemomentbutneversend.Pyke,ofcourse,sentit.Hehadto, suchwasthepowerofhisself-destructiveimpulseinmomentslikethis. AsketchpassedaroundCombinedOperationsin1943,probablydrawnbySandyWedderburn(notethesoledisadvantage,‘Pi’beingshorthand for‘Pyke’) Tohiscredit,MountbattentookthisobituarynoticewellandlaterjokedwithPykeaboutit.Hewas certainlyusedtotheseepistolaryoutbursts.AsPykereassuredhim:‘Ihavealwaysbeen,asIthinkyou know,oneofyour,Ihope,mostdiscerningcritics,andatthesametimeoneofyourgreatestadmirers.’But itishardtoimagineanepisodelikethisdoinganythingtoimprovePyke’schancesofbeinginvitedoutto India. * ThoughMountbattenleftCombinedOperationsinOctober1943,Pykemanagedtohangonformorethana yearinRichmondTerrace.SoonafterD-DayhewastoldbytheAdmiralty,onwhosebookshehadbeen sincetheyhadassumedresponsibilityforHabbakuk,thathispaywouldbehalved.Pykeprotestedtothe AssociationofScientificWorkers,andtoBernal,AmeryandMountbatten–towhomhewas,asusual,at his liveliest. ‘Though – damn it – I want to work on war problems, and think I still have something to contribute,Iamnotacceptingareductioninsalaryfortworeasons:privateandpublic.One,thatoverthe last30yearsIhavegivenawaytopubliccausesthreeinheritancesandalsowhatIhavemade[...],in all,aconsiderablepacket.ForhealthandotherreasonsIhavenowgottobotheraboutmyfuture.(The right time to bother about one’s future is, of course, when one has no future to bother about.)’ Yet Mountbattendidnotinterveneand,becausePykerefusedthepaycut,hewasnowoutofajob.Thoughhe stubbornly went in to work each day, in spite of receiving no salary, by the end of 1944 the sentries guarding Combined Operations were instructed not to allow him back into the building. One of the strangestWhitehallappointmentsoftheSecondWorldWarhadcometoanend. Geoffrey Pyke’s career as a civil servant – to add to those as war correspondent, amateur spy, magazine publisher, advertising copywriter, educationalist, metals-market speculator, pioneering charity worker,pollster,suspectedpropagandistandmilitaryinventor–hadbeenprovocativeandproductive.He wasresponsibleforaglutofideasincluding,itseems,oneoftheinventionsmostoftenassociatedwith D-Day. The traditional story of PLUTO – the oil pipeline laid beneath the English Channel to supply the invading Allied forces – goes roughly as follows: in 1942 Mountbatten was asked to provide a list of items he required for the Normandy landings, and in April of that year he told Geoffrey Lloyd MP, Minister in charge of the Petroleum Warfare Department, that he would like an oil pipeline under the Channel.Severalyearslaterthiswaswhathegot.ButwasthisideaoriginallyMountbatten’s? Itappearsnot,basedonthefactthatPykehadhadpreciselythesameideain1934.‘Iputituptoone of the big oil companies [Shell] suggesting not that they should build one straight away, but that they shouldappointasmallbureautocollecttheresultsofanyresearchwhichmightberelativetoitseventual construction and, perhaps, to subsidise and stimulate such research.’ Nothing came of it, nor does this prove definitively that Pyke conceived PLUTO. However, given his desire to regale Mountbatten with everypassingideaofhis,andtheamountoftimehespenttalkingtohimduringandbeforeApril1942– somuchthatcolleaguestamperedwiththelocksontheCCO’sdoor–itseemsmorethanlikelythathe wouldhavementionedtheideatoMountbattenshortlybeforeitwasputforward. Pyke’sgreatestachievementinCombinedOperations,aboutwhichthereisnoquestionofauthorship, was Plough. This scheme led to the formation of the American-Canadian First Special Service Force (FSSF),laterdescribedasa‘groupofindividualistsandoutcasts[and]probablythebestfightingforce this continent ever produced’. Mountbatten told Pyke at one point that they had ‘become such a vital necessityinthecomingstageofthewarthatGeneralEisenhowerandtheC-in-C.MiddleEastarevying between them to try and obtain the services of this force’, later praising Plough as ‘probably the most boldandimaginativeschemeofthiswar’. The FSSF was an elite, maverick unit capable of demolition work, amphibious warfare, mountain warfareandoperationsonsnowyterrain.ItfirstsawactionontheAleutianIslandsandmorefamouslyin ItalyandsouthernFrance.Inthewinterof1943theFSSFbroketheGerman’s‘WinterLine’bycapturing Monte La Difensa. They were legendary night-fighters, known for operating behind enemy lines with a minimumofequipment.Facesblackened,theywouldattackusingknivesandtheirbarehandsandleave ‘deathstickers’bearingtheunit’sinsigniaontheforeheadsoftheirvictims–aredspearwiththewords USAandCANADAentwined–abovethelegendDAS DICKE ENDE KOMMT NOCH! – roughly, ‘the worstisstilltocome’.Duringoneofthesenight-timeoperationsadiarywasfoundonadeadGerman officerinwhichhehadwritten:‘Weneverheartheseblackdevilswhentheycome.’Thisprovidedthe unitwithitsnickname,‘TheDevil’sBrigade’,alsothetitleofthe1968Hollywoodfilmtellingaversion oftheirstory. Even the Weasel, or M-29 Tracked Cargo Carrier, a watered-down version of the snowmobile that Pykehadfirstenvisaged,madeworkablethankstohisprotests,wasconsideredasuccess.Weaselswere usedin1944tokeeptheNijmegenbridgeheadopenand,whenGermanforcesfloodedtheArdennesto halttheAlliedadvance,thefirstvehiclestogetthroughtheGermanlineswereWeasels.EvenVannevar Bush admitted that this machine ‘accomplished fine things’ and by the end of the war 12,000 had been builtwithplansforafurther10,000. YetoneofthemostimportantcontributionsPykemadeinCombinedOperationswastheleasttangible. On their return from an inspection of the D-Day landings, Churchill, Brooke, Marshall and King had collectively cabled Mountbatten: ‘We realise that much of this remarkable technique and therefore the success of the venture has its origins in developments effected by you and your staff of Combined Operations.’TheywerereferringtotheingeniousinventionswhichhadcomeoutofRichmondTerrace, such as the Mulberry harbours and PLUTO pipelines. What they may not have known was that most of theseinnovationswereconceivedduringasurprisinglyshortperiod.‘Itistruetosaythatalmostevery novelideawhichwaslaterusedin“OperationOverlord”[...]originatedinCOHQduringApril1942’, wroteCaptainJohnHughes-Hallett,NavalAdviseratCombinedOperations. TheM-29Weaselinaction April1942wasthegoldenageofPyke’scareerinRichmondTerrace.Itwastheapogeeofhisefforts togethiscolleaguestolookattheworldupsidedown,askpertinentquestions,thinkmoreaboutanything which made them laugh and otherwise be imaginatively iconoclastic towards every sacred cow. He became,insomeways,theflintlockinthisfiringmechanism,constantlysolvingproblemsand imparting hisprinciplesofradicalinnovation.Withoutthis,someofthose‘novelideas’whichplayedapartinDDaymightnothavecomeaboutwhentheydid,oratall. Though Mountbatten assured Pyke ‘that the original thoughts which you have contributed to the Headquartershavebeenoftheutmostvaluetothewareffort’thisstrandofhisworkwouldneverlend itself to blue plaques, statues or street names. The history of invention is less interested in those who produceideasandopenthemindsofothersthantheindividualswhofinishthingsoff.Wearenottaughtin schoolaboutPaoloToscanelli,themathematicianandastrologerwhohadtheideaofsailingacrossthe Atlantic to reach the East Indies, but, rather, the explorer who acted on Toscanelli’s letter, Christopher Columbus.DouglasEngelbartwasthevisionarywhocameupwiththeideaofacomputermouse,butthe man famous today for turning it into a successful commercial product is Steve Jobs. The victors in the history of innovation are the Columbuses and Jobses, not the Toscanellis, Engelbarts and Pykes. While onecantalkabouttheFSSF,PLUTOandWeaselaspalpableresultsofPyke’sinnovationinCombined Operations,itistheinvisiblefruitsofhislabourwhicharesoremarkable–thecreativeatmospherehe encouragedaswellashiscreationofHabbakuk. In an alternative world, one in which we celebrate spectacular ideas whether or not they are seen through to completion, where there would be no end of streets, avenues and cul-de-sacs named after Geoffrey Pyke – especially cul-de-sacs – Habbakuk would be seen as his wartime masterpiece. In the realworld,itslegacywasmoretroubled.Indeed,Pykeneverreallycametotermswithwhathesawas hisfailuretoturnHabbakukintoamilitaryrealityandthefactthatithadtakenhimuntil1942tocomeup withtheidea. HOWTOLIVE On a dry Spring morning in 1945 a man in Primrose Hill left for work, unaware that he was being followed.HispursuerwasusedtoghostingafterLondonersastheymadetheirwaythroughtheraggedy, bomb-scarred streets of the capital, past craters that had become overgrown since the Blitz and the fresher,deeperholeswhereaV1orV2hadarrowedrecentlyintotheground.Hefounditeasytotellif hisquarrywasfamiliarwithbasiccounter-surveillancetradecraft.Heorshemightstopsuddenly,forcing himtocontinuepast,orturnbackonthemselvesandotherwisetakecircuitousroutes.Themanaheadof him did none of these things. Of course, there was always a chance that this in itself was a small deception. AsthetwomencontinuedtowardsChalkFarmTubeStationinlonelyprocession,thepursuermadea mental sketch of his subject. He was taller than average, of medium build and carried a brown leather briefcase.Hehadseveralnewspapersunderhisarm,includingtheDailyWorker,andworeabelted,teakcoloured raincoat, dirty flannel trousers and a grey Homburg. Below the brim you could see his ears protruding like handles on a trophy, and when he turned it was possible to glimpse horn-rimmed spectacles,alongishnoseandthetuftofagoateebeard. GeoffreyPykegotofftheTubeatKing’sCross,afterwhichhewasseentoactsuspiciously.Hepaced upanddowntheplatform,lookingbeneaththecarriagesastheyrattledpast,beforemovingupstairstothe overgroundstation.Againhetookanunusualinterestintherollingstock.Hisghostremainedclose.Pyke left the station and continued on foot to Stratton Street, in Mayfair, where he entered the offices of the MinistryofWarTransport.TheSpecialBranchofficerwhohadbeeninpursuitbegantowaitoutside. At 5:30 p.m. Pyke reappeared and was followed back to No. 30 Steele’s Road where Heinz Kamnitzer also lived. Several days later the same thing happened – same officer from Special Branch, same journey, same interest in trains – and not long after, in early April 1945, a report on Pyke’s movements was passed on to the Security Service. MI5 had rediscovered its interest in this itinerant innovatorandpossibleSovietagent. Pykehadanumberofhomesduringthewar.HehadbasedhimselfinGreatOrmondStreet,Albany,St James’s Square and now Steele’s Road, but perhaps the happiest building he had inhabited was the Hampstead home of Margaret Gardiner, a former Cambridge Heretic and more recently Bernal’s lover. Like many affluent Londoners without vital jobs, Gardiner had moved out of the capital and in her absenceNo.35DownshireHillhadbecomeanupmarkethostelforheracquaintancesandfriends.Pyke hadspentthemiddleyearsofthewarhereinwhatwastheprettiesthousehewouldeverlivein,aswell asthemostsociable. Not since his days as a Cambridge undergraduate had he had so many friends nearby, including several with young children. Indeed, there were times in the long, slow months which followed the demiseofHabbakukwhenitseemedthathewasathishappiestamblingaroundagardenwithaninfantin his arms, or having pillow fights with older children. Among the stream of visitors to Downshire Hill wereBobbyandDeborahCarterandtheirhouseguestRolfRünkel–livinginnearbyKeat’sGrove–as well as the playwright Elias Canetti, then having an affair with one of Pyke’s housemates, Friedl Benedikt. Canetti called on Pyke when he came to see his mistress and remembered him being forever caughtupinhisworkandbattlinganillness,yetalwayseagertotalk.‘He was a clever and articulate speaker,wholikedtoregalemewithliteraryideasofasatirical-didacticnature,’recalledCanetti.‘His voice had a mellifluous quality that only became apparent when he was quoting from Shaw. It was as though–inthisrefinedway–hewasactingasasortofagentonShaw’sbehalf,which,atthistimeofhis greatest fame, Shaw certainly didn’t need.’ Canetti went on: ‘There would be a torrent of ideas about Shaw, or some comparable idea of his own. Friedl listened, you couldn’t interrupt him. She was mesmerisedbyhisvoice,andhisparadoxesmadeherlaugh.Withoutanyaccesstoscienceherself,she could still sense his mind and his inventiveness. Then, after about ten minutes, he would suddenly interrupthimself,andshewouldstepaway.Heneveraskedherintohisroom.Whenhewaslyingillin bed, he would allow food – very little – to be brought to him. But, as she said, he always kept his frontiers.’ CanettiwentontosuggestthatPykehadan‘insuperable’suspicionofwomen,whichcouldbetraced backtothebreakdownofhismarriage.Thiswasnotquiteright.Hewasmerelysuspiciousoffallingin love. He continued to hold Margaret, his wife, in the highest esteem and they never divorced. In New York, before going to observe the Canadian Habbakuk experiments, he had bought her cosmetics and clothes, and on her fiftieth birthday sent her a note calling her ‘innately beautiful’ and ‘the handsomest womanofyourdecadeduetoyourinnermagnificence’.HekeptuplongcorrespondenceswithMargaret Edwards,MargaretLloyd,ElsieMyersandMaudJoachim,theone-timemilitantsuffragette,andhadat leastonesexualrelationshipduringthewarwhichonlyreinforcedhiswarinessofallowinghimselftobe hurt.InhisnotebookfromSeptember1940Pykesketchedoutanangrylettertohislover,accusingherof having‘somethingwhichcompelsyoutobitepeoplewhotrytohelpyou’,addingthat‘ittakestimeto makelove’andthat‘Ihaveonedesireonly–toclearyoucompletelyoutofmylifeandforever’. LifeonSteele’sRoadwasdifferentfromwhathehadknownonDownshireHill.Hedidnothavesuch aneasyrapportwithKamnitzer,thedevoutStalinist,andgeographicallywasthatlittlebitfurtheraway frommanyofhisfriends.Withhishearingindecline,hebecamelesssociable. ‘InowrestrictmyselftothosefriendstowhosevoicesIamaccustomed,leavingothers–iftheyare sufficientlyinterested–toobtainnewsofmefromgossip,’ofwhich,headded,therewasalwaysplenty. Yetby1945manyofthosewhosevoicesherecognisedhadeitherleftLondonorwereintheprocessof doingso. David, his son, would soon be in Germany to complete his national service as an Army physician; GermancommunistfriendssuchasRünkelandKuczynskiwereabouttoreturnhome;theCarterswould move to Paris; while one of his closest friends, Leo Myers, had recently committed suicide. ‘Several timesIhadimaginaryconversationswithhim,’hewrotetoMyers’swidow,Elsie.‘Hewouldjusthitthe nail on the head as easily as he would write a good sentence. An added pleasure was that we both laughedatthesamejokes,eventhoughthejokesweresillyjokes.Indeed,thatmadethemallthefunnier.’ NordidheseeBernalanymore,notbecausehehadmovedawayordiedbutbecauseabitterfeudhad brokenoutbetweenthem. Therehadalwaysbeenanintenserivalrysimmeringjustbelowthesurfaceoftheirrelationship,but for years it had been sublimated into lively exchanges on science, war and the future of society. When BernalagreedwithMountbattenin1943thatPykeshouldnotcomeouttotheUS,beforeturningagainst theschemeentirely,thistensionexploded.AlthoughBernalletitbeknownthatheconsideredPyke‘the greatestinventivegeniusofhistime’,hisformerfriendwasconvincedthathehadharbouredagrudgefor years.HeaccusedBernalofneedingtobe‘numberoneman’and‘“tellingstories”aboutmypast–true, distortedandinventedforthepurposeofsatisfyingyourignoblepsychologicaldesires’.InoneletterPyke referredtoawritforlibelthathehadissuedinthelate1930saboutadefamatorystorywhichhewasnow certainhadoriginatedwithBernal.PykeblamedhimforhisdismissalfromCombinedOperationsHQ–it wasBernalwhohadadvisedhimnottoacceptthepaycut–andbegantoshuthimoutofhislife.This wasnotenough.PykelaterthreatenedtokillhimselfinBernal’sgardenshed,towhichheretainedakey, promptingBernaltochangethelock. Forallthis,heneverstampedoutwhatremainedofhisfriendshipwithPyke,andnordidMargaret Gardiner,whohadcometoaccepthiscapacityforturningonthoseclosesttohim.‘Ihaveaveryvivid pictureofyouwalkingaboutthegardenof35withthesix-months-oldMartin[GardinerandBernal’sson] inyourarms,showinghimthings–anditisthatpictureandallthatitimpliesthatItrytoholdinmymind duringtheviolentsquallsandbuffetingsthat,itseems,mustinevitablybeencounteredinthecourseofa friendshipwithyou.’ AshewasbeingshadowedaroundLondontowardstheendoftheSecondWorldWar,GeoffreyPyke wasincreasinglyalone.Thismayexplainsomethingoftheintensitywithwhichhethrewhimselfintohis newproject.WhenMargaretGardineraskedhimtomovethelastofhisfurnitureoutofDownshireHill nowthatherfriend,theartistBenNicholson,wantedtousehisroomasastudio,Pyke’sresponsewas blunt and a little pompous. His new work must take precedence. ‘It is out of the question to put my personal interests or I fear yours before a public interest of such importance and urgency.’ Once more, Pykehadforeseenwhatappearedtobeanepicdisastertowhichhehopedtofindasolution. * ShortlybeforecomingundersurveillancebySpecialBranch,Pykehadthoughtaboutthepossibleeffects ofHitler’sdefeatonawar-ravagedEuropeancontinent.Basedonextensiveresearchheestimatedthatin thecomingwintertherewouldbeamajorshortageofcoalthatwouldputcountlesslivesatrisk.Pyke thenpersuadedPhilipNoel-Baker,aLabourMPwhobecametheonlymantowinbothanOlympicmedal andaNobelPeacePrize,tolendhimadeskintheMinistryofWarTransportwherehecouldsolvethe problem. Though he was not being paid for this, every day he made the journey from Steele’s Road to his temporaryofficetoporeoverstatisticaldataconcerningtheEuropeanconsumptionanduseoffuel,food, fats and rolling stock (which explains his interest in trains when he was under surveillance). He also conductedexperimentswiththehelpofbarrowboysinCoventGardenintohowmuchweighttheycould moveinaday. Atthetime,asaBritishchild,youwouldbetaughtinschoolthattherewerethreemainsourcesof power:coal,oilandhydroelectric.But,asPykeexplainedinanEconomist article published four days beforeV-JDay,therewasafourthsourceofpower‘onwhichtheworldwhollyreliedinpreviousages andwhichevenbeforethewarrepresentedafarlargerproportionthanmostpeopleknow.Thatsourceis muscle–animalandhuman.Thewidespreadandinarticulatedassumptionthatthissourceofpowerwas, oris,negligibleisamyth.’Thehumanbodywascapableofturningfoodintoenergyfarmoreefficiently thanasteamlocomotiveconvertedcoal.Effortsshouldbemadenow,Pykeargued,toensurethatduring thecomingcrisiscausedbycoalshortagestherewouldbeequipmentinplaceallowingpeopletomakeup someoftheenergyshortfallusingmuscle-power. Oneofthewaystodothis,hewenton,wasbyusingpedal-poweredmachines.Rollingstockcouldbe moved with ‘Cyclo-Tractors’: pedal-powered locomotives employing twenty to thirty men operating a series of cycles. Pedal-powered dynamos could be installed in homes. Fields could be ploughed using pedal-powered tractors. Pyke had identified a problem before it turned into a crisis and now, in the summerof1945,hehadwhatappearedtobeasolution.Yethefacedafamiliarstruggle,bothtoconvince othersthattherewasaproblemandthathehadasolution. Intheweeksaftertheendofthewar,helaunchedaone-mancampaigntopromote‘theutilisationof muscle’.AswellashisarticleintheEconomisthewrotealettertoTheTimes,atrioofarticlesinthe Manchester Guardian, another in the New Statesman and Nation, several articles in the monthly magazineCyclingandgaveaninterviewtotheDailyMail(whichresultedinanerror-strewnaccountthat leftPykefurious).Allmadeadetailedcaseforembracingmusclepowerinthefaceoftheloomingenergy crisis. Wintercame,andwithitsomeofthecoalandfoodshortagesthatPykehadpredicted.Hecontinuedto busyhimselfaroundWhitehall,pressinghisideaonofficialsfromtheMinistryofSupplyandtheColonial Office. But nothing happened. From start to finish, this experience was a drawn-out reminder of his newfound impotence and just how hard it was for a private citizen to persuade those in government, duringpeacetime,toadoptanunusualidea.Asheexplainedtoafriend,hewasengagedonceagainon ‘the uphill task of innovation, trying to put over a perfectly simple policy which has somehow been missed,withoutthehelpofmyoldally...–notMountbatten,butHitler,thethreatofdisaster–...Itisa longstory,andIamkeepingdailynotesasmaterialforthe“studyinthedynamicsofinnovation”which oughttobewrittenoneday.Idon’tthinkIamgoingtomeetwithsuccess.ButIfeelIoughtnottogiveit upcompletely,untilIknowittobecompletelyhopeless.’ Inlate1945Pyketurnedforhelptowhathepresumedwouldbetwosympatheticbodies,theFabian SocietyandtheAssociationofScientificWorkers–thenpayinghimasmallunemploymentbenefit.He was hoping that one might commission him to write a fuller report on this problem and his proposed solution.Theresponse,however,wastepid.BosworthMonck,GeneralSecretaryoftheFabianSociety, admitted to Pyke: ‘The truth is that the Society has a reputation for being a hive of long-haired intellectuals,andIamreluctanttoputforwardanythingwhichmightlayusopentothechargeofbeing cranks.’Therefollowedalivelycorrespondenceinspiredbythislineaboutthefearofbeingtakenfora crank. For Pyke this illustrated why so many radical ideas went unrealised. ‘What’s the use of having ideas in a civilisation where you need the force of a sledgehammer to get them looked at?’ Of course, oncetheyhadbeenlookedattherewasalwaysthechancethattheywouldberidiculedbythosewhodid notfullyunderstandthem–asPykewasnowreminded. ‘FLOATINGAIRSTATIONSOFICE’,ranTheTimesheadline;‘GIANTICEBERGSHIPSPLANNED AS BASES’ roared the Express; ‘THE MOST STAGGERING WAR PLAN OF ALL’ exclaimed the Mirror;whilefortheSketch,Habbakukwas‘H.M.S.ICEBERG(UNSINKABLE)’.Inearly1946the AdmiraltyissuedapressreleaseoutliningthestorybehindHabbakuk,andforamoment,inthedaysthat followed, it was as if everyone Pyke knew had either read about his idea or heard of it. While the reactionhepersonallyexperiencedwaspositive,manyofthesearticleshadanincredulousandattimes mockingtone.Pykewashappytobelaughedat,buthewantedtobelaughedatfortherightreasons.He complained to the Chronicle for describing Habbakuk as a ‘failure’. The plan had been sound, he told them.WhathadgonewrongwasthattheBattleoftheAtlantichadgoneright. NolessupsettingwasthetimingoftheAdmiraltypressrelease.Ithadcomeafteraflurryofletters from Pyke asking for the patent rights to Pykrete. By releasing the story in full, the Admiralty had effectivelydestroyedhispatentrights,anuglygesturewhichcausedPyketoturninonhimself.Inletters tofriendshewasnow‘atwar’withtheAdmiralty,aninstitutionhedescribedas‘theenemy’,andinhis sparemomentshecontinuedtoruminateonhisfailuretocomeupwiththeideaforHabbakuksooner. Soitcameasareliefaftermonthsofthanklesscampaigning–forthepatentrightstoPykreteandthe utilisationofmuscle-power–whenJohnCohen,aquantitativepsychologistattheCabinetOffice,invited Pyketotakepartinaverydifferentproject. Duringtherun-uptothe1945GeneralElectioneachofthemajorBritishpoliticalpartieshadpledged to create a national health service based on earlier proposals set out by Sir William Beveridge. In the wake of Labour’s landslide victory a Working Party was set up to establish a new system of nurse recruitment,nursetrainingandnursepay.Cohen,whowasattachedtothisbody,decidedin1946tofinda non-civil servant to provide a sweeping analysis of nurse recruitment. Pyke’s name had come up. The unemployedformercivilservanthadlittlehesitationinaccepting. HesoonlearntthatthesystemofnurserecruitmentinBritainwashaphazard,antiquatedandpoorly documented.Ratesofpayvariedthroughoutthecountryalongwithsupply,hospitalsizeandstandardsof care. Job retention was low, owing to the sometimes appalling working conditions, and by 1945 the shortage of nurses, according to the Minister of Health Aneurin Bevan, was very nearly a ‘national disaster’.FromadistancethiswasidealPyke-territory.Therewouldcertainlybenobattletohavehis opinionheardasforoncehehadbeenaskedforit.Buthisprogresswasslow,andbeforehecouldreach anyfinalconclusionstheWorkingPartypublisheditsinitialreport. In vague terms it proposed a new system of nurse recruitment, not so very different from what had gone before, that could be adapted to future health policy. In no way was this the result of a rigorous scientificanalysis,nordiditsuggestalistofconcreteimprovements.Pykewantednothingtodowiththe report, and nor did Cohen, who refused to sign it. Instead he promised a Minority Report with an AppendixbyPyke. Atlast,in1947,Pykeslippedintogear,attackingthesubjectfromfirstprinciplesandidentifyingfive keyquestions:Whatwasthepropertaskofanurse?Whattrainingwasrequiredtoequipherforthattask? Whatannualintakewasneededandhowcoulditbeobtained?Fromwhatgroupsofthepopulationshould recruitment be made? How could wastage during training be minimised? Before the war, health policy hadbeengovernedbytheneedtoestablishtheminimumhealthconditions.Nowitwastimetoidentifythe optimum.Pykesoughtoutfreshdatawhereverhecouldfindit,writingletterstohospitalsandborrowing somanylibrarybooksthathehadtoputupnewshelvesinSteele’sRoad. Butstillthissubjectdidnotyieldtohisanalysis.Theworklefthimfeelingwearyandspentandhe begantodescribehimselfas‘tired,sufferingfrommelancholia,fallingasleepaftermeals,oftensilent’. His decision-making could become impaired, as it did when he spent hundreds of hours devising a formula for the ideal division of national income between capital expenditure and consumption in the hope of reaching a conclusion on health expenditure, only to realise that the ratio must shift with time, makinghisformulauseless.Hetookonasecretarytodotwentyhoursoftypingeachweek,yetthisonly seemedtomakemattersworse.Atatimewhenheshouldhavebeencondensinghisnotes,thetowersof paperaroundhisroomsonlybecametaller. Aftermonthsofprocrastination,Cohenbecameanxious.‘Unlessourdocumentispublishedintimefor public discussion before the summer, we shall have completely missed the bus. That is what I am beginningtofear,’hetoldPykeinJanuary1948.‘IshouldhatetothinkIwasharassingorrushingyouin anyway.Iamfullyawareofyourhealthtroubles.Butaretherenotdegreesof“perfection”?Couldthe levelofaspirationnotbesomewhatreduced?’ Bythentheproblemhadasmuchtodowithperfectionasparanoia.AmisplacedpronounfromCohen –hehadreferredto‘myreport’ratherthan‘ourreport’–hadleftPykeconvincedthathewassecretly planningtotakethecreditfortheirjointefforts.‘Ihavethrowneverythingintothiswork,’hetoldhim, ‘andgoneshortoffoodtopaytheseriousincidentalexpensesoverthislongperiod.’Heevendemanded written assurances from Cohen that he would not pass off their research as his own. But this was a distraction,really.Unabletofinishthereport,hehadlookedforascapegoat.Inthepasthehadrounded onhismother,hisbrother,SusieIsaacs,Duncan,WernherandmorerecentlyBernal;nowitwasCohen’s turn. At a loss, Pyke explained his inability to finish this paper to the psychoanalyst Edward Glover, brotherofJames(whohadlongagoattemptedapsychoanalysisofPyke).Glover’sreplywasacute.‘I canseeonlyonepracticalwayofbringingthejamtoanendsoon;itistosacrificethenarcissisticdesire tofinishyourownworkyourself–oratanyratetosubmittothechallengeofhavingsomeoneelsefinish itforyouwhichmightmobiliseinyouadesperatelastattempttocompleteitwithouthelp.’Cohenwasof coursethemantodothis,andyet,‘itisnotwhathedoes(bywayofcuttingandcompleting)thatmatters butthenarcissisticthreattoyouofhisattemptingtodoso’. GloverknewPykewellenoughtohintatanothermentalblock.‘Youhangontoimmortalitybybeing theeternalson.Toadmitthatthefuturegenerationisafuturegenerationexcludesyourprivilegeoftaking partinit.Soyouwon’ttellthemanything.Well.Tellthem.Asyouareworkingonsoundprinciplesyou can’tbesoveryfarwrong.’ThoughPykewouldoftenrefertoMountbattenasaPeterPanfigure,there wasalsoapartofhimwhichrefusedtogrowup.Hisoutlookhadbeenforgedinthatyouthfulmomentin hislifewhentheenemyseemedtobethestolidassumptionsofanoldergeneration,totheextentthathe wasunabletoimaginehimselfbelongingtothatgroup.Therewereotheranxietiesalsoweighingdownon himwhichhedidnotsharewithGlover,onesthattroubledhimmoredeeplyinthedaysafterreadingthis letter. ForsomeofthoseinLondonwhohadlivedthroughthewartherewasalonelinessthatcamewithpeace. By1948thecountryhadenteredanageofausterity.Wartimeamateurswerebeingreplacedbypeacetime professionals, some of the old divisions of class were coming back and the country looked dingier, shabbierandmorewornthanithaddonebeforethewar.Rationingwasstillinplace,unemploymentwas creepingup,andwiththereturnofthesoldiers,manyofthembrutalisedbyservice,Britainhadbecomea moreviolentplace.ThiswasthecountrythatPykewokeuptoonthemorningofSaturday,21February 1948,thesocietywhichGeorgeOrwellhadspentthepastfewmonthsabstractingashewroteNineteen Eighty-Four.Itwas,inmanyways,amorelacklustreplacethanithadbeenduringthewar,andonthat particulardayitwasalsobitterlycold,withsnowcoveringlargeswathesofthecountry. Pykewasbedriddenagain.HewasdepressedbythethoughtoftacklingtheNHSreportaswellasthe uncertainty of what would follow. There were also times when he became gloomy about the society in which he lived, and in particular its attitude towards new ideas. ‘Bad manners to new ideas, to new suggestions, are sabotage – as they are in war, they are a Public Offence,’ he had recently told his listeners in a BBC broadcast entitled ‘The Dynamics of Innovation’. Bad manners towards new ideas were ‘an offence against the possibility of more food, more housing, more fun, more expansion of the personality,muchasmusic:–Thatistosay–likebadmannerstowardschildren–theyareanoffence againstthepossibilityofbetterpeople.That,pragmatically,istheonlyimmortalsin.Nomatterthatthe idea to which we are bad-mannered may prove impractical, or not the most economic, or even fundamentallyfallacious,–anymorethanitmattersthatapersontowhomwearebad-manneredmaynot befirst-class,maybeadud.Ifyouarewell-manneredonlytothesuccessfulandtothoseyoulike,then youareasnob,anddeservethepenaltiesyoumaygetfromyourmistakes.’ Yearsoffrustrationseemedtocoalesceinthisgrievanceaboutsociety’sattitudetowardsinnovation. In a letter to The Times published in December 1947, several months after that BBC talk, Pyke went furtherbysuggestingthatthenationwasenslavedtoitspast.Hehadcalledfortheabolitionofthedeath penalty, insisting this was not about the merits of capital punishment as a deterrent, but whether, in England,‘wehavethedecency,thedignity,theself-respect,andthecouragetoliveoutourliveswithout thisrealorimaginaryprotection.Thishasnothingtodowiththequestionofwhetherhumanlifeshouldbe regardedassacrosanct.ButifMPsvoteforthepreservationofthedeathpenaltyitwillbeavoteforthe preservationintothefutureofthebeastlinessandbarbarityofeighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryEnglish civilisation,andwillshowthatweasanationareslavestooursocialinheritance,forevilandforgood.’ Shortly afterwards Parliament would vote for the preservation of the death penalty (it would remain in placeuntil1965). ThefollowingmonthhewroteagaintoTheTimes, this time about the government’s decision not to contributetoUNICEF.Hefoundthisunforgivable,especiallyinlightofthecontributionsmadebypoorer nations.‘Canwenotpulloursocksup?Doweagreewiththerefusalmadeinourname?Ifnot,areweto allowittostand?Ourboastofdemocracyisatstake.Whathavethechurchestosay?Willtheyremain silent, inactive at this blasphemy in action (the only real blasphemy) against “Suffer Little Children to Come unto Me”? What have parents to say? And the Trade Unions? What have decent people of all partiestosaytotheirMPs?’Hisconclusionwasdesolate.‘Actionslikethis,whichsuggestthatweare condemned to perpetuate the evils in our past against our better but impotent judgement, unconsciously persuadementhatthereisnothingtobedonewithsuchacivilisationbuttodestroyitasthoroughlyand rapidlyaspossible.’ Pykewasarguinghimselfintoacorner,wallinghimselfinuntilhecouldonlyseeasocietydoomedto repeat into perpetuity the mistakes of the past. This civilisation was apathetic and toothless. It was in thralltoitseldersandsnobbishtowardsnewideas,andassuchithadbecomeunworthyofhisimproving attentions;mucheasierto‘destroy’everything‘asthoroughlyandrapidlyaspossible’. Both of these letters had been sent to Donald Tyerman, Assistant Editor at The Times, with whom Pykehadcorrespondedforseveralyears.InlateFebruary1948Tyermanrepliedwithamorepersonal letter than usual. It began with praise for a paper that Pyke had sent him. Then Tyerman delivered his broadside.‘WhatiswrongwithPyke?Whyhasn’thewrittenthegreatbook?Whyisitthatafterreducing ourproblemstosimplequestionshecanthenneverfinishtheanswers?Whydoeseverymemorandumof his,whichsetsouttobeconstructive,endinbecominganunfinishedencyclopaedia?Igettheimpression thatallyoursimpleshrewdquestionsleadinthesamedirection–inthedirectionoftheBooktoendall bookswhich,byitsnature,willneverbewritten–whichisapity.Thereisacase,Ithink,foraskingyour nextsimpleshrewdquestionaboutyourself,becauseyourinabilitytoimpresspeoplewiththepractical rightnessofyourviewsisn’tentirelyduetotheirimperviousnesstonewideas.Evenifyouhadyourway andgotacommunityopentoinnovation,therewouldstillbetheproblemofPyketosolve.’ Itwasaproblemwhichhehadtackledrepeatedly,onethatwasasfamiliartohimasthesmellofhis sheets, and on the day that Tyerman wrote this letter Pyke set in motion what seemed to him the only solutiontothe‘problemofPyke’. OnthenightofSaturday,21FebruaryGeoffreyPykeplacedanoteonhisdoorwhichread‘Pleasedonot wake me’. He shaved off his beard and sat down in a chair by the window. Next to him were headed notepaper,apenandacontainerfullofcommerciallyavailablebarbiturates. Hetookthepills. Knowing that he had probably less than half an hour to live he began to write. One of his first messageswastohiswife. DearMarge, IwritetoyouafterI’vetakenthepoisontodie.Ihavebecometootiredtogoonandhavenowbeenswindledofmyideasby oneCohen.Icannowdonomorethansendyoumyloveandbestwishes, YourGeoff. Another was to his son David. The Janet he refers to was Janet Stewart, whom David would later marry. MydarlingSonny, Icannothelpmyself.Iamtootired;tooexhausted,andIhavebeenswindledagain,byamanCohenwhohastakenmyideas.I dielovingyouandMummyandJanet;myheart’sbestwishesgoouttoyou.Icannotexplainthemiseryofmylife.Therewouldbe nopurposeintheattemptto.Icannotgoon.Thislastblowfinishesme. YourlovingDaddy. ThethirdwastoElsieMyers,whosehusbandLeohadkilledhimselfin1944,alsowithanoverdose ofbarbiturates. DearElsie, IhavehadtogothesamewayasLeo.–Ican’thelpmyself–I’vebeenrobbedofmyideasbyDrCohenatthelastmoment. This–Iamalreadyaboutdead–istobegyouinthenameofourdeepfriendship–toleaveDavidinyourwillwhatyoucansothat hemaybeabletohavechildrenmoreandsooner,inmemoryofme. Best,bestwishestoyou. Yours Geoff. Hewrotesoquicklythattherewastimeformore.Pyke’slastwords,morerevealingthantheother notes,weretohisson: Thethingtodoistobeasdetachedasyoucanaboutmydeath.Thismayseemastrangethingtosay,butI’vetakenthepoisonand inthe½hourorsoleftamtryingtofindthingstosayofuse.YouwillfeelI’vedesertedyou.Itistrue,butit’sbeyondmetoendure more.ThislastblowhasbeenmorethanIcanstand.MummydoesnotknowhowmuchIhavelovedherandhowfaithfulmyheart hasalwaysbeentoher.ButIhavebeenofnousetoherandsheshouldforherownwellbeing,whichiswhatIcareabout,forget meassoonaspossible.Itiseasierforawifethanasontodothis.Butyouwillbeabletodoitintime.Doyourbestforyourown sake.Itisovernegativefeelingstomewhichareperhapsburiedandwhichdeathtendstoburydeeper. Theall-importantthingischildren.Ibegyoudonotcallanyofthem,Ihopetherewillbemany,afterme–I’dlikeeverything concerningmetobedestroyedandtobeforgottenasifI’dneverlived.IshallliveinallthechildrenI’vehadtodowith,andshall fadeawayastheygrowupandshed(totheextenttheydo)theirearlyexperiences. Ihesitateevennowtointerfere–andfearIhavedonesotoomuch–butkeepleft.LetmeadviseyoutoreadShawseveral times.Youcanshort-circuitthejobofbuyingthewisdomofexperience–I’veonlyafewminutesleft–andobtaingeneralitiesfor whichlifeisnotlongenoughtodobyobservation. I’mnowgoingunder... Ifindgreatdifficultyinthinkingand... . . . love you and good wishes for you and Mummy. Remember, take your children as serious as you do grown-ups – and bewareyoursocialinheritance–the...assumptions,indecisivelyimbibedfromenvironment.[...]Don’tattendmyfuneral–silly business,nofussorceremony.AsIsaybelowhavemecremated.Ifoundmymother’sfuneralashock,that’swhy.I’veforgotten somuchIwantedtosay.Sorry.Sorry.Sorry. Pyke’swritingdeterioratedandhispenfelltothefloor. MrsHopkins,thedailyhelp,wasthefirsttofindthecorpse,whileitwasMrsMendelsohn,thelandlady, whocalledthepolice.Theoperatoratthelocalexchangemusthaveputacallthroughtothepress,for there were reporters at Steele’s Road before anyone else arrived. The next day news of Pyke’s death appearedintheEveningStandard,theDailyExpressandtheDailyGraphic. ‘Pyke of the Back-room’ had taken his own life. Elsewhere he was referred to as ‘one of the most famous “back-room boys”’. There followed articles in the New York Times, the magazines Time and Discovery, and fuller obituaries in The Times and Manchester Guardian. Death became him; the superlativesflowed.Pykewasa‘genius’,a‘pioneer’,an‘organiserofthought’andforMaxPerutz‘one of the most original characters in this country’. He had an ‘almost overdeveloped sense of social responsibility’andanintellectualapproachwhichwas‘notonlyfreefromaccretionsofordinaryhuman prejudicebutdisregardedtheirexistence’.LaterthatyeartheBBC would broadcast an appreciation of PykeinwhichLancelotLawWhytecomparedhimfavourablywithFrankWhittleandAlbertEinstein. Yet none of these accounts dwelled on the reasons why he might have killed himself, for they remainedsomethingofamystery.TheCoroner,BentleyPurchase,ruledthatPykehadcommittedsuicide while of ‘unsound mind’. At the time suicide was a criminal act, so coroners frequently arrived at this verdictonthebasisofscantevidence.Mostobituariesalludedtohisdepression;somesuggestedhehad been overcome by work. A biography of Pyke published nine years later, by the American military historian David Lampe, described his suicide as ‘an act of intellectual frustration’. Yet a letter subsequentlywrittentoLampechallengedthis.Itseemedthattheremighthavebeenanotherfactorinhis death,onethatwasunknowneventoPyke. TheletterhadcomefromadoctorattheMiddlesexHospitalwhohadreadLampe’sbookandnoticed thatPykehadappearedtodisplayalmosteverysymptomofAddison’sDisease,rightdowntoafondness for fried chicken and sardines – low sodium levels brought on by Addison’s will often result in salt cravings.Bycausinghimsomuchpainduringhislife,thischronicconditionwouldhavecertainlyplayed asignificantpartinhisdecisiontokillhimself. Addison’sDiseaseisarareadrenaldisorderthatreducesthesufferer’sabilitytoproducethesteroid hormonescortisolandaldosterone,makingithardertofightinflammation,movenutrientsaroundthebody andregulateblood-flow.Itcanleadtoprolongedperiodsoflethargyandlong-termpain.Thoseafflicted will also find it hard to deal with stress, either physical or mental, and may produce less of the sex hormoneDHEA,thusloweringtheirsexdrive.Addison’susuallyfollowsonfromaninitialfailureofthe adrenalglandscausedbyanillnesssuchastuberculosis.AgainthisfeatureofthediseasematchesPyke’s history. In the freezing loft of the Jewish barrack in Ruhleben he was said to have experienced ‘pneumonia’ in both lungs, which might have been tuberculosis pneumonia. The onset of Addison’s is insidious, so Pyke would not have been aware of his condition immediately and, even then, relatively littlewasknownaboutthisdiseaseduringhislifetime–whichwouldexplainwhyitwasnotspottedby thedoctorsattheMayoClinic.ItiscertainlypossiblethatPykesufferedfromamildformofAddison’s and,asLamperepliedtotheendocrinologistatMiddlesexHospital:‘IfallofPykecanbeexplainedby Addison’sdisease,thenwemustallreviseourtheories.’ Yettheconsensusamongmodern-dayspecialistsinthediseaseastowhetherPykehadthisillnessis lessconclusive.‘IcannotsaythatPykedidnothaveAddison’s,’saysProfessorJohnMonson,Emeritus ProfessorofClinicalEndocrinologyatStBartholomew’sHospital.‘Itisconceivable,butbynomeans probable.’ThisisaviewsharedbyfellowendocrinologistsatCharingCrossHospitalinLondon. Much easier to establish is that Pyke suffered from frequent depressive episodes. By his own admission,ifeachofusexperiencesvariationsinmood,orcyclothymictendencies,‘Iwasmoresubject tothemthanmost.’Themusicofhislifetakesusfromall-conqueringcrescendosinwhichitseemedfor himthatanythingwaspossible–thathecouldpreventawar,endanti-Semitism,earnafortune,rewrite the rules of education or win the war with a single invention – down to those muffled, more subdued passagesduringwhichhefoundithardtogetoutofbed.Itistemptingtotakethisfurtherandreachfora moderntermsuchasbipolardisorder.Therewerecertainlyintense,near-manicperiodsinhislifewhen heseemedtounderstandtheworldwithmysticclarityandcouldthinkexceptionallyfast.Butideasoften appeartohavecometohimwhetherornothewas‘up’,andinnoneofthemanydescriptionsofPykeare thereclearsuggestionsthathisspeechwasmanicorfrenzied;norwerethererepeatedspendingspreesor bouts of hypersexuality. Then again, these symptoms are rooted in a modern understanding of this condition,soitisprobablybesttoavoidthistermandinsteadrepeathisownanalysis:thatwhileweall experiencevariationsinmoods,hewasmuchmorepronetothesethanmost. The extent to which he suffered from depression, Addison’s, or both – and whether the two compoundedeachother–willalwaysbeunclear.Butwecanbesurethatduringthelastyearsofhislife hewasinpain,bothmentalandphysical. Unaware of the source of this discomfort, knowing only that it was starting to overpower him, he appearstohavetackledthisproblemashewoulddoanyothersomesixmonthsbeforehissuicide.Inhis diaryforAugust1947hedescribedaphysical‘trough’whichlastedtwodaysandlefthimfeeling‘very empty,exhausted“postsick”’andunable‘togetthemachinegoing’.Afterthisheappliedhimselfto‘the wayout’,or‘theworkingoutoftheD.Problem’.‘D’mighthavebeen‘Depression’orjust‘Death’. Althoughhedidnotspellouthisconclusion,weknowthathefelt‘shock,relief,almosthappiness’at thethoughtofit,sensationswhichwere‘thoseofamanrelievedofathematiccondemnation.Andthatof courseiswhathashappened.’Whileintellectualfrustrationandthepressureofworkcertainlyplayeda partinhissuicide,thisentrysuggeststhathehadmadethedecisiontokillhimselflongbeforehisdeath andthathissuicidehadmoretodowiththenagging,persistentpainhehadlivedwithforsolongthanthe frustrationofnotbeingabletofinishthenursingreport. There remains another loose end: the question of whether Pyke was working for Moscow. He describedhimselfafterthewarasaMarxistwhohadlostfaithintheSovietUnion.‘Noneofuscanbe trusted with victory,’ he had written earlier, and ‘Communist Russia has not yet been tested in this respect.’By1948ithad–andhadfailed,theironcurtainhavingdescendedacrossEurope. Was his sense of despair deepened by the failure of the USSR to live up to the ideals he had once investedinit?Orhadhereallybeen,asMI5andSpecialBranchsuspected,aseniorCominternfigure? Forifso,hewouldhavebeenlivinginfearofexposure,whichagaincastshissuicideinadifferentlight. PYKEHUNT,PART6 OnaFridayeveninginMay1951twoBritishdiplomats,GuyBurgessandDonaldMaclean,abandoned theircarbyaSouthamptondockandracedtotheferry,oneofthemshoutingoverhisshoulder‘We’llbe backonMonday!’Theyneverreturned.FromFrancetheywereescortedtotheSovietUnionwherethey spenttherestoftheirlives.BothwereNKVDagentswhoforyearshadsuppliedhigh-gradeintelligence toMoscowinprodigiousquantities:between1941andtheendofthewarBurgessalonepassedon4,605 documents. Thisdefectionmarkedthefirstinstalmentofthe‘CambridgeSpies’espionagesaga,whichwouldgo ontoscandaliseBritishsocietyandunderminesomeofthefoundationsoftrustwithinMI5,MI6andthe Foreign Office. For many this was evidence of the worst kind of complacency: a clubbish lack of imagination in which a man who appeared to be ‘one of us’ was incapable of either treachery on this scaleorpoliticalradicalisationintheserviceofwhatOrwellhadoncecalled‘thatun-Englishthing,an idea’.Butitwouldbeyearsbeforetheextentofthisdeceptionemerged.InthedaysafterMacleanand Burgess’sdefectionveryfewpeopleknewwhathadhappened,andMI5wantedtokeepitthatway. RatherthanobtainawarranttosearchBurgess’sflat,MI5’sGuyLiddellcontactedAnthonyBlunt,the former intelligence officer who had since become Surveyor of the King’s Pictures and Director of the CourtauldInstitute,andaskedhimtotrackdownasetofkeystoBurgess’sflat.LiddellknewthatBlunt wasaclosefriendofBurgess–buthadnoinklingthenthathemightalsobeaSovietagent.Beforehis suddendepartureBurgesshadbeenseeingJackieHewit,achorusboyfromGatesheadwhohadalsohad anaffairwithBluntbeforethewar.BluntborrowedasetofkeysfromHewitandaccompaniedtwoMI5 officerstoBurgess’sflat. BluntlaterclaimedthatasthethreeofthemmovedthroughBurgess’sroomshemanagedtoremove any incriminating papers from under the noses of the MI5 men, yet this is unlikely. Calm and quickfingeredashemighthavebeen,itseemsthatBlunthadgiventheflataquicksweepbeforehand.Buthe didnotlookeverywhere. BeneathBurgess’sbedwasaguitarcasethatcontainedatreasuretroveoflettersandpaperswhich castsuspiciononBlunt,KimPhilbyandJohnCairncross,allNKVDagents,aswellasonPeterAstbury, who had passed information to Moscow via Dave Springhall, a CPGB member jailed in 1943 for offences under the Official Secrets Act. Burgess’s guitar case also contained documents relating to GeoffreyPyke.InNovemberofthatyearmoreofBurgess’scorrespondencewasfoundattheCourtauld InstituteandagaintherewerereferencestoPyke. Formorethanhalfacenturythesepaperswouldremainclassified–until2009whenMI5released most of its material on Pyke. Four of the documents that were made public then had been found either under Burgess’s bed or at the Courtauld. They are the most important pieces in the puzzle of Geoffrey Pykeandhispoliticalloyalties. * Twoofthefourdocumentswereextractsfromlongerreports–notofficialgovernmentpapersbutchatty, informalaccountsofpoliticalgossipincludingprofilesofkeypoliticalfigures.Theemphasisthroughout wasondevelopmentsthatmightconcerntheUSSR.OnehadbeenwritteninlateApril1942,theothera monthbefore. The earlier extract began with a detailed biographical sketch of Pyke before telling of a secret meetinginRichmondTerracetodiscussthePloughscheme.Itprovidedafullaccountoftheproject,the role envisaged for Russia, its military impact vis-à-vis a second front and Pyke’s attempts to push for more Russian involvement. The fact that Mountbatten was initially sceptical about reaching out to the USSRwasalsomentioned.Pyke,itwenton,urgedhimtopushfordirectliaisonwiththeSovietsandto send British troops to participate in Russian guerrilla warfare. ‘Mountbatten showed keen interest and sympathyforthisidea,saidhewouldraiseitwiththeP.M.’ FromthewordingofthisreportitwasalmostcertainlytheresultofalongconversationwithPyke. LesscleariswhetherheknewthatwhathewassayingmightendupinMoscow:didheunderstandthat the man or woman he was speaking to might be a Soviet agent, or had he been gulled into giving this information? It is impossible to say without identifying his interlocutor. The obvious candidate is Guy Burgess, given that these reports were found among his papers. Burgess was, as the historian Nigel West has written, ‘assiduous in cultivating sources’. By early 1942 Burgess was passing vast quantities of intelligenceontoMoscow.Evenso,wecanrulehimout,largelybecauseofMilicentBagot’sfortunate decisioninMarch1942tohavePykeshadowedaroundLondon. OneofthePykereportsfoundamongBurgess’scorrespondencewasdated22Marchanddescribeda meetingheldon19March.Sincethisreportwasbasedonaverbalaccount,andthefactthatno Soviet agentwouldgatherthiskindofintelligenceoverthetelephone,wecanbereasonablysurethatPykemust havespokentotheauthorofthisreportinpersonatsomepointbetween19and22March.BythenBagot hadPykeunderMI5observation,soweknowwherehewasformostofthisperiod,aswellaswhenhe ate,whathewore,howlonghespentinparticularbuildingsand,crucially,thepeoplehespoketo. Becauseitwassuchalongreport,wecandiscountanyonewhomhesawonlybriefly.Thisleavesus with just three names (if we disregard those he spoke to inside Richmond Terrace). One was Mountbatten’s Chief of Staff, Brigadier Wildman-Lushington. Another was an RAF officer, Squadron Leader Dudeney, then at the Ministry of Economic Warfare. The third was Peter Smollett, who had recentlybecomeHeadofSovietRelationsattheMinistryofInformation. Of these three, one was revealed after his death in 1980 to have been a Soviet mole code-named ‘ABO’andlaterdescribedbyaKGBdefectorasmore‘significant’toMoscowthananyoftheCambridge Spies.Thismanwasnotunmaskedduringhislifetime,andinsteadenjoyedasuccessfulpost-warcareer asarespectedTimescorrespondentandwasevenawardedanOBE.HisnamewasPeterSmollettandhe wasalmostcertainlytheSovietagenttowhomPykesupplieddetailsofthemeetinginRichmondTerrace. SmollettwasheldinhighregardbyMoscownotonlybecauseoftheintelligenceheprovidedbutalso because of his propaganda work in the Ministry of Information. It constituted what KGB defector Oleg Gordievsky called ‘the NKVD’s most remarkable “active measures” coup’. Smollett would exaggerate Soviet concerns, refuse to give in to them and then suggest as a quid pro quo a more Soviet-friendly stanceonotherissues.Hemaintained,forexample,thattheSovietswereexceptionallythin-skinnedand, as such, no stories about Stalinist persecution could be broadcast. Smollett encouraged the BBC to run stories that exaggerated the revival of the Russian Orthodox Church in the USSR and to have these translated and broadcast to Eastern Europe – a major coup, given the anti-religious reputation of the SovietregimeandthehighstandingoftheBBCinEurope.ElsewhereSmollettpushedtheideathatafter thewartheUSSRwouldbetooweaktodoanythingotherthanrebuild.Heorganisedthelegendary1943 Albert Hall meeting to celebrate the Red Army’s twenty-fifth anniversary and, in one month alone, September 1943, as Christopher Andrew has shown, under Smollett ‘the Ministry of Information organised meetings on the Soviet Union for 34 public venues, 35 factories, 100 voluntary societies, 28 civil defence groups, 9 schools and a prison; the BBC in the same month broadcast thirty programmes withasubstantialSovietcontent’. Itworked.EvenBritishcommunistsweretakenabackbythe‘redhaze’whichsweptacrossBritain after the entry of the USSR into the war. None of this of course would have been possible without the heroism of the Russian people. This sympathy was inspired by much more than Smollett’s propaganda. Yet he helped to blur the line between the heroic Russians and the brutal Soviet regime. It was, as the historianStevenMerrittMinerhaswritten,‘propagandabeyondprice’. AtthesametimeSmollettwasbusypassingintelligencetoMoscow–ashehadbeendoingsincethe startofthewarandperhapsearlier.InitiallyhehadreportedtotheSovietagentKimPhilby,butafterhe joined SIS Philby began to distance himself from Smollett, feeling that he had become, as the BBC’s GordonCorerahasputit,like‘theembarrassingfriendfromschoolwhofollowedyoutouniversityand knewyouwerenotquitewhatyoupretendedtobe’.InsteadPhilbyhandedSmollettovertoBurgess,who wasimpressedbyhisnewsub-agentandmentionedhimtotheillegalNKVDresidentinLondon,Anatoli Gorsky–whowasfurious.Bytakingonasub-agentwithoutclearingitfirstwithMoscowBurgesshad againbrokenprotocol.HewastoldtodropSmollett.Hechosenotto.InsteadPhilby,BluntandBurgess decidedamongthemselvesthatSmollettshouldreporttoBurgess,whocouldpassoffhismaterialashis ownwork. SoitseemsthattheaccountofthePloughmeetinggivenbyPyketoSmollettwasdeliveredtoBurgess whothenpasseditoffashisowntohisSoviethandler,beforeitcontinueddownthechaintoMoscow. The question remains: did Pyke realise when he spoke to Smollett that he was being pumped for informationbyaSovietagent? Itseemslikely.ThelengthandprecisionofthereportindicatethatSmollettwastakingnotes,which musthaveraisedPyke’ssuspicions.Thenthereistheline:‘Nootherspecificoperationswerementioned in Pyke’s presence at the conference on March 19th at Combined Operations Headquarters though Mountbattensaidsomethinglike“...ofcoursewehavesomanyotherearlierschemesinhand...”’This sounds very much like a response to a question such as: were there any other specific operations mentionedinyourpresence?Hardlychit-chat. More revealing still, Pyke told Smollett that he sought ‘co-operation with the Russians because he wantedthemtoknowaboutallthissothatnoneofthesetacticalinnovationscouldeverbeusedagainst themiftherewereafteralltobeaconflictbetweenBritainandRussiaattheendofthiswar.He[Pyke] impliedthatinsuchaconflicthewouldbeonthesideoftheRussians.’Whatissorevealinghereisnot thatPykewaspro-Sovietbythisstageofthewar–weknowthat–butthathewaspreparedtosaysoin thesetermstoSmollett. Apartfromthisreport,therearehintsthatSmollettandPykehadanunderstandingwhichbeliedtheir formalrelationship.Betweenthem,in1942,theyfoundatemporaryjobforHeinzKamnitzer,theGerman refugee and suspected NKVD agent, in which he was paid by Combined Operations while being employedattheMinistryofInformation.TherewasalsoaDavidAstorconnection.JustbeforePykeleft fortheUS,AstordecidedthatSmollettshouldbecomethenexteditoroftheObserver.AtthetimePyke wasincontactwithtwoofAstor’ssecretaries,whichraisesthepossibilitythatPykehadbeenaskedto steerAstortowardschoosingSmollett. EvenifPykehadnotbeentoldthatSmollettwasworkingforMoscow,hemighthaveguessedit.This slightlyoverweightAustriangaveGeorgeOrwellthe‘strongimpressionofbeingsomekindofRussian agent’andotherwisebeinga‘veryslimyperson’–wordshewrotewithoutknowingthatitwasSmollett whohadpersuadedT.S.EliotatFabertorejectonpoliticalgroundshismanuscriptforAnimalFarm. But how does Pyke’s decision to pass intelligence to Smollett belong to his broader political evolution?WasMilicentBagotrighttosuspecthimofbeingboth‘ProfessorP.’andthemaninchargeof Britishcommunist‘actionpropaganda’?‘Everythingmustwearadisguiseinordertobereal,’wroteJohn le Carré in A Perfect Spy. For much of his life Geoffrey Pyke wore a disguise and here, at last, it can removed. Geoffrey Pyke did not visit Berlin during the late 1920s or early 1930s; he was not Professor P., the seniorCominternofficial.NordidheeverjointheComintern.Butinlate1934,ashewrestledwiththe questionofhowtoendNazianti-Semitism,heunderwentapowerfulpoliticalconversion.Hebecamean anti-fascist.Thisdidnotinvolvejoiningaparty,itwasapurelypersonaltransformation,andyetitwould informeverypoliticaldecisionthatfollowedandultimatelybroughthimintotheorbitoftheParty. Aftertwoyearsspenttryingtosetuphisinstitutetoexplodethemythofanti-Semitism,Pykecreated VoluntaryIndustrialAidforSpain(VIAS),anotheranti-fascistventure,afterwhichhisaffiliationsbecame morecomplex.ThiswastheageofthePopularFrontinwhichthebarriersbetweenthoseontheLefthad been either lowered or brought down altogether. Pyke had always felt a strong affinity for the Fabians, and even they were now talking up the ‘economic miracle’ of Stalin’s Russia. So there was nothing unusualaboutaFabianlikehim,onewhohadvotedLabourallhislife,recruitingseveralPartymembers toVIAS. Hefoundthesemenreliableanddetermined.Hewasattractedbytheirinternationalism,theirpolitical conviction and their European connections (which made it easier to get VIAS ampoules, microscopes, trucksandmotorbikesintothehandsoftheSpanishRepublicans).TheirlinkstotheAmericanCommunist Partymighthavehelpedtosecurethefleetofsecond-handHarleyDavidsonsthatwasshippedoverfrom theUS. ButtowhatextentdidheallowhischaritytobeusedbytheParty?WeknowthatVIASassistedat leastoneagentofMoscow,forburiedinitsrecordsisanotewhichsays:‘ReceivedonepacketforMr OttoKatz’. Katz was a Communist ‘super-agent’ with nine cover names. He was an NKVD illegal, a senior Comintern official and a charismatic and talented propagandist who later inspired the Victor Laszlo characterinthefilmCasablanca.OneofKatz’smanyposterestantes,itseems,wasPyke’sflat. ButthisdoesnotmakeVIASacommunistorganisation.Instead,withtiestoanarrayofleft-leaning groups, from the CPGB to the Co-Operative Movement, it seems to have been a child of the Popular Front.Inspiteofwhattheinsuranceagentoverheardbeforegoingtothepolice–whenPykespoketoan emptyroomabout‘attacking’NegrettiandZambra(hewasalmostcertainlyspeakingintohisDictaphone) – VIAS was not a front organisation and there is no evidence that it was used to obtain industrial or technologicalintelligence. NotefoundamongVIASpapersreferringtoOttoKatz Nonetheless,itwasaroundthistimethatPykeadjustedhisoutlook.HereadJohnStrachey’sTheory andPracticeofSocialism,anddescribeditsaccountofthecommongroundbetweenpsychoanalysisand Marxismas‘allthatIrequire’.Overthefollowingmonthshebecameconvinced,ashisidolShawhadput it,thatitwasnomorepossibletoproducesocialismusingtheBritishpoliticalmachinethanitwastoget asewingmachinetomakeafriedegg,andin1938,havingbeenrebuffedagainbytheTUC,hedecidedto abandon the British Labour movement. He felt that its leadership was interested in nothing more than pushing for higher wages and, once these had been won, guarding them ‘with caution and jealousy’. ‘I becameclearthatanyfurtherideasthatcameintomyheadmustnotbefedtothem.’ So,havingdecidedtocarryoutaGallup-stylesurveyofGermanpublicopinion,heresolvedtowork with ‘a body of people selected for their political and personal reliability’. This was code for his decisionin1939toapproachthePartyforhelpwithhisundercoverpoll,amovebornofhisangerwith the Labour movement as much as his belief that the Party would fight harder in the struggle against fascism. Over that summer, Pyke was put in touch with senior members of the German Communist Party (KPD).HeflewouttoParistomeetJürgenKuczynski,andaskedhimforthesupportoftheKPD. ‘ImadeareportaboutthemattertoourPartyleadershipinParis,’wroteKuczynski.Theythensenta messagetoLondoninstructingKPDcadreRolfRünkeltohelpPyke,andoverthenextfewweeksRünkel vettedeachoftheyoungconversationalists,noneofwhomtravelledtoGermanyuntileitherRünkelorhis boss,WilhelmKoenen,leaderoftheKPDinexile,wassatisfied. SomeofthoseinvolvedinthesurveyeitherbelongedtothePartyorstoodclosetoit,suchasKenneth Spencer, Fred Fuller and Marjory Watson, who had started out as a Nazi but had since undergone a dramatic political conversion. Eva Webber, the woman in Golders Green whose remark about working withtheSecretServicecametotheattentionofMI5,merelyimaginedthatPyke’sconnectionstothelikes of Vansittart was evidence that this survey was controlled by MI5. It was not. But as a result of Vansittart’sconnectionthecrucialsurveyresultswerebroughtoutofthecountrybydiplomaticbag.Or,to put it another way, the Foreign Office unwittingly helped the German Communist Party to gather intelligencefromNaziGermany. Pyke relished that initial experience of working with the KPD. His new friends were serious, politicallycommittedandanti-fascisttothecore.Hebegantoinhabitamorecommunistmilieu,untilhis lifewasdominatedby‘myforeignCommunistfriends’suchasRünkel,KoenenandKuczynski.‘I learn morefromtheseGermanCommuniststhanIdofromanybody.’Otherwisehespenttimewith‘myEnglish Communist friends’, who were ‘very young members of the Party’, and in the wake of the Molotov– RibbentropPactagreedwiththemthattherewouldbenowarbecauseChamberlain’s‘classinterest’was sostrongthathewasboundtomakeadealwithHitler.KarlKneschke–older,wiserandlikeRünkeland KoenenaGermanCommunistwhohadfledPrague–tookamoresanguineline.Pykerecalledhimsaying ‘that Hitler and Chamberlain were both in a situation which they could not get out of except by war. I remember asking him, “What do your Moscow friends think?” Elbows on knees, staring at the floor betweenhisfeetasifhewouldfindtherethewordshewaslookingfor,slowlyshakinghislargehead, bald in front but for the wisps of greying hair that had been carefully brushed across the dome in the morning,butwhichnowstooduplikeEinstein’sinadisorderedhalo,atlasthegotthewordsout.“Itis comingthistime.”’ Here is evidence, at least, that Pyke recognised the connection between these German Communists andtheUSSR.Butbythenhehadmadethedecisiontojointheminthefightagainstfascismandwould stand by it. The communist networks to which he now had access provided him with personnel and expertise, and they might have helped with the funding of his survey. The cost of sending his conversationalists to Germany was more than £550, of which £500 came from his friend Leo Myers. WhetherornotMyerswasgivenanudgebythePartyisunclear.Mucheasiertotraceistheseismicshift inPyke’soutlookduringthoseheadydaysjustaftertheoutbreakofwarandwhathedidinresponse. ‘IhadformanyyearsbeenconvincedthatCapitalistcivilisationinWesternEuropewasdecaying,’wrote Pyke.‘Itookitforgrantedthatthenextconvulsionwashoweveradecadeortwoahead.’Nowthatwar hadbrokenouthebegantothinkthatitmightcomesooner–muchsooner.‘Weare,Ithink,approaching oneofthegreatestandmostbeneficialcrisesthespecieshasbeenthroughinthelast5,000years.And everyone should get clear as soon as possible which side he is on. For everyone, as judged by his activities,willinfacthavetobeononesideortheother,whetherhelikesitornot.’InSeptember1939 hesawthenewconflictwithGermanyasapreludeto‘therealwar,thewaragainstnature,thewarto masterourenvironmentandthepurposefulevolutionofthehumanspecies.[...]Wearewithineasysight ofovercomingtheabsurdpreliminaryproblemofmerephysicalwantnotmerelyfortheupperandmiddle classes,butforeveryone[...].Thenwestandachanceofgivingscienceitshead.’ Pyke’s vision of the future was socialist and anti-capitalist, yet it had virtually nothing in common withthebloodyrealityofSovietRussia.Hedidnotlongforgulags,purgesandatyrannicalsecretpolice. Hisutopianstatewasnotthearchitectofaggressiveterritorialexpansion;nordidittolerateaninefficient economy,wastage,famine,shortagesorthestasisofaparanoidandmurderousdictatorship. Instead he envisaged a world in which scientists were given their head, a rational, egalitarian and meritocratic society in which the future was embraced like an old friend. Humans would live without want. The new enemies would be complacency, vested interest and our unthinking resistance to new ideas. Empire, inequality and war would become historical artefacts. Nations would pull together towardsamoreproductive,peacefulandjudiciousfuture,allofwhich,hemaintained,couldbeachieved throughsocialistrevolution. Herewasaworldviewanchoredsocompletelyinthepoliticalidealismofthelate1930s–aperiod which is, as the biographer Peter Conradi has put it, ‘as remote from us as the Romantic Revival two centuriesearlier’–thatitcanbehardtounderstandtoday.Whilenoneoftheindividualcomponentsof this outlook are either alien or outdated, indeed many have since passed into the political mainstream, whathasgoneisthesensethatallthiscouldbeachievedthroughrevolution. YettherealtragedyofPyke’sbeliefs,atthetimeheheldthem,wasthatheimaginedthemtobeshared byStalin.HewasnotaloneinwillinghimselftoseetheUSSRasanembryonicversionofascientific andfuturisticutopia.BernardShawandH.G.Wells,forexample,feltthesameway.Whenhereadthat theRussiannationalincomehaddoubledeverysixyears,hebelievedit,andwasconvincedthatitwas onlyamatteroftimebeforetheyovercame‘theabsurdpreliminaryproblemofmerephysicalwant’.Pyke nowdaredhimselftobelievethathewouldlivetoseethisnewworld,andsoonaftertheoutbreakofwar he resolved to do everything he could to bring this forward. His weapon would be propaganda. ‘It is everyone’sdutytoliveasusefullyaspossible.Thereisnomeritinbeingshot.Butitwillbenecessaryto bereadytobeshot,andworse.Whenthefutureisonlyjustroundthecorner,itisworthwhiletosacrifice thepresent.’Theadventofwarhadhadapowerfuleffectonhim,makinghimmoreimpulsivethanever before. InthedaysaftertheoutbreakofwarPykedecidedtocreateanewsagencywithahiddencommunist agenda.LetterswrittentoKuczynski,whichfordecadeshavelainhiddeninEastGermanarchives,show that this agency was to provide two services. One was a survey of the foreign press to be called Uncensored News, inspired by his work with the Cambridge Magazine during the previous war. He planned to recruit a team of refugee communists to select foreign-language articles and broadcasts for translation.Whilethearticlesweregenuine,thechoiceofwhichtotranslatewouldbepartisan. The other arm of Pyke’s agency was to provide reports on public opinion in Germany and other Europeancountries.ThiswaswhathewasoverhearddiscussingonthetelephonewithMarjoryWatsonin May 1940. Men and women from neutral countries such as the US would conduct undercover opinion polls, as Pyke’s conversationalists had done the summer before, but now the phrasing of the questions wouldbegearedtowardsdrawingoutresponsestobackthePartyline. Theseplansfacedanarrayofsetbacks.DuringtheBlitzthewarehouseinwhichhehadstoredtwentyfive tons of newsprint for his proposed publication Uncensored News went up in flames. He was not givenpermissiontoimportGermannewspapers,andinthedayswhenAmericaremainedneutralhewas unabletogetapermittotraveltotheUSwherehehopedtotrainupconversationalists.Buthiseffortsto get things moving do at least tell us something about the flow of secret information within hidden communistnetworksatthattime. One of the men Pyke had gone to for help with his news agency was Sir Campbell Stuart, at DepartmentEH,whohadlookedsounfavourablyonRaleighandSmithbeforetheoutbreakofwar.This time Pyke told him about his plan to send Americans into Europe. Stuart gave ‘every sign of being favourably impressed, but rather distrait’, largely because he was off to Paris (to check up on Noël Coward’sBritishBureauofPropaganda).Onhisreturn,StuartrelayedPyke’splantotheDirectorofSIS, AdmiralHughSinclair,saying‘itmightbethatsomeusefulinformationwouldbegained’andthatamong others‘Vansittarthascommendeditwarmly’. ‘The idea is interesting,’ came the reply from SIS, ‘and, if properly carried out, might prove very informative.’Neitherhadanyinklingofitshiddencommunistagenda. Yet by canvassing political support for his scheme Pyke had destroyed its secrecy and ultimately Stuartrejecteditonthegroundsthattoomanypeoplehadbeeninformed.Healsosuggestedthatthiswork should only be carried out by professional intelligence agents. The irony here was that Pyke had successfullygothisamateursintoandoutofNaziGermanyatatimewhenSISfeltitwassafertowatch fromthesidelines. The only reason we know that Sir Campbell Stuart wrote to SIS is because copies of this correspondence were found among Burgess’s papers in 1951. When Stuart wrote to ‘C’, Burgess was working at SIS. Presumably, then, it was Burgess who copied this material. There is also an intriguing possibilitythatPykemighthaveseenit. Several months after these letters were sent, Pyke mentioned that he had ‘excellent reason for believingthat’DepartmentEHwas‘infavouroftheproposal’butthattheyhadhadtosubmittheideato anotherdepartment,whichhebelievedtobetheSecurityService,whohadturneditdown.Itseemsthat eitherBurgesshadshowedthecorrespondencetoPyke,oritwasgiventoanintermediarywhothentold himaboutit,allofwhichstrengthenstheideathatPykehadaccesstohigh-poweredcommunistnetworks duringthatfirstyearofthewar. Wealsoknowthathehadadegreeofsuccessinrunningapress-cuttingoffice.Forashortperiodhe had installed in his flat a team of refugees and linguists who transcribed and translated foreign radio broadcasts–whichexplainsthestrangenoisesheardonGreatOrmondStreetinearly1940.Aroundthis time,possiblyfornomorethanafewmonths,theygatheredmaterialfromforeignradiobroadcastsanda handfulofinternationalpublications,andatleastoneoftheirbulletinswaspassedontoTommyBell,the CominternagentwhoadministeredtheInter-StatesCommitteeofforeigncommunists. Pyke’spropagandaworkwasnotrestrictedtothisnewsagency.Duringtheearlystagesofthewarhe frequentlymetwithSidneyElliottatReynoldsNews,badgeringhimtokeephiseditoriallinetotheleft. Harry Pollitt once described Pyke as ‘working’ at the paper with Elliott and ‘giving him all his stunt ideas’. Yet by the summer of 1940, as the threat of Nazi invasion grew, a curious thing happened. Pyke’s propagandaworklostitsintensityandhispositionappearedtoshift.Heconfidedinafriend‘histerrorat thethoughtofasuccessfulNaziinvasionofBritain’,giventhathewasaleft-wingJew,andbegantooffloadhispoliticalliterature.ItwasalsoaroundthistimethatPykehadtheideaforPloughandsetabout promoting it with characteristic ardour. In the context of what he had been doing until then, this makes almostnosense. The Party line was clear: Britain and Germany were engaged in an imperialist war; the British proletariatshouldriseupagainsttheBritishbourgeoisieratherthanfighttheGermans.Pyke’sPloughidea flewinthefaceofthis.ItwasasolutiontoamilitaryproblemfacedbytheBritishArmy.Sowhydid Pykepressituponseniorpoliticalandmilitaryfigureswithsuchenthusiasm? This illustrates one of the most powerful contradictions within Geoffrey Pyke. His newfound identificationwithcommunismcouldbeatoddswiththecharacterhehadmadeforhimselfoverthelast four decades. One part of him was internationalist in outlook, radical and all for sweeping, systemic changewhichmightusherinanewworldinformedbyscience.AnothersideofhimwasmoreEnglish,if that is the right word – it was in thrall to Shaw, it was non-conformist, inconsistent and incapable of toeingaparticularline.HefeltthepullofMoscowbutatthesametimehewasdeterminedtotacklethe great problems of his age. What made him unusual was his ability to maintain this internal conflict in balanceratherthansuccumbtoonepartofit.InMay1940thisfoundhiminthebizarrepositionofbeinga communistpropagandistwhowaspromotingaschemetohelpBritaindefeatGermany. Thechalk-sheltercampaignembodiedthisparadox.Itwasapracticalsolutiontoanurgentwartime problem which happened to be taken up by the CPGB. For once both sides of his personality were aligned. Yetevenashebegantopullawayfromhispropagandawork,Pykewaseitherunableorunwillingto divorcehimselffromtheinformalnetworkshehadjoined,andduringthesummerof1940heappearsto have agreed to push for the release of Rünkel and Kamnitzer on behalf of the KPD. At the time it was customary for communists to use ‘British subjects to do work which it might be embarrassing for foreignerstohandle’;wealsoknowthatmostSovietagentsdispatchedtoBritainwereassignedaCPGB member. In this case it seems that they had been assigned a man who ‘stood close to the English Party’, as Kuczynskiputit,ratherthanafullyfledgedmember.Itisanimportantdistinction.Pykewaspreparedto helptheParty,justasthePartyhadhelpedhim,buttemperamentallyhewasunsuitedtofullmembership andneverjoined. Any moral difficulties he might have felt during those early stages of the war vanished after Germany’sinvasionoftheSovietUnionin1941.Atlasthispoliticalconscienceswereunitedinthebattle againstfascism,andhebegantopromotethePloughschemeagain,possiblyontheadviceofRünkel,then workingforPyke. At the time, the USSR desperately needed the British to open a second front against Germany and, given that the Plough scheme was designed to divert German troops away to Norway, it is not inconceivablethatRünkelencouragedPyketohaveanothergoatsellingtheideatotheBritishmilitary.If so,itwouldseemthattheoriginoftheUSandCanadianSpecialForcesliesinasuggestionmadebya Sovietagent. HavingjoinedCombinedOperations,Pykewascandidabouthisdesireforgreatercollaborationwith the Russians – and for this same reason he passed information to Smollett. Just as he never joined the CPGB,Pykedidnotbecomea‘recruitedagent’fortheSovietUnion.Insteadhewasmerelywhatwas knownasa‘confidentialcontact’ofSmollett’sandwasprobablyusedonjustahandfulofoccasions.In thishewasnotalone.FollowingtheGermaninvasionofRussia,Moscowwasdelugedwithintelligence fromBritain.AsDouglasHydeattheDailyWorkerwrote,itpouredin‘from factories and the Forces, from civil servants and scientists. Those who did it were not professional spies, they took big risks in mostcases,receivednopaymentwhateverand,thisisdoublyimportant,didnotseethemselvesasspies andstilllesstraitors.AsPartymemberstheywouldhavefeltthattheywerebeinguntruetothemselves anduntrustworthyofthenameofcommunistiftheyhadnotdoneit.’GeoffreyPykewasoneofthesemen and women – a source of information, but not a spy. The only time he was technically a spy stealing military intelligence from an enemy nation was in 1914 when he slipped into Germany disguised as an AmericanandtriedtosmuggleareportonenemytroopmovementsbacktoLondon. ThoughMI5laterreceivedintelligencetointimatethatPykemighthavebeengivenaPartymissionto carry out while in the United States during 1942, including an intercepted letter to Otto Katz which referredto‘anEnglishprofessorofthenameofPeake’whohadgonetoAmerica‘topushtheCommunist movementthere’,thereisnoevidenceofPykeactuallydoingso.TheSupermancomicstripfeaturinga customisedicebergappearstohavebeenastartlingcoincidence,or,forPyke,acutereminderthatradical militaryideaswerenotthepreserveofmilitaryplanners. Ashiscommunistactivitiestailedoff,MI5’sinterestinhimbubbledover.TheyweretoldthatPyke was a senior Comintern official codenamed ‘Professor P.’, and that he ran communist ‘action propaganda’.Bothallegationswereuntrue.WhilehemighthavesuppliedforeignpresscuttingstoTommy Bell and others, there is no evidence that he ran CPGB action propaganda, or that he undertook any propagandaworkduringhistimeinCombinedOperations.Norwashe‘ProfessorP.’–thoughheappears tohavebeenintouchwithhim. ‘ProfessorP.’wasalmostcertainlythemanPykewasseenhavinglunchwithinKing’sCross:Jürgen Kuczynski.Kuczynski’scovernameincorrespondencebetweenseniorKPDfigureswasoften‘Peter’.He wasanacademic,professorialfigure,so‘ProfessorPeter’and‘ProfessorP.’bothmakesenseascover names;moreover,KuczynskiwasinBerlinwhenProfessorP.was,hewasconnectedtoVarga,andwas knowntobeafinepropagandist. Unawareofthis,MI5’ssuspicionsregardingPykedidnotgoaway,andaslateasApril1945hewas undersurveillanceagain.Thisisareminderofhisuncannyabilitytoattractsuspicion,atraitillustrated so well by Lord Rothschild’s judgement and its emphasis on his ‘erratic’ character. Rothschild’s close friendAnthonyBlunt,thenhaemorrhagingsecretstoMoscow,neverelicitedthesamekindofsuspicion forhedidnotpossessthatunbalancedqualitywhichsomanysawinPyke–anelectric,freneticenergy whichmadehimstandoutinalmostanysituationandmighthavebeenexaggeratedbyAddison’sDisease. There was also his Jewishness, so prominent in MI5 accounts of him – except for Rothschild’s – which for some in the Security Service only added to Pyke’s aura of suspicion. It is interesting that throughouthislifemostofthementobewonoverbyhim–TeddyFalk,NathanIsaacs,J.D.Bernal,Leo Amery,JürgenKuczynski,OscarCox,IsidorLubin,MaxPerutz,HermanMark,JohnCohen–wereeither JewishorofJewishorigin,withthenotableexceptionofMountbatten.Thosewhofoundhimsuspicious ortookagainsthim–theWellingtonianswhochasedhimdownthecorridorsyelling‘JewHunt’,W.S. Hadley,VannevarBush,LordCherwell,theMI5officerswhoworkedonhiscase–tendednottobe. TheEnglishsocietyheinhabitedwasnotexactlyanti-Semitic,butitwasoneinwhichanindividual’s Jewishness could become part of the reason why he or she was disliked. As is the case all over the world,thosewhofeelthattheyhavesomethingtoloseorareinanywayinsecureintheirsocialstanding tendtobemoresusceptibletothisprejudice–whichmightexplainwhyMountbatten,soconfidentofhis aristocraticprovenance,seemedincapableofanti-Semiticsentiment.Thiswasalsoasocietywhichdid notlenditselfeasilytopersonalreinventionandcouldbesuspiciousofthosewhoappearedtodisguise theirsocialorigins.ForsomeMI5officers,manyofwhomdidnothaveJewishfriends,thecombination ofPyke’sJewishappearanceandhisrefinedEnglishmannerwouldexaggerateanyinitialsuspicionsthey mighthavehad. WhilehehelpedtheCommunistPartyduringthefirsttwoyearsofthewarandgaveinformationtoa Sovietagentonatleasttwooccasions,GeoffreyPykewasneitheracommunistnoraRussianspy.There is just one political conversion which makes sense of the last fourteen years of his life: the moment in 1934whenhisanalysisofthesituationinNaziGermanyconvincedhimthatfascismwasthegreatdanger ofhisage. After the war, an American journalist contacted him about the story of Plough. In his letter he describedPykeasan‘inventor’.‘Thisrevealstomethatyouhavegotthestorywrong,’camethereply.‘I amnotintheleastinterestedininventing.Ididnotcare2d.whatsortofmachinewoulddotheworkto giveusmasteryofthesnows.ForallIcaredthethingcouldhoplikeakangaroo.’Hedidnotseehimself asaninventor.Hedidnotseehimselfasacommunist.‘Iamprimarilyananti-fascist.’ EPILOGUE,OR,HOWTOTHINKLIKEAGENIUS ‘I’dlikeeverythingconcerningmetobedestroyedandtobeforgottenasifI’dneverlived,’wrotePykein hisfinallettertohisson.YetDavidPykechosetokeephisfather’spapers.Evenifhehadthrownthem away, it would have been impossible to delete Geoffrey Pyke’s imprint on the world, to undo the conversations,speeches,articlesandinventions,aswellastheuniverseofideaswhichhehadsunginto being during his fifty-four years, and which had covered such an astonishing range. Pyke’s Zelig-like journey through the early twentieth century encompassed a landscape of different fields – from the molecularconstitutionoficethroughtoGallupSurveys,exoticinvestmentmodelsandtheapplicationof Freudianpsychoanalysistokindergartendesign.HewouldtackletheproblemofEuropeananti-Semitism withthesameimaginative,scientificrigourasthequestionofhowtoadaptamotorcyclesidecarforthe SpanishRepublicans.Alsohehadtheremarkableabilitytoconceivecomplextechnicalideasinspiteof havingnoscientifictraining.Whatisinterestingtodayistoseehowhisvariousideashaveaged,andthe extenttowhichhewasaheadofhistime. Pyke’s work on NHS recruitment was included by John Cohen in a Minority Report that went out under both their names and has been described recently as ‘one of the most radical critiques of nurse recruitmentandeducation’.ItforeshadowedmanyoftheproblemswhichwouldplaguetheNHSoverthe followingdecades. His letters to The Times about the government’s decision not to donate to UNICEF or abolish the deathpenaltywerenolessprescient.Thelatterwasabolishedin1965,andtodaytheBritishgovernment givesroughly0.7percentoftheGrossNationalIncomeinforeignaidandtoorganisationslikeUNICEF. His hopes for pedal-powered devices and, as he rather clunkily put it, ‘the utilisation of musclepower’ are no less relevant today as energy prices soar, along with levels of obesity. Now there are charities and companies which adapt bicycles to power everything from water pumps to threshers, grinders, cinemas, kettles and even laptops. There is also a version of Pyke’s cyclo-tractor in use, admittedly not the farm vehicle that Pyke had in mind but a pedal-powered bar in which you and your friendscancycledownthestreetwhilegettingdrunk. HisdiscoveryofPykreteprovedtobeasignificantdevelopmentinourunderstandingofice,andfor Professor Mark the results of the Habbakuk experiments ‘have been put to good use ever since in all permanentconstructions(roads,airstrips,bridges,andhabitats)inArcticandAntarcticregions.’While theideaofusingPykretetobuildanenormousberg-shiphascapturedmanypeople’simaginations–there hasbeenaradioplayonthesubject,aswellasonebookandmanytelevisiondocumentaries–todatethis shiphasnotbeenbuilt.Yetifthepriceofsteeleveragainbecomesprohibitivelyhigh,asitwasduringthe war,wemayyetseeberg-shipsmovingcargoaroundtheworld. The Weasel tracked carrier, which emerged from the Plough proposal, was later used at the South PoleandinCanada’sNorthwesternTerritoriesforscientificresearchandmineralprospecting. Asweknow,theFirstSpecialServiceForce,whichalsoemergedfromPlough,laterevolvedintothe CanadianandUSSpecialForces. Pyke’sideaforanunderwateroilpipeline,PLUTO,whichhehadfirstproposedin1934,hassince beenreplicatedallovertheworld. The pioneering concept behind Voluntary Industrial Aid for Spain of organising groups of factory workerstoproducematerialaidintheirsparetimeremainslargelyuntouched,andinBritaintodaythere arenocharitiesusingthismodel,possiblyforasimilarreasontotheonePykeencounteredatthetime:the unionswouldnotstandforit. TheprinciplebehindPyke’s1936suggestionofan‘anthropologyofourselves’,whichresultedinthe Mass Observation movement, has since become an accepted and important tool in the way we analyse Britishsociety.TheOfficeforNationalStatisticscollectsadizzyingrangeofdataonhowwelive,while the British Social Attitudes survey, among others, gauges our attitudes to major political and cultural questionsjustasPykehadonceproposed. Adecadeafterhebegantoraisemoneyforaninstitutedesignedtoeradicateanti-SemitismfromNazi Germany, lest there be a genocide on the scale of what had happened to the Armenians in Turkey, the horror of the Nazi Holocaust became clear. Sixty-six years later the Pears Institute for the Study of Antisemitism opened in Britain, at Birkbeck College, University of London, with aims similar to the organisationwhichhadbeenonceproposedbyPyke. ThelegacyofMaltingHouseSchoolhassincebeendescribedas‘outofallproportiontoitsthreeyearlifespanandthelimitednumbersofpupilswithwhichitdealt’.ForPykeitsgreatachievementwas theroleitplayedinraisinghisson,David,whocouldlaterreflectthat‘oneofthefactorsofmylifehas beenadistinctabsenceofrevelations.Peopleusuallyfindthatsomeadultexperienceawakensthemtoan aspect of life previously closed to them; I have never had that. Everything was always open to me.’ Elsewhere it has been suggested that Malting House ‘played a key role in contesting and reconfiguring understandingsofthe“nature”oftheEnglishchild’.Byrecordinginsuchminutedetailhowthechildren reactedtothisunfetteredexistencePykeproducedalongitudinalstudyofenormousvalue.Again,manyof theschool’sunderlyingprinciplesbecamewidelyacceptedineducationaltheoryafterhisdeath. Yet the strand of Pyke’s thought which has aged better than perhaps any other is one not easily associatedwithaparticularperiodofhislife–itiswhathesaidandwroteaboutinnovation.Inventing radicalideaswashismetier.Inthemillionsofwordshewroteduringhislifehewasathismostlucidon the history of stunningly original ideas and, as he told Mountbatten and others, he planned to write a historyofHabbakuktoserve‘asaserioussociologicalstudyoftheDynamicsofInnovationinourtime’. Rightuptohisdeathhewasgatheringmaterialforthisbook,focusingonwhereradicalideascamefrom andwhysomanyfellonstonyground.‘Shouldthiscountrygotowaragainitmightbeaswellthatsuch studiesshouldexistandhavebeenabsorbedbyboththepublicandtheofficialmind.’Thisbookwasto bethelastwordoninnovation,anexplorationofradicalideaswrittenbyamanwhohadbeendescribed repeatedlyasabrilliantproblem-solver.Itwouldbeaneverymanguidetothinkinglikeagenius–forhe believedthatanyonecouldthinkashedid. ‘WhatmadePykesoextraordinary,’ranhisobituaryinTimemagazine,‘washisconsistentbeliefthat ahumanbeingcouldreasonhiswaythroughanyproblem.ThatbelieframmedGeoffreyPyke’sbaldhead into–andsometimesthrough–onestonewallafteranother.’Butlikesomanybooksthataredescribedat length by their author before being written, this one never materialised. We can still imagine what it wouldhavecontained.IfyoulookatthewayPykeapproachedproblemsduringhislife,whetheritwas gettingoutofRuhlebenorwinningtheBattleoftheAtlantic,thereareclearpatternsthatemerge.Rather thanwaitingformomentsofdivineinspirationPykehadarobustproblem-solvingtechnique.Hismethod for coming up with radical new ideas can be broken down into a series of stages. They go roughly as follows: APykeanGuidetoInnovation His first step, simple as it may sound, was to be adventurous. Adventurousness could be defined as ‘a readiness to make a fool of oneself’ – something he called ‘the first duty of a citizen’. He lived by Dostoyevsky’smaximthat‘thecleverestofall,inmyopinion,isthemanwhocallshimselfafoolatleast onceamonth’.Anymistakesyoumadewere‘thesocialandpurposiveequivalentofNature’smutations’, withoutwhichtherecanbenoprogress.Inotherwords,tobeadventurousonemustalsobepreparedto looksillyorbelaughedatandthatrequirescourage.Withoutthisitisalmostimpossibletocomeupwith atrulyradicalidea. The next step followed on from the first. A by-product of being intellectually adventurous was to developamorescepticalattitudetowhatyouweretold.Pyketrainedhimselftoquestionacceptedtruths, andtokeepdoingsountilhehadfoundtheonewhichdidnotringtrue–fortherewasalwaysatleastone. ‘Itiseasiertosolveaproblemthanitistospotwhatistheproblem(asthewholehistoryofscienceand technology shows). Almost any fool can solve a problem and quite a number do. To detect the right problem–atleastsoIhavefound–requireswhatWellscallsthedailyagonyofscrutinisingaccepted facts.’ Challenging everything like this was not just a ‘daily agony’ but a form of impertinence. In Ruhleben it felt rude to question the accepted fact that nobody could escape – rude but essential. ‘My technique,whoseresultssometimesgivemeaspuriousappearanceofbrilliance,consistsofnothingmore thanhavingenoughintellectualcouragetothinkintermswhichoursocialenvironmenthasdecidedare nonsenseandtoseeifafterallourepochisright...ineveryparticular.Itisnot.Andthatisallthereis inthetrick.AndIcanteachanyoneyoungenoughinhearttodothesame.’ Oncethis‘dailyagony’hadprovidedhimwithaninterestingproblem,Pykewouldpausetorefineit. Thiswasakeystep,forthewordingofthequestionhadtoberight.Heoftenfoundthattinyadjustmentsto theformulationofaproblemcouldunlockatorrentoffreshideas.Hegotnowherebyaskinghimselfwhat disguiseheandFalkshouldadopttogetfromRuhlebentoLondonundetected;insteadthequestionwas howtheywouldliketocomeacrossintheeyesofthosetheyencountered.‘Thecorrectformulationofa problemismorethanhalfwaytoitssolution,’heinsisted.‘Ifanybodysayshehasnothingtosayitonly meansthattheproblemhasbeenputtohiminappropriately.’ Havingrefinedthequestion,Pykewouldmoveontothenextstage–research–whichsawhimhead offintwodifferentdirections.Hewouldminethepastforhistoricalanalogiesandlostsolutions,forwe liveinawrittenculturethatencouragesforgetfulness.Yethewouldalsosearchforscrapsofinformation and inspiration in the world around him, scouring newspapers, journals, films, posters, statistics and surveys,aswellastheconversationshehad.‘Oneofmyideas[...]camefromamusichallsongwitha line“TheBombthatFoundItsOwnWayHome.”’Inasimilarsense,hebelievedincarryingoutsmallscale experiments to learn about the problem in hand. His guiding principle here was never to limit researchtoasinglefield,whichexplainsthebewilderingrangeofinfluencesbehindtheMaltingHouse School, for example, from Freud and Rousseau to Montessori, Armstrong and his own childhood. ‘We cannottellwheredataandideaswillcomefrom,ortowhomtheywillbesignificant.’Insteadhetaught himself to look for correlations everywhere. ‘EVERYTHING IS IRRELEVANT TILL CORRELATED WITH SOMETHING ELSE.’ Identifying those correlations ‘is not a question of ability, but of freemindedness’. Sometimesthisresearchwouldprovidehimwithasolutionandtherewasnoneedtogoanyfurther. But for trickier problems Pyke would reach for his ‘Auto-Socratic’ technique in which he imagined a dialoguebetweentwovoices–bestdescribedasawildlyinventiveteenagerandapolitepsychiatrist. Theteenagerrepresentsfantasy,thepsychiatristisreality.Oneproposes–andtakesthingstoanextreme –whiletheotherscrutinises–anddoessograciously.Thesobervoiceofrealitydoesnotshootdown ideas for the sake of it but allows the voice of fantasy to finish each train of thought. The dialogue betweenthetwobeginsalwayswiththepatientpresentingtheprobleminitsmostpared-downform,after whichtheconversationferretsoffunderitsownmomentumuntilitproduceseitherasubjectforfurther researchorasolution. Thereweretimeswhenthistechniquewas‘Auto-Shavian’asmuchasAuto-Socratic,suchwasPyke’s love of Bernard Shaw’s paradoxes and his habit of spinning round every truism, question or statement. Pyke, too, had a pathological weakness for reversal. The Nazis set up an institute to study the Jewish Question;asaJewhewouldstudytheNaziQuestion.WheninarushtogettoBerlin,hetooktheslowest train possible. To inflict the greatest damage on an enemy in occupied territory he urged that it be occupiedmorefully.IfforatleastoneofhiscriticsatOSRDPyke‘wouldratherwageafutilecampaign with mathematical or psychological elegance than win the war by recourse to vulgar or commonplace weapons or strategems’, more often than not these reversals provided Pyke with a way out of any intellectualdead-end. Another defining element of Pyke’s technique was his determination never to become attached to a tentativesolution.AshehadlearntwithPloughandHabbakuk,onemustalwaysbereadytotry,fail,learn and try again as soon as possible. He also learnt repeatedly and painfully that all innovations must encounterresistance.AsheoncetoldMountbatten,hisexperienceofsuggestingnewideashadbeen‘to beheartilykickedinthepants’.Thetimesinhislifewhenhewasmostsuccessfulwerethosewhenhe anticipatedwheretheresistancetohisideawouldlie. After the war, Pyke complained to Michael Foot, the future Labour Party leader, that ‘the sport of shooting down ideas has come to be a substitute for the amusement of shooting down grouse and partridges’.Anideamightalsobeshotdownbecauseitwasnogood.Itcouldbethatitthreatenedthe prestige, earning power or autonomy of an individual or an institution. The fear of its unintended consequences, or the suspicion that its benefits had been exaggerated, had the ability to turn people against it. Incomprehension was another reason why some of Pyke’s most radical ideas met with resistance.Atothertimestheoppositionmightstemfromapersonaldislikeofthescheme’sauthor. But for Pyke, new ideas were usually dismissed because they threatened a tradition or habit. Sometimeshewasright.Welookforconsistencyinoursurroundingsandalltoooftenwillturnagainstan innovationnotasaresultofalevel-headedassessmentbutpurelybecauseofitsdisruptivenature. TowardstheendofhislifePykebegantoappreciatethattherewerestepshecouldtaketoprotecthis ideas from this kind of opposition, and on those happy occasions when he was successful it was often becausehehadcommunicatedaclearnarrativeaboutwhathisnewideawasandwhyitwassouseful. Hewouldcontrasttheconsequencesofdevelopingitwithinaction.WhenconvincingthoseinCombined Operations to take on Plough, he recognised that resistance might be directed against the author of the conceptasmuchastheconceptitself,soheworkedhardatpersonallywinningovertheofficershespoke to. When trying to improve the image of Malting House he understood the importance of showing the radicalnewideasitembodiedinaction,sohecommissionedafilmabouttheschool.Thedemonstration ofPykretewhichtookplaceinChurchill’sbathandinQuebecdidmorethananythingelsetoconvince seniorpoliticalandmilitaryfiguresthatHabbakukcouldwork(thoughneitherwashisidea).Butperhaps the most important thing Pyke did when trying to introduce a strange, disruptive idea like Habbakuk or Plough,thereasonwhyhegotasfarashedid,wasthathewonoverpowerfulindividualsupporters. In today’s jargon these are sometimes called ‘early adopters’. It is easy to spot a potential early adopterinthetopbrassofanyinstitution:heorshewillbethepersonwholikestotakerisksorprides themselvesonbeingoutspoken.OncePykehadidentifiedanearlyadoptertherewerevarioustrickshe used to win them over. He would avoid sending over a written summary of his idea before meeting in person.Oncehehadbeengrantedanaudiencehewoulddohisbesttoprovokethemandmakethemlaugh, forwebecomemoreimpulsivewheninagoodmood.Usuallyhetoldthemthatheonlywantedseveral minutesoftheirtime,orthattheyneedreadnomorethanthefirstfewpagesofhisproposal.Hewould appealtotheircuriositybypresentingtheideaasastorywithabeginning,middleandendand,likeany skilledstoryteller,hetriedtovarythescalebymovingabouthistoricallyandrememberingtozoomout andin.Hewouldfindoutabouttheinterestsofthisearlyadopterandplaytotheminhispitch.Where possible he would also appeal to their vanity by implying that they were the only ones with the imagination and foresight to recognise the Promethean brilliance of his new idea. As he did with Mountbatten so often, Pyke tried to extend the ownership of an idea by leaving elements of the plan unfinished.InthiswayadditionaldetailsmightbeprovidedbyMountbattenand,oncehehadbeguntofill insomeofthegaps,Pykewouldrefertotheproposalas‘ouridea’.Hewouldalsostressthathisradical solutionwasnotthefinishedoneandthatothersneededtocomein–allofwhichmadehisideasappear lessdogmaticorintimidating. The final stage of Geoffrey Pyke’s problem-solving technique was to carry out a post-mortem. He wouldaskhimselfiftherewerelessonstobetakenfromhislatestattempttobringanewideaintothe world.Increasingly,towardstheendofhislife,thiswaswherehewentwrong. When casting his eye back over an unsuccessful campaign he was too quick to blame its failure on society’sfearofchange.Thereweretimes,asDonaldTyermansuggested,that‘evenifyouhadyourway and got a community open to innovation, there would still be the problem of Pyke to solve’. Yet to imaginePykewithout‘theproblemofPyke’isacounter-factualtoofar.The‘problemofPyke’represents the same disequilibrium that drove him on with the kind of relentless momentum which is so often manifestedinthosewholoseaparentatayoungage. InmanywaystheshapeofhispersonalitywassetbytheendoftheFirstWorldWar,afterwhichhe emerged as a young man suffering from an undiagnosed condition, possibly Addison’s Disease, who carriedthescarsofanabusivechildhoodandthecomplexofhavingsurvivedawarinwhichhedidnot fight–bothbecausehehadescapedfromimprisonmentandwasdeemedmedicallyunfitforservice.He had also written a best-selling book, smuggled himself into Germany, become an amateur spy, faced executioninsolitaryconfinement,convertedtosocialismandescapedfromaGermandetentioncamp.All thisbytheageoftwenty-four. Thisuniqueandunlikelysetofexperienceschangedhisunderstandingofwhatwaspossibleandwhy change did not happen sooner. Many of us at a similar age might test the boundaries of what we can achievebeforeundergoingarealignmentofsorts.Pykeneverexperiencedthatadjustment.Heremainedin this youthful frame of mind for the rest of his life, unyielding in his determination that no question was beyondhim,resistancetonewideaswassociallyinheritedandthateachofuscansolveanyproblemwe like. Moreover, we have a duty to do so. He was intelligent and comfortable with paradox, and in the English society he inhabited his eccentricities were tolerated – indeed, his character is at times a reflectionofthisabidingEnglishtoleranceforcolourfulnonconformists. ‘PykeisjustapureEnglishfreak,’heimaginedMountbattentellingGeneralMarshall(inaletterPyke hadsenttoMountbatten).‘Ofcourse,mostofourfreaksarenogood.Butaboutoneinathousandisthe goods. You know, just like you might have to open a thousand oysters before you get one with a pearl. ThoughPykeisnotanoyster.Foryoucan’tshuthimup.’HewarmedtohisthemeoftheEnglishandtheir oddballs:‘Wehaveaverysoundmethodfortestingtheirsenseofthepractical.Iftheyhavegotenough sensetoforcetheirwaythroughallthebarriersofofficialdomtothepeopleatthetop,thentheremustbe somethingtothem’. This is a revealing line. It is one of the only times we are given a glimpse of Pyke’s ambition. He knewthathewasunusual,thatsomesawhimasa‘freak’,buthewasdesperatetoprovehisworthby havinghisideastakenupatthehighestlevel. DuringtheSecondWorldWarthissingularEnglishmanrealisedhisdreambyforcinghimselfandhis ideasthroughtotheverytop.Inthefaceofthefascistthreatheflourished,buttherewasonlysomuchhe coulddoalone.Throughouthislifehismostradicalideasdependedonthesupportofothers,andhisrole wassimplytoproposetheseideas.‘IhavetobehaveratherlikeNature,’heoncewrote,‘throwingupa hundredmillionpollenonthechancethatonemaydoitsduty.’Ofcoursehisgreatestandmostradical ideawasthateachofuscoulddothesameourselves. NOTES Aselectbibliographycanbefoundathenryhemming.com. Wherenocollectionisindicated,theitemcanbefoundintheGeoffreyPykeArchive,housedatthetimeofpublicationwithJanetPyke. ‘ADM’,‘B’,‘BT’,‘CAB’,‘DEFE’and‘KV’–NationalArchives,Kew ‘AMEL’–ChurchillArchivesCentre,Cambridge ‘CherwellPapers’–NuffieldCollege,Oxford ‘FDR’–FranklinD.RooseveltLibrary ‘JDBPapers’–CambridgeUniversityLibrary ‘L.H.MyersPapers’–EtonCollegeLibrary ‘MB1’–MountbattenPapers,UniversityofSouthampton ‘NRCC’–NationalResearchCouncilofCanada ‘RamseyPapers’–King’sCollegeModernArchivesCentre,Cambridge ‘RUH’–LiddleCollection,LeedsUniversity ‘SAPMO-BArch’–FoundationArchivesofPartiesandMassOrganisationsoftheGDRintheFederalArchives(SAPMO),Bundesarchiv, Berlin v epigraph:Socrates,DefenceofSocrates,30d–31a,transl.DavidGallop,fromPlato,DefenceofSocrates,Euthyphro,andCrito (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress),1997,p.45 Introduction 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 ‘onlyunoriginalthing’:‘Everybody’sConscience’,Time,8March1948 ‘oneofthemostoriginal’:‘MrGeoffreyPyke’,TheTimes,26February1948 ‘Pyke’sgenius’:L.L.Whyte,TheListener,30September1948 ‘NorthFace’:JohnCohen,‘GeoffreyPyke:ManofIdeas’,NewScientist,23July1981,p.246 ‘thesortofman’:DavidLampe,Pyke:TheUnknownGenius(London:EvansBrothers),1959,p.10 ‘right-handmen’:‘PykeofHabbakuk’,EveningStandard,24February1948 ‘immensenaturaldignity’:Cohen,‘GeoffreyPyke:ManofIdeas’,p.246 ‘Russianprinceling’:CedricHentschel,‘GeoffreyPyke’,LessSimpleMeasures(Berkeley,Gloucestershire:Garratt),2002,p.44 ‘Byzantineicon’:EliasCanetti,PartyintheBlitz(London:Harvill),transl.MichaelHofmann,2005,p.181 ‘concealedtruth’:GPNotebook,9October1941 ‘voiceofConscience’:OscarCoxtoHarryHopkins,13November1942 HowtoBecomeaWarCorrespondent 11 13 13 14 15 15 17 17 ‘abilities...clever’:ReginaldDraketoR.Banfield,4July1916,101570/MI5/G,KV2/3038 deathoffather:Cohen,‘GeoffreyPyke:ManofIdeas’,p.246 ‘mostamazingmeetings’:CambridgeMagazine,6June1914,vol3,no.25,p.708 ‘spellbound...everyword’:Ibid. ‘logjam’:Lampe,Pyke:TheUnknownGenius,p.19 ‘firmbeliever’:GeoffreyPyke,ToRuhleben–AndBack(NewYork:CollinsLibrary/McSweeney’s),2002,p.31 Reuterscrisis:DonaldRead,ThePowerofNews:TheHistoryofReuters(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress),1999,p.1 Pyke’scareerasaReuterscorrespondent:Thisepisodeisnotatallwelldocumented–allReuterstelegramsfromthisperiodwere 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 20 20–1 21 21 22 22 23 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 33 33–4 34 35 36 36 36 37 37 39 40 40 41–2 pulpedafterthewar,andasaStringCorrespondentPykewouldnothavebeenlistedasaReutersmemberofstaff.Butitisunlikely thatPykewouldhavemadesuchaclaimandputitinprint,givenhoweasyitwouldbeforReuterstodisputeit. ‘Reuters’specialcorrespondent’:TheManchesterGuardian,26July1915,p.4;TheScotsman,26July1915,p.8 ‘Athens...intercourse’:GeoffreyPyke,TheFortnightlyReview,1January1916,p.35 ‘pointedofquestions’:Ibid.,p.38 ‘fourGermandestroyers’:UnitedStatesNavalInstitute,Proceedings,ed.E.J.King,(Annapolis:USNavalInstitute),1914,vol.40, p.1566 ‘seedyindividual’:BasilThomsontoReginaldDrake,26June1916,KV2/3038 noBritishcorrespondents:JamesW.Gerard,MyFourYearsinGermany(London:HodderandStoughton),1917,p.94 ‘desire...Germany’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,pp.xiii-xiv ‘censorship’:DailyChronicle,7August1914 ‘quickly,please’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.1 ‘crownofambition’:PhilipGibbs,AdventuresinJournalism(London:Heinemann),1923,p.179 ‘absolutelydetermined’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.4 ‘procession...fun’:PhilipGibbs,TheWarDispatches(London:AnthonyGibbsandPhillipsandTimesPress),1964,p.4 ‘nocorrespondentsinBerlin’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.5 ‘Gloryofglory’:Ibid. ‘finevoice’:‘TheUnionSociety’,TheCambridgeReview,27Feb1913,vol.34,no.852,p.320 ‘goodelocutionist’:CambridgeMagazine,18October1913 ‘pleasingsong’:Ibid.,17May1913 ‘sparemoments’:‘UnionNotes’,TheGranta,10May1913,vol.26,no.592,p.319 ‘brilliant...ill-balanced’:BasilThomsontoReginaldDrake,26June1916,KV2/3038 Telegraphscoop:PhillipKnightley,TheFirstCasualty(London:Quartet),1978,p.87 ‘someknewalittle’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.6 ‘hotiron’:Ibid.,p.63 ‘expectingEnglishjournalists’:Ibid.,p.5 ‘correctformulation’:GPtoPalmerPutnam,USNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,RecordsoftheOSRD,Division12, ProjectRecords1940–45,OD-65 USconsulates:Gerard,MyFourYears,p.96 birthcertificatefee:BankruptcyHearingNo.243of1928,‘GeoffreyNathanielPyke’,BT226/4520 customsshed:EdwardLyellFox,BehindtheScenesinWarringGermany(NewYork:McBride,NastandCo.),1915 ‘Thepeopleknow’:QuotedinDeBeaufort,BehindtheGermanVeil(London:Hutchinson),1917,p.27 ‘peoplewereseized’:Gerard,MyFourYearsinGermany,p.95 ‘Hewillpunish’:PeterEnglund,TheBeautyandtheSorrow(London:Profile),2012,Kindlelocation273 ‘divorced...breath’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.9 ‘spitting’:Ibid.,p.9 ‘Achso’:Ibid.,p.10 ‘horriblyuncertain’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.13 ‘Severaltimes’:Ibid. ‘SuddenlyIheard’:Ibid.,p.14 ‘Isaw...Bummelzug’:Ibid.,p.19 Berlin: Modris Eksteins, Rites of Spring (London: Papermac), 2000, p. 83 with reference to James Steakley, The Homosexual EmancipationMovementinGermany(NewYork:Arno),1975,pp.24–27 ‘Thefirstthing’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.21 ‘Ilistened’:Ibid.,p.22 ‘Donotsay“Yes”’:DeBeaufort,BehindtheGermanVeil,p.49 ‘denoflions’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.28 ‘packed...music’:Ibid.,p.34 ‘thebooms...paper’:Ibid.,p.7 ‘Itwouldnotbelong’:Ibid.,p.48 ‘Velazquez’:Ibid.,p.50 ‘infantilesparring’:Ibid.,p.51 ‘OutsideIcouldhear’:Ibid.,pp.66–67 HowtoEscape 44 44 44–5 46 47 47 47 47 48 48 48 48 48 48 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 53 53 54 54 54 54–5 55 56 56 56 56–7 57 ‘terriblemistake’:E.M.Falk,‘MyExperiencesasaPrisonerofWarinGermany,andHowIEscaped’,Blackwood’sMagazine, No.1203,Vol.199,p.4 ‘specimens’:Ibid.,p.11 ‘Therewerewhites...brothel’:Ibid.,p.10 ‘hopelessdepression’:Ibid. ‘Iwouldlie’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.113 ‘loftvibrate’:Ibid.,p.123 ‘Allnightlong’:Ibid.,p.124 ‘finallyvomiting’:Ibid.,p.xv ‘onlyconnection’:Ibid.,p.71 ‘tothinktoomuch’:FyodorDostoyevsky,NotesfromUnderground&TheDouble, transl. Constance Garnett (Digireads), 2008, Chapter2 ‘notthemonths’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.61 ‘Icouldfeel’:Ibid.,p.56 ‘Icouldalmosthear’:Ibid.,p.76 ‘sarcasmofaVoltaire’:Ibid.,p.100 ‘withthatroll’:Ibid.,p.76 ‘realhunger’:Ibid.,p.74 ‘rootedobjection’:Ibid.,p.80 ‘sinkingfast...creature’:Ibid.,p.99 Modern studies: See John J. Gibbons, Nicholas de B. Katzenbach, Confronting Confinement, The Commission on Safety and AbuseinAmerica’sPrisons,June2006,accessedatwww.vera.orgon17August2012 ‘mentalbreakdown’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.17 ‘jollyevenings’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.75 ‘movedinthematter’:ReginaldDraketoR.Banfield,4July1916,101570/MI5/G,KV2/3038 ‘owedmyliberation’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.7 ‘givenaway’: M. L. Ettinghausen, ‘Some Extracts from the Memoirs of an Octogenarian Jewish Bookseller’, Transactions: The JewishHistoricalSocietyofEngland(London:UniversityCollege),vol.21,1968,p.194 EdwardLyellFox:ThomasBoghart,SpiesoftheKaiser(London:PalgraveMacmillan),2004,p.63 American ambassador intervened: Special Branch would reach a similar conclusion in 1916: ‘the American Ambassador was invokedtosavehis[Pyke’s]lifeifhehadbeenarrestedasaspy.’BasilThomsontoReginaldDrake,26June1916,KV2/3038 ‘overgrown...observant’:Falk,‘MyExperiences,p.17 ‘pessimistandcynic’: E. M. Falk, ‘My Experiences During the Great War 1914–1918 as Published in BlackwoodsMagazine in January1915withsomeAdditions’,GB206,RUH22,p.25 ‘dirtieststable’:IsraelCohen,TheRuhlebenPrisonCamp(London:Methuen),1917,p.46 ‘recoiled...shudder’:Ibid.,p.50 ‘atmosphere...mud’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,pp.122–123 ‘itslittlewindows’:Cohen,TheRuhlebenPrisonCamp,p.50 ‘doctor’smentality’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.128 ‘humankindness’:Ibid.,p.145 eraofdaringgetaways:GPNotebook,8August1941 ‘Beforeaproblem’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 ‘becomesogarrulous’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.131 ‘bankholidaycrowd’:Ibid.,p.116 ‘verygloomy’:Ibid.,p.134 ‘insanebelief’:Ibid.,p.133 ‘essentiallyEnglish’:Falk,‘MyExperiences...withsomeAdditions’,p.25 ‘Wewereboth...gotout?’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,pp.134–135 ‘madenosign’:Ibid.,p.136 ‘alittleshy’:Ibid.,p.137 ‘Byadmitting’:Ibid. ‘artificiallycalm’:Ibid.,p.170 ‘Inviewofthedanger’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.18 57 57 57 58 58 59 60 62 62 62 63 63 63 63 64 64 64 64 64 65 65 65 66 ‘infinitelygreater’:Ibid.,p.19 ‘Farmorecourage’:GPNotebook,8August1941 ‘a strong presentiment’: Wallace Ellison, ‘My First Escape from Ruhleben’, accessed at http://www.greatwardifferent.com/Great_War/Great_War_Great_Escapes/Great_War_Great_Escapes_02.htm on 3 November 2011 ‘behaved...caddishly’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.172 ‘makeitsafe’:GPNotebook,8August1941 ‘anaturalcalm’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.170 ‘out-manoeuvring’:Ibid.,p.142 ‘rattlingwires’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.18 ‘walkedon’:Ibid.,p.19 ‘dependedonlifting’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.173 exercisesforaweakheart:Ibid. ‘elbowsachingandbrowswet’:Ibid. ‘positivegenius’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.18 ‘sheerhardthinking’:Falk,‘MyExperiences...withsomeAdditions’,p.28 ‘twigsunderfoot’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.19 thefirstfence:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.174 ‘Seeinghimindifficulty’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.20 thethirdfence:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.174 ‘greatdealofdifficulty’:Ibid.,p.175 heartthumping:Ibid. ‘Ihadgottothetop’:Ibid.,p.176 ‘Wasitaconstable?’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.20 ‘rarebeatitudes’:DraftwritteninearlyOctober41,GPNotebook HowtoBecomeInvisible 68 69 69 70 73 73 73 74 74 74 75 76 76 77 77 78 78 78–9 79 79 80 80 81 82 83 83 83 ‘Irepeated’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.142 ‘goforward’:Ibid.,p.141 ‘somethingutterly...impossible’:Ibid.,p.145 ‘greatcharmaboutArsène’:Ibid. ‘Everythinglookeddifferent’:Ibid.,p.180 ‘BeforePykecould’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.21 ‘mypocketbook’:Ibid.,p.18 ‘great,bigfatthings’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.181 ‘whetherhehadanynotion’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,pp.21–22 ‘hotcoals’:Ibid.,p.22 BlumenthalandHerrReferendar:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.166 valleysnearGoslar:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.22 ‘abrightsun’:Ibid.,p.23 forestdeserted:Falk,‘MyExperiences...withsomeAdditions’,p.27 ‘Fugitivespleasenote’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.26 ‘Ilackedthenerve’:Falk,‘MyExperiences...withsomeAdditions’,p.40 ‘extremelyaddicted’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.181 ‘Burglary...catchyou’:Ibid.,pp.184–185 ‘RedIndiandictum’:Ibid.,p.184 ‘Insuavetones’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.29 ‘Howourboots’:Ibid.,p.26 ‘suicidal,inview’:Ibid.,p.27 ‘abuxomdame’:Ibid. ‘Madam,inthesedays’:Ibid.,pp.27–28 ‘thathuntedfeeling’:Falk,‘MyExperiences...withsomeAdditions’,p.39 ‘respectivemerits’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.30 factorydescription:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.201 84 84 84 85 85 85 85–6 86 87 88 89 89 90 90 91 92 92 94–7 97 ‘endofourjourney’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.29 ‘Getyourlegsin’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.202 ‘nothingexciting’:Ibid. ‘frightfulPrussian’:Ibid. ‘SectionA’:Ibid.,p.203 ‘boredyoungfarmer’:Ibid. ‘theonewish’:Ibid.,p.206 ‘suddenlypitched’and‘Ishallneverforget’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.31andE.M.Falk,undatedletter,GB206,RUH22,p.5 ‘formysightandears’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.209 ‘Insteadofturning’:Ibid.,p.212 ‘untilafullstopisreached’:Ibid.,p.213 ‘Iached’:Ibid. ‘thatred-roofedcottage’:Ibid.,p.246 ‘Howdidyougetthrough’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.32 ‘TohimIfeel’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.xv ‘thejoyofthatfirstbath’:Falk,‘MyExperiences’,p.32 ‘baseofGermanagents’:Falk,‘MyExperiences...withsomeAdditions’, newspaper headlines: The story even made it to New Zealand and Australia: ‘Escapees from Prison Camp’, Hawera and NormanbyStar, 26 July 1915; ‘Escapees from Germany, Sensational Adventures’, Poverty Bay Herald, 27 July 1915; ‘Escape fromPrison,WonderfulExploitofThreeEnglishmen,AWalkThroughGermany’,AshburtonGuardian,27July1915 GP and Falk meet Asquith: We know from Teddy Falk’s obituary that he met Asquith, and it is reasonable to assume that Pyke wouldhavebeeninvitedtoDowningStreetaswell.FalkObituary,undated,GB206,RUH22 PykeHunt,Part1 99 100 100 100 101 101 102 102 102 102 102 102 103 103 104 104 104 104 105 105 105 106 106 106 Kell’swar:ChristopherAndrew,DefenceoftheRealm(London:Penguin),2010,p.29 Cambridgepopulation: Christopher N. L. Brooke, A History of the University of Cambridge, vol. IV, 1870–1990 (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress),1993,p.331 GPmindwandering:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.xvi ‘notadesirable’:CharlesHollandquotedinLeonardDunningtoVernonKell,13December1915,KV2/3038 ‘neitherincludednor’:‘GeoffreyPyke:ThrillingStoryofHisEscapefromRuhleben’,CambridgeDailyNews,9December1915 ‘Youmustremember’:A.J.P.Taylor,TheTroubleMakers(London:Penguin),1957,p.134 casepassestoMO5(g):LeonardDunningtoVernonKell,13December1915,KV2/3038/62527 warrantforGP’spost:VernonKelltoCharlesHolland,17December1915,KV2/3038/62527 ‘unsettledsort’:CharlesHollandtoVernonKell,19December1915,KV2/3038/63757 letters reveal nothing: The only letter kept by MI5 came from Clara Melchior, in Copenhagen, who had taken issue with a point madebyPykeaFortnightlyarticle.MelchiorwasauthorofFamilienminder(Copenhagen,1915),andmayhavetakenexception toPyke’sclaimthat60,000menguardedtheKielCanal ‘manoeuvring,single-handed’:ReginaldDraketoChiefConstable,CountyConstabulary,Bodmin,22June1916,KV2/3038 ‘thedayheleft’:Ibid. ‘movementsandassociates’:Ibid. ‘awkwardgaps’:Ibid. ‘dirtydog’:LettertoAdmiralW.Reginald‘Blinker’Hall,quotedinAndrew,DefenceoftheRealm,p.82 ‘whencehedisappeared’:ReginaldDraketoBasilThomson,22June1916,KV2/3038 ‘movementsofaboat’:ItispossiblethathewastippedoffbytheyoungMI5officerHinchleyCooke,lateranMI5interrogator,who was in Falmouth at the time keeping an eye on the flow of German women passing through Falmouth to Holland. Report from DistrictIntelligenceDirector‘onmovementsofaboatownedbyPIKE’,22June1916,KV2/3038 ‘boastsofhaving’:BasilThomsontoReginaldDrake,26June1916,KV2/3038 ‘dazzlingdisplay’:Taylor,TheTroubleMakers,pp.134–135 ‘enable one to see England’: Thomas Hardy, ‘Let Us Now Be Praised By Famous Men’, CambridgeMagazine, 11 November 1916 ‘almostatraitor’:GP,proposedbroadcasttotheGermanpeople,1939 ‘nopracticalknowledge’:R.BanfieldtoReginaldDrake,30June1916,KV2/3038 ‘shouldhetransgress’:ReginaldDraketoR.Banfield,4July1916,KV2/3038 SignalsofficescontactsMI5:TheChiefOfficerattheWarSignalStationinStAnthonyhadwrittentoAdmiralDenisoninFalmouth whowiredtheMI5DistrictIntelligenceDirector,whopassedthenewsontoDrake,6July1916,KV2/3038 106 108 108 108 108 108 109 109 109 109 110 110 110 110 110 111 MI5directive: MI5 to all British ports, the Foreign Office, the Home Office, the Permit Office, Scotland Yard, The French High Command(G.Q.G.),GlasgowPoliceandM.I.1.c.,13July1916,KV2/3038 ‘FirstWorldWar’sbestsellers’:Knightley,TheFirstCasualty,p.89 ‘writesextraordinarilywell’:Punch,vol.150,8March1916 ‘narrative...thrilling’:TheChicagoTribune,29April1916 ‘Veryexciting’:Advertisement,TheTimes,25February1916 ‘“Thrilling”hasbecome’:CountryLife,26February1916,pp.321–2 ‘tooyoungandtooclever’:Punch,vol.150,8March1916 ‘irreverentcleverness’:Spectator,vol.116,4March1916,pp.321–2 ‘doggedness’and‘courage’:E.M.Falk,undatedlatter,GB206,RUH22,p.4 ‘pro-Germanpublication’:CIDtoMI5,22November1917 RP conscientious objector: Richard Pyke eventually enlisted in the Army on 14 September 1917 before joining the RAF in April 1918.RichardPyke,TheLivesandDeathsofRolandGreer(London:RichardCobden-Sanderson),1928,p.118 ‘centreoflife’:VirginiaWoolf,TheQuestionofThingsHappening:TheLettersofVirginiaWoolf,Vol.2:1912–1922(London: Hogarth),1976,p.210.ShemayhavemetPykeinlate1916:‘OmyGod!whatanevening...Strangefigures...MrsHannay,an artist–Pike(sic)aninventor,Scottadon.Stovesmoked,fogthick.Trainsstopped.Bed.’HermioneLee,VirginiaWoolf,Vintage, 1997,Chapter21,‘SeeingLife’,VWtoDG,17December1916 ‘zenithofdisreputability’:LeonardWoolf,BeginningAgain:AnAutobiographyoftheYears1911to1918(NewYork:Harcourt BraceJovanovich),1975,p.216 ‘overpoweringaroma’:DouglasGoldring,OddManOut(London:ChapmanandHall),1935,p.267 ‘freshdeformity’:VirginiaWoolftoLadyOttolineMorrell,November1919,inWoolf,TheQuestion,p.399 GP and Margaret Chubb members of ‘1917’: Richard Pyke talked about his brother and Margaret Chubb belonging to a London circle ‘which envious outsiders delight to term a “clique,” but which its languid members more often call a “crowd.” [. . .] the Bloomsburycrowdwhomtheysooftenmet’,R.Pyke,RolandGreer,p.225 HowtoRaiseYourChild(andPayforIt) 114 116 116 116 116 116 116 116 116–7 117 118 118–9 119 119 119 119 119 120 120 122 123 124 126 127 127 127 128 ‘socharmed’:AstoldtoLampebyMaryPykeandNathanIsaacs,LampeinalettertoDavidPyke ‘ahastytemper’:R.Pyke,RolandGreer,p.5,p.8 ‘Myrawasconsumed’:Ibid.,p.9 ‘fistflourished’:Ibid.,p.74 ‘irresistiblyimpelled’:Ibid.,p.19 ‘onlyformidableopponent’:Ibid.,p.55 ‘pushedhiselbows’:Ibid.,p.35 ‘onthesideofhishead’:Ibid.,p.36 ‘motherchasedthemround’:LancelotLawWhyte,FocusandDiversions(NewYork:GeorgeBraziller),1963,p.92 ‘playingatporkbutchers’:R.Pyke,RolandGreer,p.67 ‘Notonlycould’:Ibid.,p.63 ‘running...publicschool’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.70 ‘maliciousdevils’:R.Pyke,RolandGreer,p.265 whenthingswereattheirworst’:Lampe,Pyke,p.30 ‘beastly’:AudreyCoppardandBernardR.Crick,OrwellRemembered(BritishBroadcastingCorporation),1984,p.23 ‘Oneceasedsocompletely’:HaroldNicolson,SomePeople(London:FolioSociety),1951,pp.22–26 ‘blamed the Wellington system’: James Lees-Milne, Harold Nicolson: A Biography, 1886–1929 (London: Chatto & Windus), 1980,p.12 ‘mostdismalperiod’:EvelynWaugh,ALittleLearning(London:Penguin),1990,Chapter4 ‘anEnglishpublicschoolboy’:LyttonStrachey,EminentVictorians,Kindlelocations2614–2623 ‘asillybusiness’:GPsuicidenote,21February1948 ‘arealmarriage’:60G.BernardShaw,‘GettingMarried’,Prefaces(London:PaulHamlyn),1965,p.30 ‘highlyscientific’:BankruptcyHearingNo.243of1928,‘GeoffreyNathanielPyke’,BT226/4520 ‘proprietaryrights...happy’:A.S.RamseyPapers,Part1 ‘awfullypleased’:13January1923[incorrectdate],F.P.RamseyPapers,Part1 ‘wonderfulafternoon’:F.P.RamseyPapers,Part1 ‘Geofftoldme’:Ibid. GP develops financial model: ‘Statement by G. N. Pyke’, Bankruptcy Hearing No. 243 of 1928, ‘Geoffrey Nathaniel Pyke’, BT 226/4520 128 130 130 133–4 134 134 135 135 135 135 136–7 137 137 137 137 137 138 138 138 138 138–9 139 139 139 139 139 140 140 140 141 141 141–2 142 142 143 143 143 143 144 145 145 145–7 147 147 148 148 149 149 149 149 ‘nowmade£500’:Diary,8February1924,A.S.RamseyPapers,Part1 ‘livedalmostasone’:InstituteofEducation,London–N1/D/2,p.7 ‘undoubtedly an educational genius’: William van der Eyken and Barry Turner, Adventures in Education (London: Allen Lane), 1969,pp.21–22 ‘Ifweinvited’:JohnCohenquotedinDavidLampe,Pyke,p.19 averageIQ:vanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.27 ‘tenmostdifficult’:Ibid. ‘Themethodofremaining’:Ibid.,p.30 ‘I must say. . . crachat upon her’: James Strachey to Alix Strachey, 17 February 1925, Perry Meisel & Walter Kendrick, Bloomsbury/Freud:TheLettersofJamesandAlixStrachey(London:Chatto&Windus),1986,p.205 childrenbuildingothers:SchoolNotes,10November1924 ‘pre-genitalbrothel’:vanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.37 ‘explicitlyrequested’:LydiaA.H.Smith,ToUnderstandandtoHelp(LondonandToronto:AssociatedUniversityPresses),1985, p.69 ‘individualaggressiveness’:vanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.34 ‘merelyademonstration’:J.D.Bernal,Microcosm,undatedMSS,JDBPapers,B.4.1 ‘acharmingandgood-natured’:LetticeRamseyMemoir,F.R.RamseyPapers,3/1 ‘curedofsuchwishes’:JamesStracheytoAlixStrachey,3November1924,Meisel&Kendrick,Bloomsbury/Freud,p.107 RamseyresentingGPjoking:FrankRamseytoLetticeBaker,28December1924,F.R.RamseyPapers,2/2(2) ‘afineexhibition’:JohnRickman,‘SusanSutherlandIsaacs’,TheInternationalJournalofPsycho-Analysis,vol.31,1950,p.282 ‘Geoffreyturnedmore’:InstituteofEducation,London–N1/D/2,p.8 ‘shedidn’tfeelany’:Ibid. ‘veryreallove’:Ibid. ‘blessingandactive’:Ibid. ‘hehadnotbeen’:PhilipGraham,SusanIsaacs:ALifeFreeingtheMindsofChildren(London:Karnac),2009,p.138 ‘risetotheoccasion’:R.Pyke,RolandGreer,p.155 ‘secretdifficulties’:Ibid.,p.235 ‘understoodtoowell...imparted’:Ibid.,p.236 ‘thedrawtheywereexercising’:InstituteofEducation,London–N1/D/2,p.8 GPasoneofCambridge’sleadinglights:Whyte,FocusandDiversions,p.48 ‘anAssyrianking’:MargaretGardiner,AScatterofMemories(London:FreeAssociationBooks),1988,p.72 ‘Philosophers have only’: Karl Marx, Eleventh Thesis, ‘Theses on Feuerbach’, Marx/Engels Internet Archive (marxists.org) accessedon24June2013 undergraduatesbreakingstrike:CharlotteHaldane,TruthWillOut(NewYork:Vanguard),1950,p.54 ‘intenselydistracted’:GPNotebook,27August1941 anexotictrade:TheMetalBulletin,17November1959,p.13 ‘nolongermadeanydifference’:BankruptcyCourt,13February1929,p.3 ‘immenselylessspeculative’:Ibid. over £20,000 trading profit: Based on the National Archives currency converter (measured to 2005): http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/currency/results.asp#mid ‘certainlyimpressed’:HarryG.CorderttoNathanIsaacs,10December1959,InstituteofEducation,London–N1/D/3 CEItoflushoutspeculators:AlfredDupontChandler,ScaleandScope(Cambridge,Mass:HarvardUniversityPress),2004,p.126 CEItohavegreatscontrolofmarket:Graham,SusanIsaacs,p.134;vanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.58 ‘Whydochildren’:BankruptcyHearingNo.243of1928,‘GeoffreyNathanielPyke’,BT226/4520,p.12 ‘Itfairmakesyousick’:vanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.55 ‘EvenGeoffreyPike’:Ibid. ‘Remarkablyinteresting...everychild’:‘C.S.’reviewof‘Let’sFindOut’,Spectator,23July1927 ‘Mouldsarewrong’:QuotedinvanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.20 childrenwantingboundaries:‘MemorandumofstaffmeetingheldtogetherwiththechildrenonNovember11th1928,2p.m.’ ‘irrespectiveofmoney’:BankruptcyHearingNo.243of1928,p.27 ‘imbecility’:vanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.61 ‘Idon’twanttohurtyou’:InstituteofEducation,London–N1/D/2,p.32 ‘quitenaturallydisplaced’:Ibid.,p.8 ‘I’venoresentment’:Ibid.,p.6 ‘freeplay...mind’:Ibid. 150 151 151 151 151 152 152 152 152 152 152–3 153 153 153 154 claimsof£72,701:‘DifferentiationsinPrices’,FinancialTimes,31January1929 ‘possiblythegreatestgalaxy’:vanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.64 ‘greatscheme’:BankruptcyHearingNo.243of1928,p.44 ‘neverseensomuch’:E.Lawrence,‘TheMaltingHouseSchool’,1927,unpublisheddocument influenceofIsaac’sbooks:MalcolmPines,‘SusanS.Isaacs’,OxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,2004 influenceofNunn’sdepartmentvanderEykenandTurner,Adventures,p.66 ‘Quibblingagain?’:BankruptcyHearingNo.243of1928,p.8 ‘tissueoffalsehoods’:Ibid.,p.63 ‘indisposition’:Ibid.,p.20 ‘suddenillness’:‘CostsoftheTrusteeofandrelatingtothePublicExaminationoftheDebtor’,No.243of1928,B9/1073,p.11 GPdeclareshimselfill:GeoffreyPyke,19March1929,B9/1073 ‘dangerouslyill’:H.E.NourseandC.H.Budd,22April1929,B9/1073 ‘hewillnotbefit’:DrRobertNicholl,30May1929,B9/1073 ‘borderinguponinsanity’:‘CostsoftheTrusteeofandrelatingtothePublicExaminationoftheDebtor’,No.243of1928,B9/1073, p.18 ‘her husband died’: Jennifer S. Uglow, Maggy Hendry, Frances Hinton, The Northeastern Dictionary of Women’s Biography (Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress),1998,p.441 HowtoResolveanEpidemicofAnti-Semitism,aRoyalScandalandthethreatofFascism 158–9 159 160 160 160 161 161 161 162 162 163 163 163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 165 166 166 167 167 167–8 168 168 168 168 168 ‘emotional...anti-Semitismofreason’:AdolfHitlertoAdolfGemlich,16Sept1919,quotedinAlanSteinweis,StudyingtheJew (Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress),2006,p.8 100,000 Jews in the German Army David Pyke and Jean Medawar, Hitler’s Gift (New York: Arcade), 2012, p. 12; Phyllis Goldstein,AConvenientHatred(Brookline,Mass.:FacingHistoryandOurselves),2012,p.259 ‘Semiticinitspersistency’:Pyke,ToRuhleben,p.17 GProwswithJewishbarber:R.Pyke,RolandGreer,p.211 ‘Ihavebeentold’:GPNotebook,c.1935 ‘theJewsamongall’:GPtoLordLytton,c.1936 ‘zig-zaggedacrossthe1930s’:ClaudCockburn,I,Claud(London:Penguin),1967,p.344 ‘BeliefincontemporaryGermany’:GeoffreyPyke,‘PoliticsandWitchcraft’,TheNewStatesmanandNation,5September1936, vol.XII,No.289,pp.312–314 ‘theguiltywereroasted’:‘PoliticsandWitchcraft’unpublishedMSSsentoriginallytoR.M.BarringtonWardatTheTimes ‘onethingisclear’:Pyke,‘PoliticsandWitchcraft’,pp.312–314 ‘perhapsthefirstresult’:Ibid. ‘Itisidletoargue’:MichaelHolroyd,BernardShaw(London:Vintage),1998,p.732 ‘Theanswertothose’:Pyke,‘PoliticsandWitchcraft’,pp.312–314 ‘peoplewilltake’:GPtoSidneyWebb,c.1936 ‘Letamanbethought’:GPtoLordLytton,c.1936 ‘themanwhounless’:GPtoSidneyWebb,c.1936 whatmadethissolutionremarkable:AndrewMcFadyeantoGP,17June1936 debtswrittenoff:Heowedjust£4byJanuary1935,BT226/4520 ‘commonsense...humour’:DavidKeilintoGP,13Feb1935 MarquessofReading’srefusal:RufusIsaacstoGP,30May1935 earlybackersofGP’splan:Melchettwasoneofthefirsttocomeonboard,asheexplainedinalettertoGP,2December1934 ‘areallygoodcause’:ChaimWeizmanntoJanSmuts,undated ‘Doyouknowofanybetter’:GPNotebook,1935 ‘ameredreamer’:CommentsontheCaptainofKoppenick,1942,p.3 ‘someofuswish’:‘TrueAspectoftheCoronation’,TheTelegraphandArgus,1December1936 ‘Societyissuspended’: Entry for 17 November 1936. A. Duff Cooper, John Julius Norwich (ed.), Duff Cooper Diaries: 1915– 1951(London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson),2005,p.230 ‘thereislittledoubt’:LordHardingeofPenhurst,TheTimes,29November1955 ‘withtheexceptionof’:ClementAttlee,AsitHappened(London:Heinemann),1954,p.86 ‘Idoknowpublicopinion’:CabinetMinutes,27November1936,CAB23/86vol.LIII69(36) ‘theGallupPoll’:TheDukeofWindsor,AKing’sStory(London:Cassell),1951,p.331 ‘itwascurious’:DuffCooper,DuffCooperDiaries,p.236 170 170 171 171 172 172 173 175 175 176 176 176 176 176 178 178 178 178 179 179 179–80 180 181 181 181 181 181 182 182 ‘anthropology . . . anti-Semitism’: Humphrey Jennings, Charles Madge, Thomas Harrisson, ‘Anthropology at Home’, The New StatesmanandNation,30January1937 ‘under trained . . . recorded’: Evelyn Lawrence, ‘The Malting House School’, National Froebel Foundation Bulletin, February 1949,vol.56,p.5 ‘preliminarysoundings’:GPNotebook,1937 ‘one of those moments’: Martha Gellhorn to Phillip Knightley, quoted in Caroline Moorehead, Martha Gellhorn (Vintage), 2011, Kindlelocation2376of11015 ‘Neverhastherebeen’:EricHobsbawm,TheAgeofExtremes(London,1995),p.144 ‘adefactoPopularFront’:TomBuchanan,The Spanish Civil War and the British Labour Movement (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress),1991,p.138 ‘covered...song’:GPNotebook,c.1941 ‘failedtorespond’:GPNotebook,30July1941 ‘complexity...Labourmovement’:GPtoJ.D.Bernal,12April1937 ‘dangerousprecedent’: W. J. Bolton, ‘Voluntary industrial aid: inter-departmental correspondence’, 29 May 1937, Archives of the TradesUnionCongress.292/946/36/23(v) ‘rather unfortunate’: Vincent Tewson, ‘Voluntary Industrial Aid: memorandum of interview with Geoffrey Pyke’, 12 April 1937, ArchivesoftheTradesUnionCongress,292/946/36/47 TUCrejectsVIAS:Buchanan,TheSpanishCivilWar,p.162 ‘completedestitution’:GPtoJ.D.Bernal,18April1937 ‘Toforego’:‘IEnclose’undatedVIASpamphlet,c.1938 itemsentbyVIAS:Ibid. detailsofVIAScells:MichaelWeatherburn,‘Motorcycles,Mattresses,andMicroscopes:GeoffreyPyke,theCommunistParty,and Voluntary Industrial Aid for Spain, 1936–9’, paper presented to the Voluntary Action History Society Workshop, Southampton University,10October2012–seealsofilesK91-K94,JosephNeedhampapers,CambridgeUniversityLibrary ‘realcapital’:GP,MemorandumtotheSpainCampaignCommitteeoftheLabourParty,January1938,p.47 ‘startingtounderstand’:Weatherburn,‘Motorcycles,Mattresses,andMicroscopes’,–seealsoArthurExell,‘MorrisMotorsinthe 1930s.PartII:PoliticsandTradeUnionism’,HistoryWorkshopJournal7:1(1979) ‘socialentrepreneurs’:GP,UndatedMemorandumonoperationsofVIASconstructionalgroups,Sheet22 ‘notyettrainedmyself’:GP,SecondpartofMemorandumtotheSpainCampaignCommitteeoftheLabourParty,15February1938 ‘Iamveryconscious’:GPtoJ.D.Bernal,12April1937 ‘completeconfidence’:GP,SecondpartofMemorandumtotheSpainCampaignCommitteeoftheLabourParty,15February1938 ‘oneofthemostvaluable’:SirEdwardWard,‘ReportontheNationalSchemeofCoordinationofVoluntaryEffort’,HMStationery office;July1919 GPfindsforgettingunforgivable:GP,‘MurderandForgetfulness’,1938 mossgatherednearBalmoral:Undatednewspapercuttingentitled‘Princessesgathermossforbandages’,probablylate1940 VIASVehiclesinSpain:TheTimes,2May1938 SpanishministerpraisesVIAS:Weatherburn,‘MotorcyclesMattresses,andMicroscopes’,–seealsoExell,‘MorrisMotors’ ‘acountrywhosedeepest’:‘IEnclose’undatedVIApamphlet,probably1938 ‘Wisdomislikegold’:GP,‘IfIWereADictator’,p.14 HowtoPreventaWar 183 183 184 185 185 185 186 186 186–7 187 187 188 ‘Hisqualityofmind’:PeterRaleigh,‘Communism’,unpublishedmemoirs RaleightakenasidebyKettle:Ibid. ‘MadScientist’:PeterRaleigh,‘Germany’,unpublishedmemoirs ‘Ifthemainfacts’:ManchesterGuardian,29August1938 ‘Formetheworldchanged’:GPNotebook,‘July20toJuly31,1941’ ‘Thecivilianpopulation’:GP,‘MessagetotheWorkersofGermanyOverHitler’sHead’,28September1938 NationalCouncilofLabourreleasesGP’smessage: ‘British Labour’s “Message to German People”’, ManchesterGuardian, 28 September1938 ‘thecommonassumptions’:GPNotebook,8August1941 ‘amongthefirst’:GPNotebook,c.September1941 ‘notonlypracticable’:GPNotebook,8August1941 ‘The fact of the matter’: Hugh Sinclair quoted in Keith Jeffery, MI6: The History of the Secret Intelligence Service (London: Bloomsbury),2011,p.295 ‘byashorthead’:GPtoVernonBartlett,4October1939 189 189 189 189 190 190 ‘adrunkard’:PassportpapersforWatson,15/11/38,KV2/3035/25a ‘awomansuspected’:KV2/3035/24a ‘unsuitableforemployment’:KV2/3035/31a GPgivesnothingaway:GP,accountofGolfingSpies,1May1941 ‘Mostofus,Isuppose’:PatrickSmith,unpublishedaccount Hentschel’spoem:Hentschel,‘GeoffreyPyke’,LessSimpleMeasures,p.44 190 191 192 192 193 194 194 194 195 195 195–6 196 196 196 196 196 196 197 197 197 198 198 198 198 199 199 199 199 200 200 200 201 202 203 203 204 204 204 205 207 207 207 208 209 209 210 210 210 210–11 211 ‘amplyworthwhile’:GPtoNormanAngell,27July1939 ‘Higgins’inGP’sdiaries:GPDiary,1August39,firstmentionof‘Higgins’ holidaymakersonBankHoliday:AnAutomobileAssociationofficialquotedintheDailyMail,4August1939 ‘theattentionofthewholeworld’:GP,‘InvestigationsintoPublicOpinionofGermany’,September1939 ‘wholenation...optimism’:‘GeneralIronside’sReportonconditionsinPoland,28July1939’,PREM1/331aWarOfficetoPM, August1939,quotedinRichardOvery,1939:CountdowntoWar(London:Viking),2009,p.15 ‘mostcarefullyguarded’:GP,draftopeningofalecture,September1940 ‘aprivateattempt’:GP,draft‘BeginningofBook’,copiedfromNotebook,26August1941 ‘Itistruethat’:GP,draftopeningofalecture,September1940 ‘Ridiculous’:GP,accountofGolfingSpies,1May1941 ‘partofthegeneralopinion’:GPNotebook,14October1941 ‘Quiteaninteresting’:PatrickSmithtoGP,viaM.Ridley,5&6August1939 ‘MydearCedric’:GPtoCedricHentschel,12August1939 ‘Lifecontinuesstrenuous’:CedricHentscheltoGP,10August1939 ‘Foralltheirharsh’:PatrickSmith,unpublishedaccount ‘howmuchtheyhave’:GPNotebook,9October1941 ‘Ihadridiculouslyover-rated’:Ibid.,14October1941 ‘gogrumbling...everyclass’:Ibid.,21October1941 raininginFrankfurt’:PeterRaleigh,‘Germany’,unpublishedmemoirs ‘endlesscoffees’:Ibid. ‘Youareadisgustingpig’:GPtoPeterRaleigh,10August1939 RaleighandSmithmeet:GPNotebook,9October1941 ‘raspoftheMesserschmitt’:PeterRaleigh,‘Germany’,unpublishedmemoirs ‘asstrangeasaunicorn’:PatrickSmith,unpublishedaccount ‘Itshouldhavebeennosurprise’:PeterRaleigh,‘Germany’,unpublishedmemoirs GPwelcomedintoGermany:PatrickSmith,unpublishedaccount ‘Isupposethebest’:PeterRaleigh,‘Germany’,unpublishedmemoirs ‘Ionlyoncereached’:Ibid. ‘ascloselyasispossible’;GP,‘ProposedPlanforaOne-TimeSurveyinGermany’,March1939 publicationofBritainbyMass-Observation:JudithHeimann,TheMostOffendingSoulAlive(London:Aurum),2002,p.150 Germans’viewsonwar:PeterRaleigh,‘ReactionsandGeneralObservations’,unpublishedandundatednote ‘Thoughtheyadmitted’:Ibid. ‘Ifthat’sbadmusic’:StanleySmith,undatedaccountofhisinterviews ‘theNaziregimeitself’:GPtoDuffCooper,12August1940 ‘Ifinditallinteresting’:LalBurtontoGP,15August1939 ‘memorisedperfectly’:GP,undatednote ‘Alltheismsarewasms’:AsquotedinCockburn,I,Claudp.206 ‘almosttangiblespirit’:WatsontoGP,24August1939 ‘Theword“England”’:Watson’saccountofherinterviews,lateAugust1939 ‘Ifoundhimfull’:GPDiary,23August1939 trainstopsforGermanpolice:PeterRaleigh,‘Germany’,unpublishedmemoirs Raleighevadescapture:Ibid. GP’sreactionstosafereturnofteam:GPDiary,25August1939 report from woman in Golders Green: Copy of Min. from B2b to A.2 giving the phone number of PYKE, 23 August 1939, KV 2/3039/15a ‘ifPykewasidentical’:CrossreferencetoSpecialBranchreportmentioningPyke,7February1938,KV2/3039/10a ‘AsIwasabouttoenter’:PolicetelegramrePYKE,26February1938,KV2/3039/11a ‘strongautonomousbody’:GPNotebook,January1937 ‘particularlyanxious’: Vincent Tewson, ‘Voluntary Industrial Aid: memorandum of interview with Geoffrey Pyke’, 12 April 1937, ArchivesoftheTradesUnionCongress,292/946/36/47 ‘closelylinked’:TomBuchanan,‘ThePoliticsofInternationalism:TheAmalgamatedEngineeringUnionandtheSpanishCivilWar’, BulletinoftheSocietyfortheStudyofLabourHistory,vol.53,Part3,1988,pp.47–55 ‘underCommunistcontrol’: Roger Hollis to David Petrie ‘From Box 201, Piccadilly B. O. re INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTARY SERVICEFORPEACE’,19December1941,KV2/3039/32a ‘theablestprofessional’:KimPhilbyquotedinAndrew,DefenceoftheRealm,p.341 211 211 211 213–4 214 214 SissmorerequestsGP’spassportpapers:‘A2caskedtoobtainpassportpapersforPYKE’,2March1938,KV2/3039/12a ‘Listeninginonthetelephone’:GPNotebook,21June1941 ‘[Soviet]activityinEngland’:Andrew,DefenceoftheRealm,p.185 ‘“pink”Cambridge...almostentirely’:CampbellStuart,‘ExtractsfromFOfilerePYKE’,29April1940,KV2/3039/20a ‘stiffwithuniforms’:PeterRaleigh,‘Germany’,unpublishedmemoirs resultsofGP’ssurveys:‘InvestigationsintoPublicOpinionofGermany’,September1939 PykeHunt,Part2 217 218 218 218 219 219 219 220 221 221 222 222 222 222–3 223 223 223 223 223–4 225 225 225 225 226 226 227 227 228 230 230 ‘aknownCommunist’:Documentdated18February1940,thislineaddedon22February40,KV2/3039 ‘thehabitoflistening’:‘FromSpecialBranchregardingMorsecodesignalscomingfrom32GreatOrmondSt’,21February1940, KV2/3039/15b ‘investigationsfailed’:‘CrossreferenceresuspectedillicitwirelessfromPYKE’sresidence’,11March1940,KV2/3039/16x ‘aninteresting,orpossibly’:MalcolmCummingtoGilbertLennox,27April1940,KV2/3039/19a ‘onexcellentterms...propaganda’:20May1940,KV2/3035/51a ‘Inviewofthis’:MalcolmCummingtoGilbertLennox,27April1939,KV2/3035/50a ‘ashortman’:PeterWrightwithPaulGreengrass,Spycatcher(Australia:WilliamHeinemann),1987 ‘Youseesome’...‘trustworthy’:WatsonoverheardtalkingtoPyke,24May1940,KV2/3038 SIS’s concerns about GP’s undercover work: There are several allusions to this, including Leo Amery’s letter to Frederick Lindemann,19July1940:‘ThesecretservicebranchesundertheWarOfficesomehoworotherthinkthathisinvestigationwould cross their wires. Personally, both the investigation and the kind of people employed would be so entirely different that I cannot imaginethatthereisanyrealdangerofthathappening.’ ‘closetocollapse’:Andrew,DefenceoftheRealm,p.222 ‘amuchpersecuted’:LeoAmerytoOsbertPeake,11July1940(mistakenlymarkedas11May1940) ‘Depart,Isay’:PeterHennessey,NeverAgain(London:Vintage),1993,p.20 ‘astrangecreature’:L.S.Amery,26Feb1948,AMEL8/66,ChurchillArchivesCentre ‘theonlyman’:GPtoOsbertPeake,17July1940 HigginsinGP’snotebook:GPNotebook,August1940 ‘deepgratitude’:RolfRünkeltoGP,4July1941 GPsendspaymentstoHiggins:Ibid.,10December1940 ‘deepsympathywith’:GPtoSidneyKraul,3July1940 ‘Pykeiswellknown’:MI5toSidneyKraul,9August1940,KV2/3039 ‘allthoseinterested’:GPtoRolfRünkel,19July1941 ‘Higginsallpossible’:GPNotebook,9Feb1940 ‘Blonder Hans’: This appears in numerous sources, including the original Gestapo file on Runkel at Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA),AmtIV,A2,Bundesarchiv,Berlin RünkelrecruitedbyNKVD:ThoughNKVDpersonnelfilesfromthisperiodremainclassified,theextraneousdetailsaboutRünkel’s life up to and during this period suggest that he might have been recruited to the NKVD in the early 1930s. We know from his reaction to Special Branch surveillance in 1941 that he was experienced in picking up a tail, and that he was one of the first Communists to be taken out of Prague in 1938, which attests to his seniority among the many German Communists gathered in Pragueatthetime.Itisalsosignificantthat,inspiteofthis,hewasnotattachedtoanyPartycellduringhistimeinBritain.Those attached to the NKVD or GRU were customarily instructed to disassociate themselves from Party factions. Looking beyond the war,thelackofanarchivaltraceintheGDRarchivesissuggestive.InacountrywhereallPartymembershadvoluminousfileson them the relative lack of files on Rünkel opens up the strong possibility that the bulk of his papers were taken to the USSR, as happenedwiththoseofotheremployeesoftheNKVDorGRU. RünkelonGestapo’slist:RSHA,AmtIV,A2,GeheimesStaatspolizeiamt,Bundesarchiv,Berlin ‘Certainwordsweremissing’:FredUhlman,TheMakingofanEnglishman(London:VictorGollancz,1960),p.242 RünkelmighthavespiedonKoenen:Documentscapturedin1946atKoethen(soontobeGDR)–Abw,111F.HELMUTWEHR papersonKOMINTERNAgentsfromPRAGUE,10January1939.Accordingtoreporti/28ofHelmutWehron10January1939, fourmenweredispatchedtoLondonbytheKominternofficeinPrague,includingWilhelmKoenenandhissecretaryHamann,and each one had a ‘Labour functionary to spy on them in accordance with Komintern instructions’ – one of whom might have been Rünkel,KV2/2800/278b ‘banalityofevil’:HannahArendt,EichmanninJerusalem(London:Penguin),1994 ‘inthecaseofallnon-Russian’:Haldane,TruthWillOut,p.292 ‘thepublishinghouse’:KV2/2357/60a MI5raisesnoobjectiontoKamnitzer’srelease:KV2/2883/15a 230 230 230 230 230 231 231 232 232 232–3 233 233 234 234 ‘afanatical...Partywork’:W.YoungertoRogerHollis,23December1941,KV2/2883/26b MI5SuspectRünkel:‘InformationfromB2source‘M/S’,22December1939,KV2/2714/6a ‘isstatedtohavebeen’:KV2/1561/53a RünkelmemberofN-Dienst:B.8.csummaryofMOELLER-DOSTALIinterrogationattheOratorySchools,17February1941,KV 2/3364/58x GPpaysRünkel’sexpenses:GPtoBobbyCarter,27August1941,PrivateCollectionofSarahCarter ‘Weknowhowdevotedly’:GPtoRolfRünkel,19July1941 ‘B[obby]andI’:DeborahCarter,unpublishedreminisces,c.1989 Rünkelpointingoutshadows:Author’scorrespondencewithThomasRünkel,10September2012 policemansuspectsstrongerconnectionbetweenGPandRünkel:CrossReferencetoextractfromSpecialBranchreportrePYKE andRUNKEL’,22September1941,KV2/3039/30a ‘seetoit...improvedupon’:Source:Ri,17November1941,KV2/1873/172a ‘Iconsiderthis’:Ibid. MI5’slibertarianapproach’:Hyde,IBelieved,1952,p.75 ‘completereliability’:‘PhotostatcopyofletterfromPyketoAWSDeptreRUNKEL’,31October1941,KV-2–3039–31a MI5notesGermancommunistsattheBBC:KV2/2883/30a HowtoDefeatNazism 235 236 237 237–8 238 238–9 239 239 239 239 240 240 240 240 241 241 241 241 241 242 242 242 242 242 243 243 243 243 243 243 244 244 ‘intenselyelitist...birth’:PhilipZiegler,Mountbatten(London:Fontana),1986,p.52 ‘howtodosomething’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 ‘TheGermanshadcomplete’:Ibid. ‘Themathematicalphysicists’:Ibid. ‘Notetheobvious’:Ibid. Mastery...succession’:GP,‘AStrategicProposal’,revisedversion,November1941 ‘TheAssyrians’:PyketoLiddellHart,15May1940,andoriginallyinByron’s‘TheDestructionofSennacherib’,HebrewMelodies, 1815 ‘howoftencouldanaeroplane’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 ‘Principlesofattack’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,7June1942 ‘nomoreaninvention’:GP,‘AStrategicProposal’ ‘similartotheadaptations’:GPNotebook,December1941 ‘withrelativelyslight’:GP,‘AStrategicProposal’ ‘Makeeveryone’:Ibid. ‘Far from wanting’: ‘Commentary by Mr Pyke on C.O.H.Q.Int./28/15.4.42’ S.7.0. North Norway – Large Scale Operation. US NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,RecordGroup165,Entry21,390/30/16/4,Box968,submittedon15April1942to LouisMountbatten ‘militaryju-jitsu’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,7June1942 ‘Considerthepolitical’:Ibid.,4June1942 ‘tomakeafool’:GPtoBasilLiddellHart,15May1940 ‘impressedby’:LeoAmerytoDavidPyke,11March1948,AMEL2/3/5 Amery’spatiencewithGP:LeoAmery,TheEmpireatBay(London:Hutchinson),1988,p.1072 ‘noprospectforJews’:LeoAmery,26Feb1948,AMEL8/66 ‘thesortofperson’:GPtoSydneyElliott,13November1939 ‘verynaturallyappealed’:LeoAmery,‘RecollectionsofMrPyke’,AMEL2/3/5 ‘Iambothering’:LeoAmerytoWalterMonckton,24June1940 ‘itseemstobeall’:WalterMoncktontoLeoAmery,24June1940 ‘othershavethought’:FrederickLindemantoWalterMonckton,10July1940,CherwellPapers,G.465/3 Bourne dismisses snowmobiles: Bourne, ‘Response to the proposals to use sledges driven by air screws and aircraft engines for crosscountryoperationsintheNarvikarea’,CombinedOperationsHQ,15July1940 ‘thecircumstanceshehas’:A.V.Alexanderto‘Sydney’,17July1940 ‘measurelessobstructivestrength’:EvelynWaugh,MenatArms(London:Penguin),1967,p.135 ‘Unlessallmyskiingfriends’:LeoAmerytoFletcher,23July1940 ‘aquality...endsofwar’:GP,‘AStrategicProposal’ ‘Theworsetheweather’:Ibid. ‘Youwon’tgetitdone’:GP,AccountofconversationwithJ.D.Bernal,23June1940 244 245 245 245 245 245 246 247 247 247 248 248 248 249 249 249 249–50 250 250 250 250 251 252 253 253 253 253 253 253 253 254 254 254 254 254 254 254 254 255 255 255 255 ‘Thewholecountry’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 Ray‘aCommunist’:KV2/3039/102a ‘perhapsthegreatest’:CyrilRay,‘BoatPeople’,Punch,vol.288,20March1985,p.51 ‘Iheardthingsabouthim’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 ‘Ifeelthat,andIthink’:GPtoLeoAmery,4February1942 the‘brilliant’inventor:MichaelHarrison,Mulberry:TheReturninTriumph(London:W.H.Allen),1965,p.141 ‘Manyofthedescriptions’:Pyke,DraftProfileofMountbattenfortheEveningStandard,September1943 ‘exciteyoumore’:QuotedinZiegler,Mountbatten,p.112 Mountbatten’snavalambitions.Ziegler,Mountbatten,p.36 ‘extraordinarydrive’:TheDuchessofWindsor,TheHeartHasItsReasons(London:MichaelJoseph),1956,p.206 ‘damnedannoyed’:Harrison,Mulberry,p.15 ‘Youfool!’:Mountbatten’sdiary,25October1941,quotedinZiegler,Mountbatten,p.156 ‘Alltheotherheadquarters’:ChurchillquotedbyMountbatteninHarrison,Mulberry,p.15 ‘WhenIreturn’:LouisMountbattentoGP,8February1942 ‘MajorParks-Smith...intellect’:GPtoAmery,undated ‘LikeMephistopheles’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,26April1942 ‘Theyknew,onlytoowell’:‘PykeonHowtoSellPyke’,GPtoLouisMountbatten,June1942 ‘whatmybiographers’:Ibid. ‘avastgathering...length’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 GPbadatjudgingaudience:PyketoBobbyCarter,10August1939 ‘borehimself...voice’:Cohen,‘GeoffreyPyke:ManofIdeas’,p.246 JapaneserampantinSouth-EastAsia:‘Wedonotpossessenoughnavalforces,evenleavingthebarestminimumforourvital commitmentsinHomeWaters,tomeettheJapaneseforcesalreadyintheIndianOcean,nottomentionthosewhichmaybe broughtagainstus.’‘DraftReplytoGeneralMarshall’,ChiefsofStaffCommittee,April1942,CAB79/20 ‘handsomeandbreezy’GoronwyRees,ABundleofSensations(London:Chatto&Windus),1960,p.145 GP’sclothes:MauriceGoldsmith,Sage(London:Hutchinson),1980,p.100 ‘unusuallyexpressive’:Cohen,‘GeoffreyPyke:ManofIdeas’,p.246 ‘thoughtfulandserious’:M.F.Perutz,‘AnInventorofSupremeImagination’,Discovery,May1948 ‘burningeyes’:PeterQuennell,TheWantonChase(London:Collins),1980,p.30 ‘LordMountbatten,youneedme’:AndrewBrown,J.D.Bernal:TheSageofScience(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress),2005,p. 209 ‘tryingtosizeyouup’:Perutz,‘AnInventorofSupremeImagination’ ‘Theuntidyman’:JohnHillary,‘TheOzzardofWhizz’,PublicOpinion,18May1951,pp.11–12 ‘Imustconfess’:Harrison,Mulberry,p.142 ‘achapwithnoscientificqualifications’:Goldsmith,Sage,pp.97–98 ‘genuineaffection’:Harrison,Mulberry,p.39 ‘Ifellintothehabit’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,6July1942 ‘youalwaysrushme’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,undated ‘asreceptive’:GPtoBettyBehrens,23January1946 ‘WhatI’vedone’:Transcriptfor‘TheDynamicsofInnovation’,partof‘WeBegtoDiffer’,BBC,broadcastbetween9:40and9:55 inbetweenthethirdandfourthactsofTheMarriageofFigaro,25September1947 ‘Infaceofanewidea’:Ibid. ‘SuggesterofProgrammes’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,3August1942 ‘bepreparedwith’:‘PykeonHowtoSellPyke’,GPtoLouisMountbatten,June1942 GP’ssalary:MountbattenPapers,MB1/C209 ‘anextraordinary,whollyunbureaucratic’:Canetti,PartyintheBlitz,p.180 PykeHunt,Part3 257 257 258 258 258 ‘theCominternremained’:Andrew,DefenceoftheRealm,p.190 ‘whatacomplicated’:KV2/2799/153b ‘ProfessorP.isIthink’:‘PhotostatofMinutefromBagot(F2bMJEB)toADE7,ProfPisPyke’,21January1942,KV2/3039/33b ‘gatheringandtranslating’:Ibid. ‘largeandcomprehensive’: Today in the Comintern Archives in Moscow there are more than 407 files under the heading ‘Varga BureauinBerlin’ 259 ‘doingthesamejob’:‘CopyofE.3.(a)reportrePYKE’,31January1942,KV-2–3039–34a HowtoChangetheMilitaryMind 261 261 262 262 262 263 263 263 264 265 265 266 268 268 268 268 269 269 270 270 270 270 270–1 271 271 271 271 271 272 273 273 273 273 273 274 274 274 275 275–6 276 276 276 276 277 277 Nyesupportsthescheme:‘PykeonHowtoSellPyke’,GPtoLouisMountbatten,June1942 ‘tacticalandstrategic’:CAB79/19,COS(42)58(0).77thMeeting ‘handsomesocialchaps’:QuotedinRichardHough,Mountbatten(London:WeidenfeldandNicolson),1980,p.148 ‘surrealistwhirligig’:EvelynWaugh,MichaelDavie(ed.),TheDiariesofEvelynWaugh(London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson),1976, p.524,p.533 ‘thisfish-flesh-fowlcompany’:Rees,ABundleofSensations,p.143 ‘precautionfor...progress’:GP,unpublishedmanuscript,12June1941 ‘howaplanecanmeasure’:GP,10March1942 ‘sodoesaSquadronLeader’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,1March1942 ‘ingenious...support’:Appendix‘B’,minutesofmeetingatCOHQinresponsetoPyke’s‘DiaryofWarIdeas’,27March1942 ‘ifhecouldn’tgetus’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,‘PykeonHowtoSellPyke’,June1942 ‘wasnotasitunfortunately’:‘MrPyke’sSecondandThirdThoughts.ARecantation’,26March1942,USNationalArchivesand RecordsAdministration,RecordGroup165,Entry22,390/30/16/4,Box980 ‘asignwhichsaid“VERBOTEN”’:ThisideacanalmostcertainlybetracedbacktothefollowinglineinDeBeaufort,Behindthe GermanVeil, p. 25: ‘If the notice “Verboten” appears on any door, passage, lawn, railway train, church, or anything else, then in ninehundredandninety-ninecasesoutofathousanditisunnecessarytotakeanyfurthersafeguards.[...]Agood,law-abiding, respectableGermancitizenwillnotdreamofpassingthroughthatdoor,gate,field,orstepintothatrailroadtrain.’ ‘Icanteachanyone’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,15May1942 ‘never,NEVERletup’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,‘ThereshouldbemoreciviliansinCOHQ’,13April1942 ‘mene,mene...firsttime’:SollyZuckerman,FromApestoWarlords(London:Collins),1988,pp.151–152 ‘Thereis,atpresent’:GP,‘NewIdeasfortheArmy’,1March1942 ‘Itwouldbecontrary’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,‘ThereshouldbemoreciviliansinCOHQ’,13April1942 GPapproachesTizard:LouisMountbattentoGP,30March1942 ‘beautiful,humorous’:C.P.Snow,‘Bernal,aPersonalPortrait’,TheScienceofScience(London:Penguin),1966,p.19 ‘Threeinabed’:JDBPapers,0.23.1 ‘theboffinequivalent’:Brown,J.D.Bernal,Kindlelocation4700 ‘pressthingsunduly’:J.D.Bernal,TheFreedomofNecessity(London:Routledge),1949,p.67 ‘DepartmentofWildTalents’:RaleighTrevelyan,GrandDukesandDiamonds(London:Secker&Warburg),1991,p.369 ‘itisareasonableassumption’:Hough,Mountbatten,p.148 ‘twofavourites’:BasedonaconversationbetweenAndrewBrownandMartinBernal,quotedinBrown,J.D.Bernal,p.217 ‘Monkeyman’:HaroldWernher,WorldWarII:PersonalExperiences(London:Worrall&Robey),1950,p.16 Bernalandtheking’sconversation:C.J.Mackenzie,NRCC/CJMDiary,1March1943 ‘experts,charlatans’:EvelynWaugh,OfficersandGentlemen(London:Penguin),1967,p.44 ‘thelargest...drawingpins’:GPtoCaptainColvin,18March1942 Mountbatten at Chequers: Copy of an appointment book for Churchill’s weekends at Chequers, kept by Inspector George Scott, Churchill’spoliceescortcommander(ref.WCHL6/43),ChurchillArchivesCentre ‘displayedhisrealqualities’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 ‘oneofthegreatest’:A.W.Lawrence(ed.),T.E.LawrencebyhisFriends(London:JonathanCape),1937,p.161 unfinishedbusinessNorway:JamesA.Wood,WeMoveOnlyForward(STChatarines,Ontario:Vanwell),2006,p.20 ‘rollthemap’:WinstonChurchill,TheHingeofFate:TheSecondWorldWar,Vol.4(NewYork:RosettaBooks),2002,p.314 ‘theyaresuretobe’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,2April1942 ‘nowatthe59thminute’:Ibid. ‘a101%honest’:Ibid. ‘Idoubtifanysingle’:MemorandumquotedinRobertE.Sherwood,RooseveltandHopkins(NewYork:Harper),1948,p.519 ‘Churchilltookthis’:HopkinsquotedinSherwood,RooseveltandHopkins,p.526 ‘Ratherdoubtful’:AlanBrooke,WarDiaries:1939–45(London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson),2001,p.236 ‘asnag’:Ibid. ‘Well,afterall’:BernardFergusson,TheWateryMaze(London:Collins),1961,p.150 Marshallleaveswithmemo:USNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,RecordGroup165,Entry21,390/30/16/4,Box968 ‘It’sonlywhenyousee’:HopkinsquotedinSherwood,RooseveltandHopkins,p.529 Hopkins’underwear:WinstonChurchill,TheSecondWorldWar,Vol.3(Boston:HoughtonMifflin),1948–53,p.22 277 278 278–9 279–80 280 ‘itchinglikethedevil’:HopkinstoRoosevelt,11April1942,inSherwood,RooseveltandHopkins,p.527 ‘pretentiousnonsense’:FrederickLindemanntoWalterMonckton,10July1940,CherwellPapers,G.465/3 ‘Ihaveafeelingthatperhaps’:‘TheMeetingwithGeneralMarshall’,GPtoLouisMountbatten,9April1942 ‘Fornotfaroff’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,26April1942 ‘Whatevermayhappen’:Ibid. PykeHunt,Part4 281 281 281 281 281 282 282 283 283 283 283 283–4 284 284 284 284–5 285 285 285 286 286 287 287 287 288 289 290 290 290—1 291 291 291 291 291 292 292 ‘hush-hush...secrecy’:NigelWest,Mask(London:Routledge),2006,p.226 ‘channel through which’: ‘Photostat copy of S. B. report re German Organisations in this country’, 23 February 1942, KV 2/3039/38a ‘cameneartobeing’:Hyde,IBelieved,p.203 ‘somanyleadingCzech’:‘SpecialBranchonCRTF,28January1940,KV2/2715/19b ‘therulers...forlittle’:Hyde,IBelieved,p.204 ‘themenconcerned’:SundayDispatch,8February1942;thefollowingweekthesamepointwasmadeinmoredetail:‘Refugees welcometheexposureofthe“FreeGerman”trick’,SundayDispatch,15February1942 ‘saidtobeincharge’:‘PhotostatcopyofSpecialBranchreportre.GermanOrganisationsinthiscountry’,23February1942,KV 2/3039/38a ‘itisnotessential’:GP,‘LetRaidSheltersbeProbedinPublic’,ReynoldsNews,21May1939 GP’sarticlesonchalkshelters:GP,ReynoldsNews,22December1940,29December1940,12January1941,27April1941 pieceinacademicjournal:E.J.Buckatzsch,InstituteofStatistics,Oxford,17May1941,bulletinvol3,no.7 ‘playedstraightintothehands’:GPNotebook,5May1941 ‘everythingtoit’:Hyde,IBelieved,p.94 GPpushesanti-appeasementbook:GPNotebook,July1940 GPpushesMeuselbook:Incidentally,AllenLanetoldGPthatifhecouldwriteanaccountofsendinghispollstersintoNaziGermany he’d publish it ‘like a shot’. GP Notebook, August 1940; ‘anti-war’ SIS report CX/12650/5274/V, 9 April 1940, KV 2/1872/87a; ‘ChiefofCommunistParty’CaptainDerbyshiretoV.Vivian,22April1940 GP campaigns for interned refugees: The CPGB also ran a campaign pushing for the release of anti-fascists interned as Enemy AlienswithTommyBellwritingarticlesonthisandhelpingtoputtogetherabookcalledMorrison’sPrisoners.Atthesametime GPpitchedapiecetoKingsleyMartinatTheNewStatesmanandNationrailingagainsttheinternmentofenemyalienssuchas Higgins.Martinfeltitwas‘tooviolent’andmightdohiscause‘moreharmthangood’.GPNotebook,17August1940 ‘amostbrilliantmove’:GPDiary,24August1939 ‘transformed the whole’: Nares Craig, Memoirs of a Thirties Dissident, online memoir accessed on 9 April 2012 at http://www.narescraig.co.uk/memoirs/index.html#TOC.CraigdoesnotappearinP’snotebookuntilApril1940,andhissightofthis flatmayhavebeenaslateasthat MyersgivesGPmoney:‘IshdlikeyoutomeethimandsomedaywhenallthisisoverIthinkIris(andyou)willbesatisfiedthatthe moneyIgavehimwerewellspent.’MyerstoBayardJames,intercepted,passedtoMI5,4July1942.KV2/3039 ‘alsopaidPyke’spersonalbills’:‘E.7.note(SourceKaspar)rePYKEandMYERS’,4August1942,KV-2–3039–75a ‘railingsfromnotjust’:GPNotebook,6July1940 ‘amomentatwhich’:GeorgeOrwell,‘OurOpportunity’,TheLeftNews,No.55,January1941 ‘IdaresaytheLondongutters’:GeorgeOrwell,‘MyCountryRightorLeft’,Booksv.Cigarettes(London:Penguin),2008,p.48 ‘anattempttogetaway’:AndrewRoberts,EminentChurchillians(NewYork:Simon&Schuster),1994,p.247 BagotwritestoHunter:‘F2bnotetoB6askingforobservationtobekeptonGeoffreyPyke’,15March1942,KV2/3039/36a ‘tall,thin-bearded’:Quennell,TheWantonChase,p.29 ‘lookingasunlike’:‘B.6reportontheoperationsofthesectionduringthewar1939’,1March1945,KV4/443 ‘losttoobservation’:‘B.6.reportfurtherto37areGeoffreyPYKE’,27March1942,KV2/3039/38a GPseenhavinglunchwithwoman:Ibid. ‘Age38,5′10″’:KV2/3039/38a FuchsandKuczynski:RobertChadwellWilliams,KlausFuchs(London:HarvardUniversityPress),1987,p.33 Kuczynskisuppliesintelligenceforsister:DavidBurke,TheSpyWhoCameinfromtheCo-op(Woodbridge:BoydellPress),2008, p.110 ‘intellectuallyofthefirst’:GPNotebook,26July1939 ‘Ifoundourconversation’:GPtoJürgenKuczynski,9October1939,Kuc2–1-P1402–P1413_0007 Myerssendsmoney:MyerssentJK£100withaviewtosendinganother£100,8May1940,KV2/1872/86b ‘rabidCommunist...refugees’:B4bMinute,22November1939,KV2/1871/37 ‘adirectagent’:‘M/SreportonaninterviewwithEICHLER’,20Feb1940,KV2/1871/69b 292 292 292 292–3 293 293 293 294 294 ‘averygoodstroke’:Ibid. £200,000:KV2/1873/185a petitionersforKuczynski’srelease:LilianBowesLyontoMargueriteKuczynski:‘Ihaverungupafriendofminewhoisgoingtoget intouchifpossible,throughaninfluentialfriendofhis,withSirRobertVansittart.Iwon’tgointodetailsbutboththesepeopleare wellknowntoyourhusbandandgreatadmirersofhisanti-Hitlerwork.’The‘influentialfriend’wasprobablyPyke.26January1940, KV2/1871/63a MI5reportsonKuczynski:Source:Hi,‘ReportNo.38re.FreeGermanLeagueofCulture’,25February1941,KV2/1872/128x GP’s1927passportapplication:MilicentBagot,‘NotereGeoffreyPYKE’,8April1942,KV2/3039/45a ‘not always proved’: Milicent Bagot to Deputy Assistant Commissioner, Special Branch, ‘Letter to S. B. re PYKE’s career’, 19 April1942,KV2/3039/53a ‘possiblyaknave’:MilicentBagot,MI5InternalMinute,7April1942 MountbattenreadstheWeek:Cockburn,I,Claud,1967,p.158 MountbattenbelievesGPhassecurityclearance:LetterfromCombinedOperationstoLt-ColClarkeofMI14saysthatPyke‘has alreadybeenvouchedforbymanypeopleinresponsiblepositions,butIamarrangingdoublecheckwithM.I.5,justtomakesure.’In handwritingafterthat:‘Thishasnowbeendoneandisalright’.28March1942 HowtoSucceedinAmerica 295 296 296 296 296 296 297 297 297 297 297 298 298 298 298 299 299 299 299 299 300 300 300 301 301 302 302 302 302 302 302 Wedderburn’s health: A. M. Greenwood, ‘E. A. M. Wedderburn’, Climbers’ Club Journal, 1945–1946, F. A. Pullinger (ed.), (London:TheClimbers’Club),Vol.8,no.1,no.71,1946,pp.72–74 ‘intelligence...integrity’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,c.June1942 ‘preferablyfromtheRoyal’:LouisMountbattentoJohnDill,24April42,DEFE2/883 ‘WarOfficeparexcellence’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,19May1942 ‘“StaffCollege”parexcellence’:Ibid.,11May1942 ‘mayshortenthewar’:Ibid.,4June1942 ‘bombrack’:JohnCohen,‘GeoffreyPyke:ManofAction’,NewScientist,30July1981,p.303 ‘slightlydeaf’:GPtoJohnKnox,7July1942 lettersofintroductiontoHopkins:LouisMountbattentoHarryHopkins,24April1942,DEFE2/883 ‘adequatecover’:LouisMountbattentoWilliamStephenson,24April1942 ‘Thegreatimportance’:LouisMountbattentoKnox,24April1942,DEFE2/883 ‘alltheofficers’:DwightD.EisenhowertoLouisMountbatten,19April1942,ThePapersofDwightDavidEisenhower:TheWar Years,AlfredD.Chandlered.,(BaltimoreandLondon:JohnsHopkinsPress),1970,p.274 ‘veryodd-lookingindividual’:GeorgeC.Marshall,quotedinRobertAdlemanandGeorgeWalton,TheDevil’sBrigade(Annapolis, Maryland:NavalInstitutePress),2004,p.2 ‘Noone,exceptHitler’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 ‘spokebadly’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,29April1942,DEFE2/883 ‘theideaistoosimple’:Ibid. ‘aworkingcommittee’:DwightD.EisenhowertoLouisMountbatten,19April1942,ThePapersofDwightDavidEisenhower,p. 274 ‘Thingshadtohappen’:VannevarBush,PiecesoftheAction(London:Cassell),1970,p.126 ‘BecauseoftheAmerican’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,undated ‘wemaybeready’:Ibid.,2May1942 GPfindsheat‘trying’: Pyke later heard this from ‘a third party’, almost certainly Wedderburn, GP to Louis Mountbatten, 21 May 1942 ‘littlemorethan’:E.A.M.Wedderburn,3May42,DEFE2/884 Burgessneedsrepairing:Ibid. ‘design, develop, build’: Development of Weasel, 1 July 42, US National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the OSRD,NC-138,Entry1,OfficeoftheChairman,NDRC,andtheOfficeoftheDirector,OSRD:GeneralRecords,1940–1947,Box 55 ‘Iwishtosubmit’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,12May1942 ‘IamsureDuncan’:Ibid.,21May1942 ‘Duncannotonly’:Ibid.,19May1942 ‘infactsocontra-suggestible’:Ibid.,15May1942 ‘duetorigidityofintellect’:Ibid.,19May1942 ‘boththeextremecunning’:GPtoJ.D.Bernal,22May1942 resignationletter:GPtoLouisMountbatten,11May1942 302 303 303 303 303 303 304 304 304 304 304 305 305 305 305 305 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 307 307 307 307 307 308 308 308 309 309 309 310 310 310 310 310 311 311 312 312 312 313 313 ‘Onceacivilian’:LouisMountbattentoJohnKnox,20May1942 ‘Pyke’sgrievance’:JohnKnoxtoLouisMountbatten,12May1942 ‘smoothoutdifferences’:LouisMountbattentoJohnKnox,13May1942 ‘duringthreeandahalf’:DEFE2/883 ‘anxiousanddistressed’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,16May1942 ‘Ifirritationandimpatience’:Ibid.,19May1942 Duncanrunsamok:GPtoJ.D.Bernal,22May1942 ‘goodenough’:NigelDuncantoE.A.M.Wedderburn,16May1942 DuncanapprovesOSRD’sproposal:PalmerPutnamtoHartleyRowe,18May1942 ‘bytheearlyfall’:USNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,RecordGroup165,Entry21,390/30/16/4,Box968 ‘very active . . . winter’: From OSRD Confidential History, US National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 227/NC-138/Entry106/Box8,Chapter4 ‘TheAmericansareremarkable’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,19May1942 GPresignsagain:JohnKnoxtoLouisMountbatten,16May1942,DEFE2/883 Churchillasksforreport:‘ThePrimeMinisterhasaskedLordCherwelltokeephiminformedoftheprogressofPyke’sscheme.’ LouisMountbattentoRobertNeville,21May1942 ‘I’vemadenomistakes’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,21May1942 ‘tamelunatic’:JohnKnoxtoLouisMountbatten,21May1942 ‘Atlastunderstand’:LouisMountbattentoJohnKnox,26May1942 DuncanorderedbacktoLondon:MountbattencheckedwithGeneralNyethatDuncan’smilitarycareerwouldnotsufferasaresult. LouisMountbattentoArchieNye,26May1942 ‘Pykeisnowmysole’:LouisMountbattentoJohnKnox,26May1942 ‘sympatheticsupport’:Ibid. ‘Inspiteof’:LouisMountbattentoGP,28May1942 detailsofmissingpapers:E.A.M.Wedderburn,‘NoteonMissingPapers’,18May1942 ‘vanishedintothinair’:E.A.M.WedderburntoNigelDuncan,16May1942 ‘hewillbedealing’:N.T.P.CoopertoFirstCanadianArmy,3June1942 OperationsDivisionreportonPlough:RobertT.Frederick,‘MemorandumonPloughProjectfortheChiefofStaff’,June1942 ‘Ican’tsignthatreport’:AdlemanandWalton,TheDevil’sBrigade,p.29 ‘animateddiscussion’:Ibid.,p.30 ‘(a) failed to ensure’: Louis Mountbatten, ‘MEMORANDUM BY CHIEF OF COMBINED OPERATIONS ON THE SNOW PLOUGHSCHEME’.Undated. ‘justlikeaschoolboy’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,7June1942 ‘charming,moderatelysincere’:Ibid. ‘IfImaysayso’:Ibid. ‘probablythemost’:Hough,Mountbatten,pp.152–3 MountbattenonTimemagazine:Itwentonsaleon8June1942bearingthelegend:‘MountbattenoftheCommandos:Hisboysin blackfacewillseethedayofwrath.’ ‘intheeventofthings’:LouisMountbattentoFranklinD.Roosevelt,15June1942,FDR,HarryHopkinsPapers,Container194 ‘readytofollowup’:Ibid. Frederick in charge of Plough: Robert T. Frederick to Robert D. Burhans, 10 September 1942, quoted in Wood, We Move Only Forward,p.26 ‘Iwasshocked’:Ibid. ‘carriedtherating’:AdlemanandWalton,TheDevil’sBrigade,p.33 ‘embraceyourdefects’:‘PykeonHowtoSellPyke’,GPtoLouisMountbatten,June1942 ‘WarwicktheKingmaker’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,21June1942 ‘abatteryofpress’:11June1942,GuyLiddell,NigelWest(ed.),TheGuyLiddellDiaries,Vol.1(Abingdon:Routledge),2005 ‘What the hell’: This was Major-General J. C. Murchie, Canadian Vice-Chief of the General Staff, Adleman and Walton, The Devil’sBrigade,p.35 ajointAmerican-Canadianforce:GPtoLouisMountbatten,16June1942 ‘experienced cold-weather’: Robert T. Frederick to Robert D. Burhans, 10 September 1946, quoted in Wood, We Move Only Forward,p.27 ‘Thesonofabitch’:AdlemanandWalton,TheDevil’sBrigade,p.38 ‘aninstanceofChurchill’s’:Bush,PiecesoftheAction,pp.126–7 ‘lotsofideas...judgement’:VannevarBush,AtlanticMonthly,March1965 314 314 314 315 315 315 316 316 316 316 317 317 317 317 318 318 318 318–9 319 319 319 320 320 320 321 321 321 321 321 321 321 322 322 322 322 322–3 323 ‘workingthroughchannels’:Ibid. ‘hasacontempt’:Bush,PiecesoftheAction,p.121 ‘Ijudgethat’:VannevarBushtoRaymondMoses,3June1942 ‘itisfortunate’:Ibid. ‘nowsittingpretty’:‘NotesonCertainPhasesoftheDevelopmentofWeasel(WithexcerptsfromtheProjectLog)’,13July1942, USNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,RecordsoftheOSRD,NC-138,Entry1,OfficeoftheChairman,NDRC,and theOfficeoftheDirector,OSRD:GeneralRecords,1940–1947,Box55 ‘befrankbothwith’:GPtoJohnKnox,7July1942 ‘theorganisationallevel’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,21June1942 ‘appreciationofthetreatment’:Ibid.,7June1942 ‘ItmeantaCasteWar’:Ibid.,3August1942 ‘in this big, husky’: Thomas Parrish, To Keep the British Isles Afloat: FDR’s Men in Churchill’s London, 1941 (New York: Smithsonian),2009,p.233 ‘withcompletefrankness’: GP, ‘Interview with Mr Oscar Cox, Assistant Solicitor General: Director under Mr Stettinius of LendLease’,23June1942 ‘amazing’:OSCDailyCalendar,24June1042,FDR,CoxPapers,Box143 ‘Iamdoingthis’:GPtoIsidorLubin,24June1942 ‘yourealise,Ihope’:GPtoOscarCox,24June1942,DEFE2/884 ‘anunusuallygifted’:EugeneRostowtoBobBryce,31March1943 ‘Pykecouldnotwrite’:GeorgeW.Ball,ThePastHasAnotherPattern(London:W.W.Norton),1982,p.25 Stimson’sfeelingstowardsBritish:LouisMountbattentoGP,25July1942 BushgivesStimsonreportsonGP:Bush,PiecesoftheAction,p.128 ‘seriouslyupsetting’:E.A.M.Wedderburn,NotesonaconversationwithKnox,1July1942 ‘theWeaselbusiness’:DailyCalendar,2July1942,FDR,CoxPapers,Box143 ‘Itisvery,verydifficult’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,30June1942 ‘Iamanxioustoknow’:WinstonChurchilltoHarryHopkins,7July1942,PrimeMinister’sPersonalTelegramno.T.960 ‘Putnammustgo’:EugeneRostowandGeorgeBalltoOscarCox,‘MemorandumtobereadpriortoseeingLubinandHopkins’,8 July1942 ‘theredherring’:‘MEMORANDUMPREPAREDBYLEND-LEASEADMINISTRATION’,3July1942 ‘withtheimpression’:‘NoteonConversationwithCaptainKnox,R.N.,C.O.L.O.,inhisofficeon20June,1942’ ‘thatdamnedoldwoman’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,19June1942 ‘causedsomuchamusement’:LouisMountbattentoGP,23June1942 ‘Mostofthepeople’:Ibid.,‘Phillips,on“HowNottoSellPyke”’,6July1942 ‘Ihavenotgonedeeply’:JohnDilltoLouisMountbatten,17July1942 ‘youdon’tsackme’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,20July1942 ‘Ithasbeenmade’:LouisMountbattentoGP,23July1942 ‘Iknowbothofthem’:Ibid.,25July1942 ‘toavoidentangling’:Ibid. ‘theunspeakablemisery’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,3August1942 ‘Thisisyourusual’:Ibid. ‘trappers,guides’:E.A.M.Wedderburn,‘NotesonConversationwithLtCol.Frederick’,25June1942 ‘possibly bring back’: Undated memorandum, US National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 165, Entry 22, 390/30/16/4,Box980 PykeHunt,Part5 324 ‘PYKEissaid’:‘Kaspar’,10May1942,KV2/2883/39a 324 325 325 325 325 326 326 326 327 328 ‘ItwouldseemthatPyke’:RogerFulfordtoMajorBacon,MI5InternalMinute68,29June1942 ‘Wehaveonlyjuststarted’:MajorBacontoRogerFulford,MI5InternalMinute69,6July1942 ‘Ourrecordsgaveno’:MilicentBagottoRogerFulford,MI5InternalMinute71,9July1942 ‘Ihearit’samazing’:‘ExtractfromY.2127rePYKEGeoffrey’,15September1942,KV2/3039/76b ‘wasunhappy...escort’:Canetti,PartyintheBlitz,p.181 ‘everysectionofthewartime’:Andrew,DefenceoftheRealm,p.366 ‘mostpenetrated’:Ibid. Soviet activity between 1942 and 1945: John Earl Haynes and Harvey Kiehr, Venona, Decoding Soviet Espionage in America (NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress),2000,p.337 PetrietocontactMountbatten:VictorRothschild,19June1942,KV2/3039/65a ‘Eitheritisawashout’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,3August1942 HowtoWintheWarWithIce 329 329 330 330 331 332 335 338 338 338 339 340 341 341 342 342 342 342 342 343 344 344 344 345 345 345 345–6 346 346 346 346–7 347 347 347–8 348 349 349 349 ‘theappearanceofabsurdity’:GP,WarDiary,1942 ‘mentalinstitute’:JohnKnoxtoGP,31August1942,DEFE2.883 ‘Itmaybegold’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,23September1942,coveringnoteonHabbakukMemorandum ‘Youhaveanable’:GP,HabbakukMemorandum,September1942 ‘thedominatingfactor’:WinstonChurchill,TheSecondWorldWar,(London:Vol.5Cassell&Co),1952,p.6 ‘U-BoatAlley’:JohnCostelloandTerryHughes,TheBattleoftheAtlantic(NewYork,TheDialPress),1977,pp.304–305 ‘I told him that when’:HermanMark,From Small Organic Molecules to Large (Washington DC: American Chemical Society), 1993,p.100 ‘tobeatthembut’:GPtoJ.C.Haydon,20October1943 ‘Mystyleisareflection’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,13November1942 ‘ThatIdothis’:Ibid.,20July1942 ‘bothsoundandbrilliant’:J.D.BernalquotedbyGPinalettertoKingsleyMartin,10March1946 Monday-morningmeetings:Ziegler,Mountbatten,p.178 ‘Theadvantages’:WinstonChurchill,PrimeMinister’sPersonalMinute,D.7December1942,212/2,CherwellPapers,G.237/8 ‘Bombsandtorpedoes’:MaxF.Perutz,IWishI’dMadeYouAngryEarlier:EssaysonScience,Scientists,andHumanity(New York:ColdSpringHarborLaboratoryPress),1998,p.89 Churchill’simaginationseized:J.D.BernaltoC.P.Snow,JDBPapers,J.217,11/4/61 ‘Prof,Ihavelongthirsted’:FrederickLindemanntoWinstonChurchill,10December1942,CherwellPapers,F.168 ‘Ithinkthatthisisall’:RogerFulfordtoMilicentBagot,MI5int.min.83,11November1942 ‘collectionoffools’:Perutz,IWishI’dMadeYouAngryEarlier,p.82 ‘forhavinggone’:GPtoGodfreyWildman-Lushington,10December1942 ‘DiscussedWinston’snewproject’:Brooke,WarDiaries,p.347 HabbakukDirectingCommitteeformed:ChiefsofStaff(42)195thMeeting(0),11December1942,ADM1/15236 ‘againstNature’:GPNotebook,recollectionofJ.D.Bernal’saccountofaconversationwithHaroldWernher,28December1942 ‘hadnofaithinit’:Wernher,WorldWarII,p.28 ‘extraordinaryconference’:SollyZuckerman,FromApestoWarlords(London:Collins),1988,p.159 BernalPressesfortrialstobegin:J.D.Bernal,‘GeneralConclusions’,31December1942 ‘thesuccessofaproject’:GP,‘MeetingatAlbany,Piccadilly–31December1942’,4January1943. ‘Mountbattentriedtoassure’:Zuckerman,FromApestoWarlords,p.159 ‘outlinedthestate’:‘DraftMinutesofMeetingoftheDirectingCommittee’,7January1943,ADM1/15236/23 ‘Theonlything’:WinstonChurchill,TheSecondWorldWar,Vol.2(London:Cassell&Co.),1949p.529 ‘smallinstature’:R.F.Legget,‘CharlesJackMackenzie,10July1888–26February1984’,BiographicalMemoirsofFellowsof theRoyalSociety,Vol.31,November1985.RoyalSociety,pp.410–434 ‘Thisisanotherofthose’:C.J.Mackenzie,NRCC/CJMDiary,14January1943 ‘Thesoundnessappeals’:C.J.MackenzietoA.M.Laidlaw,4February1943,ADM1/15236/36 budgetof£150,000:LorneW.Gold,TheCanadianHabbakukProject(Cambridge:InternationalGlaciologicalSociety),1993,p.16 ‘whenItellyouthat’:C.J.MackenzietoA.M.Laidlaw,4February1943,ADM1/15236/36 ‘thestimulus’:MaxPerutzinPykeandMedawar,Hitler’sGift,p.xii PerutzsenttoQuebec:Perutz,IWishI’dMadeYouAngryEarlier,p.76 ‘doyenofthecamp’s’:Ibid.,p.82 ‘Nobodywantedmyhelp’:Ibid.,p.82 349 349 350 350 350 350 351 351 351 351 351 352 352 353 353 353 353 353–4 354 354 355 355 356 357 357 357 357 357–8 358 358 359 359 359 360 360 360 360 362 362 362 362 362–3 363 363 363 363 363 365 ‘gentle,persuasivevoice’:Ibid. ‘Thistime,hesized’:Ibid. ‘Itcanbemachined:Ibid.,p.89 ‘Inhonourof’:Ibid.,p.83 Mountbatten’svisittoPerutz’laboratory:EdwardGardner,‘TheWorldandHisWife’,BBC,No.8,4March1946 ‘alittlecrater’:Perutz,IWishI’dMadeYouAngryEarlier,p.83 ‘Ihaveablock’:Lampe,Pyke,p.137 Churchillcomplainshisbathwillgetcold:Harrison,Mulberry,p.143 Churchillinthebath:ItwouldnothavebeenoutofcharacterforChurchilltoreceiveMountbatteninthebath–hewashappytotalk toPresidentRooseveltwhilewrappedinhisbath-towel.Sherwood,RooseveltandHopkins,p.442 ‘Imusttellyouabout’:GPDiary,2Feb1943 ‘winthewaratoneblow’:Ibid. ‘bothenthusiastic’:LouisMountbattentoGP,3March1943 ‘themostimportant’:Ibid.,12February1943 ‘Desbecamemoreandmoresilent’:Zuckerman,FromApestoWarlords,p.164 ‘Habbakuk,orratherPyke’:Ibid.,p.161 ‘BernalandPyke’:C.J.Mackenzie,NRCC/CJMDiary,1March1943 ‘Helandsinthiscountry’:Ibid. ‘dressedlikeatramp’:Ibid. ‘TravellingwithPyke’:Ibid. ‘Iamstillperfectlysure’:Ibid. ‘Theyareworking’:J.D.Bernal,‘ABriefSummaryofProgressofResearchWorkinCanada’,13March1943,ADM1/15236/49 ‘his principles had been violated’: A. J. Dick, interviewed for Bill Waiser, Park Prisoners (Saskatoon & Calgary: Fifth House), 1995,p.163 ‘humoroustalk’:‘ShipofIce’,documentarybroadcastinDecember2009,partofCliveCussler’sSeaHunters,Season5,Episode 7 ‘TheLakeLouiseoutfit’:C.J.Mackenzie,NRCC/CJMDiary,8March1943 ‘HopeIlivelongenough’:GP,EarlswoodDeary,16January1942 ‘Atteno’clock’:C.J.Mackenzie,NRCC/CJMDiary,9March1943 ‘themostgrotesque’:Ibid.,1March1943 ‘WethoughtprobablyPyke’:Ibid.,9March1943 ‘on a number of occasions’: J. D. Bernal, ‘A Brief Summary of Progress of Research Work in Canada’, 13 March 1943, ADM 1/15236/49 nomajorobstaclesencountered:Ibid. proposaltoabandonconvoys:BenWilson,EmpireoftheDeep(London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson),2013,p.609 ‘theattemptwouldhavebeenworth’:VincentMasseytoLouisMountbatten,20March1943,PREM3/2/16/6 ‘Iamverymuchinterested’:WinstonChurchilltoMackenzieKing,21March1943,PREM3/2/16/6 ‘fundamentally,Habbakuk’:MeetingconvenedbytheDep.FirstSeaLordandDirectorofPlansattheAdmiralty,27March1943, DEFE2/1087,H696 ‘MrChamberlainhassent’:Perutz,IWishI’dMadeYouAngryEarlier,p.84 Pyke’sflysticking:‘p.s.Ihopeyouhavehadnomoretroublewithyournew“zipper”trousers!’LouisMountbattentoGP,23July 1942 shoddyCanadianengineering:Zuckerman,FromApestoWarlords,p.158 ‘at-15°C.’:Thisworkprefiguredlaterdiscoveriesaboutglacialflow.4May1943,ADM1/15236 Admiraltysendstwomen:9April1943,ADM1/15236 Mountbattenonsickleave:LouisMountbattentoWinstonChurchill(draft),tosaythatheplannedtohave‘averysmalloperation aboutthe10thAprilandexpecttobeonthesicklistforabouttendays.’DEFE2/844 ‘DuringtheillnessofCCO’:WinstonChurchill,TheSecondWorldWar,Vol.4(London:Cassell&Co.),1951,p.848 ‘todesignwithout...before’:GPandJ.D.Bernal,3May1943,ADM1/15236. GPandBernalurgeMountbattentowait:5May1943,ADM1/15236 ‘nightmarejourney’:Bernal‘Aframeworkforhisownautobiography’,JDBPapers,O.1.1. ‘IwishIcouldtellyou’:‘SealedLips’,EveningStandard,24May1943 ‘arrivedrathertipsy’:DiariesWaugh,p.538 berg-shipnotgoingtobeready:‘MinutesofCOS(43)51stMeeting’,22March1943,CAB78/11 accountofChurchillandMountbattenmeeting:C.J.Mackenzie,NRCC/CJMDiary,10June1943 365 365 365–6 366 366 367 369 369 369 369 369 369 370 ‘fundamentallyfallacious’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,‘Jupiter-Habbakuk’,1July1943 ‘then Operation Jupiter’: Winston Churchill, “HABBAKUK” Prime Minister’s Personal Minute, 19 July 1943, D.134/3, CAB 121/154/1 ‘“HABBAKUK”isoneof’:Ibid. Churchillasksforhisnotetobepassedon:22July1943,CAB121/154/8a Ismay’sresponse:HastingsIsmaytoWinstonChurchill,C.O.S.(43)170thMeeting.(0),Min.Y.,23July1943,CAB121/154/7 September1943shippinglosses:CostelloandHughes,TheBattleoftheAtlantic,pp.304–305 Arnoldspitsonhands:Harrison,Mulberry,p.144 ‘weallrose’:Brooke,WarDiaries,pp.445–446 Churchill’saccount:WinstonChurchill,TheSecondWorldWar,Vol.5:ClosingtheRing(London:Cassell&Co.)1952,p.81 ‘collided,skulltoskull’:Harrison,Mulberry,p.144 ‘Dickie,forGod’ssake’:Ibid. ‘Thewaitingofficers’:Churchill,TheSecondWorldWar,Vol.5,p.81 Habbakukseenasmostrealisticprospect:Harrison,Mulberry,p.145 HowtoSurvive 372 372 373 373 373 373–4 374 375 376 376 377 377 378 378 378 378 378 378 378 378–80 380 382 382 382 382 382 382 383 383 383 383 MountbattentriestocornerPound:Hough,Mountbatten,p.162 ‘Ifollowedhim’:MountbattenquotedinHough,Ibid. ‘Wearebothsosorry’:LouisMountbattentoGP,September1943 GP’sconnectionbecomesknowntoAmericans:Wernher,WorldWarII,p.27 ‘Ithinkitisthebunk’:Bush,PiecesoftheAction,p.124 ‘MountbattenandPykewalked’:Ibid. Supermancartoon:BylateMarch1943,whenthestorylineappears,JackSchiffwasplayingamoreprominentroleinchoosingthe storylines and the principal writer, Jerry Siegel, had been drafted into the US Army. Wayne Boring was one of the ghost artists aroundthistime cartoonssenttoMackenzie:A.E.MacdonaldtoJackMackenzie,5April1943 ‘youmustnotbring’:LouisMountbatten,‘MemoriesofDesmondBernal’,inD.M.C.Hodgkin,BiographicalMemoirsofFellows oftheRoyalSociety,Vol.26,1980,p.193 ‘Ifprofessionalhistorians’:GPtoGodfreyWildman-Lushington,18December1943 ‘LikePlough,butunlikeHabbakuk’:8June1944,MountbattenPapers,MB1/C209 ‘perhapsnotsoobviously’:GodfreyWildman-LushingtontoGP,7July1944,MountbattenPapers,MB1/C209 ‘Dotheoldtermsstillapply?’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,8June1944,MountbattenPapers,MB1/C209 ‘abraintwenty’:LouisMountbattentoCharlesLambe,26June1943 ‘infullesttouch’:Ibid.,2October1943 MountbattenrejectsGPforSouth-EastAsianCommand:MountbattenPapers,MB1/C51/8 ‘Idonotthinkyouwant’:Hewentontosay:‘ImustconfessthatI’mnottoohappyabouttherevivalofthisconnection.Iamafraid iftheFirstSeaLordgetsholdofitthatthismaytendtodiscredityouinhiseyesandIdonotthinkyoucanaffordtolayyourself open,gratuitously,tohisridicule.’GodfreyWildman-LushingtontoLouisMountbatten,7July1944,MountbattenPapers,MB1/C209 ‘anawkwardcuss’:Harrison,Mulberry,p.39 ‘IsharewithProfessorBernal’:LouisMountbattentoGP,17June1943 ObituaryNoticequotes:GP,MountbattenObituary,13June1943 ‘Ihavealwaysbeen’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,30July1943 ‘Though–damnit–Iwant’:Ibid.,14July1944,MountbattenPapers,MB1/C209 MountbattenasksLloydforpipeline:InterviewbetweenGeoffreyLloydandRobinTousfield,Transcripts,Vol.II,pp.60–61;A.J. Clements,Operation‘Pluto’1942–45(Porthcurno:CableandWirelessPorthcurnoandCollectionsTrust),2005,p.3 GPhadideain1934:‘IdorememberyourPlutoschemefortheAtlantic.Ithinkthedatemusthavebeen1934/5’–JackBeddington toGP,24January1946 ‘Iputituptoone’:GPtoRayMurphy,25July1946 ‘groupofindividualists’:AdlemanandWalton,TheDevil’sBrigade,p.21 ‘probablythemostbold’:LouisMountbattentoGP,undatedfarewellletteronhisdeparturefromCOHQ FSSFunit:BrettWerner,FirstSpecialServiceForce1942–44(NewYork:Osprey),2006,p.13 ‘theworstisstilltocome’:Ibid.,p.22 ‘Weneverheartheseblackdevils’:Ibid.,p.23 M-29TrackedCargoCarrierconsideredasuccess:WhileitdidnotliveuptoPyke’soriginalexpectationstheWeaselwasfasteron 383 383 384 385 snowthanhehadthoughtitmightbe.WhentheOSRDsetuparacebetweenapackofWeaselsandskiersfromthe87thMountain Infantryinthehillsabove,theskiersdidnotcatchtheWeaselsoverthreemiles.FromOSRDConfidentialHistory–USNational ArchivesandRecordsAdministration,RecordGroup227/NC-138/Entry106/Box8,Chapter4:‘TheWeasel’ ‘accomplishedfinethings’:Bush,PiecesoftheAction,p.127 ‘Werealisethatmuch’:Ziegler,Mountbatten,p.215 ‘Itistruetosay’:PapersofJohnHughes-Hallett,ChurchillArchivesCentre,HHLT,p.145 ‘theoriginalthoughts’:LouisMountbattentoGP,undatedfarewellletteronhisdeparturefromCOHQ HowtoLive 388 388 388 389 389 389 390 390 390 390 390 391 392 392 392 392 392 393 393 393 394 395 395–6 396 396 397–8 398 399 399 402 402 402 402 402 402 402–3 403 404 404 404 405 405 ‘Hewasacleverandarticulate’:Canetti,PartyintheBlitz,p.182 ‘Therewouldbeatorrent’:Ibid.,pp.181–3 ‘thehandsomestwoman’:GPNotebook,1943 ‘somethingwhichcompels...forever’:Ibid.September1940 ‘Inowrestrictmyself’:GPtoGordonSchaffer,early1946 ‘SeveraltimesIhad’:GPtoElsieMyers,17February1946,L.H.MyersPapers,MS447/01 ‘thegreatestinventive’:Canetti,PartyintheBlitz,p.180 ‘“tellingstories”aboutmypast’:GPtoJ.D.Bernal,16February1946 Bernalchangeslockonshed:Brown,J.D.Bernal,p.293 ‘Ihaveaveryvividpicture’:MargaretGardinertoGP,c.1945 ‘Itisoutofthequestion’:GPtoMargaretGardiner,c.1944 ‘onwhichtheworldwhollyrelied’:GP,‘TheMobilisationofMuscle’,Economist,11August1945 letter:GP,TheTimes,21September1945 trioofarticles:GP,‘Europe’sCoalFamine:TheProblemAnalysed’,20August1945,‘Europe’sCoalFamine:ASolutionOutlined’, 21August1945,‘Europe’sCoalFamine:TheOrganisationofMuscle-Power’,24September1945,ManchesterGuardian severalarticles:GP,‘UtilisationofMuscle’,Cycling,5September1945 interview:DailyMail,22September1945 ‘theuphilltaskofinnovation’:GPtoBettyBehrens,23Jan1946 ‘ThetruthisthattheSociety’:BosworthMoncktoGP,20August1946 ‘What’stheuse’:GPNotebook,c.1939 newspaperreports:PressreleaseissuedbytheAdmiraltyon28February1946inWashington,Ottawa,andLondon ‘nationaldisaster’:Lancet,1945,vol2,p.413 ‘tired,sufferingfrom’:GPtoElsieMyers,17February1946,L.H.MyersPapers,MS447/01 ‘Unlessourdocument’:JohnCohentoGP,5January1948 ‘Ihavethrowneverything’:GPtoJohnCohen,c.January1948 ‘Icanseeonlyone’:EdwardGlovertoGP,9January1948 ‘Badmanners...mistakes’:Transcriptfor‘TheDynamicsofInnovation’,partof‘WeBegtoDiffer’,BBC,25September1947 ‘Wehavethedecency’:GP,TheTimes,3December1947 ‘Actionslikethis’:Ibid.,18January1948 ‘WhatiswrongwithPyke?’:DonaldTyermantoGP,23February1948 GP’swaitingdeteriorates:TheTimes,26February1948 ‘PykeoftheBack-room’:‘Pykeofthe‘PykeofHabbakuk’,EveningStandard,24February1948 ‘oneofthemostfamous’:‘LastIdeaofMrPyke,the“Boffin”’,DailyGraphic,26February1948 article:NewYorkTimes,26February1948 ‘oneofthemostoriginal’:M.F.Perutz,‘AnInventorofSupremeImagination’,Discovery,May1948 ‘notonlyfreefrom’:ManchesterGuardian,24February1948 BBCbroadcast:Whyte,FocusandDiversions,p.93 ‘anactofintellectual’:Lampe,Pyke,p.213 ‘IfallofPyke’:DavidLampetoNathanIsaacs,11January1960,InstituteofEducation,London–N1/D/3 fellowendocrinologists:TheseincludeDrAmirH.SamMRCP,PhD,DirectorofClinicalStudiesatCharingCrossHospitalandhis colleaguesthere.ProfessorJohnMonsonalsotookthetimetolookatwhatweknowofPyke’smedicalhistoryanddiscussthisover thephone. ‘Iwasmoresubject’:GP,unpublishedmanuscript,12June1941 ‘thoseofamanrelieved’:GP,noteondepression,30August1947 GPasMarxistwhohaslostfaith:GPtoJohnLloydLampe,Pykein,p.198 405 ‘CommunistRussiahasnotyet’:GP,‘Russell’,c.1936 PykeHunt,Part6 407 407 408 410 410 410 411 411 411 411 411 411–2 412 412 413 413 413 414 414 414 415 415 416 416 416 416 417 417 417 418 418 419 419 420 ‘We’llbeback’:AndrewBoyle,ClimateofTreason(London:Hutchinson),1980,p.403 4,605documents:MirandaCarter,Blunt(London:Pan),2002,p.268 Bluntsweepsflat:Ibid.,p.346 ‘ABO’ more significant to moscow: This was the opinion of the KGB defector Oleg Gordievsky. Steven Merritt Miner, Stalin’s HolyWar:Religion,Nationalism,andAlliancePolitics,1941–5(London:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress),2003,p.278 ‘theNKVD’smostremarkable’:ChristopherAndrewandOlegGordievsky,KGB(London:Hodder&Stoughton),1990,p.265 Smollett exaggerates Soviet concerns: Steven Merritt Miner, Stalin’s Holy War: Religion, Nationalism, and Alliance Politics, 1941–45(London:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress),2003,pp.246–247 SmollettmaintainsUSSRisweak:AnthonyGlees,TheSecretsoftheService(London:JonathanCape),1987,p.197 ‘theMinistryofInformation’:ChristopherAndrew,TheMitrokhinArchive(London:AllenLane),1999,p.158 ‘redhaze’:Hyde,IBelieved,p.123 ‘propagandabeyondprice’:Miner,Stalin’sHolyWar,p.272 Smollett initially reports to Philby: Some have suggested that Smollett was recruited by Philby during the mid-1930s – Chapman Pincher,TheirTradeIsTreachery(London:Sidgwick&Jackson),1981,p.114.GordievskyandAndrewthinkhemovedtoLondon in1933‘probablyatMaly’sinstigation,asanidealisticyoungNKVDillegalagentworkingunderjournalisticcoverforaViennese newspaper’.ChristopherAndrewandOlegGordievsky,KGB(London:Hodder&Stoughton),1990,p.334 ‘theembarrassingfriend’:GordonCorera,TheArtofBetrayal(London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson),2011,p.19 BurgesstoldtodropSmollett:MADCHEN,fileno.83792,vol.1,p.216,quotedinNigelWestandOlegTsarev,TheCrownJewels (London:HarperCollins),1998,p.157 ‘cooperationwiththeRussians’:KV2/3040/128a GPandAstorconnection:RichardCockett,DavidAstorandtheObserver(London:AndreDeutsch),1991,p.102 ‘strongimpression’:GeorgeOrwell,‘Orwell’sList’,FO1110/189/PR11/1135G ‘Everythingmustwearadisguise’:JohnleCarré,APerfectSpy(Penguin),Kindleversion,page69 ‘economicmiracle’:SidneyandBeatriceWebb,SovietCommunism:ANewCivilization?(London:Longmans),1935(abooklater describedbyA.G.P.Tayloras‘despiteseverecompetition,themostpreposterouseverwrittenaboutSovietRussia’) possible American Communist Party link: This is based on conversations and correspondence with the historian Michael Weatherburninearly2014,aswellasMichaelWeatherburn,‘Motorcycles,Mattresses,andMicroscopes’,10October2012 ‘Receivedonepacket’:ThesignatureisthatofMargaretStewartandwasfoundalongsidepapersdatingfrom1938 ‘allthatIrequire’:GPDiary,January1937 socialismusingBritishpoliticalmachine:BernardShaw,LabourMonthly,1921 ‘withcautionandjealousy’:GPNotebook,14August1941 ‘abodyofpeople’:Ibid.,‘July20toJuly31,1941’ GPfliestoParis:ContactmighthavecomeaboutthroughPyke’sfriendKonniZilliacusMP,laterdescribedbyJürgenKuczynskias ‘somebodyweturnedtoforvariousends’.–‘ProtokollderBefragungdesGenossenProfessorJürgenKuczynskiam20.7.1953’,in SAPMO-BArch,DY30/IV2/4/123,Bl.180–205;orperhapsthroughPyke’sfriendHaroldLaski,acolleagueofKuczynski’sfather Rene ‘Imadeareport’:JürgenKuczynskitoHermannMatern,22September1950,SAPMO-BArch,DY30/IV2/4/113,p.73(acopyis amongtheKuczynskipapersheldatZentraleLandesbibliothekBerlin,Kuc8–2-M13) ‘Ilearnmorefromthese’:GPDiary,25August1939 ‘HitlerandChamberlainwereboth’:GPUnpublishedMSS,1May1941 £500fromMyers:GPNotebook,c.August1939 ‘Ihadformanyyears’:Ibid.,27August1941 ‘therealwar’:GPDiary,‘WarAims’,12October1939,p.18 ‘asremotefromus’:PeterConradi,AVeryEnglishHero(Bloomsbury),2012,KindleEdition,p.270 ‘Itiseveryone’sduty’:GPDiary,‘WarAims’,12October1939,p.18 GPplanstorecruitcommunisttranslators:30October1939–‘MydearKuczynski,IreturntothesubjectwhichImentionedtoyou atourlastmeetingofhelpina)markingfortranslation,andb)translatingfromforeignlanguages.Iamveryanxioustosecurethe helpofyourfriendsbecauseatthemomentIamgettinghelpfrompeoplewhoseoutlookisrathermoretotheright,andIshallbe compelledtorelyonpeopleofthissortinevitably,ifIcannotgethelpfrompeopleofyoursort.Iwonderthereforeifyoucouldfind time to take the matter up with some of your friends?’ GP to Jürgen Kuczynski, 1 November 1939: ‘I did not make myself quite clearaboutthetranslators.IknowthatmanyofyourfriendscannottranslateintodecentEnglish,butwhatIwantisfolkwhocan mark the significant articles in papers, which we can then get translated by those who can translate but have no political 420 420 421 422 422 423 423 424 424 424 425 427 background.’Kuc2–1-P1402-P1413_0010. GP’sconversationwithWatson:RobertVansittarttoLeoAmery,19July1940 ‘everysignofbeing’:GPDiary,16October1939 ‘excellentreasonfor’:GPtoLeoAmery,3May1940 ‘givinghimallhisstunt’:‘ExtractfromY.2127rePYKEGeoffrey’,15September1942,KV2/3039/76b ‘histerroratthethought’:Craig,MemoirsofaThirtiesDissident ‘Britishsubjectstodo’:KV2/3364/51b ‘stoodclosetotheEnglish’:JürgenKuczynskitoHermannMatern,22September1950,SAPMO-BArch,DY30/IV2/4/113,p.73 (acopyisamongtheKuczynskipapersheldatZentraleLandesbibliothekBerlin,Kuc8–2-M13) ‘confidentialcontact’:Corera,TheArtofBetrayal,p.262 ‘fromfactoriesandtheForces’:Hyde,IBelieved,p.145 ‘to push the Communist’: ‘Extract from censors comment mentioning PYKE, Fritz Heine to R. Katz’, 14 November 1942, KV 2/3039/84b radicalmilitaryideas:GP,‘CommentaryonProposalfortheOccupationofSelectedGerman-occupiedIslandsintheMediterranean byBluff’,18November1943 ‘Iamprimarily’:GPtoRayMurphy,7October1946 Epilogue,or,HowtoThinkLikeaGenius 429 429 429 429 429–30 430–1 431 431 431 431 431–2 432 432–3 433 433 433–4 434 434 435 435 435 437 439 ‘oneofthemostradical’:AnneMarieRafferty,ThePoliticsofNursingKnowledge(London:Routledge),1996,p.157 bicycle-power companies: Electric Pedals: http://electricpedals.com/about-us/ and for the laptop: http://www.alternative-energynews.info/pedal-powered-laptops-afghanistan/bothaccessedon24November2013 pedal-poweredbar:http://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2011/05/pedal-powered-farms-and-factories.htmlaccessedon11March2014 ‘havebeenputtogood’:Mark,FromSmallOrganicMolecules,p.101 Weaseltrackedcarries:TenWeaselswereusedbyateamofCanadiansoldiersprospectingformineralsinCanada’sNorth-western Territories,‘ExerciseMusk-Ox’,ManchesterGuardian,22April1946;SouthPole–Perutz,IWishI’dMadeYouAngryEarlier, p.87 ‘outofallproportion’:MarkDudek,ArchitectureofSchools(Oxford:ArchitecturalPress),2000,p.22 ‘oneofthefactors’:vanderEykenandTurner,AdventuresinEducation,p.18 ‘playedakeyrole’:LauraCameron,‘Science,Nature,andHatred:“FindingOut”attheMaltingHouseGardenSchool,1924–29’, EnvironmentandPlanningD:SocietyandSpace,Vol.24,No.6,2006,pp.851–872 study of enormous value: Adrian Wooldridge, Measuring the Mind: Education and Psychology in England, c. 1860-c.1990 (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress),1994,p.121 ‘aserioussociologicalstudy’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,30July1943 ‘WhatmadePykeso’:Time,8March1948 ‘thesocialandpurposive’:GPtoKingsleyMartin,10March1946 ‘Itiseasiertosolve’:GPtoJonKimche,14January1945 ‘Mytechnique’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,‘Cowthesis’,16April1942 ‘The correct formulation’: GP to Palmer Putnam, US National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the OSRD, Division12,ProjectRecords1940–45,OD-65 ‘Oneofmyideas’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,‘CommentsonCaptainofKoeppenick’,30June1942 ‘Wecannottellwhere’:GP,‘NotesforTalktoCombinedOperationsTrainingSchool’,21January1947 ‘notaquestionofability’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,‘CommentsonCaptainofKoeppenick’,30June1942 ‘wouldratherwage’:NotesonCertainPhasesoftheDevelopmentofWeasel(withexcerptsfromtheProjectLog),13July42,US NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,RecordsoftheOSRD,NC-138,Entry1,OfficeoftheChairman,NDRC,andthe OfficeoftheDirector,OSRD:GeneralRecords,1940–1947,Box55 ‘heartilykicked’:GPtoLouisMountbatten,26April1942 ‘thesportofshooting’:GPtoMichaelFoot,5September1945 ‘evenifyouhad’:DonaldTyermantoGP,23February1948 ‘Ihavetobehave’:GPtoDavidPyke,1February1947 LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS p.12–LionelPyke:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.14–Mandragora,MayWeek1914:copyrightexpired. p.45–TeddyFalk:courtesyoftheLiddleCollection,LeedsUniversity. p.68–Map:©HenryHemming. p.107–GeoffreyPykeonhisyacht:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.111–MargaretPykeintheDailySketch:copyrightexpired. p.115–LionelandMaryPykewiththeirdaughterDorothy:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.117–ThefourPykesiblings:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.121–GeoffreyPykewithhissonDavid:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.123–GeoffreyandMargaretPykeonhoneymoon:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.125–FrankRamsey:photographbyLetticeRamsey,reproducedwithkindpermissionofhergrandsonStephenBurch. p.140–GeoffreyPykeinSwitzerland:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.145–TwoyoungscientistsatMaltingHouse:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.146–SusieIsaacswiththechildrenatMaltingHouse:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.150–GeoffreyandMargaretPykewiththeirsonDavid:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.177–GeoffreyPyke,early1930s:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.179–VIAStruck:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.212–StanleySmith:reproducedwithkindpermissionofhisson,NicholasSmith. p.213–PeterRaleigh:reproducedwithkindpermissionofhisfamily. p.228–RolfRünkel:reproducedwithkindpermissionofhisfamily. p.240–ArmsteadSnowMotor p.246–LordLouisMountbatten:©Corbis. p.269–J.D.Bernal:photographbyLetticeRamsey,reproducedwithkindpermissionofhergrandsonStephenBurch. p.269–SollyZuckerman:©TheRoyalSociety. p.282–GeoffreyPyke,1940s:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.313–VannevarBush:©GettyImages. p.340–ChurchillandMountbatteninCasablanca,1943:©ImperialWarMuseum. p.356,357–TwophotographsofworkonHabbakukatLakeLouise:courtesyofNationalResearchCouncilCanadaArchives. p.364–Churchillinhissirensuit:©ImperialWarMuseum. p.368–GeneralHenryH.Arnold:reproducedwithkindpermissionoftheUSAirForce. p.374,375–Superman™comicstrips:©DCComics. p.379–The‘MFFF’:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. p.384–M-29Weasel p.415–Katznote:courtesyoftheGeoffreyPykeArchive. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Istillrememberthethrillofbeingshownintothedustyattic,insouthLondon,whichcontainedalmostall of Geoffrey Pyke’s papers. It was 2008, and by my side was Pyke’s daughter-in-law, Janet. The sight beforemewasabiographer’sdream–paperswhichhadnotbeentouchedfordecadesgatheredtogether in bulging bin liners, wasp-strewn trunks and khaki folders fastened long ago with pins. Not only did GeoffreyPykewriteprolificallybuthetriedtokeepeverythingheputdownonpaper.Mygreatestdebtin writingthisbookistoJanetPykeandherfamilyforallowingmetoseethesepapersandforproviding assistanceandencouragementoverthelastsixyears. JustmonthsafterIdecidedtowritethislifeofPyke,MI5releasedalmostallofitspapersonhimto the National Archives in Kew. I am grateful both to the Security Service for choosing to do so at this particularmomentandtothestaffattheNationalArchives,particularlyEdHampshire.I’dalsoliketo acknowledge the assistance I received at the British Library, the Lambeth Archive, Nuffield College Library, the new defunct newspaper library at Colindale, Cambridge University Library, the Archive CentreatKing’sCollege,Cambridge,theNationalArchivesandLibraryofCongressinWashingtonDC andtheFranklinD.RooseveltPresidentialLibraryatHydePark,NewYorkState.MichaelMeredithat Eton College Library, Glyn Hughes at the National Meteorological Archive, Catherine Wise at the CambridgeUnionSociety,JohnEntwistleattheReutersArchive,CindyTsegmidandLucyArnoldatthe Leeds University Archive, Dr G. E. Edwards at Pembroke College, Steven Leclair at the National Research Council Canada in Ottawa and Katharine Thomson at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridgewereequallyhelpful. Furtherassistance,forwhichIamindebted,camefromBerndBarth-Rainer,PeterMorris,Georgina Ferry,MichaelWeatherburn,JeremyLewis,PaulCollins,JaredBond,JonathanRay,JanetSayers,Kevin Morgan,GordonCorera,ThomasRünkel,ReinhardMüller,CharlesFaringdon,JohnMonson,AmirSam, John Betteridge, Philip Womack, Lindsay Merriman, Hugo Macpherson, Sarah and Tom Carter, Robin Lane Fox, George Weidenfeld, Artemis Cooper, John Julius Norwich, Leonora Lichfield, Harriet Crawley, Dickie Wallis, Cutler Cook, Alexander Kan, Jeremy Bigwood, Andrew Lownie, Nigel West, Boris Jardine, Nicolas Smith, Karen Ganilsy, Stephen Raleigh, Anthony Hentschel and Charles Leadbeater. JonathanConwayshowedtenacityandskillinhelpingtoshapetheoutlineofthisbook.TrevorDolby at Preface has been hugely supportive throughout and great fun to work with. Will Sulkin was an extraordinarily thoughtful editor. John Sugar and Rose Tremlett at Preface have both been immensely helpful. For this American edition, I’m enormously grateful to everyone at PublicAffairs, including MelissaRaymond,MelissaVeronesi,andinparticular,myeditorBenAdams.Thanksalsotomydad,for hisfeedback,andtoBea,mysister,towhomthisbookisdedicatedandwhohasbeen,fromthestart,full ofimaginativeadvice. Finallymyloveandthankstothetwowomeninmylife,HelenaandourdaughterMatilda,thelatter forsplashingmeeacheveningatbathtime,theformerforherunendinglove,sillinessandunconditional encouragement.Ican’timaginedoinganyofthiswithoutyou–youmakethewholethingworthwhile. INDEX Entriesinitalicsindicatephotographs. abdicationcrisis,1936168–71 AberdeenFreePress,the97 ‘ABO’(Sovietmole)410 Acland,SirRichard222,225,292 Adams,Harry175,210 Adams,Vyvyan292 Addison’sDisease403–4,405,425,437–8 Admiralty13,102,242,243,247,264,344,355,359,360,361,362,363,376,378,381,393–4 AidSpainMovement172,173 AidtoRussiaFund256 AirMinistry210 AircraftShopStewardsNationalCouncil210 AleutianIslands382 Alexander,A.V.242,243 AliensWarServiceDepartment233–4 AmalgamatedEngineersUnion(AEU)209–10 AmalgamatedSocietyofWoodcuttingMachinists176,209–10 AmericanArmyseeUSArmy AmericanCommunistParty414 AmericanInstituteofPublicOpinion192,199 Amery,John242 Amery,Leo222,223,225,241–2,243–4,245,249,254,262,381,426 ‘AmiensDispatches’,191420 Anchluss,1938184,200,333 Andrew,Christopher221,326,411 Angell,Norman190 anti-Semitism119,158–67,170,174,176,181,200–1,259,326,404,413,414,426,428,430 Arendt,Hannah227 ArmsteadSnowMotor239–40,240,274,300 Armstrong,H.E.132–3,434 Arnold,GeneralHenryH.368–9,368 AscensionIsland353 Ashley,Edwina247 Asquith,Herbert97 AssociatedEquipmentCompany(‘AEC’)209–10 AssociationofScientificWorkers381,392 Astbury,Peter408 Astor,David290,413 Atlantic,Battleofthe,1939–45331–2,333–4,345,346,359,366,367,370,372,393,432 Attlee,Clement168 Austria127,184,200,281,330,333,335,348,350 Austria-Hungary16,17,67 AxisPowers191,282 Azores366–7 B-Dienst366 Bacon,Major324–5 Bagot,Milicent256,257–8,259–60,287,290–1,292,293,325,342,409,410,413 Baker,Lettice138 Baldwin,Stanley168,172,244 BalfourDeclaration,1917165,242 Ball,George318 BanffNationalPark,Canada347–8,356 Barbarossa,Operation,1941226,232,233 BasqueChildren’sCommittee172 BBC186,192,205–6,212,220,233,234,270,397,398,402–3,411 Beaverbrook,Lord343 Beddington,Jack157 Beit,SirAlbert165 Bell,Tommy422,425 Benedikt,Friedl388 Berlin16,17,19,21,22,23,30,32,33,34–43,44,50,55,56,57,63,71–5,89,94,95,98,109,136,141,185,203,205,206,207,208,215,226, 258,259,293,413,425,434 Bernal,J.D.‘Sage’333,345,348,381;appearance269,270,271;background270;bemoansBritishrulingclassattitudetowardsrisktaking 270;BrainsTrust270;aspartofGP’sCambridgecircleoffriends141;CombinedOperations,roleat269,270–1,272,287,302–3; CommunistPartymember270;feudwithGP389–90,396;GPconsultsonCombinedOperationssalary255;onGP’sgenius3;onGP’s solutiontoproblemofplanemeasuringit’sowndrift263;Habbakukand345,346,352,353–4,355,356,357–8,359,360,362–3,364,373– 4,375,376,396;India,askedtogoto377–8;Jewishness270,426;MargaretGardinerand387;MI5suggestMountbattendropfrom CombinedOperations327,342;ResearchExperimentalHeadquarterswork270;VIASand174,175,176;warnsGPonWhitehall attitudes244 Betjeman,John157 Bevan,Aneurin394 Beveridge,SirWilliam394 Bismarck332 BletchleyPark366 Bloomsbury,London110,124,134,172,174,184,217,279 BloomsburyGroup110–11,134,154 Blunt,Anthony6,327,408,412,425 Blunt,BishopofBradford,DrAlfred167,168 Bogue-classescortcarriers366 Bourne,Major-General242,243 Bragg,SirLawrence348,361 Brierley,William130 BritainbyMass-Observation200 BritishExpeditionaryForce(BEF)20 BritishGuiana353 BritishSecurityCoordination(BSC)297,330 BritishSocialAttitudesSurvey430 BritishUnionofFascists219 Brooke,FieldMarshalSirAlan275,276,339,340,343,367–8,369,383 Brooke,Rupert13 BrooklynPolytechnicInstitute333 Brown,Andrew270 Buchan,John108,219 BuchenwaldConcentrationCamp229 Buckatzsch,E.J.283 Burgess,Guy6,272,300,407,408,409–10,412,421 Burton,Lal203,206 Bush,DrVannevar299,313,313,314–15,317,318,373–4,383,426 CabinetOffice290,394 Cairncross,John408 Cambridge125,127,130,132,134,135,137,140–1,150–1,158,174,178 CambridgeApostles125 CambridgeHeretics12–14,16,24,49,387 CambridgeMagazine13,22,24,49,104–5,109,111,121–2,140,420 CambridgeReview24 CambridgeScientistsAnti-WarGroup172 CambridgeSpies288,407,410seealsounderindividualspyname CambridgeUnion24,48 CambridgeUniversity7,11,12–14,22,24,40,42,48–9,50,100–2,104,108,109,119,129–30,138,140,164–5,170,172,183,188,206,213, 272,288,348,349,361,387,407,410seealsoPyke,Geoffrey:CambridgeUniversityandunderindividualcollegename Campbell,SirMalcolm262 Canada4,44,223,244,274,278,309,310,311–12,315,319,232,330,335,343,344,345,346–8,349,350,351,352,353,354,359,360–1,362, 370,373,375,382,383,388,424,430 CanadianArmy4,244,274,278,309,310,311–12,323,382,424,430 CanadianDepartmentofFinance347 CanadianSpecialForces4,323,424,430 CanadianWarCommittee361 Canetti,Elias4,255,388 Carter,Bobby230,231–2,388,389 Carter,Deborah231–2,232,388,389 Carter,Tom231 Casablancaconference,1943340,351 Chadwick,James52–3 Chamberlain,SirNeville186,214,222,244,285,360,417 Chesterton,G.K.13,331 ChicagoTribune108 Chubb,Margaret(wife)111,111,112,122–3,123,124,125–8,137,138–9,149,153–4,158,388,400,402 Churchill,Winston241,261,273,295,327,364;AmiensDispatches,reactionto20;BattleoftheAtlanticand331,332,346;becomesPrime Minister222;Diepperaidand339;FirstWorldWar,onoutbreakof16;GP’sprojectsingeneral,on3–4,273;Habbakukand338,341–2, 344,346,351,359,360,362,364,365,366,368–9,376;HarryHopkinsand275–6,277,320;internmentof‘enemyaliens’and221–2; OperationJupiterand308,365;MD1and273;Mountbatten,relationshipwith248,276,339–40,340,341–2,351,372,377;Nyeand261; Ploughand242,273–4,277,278,293,295,305,308,313,320;Pykreteand368–9,370,436;secondfront,reactiontoUScasefor275–6, 308,309;SouthAfricawarcorrespondent21;on‘U-boatperil’346 CIA291,326 Citrine,Walter175–6 Clark,R.T.205–6 Co-OperativeMovement414 ‘Cockade’plan,1943251 Cockburn,Claud161,259,294 Cohen,Israel51 Cohen,John394,395–6,400,401,426,429 ColdWar291 ColonialOffice392 Columbus,Christopher385 CombinedOperations3,6,235–6,242,243;DepartmentofWildTalentswithin270–2,354;DirectorofProgrammes,GPappointed3,6,255, 280;asdreamjobforGP262–3;GP’sabilitytosolveproblemsrecognisedat263–9;GP’sgreatestachievementsin382,383–4;GP attemptstoawakenmindsat268–9;GP’scolleaguesat262,269–71,287;GP’simprovementsto279;GP’srolecomestoanend390; Habbakukand335–40,342–71,372–3,385,387,388,393–4,429,431;insider’saccountofasecretmeetingoffoundinBurgess’sflat 272;KingGeorgeand271;Marshallvisits276;MI5attemptstocurtailGP’sroleat6,255,272–2,280,293–4,324–5,326–7,342,387; MI5suspicionsovermembersof271–2,280,293–4;Mountbattenasheadof248–9,250,252,260,263,269,270,273;Mountbattenleaves 372,376,380,381;Mountbattentakesover248–9;MulberryharboursandseeMulberryharbours;Ploughplan,GPattemptstosellto 235–6,242,243–55;PloughprojectimplementationandseePlough;PLUTOandseePLUTO;RichmondTerraceheadquarters235–6, 252,262,268,269,270,271,272,276,279,290,306,320,322,325,339,342,363,370,376,381,383,384,409,410;GP’ssalaryat255, 262,381;UnitedStatesinvolvementin276 Comintern6,210,225,226,230,256–7,258–9,260,281,293,294,325,406,413,414,422,425 CommunistParty141,175,183,209,210,233,257,270,286,426seealsounderindividualCommunistPartyname CommunistPartyofGreatBritain(CPGB)141,175,183,233,257,271,281,283,286,324,325,342,408,414,423,424,425 ConanDoyle,Arthur70 Conradi,Peter419 ConservativeParty172,222 CopperExportersIncorporated(CEI)143–4,148–9 Corera,Gordon411–12 CountryLife108 CourtauldInstitute408 Coward,Noël343,420 Cox,Oscar5,316–17,318,319,320,426 CriminalInvestigationDepartment(CID)103,107,109 Cripps,SirStafford225,287,364 Crowther,Miss188–9 Cumming,ColonelMalcolm218–19,220–1 Cunningham,Amy188,191,192,194,195,196,206,207 ‘Cyclo-Tractors’391–2,429 CzechRefugeeTrustFund(CRTF)227–8,230 Czechoslovakia184–5,227–8,281 D-Day,6thJune,1944248,251,269,309,346,370,376,381–5 Daalhuis,Olde91 Dahlerus,Birger194 DailyChronicle11,20–6,29,34,42,92,93–4,97,104,112,206,393 DailyExpress144,343,393,402 DailyGraphic402 DailyMail96,286,392 DailyMirror169,393 DailySketch111 DailyTelegraph,The20,24,96 DailyWorker2,181,283,386,424 deCasaMaury,Marquis262 delVayo,JulioÁlvarez181 DemocraticMovement283 Denison,Admiral102–3,105 Denman,Lady158 Denmark15,16,17–19,21,30,67,68,218,219,236 DepartmentEH420,421 DepartmentofPrisonersofWar99 depression/recession,1929157–8 DerStürmer215 Deutsch,Arnold229 DeuxièmeBureau211 Dicker,Miss218 Dieppe,Alliedraidon,1942309,339,343 Dill,FieldMarshalSirJohn244,309,319,321 Discovery402 Dobb,Maurice141,174 Dobb,Phyllis141 Donald,Robert97 Dönitz,AdmiralKarl367 Doschenko,Aleksei210 Dostoyevsky,Fyodor48 DoubleCross53 DragonSchool,Oxford158 Drake,Reginald‘Duck’103,104,106,108 Dudeney,SquadronLeader410 DuffCooper,Alfred167–8 Duncan,BrigadierNigel296,301,302,303,304,305,306,307–8,310,312,313,322,333,396 Economist223,391–2 EdwardVIII,King167–8,169,294 Edward,Margaret388 Edwards,Marjorie158 Eichmann,Adolf227 Einstein,Albert3,34,403,417 Eisenhower,General298,299,304,306–7,308,310,382 ElAlamein,battleof,1942346 Eliassonmotorisedtoboggan300 Eliot,T.S.413 Elizabeth,Princess181 Elliott,Sydney206,284,285,422 Ellison,Wallace57,69 Emsdetten,Germany80,81 Engelbart,Douglas385 Ettinghausen,Maurice50 EveningStandard238,286,363,402 Faber&Faber413 FabianSociety225,392,393 Fabianism141,225,286,392,393,414 FairbanksJr,Douglas262 Falk,Teddy44–6,45,47,50,51,54–6,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,67,68–9,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85–9,90, 91,92,94,97,109,426 FalmouthHarbour102 FalsterIsland,Denmark29,68 Faringdon,Lord175,227 FBI326 Ferdinand,ArchdukeFranz12 Ferrier,Arthur217 FifthDestroyerFlotilla245 FirstSpecialServiceForce(FSSF),American-Canadian(‘Devil’sBrigade’)4,322–3,382–3,385,430seealsoPyke,Geoffrey:Ploughproject FirstWorldWar,1914–186,16–43,44–98,99–113,124,129,158,162,181,247,259 Fitzgerald,F.Scott118 Foot,Michael284 ForIntellectualLiberty172 ForeignOffice106,194,204,205,211,213,407,416 ForschungsabteilungJudenfrage(Nazi‘ResearchDepartmentfortheJewishQuestion’)164 Forster,E.M.140 FortitudeNorth,Operation251 Fox,EdwardLyell18–19,23,34,50 France16,30,31,35,106,185,190,193,203,204,211,214,219,227,241,251,275,282,309,365,370,382,407 Franco,GeneralFrancisco171,172,181 Frankfurt,Germany69,195,197,198,199,201,203,206–7 Frederick,Lieutenant-ColonelRobertT.307,308,310–11,312,323 FreeFrench282 FreeGermanMovement282 ‘FreeMovements’282 FrenchHighCommand(GQG)106 Freud,Sigmund4,114,121,124,130,134,135,137,140,428,434 Fuchs,Klaus291,349 Fulford,Roger342 Fuller,Fred189,203,206,215,259,416 Futurism13–15,29,48,154 Fyfe,Hamilton20 Gallup,Dr/Galluptechnique168,192,199–200,214,416,428 Gardiner,Margaret174,176,387,390 Gellhorn,Martha171 GeneralElection,UK,1945394 GeneralStrike,May,1926141 GeorgeVI,King1,4,169,271 Gerard,JamesW.50,51 GermanArmy35,36,37,159,184–5,219,233,383seealsounderindividualconflictandoperationname GermanCommunistParty(KPD)225,226–7,229,230,282,284,291,292,324,416,417,423,425 GermanNavy19,367 Germany:anti-Semitismand157–67seealsoanti-Semitism;Communismin225,226–7,229,230,282,284,291,292,324,416,417,423,425; FirstWorldWarand18–19,23–43,44–98,100,103,104,105,108,109,113;riseoffascismin157–61,173,180;surveyofattitudes towardswarwithin,GP’s184–216;SecondWorldWarand214–385,387,388–90,391,392,393,394,397,407,411,412,417,418,419, 420,421,422,423,426,429,435,439 Gestapo189,192,195,199,208,226,227,267 Gibbs,Philip21 Gilbertson,John188 Glading,Percy208–9,210,221,257,259 GlasgowPolice106 Glover,DrJames114,129,396 Glover,Edward396,397 Goebbels,Joseph159,201 GogandMagog(landingstagesandbreakwatersconstructedfromPykrete)370 GoldersGreen,London208–9,211,221,290,416 Gollancz,Victor151,284 Goodeve,SirCharles344 Gordievsky,Oleg410 Gorsky,Anatoli412 Goslar,Germany75–6,78 Grant,LieutenantCommanderDouglas350 Granta24 Grey,SirEdward41 GRU(Sovietmilitaryintelligence)226,233,257,284,291 Guernica,bombingof,1937175 GuiltyMen(Foot/Owen/Howard)284 Habbakuk431,435,436;Admiraltypressreleaseon,1946393–4;berg-ship336–7,341–2,344,345,347,348,351,352,355,359,360,361, 362,363–4,365,370,373,429;Bernaland345,346,352,353–4,355,356,357–8,359,360,362–3,364,373–4,375,376,396;Canadian trials344,345,347–66,356,357;Churchilland338,341–2,344,346,351,359,360,362,364,365,366,368–9,376;demiseof366–7,372– 6,377,381,385,387;GPseenassecurityriskon374–5;HabbakukDirectingCommittee344;HabbakukStandingCommittee363–4; legacyof429;Mackenzieand346–8,353,354,355,356,357,358,360,361,364,373,375;Mountbattenand327–8,329,330–1,335–6, 337,338,339–43,344,345–6,350,351,352,354,359,362,363,364,365,366,367–8,369,370–1,373–4,376;nameofproject338–9; plan/proposalfor327–39;‘Pykrete’334–6,349–51,354,356,358–9,360,361–2,367–71,373,377,393–4,429,436;Supermancomicstrip and374–5;UnitedStatesrolein367–71,372–4 Hadley,W.S.100–1,102,426 Haldane,Charlotte141,228 Haldane,J.B.S.141,144,174,284 Hardy,Thomas104–5 Harriman,Averell296,297,341 Harris,‘Bomber’351 Harrison,Tom169–70 HawkerHurricanes366 ‘Hedgehogs’366 Hentschel,Cedric188,190,191,192,196,206 Herzl,Herod165 Hewit,Jackie408 HF-DFmasts366 Hitler,Adolf157,158–9,164,172,183,184–5,186,189,192,193,195,199,200,214,215,226,233,251,256,268,273,287,298,377,391,392, 417 Hoag,Colonel300–1,322 Hobsbawm,Eric172,183 Holland28,67,76,79,80,83,87,89–90,93,94,97,98,207,219 Holmes,Sherlock(fictionalcharacter)70 Holocaust430 HomeOffice99,102,106,222,292 Hopkins,Harry275–6,277,295,297,308–9,316,317,320,321–2,402 Hopkins,Mrs1,2,402 Horder,Mervyn(laterLord)217 HotelAdlon,Berlin34–5 HoughtonMifflin108 Howard,Peter284 Hughes-Hallett,CaptainJohn384 Hunter,Harry287 Hyde,Douglas283–4,424 ice,ingenioususeofseePyke,Geoffrey:Habbakuk Illustrious,HMS248 InWhichWeServe(movie)343 India222,377,380 IngloriousBastards(movie)4,323 InsideNaziGermany230,292 InstituteofPsychoneurology’s‘Children’sHome’134 Inter-StatesCommitteeofCommunistGroupsinGreatBritain(ISC)281,282,422 InternationalBrigades173 Ironside,SirEdmund193 Isaacs,Nathan129,130,138,139,144,149,426 Isaacs,Susie129–30,134–5,136,137,138,144–5,146,149,151,154,396 IsleofMan223,226 Ismay,General366 Italy67,126,172,244 Japan191,351,365,370 JasperNationalPark,Canada347,354–5 Jennings,Humphrey169,170 Jews:ancient240;English160,165;German158–64,199,214,242;Sephardic28,160;SouthAfrican165–6seealsoanti-Semitismand Pyke,Geoffrey:Jewishness Joachim,Maud388 Jobs,Steve385 Jodel,General268 Johnson,Lyndon318 Jubilee,Operation309 Judy(dog)158,171 Jupiter,Operation308,365 KaiserWilhelmInstituteforPhysics34 Kamnitzer,Heinz223,224,225,229–30,234,292,387,389,413,423 Kapitza,Peter140 Kaptelsev,Mihel210 ‘Kaspar’(JosefOttovonLaemmel)324,325 Katz,Otto414–15,415,424 KeatsGrove,Hampstead230,231,388 Keilin,ProfessorDavid164–5 Kell,MajorVernon99,100,102,109–10,211 Kelly,HMS343 Kennedy-Purvis,AdmiralSirCharles360,364 Kettle,DrArnold183 Keynes,Maynard110,124,125,137–8 KGB410 King,Admiral351,369,372–3,375,383 King’sCollege,Cambridge125,137,183 Kisch,Richard259 Klein,Melanie139–40 Kneschke,Karl417 Knox,CaptainJohn297,303,305,321 Koenen,Wilhelm227,416,417 Korda,SirAlexander363 Kraul,CaptainSidney223 Kuczynski,Jürgen291,292,293,326,349,389,416,417,419,423,425,426 Kuczynski,Marguerite291 Kuczynski,Sonya291 labour,movement,British174–6,186,415–16 LabourParty168,175,180,186,285,391,394,414,435 LakeLouise,Canada330,356,357,357,358 LakeOrta,Italy126 Lamb,Edith188,203,206,207 Lambe,SirCharles378 Lampe,David403,404 Lane,Allen284,292 Laski,Harold174 LauraSpelmanRockefellerTrust151 LawnRoadFlats,Hampstead229 Lawrence,T.E.273 leCarré,John256,413 LeagueofNations165–6,200 Leblanc,Maurice70 LeftBookClub284 LeftNews181 LeighLights366 Lennox,Colonel293 Lessig,Herbert227 Let’sFindOut(film)144–8 Libya21,353 Liddell,Guy257,293,311,408 LiddellHart,Basil238,241,293 Lindemann(later,LordCherwell),Frederick241,242,243,277,327,341,342,344,346,352,364,426 Lipschitz,Mrs218 Lloyd,Geoffrey382 Lloyd,Margaret388 Lody,Carl47 LondonMetalExchange128,143 LondonSchoolofEconomics(LSE)126,174,188,194 Longworth,J.R.209 LosAlamos299 Lubin,Isidor315–16,317,318,320,426 Lucas,F.L.174 Luftwaffe218,337 Lupin,Arsène(fictionalcharacter)70,75,78 LusitaniaVerein(theLusitaniaSingingClub)69 Lyttelton,Oliver352 Lytton,Henry22 Lytton,Lord165 Macartney,Wilfred325 MacDonald,Ramsay110 Mackenzie,Jack346–8,353,354,355,356,357,358,360,361,364,373,375 Maclean,Donald407 MacNarney,Lieutenant-GeneralJosephT.298,304,308 Madge,Charles169,170 Malmoharbour,Sweden15–16,23,64 MaltingHouseSchool,Cambridge114,120–40,141,142,144–8,145,150–2,153,165,170,297,312,326,430–1;brightesttoddlersin Cambridge,attracts132;closureof153;‘co-investigators’at133,146;discoverymustbealliedtoutility/heuristicsand132–3;experience ofchildrenat131–2;financialproblems121,151,152;gardenat131;ideafor114,120–40;impactonBritisheducationof132,151; internationalinstituteforeducationalresearch,GPdecidestoturnintoan144;lackofclassrooms131;needforboundariesat147–8; prestigeof139–40;problemswithchildrenat134–7,147–8;promotionalfilm(Let’sFindOut)144–7;punishmentsat134–5,136; questions,answeringofat132;recordingofexperiencesat132,134;recruitment128–30;scientificexperimentand131,132;Susie Isaacs,GP’saffairwith137–9;SusanIsaacsresignsfrom149 MammothUnsinkableVesselwithfunctionsofaFloatingAirfield336 ManchesterGuardian95,108,122,181,185,186,192,197,244–5,392,402 Mander,Geoffrey292 Mandragora14,14,22 ManhattanProject299,317 Margaret,Princess181 Marinetti,Filippo13–15,21 Mark,ProfessorHerman333,335,353,426,429 Marshall,General275,276,277,278,295,297,298,305,308,309,321,383,438 Martin,Kingsley174,175 Marx,Karl140 Marxism141,257,286,294,405,415 ‘MASK’decrypts257 MassObservationmovement1,4,167–71,200,430 Massey,Vincent351 Masterman,John52–3 Max-ClemensCanal80,81–2,83 MayoClinic,Rochester,Minnesota330,339,345,404 McCloy,JohnJ.317 McFadyean,SirAndrew164 McNaughton,General244 McSweeney’s108 MD1273 Melchett,Lord165 MerrittMiner,Steven411 Meusel,ProfessorAlfred284,292 MI5(BritishSecurityService)49–50,98,99,100,102,103,104,105,165,181–2,208,215,217,219;BBranch257;B.2.b.section208–9;B.6 section272,287;BurgessandBlunt,uncoversGP’sconnectionsto6,272,407–27;CBranch324;calculusofsuspicioncalibratedby class288;Cambridge,suspicionsarousedaboutGPin100–2;classifieddocumentsonGPreleased5–6,408;ColonelMalcolmCumming investigatesGP218–21;CombinedOperations,attemptstocurtailGP’sroleat6,255,272–2,280,293–4,324–5,326–7,342,387;CPGB actionpropaganda,suspectsGPasmaninchargeof282–94;EBranch258;F.2bsection256;FirstWorldWar,suspectsGPasGerman spyin6,49–50,98,99–108,110,111,112,113;GBranch103;gapinGP’sstoryfrom1929–34and259;GermanCommunistsinBritain, wartimeoutlookon232–3,234;Gladingtrialand208,209–10,257;GoldersGreen,investigatesGP’sconnectiontowomeninwhoclaims tobepartofaforeignsecretservice208–9,221,416;informants6,232–3,257;interceptGP’sletters6,102,424;KamnitzerandRünkel, investigateGP’sconnectionsto223–4,229–30,232–4;‘knownCommunist’,GPdescribedas217,221;MarjorieWatsonandseeWatson, Marjorie;membersofpublicreportsuspicioussoundscomingfromGP’sflat217,218,221,284,285,421–2;‘MrStevens’,suspectsGPto be209;nochargebroughtagainstGP6;Personal/SpecialFileonGP99,100,111,112,113,122,234,271,311;surveillanceofGP6,287– 94;sailingactivitiesinCornwall,observesGP’s102–6;Scandinavia,stopsGPfromgoingto107–8;strugglestocopeinearlydaysof SecondWorldWar221;‘ProfessorP’,suspectsGPofbeingaseniorCominternofficialworkingundercoverforSovietUnionas6,256– 60,281–94,387,406,407–27;Thomsoninvestigates104–6,109–10;VIASas‘underCommunistcontrol’,describes210–11 MI626,106,205,211,407;SectionD251;MI(R)251;ZOrganisation194–5seealsoSIS MI1c(laterknownasMI6orSIS)106 MinistryofEconomicWarfare290,410 MinistryofHomeSecurity263,270 MinistryofInformation170,242,290,293,410,411,413 MinistryofSupply269,392 MinistryofWarTransport387,391 MO5(g)99,100,102 Molotov,Vyacheslav284,306,309,417 Monck,Bosworth393 Monckton,SirWalter242,287 Monitors(non-propelledvesselsmadefromPykrete)370 Monson,ProfessorJohn404 Montagu,Ivor140–1,284 MonteLaDifensa383 MontrealEngineeringCompany361 Moore,Arthur20 Moore,G.E.132 Morrison,Herbert225 MoscowNationalBank141 Moses,Brigadier-GeneralRaymondW.299,314 Mosley,Oswald159,172 Mountbatten,LordLouis409,410,412,431,435,437;AlliedraidonDieppeand309,339,343;ancestry247;anti-Semiticsentiment,incapable of426;appearance246,247,252,309;appointedSupremeAlliedCommander,South-EastAsia372,377;Bernal/Zuckermanand269, 270;Churchill,relationshipwith248,273,339–40,340;CombinedOperations,takesovercommandof248–9;DirectorofProgrammesat CombinedOperations,offersGPjobof255,260fourthChiefofStaff,appointed276;GP’srelationshipwith3,4,246–7,249–50,252–5, 261,263,270,271,274–5,279–80,293,294,295,296,320,321,322,325–6,373–4,376,377–9,380,381,385,389,396,438;Habbakuk and328,329,330,331,335–6,337,338,339,341–3,344,345–6,350,351,352,354,359,362,363,364,365,366,367–8,369,370–1,373– 4,376;KingGeorgeVIand271;leavesCombinedOperations381;MI5’sattemptstoforceGPoutofCombinedOperationsand293–4, 325–6,327;Mulberryharboursand370,383;navalcareer247–8;Ploughprojectand235,245,249,250,252,261,263,272,273,274–5, 276,277,278,279,295,296,297,299,301,302,303,306,308–9,310,311,313–14,317,319,320,321,322,328;PLUTOand370,381–2, 383 Murphy,Peter294 Mussolini,Benito172,183 Myers,Elsie388,389,400,401 Myers,Leo285,286,291,389,400,401,417 Nachrichten-Abteilungor‘N’(GermanAdmiralty’sintelligenceservice)99,103 Napier,AdmiralCharles102–3 Nation128,162,166,168,169,170,174,175,392 NationalCouncilofLabour186 NationalGeographicMagazine332 NationalResearchCouncilofCanada347 Nature129 Nazi-Soviet/Molotov-RibbentropPact,1939203–4,208,215,219,284–5,417 Needham,Joseph178 NegrettiandZambra209,210,220,415 Neill,A.S.134 Nevinson,Henry110 NewStatesman128,162,166,168,169,170,174,175,290,392 NewYorkTimes151,402 Newfoundland361 NHS(NationalHealthService)4,394–5,397,429 Nicholson,Ben157,390 Nicolson,Harold119 Nijmegenbridgehead383 1917Club(Sohomembers’club)110–11,157 NKVD225,226,227,229,230,233,257,262,291,407,408,410,412,413,414 Noel-Baker,Philip391 Normandylandings381–2 NorthAfrica250–1,352 NorthAtlanticIcePatrol332 Norway12,13,25,218,219,222,236–44,251,252,261,266,272,273,274,277,278,306,308,349,365,424 Nunn,SirPercy144,152 NunnMay,DrAllan284 Nye,Lieutenant-GeneralArchie261,262,277,296 Observer413 OfficeforNationalStatistics430 OfficeofLend-LeaseAdministration,U.S.316 OfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment(OSRD),U.S.298,299,301,304,305,313,314,316,317,318,319,320,329,373,374,435 OfficialSecretsAct325,408 Ogden,C.K.49,140 OldViennaCafé,London289,290 OnchanInternmentCamp,IsleofMan223 Orcus142–3 Orwell,George119,286,287,397,407,413 OSS291,326 Overlord,Operation367,381–4seealsoD-Day Owen,Frank284 Palestine229 PalestinianCommunistParty229 Parker,John225 Parks-Smith,Major249 Parliament,U.K.13,20,222,293,398 PatriciaLake,Canada354,356,361 Peake,Osbert222–3 PearlHarbor332 PearsInstitutefortheStudyofAntisemitism,BirkbeckCollege,UniversityofLondon430 PembrokeCollege,Cambridge100 Penguin284 ‘People’sArmy’286 PermitOffice106 Perris,Ernest20–1,23–5,29,34,37,38,42,92,94,104,105,106,108 Perutz,Max348–51,361–2,370,402,426 Petrie,SirDavid327 PetroleumWarfareDepartment382 Philby,Kim211,229,408,411–12 Piaget,Jean139 Pippard,Professor344 Plato:TheDefenceofSocratesvii Ploestioilfields,Romania264 Plough277,280,281,295–323328,333,334,349,373,377,382,412,422,424,427,429–30;aimsof240–1,251–2;Ameryreceivesplanfor 241–2;American-Canadianco-operationover312,322–3;birthofidea236–41;Bushopposes313–15,318–19,320–1;Churchilland242, 273–4,277,278,293,295,305,308,313,320;CombinedOperations,GPattemptstoconvinceofvalidityof235–6;costof278;Duncan attemptstowrestcontroloffromGP296,301,302,303,304,305,306,307–8,310,312,313,322,333,396;Frederickand307,308,310– 11,312,323;guerillaforce4,238–9,240,244,250,251,252,255,261,262,264,274,277,299,304,310,311–12,320,322–3,382–3,385, 430;Mountbattenand235,245,249–55,261,263,272,273,274–5,276,277,278,279,295,296,297,299,301,302,303,306,308–9,310, 311,313–14,317,319,320,321,322,328;nameof277;planrejectedbyCombinedOperations241–3;questionsoverpracticalitiesof264– 5;resignationletter,GP’s301–6;revisedandexpandedproposal244;secretpapersgomissing306;snowasmilitaryelement,treatmentof 237–8;snowmobile,revolutionary239–40,243,250,252,261,264,265–8,273,274,277,299,300,301,304,305,307,318,320,383;Soviet involvementin,GPencourages274–5;U.S.Army,GPattemptstoconvinceofvalidity295–323;UnitedStatesrolein273–80,294,295– 323;Vice-ChiefsofStaffaccept261–2;WedderburnandseeWedderburn,MajorE.A.M.;WhiteHouse,GPattemptstobypassUS Armywithapproachto315–21 PLUTOpipelines3,370,381,382,383,385,430 Poland,Germaninvasionof193–4,204,214,218 Pole,Jack151 Pollitt,Henry281,325,422 Pope,Major-General312 PopularFront,Spanish171,172,175,178,414–15 Portal,AirChiefMarshalSirCharles276,369 Portugal366 Pound,SirDudley276,372 Power-DrivenRivers377 PrinceofWales332 PrittKC,D.N.‘Johnny’142,152 ‘ProfessorHiggins’191,203,214,215,222,223,224,225,227,228,228seealsoRünkel,Rolf psychoanalysis4,114,115,121,127,129,130,134,135,137,138,139,140,396,415,428 Punch108,109 Purchase,Bentley403 Putnam,Palmer299,320,322 Pyke,David(son)112,114,120–1,121,125–6,127,129,130,134,139–40,144,154,158,206,207,389,400,401–2,428,431 Pyke,Dorothy(sister)115,117,117 Pyke,Evelyn(sister)117,117 Pyke,Geoffrey: anti-Semitism,investigatesandattemptstoexplain159–67;attempts personalscientificexplanationof166–7;GP’sownJewishnessand160–1;proposesinternationalcentretodealwithquestionof163–6; SouthAfrica,fundraisingin165–6;Turkishgovernment’sgenocidalassaultonArmenianTurks,1915and162,430;‘witches’in MedievalEuropeand161–3,166 CambridgeUniversity7,11,12–14,22,24,40,42,48–9,50,100–2,104,108,119,164–5,170,183,213,288,348,349,361,387;academic performanceat24;abilitiesmakehim‘conspicuous’at11;CambridgeMagazine,jobat104–5,109,111,121–2,140,420;Heretics 12–14,16,24,49,387;Marinetti/Futurism,enthusiasmfor13–15;returnstoafterFirstWorldWar100–1;socialcircle125–6,140–1, 150–1,158,174;Union24,48;walkingtourofNorwayandSweden12,14–17,23,64 characterandappearance:anti-warstanceandoppositiontoprincipleofdefensivenationalism104,105,109,111,121,284;appearance1, 4,11,28,51,64,117,119,123,140,158,177,184,190,198–9,235,253,261,282,288,298,386;atheism51,54,118,125;characters, adoptsstringof70–9,83–4,89–90;Communismand141,175,176,209,210–12,217–18,219,221–34,235,244–5,255,256–60,270, 271–2,281–94,324,325,327,363,380,389,405,407–27;deathoffather,effectupon13,20,119,127;detectivefiction,loveof69– 70;eccentric1,5,61,190,196,326,378,438;FabianismandseeFabianism;fame5,111;gadfly5,298;Jewishness27–8,51,54,75, 101,107,113,117,118,119–20,122,158,159,160–4,214,288,425–6;jokes/laughter,useof5,160,179–80,271,329,389;lackof discipline118;languageskills22,26,31,35,39;nationality,claimstohaveno104,105;optimism51,55,56,193,300;pessimism51; risktaking7,16,42,56,79,80,120,154,187,188,189,199,278,308,316,345,359,362;scientificapproachtolife121,123–4;sell ideas,abilityto182,249–55,436–7;setoflives1–2;sexualperformance139;speakingskills,public24,48,166,298;thinkingwithout fearoffailure15–16,23,63,64,91;turningonthoseclosesttohim,capacityfor389–90;voice1,24,190,388;womenand388–9see alsoChubb,MargaretandIsaacs,Susie;youthfulframeofmind,remainsin396–7,438seealsohealthandmentalhealth childhoodandschooldays:adolescence6–7,15,24;bulliedatschool11,118–20,160–1;childhood11,20,114–20,139,154,160–1,338, 434,438;familybackground27–8,97seealsofamily;hometutoring119;StEdmund’s,Hindhead118;WellingtonCollege13,118–20, 160–1,288,338,426 CombinedOperations3,6,235–6,242,243;abilitytosolveproblemsrecognisedat263–9;achievementat381–5;attemptstoawaken mindsat268–9,385;colleaguesin262,269–71,287;DepartmentofWildTalentsand270–2,354;DirectorofProgrammes,appointed 3,6,255,280;dreamjobfor262–3;endofjobat381;improvementsto279;Habbakukand335–40,342–71,372–3,385,387,388, 393–4,429,431;insider’saccountofasecretmeetingoffoundinBurgess’sflat272;MI5attemptstocurtailroleat6,255,272–2, 280,293–4,324–5,326–7,342,387;Mountbattenasheadof248–9,250,252,260,263,269,270,273;Mountbattenleaves372,376, 380,381;Mountbattentakesover248–9;MulberryharboursandseeMulberryharbours;‘NewIdeasfortheArmy’268–9;‘Obituary NoticeofLordLouisMontbatten’378–9;Ploughprojectimplementationandsee‘Plough’project;Ploughplan,attemptstosellto 235–6,242,243–55;PLUTOandseePLUTO;salaryat255,262,381seealsoCombinedOperations escapefromGermanyduringFirstWorldWar66,67–98,102,103,113;artofsolvingproblems,introductiontoduring91;characters, formulationofstringof70–9,83–4,89–90;confoundingofexpectationsand67;detectivefiction,influenceof69–70,91;Emsdetten, timein80;famefor97–8;GildehauserVenn,timein86–7;Goslar,pretendstobehikingin75–6;heartattack,mild86,88;Holland, crossesinto80–90;planningof67–9,68;presscoverageof92–7;TeutoburgForest,escapethrough76–80;theftandnatureof disguise,understandingof78–9,91 family:brothersandsistersseeunderindividualfamilymembername;fatherseePyke,Lionel;marriage(toMargaretChubb)111,112, 122–3,123,124,125–8,137–9,149,153–4,158,388,400,402;motherseePyke,Mary;son(David)112,114,120–1,121,125–6,127, 129,130,134,139–40,144,154,158,206,207,389,400,401–2,428,431seealsounderindividualfamilymembername finances:crashin/bankruptcy148–54,157–8,175,297,358;debt128–9,148,164;debtswrittenoff164;desperatenatureof176; handoutsfromfriends,surviveson157;inheritance140,157,381;MaltingHouseSchooland121,151,152;metalstrader7,128–9, 140–3;salaryatCombinedOperations255,262,278,381;surveyofGermanattitudestowarand200;poverty158;studyoffinancial markets124,126,128;tax-reductionscheme142–3,152;unemploymentbenefitfromAssociationofScientificWorkers392;unpaid workatMinistryofWarTransport391–3;wealth128–9 genius3;‘auto-Socratictechnique’264–5;approachtoquestionand7,53,174,186,402,432;attachmenttoatentativesolution,steers awayfrom435;beguiling,self-destructive5,6;beliefthateverythingispossible15;boldnessand5,7,15–16,130,162,182,382; challengingwhatyouhavebeentold,talentfor63,432–3;cleverness11,109,113,254,326,388;dailyagonyofscrutinisingaccepted facts53,91,433;foolish,preparedtolook7,17–18,187,241,298,432;forcomingupwithradicalideas,notforseeingthemthrough tocompletion5,167,278,319,385;formulationofquestions/problems28,70,91,181,238,433;intellectuallyadventurous181,432; intuitiveandcrystal-sharpunderstandingofwhatmattered,whyitmatteredandwhatheasaprivatecitizencoulddoaboutit5; invent,beginsto180;laughterassourceofinspiration201–3,298,329,337–8;managementskills,lackof179–80;minespastfor historicalanalogies180,181,433;noexpertiseoruniversitydegree4–5;post-mortem/castingeyebackonproject437;protecting ideasfromopposition435–6;refusaltotakeanyassumptionsforgranted63;reversal,weaknessfor166,434–5;risktaking7,16,42, 56,79,80,120,154,187,188,189,199,278,308,316,345,359,362;seeksinspirationfromworldaroundhim181,433–4;sellideas, abilityto182,249–55,436–7;solveproblems,abilityto91,262–9;theftandnatureofdisguise,understandingof70–9,83–4,89–90, 91;thinkingwithoutfearoffailure15–16,23,63,64,91seealsounderindividualprojectname Habbakukproject431,435,436;Admiraltypressreleaseon,1946393–4;Berg-ship336–7,341–2,344,345,347,348,351,352,355,359, 360,361,362,363–4,365,370,373,429;Bernaland345,346,352,353–4,355,356,357–8,359,360,362–3,364,373–4,375,376, 396;Canadiantrials344,345,347–66,356,357;Churchilland338,341–2,344,346,351,359,360,362,364,365,366,368–9,376; demiseof366–7,372–6,377,381,385,387;GPseenassecurityriskon374–5;HabbakukDirectingCommittee344;Habbakuk StandingCommittee363–4;legacyof429;Mackenzieand346–8,353,354,355,356,357,358,360,361,364,373,375;Mountbatten and327–8,329,330–1,335–6,337,338,339–43,344,345–6,350,351,352,354,359,362,363,364,365,366,367–8,369,370–1,373– 4,376;nameofproject338–9;plan/proposalfor327–39;‘Pykrete’334–6,349–51,354,356,358–9,360,361–2,367–71,373,377, 393–4,429,436;Supermancomicstripand374–5;UnitedStatesrolein367–71,372–4 healthandmentalhealth:Addison’sDisease,possible403–4,405,425;bipolardisorder,possible404–5;depression46,54,76,397,403, 405;‘doublepneumonia’,contracts51–2,60,153,403–4;heartattack,mild86,88;heart,weak58,63,75,78,83,86,88;periodic boutsofchronicinertia153;mentalbreakdown49,152–4,157–8,259;mentalcondition,fragile48–9,52,100–1,163,329,403,405; mysteryillnesses127,152–3,330,345,358,388,397,403–5;psychoanalyst,sees114,129,130,168,180,396;suicide1–3,5,400–6; suicideattempt,possible153 homes:Albany,London244–5,345,387;Cambridge125–8;childhood/family13,20,110,119;Devil’sPunchbowl,SurreyHills,cottagein 157–8,168,171,209,259;DownshireHill,Hampstead387–8,389,390;GordonSquare,London124,125;GreatOrmondStreet, London174,179,185,188,190,192,195,206,209,218,262,387,421;Piccadilly,London285–6,344–5;StJames’sSquare,London 285,288,289,387;Steele’sRoad,Hampstead1–3,387,389,391,395,402 MaltingHouseSchool114,120–40,141,142,144–8,150–2,153,165,170,297,312,326,430–1;brightesttoddlersinCambridge,attracts 132;closureof153;‘co-investigators’at133;discoverymustbealliedtoutility/heuristicsand132–3;experienceofchildrenat131–2; financialproblems121,151,152;gardenat131;ideafor114,120–40;impactonBritisheducationof132,151;internationalinstitute foreducationalresearch,GPdecidestoturnintoan144;lackofclassrooms131;needforboundariesat147–8;prestigeof139–40; problemswithchildrenat134–7,147–8;promotionalfilma(Let’sFindOut)144–7;punishmentsat134–5,136;questions,answering ofat132;recordingofexperiencesat132,134;recruitment128–30;scientificexperimentand131,132;SusieIsaacs,GP’saffair with137–9;SusanIsaacsresignsfrom149 MassObservationmovement,asfatherof4,167–71,200,430 Ploughproject277,280,281,295–323328,333,334,349,373,377,382,412,422,424,427,429–30;aimsof240–1,251–2;Amery receivesplanfor241–2;American-Canadianco-operationover312,322–3;birthofidea236–41;Bushopposes313–15,318–19, 320–1;Churchilland242,273–4,277,278,293,295,305,308,313,320;CombinedOperations,GPattemptstoconvinceofvalidityof 235–6;costof278;DuncanattemptstowrestcontroloffromGP296,301,302,303,304,305,306,307–8,310,312,313,322,333, 396;Frederickand307,308,310–11,312,323;guerillaforce4,238–9,240,244,250,251,252,255,261,262,264,274,277,299,304, 310,311–12,320,322–3,382–3,385,430;Mountbattenand235,245,249–55,261,263,272,273,274–5,276,277,278,279,295,296, 297,299,301,302,303,306,308–9,310,311,313–14,317,319,320,321,322,328;nameof277;planrejectedbyCombined Operations241–3;questionsoverpracticalitiesof264–5;resignationletter,GP’s301–6;revisedandexpandedproposal244;secret papersgomissing306;snowasmilitaryelement,treatmentof237–8;snowmobile,revolutionary239–40,243,250,252,261,264, 265–8,273,274,277,299,300,301,304,305,307,318,320,383;Sovietinvolvementin,GPencourages274–5;U.S.Army,GP attemptstoconvinceofvalidity295–323;UnitedStatesrolein273–80,294,295–323;Vice-ChiefsofStaffaccept261–2; WedderburnandseeWedderburn,MajorE.A.M.;WhiteHouse,GPattemptstobypassUSArmywithapproachto315–21postwarlifeanddeath,1945–8:deathpenalty,writeslettertoTheTimes onabolitionofthe,1947429;NHSrecruitment,involvementin4,394–5,397,429;suicide1–3,5,400–6;UNICEF,writeslettertoThe Timesongovernment’sdecisionnottodonateto,1948398–9,429 RuhlebenTrabrennbahnprisoncamp46–66,69,71–2,73,74,75,76,80,87,91,93,94,97,98,100,101,107,108–9,119,120,126,153, 157,160,223,293,403–4;accountofincarcerationinandescapefrom(ToRuhleben–AndBack)100,108–9,128,160;arrivalin 44,46–7,50–1;conditionsin45;‘doublepneumonia’,contractsin51–2,60,153,403–4;escapefrom52–66,67,69,71–2,74–5,87, 91,93,94,97,98,100,101,102,103,107,108–9,113,119,120,126,160,223,293,403–4;escapesdeathpenalty47–8,49–50;Falkin andseeFalk,Teddy;Jewishbarrack51,157,160,403–4;lifein45;mentalconditionin48–9,52;mixofprisonersin44–5,52–3; publiclectureinaidof101;sendsfoodparcelstoafterescape100 securityservicessuspicionsover/Communistconnections(PykeHunt):anti-fascistactivitiespromoteideaofSovietinvolvement413–16; BurgessandBlunt,connectionsto6,272,407–27;calculusofsuspicioncalibratedbyclass288;Cambridge,suspicionsarousedabout GPin100–2;chalk-sheltercampaignand283–4;classifieddocumentsonGPreleased5–6,408;ColonelMalcolmCumming investigatesGP218–21;CombinedOperations,attemptstocurtailroleat6,255,272–2,280,293–4,324–5,326–7,342,387; CombinedOperations,GPseemstosupplydetailsofmeetingsin408–13;CPGBactionpropaganda,suspectedasbeinginchargeof 282–94;CPGB,conversationswithinoverGP’sinfluencewithMountbatten325–6;FirstWorldWar,asGermanspyin6,49–50,98, 99–111,112,113;gapinGP’sstoryfrom1929–34and259;Gladingtrialand208,209–10,257;GoldersGreen,connectiontowomen inwhoclaimstobepartofaforeignsecretservice208–9,221,416;ISCand282–3;JürgenKuczynski,connectionto291,292,293, 326,349,389,416,417,419,423,425,426;KamnitzerandRünkel,connectionsto223–4,229–30,232–4;‘knownCommunist’, describedas217,221;KPDandseeKPD;MarjorieWatson,connectionwithseeWatson,Marjorie;MI5andseeMI5;MI6andsee MI6;newsagency,creationof284–6,419–22,425;nochargesbroughtagainst6;Personal/SpecialFileon,MI599,100,111,112,113, 122,234,271,311;‘ProfessorHiggins’and191,203,214,215,222,223,224,225,227,228seealsoRünkel,Rolf;‘ProfessorP’, suspectedofbeingaseniorCominternofficialworkingundercoverforSovietUnionas6,256–60,281–94,387,406,407–27; Rothschildassesses326–7,425–6;soundscomingfromGP’sflat,membersofpublicreportsuspicious217,218,221,284,285,421–2; SpecialBranchand6,18,103,189,217,218,219,230,232,257,258,281,282,285,292,293,387,391,406;surveillanceof6,287–94; Thomsoninvestigates104–6,109–10;VIASas‘underCommunistcontrol’,MI5views210–11;visionoffutureassocialistandanticapitalist,notCommunist418–19 surveyofGermanattitudestowar184–216;aimofplan192–4;birthof184–7;fundingof215;Gallupand199–200,214;Germans interviewed195,196,197,203;GPmeetsinterviewersinGermany198–9;GP’striptoParisduring190–1,215;interviewersjourney intoGermany192,194–5,199,200–1,215;MarjorieWatsonandseeWatson,Marjorie;MI5suspicionsover189,208–9,258; ‘ProfessorHiggins’and191,203,214,215;profitsfrom200;recruitmentofinterviewers187–8;resultsof214–15;resultsof,getting outofGermany201–8 VoluntaryIndustrialAidforSpain(VIAS)171–82,210–11,227,312,414–15,415,430;AdvisoryCommittee175,176;cells178,179; formationof174;GPasterriblemangerof179–80;GPcanvassesopinionson174–5;ideaforscheme171–4;MI5viewsas‘under Communistcontrol’210–11;motorcyclesidecar,GPdesigns7,180;pedal-poweredlocomotive,GPdevelopsplansfor180;‘social entrepreneurs’,GPdescribesvolunteersas179;sphagnummoss,GPdistributesguidetocollectinganddistributing181;TUCand 175–6,177;voluntarism,GPdescribesasatriumphofsmall-scale178 warcorrespondent:AmericanambassadorJamesW.GerardinvolvementinarrestandreleasetoRuhlebenTrabrennbahn47–8,49–50; arrestedandimprisoned(solitaryconfinement)38–43,46,48–50,66,109,136,163;Berlin,timespentinasDailyChronicleSpecial Correspondent34–43;DailyChronicleSpecialCorrespondentinBerlin,gainsjobas22–6;EdwardLyellFoxand18–19,23,34,50; mentalconditioninjail48–9;politicalepiphanyinjail49,141,286–7;smuggleshimselfintoGermany25–34;RaymundEggleton,gains Americanpassportas29–43,100;recordstroopmovementsinCharlottenburgPark36–8,39,47,65;ReutersSpecialCorrespondent inCopenhagen17–19,20,21,92,100 writing:advertisingcopyforShell,writes157;bookreviews22;journalism17–43,94,96,235,283,284,286,287,290;poetry22;short stories22;ToRuhleben–AndBack108–9,128,160 PykeQC,Lionel(father)12,12,13,20,51,104,115,118,127,293 Pyke,Magnus(cousin)5 Pyke,Mary(mother)13,110,114,115–20,115,122,157,206 Pyke,Richard(brother)110,114–17,117,118,125,138,139,160,396;TheLivesandDeathsofRolandGreer114–17,139 ‘Pykrete’(reinforcedice)349–51,354,356,358–9,360,361–2,369,370–1,373,377,393–4,429,436 Quebec,QuadrantConference,1943366,367,370,371,372,378,436 QueenMary336,366,372 Quiller-Couch,SirArthur101,102 R.&J.BeckInstrumentMakers,KentishTown178 RAF290,293,295,352,410 Raleigh,Peter183–4,188,192,196–7,198,199,200,201–2,206–7,212,213–14,213,215,420 Ramsey,Frank125–8,125,137–8,291 Rank,Otto130 Ransome,Arthur22 Ray,Cyril244–5,285,345 Reading,Marquessof165 Recklinghausen,Helenavon72 RedArmy291,411 Rees,Goronwy262 RefrigerationDataBookoftheAmericansocietyofRefrigerationEngineers335 Reik,Theodor137 Repulse332 ResearchandExperimentalHeadquarters,MinistryofHomeSecurity270 Reuters17–19,21,92 ReynoldsNews206,283,284,285,422 RugbySchool120 Ribbentrop,Joachimvon203,204,208,284,417 Rickman,John138 Rollston’saircraftfactory210 Romania67,244,264,272,274,306 Rommel,Erwin250–1,352 Roosevelt,FranklinD.192,275,277,296,308–9,310,326,339,341,373 Ropp,Baronde187 Rosenberg,Alfred164 Rostow,Eugene318 Rothschild,Victor151,165,326,327,425–6 Round-Up,Operation275,308 Rousseau,Jean-Jacques121,131,434 Rowe,Hartley299 RoyalNavy35 RoyalTankCorps296 RuhlebenTrabrennbahnprisoncamp,Germany46–66,69,71–2,73,74,75,76,80,87,91,93,94,97,98,100,101,107,108–9,119,120,126, 153,157,160,223,293,403–4;accountofincarcerationinandescapefrom(ToRuhleben–AndBack),GP’s100,108–9,128,160; arrivalin44,46–7,50–1;conditionsin45;‘doublepneumonia’,GPcontractsin51–2,60,153,403–4;escapefrom,GPandFalk52–66,67, 69,71–2,74–5,87,91,93,94,97,98,100,101,102,103,107,108–9,113,119,120,126,160,223,293,403–4;escapesdeathpenalty,GP 47–8,49–50;FalkinandseeFalk,Teddy;GPsendsfoodparcelstoafterescape100;Jewishbarrack51,157,160,403–4;lifein45; mentalconditionin,GP’s48–9,52;mixofprisonersin44–5,52–3;publiclectureinaidof,GP’s101 Rünkel,Rolf(‘ProfessorHiggins’;‘BlonderHans’)215,225–8,228,229,230,231,234,244,257,258,285,290,388,416,417,423,424see also‘ProfessorHiggins’ Russell,Bertrand49,104,110,157 Russell,Margaret157 Russia4,16,19,22,30,31,37,90,110,159seealsoSovietUnion RussianOrthodoxChurch411 Rutherford,SirErnest132,140,144 SargentFlorence,Alix16,17,135 SargentFlorence,Philip12–13,15,16,17,29,140 Sassoon,Siegfried110,151 ScotlandYard106,350 Scott,C.P.197 Scott,J.R.209 Scott,Joe175,210 Scott,Ros197 SecondWorldWar,1939–451,3,53,181,214–385,387,388–90,391,392,393,394,397,407,411,412,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,426, 429,435,439seealsounderindividualoperationandareaofconflictname SektionIIIb99 Serbia16,29 Shaw,GeorgeBernard112,123,124,141,163,166,264,279,318,388,402,415,419,423,434;AppleCart189;MajorBarbara301; Pygmalion191,232;StJoan232 Shell157,382 Simpson,Wallis167,168,169,247 Sinclair,AdmiralHugh420–1 Siona142–3 SIS26,106,112,187,208,211,219,221,256,257,284,292,411,420–1 Sissmore,Jane211 Sketch393 Sledgehammer,Operation275,277,308,309 Smith,F.E.(laterLordBirkenhead)20 Smith,Stanley188,190,191,192,195–6,198,199,200–1,203,207,212,212,213–14,420 Smollett,Peter410–13,424 Smuts,General165–6 Snoek,Moses97 Socratesvii,164,265 SodaSpringsSkiResort,California300–2 SOE(SpecialOperationsExecutive)251,272,273,278,321 Somme,Battleofthe,1916106 SouthAfrica21,165–6,270 SovietUnion2,6,124,141,142,152,172,181,185193,208–11,212,216,221,225,226,227,229,232,233,244,255,256,268,272,274,276, 278,281–2,284,291,293,294,296,306,307,326,327,354,387,405–6,407,408,409,410–12,418,423,424,426seealsoRussiaand Pyke,Geoffrey:securityservicessuspicionsover/Communistconnections(PykeHunt) ‘SpainShops’173 SpanishCivilWar,1936–9171–82,183,184,211,238,428 Spanner,Mr345 SPD(Germanpoliticalparty)226,227,228 SpecialBranch6,18,103,189,217,218,219,230,232,257,258,281,282,285,292,293,387,391,406 Spectator,The109,145–7 Spencer,Kenneth215,416 Springhall,Dave408 StLawrenceRiver,Canada349,361 StMawes,Cornwall105,106,107 StNazaireRaid,1942273 Stalin,Joseph134,183,228,233,258,274,278,292,411,414,419 Stalin,Vasily134 Stephenson,William297,330 Stewart,Janet400 Stimson,Henry304,318–19,320 Strachey,James135,137,218 Strachey,John:TheoryandPracticeofSocialism415 Strachey,Lytton120,137 Strachey,Philippa218 Strauss,G.R.292 Stuart,Lieutenant-GeneralKenneth311 Stuart,SirCampbell213–14,220,420,421 Sudetenland184–5 Summerhillschool,Germany134 SundayDispatch282,285 SundayPictorial217 Supermancharacter374,374,375,375,425 Tanner,Jack175,210 Taylor,A.J.P.101 TeutoburgForest76,77 ‘TheDynamicsofInnovation’(BBCbroadcast)397–8 THEYLied(pamphlet)284 Thomson,Basil‘Spycatcher’103,104,105,107,109,110 Time3,309,402 Times,The2,3,20,94,108,166,181,204,215,283,288–9,392,393,398,399,402,410,429 Tirpitz,SS253–4 Tizard,SirHenry269,269,273–4 Toscanelli,Paolo385 ToynbeeHall,London188 TradesUnionCongress(TUC)175–6,177,186,415 TreatyofVersailles121,204 Tribune181,284 TridentConference,Washington,1943365–6 Trinidad353 Trott,Adamvon194 Tucker‘SnoCat’300 Tyerman,Donald399,400,437 U-boats18,69,332,333,334,346,366,367 ‘U-BoatAlley’332,333–4 UncensoredNews420 UNICEF398–9,429 UnionofDemocraticControl(UDC)104 UnitedFruitCompany301 UnitedStates4,12,18,23,24,28,29,30,31,34,143,166,169,172,286;Habbakukand367–71,372–6,424;Ploughand273–80,294,295– 323,329,330,351 UniversityCollegeLondon(UCL)188 UniversityofLondon:DepartmentofChildDevelopment152 USArmy275–7,295,299,307,312,314,315,316,317,322seealsoPyke,Geoffrey:HabbakukprojectandPloughproject USNavy373,376 USSpecialForces236,323,424,430 V1andV2weapons386 Vansittart,SirRobert194–5,205,222,416,421 Varga,Professor258,259,425 VemorkHEPstation,Norway252,277 VickersArmstrong210 VoluntaryIndustrialAidforSpain(VIAS)171–82,210–11,227,312,414–15,415,430;AdvisoryCommittee175,176;cells178,179;formation of174;GPasterriblemangerof179–80;GPcanvassesopinionson174–5;ideaforscheme171–4;MI5viewsas‘underCommunist control’210–11;motorcyclesidecar,GPdesigns7,180;pedal-poweredlocomotive,GPdevelopsplansfor180;‘socialentrepreneurs’,GP describesvolunteersas179;sphagnummoss,GPdistributesguidetocollectinganddistributing181;TUCand175–6,177;voluntarism,GP describesasatriumphofsmall-scale178 VonAspirin,Dr51–2 VonTaube,Baron74–5 Wachs,General36 Waley-Cohen,SirRobert165 Walker,Captain‘Johnnie’366 Wallis,Barnes344 WarDepartment,U.K.189 WarDepartment,U.S.297–8,299,304,305,308,316,317,318,319,320,321,322 WarOffice99,112,181,242,261–2,269,296 Warner,Sherman299 Watson,Marjorie189,195,203,204,215,218–19,220,221,416,420 Waugh,Evelyn120,243,262,271,363;DeclineandFall175 ‘Weasel’(snowmobile)(M–29TrackedCargoCarrier)304–5,307,313,314,318,319,322,383,384,385,429–30seealsoPyke,Geoffrey: Ploughproject Webb-PomereneTradeExportAct,1918143 Webb,Beatrice141 Webb,Sidney141,165 Webber,Eva208–9,211,221,416 Wedderburn,MajorE.A.M.295–6,298,300,304,305,306,315,379 Week294 WeeklyDispatch20 Wehrmacht219 Weizmann,Chaim165,166 Wells,H.G.53,91,124,419,433 Wernher,SirHarold262,271,344,345,346,350,351,396 Weserübung,Operation(GermanassaultonDenmarkandNorway)218 West,Nigel409 WhiteHouse,WashingtonDC192,296,308,315,316,318,319,322,373 Whittle,Frank403 Whyte,LancelotLaw3,140,403 Wildman-Lushington,Geoffrey249,274–5,293,377,378,410 WilhelmII,Kaiser16,33,34 Winant,John341 WinterWarfareSchool,Scotland295–6 Wintringham,CaptainTom286 WitchcraftAct,1735163 Wittgenstein,Ludwig127;TractatusLogico–Philosophicus125 WolffNewsAgency17 Woolf,Virginia110 Woolfson,SirIsaac160 Workers’EducationalAssociation,London130,188 WorldAllianceforCombatingAnti–Semitism164 WorldZionistConference,Lucerne,1935165 Wyatt,Major279 ‘X-Group’(GRUespionagecell)284 Zeusler,Captain332 Ziegler,Philip247 Zionism165,229 Zuckerman,Solly269,269,270,271,287,345,352–3,376,378 HENRY HEMMING is the author of four works of non-fiction—Together, In Search of the English Eccentric,MisadventureintheMiddleEast,andamonographontheartistAbdulnasserGharem—and has coauthored the visual books Edge of Arabia and Offscreen. He has written for The Sunday Times, DailyTelegraph,DailyMail,TheTimes,TheEconomist,FTMagazine,andTheWashingtonPost and has given interviews on Radio 4’s Today Programme and NBC’s Today Show and spoken at schools, festivals,andcompaniesincludingRDFMedia,TheRSA,ScienceMuseum,FrontlineClub,TheSchool ofLife,PortEliotLiteraryFestival,andCanvas8,whereheisaThoughtLeader.HelivesinLondonwith hiswifeanddaughter. PublicAffairsisapublishinghousefoundedin1997.Itisatributetothestandards,values,andflairof threepersonswhohaveservedasmentorstocountlessreporters,writers,editors,andbookpeopleofall kinds,includingme. I. F. STONE, proprietor of I. F. Stone’s Weekly, combined a commitment to the First Amendment with entrepreneurialzealandreportingskillandbecameoneofthegreatindependentjournalistsinAmerican history.Attheageofeighty,IzzypublishedTheTrialofSocrates, which was a national bestseller. He wrotethebookafterhetaughthimselfancientGreek. BENJAMIN C. BRADLEE was for nearly thirty years the charismatic editorial leader of The Washington Post.ItwasBenwhogavethePosttherangeandcouragetopursuesuchhistoricissuesasWatergate.He supportedhisreporterswithatenacitythatmadethemfearlessanditisnoaccidentthatsomanybecame authorsofinfluential,best-sellingbooks. ROBERTL.BERNSTEIN,thechiefexecutiveofRandomHouseformorethanaquartercentury,guidedone of the nation’s premier publishing houses. Bob was personally responsible for many books of political dissentandargumentthatchallengedtyrannyaroundtheglobe.Heisalsothefounderandlongtimechair ofHumanRightsWatch,oneofthemostrespectedhumanrightsorganizationsintheworld. • • • Forfiftyyears,thebannerofPublicAffairsPresswascarriedbyitsownerMorrisB.Schnapper,who published Gandhi, Nasser, Toynbee, Truman, and about 1,500 other authors. In 1983, Schnapper was described by The Washington Post as “a redoubtable gadfly.” His legacy will endure in the books to come. PeterOsnos,FounderandEditor-at-Large
