Turkey - wildehistory

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Turkey - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey
Turkey
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Turkey ( i /ˈtɜr.ki/; Turkish: Türkiye,
pronounced [tyrkije]), officially the Republic of Turkey
(Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, pronounced [tyrkije
d͡ʒumhurijeti] ( )), is a contiguous transcontinental
parliamentary republic, with its smaller part in
Southeastern Europe and its larger part in Western Asia
(i.e. the Balkans and Anatolia, respectively). Turkey is
bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest;
Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia,
Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the
east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The
Mediterranean Sea is to the south; the Aegean Sea to
the west; and the Black Sea to the north. The Sea of
Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which
together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the
boundary between Thrace and Anatolia; they also
separate Europe and Asia.[7] Turkey's location at the
crossroads of Europe and Asia makes it a country of
significant geostrategic importance.[8]
Turkey has been inhabited since the paleolithic age,[9]
including various Ancient Anatolian civilizations,
Aeolian and Ionian Greeks, Thracians and Persians.
[10][11][12] After Alexander the Great's conquest, the
area was Hellenized, which continued with the Roman
rule and the transition into the Byzantine Empire.[11][13]
The Seljuk Turks began migrating into the area in the
11th century, starting the process of Turkification,
which was greatly accelerated by the Seljuk victory
over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in
1071.[14] The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia
until the Mongol invasion in 1243, upon which it
disintegrated into several small Turkish beyliks.[15]
Starting from the late 13th century, the Ottomans united
Anatolia and created an empire encompassing much of
Southeastern Europe, Western Asia and North Africa,
becoming a major power in Eurasia and Africa during
the early modern period. The empire reached the peak
of its power between the 15th and 17th centuries,
especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent
(r. 1520–1566). After the second Ottoman siege of
Vienna in 1683 and the end of the Great Turkish War in
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Republic of Turkey
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti
Flag
Motto: Egemenlik, kayıtsız şartsız Milletindir[1]
"Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the Nation"
Anthem: İstiklal Marşı
Independence March
MENU
0:00
Capital
Ankara
39°55′N 32°50′E
Largest city
Istanbul
41°1′N 28°57′E
Official languages
Ethnic groups (2008[2])
Turkish
70–75% Turks
18% Kurds
7–12% others
Demonym
Turkish
Government
Unitary parliamentary
constitutional republic
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1699, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of
decline. The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century,
which aimed to modernize the Ottoman state, proved to
be inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop the
dissolution of the empire.[16] The Ottoman Empire
entered World War I (1914–1918) on the side of the
Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the
war, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman
government against the Armenians, Assyrians and
Pontic Greeks.[17] Following WWI, the huge
conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly
comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several
new states.[18] The Turkish War of Independence
(1919–1922), initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and
his colleagues in Anatolia, resulted in the establishment
of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923, with Atatürk
as its first president.[19]
Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional
republic with a diverse cultural heritage.[2][20] The
country's official language is Turkish, a Turkic language
spoken natively by approximately 85% of the
population.[21] About 70-75% of the population are
ethnic Turks and about 30-35% of the population
consists recognized (Armenians, Greeks and Jews) and
ungrecognized (Kurds, Circassians, Albanians,
Georgians etc.) minorities.[22][2] The vast majority of
the population is Muslim.[2] Turkey is a member of the
UN, NATO, OECD, OSCE, OIC and the G-20. After
becoming one of the first members of the Council of
Europe in 1949, Turkey became an associate member of
the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995
and started full membership negotiations with the
European Union in 2005.[23] Turkey's growing
economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its
recognition as a regional power.[24][25][26][27]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern
Thrace
2 of 42
- President
- Prime Minister
- Speaker of the
Parliament
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Ahmet Davutoğlu
Cemil Çiçek
Legislature
Grand National Assembly
Succession to the Ottoman Empire
- Government of the
23 April 1920
Grand National
Assembly
- Treaty of Lausanne
24 July 1923
- Declaration of Republic 29 October 1923
- Current constitution
7 November 1982
Area
- Total
- Water (%)
783,562 km2 (37th)
302,535 sq mi
1.3
Population
- 2013 census
76,667,864 [3] (18th)
- Density
100 [3]/km2 (108th)
259/sq mi
GDP (PPP)
- Total
2014 estimate
- Per capita
$19,556[4] (61st)
GDP (nominal)
- Total
2014 estimate
- Per capita
$10,518[4] (67th)
Gini (2010)
40.2[5]
medium · 56th
HDI (2013)
0.759[6]
high · 69th
Currency
Turkish lira ( ) (TRY)
Time zone
- Summer (DST)
EET (UTC+2)
EEST (UTC+3)
Date format
dd/mm/yyyy (AD)
Drives on the
right
Calling code
+90
ISO 3166 code
TR
Internet TLD
.tr
$1.512 trillion[4] (17th)
$813.316 billion[4] (18th)
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2.2 Antiquity and Byzantine Period
2.3 The Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire
2.4 Republic of Turkey
3 Administrative divisions
4 Politics
4.1 Law
4.2 Foreign relations
4.3 Military
5 Geography
5.1 Biodiversity
5.2 Climate
6 Economy
6.1 History
6.2 Tourism
6.3 Infrastructure
6.4 Science and technology
7 Demographics
7.1 Religion
7.2 Education
7.3 Healthcare
8 Culture
8.1 Arts
8.2 Architecture
8.3 Sports
8.4 Cuisine
8.5 Media
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
The name of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye) is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term
"Türk" or "Türük" as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks (Celestial Turks)
of Central Asia (c. 8th century).[28] The English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is
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derived from Medieval Latin Turchia.[29]
The Greek cognate of this name, Tourkia (Greek: Τουρκία) was used by the Byzantine emperor and scholar
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administrando Imperio,[30][31] though in his use, "Turks"
always referred to Magyars.[32] Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the northern shores
of the Black and Caspian seas, was referred to as Tourkia (Land of the Turks) in Byzantine sources.[33] The
Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its contemporaries.[34]
History
Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace
The Lion Gate at Hattusa, capital of
the Hittite Empire. The city's history
dates back to the 6th millennium
BC.[35]
The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one
of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. Various
Ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, beginning with
the Neolithic period until conquest of Alexander the Great.[11] Many
of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger
Indo-European language family.[36] In fact, given the antiquity of the
Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have
proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the
Indo-European languages radiated.[37] The European part of Turkey,
called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since forty thousand
years ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about
6000 B.C. with its inhabitants starting the practice of agriculture.[12]
Göbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made religious
structure, a temple dating to 10,000 BC,[38] while Çatalhöyük is a
very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately
7500 BCE to 5700 BCE. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date and in July 2012 was
inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[39] The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and
continued into the Iron Age.[40]
The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peoples
who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as ca. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites
came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians ca. 2000–1700 BC. The first major
empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th century BC. The Assyrians
conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC.[41][42] Urartu
re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC as a powerful northern rival of Assyria.[43]
Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achieved
ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC.[44]
Starting from 714 BC, Urartu shared the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC.[45] The most powerful of
Phrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia.[46]
Antiquity and Byzantine Period
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Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by
Aeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were founded
by these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna and Byzantium,
the latter founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC. The
first state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the
state of the Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of
eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC. In Northwest Turkey,
the most significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odyrisians,
founded by Teres I.[47]
Originally a church, later a mosque,
Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during
and now a museum, the Hagia Sophia
the 6th and 5th centuries BC and later fell to Alexander the Great in
was built by the Byzantines in the 6th
334 BC,[48] which led to increasing cultural homogeneity and
century.
Hellenization in the area.[11] Following Alexander's death in 323 BC,
Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic
kingdoms, all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[49] The process of
Hellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by the early centuries
AD the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greek
language and culture.[13][50]
In 324, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it New Rome.
Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his
two sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople became the capital of the
Eastern Roman Empire. This, which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled
most of the territory of what is today Turkey until the Late Middle Ages.[51]
The Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire
The House of Seljuk was a branch of the Kınık Oğuz Turks who
resided on the periphery of the Muslim world, in the Yabghu
Khaganate of the Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the Caspian and
Aral Seas, in the 9th century.[53] In the 10th century, the Seljuks
started migrating from their ancestral homeland into Persia, which
became the administrative core of the Great Seljuk Empire.[54]
In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuks began penetrating
into the eastern regions of Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuk Turks
defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, starting
Turkification of the area; the Turkish language and Islam were
introduced to Anatolia and gradually spread over the region and the
slow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking
Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was
underway.[55]
Mevlana Museum in Konya was built
by the Seljuk Turks in 1274. Konya
was the capital of the Sultanate of
Rum.[52]
In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols, causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowly
disintegrate. In its wake, one of the Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would, over the next 200
years, evolve into the Ottoman Empire, expanding throughout Anatolia, the Balkans, the Levant and North
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Africa. In 1453, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital,
Constantinople.[56]
Topkapı and Dolmabahçe palaces
were the primary residences of the
Ottoman Sultans and the
administrative center of the
empire between 1465 to 1856[57]
and 1856 to 1922,[58] respectively.
In 1514, Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) successfully expanded the Empire's
southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid
dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman
rule into Algeria and Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red Sea.
Subsequently, a competition started between the Ottoman and
Portuguese empires to become the dominant sea power in the Indian
Ocean, with a number of naval battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea
and the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean was
perceived as a threat for the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trading
routes between East Asia and Western Europe (later collectively named
the Silk Road). This important monopoly was increasingly compromised
following the discovery of a sea route around Africa by Portuguese
explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1488, which had a considerable impact on
the Ottoman economy.[59]
The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th
centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. The
empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady
advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern
part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[60] At sea, the Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy
Leagues (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, the Knights
of St. John, the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy) for control of the
Mediterranean Sea. In the east, the Ottomans were occasionally at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts
stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries.[61]
From the beginning of the 19th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. As it gradually
shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in
Anatolia,[62][63] along with the Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. The decline of the
Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among the various subject peoples, leading to increased
ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians.[64]
The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated.
During the war, the empire's Armenians were deported from Eastern Anatolia to Syria as part of the
Armenian Genocide. As a result, an estimated 1,500,000 Armenians were killed.[65][66][67][68] The Turkish
government denies that there was an Armenian Genocide and claims that Armenians were only relocated
from the eastern war zone.[69] Large-scale massacres were also committed against the empire's other minority
groups such as the Greeks and Assyrians.[70][71][72] Following the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918,
the victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.[56]
Republic of Turkey
The occupation of Constantinople and Smyrna by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the
establishment of the Turkish National Movement.[73] Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a
military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of
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Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the
Treaty of Sèvres.[74]
By 18 September 1922, the occupying armies were expelled, and the
Ankara-based Turkish regime, which declared itself the legitimate
government of the country in April 1920, started to formalize the
legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican
political system. On 1 November, the newly founded parliament
formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of
monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923
led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly
formed "Republic of Turkey" as the continuing state of the Ottoman
Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October
1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.[75] The Lausanne treaty
stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey,
whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for
380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey.[76]
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder and
first President of the Republic of
Turkey.
Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President and subsequently
introduced many radical reforms with the aim of transforming the old
Ottoman-Turkish state into a new secular republic.[77] With the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish
Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father of the Turks).[74]
Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II, but entered the closing stages of the war on the side of
the Allies on 23 February 1945. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a charter member of the United
Nations.[78] Difficulties faced by Greece after the war in quelling a communist rebellion, along with demands
by the Soviet Union for military bases in the Turkish Straits, prompted the United States to declare the
Truman Doctrine in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey
and Greece, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support. Both countries were included in
the Marshall Plan and OEEC for rebuilding European economies in 1948,[79] and subsequently became
founding members of the OECD in 1961.[80]
After participating with the United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952,
becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean. Following a decade of Cypriot
intercommunal violence and the coup in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitary
organization, which overthrew President Makarios and installed the pro-Enosis (union with Greece) Nikos
Sampson as dictator, Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974.[81] Nine years later the Turkish Republic of
Northern Cyprus, which is recognized only by Turkey, was established.[82]
The single-party period ended in 1945. It was followed by a tumultuous transition to multiparty democracy
over the next few decades, which was interrupted by military coups d'état in 1960, 1971, and 1980, as well as
a military memorandum in 1997.[83][84] In 1984, the PKK, a Kurdish separatist group, began an insurgency
campaign against the Turkish government, which to date has claimed over 40,000 lives.[85] Peace talks are
ongoing.[86][87] Since the liberalization of the Turkish economy during the 1980s, the country has enjoyed
stronger economic growth and greater political stability.[88] In 2013, widespread protests erupted in many
Turkish provinces, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but growing into general anti-government
dissent.[89]
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Administrative divisions
Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one of the most important factors
shaping the Turkish public administration. When three powers (executive, legislature and judiciary) are taken
into account as the main functions of the state, local administrations do not have almost any power. In other
words, there are not units called “states” in Turkey and the provinces and cities come after the central
administration. Local administrations were established to provide services in place and the government is
represented by the governors and city governors. Besides the governors and the city governors, other senior
public officials are also appointed by the central government rather than to be appointed by mayors or elected
by constituents.[90]
Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts,
for a total of 923 districts.[91]
Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic
purposes; this does not refer to an administrative division.[92]
Kırklareli
Bartın
Sinop
Kastamonu
Zonguldak
Artvin
Ardahan
Samsun
Rize
Kocaeli Düzce Karabük
Ordu Giresun Trabzon
Yalova Sakarya
Amasya
Çankırı
Kars
Bolu
Gümüşhane
Çorum
Bursa
Tokat
Bayburt
Çanakkale
Bilecik
Iğdır
Ankara
Erzurum
Balıkesir
Ağrı
Kırıkkale Yozgat
Eskişehir
Erzincan
Sivas
Kütahya
Kırşehir
Tunceli Bingöl Muş
Manisa
Afyon
Nevşehir
Uşak
Elâzığ
Van
İzmir
Kayseri
Malatya
Batman Bitlis
Aksaray
Konya
K. Maraş
Diyarbakır
Siirt
Aydın Denizli
Isparta
Niğde
Adıyaman
Hakkâri
Şırnak
Burdur
Osmaniye
Mardin
Muğla
Karaman
Gaziantep Şanlıurfa
Antalya
Adana
Mersin
Kilis
Edirne
Tekirdağ
Istanbul
Hatay
Politics
Turkey is a parliamentary representative democracy. Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey has
developed a strong tradition of secularism.[93] Turkey's constitution governs the legal framework of the
country. It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralized state.
The President of the Republic is the head of state and has a largely ceremonial role. The president is elected
for a five-year term by direct elections and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is first president elected by direct voting.
Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers which make up the
government, while the legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament, the Grand National Assembly
of Turkey. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, and the Constitutional Court is
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charged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees with
the constitution. The Council of State is the tribunal of last resort
for administrative cases, and the High Court of Appeals for all
others.[94]
The prime minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of
confidence in the government and is most often the head of the
party having the most seats in parliament. The prime minister is
Ahmet Davutoğlu who is also the leader of the Justice and
Development Party (AKP) since 27 August 2014.
Tayyip Erdoğan
Ahmet Davutoğlu
President
Prime Minister
Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout
Turkey since 1933, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18
years of age has the right to vote. There are 550 members of parliament who are elected for a four-year term
by a party-list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts. The Constitutional Court can
strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or separatist, or ban their existence
altogether.[95][96] The electoral threshold is 10% of the votes.[97]
Supporters of Atatürk's reforms are called Kemalists, as distinguished from Islamists, representing two
extremes on a continuum of beliefs about the proper role of religion in public life.[98] The Kemalist position
generally combines a kind of democracy with a laicist constitution and westernised secular lifestyle, while
supporting state intervention in the economy, education, and other public services.[98] Since the 1980s, a rise
in income inequality and class distinction has given rise to Islamic populism, a movement that in theory
supports obligation to authority, communal solidarity and social justice, though what that entails in practice is
often contested.[98]
Human rights in Turkey have been the subject of some controversy and international condemnation. Between
1998 and 2008 the European Court of Human Rights made more than 1,600 judgements against Turkey for
human rights violations, particularly regarding the right to life, and freedom from torture. Other issues, such
as Kurdish rights, women's rights, and press freedom, have also attracted controversy. Turkey's human rights
record continues to be a significant obstacle to future membership of the EU.[99] According to the Committee
to Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged one of the world's biggest crackdowns on press
freedoms.[100] A large number of journalists have been arrested using charges of "terrorism" and "anti-state
activities" such as the Ergenekon and Balyoz cases, while thousands have been investigated on charges such
as "denigrating Turkishness" or "insulting Islam" in an effort to sow self-censorship.[100] In 2012, the CPJ
identified 76 jailed journalists in Turkey, including 61 directly held for their published work, more than in
Iran, Eritrea or China.[100] A former U.S. State Department spokesman, Philip J. Crowley, said that the
United States had "broad concerns about trends involving intimidation of journalists in Turkey."[101]
Law
Turkey has a legal system which has been wholly integrated with the system of continental Europe. For
instance, the Turkish Civil Law has been modified by incorporating elements mainly of the Swiss Civil Code,
the Code of Obligations and the German Commercial Code. The Administrative Law bears similarities with
its French counterpart, and the Penal Code with its Italian counterpart.[102]
Turkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers. In line with this principle, judicial power is
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exercised by independent courts on behalf of the Turkish nation. The independence and organization of the
courts, the security of the tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors,
the supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military courts and their organization, and the powers
and duties of the high courts are regulated by the Turkish Constitution.[103]
According to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution, the organization, duties and jurisdiction of the courts,
their functions and the trial procedures are regulated by law. In line with the aforementioned article of the
Turkish Constitution and related laws, the court system in Turkey can be classified under three main
categories; which are the Judicial Courts, Administrative Courts and Military Courts. Each category includes
first instance courts and high courts. In addition, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that
cannot be classified readily as falling within the purview of one court system.[103]
Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several departments (such as the General Directorate of Security
and Gendarmerie General Command) and agencies, all acting under the command of the Prime Minister of
Turkey or mostly the Minister of Internal Affairs. According to figures released by the Justice Ministry, there
are 100,000 people in Turkish prisons as of November 2008, a doubling since 2000.[104]
Foreign relations
Turkey is a founding member of the United Nations (1945),[105] the
OECD (1961),[106] the OIC (1969),[107] the OSCE (1973),[108] the
ECO (1985),[109] the BSEC (1992),[110] the D-8 (1997)[111] and the
G-20 major economies (1999).[112] Turkey was a member of the
United Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955, 1961 and
2009-2010.[113] In September 2013, Turkey became a member of the
Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD).
In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe
have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey
After becoming one of the first
became one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949,
members of the Council of Europe in
applied for associate membership of the EEC (predecessor of the
European Union) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963.
1949, Turkey became an associate
After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full
member of the EEC in 1963, joined
membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the
the EU Customs Union in 1995 and
Western European Union in 1992, joined the EU Customs Union in
started full membership negotiations
1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EU since
with the European Union in 2005.[23]
2005.[23] Today, EU membership is considered as a state policy and a
strategic target by Turkey.[114] Turkey's support for Northern Cyprus
in the Cyprus dispute complicates Turkey's relations with the EU and remains a major stumbling block to the
country's EU accession bid.[115]
The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy is the country's strategic alliance with the United States.
The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in
1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with Washington. Subsequently Turkey benefited from the United
States' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the
European Union.[116] In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its
proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.[117]
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The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common
cultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into
Central Asia,[118] thus enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas pipeline from
Baku in Azerbaijan to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms part of
Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit to the West. However Turkey's border with
Armenia, a state in the Caucasus, was closed by Turkey in support of Azerbaijan during the NagornoKarabakh War and remains closed.[119] Under the AK Party government, Turkey's influence has grown in the
Middle East based on the strategic depth doctrine, also called Neo-Ottomanism.[120][121] This policy has led
to tensions with Arab countries, such as Turkey's neighbour Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war, and
with Egypt following the ousting of President Mohamed Morsi.[122][123]
Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since 1950,
including peacekeeping missions in Somalia and former Yugoslavia, and support to coalition forces in the
First Gulf War. Turkey maintains 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus, though their presence is
controversial.[124] Turkey has had troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the United States stabilization
force and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) since
2001.[125] Since 2003, Turkey contributes military personnel to Eurocorps and takes part in the EU
Battlegroups.[126]
Military
The Turkish Armed Forces consists of the Land Forces, the Naval
Forces and the Air Force. The Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard
operate as parts of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in peacetime,
although they are subordinated to the Army and Navy Commands
respectively in wartime, during which they have both internal law
enforcement and military functions.[128]
The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President and is
responsible to the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers is
responsible to the Parliament for matters of national security and the
adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country.
However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish
Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to
be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament.[128]
The Turkish Armed Forces
collectively rank as the second largest
standing military force in NATO,
after the U.S. Armed Forces. Turkey
joined the alliance in 1952.[127]
Turkey has the second largest standing armed force in NATO, after the US Armed Forces, with an estimated
strength of 495,000 deployable forces, according to a 2011 NATO estimate.[129] Turkey is one of five NATO
member states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany,
Italy, and the Netherlands.[130] A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of
which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the
approval of NATO.[131]
Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period ranging
from three weeks to a year, dependent on education and job location.[132] Turkey does not recognise
conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.[133]
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Geography
Turkey is a transcontinental[134] Eurasian country. Asian Turkey,
which includes 97% of the country, is separated from European
Turkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles.
European Turkey comprises 3% of the country.[135]
The territory of Turkey is more than 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) long
and 800 km (500 mi) wide, with a roughly rectangular shape.[136] It
Topographic map of Turkey
lies between latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes 25° and 45° E.
[137]
Turkey's area, including lakes, occupies 783,562
square
kilometres (300,948 sq mi), of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 sq mi) are in Southwest Asia and
23,764 square kilometres (9,174 sq mi) in Europe.[136] Turkey is the world's 37th-largest country in terms of
area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north
and the Mediterranean to the south. Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest.[138]
The European section of Turkey, East Thrace, forms the borders of Turkey with Greece and Bulgaria. The
Asian part of the country, Anatolia, consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the
Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south. Eastern Turkey has
a more mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras,
and contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 ft),[138][139] and Lake Van, the
largest lake in the country.
Turkey is divided into seven census regions: Marmara, Aegean, Black Sea, Central Anatolia, Eastern
Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the
Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's total
land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses
eastward.[138]
Turkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex earth movements that have shaped the region over
thousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional volcanic
eruptions. The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles owe their existence to the fault lines running through Turkey
that led to the creation of the Black Sea. There is an earthquake fault line across the north of the country from
west to east, along which a major earthquake occurred in 1999.[46]
Biodiversity
Turkey's extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diversity has produced considerable species diversity.[140]
Anatolia is the homeland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture,
and the wild ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for mankind still grow in Turkey. The
diversity of Turkey's fauna is even greater than that of its flora. The number of animal species throughout
Europe as a whole is about 60,000; in Turkey there are over 80,000 (over 100,000 counting subspecies).[141]
The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic
Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range.
The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian Sparrowhawk, Golden Eagle, Eastern Imperial
Eagle, Lesser Spotted Eagle, Caucasian Black Grouse, Red-fronted Serin, and Wallcreeper.[142] The narrow
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coastal strip between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is home
to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of the
world's few temperate rainforests.[143]
There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve
areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in
Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount
Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troya National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature
Park and Polonezköy Nature Park[144]
Ankara, the capital of Turkey, is renowned for the Angora cat, Angora
rabbit and Angora goat. Another national cat breed of Turkey is the
Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Anatolian Shepherd, Kangal,
Malaklı and Akbaş.[145]
Sümela Monastery on the Pontic
Mountains. These mountains form an
ecoregion with diverse temperate
rainforest types, flora and fauna.
Climate
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean Sea and the
Mediterranean Sea have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot,
dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.[146] The coastal areas
bordering the Black Sea have a temperate Oceanic climate with
warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[146] The Turkish
Black Sea coast receives the greatest amount of precipitation and is
the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout
the year.[146] The eastern part of that coast averages 2,200 millimetres
(87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.[146]
Climate diagram of Turkey[146]
The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a
transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate Oceanic climate with warm
to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[146] Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea
of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but usually melts in no more than a few days.[146]
However snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the
Mediterranean Sea.[146]
Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central
Anatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.[146]
Winters on the eastern part of the plateau are especially severe.[146] Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to
−40 °F) can occur in eastern Anatolia.[146] Snow may remain at least 120 days of the year.[146] In the west,
winter temperatures average below 1 °C (34 °F).[146] Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures often
above 30 °C (86 °F) in the day.[146] Annual precipitation averages about 400 millimetres (15 in), with actual
amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annual
rainfall is often less than 300 millimetres (12 in). May is generally the wettest month, whereas July and
August are the driest.[146]
Economy
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Turkey has the world's 15th largest GDP by PPP[148] and
17th largest nominal GDP.[149] The country is among the
founding members of the OECD and the G-20 major
economies.[106][112]
The EU – Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an
extensive liberalization of tariff rates, and forms one of
the most important pillars of Turkey's foreign trade
policy.[150] Turkey's exports were $143.5 billion in 2011
Skyscrapers of Levent business district in Istanbul,
and they reached $163 billion in 2012 (main export
Turkey's largest city and leading economical
partners in 2012: Germany 8.6%, Iraq 7.1%, Iran 6.5%,
center.[147]
UK 5.7%, UAE 5.4%). However, larger imports which
amounted to $229 billion in 2012 threatened the balance
of trade (main import partners in 2012: Russia 11.3%, Germany 9%, China 9%, USA 6%, Italy 5.6%).[2]
Turkey has a large automotive industry, which produced over a million motor vehicles in 2012, ranking as the
16th largest producer in the world.[151] Turkish shipbuilding exports were worth US$1.2 billion in 2011.[152]
The major export markets are Malta, Marshall Islands, Panama and the United Kingdom. Turkish shipyards
have 15 floating docks of different sizes and one dry dock.[152] Tuzla, Yalova, and İzmit have developed into
dynamic shipbuilding centres.[153] In 2011, there were 70 active shipyards in Turkey, with another 56 being
built.[153] Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to
10,000 dwt and also for their mega yachts.[153]
Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home
appliances in Europe, and invest a substantial amount of funds for research and development in new
technologies related to these fields.[154][155][156]
Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles,
oil refining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. In 2010, the
agricultural sector accounted for 9% of GDP, while the industrial sector accounted for 26% and the services
sector for 65%.[2] However, agriculture still accounted for a quarter of employment.[157] In 2004, it was
estimated that 46% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the
lowest 20% received only 6%.[158] The rate of female employment in Turkey was 30% in 2012,[159] the
lowest among all OECD countries.[160]
Foreign direct investment (FDI) was $8.3 billion in 2012, a figure expected to rise to $15 billion in 2013.[161]
In 2012, Fitch Group upgraded Turkey's credit rating to investment grade after an 18-year gap;[162] this was
followed by a ratings upgrade by Moody's in May 2013, as the service lifted Turkey's government bond
ratings to the lowest investment grade Baa3.[163][164]
In the early years of the 21st century, the chronically high inflation was brought under control; this led to the
launch of a new currency, the Turkish new lira in 2005, to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms
and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy.[165] In 2009, the new Turkish lira was renamed back to the
Turkish lira, with the introduction of new banknotes and coins. As a result of continuing economic reforms,
inflation dropped to 8% in 2005, and the unemployment rate to 10%.[166]
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History
During the first six decades of the republic, between 1923 and 1983, Turkey generally adhered to a quasistatist approach with strict government planning of the budget and government-imposed limitations over
private sector participation, foreign trade, flow of foreign currency, and foreign direct investment. However in
1983 Prime Minister Turgut Özal initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a statist,
insulated system to a more private-sector, market-based model.[88]
The reforms, combined with unprecedented amounts of funding from foreign loans, spurred rapid economic
growth; but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994, 1999 (following the
earthquake of that year),[167] and 2001;[168] resulting in an average of 4% GDP growth per annum between
1981 and 2003.[169] Lack of additional fiscal reforms, combined with large and growing public sector deficits
and widespread corruption, resulted in high inflation, a weak banking sector and increased macroeconomic
volatility.[170] Since the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the finance minister of the time,
Kemal Derviş, inflation has fallen to single-digit numbers, investor confidence and foreign investment have
soared, and unemployment has fallen.[166]
Turkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on
foreign trade and investment and the privatization of publicly owned industries, and the liberalization of
many sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.[171] The public debt to
GDP ratio peaked at 75.9% during the recession of 2001, falling to an estimated 26.9% by 2013.[172]
The real GDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 6.8% annually,[173] which made Turkey one of the
fastest growing economies in the world during that period. However, growth slowed to 1% in 2008, and in
2009 the Turkish economy was affected by the global financial crisis, with a recession of 5%. The economy
was estimated to have returned to 8% growth in 2010.[2] According to Eurostat data, Turkish GDP per capita
adjusted by purchasing power standard stood at 52% of the EU average in 2011.[174]
Tourism
Tourism in Turkey has experienced rapid growth in the last twenty
years, and constitutes an important part of the economy. In 2013, 37.8
million foreign visitors arrived in Turkey, which ranked as the 6th
most popular tourism destination in the world; they contributed $27.9
billion to Turkey's revenues.[175] In 2012, 15% of the tourists were
from Germany, 11% from Russia, 8% from the United Kingdom, 5%
from Bulgaria, 4% each from Georgia, the Netherlands and Iran, 3%
from France, 2% each from the USA and Syria, and 40% from other
countries.[176] Turkey has 13 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as
Most of the beach resorts in Turkey
the "Historic Areas of Istanbul", the "Rock Sites of Cappadocia", the
are located in the Turkish Riviera.
"Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük", "Hattusa: the Hittite Capital", the
"Archaeological Site of Troy", "Pergamon and its Multi-Layered
Cultural Landscape", "Hierapolis – Pamukkale", and "Mount Nemrut";[177] and 51 World Heritage Sites in
tentative list, such as the archaeological sites or historic urban centers of Göbekli Tepe, Gordion, Ephesus,
Aphrodisias, Perga, Lycia, Sagalassos, Aizanoi, Zeugma, Ani, Harran, Mardin, Konya and Alanya.[178]
Turkey hosts two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, which are the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and
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the Temple of Artemis.[179]
Infrastructure
As of 2009, there were 102 airports in Turkey, including eight
international airports. The new (third) international airport of Istanbul
is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a capacity to
serve 150 million passengers per annum.[181] Turkish Airlines, flag
carrier of Turkey since 1933, was selected by Skytrax as Europe's best
airline for three consecutive years in 2011, 2012 and 2013.[182]
Istanbul Atatürk Airport is the 14th
busiest airport in the world with 17
million passengers.[180]
As of 2014, the country has a roadway network of 65,623 kilometres
(40,776 mi).[183] The total length of the rail network was 10,991 km
in 2008, including 2,133 km of electrified and 457 km of high-speed
track.[184][185] The Turkish State Railways started building
high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya line became
operational in 2011 while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in
2014.[185]
In 2008, 7,555 kilometres (4,694 mi) of natural gas pipelines and 3,636 kilometres (2,259 mi) of petroleum
pipelines spanned the country's territory.[184] The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second longest oil
pipeline in the world, was inaugurated on May 10, 2005.[186]
In 2013, the energy consumption was 240 billion kilowatt hours.[187] As Turkey imported 72% of its energy
in 2013, the government decided to invest in nuclear power to reduce imports.[187] Three nuclear power
stations are to be built by 2023.[187] Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal
power in the world.[188] Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme.[189]
Turkey's first nuclear power plants are expected to be built in Mersin's Akkuyu district on the Mediterranean
coast; in Sinop's İnceburun district on the Black Sea coast; and in Kırklareli's İğneada district on the Black
Sea coast.[190] Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal power in the
world.[188] Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics:
enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy
market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects
of common and regional interest.[189]
Science and technology
TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and innovation policies in Turkey.[192]
TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey.[193] TAEK is the
official nuclear energy institution of Turkey. Its objectives include academic research in nuclear energy, and
the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear tools.[194]
Turkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include Turkish
Aerospace Industries, Aselsan, Havelsan, Roketsan, MKE, among others. Turkish Satellite Assembly,
Integration and Test Center (UMET) is a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of
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National Defence and operated by the Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). The
Turkish Space Launch System (UFS) is a project to develop the satellite launch
capability of Turkey. It consists of the construction of a spaceport, the development of
satellite launch vehicles as well as the establishment of remote earth stations.
[195][196][197]
Demographics
TAI ranks among
the top 100 global
players in the
aerospace and
defence sectors.[191]
According to the Address-Based Population Recording System of Turkey, the
country's population was 74.7 million people in 2011,[199] nearly three-quarters of
whom lived in towns and cities. According to the 2011 estimate, the
Historical populations
population is increasing by 1.35% each year. Turkey has an average
Year
Pop.
±% p.a.
population density of 97 people per km². People within the 15–64 age
group constitute 67.4% of the total population; the 0–14 age group
1927
13,554,000
—
corresponds to 25.3%; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older
1930
14,440,000
+2.13%
make up 7.3%.[200] In 1927, when the first official census was
1940
17,728,000
+2.07%
recorded in the Republic of Turkey, the population was 13.6
1950
20,807,000
+1.61%
million.[201] The largest city in Turkey, Istanbul, is also the largest
1960
27,506,000
+2.83%
city in Europe in population, and the third-largest city in Europe in
1970
35,321,000
+2.53%
terms of size.[202][203]
1980
44,439,000
+2.32%
1990
55,120,000
+2.18%
Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as "anyone
2000
64,252,000
+1.54%
who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship";
2010
73,003,000
+1.29%
therefore, the legal use of the term "Turkish" as a citizen of Turkey is
[204]
2012
75,627,000
+1.78%
different from the ethnic definition.
However, the majority of the
[198]
Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity. They are estimated at
Source: Turkstat
[2]
70–75% by the CIA World Factbook. Reliable data on the ethnic
mix of the population is not available, because Turkish census figures do not include statistics on
ethnicity.[205] The three minority groups officially recognised in the Treaty of Lausanne are Armenians,
Greeks and Jews. Other ethnic groups include Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Assyrians, Bosniaks,
Circassians, Georgians, Hamshenis, Laz, Crimean Tatars, Bulgarians, Pomaks, and Roma. The Kurds, a
distinct ethnic group concentrated mainly in the southeastern provinces of the country, are the largest
non-Turkic ethnicity, variously estimated around 18%.[2] Minorities besides the Kurds are thought to make up
an estimated 7–12% of the population.[2] Minorities other than the three officially recognized ones do not
have specific minority rights. The term "minority" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey, while the Turkish
government is frequently criticized for its treatment of minorities.[206] Minorities of European origin include
the Levantines, who have been present in the country (particularly in Istanbul[207] and Izmir[208]) since the
medieval period.
2.5% of the population are international migrants[209] and Turkey has accepted over a million Syrian refugees
since the beginning of the Syrian Civil War.[210] Turkey has accommodated most of its Syrian refugees in tent
cities administered by the country's emergency management agency.[211]
The country's official language is Turkish, which is spoken by approximately 85% of the population as
mother tongue. Around 12% of the population speaks Kurdish as mother tongue. Arabic and Zaza are the
mother tongues of more than 1% of the population each, and several other languages are the mother tongues
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of smaller parts of the population.[21] Endangered languages in Turkey include Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyge,
Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Judezmo, Kabard-Cherkes, Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek,
Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh, Western Armenian, and Zazaki.[212]
Religion
Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the Turkish
Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.[215][216]
The role of religion has been a controversial debate over the years
since the formation of Islamist parties.[217] For many decades, the
wearing of the hijab was banned in schools and government buildings
because it was viewed as a symbol of political Islam. However, the
ban was lifted from universities in 2011, from government buildings
in 2013,[218] and from schools in 2014.[219]
Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul is
Islam is the dominant religion of Turkey with 99.8% of the population
popularly known as the Blue Mosque
being registered as Muslim.[2][220] while some sources give a little
due to the blue İznik tiles which
lower estimate of 96.4%,[221] with the most popular sect being the
adorn its interior.[214]
Hanafite school of Sunni Islam. The highest Islamic religious
authority is the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Turkish: Diyanet
İşleri Başkanlığı), it interprets the Hanafi school of law, and is responsible for regulating the operation of the
country's 80,000 registered mosques and employing local and provincial imams.[222] Academics suggest the
Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million.[223][224] and according to Aksiyon magazine, the number of
Shiite Twelvers (excluding Alevis) is 3 million (4.2%).[225] There are also some Sufi Muslims.[226] Roughly
2% are non-denominational Muslims.[227]
The percentage of non-Muslims in Turkey fell from 19% in 1914 to 2.5% in 1927,[228] due to the population
transfers[229] and emigration.[230] There are more than 120,000 people of different Christian denominations,
representing less than 0.2% of Turkey's population,[231] including an estimated 80,000 Oriental
Orthodox,[232] 35,000 Roman Catholics,[233] 18,000 Antiochian Greeks,[234] 5,000 Greek Orthodox[232] and
smaller numbers of Protestants.[235] Today there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey.[236] The
Eastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Istanbul since the 4th century.[237][238]
There are about 26,000 people who are Jewish, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi.[239] There have been
Jewish communities in Asia Minor since at least the 5th century BCE and many Spanish and Portuguese Jews
expelled from Spain were welcomed into the Ottoman Empire in the late 15th century, twenty centuries later.
Despite emigration during the 20th century, modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish
population.[240]
Education
The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.[242] This is compulsory and lasts
twelve years: four years each of primary school, middle school and high school.[243] Less than half of 25-34
year old Turks have completed at least upper secondary education, compared with an OECD average of over
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80%.[244] Basic education in Turkey is considered to lag behind other
OECD countries, with significant differences between high and low
performers.[245] Turkey is ranked 32nd out of 34 in the OECD's PISA
study.[243] Access to high-quality school heavily depends on the
performance in the secondary school entrance exams, to the point that
some students begin taking private tutoring classes when they are 10
years old.[245] The overall adult literacy rate in 2011 was 94.1%,
97.9% for males and 90.3% for females.[246]
Istanbul University was founded in
By 2011, there were 166 universities in Turkey.[247] Entry to higher
[248]
1453 as a Darülfünûn. On 1 August
education depends on the Student Selection Examination (ÖSS).
1933 it was reorganized and became
In 2008, the quota of admitted students was 600,000, compared to
Turkey's first university.[241]
1,700,000 who took the ÖSS exam in 2007.[249] Except for the Open
Education Faculty (Turkish: Açıköğretim Fakültesi) at Anadolu
University, entrance is regulated by the national ÖSS examination, after which high school graduates are
assigned to universities according to their performance.[250] According to the 2012–2013 Times Higher
Education World University Rankings, the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University (in
the 201-225 rank range), followed by Bilkent University and Koç University (both in the 226-250 range),
Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University (in the 276-300 bracket).[251]
Healthcare
Health care in Turkey used to be dominated by a centralized state system run by the Ministry of Health. In
2003, the government introduced a sweeping health reform programme aimed at increasing the ratio of
private to state health provision and making healthcare available to a larger share of the population. Turkish
Statistical Institute announced that 76.3 billion TL was spent for healthcare in 2012; 79.6% of which was
covered by the Social Security Institution and 15.4% of which was paid directly by the patients.[252] In 2012,
there were 29,960 medical institutions in Turkey,[253] and on average one doctor per 583 people[254] and 2.65
beds per 1000 people.[253]
Life expectancy stands at 71.1 years for men and 75.3 years for women, with an overall average of 73.2 years
for the populace as a whole.[255]
The first three groups of diseases that cause death, respectively; Diseases of the circulatory system (39.8%),
cancer (21.3%), respiratory diseases (9.8%)[256]
Culture
Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Oğuz Turkic, Anatolian, Ottoman
(which was itself a continuation of both Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) and Western culture and
traditions, which started with the Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today. This mix
originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were in
their path during their migration from Central Asia to the West.[258][259] Turkish culture is a product of efforts
to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values.[258]
Arts
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Turkish painting, in the Western sense, developed actively starting
from the mid 19th century. The very first painting lessons were
scheduled at what is now the Istanbul Technical University (then the
Imperial Military Engineering School) in 1793, mostly for technical
purposes.[260] In the late 19th century, human figure in the western
sense was being established in Turkish painting, especially with
Osman Hamdi Bey. Impressionism, among the contemporary trends,
appeared later on with Halil Paşa. The young Turkish artists sent to
Europe in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such as
Fauvism, Cubism and even Expressionism, still very influential in
Europe. The later "Group D" of artists introduced some trends that
had lasted in the West for thirty, forty years. Other important
movements in Turkish painting were the "Yeniler Grubu" (The
Newcomers Group) of the late 1930s; the "On'lar Grubu" (Group of
Ten) of the 1940s; the "Yeni Dal Grubu" (New Branch Group) of the
1950s; and the "Siyah Kalem Grubu" (Black Pen Group) of the
1960s.[261]
Whirling Dervishes of the Mevlevi
Order during a Sema. The ceremony
is one of the 11 elements of Turkey
on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural
Heritage Lists.[257]
Turkish music and literature are examples of a mix of cultural influences. Interaction between the Ottoman
Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European
traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts.[262] Turkish literature was heavily influenced by
Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era. The Tanzimat reforms introduced previously
unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period
wrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Nâmık Kemal also wrote the important 1876
novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish
play, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkish
literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literary
movements during this period: the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde (New Literature) movement; the Fecr-i Âtî (Dawn of
the Future) movement; and the Millî Edebiyyât (National Literature) movement. The first radical step of
innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse style.
Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip Movement. The mix of cultural
influences in Turkey is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing
of cultures" enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.[263]
Turkey has a diverse folkloric dance culture. Hora is performed in East Thrace; Zeybek in the Aegean
Region, Southern Marmara and East-Central Anatolia Region; Teke in the Western Mediterranean Region;
Kaşık Oyunları and Karşılama in West-Central Anatolia, Western Black Sea Region, Southern Marmara
Region and Eastern Mediterranean Region; Horon in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region; Halay in
Eastern Anatolia and the Central Anatolia Region; and Bar and Lezginka in the Northeastern Anatolia
Region.[264]
Architecture
The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Turkic architectue of
Central Asia with those of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture. The transition from Seljuk
architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was the capital of the Ottoman State
between 1335 and 1413. Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman
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architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture.
Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous examples of
classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the
Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years.[265] Mimar Sinan
(c.1489–1588) was the most important architect of the classical period in
Ottoman architecture. He was the chief architect of at least 374 buildings
which were constructed in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire in
the 16th century.[266]
Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly
influenced by European styles, and this can be particularly seen in the
Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Feriye,
Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu, Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces.[267] The Ottoman era
waterfront houses (yalı) on the Bosphorus also reflect the fusion between
classical Ottoman and European architectural styles during the
aforementioned period. The First National Architectural Movement
(Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı) in the early 20th century sought to
The Grand Post Office
create a new architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and
(1905–1909) in Istanbul and the
Ottoman architecture. The movement was also labelled Turkish
first Ziraat Bank headquarters
Neoclassical or the National Architectural Renaissance.[268] The leading
(1925–1929) in Ankara are among
architects of this movement were Vedat Tek (1873–1942), Mimar
the examples of Turkish
Kemaleddin Bey (1870–1927), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982)
Neoclassical architecture in the
and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953).[269] Notable buildings from this era
early 20th century
are the Grand Post Office in Istanbul (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments
(1919–1922),[270] Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926),[271] State Art
and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930),[272] Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928),[273] the first Ziraat
Bank headquarters in Ankara (1925–1929),[274] the first Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara
(1926–1929),[275] Bebek Mosque,[276] and Kamer Hatun Mosque.[277][278]
Sports
The most popular sport in Turkey is association football (soccer).[279] Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and
UEFA Super Cup in 2000.[280] The Turkish national football team finished 3rd and won the bronze medal in
the 2002 FIFA World Cup and in the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup; while also reaching the semi-finals
(finishing 3rd by goals difference) in the UEFA Euro 2008.[281]
Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. The Turkish men's national
basketball team won the silver medal in the finals of the 2010 FIBA World Championship and EuroBasket
2001, which were both hosted by Turkey. They also won two gold medals (1987 and 2013), one silver medal
(1971) and three bronze medals (1967, 1983 and 2009) in the Mediterranean Games. Turkish basketball club
Anadolu Efes S.K. won the FIBA Korać Cup in 1996, finished 2nd in the FIBA Saporta Cup of 1993, and
made it to the Final Four of Euroleague and Suproleague in 2000 and 2001, finishing 3rd in both occasions.
[282][283] Another Turkish basketball club, Beşiktaş, won the FIBA EuroChallenge in 2012.[284] The Final of
the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams,
Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.[285]
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The Turkish women's national volleyball team won the silver medal in the 2003 European Championship, the
bronze medal in the 2011 European Championship, and the bronze medal in the 2012 FIVB World Grand
Prix. They also won a gold medal (2005), six silver medals (1987, 1991, 1997, 2001, 2009, 2013) and a
bronze medal (1993) in the Mediterranean Games.[286] Women's volleyball clubs in Turkey, namely
Fenerbahçe, Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.
Fenerbahçe won the 2010 FIVB Women's Club World Championship and the 2012 CEV Women's
Champions League. Representing Europe as the winner of the 2012–13 CEV Women's Champions League,
Vakıfbank also became the world champion by winning the 2013 FIVB Women's Club World Championship.
[287][288][289]
The traditional Turkish national sport has been yağlı güreş (oiled wrestling) since Ottoman times.[290] Edirne
has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oiled wrestling tournament since 1361.[291] International wrestling styles
governed by FILA such as Freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many
European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a
national team.[292]
Cuisine
Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine, which can
be described as a fusion and refinement of Central Asian, Caucasian,
Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Balkan cuisines.[295]
The country's position between the East and the Mediterranean Sea
helped the Turks gain complete control of major trade routes, and an
ideal environment allowed plants and animals to flourish. Turkish
cuisine was well established by the mid-1400s, the beginning of the
Ottoman Empire's six hundred-year reign. Yogurt salads, fish in olive
Turkish coffee with Turkish delight.
oil, and stuffed and wrapped vegetables became Turkish staples. The
Turkish coffee is a UNESCO-listed
empire, eventually spanning from Austria to northern Africa, used its
intangible cultural heritage of Turks.
land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the
[293][294]
world. By the end of the 1500s, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400
live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Since
the fall of the empire in World War I (1914–1918) and the
establishment of the Turkish Republic, foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and western fast food
have made their way into the modern Turkish diet.[296]
Media
Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a
productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband internet use all make up a very
vibrant media industry in Turkey.[297] In 2003 a total of 257 television stations and 1,100 radio stations were
licensed to operate, and others operated without licenses. Of those licensed, 16 television and 36 radio
stations reached national audiences.[298] The majority of the audiences are shared among public broadcaster
TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have
a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available.[298] The Radio and
Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.[298] By
circulation, the most popular daily newspapers are Zaman, Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.
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[299][300]
Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are
among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.[301]
See also
Index of Turkey-related articles
Outline of Turkey
List of Turkic dynasties and countries
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Research Division (January 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
299. ^ "Tiraj" (http://www.medyatava.net/tiraj.asp). Medyatava. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
300. ^ "Gazete Tirajları" (http://www.gazeteciler.com/gazete-tirajlari.html). Gazeteciler.com. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
301. ^ Jenna Krajeski. "Turkey: Soap Operas and Politics" (http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/turkey-diyarbakirkurdish-roles-soap-opera-politics-ayrilik-olmasaydi). Pulitzer Center. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
Further reading
Mango, Andrew (2004). The Turks Today. Overlook. ISBN 1-58567-615-2.
Pope, Hugh; Pope, Nicole (2004). Turkey Unveiled. Overlook. ISBN 1-58567-581-4.
Reed, Fred A. (1999). Anatolia Junction: a Journey into Hidden Turkey. Burnaby, B.C.: Talonbooks [sic]. 320 p.,
ill. with b&w photos. ISBN 0-88922-426-9
Revolinski, Kevin (2006). The Yogurt Man Cometh: Tales of an American Teacher in Turkey. Çitlembik.
ISBN 9944-424-01-3.
Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600. Royal Academy of Arts. ISBN
1-903973-56-2.
Turkey: A Country Study (1996). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0864-6.
Cîrlig, Carmen-Cristina (2013). Turkey's regional power aspirations (http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData
/bibliotheque/briefing/2013/120425/LDM_BRI(2013)120425_REV1_EN.pdf). Library of the European
Parliament. p. 8.
External links
Official website of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey (http://www.tccb.gov.tr/pages/)
Turkey (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Turkey (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/turkey.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
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Turkey (https://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Turkey) at DMOZ
Turkey profile (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17988453) from the BBC News
Turkey (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/609790/Turkey) at Encyclopædia Britannica
Wikimedia Atlas of Turkey
Turkey's Official Tourism Portal (http://goturkey.com/)
OECD Better Life Index (http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/turkey/)
The Incredible Turk (1958 American film on the Turkish Revolution) (https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=q9EkewZea3k) on YouTube
Turkey travel guide from Wikivoyage
Geographic data related to Turkey (http://www.openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/174737) at
OpenStreetMap
Key Development Forecasts for Turkey (http://www.ifs.du.edu
/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TR) from International Futures
Trade
World Bank Trade Summary Statistics for Turkey 2012 (http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile
/Country/TUR/Year/2012/Summary)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkey&oldid=632406111"
Categories: Turkey Countries in Europe Western Asian countries List of Mediterranean countries
Eastern Mediterranean Near Eastern countries Middle Eastern countries Modern Turkic states
G20 nations Member states of NATO Member states of the Council of Europe
Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean Member states of the United Nations Republics
States and territories established in 1923 1923 establishments in Turkey Eurasia Southeastern Europe
Western Asia
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