(2015). Landscapes of the West - ALTER-Net

Transcription

International Consortium ALTER-Net
Environmental History Project
University of Life Sciences in Lublin
Department of Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation
Polesie National Park
LANDSCAPES OF THE WEST POLESIE
REGIONAL IDENTITY AND ITS TRANSFORMATION
OVER LAST HALF CENTURY
Authors:
Tadeusz J. Chmielewski, Szymon Chmielewski, Agnieszka Kułak,
Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek, Weronika Maślanko
International Coordinator of the ALTER-Net Environmental History Project:
Andy Sier
Lublin – Urszulin 2015
Affiliation
Tadeusz J. Chmielewski, Agnieszka Kułak, Weronika Maślanko, Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek:
University of Life Sciences in Lublin,
Department of Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation
Szymon Chmielewski:
University of Life Sciences in Lublin,
Institute of Soil Science, Engineering and Environmental Management
Andy Sier
Centre of Ecology & Hydrobiology; Lancaster Environmental Centre; Lancaster, UK
The reviewers
Prof. UAM dr hab. Andrzej Macias
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań
Institute of Physical Geography and Environmental Planning
Prof. SGGW dr hab. Barbara śarska
Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW,
Department of Environmental Protection
Cover graphic design
Agnieszka Kułak
Photographs on the cover
Tadeusz J. Chmielewski
Printed by
Poleski Park Narodowy
ISBN:83-905476-8-6
2
Contents
1.
Introduction …………………………………………………………………….………....4
2.
Characteristic of the Polish study area …………………………………….……….……..7
3.
The unique landscape identity of the West Polesie region…………………..…………...21
4.
Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity in the area of the ‘West
Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over a last half century ….……………….....…....................43
5.
A model of landscape ecological structure in the central part of the Biosphere Reserve..79
6. A preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of West Polesie
from the half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century ………………..….91
7.
A preliminary evaluation of changes in landscape services potential ……………….....109
8.
Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………….115
9.
References………………………………………………………………………………119
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1. Introduction
In 2012 the ALTER-Net Management Board were encouraged to suggest a new
activities that Consortium ALTER-Net could undertake. These ideas were presented to the
ALTER-Net Council. Andy Sier suggested two ideas. One was an unspecific suggestion that
ALTER-Net should promote a collaborative internal scientific project. The other suggestion
was dubbed ’back to the future’, and suggested running a project inspired by another,
similarly-named project, that took place in Arctic and alpine locations. The idea was to bring
young and old scientists together to revisit field sites, and make use of old datasets, old
photos, maps, etc. for the new generation of scientists to use. The Management Board
subsequently agreed to combine these, and work on developing a single activity [Sier 2013].
The project “Retrospective and Prospective Vegetation Change in the Polar Regions:
Back to the Future, BTF”, was endorsed as an International Polar Year (IPY) activity. Polar
and alpine environments are changing rapidly due to increases in temperature, which are
amplified in the Arctic, as well as changes in many local factors. The impacts on ecosystems
and their function have potential consequences for local residents and the global community.
Tundra areas are vast and diverse, and the knowledge of geographical variation in
environmental and ecosystem change is limited to relatively few locations, or to remote
sensing approaches that are limited mostly to the past few decades. The IPY provided a
context, stimulus and timely opportunities for re-visiting old research sites and data sets to
collate data on past changes, to pass knowledge from old to new generations of researchers
and to document environmental characteristics of sites to facilitate detection and attribution of
future changes. With national funding support, teams of researchers re-visited former sites
and data sets throughout the Arctic and some alpine regions. These efforts led to a range of
‘‘BTF’’ studies covering many locations and disciplines [Sier 2013].
When studying present environmental conditions in a location, it is necessary to know
about past conditions to understand how the place has changed. Equally, an historical
perspective is helpful when predicting how the environment at a location may change in the
future, given certain scenarios. For well-studied sites there may be long-term time series of
data available, but such sites are relatively few in number (such as Long-Term Ecosystem
Research - LTER – sites), and the range of data available may be limited.
Rather than addressing a single specific research question, an umbrella project with
the title ‘Exploring historical drivers of land use and environmental history and their impacts
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on biodiversity and ecosystem services in Europe’ was established. Under this umbrella, a set
of sub-projects could be supported.
The following sub-project ideas were accepted for realization [Sier 2013]:
P 1. Changes in landscape diversity, landscape connectivity and land use structure in the
’West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over the last half century
Proposed by:
Tadeusz J. Chmielewski, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland;
ALTER-Net partners involved: ICE PAS (in Łódź);
P 2. Impact on landscapes under the pressure to produce resources for war
Proposed by:
Verena Winiwarter, Institute of Social Ecology, Austria;
ALTER-Net partners involved: ISE (UNI-KLU);
P 3. Drivers of long term biodiversity change in a range of Scottish habitats
Proposed by:
Alison Hester, James Hutton Institute, UK;
ALTER-Net partners involved: JHI and others
P 4. Long-term land use changes in the Carpatho-Pannonian area
Proposed by:
Dr. Ľuboš Halada, ILE-SAS, Slovakia;
ALTER-Net partners involved: ILE-SAS.
This monograph presents an extended version of the Final Report of the P 1. –
Polish sub-project; supplemented by the results of the latest landscape studies of the
authors team. The objectives of the Polish sub-project were:
•
To evaluate changes in landscape diversity in the area of the West Polesie Biosphere
Reserve over a last half century;
•
To build a model of landscape ecological structure in the central part of the Biosphere
Reserve;
•
To evaluate changes in land use structure in selected lake and peatbog catchments over
the last half century;
•
To conduct a preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of the West
Polesie from the half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century.
The main research questions were:
•
How has the structure and functioning of the landscape in the West Polesie Biosphere
Reserve changed in time and space?
•
How may these changes influence landscape services potential?
Andy Sier, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski
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2. Characteristic of the Polish study area
The World Network of Biosphere Reserves, established by UNESCO, at present (the
end of 2014) comprises 631 objects in 119 countries. Among them 14 sites have a status of
Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (TBR) because they lie on the borders of two or three
countries. One of them is the West Polesie Transboundary Biosphere Reserve
(www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere reserves).
Polesie is one of the large structural units in Eastern Europe, known as physiographic
sub-provinces. It stretches from east to west over approx. 700 × 300 km.
The western border of the sub-province Polesie is based on the first order of
physiographic boundary, separating Eastern and Western Europe. From the south and southwest, Polesie is adjacent to the large European highlands and old mountains physiographic
zone. In the biogeographical aspect, Polesie is located inside the biome of deciduous forest of
moderate climatic zone (continental biogeographic region). From the north it is adjacent to the
biome of coniferous forests, in the province of sub-taiga (boreal biogeographic region)
[Biogeographic regions…2015]. Location at the crossroads of so contrasting physiographic
and ecological macro-structures, with simultaneous abundance of stagnant and flowing
surface water, contributes to the unique natural richness of the western part of Polesie and to
the uniqueness of its role in the European ecological structure.
In this particular place for Europe, on the western edge of Polesie, on the eastern edge
of the European Union, in the adjoining zone of three countries borders: Belarus, Polish and
Ukraine, is precisely located the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve
[Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005] (Fig. 1).
A characteristic feature of the landscape is very flat terrain, covered with a mosaic of
forests, bogs, meadows and fields, among which numerous lakes and diverse wetlands of
great biological diversity are located [Chmielewski T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2008] (Fig. 2 – 9).
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Fig. 1. Location of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve on the background of
physicogeographical division of Europe (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski & W. Maślanko
2015).
Legend: 1 – the main European physiographic borders, 2 – A. north section, 3 – B. west
section, 4 – C. south section, 5 – D. east section, 6 – European Union country
members, 7 – TBR ‘West Polesie’.
In order to protect the unique natural and landscape values of West Polesie, from the
30’s of the 20th century, most valuable areas were acquired by various forms of legal nature
conservation, up to the creation of current vast system of protected areas. The final of this
lasting for over 80 years process was the establishment of the Transboundary Biosphere
Reserve the ‘West Polesie’. It was created in 2012, on the area 263 016 ha by combining
three individual Biosphere Reserves: the Pribuzskoe Polesie (48 024 ha) in Brest district in
Belarus, established in 2004; the West Polesie (139 917 ha) in Lublin province in Poland,
established in 2002 and the Shatsk Biosphere Reserve (75 075 ha), established in 2002 in
Volhynia district in Ukraine (Fig. 10).
Western part of the ‘West Polesie’ TRB, located in Poland, has been accepted as
a study area of the ALTER-Net Environmental History Project.
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Fig. 2. Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland; the group of Uściwierz Lakes.
Fig. 3. Sumin Lake.
Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2001
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Fig. 4. Łukie Lake in the Polesie National Park.
Fig. 5. Wet forest in the Moszne Sacred Spot.
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Fig. 6. Perehod Sacred Spot in the Polesie National Park.
Fig. 7. Natura 2000 site „Bubnów Swamp”.
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Fig. 8. Tafle Sacred Spot in the Polesie National Park.
Fig. 9. Meander of the Bug river.
Photo: T. J. Chmielewski , 1999
The Polish part of the TBR includes the whole physiographic mesoregion: Łęczna –
Włodawa Lakeland and small fragments of 3 other mesoregions: Parczew Plain, Włodawa
Hummock and Chełm Hillocks. It stretches from the River Bug below Wola Uhruska in the
south-east to Siemień Ponds in the Tyśmienica River valley in the north-west.
In terms of administration, the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR is wholly
situated within the Lublin voivodship, on the territory of 19 communes belonging to 5
administrative districts: Włodawa, Chełm, Parczew, Lubartów and Łęczna.
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The centre of the Polish part of the Biosphere Reserve occupies the Polesie National
Park (PNP), established in 1990 [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1986; Chmielewski T. J. et al. 1990].
PNP is surrounded by 3 landscape parks: Łęczna Lake District L.P., Polesie L.P. and Sobibór
L.P. (Fig. 11), joined with Polesie Landscape Protected Area and a part of Chełm Landscape
Protected Area. Two more landscape parks are protected in this area: Włodawa Forests L.P.
and Parczew Forests L.P. Moreover, there are also 12 sanctioned and 10 proposed nature
reserves [Chmielewski ed. 2005].
Since 2004, on the area of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR, 14 Natura 2000
sites were established. This category of protected areas is not present in the Belarusian and
Ukrainian part of the Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 12).
Fig. 10. The main structural parts of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve
(WP TBR) (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski & Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015).
Legend: A. Location of the WP TBR on the background of administrative division; B – The
main structural parts of the WP TBR: 1 – country borders, 2 – the border of the
‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve, 3 – West Polesie BR (Poland), 4Pribuzskoye Polesie BR (Belarus), 5 – Shatskiy BR (Ukraine).
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Fig. 11. The main protected areas located on the area of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary
Biosphere Reserve (WP TBR) (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski, Malwina MichalikŚnieŜek & Weronika Maślanko 2015).
main protected areas located on the area of the WP TBR: 1 – country borders, 2 – the
border of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve, 3 – national parks,
4 – nature reserves, 5 – landscape parks.
According to the Sevillan Strategy [Biosphere Reserves … 1996], the area of the
Transboundary Biosphere Reserve has been divided into 3 categories of zones with a different
protective rank: core area (Zone A), buffer zone (Zone B) and transitional zone (Zone C).
Zones A and B are surrounded and joined by zone C, thus forming a unity (Fig. 13).
In the Polish part of the Reserve, the zoning system goes as follows:
Zone A (5225.5 ha) includes areas with the highest degree of naturalness, not
inhabited by humans. These constitute nature reserves and desolate areas of the Polesie NP.
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Fig. 12. Natura 2000 sites located on the area of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere
Reserve (WP TBR) (elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski, Malwina Michalik-ŚnieŜek &
Weronika Maślanko 2015).
elements of the Natura 2000 network: 1 – country borders, 2 – the border of the
‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve, 3 – Bird Natura 2000 Sites, 4 –
Habitat Natura 2000 Sites, 5 – areas in which Bird Sites and Habitat Sites overlaps.
Zone B (43 215 ha) covers territories of landscape parks, where conservation is as
important as the protection of cultural heritage, sustainable agriculture, forestry and tourism.
In such areas landscape beauty protection and local style design are important. Population
density in these regions is 10 people per sq. km and it has diminished by 3.5% within the last
30 years. Villages situated in this area have a chance to develop agro tourism and service
sector, as well as the priority in the development of technical infrastructure (sewerage system,
gasification, improvement in waste management) and improvement in technical condition of
buildings. Here, as well, a series of national and international nature protection, agriculture,
forestry and research projects will be realized.
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Fig. 13. Zonation system of the ‘West Polesie’ Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (elaborated by
A. Breymeyer & Adamczyk J.; 2007/2008)
Zone C (91 477.5 ha) is designed to protect zones A and B from negative external
pressures on nature. It plays a key role in various forms of service to zones A and B. The
population density in that zone is 37 people per sq. km and over last 30 years has diminished
to 3%. This zone has the greatest opportunity for sustainable development of its major
settlement areas as service centres for the whole Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR area
[Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005].
Łęczna – Włodawa Lakeland is the largest one in Poland grouping of lakes occurring
outside the areas formed by glacial morphogenesis of the last glaciations [Kondracki 1998].
Physiographic features of Polish lowland and upland zone create a unique mosaic of natural
phenomena. This terrain is the landscape of accumulation plain located in the Bug and Wieprz
interfluves. The process of valley formation in the area is in the initial stage, which gives the
region the character of geomorphologic youth. The flatness of the terrain and shallow-lying
first level of ground waters cause that considerable parts of the Lake District are permanently
or temporarily water-logged. Broad peatbogs and marshes have developed on the wetlands.
Lakes are the characteristic element of the landscape. It is estimated that they are 11,300 years
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old and there are several hypotheses about their origin [Wilgat et al. 1991]. It is probable that
particular lakes have different origin. The majority of them is characterized by inconsiderable
maximal depth, small surface and little shore accessibility.
The east and mid-west part of the Lake District is ecologically most precious and only
insignificantly transformed [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1989]. Until present day 61 lakes with
surface area over 1 ha have survived∗. Particular lakes are in various stages of succession and
contain water of different trophy. Next to the lakes with hardly any plants and mesotrophic
waters (e.g. Lake Piaseczno) there are reservoirs slightly eutrophic and strongly eutrophic as
well as dystrophic [Radwan ed. 1995, 1996]. Microflora of the lakes is rich and interesting.
The research on the conjugate (Conjugate) has proved especially precious for science. On the
whole 341 algae species were identified in the lakes of the region.
Land and water assemblies of macrophytes are also extremely interesting. Parts of this
area are a miniature of European tundra and forest-tundra which is here the farthest advanced
to the south-east in Europe [Fijałkowski 1960]. This is the area of unusual variety of high
moors, transitional moors, low moors and – in some places – very unique carbonate moors.
Large collection of northern plant species (150 species) and simultaneous presence of many
plants from Atlantic zone (25 species), east continental zone (43 species) create a curiosity on
the European scale [Fijałkowski 1960, Chmielewski T. J. et al. 1990]. In the region of Łęczna
–Włodawa Lake District there appear 1466 species of vascular plants, among them 152 rare
and vanishing ones [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005].
The most precious plant communities are situated around lakes: Długie, Moszne,
Łukie, Uściwierz, Brudno, Płotycze, in Durne Marsh, Orłów Peatbog, Bubnów Marsh and
Dubeczno Peatbog as well as in inner-forest peatbogs of Sobibór Landscape Park
[Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005]. In the forest complexes the share of alder carr and humid
coniferous forests is much bigger than in many other regions. Grey willows constitute
considerably large areas. Shrubby birch thicket which is really rare in Poland constitutes a
curiosity here.
The mosaic arrangement of forests, peatbogs, grasslands, waters and cultivated fields
is the source of great biological and landscape variety of this region.
The animal life is also abundant here. According to research in the lakes of Łęczna –
Włodawa region there are 350 species of water non-vertebrates. In the ichtio-fauna of Łęczna
∗
In 1954 T. Wilgat referred to 68 lakes with surface area over 1 ha [Wilgat 1954]. Since then seven of them:
Orzechówek, Lejno, Wąskie, Myczółki, Karaśne near Urszulin and Laskie have completely disappeared and in
Lake Ciesacin (Uściwierzek) the actual surface area is only 0.6 ha.
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–Włodawa Lake District 35 species were registered in standing waters as well as in running
waters. The curiosity among the reptiles is the mud turtle (Emys orbicularis). Its population in
Łęczna – Włodawa Lake District is the most numerous in Poland and one of the largest in
Europe [Holuk et al. 1998]. Amphibians, which are dying out in other parts of Europe, are
here fairly numerous. Avifauna, represented by at least 150 breeding species, is also very
valuable. Out of mammals otter, wolf and elk are worth mentioning.
98 species of the region’s fauna are listed on the European CORINE list and 25 are in
the “Polish Red Book of Animals” [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005, on the basis of Red List by
Głowaciński ed. 1992].
West Polesie is considered as the main distribution area of the World wide endangered
Aquatic warbler (Acrocephalus paludicola). It is also breeding place for European wide
endangered birds like Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis), Cranes (Grus grus) and others.
The area is considered to be an important cross-point for migratory birds. The flyways of
north-south (White Sea – Baltic – Mediterranean migratory birds’ passage) and east-west
migration (the Polesie latitudinal) of birds meet in the West Polesie. Therefore the entire
region has a high importance for birds as resting place during the migration period
[Chmielewski ed. 2005].
The dominating economic functions of this area are: agriculture, nature tourism,
weekend recreation and agrotourism, as well as a sustainable forestry and fishing economy.
A low population, a large range of forests, plus a very low level of environmental pollution
allows for the production of healthy foods and recreation in a naturally rich environment.
On the outskirts of the C zone of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere
Reserve, there are 2 small cities: (1) Ostrów Lubelski (2000 inhabitants) on the west, by the
Tyśmienica river and (2) Włodawa (15000 inhabitants) on the east, by the Bug river. Both
these cities have interesting architectural monuments and many cultural traditions. Not far
from the C Zone of the Biosphere Reserve there are located next 2 small cities: Parczew
(11000 inhabitants) in the north and Łęczna (22000 inhabitants) in south-west. All these cities
have excellent features for providing a role of service centres for the entire Polish part of the
TBR.
region:
In the C zone of BR, aside from the above, are some other management centres for this
Urszulin – the main centre servicing Polesie National Park
Sosnowica – a town with many historical and cultural traditions, in connection with,
among others, Tadeusz Kościuszko
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Hańsk – the seat of the Proecological Community’s Association of this region
Uhrusk – has a great historical and cultural significance.
Wola Uhruska – one of the most active, economically and culturally, of the
municipality's centres in this part of Polesie.
Very interesting and valuable is cultural heritage of this region.
The ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve is a melting pot of different influences:
cultures, nationalities and religions; such as Catholicism, Orthodoxian, and Judaism. The
West Polesie Biosphere Reserve area represents and protects a unique landscape on the
cultural edge of both Eastern and Western Europe.
There are precious architectural sacred monuments in Parczew, Włodawa, Łęczna and
Ostrów Lubelski. There is also Zamojski’s Mansion in Adampol, noble manors in Sosnowica
and Łęczna, and historical residential houses in Włodawa.
The Sobibór Forests has within its mists a martyrology museum, which previously was
one of Hitler’s concentration camps, where 250,000 Jews were executed between 1942-1943.
In rural areas there are many examples of traditional wooden architecture, which is
characteristic of the Polesie region. Polesie traditions, peculiarities of folkway of life, culture,
rites, religious cult objects are conserved here. Interestingly is the open-air museum of a
Polish village, located in the Hola village. Many interesting folk activities take place there.
There is also a wooden Orthodox Church near-by, where popular Orthodox fairs are
organised. Every year in Włodawa there is an International Atrisitc Open-air – “Kresy”
(“Borderland”) event.
By the end of the 1970’s tourism had begun to play a growing economic role in this
region. In some villages (Okuninka, Piaseczno, Rogóźno, Krzywe, Krasne, Zagłębocze,
Grabniak, Sumin) tourism appears to be the main source of income, and it is a growing field.
The region has natural richness, clean air, large water and forest supplies, good
physical structure of the settlements, diversity in the ways of living, many prospects for
tourism, recreation and border trade development – all the above are trumps of this region
showing that the implementation of sustainable development rules are utilised and are realistic
[Chmielewski ed. 2005, Breymeyer ed. 2008].
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3. The unique landscape identity of the West Polesie region
3.1. Introduction
Landscape is the effect of centuries-long activity of a specific community in a specific
natural and cultural environment, and at the same time human activity is strongly conditioned
by the features of the environment of individual regions. Those complex natural, temporal and
social-cultural determinants have contributed to the formation of a wide array of landscapes
with specific features, sometimes distinct and expressive enough to represent a specific
regional style [Chmielewski 2012].
The specificity of expression of local landscape features creates the so-called canon
loci that, together with the local culture and tradition, makes up the genius loci [Myczkowski
1993-1994]. The identity is the most profound relation between the landscape perceived by
man (environment), and its historically accumulated elements: contents (culture, tradition of
the place) and form (canon loci) [Myczkowski 2009]. If those features have an above-local
reach, then we can speak about the landscape identity of an area, subregion or region.
Highly important for the emergence of the sense of landscape identity is the existence
of characteristic, distinguishing, outstanding features of the natural and cultural heritage of a
given area, called landmarks [Nasar ed. 1988, Niedźwiedzka-Filipiak 2009]. Natural
landmarks can be e.g. a mountain with a unique shape, a group of rocks, a scarp above a
meander of a river, a complex of lakes, a lake, an old and imposing tree or a group of such
trees, etc. Positively perceived cultural landmarks can be e.g. a castle, a church, a town hall, a
manor house, a water mill, a wayside shrine, etc. [Chmielewski et al. 2014a].
Areas having a unique and harmoniously composed set of positive landmarks are
referred to sometimes as so-called “magical spots” in the landscape [Pawłowska 2008].
At present, however, more and more often we encounter negatively perceived
landmarks. Those are e.g. complexes of structures of heat and power generation plants,
windmill farms, RTV transmission towers, masts of mobile telephone systems, large-area
production, shopping and storage buildings, big advertising billboards, etc. The force of their
impact depends on the character of the environment and on the degree of conformance with
the cultural heritage and tradition of the place. The lower the level of anthropogenic
transformation of the environment, and the less conforming the given object with the canon
loci, and the more strongly exposed it is in the landscape, the greater the effect of its negative
impact. If the number of negatively perceived landmarks is significant, the community can
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develop an opinion of a negative landscape identity of a given area. This may result in a deepseated conviction that the region is ugly and unfriendly to both local inhabitants and visitors
[Chmielewski 2012].
That methodological approach can be applied also for the diagnosis of landscape
style.
In this study it has been assumed that landscape style landmarks are particularly
characteristic for a specific region and historical epoch:
1) natural and anthropogenic forms of land relief and cover;
2) joining them features of spatial composition;
3) materials and processes (techniques) necessary for their formation.
Diagnosing landscape style one should take into account the following:
• characteristic features of regional natural determinants;
• characteristic elements of regional cultural features;
• elements characteristic of historical epochs;
• characteristic elements of the continuum, or discontinuum, of landscape
transformation;
• characteristic features of the integration, or disintegration, of style.
3.2. Landmarks of landscape identity of the West Polesie region
The distinctness and expressiveness of the physiographic, ecological, social-cultural
and physiognomic features of Polesie caused that the region, until as late as the nineteen
thirties, was described as a mysterious and magical land. That opinion was created jointly by
works of art and literature, touring books, and even songs [Ossendowski 1934/2008, Marczak
1935/2008, Wysłouch 2002a, 2002b, Masłowski 1973, Kraszewski 1985, Kieniewicz 1989].
Since the end of the 19th century the exceptional, at European scale, features of the region
(and especially of West Polesie) have been documented more and more forcibly also in
scientific elaborations [Roztworowski 1882, Lityński 1909, Kulczyński 1940, Wilgat ed.
1963, Radwan ed. 1995, 1996, Harasimiuk et al. ed. 1998, Radwan et al. ed. 2002,
Chmielewski ed. 2009].
In spite of the enormous scale of changes that took place in the past century in the
natural environment, land use, culture and physiognomy of Polesie, and especially in the
Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland (see chapters 4, 5 and 7), the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve
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has remained an area where until today landscape style features with distinct Polesie identity
have been preserved and are still cultivated.
A sociological study conducted in the area of the Polish part of the “West Polesie”
Biosphere Reserve [Chmielewski et al. 2012] revealed that for an overwhelming majority of
the public opinion the features on natural components of landscape that are worth preserving
are the following:
•
expansiveness of views over flat open spaces (landscape interiors and macrointeriors), relieved with gentle undulating hills;
•
abundance of waters (lakes and flood waters), marshes and peatlands,
surrounded with forests;
•
great richness of animate nature (large biodiversity and numerous peculiarities
of flora and fauna) [Chmielewski et al. 2012].
Whereas, as characteristic, regional, worthy of cultivation features of the cultural
landscape of West Polesie the respondents indicated the following:
•
small-scale rural settlements, concentrated on gentle elevations of the terrain;
•
“patchy” landscape of fields stretching over slopes and large patches of wet
multi-species meadows in depressions of the terrain;
•
complexes of ponds, often with long historical traditions;
•
rural and farm-tourism architecture with regional features and colourful
traditional house gardens;
•
monuments of architecture and other element of cultural heritage, concentrated
mainly in larger localities situated on the edges of the region, in Włodawa,
Sosnowica, Ostrów Lubelski, as well as the Orthodox church and private
skansen (open-air museum) in Hola [Chmielewski et al. 2012].
23
23
On the basis of the above results of the social opinion polls and based on many years
of studies conducted by our author team [Chmielewski ed. 1989, 2005, 2009, Chmielewski
2001] it was assumed that in the area of the Polish part of the Reserve the currently preserved
natural landmarks of Polesie landscape features include the following:
•
Expansive flat lake-peatbog basins, separated with gently dry elevations;
expansiveness of views over flat open spaces. Due to the significant increase of
afforestation of the region over the last half-century, the spatial reaches of such
views are becoming more and more limited (Fig. 14).
•
Abundance of surface waters, peatbogs and marshes with great habitat and species
diversity (Fig. 15 – 19). As a result of large-scale drainage programs conducted in
the region mainly in the nineteen fifties, sixties and seventies, the area of wetland
ecosystems is rapidly shrinking.
•
Scattered individually among a mosaic of waters, peatbogs and meadows small
gentle hills, overgrown with sand grasses and heaths (Fig. 20). Such sandy hills
are sometimes also valuable hatching sites for mud turtle.
•
Various forest ecosystems, with especially valuable marshy coniferous forests,
alder carrs and riparian forests in particular (Fig. 21, 22).
•
Wide, nature-rich ecotones of the type water – land and forest – non-forest
ecosystems, forming scenically attractive rims of landscape interiors.
•
Imposing old oak trees as landscape dominants and accents, especially attractive
visually whether single or in groups (Fig. 23), on hill tops (where they can occur
together with pine trees), in river valleys, on the rims of lake-peatbog basins and
near roads and cultural objects (near the latter two categories of objects old lime
trees and ash trees also occur). However, great powerful old oak trees are
becoming less and less frequent, as from the moment of introduction of market
economy in Poland they are felled for economic reasons.
24
24
Fig. 14. Basin of Staw Swamp, surrounded by dry hills.
Fig. 15. Włodawka river valley.
25
25
Fig. 16. Mesohumic (formerly dystrophic) Lake Moszne
Fig. 17. Mesotrophic Lake Białe Włodawskie.
26
26
Fig. 18. Transitional moor surrounding Lake Moszne.
Fig. 19. Wetlands in Mietiułka river valley.
27
27
Fig. 20. A bird refuge on the Perehod Ponds.
Fig. 21. Heath and the psammophilous turf near New Orzechów village.
28
28
Fig. 22. The riparian forest in the Bug river valley.
Fig. 23. Spring in alder forest in the Spławy Sacred Spot.
29
29
Fig. 24. Broad swamp-forest ecotone on the Staw Swamp.
Fig. 25. Group of old oaks near the Wólka Nadrybska village. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 1999
These oaks have been cut at the beginning of the XXI ct.
30
30
In turn, the currently preserved cultural landmarks of Polesie landscape features
include the following:
•
Small Polesie towns with single or two-story housing, with dominants or accents
in the form of sacral buildings of 3 religions - the Catholic, the Orthodox and the
Judaic (Fig. 26).
•
Remnants of old palace and park-manor house establishments (Fig. 27).
•
Multi-ribbon or large-patch expansions of fields situated on elevations of the
terrain (Fig. 28) and bands of compact rural housing.
•
Traditional spatial arrangements of villages.
•
Wooden architectural objects and objects of so-called “small architecture” that
retained the features of the regional style (Fig. 29, 30).
•
Rural house gardens and small orchards, characteristic for the tradition of the
region (Fig. 31).
•
Strings of trees and bushes along water courses, at small water bodies and
peatbogs, with suitable selected species composition, and tree alleys along roads.
•
Mid-field dirt tracks with wild pear and apple trees, bird cherries and other similar
accents of the traditional agricultural landscape (Fig. 32).
For the landscape identity of the region the historical-political and social determinants
as well as the cultural values that do not fall into the category of landscape landmarks (such as
e.g. local sub-dialect, beliefs, customs, regional dress, songs, history of particular families
etc.) are also very important. However, those issues are beyond the scope of this book. They
have been described in other publications [e.g. Witwicka 2003, Szejnert 2015], while the
authors of this monograph focused primarily on the ecological-landscape and architecturallandscape determinants.
Neither the natural nor the cultural landmarks of the regional landscape identity are
permanent features – they change with time. Such changes cannot be completely stopped.
However, if features of key importance for the natural or cultural character of the landscape of
a region disappear, one should strive to preserve and even to recreate their key landmarks.
Natural forms characteristic for the landscape of the Polish part of West Polesie that
disappeared over the last 30 years (1985 – 2015) include e.g. the following:
31
31
•
Dystrophic lakes, with orange-brown coloured acidic water. As a result of
hydrological and limnological changes they have been transformed into so-called
mesohumus lakes.
•
Submerged meadows of charophyta in peat pits with crystal-clear water.
Disappearing forms, or preserved only locally, in relic form, include the following:
•
Floating islands – mats of tangled peatbog vegetation floating on water, giving way
by up to 1 m underfoot, like a giant water bed. Due to the lowering of the water level,
those unique natural forms settled down on sediments of lake gyttja.
•
Open water spots on floating islands (Fig. 33) – specific habitat of several extremely
valuable species, e.g. Aldrowanda vesiculosa (that species of aquatic insectivorous
plants, threatened with extinction, has now migrated to several shallow bays of
peatbog-surrounded lakes).
•
Peat pits with nympheid communities of exceptional landscape value (Fig. 34). Due
to the lowering of water level and eutrophication of habitats, most of the peat pits
completely dried out and became overgrown with reed communities. Elsewhere –
shrub and forest communities developing around peat pits overshadowed the water
table precluding further development of Nymphea alba.
Cultural forms characteristic for the landscape of the Polish part of West Polesie that
disappeared over the last 30 years (1985 – 2015), or remained only in relic form, include the
following:
•
Wooden windmills (Fig. 35),
•
Straw thatches on village houses (Fig. 36),
•
Shadoofs (well poles) (Fig. 37),
•
Haystacks and hay barracks (ricks) on meadows (Fig. 38, 39) and sheaves of cereals
on fields.
The compilation of a detailed register, classification, and estimation of the rank and
degree of threat to such forms should be the subject of a separate research project.
There also appear a new forms of land development, important for the contemporary
regional paysage, which – drawing from the cultural heritage of Polesie – become a new
distinguishing features, a new landmarks of its landscape (Fig. 40).
32
32
Fig. 26. Włodawa town – Chuch street.
Fig. 27. Zamoyski palace (1923 – 1928) in Adampol.
33
33
Fig. 28. Stripes of fields near the Wola Uhruska village.
Fig. 29. A traditional Polesie cottage. Open-air museum in the Hola village.
Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2014.
34
34
Fig. 30. A wooden Orthodox church in the Hola village.
Fig. 31. Rural backyard garden in the śłobek village.
35
35
Fig. 32. Wild apple tree at a dirt road near New Orzechów village.
Fig. 33. Water holes on the transitional moor by the Moszne Lake.
36
36
Fig. 34. Peat concavity with Nymphea alba and Chara sp. communities.
37
37
Fig. 35. Windmill in the Łomnica village.
Fig. 36. Wooden hut with a thatched roof. At the back – the well crane. Old Załucze village.
38
38
Fig. 37. Haystacks on the Cow Swamp.
Fig. 38. Rick near the Pieszowola village.
39
39
Fig. 39. A new tourist carport by the Wereszczyńskie Lake, resembling in its design a
traditional rick.
Fig. 40. The head of the Polesie National Park office. Design of the building refers to a non
existing jet manor house in Sosnowica.
40
40
The following chapters of this monograph will present some results of research on
selected aspects of changes taking place in the landscapes of the Polish part of the West
Polesie.
41
41
4. Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity
in the area of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve over a last half century
4.1. Introduction
Landscape fragmentation, loss of biodiversity and unification of landscape identity are
listed on the top of actual landscape management problems [Turner et al. 2001; Berkes et al.
eds. 2006; Wu & Hobbs eds. 2007].
Landscape structure is crucial not only for the maintenance of biodiversity and
stability of ecological systems [Antrop, 2005], but also for the economic efficiency, quality of
life and human well-being [Harris 2007, Chmielewski 2012]. Therefore in last 2 decades, on
the issues of landscape diversity evaluation, conservation and design, more and more attention
is given [Cassatella, Peano eds. 2011; Chmielewski Sz. et al. 2014; Plexida et al. 2014].
Categorized land cover (land use) maps are the primary data source for landscape
analysis concerning for land cover diversity and pattern. Studies of this type are the domain of
landscape ecology which is largely founded on the notion that environmental patterns strongly
influence ecological processes [Turner et al. 1989].
In this chapter of the monograph is presented a chronological overview of research
results concerning land cover and landscape diversity changes, which were undertaken within
the area of current ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve in Poland. There are presented also the
results of the latest research of this issue, carried out in 2014 – 2015 under the ALTER-Net
Environmental History project.
Studies on the changes taking place in land-use structure and ecological conditions in
the territory of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland (nowadays it is a Polish part of the ‘West
Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve) under the effect on intensifying human economic activity, were
initiated in 1993 by T. J. Chmielewski, at first with the use of the method of retrospective
carthometric analysis, using the physical maps 1” 25000 from the years 1959-1964 and 19841986 [Chmielewski T. J., Radwan 1993], and then with the method of photoinetrpretative
comparative analysis, developed on the basis of archival stereo-pairs of black-and-white aerial
photographs covering the period 1952 – 1992 [Zakrzewski et al. 1993], supported with
detailed field penetration of the area, provided over 1986 – 1992. All photoinetrpretative
analysis were conducted in the cluster of 63 basic catchment basins, located in western and
central part of the region. The eastern part of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland was not tested
due to the lack of the aerial photographs from 1952. The results indicated the large-scale
43
43
changes in land use structure, in density and structure of landscape boundaries network and in
water conditions, strongly unfavourable for nature [Chmielewski et al. 1997, Chmielewski T.
J. 2001].
In 2015, under the realisation the Environmental History Project, for the same study
area, the analysis of land-use changes during the period 1952 – 2012 was conducted, using –
as a new time section – the true colour otophotomap from 2012, with 0,5 m land value of one
pixel.
In the years 2006–2009 a team headed by T. J. Chmielewski realized in the whole area
of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland the research project: Transformations of the ecological
structure and current conditions of functioning of hydrogenic landscapes of the “West
Polesie” Bioshpere Reserve and perspectives for the conservation of their nature values. The
scope of the project included analysis of the changes that took place in the research area in
1952–2007 (for the east part of the region in 1971 – 2007) in the following ranges of data:
- climate conditions of the region,
- water relations of the region,
- land-use structure of the region, with special focus on the areas of 12 lake catchments
basins,
- vegetation communities and flora of 12 lake catchment basins,
- trophy of the waters, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish fauna of 12 lakes,
- ornithofauna of 12 lake catchment basins,
- volume and structure of tourist traffic on 8 lakes in the period of 1985–2007 (no
archival data were available for an earlier period and for other lakes).
In addition, an interdisciplinary analysis was performed concerning the relations
among changes in the various components of the landscape systems on the study area.
The boundaries of the catchment basins were identified on the basis of analysis of a
digital terrain model using the ArcHydro software, and on the basis of hydrological studies
conducted for the needs of the conservation plans for the Łęczyńskie Lakeland Landscape
Park [Radwan, ed. 1995], Polesie National Park [Radwan, ed. 1999] and the Sobibór
Landscape Park [Chmielewski, ed. 2002].
The study of changes in land use structure was conducted with the method of
photointerpretative retrospective analysis [Chmielewski et al. 1996; Chmielewski Sz.,
Chmielewski T. J. 2009] with the use of analogue aerial photographs at 1:25000, taken in the
years 1952 and 1992, and of digital aerial true colour photographs from 2007, taken with a
DMC Intergraph camera. Only for the catchments of lakes and peatbogs located in the eastern
44
44
part of the region analyses were made for the period of 1971 – 1999 – 2007, due to the lack of
archival aerial photographs of the area from before 1971 and from 1992.
The photographs were converted to the form of an orthophotomap with land value of
one pixel of 0.5 m. Identification of particular taxons was made on the basis of field
inventories performed in the course of work on the documentation for the creation of the
particular protected areas of the region (1988-92), then in the course of development of the
conservation plans for those areas, i.e. in 1993-94 and 1998-99, and within the framework of
realization of a research project of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education implemented
in the years 2006 – 2009 [Chmielewski T. J., ed. 2009].
As a result of that study it was demonstrated that:
In spite of the existence of a highly developed system of protected areas, the landscape
of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is subject to far-reaching transformations. The primary
recorded directions of changes taking place in the ecological structure of landscape of the
region from the nineteen fifties to the beginning of the 21st century include the following
[Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009]:
-
Draining of ca. 80% of total area of wetlands, including 73.3% of the area of
peatbogs;
-
Disappearance of 7 out of 68 lakes and notable shrinkage of open water surface
area in the remaining lakes,
-
Embankment and raising of 6 lakes and their transformation into retention
reservoirs for agriculture, supplied from the Wieprz–Krzna Canal system. That
entailed a total change of the ecological structure of those ecosystems. Two of
them, after many years of no hydrotechnical use, have undergone the process of renaturalization and partially regained high nature values;
-
Destruction of natural structure of phytolittoral of certain lakes by intensive tourist
traffic;
-
Regulation and deepening of beds of most of the rivers and destruction of the
natural structure of their ecotone zones. The only river that retained its nearly
natural character over a major part of its length is the border river Bug;
-
Dissection of the natural structure of peatbog ecosystems with a dense network
of drainage ditches draining off own, usually acidic, poly-humus waters of the
peatbogs
and
introducing
into
the
ecosystems
hydrochemically
and
hydrobiologically alien, usually strongly polluted waters from the Wieprz–Krzna
Canal system; destruction of natural biodiversity of peatbog micro-habitats;
45
45
-
Nearly 3-fold increase of forest cover of the whole region: from 21.5% in 1952 to
48.3% in 1992 and 60.1% in 2007;
-
Approximately 2-fold increase of density of the network of anthropogenic border
lines between land use patches, creating an effect of fragmentation of the spatial
structure of landscape and of the ecosystems;
-
Increase of built-up areas by ca. 88% in the period of 1952 – 2007;
-
5.6-fold increase in the volume of tourist traffic in the period of 1985–2008 (with
the initiation of recreational use of the region in 1975) [Chmielewski T. J.,
Jankowska 2009].
The studies on changes in the land use structure in the area of the “West Polesie”
Biosphere Reserve was continued in 2010, expanding the set of lake and peatbog catchment
basins by another 12 objects. In effect, detailed data on changes in land use structure in 24
catchment basins were accumulated [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009, Chmielewski Sz.,
Chmielewski T. J. 2010].
In 2015, under the ALTER-Net Environmental History project, another series of this
type of research was carried out. It included an analysis of land use structure in 3 catchment
basins of lakes: mesotrophic lake Piaseczno, eutrophic lake Łukie and mesohumic (previously
– dystrophic) lake Moszne, registered on the digital true colour orthophotomap in 2012.
Obtained data were compared with the results of previous time sections measurements.
Since the end of XX ct., in many landscape studies a landscape metrics are used.
These are a kind of environmental indicators, defined as measurable biotic and abiotic
characteristics of the environment, which allow to obtain quantitative data concerning
ecological resources and landscape functioning [McAlpine, Eyre 2002]. Nowadays, landscape
metrics are often used for the quantification of landscape patterns [Gustafson 1998] and are
often used as indicators for landscape functions [Uuemaa et al. 2009]. Uuemaa [2013]
reviewed landscape metrics and according to three main groups of landscape functions
classification: habitat, regulation and information [De Groot, 2006], pointed that landscape
metrics have been mostly used in evaluating these three landscape functions and changes in
land use and land cover landscape structure.
Computer software is an important element associated with landscape metrics. There
are many desktop software packages that have been designed to provide calculations and
analysis of landscape structure patterns in categorical maps, many of them have common
46
46
features e.g. Fragstats 3.3, r.li, GRASS, V-Late 1.1, PA4 beta, Pattern/Texture, APACK, IAN,
some of them are available as open source software packages [Zaragozí et. al. 2012].
Using a set of selected landscape metrics, in 2013 Sz. Chmielewski, T. J. Chmielewski
and P. Tompalski made the first evaluation of the actual state of landscape diversity in the
area of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve [Chmielewski Sz. et al. 2014]
In the study provided in 2015, under the ALTER-Net Environmental History
project, Sz. Chmielewski and T. J. Chmielewski conducts a monitoring of landscape
diversity changes in the Polish part of the “West Polesie” TBR for the following time
transects: 1989 – 2002 – 2014. The source materials were 3 satellite scenes from the Landsat
satellite, covering the whole area of the Polish part of the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve:
Scene from 1989, acquired by the satellite Landsat 7 TM on the 24th of September,
1989 (image quality 7);
Scene from 2002, acquired by the satellite Landsat 7 on the 19th of August, 2002
(image quality 9);
Scene from 2014, acquired by the satellite Landsat 8 on the 13th of September, 2014
(image quality 9).
In relation to these series of satellite scenes, the procedure consisted of:
1. Acquisition of satellite scenes;
2. After radiometric and geometric correction, 5-channel colour compositions: Red,
Green, Blue, NIR, IR, were prepared;
3. Additionally, principal components analysis (PCA) and Normalised Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI) was performed on a set of raster bands;
4. The images were subjected to supervised classification with the use of 124 training
fields; For all three sets of satellite scenes subjected to the classification a common set
of training fields was developed. The training fields were designated on pixels that in
each of the three satellite scenes identified the same form of land cover;
5. For the classification the maximum likelihood classification algorithm was used;
6. The following classes were proposed: Meadows, C-Forest, D-forest, Arable areas,
Wetlands, Water, Built-up Areas;
7. The result of the classification (raster) was converted to the vector form with
conversion to the Polish system of geodesic coordinates PUWG 1992;
8. The area of the individual classes was calculated;
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47
9. On the basis of the resultant images of the classification two landscape metrics were
calculated in the Moving Window approach: SHDI and ED (Edge Density). In both
cases the adopted value of the search radius was 1000 m;
10. Using the method of map algebra [Tomlin 1994], the differences between metrics
calculated for the images from 1989 and the metrics from 2014 were calculated. Areas
where the value of the metrics decreases, increases or remains relatively stable were
indicated.
Presented in this chapter a chronological overview of results of landscape research
allows on the one hand to know the history of research concerning changes occurring in the
landscape ecological structure of the West Polesie BR, on the other hand – allows to evaluate
progress in methods and techniques of landscape transformation research, finally – allows to
explore different stages and aspects of landscape evolution occurred in this unique region.
4.2. Selected results
4.2.1. Changes in land cover structure in 63 catchment basins in the years 1952 – 1992,
based on black & white aerial photos
From the end of the nineteen fifties to mid-eighties of the XXth century area of the
Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland was subjected to intensive large-scale transformations of water
relations, related primarily with the construction of the melioration system of the Wieprz–
Krzna Canal, development of agriculture and intensified recreational use of the lakes.
In the beginning of the 90. XX ct, the carthometric comparative analysis of photointerpretation maps illustrating the land cover structure in 1952 and 1992 were conducted on
the area of western and central sectors of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland, with total surface
61,407.5 ha. That area, belonging to the catchment basins of 6 rivers: Tyśmienica, Bobrówka,
Bobryk, Piwonia, Mietiułka and Włodawka, was divided into 63 elementary catchment
basins, that were then compared to one another in terms of the character and scale of changes
taking place in them. This works was supported by field studies, systematically carried out in
the period 1986-1992, as well as by the analysis of the description of the environment of this
region, included in the studies form the 50. XX ct. [Wilgat 1954; Fijałkowski 1960]. It was
demonstrated that in 1952 – 1992 in the study area a strong drainage was performed on a total
of ca. 12,800 ha, i.e. on over 61% of all areas occupied hitherto by water and wetland
48
48
habitats, mainly in catchment basins of rivers: Tyśmienica, Bobryk and Włodawka, (Tab. 1).
In many of the elementary basins of lakes and peatbogs the shrinkage of those habitats
exceeding even 80% (Fig. 41) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].
The total length of constructed canals and ditches, identified on air photos and
confirmed on the 1:25000 maps, attained in the study area nearly 1000 km, which gives an
average density of their network at the level of 47 m/ha of all terrains occupied in the middle
of the century by water bodies and wetlands [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].
Table 1. Changes in the extent of surface waters and wetlands in 6 studied catchment
basins of rivers of Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland over 1952 – 1992 [Chmielewski T. J. 2001]
Ite
m
Catchment
basin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Tyśmienica
Bobrówka
Bobryk
Piwonia
Mietiułka
Włodawka
Total
Catchment
basin area
(ha)
13.835,0
9.671,0
2.959,9
11.763,0
7.756,0
15.422,6
61.407,5
Area of waters and
wetlands in 1952
ha
%
3.625,64
26,20
1.221,14
12,63
1.331,13
44,97
3.589,36
30,51
4.149,50
53,50
7.049,80
45,71
20.966,57
34,16
Area of waters and
wetlands in 1992
ha
%
1.347,16
9,74
908,10
9,39
178,29
6,02
1.647,77
14,01
2.412,12
31,10
1.646,40
10,68
8.169,84
13,26
Scale of
change
%
-62,84
-25,64
-86,61
-54,09
-41,87
-76,65
-61,18
Fig. 41. Changes in the share of water and wetlands (%) in 63 catchment basins in the western
and central part of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland over 1952 – 1992 [Chmielewski 2001].
49
49
The natural beds of the rivers of the Lakeland were not only straightened and dredged,
but is several regions their course was shifted, at the same time changing the system of supply
of several lakes. E.g., in the fifties of the 20th century river Piwonia flew across lakes
Nadrybie and Bikcze, while now it bypasses them, like river Tyśmienica bypasses lake
Krzczeń from which it once flew out. Lake Krasne was once an endorheic lake, but now it is
supplied from the Wieprz–Krzna Canal and its water supplies river Bobrówka via a system of
ponds.
Lakes: Dratów, Mytycze, Krzczeń, Tomaszne, Skomielno and Wytyckie have been
surrounded with embankments and turned into retention reservoirs for agriculture, with
combined area of 1200 ha, supplied from system of the Wieprz–Krzna Canal. Also lakes
Uściwierz, Bikcze and Zagłębocze, with outstanding nature values, have been partially
embanked and included into the WKC system.
The intensive drainage programs conducted in the Lakeland from the fifties to the
eighties of the XXth century were accompanied by significant changes in land use structure.
It was found that in the 2nd half of the XXth century 7 trends dominated in the
transformations of the area under analysis:
1 – shrinkage of area of water bodies, peatbogs, sedge moors and bogs, combined
with terrain dissection with a dense network of melioration ditches
2 – increase of forest areas
3 – decrease of area of agrocenoses with simultaneous increase of crop diversity
4 – increase of built-up areas with the following character:
–
scattered in the open agricultural landscape
–
dense around lakes under recreational use
5 – increase of road network density
6 – intensive development of tourist traffic
7 – fragmentation of spatial structure of landscape and increase of mosaic character
of agricultural-settlement-forest terrains [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].
During 40 years (1952 – 1992), in the study area over 73% of the surface of peatbog
and sedge communities underwent degradation, out of which in the catchment basins of river
Tyśmienica – 90.4%, Mietiułka – 89.1%, Bobryk – 88.1%, and Włodawka – 66.6%. A
somewhat smaller scale of degradation of peatbogs and sedge swamps was observed in the
catchment basins of rivers Piwonia (58.6%) and Bobrówka (65.1%) (Tab. 2).
50
50
Table 2. Changes in area of peatbog and cyperaceous communities in 6 studied catchment
basins of rivers of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland over 1952-1992 [Chmielewski
T. J. 2001].
Item
Catchment
basin of river
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Tyśmienica
Bobrówka
Bobryk
Piwonia
Mietiułka
Włodawka
Total
Area of peatbogs and sedge
moors in 1952
ha
% of catch. area
1770,7
12,8
378,5
3,9
657,3
22,2
1611,6
13,7
1202,0
15,5
5210,1
33,7
10830,2
17,6
Area of peatbogs and sedge
moors in 1992
ha
% of catch. area
169,3
1,2
129,2
1,3
78,4
2,6
667,4
5,7
131,0
1,7
1741,3
11,3
2916,6
4,8
Scale of
changes
%
-90,4
-65,8
-88,1
-58,6
-89,1
-66,6
-73,1
Up till the year 1992, the largest areas of open (not covered with forests and bushes)
peatbogs and sedge swamps were preserved in the upper parts of catchment basins of rivers
Piwonia and Włodawka, forming 3 main territorial complexes:
–
Bog Bubnów and Bog Staw
–
Complex of Uściwierskie Lakes and basin of Lake Łukie
–
Catchment basins of lakes Moszne and Długie and Durne Marsh.
However, in none of the 63 analysed elementary catchments the share of open
peatbogs and sedge swamps exceeded 15% in 1992.
A part of the drained peatbogs were ploughed and transformed into grasslands, while
another part was subject to natural forest succession. Also, the poorest agricultural lands were
artificially afforested. As a result, over the period of 1952 – 1992 the forest area of the region
increased by 7484.8 ha, i.e. 2.3-fold, which meant an increase of afforestation from 9.1 to
21.3% (Tab. 3).
Table 3. Changes in forest area in 6 studied catchment basins of rivers of the Łęczna–
Włodawa Lakeland over 1952-1992 [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].
Item
Catchment
basin of river
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Tyśmienica
Bobrówka
Bobryk
Piwonia
Mietiułka
Włodawka
Total
Area of forests in 1952.
ha
1166,2
1554,4
184,6
636,1
1357,0
681,6
5579,9
% of catch. area
8,4
16,1
6,2
5,4
17,5
4,4
9,1
Area of forests in 1992
ha
1695,8
2754,6
1039,3
2576,4
3009,0
1989,6
13064,7
% of catch. area
12,2
28,5
35,1
21,9
38,8
12,9
21,3
Scale of
changes
%
45,4
77,2
46,3
305,0
121,7
191,9
134,1
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The greatest scale of those changes occurred in the centre of the study area, i.e. in the
catchment basins of rivers: Bobryk and Piwonia, while the highest rate of afforestation was
characteristic in 1992 for the catchments of Bobrówka and Bobryk and for the complex of
catchments of lake Moszne - lake Długie - Durne Marsh situated in the watershed zone of
rivers Piwonia and Włodawka (belonging to the Vistula and Bug river basins).
Comparative analysis of the aerial photos revealed, however, that in the study area
deforestation took place as well as afforestation. In total only ca. 20% of the forest areas
occurring there in the 50. of the XXth century remained on the same sites until the end of the
century. This means that ca. 80% of forest ecosystems of the region are 50 years old or less.
The area of agrocenoses had been increasing in the till the beginning of the nineteen
eighties, mainly at the expense of large-area elimination of peatbogs. After that, however, it
began to shrink gradually. In the period of 1952 – 1992 the total area of agrocenoses
decreased by ca. 1500 ha, i.e. less than 5%. That process, however, was accompanied by
notable fragmentation of the spatial structure of the agrocenoses. The main reasons for that
phenomenon were the following:
–
succession of a mosaic of tree and bush patches on post-arable lands
–
secondary division of private plots of land, especially in the vicinity of lakes under
recreational use
–
privatisation of fragments of former extensive agricultural monocultures (after the
defunct State Farms)
–
increase of density of road network in the agricultural landscape.
However, compared to the dynamics of quantitative and qualitative changes that
during the study period occurred in the peatbog and forest ecosystems, agrocenoses turned out
to be land use systems with greater stability.
After 1975 the processes of development of settlement network had a significant effect
in the functional-spatial structure of the region. Those were a resultant of several coinciding
factors:
–
reduction of rural population and ageing of villages (in the period of 1978-1999
the population of the entire area under analysis decreased by 3.2%, the
depopulation of areas with a large share of forests and bogs being faster than of
areas with predominance of arable lands);
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52
–
development of the recreation function (the first resort in the study area appeared
in 1975, on lake Piaseczno; in 1998 at the height of the summer season there were
up to 20,000 persons daily in that region);
–
establishment, from the start of the nineteen seventies, of large-scale breeding
farms and construction of housing for employees next to them (in the areas under
analysis 8 such complexes were built);
–
start of operation (in 1975) – in the vicinity of the study region – of the Lublin
Coal Basin (Lubelskie Zagłębie Węglowe);
–
development of road network (over the period of 1952-1992 the length of surfaced
roads in the study area increased 2.1-fold) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].
With the development of the recreational function, next to the rural buildings
recreational construction started to appear in the landscape of the Lakeland. However, it did
not appear in the existing structures of village settlement systems but initially formed colonies
on the shores of the most recreationally attractive lakes, and then – increasingly compact rings
around the lakes, up to the point of significant degradation of the nature and recreational
values of the lakes and of the cultural landscape.
Over the period of 1952-1992 the greatest expansion of built-up areas occurred in the
catchment basins of rivers: Tyśmienica (162.3 ha), Bobrówka (161.0 ha) and Włodawka
(106.7 ha), and the smallest – in the basins of rivers: Mietiułka (23.0 ha) and Bobryk (30.5
ha). In turn, the percentage scale of the increase was the greatest in the catchment basins of
rivers Piwonia (100.3%) and Bobryk (96.9%) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].
4.2.2. Changes in the length and density of landscape boundary network in 63 catchment
basins in the years 1952 – 1992, based on black & white aerial photos
Analysis of density of the network of landscape boundaries (i.e. the density of the
network of boundaries between patches of various forms of land cover, melioration ditches,
roads, permanent fencing etc.) revealed that generally, in almost the entire area, in the years
1952 – 1992 there was an increase of the total length of landscape boundaries (by 20 % on
average) and an increase of the density of their network (average of 24.1 %). It means that
there was a disintegration of the ecological structure of landscape, indicated by a decrease in
average size of patches by 12.4% (Fig. 42) [Chmielewski 2003].
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53
Comparing to 1952, several or even over a dozen new types of land use boundaries
have appeared in many elementary basins, which is related to the increase of land use
diversity (productive grasslands, recreational facilities, permanent building structures, etc.).
Total length of land use boundaries between forest and other types of ecosystems
increased, as well as the length of the following land use boundaries: meadow/watercourse,
forest/watercourse, meadow/linear afforestation, field/linear afforestation. The number of land
use boundaries between peats and other ecosystems has decreased.
In the catchment basin of Lake Brzeziczno, protected since 1959 as a nature reserve,
the loss of total length of peatbog boundaries (by ~ 4 %) and an increase in the content of
forest boundaries (9.6 %) was noticed. A loss of lake’s area and drying of a part of peatbog
were noticed here. It is the only catchment of lake among the investigated ones, at which there
was a slight growth of the average size of the patch (forests succession) and a decrease of the
network of land use boundaries density. Similar trends have occurred only in 3 catchments
located in small river valleys, dominated by wet forests (Włodawka river valley) or big ponds
and hay meadows (Tyśmienica river valley) (Fig. 42) [Chmielewski 2003].
Fig. 42. Changes in the density of landscape boundaries network in 63 catchment basins
over 1952 – 1992 [Chmielewski 2003].
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54
A moderate scale of transformations of the structure of landscape boundaries occurred
in the catchment basins of lakes: Mytycze, Krzczeń, Zagłębocze, Głębokie Uścimowskie,
Miejskie and Rotcze, located in the western part of the study area. Peatbogs were transformed
into meadows there, so boundaries: peatbog / watercourse decreased and boundaries: meadow
/ watercourse – increased. Recreational facilities have greatly developed in the lake basins
Zagłębocze and Rotcze (over areas of about 60 and 50 ha). Around Mytycze and Krzczeń lake
catchment basins, embankments were built and water level elevated (changed into a storage
reservoir for agriculture).
The greatest changes occurred in structure of lake catchment basins Kleszczów and
Płotycze. Peatbogs surrounding these lakes were cut apart by a dense network of drainage
ditches ,and as a result, many patches of shrubs and rushes appeared, so a very significant
increase (by 62 %) of the total length of transitional zones occurred and a decrease in the
average size of the patch ( –24 % in the object Kleszczów and –25.5 % in the object Płotycze)
was observed. This means that the landscape of the catchment basins of these lakes became
more mosaic [Chmielewski 2003].
Some of the analysed landscape boundaries (in 1992 – approx. 36 %) are natural zones
between adjacent ecosystems, which means that they constitute ecotones in the classic
understanding of this term [Van den Maarel 1976, Naiman et al. 1989]. Some (approx. 12 %)
of the analysed boundaries can be considered as natural/anthropogenic ecotones (for example:
peatbog / meadow; forest / field). However, among the analysed boundaries, the biggest group
(about 52%) is that constituted by linear structures developed by human activity (for example:
field – settlement, field – orchard, meadow – road, etc.). Over the analysed period, the share
of anthropogenic boundaries in some naturally valuable sectors of the investigated area
increased even over 2-fold (Fig. 43, 44) [Chmielewski 2001].
4.2.3. Changes in land use structure in western and central part of the West Polesie BR
in the years 1952 – 2012, based on black & white and true colour aerial photos
In 2015, for the area covering the same cluster of 63 elementary catchment basins
described in section 4.2.1., the analysis of land cover structure changes that have taken place
in this area during the period of 60 years (1952 – 2012) was performed.
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55
Fig. 43. The network of landscape boundaries in the Bikcze – Uściwierz – Nadrybie Lakes
Cluster in 1952 [Chmielewski 2001]
56
56
Fig. 44. The network of landscape boundaries in the Bikcze – Uściwierz – Nadrybie Lakes
Cluster in 1992 [Chmielewski 2001]
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57
The analog map of land cover structure in 1952, was based on stereo-pair of blackand-white aerial photos 1: 25000 [Zakrzewski et al. in. 1993]. In 2015 map this was
transposed into a GIS, while reducing its legend to 7 main forms of land cover: (1) – lakes
and ponds, (2) - wetlands, (3) – coniferous forests, (4) – deciduous forests, (5) –meadows,
(6) – arable lands, (7) – build-up areas (Fig. 45).
In the same year (2015), for the same area, based on the digital orthophotomap
from 2012 (real colour, with the addition of infrared channel) the map of the same forms
of land cover was developed (Fig. 46).
Fig. 45. Analysis of land cover structure the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR in 1952. A.
Location of the study area: 1 – border of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR, 2 – border
of the 63 elementary catchment basins cluster, B. Land cover structure: 3 – lakes and ponds, 4
– wetlands, 5 – coniferous forest 6 – deciduous forest, 7 – meadows, 8 – arable lands, 9 –
built-up areas (elaborated by A. Kułak 2015).
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58
Fig. 46. Analysis of land cover structure the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR in 2012. A.
Location of the study area: 1 – border of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ TBR, 2 – border
of the 63 elementary catchment basins cluster, B. Land cover structure: 3 – lakes and ponds, 4
– wetlands, 5 – coniferous forest 6 – deciduous forest, 7 – meadows, 8 – arable lands, 9 –
built-up areas (elaborated by A. Kułak 2015).
Both maps were subjected to cartometric comparative analysis. It was found that in the
analyzed period (60 years), in the study area the following changes occurred (Fig. 47):
- the surface of lakes and ponds increased near about 530 ha, mainly as a result of
extending the area of existing and creation of new ponds, as well as a result of
transformation a few lakes into retention reservoirs (among others: Mytycze,
Krzczeń, Tomaszne, Skomielno, Wytyckie); but in the same time 7 small natural
lakes have disappeared (Orzechówek, Lejno {KahiŜa}, Ciesacin, Karaśne by the
Urszulin, Wąskie, Myczółki, Laskie);
- the surface of wetlands decreased near three times: from 17565,5 ha in 1952 year to
hardly 6092,4 ha in 2012 year, as a result of drastic drying the area and
transformation the peat-bog communities to the meadows;
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59
- the surface of coniferous and deciduous forests increased respectively by 5492 ha
and 4110 ha, mainly as a result of natural succession on drained peatbogs and
afforestation of agricultural areas;
- in 1952 meadows and fallows covered 15,3% of the total research area, in 2012 –
already 21,9%; this process was caused mainly by the transformation a part of
drained peatbogs on the meadows and former farmlands on the fallows;
- the surface of arable lands decreased by 16,5% as a result of transformation to the
built-up areas and forests;
- the surface of built-up areas increased from 995,5 ha in 1952 to 2461,2 ha in 2012.
Fig. 47. The main changes in the land cover structure the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’
TBR in the period 1952 – 2012 (elaborated A. Kułak 2015).
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60
To investigate the trends and dynamics of these changes on a local scale, detailed
photo-interpretative analysis were subjected to 3 selected catchment basins of lakes, in 4
time cuts: 1952, 1992, 2007 and 2012 (see section 4.2.5).
4.2.4. Changes in land use structure and landscape diversity of the ‘West Polesie’
Biosphere Reserve in the years 1989 – 2014, based on Landsat imagery
Generating a series of land cover maps for the whole area of the West Polesie BR
located in Poland was enable thanks to the analysis of a Landsat’s satellite imagery from the
years: 1989 – 2002 – 2014. This task was carried out in 2015, according to the method
described in section 4.1. For example, Fig. 48 presents the land cover structure in 2002.
Fig. 48. The main land cover forms in the Polish part of the ‘Wesr Polesie’ TBR in 2002
(elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015).
Legend: 1 – lakes and ponds, 2 – wetlands, 3 – coniferous forests, 4 – deciduous forests, 5 –
meadows, 6 – arable lands, 7 – build-up areas.
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61
Structure and surface share of delimited 7 main land cover classes changed
significantly through the analyzed time cuts. In global study area, the biggest changes taking
place form 1989 to 2014 concerned the increase in built-up areas (48%) and arable lands
(37%), whilst the decrease in the area of meadows (-49%) and wetlands (-25%). Distinct is
also increase in coniferous forests (14%).
Built-up areas developed mainly on the former arable lands; arable lands – mainly on
the territory of drained meadows, forests – mainly on the place of wetlands, meadows and
poor arable lands (in this, coniferous forests – mainly on the area of drained peatbogs).
State and changes of the landscape diversity was assessed by means of selected
landscape metrics. Using moving window approach, a two landscape metrics: Shannon
Diversity Index (SHDI) and Edge Density metric (ED) were calculated and mapped (Fig 49
and 50). ED is a measurement of the complexity of the shapes of patches and expression of
the spatial heterogeneity of a landscape mosaic, SHDI is the measure of landscape patches
diversity. The monitoring of those two basics parameters can answer the question about the
direction and the scale of landscape pattern changes.
The example of Figs 49 and 50 reveals significant correlation between those two
indexes, both ED and SHDI reaches the highest values almost in the same areas. In this way
the most diverse landscapes of the study area were detected by proposed metrics.
In scale of whole study area, the monitoring of landscape diversity changes in
subsequent time sections has particular importance. Landscape metric changes can provide
information about both positive and negative (for man and for nature) landscape
transformations. Increase of the used landscape metrics usually is associated with natural
ecological process (like natural plant succession), but also with dispersion of anthropogenic
forms of land development and landscape fragmentation. The reduction of this indexes can be
a signal of land-use unification. An example of landscape diversity metrics changes is
presented on a Fig. 51.
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Fig. 49. ED index values on the study area in 2002 (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015).
Fig. 50. SHDI values on the study area in 2002 (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015).
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63
Fig. 51. Changes of ED index on the study area over 1998 – 2014 (elaborated by Sz.
Chmielewski 2015).
It was demonstrated that, among others, the values of index ED (density of the
landscape boundaries network) decreases in areas of intensive agricultural land use, which
should be attributed to the increasing appearance of large-area monoculture cultivations. That
index decreases also is certain forest areas, where felling sites and young stands are replaced
by mature tree stands. Whereas, ED index values increase where agriculture is extensive and
– through natural succession – irregular patches of forest and scrub communities develop and
tree lines and groups are formed (e.g. along non-maintained drainage ditches). ED index
values increase also in the area of forests that attained the felling age and in their
homogeneous and hitherto compact structure there appear perforations – felling site areas.
In the whole study area scale, the ED metrics reached a maximum value 137,77 and
happened in 2014 in very different types of mosaic landscapes. The diversified scale (from
low to high) of increase and decrease of ED between 1989 – 2014 occurred respectively on
27% and 29 % of the study area, while 44 % of the area showed a very low level of change
changes, not greater than +/- 10 value of ED (Fig. 49). We noticed that an increase or a
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64
decrease of ED index value are not automatically related with processes beneficial or
unfavourable for the natural environment and the values of landscape physiognomy. Similar
trends in this metrics changes may indicate diverse processes.
Analogous relations were also observed in the variation of values of SHDI index.
SHDI metrics reached a maximum value 1,84 and happened in 2014, at several sites
with intensive recreational development of valuable natural areas (Fig. 50). The diversified
scale (from low to high) of increase and decrease of SHDI between 1989 – 2014 occurred
respectively on 19% and 42% of the study area, while 39% of the area showed a very low
level of change, not greater than +/- 0.1 value of SHDI.
Thus the same directions of changes in the values of indices ED and/or SHDI may
indicate totally different processes taking place in the landscape. Therefore, their values
should carefully confronted every time with the character of key components of the natural
environment and of changes taking place in the land use structure.
Detailed analyses of landscape diversity changes on the ‘West Polesie’ BR are the
subject of elaboration a separate scientific publication (in preparation).
4.2.5. Changes in land use structure in selected lake catchment basins in the years 1952 –
2012, based on black & white and true colour aerial photos
According to the methods described in the section 4.1., detailed data on changes in
land use structure in 24 lake and peatbogs catchment basins were collected for the period
1952 (1971) – 2007 and additionally in 3 catchment basins also for the period 2007 – 2012.
The research areas were selected so that: (1) they were situated in various parts (zones)
of the Biosphere Reserve, (2) included lakes with various trophy types: mesotrophic,
eutrophic and dystrophic (mesohumus), each of the trophy types being represented by a
minimum of 2 objects, (3) contained diverse types of peatbog and forest habitats, and (4)
represented various stages of anthropogenic transformation of ecosystems and landscape (Fig.
52) [Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2009, Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2010].
In this section of results, only data relating to 3 lakes investigated under the
Environmental History Project are presented (Fig. 53 – 61).
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65
66
66
Legend: 1 – boundary of the Biosphere Reserve in Poland; 2 – lake catchment basins investigated under the research
project realized in 2006 – 2009; Names of the lakes investigated under the Environmental History Project: Pi – Piaseczno;
Łk – Łukie; Mo – Moszne.
Fig. 52. Location of studied lake catchment basins in the area of the Polish part of the ‘West Polesie’ Biosphere
Reserve (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski 2015).
4.2.5.1. Changes taking place in the catchment basin of mesotrophic Lake Pisaeczno
Mesotrophic lakes are among the most attractive in terms of recreational use in the
entire Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland. Pure waters and easily accessible, often sandy banks
caused that the lakes were the first to become an object of interest for tourists, and around
them various forms of recreational infrastructure began to appear gradually. In this category
of objects the lakes chosen for the study were Lake Piaseczno.
Lake Piaseczno is situated in the south-western part of the Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 52),
on the area of the Łęczna Lakeland Landscape Park. In the 50. XX ct. it was surrounded
mainly by arable lands (Fig. 53); since the 70. XX ct. around this lake began to increase forest
cover and develop ever more intense recreational buildings (Fig. 54).
Fig. 53. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Piaseczno in 1952: 1. catchment
boundary; 2. open water table of the lake; 3. bog pools; 4. peat pits; 5. rush communities; 6. peat bogs
with sphagna, moss-grown sites and cyperaceous meadows; 7. soddy low moors; 8. high moor; 9.
scrub communities; 10. forests; 11. meadows; 12. fields; 13. sandy beach (elaborated by Sz.
Chmielewski, published in: Chmielewski Sz. Chmielewski T. J. 2009).
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67
Fig. 54. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Piaseczno in 2012: 1. catchment
boundary; 2. open water table of the lake; 3. nympheides; 4. rush communities; 5. peat bogs with
sphagna, moss-grown sites and cyperaceous meadows; 6. scrub communities; 7. coniferous forest; 8.
deciduous forest; 9. meadows; 10. fields; 11. sandy beach; 12. built-up area (elaborated by M.
Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015).
In the period of 1952 – 2012 the surface area of lake Piaseczno shrank by 3.4 ha, but
its open water surface area by as much as 6 ha, i.e. by 7,64%. In 1952 rush communities in the
lake basin occupied only 0.72 ha. By 2012 their area increased by 9,52 ha, i.e. over 13-fold,
which, in the case of a mesotrophic lake, is a very high index, indicating a significant increase
in the trophy of the waters. After 1992 also the appearance of nympheides was observed in the
lake waters.
Over the 60-year period covered by the study, in the catchment area of the lake there
disappeared all bog pools and peat pits, and all low and high moor communities, and only at
the north-western edge of the lake there remained residual degraded moss-grown patches and
cyperaceous meadows. Whereas, the forest area in the catchment basin increased during that
time by as much as 139,5 ha. In the immediate surroundings of the lake there appeared a zone
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68
of recreational sites and summer houses, occupying an area of 46.29 ha in 1992, 71.19 in
2007 [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009], and 75,58 ha in 2012 (Fig. 53 – 55).
Fig. 55 indicate that in general the biggest scale of land cover changes occurred here in
the period 1952 – 1992. However the period 1992 – 2012 was the time of the most intensive
summer houses development around the lake and a quick decreasing the surface of arable
lands.
Fig. 55. Changes in land cover of the Lake Piaseczno catchment basin from 1952 to 2012
(elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek, Sz. Chmielewski and T. J. Chmielewski 2015).
Degradation of peat bogs and strong development of summer housing without due care
for the sanitary status of the settlements, have led to a considerable deterioration of the
ecological status and recreational values of the lake [Radwan, Chmielewski 1997; Radwan et
al. 2002] (see also Section 7.2.).
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69
4.2.5.2. Changes taking place in the catchment basin of eutrophic Lake Łukie
The catchment basin of Lake Łukie is situated in the central part of the Biosphere
Reserve, in the Polesie National Park (Fig. 52). Its hydrological supply is strongly affected by
the river Piwonia which starts its course near the southern border of the Biosphere Reserve, at
a distance of ca. 5 km from a coal mine. In the nineteen sixties, in the catchment basin of lake
Łukie there was a change in the course of the bed of river Piwonia. The river which in the
1950’s crossed the lake now passes it by. What is more, photointerpretative studies and field
observations demonstrated that, in certain years, in summer periods the water in the channel
of the initial section of the river disappears almost completely.
The change in the supply system of the lake and the surrounding peatbogs has a very
strong effect on the functioning of that ecosystem (Fig. 56, 57).
Fig. 56. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Łukie in 1952: 1 – boundary of
the catchment area, 2 – river Piwonia, 3 – drainage ditches, 4 – water table of the lake, 5 communities with Stratiotes aloides, 6 – bog pools, 7 – peat pits, 8 – rush communities, 9 –
transitional and low moors, 10 – moor communities under shrubs, 11 – scrub communities, 12 –
forests, 13 – meadows, 14 – fields, 15 – plots with buildings, 16 – surfaced roads (elaborated by Sz.
Chmielewski, published in: Chmielewski Sz. 2009).
.
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70
In the period of 1952 – 2012 a rapid shrinking of open water table was observed in
lake Łukie (especially in the years 1952 – 1992), to the benefit of growing rush communities
and nympheides. Very large areas of the lake surface were covered by a community of water
pineapple (Stratiotes aloides) which, however, displayed notable variation in area in various
time intervals, with maximum reach in the 1990’s. Overall, from 1952 to 2007 the total area
of lake Łukie shrank by 15.08 ha, i.e. by 10.61%, but the area of its open water table by as
much as 33.31 ha, i.e. by 68.79% [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. However over
last analyzed 5 years (2007 – 2012), a significant part of the water pineapple community
disappeared. At the same time big changes have occurred also in the area of nympheides
(strong increase) and rushes (moderate decrease). In the effect, over this 5 years the surface of
the open water table of the Łukie lake increased from 15,11 ha to 29,17 ha. (Fig. 56 – 58).
These changes indicates that ecological conditions of this lake are very unstable.
Fig. 57. Land cover structure in the catchment basin of Lake Łukie in 2012: 1 – boundary of
the catchment area, 2 – river Piwonia, 3 – drainage ditches, 4 – water table of the lake, 5 communities with Stratiotes aloides, 6 – newly dug water reservoirs, 7 – nympheides, 8 –
rush communities, 9 – transitional and low moors, 10 –moor communities under shrub, 11 –
scrub communities, 12 – coniferous forest, 13 – deciduous forest, 14 – waterlogged meadows,
15 – grasslands and follow lands, 16 – fields, 17 – build-up areas, 18 – surfaced roads
(elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015).
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71
During analyzed period 1952 – 2012 in the catchment basin of the lake there took
place complete disappearance of bog pools, very large in the nineteen fifties (nearly 95 ha).
We indicated also disappearance of open water table in all of the old (formed before 1952)
peat pits, as well as total disappearance of moor communities under shrubs (because they
transformed into forests), and 86,2 % of the area of open transitional and low moors. There
also disappeared 65,1% of the area of semi-natural meadows, strongly waterlogged and rich in
terms of nature values and 53,8 % of fields. In the area of the drained peatbogs and seminatural meadows, a hay meadows are appeared, whereas more than half of the fields turned
into follow lands (Fig. 56 – 58).
In the period of 1952 – 2012 the area of forests increased here by as much as 604,5 ha,
i.e. nearly 14-fold. Those are mainly wet deciduous forests, significantly increasing the
evapotranspiration from the catchment, already characterised by notable water deficits. The
considerable expansion of deciduous forests is also conducive to the eutrophication of aquatic
and peatbog habitats due to the decay of large biomass of fallen leaves on the wetlands.
Fig. 58. Changes in land cover of the Lake Łukie catchment basin from 1952 to 2012
(elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek, Sz. Chmielewski and T. J. Chmielewski 2015).
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72
During the 60-year period under analysis, the total built-up area within the catchment
basin of lake Łukie increased by 27,13 ha (i.e. by 358,86%). That process has been
intensifying over the recent years. In a vast majority of cases the houses built are of a summer
character, and the construction develops mainly on the southern outskirts of the catchment
basin, already outside of the boundary of the Polesie National Park (Fig. 56 - 58).
After conversion of changes in individual intervals on the annual change index (AChI)
of land use structure, it turned out that the greatest changes have occurred in the period 20072012. For example AChI of forest areas in the period 1952-1992 amounted 9,92, whereas in
the period 2007-2012 it is 12,16. AChI of fields in the period 1952-1992 amounted 0,17,
whereas in the period 2007-2012 it is – 17,69.
Analysis of changes in land cover structure in the catchment basin of the lake Łukie
conducted in tree time intervals: 1952-1992, 1992-2017, 2007-2012 showed that:
1. the highest disappearance rate of peatlands took place in the period 1952-1992;
2. since the 90' begins the process of accelerated disappearance of arable fields
3. the last period (2007-2012) has the highest multidirectional dynamics of changes
in ecosystems of the catchment area of lake Łukie
4. in the last five years the highest disappearance rate of waterlogged meadows,
arable fields, and rush communities have occurred, simultaneously growth rates of
nympheides communities, forests, follow lands and build-up areas have increased.
4.2.5.3. Changes taking place in catchment basin of mesohumic (formerly – dystrophic) Lake
Moszne
The catchment basin of Lake Moszne is situated in the central part of the Biosphere
Reserve, on the area of the Polesie National Park (Fig. 52).
In 1952 the dominant share had here the soddy low moors, with a very characteristic
labyrinth system of mid-peatbog pools. Another specific element of the ecological structure of
that area were large patches of shrubby birch (Betula humilis), characteristic of peatlands of
Northern Europe. Forests (mainly marshy coniferous forests) constituted barely 9.26% of the
catchment basin area (Fig. 59). That was the landscape which Dominik Fijałkowski, in 1960,
defined as ‘a miniature of tundra and forest-tundra, situated the farthest to the south-west in
Europe’ [Fijałkowski 1960].
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Fig. 59. Land cover structure in catchment basin of Lake Moszne in 1952. 1 – catchment boundary, 2
– open water table, 3 – bog pools, 4 – peat pits, 5 – nympheides, 6 – rush communities, 7 – peat bogs
with sphagna and transitional moors with dwarf pine and birch succession, 8 – soddy low moors, 9 –
patches of shrubby birch (Betula humilis), 10 – scrub communities, 11 – forests, 12 – meadows, 13 –
fields, 14 – buildings, 15 – built-up areas (elaborated by Sz. Chmielewski, published in: Chmielewski
T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2010).
In 1992 in the catchment basin of Lake Moszne there were no longer any bog pools
nor open patches of peatbog-dwarf shrub vegetation, while the area of the former soddy low
moors shrank by over 72%. The drained peatbogs were rapidly colonised by forest
assemblages [Chmielewski T. J., Chmielewski Sz. 2010].
In the period of 1992 – 2012, thanks to the protective measures undertaken by the
Polesie National Park, consisting in the damming of peatbog drainage ditches, combined with
cutting down of trees, shrubs and over-peat reeds, it was possible to recreate in the catchment
basin of Lake Moszne 6.73 ha of assemblages characteristic of open peat bogs.
In total, in the period of 1952 – 2012 in the catchment basin of Lake Moszne there
disappeared 53,36 ha of mosses and sedges communities, 190,87 ha of low moors and 17,55 ha
of scrub communities. In addition, in the floating transitional moor surrounding the lake there
disappeared, rich in the 1950’s, system of bog pools (123,86 ha). All of those habitats were
classified among those with outstanding nature values and unique landscape values.
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Fig. 60. Land cover structure in catchment basin of lake Moszne in 2012. 1 – catchment boundary, 2
– open water table, 3 – bog pools, 4 – peat pits, 5 – nympheides, 6 – rush communities, 7 – peat bogs
with sphagna and transitional moors with dwarf pine and birch succession, 8 – soddy low moors, 9 –
patches of shrubby birch (Betula humilis), 10 – scrub communities, 11 – forests, 12 – meadows, 13 –
fields, 14 – buildings, 15 – built-up areas (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek 2015).
During analyzed 60 years (1952 – 2012), the area of forests in the Lake Moszne
catchment basin increased by 444,74 ha, i.e. nearly 6-fold. The area of meadows increased by
20,71 ha while that of arable fields shrank by 85,25 ha. The built-up area decreased in the
period of 1952 – 1992 by 0.3 ha, due to the outflow of the village population. Whereas, in the
years 1992 – 2007, in spite of the protests of the Polesie National Park, immediately next to
its boundary summer houses were built on an area of 0.81 ha [Chmielewski T. J.,
Chmielewski Sz. 2010]. During the next 5 years: 2007 – 2012 the surface of build-up areas
increased to 2,23 ha (Fig. 60, 61).
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Fig. 61. Changes in land cover structure in catchment basin of Lake Moszne in the period of 1952 –
2012 (elaborated by M. Michalik-ŚnieŜek, Sz. Chmielewski and T. J. Chmielewski
2015).
4.3. Conclusions
In chapter 4 we presented only the selected results of our more than 20 years research
focused on changes in land cover structure and hydrogenic habitats condition taking place in
the West Polesie region. Among presented data a special place occupy unpublished earlier
results of the studies carried out in 2014-2015, under the Environmental History Project.
The photointerpretative analyses revealed a great scale of changes taking place in the
almost all studied catchment basins, in spite of the fact that most of these areas was subjected
to different forms of nature conservation and landscape protection. The main directions of
changes taking place in land cover structure of the studied part of the Łęczna–Włodawa
Lakeland over the past 6 decades include the following:
- loss of 6 from among the 68 lakes, shrinkage of open water table and overgrowing of
most of the remaining lakes with marcophyte communities;
- transformation of several lakes in the retention reservoirs and increase in the surface
of ponds;
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- total disappearance of the labyrinth system of mid-peatbog flood and stagnant water
bodies, so characteristic of the former landscape of Polesie;
- large-scale decrease of the area of moss-grown sites, cyperaceous communities,
peatbog-dwarf shrub communities and soddy low moors;
- very large increase of woodiness;
- intense development of recreational use of mesotrophic lakes and certain eutrophic
lakes;
- fast growth of built-up areas, especially after 1992.
Direction and pace of environmental changes, differed in individual time intervals.
Period 1952 – 1992 was dominated by large-scale transformation of water conditions,
drainage over 70% of wetlands, the conversion of unique natural peat-bog communities in
monoculture hay meadows, afforestation of poor agricultural grounds and – from the 70. –
fast growth of recreational development around the lakes of the highest tourist values.
After the 1992, the rate of disappearance of different types of hydrogenic habitats was
slowed down. In the catchment basin of Lake Moszne the process of disappearance of peatbog
vegetation communities was even partially reversed, thanks to the active conservation projects
realized by the services of the Polesie National Park. However, on most of the analysed areas
the processes of disappearance of lakes, moss-grown sites and cyperaceous communities was
continued, at a particularly fast rate in the catchment basin of lakes situated in the south-west
sector of the Biosphere Reserve (Brzeziczno, Piaseczno, Nadrybie, Bikcze, Uściwierz,
Rotcze, Sumin). That is a zone exposed to the combines effects of the impact of: (1) the
nearby (4 km to the south) coal mine, (2) the melioration system of the Wieprz-Krzna Canal
built in the nineteen fifties and sixties of the XX ct., (3) the intensive recreational
development.
The last analysed time interval (2007 – 2012) is characterized by: (1) the great
dynamics of changes in the structure of aquatic macrophyte communities in some lakes
(especially shallow eutrophic ones, eg Lake Łukie); (2) slowdown of the rate of disappearance
of peatbogs and swamps; (3) significant loss of arable lands; (4) the dissemination of
monoculture crops in some areas, but in others – the simultaneous increase in the surface of
fallow land; (5) slightly smaller than in the previous years the rate of growth the forest area;
(6) especially intensive development of the built-up areas. Wider presentation of these
processes will take place in several being prepared new scientific articles.
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5. A model of landscape ecological structure
in the central part of the Biosphere Reserve
5.1. The concept of landscape ecological structure
The concept of landscape ecological structure comprises the sum of the following
features:
–
character and composition of geomorphological forms
–
character and spatial arrangement of watercourses and water reservoirs and their
catchment basins
–
habitat conditions with trophic diversity of waters and with gradients of terrain
slope, soil acidity, moisture and fertility, solar exposition, etc.
–
spatial arrangement of patches of various types of land cover and use, and in
particular the character and composition of water bodies, patches of vegetation
communities and urbanised areas
–
density and character of contact zones between patches and of linear structures
dissecting the patch structure
–
character, number, spatial distribution and degree of mutual relations of structures
with the character of ecological nodes and corridors, and especially rich clusters of
species and individuals in particular
–
character and spatial distribution of settlement systems, system of their connection
by technical infrastructure lines and reach of their effect on the ecological system
[Chmielewski 2012].
Depending of the greater or lesser emphasis on a specific set of features of landscape
ecological structure, various models of the structure are developed. The most frequently used
ones include the following:
1. – hierarchical system of spatial nature units
2. – model of trophic diversity of landscape
3. – zone-stripe-node model
4. – models of relation: catchment basin – water ecosystem
5. – model of contact zone network in the landscape [Chmielewski 2012].
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5.2.
The role of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland in the ecological structure of the
borderland zone of Eastern and Western Europe
The Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland has a specific physiographic situation. It is the south-
westernmost mesoregion of Polesie – one of the five great structural units of Eastern Europe,
referred to as physiographic sub-provinces [Kondracki 1981].
The western border of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is based on the 1st order
physiographic boundary separating Eastern Europe from Western Europe. The biome of
moderate zone broadleaf forests extends here. From the south-west and west the Lakeland
adjoins the expansive Belt of Uplands and Old Mountains of Europe, in its part classified in
the forest-steppe biome.
The entire mesoregion of the Lakeland is included in the macroregion of Polesie
Lubelskie. From the north it is delimited by mesoregions: Włodawski Hummock and
Sosnowicka Declivity, from the south –Chełmskie Hills and Dorohusk Depression, from the
east – Shatsk Lakeland situated already in the Ukrainian territory [Kondracki 1981].
The fact of being surrounded from 3 sides by more elevated terrains causes that the
Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is situated in a characteristic waterlogged morphological
depression.
The hydrographic situation of the Lakeland is also very specific. That outstandingly
flat area is an important watershed zone. The central part of the Lakeland is crossed north to
south by the 2nd order watershed between the catchment basins of rivers Vistula and Bug.
River Bug is the eastern boundary of the mesoregion. The western boundary of the Lakeland
runs in the zone of the 3rd order watershed between rivers Wieprz and Tyśmienica [Wilgat et
al. 1991].
The situation at the point of contact of such contrasting physiographic and ecological
macrostructures, with simultaneous abundance of stagnating and flowing surface waters of the
watershed zone, contributes to the particular nature richness of the region and to its
exceptional role in the ecological structure of Europe.
The Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland is situated in the route of one of the most important
parallel ecological corridors of Europe which joins the river valleys of Dniepr and Vistula,
through the marshy Polesie valleys of rivers Pripyat, Włodawka, Piwonia, Tyśmienica, and
the proglacial stream valley of river Wieprz with its abundance of meanders and oxbow lakes.
In the contact zone of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland and the Shatsk Lakeland that corridor
crosses another – this time meridional – European ecological corridor running along the
valley of river Bug and constituting a link between the Bug Region (PobuŜe), Wołyń
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Upland, Podlasie and Mazowsze [Liro ed. 1995, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1997]. The region
where the two corridors cross – including the Shatsk National Park in the Ukraine and the
Sobibór Landscape Park in Poland – is considered to be a European significance nodal nature
area [Chmielewski T. J. 1988, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1997, 2005]. Across the extensive
complex of Krowie Marsh it neighbours another outstandingly valuable node area which is
the lake-peatbog-forest complex of the Polesie National Park constituting the central part of
the Lakeland. The third nature node area with European significance covers the north-western
part of the region under analysis [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].
Each of these ecological nodes functioning in the route of the European ecological
corridors has a specific – generally fine mosaic – internal structure that is subject to more or
less dynamic transformations in time and space, both under the effect of natural processes and
as a result of various forms of land use and management.
5.3.
General model of ecological structure of landscape of the Polish part of the “West
Polesie” Biosphere Reserve – pilot study from 2001
Analysis of the ecological structure of landscape conducted in accordance with the
method described by Chmielewski [Chmielewski T. J. 1988, 2001] permitted the
identification of 11 ecological zones within the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland, constituting local
complexes of physiocenoses (LCP) [Chmielewski T. J. 2001] (Fig. 62). Those are the
following:
1. In the north-west – the extensive complex of Parczewskie Forests, with mid-forest
and near-forest lakes and peatbogs and large complexes of ponds on the edges;
2. In the west – a mosaic lake–meadow–field complex, with small patches of forests
and village settlement system the most developed in the Lakland area, framed by
the valleys of rivers Tyśmienica and Bobrówka (so-called “West Łęczyńskie
Lakeland”);
3. In the north, in the central-western part – the water–peatbog–forest declivity of the
valley of river Piwonia in the region of the town Sosnowica;
4. In the central-western part – a mosaic lake-peatbog-forest complex situated in the
watershed zone of rivers Vistula and Bug, with a dry chalk rock knob (called the
“Wola Wereszczyńska” Rock Knob) and an esker in the centre, and with the
valleys of rivers Piwonia, Mietiułka and Włodawka on the edges (so-called “East
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Łęczyńskie Lakeland”). It is here that the main complex of the Polesie National
Park is situated;
5. In the south-west – a compact lake-peatbog complex situated in the upper part of
the catchment basin of river Piwonia, known as the “Complex of Uściwierske
Lakes”;
6. In the north of the central part – the forest-meadow-field valley of centre section of
river Włodawka;
7. In the central part of the Lakeland – the group of 3 extensive, nearly forestless
marsh complexes: Krowie March, Bubnów Marsh and Staw Marsh, separated from
each other with dry gentle moraine belts;
8. In the central-eastern part – the mosaic forest-meadow-field valley of river
Krzemionka;
9. In the north-east – the forest-covered valley of lower liver Włodawka;
10. In the east – the Complex of Włodawskie Lakes, surrounded with Sobibór Forests
(so-called “Włodawskie Lakeland”);
11. On the eastern edge – the “transit” valley of river Bug, with extensive meadows
with patches of bushes and trees and numerous ex-lakes and stagnant water bodies.
Each of those ecological zones is characterised by somewhat different leading
ecological-landscape features, has a specific internal structure (composed of a set of units of
lower order) and plays a specific role in the functioning of the nature system of the entire
region. The application of the method of spatial analysis of ecological relations (SAER, Polish
abbreviation PASE) [Chmielewski 1990, 1992, 2001] permitted the determination of which of
the links of the zones are of key importance in this respect.
The following were identified within the study area [Chmielewski T. J. 2001] (Fig.
62):
–
3 nature node areas of European significance
–
6 supra-regional ecological nodes
–
14 regional ecological nodes
–
two parallel supra-regional ecological corridors and lines (European significance –
from north-west to south-east, and national significance – from west to east),
gradually convergent with each other, in the central part of the Lakeland connected
with a network of several strong mutual links and finally converging in the supraregional ecological node in the centre of the Sobibór Forests
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–
one meridional supra-regional (European) ecological corridor of the valley of river
Bug
–
4 regional ecological corridors and lines with a system of over a dozen mutual
internal links
–
6 main centres of anthropopressure, including 3 situated in a collision-free manner
on the edges of the region (the towns of Łęczna, Parczew and Włodawa), 2 located
in contact with systems of very high nature value (the Coal Mine “Bogdanka” and
the region of mass recreation around lake Białe – Glinki), and 1 situated in the
route of the transregional ecological corridor (mass recreation region around lake
Piaseczno).
Fig. 62. Zone-stripe-node model of ecological structure of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland –
synthesis: 1 – National border; 2 – physiographic boundary of the Łęczna–Włodawa
Lakeland; 3 – boundaries of local complexes of physiocenoses /LCP/ (1 – 11: numbers of the
particular LCP; numbering of the LKF according to the list given in the text) 4 – transient
zones joining the ecological-landscape features of the Lakeland with neighbouring regions; 5
– lakes; 6 – main watercourses; 7 –Wieprz–Krzna Canal; 8 – forests; 9 – main localities and
major roads; 10 – natural node areas of European significance; 11 – ecological nodes with
supra-regional significance; 12 – ecological nodes with regional significance; 13 – ecological
corridors and lines with supra-regional significance (European); 14 – ecological corridors and
lines with regional significance; 15 – boundary of zone C of the “West Polesie” Biosphere
Reserve; 16 – main centres of anthropopressure [Chmielewski T. J. 2001].
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The valley of river Bug, on the section adjacent to the Sobibór Forests, is an area of
extremely important parallel nature relationships of the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland with the
Ukrainian Shatsk Lakeland.
The preliminary version of the model of the ecological structure of the region (Fig. 62)
presents the Łęczna–Włodawa Lakeland as a region with a complex and diversified internal;
structure, saturated with numerous centres with unique nature values, and with strategic
importance for the functioning of the ecological system of that part of Europe.
5.4.
Model of ecological structure of landscape of the Polesie National Park – study
from 2005–2006
To investigate the further internal diversification of the ecological structure of landscape
of the central part of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland, in the period of 2001–2006, in the
region of the Polesie National Park a study was conducted on the delimitation of the system of
Basic landscape units, on the analysis of functional relationships among them, and on their
aggregation into regional territorial complexes – physiocenoses, in accordance with the
method developed by T. J. Chmielewski and J. Solon [1996], with subsequent modifications
by T. J. Chmielewski [2006, 2012].
The study included LCP No. 4, 5 and 7 and the adjacent sub-zones: the eastern part of
LCP 2 and the western part of LCP 6, with a total areas of ca. 498 km2. That region is referred
to in other publications as the functional area of the “Polesie National Park” [Radwan, ed.
1999, Chmielewski 2000].
Cartographic (scale of 1:25,000) superimposition of spatial reaches of:
–
geomorphological forms
–
surface elementary catchment basins
–
complexes of agricultural suitability of soils
–
plant communities (patches of actual vegetation)
–
land use types
permitted the delimitation of a set of 234 basic landscape units (BLU) within the study area.
Among those, 18 units were classified as structures with a transient character between the
neighbouring units, i.e. as a kind of “landscape ecotones”. In several dozen other cases strong
functional-spatial relationships between units were indicated (Fig. 63).
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Next, neighbouring units were aggregated into 65 physiocenoses, taking into account
the neighbourhood similarity of natural features and land use types, and the occurrence of
distinct hydrographic, geochemical and biocenotic relationships among them [Chmielewski
2006].
The fragmentation of the spatial basic nature units of the Lakeland is accompanied by
a very strong diversification of their habitat conditions that can be defined as a trophic mosaic
character of landscape. In spite of the general flatness of the terrain, there appear next to one
another such forms as e.g.:
a) autonomic ecotopes, acidic, dry and poor in biogens (e.g. dune belts)
b) accumulation ecotopes, acidic, strongly moist and poor in biogens (e.g. high moors
and transitional moors)
c) accumulation ecotopes with pH close to neutral and low fertility (e.g. mesotrophic
and distrophic-eutrophic lakes)
d) accumulation ecotopes with pH close to neutral and moderate fertility (e.g. weakly
eutrohicated lakes, low moors)
e) accumulation and accumulation-transitional ecotopes with pH close to neutral and
considerable fertility (e.g. eutrophic lakes, marshy bottoms of river valleys)
f) accumulation ecotopes, alkaline, with high moisture and moderate fertility (e.g
carbonate moors)
g) autonomic and transitional ecotopes, alkaline, with low moisture and considerable
fertility (e.g. chalk rock knobs with rendzinas)
h) whole array of transitional ecotopes, with more or less gentle gradients of
features [Chmielewski 2006].
The superimposition of the map of trophic landscape diversification with the results of
nature inventory of the region [Radwan ed. 1999] revealed that approx. 85% of the resources
of the most nature valuable habitats and species is related with accumulation ecotopes and
accumulation-transitional ecotopes. At the same time those ecotopes are usually sites of
convergence of major routes of migration of chemical compounds and species in the
landscape, and thus play the role of important nature refuges.
Such basic landscape units, with particular nature richness, concentrating the routes of
migration of matter and energy and with a supply effect on the surrounding areas, have been
given the name of ecological nodes. Their situation in the study area is illustrated in Fig. 63
[Chmielewski ed. 2005, Chmielewski 2012].
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Ensuring an effective and lasting conservation of the ecological nodes of the ŁęcznaWłodawa Lakeland is of particular importance for the preservation of the natural richness and
stability of the ecological structure of the entire Biosphere Reserve.
Fig. 63. Model of ecological structure of landscape of the functional area of the Polesie
National Park. Legend: 1 – boundary of the National Park; 2 – boundary of buffer zone of the
National Park; 3 – boundary of Basic landscape units (BLU); 4 – boundary of local complexes
of BLU (physiocenoses); 5 – strong functional relationships between BLU; 6 – BLU of
transitional (“ecotone”) character; 7 – BLU with domination of water-peatbog ecosystems; 8
– BLU with domination of water-sedge moor ecosystems; 9 – BLU with domination of forest
ecosystems; 10 – BLU with domination of grassland ecosystems; 11 – BLU with domination
of agrocenoses; 12 – BLU with mosaic structure; 13 – ecological nodes (with character
corresponding to a given unit or physiocenose); 14 – ecological corridors and lines; 15 – main
nature relationships with surrounding areas [Chmielewski T. J. 2006].
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5.5.
Model of ecological structure of landscape of the “West Polesie” Trasboundary
Biosphere Reserve – study from 2015
In 2012, three neighbouring and adjoining on the borders of three countries biosphere
reserves – “West Polesie” in Poland, “Shatsk” in the Ukraine and “Pribuzhskoie Polesie” in
Belarus, were granted by UNESCO the status of Transboundary Biosphere Reserve (TBR)
with the joint name of “West Polesie” (see Chapter 2).
In 2015, within the framework of the project Changes in landscape diversity,
landscape connectivity and land use structure of hydrogenic ecosystems in the ‘West Polesie’
Biosphere Reserve over last half century, a model of ecological structure of landscape was
developed for the entire TBR. The process of developing the model involved the utilisation of
both the experience acquired in the course of construction of the two previous models for the
Polish part of the Reserve and the nature documentation of the Belarus and Ukrainian parts of
the Reserve, as well as the UNESCO Nomination Form for the whole TBR. Especially
valuable for the creation of the model were the results of remote sensing studies on the main
moose (Alces alces) refuges and migration corridors within the area of West Polesie
[Chmielewski T. J., Maślanko 2014, Maślanko, Chmielewski T. J. 2015]. In addition, the
model of the ecological structure of TBR involved the use of new methodological
experiments and the results of studies on landscape spatial structure diagnosing and design
[Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014a].
The main elements of ecological structure of landscape of the “West Polesie” TBR are
the following: (A) 5 main types of ecological zones (local groups of ecosystems): water-peatmeadow; water-peat-forest; forest with enclaves of agrocenoses; agrocenoses and settlements;
urbanized areas; (B) main ecological corridors: two corridors of international significance and
a network of about 20 ecological corridors of regional significance; (C) main ecological
barriers (busy roads) (D) almost 50 ecological nodes, divided into 3 types: (1) water and
water-peat; (2) water-peat-forest; (3) forest; (E) 11 main anthropopressure centres, divided
into 4 types: (1) urban; (2) rural; (3) complexes of holiday cottages; (4) industrial (Fig. 64).
Special attention should be paid to two corridors of international significance: (a)
north – south, running along the Bug river valley and (b) east – west, running along the
Pripyat river valley; across lakes, peatlands and forests of the Shatsk National Park; farther
across lakes, peatlands and forests of the Sobibór Lanscape Park, Polesie National Park and
Łęczna Lakeland Landscape Park; up to Tyśmienica and Wieprz river valleys. Both of these
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international significance corridors cross each other near the Sobibór village, creating a
particularly important ecological node (Fig. 64).
Fig. 64. A. Location map: 1) Baltic Sea; 2) TBR; 3) Central and Eastern European countries;
B. Ecological structure of TBR landscape: I. Main elements of topography: 1) Lakes; 2)
Rivers; 3) Major cities; 4) Roads; 5) TBR border; II. Main ecological zones (local groups of
ecosystems): 6) Water-peat-meadow; 7) Water-peat-forest; 8) Forest with enclaves of
agrocenoses; 9) Agrocenoses and settlements; 10) Urbanised areas; III. Main ecological
corridors and barriers: 11) Ecological corridors of regional significance; 12) Ecological
corridors of international significance; 13) Wieprz-Krzna canal; 14) Ecological barriers of
regional significance; 15) Ecological barriers of national significance; IV. Main ecological
nodes: 16) Water and water-peat; 17) Water-peat-forest; 18) forest; V. Main anthropopressure
centres: 19) Urban; 20) Rural; 21) Complexes of holiday cottages; 22) Industrial (elaborated
by: T. J. Chmielewski, A. Kułak & W. Maślanko 2015).
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The model developed indicates that the area of the “West Polesie” TBR is a region
with high ecological\landscape diversity and strong connectivity. It is characterised by a
mosaic structure, with a large number of diverse zones and ecological nodes, linked by a
dense network of ecological corridors. The scale of anthropogenic pressure in the area is
relatively low. Only the towns of Włodawa and Shatsk are situated in the vicinity of zones
and ecological nodes of high nature value. In those regions special attention should be paid to
harmonisation of economic development with the requirements of nature and landscape
conservation.
The fact that two ecological corridors of international significance cross in the centre
of the biosphere reserve further enhances the importance of the region in the ecological
structure of landscape of the whole of Europe.
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6. A preliminary assessment of landscape physiognomy changes of the West Polesie
from the half of the XIX century to the beginning of the XXI century
6.1. Introduction
Changes occurred in land use structure, have also an enormous impact on landscape
physiognomy. So far a variety of methods have been developed, more or less subjective, for
the assessment of the values of landscape physiognomy. Those methods can be classified in 3
main groups: (1) methods based on the description of the state of landscape (evaluation of
characteristic features of the area); (2) methods based on the study of public preferences; (3)
methods based on quantitative holistic techniques [Buhyoff, Riesenman 1979].
In Poland, a great contribution to the development of methods of landscape
physiognomy composition analysis was brought by the works of J. Bogdanowski and his
team, relating – in terms of territory – to the scale of landscape interiors, landscape units and
zones, and in terms of methodology comprising the sequence of: inventory – valorisation –
design guidelines – landscape conservation and management plan [Bogdanowski 1976,
Bogdanowski et al. 1981]. That team developed also a method for the estimation of changes
taking place in landscape physiognomy on the basis of “series of time transects”
[Bogdanowski 1998].
In the seventies of the 20th century, J. Janecki pointed out that in natural landscape
systems, in which there are no traces of human activity, straight lines are practically
nonexistent. It was Man that introduced geometric figures into the landscape. Therefore, the
degree of anthropogenic transformation of a given fragment of landscape can be determined
by estimating the share of straight lines with relation to other lines observable in a view or
vista [Janecki 1978].
Interesting methods of evaluation of the values of landscape through analysis of its
perception were developed, among others, by K. Wejchert and K. H. Wojciechowski. The
studies by Wejchert were focused on the urban landscape, and his method, called the method
of the “curve of impressions”, consisted in the presentation of the scale of tension and
emotional impressions that appear in the observer when travelling through a given time-space
sequence [Wejchert 1984]. In turn, the studies by Wojciechowski were concerned with the
aesthetics of the out-of-town landscape. According to the assumptions of that author,
evaluation of landscape aesthetics is a resultant of such variables as the total of the features of
the observer that may have an effect on his evaluations, the sum of the circumstances of the
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evaluation, and the visual attractiveness of the landscape as such. That last variable includes,
among other things, such aspects as the harmony of forms, diversity of forms, composition,
uniqueness of features of the terrain, sense of security [Wojciechowski 1986]. Both the
methods of Wejchert and of Wojciechowski are based on subjective assessments, and do not
provide strictly replicable results. Nevertheless, the perception-based analyses of landscape
are extremely important in planning work, as they permit making correct decisions concerning
the preservation, correction and change of the perceived elements of the landscape [Skalski
2007].
The theory of landscape interiors and methods of analysis of landscape composition
were developed, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, by P. Patoczka who focused
especially on the role of landscape gates and walls and on “en suite” arrangement of interiors,
connected with roads [Patoczka 2000].
In turn, J. Rylke and M. Gąsowska applied, for the analysis of landscape composition,
the approach known from the analysis of works of art, evaluating separately such aspects as
the artistic, the aesthetic, and the “supra-aesthetic”. The artistic aspect comprises, among
other things, the evaluation of the composition, the dominants, subdominants, accents, and
other elements of landscape units. The aesthetic values are assessed on the basis of
questionnaire of evaluations of photographs of characteristic views recorded within the
landscape unit under study. Whereas, the “supra-aesthetic” aspect consists in the evaluation of
meanings of historical, religious, monumental nature, and other special emotional values of
the landscape heritage of the unit under analysis [Rylke, Gąsowska 2009].
Pursuant to the recommendations of the European Commission regarding the
implementation of the European Landscape Convention [2000], studies on landscape
physiognomy concerning historically remote periods with no reliable scientific elaborations
and photographic documentation available should make use of works of art – paintings and
drawings, literary descriptions, and other iconographic sources. Comparative studies covering
relatively recent periods of the history of a given area with abundant documentation should
use and compare the same methods of representation and landscape physiognomy analysis as
much as possible [Landscape... 2006].
The same approach was applied by A. Kułak and T. J. Chmielewski in their attempt to
evaluate the scale of changes in the features typical of the landscape physiognomy of West
Polesie recorded in the 19th century art, literature, and songs [Kułak, Chmielewski T. J.
2010].
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The assessment of changes in landscape physiognomy still poses numerous
methodological problems. They primarily result from the criteria of evaluation of the aesthetic
value of areas and objects changing with the development of civilisation [Eco 2004], but also
from the common scarcity of data on the appearance of particular regions and places in
previous decades (particularly in periods before the common use of photographic
documentation). This calls for the development of new methods and determination of the
scope of recording changes in the physiognomy of landscape with features deserving
protection as unique heritage of nature and culture. Such methods should also be applicable in
the reconstruction of valuable landscapes that should be recreated or constitute an important
system of reference for contemporary shaping of regional identity.
6.2.
Evaluation of changes in the landscape physiognomy of the West Polesie from the
middle of 19th century till the beginning of 21st century
This study was conducted in 2010, with the method of comparative analysis of
selected paintings, photographs, novels and books describing the land, created in the 19th and
20th centuries and concerning the area of the West Polesie [Kułak, Chmielewski 2010]. The
results of those analyses were juxtaposed with effects of retrospective photointerpretative
analysis based on aerial photographs of the area of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve from
the period of 1952 – 2007 with the application of the GIS techniques [Chmielewski Sz. 2009,
Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009]. The acquired data were confronted with the
results of our own current field observations.
From mid-19th till mid-20th century the landscape of West Polesie continued almost
unchanged. What is more – it strongly resembled the appearance of the area of 2-3 centuries
earlier „A multitude of rivers, brooks and streams crisscross the land (...). Who sees the poetry
of the region in those osiers, in that water meandering through the immeasurable bogs
littered with haystacks (...), who will feel it, boating on a spring night across the flooded bogs,
vast as a sea? Satrowolski’s old description, made 200 years ago, still physically and morally
applies to that land, so little changed since those times” [Kraszewski 1985; description
relating to the period of 1834 – 1860].
The character of the landscape and nature diversity of 19th century Polesie are very
well depicted in paintings by Józef Chełmoński (Fig. 65 and 66) who painted also in Pińsk
Polesie and in neighbouring regions [Masłowski 1973].
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Fig. 65. Polesie in paintings of Józef Chełmoński. Marsh marigolds; 1908
http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Chelmonski/Index.htm
Fig. 66. Polesie in paintings of Józef Chełmoński. The Kingdom of Birds; 1894
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In the 19th century Polesie was an inaccessible land of mud, pine trees, mists and
melancholy, that could not be mistaken for any other: „Strange Polesie! Sad Polesie! (…) that
picture is made up of only the fundamental elements of mud and pine trees. With this material
no genius in the world will create anything but a desolation (...) [Kraszewski 1985;
description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860].
An excellent description of the nature and landscape of Polesie from the beginning of
the 20th century is given by Stanisław Kulczyński (cit. after M. Marczak): „Broadly
spreading waters, expansive moors and bogs, and on drier, sand-covered areas forests,
mainly pine-forest, are the main elements of the Polesie landscape. The extremely sparse and
low relief of the land causes that the rhythm of occurrence of both these elementary
components of the landscape – the bog and the forest – assumes the character of a
phenomenon infinitely extended in space. Therefore, in Polesie one encounters impassable
bogs on one hand and impenetrable forests on the other. This creates landscape effects of
extraordinary kind. One gets lost and sinks in that extending rhythm of nature, taking in only
a small part of the space and the phenomena in it. The nature of Polesie speaks not through a
diversity, but through monotony and continuity of forms, it imposes the impression of
something as limitless and monotonous as the steppe or the sea (…). The landscape of
Polesie, that flattest land in Poland, has something of the features of alpine landscapes. The
difficulty with which the eye, running across monotonous spaces, catches points of rest, like
when looking into a rocky abyss, and the severity of the Polesie wilderness evokes a feeling of
helplessness like that felt when looking at the vista of the Tatras” [Marczak 1935/2008].
Today it is hard to imagine the richness of nature resources of the region in those
times: Next to turtles and thunder-fish, it is also a realm of crayfish: formerly a whole pot of
them used to cost but a penny (...) [Kraszewski 1985; description relating to the period of
1834 – 1860].
“In the times of my childhood our forests abounded in bears (...) I myself took part in
ten or a dozen bear hunts (…) on both sides of the river there were immense virgin forests.
On the left bank of the Prypeć there dominated pine forests (…) while on the right bank of the
river there grew deciduous forests with a predominance of oak (…) The land was then very
sparsely populated. The sparse villages were usually grouped on the banks of the Prypeć (…)
while the forests were virgin and beautiful, the arable soil was poor, mainly sandy and with
shallow ground water” [Kieniewicz 1989; description relating to the first two decades of the
20th century].
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Apart from the forests, one of the main poetically described elements of the Polesie
landscape are the rivers, “girding from everywhere and crossing among endless bogs and
vegetation (...). Horyń, squeezed in, flows down in the valley, and above it hang entwined
trees: pines, oaks, birches and thick hazel; its waters surround a green island down at the feet
of the onlooker, covered with old oaks, on which cattle still graze – a veritable idyll!”
[Kraszewski 1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860].
An equally interesting description of a Polesie river valley was given by Antoni
Kieniewicz: “…beautiful Prypeć, at any time of year, day and night. On sunny days its water
changed its colour from blue to dark navy blue. On stormy days it could be ominous, dark and
black, yet always clean and clear. The opposite river bank was low, covered with beautiful
meadows with a multitude of diverse flowers and single beautiful oak trees. Especially in
spring, when the Prypeć river valley carried enormous amounts of water to the Dniepr and
the whole opposite bank was flooded miles wide – the panorama was incomparably
beautiful” [Kieniewicz 1989; description relating to the first 2 decades of the 20th century].
Apart from their unquestionable landscape values, the rivers were also important
routes connecting the main Polesie towns - Pińsk, Brześć or Horyń – with the rest of the
world. They were navigated by steam boats, barges, and a variety of small craft that
seemingly for ever became an element of landscape in that land of forests and water. “And
when the sun rose, the market opened up and a multitude of boats lined along the bank began
trading in hay, wood, and other goods; I looked at that movement, that life, with admiration”
[Kraszewski 1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860].
The villages of Polesie also had their characteristic features: “A village stretches far to
the right, on to the mill and the pond, and in the midst of it an old Orthodox church can just
be seen, overshadowed with trees. All this rests against the far background of forests (…)
hills, woods, fields, and finally the forests girding every Polesie landscape.” [Kraszewski
1985, description relating to the period of 1834 – 1860] (Fig. 67).
Traditional Polesie cottages were low, built of wood, with log cabin structure,
thatched, with a large stove erected in the centre of the cabin. In the Polish part of Polesie
such cabins remained until mid-nineteen eighties, while in the Belarusian and Ukrainian parts
they could still be encountered in the first decade of the 21st century (Fig. 68).
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Fig. 67. Józef Chełmoński The village; 1910
Fig. 68. Rural cottages in the Lejno village.
Photo: T. J. Chmielewski 1986
House gardens were an inseparable element of the landscape of Polesie villages: from
the road side that had a decorative character (so-called “front-garden” – Fig. 69), while behind
the cottage – a utility character (vegetable or kitchen garden).
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Fig. 69. Traditional flower garden in front of a Polesie cottage. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski 1987
In spite of the extensive devastation and transformations caused by WW I, in the interwar period Polesie, over a vast majority of its territory, still retained its almost natural
character: “There remained areas that were little known, mysterious in many respects, hardly
accessible and largely unpopulated! (…). Among the forests and bogs, here and there
rounded forest-covered hillocks rise above the boggy Polesie plain (…). Those are battle
fields, and the hillocks are burrows piled above the bodies of the fallen (…). Nothing has
changed here since times immemorial! Water from melting snow flows to the rivers and lakes
and overflows their banks as it always did (…). Remnants of the old forest stand flooded to
mid-trunk; dire alder groves blacken (…). At that time, extraordinarily grown grasses, reeds
and bushes struggle with water, stagnant or flowing lazily. Water-lilies, calla, nuphars,
bulrushes, lobelias and bindweed cast green patches on the water, trying to join the banks, to
dam the flow of the slow stream (…). Lakes and bays disappeared and still disappear, leaving
behind a quaggy bed of peat with scattered “windows” glittering in the sun, like eyes, still not
coated with the mist of death, those treacherous depths cast the final looks at the world”
[Ossendowski 1934/2008, description relating to the situation after WW I].
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Also vast moors remained „That great area is characterised by unheard-of monotony,
the locals call it the great wet grassland, covered with sour grasses among which, here and
there, one can find a “window” – a small deep lake in the middle of the bog, with
reed-covered banks (Fig. 11). There are areas where – as far as the eye can see – there is no
tree or bush on the horizon, for on the bottomless bog neither man, nor moor oak, dwarf
pine, birch or alder can survive” [Marczak 1935/2008, description relating to the
situation after WW I].
Since the end of WW II the character of the landscape of the Polish part of Polesie has
undergone a fundamental change: the limitless, nearly unpopulated, mysterious land of moors
and wetlands described in literature and presented in paintings has turned into a mosaic multifunctional region in which agriculture, forestry and fisheries coexist with intense recreational
traffic and an expanding network of services, and with various forms of nature conservation at
the same time [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J. 2009] (Fig.70).
Fig. 70. West Polesie landscape in the beginning of XXI ct. Photo: T. J. Chmielewski, 2007.
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6.3. Proposal of a new method of assessment of landscape physiognomy changes
6.3.1. Introduction
The inspiration for the development of a method of evaluation of changes taking place
in landscape physiognomy was the method of the “curve of impressions” of K. Wejchert
[1984], modified by T. J. Chmielewski for the purposes of integrated assessment of aesthetic
values and degree of anthropogenic transformation of landscape [Chmielewski T. J. 2012], as
well as the recommendations contained in the EC Report concerning the implementation of
the European Landscape Convention [Landscape... 2006].
The method developed, named the method of retrospective evaluation of landscape
physiognomy changes, consists of five stages [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014]:
Stage one includes: (a) selection of the area to be studied, (b) collection of materials
and source documents on the area studied, (c) determination of dates (periods) for which the
assessments of landscape physiognomy changes will be elaborated, (d) plotting on a map of
the study area the route of march, and on the route several 1-kiolometre sections on which the
current landscape values of the study area will be evaluated. The map scale should adapted to
the size of the study area and to the length of the chose marching route. Preferred scales: from
1: 50 000 to 1: 5 000.
Stage two includes the field work. Following the route selected in Stage 1, on foot or
on a bicycle, the current landscape values within the fields of view on both sides of the tested
1-km section are evaluated taking into account five criteria:
1. The extent o viewing vistas (richness of landscape resources).
2. The naturalness and distinctness of nature components (values of nature landscape).
3. The regional identity and distinctness of physiognomy of cultural components
(values of cultural landscape).
4. The harmony of nature and culture.
5. The emotional content of the landscape (picturesqueness, photogenic values,
creative inspiration).
The value of the area, based on the above criteria, is evaluated in the scale of 1-10
points, and the points are summed both in relation to the values of a specific section of the
route and in relation to the particular criteria evaluated on the whole route studied. The results
are entered in a Table 4.
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It is recommended to conduct the evaluation 4 times a year (in the spring, summer,
autumn and winter periods), and the results obtained should be used to calculate the mean
rating.
Table 4. Model table for landscape physiognomy values evaluation
on selected sections of the route studied [Chmielewski T. J. et al 2014b]
Item
1
2
3
4
5
Criteria of evaluation
Extent o viewing vistas
(richness of landscape resources)
Naturalness and distinctness of nature
components (values of landscape, nature)
Section
1
Section
2
Section
3
....
Section
n
TOTAL
Regional identity and distinctness of cultural
components (values of cultural landscape)
Harmony of nature and culture
Emotional content of landscape
(picturesqueness, photogenic values, creative
inspiration)
TOTAL
Stage three consists in conducting several interviews with old inhabitants of localities
situated along the route studied, or in its immediate vicinity, on the appearance of the area
studied in the preceding or several preceding time transects. The number of such interviews
should be adapted to the length and diversity of the route, and to the density of population of
the study area. This stage may not be necessary if the author of the study being conducted
remembers well the study area from the preceding time transect (his is the case in this study).
Stage four comprises the chamber works. Based on analysis of archival maps, aerial
photographs, ground photographs, scientific and technical documentation, results of
interviews, as well as on the basis of analysis of literary works and paintings – an attempt is
made at the retrospective evaluation of the same sections of the route, according to the same
set of criteria, for several historical time transects (e.g. from before 50 and 25 years). The
results of the evaluations for the particular ears are entered in Tables analogous to those used
in Stage 1 (Tab. 4).
Stage five includes the finishing work. Comparing the results obtained, estimation is
made of the character and scale of changes that have taken place in the landscape
physiognomy of the study area, and conclusions are formulated on the directions of
conservation, revalorisation, restoration or revitalisation of the area under analysis
[Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014b].
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6.3.2. Area of method testing and time transects analysed
The area selected for testing the method is situated in the north-west part of the Polesie
National Park and in its buffer zone, between the villages of Orzechów Nowy to the west,
Komarówka and Zienki to the north, Wola Wereszczyńska to the east, and Jagodno and
Zawadówka to the south. The boundaries of the study area defined in this way included the
lakes Zagłębocze, Gumienko, Moszne and Karaśne, the peatbog complex “Lejno”, and
fragments of two watercourses: Piwonia and Bobryk.
Within that area – like in most of the territories of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland –
from the beginning of the XX. century, significant changes have taken place in the water
relations, in the land use structure and in the character of landscape physiognomy
[Chmielewski T. J. 2006, Kułak, Chmielewski T. J. 2010]. The choice of that particular area
for the study resulted from, among other things, the most spectacular change – the elimination
(drainage), in the first half of the XX. century, of Lake Lejno – previously one of the largest
(ca. 133 ha) natural reservoirs in the region.
The time sections adopted for the study of the landscape physiognomy changes were
as follows:
a) 1838 (the year of creation of a “quartermaster’s map”);
b) 1986 – 1990 (works on the documentation for the creation of the Polesie National
Park);
c) year 2007 – 2011 (2007: elaboration of colour orthophotmap; 2011: conducting the
field studies) (Fig. 71 – 73).
Within the test area a walking route was plotted, with length of ca. 12 km, that led from
the village of Orzechów Nowy, along the edge of the basin of the former lake Lejno to the
village of Lejno, then through the valley of the watercourse Bobryk to the villages Zienki and
Jamniki, to and along the didactic path on lake Moszne. Along that route five 1-km sections
were designated, on which the aesthetic values of the landscape were evaluated (Fig. 71 - 73).
6.3.3. Results
The evaluation of the current landscape values of the study area was conducted in 2011,
on five 1-kilometr sections situated along the chosen route. The sections covered: (1) village
Orzechów Nowy; (2) basin of the former lake Lejno; (3) village Lejno; (4) village Zienki with
buildings remaining from the former ate Farm (PGR); (5) lake Moszne with adjacent peatbog
and forest. The results of the evaluations were presented in separate article [Chmielewski T. J.
et al. 2014b]; Table 5, 6; Fig. 74.
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Fig. 71. Quartermaster’s map published in 1838. Study area and the route of march
Fig. 72. Topographic map published in 1990. Study area and the route of march.
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Fig. 73. Orthophotmap (2007). Study area and the route of march
The study shows that – in general – the landscape values of the study area have
undergone considerable deterioration. This is the most observable in the case of village
Zienki, with abandoned and run-down post-socialist buildings of a large State Farm (PGR).
The smallest scale of degradation of the aesthetic values of the landscape was observed
for the surroundings of the basin of the former lake Lejno. Following the disappearance of the
lake itself, within its basin there appeared fairly attractive in terms of landscape value
peatbogs, waterlogged grasslands and alder carr. As before, it is surrounded by picturesque
fallows and dry pasture lands, intersected by a gently undulating sandy road. In this case the
drastic changes in the ecosystems of the lake basin did not produce the effect of significant
degradation of the aesthetic values of the surrounding landscape, as the system of ecosystems
related with the lake has been successively replaced by other, but also visually attractive
ecosystems: peatbog, meadow and forest. Whereas, the terrain surrounding the lake basin
retained its previous character and regional identity [Chmielewski et al. 2014b].
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Table 5. Retrospective evaluation of landscape physiognomy values
from Orzechów Nowy village to lake Moszne in 1838 [Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014b]
Item
1
2
3
4
5
(picturesqueness, photogenic values,
creative inspiration)
TOTAL
Orzechów
Nowy
Lake
Lejno
Village Village Lake
Lejno Zienki Moszne
3
10
4
4
10
31
3
10
4
4
10
31
8
10
10
7
10
45
10
10
10
10
10
50
9
10
10
9
10
48
33
50
38
34
50
205
TOTAL
Table 6. Evaluation of landscape physiognomy values
from Orzechów Nowy village to lake Moszne in 2011[Chmielewski T. J. et al. 2014b]
.
Lake Village Village Lake
Lejno Lejno Zienki Moszne
Item
Orzechów
Nowy
1
1
9
3
2
5
20
2
2
6
2
1
7
18
3
5
6
6
1
2
20
3
8
6
1
7
25
4
8
5
1
5
23
15
37
22
6
26
106
4
5
(picturesqueness, photogenic values, creative
inspiration)
TOTAL
TOTAL
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105
Fig. 74. Summary assessment of scenic values of the test sections in the particular
years [Chmielewski et al. 2014b].
Highly surprising is the notable deterioration of the landscape values of the
surroundings of lake Moszne, situated in the Polesie National Park. Large-scale drainage of
peatbogs, conducted in the area in the 60s and 70s of the 20th century (i.e. before the national
park was created), as well as the deficit of hydrological supply continuing over successive
decades, resulted first in the disappearance of – so characteristic for the Polesie landscape –
mid-peatbog stagnant waters and small water bodies, and then fast overgrowing of both the
lake itself (with reed communities), and the peatbog (with reed rushes and swamp-forest
communities). The landscape of vast water-peatbog plains has been replaced by a forest
landscape, with patches of peat and reed vegetation.
6.4. Discussion
The large-scale dynamic changes currently taking place in land use structure, land use
technology, and in landscape physiognomy provide a stimulus for undertaking work on the
systematic recording and evaluation of the successive phases of those transformations. At the
same time, however, there is an increasing need of relating the results of contemporary studies
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to the past – to the natural and cultural models of identity of the particular regions
[Chmielewski T. J. 2012, Myczkowski 2012]. Frequently, however, the archival data on the
characteristic features of the area studied (and especially on its physiognomy) are very
general, imprecise and fragmentary. Moreover, they have been often acquired with methods
that today can hardly be considered as scientific. Hence the need of developing a modern
method permitting the retrospective evaluation of characteristic features of the landscape of
the area studied, in several time transects, on the basis of a set of specific source materials.
This paper presents a proposal of such a method, and the results of its preliminary testing on a
fragment of the area of the “West Polesie” Biosphere Reserve.
Almost from the beginning of undertaking attempts at quantitative evaluation of
landscape quality there has been an ongoing discussion among the researchers as to whether
landscapes possess an inherent, objective beauty that could be, somehow, measurable or
comparable, or whether scenic beauty is a value that can only be subjectively ascribed to a
given area or a specific landscape [Shuttleworth 1980]. Wojciechowski [1986], and then
Orland et al. [1995] as well as numerous other researchers described qualitative methods of
evaluation of landscape physiognomy, focused on the evaluation of landscape composition on
the basis of opinions of interviewed persons, as well as quantitative methods consisting in
measurement of selected physical parameters within the immediate field of view. Most of
those methods are based on the assumption that there exists a broad social consensus
concerning the evaluation as to which areas are considered to be landscapes with high
aesthetic values and which as ones little attractive. This assumption is related with another,
namely that “visual quality” is a property inseperably connected with landscape, which can be
objectively ascertained [Jacques 1980]. However, specific evaluations of landscape quality,
made by various people, will always be more or less biased due to their individual, personal
preferences.
The subjectivism of assessments is even greater in the case of attempts at analysis of
changes in landscape in successive time transects. The credibility of such assessments is
fundamentally dependent on the following:
•
The amount and quality of accumulated source materials (maps, aerial
photographs, land photographs, descriptions etc.);
•
The knowledge and experience of the author (authors) of the assessments, and
especially personal long-term knowledge of the area studied.
The consideration and analysis of what and how has changed in the landscape is of great
importance for the frame of mind of a person, for building his/hers bond with the region,
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sense of security, or the opposite – the sense of threat and frustration. Analysis of the
character of changes taking place in the landscape is also of great importance for the creation
of visions of future development of this earth: augmenting of positive trends, elimination of
mistakes, protection of areas and objects of special value for the natural and cultural heritage.
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7. A preliminary evaluation of changes in landscape services potential
7.1 Ecosystem / landscape services classification
The well-being of practically every human population is inseparably related with
properly functioning natural ecosystems which provide numerous benefits, from food, clean
water and flood protection to cultural heritage, sense of place, and others. However, many of
those are under strong human pressure that often leads to a reduction of biodiversity and thus
to their – frequently irreversible – degradation [MEA 2005]. The objective of introducing the
concept of ecosystem services was to increase the awareness and responsibility of societies in
the area of sustainable use of natural resources and to draw attention to the need for actions
aimed at the preservation of the natural environment in as stable a condition as possible.
Ecosystem services are defined in various ways [Costanza et al. 1997; Daily 1997;
MEA 2005; Boyd and Banzhaf, 2007; Fischer et al. 2009], but generally it is assumed that
they constitute “direct and indirect contribution of ecosystems to human well-being” [TEEB
2010].
In the member states of the EU, for the assessment, mapping and valuation of
ecosystem services it is recommended to use the classification Common International
Classification of Ecosystem Services and the habitat typology developed by EUNIS
(European Nature Information System). CICES classifies ecological services in 3 sections:
provisioning, regulation and maintenance, and cultural. Those sections are then categorised by
the main types of output or process, and by the biological, physical or cultural type or process.
Ultimately the sections of ecosystem services have been classified into 8 divisions, 20 groups
and 48 classes [MAES 2014].
Provisioning services are products obtained from ecosystems, regulation and
maintenance services include “habitat services” introduced by TEEB [2010] and relate to the
regulation and maintenance of ‘biotic’ conditions in ecosystems (e.g. pest and disease control,
pollination, gene-pool protection etc.) and are equivalent to other biophysical factors that
regulate the ambient conditions, such as climate regulation [Maes et al., 2013], while cultural
services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment,
cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experiences [MEA 2005, TEEB
2010, MAES 2014].
Landscape ecologists try to transpose the experience acquired in the field of ecosystem
services classification and valuation onto the level of landscape [Chan et al. 2006; Bennett et
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al. 2009]. In that way the concept of landscape services has been created, covering an array of
services offered by landscape complexes of natural and semi-natural ecosystems, agrocenoses
and settlement systems [Richling, Solon 2011, Chmielewski 2012].
7.2 Assessment of changes that took place in the landscape of the Łęczna-Włodawa
Lakeland since the 50. of the XX. century and their effect in the potential of selected
ecosystem (landscape) services
According to the authors of this report, the estimation of the potential of ecosystem /
landscape services of a given area should be conducted in 2 aspects: (1) as a summary
evaluation of the landscape potential of groups of ecosystems and of patches of anthropogenic
forms of land cover; (2) as the actual scope of utilisation of that potential by humans.
That approach is similar to the method of estimation, in use for years, of the degree of
utilisation of the natural tourist capacity of recreational regions [Regel ed. 1978; BaranowskaJanota, Kozłowski 1984; Chmielewski T. J., Michalak L. 1989].
One of the most obvious and the easiest to measure (determine the value) indices of
ecosystem services relating to a specific type of ecosystem is the area occupied by that type of
ecosystem. As demonstrated in chapter 4, in the last half-century the area of various types of
ecosystems of West Polesie has undergone fundamental changes. The greatest changes were
those relating to the shrinkage of the area of water and wetland ecosystems, and
simultaneously – an increase of the area of forest ecosystems. However, the index of the area
of ecosystems of a given type alone is not sufficient for the estimation of their potential with
regard to the provisioning, regulation & maintenance and/or cultural services. Many other,
much more difficult to measure, parameters of ecosystems should also be taken into account,
such as the spatial dimension (3D) of an ecosystem; biomass; biodiversity; water retention
capacity; water purification ability; air purification ability; aesthetic values etc. At the present
stage of analyses we can only state that West Polesie significantly changes the character and
potential of its ecosystem services. However, we cannot make positive statements as to which
section of the services increases and which decreases its share in the total pool of ecosystem
services.
Whereas, we can say a little more about the potential of certain groups and classes of
cultural landscape services.
Since the nineteen eighties of the XX century, the team of authors of this project has
been dealing with, among other things, the problems of estimation of natural tourist capacity
110
110
of lakes and their adjacent areas. Making use of the method developed by Chmielewski and
Michalak [1989], the natural tourist capacity of 5 lakes of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland
most popular among tourists was calculated [Pawłowski, Chmielewski T. J. ed. 1990]. The
natural tourist capacity index of a lake (NTCIL) reflects the maximum number of people who
can take their rest there (i.e. on the lake itself and within the surrounding shore belt 100 m
wide) at the height of the recreational season (in the area of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland
such season lasts from mid-June until mid-September), without causing processes of
ecological and physiognomic degradation of the ecosystem. Therefore, NTCIL can be
accepted as one of the indices of natural potential of cultural ecosystem services.
The results obtained were juxtaposed with measurements of the value of structure of
tourist traffic concentration on those lakes. It transpired that in 2008 the NTCIL of lake
Piaseczno was exceeded 4.3-fold, that of lake Łukcze – 3.9-fold, while that of lake Rotcze –
3.1-fold. From among the 5 lakes studied, in 2008 only on lake Uściwierz the tourist traffic
did not exceed the value of the NTCL but attained the maximum permissible safe level (Table
7).
Table 7. Natural tourist capacity index of selected lakes and scale of its exceeding in 2008
Natural tourist capacity index
of the lake, together with
100 m wide belt*
800
Multiplier of exceeding the
natural tourist capacity in
2008**
3.9
Piaseczno
1700
4.3
Rotcze
400
3.1
Sumin
800
1.3
Uściwierz
600
1.0
Name of lake
Łukcze
* after L. Pawłowski & T. J. Chmielewski ed. 1990
* after T. J. Chmielewski & P. Jankowska 2009
Exceeding the value of NTCIL several-fold results in rapid degradation of the
ecological, physiognomic and recreational values of lakes. This is particularly observable in
the case of lake Piaseczno, the most severely loaded with tourist traffic. Until the beginning of
the nineteen nineties lake Piaseczno had the features of a mesotrophic lake, with very clean
water, sandy shores and bottom and sparse vegetation of the littoral zone. It was classified
among the most valuable, in terms of nature values, of all the lakes of the Łęczna-Włodawa
111
111
Lakeland [Radwan, Chmielewski 1997]. Already 10 years later its waters underwent strong
eutrophication, organic sediments accumulated on its shores and bottom, and in the littoral
zone macrophyte communities developed, characteristic for eutrophic lakes. The following
10-year period was a continuation of that trend (Fig. 75 – 77).
Since the middle of the nineteen seventies, summer and recreational housing is being
developed on many lakes. In the period of 1992–2007, around lake Piaseczno such
construction appeared on an area of 24.9 ha; on lake Uściwierz – on the area of 11.8 ha; on
lake Białe Włodawskie – on the area of 7.7 ha, etc. [Chmielewski Sz., Chmielewski T. J.
2009]. The development of that form of land use causes that the capacity of the tourism base,
constituting an element of the overall potential of cultural services, increases. Once the natural
tourist capacity index of a lake (NTCIL) is exceeded, that process becomes harmful to the
potential of the regulation & maintenance services.
Fig. 75. East sector of Lake Piaseczno in 1993.
112
Photo: T. J. Chmielewski
112
113
113
We’re still not scientifically documented answer to the question: to what extend the
way of land development for recreation (spatial pattern, intensity, style etc.) influence on the
level of cultural services in the lake catchment ? When a better solution would be to build a
new small summer houses (Fig. 78), when it would be better an adaptation of the traditional
rural cottage for holiday home (Fig. 79), or in what circumstances to allow for the
construction of summer mansions at the lake ? (Fig. 80).
On the most catchments of lakes in the West Polesie region, the practice of rest
management is for many years ahead of scientific research. In described above and in many
similar cases, elaboration the scientific basis for sustainable landscape services management
is yet to come.
114
114
Fig. 78. Summer houses at the Lake Piaseczno.
Photo: T. J. Chmierlewski, 2012
Fig. 79. Adaptation of the traditional rural cottage for holiday home; village Orzechów Nowy.
115
115
Fig. 80. Summer mansion at the Lake Piaseczno.
The general conclusions that follow from our work conducted so far, concerning the
general theory and practice of ecosystem and landscape services management, are the
following:
1. The natural potential of ecosystem services that can be exploit of in a given area,
should be distinguish from the extent of its actual utilisation in that area; it is
necessary to estimate the differences between those indices and to analyse their
consequences;
2. The potential of cultural services is often developed at the expense of other
ecosystem/landscape services;
3. The potentials of the particular sections of ecosystem/landscape services can change
their character and value in time and space, therefore the regulation and maintenance
services should be considered taking into account their assignment to specific
ecosystem types; whereas, the cultural services should be analysed against the
background of the regulation and maintenance services.
116
116
To acquire a more complete image of the mutual relationships among the potentials of
the various types (sections, divisions, groups and classes) of ecosystem services in the
landscape of the Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland, however, we need more monitoring
measurements and continuation studies. Nearly every month of our work brings new
observations and suggestions in this respect.
117
117
8. Conclusions
The project: Changes in landscape diversity, landscape connectivity and land use
structure in the ’West Polesie’ Biosphere Reserve over the last half century allowed to review,
assess and recapitulation of several lines of our over 20 years long research, concerning the
West Polesie landscapes transformations over the last century, especially over the last 5-6
decades. This aspect of the research project allowed to conduct of interdisciplinary metaanalyzes and landscape syntheses, so important for a good understanding of the whole
complex of processes occurring in the course of landscape evolution.
At the same time, the realization of that project opened up and initiated
implementation a several new directions of investigating and modelling of landscape systems
of that extremely interesting region. The main new directions are the following:
•
identification the set of natural and cultural landmarks (distinguishing, outstanding
features) of landscape identity of the West Polesie region;
•
estimation of spatial differentiation of the West Polesie BR landscape diversity and its
changes in space and time, using two landscape metrics: ED and SHDI; preliminary
analysis of relationships among them and indication of the need for the search for new,
more adequate indicators of that phenomenon;
•
analysis of changes in land cover structure occurring in the western and central section
of the West Polesie from 1952 to 2012, with particular emphasis on catchment basins
of lakes: Piaseczno, Łukie and Moszne;
•
evaluation of differences in direction and pace of land cover changes in the western
and central section of the West Polesie in 3 time intervals: 1952 – 1992, 1992 – 2007,
2007 – 2012;
•
development of a zone–stripe–node model of landscape ecological structure of the
whole “West Polesie” TBR and indication of elements of key importance for its role in
the functioning of the ecological system of Europe;
•
analysis of selected aspects of the potential of cultural landscape services of the region
and indication of the need for their analysis to be conducted on 2 levels: the potential
and the actual.
This monograph is therefore both a summary of some previous stages, as well as the
opening of a new stage of research of the West Polesie landscape systems.
119
119
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(2015). Landscapes of the West - ALTER-Net

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