Let`s Teach Physics on Computer - Education Facing Contemporary

Transcription

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International Conference "Education Facing Contemporary World Issues"
Piteşti, Romania, 2010, October, 8th – 9th
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Procedia – Edu -World 2010
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Co-Presidents:
Professor Dr. Dan POTOLEA, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Peter JARVIS, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
Honorific Scientific committee:
Professor Dr. Henning Salling OLESEN, President of ESREA, Roskilde University,
Denmark
Professor Dr. Romiţă IUCU, President of ENTEP, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Nicolae MITROFAN, Dean, Faculty of Psychology and Educational
Studies, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Özcan DEMIREL, President of BASOPED, Hacettepe University, Ankara,
Turkey
Professor Dr. Nikos P. TERZIS, Honorific President of BASOPED
Dr. Stylianos MAVROMOUSTAKOS, Vice President EFVET, Training and
Development Intercollege, Nicosia, Cyprus
Members of the Scientific Committee:
Professor Dr. Steliana TOMA, Technical University for Constructions of Bucharest,
Romania
Professor Dr. Riitta METSANEN, HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Vocational
Teacher Education Unit, Hameenlinna, Finland
Professor Dr. Mihai ANIŢEI, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Ioan NEACŞU, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Marin MANOLESCU, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Viorel NICOLESCU, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Gheorghe TOMŞA, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Elena BONCHIŞ, University of Oradea, Romania
Professor Dr. Florea VOICULESCU, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia,
Romania
Professor Dr. Rodica NICULESCU, Transilvania University of Brosov, Romania
Professor Dr. Constantin CUCOŞ, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Romania
Professor Dr. Musata BOCOŞ, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj Napoca, Romania
Professor Dr. Geanina CUCU-CIUHAN, University of Pitesti, Romania
Professor Dr. Ovidiu PÂNIŞOARA, University of Bucharest, Romania
Professor Dr. Dumitru OTOVESCU, University of Craiova, Romania
Professor Dr. Gheorghe BÃNICÃ, University of Pitesti, Romania
Professor Dr. Gabriel ALBU, Petroleum and Gas University of Ploiesti, Romania
Professor Dr. Liliana MIHÃILESCU, University of Pitesti, Romania
Professor Dr. Simona SAVA, University of Timisoara, Romania
Associate Prof. Dr. Nevel VASSEL, Birmingham City University, United Kingdom
Associate Professor Dr. Ali Murat SÜNBÜL, Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey
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Associate Professor Dr. Bernard MASSIERA, Sophia Antilopis University, Nice, France
Associate Professor Dr. Georgeta CHIRLEŞAN, University of Pitesti, Romania
Associate Professor Dr. Manuela CIUCUREL, University of Pitesti, Romania
Associate Professor Dr. Mihaela PĂIŞI - LĂZĂRESCU, University of Pitesti, Romania
Associate Professor Dr. Lucian CIOLAN, University of Bucharest, Romania
Associate Professor Dr. Magdalena DUMITRANA, University of Pitesti, Romania
Associate Professor Dr. Venera COJOCARIU, Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacau,
Romania
Associate Professor Dr. Roxana ENACHE, Petroleum Gas University of Ploiesti,
Romania
Associate Professor Dr. Gabriela PETRUŢA, University of Pitesti, Romania
Lecturer Dr. Georgios ZARIFIS, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Lecturer Dr. Maria PESCARU, University of Pitesti, Romania
Lecturer Dr. Claudiu LANGA, University of Pitesti, Romania
Secretary of the Scientific Committee:
Professor Dr. Liliana EZECHIL - University of Pitesti, Romania
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Honorific President
Associate Professor Dr. Dumitru CHIRLEŞAN
President
Associate Professor Dr. Mihai BRĂSLAŞU
Vice-Presidents
Lecturer Dr. Claudiu LANGA
Prof. Dr. Gabriel BRATU
Secretary
Lecturer Dr. Emanuel SOARE
Prof. Iuliana IONIŢĂ
EDITORIAL BOARD
Associate Professor Dr. Mihai BRĂSLAŞU
Lecturer Dr. Emanuel SOARE
Lecturer Dr. Maria PESCARU
Lecturer Dr. Claudiu LANGA
Drd. Radu OPRIŞA
Lecturer Dr. Tudor PETRESCU
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Assistant Dan IORDACHESCU
Assistant Ana APETROAIEI
EDITORIAL BOARD & ADMINISTRATION
Republicii Bd. No. 71, floor 3, 110062, Pitesti, Arges County, Romania
Phone / fax +40 248 215 061
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
University of Pitesti Publishing House
Targu din Vale Street no 1, 110040, Pitesti, Arges County, Romania
Phone / fax +40 248 216 448
Copyright © 2010 – The Department for Teacher’s Training Pitesti
All rights reserved to the Dept. for Teacher’s Training of the Universitty of Pitesti
The full responsibility for the stiencific content of the papers and for the accuracy of
graphical representation is assumed by authors
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Section 8 - ICT AND E-LEARNING IN KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY ................................ 9
A#148 - Aurora - Tatiana Dina - Educational Weblogs – A New Learning Space.....10 - 14
A#149 - Michaela Logofatu, Anisoara Dumitrache, Mihaela Gheorghe - Game - Based
Learning in Education......................................................................................15 - 21
A#150 - Mihaela-Alina Chiribău-Albu - Implementing Web 2.0 in Teaching and Learning
.........................................................................................................................22 - 30
A#151 - Kristinka Ovesni, Sefika Alibabic - Implications of ICT in the Continuing
Professional Education and Learning............................................................. 31 - 42
A#152 - Tatiana Shopova - Internet and Family Safety .............................................43 - 50
A#153 - Carmen Gabriela Bostan - Let's Teach Physics on Computer ......................51 - 56
A#154 - Uta Krope - Life Long Learning - Seniors Learning Online by Using Web2.0
Tools................................................................................................................57 - 64
A#155 - Gabriela Grosseck, Carmen Holotescu - Microblogging Meets Personal Learning
Environment - A Study Case............................................................................65 - 78
A#156 - Avrigeanu Ecaterina - Non-Procedural Programming in Oracle. Application:
Creating a Virtual Shop for Music Articles.....................................................79 - 87
A#157 - Petruta Gabriela-Paula - Optimized Development of ICT Competences to the
Future Teachers of Biology and Ecology........................................................88 - 96
A#158 - Lazar Stosic, Radenko S. Krulj - Social Software In Teaching..................97 - 103
A#159 - Bogdan Logofătu, Gheorghe Mihaela - Specific Issues of Course Design in
Distance Education .....................................................................................104 - 107
A#160 - Mihai Victor Zerbes, Liliana Georgeta Popescu, Livia Dana Beju - Strategic
Model for a Collaborative Design into a Virtual Research Centre.............108 - 115
A#161 - Philippe Monchaux - Upon the Influence of the ICTE on the Professional
Relations in School......................................................................................116 - 122
Section 9 - EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY .............................................................. 123
A#162 - Mihaela Păişi Lăzărescu - A Study on Certain Personality Variables of the
Teacher........................................................................................................124 - 129
A#163 - Dumitru Ioana Elena, Mihaescu Andreea Laura - A.D.H.D and the Capacity of
Solving Problems at Children .....................................................................130 - 134
A#164 - Georgiana Dumitru - Behavioral Disturbances in the Middle Years .......135 - 139
A#165 - Maria Butucea - Cognitive-Neuroscience Confirmations Regarding Pragmatic
Explanations in Educational Psychology....................................................140 - 146
A#166 - Ioana Iacob, Corina Muşuroi, Alexandra Spătaru - Developing the Emotional and
Social Competences of a Child with Down Syndrome through Games – Case Study
.....................................................................................................................147 - 153
A#167 - Petruţa Coman - Incursion into the Problematics Related to the Education of the
Teenagers Coming from Families with Intra-family Violence – Comparative Study
.....................................................................................................................154 - 165
A#168 - Ana-Maria Cazan - Motivational Orientations and Academic Adjustment 166-173
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A#169 - Mihăescu Andreea Laura, Dumitru Ioana Elena - The Determinant Character of
Brother Position for Personality Shaping and Development ......................174 - 179
A#170 - Mihaela Păişi Lăzărescu - The Impact of Learning Difficulties Over School
Performances ..............................................................................................180 - 187
A#171 - Stan Maria Magdalena, Matei Anca Elena - The Impact of Parental Style upon
Psychological and Behavioral Development of Children ...........................188 - 195
A#172 - Cucu-Ciuhan Geanina, Ciucurel Manuela - The Relationship Between
Organizational Culture and Work Motivation for Academic Staff..............196 - 206
Section 10 - TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION ........................................................... 207
A#173 - Tiberiu Macarie, Mihail Macarie - Aspects Concerning The Future Of The
Automotive Transportation In The Context Of Pollution Decrease, Of Classic
Engines Fuel Consumption And Of The Recovery And Reuse Of Old Out-Of-Use
Automotives .................................................................................................208 - 214
A#174 - Vangelis Karafillidis - Computer Technology and Music Applications ...215 - 219
A#175 - Carja Vasile - Factorial Morphology of Globalization ............................220 - 225
A#176 - Bărdescu Ioan, Legendi Amelitta - Geothermal Power Units..................226 - 231
A#177 - Isabelle Mihaela Alexe, Steliana Toma - Learning About Reusing and Recycling
Objects through Informatics Products ........................................................232 - 237
A#178 - Leonica Popescu, Alina-Irina Popescu - Modern Approaches in Managers'
Technological Education.............................................................................238 - 244
A#179 - Lica Bratean - Researches Regarding Corrosion Protection with Thermal
Spraying Arc Process Using Two Dissimilar Wires....................................245 - 252
A#180 - Mihaela Nitu - Settling Diagrams under the Foundation Resulted from
Experiments.................................................................................................253 - 260
A#181 - Popescu Alina Irina - Technological Innovation for Strategic Differentiation to
Improve Customer Experience ....................................................................261 - 269
A#182 - Steliana Toma, Maria Goga - The e-Tutor Competences .........................270 - 275
A#183 - Bărdescu Ioan, Legendi Amelitta - The Passive House - An Economical and
Ecological One............................................................................................276 - 282
Section 11 - LEARNING IN FAMILY ........................................................................... 283
A#184 - Alina Sanda Vasile, Manuela Mihaela Ciucurel - Family Risk Factors for
Juvenile Delinquency: a Descriptive Analysis ............................................284 - 291
A#185 - Kari Kotiranta, Alina Cucu - How Mothers and Daughters View Each Other in
Finland, Romania and Turkey.....................................................................292 - 298
A#186 - Arsene Andreea - Psycho- Sociological Perspective Over the Values Transmitted
Within the Family ........................................................................................299 - 304
A#187 - Arsene Andreea, Darie Despa Nadina - The Feminism and its Role in the
Transformation of the Traditional Family ..................................................305 - 311
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Section 12 - ADULT EDUCATION ............................................................................... 312
A#188 - Gabriel Albu - A Threat to Education: Barbarization of Society .............313 - 325
A#189 - Michaela Logofatu, Anisoara Dumitrache - Adult Education through Distance
Learning ......................................................................................................326 - 336
A#190 - Irina Dimitriu - Adult Education, Labour Market and Sustainable Development
in the Knowledge Society ............................................................................337 - 345
A#191 - Daniel Mara - Critical Thinking in Paolo Freire’s Pedagogical Work....346 - 352
A#192 - Codrina Sandru - Health Education and Unhygienic Behaviour in Public Space
.....................................................................................................................353 - 362
A#193 - Jim Bradley - Learning about Teaching and Learning: New Approaches to the
Training of Adult Educators........................................................................363 - 370
A#194 - Elena-Lucia Mara - Process of Learning in the Adult Education.............371 - 377
A#195 - Avrigeanu Ecaterina, Avrigeanu Constantin Lucian - The Building up of the
School-Family- Community Partnership.....................................................378 - 387
A#196 - Adina Pescaru, George Brezoi - The Influence of Continuous Learning in the
Development of Individuals in Society ........................................................388 - 393
A#197 - Magda - Elena Samoilă - Theoretical Approaches in the Development of Adult
Intercultural Competencies .........................................................................394 - 399
Section 13. - EDUCATION BY SPORT......................................................................... 400
A#198 - Mihăilă Ion, Simion Gheorghe - A Method of Training and Development Skills
and Driving Skills in Sports ........................................................................401 - 406
A#200 - Niculescu Mugurel, Niculescu Ionela, Rada Larisa - A Typical Exercises and
Their Role in the Learning of Volleyball Game ..........................................407 - 412
A#201 - Mihailescu Niculina Liliana, Mihailescu Liviu Emanuel, Nanu Lucia Experimental Contributions Concerning the Improvement of the Specific Means of
the School Physical Education ....................................................................413 - 415
A#202 - Mateescu Adriana - Force Development Through Aquatic Training Using
Combinations of Contraction Regimes at the Age of 18 – 20 Years Old.....416 - 425
A#203 - Mateescu Adriana, Despa Nadina - Measuring Intensity in Aquafitness..426 - 434
A#204 - Mihăilă Ion, Simion Gheorghe - Mental Preparation and Disturbance Sports of
Origin Performance Psychology .................................................................435 - 438
A#205 - Naiba George Octavian, Cojanu Florin - Optimization Study of Physical
Training for Voleyball Junior II.................................................................439 - 444
A#206 - Elena Sabău, Georgeta Niculescu, Cecilia Gevat, Dorina Ciser - Physical
Education – Source Of Cross-Curricular Work..........................................445 - 452
A#207 - Naiba George Octavian, Cojanu Florin - Preliminary Study on Determination of
Physical Training Level Voleyball Junior II ...............................................453 - 461
A#208 - Adin Cojocaru, Marilena Cojocaru - Review References Technical and Tactical
Effectiveness of the Game Volleyball ..........................................................462 - 468
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A#209 - Florin Stoica, Nicolae Mihailescu - Romanian Sports Journalism – From the
Battle for Audience to the Promotion of Education Through Sport ............469 - 477
A#210 - Moraru Cristina - Study Regarding the Contribution of Specialized Software in
the Technique Teaching in Rhythmic Gymnastics.......................................478 - 483
A#211 - Rata Gloria, Rata Bogdan Constantin - Study Regarding the Teaching Staff’s
Influence on the Creativity of Students in Physical Education and Sports .484 - 488
A#212 - Mihailescu Niculina Liliana, Grosu Bogdan - The Identification of the
Psychomotor Abilities Level Expression at 8-10 Yeared Old Children.......489 - 493
A#213 - Niculescu Mugurel, Niculescu Ionela, Rada Larisa - The Role of Atypical
Exercise in Improving the Volleyball Game................................................494 - 500
A#214 - Radu Predoiu, Georgeta Mitrache, Gheorghe Dinuţă, Remus Roşca - Visual
Mental Map in Individual and Team Sports................................................501 - 506
Section 14 - STUDENTS CONFERENCE ..................................................................... 507
A#215 - Adriana Ecaterina Munteanu - Factors of Personality Development.......508 - 513
A#216 - Deaconu Alina - Computer Assisted Education .......................................514 - 518
A#217 - Anda – Speranta Iancu, Mihai-Alexandru Belchita - Formative Aspects of the
Juridical Education Project in the Romanian School .................................519 - 524
A#218 - Lemnaru Mircea - Dana, Vîrforeanu Nicolae - Alin - Gifted Pupils' Education - A
Challenge and a Duty of the Romanian Instruction System ........................525 - 534
A#219 - Diţă Lacrămioara, Radu Andrei, Savu Valentin - Globalization and its
Implication on Education ............................................................................535 - 540
A#220 - Hublea Ramona - Interactive Methods.....................................................541 - 544
A#221 - Stan Georgiana, Pasare Florina, Andreescu Ana-Maria - Mass-media and
Education ....................................................................................................545 - 553
A#222 - Modrogan Andreea Daria, Ciornei Cristina Ioana - Permanent Education in
Student Perceptions.....................................................................................554 - 560
A#223 - Suciu Marian - The Importance of Asian Languages in the Educational System of
Romania ......................................................................................................561 - 569
A#224 - Chircu Elena Sorina - The Role of Personal Preference in Career Counselling…
.....................................................................................................................570 - 572
A#225 - Vlad Cocos Emanoil - The Romanian Public Services Efficency in Protecting the
Rights for Industrial Property .....................................................................573 - 582
A#226 - Adam Adela-Madalina - Why Don’t the English Middles Acquire Easily?583586
A#227 - Tiberiu Macarie, Crenguta Oprea - Changing Balance Between Education and
Excess..........................................................................................................587 - 592
PROJECTIONS............................................................................................................... 593
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A#228 - Camelia-Nadia Brana - Metacognition In Problem Solving: A Study On The
Higher Education Students................................................................................... 594
A#229 - Mihaela Chraif, Mihai Anitei, Sebastian Vlasceanu, Andreea Barca, Mihai
Ciolacu - Student’s Attitude Towards the Attendance to National and International
Conferences.......................................................................................................... 595
A#230 - Claudiu Herţeliu, Alexandru Isaic-Maniu - The Disparities’ Recovery Dynamics
of Bucharest University of Economics (BUE) within the International
Classification ....................................................................................................... 596
A#231 - Mihaela Chraif, Mihai Anitei, Sebastian Vlasceanu, Mihai Ciolacu - Vocational
Guidance of High School Students on the Psychologist Profession-Longitudinal
Study..................................................................................................................... 597
A#232 - Ioana Raluca Visan - Raising Cultural Awareness in Maritime Education and
Training................................................................................................................ 598
A#233 - Anca Matei - School Adjustment and Counselling for Children Diagnosed with
Cancer.Review of Literature. ............................................................................... 599
A#234 - Maria Dorina Pasca - The Role Of Communication Between People In Student’s
Career Counceling ............................................................................................... 600
A#235 - Ioana Iacob, Florentina Pintea, Camelia Petreanu - Increasing Students’ Learning
Motivation by Using Technological Assistance ................................................... 601
A#236 - Violeta Maria Şerbu - Connectivism – a New Learning Theory........................ 602
A#237 - Carmen RUSU - Emotions and Their Impact on the Learning Process and the
Academic Output.................................................................................................. 603
A#238 - Enache Carmen, Enache Sebastian - Physical Education – Evolution and
Eoncepts ............................................................................................................... 604
A#239 - Enache Carmen, Enache Sebastian - The Role and Place of Physical Education
in the General Concept of Education ................................................................... 605
A#240 - Vasilica Grigore, Dan Iulian Alex - Study Regarding Sports as a Factor of
Permanent Education and Personal Development............................................... 606
A#241 - Bianca Alexandra Amuza, Bogdan Alexandru Tincu - Successful Teacher ..... 607
A#242 - Raluca Cristina BADEA - Interactive Methods in the European Teacher's
Attention ............................................................................................................... 608
A#243 - Vlad Roşca - Teaching the Spirit of Fair-Play through Sporting Competition
.......................................................................................................................... …609
A#244 - Mihai Vilcea, Alina Gavra - Placing Students in the First Line of Quality
Assurance ............................................................................................................. 610
KEYNOTE SPEECHES.................................................................................................. 611
A#245 - Nicolae MitrofanEvaluation – Self-evaluation in Higher Education .......612 - 618
A#246 - Henning Salling Olesen - Economic Competitiveness or New Social lLearning –
the Neglected Social Dimensions of Lifelong Learning ..............................619 - 629
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Section 8 - ICT AND E-LEARNING IN KNOWLEDGE
SOCIETY
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Educational Weblogs – A New Learning Space
Aurora-Tatiana DINA
University of Piteşti
Abstract
The present paper relates the educational tendecies today, as they appear from
developing some systems of educational management, some virtual learning
environments, that simplify teaching and learning outside the classroom. The article
introduces the terms “blog”, “blogosphere”, “blogger”, as being the 21st century
educational tools. There are also presented the advantages of such an approach. Blogs can
help dramatically to the development of the students critic thinking, together with the
development of the abilities and written and oral communication.
1. Introduction
The advancement in technology has been revolutionizing the way educators
teach and students learn. In the last decade or so, educational trends have been changing
rapidly with a movement towards web based instruction and “blended” instruction, where
web based instruction replaces components of face to face instruction. One example of
this revolution is the development of learning management systems, course management
systems, and virtual learning environments, which facilitate teaching and learning outside
the physical classroom. Often, these terms are used interchangeably in designating the
same tools or software. A learning management system is a software environment that
enables the management and delivery of learning content and resources to students. It
provides an opportunity to maintain interaction between the instructor and students and to
assess the students by providing immediate feedback on the online quizzes. Such learning
environments may be used to totally replace face to face teaching in a physical classroom,
partially replace teaching or only supplement existing teaching.
2. Defining Educational Tools for a New Learning Environment
When we talk about blogs as educational tools, we have two topics in mind:
1. Face to face conversation / learning, teaching, communication vs. online
discussions
2. Traditional way of learning vs. new online development way of learning
Introducing the notions, blog / web log, blogger, blogosphere and blogroll, will
make us aware of a rather recent and increasingly popular virtual environment.
The 21st century teaching involves new learners and new literacy. The blog is the
21st century tool for interactive and constructive communication and subsequently, it will
develop the 21st century skills that new upcoming generations will achieve. It is the
feedback the students will get during the learning process. Thus, students come to the
Aurora – Tatiana Dina / Procedia – Edu World 2010
classroom with a facility for maintaining and communicating through blogs. Blogs
promote student centred learning.
From an educational point of view, blogs are used as a tool meant to help
students prepare for meaningful classroom discussion. And since blogs are about
communication, exchange of ideas, it can become effective in enhancing class discussion,
especially when more than one discipline is involved. Before blogging became a
mainstream form of communication over the Internet, threaded discussion groups had
been popular for holding class discussions online. Unlike a blog, where posts appear in
reverse chronological order, discussion groups are hierarchical, and the newer material
generally appears at the bottom. While such discussion groups can be a useful classroom
tool, it is also important for students to become part of the blogging phenomenon that is
increasing in the “real world.” Learning management systems such as BlackBoard™ have
integrated blogs within their products, and some instructors are finding that “a course blog
offers a possible alternative to a traditional learning management system … particularly if
students create blogs that they control and whose content they own” (Goodwin Jones,
2006:49).
Like online threaded discussion groups, blogs are an easy way to engage in
dialogue on the web outside the classroom. By using blogs “students become familiar with
blogging, a tool now used by an ever increasing number of employers to support routine
operating functions” (Quible, 2005: 76).
Since blogs are a fairly recent pedagogical tool, we should point to their benefits
in the classroom. The ability of students and faculty to easily update an online journal
promotes blogging as a new form of communication to enhance class discussion and to
create a community outside the classroom. Blogosphere is a technological medium which
provides a space where students can interact with one another, and it can open up the
classroom space, where discussions are continued and where every student gets an equal
voice. In addition, blogs can promote collaboration through conversation. Blogs in the
classroom are sometimes used as “online diaries” where students write about their own
experiences or share their ideas related to course topics. However, the power of a blog
comes when others interact with an individual’s posts, creating a forum for discussion and
conversation. One benefit of having access to direct links embedded in weblogs is that
“students can access the weblogs of individuals about whom they have gained
considerable background information and reflective insight over time” (Oravec, 2002: 61).
Bloggers can get feedback on their writing from a wide range of other bloggers, and “they
can link to fellow bloggers, creating an interwoven, dynamic organization” (Ibidem: 94).
In addition, students can have a personal space to read and write alongside a communal
one, where ideas are shared, questions are asked and answered, and social cohesion is
developed. Halavais (2004) argues that this exposure to a larger audience and the
responses from outside readers motivates students to write better.
Blogs encourage students to make their writing more concise (Beeson, 2005: 28).
Oravec (2002) notes that blogging may further develop critical thinking skills because
students must carefully evaluate what they read and write, as their words are now
available to a larger audience.
In contrast to more traditional forums for online discussion, blogs are open to the
world to see. This provides visibility for students to share their ideas with the larger
world. Quible (2005) says that blogs are “a natural in business communications courses”
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(Quible, 2005: 73) because they enable students to share their writing with a larger
audience. Glogoff (2003) notes that students “used the [class] blog for a purpose other
than from what it was initially intended,” (Glogoff, 2003: 21) causing them to create a
new blog for a more general audience.
Blogs allow students to publish their writing in a more public forum, instead of
limiting feedback to a single reader, i.e., the professor; students’ work is exposed to a
much wider audience, including their peers. It is possible that after reading their peers’
postings, students demand better explanations from each other. Moreover, students hold
each other accountable for the success of the blog. Students use their questions to each
other’s blog postings as a vehicle for maintaining a level of engagement from one another.
A dialogue between writer and reader also may have helped improve the quality of
students’ postings.
Since blogs have increased in popularity, many faculty teachers try to find the
best way to integrate this tool into their classroom, for their course. Besides the blogs that
are written by students, one good idea might be that of the respective teacher to write their
own blog, in which open course materials, ideas and topic for discussion are entered. In
this way, students do not only read the required course materials but they also engage
with themselves in order to move beyond a superficial understanding of the materials.
Should a faculty member not want student writing made public, blogs can be
maintained so that only the students in the class are allowed to access it and post to it.
Students need to visit the course’s website anyway to do other tasks such as check grades
or view assignments. Blogs, then, are just another place students must go online for course
materials, and he finds them to be “a more inviting and interactive space for our students
to write in” (Krause, 2005: 33). Students are more self-directed, as they hold themselves
accountable for their learning.
Research on specific cases where blogs have been used in the classroom suggests
that blogs can enhance a variety of courses in different ways. We can use blogs in a
communication distance learning course whose participants are scattered across the
country. The use of blogs in the course help students to learn more about technology and
also the material in the course can be more relevant for them. Likewise, in a foreign
language class, “writing and reading blogs are one way in which students can gain
different perspectives about the target culture” which they are studying (Ducate, 2005:
415). Brownstein and Klein (2006) describe several modalities for the use of blogging in
education: learning, constructing, argument, commentary, chronology, extension,
resources, and writing. The blog provides an environment to apply what we learned.
Dietz Uhler and Bishop Clark (2002) examine the impact of the use of more
classic forms of both synchronous computer mediated communication tools (instant
messenger, internet relay chat) and asynchronous tools (email, newsgroups, bulletin
boards, etc.) on in class discussions. They find no significant difference between any of
the synchronous or asynchronous tools on the impact of class discussion, but the fact that
prior communication took place over the internet in any form “removed fears” and
increased the students' confidence to participate in discussion during class. They conclude
that “computer mediated communication leads to face-to-face discussions which are
perceived to be more enjoyable and include a greater diversity of perspectives than faceto-face discussions not preceded by computer mediated communication” (Dietz Uhler and
Bishop Clark - 2002: 281). Although their study did not analyze the impact of blogging
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(because that technology was not a common tool for self-expression on the Internet at the
time the study was completed), it is reasonable to suggest that blogging prior to an in class
discussion would also have a positive impact on the quality of that discussion.
3. Conclusions
Blogs can be an effective pedagogical tool for encouraging classroom discussion.
Participating in the blog may increase the level of meaningful discussion in class. The
blogs are useful to students because they have the opportunity to express their views.
Through blogs, students are exposed to a number of different perspectives and opinions.
The blogs require students who are not likely to participate in class to post some of their
thoughts and reflections which may enrich discussion and allow for more contributions to
be made on a given topic since often there is not enough time to cover too many
perspectives. The blogs also help facilitate meaningful class discussions by “kick starting”
the conversation, ensuring class participation, and fostering more informed class
discussions. Students come to class discussions having engaged in inquiry and analysis
through online writing exercises. Thus, blogs help students develop their critical thinking
skills and reasoning skills. In addition, by preparing students for class discussions, blogs
help them develop both their written and oral communication skills. Liberal learning
depends on students taking responsibility for their education. The blogs offer the
possibility for the student to act as an independent researcher in finding the solutions, and
the blogging classroom offers a conversational assessment and evaluation with teachers.
Educational blogs are becoming a means for educators, students, and education
administrators to interact more effectively than ever before. Instructors in any discipline
can use blogs to begin conversations about course materials before students arrive in the
classroom and continue them long after a class has ended, thus fostering a sense of active
learning both inside and outside the classroom.
References
Anderson, T., 2004, Teaching in an online learning context. In Anderson, T., & Elloumi, F. (Eds.),Theory and
Practice of Online Learning (chapter 11), Athabasca University, Canada.
Baim, S., 2004, Blogs help create learning community. Online Classroom, Waltham, MA, USA
Becker, S. & Henriksen, T., 2006, In search of the next generation online learning environment. Ecto, LLC.
Beeson, P., 2005, Bringing blogs into the classroom, Waltham, MA, USA.
Bender, T., 2003, Discussion Based Online Teaching to Enhance Student Learning: Theory, Practice and
Assessment. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Betts, J. & Glogoff, S., 2004, Instructional Models for Using Weblogs In eLearning: Case Studies from a Hybrid
and Virtual Course. Campus Technology - online publication (http://www.campustechnology.com).
Brandon, B., 2003, Using RSS and Weblogs for e-Learning: An Overview, The e-Learning Developers’Journal,
May 19, 2003, 9 p. URL http://www.elearningguild.com/pdf
Broos, A.,2005. Gender and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) Anxiety: Male Self Assurance
and Female Hesitation, CyberPsychology & Behavior, USA
Brownstein, E. & Klein, R., 2006, Blogs: Applications, Journal of College Science Teaching- online publication
(http://www.nsta.org/college).
Dabbagh, N. & Gilbert, P., 2005, How to Structure Online Discussions for Meaningful Discourse: A Case Study,
British Journal of Educational technology online publication (http://www.wiley.com).
Ducate, L. & Lomicka, L., 2005, Exploring the Blogosphere: Use of Web Logs in the Foreign Language
Classroom, Foreign Language Annals – online publications (http:// www. actfl. org).
13
Gay, L.R., 2005, Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application (8th Ed.). New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company.
Glogoff, G 2003, Blogging in an Online Course: A Report on Student Satisfaction among First-time Bloggers,
Phoenix, Arizona.
Goodwin Jones, R., 2006, Tag Clouds in the Blogosphere: Electronic Literacy and Social Networking, Language
Learning & Technology, online publication, (http://www. llt.msu. edu).
Goodwin Jones, R., 2004, Emerging technologies: language in action: from webquests to virtual realities,
Language, Learning and Technology – online publication (http://llt.msu.edu).
Halavais, A, 2004, Applying social-network analysis to study contemporary social movements, In Martha
McCaughey & Michael D. Ayers (Eds.), Cyberactivism: Online Activism in Theory and Practice.
Cambridge: Routledge.
Krause, S. D, 2005, Blogs as a tool for teaching. The Chronicle of Higher Education- online publication, ( http:
//www.chronicle.com).
Oravec, J. A., 2002, Bookmarking the world: Weblog applications in education, Journal of Adolescent and Adult
Literacy- online publication (http://www.reading.org).
Oravec, J. A., 2003, Blending by blogging: Weblogs in blended learning initiative, pp. 225-233. Journal of
Educational Media, Carfax Publishing (http://www.ingentaconnect.com).
Quible, Z. K., 2005, Blogs: A natural in business communication courses, Business
Communication Quarterly- online publication (http:// bcq..com).
Parkhurst, R., Moskal, B., Downey, G., Lucena, J., Bigley, T. & Elber, S., 2008, Engineering cultures:
Comparing student learning in on-line and classroom based implementations. International Journal of
Engineering Education – online publication (http://www.ijee.dit.ie)
Raine, Lee, 2005 The State of Blogging, Pew Internet and American Life Project (http://www.pewinternet.org).
Roberts, S., 2003, Campus Communications and the Wisdom of Blogging, Syllabus,
http://www.syllabus.com/article.
Suler, J., 2004, In Class and Online: using Discussion Boards in Teaching, CyberPsychology & Behavioronline publication (http://www.liebertpub.com).
Todras Whitehill, E., 2005, New tools: Blogs, podcasts and virtual classrooms. New York Times, Williams, J.
B., & Jacobs, J., 2004, Exploring the use of blogs as learning spaces in the higher education sector.
Australasian Journal of Educational Technology (http://www.ascilite. org.au).
Windham, C., 2007, Reflecting, writing, and responding: Reasons students blog. Educause Learning Initiative
paper – online publication (http://www.educause.edu/).
Weiss, R. E., Knowlten, D. S., & Speck, B. W. (Eds.), 2000, Principles of effective teaching in the online
classroom. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
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Game - Based Learning in Education
Michaela Logofatua, Anisoara Dumitracheb, Mihaela Gheorghec
a,b,c
University of Bucharest
Abstract
This paper will present the involvement of ODL Department in EU Lifelong
Learning Programme project PROACTIVE: Fostering Teachers' Creativity through
Game-Based Learning. This project mainly tackles creativity mediated by game-based
learning. It is based on embedding creativity into active learning approaches, such as
creative problem solving, discovery, learning by doing, experiential learning, critical
thinking, with teachers co-designing 2D or 3D learning games.
As a result of the project we expect to increase educators’ awareness on the
potential of being flexible in approaching learning by adding experiential learning, critical
thinking and creativity through ICT. Game-based learning addresses the transversal
competences needed in the information age: self-regulation, information skills, networked
co-operation, problem-solving strategies and critical thinking, and provide rich
opportunities for knowledge construction and enhance creativity.
Keywords: ICT, game base learning, EU projects, creativity
1. PROACTIVE project: Fostering Teachers' Creativity through
Game-Based Learning.
Proactive is a European project (Project Number: 505469-LLP-1-2009-1-ESKA3-KA3MP), which started in January 2009. The project’s length is 36 months. The
project consortium comprises of six partners (five universities: University of Barcelona –
Spain, Sapienza Università di Roma – Italy, Università di Napoli Federico II – Italy,
Universidad Complutense de Madrid – Spain, University of Bucharest - Romania and
Centre for Advanced Software Technology Limited –SME- which has strong connection
with Bangor University).
The aim of the PROACTIVE project is to create learning contexts in which
teachers can foster their creativity in designing their owned game-based learning
scenarios, by using two games editors (Eutopia and < e-Adventure >). Traditionally,
teachers and trainers used in their practice one sole dominant learning paradigm (i.e.
instructional or participative), thus limiting their creative potential.
Recent studies instead show that in natural situations learners combine
simultaneously five metaphors for learning: Imitation, Participation, Acquisition,
Exercising, and Discovery. Also, game-based learning (GBL) supports creativity and
inquiry-based learning processes. PROACTIVE claims that if it is true that we teach how
we were taught we can claim that we also learn as we were taught. PROACTIVE will
Author name / Procedia – Edu World 2010
create learning contexts where teachers of Comenius, Erasmus and Leonardo subprogrammes can apply creativity in designing their own GBL scenarios using digital tools.
Within training workshops, teachers will use two game editors: a free of charge
3D virtual environment allowing collaborative interaction of the learners; and an Open
Source framework for implementing 2D user-centred adaptable scenarios. PROACTIVE
will adapt the five metaphors in the tools, in order to foster creativity and support the
flexibility of the teachers in designing their learning sessions in 18 pilot sites covering
different areas and levels in four countries.
The main objectives of PROACTIVE are:
o To stimulate the creativity of trainers working in LLP sub-programmes,
developing a conceptual framework for integrating different learning
metaphors;
o To introduce innovative ICT-based experiences in teaching and training
practice, adapting and enhancing the game editors, integrating five learning
metaphors;
o To implement co-design creativity sessions and pilot sites for addressing
school, university and vocational education scenarios;
o To validate the proposed approach as a means of learning and evaluate its
impact on teachers’ creativity and students’ outcomes.
PROACTIVE will produce Guidelines on Creativity Enhanced by GBL and
disseminate a database of learning games and related active learning culture within EU
education.
Game based learning in education
When using computer games, and games in general, for educational purposes
several aspects of the learning process are supported: learners are encouraged to combine
knowledge from different areas to choose a solution or to make a decision at a certain
point, learners can test how the outcome of the game changes based on their decisions and
actions, learners are encouraged to contact other team members and discuss and negotiate
subsequent steps, thus improving, among other things, their social skills.
Most researchers conceptualize learning as a multidimensional construct of
learning skills, cognitive learning outcomes, such as procedural, declarative and strategic
knowledge, and attitudes. The game based learning model is used in formal education
very successfully, in particular, in military, medicine, physical, etc. training.
Game-based learning has been widely adopted for children's learning.
Pedagogically highly valued products are on the market and have a proven success in the
improvement of learning as well as in children's acceptance. Recently, game based
learning has also been proposed for adult education.
Gaming is becoming a new form of interactive content, worthy of exploration for
learning purposes. Universities are also looking for a new positioning in the changing
setting of lifelong learning. Universities need to develop innovative forms of learning in
order to provide concepts for lifelong learning to their prime customers, students.
Modern technology needs employees proficient in effective communication,
teamwork, project management and other soft skills such as responsibility, creativity,
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micro-entrepreneurship, corporate culture, etc. Game-base learning is an approach to
tackle the above issues.
PROACTIVE project promotes a new approach to learning, aiming to increase
the quality of lifelong learning, involving three LLP sectors (school education, higher
education and vocational education). The game-based approach, using creative learning
scenarios is expected to boost the learners’ performance and educational outcomes.
PROACTIVE will study the potential for boosting teachers' creativity with the
help of innovative ICT technologies, thus aiming to improve the attractiveness of the
learning scenarios for students. The implementation will be based on well defined
pedagogical approaches in order to guarantee high quality of the educational methods.
PROACTIVE will put extensive efforts for evaluating various aspects of the proposed
game-based approach, including accessibility, attractiveness and learning outcomes.
In the PROACTIVE project learning scenarios will be developed, that can be
built into web-assisted education, either in face-to-face or online learning, at school or on
the workplace. This increases accessibility and promotes gender, race and age equality.
Besides, the game-based approach promotes active learning. It has been demonstrated that
for certain target groups (e.g. school students) increases personal fulfillment and leads to
higher performance. We will evaluate these issues involving wider target groups.
In order to identify project’s potential in developing educational games, in this
phase of the project were organized several focus groups with teachers, trainers and
professors according to an initial project plan. In the following section we will present the
results of the focus group conducted by Romanian team.
Focus group
The aim of focus groups was:
o Explore participants’ interest/employment of ICT tools in their teaching
approach
o Explore participants’ knowledge about user centered design
o Explore participants’ point of view in relation to learning metaphors and
their adaptation to their teaching approach
o Explore participants’ interest in the editors employment in their teaching
approach
In this focus group were mixed people who already use games for educational
purposes and those who don’t or even are not use the computer. A very important
component of the focus group discussions were the five metaphors of learning: Imitation,
Participation, Acquisition, Exercising, and Discovery.
Learning metaphors
Most of the participants recognized the five metaphors in their current
teaching/learning process, admitting that some of the metaphors are used more than others
depending on the student’s characteristics, discipline, type of lessons (course, laboratory,
seminar, experiments), context factors (number of students, place). Also they have to
switch between different metaphors during a course, depending on addressed theme.
Participants noticed that in formal learning, the acquisition metaphor it is used
very often in university lecture because this is the easiest way to transmit information.
Students will accumulate more information, outside the school if they are motivated, and
professor can stimulate student’s curiosity in a specific matter. Unfortunately the current
17
constrains regarding the curricula and the number of disciplines and small amount of
hours per discipline does not allow implementing a modern conception about learning.
Learning through discovery is applicable especially in sciences and with visible
results in other fields such as: math, history, literature, business.
Learning through imitation it depends by the measure in which the subject is
directly stimulated to produce imitative reactions. In university this learning metaphor is
applicable only in a very short area because students already created their own learning
type.
ICT in learning
If few years ago teachers’ experience in using computers was limited nowadays
we can talk about creativity in using ICT. Participants from the focus groups have an
experience in using computers; some of them, depending on the subject are introducing
computers in lessons.
Starting from the first focus group in which the computer was used only as a
Power Point presentation tool, in the second and third focus group the use of ICT is much
more present. We had professors which developed their own tool for teaching/learning,
presenting application in order to sustain the theoretical concepts.
Some of the professors are still searching for the best way of using computers in
teaching/learning. Most of them tried to use the computer in student advantage, especially
in technological subjects. “Virtual classrooms” is already a very well known concept,
already applicable for students and teachers.
There are many examples with online platforms in which students are enrolled
and administrated by the professors. Students use the resources offered by this platforms
(Moodle, Dokeos, UniBUC portal): communication tools, online interactive courses,
online evaluation.
PROACTIVE stimulates teachers' creativity by facilitating them to design new
learning scenarios and digital games to innovate their pedagogical practices.
SWOT analysis on GBL
For a common understanding about educational games in the focus group a
SWOT analysis was elaborated with the participants. The result of this activity is
presented in the figure below and resumes professor’s opinion in GBL mater.
Table 1. SWOT analysis on GBL
STRENGHTS
Professor’s perspective
Creativity development
Knowledge construction
Being proactive
Immediate application of theory
Student’s perspective
Students become focused on the subject
Attractiveness, involvement, efficiency
Active participation of the student
Student has an active role
OPPORTUNITIES
Professor’s perspective
Software development
WEAKNESES
Insufficient time for teaching
Inadequate curricula
Lack of technical support
Rigidity of educational system
Not finding the adequate software
Games became a source of fun instead of learning (students are
not able to differentiate game as exercise from game as
entertainment)
Students do not see the benefits of the game
Changing the learning style (resistance to new teaching approach)
THREATS
Incompatibility between software and hardware
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Reducing the cost of didactical materials
(in case of simulation programs)
Engaging pedagogical approach
Student’s perspective
Results multiplication
Using the experiences in real life
Changing student’s perceptions about
learning
Individualized learning
Continuous update of the software version
Divagation from the subject
Risk of not accomplishing the lesson’s objectives
Losing interest
Need for adaptation to new learning tool
Students are more concerned about the graphics of the game than
the educational purpose
Reasons for not using the games in classes are: absence of adequate games for
their subjects, the fear that the game does not serve the purpose of learning and the lack of
skills and resources in order to develop such games.
Creativity
Participants developed the idea that there is very important the moment and way
to introduce games in lessons and the purpose of game in educational scenario.
The role of the teacher is to design the learning scenario, accomplish the lesson’s
objectives and add value to the knowledge transmitted to the student. Moreover the
teacher must identify the suitable game in order to obtain interest, curiosity in finding
results, involvement from the student side.
They stated that computer can help the student to individualize its learning
process, promoting and helping self studying.
Some of the participants developed very simple games (Toondoo games), using
existing platforms. They tested these games on pupils first and realized that is not enough
in order to have an impact on them. For these games to be attractive they noticed that in
the first place games should be more interactive, with a user friendly interface, to bring
novelty, originality, value and social utility and a large applicability, to have different
levels of difficulties and on time feedback.
Other participants use simulation platforms and they have to create all the time
new scenarios for the classes. Even if we speak about the changing parameters, the way in
which problems are solved and theories are demonstrated, they let the students to bring
their own interpretation on the results.
There is a relation between learning types and type of games. Another problem is
to have a balance between learning and games.
Game editors
Professors have shown interest on the two platforms, finding similarities between
their own games or simulations and these tools. The idea of creating their own games is
attractive but there are some obstacles related to: time, relevance, abilities, training,
current initiatives. The idea of creating a game is workable but they stated that the part of
creating a complex scenario is difficult; maybe it will be more efficient if they could work
in teams. Knowing the fact that usually students experienced different type of games, with
high level of difficulty they will have expectation regarding new experiences.
2D game editor (e-Adventure) it could be successful used in different subjects:
chemistry, physics, biology, logical themes, mathematical models.
3 D platform (Eutopia) can help in creating games about: counseling, conflict
mediation, communication, personal development, foreign languages.
After the presentation some of the participants wanted to explore more deeply the
facilities offered by the platforms. That’s why, in order to meet their wishes we created on
19
the e-Adventure platform an account. We transmitted this information and they had the
opportunity to test the existing games.
Focus group conclusions
This focus groups allowed us to explore more deeply a subject that it is new (as
concept) in universities. Giving the specificity of the university programs some of the
results were as we anticipated, some were new. It is a strong relation between learning
tradition, participant’s age, field of study and their openness to new.
One of the advantages from university educational system is that the professor
can decide the curricula for his/her discipline (s). In real situation it is a little bit
complicated because this must have the management approval. Because of reducing the
number of years for study (through Bologna process) the number of disciplines remained
unchanged this having the main effect in reducing the number of hours per discipline.
Most of the participants are familiar with the learning metaphors and GBL, even
if they have not thought about this in terms of concepts. They stated that they are
interested to learn more about GBL from other discussion partners and not from the
literature.
People that use GBL in their current practices are very enthusiastic in sharing
their experience and use their creativity for new scenarios. But all are agreeing that if they
will be in the position of creating new games it will be easier to work in teams and not
individual and specific trainings are needed, in order to be creative through different game
scenarios.
Conclusion
PROACTIVE project directly addresses educators' creativity in learning by
introducing game-based scenario design, by increased visualization and challenged
thinking.
The consortium will study the impact of such tools on both teachers and trainers'
pedagogical creativity. Furthermore, games promote active learner involvement through
exploration, experimentation, competition and cooperation, key aspects of the
entrepreneurial spirit.
This project will facilitate integration of new technologies in learning process;
will support participants’ activities in order to create their own games and stimulate
students’ involvement in learning. In Romania GBL learning is still a new concept
PROACTIVE is centered on the development of innovative ICT-based practice
specifically addressing the LLP. Within the planned creativity training sessions and pilot
sites implementation the teamwork and the target groups participants will develop
innovative educational game-based scenarios and learning content.
The tools for creating such educational scenarios will foster continuous
innovation in the pedagogical practices of educators from all LPP sub-programs. The
innovative character of PROACTIVE emerges from the introduction of a new pedagogical
approach to learning (creativity and flexibility through the 5 metaphors model) through
the implementation of new ICT-based tools (2D and 3D virtual environments) and an
innovative methodology (game-based learning). This approach is new, and is based on
previous research done by the partnership.
20
The solution offered by PROACTIVE for innovating learning activities builds on
previously developed tools for creating educational games (locally developed in Italy and
Spain), and adds new value by fostering creative active performance in teachers and
trainers. The value is given by the potential for them to build their own learning
environments with a sound pedagogical approach that can be used for a varied type of
learning contents, according the users’ educational needs. For users, this will give them
more learning opportunities in terms of developing transversal competencies as selfregulation, informational skills, co-operation, problem-solving, and creativity.
References
Bogdan Logofatu, Anisoara Dumitrache PROACTIVE project (2010) Romanian focus group report
Potolea Dan, Reshoping the teaching profession in an ICT – enriched society in Learning and teaching in the
communication society, Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg, 2003
Michaela Logofatu, Computer Aided Instruction, Ministry of Education and Research, Project for Rural
Education, 2008
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Implementing Web 2.0 in Teaching and Learning
Mihaela-Alina Chiribău-Albu
Ferdinand I National College, Bacău
Abstract
The aim of this material is to highlight the way a Web 2.0 learning environment
can be implemented in teaching and learning and to demonstrate how the teaching
potential of new technologies can be put to use for learning processes in the knowledge
society. Although it can be approached in different ways, in our school the decision
regarding the implementation depends on the stundent’s software experience, learning
objectives and existing media competence. The information and communication culture of
our students and teachers has been enriched due to the participation in a project whose
main challenge is creating a platform making use of Web 2.0 tools and allowing the
students to realize that learning is becoming a creative activity.
The dynamic knowledge society and the lifelong learning educational policy
have increased the demand for an e-media-literacy which should be experienced to such
an extent that Web 2.0 instruments (wikis, blogs, social networking) are implemented in
learning and teaching across the curriculum. Web 2.0 instruments have become relevant
as they promote an exchange of knowledge and the development of competencies in
networks. An e-learning 2.0-environment implies openness, permeability, participation,
motivation which trasformed education into a creative, participative and socializing
community whose main characterisitc is self-organised learning - the adequate strategy for
the lifelong learning.
Learning requires open learning environments that enable connections and
exchanges with other network partners, who will build up productive learning
communities. Web 2.0 includes a proliferation of new technologies through which
students can explore and create, interacting at all times with their colleagues, friends and
community within the framework of self-organised learning.
Keywords: blogs, wikis, Moodle, social networking, video and photo sharing,
virtual learning environments
Why WEB 2.0? Simply – it works 4U
The requirements of a changed knowledge society and the educational policy
goal of lifelong learning raise the demand for an e-media-literacy, which should be taught
Mihaela-Alina Chiribău-Albu / Procedia – Edu World 2010
even more so if social web instruments are implemented in teaching and learning
environments.
Web 2.0 means a qualitative leap in web technologies that have made the internet
more creative, participative and socializing. But has this development also triggered a
revolution in learning? Do education and learning require re-thinking in view of the
continuous change of information and communication technologies? We think it does.
Why? Because in the last years many teachers seem to have been addicted to PowerPoint
which Edward Tufte describes as “educational cocaine”, “easy to start, hard to stop, and
not very good for you”. It is perhaps no surprise therefore that while there has been a rise
in the use of presentational tools (such as data projectors or Interactive whiteboards), Web
2.0 tools with their emphasis on student participation and collaboration have had little
impact in the classroom. The lack of awareness of how technology and Web 2.0 tools in
particular can be used in the classroom is part of the reason why there has been little
transformation in how teachers use ICT.
Although teachers of different subjects require training in how best to use and to
exploit technology in the classroom, any teacher can make use of Web 2.0 tools because
one of the main characteristics is their ease of use. Most Web 2.0 tools encourage users to
learn by doing and they often come with video tutorial which cover the more complicated
functions thus enabling self-learning by students and teachers as well. Finally, the skills
necessary for using web-based tools can often be transferred from one tool to another
(such as how to upload an image file).
Projects – an interactive way of implementing Web 2.0 in education
Our college is part of a multinational project entitled “Young European
Reporters” which involves six European countries: Finland, Germany, Lithuania, Norway,
Romania and Spain. The main goal of this project is to develop a platform which exploits
the benefits of technology, especially Web 2.0 tools, for learning and delivering outcomes.
The main challenge to learning is creating a platform enabling the participation
of all the partners, which allows students to realize learning is becoming a creative activity
through which learners can explore and create, according to their own interests and
directions, interacting at all times with their friends and communities. The project gives
both teachers and students the opportunity and the responsibility to explore new
approaches to teaching and learning.
Most of the teachers in our schools have limited their use of ICT to passive
presentations and even when students have been allowed to participate, tasks seldom went
beyond word processing, researching the web or producing a PowerPoint Presentation.
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Figure 2. Interface of YEUR platform
Our college supports all the students’ acquisition and enhancement of ICT skills
through a lot of curricular, cross curricular & extracurricular activities. Becoming
proficient in using technology is a challenge for all in our school. This is why the projects
we are involved in develop those competencies related to communication in different real
life situations by making use of new technologies and the digital competencies of our
students - the so-called "digital natives". The project is an opportunity to synthesize realworld perspectives in a classroom setting. Our students are encouraged to go out into a
world that is increasingly rich in technology. If we are not proficient in enabling to
acquire technological savvy, we hinder their evolution greatly; and they will lack
exposure, knowledge and experience which can be a serious barrier to their success.
Being part of this project, our students work cooperatively, build on their key
competencies & lifelong learning skills ("the use of technology changes the style and the
tone of the classroom a lot" said one of our students). So technology - based projects
promote collaboration and cooperation among our students & teachers. Project based
work is linked to curricular activities within different subjects and the result will be a
cross curricular approach to teaching and learning. The cooperative learning approach
brings a change to students’ and teachers’ roles. Through such a project we can become
"fit for Europe", and also offer a European dimension to our college.
The use of Web 2.0 tools does not only contribute to building up necessary
knowledge autonomously in terms of content, but users also train the media and
information competencies required for working with such tools. This includes searching,
selecting and filtering, as well as structuring and presenting knowledge, all of these skills
being central to lifelong learning and enabling their autonomous and successful
engagement in future professional tasks and projects.
24
Web 2.0 – the perfect “vehicle” to deliver collaborative learning?
Among students aged 11-19, the preferred methods of learning are “in groups”,
“by doing practical things”, “with friends” and “by using computers”. In contrast, the
same students claim that three of the most commonly reported activities in class are still
copying from the board or a book, “listening to a teacher talking for a long time” and
taking notes while the teacher talks. Therefore, it is clear that any discussion of the
potential of Web 2.0 tools to transform teaching and learning must be set within the
debate of how students learn and how teachers teach. In their use of PowerPoint, teachers
are searching for a better way to transfer their “knowledge” to their students. In contrast,
active and authentic learning takes place best where “knowledge” can be constructed
actively by learners who are supported in communal social settings. This is why social
constructivism which claims the mentioned principle appears to be the dominant force
within educational research and policy. Learning in the connectivist sense requires open
learning environments that enable connections and exchanges with other network partners,
who will build up productive learning communities. The new interactive and collaborative
web applications such as Wikis and blogs are particularly suitable for participative
definitions of objectives and governing learning processes as well as for collaborative
production of knowledge within the framework of our project. Project-based learning as
such constitutes the adequate learning strategy for the educational policy objective of
lifelong learning.
Using blogs and Wikis in teaching and learning
Blogs are one of the most representative tool of Web 2.0. They offer flexibility,
adaptability and integration with other tools and support knowledge building, reflection,
monitoring, sharing, achieving. The implementation of blogs in education facilitates
teachers to provide feed-back and to monitor students’ performance more effectively.
Blogging is educationally sound for teaching students because can give students a totally
new perspective on the meaning of voice. As students explore their own learning and
thinking and their distinctive voices emerge. Student voices are essential to the
conversations we need to have about learning. Being involved in this project, our students
become collaborators, synthesizers, explainers, problem solvers. The section “YEUR
blog” from the project platform www.yeur.eu provides a space for sharing opinions and
learning in order to grow discourse and knowledge communities—dwelling in a space
where students and teachers can learn from each other. Blogs help learners to see
knowledge as interconnected as opposed to a set of discrete facts. The worldwide
audience provides recognition for students that can be quite profound. Students feel more
compelled to write as they believe many others may read and respond. It gives them
motivation to excel. Students need to be taught skills to foster a contributing audience on
their blog.
The archive feature of blogging records ongoing learning. It facilitates reflection
and evaluation. One student confessed that he could easily find his thoughts on a matter
and he could see how his thinking changed and why. The opportunity for collective and
collaborative learning created by blogging in the project is enormous. Students have the
opportunity to read and work on the blogs created by other students from different
25
European countries. This is not possible in a regular classroom setting. Blogging provides
the possibility to connect with experts on the topic students are writing. The interactive
nature of blogging creates enthusiasm for writing and communication. It engages students
in authentic conversation and learning. YEUR blog encourages global conversations about
learning − conversations not previously possible in our classrooms− and it provides the
opportunity for our students to learn to write for life-long learning. ”Young European
Reporters” blogging offers us the opportunity to teach responsible public writing. Students
can learn about the power of the published word and the responsibilities involved in
public writing.
Wikis are a great way to get all the students involved in the project, to participate
in building a Web space. They can learn a lot from their colleagues and they can learn it
“wiki” (= quick in Hawaiian). It allows people to collaboratively develop a Web site
without any tech-savvy, all community members can add to or edit the work of others.
One of the most obvious benefits of using a wiki is the ability to offer a quick way to
collaborate textually, while creating a content rich web site. The knowledge of the group
is greater than an individual one, and in the end the final product is the result of the group
interactions. Wikis are generally designed with the philosophy of making it easy to correct
mistakes, rather than making it difficult to make them. Wikis are helping young people
develop “writing and social skills by learning about group consensus and compromise −
all the virtues you need to be a reasonable and productive member of society.” Jimmy
Wales, founder of Wikipedia
Students are involved in group project work and peer-to-peer activities through
project collaboration, e-portfolios and team research.The media is controlled by people
who have the resources to manage it and Wikis show that all of us have an equal
opportunity to contribute to knowledge. It is necessary to use it for student projects where
group members need to contribute at different times and from geographically diverse
locations. As long as they have internet access, students can contribute to different topics
of the YEUR wikis from all over Europe. Freed from the constraints of a traditional
school timetable and the economic and physical limitations of a school curricular
provision, students are free to learn what they want, when they want, from whom they
want. This flexibility represents a challenge to traditional educational structures.
Social – and educational – networking
The phrase “social networking” has a history that predates the Internet, for most
people the term retaining a specific connotation of a certain kind of website − MySpace,
Facebook and the like. Social networking sites have worried many educators (and parents)
because they often bring with them outcomes that are not positive: narcissism, gossip,
wasted time, “friending,” hurt feelings, ruined reputations, and sometimes unsavory, even
dangerous, activities. It seems likely that the phrase “social networking” carries so much
baggage that it would actually impede its productive use in the context of education.
Social networking sites, at their core, are just aggregations of a set of Web 2.0 building
blocks − forums, directories, “friending,” chat, etc. The first sites that were constructed
using Web 2.0 building tools were leading to the impression that social networking was a
time waster at best, and an unsafe place to be at worst. But the same tools proved to be
more effective as educational tools than as social ones. Therefore to help alleviate any
confusion or negative preconception, throughout this paper I shall use the term
“educational networking” instead of social networking when I am specifically calling out
26
the educational value and use of Web 2.0 technology. In a way, “educational networking”
is the hybrid form of social networking that is being built for education is actually
different than the direction that public “social networks” are likely to take.
Educational networking is allowing educators to both learn things − which
traditional professional development has always alotted them − and to learn about Web
2.0, which has such a profound impact on learning in the 21st century. Learning and
teaching is a social network in itself so the implications for it are huge. There are many
famous networks such as MySpace, Facebook, del.icio.us, Frappr and Flickr, one of which
has become part of our project platform. YEUR Facebook is the virtual place where our
students share ideas, opinions, thoughts, feelings related to the activities and meetings
within the project. They upload multimedia materials (digital photos, videos) and modify
day after day the number of friends they get in contact with. One of YEUR coordinators,
Antonio Temprano, teacher at IES Cavaleri, Seville, Spain created a survey applied to
teachers and students from the European countries involved in the project. The results of
the survey show that social networking might be a start for a radical evolution in
education which will bring about major changes in time. I will analyze some of the
question and answers for getting an overview upon this survey.
The most popular social network for students and teachers alike is Facebook as
the image below proves:
Figure 2. The percentage of social networks used on a regular basis
The Facebook platform provides access to (a) Skype (b) Twitter micro-blogging
service (c) mini-questions. It has the largest number of registered users among collegefocused sites with over 30 million members worldwide, being ranked among top 10–20
Web sites and seventh most visited site in the US.
Another aspect of networking is sharing bookmarks using Delicious. This can be
used to: manage someone’s bookmarks, to allow others to contribute resources and to
allow lists of bookmarks to be repurposed, to carry out impact analysis. Questions such as
”Who else has bookmarked these resources? What are their interests? (they may have
similar interests) How many have bookmarked my resource?” create links between people
sharing similar interests. Other social bookmarking we can use are Diigo, Thumbstack,
LiveBinders, Start.io, ClipClip, Dropvine.
Which is the most famous social networking site using video? One of the fastest
growing sites on the Internet (August 2006 there were @ 6 million videos; August 2008
there are close to 85 million videos...). A place for learning, entertainment, and
chaos...YouTube. It is organized into video categories, channels, communities and
groups. Quick Capture allows the user to use a webcam and microphone connected to
the computer to make movies on the fly. To download useful materials, students and
teachers can use software such as: TubeTV, YouTube Downloader, Apowersoft YouTube
27
Downloader Ultimate, Jing, or browser options such as Video Download Helper for
Firefox Safari.
YouTube and other Web-based video sites such as TeacherTube (a social
networking site using video for and by educators, more focused than YouTube, but
smaller in scope - August 2008, TeacherTube has 30,000) provides online educators with
a vast archive of free Web-based video content. TheacherTube allows users to upload, tag
and share videos worldwide; to upload support files to attach educational activities,
assessments, lesson plans, notes, and other file formats to your video; to browse hundreds
of videos uploaded by community members, to find, join and create video groups to
connect with people who have similar interests; to customize the experience by
subscribing to member videos, saving favorites, and creating playlists, to integrate
TeacherTube videos on websites using video embeds or APIs, to make videos public or
private. Users can actually choose to broadcast their videos publicly or share them
privately with those they invite.
SlideShare is a free service for sharing presentations and slideshows. Users can
upload PowerPoint, OpenOffice, Keynote or PDF presentations, tag them, embed them
into blogs or websites, browse others' presentations, and comment on individual slides.
Transcripts of presentations will be indexed by internet search engines and show up in
search results.Many resources can be shared: slides, photos, maps, videos, travel info,
events info, and music.
PollDaddy is a free online tool, which allows students to create polls and place
them on websites, wikis, blogs, or anywhere online that someone can paste a bit of HTML
code. Links to PollDaddy polls can also be placed in emails etc. Many of these sites
possess features or tools that make it easy to guide online students to specific video clips.
In many cases, the video sites provide links or codes that support embedding within Web
pages or online discussion posts.
Benefits of social/educational networks have been identified by all students and
teachers who use them. Educational networks enable positive peer support and provide
much needed encouragement. They keep teacher practices up to date, increase teaching
time (vs. going off-site for professional development classes), and promote job
satisfaction. In addition to the professional development opportunities from educational
networking, we can also expect to see very tangible benefit to the profession of teaching
as well, especially with new educators. In a profession that can be profoundly isolating
and lonely even though teachers are in the midst of interacting with students all day,
educational networking holds a significant key to improving opportunities to find both
emotional support and support for exploring new ideas.
Educational networking may, thus, prove crucial to teacher retention and
recruitment strategies, especially those aimed at newly minted teachers, already used to
social networking and its promise of continuous connection. The power of educational
networking to truly make a difference should help bring about an entirely new world when
it comes to professional development.
Social networking and the YEUR platform enable geographic barriers to be
broken down and senses of community to be built amongst disperse students. On a higher
level, it can improve students’ social skills such as tollerance, communication,
adaptability, self-esteem, self-confidence etc. Interactivity and social networking are built
into learning activities used in the virtual environment.
28
Vygotsky emphasized that social interaction plays a primary role in the
development of learner understanding of the subject matter. Through this understanding of
cognitive development and the proximal zone for the development of understanding as
structured by the learner, instructor, and surrounding influences, the environment is
fundamental to providing the structure in which learning can take place.
Moodle in education
The processes of knowledge building within learning management systems
depends on pedagogical mediation through which the students can operate the cognitive
processes necessary for the construction of the intended knowledge. Moodle is a very
adequate mediating instrument due to the dialogical nature of its tools, especially the
Wiki, both in the technical logic of its development and in the pedagogical approach.
Moodle is designed around an educational philosophy called “social constructivist
learning” – interaction is the first and the foremost feature: both the students and the
teacher can collaborate within each activity, whether it is in a chatroom, a forum, or
leaving feedback on a workshop.
Moodle has three different patterns of internal use of its tools which define the
capability of interference on the platform which each user is allowed to have. Moodle
allows educators the possibility of managing the full construction of his on line course,
customizing it according to one's own aims and to the group's characteristics. In Moodle,
the teacher is able to build his course autonomously, which is one of the greatest
achivements of Moodle: the freedom it grants the educators from technological
complexities that, rendering him the ultimate manager of one's own pedagogical praxis.
According to Bakhtin, language is always a social construction because it can
only survive in the dialogical communication of those who use it. This dialogical
communication is the precise element which constitutes the true place of life of the
language. (Bakhtin, 1970, p. 183). Moodle offers about seventeen tools which allow
communication, individual and collaborative learning construction, such as forums, chat,
“Wiki”, blog, tasks, questionnaire, collaborative writing etc. All of these allow different
and efficient pedagogical on line mediation procedures. Moodle allows the use of different
nonverbal “languages” - mathematical notation and the integration of multimedia into the
language mediated systems.
Moodle's most important quality is its self oriented structures, its capability of
allowing the teacher to fully manage the language mediated system, order and construct
one's teaching approach. The potential of mediation of authories in the Moodle as well as
the possibilities of interaction mediated by its tools fosters the collaborative work on line
and Wiki as a singular tool on a virtual environment. Wiki works in Moodle as a tool to
allow students end/or teachers to write collectively, in a collaborative process.
Preparing students for life in virtual environments is no longer an aim in itself as
such places tend to become, through their constant presence in our lives, less and less
“virtual”, as what we call “real” relies on a sese of “reality”. Regardless of the
shortcomings which are inevitable in any teaching approach, using technology as a
support for student motivation and moreover, as a connector to nowadays requirements on
the working market will ultimately render both students and teachers content of the
education process they are involved in.
29
Project-based learning fosters 21st century’s skills and abilities to learn how to
learn and constantly update and challenge knowledge. The concept of information literacy
becomes clearly a central element for building knowledge societies as it enables teacher to
search for, retrieve, organize, analyze, evaluate information and then use it for specific
decision-making and problem-solving ends. In addition, this project trains teachers learn
by doing as they collect data about their efforts; they consciously and self-consciously,
critically and self-critically transform their ways of thinking, doing and relating to the
world. Long-life-learning and teacher professional development is essential to carry out
innovative ways of using technology. It is imperative for teachers and learners alike to
rethink and review educative practice in a community which has become a vehicle for ICT
educational improvement.
References
Bahtin, M.(1970). Problemele poeticii lui Dostoievski, Ed. Univers, Bucureşti.
Course Book (2009). Using New Technology in Language Learning, Cambridge, UK: Bell International,
Homerton College.
Tufte, E. (2003). The cognitive style of PowerPoint., Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978), Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
30
th
4
th
th
Implications of ICT in the Continuing Professional
Education and Learning
Kristinka Ovesnia, Sefika Alibabic b
a,b
Faculty of Philosophy Belgrade
Abstract
This paper discussed Information and communication technology (ICT) as
resource for continuing professional education and learning based at presumptions that
besides common knowledge about ICT learning possibilities as: a delivery mechanism, a
curriculum, an instructional tool, and a complement to instruction, the real scope of its
potential benefits is sometimes hidden. The findings of empirical research on a nationwide
random sample of 680 respondents, employed in organizations in Serbia, indicate some
social and educational aspects on possibilities for building and development of: capacities
for team working, communicational skills, for critical thinking and autonomous
performance, and other cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes of andragogical
relevance.
Keywords: ICT; continuing professional education (CPE) and learning;
andragogical support to CPE and learning
ICT: Reflections on Possibilities for Bridging Andragogical Theory
and Continuing Professional Education and Learning Practice
Information and communication technology (ICT) in last two decades influenced
almost all aspects of everyday life – social, economical, political, educational, cultural.
Scope of used ICT implied changes in the spheres of learning and work, education and
leisure, especially in the sense of deepening current and opening new needs for
information, knowledge and skills. ICT caused re-evaluation of concepts of literacy, roles
of educators, learning activities, but has also produced a flood of information. Circulation
of written text, pictures, information and ideas is faster than ever; besides, most of the
learning activities in the last few decades are connected to ICT. Certain “compression of
time-space continuum”, as a result of intensive using of ICT involved as a necessary
consequence changes in accelerated, more effective and efficient work, differences in
products and services, re-industrialization in geographical sense, development of new
industries and new services, changes in existing social networks, which implied certain
changes in andragogical perception of the continuing professional education and learning.
ICT has significant imply to application of particular aspects of andragogical
theory in adult education practice; it is evident in activities of continuing professional
education (CPE) and learning (especially considering usage of ICT learning possibilities
as a delivery mechanism, as a curriculum, as an instructional tool, and as a complement to
Kristinka Ovesni, Sefika Alibabic / Procedia – Edu World 2010
instruction). Needs that these activities based on andragogical support and aligned with
relevant human resources development (HRD) processes which assume contextualized
design of activities, are along with structural changes in communication and informing,
emphasized by many authors (Ovesni, Samurovic, 1997; OECD, 2000; Holton, Baldwin,
2003; Misa, Brey and Feenberg, 2003; Ovesni, 2008).
Several approaches to ICT were found in literature. Some authors defined ICT as
sharing organized learning material, presenting information, and supporting the delivery
of learning, skills, and knowledge electronically, i.e. as support to delivery of learning
skills and knowledge in the holistic approach, not limited to any particular courses,
technologies, or infrastructures (Henry, 2001). Eddy and Tannenbaum claim that recent
ICT advancements have changed the way training and performance support can be
provided and, that specifically, this allows training and other developmental resources to
be distributed at distance - as a solution to the transfer problem, because ICT based
learning allows the transportation of knowledge to learners “just-in-time” - so knowledge
can be accessed whenever it is needed (Eddy and Tannenbaum, in Holton and Baldwin,
Eds., 2003, pp.161). For others (Ovesni, Samurovic, 1997, Ovesni, 1998), using ICT in
learning assumes development of:
o capabilities of understanding, using and evaluation of communication
through access, analysis, evaluation and production of communications in
different forms,
o capabilities of reading, writing, listening and speaking, approach to new
technologies, of critical observation, as well as making of personal messages
by using different technological accomplishments,
o psychomotor skills necessary for the work, and
o capabilities of understanding the problem of participation of media in
creation of attitudes and values, forming of social reality.
Kirkwood and Price (2006) suggests that ICT based learning include components
of content delivery in multiple formats, experience of learning and the networked
community of learners and curriculum developers. It is possible to consider using ICT
learning possibilities from few perspectives:
o as a delivery mechanism, what imply low cost, more individualization of
instruction, variety of possibilities in development of collaborative activities,
team and communication skills;
o as a curriculum, which can assume keyboarding skills, database
manipulation, spreadsheet use, word processing, performing file tasks,
desktop and Web publishing, different Web tasks - search skills, using
multimedia, maintaining security, performing online interactive tasks etc.
o as an instructional tool, what imply control by providers, that learning
activities can be enriched and extended in ways that are impossible without
technology, possibilities of sharing interests, information, and ideas with
other learners etc;
o as a complement to instruction, which can provide to learners (with a great
variety of experiences) lower possibilities of limitation by space or time, or
by the knowledge resources.
The ICT is especially rich resource for continuing professional education and
learning for gathering new knowledge, for implementation of new strategies, for testing
32
different models, with various possibilities of cost saving, for improving performance, for
enabling innovation, flexibility in adaptation within a broader context, for fostering green
initiatives, and for enabling work-life balance. But, the real scope of potential benefits of
ICT is sometimes hidden. Integration of ICT into the work context fostering flexible
organizational design, creates opportunities for sharing mutual values and encourages
realization of organizational mission and vision.
ICT Perspectives on Continuing Professional Education and
Learning in Organizational Context
Processes of CPE and learning in modern organizational context were consider
either as a continuing, strategic process, integrated with work or as “the way in which
individuals or groups acquire, interpret, reorganize, change or assimilate a related cluster
of information, skills and feelings… primary to the way in which people construct
meaning in their personal and shared organizational lives" (Marsick and Watkins, 1990, p.
4). These processes as main output have changes in knowledge, beliefs and behaviour,
which fortifies the development of organization. Most of CPE activities in organizations
are consisted of highly differentiated trainee programs (for developing different sets of
competencies, enhancing commitment, ensuring career progression; improving
performance, etc.) aimed to (re)shape employers as flexible, autonomous and empowered
individuals, with sense for self-regulatory behaviour and discretionary efforts (Pfeffer,
1998). Core of CPE programs represents andragogically shaped interaction between
organization and employees. Recently, as CPE programs at organizational market were
saturated by ICT as curriculum, most of these programs accept ICT as a delivery
mechanism, as an instructional tool and as a complement to instruction; some of them are
permeated and mediated by ICT.
Acceptance of ICT as an important tool for organizational development (and
accordingly, for CPE and learning) assumes shifting from teaching to learning; from
delivering of knowledge to assisting employees in developing their own professional
identities, careers and in gain of some extra performance for organizations, to sharing
information and knowledge between employees, to helping them in communication (at
different levels: team, organization, and wider context) and, in production of new
organizational knowledge.
Such approach assumes designing of organizational context which enhances
learning of adults, some structural changes (modification of relationships regarding
information, spreading out communication channels) and, transformation at the HRD
level, especially development of capacities for cooperation and constructive problem
solving, supporting and clearing external communication channels (and internal
processing information at different levels – individual, team, organizational), developing
capacities for critical thinking and autonomous performance and other cognitive,
affective, and behavioral processes of andragogical relevance.
CPE and learning are continuing, strategic processes, tightly interconnected with
work, which results in an enhancing performance and in organizational development. A
traditional HRD department, as a dominant model in Serbia, does not have enough
capacities for integral support for such changes. It is unachievable to participate in
building of successful organization, capable to lean on cognitive aspects of human
33
resources from this position; what is necessary for achieving this goal is to overcome
patterns of unchanged, repeated, with organizational needs incompatible trainings, and
additionally, to overcome practice of supporting attendance of few employees at the
conferences, seminars or workshops for CPE with requirement for reports to be delivered
to the management without any possibility for disseminating and for implementation
obtained knowledge. Still, many organizations in Serbia, even when they recognize
necessity for CPE, are not capable to accept that elementary and uncomplicated
educational and learning processes based on acceptance of standardized methods and
procedures should not lead organization toward complex changes and enhancing
performance and toward organizational development.
In practice, consistent resistance to extensive organizational changes is evident.
Higher, proactive, and deeper CPE and learning processes, in which organizations review
mission and vision, practice and action plans, design new knowledge, expand new
perspectives and implement strategies of generative learning mostly missing due to the
lack of capacities for supporting complex, strategical work and relevance of ICT, have
been shown by many researches (Despotovic, 1997; Savicevic, 2000; Bolcic, 2003;
Government of the Republic of Serbia, 2006; Alibabic & Ovesni, 2008; Ovesni, 2008).
This paper was also grounded in understanding that CPE and learning in
organizations are concentrated around issues of learning of social units. Social units which
variate in scope, existence and functioning are a base of organization as main human
resources; their improvement through different CPE and learning processes are a base for
organizational development. In accordance with this, we considered CPE and learning in
organizations as “the intentional use of learning processes at the individual, group and
system level to continuously transform the organization in a direction that is increasingly
satisfying to its stakeholders” (Dixon, 1994). Furthermore, these processes are tightly
interconnected and associated with ICT because they are “a social one and takes place at
the individual, group, and organizational levels… and occur because of the context”
(Marsick and Watkins 1990). By ICT enriched context provides possibilities for changing
and development of social units, increased social interaction and dynamics and opens
necessity for planned, intentional, carefully selected andragogical interventions.
Method
The population for this research was defined broadly as employees in
organizations in Serbia, which use modern technology. We analyzed and explained results
of empirical research on a nationwide random sample of 680 employees who respondend
to complex survey.
Consensual content validity was established by a group of 7 experts in the field
of adult education and methodology of pedagogical and andragogical research (Delphi
method), where their comments and corrections were incorporated in a final version of the
battery of instruments. In an empirical aspect of research we applied quantitative, nonexperimental, descriptive research method. Accordingly, basic technics for gathering data
were questioning and scaling by questionnaires, and five-point Likert-type scales.
Reliability of this study was ascertained by the calculated statistical coefficients of
reliability, Item-Item analyses, Guttmann or Cronbach α coefficient. The Cronbach α
coeficient for the whole instrument was 0.937 (average Item-Item Correlation was 0.131),
34
and for 65 Likert-type scales Cronbach α coeficient was 0.950, what suggests a high
reliability of instruments and acceptability in social sciences researches.
A questionnaire was distributed to 800 addresses, but because of restrictions in
the selection of organizations (based on usage of ICT), only 85% (680 fulfilled surveys)
were accepted. The collected data were subjected to few common (Frequencies, the
moment coefficients and Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z test) Exploratory principal component
analysis, with the Varimax rotation, and to Canonical discriminant analysis.
The data were analysed in several phases. First, frequencies, moment coefficients
and Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z test were applied to items which considered bio-social and
work characteristic of respondents. Second, exploratory principal component analysis,
with the Varimax rotation was performed on all items considered ICT to determine item
retention. In order to avoid similar or confusing measures of closely related constructs, we
applied relatively strong rules (only items with strong loading of 0.70 or higher were
retained). Third, to test hypothesis (about ICT connections with CPE and learning
processes in organizations) we applied Canonical discriminant analysis. For the statistical
analysis of the data SPSS and STATISTICA packages were used.
Findings and Discussion
A descriptive statistic (Table 1.) indicates that in our sample of employees in
organizations Serbia, who are using ICT, were 60.2% male subjects, 54.6% younger than
35 years, 44.4% of them have higher level of education, which most of them obtained at
Faculties of Technology and Engineering Sciences and Faculties of Sciences and
Mathematics. Most of respondents are married (52.9%), without kids (40.4%); 2/3 of
respondents have been employed for less than 20 years, 59.1% of them working as
associates while 77.8 % of them are full employees. Over 70.1% of them had previous
working experience in other organizations. Almost 70% of respondents consider their
work position stable, with tendancy for promotion, and with a lot of autonomy, and more
than 1/3 of respondents (38.2%) claim that they are using free time mostly for CPE and
learning activities.
Table 1. Bio-social and work characteristic
Mea
n
Stati
stic
Std.
Dev.
Statist
ic
t (Test
Value
=0)
t (Test
Value
=1)
gender
1.60
0.49
85.23
32.01
age
4.09
1.97
54.25
41.00
ed. level
2.11
0.91
60.77
32.03
field of ed.
way of obt.
ed.
marital
status
parental
1.66
0.47
91.89
36.69
1.31
0.66
52.04
12.46
2.15
2.03
1.35
0.98
41.54
54.20
22.25
27.51
Descriptive
Statistics
1
39.
85
5.8
8
34.
71
33.
53
77.
65
52.
94
40.
2
60.
15
20.
74
20.
15
66.
47
15.
00
10.
59
21.
35
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
18.
24
44.
41
15.
59
0.4
4
12.
35
0.2
9
12.
65
9.8
5
3.
97
0.
74
5.5
9
4.7
1
32.
1.7
6
31.
76
5.7
status
length of
service
working
position
working
mode
att. to work
num.
of
org.
att. to free
time
Valid N
3.55
2.15
43.09
30.95
3.35
1.33
3.69
0.64
65.57
150.3
3
46.01
109.5
7
1.98
1.02
50.70
25.13
2.11
0.84
65.93
34.75
1.90
680.
00
0.81
61.08
29.01
44
24.
71
12.
35
0.7
4
42.
35
29.
85
38.
24
76
14.
12
11.
32
7.5
0
27.
50
28.
82
33.
09
06
15.
74
28.
09
13.
97
19.
71
41.
32
28.
68
4
12.
06
31.
03
77.
79
10.
44
10.
74
11.
32
5.5
9
5.8
8
17.
06
Principal component analysis (Table 2, below) allowed extraction of two
principal components. First extracted component (ICT as a tool for CPE and learning)
explains 49.39% of common variance; this component is shaped by perceptions of ICT as
a tool for: obtaining all necessary knowledge; for CPE and self-education; for performing
own job precisely and effective; raising efficacy; constantly and uniformly gaining all
necessary information, wherever respondents are in certain moment; making job easier;
obtaining all necessary knowledge about organization and about procedures; help make
the process of reaching a decision easier. Extraction of this component was expected;
researches showed that using ICT have evident influence on learning during different
kinds of training activities, and that individuals who use ICT in their working context are
more motivated to transfer knowledge for the purpose of enhancing their job performance
(Gist & Mitchell, 1992; Lankard-Brown, 1998; Kirkwood and Price, 2006).
The second extracted component (ICT as a tool for communication in
organization) explains 9.80% of common variance; this principal component is shaped by
a perception of ICT as a tool for interchange of knowledge and experience among
employees, gathering necessary knowledge about organization, as a tool for obtaining
more autonomy in work, and as a tool for fortifying work-related communication among
employees. We expected extraction of this component, too, because ICT “constitutes a
new medium in organizational communication and has achieved considerable acceptance
in organizations” (Anderson et al, 2001). But, extraction of different kinds of components,
which should refer to ICT as tool for critical thinking, making decisions, team working,
autonomous performance, and other cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes of
andragogical relevance was omitted.
Such findings imply perception of importance of ICT among employees,
especially about ICT as a delivery mechanism, as an instructional tool, and as a
complement to instruction. Still, usage of ICT in organizations in Serbia is unstructured,
and dominantly, tool for self-education (or self-directed learning) and enhancing
communication between employees. “Even when organizations have arranged their
infrastructures to be conversant with the new communication technologies, successful
implementation is not guaranteed” (Ibid., p. 196). What is necessary is andragogical
support for using ICT as an outstanding tool for enhancing many different aspects of
organizational performance.
36
Table 2. Principal component analysis
Eigenvalues
1
2
Eigenval
14.82
2.94
% total
Variance
49.39
9.80
Cumul.
Eigenval
14.82
17.76
Cumul.
%
49.39
59.19
Factor Loadings (Varimax normalized)
(Marked loadings are > .700000)
Factor
Factor
1
2
0.75
0.20
0.78
0.24
0.73
0.13
0.77
0.31
0.80
0.28
0.73
0.21
0.73
0.20
0.54
0.22
0.69
0.34
0.69
0.36
0.79
0.22
0.79
0.26
0.82
0.19
0.85
0.18
0.81
0.23
0.75
0.24
0.68
0.25
0.41
0.54
0.23
0.60
0.56
0.42
0.33
0.57
0.01
0.78
0.43
0.53
0.46
0.48
0.17
0.81
0.21
0.79
0.12
0.78
0.77
0.29
0.29
0.76
0.37
0.66
Expl.Var
11.49
6.27
Prp.Totl
0.38
0.21
These findings are supported by applied Canonical discriminant analysis
(Jolliffe, 2002). When oppeness of channels of communications for ICT as a tool for CPE
and learning were examined, we extracted only one discriminant structure significant on
p<0.01 level (Wilks λ = 0.935), which indicate sharing ICT as a tool for CPE and learning
within group of colleagues, without any andragogical intervention. On the other hand,
when we examined oppeness of channels of communications for ICT as a tool for
communication in organization we extracted two discriminant structure; one of them was
significant on p<0.01 level (Wilks λ = 0.941). This structure showed us that ICT is
37
dominantly tool for communication among colleagues (lf = 0.972) and with subordinates
(lf = 0.621), while ICT is not a common tool for communication with management or with
HRD departments. Such results are not surprising; they reflect the fact that HRD
departments in Serbian organizations still remain in the function of delivering CPE
courses, usually developed by other providers. Some studies (Miniace and Falter, 1996)
even showed how top-down and bottom-up by ICT mediated communication can be
combined to encourage processes of CPE and learning, of solving some important
organizational issues and how the communication process effects strategy
implementation, any kind of usage ICT for structured CPE and learning purposes were not
widely known in Serbian organizations.
This was further supported by findings which showed that when we separately
examined perception of ICT as a tool for CPE and learning we extracted only one
discriminant structure significant on p<0.01 level (Wilks λ = 0.675). This discriminant
structure indicates that employees perceive ICT as an important tool for obtaining
accurate and contemporary professional knowledge (lf = 0.542), that they do not perceive
ICT as a tool for obtaining advantage over competitors at the market (lf = -0.403), and that
ICT helps them to learn at their own speed and in appropriate period of time. Surprisingly,
other impact of ICT at their knowledge employees perceived as less important. Even we
considered self-directed learning which directs alone, aiming at obtaining knowledge,
skills and development of abilities as very important among adults, this kind of learning
does not have potential to overlap complete organizational CPE and learning scale of
activities. Regarding these findings, lack of andragogical support in Serbian organizations
is more evident.
Consequently, when we separately examined perception of ICT as a tool for
communication in organization we extracted two discriminant structure. Both of them
(Table 3.) were significant on p<0.01 level (Wilks λ1 = 0.794; Wilks λ2 = 0.938). First
structure describes content; it shows us that employees mostly use ICT as a tool for
communication for contents not directly related to work; for continuing monitoring of
performance of subordinates; sharing accurate and contemporary professional knowledge
among colleagues; solving issues; sharing experience about self-education; for engaging
more employees in communication; and moderating different discussions. Second
structure describes quality and indicates that while using ICT as a tool for communication
in organization, respondents perceive it as a tool for reaching information: immediately;
directly connected to their work, required CPE contents, and organization; and as a tool
which assumes high level of self-discipline (which indicates their inclination to selfdirected, instead to structured and at the organizational level performed CPE and
learning).
38
Table 3. Structure Matrix for Canonical discriminant analysis (perception of ICT
as a tool for communication in organization)
Structure Matrix
Function 1
VAR23 0.57
VAR19 0.49
VAR20 0.49
VAR17 0.36
VAR18 0.36
VAR24 0.35
VAR15 0.30
VAR14 0.29
VAR30 0.26
VAR16 0.23
VAR29 0.16
VAR13 0.15
VAR31 -0.17
VAR27 0.21
VAR25 0.01
VAR26 0.09
VAR22 0.24
VAR28 -0.04
VAR21 0.07
Function 2
0.30
0.26
-0.01
0.16
-0.20
0.23
-0.21
-0.20
0.05
0.05
0.05
-0.02
0.40
0.35
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.24
0.17
Regarding bio-social and work characteristic of respondets, we found some of
work-related characteristic important and extracted only one discriminant structure
significant on p<0.01 level (Wilks λ = 0.811), which indicates that respondents which
were employed only in one organization, novices, and with stronger wish to maintain
current position in organization perceive ICT as more important tool for CPE and learning
than other respondents. On the other hand, regarding ICT as a tool for communication we
extracted two discriminant structure; one of them was significant on p<0.01 level (Wilks λ
= 0.914). This structure showed us that respondents which were employed only in one
organization, and novices perceive ICT as a more important tool for communication in
organization. These findings imply their orientation to success. Such findings can be
explained by Self-determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000); tendency to success in
these findings refers to an individual’s capacity for effective interactions with
organizational context, while need for self-determination refers to an individual’s freedom
to initiate their own behavioural courses of action, i.e. for their autonomous performance.
One can conclude, based on such findings that ICT here has a potential to enhance
intrinsic motivation among younger, to certain organization committed employees.
The goal of this paper was to investigate the implications of ICT in the
continuing professional education and learning. Choice of population (employees in
Serbian organizations which use ICT) was the main factor of limitation for the results of
this research. Although the sample size may be considered adequate, the fact that only few
Serbian organizations have well developed andragogically (or HRD) supported network
for CPE and learning were strongly reflected in our findings. We found that respondents
understand and accept that using ICT in learning assumes development of different sets of
capabilities and skills at various levels (for understanding and using ICT, for development
39
of different psychomotor skills necessary for the work), real awareness of acceptance of
ICT as a tool for development of more complex abilities, i. e. understanding importance of
ICT in creation of attitudes and values, forming of social reality-was omitted (Figure 1.).
Our findings also suggested important improvement in the field of using ICT in
Serbian organizations. ICT learning possibilities are treated as more complex; because of
changes in formal system of education ICT is less regarded as a curriculum. Usage of ICT
as a delivery mechanism, as an instructional tool and as a complement to instruction is
evident, even andragogically designed programs are very rare. Awareness of employees
about importance of more individualization of instruction, possibilities of sharing
interests, information, and ideas with other learners, lower limitations by space or time, or
by the knowledge resources is evident. But lack of sensitivity of management to support
the performance of andragogical interventions were reflected in incapability of
respondents for perception of possibilities to development collaborative activities, team
and communication skills, obtaining the control of learning activities by providers, etc.
Figure 1. Perception of ICT among employees
It implies not only neccessity for creating and designing at ICT based CPE and
learning programs by andragogues; it implies neccessisity for creating and designing well
organized workshops, seminars, round tables, etc. for management, aimed to reveal
importance of ICT for organizational development. Raising awareness about possibilities
for creating opportunities for the acceptance of the implications of ICT in domains of
40
structural changes in organizations (spreading out communication channels), development
of capacities for cooperation and for constructive solving of different issues, supporting
and clearing external communication channels, internal processing information at
different levels, developing capacities for critical thinking, enhancing creativity,
recognizing hidden talents of employees, supporting them to autonomous performance
would be of main importance.
From the perspective of managers, strategic aspect of ICT potential at
organizational level is still missing. Usage of ICT in organizations in Serbia is dominantly
perceived by employees as unstructured tool for self-directed learning which can enhance
communication between employees. If there are some activities in the field of using ICT
for CPE and learning purposes, they usually remained in the function on delivering CPE
courses, mostly developed by other providers.
Even the evident potentials of ICT to enhance intrinsic motivation among
committed employees are still hidden. As a consequence, organizations should perhaps
focus more on highly selective approach of using possibilities of ICT, and on widerspread activities intended to raise awareness about andragogical potentials to make
improvement in this field.
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th
4
th
th
Internet and Family Safety
Tatiana Shopova
SWU “Neophyte Rilsky Bulgaria
Abstract
Many young people who are among the most active online users ignore the risks
and threats of using the Internet. Their parents often don’t know how to learn to be
cautious and careful while surfing the web, sharing information, photos and video in
social networks, blogs or online chat rooms. Notes also deepen the gap between the use of
online technologies and the young people’s perception of risks, on the one hand, and the
attitude of parents towards this use, of the other. The Family Safety is of particular
importance in the online environment of growing prevalence of fraud, illegal content and
harmful behaviour.
Keywords: cyberspace, online risks, internet safety, media literacy
The advent and growth of the Internet new communicative media environment
that is characterized by its dynamic development and continuous improvement, has
emerges a giving birth to more and more new channels of communication and tools for
searching, finding and processing of information, which contribute to the democratization
of social life, to the growth and progress of society.
Becoming a total environment of global communication and interactive
communication channel, which provides a variety of multimedia platforms and integrated
services, the Internet opens up new opportunities for influence of the human life, on its
values, thinking and behaviour. The principles of Internet - free access for all web users to
the vast quantity of information sources and services, lack of censorship and centralized
control of different institutions and not least by the government; anonymity, interactivity
and individualization of content - enabled the construction of a new global communication
space. Here you can communicate, look for useful information, find your friends, be
amuse, learn ... free and undisturbed. In his Declaration of the Independence of
Cyberspace, published on February 8, 1996, John Perry Barlow says that the new global
public space based on progress of information and computer technologies, is by its nature
independent of the government tyranny of the Industrial World. “Cyberspace does not lie
within your borders… It is an act of nature and it grows itself through our collective. It is
distinguished by its own culture, ethics and unwritten codes, that determine the existence
of a new world of interactions and relationships, that “is a world that is both everywhere
and nowhere, but it is not where bodies live”. This is a world where all may enter without
privilege and discrimination, independently of skin colour or place of birth, or race,
economic power, military force, “a world where anyone, anywhere may express his or her
Tatiana Shopova / Procedia – Edu World 2010
beliefs, no matter how singular, without fear of being coerced into silence or conformity“
(Barlow 1996). Unlike the material physical world in which established concepts of
property, expression, identity, and movement are dominating, the cyberspace submits to
its rules and principles determining the nature of a new “civilization of the Mind”
(Barlow). Four years later, American scientist Joseph Pelton following the concept of a
“Global Brain”, which was formed in the 70's of the last century and found a wide
response among many scientists (Russell 1995), proposed to change the Marshall
McLuhan`s technological development model based on TV and satellite broadcasting,
with a new paradigm related to the progress of modern digital information systems and the
Internet. In place of the “global village” of M. McLuhan, in which billions of people may
experience different world events such as the Olympic Games, is coming a “global brain”
or so-called “e-sphere”, which allows not only to listen and watch together, but to “think
and interact” together (Pelton 2000).
Today we can talk about such a tremendous growth of the Web, which with its
millions web sites from over the world, Internet destinations and communication services
enables cohesion and establishing links between people based on common ideas or
interests, overcoming their differences, easily crossing and deletion of any geographic,
social and cultural boundaries. Чуйте
Прочит на латиница
The accelerated development of telecommunications and information systems
nowadays creates a wide range of a joint global behaviour within a “cyber culture”,
immersed in a world of “hiperreality”. Created by using a 3D digital model of reality the
objects go into specific virtual state. They resemble their real "equivalents" and produce
an "effect of the presence” of man on the virtual world. Here arise new virtual worlds in
which operate liberal principles - there is no compulsion of communication, action and
required familiarization, you feel free to share all your experiences or anxieties of real life,
but you does not dare to express, to take the role of different characters which exist only
in the dreams, be whoever you want and wish here and now, in a new universe, a virtual,
but in some ways outmatched what is happening in the real world. In these virtual worlds
“you can present yourself as a “character”, in which you can be anonymous, in which you
can play a role as a close or a far away from “real self” as you choose” (Turkle 1994:
159).
Combining the virtual and real elements the Web creates a special and
exceptional space for self- experience and self-expressing, which attracts more
participants in the new communicative environment. Especially, children and young
people, the most active users of cyberspace, which are more skilfully adapting to the new
virtual universe as actively, interact with online media, taking advantage of their strengths
and capabilities. “What's happening with the computer screen is not only are they able to
consume 'Lost' or one or two four-minute videos, but they are [also] able to send it to a
friend, give their opinion, and meet new people,” said Crandall, CEO of U.S. research
firm Media-Screen. Young online users get the freedom to enter into the recesses of the
new virtual space where they can overcome their inhibitions, feel independent and open to
sharing contacts and acquire a new identity, surrounded by his friends and advisers. The
lack of restrictions and prohibitions, acquired a new vision, anonymity and opportunity to
be whatever they want, to look modern, to do what they like, but what may be
disapproved in real life - all these causes the curiosity and overwhelming desire for
44
children and young people to inhabit the new world of the global Web. They are
facilitated by offering a wide range of web tools and applications to create their own web
sites and blogs, online social groups, to conduct interactive discussions through chatrooms, to participate in Usenet news-groups, maintaining an e-mail, sending instant
messages. With the advent of Web 2.0 technologies young people can share their likes and
dislikes, ideas, views, experiences, friendship, intellectual content, etc. Together, they
have easy access to countless recreational services such as online gaming, video,
photographic images, music, and films. As Sherry Turkle said, the transition from the
modern culture of calculation to the culture of simulation allows the computer screen to
“project ourselves into our own dramas, dramas in which we are producer, director, and
star...Computer screens are the new location for our fantasies, both erotic and intellectual.
We are using life on computer screens to become comfortable with new ways of thinking
about evolution, relationships, sexuality, politics, and identity” (Turkle 1995: 26).
In the last ten years (2000 - 2010) the global Internet population grew by 444.8
percent, reaching almost 2 billion users (Internet World Stats, 2010). The Web has
become a powerful platform for work and collaboration, searching and exchanging
information, social networking, entertainments and other activities and services through
multi-media and websites. According to the European Internet Statistics (June 2010) over
half of Europe's population regularly uses the Internet (475,069,448). Computers and
Internet are part of everyday life for all Europeans, especially among young people aged
16-24 years who are most active consumers. In 2008, 66 percent of them had access to the
Internet every day, in Bulgaria they were 49% (Eurostat 2009). Internet population in
Bulgaria has increased in 2010 to 3,395,000 (47.5%), a growth of 20.8% compared to
2006 (Internet World Stats, June 30, 2010). Internet access of young people (16-24) marks
a significant increase (75.1 percent) and students using the Internet regularly (at least once
a week) were 90% (NSI 2009). Furthermore, 92% of teenagers aged 15-19 are now online
users.
What is the attitude of the younger generation today to use the Internet and how
to change their values, their hopes and fears we can judge on the largest pan-European
survey of 8-14 year olds conducted by the U.S. entertainment company, Disney, together
with the agency Market Research TNS (Taylor Nelson Sofres) (Marketwire January 11,
2010.). The study reversed many of the existing ideas about the younger generation as
“redefines the popular image of today's tweens and shows them as a positive, communityminded generation who uses the technology that surrounds them to make a positive
impact on their lives and the world around them”, affirmed Victoria Hardy, executive
director of EMEA Research, Disney Channels. Differencing significantly from the
previous generations because of its digital education, digital XD generation grew up with
modern technology more than any other generation before. Knowing the life through
digital entertainment, mobile phones or social media channels, it also features deep family
values. The results confirm the importance of the Internet and computers for children - 95
percent of respondents say they are important to them. It is interesting the conclusion that
technology is mainly used to enhance rather than substitute of the social interaction face to
face. Despite the great popularity of social networking sites like Facebook and MySpace,
the live contact is the most preferred way to meet friends (30%), followed by text
messages (15%), online chats (14%) and mobile calls (8%); 53% of this age group feels
that the Internet improves their lives by helping them to talk with friends outside school.
45
Video games remain the most popular method of Internet use (74%), followed by writing
homework (59%). Along with the preference for leisure, work and contacts in the digital
universe XD generation becomes aware of the importance of family and admires parents.
Moreover, 97% of children believe that it is important to care about the planet,
demonstrating their sense of social responsibility. Чуйте
The study shows the young people in a new light, highlighted some key trends
that are already listed in other researches. We understand from Eurostat surveys of
children and young people from 16-24 in 2007-2009, that the great interest in social
networks like Bebo and Facebook does not reduce the searching and finding information
and online services of all kinds, which support their teaching and working (95%) (Eurostat
2009). Particularly preference is revealed to the communication contacts as exchange of emails or instant messaging with friends, phone and video calls, including in chat sites,
newsgroups or online discussion forums, participation in web blogs or supporting of their
own blogs (94%). Music, movies and games as a way leisure for young people remain the
most preferred (78%) and video games with increasing age begin gradually to step back to
music (listening and downloading files) (Eurostat Dec. 2009).
At the same time the increasing opportunities for inclusion and involvement of
children in the Internet space, the extension of our online forms, products and services are
increasing and real dangers, such as access to illegal or harmful content - gross forms of
child abuse (ill-treatment), racism, xenophobia, enticements, child pornography, threats
and persecution in the online environment (so-called cyber threats), sexual or
psychological harassment (cyber bulling). The computer viruses and conversations with
unknown persons topped the list of online risks mainly related to participation in open
chat rooms, sending and receiving of emails, instant messages and chatting with friends,
as well as downloading music, movies, video and others. It turns out that children
regularly meet on the Internet potentially shocking materials with pornographic content
and violence (58%) and most of them said they had heard or been involved in potentially
dangerous contacts (51%) (providing e-mail address to an unknown person, assigning a
meet with them), had been cases of harassment (or know children, subject to harassment
or violence - calling for sending their photos, real attempts to meetings, requests for
sharing of personal data and contact information, involvement in conversations about sex
or transmission of pornographic material), of fraud, they were actively involved in
illegally download audio and video content. Pan-European studies indicate that 51% of
teenagers in Europe often surf the Internet without any control, and 29% of children aged
14-19 years have been bullied online. According to data from Eurobarometer 2005-2006,
18% of children online in Europe have come across illegal or harmful content, 22% of
them have met with people whom they met online. Their susceptibility to threats and
manipulation, and abuse of their trust often result in distortion of emotional and mental
status of minors who are insufficiently informed about the risks of online communication.
Not a few cases in which young visitors to the Web are becoming a victim of online
criminals, paedophiles and crooks who use their lack of experience and knowledge. The
pan-European research (Eurobarometer 2007) for online child behaviour (ages 9-14 years
old) and their understanding of risks when use the Internet found that children are aware
of the potential online risks and necessary precautions to be taken, but they often
undervalue and exhibit self-confidence in their ability to cope alone with these risks while
46
minimizing their impact. The results indicate that children rarely show any excessive
anxiety when they are faced with a problem online, they prefer to decide for themselves or
friends and very rarely, only in extreme cases, they inform the parents or teachers. In
general, children say that they want to avoid receiving certain potentially dangerous and
shocking content and danger contact as aware of the need for safeguards and security.
Чуйте
All studies, concerning the family safety, emphasize the need to raise awareness
of actions and measures for safe and effective use of the Internet. It is believed that there
are needed more awareness campaigns about online risks and provided more information
and advices for parents on the favourite web sites of their children. For example, the
parents in Bulgaria are aware of existing dangers on the Internet, but they are not
especially anxious about their children due to lack of awareness and knowledge in this
field. It turns out that they are not sufficiently trained to recognize or deal with various
risks and security threats to their children while using the Internet. According to
Eurobarometer study a majority of them are not worried too much that their children who
spend much of their time online can be isolated from other people, see sexual or violent
images, while browsing the Internet, look at inappropriate content online or being a victim
of online bullying. Чуйте
Due to the weaker computer and Internet culture of their parents only 24% of
children would be turned to them for help if a problem occurs. The studies show that
Bulgarian parents usually have not habit of closing to their children while using the
Internet, to take control. In comparison, only 22% of them talk often with their children
about their online activities and 17% had never discussed such matters. Usually they don’t
check messages in their child's e-mail, don’t know what web sites children visit, or
whether the profile of social networking site (only 17% regularly browse the files that
have visited their children, while 36 percent have never done it). When it comes to
implementing rules for children when using the Internet, most parents placed certain
restrictions - against disclosure of personal information, online shopping, talking with
strangers, spending much time online, and creating an account online community. But
only 7% of parents admit that they have installed filtering software on home computer.
Most parents do not need this software because the trust they have towards their children,
or simply because of their lack of awareness of how to use or obtain this software
(Eurobarometer 2008). Чуйте
Many parents pay attention to the need of promoting measures to ensure greater
safety and security for children when they use the Web, of increasing the role of schools
to deliver more and better quality teaching and guidance for the Internet use, and also for
the introduction of more stringent regulation of the companies, specialised in producing
online content and maintaining Web sites. An important place to reduce the risks in the
Web has the improvement of web accessibility or internet monitoring and filtering
software for a safer and more efficiently use of the Internet. Чуйте
In Bulgaria, for example, there is already a program of Internet filtering and
parental control (Child Defender), created by “Dolphin” foundation, which is free and
47
easy to use. It can be successfully used to block porn sites and other inappropriate
websites for children, and to limit the time during children’s computer games, even when
the parent is not nearby. But the successful implementation of filtering software on the
computer at home requires rising the awareness of parents about the benefits of such
software use and their configuration competence of it.
The use of different tools for content filtering and monitoring does not reduce the
need to raise the competent and responsible role of the parents, because “the best
protection for your child is to talk with him, to showcase his threats in the online
communications, to learn him how to respond to sexual suggestions from strangers, not to
give personal information, etc.” (Child Defender). The parent is this one who not only can
limit his child access to certain sites and offer him valuable tips and rules for safe
navigation in the Web, but also encourage him to the open communication to enable
sharing his own online and offline experiences and experience. Чуйте
To help him find useful information and create together with him an attitude to
formation of their own content through the creative use of various Internet sites –
competencies to work with digital photos, video editing or sharing their own creations
with friends or family. It is important for parents to assist their children in their online
activities and also to join the initiatives of various government institutions, private and
non-governmental organizations to increase Internet literacy of young online users by
developing their critical thinking and ability to make the right decisions to their online
behaviour independently, an ability to filter the online content critically. The project EU
Kids Online (2009-2011), in which the researchers from 20 EU’s Member States seek to
analyze the interaction of children with Internet and new communication technologies,
indicates that all stakeholders recognise the necessity of media education for both children
and parents, at home and school, to raise awareness of potential dangers and strategies to
tackle online risks. There is a common understanding that the parents together with
teachers, with providers and Internet companies must pay more attention to online and
offline risks, to the ability of children to navigate safely through the development of their
cognitive and critical skills. And this supposes a closer engagement between government
stakeholders to ensure a high level of media literacy in schools, while media education
becomes an integral part of curricula at all educational levels. (EU Kids Online ll 2010).
In recent months the subject of discussions in the Bulgarian political and public
space are the issues with storage of personal information, the relationship of children's
aggression at school and at home with Internet and online activities (discussed by the
media, parent groups, social institutions), filtering Internet content. There was a belief,
based on studies, that children, parents and society should be more closely tied to issues of
Internet safety through information companies and elaborating system to prevent and
protect children from online risks (Koleva Boneva 2009). Some researchers have
expressed the opinion that Internet safety risks come as a response to various family
problems (EU Kids Online ll 2010). According to T. Yalamov, “It is harder to control the
symptoms (kids trying to find love online because they are not finding it at home,
aggression of kids to other kids as a response to the aggression of parents to kids
themselves or the aggression of fathers to their mothers say. And even sometimes as a
response to sexual experiences. … Home physical abuse is quite common”.
48
These conclusions highlighted the issue of raising the family culture and
upbringing of important family values and norms of behaviour in children whose online
world can be regarded as a continuation and extension of their real life, as a place to test
their morality, accepted beliefs, views and perceptions. “In psychoanalytic terms,
computers and cyberspace may become a type of “transitional space” that is an extension
of the individual's intrapsychic world. It may be experienced as an intermediate zone
between self and other that is part self and part other” (Suler 1999).Чуйте
Many young people, entering the virtual network, give different expressions of
their concerns and fears of unresolved emotional problems, disappointments, frustrations,
not only from others but from themselves. Therefore, with the development of digital
technology and Internet, which is playing an increasingly important role in their daily
lives, grow the responsibilities of parents to educate and encourage their children to a
dignified and responsible behaviour in the Web and beyond. In this respect, parents can
receive support and assistance from interested public, private and non-governmental
organizations and associations whose efforts and initiatives are aimed at developing and
providing information and media literacy of children to protect them from violence in
cyberspace.
At European level, the most popular initiative by the EU is the Safer Internet
Programme to combat illegal, harmful and undesirable content mainly in the protection of
children and minors. It pays special attention to the unification efforts of European
countries to achieve greater efficiency in the fight against harmful content through the
sharing of different tools and instruments as imposing legal obligations, self-regulation,
parental controls, awareness and education. The program has initiated the construction of
a European network of awareness on safe, responsible use of the Internet (Insafe), which
with its activities attract more and more countries in Europe and worldwide. The actions
of the network are directed to implement codes of conduct to curb the flow of unwanted,
harmful and illegal content, to support the work of hotlines that allow citizens to report
illegal content to the development of educational programs for children and parents.
Adopting the E’s policy for greater online safety and security of children and young
people, Bulgaria participated in various initiatives to create an online safe and protected
from illegal and harmful effects environment. The Bulgarian National Centre for Safer
Internet with its information and media campaigns (marking the International Day for the
Safer Internet, the Campaigns “Kids safe on the Internet” and “You choose”,
competitions, etc.) is pointed to seek for public attention, especially for children and their
parents by building a knowledge base to raise the awareness about the safe and effective
use of the Internet (www.safenet.bg/). In Bulgaria, since 2005 works a hotline to combat
illegal and harmful content and conduct online Bulgarian (address web112.net), whose
activities are supervised and assisted by the Public Council, comprising representatives of
government, civil society (NGOs) and trade organizations. Only in 2009 the hotline has
received a general alert in 1227, of which 142 relate to Web sites in Bulgaria and abroad,
are admitted unsuitable for minor materials. But according to a Eurobarometer survey
(2008) Bulgarian majority of parents do not have clarity on the work of the hotline and
discuss issues about the Internet safety are directed mainly to family and friends (66%),
and the media - television, radio, newspapers and magazines (51%). It turns out that the
proportion of parents who consider state and local authorities and NGOs and associations
49
as an important source of information and advice on safe Internet use is lowest in Bulgaria
(9%). Still is coming wider publicity and take effective action in connection to more
children and families to various projects and initiatives to enhance their knowledge, skills
and competent leadership for responsible behaviour in the global Internet space.
References
Колева Д., Бонева И. (2009): Тематично изследване на системата за превенция на сексуална злоупотреба
и експлоатация на деца в Интернет в България. Проект „Системен отговор на детската порнография,
http://www.slanchica.com/
НСИ (2009): Информационно общество – данни. http://www.nsi.bg/
Barlow, John Perry (1996): A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace,
https://projects.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html
Child Defender – Програма за родителски контрол, http://www.childdef.com/
Internet World Stats (June 30, 2010):. http://www.internetworldstats.com
EU Kids Online ll (2010): General report, June 2010, http://www2.lse.ac.u
Eurobarometer (Dec. 2008): Towards a safer use of the Internet for children in the EU – a parents’ perspective,
http://ec.europa.eu/ information society/
Eurostat (2009): Youth in Europe A statistical portrait, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
Eurostat (December 2010): Eurostat Internet usage in 2009 - Households and Individuals, issue 16 spring 2010,
http://www.iia.ie/ resources/
Marketwire (11January, 2010): Disney XD, http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/.
Pelton, Joseph N. (2000): E-sphere: The Rise of the World–Wide- Mind, Bridgeport, Conn.: Quorum Press.
Russell, Peter (1995): The Global Brain Awakens. Global Brain Inc. California, USA.
Suler, John (1999): Cyberspace as Psychological Space, http://www-usr.rider.edu/.
Turkle, Sherry (1994): Constructions and Reconstructions of Self in Virtual Reality: Playing in the MUDs, Mind,
Culture and Activity. Vol. 1, № 3, summer 1994.
Turkle, Sherry (1995): Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet, http://www.amazon.com/LifeScreen-Identity-Age-Internet.
50
th
4
th
th
Let's Teach Physics on Computer
Carmen Gabriela Bostan
Abstract
The paper is important because it presents modern means used in teaching/
learning physics in class and in the laboratory - supplementing traditional teaching process
with simulations/ computer modeling, experimental data processing and graphics obtained
through specialized software. The multimedia educational resources have an important
impact on the teaching-learning process of Physics. The Computer Assisted Instruction
stimulates visual and auditive memory and transposes the students in the middle of the
Phenomena and complement their knowledge. I present in my paper the achievement of a
physics experiment on laboratory that will be filled with computer simulation. Software
modeling experiments in real time, such as Crocodile Physics contribute to a better
understanding of physics phenomena. The software OriginLab contributes to draw
professional diagrams for the Physics experiments. The impact of dynamic pictures, the
images corroborated with sound and motion, the possibility to recreate the physical reality
with computer technique make it the most important teaching aid. In the future, teaching
books will be in electronic format and every student will have a personal laptop. Students
will be able to complete their knowledge in physics through computers, they will be able
to simulate virtual experiments, and they will have the possibility to access e-learning
platforms. I propose an outline of the lesson plan and illustrate how the teacher can by
integrating multimedia educational resources on instruction at various stages of learning
units.
Keywords: modern tools, Computer Assisted Instruction, simulation, teaching
methods, soft
Introduction
Physics laboratory has for a long time an important tool of school physics
education process and it must still remain in any physics curriculum at primary,
secondary, high-school and academic level, too. In addition, in last time, the informatics
technologies (IT) known an explosive development and the students at any level, are
fascinated by these. Particularly, the Multimedia tools have an important impact for the
teaching – learning process of Physic, and they could be successfully integrated as MM
activities in school work, home-work and in distance learning, respectively. The realism
of dynamical pictures, the video joined with the sound and the motion, the possibility to
recreate the physical reality with digital technique make the didactics simulations the most
important teaching tools. The informative and technologies society needs important
Carmen – Gabriela Bostan / Procedia – Edu World 2010
changes in educational programs. Learning physics is difficult for many students and, by
using the Technologies of Information and Communication, introduces Physics in a
modern and attractive way. Computers are used in different ways to teach Physics and can
affect drastically the way of teaching Physics (Error! Reference source not found.;
Error! Reference source not found.;Error! Reference source not found.; Error!
Reference source not found.).
Because the computer is a new didactical aid, the teacher must know how to use
it, some software learning, the programming language, to draw on the computer, make the
maps or other teaching computer tools. The Computer Assisted Instruction does not
eliminate the traditional teaching means (film, experiments, manuals, exercise book); the
computer is a didactical tool that fits the others, completing the traditional tools of
instruction those school supplies (Error! Reference source not found.; Error!
Reference source not found.).
Introduction of the computer in the didactical activities going to increase students
motivation in learning physics, offers alternative suggestions for the teaching-learning, the
approach to issues of physical phenomena, encourages creative and critical thinking, and
the students will be develop skills for processing and presenting of information.
Integrated audio – video resources on instruction in diverse stage of
learning unit
Theoretical Background - Horizontal projections
Suppose that we throw an object horizontally with an initial velocity that remains
constant vx = v x , because, isn’t horizontally force. According to the equation
0
x = x0 + v xt
(1)
the projected object would continue to travel in the horizontal direction. The
projected object travels at a uniform velocity in the horizontal direction while, at the same
time undergoing acceleration in the downward direction, is influenced by gravity. The
result is a curved path.
This motion is analyzed by using its components. Initial velocity components
are:
vx = v x
(2)
0
v y0 = 0
(3)
There is no horizontal acceleration and the acceleration due to gravity acts in the
negative y-direction. Thus, the x-component of the velocity is constant and the ycomponent varies with time.
v y = v y − gt = gt
(4)
0
The instantaneous velocity is the vectorial sum of these components and is
tangent to the curved path of the ball at any point.
The projectile motion displacement components are:
(5)
x = v xt
52
y = v y0 t −
gt 2
gt 2
=−
2
2
(6)
Figure 1.Diagram of horizontal projections on OriginLab
Experimental Background
Teacher and students will use the experimental kit. Experimental data will be
processed using soft OriginLab
Figure 2. Experimental kit
Table 1: Experimental Data on OriginLab
t
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
g
9.81
9.81
9.81
9.81
9.81
9.81
9.81
9.81
9.81
y
0.049
0.196
0.441
0.785
1.226
1.766
2.403
3.139
3.973
53
1
9.81
4.905
Computational Background
The computer can become a tool for all those who wish to find in it a friend and
the mysteries will turn into knowledge. The software that will be used is Crocodile
Physics 605 – dedicated simulation software for physics experiments and OriginLab – for
data analysis.
The Crocodile Physics program allows simulation of experiments that cannot be
completed in class, completion of laboratory experiments, to realize animated graphics,
contributing in this way to develop skills to organize specific information and use it to
produce new knowledge.
The simulation will be in front of the classroom, the teacher will present it on the
electronic board or video projector. If the school has a physics lab with a computer on
each table, the experiment can be practiced by each student.
OriginLab is professional software specialized in data analysis and plotting of
graphs. Contains several sheets, data import capabilities, query databases, making
professional graphics. The software is used in colleges and universities worldwide, with
friendly interface that is a very good tool in experimental data processing laboratory.
Didactical Methods
The teaching methods used are: explanation, conversation, experiment,
demonstration, discovery, computer modeling.
Lesson plan
Learning unit: Movement in the gravitational field
The form (gradual level): the class-9th grade (the student’s age – 15 years old)
The name of lesson: Horizontal projections
The type of the lesson: teaching/ learning
the didactical tools: video, TV, experimental kit and after, completed with
simulation on the computer (Crocodile Physics 605)
The didactical intention: learning notions of motion on gravitational field,
gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy, total mechanical energy, loss energy,
conservation of energy.
Instructions for teacher and the students:
o The teacher will verify the knowledge, which the students must learn.
o The teacher will make connection with the new lesson. In this moment the
teacher can use the audio – video means or the training films.
o The teacher starts a practical activity. Activities include mechanical kit and
the students must observe, practice and draw conclusions.
o The teacher must guide the students to draw conclusions, to generalize their
observations.
o The teacher starts a simulation on the computer (Figure 2).
54
Figure 3. Simulations on Crocodile Physics
Table 2: Experimental Data on Crocodile Physics
nr.crt.
1
2
3
4
5
6
mass
(kg)
1
1
1
1
1
1
x
(m)
0.00
0.46
0.40
0.68
0.65
0.75
y
(m)
1.00
0.75
0.80
0.44
0.48
0.31
t
(s)
0.00
0.23
0.20
0.29
0.325
0.362
Vx
(m/s2)
2
2
2
2
2
2
Vy
(m/s2)
0
2.23
1.96
3.32
3.18
3.67
Discussion
The computer simulation of horizontal projections reveals as follows:
- trajectory of motions
- diagrams x=f(t), y=f(t)
Advantages :
o Gaining time;
o Completing and fixing the knowledge acquired through classical experiment;
o Experimental data more accurate.
Disadvantages:
o Passive participation in front simulation;
Computer simulation of physics experiments is welcome as a complement to
classical experiments in laboratory, together leading to a deep, long-lasting learning.
Conclusions
The audio – video tools make an interactive lesson, the students don’t have time
to get bored, and their interest is raised in a nice manner. It isn’t necessary to insist on the
modern tools. Also it is recommended to use them with the traditional tools for a
dynamical lesson. It is dangerous that the students “sleep” in the class.
The access to the different soft, the access to the Internet or other information
resources determines that the student’s evaluation isn’t only traditional based on
55
memorizing the lesson or resolving the problems, but also on the student’s portfolio or the
student’s individual paper or team paper.
In this way the audio – video tools have one important impact for the teaching –
learning processing of Physics and the Computer Assisted Instruction stimulates visual
memory and hearing memory and transposes the student in the depth of the Phenomena.
The lesson will prove to be successful if the students understand the concepts and
use them in exercises and problems. The teacher can avoid improvised or useless activities
and stimulate his students to progress gradually, by avoiding boredom and lack of interest,
wasting time and effort. The lesson must contribute to their systematic knowledge and to
their maturity. The information they learn must be used in everyday life, so that teaching
and learning can connect to their life.
References
Almeida Barretto S.F., Piazzalunga, R., Guimaraes Ribeiro, V., Casemiro Dalla, M.B., Leon Filho, R. M.,
(2003), Combining interactivity and improved layout while creating educational software for the Web,
Computers & Education, Volume 40, Issue 3, pp. 271-284, April.
de Jong, T. (1999), Learning and Instruction with Computer Simulations, Education & Computing, 6, pp. 217229.
Esquembre, F. (2002), Computers in Physics Education, Computer Physics Communications,147, pp.13-18.
Institute Pedagogical Sciences, (1970) Interdisciplinary Research in Education.
Iskander, M. F. (2002), Technology-Based Electromagnetic Education, IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, V.50, no. 3 pp.1015-1020, March.
Jinga, I., Vlăsceanu, L., (1989), Pattern, Strategy and Performances in Education, Editure Academy.
Malinovschi, V. (2003), Didactics of Physics, E.D.P., R.A. Bucureşti.
Nicola, I. (1994), Pedagogy, E.D.P., Bucureşti.
Pearson International Edition, (2007), Sixth Edition College Physics, WILSON BUFFA LOU, Pearson Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Popa, M. (2005), Interdisciplinarity Evaluation, Piteşti; Editure Delta Cart Educaţional.
Tereja, E. (1994), Teaching Physics’ Methods, Iaşi; Editure University „Al. Ioan Cuza”.
UNESCO, (1983), Interdisciplinarité et sciences humaines, UNESCO, (ouvrage collectif), vol. I.
Văideanu, G. (1985), Interdisciplinarity Promotion in the Pre-University Level, Iaşi; Editure University „Al.
Ioan Cuza”.
56
th
4
International Conference "Education Facing Contemporary World Issues",
th
th
Life Long Learning - Seniors Learning Online by Using
Web2.0 Tools
Uta Krope
Senioren-Lernen-Online, Germany
1. Introduction
In the following I describe the organization of our group “senior learning online”
(SLO) then I will concentrate on the topics Life long learning, web 2.0, web communities
and eLearning. I will add the learning concept of SLO and show two of our workshops. I
would like to present an online session by the use of the programs Skype and Mikogo and
end with a conclusion:
SLO is a project made up of male and female seniors who volunteer their time to
help older citizens to take advantage of lifelong learning using the Internet and various
special synchronous and asynchronous platforms. We are a volunteer group of seniors.
We want to enable other seniors to learn, irrespectively of their place of residence. We
want to help them to use modern media and to inspire to lifelong learning. Our moderators
organize and carry out their courses in own responsibility. Therefore: “Made by seniors
for seniors”.
This means that senior citizens can participate from any location (home, for
example), if they have a personal computer, broad band connection and a headset at their
disposal... We offer basic courses on using the Internet, Web 2.0 tools (Google Groups,
Google Docs for documents and presentation, Blogs (also small one like “Posterous”),
bookmarking tools, web conference tools (Mikogo, Skype), programs for pictures, slide
casting, post casting and videos.
We show senior citizens how to use new channels of Internet communication like
voice chat. We help one another via remote access software and we train senior citizens to
act as teletutors, so they can offer courses themselves. We also make use of blended
learning solutions; our moderators upload special information (pdf or wav files) about the
courses to the platform “Moodle”. This allows participants to organize their own learning
routines and their personal learning environment.
2. Life long learning, web2.0, web communities and eLearning
In the following I describe life long learning, web 2.0, web communities and
eLearning
2.1. Life long learning
As Anna Diamantopoulou, EU Commissioner responsible for employment and
social affairs, said: “Skill and competence enhancement in the new economy in Europe
requires that the policy emphasis is shifted towards increasing investment in human
Uta Krope/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
capital and in raising participation in education and training throughout working life. To
keep pace with developments in technology, globalisation, population ageing and new
business practices, particular attention should be given to workplace training – an
important dimension of our strategy for lifelong leaning.”
http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/01/1620&format=HTML&ag
ed=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en
In Wikipedia you can find the following definition: “Lifelong learning sees
citizens provided with learning opportunities at all ages and in numerous contexts: at
work, at home and through leisure activities, not just through formal channels such as
school and higher education. Lifelong education is a pedagogy often accomplished
through distance learning or e-learning, continuing education, homeschooling or
correspondence courses”.
Life long learning means also to be able to participate in E-Government, EDemocracy, E-Administration, and E-Voting and so on.
How could this be managed? Since 2002 there have been developments in
hardware and in software, special the social software of Web 2.0.
Let us have a look at the hardware development:
There was an idea in 2002: The idea of OLPC, this means: One laptop per child.
This was the idea of Negroponte 2002. Have a look at the Mission Statement: “To create
educational opportunities for the world's poorest children by providing each child with a
rugged, low-cost, low-power, connected laptop with content and software designed for
collaborative, joyful, self-empowered learning. When children have access to this type of
tool they get engaged in their own education. They learn, share, create, and collaborate.
They become connected to each other, to the world and to a brighter future.”
(http://laptop.org/en/vision/index.shtml).
This was the start for the development of computers- Netbook, which are easy to
learn, easy to work and easy to play, also easy to share and easy to carry.
Parallel to the development of Netbook there has been the development of web 1.0 to web
2.0.
2.2. Web 2.0
Web 1.0 is described as a static form, web 2.0 is dynamic. Web 2.0 makes it
possible that user can produce their own contents, share them with other users all over the
world and also participate and collaborate and share by using Social Software (z. B.
Wikis, Weblogs, E-Portfolios, Social Bookmarks, YouTube, Facebook, and Flickr)
Web 2.0 (picture 2) was first mentioned by 2005 by Tom O’Reilly
(http://www.oreilly.de/artikel/web20.html)
58
Picture 2.
Picture 3.
Connected with Web 2.0 are the following keywords: The Web as a platform,
collective intelligence, data as the „Intel inside“, software without life cycle, light
59
weighting Programming Models, Software without barrier, Rich user Experiences,
participation, social network, collaboration
The newest development is cloud computing „ Cloud Computing refers to a
recent trend in Information Technology (IT) that moves computing and data away from
desktop and portable PCs into large data centers. The key driving forces behind the
emergence of Cloud Computing includes the overcapacity of today’s large corporate data
centers, the ubiquity of broadband and wireless networking, the falling cost of storage,
and progressive improvements in Internet computing software. Currently, the main
technical underpinnings of Cloud Computing infrastructures and services include
virtualization, service-oriented software, Grid computing technologies, management of
large facilities, power efficiency etc. (http://www.cs.ucy.ac.cy/~gpallis/ic.html).
Let’s go back to the WEB 2.0 tools (picture 4):
Weblog
Videopodcast
Audiopodcast
Senioren Lernen Online
Googledoc
Flickr
Content
Lecture
Material
Tutorial
Foreign language
audio and videos
Sharing:
doc, txt,
ppt, gif,
mp3, mov
WEB 2.0
Host
Poducer
Hardware
Headset and Microfon
Webcamera,
Digitalcamera,
Videocamera
User
Krope (© SLO)
Software
Audacity,
Camstudio
Mediaencoder
Moviemaker,
Super 2007
Ulm 2007
12
Picture 4.
Web 2.0 is an online market place in which persons can be at any time and
anywhere user and producer of documents, presentation, blogs, podcasts, slide casts and
videos. They can share these with others. Software is free.
Horst Sievert (SLO) introduced
three levels of web 2.0 (picture 5)
(http://www.scribd.com/doc/8470651/Slo-Web20-Dreiebenen)
The homepage is a static offer of information. In blogs and micro blogs you can
communicate with the visitors. You can share single web tools (pictures, documents,
videos and audios or ppt slides).You can make your own personal learning environment
by using iGoogle or Netvibes and organize there your tools by RSS feeds, calendars and
so on.
60
Picture 5.
Lets have a look on eLearning in web communities and personal learning
environments and start first with the explanation of web communities
2.3 Web communities
A web community or virtual community is a casual association of people sharing
the same or related interests, ideas, and feelings over the Internet or other collaborative
networks. In these communities you can do a lot together. You can share pictures, videos
and documents. You can also learn together .You can learn informally or formally in these
communities.
Formal learning is tied to a predefined curriculum and is oriented towards the
teacher. Informal learning is freed there from. Learning has its roots in the learner himself
and occurs as a consequence of curiosity in a thing, by trying and errors or by
purposefully questioning an expert. For example you can learn languages in the following
ways of web communities
o random communities: you use Paltalk ( Voice over IP) in a language group
or
in
Skype
by
EPOTI
(http://english-practice-over-theinternet.blogspot.com/ )
o you can use web communities , which offer language courses in the formal
way like http://www.englishtown.com During the virtual classroom lessons
students all over the world are participating
o Members of an international EU –Project as for example the Grundtvig
Project “activeICT” are working in a web community together for two years
of the project
o Universities offer (formal) courses for students with a certification.
2.4 eLearning
eLearning can be organized in the following ways: in open or closed groups and
in the way of informal or formal learning or a mixture thereof.
2.4.1 eLearning on LMS platforms formal, in closed groups and with social
networking software
61
In learning management systems (LMS) courses are offered on a web server and
administrated by a teacher
(http://nettskolen.nki.no/forskning/Definition%20of%20Terms.pdf).
You can find closed groups at seminars of the university, where students are
registered in a special course on the University LMS platform (ELGG, Moodle, and
Drupal). The course is structured by a moderator (example “eLearning for ICT –Trainers”
http://www.ict4t.net/?q=courses ).The design of the course depends on the used open
source tools
(http://zettelkasten.sabeth.org/2006/08/28/einsatz-von-ple-in-der-hochschulehre/).
The
social network depends of the LMS, for example ELGG; Moodle or Drupal.
(http://mediendidaktik.uni-duisburg-essen.de/node/2390,
http://zettelkasten.sabeth.org/2006/08/28/einsatz-von-ple-in-der-hochschulehre/). You can
combine in these LMS ePortofolio, Blogs, RSS Feeds, Wiki, social bookmarking).
There are also discussions about the didactic of such web based courses, you can
find the aspects web-based reading, web based tutoring, knowledge profiling, knowledge
mining and project oriented learning in the article about :Knowledge transfer in virtual
settings: the role of individual virtual competency
http://www.iicm.tugraz.at/iicm_papers/knowledge_transfer_in_wb_education.pdf
2.4.2 eLearning in open groups with social networking software
In open groups everyone organize his own learning environment by using
different socialwebtools (del.i.cious (social bookmarking), Twitter, Blogs, Micro blogs,
RSS Feeds)
There are also free learning communities: http://www.clivir.com/
“Clivir” is a FREE learning community where you can be the teacher and the student.
You
can
also
use
ePortofoliosystem
like
“Mahara”
(http://demo.mahara.org/artefact/file/download.php?file=4276). “Mahara” is an open
source ePortofolio, which allows you to set in Settings your preferences and notifications,
to create an own profile with the possibility to add also a resume. You can add your own
portfolio for uploading files, creating Blogs and creating Views and in Groups you can
create and find groups and friends) Video under http://www.scivee.tv/node/6372
You can learn by Podcasts, Video casts or also by Twitter. Have a look at the
following examples:
o Podcast:
English
as
a
second
language
podcasts
http://www.eslpod.com/website/
o Videocast:
o YouTube: Introduction in twitter
o http://dotsub.com/view/f810c5b5-b8dc-4946-a58f-5f7ce7ce4d44
o video about „ Social Media“ in plain English “Eiskrem”
o Pod casting in plain English
o RSS in Plain English
o Web search strategies in Plain English
o Twitter in plain English (http://dotsub.com/view/665bd0d5-a9f44a07-9d9e-b31ba926ca78 )
62
o
Twitter Tips zum eLearning http://twitter.com/pdonaghy Using Twitter you
can learn from the information of other participants for example about
eLearning, using #tag eLearning.
You can create your own personal learning environment by iGoogle or Netvibes
(http://www.netvibes.com/).
You can write in Wikipedia or in your own wikis and blogs or micro blogs.
With social bookmarking you can find out more about your topics (for example
sundials or eLearning) about web pages others are using.
3. Learning Concept of SLO:
The team of Senioren-Lernen-Online made up a concept with examples from
current courses supplemented past experiences for the inclusion of older adults into
lifelong learning. The systematic activation of learning processes via learning tasks and
tutoring is considered as the key for the success of these learning arrangements. The
concept results from didactic analyses. Kerres & de Witt (Kerres (2005), Didaktisches
Design und eLearning: Zur didaktischen Transformation von Wissen in mediengestützten
Lernangeboten) propose the following (so called C3 model to define the elements of a
hybrid learning arrangement: Content, Communication, Construction. In our courses we
are using these by learning tasks and tutoring they aim at activating the learning process
itself via suitable tasks and should include the following three components: head, heart
and hand. These learning tasks are to activate the cognitive operations first, e. g. the
consideration of the learning contents; additionally they are to take effect in emotional and
motivational respect (e. g. via a reference to the learners living environment). Finally the
learning tasks can also activate social interactions (e. g. if the task is to make up an own
opinion).In practical exercises, the learned contents are also documented by real results.
We activate our learners with complex tasks (e. g. finding solutions of problems). When
the learners are working on the learning tasks, tutoring will certainly promote the learning
success. It is also useful to integrate learning tasks into the cooperative processes of group
work.
As an example we will show our course “New form of collaboration”
http://sites.google.com/site/sloworkshop/Home
We are planning in the same way a workshop for the Grundtvig project ALFA
about violence in families and prevention. We will give a short introduction of violence
and prevention from the view of Germany. We‘ll develop some tasks and then ask the
participants to solve the tasks and give their own contribution of the topic by using
Posterous, Googledocs and others. We are planning that every project partner had to give
a presentation by using the virtual platform Adobe Connect Pro. Our first step will be to
develop this workshop in German, and then we’ll ask the Finish partner to translate this
from German to English. Later we‘ll ask the other project partners to test this.
4. Online session
We plan to show in an online session how we can cooperate and communicate
with participants of other countries and in which way we are offering online courses about
different topics (ICT, arts, and travel reports). We‘ll show also the concept to use
63
miniblogs with text, pictures, audio and video for language learning (German)
http://deutschstunde.posterous.com
5 Conclusion
You don’t need all the software on your own computer anymore. You need a
broadband access and a good computer...
In summary: the new possibilities of Web 2.0 are causing a change in informal
and formal learning and also teaching through new ways of participation, social
networking and cooperation.
Sandra Schaffert and Wolf Hilzensauer explained this in their article “On the
way towards Personal Learning Environments: Seven crucial aspects”:
“We have identified seven aspects where these changes are most obvious and/or
important. To sum up, learning with PLE leads to changes concerning: (1) the role of the
learner as active, self-directed creators of content; (2) personalisation with the support and
data of community members; (3) learning content as an infinite “bazaar”; (4) the big role
of social involvement; (5) the ownership of learner's data; (6) the meaning of selforganised learning for the culture of educational institutions and organisations, and (7)
technological aspects of using social software tools and aggregation of multiple sources”.
(http://www.elearningpapers.eu/index.php?page=doc&doc_id=11938&doclng=6)
Ready to take off?
References
http://ups.savba.sk/parcom/confer/ic-cfp.pdf
http://www.distinguish.de/index.php/web-20/71-zusammenfassung http://www.oreilly.de/artikel/web20.html
http://www.elearningpapers.eu/index.php?page=doc&doc_id=11938&doclng=6
http://www.elearningpapers.eu/index.php?page=doc&doc_id=11938&doclng=3&lng=de
http://www.ict4t.net/?q=courses
Picture of eLearning environment: http://beat.doebe.li/bibliothek/ref_w/w01997.png
http://zettelkasten.sabeth.org/2006/08/28/einsatz-von-ple-in-der-hochschulehre/
http://edumedia.salzburgresearch.at/index.php?option=com_search&searchword=mosep
http://www.iicm.tugraz.at/iicm_papers/knowledge_transfer_in_wb_education.pdf
http://www.cs.ucy.ac.cy/~gpallis/ic.html
http://nettskolen.nki.no/forskning/Definition%20of%20Terms.pdf
http://www.scribd.com/doc/8470651/Slo-Web20-Dreiebenen
Uta Krope
http://www.senioren-lernen-online.de
Skypename:krope2405
Email: [email protected]
64
th
4
th
th
Microblogging Meets Personal Learning Environment - A
Study Case
Gabriela Grossecka, Carmen Holotescub
a
West University of Timisoara
b
Politehnica University Timisoara
Abstract
Since 2004, when the term Personal Learning Environment (PLE) was coined, a
whole literature and projects around PLE are being created. However, a relatively small
number of studies and research integrate the microblogging technology, especially in
higher education. In this context our paper focuses on how the PLE can be built, modelled
and conceptualized on a microblogging platform, as a result of an exploratory study
carried out by the authors on microblogging platforms during the last two academic years.
The microblogging platform used as a study case is Cirip.ro, designed for educational
settings, which integrates a wide range of Web 2.0 applications and social networks
organized around educational resources in order to encourage teachers and students to
discover and use them. Furthermore we will stress the influence of microblogging in
creation of personal learning environment by students including ideas, projects, research,
information resources, multimedia objects created individually or collaboratively.
This paper is a work in progress, presented for the first time at the PLE
Conference Barcelona, 7-10 July 2010.
Keywords: microblogging; personal learning environment
1. Introduction
Although since 2004, when the term Personal Learning Environment (PLE) was
coined (JISC, 2004; Wilson, 2005), a whole literature and projects around PLE and lately
Personal Learning Network (PLN) are being created, a relatively small number of studies
and research integrate the microblogging technology (Taraghi, Ebner, Till, and
Muhlburger, 2009; BECTA, 2009; McNeill, 2010; Elch, 2010).
We have noticed that specialized literature is continuously changing and
overcrowded with resources dedicated to PLE or to PLN in various contexts. Some of
these are theoretical (Johnson and Liber, 2008) and/or methodological proposals (Ivanova
(a), 2009; Ivanova (b), 2009; Taraghi, Ebner and Schaffert, 2009); others address new
paradigms or filter the importance and place of each one separately (Ivanova, 2010) or
together (Skill, Carhart, Houton and Wheeler, 2010). In some papers, the two concepts are
set/put in antagonism, in others they are (re)invented. Regardless of the content, all these
resources metamorphose in challenges addressed to e-learning specialists (Waters, 2008-
Gabriela Grosseck, Carmen Holotescu/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
2010) or practitioners (Hart, 2009). The intention is clear: we either give one up and
promote the other (The King is Dead, Long Live the King!), or we (re)consider new
opportunities (Attwell, 2007), new solutions of using them together in education (Downes,
2010; Buchem, 2010; Attwell, 2010).
From the conceptual and technological point and view, we appreciate that two
approaches related to PLE implementation exist:
o mashups by aggregation (Attwell, 2010; Ivanova, 2010, Taraghi, Ebner and
Schaffert, 2009); these solutions seldom consolidate a public
profile/portfolio;
o integrated environment (Harmelen, Metcalfe, Randall, 2009); usually used
during a course or a specific learning project, they don’t incorporate the
previous PLE, don’t have the characteristics of continuity.
In this context our paper focuses on how the PLE can be built, modelled and
conceptualized on a microblogging platform, as a result of an exploratory study carried
out by the authors on the platform Cirip.eu, during the last two years.
2. Facilities of microblogging platform Cirip.eu
In the spring of 2008, under the coordination of the second author, was launched
Cirip.eu, a microblogging platform designed for educational settings. The implementation
was realized by Timsoft (http://www.timsoft.ro), a company specialized in eLearning and
mobile applications.
Besides the facilities of a microblogging platform (Grosseck and Holotescu,
2010) Cirip.eu provides the following:
o Specification in the profile of the domain of users’ notes. This simplifies the
search for microblogs in a certain domain, particularly in the educational
one.
o Sending and receiving messages via the web, mobile version, SMS, IM
(Yahoo and Jabber), e-mail, Firefox/Chrome extensions, API, desktop and
other 3rd party applications, and can be imported from Twitter, RSS (figure
1).
o Embedding multimedia objects in the notes: images, video clips, audio and
(live) video files, live-streaming, presentations, cognitive visualizations like
diagrams or mindmaps etc.
o Creating public or private user groups. Collaboration groups can be created
between the members of a class or a university year, for a course
enhancement or to run an entire online course. Groups have an
announcements section (Group News), where moderators can post notes and
materials such as SCORM/LOM objects, for the group activities.
66
Figure 1 Posting notes on Cirip.eu via web
o
Monitoring RSS feeds for sites, blogs, or activities on other social networks
or search feeds.
o Tagging the content.
o Creating and conducting polls and quizzes (which can be answered online or
by SMS).
o Visualizing statistics and representations of the users/groups interaction
networks.
The interface is in Romanian, English and German, facilitating an international
collaboration, around 10% of the 15000 users being foreigners.
Figure 2 highlights the most important features of a microblog created on the
platform.
Figure 2: An educational microblog on Cirip.eu
source: http://www.cirip.ro/u/gabriela
3. Methodological framework
Because the research field by itself is rather new, to investigate such a topic we
turn to explorative type of analysis, meant to provide a first image of the phenomenon.
The work hypothesis:
67
How can a PLE be built, shaped and conceptualized on a microblogging
platform?
is based on the learning contexts experienced already on the platform (figure 3)
Figure 3: The most relevant Learning Contexts for Cirip.eu
source: http://www.mindmeister.com/maps/show/13912568
and was facilitated by the online project PLE / PLE Conference in Barcelona
developed on the microblogging platform Cirip.eu.
3.1 Three-Anagram's Approach to Cirip PLE Framework
On Cirip, we consider a microblog as a three-dimensional space: Environment,
Learning and Personal. Following the three dimensions clockwise brings us to the
construction of a PLE in three-anagram's approach:
3.1.1. LEP: Learning the Environment Properly
Cirip.eu integrates a wide range of Web2.0 tools and social networks organized
around educational resources. The integration of these applications is realized in order to
make them known, to organize and simplify their use, to encourage members (teachers,
students and other learners) to discover, to explore, and to practice them; we can say Cirip
offers an opportunity toward Open Educational Resources – OERs (figure 4). Sometimes
the use of the Cirip platform implies a prior instruction in order to obtain a real efficiency
in exploiting all its facilities.
68
Figure 4: Web 2.0 Tools / Applications and Social Networks on Cirip.eu
3.1.2. EPL: Empowering / Enhancement Professional Learning
In 2005 Jyri Engestrom, the co-developer of the Jaiku microblogging platform,
launched a theory stating that, in most cases, people base their relations on certain objects,
which he named „social objects”. These can be both physical, such as “location”, and
semi-physical (such as “attention”) or even conceptual, such as “on-line presence”.
According to Engestrom objects become the centre of any social relation and the
nucleus/fundamental notions of a (strong) social network. Thus, it is important to use web
2.0 tools / social networking / educational resources not only as personal web technologies
(McElvaney, Berge, 2009) but as social objects as well.
3.1.3. PLE: Personalize onLine Experience
Cirip allows the creation of a personal profile / portfolio including ideas,
projects, research, information resources, multimedia objects created individually or
collaboratively. All users’ activities are developed in a dynamic manner and follow a
continuous evaluation process by communicating with members of the platform and/or
within the groups he/she is part.
69
Figure 5 PLE on Cirip.eu (source http://www.Cirip.ro/status/1629920)
On Cirip each member can build not only a PLE, but also a PLN which can
include:
o
o
o
o
connection / communication with the followed users;
the groups they participate in, according to the topics of interest;
the site/blog/network/search feeds;
the social networks providing educational objects which can be included in
messages.
Thus Cirip.eu can be considered a social network of PLEs.
3.2. Group framework analysis
On January 8th, 2010, when the first call of papers for the PLE Conference was
launched, the PLE / PLE Conference in Barcelona group was open and will remain active
until the last echo of this event will fade away.
Figure 6. The first message in group
source: http://www.Cirip.ro/status/2180463?lg=en
The group facilitated by the two authors has as members: teachers, practitioners
in education, trainers, students, but also other persons interested in PLE/PLN domains.
The aims of the group were:
o A source of information/learning for Cirip members interested in this
domain. A part of these members are students participating in the courses
70
run by the 2 authors, who developed collaborative projects related to PLE
and who actively participated in this group.
o Strengthening this domain and new experiments related to PLE for the
authors, one of the results being this article.
Besides the multimedia notes sent by the members, the group gathered also:
o tweets referring to the PLE Conference, imported using the Twitter search
API, and
o blogs posts which mention the conference, found by the Twingly search
engine API.
This way the group messages reflect the interaction/debate on Cirip.eu and in a
worldwide community concerning PLE and the conference.
The content of the group and its information flow on PLE/PLN were enlarged
with:
o materials posted by the facilitators in the Announcements section;
o feeds/search feeds on this topic monitored by the group members using the
platform corresponding facility; there are delicious.com feeds with ple, pln,
ple_bcn tags, also the feed corresponding to the collection built by the group
members (figure 7).
Cirip members had an asymmetric interaction with the imported messages, those
who produced them not being members of the platform. Even if an important percentage
of tweets had an informal character, many of them enabled the members to be acquainted
with the novelties of PLE, to localize resources, to reach the articles, projects and blogs of
the top practitioners in this domain.
Figure 7. Feeds monitored online or by SMS by group members
At the moment we started writing this article, the group contained more than
1700 messages, around 1400 being imported from Twitter.
For the same period of time, Twapperkeeper collected 1100 tweets containing the
#ple_bcn tag.
71
source: http://www.Cirip.ro/grup/plebcn
source: http://twapperkeeper.com/hashtag/ple_bcn
Figure 8. PLE messages on Cirip and Twitter
Analyzing the group in terms of content (messages, links, embedded multimedia
objects etc.), context (temporal dimension, location, mobility - widgets, mobile, YM etc.)
and communication-sharing (@user, RT/RC etc.), we identified three axes of the group
dynamics):
o Community building: in the group the focus is moved through micro-content
from the individual to a web community; every voice counts; the group
transforms in a hub through which social interaction is fostered. Major roles
play the @user messages, authentication on Cirip using Twitter credentials,
and resending (RC/RT on Cirip / on Twitter).
o Communication backchannel as a practice to maintain a real-time online
conversation alongside other PLE events (during other conferences,
workshops, meetings, blog posts, links to articles etc.). Thus, the messages
became learning traces (Alvarez-González, 2008; Attwell, 2007/2010), like
an unofficial communications channel used to make informal learning.
Statistics or visualizations produced by the platform, such as Network/
Tagcloud, Wall or polls provide quantitative and qualitative measures for a
deep analysis.
Figure 9. Group Tagcloud
o
Distribution channel for social objects. As multimedia objects, in the group
we identified conference posters / fliers / caricatures – cartoons / collages in
image format, audio/video clips of PLE definitions / remixes, various
presentations or documents (slideshare, prezi etc.), livestreaming of students
projects presentations, as well as links to articles that had been posted by
72
other users. Because we are dealing with a Push and Pull type of content, the
interaction created around these objects is the most relevant aspect.
Figure 10. Group Statistics
Therefore, the group can be considered not only a time capsule of the
worldwide practitioners' interaction concerning PLE and the PLE Conference, storing
messages in 140 characters, but also a learning experience, important in our everyday
PLE documentation journey. Moreover, we can speak about a learning serendipity, which
can conclude in further research projects.
By extending the three axes of the group dynamics:
o from Personal to People for the Community axis
o from Environment to a Learning Eco-System for the Content/Context axis,
and
o from Learning to Life Long Learning for the Conversation/
Communication/ Collaboration axis,
we noticed a structure similar to the internal architecture of the Rubik’s cube, the
well known game of logics (see figure 11).
Let's explain (see also figure 11).
73
Figure 11 Illustration of discussions between the two authors about designing
a PLE on the microblogging platform Cirip
3.3. Conceptual framework: the Rubik’s cube for construction of PLE on
microblogging
Rubik’s cube is, first and foremost, an intelligence game, a puzzle game which is
extremely easy to learn at any age, and which has enjoyed an unexpected success for
almost four decades. It is estimated that approximately one in five persons from around
the world has played, at least once, with a Rubik’s cube.
Although Rubik’s cube raises nostalgia and challenges at any age, we shall not
insist on the diverse variants of the famous cube (one more sophisticated than the other),
or on its history and / or solving methods. There is enough literature on these topics. The
cube has a pivot mechanism that allows the independent rotation of each face, resulting in
the mixing of colours. For the puzzle to be solved, each face must be a solid colour. We
find it fascinating that, although there are billions of possible positions, only a few
solutions are valid and the game can be solved in less than 29 moves. However, what do
Rubik’s cube and microblogging have in common?
At first sight, we would be tempted to say that they do not have anything in
common. Rubik’s cube (and its variants) is an apparently simple object which:
o develops creativity;
o is extremely popular;
o constitutes the subject of hundreds of articles and books;
o appeals to all ages and social classes;
o it's a kind of magic;
o it creates emulation and a strong desire of people to solve it;
o it is a game which has constructive value because people produce different,
unequal scenarios, the emphasis being on the individuality / uniqueness of
participants, thus avoiding sterility in thinking and last, but not least
74
o it’s cool! it’s fun!
So is writing in 140 characters! All of the above are true for writing in 140
characters as well!
4. Findings Summary or Summary Findings?
Taking a closer look at the unconventional comparison between Rubik’s cube
and the most popular Web 2.0 technology of the moment seemed challenging to us first of
all in order to elaborate learning scenarios (LS), based on Bloom’s taxonomy, and
secondly, in order to develop patterns of building a PLE / PLN on the microblogging
platform Cirip.
The cube method, as a technique to develop creativity, is not a new idea in
literature. Used in teaching in particular, with the aim of exploring a subject or a
problematic situation from several perspectives, it allows the development / creation of
competencies, necessary for complex and integrative approaches. Work can be done
individually, in pairs or in small groups. People are required to think, cooperation and
team work are stimulated, solidarity and mutual aid are cultivated, social, psychological,
behavioral and affective relations are built etc.
The stages of this method correspond to the six faces of a cube, each instruction /
requirement bringing about a certain work load, invariable from an action perspective:
o Describe! – explain / define a notion or concept
o Compare! – find similarities and differences
o Explain / Associate! – what does it bring do mind?
o Bring arguments in favor or against – is it good / bad, useful / useless?
o Analyze! –conceptually, from various points of view
o Apply! – how can we apply it practically?
Because the cube method stresses activities and thinking processes involved in
acquiring content similar to those presented in Bloom’s taxonomy, we shall attempt to
apply it in formalizing learning scenarios on the microblogging platform Cirip (Grosseck,
Holotescu, 2010).
source: http://www.Cirip.ro/status/2603456
source: http://www.Cirip.ro/status/2613591
Figure 12. Digital Bloom’s taxonomy on Cirip (left / objects ; right / verbs)
75
Thus, if we combined the six faces corresponding to a category from Bloom’s
digital taxonomy for Cirip, in conformity with Rubik’s cube, we could easily obtain
various types of learning scenarios.
Evidently, there are no rules to generate a specific type of LS, but only rules to
transform it. The free forms obtained after the respective rotations could be associated
with particular types of LS, which later on could become part of a more complex and
interactive methodological inventory of student-centered learning.
Once the central mechanism is „completed”, we can start building the faces on
the six “pivots” (we know that Rubik’s cube has six faces, which include nine small
cubes, forming a total of 9*6=54 small cubes). Although each piece allows a unique
combination of colors, not all colors are present. If we associate a specific Learning
Context to each face - see figure 3, and if we assume that the 27th cube – the central
mechanism - represents the PLE microblogging atom / ground zero, we get new
formalizations which are born one out of the other. Basically we obtain a cube functioning
on self-nourishment, which polishes itself until it settles into a final / perfect / complete
shape – in an IDEAL case.
Hence, similar to Rubik’s cube which has to be perpetually rearranged in order to
reach its initial state, while designing a (certain) pattern on Cirip, the platform becomes
the scene of a heterogeneous negotiation act which varies in techniques and value, as well
as in (re)organizing the rules of creating patterns and of deriving some from others.
Although a large number of permutations can lead to a complex pattern, the difficulty of
formalizing a PLE is conditioned by certain factors of influence, out of which the most
significant are the constraints imposed by the moves.
In this context, "borrowing" the basic construction elements of the hexad pattern
of pedagogical situations developed by the Romanian researcher Petru Ioan (2005), could
provide some formalizations in building a PLE / PLN on the microblogging platform
Cirip.eu, starting from the classical Rubik’s cube.
A hexad usually symbolizes transformation, evolution. By looking at Rubik’s
cube method from this angle, we can consider it an instrument that tells us in what
direction to turn when attempting to formalize a pattern of building a PLE. In this case,
learning in itself, as the logical sequence in all possible directions, represents the center
of the cube. Since formalization can be achieved formally or informally, in this paper (in
this phase) we can refer only to the constructive, comparative and integrative aspects,
derived from Ioan’s pattern (a pattern / scenario can lead to another, they can be
compared, or certain sequences can be borrowed etc).
We shall not try to conceive a different hexad pattern for all the pedagogical
situations in which Web 2.0 technologies integrated by Cirip are present - explicit
formalization, this being the case for another paper / research. However a few months ago,
the authors have opened a group of learning design to create, discuss, analyze, evaluate,
improve, adapt, and reuse best practices in using Cirip in education. The conversation is
built around learning design objects, which can be considered meta-objects, as they reflect
scenarios for different activities on the platform (Holotescu, Grosseck, 2010), mainly for
PLE formalization.
76
5. Final remarks …
Because the aim of our research was to make a preliminary evaluation of this
new and challenging form of social learning reality, our findings only can lay the
foundation for the elaboration of further and more thorough research. However, our
explorative study leaded to several positive results. As described in the paper, the
proposed methodology could be used not only to conceptualize PLE on microblogging,
but also to formalize it. This is how we think that Rubik’s game can help in the creation /
construction of a new design instrument: coherent, spatial, simple but at the same time
complex, refined, interesting or a loss of time (depending on one’s perception of
microblogging or of being a microblogger).
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Waters, S. (2008-2010). PLN yourself. http://suewaters.wikispaces.com/Twitter.
Wilson, S. (2005) Jan 25. Future VLE – The Visual Version, blog:
http://zope.cetis.ac.uk/members/scott/entries/20050125170206;
Wheeler, S. (2010). PLE vs VLE. 23 March 2010. http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/2010/03/ple-vs-vle.html.
A brief history of PLE can be found on Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Learning_Environment.
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Non-procedural Programming in Oracle. Application:
Creating a Virtual Shop for Music Articles
Avrigeanu Ecaterina
Scoala cu clasele I-VIII, Cosereni
Abstract
The present project is expected to be a novel challenge in the field of Education,
in the Knowledge Society, at the beginning of the third millennium. In consequence,
taking myself a step forward in this exciting and changeable field, in the paragraphs below
I would very much like to present you the program, consisting of building up a virtual
shop for music articles, that could be operated without too many syntactic differences by
many computer management systems.
Keyword: articles, shop, music
Being that they are getting more powerful with each new application, Computer
Sciences are entering deeper and deeper into everyday life, affecting people’s lives to a
very large extent. The Internet, probably the most important issue when it comes to
computers, opens the gates to another world, as well as it may sometimes, fortunately or
not, create new ones. However, it is already a fact that the virtual Marketing is nowadays a
must for all brands, as little or as big, if they want to become successful. In the context of
the development of the Informational Society, a significant number of concepts, which
were known once only by specialists, have become familiar to a larger number of
technology users. Nowadays, the widespread development of the databases involved in
the consolidation of the Informational Systems is more than just obvious.
For students, the application may represent a model through which they could put
in practice the knowledge and the skills they acquired in the management of economic
units from their curriculum. But the application could also represent a good example of
business, for any entrepreneur.
The non-procedural manner provided by the SQL query does not need to specify
how to reach data, but how to describe them. In this respect, to better highlight the
complexity of the application, I have chosen to manage the activities of the virtual shop as
follows. The shop offers for sale CDs, music instruments, and other several music
products and accessories. The application was created with Oracle Application Express
and therefore launches in execution in an internet browser. The principal Tab Set permits
the access to sets of pages (one for each table of the database), each of them consisted of a
report and a form for filling in data. The home page includes the presentation of the
project as well as a dictionary with music terms. Furthermore, the application permits the
user to introduce in the company database all the necessary data to be managed. It also
Avrigeanu Ecaterina/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
offers the possibility of managing products and the existent stocks in the shop, of getting
to know the loyal customers and the employees, and also provides users with very useful
information on how to purchase receipts for the products they have requested.
Additionally, the application allows the access to information about several other
activities on the website: the calendar of sales, the accounted receipts, wages, and about
the activities of each customer.
I created the application described above for my dissertation thesis this year:
“Non-procedural programming in ORACLE. Application: A Virtual Shop for Music
Articles”, which I presented this year, when completing my Postgraduate studies in
Computer Sciences Specialization at the Technical University of Civil Engineering
Bucharest, in the Department for Teacher Training, and which I look forward to
presenting it further to all those interested, with or without experience, personally
considering it to be an exciting and significant step one could take to access the wonderful
world of Computer Sciences.
1. Description of the application
The application is made with Oracle Application Express and it is launched in
execution into an internet browser.
The main tab set allows access to sets of pages (one for each table from the data
base) constituted from a report and a form for introducing data.
The main page (home page) contains the presentation of the project theme, and
also a dictionary of musical terms. To use the dictionary, the term is selected from the list
and the result will be displayed in the “Term explanation” section.
Figure 1. Home page
The dictionary may be improved by adding new musical terms. Pressing the
“Add” button the form for introducing terms will be accessed.
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Figure 2. Adding musical terms
The “Tools” tab allows you to see as a report the content of the “MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS” table, and also access at the associated form, either for creating a new
registration or for editing a registration.
Figure 3. Musical instruments
To create a new registration in this table – press the Create button, and the
editing (modification or deletion) can be done pressing the Edit button in the respective
row from the report.
Figure 4. Editing musical instruments
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To delete the registration – press the Delete button, and to modify, press the
“Apply changes” button. The
“CDs” tab determines the display of the CDs table’s report.
Figure 5. CDs table’s Report
To introduce a new CD into the data base or to edit an existing one I created a
Master-detail page, because a CD contains many arias or musical tracks (there is a l-n
relation between CDs tables and Arias _Tracks).
In the previous page, after a registration was introduced into the CDs tables, in
the detail area (Arias Tracks Detail) the tracks or arias are introduced, one by one,
accessing the Add row button.
The “Other products” tab allows you to see as a report all the products that exist
in the shop, which aren’t CDs or musical instruments. The form for introducing,
modifying or deleting.
Figure 6. Introducing, modifying or deleting other products
Notice the asterisk marking of the mandatory fields (to which it was associated a
NOT NULL constraint in the table. The “Employees” tab accesses the report obtained
from the Employees table.
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Picture 7. Report from Employees table
The form for creating/editing registrations - associated to the same table.
Figure 8. The form for creating/editing registrations in the Employees table
In this form, as you can see, all the fields are mandatory (it is compulsory to
receive values), and the Date_of_birth field is introduced using a date picker element.
Figure 9. The fields of the Employees table
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The “Receipts” tab allows you to see the existent receipts in the shop’s data
base.For each receipt it is known the registration date, the code of the employee who
created it, eventualy (not mandatory) the client’s code and the overall price.
Notice the selection of the employee and the client from the corresponding
selection lists. For the date and time of the receipt’s creation a date picker element was
used to allow it.
The “Wages” tab accesses a page which presents the wages of the employees
during the employment period. So, the report allows you to follow the evolution of the
income’s situation for each employee.
The report page offers access to the form, either to introduce new rows into the
“Wages” table (the Create button), or to modify/delete rows (the edit button fron each row
of the report).
To manage the employees schedule the application contains the “Schedule” tab.
The accessed report contains data about the daily schedule of each employee (the
employee identifies himself with his ID).
This is the form.
Figure 10. The schedule form
To introduce/edit data from this table, you can choose an employee (if
necessary) from the dynamic selection list, the day from a static selection list and you fill
in the rest of the data (the begining and the end of the schedule).
Figure
11.
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Introducing/editing data in the Schedule table
In case a customer is a regular (constant buyer), his registration can be done into
the shop’s data base, in order for him to obtain gratuities or a gift offered by the shop
when a certain number of points is acquired. To administrate the regulars the “Clients” tab
was created. The report page contains the name and a way to contact the respective
client ( telephone number, e-mail address etc.). The form for introducing data from the
Clients table.
The “Products lists” tab makes the connection with the report page of the table
with the same name. Notice the connection between receipt (identified through ID) and
the products list of that receipt. The products are identified by type and code (ID). The
introducing form allows adding products on a receipt. The receipt will be selected from a
descending list, according to the date and time at which they were emitted (so, the last
receipt introduced into the data base will be first in the selection list). Because of the
check constraint associated with the table, once you choose a type of product , you will fill
in only the corresponding field (for example, if you choose a product type ,,musical
instrument”, you will have to select from the list a musical instrument and you won’t fill
in the other fields – for CDs or Other product). In case this rule is not respected, the
Oracle server will generate an error message.
If the rule is respected, the operation will be successfully executed. After
introducing a new product on the receipt, the overall price of the receipt will be updated
by pressing the ,,Update receipt” button. The updating process associated with this receipt
will have the source. The editing of the process .
2. The situations
The “Situations” page presents a list of links to pages containing information
extracted from complex questioning of the data base (data from many tables, between
which junctions, calendars, charts were established). The editing of the process.
Figure 12. Situations and reports
The sales calendar presents, day by day, all the receipts emitted. The scrolling
through the calendar is done using the Next and Previous buttons.
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The receipts record presents a report about the date and time the receipts were
emitted at, about the name of the employee who emitted each receipt, about the cost and
the client for who they were emitted.
Figure 13. The receipts record
Notice that the data was extracted from the Receipts, Employees and Clients
tables, junctions being established between them.
The Wages chart offers data about the employees and their wages. The filling
percentage is given by the amount of the salary. The employees wages presents the
income’s evolution for each employee.
The “Receipt printing” page allows you to see the existent products on every
receipt. The receipt’s selection is made using a selection list.
Figure 14. Receipts list
The result of the selection will be the display of the products by category on the
chosen receipt.
3. Conclusions
The application allows you to introduce into the company’s data base all the
necessary data for its administration. This way you have the possibility to manage the
products (musical instruments, CDs, other products) and the supply existent in the shop,
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the possibility to know the constant customers, the employees and the necessary data for
each, and to make purchase receipts by selecting from a list the products you need.
The application also allows you to obtain centralizing situations, like: The sales
calendar, The receipts record, The wages chart, The employees wages, the receipts
situation per employee. Receipt printing.
As for the development directions, there is the possibility to increase the data
base security by differential connecting for different types of users (account creation and
due passwords), the possibility for the data base operators to introduce and edit the data
(introducing/editing data from many tables at the same time), to design a system of
gratuities/bonuses/gifts for the loyal clients, the possibility to print the receipts or other
situations and reports.
References
Fotache, M., (2005), Data bases design. Normalization and post normalization. SQL and Oracle
Implementation, (pp 2-3), Polirom Publishing house
Masalagiu, C., (2001), Methodology for teaching computer science, (pp 54, 65, 72), Matrixrom Publishing house
Oracle 9i Database Reference (www.oracle.com).
Oracle Academy Database programming with SQL ( pp 13-18, pp 56)
Popescu, I. and colaborators, (2004), Advanced Programming in Oracle 9i, (pp 62-63), Technical Publishing
house, Bucharest
Postelnicu, C., (2002), Main concepts of the school didactics, (pp 34-36), Aramis Publishing house, Bucharest
87
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Optimized Development of ICT Competences to the Future
Teachers of Biology and Ecology
Gabriela-Paula Petruţa
Univerity of Piteşti
Abstract
Taking into consideration the modernization of education, is necessary that
during the third year of university studies, within the disciplines contained by the
education plan of the Department for Teacher’s Training, such as Computer assisted
education and Pedagogical practice, carried out in gymnasium during two semesters, ICT
competences needed by the future teachers of Biology and Ecology to be formed. For
knowing the level of ICT competences formed at the students from pedagogical
perspective, an empirical research was done, based on the questionnaire method. The
questionnaire was filled in by the students after the first, and respectively after the second
pedagogical practice they have done. We consider that the mode of organization and
realization of activities during the didactical activities carried out within the Computer
assisted training and pedagogical practice, influences the formation of ICT competences
of the students from pedagogical perspective, but this influence depends on the personal
factors, such as: the interest of student for using ICT within lesson, the equipping of the
student with own computer, and the frequency of use the computer for designing the
lesson, as well as on the external factors, such as: the number of hours per week
programmed for studying Biology, the number of pupils from class, and pupil’s individual
and age particularities.
Keywords: future teachers, ICT competences from pedagogical perspective,
pedagogical practice, computer
Introduction
The activities corresponding the subjects from the education plan of the
Department for Teacher’s Training, carried out by the students in faculty, represents an
adequate frame of forming the set of general competences mentioned by the National
standard for the profession of teacher, developed by the Ministry of Education:
methodological competences, communication and relational competences, scholar’s
evaluation competences, psycho-social, technological and career’s management
competences.
Nowadays, a great importance is given to the formation of ICT competences to
both the teachers and future teachers. In the publications, there are numerous points of
Gabriela-Paula Petruţa/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
view on ICT competences of teachers. For example, Eck et al. mentioned the following
ICT competences:
a) the use of hardware;
b) the use of software;
c) the use of ICT in the learning process and the coaching of the students;
d) the use of ICT in the neighborhood of the teaching;
e) the use of ICT in further professionalization (Eck et al., 2002).
Zwaneveld and Bastiaens mentioned and defined six ICT competences of the
teacher:
1. the individual media competence - is the effective use of software and
hardware in teaching;
2. the critical media competence - is to be able to select critically appropriate
media to support the teaching learning process;
3. the life long learning competence - is also the extension in the teacher’s
repertoire of available media for supporting learning processes;
4. the competence to guide teaching-learning in order to get a successful
completion for students;
5. the competence to design of teaching - learning arrangements - is the
competence to be able to design and develop materials and ways of working with the new
media;
6. The technical media competence - is the skilled use of the media (Zwaneveld
and Bastiaens, 2008).
In Japan, the criteria of teacher ICT competence made public by Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), in 2007, consists of five
categories:
a) ability to use ICT in researching, preparing, and assessing teaching materials;
b) ability to use ICT when teaching in the classroom;
c) ability to teach students how to use ICT;
d) ability to teach ethical ICT behaviour;
e) ability to use ICT for school-related matters (Shimizu et al., 2008).
In the UNESCO ICT Competency Standards for Teachers (UNESCO, 2008), it is
emphasized that the teacher skills regarding ICT are: “Teachers must know basic
hardware and software operations, as well as productivity applications software, a web
browser, communications software, presentation software, and management applications”
(UNESCO, 2008, p.11). This document offer guidance to both the future teachers and the
present teachers. There are mentioned that the “Changes in pedagogical practice involve
the use of various technologies, tools, and e-content as part of whole class, group, and
individual student activities.”, and “The technologies involved in this approach include
the use of computers along with productivity software; drill and practice, tutorial, and web
content; and the use of networks for management purposes”. Thus, the future teachers,
must know “how, where and when to use the technologies (and also when should not use)
for class activities and presentations, [...] for obtaining supplementary information related
to the content of their subject and pedagogical knowledge which can support their
professional development”. In this way is aiming at the development of their
“technological alphabetization” (UNESCO, 2008, p. 8).
89
At present, the endowment of schools with computers, laptops, video projectors,
television sets, the organized informatics rooms and instalation of AeL platform, created
favorable conditions for the use of modern technologies within the didactical activities
carried out with the pupils in all school disciplines. Taking into consideration the
modernization of education, is necessary that during the third year of university studies,
within the disciplines contained by the education plan of the Department for Teacher’s
Training, such as Computer-assisted education and Pedagogical practice, ICT
competences needed by the future teachers of Biology and Ecology to be formed.
2. Research problem and objectives
The aim of our research was to establish the level of formation ICT competences
needed by the future teachers of Biology and Ecology for designing the lessons and
realizing some didactical activities during the pedagogical practice carried out in
gymnasium, in order to optimize their formation and development.
The main objectives of this research were the following:
o establishment of the mode of organization and realization of activities during
the didactical activities carried out within the Computer assisted training and
pedagogical practice;
o evaluation of the level of formation ICT competences from pedagogical
perspective;
o identification of some factors which have influenced the formation of ICT
competences
o evaluation of the level of students’ formation for using ICT in designing the
lesson plan and carrying out the lesson.
The starting hypothesis was the following: the mode of organization and
realization of activities during the didactical activities carried out within the Computer
assisted training and pedagogical practice, influences the formation of ICT competences
of the students from pedagogical perspective, but this influence depends on the personal
factors, such as: the interest of student for using ICT within lesson, the equipping of the
student with own computer, and the frequency of use the computer for designing the
lesson, as well as on the external factors, such as: the number of hours per week
programmed for studying Biology, the number of pupils from class, and pupil’s individual
and age particularities in a certain class.
3. Research setting, design and methods
For knowing the level of ICT competences formed at the students from
pedagogical perspective, an empirical research was done, based on the questionnaire
method and conversation. The questionnaire was filled in by the students after the first,
and respectively after the second pedagogical practice they have done. The questionnaire
elaborated for the students contained questions concerning the training of students for
designing the lesson plan within the seminaries of Computer-assisted training, the training
of students for designing and carrying out the lessons within the pedagogical practice (the
disciplines to which lessons were given during the first and the second pedagogical
practice, sources of information used for designing the lesson plan, the moments of
lessons in which they used the computer and didactic methods associated with the content
90
of their own materials realized by using the computer and used during the AeL lessons),
the interest of students for using ICT within the lessons, and factors which have
influenced the formation of ICT competences. Also, the questionnaire contained a rating
for self-appreciation of the level of ICT competences from pedagogical perspective. The
data obtained from the students by applying the questionnaire, were completed with those
obtained following discussions carried out with the mentor-teachers, concerning the
students formation for using ICT in designing and carrying out the lessons.
The population sample used in this research included 41 students, in the third
year of study, at the University of Piteşti, Faculty of Sciences, in the academic year 2009
– 2010, and 3 mentor-teachers to whom the students were distributed to carry out the
pedagogical practice. The population sample included 17 students in Biology and 27
students in Ecology and environment protection.
4. Results and discussion
Within the seminaries of Computer-assisted training, carried out during the latter
semester of their third year of study, the future teachers have been learning how to use the
computer as didactic tool, for supplementary information, for realizing own materials, for
projection of didactic activities, for electronic communication, but also as a teaching
mean, when an educational software is used. They have learned individually or sometimes
in groups of 2 students, how to use Microsoft Office Word, Microsoft Office PowerPoint,
Microsoft Office Excel and the Internet, and how to teach by incorporating modern
technologies in didactic activities. Thus, the students have learned how to create their own
material for oral verification of the knowledge, for communicating new contents, for
fixation of the knowledge, for testing the level of understanding of the new knowledge by
the school children and how to associate the content of own materials with different
didactical methods. The activity of the students can be guided step by step by the teacher,
or only partially guided, when the intervention of the teacher is only rarely needed. All the
students have realized their own material for presenting information, in the case of one
lesson studied on Biology in gymnasium, by using Microsoft PowerPoint or some
multimedia facilities and taking into account the age particularities of pupils.
Within the first pedagogical practice, the students in Biology have been teaching
notions of zoology, human anatomy and physiology, and ecology, and the students in
Ecology and environment protection have been teaching notions of botany and ecology.
Within the second pedagogical practice, the students in Biology have been teaching
notions of botany, and human anatomy and physiology, and the students in Ecology and
environment protection have been teaching notions of zoology, and ecology.
In designing the lesson plan, all the practicant students have used mainly the
content of the themes from Biology manuals as primary source of information.
Subsequently, for getting supplementary information, during the first semester the
students have used the following sources: specialty books (17.07% from the students),
specialty atlases (12.19% from the students), texts from the Internet sites (70.73% from
the students), and images from the Internet sites (78.04 % from the students). In the
second semester, they have used the same sources of information, as follows: specialty
books (19.51% from the students), specialty atlases (36.58% from the students), texts
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from the Internet sites (73.17% from the students), images from the Internet sites (87.80%
from the students) and AeL collection of interactive lessons (24.39 % from the students).
During the first pedagogical practice, 29.26% of the practicant students have
used own materials prepared in PowerPoint and 2.43% from them have used the
interactive lessons offered by the AeL software. The presentations realized in PowerPoint
by the practicant students, comprising texts and/or images have been used for the
formation to the pupils of the scientific concepts specific to all the biological sciences
studied as disciplines in gymnasium. The AeL interactive lessons have been used only for
transmitting knowledge of human anatomy and physiology. During the second
pedagogical practice, 70.73% of them have used their own materials carried out in
PowerPoint, out of which 65.85% within the lessons for communicating new knowledge,
and 4.87% within the recapitulation lessons and 24.39 % from the students from them
have used the interactive lessons offered by the AeL software.
Other aspects considered by application of the questionnaire referred to moments
of the lesson in which the students have used the computer and didactical methods
associated to the content of realized and presented materials.
During the first pedagogical practice, we found that the presentations realized in
PowerPoint by the practicant students have been used within the lessons of
communicating new knowledge, as follows:
a) for the psychological preparation of the pupils for acquiring new contents and
communicating the new contents, by 9.75% from the students;
b) for communicating new contents, by 19.51% from the students.
During the second pedagogical practice, we found that the presentations realized
in PowerPoint by the practicant students, have been used within the lessons of
communicating new knowledge, as follows:
a) for oral verification of the knowledge the pupils acquired from the previous
lesson, and the communication of new contents, by the 9.75% from the students;
b) for the psychological preparation of the pupils for acquiring new contents and
communicating the new contents, by 19.51% from the students;
c) for communicating new contents, by 14.63% from the students;
d) for communicating new contents and fixation of knowledge, by 26.82% from
the students.
In comparison to the first pedagogical practice, in the second one the students
have used more frequently their own materials in various types of lessons and in different
moments of the lessons.
By analysing the answers of students, during the second pedagogical practice, as
compared to the first pedagogical practice, was found an increase from 2.43% to 24.39 %
of the students who have used the interactive lessons offered by the AeL software. If
during the first semester the AeL interactive lessons were used only for transmitting
knowledges of human anatomy and physiology, during the second semester they were
used also for transmitting notions specific to all biology sciences teached by the students.
Concerning the didactical methods which the students have associated to the
content of presentations made using the computer and Internet, and presented by using the
either the computer/laptop and the video projector in various types of lessons or in
different moments of the lessons, as shown in Table 1., we found that a diversity of
didactical methods have been used. Moreover, the practicant students proved originality in
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creating their own presentations for lessons and also in applying certain methods of
teaching. In the case of AeL interactive lessons, the practicant students have used
conversation, and sometimes explanation.
Table 1. Association of didactical methods with the content of materials realized
and presented by students within the lessons
The lesson’s stage in which computer
was used
Didactical methods
Lesson for communication/acquiring new knowledge
1. verification of knowledge
1.a. conversation
2. psychological preparation of the
2.a.conversation
pupils for receiving new contents
2.b. problem-solving
3.a. explanation,
demonstration,
observation,
3. communication/acquiring new
conversation
Contents
3.b. observation,
conversation,
learning by discovery,
explanation
3.c. observation,
conversation,
problem-solving,
explanation
4. knowledge fixation
4. conversation
Recapitulation and systematization lesson
1. recapitulation of the content based on 1. conversation,
an established plan
explanation
First pedagogical
practice
Students (%)
Second
pedagogical
practice
Students (%)
0.00
7.31
2.43
21.95
9.25
14.63
4.87
29.26
4.87
12.19
2.43
4.87
0.00
26.82
0.00
4.87
Knowing the level of ICT competences from pedagogical perspective formed to
students from the third (last) year of studies in the Faculty of Sciences (Table 2), present a
great importance for the university professors and mentor-teachers, in order to optimize
their formation and development. It must be mentioned that some of these competences
were formed within the seminaries of Computer-assisted training, carried out during the
second semester of the third year of studies.
Table 2. The level of ICT competences from pedagogical perspective, established
following students self-estimation
Category of competences/
Specific competences
1. Global competences
to reflect on the impact of new technologies on
professional formation
to reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of using
ICT in didactical activities with the pupils
2. Cognitive competences
to operate correctly with the terms specific to ICT
3. Procedural competences
First
pedagogical
practice
a%
b%
c%
Second
pedagogical
practice
a%
b%
c%
0.00
21.95
78.04
0.00
0.00
100
0.00
17.07
82.92
0.00
0.00
100
0.00
19.51
80.48
0.00
4.87
95.12
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to look for supplementary information about the content
of the teached discipline, by using the Internet
to appreciate correctly the informational contents which
can be efficiently teached by using the computer
to realize their own material for presenting information,
taking into account the age particularities of pupils
to realize presentation of information by using Microsoft
PowerPoint or some multimedia facilities
to associate the content of own materials with different
didactical methods
to use the own presentation within the lesson
to use the AeL educational software on the whole
duration of a lesson, or on a limited duration
to designing the lesson plan in such way to involve the
use of own materials prepared by the aid of computer
to use e-mailing
4. Attitudinal - behavioral competences
to assume responsibilities concerning their own
professional development;
to adopt a flexible attitudine in communication mediated
by computer, within the students group.
0.00
12.19
87.80
0.00
0.00
100
7.31
21.95
70.73
2.43
4.87
92.68
7.31
19.51
73.17
2.43
4.87
92.68
48.78
19.51
31.70
2.43
4.87
92.68
19.51
19.51
70.73
2.43
4.87
92.68
39.02
48.78
29.26
19.51
31.70
31.70
4.87
9.75
9.75
12.19
85.36
78.04
17.07
21.95
60.97
0.00
7.31
92.68
0.00
12.19
87.80
0.00
0.00
100
9.75
12.19
78.04
4.87
4.87
90.24
7.31
24.39
68.29
4.87
12.19
82.92
a – to a very small extent;
b – to a certain extent;
c – to the highest extent (from Petruţa et al., 2010)
Concerning the interest of students in using ICT within the lessons at the end of
first pedagogical practice, 51.21% of them prefer to use the computer as support for
teaching based on their own materials, 12.19% prefer to use the AeL interactive lessons,
while 17.07% did not want to use the computer and ICT within the lessons. At the end of
the second pedagogical practice, 78.04% of them prefer to use the computer as support for
teaching based on their own materials, 14.63% prefer to use the AeL interactive lessons,
while 7.31% did not want to use the computer and ICT within the lessons. At the end of
first pedagogical practice, 51.21% from the students considered that it is easier to use the
computer as support for teaching, using their own materials, than using AeL lessons, the
reason being that in the case when only one hour is allocated to that discipline is difficult
for the other students who are following them to practise teaching, to return to notions
which proves to be not enough understood by the pupils. Also, they considered that it is
very difficult to use the AeL lessons for transmitting notions at the pupils from 5th class,
owing to pupil’s individual and age particularities, and, also, for teaching from biggest
classes, because too many pupils must work with a single computer.
The students must design the lesson plan, during a week before they have carried
out that lesson. Regarding to the possibility of use the own computer for designing the
lesson plan and the frequency of use, we found that only 60.97% from the students had
their own computer-laptop. During the first pedagogical practice, 36.58% from the
students have used daily ICT, 24.39% from the students have used 2-3 time a week,
19.51% from the students have used ICT once time a week and 17.07% from the students
never have used ICT. During the second pedagogical practice, 48.78% from the students
have used daily ICT, 39.02% from the students have used 2-3 time a week and 12.19%
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from the students have used ICT once time a week, within the seminaries of Computerassisted training.
Analyzing the data obtained from discussions between the 3 mentor-teachers,
concerning the students’ formation for using ICT in designing the lesson plan and
carrying out the lesson, there can be identified eight types of students (Table 2).
Table 2. The methodic formation of the students
Types of students
very well prepared students for using ICT in designing the lesson plan
very well prepared students for using ICT in carrying out the lesson
well prepared students for using ICT in designing the lesson plan
well prepared students for using ICT in carrying out the lesson
satisfactory prepared students for using ICT in designing the lesson plan
satisfactory prepared students for using ICT in carrying out the lesson
unsatisfactory prepared students for using ICT in designing the lesson
plan
unsatisfactory prepared students for using ICT in carrying out the lesson
First
pedagogical
practice
Students (%)
60.97
17.07
14.63
14.63
4.87
0
17.07
Second
pedagogical
practice
Students (%)
75.60
70.73
19.51
21.95
4.87
4.87
0
68.29
2.43
5. Conclusions
Analyzing the mode of carrying out the two pedagogical practice stages and the
students self-evaluation, we consider that the seminaries of Computer-assisted training
and the mode of carrying out the second pedagogical practice has contributed to the
formation to a great extent of the procedural competences to the most students (the
percentages ranging between 31.70% and 87.80% within the first pedagogical practice,
and between 78.04% and 100% within the second one), and to some extent of the
attitudinal - behavioral competences. Analyzing the students self-evaluation and the data
obtained from discussions between the 3 mentor-teachers, we identified four groups of
students: conscious and ICT uncompetent in designing the lesson plan (17.07 from the
students within the first pedagogical practice); conscious and ICT uncompetent in
carrying out the lesson (68.29 % from the students within the first pedagogical practice,
and 2.43% from the students within the second pedagogical practice); conscious and ICT
competent in designing the lesson plan (82.92% from the students within the first
pedagogical practice, and 97.56% from the students within the second pedagogical
practice) and conscious and ICT competent in carrying out the lesson (31.70% from the
students within the first pedagogical practice, and 97.56% from the students within the
second pedagogical practice). Concerning the factors which have influenced the formation
of ICT competences, we consider that the equipping of the students with their own
computer, and the increase both the students interest in using ICT, as well as the
frequency of use the computer after the first pedagogical practice, have contributed to
extent of the level of ICT competences from pedagogical perspective, during the second
semester. The external factors have limited the formation of the competence needed for
using the AeL educational software. We consider that the formation of ICT competences
to the future teachers of Biology and Ecology can be optimize by studying the discipline
Computer-assisted training during the first semester, concomitantly with the first stage of
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pedagogical practice and, also, by encouraging the cooperation among the students who
are using ICT in teaching and the other students, who are avoiding to use their own
material for presenting informational content of the lesson.
References
Eck, E. van, Volman, M., Kraan, A., Dijk, E. (2002). Ontwikkeling van ICT-competenties van docenten, Een
reviewstudie, SCO-Kohnstamm Instituut, Amsterdam. ifbm.fernunihagen.de/.../ICT%20
competences%20of%20the%20teacher_def.pdf
Petruţa, G.P., Soare, E., Dănescu, E. (2010). Perspectives on future teachers of science ICT competences
formation, paper presented to the 13th International Conference “ICT in the education of the balcan
countries”, june 17-19, Varna, Bulgaria.
Shimizu, Y., Yamamoto, T., Yokoyama, T., Koizumi, R., Horita, T. (2008). Grouping of teacher’s competences
using ICT by factor analisys. ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110007004872
Zwaneveld, B., Bastiaens, T. (2008). ICT competences of the teacher: About supporting learning and teaching
processes with the use of ICT. ifbm.fernunihagen.de/.../ICT%20
competences%20of%20the%20teacher_def.pdf
*** UNESCO. (2008).ICT Competency Standards for Teachers. Paris: UNESCO. unesdoc.
unesco.org/images/0015/001562/156207e.pdf
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Social Software In Teaching
Lazar Stosica, Radenko S. Kruljb
a
College for pre-school teachers, Serbia
Abstract
The application of ICT with all the rapid application of scientific knowledge in
practice greatly facilitates the process of communication between people. In distance
education appears a new trend of social interaction (the so-called “web-learning” systems)
with the support of social software and tools for management of personal social networks
on the Internet. Development of Web has brought many new tools and services - such as
blog, wiki, podcast and other social software - to support creation of ad-hoc learning
communities. In this context, students are active participants to share ideas, solve open
issues, using different sources of information and jointly create new knowledge.
Keywords: social software; e-learning; blog; wiki; podcast.
1. Social software
The process of learning is not a passive process of receiving knowledge but an
active process in which the student builds knowledge, control learning strategies and
thereby increases the level of their knowledge. As in classical learning and electronic
learning there was a need to implement these pedagogical elements. Thus, at the
beginning of the twentieth century, e-learning enables and promotes the active role of
students in the process of teaching, group learning and delivery of multimedia materials in
a variety of platforms (PC, mobile phone). Through e-learning expands the potential use
of a combination of learning tools. The first and most primitive form of the use of these
tools, reported in the United States at numerous universities, the e-mail. This type of use is
still used despite the wide range of social software. E-mail teachers submitted student text
and multimedia lessons, with no burden to follow students as they study these materials.
E-mail in our lives has its role in personal communication, because today could not
imagine using the Internet without this kind of tool. E-mail is often confused with elearning, although it is a special kind of learning.
One of the most used social software tools that carry two-way sound and video
(Skype, Windows messenger) are used as free and available for all video conference 1-1,
where there are opportunities for the installation of specialized servers for videoconferencing. These tools are a good complement to individualized instruction at a
distance, which is rarely seen in our educational practice, as well as classes for people
with special needs.
Lazar Stosica, Radenko S. Krulj/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
In previous teaching role of teachers is mainly down to the lectures and the
occasional control of knowledge. In traditional teaching the teacher is the main subject of
the teaching process and student belonged to object functions. The teacher should of
independence, advice and assist students to make faster progress. The student receives
information from the teacher as the centred of events, which feedback provides
information about mastered the subject matter.
In higher education institutions use social software is that the student is the
central subject of the teaching process. Student need to be adapted methods and teaching,
ways of communication, evaluation, feedback and overall interaction, both between
teachers and students and among students themselves.
The application of social software in e-education students is important for the
following reasons:
o The need for socializing,
o Collaborations,
o Teamwork,
o Sense of belonging to the group – team,
o Receiving and providing assistance,
o The possibility of comparing your own knowledge with others,
o Review of personal opinions, beliefs and estimates,
o Common tasks, problem solving and decision making,
o The creation of personal social networks.
Previous systems for e-learning were more focused presentation of content,
training and knowledge test. Today, with the use of social software, increases the need for
collaboration and socializing among students.
Tools that are typically included in that category (blog, wiki, podcast) have the
following characteristics:
o Easy to use,
o Free of charge or cheap,
o Use the web as a platform,
o Provide new and often very rich forms of interaction,
o Web 2.0.
What social software does the phenomenon of the modern Internet is the creation
of communities around the use of tools and exchange resources:
o On-line community
o "Community learning" is a social structure that provides an interface
between what is taught with the interaction between learners and their
teachers,
o Community learning is available for individuals at any time, 24 hours a day,
365 days a year
o Community learning is often associated with the cooperative and active
learning, team teaching and interdisciplinary topics and approaches.
o Community learning support teachers in improving their practices in several
ways:
o Let them share experiences with the spatial and temporal remote colleagues,
o Allow them to overcome isolation and inability to self-promotion,
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o
Allow them to overcome their personal prejudices and help them in their
personal progress,
o Allow them to freely experiment ideas and actions that they intend to
introduce into their teaching practice, • give them feedback on what you are
practicing,
o Encourage new way of learning,
o Further improve handling and use of social software.
The power of social software and display their power and can be reflected in
projects such as Google Reader, Flickr, You Tube, Del.icio.us, Last.fm, Wordpress,
Technorati, Yahoo Pipes ...
Logo Skype
Logo MSN Messenger
Figure 1: Logo
2. LMS
LMS - systems are complex tools that enable controlled distribution of
multimedia lessons and tests, to all or only selected students enrolled in distance education
course, follow-up study of lessons or achievement tests, and their record in the database of
students' achievement. Overcoming the limitations of only two-way communication
between teachers and students (teacher sends educational materials and an explanation for
their study, a student teacher sent their papers and done assignments and tests) and the
extension of LMS for the group obtained by adding a learning forum. Forums allow the
exchange of text and multimedia messages in the group. A good feature of the forum is
that the operator may perform a selection of display materials, and the teacher can make
the selection as to form a working group. This is important because, as the teacher and
students, I will not waste time on uninterested members, who will report and write simply
to be active and present. All this would not be a problem in small groups. On some forums
there are groups and members who exceed the numbers (number of members in the group)
and even a few hundred thousand. If anyone was unnecessarily active, losing to the
meaning of the forum and nobody, at this time, there is so much time to read all kinds of
messages. Since they are not done through distribution of educational materials, forums
serve as a supplement to other tools (typically just LMS-in).
3. Wikipedia
Wikipedia is a great “virtual library” to obtain a wide distribution of educational
content. Wikipedia in Serbian language was created 16th in February 2003. year. On
11/20/2009. The Serbian Wikipedia has received 100,000. article.
Serbian Wikipedia is the biggest number of articles South Slavic Wikipedia and
Wikipedia on the list of currently occupies 30th place. 22nd April 2003. the English
language it is (only the main page) translated mostly anonymous user, possibly from
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Freiburg in Germany, and on 24 May Nikola Smolenski completed translation. Articles
were initially written in Cyrillic only. From March 3 2006. has introduced software that
convert text from Cyrillic to Latin and vice versa, and the Latin alphabet became equally.
Figure 2: The picture from the site Wikipedia
Serbian edition of Wikipedia is 2007th and 2008. found in the list of 50 best
websites in the Serbian language in the selection of journals PC-Press.
Articles for this encyclopaedia can write all the citizens of the world (is done
checking the accuracy of the article), and Wikipedia is the biggest and best example of a
group designed educational content, which are constantly upgrading and all available for
review and amendment. Tool that makes Wikipedia - Wikipedia, available for educational
use and in small groups, and the topics that are narrower than the world encyclopaedia. A
typical use of wikis in education is the development of the project group of students on the
topic selected by the teacher in collaboration with students. Wiki students then enter your
thoughts and facts discovered in the course of the project, the collaboration network build
each others knowledge, ask new questions and respond to them. As each project with
students, wiki project should be limited and subject to certain pre-duration of the project, a
teacher should follow the wiki managing their contributions and issues.1
4. Web log - blog
Web log, or blog weblog a series of chronologically organized text input, which
are displayed on the website. The data is sorted from the newest entries to the elderly.
The term web log was coined by Jorn Barger, author of the blog Robot Wisdom
(http://www.robotwisdom.com), 1997. year. Shorter version, “blog” is the work of Peter
Merholz's (http://www.peterme.com), which in 1999. on his blog wrote, “we blog”. Using
the spread in 1999, where the word was further popularized by the advent of the first
hosted weblog tool Blogger, a company called Pyra Labs.
1
http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki
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Figure 3: Web log
Such Web pages often looks like a log. A blog is a Web page that contains brief
excerpts, pieces of information, referred to as entries. They are in the form of analysis,
criticism and opinions, of experiences, emotions and views, which one wants to share with
others. A large part of the blog allows its visitors to write their comments. In this way,
creating small communities that discuss the topics that the blog concerned. That's why
blogs have evolved over time into a widespread means of communication on the Internet,
between the author (and group of authors) and reviews blog. Blog makes it easier to
communicate than on the forums or by e-mail. It allows everyone to simple way express
an opinion on the Internet, without any special technical knowledge. Each entry is
uniquely marked by an anchor and link, so it may be linked, (registered) to others.
The importance of the blog is in the following: one can make the script encoding
to be used for your blog, or to use already existing and modify it according to their needs.
However, the real value of the blog is that it is possible to simply create and maintain a
blog using existing services, without any technical knowledge.
Use your blog as a supplement to teaching, in the form of project learning, it is
very similar to the use of wikis. The difference between the wiki (which is focused on the
topic) and a blog that is organized chronologically (a blog is an original Web log - Web
log, in chronological entries that are thinking that need not be on the same topic), the
initial assumption that wiki allows access restrictions unlike the open-access blog, is
slowly losing. A weblog is a word derived from the words Web and log. The term
blogging (blogging) refers to writing a blog, and software used on this occasion received
the name blogver (blog ware).
According to the Wikipedia site, the first blogs were created in Serbia in 2003.
year. According to information from the same site, according to research companies Focus
November 2007th year, over 8 percent of the population in Serbia following blogs. It is
estimated that in Serbia until end of 2007. there were over 10,000 blogs, and by the end of
2008. year over 20,000 blogs. Serbia is a country that in the region has the most blogs of
independent web addresses.
Photo blog2 is a form to share photos (en. photo sharing), and electronic
publishing (electronic publishing en.) in the format of a blog, but it is different from the
dominant focus on photographs rather than text. Photo blogging (activity send photos
photo blog) has experienced popularity in the early 2000s through their service and Mob
log camera phone.
2
http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/
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5. Podcast
Name of the podcast is a compound word POD (Personal on Demand) and
broadcast an English word (broadcast). It is a digital file containing audio or audio-video
recording. Records from these files are distributed via the Internet using RSS technology.
The role and purpose of podcast is watching or listening to audio-visual material on a
portable media (computer, portable digital player).
Figure 4: Podcast
When we say podcast, usually up to now, was thought to listen to the audio file,
usually in mp3 format. Recently, under the podcast view video usually refers to material
that is on the Internet. Another name for the video podcast is vidcast. People involved in
podcasting, called podcasters. According to recorded data, it is considered that the first
podcast (“The End of Days”) was founded 31st November 2003. year. His rise and glory
of the podcast has received in late 2004. year. According to statistics from the website
www.infinitedial.com/marketing/, we can see the demographic and customer use.
Figure 5: Statistics show usage Podcast
Podcast is the new way to distribute audio and video content - signing
(subscription) on a particular topic, and logging in to the podcast automatically receive
new contributions in the exact interval (daily, weekly, monthly ...). Similarly, with
subscription to RSS feeds, which automatically receive text message or photo information
on the desired topic? Teacher (or groups of teachers) can make non-formal education
project by students create a RSS feed of interesting things in his case, in the form of only
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a few sentences or a single photo a day (or week), which will act inspiring the students to
independently study topic for which there is no place in the regular curriculum (and that
can be delivered to your computer or mobile phone to students). The same goes for the
podcast, but its application in terms of very low Internet bandwidth in Serbia, however,
limited.
Social software has in recent years has become very popular and its use is
constantly growing. Social software is the use of computers, i.e. certain programs on the
network. As a form of communication is increasingly seen as a 'community'. The size of
this community may vary somewhat. If you use MSN Messenger or e-mail, a community
is relatively small. At the forum community is greatly increased.
The education is a lot of interest in the phenomena of social software. It is a
broad term and there are many types of software programs that can be classified into this
category. These programs have their own unique characteristics. Social software is a new
trend and is now almost indispensable part of everyday life of people.
The social aspect of group education is especially important because
communication affects students' motivation, as well as a greater sense of security and
satisfaction with the participation of students in group forms of teaching.
New methods and types of communication, which are supported by modern
information and communication technologies, to fully meet all the needs of social
interaction between all entities of the communication process. Moreover, the new ICT
provide those elements of social interaction in the e-learning in the previous technologies
were not possible, such as reciprocity, a high degree of interaction between all
stakeholders in education, multimedia, spatial and time no limitations etc…
References
Herrera A, Mandic P (1989), Еducation in the twentieth century, "Light", the Institute for textbooks and teaching
aids, Sarajevo
http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Krulj S. Radenko, Sait Kacapor, Radivoje Kulic (2003): Pedagogy, World Book, Belgrade
Nadrljanski Djordje, Modern computer technology and the future of high school, school challenge tomorrow,
Institute for textbooks and teaching aids, Belgrade
Nadrljanski Djordje, Soleša D (2000), Computers in Education, Faculty, Sombor
Sotirović Velimir (2000), Methods of Computer Science, Technical Faculty "Mihajlo Pupin", Zrenjanin
Stosic Lazar (2009), Management of IT education of children in Serbia, Faculty of Informatics and Information
Technology, Novi Pazar
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Specific Issues of Course Design in Distance Education
Bogdan Logofătua, Gheorghe Mihaelab
a,b
Abstract
ODL Department of the University of Bucharest has a long experience in
providing students with course materials, both traditional and e-Learning format.
For e-Learning courses tutors and designers work together in order to obtain the
best results. In order to enlarge the accessibility of course material we developed also
printed materials.
The paper presents the necessary steps in designing a new course for distance
learning students.
Even if the course will be delivered in e-Learning format or printed, there are
some specific issues that need to be considered: student centered, clear objectives,
sequential evaluation and feedback, structured by learning units, appropriate size of the
units.
At every step of the way the students are asked to evaluate the new designs, add
comments and suggestions. In this way the final product will be attractive for the students
and will became powerful learning tools for the teachers.
Keywords: course design; distance education; e-Learning.
1. Open distance learning system
The ODL Department of the University of Bucharest was created in 1999 for
coordination and monitoring of all the specializations in distance learning from the
university. Along the years several specializations adopted the long distance learning
system. We can name some: Pedagogy for primary and pre-school education (3 years),
Geography (3 years), Public administration (3 years), Low (3 years), Psychology (3
years), and conversion course for Applied Informatics (2 years).
For each of this specialization our Printing house provides printed materials,
CDs, and on-line courses developed in e-Learning format. These materials are received by
the students in the course fee account and are updated at the start of every semester.
The distance learning system at our university is based on the tutorial meetings
and student’s individual learning. The communication between students and professors is
facilitated by the use of the Virtual Campus. This web based instrument also serves as a
learning tool for e-Learning courses and learning material acquisition. The students
require a computer with Internet connection and a user name and a password in order to
access the campus.
Bogdan Logofătu, Mihaela Gheorghe/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
1.1. First step. Printed books
The syllabus for distance learning system is the same as in traditional learning
system, having the same content and finalization. The only difference is that in ODL
system student have to learn mostly by themselves and not having the benefit of the faceto-face tutor daily. Because of this situation the professors felt the need to change the way
in witch they deliver the educational content. Even if they kept the old content they
presented it into a new structure. They were encouraged to rewrite the course materials in
an accessible format for the new category of students.
First of all they have to be aware of the fact that the student will learn by himself.
Even if he has the opportunity to use the Virtual Campus in order to ask questions or to
receive answers this process is not always at hand. Keeping this in mind a first step that
the professors had to make was to structure the material as a printed book. They used the
same content but structured it into a new format: the practical aspect of the content was
emphasized, every chapter ended with the self-evaluation test and the correct answers,
blank spaces for reflection on the subjects presented.
This was possible with backed effort from the tutors. They adapted the course
material and in the same time they published a manual about good practices in rewriting
course material for distance learning system.
After this experiment, professors noticed that the new material could be used
with great success in the traditional face-to-face learning. These observations were made
by the professors, based on the student’s testimonials and feedback.
The next step of this process regards the way in which we deliver the new
content to the students, and during the following years we came across several methods.
1.2. Second step. PDF course format and CDs
The courses in PDF format have the same contents and form as the ones printed,
the only differences is the medium necessary to process it. These kinds of courses are
available on CDs. One problem we encountered when using the CDs is that we have to
provide them with ISBN code. This is possible because of the collaboration between our
Printing house and the National Library. Each PDF material has its own ISBN and
Copyright warning. We use the Header and Footer section of each page of text to provide
students with this information, and to make them aware of the obligations that they have
in using this materials.
Students can read the material using the computer or they can print it. We
observed that many students prefer to print their materials. Taking in account our students
needs we decided it was a lot easier for them to posses the material in electronic format,
also providing us with the ease of distribution. The students have access to all three types
of course delivery methods: printed books interactive CDs and on-line courses.
1.3. Third step. e-Learning courses
In parallel with the development of the Virtual campus we decide to develop eLearning courses. The best results were achieved with the ICT skill courses – ECDL,
CISCO, MICROSOFT. The specialists from our department developed ECDL e-Learning
courses, based on the teaching experience of our trainers. Because the students had to
study on their own we had to create a new course format. After two preliminary versions
we created a structure with text, practical example, applications and tests.
The students have access to the courses using the user name and password that
we provide them with when they enroll for the studies.
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The Courses are designed using the e-Learning technology and are available online, for all the registered users of the Virtual Campus. They are designed to guide
students through the subject and to facilitate their process of learning, rather than to serve
just as a source of information. By using this type of resources barriers concerning time
and space for study are eliminated. In this case, the student can make his own schedule
and establish the appropriate place for learning.
From the list of available courses a person can chose one by clicking the link
containing its name. The course will be opened in a new window of the browser. You can
navigate using the links in the table represented by the titles and subtitles, or using the
next or previous page buttons. Each course has a dictionary, links to Internet resources
and evaluation tests. There is also a practical interactive activities module that helps the
student in better understanding the content.
Using this format we received excellent result and feedback. Students that never
before used the computer could now used it efficiently. We based this information on the
result of the final practical exams.
One of the disadvantages of using e-Learning is that not all students are used
with such a method or do not have Internet connection at home. Access to printed
materials is more suitable to them. In this cases where students do not have access to
computers we developed special printed materials, with rich and fluctuant graphical
illustrations and additional explications, practical exercises with the correct answers. Even
in this situation the student still needs access to a computer for the practical part of the
exercises.
Figure 1. Screen shot from the e-Learning course
106
Students appreciated this kind of materials because it made it easier for them to
understand all the function of the application and have access to practical examples from
the real life. These materials are available for all the students but specially for those that
start at a beginner level and never before had used a PC.
2. Conclusion
Concluding that flexible learning gives the students the opportunity to choose the
time, place, pace and structure of their studies, we are trying to give them the best and
most versatile studying material.
Using flexible learning environments, we offer the possibility of study to a large
category of people. Being a flexible study way has a great impact and efficiency even for
those for whom the “traditional” education hasn’t enough resources. Using the new
technologies space and time barriers are eliminated for those who need a flexible study
timetable. In this way students can get the best instruction available. Also, the learner sets
his own pace and schedule, the training adapts to the learner and not the other way around.
Our purpose is to increase the quality of the content and the ways in witch we
deliver its contents. Even if the technology is advancing very fast not all our students can
take advantage of it. That is why we have to accept the limitation of resources and develop
simpler and more general ways of course material delivery.
Today, due to the specific of each course and the internal management of each
specialization all our students use the Virtual campus for communication, but regarding
the course’s materials we use CDs format.
Students have also access to printed materials available in our library. In this way
students can borrow books or they can acquire them. Either the case they have access to
printed course materials. As our survey indicates one of the arguments in favor of the
books is the possibility of making notes on the text, and highlighting the text. Also
reading from the book instead of the computer monitor is more comfortable, especially for
the adults. We can also add the “fear” that some inexperienced students have in front of
the computer, based on the lack of ICT knowledge. This adds additional stress to already
difficult task of learning new contents.
By administrating surveys at the end of each year we hope to have a permanent
feedback from the students and with their collaborations and professor support to maintain
our top position among the Romanian Universities.
References
Bogdan Logofătu and collab. (2003) Virtual University, CREDIS Printing house, Bucharest
Anca Elena Ileana (2003) Some pedagogically aspects about using Internet into didactically process, eLearning
National Conference “Internet and Education”, organized by CREDIS Department, Bucharest
Anişoara DUMITRACHE, Anca MATEIAŞ, Mihaela GHEORGHE (2006), Managing learning using the virtual
campus, EDEN Conference, Viena 14-18 iunie
Bogdan Logofatu, (2006) University of Bucharest e-learning experience, EDU-WORLD Conference, Piteşti, 1-3
iunie
Michaela Logofatu, Alina Boboc-Corcotoi (2006), Psycho-pedagogical aspects of designing Virtual learning
environments, EDU-WORLD, Piteşti, 1-3 iunie
William Hurton (2000) Designing Web-based training, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Direct Teaching with Technology (2000), A presentation about using computer American Federation of
Teachers, http://edtechinct.org/integrate/directed.asp.
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Strategic Model for a Collaborative Design into a Virtual
Research Centre
Mihai Victor Zerbesa, Liliana Georgeta Popescub, Livia Dana Bejuc
a,b,c
“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu
Abstract
Collaboration between multiple organizations and companies becomes a
performing solution for the development of large, complex, industrial products. The
research sector is in need of tools and infrastructures that support co-operation between
geographically dispersed teams. Some of functional requirements of a virtual organisation
are still unclear, requiring further investigation. On this idea, the present work tries to
clear multi-disciplinary approach involving not only the technology-oriented aspects but
also the socio-organizational and legal issues.
Keywords: Stategic analysis, research centre, prospective
1. Introduction
The purpose of this study is to propose and build a strategic scenario for a future
research center. Classical analysis that will balance the threats and opportunities indicates
that the desired analysis can’t be done on short term and don’t be limited by the current
competitive environment. In this context there are many uncertainties – especially on long
term, which emphasizes the need to build a comprehensive scenario, to clarify policy
options and indicate in terms of organizational development and economic growth. [4]
The vision and the strategy remain separate entities and it should be
distinguished between: [2]
I) anticipation phase (research and desired possible changes);
II) preparation phase (preparation and evaluation of possible policy options so
that the organization to be ready for change expected (pre-activity) and to cause the
desired changes (pro-activity).
2. Strategic analysis methods and tools used
Strategy or strategic analysis is covering possible options and irreversible risk
decisions by creating scenarios. Scenarios are built from alternative future situations
which may be accepted or rejected by the projection of a situation. Scenarios are classified
as: possible, plausible, desirable.
Strategic prospection
The objective of this study was to facilitate the implementation of the
development strategies, namely to anticipate policy and strategy makers of research
Mihai Victor Zerbes, Liliana Georgeta Popescu, Livia Dana Beju/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
activity. There were taken into account strengths and weaknesses of various factors
involved. In order to establish current and future skills of the research centre it was
necessary to identify and to define the various strategic stake, guidance and future options.
There were organized 2 workshops scenarios which include visions of future states and
paths of development of the research centre. This technique allows the participants to
develop internally, images of a possible future. It was considered the implications of
uncertain developments and it was analyzed a scenario in order to identify the key issues.
To analyse the range of options there were developed and explored different scenarios for
efficiency the research activity, then there were tested the possible ways of success of
these elections and it was designed a calendar for future events.
Organizing workshop allowed:
o Defining the operational environment scenarios for exploration (the main
stakes, key questions and major uncertainties);
o Structure and mechanisms of interaction formed parties (partners,
beneficiaries);
o Understanding influences strategic objectives related to key stake (creating a
virtual research centre);
o Building an image of the future research centre of its business, customer
relationship;
o Future development while skills.
At the end of the workshop were identified and ranked the ideas that merit
further investigation or attention. They took into account the past, present and future of a
research centre. The major changes and the stereotypes exhibited as major changes
resulting from discussions during the workshop are:
o Technological developments (digitization, online protocols);
o Development of e-research, e-business;
o Converged Services;
o Globalization, distribution networks and markets worldwide;
o Development of virtual research platform;
o Cross-sectorial collaboration;
o Examination of the market and new market segments;
o State role in supporting research;
Structural Analysis
Structural analysis is a process that requires the involvement of an expert group
to describe and evaluate the system (future research centre) using a matrix. Identification
of key variables for the structural analysis was performed using Micmac method. Analysis
was performed by covering the three steps:
Identify variables (step 1)
In this phase it was made an inventory of variables that characterize the system
studied, as well as of the internal and external environment variables. It is important that
this "inventory" to be complet. This phase complements the strategic prospects analyzed
in the previous paragraph, by adding variables with data from interviews with people
involved in the scheme. This method does not detail the operations system, but outlines
the main features of organization of the system. At this stage five of the members attended
the first working group. Working group has compiled a list of variables following a
workshop. The list includes 58 variables listed in table 1.
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Describing relations between variables (step 2)
In the context of the system, a variable exists only in relationship with others.
The structural analysis is based on identifying the relationships between variables and
building a three-dimensional matrix called the "matrix structural analysis". Resulting
matrix contains, therefore, an assessment of the strength of each influence result of
another outcome, assessed by the working group on a scale of 1-3. Convention established
by the working group was to note
with: 0 (zero): no influence;
1: Poor influence:
2: Moderate influence;
3: Strong influence;
P: Potential Influences;
Table 1. The list of variables
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Describing relations between variables (step 2)
In the context of the system, a variable exists only in relationship with others.[3]
The structural analysis is based on identifying the relationships between variables and
building a three-dimensional matrix called the "matrix structural analysis". Resulting
matrix contains, therefore, an assessment of the strength of each influence result of
another outcome, assessed by the working group on a scale of 1-3. Convention established
by the working group was to note:
with:
0 (zero): no influence;
1: Poor influence;
2: Moderate influence;
3: Strong influence;
P: Potential Influences;
Direct influence provides only a limited understanding of the importance of the
outcome. The total influence matrix is calculated by raising the power of n (An), where n
corresponds to the maximum size of admitted influence. The matrix was completed
systematically taking into account all possible relations between variables. There were
obtained 3364 (58x58) relations between variables that have a direct influence. (Table 2).
In calculating these elements it was considered the limits of the structural
analysis. The most important limit comes from the subjective nature of the variables list.
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Table 2. Matrix of direct influences MDI
Identification of key variables (step 3)
This phase consists in identifying and selecting key variables which are essential
for the system development. These key positions ranked variables (indirect classification)
derived from matrix determined in step 2. Calculation of key variables was done with
Micmac software, developed by Lipsor. Comparing among variables of different
classification (direct, indirect and potential), it can be established the importance of a
certain variables and it can highlight those variables that play a dominant role in the
system. In addition to identifying the most influential variables in the system, it can
explore the different roles played by these variables. If in figure 1 where the influence of
variables are classified by their first positions are occupied by the variable 1 (quality of
research results (Result_CC), 2 (Strategy Research (SC), 20 (Implementation of new
working models (Impl_NML), 17 (diversification of products / services (Div_Prod), in the
classification of variable according to dependency is observed (Figure 2) that are top
ranked variables are: 1 (quality of research results (Result_CC), 19 (Implementation of
new technologies ( Impl_NT), 21 (Implementation of new processes (Impl_NP), 30
(Product Quality Research (Calit_prod). A direct and indirect influence of variables
constitutes the most realistic system. The resulting data can be plotted where the x – axis
represent the dependece and the y – axis correspond to the influence of each variable.
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Figure 1. Classification of the variables
according to their influence
Figure 2 Classification based on
influence variables
Outside the process of the influence matrices, it was made the representation of
different variables on the influence-dependence chart, where the results are ranked
according to their total influence and dependence.
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Figure 3. Direct influence-dependence chart
Figure 4. Direct influence graph
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Figure 5. Indirect influence graph
Direction of influence can be seen easier in the above graphs and it could be
determine the variables which play a dominant role in the system.
Indirect influence graph is determined by matrix of indirect influences (Figure 5).
From this matrix it result a new classification of variables. The most important variables
of the system are pointing out. In this case the hidden variables are detected, due to a
direct influence matrix multiplication program applied to an indirect classification. This
program allows the study of distribution of feedback effect which treating variables
hierarchically: by order of influence, taking into account the number of paths generated by
each variable, by order of dependency, by considering the number of long routes and
loops.
The results from previous graphs and those from the potential of direct and
indirect influences are evident and confirm intuition regarding system behaviour studied.
However 20% of the results are unexpected and provides a sharper picture of how the
system works.
3. Conclusions
This research was designed as an opportunity to make the breakthrough points of
the proposed constructions of a virtual research centre. In fact, we seek to elucidate, in a
futurist perspective, the degree of success of this project through the analysis of games
players in the system of research activity. The meeting of stakeholders according to their
purposes, their plans and means of action, brings out a number of policy issues on which
actors have convergent and divergent goals. Our concern throughout this research is to
stake out the premises for understanding the behaviour of actors, through their positioning
in relation to strategic objectives, including their similarities or differences, determine the
success or failure of the project.
In conclusion, and in light of our findings, we can build the key issue for the
future and strategic recommendations required for the success of this project.
References
[1] Giget, M. (1998), La dynamique stratégique des entreprises, Dunod, Paris.
[2] Godet, M. (2006), Creating futures: Scenario Planning a Strategic Management Tool, Economica, Paris
[3] Godet, M. (2007), Manuel de Prospective Stratégique, Tome 2 L’Art et la méthode (3e edition). Dunod, Paris.
[4] Popescu, L.G. & Brîndaşu P.D. (2010) The Strategic Analysis Model for a Flexible Virtual Research Centre.
Quality Management in Higher Education Proceeding of The 6th International Seminar on the Quality
Management in Higher Education (pp. 667-670), Tulcea.
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Upon the Influence of the ICTE on the Professional
Relations in School
Philippe Monchaux
University of Picardie Jules Verne Amiens
Abstract
In 2008, twelve school establishments from twelve countries are chosen by
Microsoft in order to take part in the « Programme of Innovative Schools » in order to
develop the reflection upon introducing the ICTE in teaching and learning. One of these
establishments is a French elementary school situated next to the campus of the University
of Picardie Jules Verne.
This programme has been the object of more official research led by the
Standford Research Institute (SRI), on international level. As for France, a team coming
from the National Institute for Pedagogical Research (INRP) was asked to do the research
and the assessment of the programme of the Châteaudun school « Using the ICTE for
pupils’ better achievements ». Beside the official research going on, I was associated to
the committee of survey as an external assessor of the nearest town university.
My paper is more particularly based on an observation (six meetings of the
pedagogical team and about a dozen of class sessions) achieved during the year along
which the programme went on.
For different reasons one of schools in Amiens in is involved in a « world »
programme that I was allowed to follow between 2008-2009.
At the end of 2007, Microsoft Education issues a call for applications for an
experiment accompanied by innovation in 12 schools – primary and secondary schools –
in the world it is the programme Worldwide Microsoft Innovative Schools. The
programme aimed at developing educative practices able to improve learning by using the
best technological solutions for the whole learning community.
At that time, the deputy and mayor of Amiens was the Minister of National
Education. The proposition is made to a town school, the primary school Châteaudun, to
apply as a representative of France for the Microsoft call for projects.
The 2005 law upon school counselling forecasts in article n°34 steps allowing
experiments of this frame work. « If it has the approval of the academic authorities, the
school or institution project may involve putting experiments to practice, for the most five
years, dealing with teaching different subjects, interdisciplinary, pedagogical
class/school/institution management, cooperation with partners belonging to education
system, exchanges or partnership with foreign education institutions. These experiments
are subjected to a yearly evaluation. »
The Châteaudun school integrates its project in the Academic Plan to support
innovation and experiments (PASIE), naming it « Ecole Châteaudun 2.0 … l’usage des
Philippe Monchaux / Procedia – Edu World 2010
TICE pour une meilleure réussite des élèves. » (2.0 Châteaudun School...using ICTE for
pupils’ better success ).
The Stanford Research Institute (SRI International) coordinates the evaluation for
Microsoft, evaluation which is made for a research entity in each of the 12 countries : In
France it is the National Institute for Pedagogical Research (Institut national de recherche
pédagogique -INRP) which is assigned this task.
The chief education officer of Amiens Academy wished that the University of
Picardie Jules Verne, settled in Amiens took part in this experiment. Teacher-cumresearcher in Sciences of Education, I was asked to join the steering committee. In return,
I could take part in the teachers’ boards meetings and notice about a dozen class sessions.
In the same time with the official assessment, I could also be attentive at the
teaching practices. Based mainly on the concepts of profession interaction sociology, it
was about to see how an « innovative » practice could build new relations between the
different school actors. How could it contribute to changing the professional relations
between the school teachers. On another hand, INRP took charge of analyzing the way of
teaching pupils for the teachers.
For the interaction sociologists (Hughes, 1996, 1997), the “licence” joined to a
diploma, a professional certification, entitle its holders to achieve specific tasks, to behave
a little bit different from the others that do not benefit from it.
The “mandate” corresponds to an “assignment” given by an authority and/or
asked by a professional group, or even by individual persons. Generally demanded on
behalf of the “licence” granted, the « assignment », the task contribute to emphasize the
value of the activity and of the professionals. “licence” and “mandate” may notice the
limits of their mutual relations become extended or restricted, according to social and
historical circumstances. It is here an important element in the interactionist sociologists’
study upon professions.
How the teachers of Châteaudun school involved somehow against their wishes
will react in this adventure, were they going to feel praised? or, on the contrary, were they
going to be put in a difficult position ? On an individual level, the different relations to
emerging technologies in school, were they going to determine divisions of opinion
among teachers?
Within the frame of the habitual functioning of schools and institutions, the
observations made in the school environment show that real work is different from
stipulated work. Could the « claim » as well as the possible « delegation » of certain tasks
to be accomplished, contribute to specializing the primary school teachers? Many studies
show that in France, the teachers recruited since 1991, having an undergraduate degree
and trained at the IUFM (University Institution for Teachers’ Training), are subjected to
flexibility related to their status (“licence” and “mandate”). Most of them could not think
of practising their job within the frame of a field specialization (Baillat, 2001 ; Monchaux,
2006). Some of them choose for an exchange of duties for one or another subject for
which they show a less desire to teach (Esquieu, 2006).
Observation field
The Châteaudun school is a primary school for training that is it welcomes
trainees of the University Institution for Teachers’ Training (IUFM). There were 150
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pupils divided in six classes, three classes for fundamental training (the 2nd cycle) :
preparatory courses, first year elementary course and a school integration course ; three
classes for detailed training (the third cycle) :a second year elementary course, a first year
intermediate course, a second year intermediate course. The headmaster, exonerated from
teaching, as well as four training-teachers, accomplished one part of their job at the
University Institution for Teachers’ Training (IUFM). Two stand-in teachers assisted the
training-teachers ; they dealt with the pupils during the teachers’ training job time at the
University Institution for Teachers’ Training (IUFM).
Choosing the school... or the headmaster ?
Choosing Châteaudun school in terms of innovation, choice certified by SRI and
by Microsoft, involved a school time partition joined to a chance in organizing classes and
dividing pupils. Four days a week, at the beginning of the afternoon after-noon, the pupils
were divided into « project groups » according to the criterion of competences in French
(speaking, reading, writing). In the two cycles, each of the six teachers was responsible for
one of the six project-groups which worked from 1 : 45 PM up to 3 :15 PM. During the
rest of the day (morning and the second part of the afternoon), pupils worked in their class
with their usual teacher.
The criterion for organizing project-groups (competences in French) ensures a
greater level homogeneity in the groups by reuniting every afternoon the pupils of the
three classes of the cycle; they are pupils of different ages, having different levels of
knowledge and competences in other school fields. The bet was risky. The research
conducted at the secondary school established that globally the pupils progressed more in
classes with controlled heterogeneity than in level classes (Duru et al, 1997). One of the
advantages mentioned by the headmaster concerned the assignment of study projects (or
pedagogical projects) to each teacher and project-groups related to one or two of or eleven
of the other schools and establishments chosen for the Worldwide Microsoft Innovative
Schools programme. This proposition was not new for the school correspondence tradition
practiced by the head-manager and by some of the teachers. The group projects were
supposed to be highly motivating for the pupils, to prove better adjusted to using the
ICTE, according to the pupils’ age and levels (varying from digital cameras to interactive
whiteboards (IWB) passing through video-projectors and educational soft).
This opinion was not shared by all the teachers in the school and even less by
those in the different countries involved in the programme with which one had foreseen
exchanges and correspondence. The constraints of non-synchronization of school
calendars between the Northern and Southern hemispheres as well as the national
traditions combined the difficulties related to this side of the project. Initially one had
forecast that according to performance and progress in French (speaking, reading,
writing), the teachers would reorganize the project groups at the end of every school term.
From enthusiasm to reluctance
The voluntary participation of the school accepted by the headmaster with the
exterior assistance of academic authorities was not necessarily shared by all the members
of the team (one of the two stand-in refusal to join the project). The reluctances of some
mixed with the enthusiasm of the others. The change of the professional relations
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determined by this project may be noticed in the increased cooperation, but also in the
tensions appeared on one side between the head-manager and the teachers and, on the
other side among the different teachers in the school. The evolution of these relations also
reflected on the INRP research team, going from an initial distant kindliness to a refusal to
accept the researchers in the classrooms at the end of the school year.
This evolution may be summarized according to three steps : a first step called of
working out the project and of sharing the roles (September-October), a second step for
implementation and for trial and error (November-December and January), a third step for
stabilization (from February to May). The teachers wished to stop the project groups’
works in May for teaching only « their class » in June.
Concerning the course mentioned for the first step (working out the project), one
could quickly notice two opposed attitudes in the teachers’ board : one which was « for »
the project, the other which was « against » the project. These attitudes were shown by the
enthusiastic/reluctant teachers, but also by each teacher at different moments of the school
year or when different actions were involved. This is a visible sign certifying the difficulty
represented by the project for each of the teachers.
Enthusiasm appeared around the pedagogical projects as they
o offer a renewal, a motivation perspective,
o appear to be a special moment in the class day,
o give a certain pedagogical freedom associated to the expected use of
technologies for those who master them.
o In contrast to it, the main fears expressed were related to:
o the issues related to work in project-groups with pupils whom one knows
less because they are usually taught in one of the two other classes and
whom they should assist every afternoon,
o the concern that they might not get to the end of the programme for lack of
time (the afternoon pedagogical activities seem to compete with and damage
the usual activities conducted in class);
o the non-being conversant with the ICTE which, progressively, during the
year, were going to be introduced in school without real training for staff,
thus involving each one’s own experience and resourcefulness.
These two attitudes evolved during the school year without really disappearing.
At the end of the first experimentation year, two of the permanent teachers, among those
who used to be the most reluctant, asked to be transfered and they were granted it : the
one for teaching in an « ordinary » school, the other to become the pedagogical adviser in
charge with continuous training.
Cooperation between teachers / self-training and co-training
The teachers have predilection to solitary work and exchange the less possible
issues related to their pedagogical practices in class. The « black box » resists. The
heterogeneity remarked in terms of ability to use different tools and procedures associated
to the ICTE, is beneficial. The exchanges between the expert teachers – or simply
resourceful- and the beginners fully worked. I could notice the teachers’ increased
presence in the teachers’ room before starting the course and after the half-days of class.
At the beginning of the year, the exchanges were related to questions asked to the
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colleagues considered as having more experience, about handling the tools (how to plug in
the video-projector ? how to use a certain soft on the PC ? etc ?) It was more about doing
each other’s a favour faced with the emergency of situations and without having an
appropriate training. However, fast, during these moments of collaborative informal
exchanges, appear the pedagogical choices, the class practices of some different from the
others’, seldom approached previously. The exchanges achieved most often between two
or, sometimes, among three went far beyond of what it was expressed at meetings or
formal boards, in terms of class practices. From the exchanges related to technical issues
which were rather impersonal, each progressively glided to pedagogical exchanges
revealing the relation to the job and the specific conceptions. Moreover, the evaluations of
pupils who did not spend all the journey with the same teacher required an increased
number of exchanges among teachers. Conveying and exploiting documents allowed a
comparison between the teachers’ points of view upon their pupils’ levels, upon the
progress achieved, upon the way to remedy the encountered difficulties. This type of
exchanges, generally limited to the minimum needed, kept on increasing all along the
school year, enlarging the field of the approached topics.
During the 2nd step (implementation and trial and error), when observing the
class sessions, one may notice wastes of time which postponed the beginning of the
activity, increase the difficulties reported by some of the teachers. In the project-groups,
the teacher who knew the pupils belonging to his class well, has to be sure that the others
have the prerequisites in order to get involved in the activity. These pupils have to adapt
to the ways of working, to the new rules of the teacher responsible for the project group.
For two teachers out of three, the low level of knowing how to use materials and
soft newly introduced also postpones the course of the predicted activities. There was also
the problem of the pupils who, during the first weeks of work on the pedagogical projects,
used to forget their personal material while changing the classrooms. At the end of the
second step, learning to go beyond these difficulties by reorganizing the project groups,
one decided in the advising board, under pressure from most of teachers, not to change the
groups and to let each teacher assist the same pupils. This decision provided a certain
functioning comfort to the team. Otherwise, taking into account the withdrawal from most
of the teachers, the experiment was put at the risk to be given up. The experiment oddly
went away by abandoning one of its major objectives : improving the pupils’ competences
by activities conducted within rather homogenous project-groups.
The activities led in project-groups suffered as a consequence of the initial
choice, from the dilemma between the « products » to achieve in a limited time and « the
improvement of the individual learning process » which cannot be restricted to
accomplishing the collective project of each pedagogical project. Two different types of
logic were opposing as a consequence of coupling the project-groups and the levels of
competence in French. Quickly, the objectives of « production » of the group-projects
which were supposed to show their achievements, obey the due-dates in order to be sent to
the other participants in the project, prevailed over the levels of school competences and
over the reorganizing the groups according criteria of assessment and progression of
pupils.
It is under these circumstances that the third step of the project took place in the
second part of the school year (stabilization phase).
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Each of the teachers improved his way of using tool, materials, education
technologies without necessarily re-evaluating some teachers’ experience in certain fields.
Without having a real specialization, the teachers tended to limit the ICTE uses which
they had got accustomed with.
I often noticed that in the situations when, in class, teachers think or know that
they do not master well enough the used material, they first pay very – or too- much
attention to this ability to the detriment of pupils, of the learning process they are
managing. This attitude of the teacher creates in pupils a certain picture who, in their turn,
by their requirements and expectations, consolidate the magisterial attitude. Moreover, the
pupils accustomed to the quality of what they listen to and what they watch, pupils are
demanding with their teachers. The devices and technologies, especially if they are not
enough mastered, give the teacher again a « particular place » at the expense of the
attention that he could pay to acquisitions and to pupils. See on this topic the heuristic
value of the « pedagogical triangle » developed by Jean Houssaye (1988), in which one of
the aspect of this pedagogical (teacher, pupils or knowledge) does not work according to
the pedagogical type privileged by the teacher (learner-knowledge, teacher-knowledge,
learner-teacher). One of them is left outside or neglected.
The important changes appeared in practice and in pedagogic tools do not
necessarily involve an equivalent change in the pupil’s representations. A national enquiry
conducted at that time showed that in a difficult context – and the teachers found
themselves in a difficult context in this type of situation – the primary school teachers
changes their practices much more easily (47%) than their relations with pupils (18%).
The pedagogic innovation should not be mistaken for an adjustment to tools and
technologies (Cros, 2004).
The INRP research report also provides information on other aspects of the
follow-up of this first year of experimentation (Delahaye, Derouet-Besson, Godinet,
2008).
Conclusion
As we might have been expected, the experiment changed the professional
relations. The appreciation shown by exterior actors (academic, politic authorities and
media) to these teachers who accepted – and sometimes performed – a “mandate” which
was above their “licence”, reflected differently upon the persons concerned. The very
committed head-manager and teachers felt supported, accepting the extra-work and
implication involved in this adventure. For the other teachers, they doubted about the
validity of the project, of its being useful for pupils and about the relation cost-profit for
themselves. This difference in terms of opinion was confirmed by the transfers at the end
of the year. In the same time, solidarity among all the members of the teaching staff,
including the head-manager, was shown by mutual help, cooperation, co-training going
far beyond technical aspects. A real training, accompanying the team’s approach and
preceding the ICTE introduction might have restricted the teachers’ overinvestment. But
would it have changed the actors’ professional relations as much ?
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References :
Baillat Gilles, (avec O. Espinoza et J. Vincent), "De la polyvalence formelle à la polyvalence réelle : une enquête
nationale sur les pratiques professionnelles des enseignants du premier degré", Revue Française de
Pédagogie, n° 134, 2001.
Cros Françoise, 2004, L’innovation scolaire aux risques de son évaluation, Paris, L’Harmattan.
Do Chi-Lan, 2007, "Les représentations de la grande difficulté scolaire par les enseignants", Note d’information,
n° 07-16, mai 2007, DEP.
Delahaye Christa, Derouet-Besson Marie-Claude, Godinet Hélène, 2008, Observer l’innovation, un cas d’école
innovante, Rapport, Lyon, INRP Editions (www.inrp.fr/editions).
Duru-Bellat Marie, Mingat Alain, 1997, La gestion de l’hétérogénéité des publics d’élèves au collège, Dijon,
IREDU-CNRS.
Esquieu Nadine, "Les enseignants des écoles publiques et la formation", Note d'information 06-17, MEN-DEP,
mai 2006, plus particulièrement "Des difficultés récurrentes à enseigner [certaines disciplines]" pages 3-4.
Houssaye Jean, 1988, Le triangle pédagogique, Berne, Peter Lang.
Hughes Everett Cherrington, 1996, Le regard sociologique, essais choisis par Jean-Michel Chapoulie
(traduction), éd. De l’EHESS, Paris, 1997 et Sociétés contemporaines, n°27, 1997.
Maroy Christian, "Les évolutions du travail enseignant en France et en Europe. Facteurs de changement,
incidences et résistances", Conférence du PIREF, 24 mars 2005, document photocopié.
Monchaux Philippe, 2006, "La mise en place d’une politique partenariale en primaire : 1980 – 2000. Une
réponse aux limites de la polyvalence de service des instituteurs", Bulletin Scientifique – La série Sciences
de l’Éducation, Les presses universitaires de Pitesti (Roumanie), n°2, 2006, pp.170-194.
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Section 9 - EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
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A Study on Certain Personality Variables of the Teacher
Mihaela Păişi Lăzărescu
University of Pitesti
Abstract
The present paper aims at identifying some of the personality variables of the
educator which can be considered as predictors of a didactic activity ensuring professional
succes.
In our investigative approach, we have considered the empathic capacity a
mutual variable common to all educators and we supposed it can be found in the structure
of their personality at different manifestation and qualitative levels.
Defining the locus of control as being the extent to which individuals believe that
their actions may influence personal outcomes, we considered that a successful didactic
activity is conditioned by this variable.
The study of the two variables had been realized through the Questionnaire
Measure Emotional Empathy Mehrabian and Locus of Control Scale (Rotter).
The study underlined that there are significant differences as regards these
personality traits to the educators having a different professional education.
1. Theoretical frame and the definition of concepts
The personality is constituted by a set of characteristics which allow the
description of a person and his/her identification among others.
Within the context of the factors responsible for the school success, the
personality of the educator occupies an important role. The main modality of
operationalizing the educator’s personality is represented by the pedagogical structure
which includes the scientific competence, the psycho-pedagogical competence and the
psycho-social one.
The emphasis laid on performance, on the efficiency of teaching determined the
orientation of research towards the psychological profile of the teacher, towards the
identification of those personality traits influencing the efficiency at learning. One of the
studies identifies three structures of behavour as having a special importance (Ryans,1960,
cf. Ausubel, Robinson, 1981): structure A – is characterized by affection, understanding,
friendship being in opposition to the structure characterized by distant attitude,
egocentrism and narrow-mindedness; structure B – is characterized by responsibility,
methodical mind and systematic actions being opposed to the structure defined by lack of
planning, indecision and disregard; structure C – is characterized by power of simulation,
imagination and enthusiasm being opposed to the structure defined by inertia and routine.
An analysis of the relation betweeen the variables of the teacher’s personality
and the efficiency of teaching, taking also into account the main motivational impulses
Mihaela Păişi Lăzărescu / Procedia – Edu World 2010
which manifest in the process of school learning, discloses the following aspects: the
pupils dominated by the affiliation impulse ( preschool and small children) will have the
tendency to identify with the teacher just as they do with the parents and learn in order to
please the schoolmaster or to be praised and rewarded. In this case, the teacher will have
to pertain to the structure A, and the pupils will be highly motivated to learn and to obtain
a superior school sucess profile. For the pupils whose motivation is supported by the selfassessment impulse, by the need of prestige, the most efficient teachers are those
belonging to B structure, task-oriented, orderly, systematized, who create conditions by
which the performance levels of the pupils are clearly defined and recognized. Pupils
having a strong cognitive impulse will be stimulated by teachers from structure C, capable
of generating intellectual ebullience, to create cognitive conflicts, to capture the interests
by elements of novelty. Generally speaking, energetic teachers, stimulating, inventive and
enthusiastic to the subject they teach, are more successful and pupils’ behaviour is more
productive under the influence of this type of simulation.
This ability of the teachr to evaluate the needs of the learner realistically implies
empathic capacities, respectively the transposition in the pupil’s situation and the wish to
understand him from its own positions.
In time, empathy has been defined by several authors: G.H. Mead (apud.
Gherghinescu, 2001), perceives empathy as the ability to “take over the other’s role” and
he believes this ability to represent the essence of human intelligence; R. Dymond, 1950
(apud. Gherghinescu, 2001) defines empathy as a process that presumes a “transport” by
means of imagination, in one’s thoughts, feelings or actions; W.A. Kerr şi B.J. Speroff,
1954 (apud. Marcus, 1997) – empathy is the ability to put oneself in the other’s position,
establishing relationships and anticipating other reactions, states and behaviour; Carl
Rogers, 1959 (apud. Gherghinescu, 2001)- “being empathic means to accurately perceive
another’s internal reference framework, with all its belonging emotional components and
significances, “as if” you were the other person, but without losing the “as if” condition.”
The perception of another’s internal reference framework implies important
cognitive, emotional, motivational, as well as profound peripheral nervous system’s
processes; S. Marcus (Marcus, 1997) offers the following definition – “empathy is that
psychical phenomenon of reliving another’s states, thoughts and actions, acquired through
psychological transposition of the ego into an objective human behaviour model, allowing
the understanding of how the other one interprets the world.”
Empathy is an imaginary transposition in the other’s cognitive level, facilitating
the discovery of new aspects and meanings. Therefore, the information received from the
model is actually restructuring/remodelling from a personal perspective and a
reconstructed image is projected towards the model, trigerring the empathic phenomenon,
that is a relatively equal state with the model’s.
Empathy is not only abstract, deductive knowledge, nor impressionist intuition,
but a cognitive intention, a participating willpower, an imaginary effort, an anticipation
attempt viewing the understanding of another’s “ego”, a foresight of his potential, without
becoming an affective fusion such as total emotional identification (P. Maucorps, R.
Bassoul, 1960, apud. Gherghinescu, 2001).
Some definitions on empathy try to catch not only the essence of the
phenomenon, not only its mechanism, but also its function. These functions, that I will
125
comment as well in the following, may be: cognitive function, anticipating function,
communication function, affective contagion function and the accomplishment function.
The cognitive function results from the fact that, through the psychological
transposition in another’s reference system, a partner’s empyrical acknowledgement is
achieved, with or without a declared intention, by any of the persons involved in the
interpersonal relationship. By means of empathy, we are not aware of or discover less
about intelligence, personal history or how another person’s thinking path is organised; in
exchange, we may find out a series of personality traits as well as the affective states he
lives at a certain moment.
The anticipating function of empathy directly results from the cognitive function
and implies performing a correct prediction of the partner’s possible behaviour and,
inherently, an anticipation of the behavioural strategy of the empathising person.
The communication function results from the need for empathy, mixed most of
the times with the need for dialogue, with the temporary change of one’s own perspective
with another’s, as a condition of a beneficial interpersonal communication. It is
considered that, without empathy, there can be no communication, “the other one” could
not exist for me either as a friend or a foe, either for the better or for the worse; empathy is
not subordinated to the negative or positive characteristics of relationships with the other
one – it preceeds them, contains them.
The affective contagion function of empathy results from the implications of the
proximity level between one’s ego and the partner, through which the temporary
transposition situation draws, even by appealing to sympathy, a process of the other’s
mood contamination.
It is an already known fact that some people are more empathic with a sympathic
partner that with an antipathic one, or that sympathy manifested towards another may
increase the level of empathy. This function is, however, conditioned in a great extend, by
living circumstances.
The achievement function derives from the fact that in certain circumstances in
one’s life or profession, empathy takes over the aspect of psychical trait, thus turning into
the ability of successfully favourising, over the average level, an activity that involves
interpersonal relationships. Empathy itself develops a superior level of manifestation,
ensuring an accurate reliving of others’ states, thoughts and actions, mediating for
achieving high quality results in professions that require interpersonal interaction.
Defining locus of control as being the extent to which individuals believe that
their actions may influence personal outcomes, we have considered that a successful
didactic career stays close to empathic capacities and to this variable of personality.
Rotter in1966 (Doron, Parot, 1991) considers that the fundamental dimension of
personality which guides daily behaviour is the way in which the person perceives the
source of rewards( positive reinforcements) or punishments( negative reinforcements),
that is the way he connects this system and his/her own behaviour. He shows that there are
two categories of individuals:
o those who believe that positive or negative reinforcements are guided by
what they are or by personal efforts;
o those who believe that positive or negative reinforcements are guided by
external forces, independent of what they are or of the way they acted before
the moment of reinforcement.
126
The first category of subjects including persons who consideres themselves
responsible for the events of life, desirable or indesirable have an internal locus of
control; the second category, including persons who identifies the source of events as
being external have an external locus of control. (Phares, 1976). Thus, Rotter (ibidem)
makes the pair internal/external a fundamental dimension of personality, a significant
behavioural variable of a person. Whereas the persons with an internal locus of control are
self- motivated, control the circumstances, manifest responsibility, do not conform
blindly, resist external pressures, ascribe failure to “insufficient work”, and show selfmotivation after failures, the persons having an external locus of control are motivated
extrinsically, do not control the circumstances, manifest a low responsibility, obey the
“other” naturally, give in to external pressures, ascribe failure to “unfair destiny”, to “illluck” and do not change the level of aspirations after failure.
Numerous researches demonstrated that the dimension internality/externality has
many implications in a series of organizational variables. Thus, internals, tend to be more
satisfied than the externals as regards their work, perceive their superiors as structure
initiators, present a low role stress, consider them as autonomous and controllers of the
environment and are profesionally stable.
2. Objective and hypoteses of the research
The present paper aims at identifying in the structure of the personality of
educators from the preschool and primary level the variables – the empathic capacity and
locus of control and the extent to which they can be considered predictors of a didactic
activity ensuring professional success.
The hypothesis started from the supposition that the empathic capacity beyond
average and an internal locus of control are decisive in the structure of the personality of
the educators from the preschool and primary level with performances in their didactic
activity.
3. Subjects and work procedure
The study of the two variables of personality had been realized on a sample of
300 educators for the preschool and primary level with an work experience ranging
between 2 and 15 years. The study of the two variables had been realized through the
Questionnaire Measure of Emotional Empathy Mehrabian, Locus of Control Scale
(Rotter) and the semistructured interview which had in view the competences of the
subjects in solving critical educational situations.
4. Results and interpretation of data
The frequencies at the Mehrabian emotional empathy test (presented in the
table) confirm the supposition that this personality trait identifies to a bigger extent to
teachers having a greater didactic experience( in our sample of subjects in the category of
teachers with more than 15 years didactic experience, 1,33% subjects with a superior
empathic coefficient have been identified while no subject has been idenfied in the first
category ; significant differences had been found in the category average empathy –
21,33% subjects having a work experience to 5 years and 44,67% subjects having a work
127
experience of over 5 years; 2 nonempathic subjects have been identified in the first
category while the second category has none of this type).
Didactic experience 2- 5 years
Interpretation Q.M.E.E
Frecv.
%
Didactic experience 5 – 15 years
Interpretation Q.M.E.E
Frecv.
%
1 Extra empathic
-
-
2
1.33
2 Well empathic
17
11.33
33
32.00
3 Average empathic
32
21.33
67
44.67
4 Slightly empathic
99
66.00
48
22.00
5 Nonempathic
2
1.33
-
-
Total
150
100
150
100
The questionnaire for the evaluation of the locus of control, elaborated by Rotter
measures a fundamental dimension of personality the internal and external control. The
task of the subject is to choose one from two affirmations at each of the 29 items,
according to the agreement or the disagreement with their content. Following the
application of this test, each investigated subject belongs to a certain class, the internals or
the externals.
Category
Internals
Externals
Didactic experience 2- 5 years
34
22,6 %
116
77,4%
Didactic experience 5– 15 years
96
64 %
54
36 %
The table contains the results obtained at this test according to the professional
experience of the subjects. We can notice that, professional experience determines an
internal locus of control, which underlines the subjects’ competence by manifesting an
increased responsibility for this profession and an extrinsic motivation in carrying it on.
The analysis of the two variables by reporting to the professional experience
underlined the fact that those with an empathic capacity beyond the average and an
internal locus of control have a professional experience of about 15 years. They have the
capacity to understand children, to transpose themselves in the didactic situations specific
to the age and chiefly to create learning situations which give the possibility to acquire
performances.
As for the competence of the subjects to solve critical educational situations, we
have found that those with a high empathic capacity and having an external locus of
control offered quick efficient solutions in comparison to those whose personality do not
have these attributes.
Conclusions
The analysis and the qualitative and quantitative interpretation of the results
underlined the fact that the variable of empathic capacity is present beyond the average at
the whole sample of subjects, and the locus of control is predominantly internal.
Reporting the results to the variable of professional experience, we can affirm that in point
of empathic capacity the diferences are significant according to the professional
experience. In case of the locus of control, the educators with little didactic experience
128
have an external one while at those with superior didactic experience the locus of control
is predominantly internal.
The conclusions of our study confirms the hypothesis that the success of the
didactic profession is conditioned by a series of personality traits, inborn or acquired
during initial formation or just by professional experience.
References
Ausubel, D. P., Robinson, F.,1981, Învăţarea în şcoală, EDP, Bucureşti
Doron, R., Parot, F., 1991, Dictionar de psihologie, Editura Humanitas, Bucuresti
Gherghinescu, 2001, ), Anotimpurile empatiei, Editura Athos, Bucureşti
Marcus, S., 1997, Empatie şi personalitate, Editura Athos, Bucureşti
Phares, E.J., 1976, Locus of Control in Personality, Learning Press, New Jersey
129
th
4
th
th
A.D.H.D and the Capacity of Solving Problems at Children
Dumitru Ioana Elenaa, Mihaescu Andreea Laurab
a,b
Abstract
Through this paper we want to study the relationship between the presence of
A.D.H.D and the capacity of solving problems at children. Also, we do want the
operalisation of the A.D.H.D concept, and we want to find an instrument to study this
variable. It was also our goal to identify the relationship between the presence of A.D.H.D
and the capacity of solving problems at children.
© 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: A.D.H.D,
hyperactivity, children
attention
deficit
-
hyperactivity,
impulsivity
-
A.D.H.D is a reality of our life which appears at children and adults too.
Unfortunately children are those who suffer most starting with early childhood, reason
which made us to develop the concept of A.D.H.D.We get in contact with children who
are presented by their teachers as a “difficult child”, as they are very energetic, present
lack of attention and their school results are very low. Not so many persons ask
themselves:”What happens in reality with these children?”.Developing this research we
did realise that in many cases those children who were presented as “not so good at
learning” had in fact a superior intelligence, but in the same time they were suffering of
A.D.H.D.
A.D.H.D. is represented by the lack of attention, hiperactivity, and impulsivity.
Taking into consideration all these aspects we decided to make this research.
1. Theoretical goals:
o
o
to observe and underline all the specific details of A.D.H.D;
to study the relation between the presence of A.D.H.D and the capacity of
solving problems at children.
2. Practical goals:
o
o
o
the operalisation of the A.D.H.D. concept;
the choice of some psychodiagnosis instruments to study this variable;
the application of some statics’ methods to investigate the established
variables;
Dumitru Ioana Elena, Mihaescu Andreea Laura/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
o
to identify the relation between A.D.H.D and the capacity of solving
problems at children.
3.General hypothesis:
We suppose that there is a relation between the attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder(A.D.H.D) and the capacity of solving problems at children from the investigated
group of subjects.
4. Work hypothesis:
We suppose that there is a significant negative correlation between A.D.H.Dtotal score and the grade obtained at the control papers which evaluated the capacity of
solving problems.
We suppose that there is a significant negative correlation between A.D.H.Dfactor Inattention-Hyperactivity and the grade obtained at the control papers which
evaluated the capacity of solving problems.
We suppose that there is a significant negative correlation between A.D.H.Dfactor Impulsivity-Hyperactivity and the grade obtained at the control papers which
evaluated the capacity of solving problems.
5.The presentation of the research design:
The description of the research variables:
A.D.H.D (the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) was identified through the
Scale of A.D.H.D evaluation, having as author Dr.George Du Paul.This scale measures
through the 14 items the presence of the disorder and the two specific factors of this
disorder: factor Inattention-Hyperactivity and the second factor-ImpulsivityHyperactivity. The scale was given only to teachers; the parents did not receive the scale.
The Intellectual Performance of the subjects was measured through the C.P.M
(The Progressive Coloured Matrices) which puts the subjects in five levels of intelligence:
A. Superior intelligence reaches or is more than the 90 score;
B. Over the medium level reaches or is more than the 75 score;
C. Medium level between the 25-75 score;
D. Over the 50 score;
E. Under the 50 score;
F. Under the medium level-the performance does not reach over the 25 score;
G. The performance does not reach over the 10 score;
H.The performance does not reach over the 5 score.
The operalisation of the capacity of solving problems was done through a control
paper with 5 mathematics problems for I grade having a medium level of difficulty. This
control paper was created by 7 teachers (the experts) with a lot of experience. The 5
problems were scored with 2 points each of them, and it was considered the case were
none of problems was solved and the grade should be 4, as the subjects are little pupils
and we have to encourage them. The maximum grade is 10 when all 5 problems are
solved. The time for the control paper is 60 minutes (1 hour).
The description of the subjects: The research was realised on 80 subjects, 45
girls and 35 boys, with ages between 7-8 years, all of them pupils in the first grade at
131
different gymnasium schools in Pitesti,Romania. They were chosen through the lottery
method, and an important role had the school counsellor who mentioned the possible
cases of A.D.H.D.
The description of the used instruments: To determine the coefficient of
intelligence we used Standard Progressive Matrices Sets A, B, C, D, E, the notebook way,
the instrument is from the battery of tests of The Psychology Faculty from the University
of Pitesti. The test was elaborated in 1938 by J.C Raven and L.S Peurose analysed also in
1947 and 1956 and is a general intelligence test. The C.P.M. has a very good validity and
fidelity and this is the reason why is so very well known and so often used.
To determine the presence of A.D.H.D. it was used the scale of A.D.H.D
evaluation which has as author Dr.George Du Paul.This scale is used to evaluate the
A.D.H.D. symptoms at children. It also has a very good validity and fidelity.
For the evaluation of the capacity of solving problems of the subjects, it was met
a group of 7 experts, all of them teachers who created a typical control paper for pupils in
the first grade, with a medium level of difficulty. The control paper is formed by 5
mathematics problems, which must be solved in 60 minutes. The grades at this control
paper are from 4 to 10(4 is minimum when none of the 5 problems is solved, 10 is
maximum when all problems are solved).
The research results: For the statistical analyse it was used S.P.S.S soft ware for
Windows, version 15.The usage of this soft was possible in The Faculty of Psychology
from the University of Pitesti.As statistical methods we used the partial correlation for
nonparametric data. We used partial correlation as the controlled variable is the
intelligence as it is very well known the fact that it has a very important role in obtaining
good and very good results at school.
Tabel 1.The correlation between the grade at the control paper and A.D.H.Dtotal score
The grade
Coeffcient of partial correlation
Significance level
Freedom degrees
ADHD total score
-0,817
0,000
77
The first work hypothesis was confirmed and sustains the fact that it exists a
negative, significant correlation between A.D.H.D-total score and the control paper’s
grade. We obtained a coefficient of partial correlation-0,81 at significance limit
p<0,001.So we can say that the more present are the A.D.H.D symptoms the low is the
grade at the control paper. In conclusion we can say that A.D.H.D. has a strong impact on
children so their school results are very low. Taking into consideration these fact children
with A.D.H.D must receive professional help from all the persons involved in the process
of learning.
Tabel 2.The correlation between the grade at the control paper and Factor
Inattention-Hiperactivity
The grade
Significance level
132
Factor inattention-hiperactivity
-0,645
0,000
Freedom degrees
77
The second work hypothesis was confirmed and sustains the fact that existed a
negative, significant correlation between Factor inattention-hyperactivity and the control
paper’s grade. We obtained a coefficient of partial correlation-0,64 at significance limit
p<0,001. .So we can say that the more present are the Factor Inattention-Hyperactivity
symptoms the low is the grade at the control paper.
Tabel 3.The correlation between the grade at the control paper and Factor
Impulsivity-Hiperactivity
The grade
Significance level
Freedom degrees
Factor Impulsivity-Hiperactivity
-0,558
0,000
77
The third work hypothesis was confirmed and sustains the fact that it exists a
negative, significant correlation between Factor Impulsivity-Hiperactivity and the control
paper’s grade. We obtained a coefficient of partial correlation-0,55 at significance limit
p<0,001. .So we can say that the more present are the Factor Impulsivity-Hyperactivity
symptoms the low is the grade at the control paper.
In conclusion we can say after the statitical analyse that all our hypothesis were
confirmed on our group of subjects.We can admitt the fact that the more present are the
symptoms of A.D.H.D. the capacity of solving problems is afected,and also the school
performance would be wery low.
Although this is the reality of A.D.H.D it is obvious that we must admitt that it
isn’t easy to deal with a child who has A.D.H.D, but even so, his results at school can be
better. As long as A.D.H.D present symptoms of attention deficit, hyperactivity,
impulsivity, are known by teachers dealing with a pupil who has A.D.H.D is different as
there are taken into consideration his particularities.
Regarding our future research we do want to develope a project which includes
working with A.D.H.D children,working with their parents and their teachers,as these
children have the right to learn and study as all the others though they have their
particularities.
All in all we have to say that though it is difficult to deal with a child a child who
has A.D.H.D, this one can succesfully learn and study, and can change his unusual
behaviour.
References
Barkley, Russel A., (1991) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Clinical Workbook, The Guilford Press,
New York, USA.
Baydala, L.; Sherman; J., Rassmusen, C; Wikman, E.; Janzen, C. (2006) ADHD Characteristics în Canadian
Aboriginal Children, în Journal of Attention Disorders, 9 - 642.
Bener, A.; Al Qahtani, R., Abdelaal, I, (2006) The Prevalence of ADHD Among Primary School Children în
Arabian Society, în Journal of Attention Disorders, 10 - 77.
Cucu - Ciuhan, G., (2006) The Experimental psychotherapy eficiency at kinetik child, Editura SPER - SPER
CONS EDIT, Bucureşti.
Henderson, K., Identifying and Treating Attentio «Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Resource for School and
Home, U.S. Department of Education, 2003, ED Pubs, Education Publication Center.
133
Pierrehumbert B; Bader, M; Thevoz, S; YKinal A; Halfon, O., (2006) Hyperactivitz and Attention Problems în a
Swiss Sample of School- Aged Children: Effects of School Achievement, Child Gender and Informants, în
Journal of Attention Discorders, 10-65
Cosmovici, A., Iacob L.,(1998) School Psychology, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi.
Zlate, M., (1999), Cognitive mecanism psychology, Ed. Polirom, Bucureşti.
Neculau, Adrian, (2000), Psychology, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi
Ştefănescu, Olga Doina, (2000) Psychology, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureşti
Golu, Mihai, (2000), Psychology, Ed. Economics. Preuniversitaria, Bucureşti
Henderson, K., (2003) Identifying and Treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Resource for School
and Home, U.S. Department of Education, , ED Pubs, Education Publication Center.
Johnston C, (2002). The impact of ADHD on social and vocaţional functioning în adults. În P.S. Jensen and JJi.
Cooper (Eds.). ADHD State of the Science Best Practices (Ch. 6, p. 1-21), Kingston, NJ: Civic Research
Institute.
Ingersoll B., (1988). Your Hyperactive Child, NY, Doubleday.
134
th
4
th
th
Behavioral Disturbances in the Middle Years
Georgiana Dumitru
Abstract
This study includes the normal “problems” that large numbers of parents and
children have to face. Sometimes, the developmental process goes seriously awry. This
work would be incomplete if we failed to mention some of the major abnormalities that
occur in childhood, along with what we know or suspect about their causes and remedies.
The study of abnormal development is important for practical and theoretical reasons.
On a theoretical level, we hope that the theories will lead us to increased understanding of normal as well as disturbed development. We shall point out only a few of
the more common or most intensively studied conditions that arise during childhood.
A number of difficulties related to starting school appear during the middle years.
These include learning disabilities, dyslexia, learning blocks, and hyperkinesis, or
hiperactivity. Juvenile delinquency is a problem that increasingly affects children at ever
younger ages. Two major types are acting-out delinquency, or the free and deliberate
expression of hostile impulses, and psychopathic (or sociopathic) delinquency, the
absence of conscience and emotional ties, and indifference to others.
Keywords: acting-out delinquency, hyperkinesis, learning blocks, learning
disabilities, minimal brain damage, psychopathic, sociopathic, or antisocial personality
Difficulties related to starting school
A number of difficulties emerge during the middle years that are related to starting grade school. At this time, formal instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic
usually begins, accompanied by new demands for effort and achievement, and also for an
unprecedented immobility, silence, and attentiveness.
In recent years, much attention has been given to children who suffer from what
are called “learning disabilities” (Farnham-Diggory, 1978; Sapir and Wilson, 1978).
The reported symptoms of learning disability are diverse. Learning disabled
children are often reported to be poorly coordinated in both gross and fine motor
activities. They are likely to have trouble catching a ball, tying shoelaces, or writing with
a pencil. Some learning disabled children have speech difficulties. Others may suffer from
memory problems, difficulties in coordinating vision and action, or defective ability to
process information and make sense of what they see and hear. They can be either
overactive or lethargic.
A special form of learning disability is dyslexia, or reading difficulty.
Manifestations include inability to associate printed letters and words with spoken sounds;
Maria Butucea/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
reversal or rotation of letters (for instance, confusing d and b, or seeing E as 3 ); and
difficulty in integrating letters or syllables to form words. Dyslexia may be accompanied
by dysgraphia, writing problems. The dysgraphic child's words are often placed so poorly
on the page as to be illegible.
According to some observers, learning disorders are thought to be an expression
of minimal brain damage (MBD). This is a structural or functional abnormality of the
brain that does not show up with the usual neurological diagnostic techniques. MBD is
regarded by others, including the authors, as an untestable hypothesis that by means of
reification (i.e., giving it a name) gives an illusion of explaining something (Leung, 1975).
Learning disabilities in general and dyslexia in particular have also been attributed to junk
foods or food additives (preservatives, flavorings, colorings). One study blames them on
high levels of lead and cadmium in the body (Pihl and Parkes, 1977). Some cases may be
due to undetected problems in eyesight or hearing, slow maturation, malnutrition, or
psychological or social problems. It is important to bear in mind that many dyslexics
become fully competent readers and writers, if only at a somewhat later age than is usual.
Among the remedies that seem to help some dyslexics is having lots of practice with large
type. Those who cannot organize regular printed matter may be able to manage when the
type is big and there is plenty of space between words and lines.
Emotional interferences with learning are sometimes called learning blocks.
They appear in the context of parental overambition and pressure, which can turn children
away from the learning process and make it extrinsic to their own needs and wishes. Some
children try hard to measure up to their parents' expectations, but the strain of trying
simply increases the irrelevant emotion in the situation. Each failure becomes more
frustrating. This leads to new anxiety and confusion and makes the next failure all the
more likely. For some children, failure may be a weapon with which to punish
overdemanding parents.
Another school-related problem, again found most often in boys with normal or
high IQs, is hyperkinesis or hyperactivity. This is an inability to sit still and focus
attention in school and school-like situations. Hyperkinetic children are often impulsive.
They are easily distracted and often distract their classmates (Stewart and Olds, 1973).
Like learning disability, hyperkinesis has been explained by MBD, poor nutrition, environmental pollutants, and so forth (Kolata, 1978). The evidence on food
additives is elusive (Brozan, 1980; Brunner, Vorhees, and Butcher, 1981). However, there
is some reason to believe (Weiss, 1981) that risky amounts of toxic food dyes are allowed
in foods and may affect behavior. Halverson and associates have tried to relate various
forms of problem behavior to the presence of minor physical anomalies (Halverson and
Victor, 1976). These include unusually large head circumference, epicanthic folds of the
eyelids, widely spaced eyes, a curved fifth finger, and wide gaps between the first and
second toes. One study (Waldrop et al, 1978) found that the number of minor physical
anomalies in newborn boys (girls were not studied) correlated with problem behavior at
age three. However, a study by Jacklin, Maccoby, and Halverson (1980) does not bear out
these findings. Even if an organic basis for hyperactivity can be established, we must
remember that the course of development depends heavily on a continuing two-way
interaction between the child and other people.
Children diagnosed as hyperactive are often treated with drugs. One of the
favored drugs is the stimulant amphetamine, which nonmedical users know as "speed."
136
Amphetamine is said to have a paradoxically soothing effect on hyperactive children
because of some atypical characteristic of such children's brains. However, Rapoport and
his associates (1978) have shown that amphetamine has identical effects on normal and
hyperkinetic boys. Amphetamine given to normal boys between the ages of six and twelve
produces a rapid drop in activity level, faster reaction time, improved memory, and
increased vigilance. This consists of excitability, talkativeness, and, in a few subjects,
euphoria (exaggerated feelings of well-being), a number of subjects suffered from insomnia, and a few had stomach aches and mild nausea. Such reactions have been attributed to
the wearing off of the drug. However, Rapoport suggests that the rebound is caused by
delayed chemical reactions.
Swanson and Kinsbourne (1979) report that the drug Ritalin seems to improve
attention, concentration, and learning, but only as long as the drug is active. They point to
a phenomenon known as state-dependent learning: Material is retained and is usable in the
condition in which it was learned, but evaporates when the state changes. Thus the
individual under the influence of tranquilizers, alcohol, or other drugs may learn and
remember, only to forget what was learned as soon as the intoxicant wears off. The
learning may return when the state is resumed. It is as though the drugged person was
separate from his or her undrugged self.
Trends in childhood criminality
Juvenile delinquency has been with us for some time, usually as a gang phenomenon and often under adult direction (consider Fagin, Oliver Twist, and the Artful
Dodger). However, in recent years there have been several new trends in childhood
criminality. One trend has been toward greater youthfulness in criminals. This could be
accounted for in part by the exploitation of children by adult criminals. It is theorized that
children caught in activities like running numbers, drugs, or weapons are unlikely to be
punished.
A second trend has been toward greater ferocity and violence by child criminals.
These children, in pairs or small groups, prey on people who look defenseless, such as the
very old. They rob, beat, and sometimes rape and kill them. Such behavior may indicate
profound psychopathology, but at least some child criminals voice considerable hostility
toward the "haves" of society. Delinquent behavior in children from favored backgrounds
almost always expresses hostility toward the parents or, through them, toward society at
large.
A third trend in juvenile delinquency has been the increasing involvement of
girls. Runaways, both middle-years and adolescent girls and boys, often support
themselves as heterosexual or homosexual prostitutes. Although prostitution is against the
law, most police forces seem to have given up on fighting it. Some observers feel that the
child prostitute is unable to form stable positive relationships. However, in such cases it is
almost impossible to distinguish cause and effect. Bracey (1982) speaks of the juvenile
female prostitute as being victimized several times over: by her pimp, perhaps by her
customers, and by society if she has the bad luck to be arrested and charged. A serious
complication of life as a prostitute is the threat of venereal disease.
There are a number of varieties of delinquent, but two deserve special mention.
The first kind is the acting-out delinquent. Such an individual freely expresses his or her
137
impulses, particularly hostile ones. "Acting out" refers to the uninhibited, deliberate, and
often malicious indulgence of urges that normal people try to control. Unbridled impulses
lead to battering, rape, and sometimes homicide. We have said that vandalism is often the
product of boredom. Some vandalism, however, expresses a free-floating rage against
society or some of its segments. However, Werner and Smith (1977), who have collected
longitudinal data on all the children born in 1955 on the island of Kauai, in Hawaii, report
that such children can be spotted as early as age two. Authors of a Freudian bent have
speculated about an unconscious need for punishment in children who act out. They rather
often get caught, and it seems plausible that basically they may want to be punished.
Acting-out children are normally intelligent. They have rather strong emotions that, even
though predominantly negative, make them different from the sociopathic delinquent.
The psychopathic or sociopathic or antisocial personality is the second variety
of delinquent to which we want to call attention. These labels refer to chronic antisocial
behavior expressing a near-total lack of fellow feeling for other people. There seem to be
two likely reasons for the sociopath's defective conscience. One is failure to identify with
sound parental models. The other is identifying with parents who themselves model sociopathic styles of behavior.
Psychopaths or sociopaths are remarkable for their emotional blandness in regard
to actions that would profoundly shock normal people. Although psychopaths are
indifferent to other people's feelings, they often understand them well enough to do an
expert job of manipulating them. Psychopaths know how to talk in terms of the accepted
values. They can be quite charming in their short-term personal relations. They make glib
promises and resolutions but may at the same time be picking the pocket of the person
they are talking to. They are profoundly egocentric and seem incapable of seeing their
own responsibility for anything that goes wrong. Psychopaths score in the normal range
on IQ tests, but their thinking is essentially superficial. Despite normal learning ability,
they seem not to profit from their own mistakes. This means that they are repeatedly
caught repeating their past blunders. They seek to manipulate people with stock formulas,
and, even though this works for a while, people do catch on. When they do, the
psychopath cannot adapt to the change and goes on with the same nonfunctional
manipulations. Psychopaths seem never to be discouraged by a history of failed scams—
they are foolishly, incurably optimistic.
Psychopaths steal even when they are sure to be caught. They lie even when
there is no earthly reason for them to do so. Some psychopaths can be murderously violent
(although most are not), but even their violence has a shallow, unfeeling quality. They do
not particularly wish other people ill. It is just that others' needs and feelings are of no
great significance. Their own desires are paramount and absolute.
Although children are rarely labeled as psychopaths or sociopaths, the foundations for a sociopathic outlook are laid down early. Not all psychopaths are delinquents or
criminals. Some are simply unpleasant characters who exploit and betray their friends and
families but stay within the law. Some become marginal personalities. Some settle down
to shallow respectability. A few become financially successful, but it is doubtful that such
people ever become able to establish satisfying interpersonal relationships.
138
Categories of problem behavior in childhood psychopathology
Using the technique of cluster analysis, which permits one to detect patterns of
intercorrelation, Achenbach (1982) has identified three broad categories of problem
behavior.
First, there is overcontrolled or internalizing behavior. Here we find such
symptoms as compulsions and obsessions, irrational guilt, low self-esteem, and
psychosomatic disturbances. Second, there is undercontrolled or externalizing behavior.
Here we find all the varieties of acting out and aggression. The third category is mixed, or
hostile withdrawal. This category includes such symptoms as bed-wetting and confused
thinking. A finer analysis of the symptoms found in twelve- to sixteen-year-old boys has
yielded six profile-types of disturbed behavior.
First, there is the schizoid type. Schizoid behavior is marked by clinging to
adults, expressing fear of one's own impulses, perfectionism, or hallucinations.
Second, there is the uncommunicative type. Children exhibiting such behavior
may be confused, withdrawn, self-conscious, shy, timid, or moody.
Third, we have the immature-aggressive type. Such a child acts too young, cries,
wets the bed, whines, argues, screams, or fights.
Fourth, there is the hyperactive type. Such children are characterized by an
inability to concentrate, disobedience in school, impulsiveness, and nail biting. Fifth, we
have the uncommunicative-delinquent type, marked by destructive-ness, disobedience, a
taste for unsavory companions, lying, cheating, stealing, and fire setting. Sixth, there is
the delinquent type.
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on Victimology, 1982.
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Child Development, 1976, 47, 281-285.
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Brunner/Mazel, 1978.
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Swansons, J.M., & Kinsbourne, M. The cognitive effect of stimulant drugs on hyperactive children. In G.A.
Hale& M. Lewis (Eds.), Attention and cognitive development. New York: Plenum, 1979.
Waldrop, M.F., Bell, R.Q., McLaughlin, G., & Halverson, C.F. Newborn minor physical anomalies predict short
attention span, peer aggression, and impulsivity at age three. Science, 1978,199, 563-565.
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139
Cognitive-Neuroscience Confirmations Regarding
Pragmatic Explanations in Educational Psychology
Maria Butucea
Zhangzhou Normal University, P. R. of China
Abstract
Are Chinese students using different “mental program”? Are their performances
due to native or educational causes? In these pages we were focused in some relation
between language, math and music as activities and try to find scientific explanations at
brain’s structural and functional level.
Keywords: cognitive neurosciences, education, school-culture, memory, musical
education, mathematics.
Introduction
We started this study guided by the philosophical framework of Chinese culture,
more precisely the holistic presupposition in which “everything is connected with
everything else”. Also, to be taken into consideration, the interdisciplinary ideas gathered
from our lectures and cognitive neurosciences.
To get to the point, we knew from recent studies that mathematical skills,
language development and even body movement reside in the same cerebral area, the
intra parietal inferior. If this is indeed the case, this means we can find indices of Chinese
mental specificity by observing the way they combine unrelated activities and, the way
they develop complex cognitive schema and, maybe neuronal structures and functional
architectures.
Recent studies claim that even brain is such complex it is possible, using modern
investigation like fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) to identify brain’s areas
when people are accomplishing different tasks
We are not actually producing here a medical rigorous study, but using their
results we can make new connections and emphasis hypotheses.
Scholars settled after several experiments regarding localization of language and
meaning and also the causes of some disabilities like dyslexia or amusia as
malfunctioning.
After we had some observation for a while on Chinese culture and languages and
corroborate them with recent cognitive neuroscience researches’ confirmation, we
emphasize a hypothesis: The itinerary of the neuro-information is shorter for Chinese’s
mind that is because since the binging the Chinese characters are embedded by meaning.
That ought explain meanwhile the using of semantic memory, not visual and mechanic
and also explain why they can be good at mathematic.
Musical education also improves the semantic memory, and reduces visual
memory and that is also confirmed by recent researches in cognitive neurosciences.
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(Creutzfeldt 1989; Rauscher, 1993/1995; 2000; Burbaud, 2003) That confirms that the
same anatomical brain can function differently in different culture and create patterns as
“programs”.
If we wonder why Chinese can perform so well mathematics (and many other
activities) we can find out that their education as cultural background (natural language)
and as well as official curriculum, and in such way they improve the semantic memories
required so well in mathematics. We could attend such outcomes only using a pragmatic
explanation, which means accepting the role of tacit knowledge embedded in culture as
“mental and neuro-functional programs”.
Some questions arose when we try to understand Asian style of learning. How is
possible to solve tasks which request cognitive logic/mathematical skills by the agents
with Asian cultural background? That kind of background embedded contextual language,
non monotonic logics, and holistic philosophy of daily life. Are there researchers who
claim scientific proves at neural/functional level as explanation? It could explain Chinese
style of learning, or not?
At the beginning we have kept in our mind the presumption that there is a
functional equivalence between mental and functional level (Fodor, 1991) and we have
selected some recent outcomes from neuroscience regarding the architectural neuronal
function and mental organization as cognitive patterns.
Of course, in the majority of experiments have been involved western patients,
but their outcomes aren’t irrelevant because we can extend them for Asian also, or
produce new ones which might be based on some new suggestions.
So, like in others sciences medicine or psychiatry, in psychology researchers
were focused mostly in anomalous or dysfunctions of human behaviors, but meanwhile it
becomes relevant also for normal people. This was indeed the case, by example, for
explanation of dyslexia (disability in readings). Malfunctions need explanation and good
practice to help people.
Another reason why scientific research had targets human dysfunctions is that
professional ethics not allow us to use in experiments normal persons. It could change
mind process (like making decision) by changing the chemistry of brain.
Following this topic of neuroscience confirmation for educational area, we found
sources which can show some clues for learning process, knowledge as activation of
different parts of brain – neuro-cognitive patterns.
Some relevant researches
In 1929, Samuel T. Orton emphasizes that dyslexia is due to a kind of neuronal
organization in patient’s brain.
Briefly, he just pointed out that all difficulties in reading, we are talking about,
are blocked paths of visual neuronal information from right hemisphere to the left
hemisphere, where images and sounds should be decoded and, become meaningful. He
asserted that the left hemisphere can’t take control on this process. Also, he explains the
case of ambidextrous whose can use successfully both hands, as a process due to the fact
that none hemisphere is taking control in order to become dominant.
According to Orton, the path of information in human brain use for process of
reading is this:
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1. Visual representation of the letter;
2. Representation of the sound associate with the letter;
3. Representation of this combination as a meaning decode.
This point of view was taken by G. Eden and her colleagues, from Georgetown
University in Washington, D. C. and had tried new experiments, using modern methods
like fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging).
Nowadays, in neurosciences is frequently used fMRI, or PET (Emission of
Positrons Tomography). With fMRI, we can measure cerebral process in a high resolution
and PET allows us to see the metabolic changes, like regional consume of oxygen or
glucose during motors or cognitive activities.
So, to measure the sanguine flow in brain during activities, scientists had selected
a group of 41 youngsters, between 6 and 22 old ages. That group was relatively
homogenous as level of intelligence and has the ability to read capitals, simple words and
group of letters without meaning.
Researchers have been focused on patients who can’t read properly and try to
observe the itinerary of sanguine flow between cerebral hemispheres. They could observe
an increase of the quantity in a left hemisphere during visualization of letters.
This fact shown, in their opinion, that patients have a dysfunction as an
interrupted sanguine flow and that is possible the cause of dyslexia. Also, they had noted
that, even there are some variations from languages (French, English and Italian), the area
of brain where dyslexia is located in the same part of brain, left lobe behind parietal.
Another experiment, designed by Paulesu, showed that this disability is bigger
for Italian patients than for English ones. That could happen because Italian is more
phonetic language than English. Italian language presents more identity between letter and
sound than other European languages. However the location is settled as being in the left
lobe behind parietal zone. (Bower, 2003)
It seems that it is already known and nothing could be done forward. But,
unfortunately, this point of view has been not confirmed by a new experiment designed by
Li Tai Han. (http://www.sciencenews.org).
Li Tai Han and his colleagues emphasize that disability to read has different
location for people who spoke a language which is not phonetic at all! At first in his
experiment Li Tai Han, has used as patients a group contain 16 students from a primary
school in Beijing, and later he enlarged that group at 65 students.
During that experiment, designed in the same way that have been others before,
they had discovered that the part of brain (of Chinese dyslectic children) with small
activation and sanguine irrigation is also in the left hemisphere, but in vertical subfrontal area, not behind parietal! It seemed be very surprising knowing that aria is for
decoding meanings. (Gabrieli, Poldrack, Desmond, 1998).
For these patients, the meaning is build not unifying the letter with a sound like in
European languages, but directly in vertical sub-frontal area! (Bower, 2003)
Why this really is happening, might be explained by studying carefully the
structure of language as a mind organizer. In Chinese languages the mostly characters
(which are not “letter”, single sign at all) has at the very beginning, more or less, a definite
meaning. Furthermore, we can see that the path of neuronal information could be shorter
and is attending directly the area responsible for decoding meaning, left hemisphere in
vertical sub-frontal area.
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Our comment here could be this one: If things are happening in this way and we
make extinction for normal people, who speaks Chinese language that leads to the new
idea that their mind works differently and they use a specific neuronal network as
functional correspondent for knowledge patterns. Accepting the cultural anthropologic
explanation as native language is an important clue for pragmatic explanation.
When European children learn and understand mathematic concepts and
operation, neural information use in their brain an itinerary. All mathematical signs should
be “translated” and transferred as neuronal information from right to left; from right
hemisphere, occipital (area responsible for representation of letter or digit), temporal,
(for sounds) to the left in vertical zone behind parietal, and finally that to vertical subfrontal. Chinese children/people use to understand quickly because neurological
information shouldn’t pass through the area called vertical behind parietal like for
western, the path is directly to vertical sub-frontal zone.
We can see that all experiments, for explain dyslexia, were designed before with
the presumption: path of neuronal information in reading (letter, digit) process is visual
itinerary and that pattern must be considerate as universal. Precisely, leaning math is
grounded in visual/linguistic intelligence. (Gardner, 1983) And it is, apparently, the
neuronal pattern for European style of learning process.
Nevertheless, we can emphasize that Asian are grounding differently (may be
more audible or kinesthetic intelligence) in order to lead to a meaningful signs. And this is
a biological and cultural advantage. For learning math, we know, too, is important
semantic embodiment for every math sign we are using in exercises. They are always
connected to a context, by example, digit 1, 2, 3,... means substantial quantities, or order,
elements, aspects of real concrete world. Also, is presumed that notation in geometry (A,
B) could be read as a sentence like “let’s take a line A, B between...”
If for us, westerns to learn mats symbol is a re-re-contextual signification, for
Chinese is an advantage to decode directly because they are used to do so in their native
language! More than, we can assume that any neuronal process used in learning math are
similar to learning language, but depend on language. We cannot find meaningless signs
(letter, digit) producing semantic topics. Syntax alone cannot produce automatically a
semantic, as Searle noted once. (Searle, 1991)
Again, we can pointed out that a contextual language become a cultural
advantage and can constructs neuronal and mental patterns that can be easier activated
during tasks in classroom. Corroborations of theories with observed facts, using modern
technology must go father and accept the framework of pragmatic explanation. It allow us
to taking in consideration cultural background which can explain better the process of
leaning mathematic or other possible subject which require semantic decode.
Musical cognition involved in patterns responsible in learning math
Musical education improves the semantic memory, and reduces visual memory
and that is also confirmed by recent researches in cognitive neurosciences. (Creutzfeldt,
1989; Rauscher, 1993/1995/2000; Burbaud, 2003)
For Chinese, all these happen because language is not only contextual one, but
also tonal language. Discussions about the role of music and musical cognition are larger
then we can quote here. We can point out only some of them like experiment called
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Mozart Effect which stipulates that music can improve some ability to solve problems
tasks. (Cuevas, Bridgett, 2000).
Some researchers go forward and claim also, using modern methods that the
surface of the activated areas is quite larger for musicians than for non-musicians (Gaser,
Schlaug, 2003) If Mozart Effect experiment wasn’t very clear (may be not properly
designed) other laboratory experiments showed that is very important for mind
organization to practice instrumental music, not only to listen music.
Zones apparently not connected with music, developed practicing instrumental
music, as spatial orientation motor, or emotional could improve mind activities!
(Rauscher, 1993/1995) Development and good function of all this brain area seems to be
also very important in increasing the ability to operate with mathematical concepts.
(Bridgett, Cuevas, 2000; Schmithorst, Holland, 2004)
New experiments and researches for aphonic people, designed by Isabella
Peretz emphasis that disability to make distinctions between sounds is located in interior
gyrus frontal, but not in right cortex comparing with normal musical persons. More
than, they settled that emotions activation, strong related with music, are located in
prefrontal cortex, ventral-medial in amygdaloidal zone. (www.BRAMS.org)
In other words, doing music, practice of it, could be, according neuroscientists an
excellent way to improve all systems, groups of neurons, patterns for cognition. Music
seems to be a real meta- program to re-set sub-programs or increase their functions.
Music and mathematic learning
Vincent J. Schmithorst and Scott K. Holland, wrote in 2004 a very interesting
article “The effect of musical training on the neural correlates of math processing: a
functional magnetic resonance imaging study in humans”.
Their approach has as a main topic the possible relation between music and the
success in salving mathematical tasks. Using fRMI method, for two adult groups,
musicians and non-musicians, they observe that during practicing instrumental music,
semantic memory is increasing and visual memory is decreasing. It makes possible the
ability to operate easier calculus and to have much intuition speed of correct equality.
Summarizing their approach about the role of instrumental music and long
practice, which they have been observed, it looks like this:
1. The increase of cerebral activity in gyros left hemisphere and prefrontal
cortex;
2. The decrease of visual associations, primary cortex and left inferior parietal
zone;
3. Development of semantic memory and ability for abstract, intuitive
representation of numerical quantities during practice of instrumental music.
In short, we can accept that all differences observed by using fRMI show us that,
there is an architectural organization and function of brains and it is connected to the
context. It is relevant if we practice instrument music from early childhood or not, in
family or not, daily or occasionally. China everybody use to play an instrument,
especially in family, practice a kind of traditional sports, and them kept in classroom
in official curriculum. So far, many authors have studied how is music made in different
144
countries taking as example Korea, Japan or China. (Gregersen, & Kowalsky, Kohn,
West, Marvin, 2000).
All this can explain, using a pragmatic explanation connected with cultural
background that might be a functional architecture of brain and mind.
Educational considerations
What kind of implication could rise for education? Authors believe that there
could be many: not only for semantic memory and intuition, but also for cognitive
metaphoric knowledge, emotional equilibrium. (Ja¨ncke, Shah, Peters, 2000; Khalfa,
Schon, Anton &Liegeois-Chauvel, 2000; Gomez, Peretz &Danuser, 2007)
We can understand now how Chinese mind works, assuming that they have
contextual language (tonal) and use more the music. We can explain their
accomplishments and school success in mathematic learning, not only due to their diligent
behavior, but also due to their culture and school culture which facilitate semantic
memory, using different neural and mental programs. (We can talk also about traditional
sports, cut/paper or other activities they are mixing but it wasn’t, in fact, the topic of this
article, and need another possible approach.)
Music is like “universal window” throughout which we can make possible a
better functional brain. To listen and practice music, sing songs many areas of brain are
suddenly active and enlarged: temporal auditory cortex, primary visual cortex, motor
cortex, gyros frontal. Music is an excellent way to improve all system. It is like brain
knows how to re-start himself and correct his activities, if it is necessary. Music is more
than a meta-program which processes like a driver in computer; even brain is not at all a
computer. May be there are many other meta-programs as life-philosophy, therapeutic
sessions that could have similar roles.
However we understand why Chinese children and people are practicing music
gladly in classrooms. (Gregersen & Kowalsky, Kohn, West, Marvin, 2000) Of course,
educationists already empirically knew that children like music, but may be they don’t
know why? (Geake & Cooper, 2003) They lake a scientific explanation.
Now, this explanation is not pure biological one it is a pragmatic one, using
neuroscience researches related to cultural anthropological observation. It might be
fruitful to ask ourselves more about what subject in primary and secondary schools are
appropriate to children.
We can wonder about the role of music, and what kind of music? What are
possible connection between semantic memory and mathematic or other subjects? Can
music make our students better, or treat mental diseases? Can we borrow from other
culture good practices if they are?
So far, we hope that trans-cultural researches will be developed in future and
their outcomes might confirmed by neuroscience researches in more neuro-constructivist
approaches into interdisciplinary perspective. (Westermann & Mareschal, Johnson,
Sirois, Spratlingm, Michael, S.C. Thomas, 2007)
145
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th
4
th
th
Developing the Emotional and Social Competences of a
Child with Down Syndrome through Games – A Case Study
Ioana Iacoba, Corina Muşuroib, Alexandra Spătaru c,
a,b
“Tibiscus” University of Timişoara
c
West University of Timişoara
Abstract
The present case study analyses the progress made by a child with Down
syndrome in the area of emotional and social competences by a therapeutic program
consisting of different types of games. The games were specially created to aim the child’s
deficient emotional and social behavior. By repeating the games and by expending their
structure from simple to complex, the child developed a better understanding of emotions
and a more appropriate way of emotional reaction in real life situations. The outcomes of
the program were analyzed through a periodical observation process.
Keywords: Down Syndrome; emotional and social competence; game.
1. Introduction
The present case study describes and analysis the outcomes of a game-based
therapy applied to a nine-year old Down syndrome boy in order to develop emotional and
social competences adequate enough to facilitate his integration in school by
mainstreaming.
The subject of the present study is a nine-year boy with Down syndrome. At the
age of eight the child was almost completely non-verbal. The boy used to have dramatic
psycho-somatic reactions including vomiting and panic attacks when attending therapy
settings outside his home – at the kindergarten, at the doctor’s, at the speech therapist’s
office. He was assessed to have a high level of anxiety when he had to interact with
people outside of his family. His eye contact was very poor and he would manifest
reactions of frustration such as screaming, hitting the others, covering his ears and auto
stimulation whenever he encountered novel, demanding situations, starting from being
asked to use of expressive language to leaving his routines and comfort area in order to
meet people.
2. Aim and scope of the study
The goal of this case study is to assess the efficiency of a game-based therapy
applied to a nine-year boy with Down syndrome. The study emphasizes the efficiency of a
program consisting of structured activities, supported by the practice of positive reward.
The emotional and social behavior of the boy with Down syndrome was observed and
Ioana Iacob, Corina Muşuroi, Alexandra Spătaru / Procedia – Edu World 2010
assessed before, during and at the end of the first stage of the game-based program in
order to establish the quality and relevance of the results. The objectives of the therapy
had been clearly established and they referred to the development of emotional and social
competences in order to help the child to successfully adjust to novel or social
circumstances.
Method and material
Starting with March, 2010, the child was integrated in an experimental gamebased therapy, at his home. This program was initiated to complete a therapy started a
year before with the purpose of developing the language, the cognitive, the self-help area.
At the beginning, in order to monitor the child’s development during intervention
program, we applied a checklist regarding: the ability to identify and label emotions, the
ability to understand the cause and the consequences of different emotions, the ability to
use emotional self- regulating strategies. The only ability the boy had at that time was to
correctly identify the emotions suggested by pictures displaying a person’s face. By
keeping records of the child’s evolution in a daily observation sheet, we could properly
adjust the program in order to optimize its pace and results.
A program was designed to approach the child’s deficient emotional and social
behavior. The program was based on the practice of ABA therapy (the Applied Behavior
Analysis), and verbal therapy combined with consistent visual support for each new
learning task. The child had different sessions of games each working day of the week,
approximately 2 hours a day. The first program included the identification and labeling of
different emotions exhibited by story characters. For instance, the child watched “Tom
and Jerry” cartoon on the computer and the therapist used to stop the movie at a certain
image and ask the child to name the character’s emotion. The same exercise was done by
reading stories and showing the child images to name the emotions displayed by the
character appearance. Other types of playing involved in the therapy have been:
independent toy play, role-play, and board games sessions. The tasks were based on
matching, imitation, understanding oppositions and sequencing. The learning strategy was
that of step-by-step activities. The boy was introduced gradually into the learning task in
order to make it approachable and to decrease the child’s anxiety by exposing him to
constant success in achieving the task.
The learning program was design to address the specific learning profile of
children with Down syndrome. Recent studies conducted by Sue Buckley highlighted the
fact that children with Down syndrome have very good strengths in visual learning and
that they may benefit from a program build on relevant visual materials. Moreover the
program See and learn developed by Down Syndrome Education International starting
from Sue Buckley’s research demonstrated that children with Down syndrome own the
ability of learning language by reading. Therefore we introduced in our program relevant
images associated with written words. The images were flashcards, illustrated books, and
movies. The child proved a good understanding of different categories of images: realitylike images, symbolic or cartoonish images. We also used toys, puppets and masks for the
role-play scenes.
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3. Theoretical issues
Emotional and social competences
The emotional competency represents one’s ability to identify, assess, and
manage emotions of one’s self or of the others. The emotional competences include three
types of abilities: experimenting and expressing emotions, identifying and understanding
emotions, managing emotions. The social competences refer to the child’s ability to build
up functional social relationships with peers and adults they interact with. A child having
social skills is able to use a variety of social behaviors that are appropriate and acceptable
to a given interpersonal situation. Children with a wide repertoire of social skills and who
are socially aware are likely to be socially competent. The socio-emotional competences
are components of the emotional intelligence a form of intelligence which contributes to
the successful social adaptation of the individual in a comparable measure his/her
intellectual quotient does. Moreover, in the last decade, science has discovered remarkable
evidence about the role emotions play in our lives. Researchers have discovered that even
more than IQ, the emotional awareness and ability to manage feelings will determine
one’s success and happiness in life, including family relationships.
Emotional and social profile of children with Down syndrome
Children with Down syndrome are acknowledged as having good social skills.
They may show relative competence in forming relationships with peers. They have
relative strengths in certain types of social behavior – turn taking, sharing, and interacting
with children by playing. Children with Down syndrome are reported to have the ability
of communicating more positive emotional signs than children with other disabilities by
smiling. The obvious smile frequency between the ages of 5 to 10 has been classified as a
characteristic of their socio-emotional functioning which usually facilitates their easier
acceptance by the groups of typically developing children. Although children with Down
syndrome are perceived as sociable and temperamentally easy, they display behavior
problems determined by their poor emotion regulation strategies in novel or frustrating
situations. They usually use a limited repertoire to cope with frustration, which results in
high negative emotional reactivity (anxiety, tantrums, anger, and even aggression).
Another problem related to children with Down syndrome emotional profile is
their poor learning motivation which can be the explanation for their failure in valuing
their potential. Down syndrome children and young people’s remarkable achievements
registered in the last decade due to the early intervention programs reveal that their
intellectual and emotional potentiality may be higher that assessed before. Yet, the lack of
motivation can hamper a quick enough pace of acquisitions, as they persistently make use
of counter-productive strategies for novel problem solving tasks. They may even overuse
their social skills by smiling, hugging or being charming in order to make the educator
give up asking him/her to fulfill a task. If this strategy fails, they may become stubborn
and difficult. Some researchers suggest that the avoidant learning behavior is not
determined by the fact that the child may find the task too hard. It is the tactic of
“switching-off” which may explain why children with Down syndrome become from
relative good problem-solvers in the early childhood, reluctant learners later on. Perhaps a
firm refuse on the part of the parents and educators to accept this tendency of avoiding
tasks will discourage the child to use it and will reduce his/her motivational deficit.
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The role of play in children’s emotional and social development
Play offers children the best context to understand, practice and develop social
skills. The interactive play helps the child to build self-awareness and social awareness,
and the capacity of reading the others’ minds, which is the understanding that other people
may have other thoughts, feelings or emotions (the theory of mind). Playing is the useful
way of developing “symbolic understanding”, testing and understanding the consequences
of their actions, trying out frightening or unfamiliar situations (playing the doctor),
working out relationships, expressing creativity or recreating everyday situations by using
toys and making up different storylines to exercises different cause and effect scenarios.
Theorists agree that play occupies a central role in children's lives. They also
suggest that the absence of play is an impediment to the development of healthy and
creative individuals. Psychoanalysts consider that play is essential for managing
emotional traumas or turbulence; psycho- socialists believe it is necessary for ego mastery
and learning to live with everyday experiences; constructivists think it is necessary for
cognitive development; and neuroscientists believe play is necessary for emotional and
physical health, motivation, and pleasure of learning.
Moreover, results of the recent research on the brain and learning have also
highlighted the importance of play (Jensen, 2000, 2001; Shore, 1997). Research on the
brain demonstrates that play is a vehicle for increasing neural structures, and a means by
which all children practice skills they will need in later life.
4. Therapy description and results
Six months ago, our subject’s emotional and social competences were assessed
using a checklist with open questions answered by his parents. His behavior was also
observed, especially outside his home and when encountering novel or demanding
situations. The results of this first assessment were the following: high anxiety, poor
emotional control, frustration given by the incapacity of expressing emotions. The child
strongly refused to cooperate with his doctor, to have his hair cut, to get into the bus or the
spend time within a group of children. Therefore, his parents together with the two
therapists decided to start a new program in order to approach these behavioral problems
based on playing different types of games. At that time, the boy had undergone one year
of ABA and verbal behavior therapy, thus his language and cognitive levels were high
enough to ensure successful results.
Firstly, the child had had little experience with playing. He would enjoy
repetitive games involving auto stimulation. Yet, he proved to be very open to playing and
he understood rather quickly the idea of respecting rules. The first introduced games were
the board games. Due to these games, the child practiced and learned turn taking,
controlling his feelings when winning or losing, using social formulas such as
“congratulation” or “don’t bother”, and he practiced typical replies during such games.
By playing these types of games and by winning when playing with his peers, the child
gained the sense of pride that increased his self-confidence. After three months he was
able to initiate playing his favorite games with typical developing children and
consequently he started accepting spending some time with a group of peers outside his
home.
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After the board games had been introduced and the observation of the child’s
behavior indicated that he Had understood the idea of following rules and communicating
with the other players, the independent toy play was introduced. The goal was to make
him understand the symbolic play and to get familiar with life situation by playing. For
example, the boy used to refuse by tantrums associated with the somatic symptoms of a
panic attack to get into the bus. We improvised a game including all means of transport,
building a city with its streets, garages and buildings. The child watched the game played
by his educator in the beginning, then he imitated it, and after a while he exhibited interest
and pleasure in controlling the game by moving the toys wherever he wanted. In parallel,
he watched images with children going by different means of transport and he was asked
to name their emotions. He had a role play in which he was either the bus driver or the
passenger and he was also asked to name his emotions. After two months, he was taken on
a bus ride. He was a little scared when going into the bus and during the ride, but he also
had a happy face and he declared that he had liked it. He was successful in controlling his
fear.
A more complicated type of game, yet much enjoyed by our subject was the role
play. Initially, the child was read a story from an illustrated book. He was asked to name
the characters’ emotions and the situation that had caused them. At this stage, the program
aimed to exercise the sequencing of the actions in order to make the child aware that
different situations can determine different emotions and different reactions.
Besides the classical stories, we made up different scripts replicating real life
situations. For instance, any visit to the doctor was a stressful event both for the child and
his parents. The child started to play the doctor game having a doll as his patient. He
learned the vocabulary related to this topic and he became familiar with everything
happening in the doctor’s office. He named his and his parents’ feelings and the patient’s
feelings after getting well. After two months, during a visit to the doctor’s his behavior
was much more appropriate, as he accepted to cooperate.
The child learned quickly to play the doctor, the policeman, the firefighter, the
hairdresser, going shopping, going on a holiday, and so on. The observation of the child’s
emotional and social behavior made after the first three months revealed significant
progress related not only to better emotional control, but to the child’s ability to play with
his peers. He could initiate a game, he could play adequately, and he could respect rules
and be part of a playing group. His self-confidence increased and he seemed more relaxed
in encountering new situations.
After six months, the initial checklist was applied again and significant
improvements were reported in the area of emotional self-regulation and in the child’s
capacity of expressing his emotions and needs. He was able to make friends and to show
positive feelings in his new relationships with the children of the group he was integrated
in. His motivation increased and his avoidance behavior was no longer so persistent and
firm.
One important observation is that during a demanding situation the child starts
using a lot of words, short sentences and learned language structures significantly more
that in a non-stressful situation. We think that by having the necessary vocabulary, the
child comfort himself by reminding himself that he experiences a familiar situation, that
he knows every step of it and that nothing unpredictable can happen. He may also want to
communicate in a more intense way to people he interacts with in order to contribute to
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building up a friendly environment. This particularity of initiating and maintaining a
rather active dialogue may be an indicator that the boy has understood that he can ask for
assistance and support while in distress. Such an acquisition is a great step towards
become better problem-solvers as the research suggests that comparing to their typically
developing peers, children with Down syndrome do seldom ask for assistance when in
distress.
5. Conclusions
Because of the significant difficulties among children with Down syndrome in
controlling their emotions, in initiating and maintaining social dialogue, and in coping
with novel, challenging situations it is imperative to elaborate effective intervention
strategies to be applied during early intervention programs. This study advocates the use
of intensive intervention to address children with Down syndrome’s emotional and social
deficits. Our subject had scarcely made any progress before he started an intensive
intervention program. Our goal has been to constantly increase the child’s motivation to
play and to learn by playing during a daily program. The most efficient strategies have
been: ensuring the child’s success in participating to the game, using a lot of visual
materials, and generalizing the new acquisition by transferring in life what he had
experienced in the game.
In this study, we have explored teaching a child with Down syndrome by using
board games, independent toy play, and role play. We have noticed that child participated
enthusiastically in the game-based program which emphasizes the fact that he had good
abilities in “mind reading” and potential sociability. We observed rather good skills in
playing pretend games which may be an indicator of quite promising decision-making
skills. The child was given opportunities of making choices or decisions during roleplaying. The practice of making choices in a safe situation has contributed to increasing
his self-confidence and willingness in making decisions in new, real-life situations.
Pretend games also foster imagination, planning and anticipation skills. Consequently,
they strengthen the child’s adjustment capacity to novel, challenging situations. We
registered obvious progress in this are as the child’s parents reported that the boy was
more flexible and open to unknown or usually stressful situations, generally displaying an
appropriate, manageable behavior.
The real problem was that the child needed to experience challenging situations
in a familiar, non-threatening environment in order to develop coping strategies. He also
needed the vocabulary to communicate his feelings and to verbalize his experiences so
that he might feel in control. The child will continue this therapy as it has proved its
efficiency in overcoming intellectual, emotional and social difficulties while being
enjoyable, thus motivating. We noticed that during the playing therapy his resistance to
new learning tasks decreases while his motivation in doing what he was asked increases.
We think that a structured, periodically assessed game-based therapy could answer the
lack of motivation issue, representing one of the characteristic aspects of Down syndrome
children’s learning profile.
Results support the use of an intensive intervention approach based on games to
address the specific emotional and social profile of children with Down syndrome. Further
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examination of the use of playing to improve children with Down syndrome’s motivation
and social skills would be warranted.
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th
4
th
th
Incursion into the Problematics Related to the Education of
the Teenagers Coming from Families with Intra-family
Violence – Comparative Study
Petruţa Coman
Piteşti University
Abstract
This paper focuses on the fact that there are types of disadaptive answers, from a
behavioral point of view, of the teenagers coming from families promoting intra-family
violence. The identification, analysis and knowledge of such disadaptive answers may
lead to the projection of efficient and particularized psycho-pedagogical and educative
intervention strategies for their promotion in the form of teenagers’ personal and
professional development programs. Through the comparative analysis of two groups of
teenagers, at the level of variables forming the psychological structure – autonomy (A),
intimacy (I), emotional stability (E) and tolerance (F) – the importance of the cooperation
among the educative factors forming the teenager’s immediate reality was highlighted.
Keywords: boundaries of the self, undesirable behavior, intra-family violence,
autonomy (A), intimacy (I), emotional stability (E) and tolerance (F).
1. Self Formation Elements at Teenagers
Teenagers’ socialization process is fully supported by the cultural values and
attitudes of the appurtenance society. Teenagers’ behavior oscillates between libertinage
and pro-social behaviors, the latter supposing social responsibility and control on
antisocial attitudes and trends. The observance of social norms means the promotion of
social adaptation mechanisms according to the values unanimously accepted by the
culture of the appurtenance community. The individual development represents the
passing through age stages, under such conditions ensuring the continuity of the
connection between the inner world of the individual and the outside world, the
unconditional acceptance of social prescriptions.
The family system is the essential means for the formation of the individual’s
behavior, and the release of parental complexes seems to be one of the most difficult
responsibilities of the individuation process. C.G. Jung names the individuation process
the fundamental need of the individual to become autonomous, to be himself (Corneau.
G., 2000). The stages through which the individual ends up acquiring his autonomy are:
the acquirement of independence from his parents; in the second stage, the individual
discovers, by way of experimentation, competences, abilities about how he can build
relationships with the others; then, there is the stage in which the individual discovers
Petruţa Coman / Procedia – Edu World 2010
expectations and wishes about how he wants to become; during the last stage of the
individuation process, there is no scission between the parts of the mind (between the ego
and the self, between the inner feelings and the experiences that the individual has in his
relations, between the rational and the emotional system etc.) so that the person becomes
mature, with a high and stable self-esteem.
At the preschool age, the child has no developed self boundaries, and for this
reason his need of security is very big (fig.1). The intimacy concept – the intimate
boundary – starts to develop upon the discovery of sexuality. The personal boundary
appears when the child goes to school, when there is the first and most important
separation from family. The social boundary is the last one to develop, later, when the
individual starts to adapt to school and social rules (Coman, D.P., 2008, p.107).
The intimate boundary
The personal boundary
The social boundary
SELF
fig.1. Adaptative chart of the non-differentiated self - preschool period
Until puberty (fig.2), the social boundary is the one that last shapes and
develops, until then the other two develop relatively close to one another, and for this
reason the pubescent cannot differentiate them.
The social boundary
SELF
fig. 2. Adaptative chart of the non-differentiated self - puberty
During adolescence, the individual bears the changes of puberty with a lot of
difficulty because he is not ready to become part of the adults’ community. Due to this
fact, the teenager strengthens his defenses against the action of being discovered
(Winnicott, Donald W., 2003-2004). The identity crisis is related to such problems; if the
persons with a high self differentiation level communicate and enjoy communicating, the
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opposite is that each individual is isolated, in a permanent non-communication, in a
permanent unknown world, of undiscovered fact. In the center of each person there is a
non-communicated, sacred element which is worthy of protection to the highest extent.
Defenses mean a quite advanced hiding of the secret self, and in extreme cases they mean
its endless projection or dissemination.
The social rules establishing behavior typology impose an unbalanced interaction
among age groups. Adults’ expectations in relation to teenagers refer to respect, tolerance,
submissivity on their part. In front of such requirements, teenagers often answer through a
manifest or latent aggressiveness, directed to the others or to himself.
The social boundary
SELF
fig. 3. Adaptative chart of the non-differentiated self - adolescence
In his evolution, the teenager (fig.4) develops a series of defense mechanisms
delimiting different emotional development stages. His task (which shall last for the rest
of his life) is to learn to manage the relation to the inner world so as to be able to adapt to
the relation to the outside world. The interest of the teenager is directed to the outside
world and to the inside world equally so as to acquire abilities to make strong connections
between “the two worlds”. The discovery of the non-fusional manner to have relations
becomes the main method whereby he learns to know his self by reference to the others,
through his actions. The management of the inner world by the teenager sometimes argues
his aggressive behavior.
The boundaries of the self represent the print of the relation with the teenager’s
proximate environment:
1. The intimate boundary – INTIMACY – represents the expression “of the
identity growth need” (Iolanda Mitrofan, Denisa C. Stoica, 2005); its formation coincides
with the period in which an individual needs the confirmation of his family to understand
intimacy as a knowledge, acceptance and completion process which takes place in reality;
the encouragement of the emotional expression, the empathization, the positivation of
moods in relation to the others, the settlement of conflicts without experiencing feeling of
guilt, experiencing trust in the other, all these shape a healthy family environment and
result in the differentiation of the self, in autonomy.
2. The personal boundary – EMOTIONAL STABILITY – is responsible for
maintaining balance in any relationship; its attributes are: optimism, calm, good health,
positive feelings, of peace and trust which pave the way for autonomy.
3. The social boundary – TOLERANCE– is the guarantor of respect in relation to
the outside world, to the real world; it defines the feeling of appurtenance and the relations
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with the group, community and the social; the attribute of this boundary is in the scope of
professional adaptation and increases the level of autonomy.
4. AUTONOMY– represents the success of development of the three boundaries
of the self; once formed, the teenager can learn without any difficulty pro-social, desirable
behaviors; moreover, the autonomy process leads to the formation of the differentiated
self. The teenagers having a differentiated self are independent, autonomous, adaptable
persons having in their structure strong mechanisms of social insertion and adaptation.
The self differentiation refers to the relative level of autonomy and intimacy
which a person maintains, while developing and building interpersonal relationships with
the others (fig.4).
High level of the self
differentiation
AUTONOMY
o
o
o
o
o
INTIMACY
has the capacity to express and
communicate about his needs and
expectations, in relation to the others;
intends to remain in relation to the others,
even if not agreeing with them;
has the capacity to ask for assistance from
the others, without imposing his needs in
relation to them;
is capable to understand that he is different
and separated from the others, without
feeling rejected or abandoned;
has the ability to understand that he is
responsible in relation to him and the others,
not responsible for what the others do.
o
o
o
o
o
is capable to openly express what
he feels in relation to the other;
has the capacity to perceive his
place and the role he occupies
within his family of origin;
grants credit (trust) to the people he
has a relationship with and thinks
that, in essence, they are good;
has the capacity to be empathic in
personal relationships and takes into
account his needs and the needs of
the other equally;
is able to settle the conflicts in a
responsible manner, without causing
additional stress.
fig. 4. Guiding marks of the self differentiation
The growth and development process imposes to the individual the
understanding that the biological age needs to be in accordance with the psychological,
emotional age. The two ages do not fully coincide but the individual needs to assume his
ageing as a desiderate, which means the very reference marks of the relationships between
the chronological and psychological age.
2. Research Objectives and Methodology
2.1. Theoretical Objectives
The central idea of this work is that the family environment has an extremely
important role in the development of the teenager’s self boundaries. This first part of the
research aims at bringing a contribution to the identification and analysis of the types of
disadaptive answers at the level of the psychological structure of the teenagers coming
from families with intra-family violence. In terms of peculiarities in the psychological
structure, we focused in this respect on autonomy (A), intimacy (I), emotional stability (E)
and tolerance (F).
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2.2. Practical Objectives
1. Operationalization of such concepts as autonomy, intimacy, emotional stability
and tolerance.
2. Identification and application of the instruments by which autonomy, intimacy,
emotional stability and tolerance shall be highlighted.
3. Determination of the level of autonomy, intimacy, emotional stability and
tolerance of the teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence.
4. Comparative analysis of the level of autonomy, intimacy, emotional stability
and tolerance at the teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence versus the
teenagers coming from families without intra-family violence.
2.3. Hypotheses
2.3.1. General Hypotheses
1. We suppose that at the teenagers coming from families with intra-family
violence in the investigated group, low levels of autonomy, intimacy, emotional stability
and tolerance manifest.
2. We suppose that there are differences as regards the level of autonomy (A)
between the teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence and the teenagers
coming from families without intra-family violence.
3. We suppose that there are differences as regards the level of intimacy (I)
4. We suppose that there are differences as regards the level of emotional
stability (E) between the teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence and
the teenagers coming from families without intra-family violence.
5. We suppose that there are differences as regards the level of tolerance (F)
2.3.2. Research Hypotheses
1. “The level of autonomy is significantly lower at the teenagers coming from
families with intra-family violence than at those coming from families without intrafamily violence.”
2. “The level of intimacy is significantly lower at the teenagers coming from
families with intra-family violence, than at those coming from families without intrafamily violence.”
3. “Emotional stability is significantly lower at the teenagers coming from
families with intra-family violence, than at those coming from families without intrafamily violence.”
4. “Tolerance is significantly lower at the teenagers coming from families with
intra-family violence, than at those coming from families without intra-family violence.”
3. Presentation of the Research Model
Description of Variances
In order to test the research hypotheses, four variances were used, i.e.: autonomy,
intimacy, emotional stability and tolerance.
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1. Autonomy – is found in the family systems focusing on: communication and
clarity of expression, manifestation of responsibility, openness and development of
respect for the others and acceptance of the separation and loss.
2. Intimacy – is a knowledge, acceptance and completion process performed in
reality; is defined by encouraging the emotional expression, empathization, positivation of
moods in relation to others, settlement of conflicts without experimenting feelings of guilt,
experimentation of trust in the other.
3. Emotional stability – E is defined and recognized in: the equality of the
mood, optimism, calm vs. fluctuation of the mood, pessimism, dreaminess, excitability,
feelings of guilt, anxiety, solitude and a bad health.
4. Tolerance, friendship - F through tolerance to hostile actions, acceptance of
domination, respect for the others vs. belligerent, hostile, resentful, wish to dominate,
contempt for the others.
In order to reveal the difference between the teenagers coming from families
with intra-family violence and the teenagers coming from families without intra-family
violence regarding the level of autonomy and intimacy, we used in measuring them the
“Family of origin” questionnaire (Hovestadt, A.J., Anderson, W.T., Piercy, F.A.,
Cochran, S.W. and Fine M., 1985, p. 287 – 297), and to reveal the differences between the
teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence and the teenagers coming from
families without intra-family violence regarding the level of emotional stability and
tolerance, we used in measuring them the Guilford-Zimmerman personality questionnaire
(Minulescu, M., 2005, p. 279-282).
In conclusion, the four variances allow the differentiation from a psychological
point of view of the teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence vs. those
4. Sample Description
The study was made on 450 teenagers aged between 15 - 20, 225 of them coming
from families with intra-family violence – 120 boys and 105 girls(table 1), and the rest of
225 teenagers coming from families without intra-family violence – 112 boys and 113
girls (table 2). Pupils from 5 Pitesti high schools (sciences and humanities – the IXth, Xth,
XIth and XIIth forms) and students in the Ist year of study from all the specializations in the
Piteşti University living with their family of origin participated. The subjects participating
in this study may be considered normal from the point of view of their intelligence and
personality, i.e. there are no serious emotional, behavior or reality adaptation disorders.
Table 1 – a. type of the family of origin – families with intra-family violence
Subjects’ gender
Male
Female
Cases
Valid
N
Percent
120 100.0%
105 100.0%
Missing
N Percent
0
.0%
0
.0%
159
Total
N
Percent
120 100.0%
105 100.0%
Table 2 – b. type of the family of origin – families without intra-family violence
Subjects’ gender
Male
Female
Cases
Valid
N
Percent
112 100.0%
113 100.0%
Missing
N Percent
0
.0%
0
.0%
Total
N
Percent
112 100.0%
113 100.0%
5. Research Results
To verify research hypotheses, the significance of the difference between the
averages obtained by the teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence vs.
the teenagers coming from families without intra-family violence was resorted to, by
calculating the value of the significance test (t test). The results obtained by the groups
subject to investigation are synthesized in table 3.
Table 3. Significance of the difference between the averages obtained by the
teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence vs. the teenagers coming from
families without intra-family violence
1.
Teenagers
coming
from
families
with
intrafamily
violence
Mean
Autonomy
Intimacy
Emotional
stability
Tolerance
42.12
37.22
7.48
Std.
Deviation
5.80
5.83
1.93
6.47
2.03
Significance
p<0.001
P<0.001
p<0.001
Std.
Deviation
5.64
5.48
2.09
Mean
69.70
74.79
20.08
p<0.001
2.24
21.12
Autonomy
Intimacy
Emotional
stability
Tolerance
2.
Teenagers
coming
from
families
without
intrafamily
violence
The obtained results highlight the fact that there are significant differences
between the averages of scores, the subjects coming from families without intra-family
violence having, on the average, scores significantly higher at the monitored variances as
compared to those coming from families with intra-family violence.
Further to the application of the questionnaires presented in the chapter entitled
“Description of investigation instruments” a series of data was obtained which were
processed through the SPSS program, version 10 for Windows. For confirming the
hypotheses, we used the t test for independent samples.
The first hypothesis was: “The level of autonomy is significantly lower at the
teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence than at those coming from
families without intra-family violence.”
The Independent Samples Test table presents the results of the t test comparing
averages (table 4). The results of the Levene test are: F(448)=0.118, p=0.732; since F is
insignificant, the variances are equal, and the condition of variances homogeneity is
satisfied, we read the results of the t test mentioned on the row above. We find out that
t(448)=51.098, p<0.001, which means that there are significant differences between
averages, the subjects coming from families without intra-family violence having, on the
average, scores significantly higher in terms of autonomy as compared to those coming
160
from families with intra-family violence. The same table presents the difference between
averages (27.57), the standard error of the difference and the confidence interval with a
probability of 95% in which such difference fits.
Table 4. Results of the t test comparing the averages of autonomy at the
teenagers coming from families without intra-family violence and the teenagers coming
from families with intra-family violence
The second hypothesis was: “The level of intimacy is significantly lower at the
average, scores significantly higher in terms of intimacy as compared to those coming
Table 5. Results of the t test comparing the averages of intimacy at the teenagers
coming from families without intra-family violence and the teenagers coming from
families with intra-family violence
The third hypothesis was: “Emotional stability is significantly lower at the
161
average, scores significantly higher in terms of emotional stability as compared to those
coming from families with intra-family violence. The same table presents the difference
between averages (12.60), the standard error of the difference and the confidence interval
with a probability of 95% in which such difference fits.
Table 6. Results of the t test comparing the averages of emotional stability at the
teenagers coming from families without intra-family violence and the teenagers coming
from families with intra-family violence
The forth hypothesis was: “Tolerance is significantly lower at the teenagers
coming from families with intra-family violence than at those coming from families
without intra-family violence.”
average, scores significantly higher in terms of tolerance as compared to those coming
Table 7. Results of the t test comparing the averages of tolerance at the teenagers
coming from families without intra-family violence and the teenagers coming from
families with intra-family violence
162
6. Psychological Interpretation of Results
Please note that we are in the context of confirming the hypotheses from where
our research started. The data analysis demonstrated that (fig. 5):
80
60
40
autonomie
intimitate
20
Mean
stabilitate emotiona
la
toleranta
0
familii cu violenta
f amiliil fara violen
tipul familiei
Figure 5. The level of autonomy, intimacy, emotional stability and tolerance at
the teenagers in the investigated group
The level of the autonomy, intimacy, emotional stability and tolerance is
significantly lower at the teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence than
at those coming from families without intra-family violence.
The four variables allow the differentiation from a psychological point of view of
the teenagers coming from families with intra-family violence, as compared to those
coming from families without intra-family violence. The low or high levels of the four
variables – autonomy, intimacy, stability and tolerance – result in different behaviors
manifesting in his relations with persons in the exterior environment (table 8). The
formation of the self boundaries– the intimate boundary, the personal boundary and the
social boundary – has a significant importance as regards the management of the
relationships the teenager has with the others and with himself.
163
Table 8. Teenagers’ behavior according to the levels of autonomy, intimacy,
emotional stability and tolerance
Studied variables
high level
(resources)
Autonomy
low level
(limits)
high level
(resources)
Intimacy
low level
(limits)
high level
(resources)
Emotional
stability
low level
(limits)
Tolerance,
friendship
high level
(resources)
Teenager’s behavior according to the levels of variables
family
school
the
capacity
to
communicates about his has
needs and expectations, in understand that he is
relation to all family different and separated from
all the others, without
members;
feeling
rejected
or
abandoned;
has no capacity to be has a domination behavior
responsible within the in his relations to his
colleagues and teachers –
family system;
aggressive behavior/isolated
behavior – to impose his
immediate needs;
develops no constructive
relationships
with
his
colleagues because he does
not agree with them;
is able to openly express grants credit (trust) to the
he has
a
his feelings in relation to colleagues
any of
his
family relationship with and thinks
that, in essence, they are
members;
good;
feels guilty when a
conflict occurs in the
family,
whether
his
conflict or the conflict of
the other family members;
has
no
capacity
to
empathize
in
the
relationships
with
his
colleagues and does not take
into account what the other
thinks, feels and how he
acts;
has a stable self- esteem
and a good self control of
his emotional system in
relation to all family
members;
has
a
realistic
and
constructive behavior in the
relations with his colleagues
and teachers, which shows
optimism and balance of
emotions;
has a low level of
adaptability to the group,
rigidity and a poor control
of aggressive impulses in
the relations with his
colleagues and teachers;
has the tendency to control
the
others
through
domination and forced
submission;
has a tolerant behavior to
the hostile actions of
classmates and/or teachers;
moods
oscillating
between
positive and
negative extremes;
self-isolation behavior in
the
family,
which
sometimes results in the
somatization of unsettled
problems and, for this
reason, has a bad health
condition;
has a high level of
acceptance of the rules in
the family;
164
Community
has
the
capacity
to
understand that he is
responsible in relation to
himself and the others, not
responsible for what the
others do.
shows no respect in the
relations
with
the
institutions and members of
the community he is part of;
has the capacity to perceive
the place and role he
occupies
within
the
community;
manifests positive moods in
relation
to community
members;
has
no
capacity
to
empathize, which causes
additional stress resulting in
the incapacity to maintain
self control;
accepts the values of the
community he is part of and
sometimes adheres to them;
feels safe in the relation
with the institutions of the
community he belongs to;
cannot detach himself from
global community problems
and behaves as if they were
his own, which results in
the incapacity of adaptation
and the promotion of
avoidance, non-resolutive
behaviors;
has the capacity to respect
the values of the community
and/or the values of
has the capacity to accept
to be dominated within
the family because of his
conviction – assertive
behavior – and not by
obligation;
low level
(limits)
has a hostile, destructive
behavior in the relations
with family members;
feels envy, resentments in
the relationships within
school;
institutions;
has the abilities to respect
the members of the
community he belongs to
irrespective of their age,
genre differences, race,
choices etc.;
shows contempt to the other
community members and/or
the institutions they are part
of;
7. Conclusions
The conclusions that may be drawn after the conduct of this study are the
following:
o there are significant differences are regards the level of autonomy, intimacy,
emotional stability and tolerance at the teenagers coming from families with
intra-family violence, as compared to those coming from families without
intra-family violence;
o synthesizing the results of this research including 450 teenagers aged
between 15 and 20, we shaped a general image of the resources and limits
they integrated in their behaviors (table 6);
o the family, school and community represent for the teenager his immediate
reality and at the same time the environment in which he can manifest the
acquired, learned behaviors;
o there are strong influences on the teenager’s personal development on the
part of all the three educative factors: family, school, community;
o the boundaries of the self start to form in family and develop within family
and school and are exercised in the family, school and community.
References:
Becvar, D., Becvar, R., (1996), Family therapy – A systemic integration, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Coman, D., P., (2008), Consilierea psihopedagogică şi vocaţională. Elemente de psihopedagogia copilului şi
adolescentului, Universitaria Collection, Education Sciences Series, Paralela 45 Publishing House, Piteşti.
Corneau, G, (2000), Există iubiri fericite? Psihologia relaţiei de cuplu, Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest.
Hovestadt, A.J., Anderson, W.T., Piercy, F.A., Cochran, S.W. and Fine M., (1985), Scală a familiei de origine in
Jurnalul de căsătorie şi Terapia de Familie, 11 no. 3, 287 – 297, instrument reproduced with the permission
of the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy.
Minuchin, S., (1974), Families and Family Therapy, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press.
Minulescu, M., (2005), Psihodiacnoza modernă. Chestionare de personalitate, România Mare Foundation
Publishing House, Bucharest, p. 279-282.
Mitrofan, I, Ciupercă, C, (2002), Psihologia relaţiei de cuplu, SPER Publishing House, Alma Mater Collection,
Bucharest.
Mitrofan, I, coordinator, (2000), Orientarea experientială în psihoterapie, SPER Publishing House, Alma Mater
Collection, Bucharest.
Mitrofan, I.,Stoica, C.,D., (2005), Analiza transgeneraţională în T.U., O noua abordare experienţială a familiei,
Animus Collection, SPER Publishing House, Bucharest.
Winnicott, D., W., (2003-2004), Procesele de maturizare - Opere 4, TREI Publishing House, Bucharest.
165
th
4
th
th
Motivational Orientations and Academic Adjustment
Ana-Maria Cazan
Transylvania University of Brasov
Abstract
The field of research on university student motivation and learning is diverse.
Motivation involves processes that occur as individuals instigate and sustain goal directed
actions. From this point of view, our main hypothesis was that motivational orientations
such as intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientations, task value, control of learning beliefs and
academic self efficacy, can predict the academic adjustment and academic performances.
Motivated students display interest in activities, feel self-efficacious, persist at tasks, and
use efficient cognitive strategies. Our assumption is that that high level of learning
motivation is a significant predictor for academic adjustment.
Keywords: academic adjustement; academic performances; learning motivation;
motivational orientations;
1. Introduction
The field of motivation has undergone many changes in recent years as
psychological theories have increasingly incorporated cognitive concepts and variables.
The field of research on university student motivation and learning is diverse and there are
many different models and perspectives. An important distinction has been made between
two general perspectives, one called the student approaches to learning (SAL) and the
other often labeled the information processing (IP) approach. The latest researches on this
field however, propose that the SRL (self regulated learning) perspective must be replaced
the IP perspective, which is too limited and not reflective of current theory and research
(Pintrich, 2004). In particular, the SRL perspective takes a much more inclusive
perspective on student learning to include not only cognitive, but also motivational and
affective factors, as well as social contextual factors. Apart from cognitive factors,
motivation and emotion significantly influence educational outcomes. The present study
focuses on the self regulated learning approach. From this perspective, we highlight
mostly the motivational aspects of learning.
Motivation involves processes that occur as individuals instigate and sustain goal
directed actions. From this point of view, our main hypothesis was that motivational
orientations such as intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientations, task value, control of learning
beliefs, attributional style and academic self efficacy, can predict the academic adjustment
and academic performances. Motivated students display interest in activities, feel selfefficacious, expends effort to succeed, persist at tasks, and use effective tasks and
cognitive strategies.
Ana-Maria Cazan/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
Using a theoretical framework for conceptualizing student motivation, Pintrich
and De Groot (1990) proposed that there are three motivational components that may be
linked to the three corresponding dimensions of self-regulated learning: an expectancy
component, which refers to students’ beliefs about their expected success in performing a
task, a value component, which concerns students’ appreciation of and beliefs about the
importance of the task for them and an affective component, comprised of students’
emotional reactions to the task (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). This theoretical framework is
well known as the socio-cognitive perspective on motivation. One of the most important
assumptions of social cognitive models of motivation is that motivation is a dynamic,
multifaceted phenomenon that contrasts with the quantitative view taken by traditional
models of motivation. In other words, these newer social cognitive models do not assume
that students are either “motivated” or “not motivated” or that student motivation can be
characterized in some quantitative manner between two endpoints on a single continuum
(Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). This approach reflects the various motivational beliefs
that individuals may have about themselves or the task, such as self-efficacy beliefs and
values for the task. Interest in or liking of the task as well as positive and negative
affective reactions to the self or tasks are also important. In terms of self-regulation, the
key issue is the strategies that individuals may use to control and regulate their
motivational beliefs and affect. It is not the motivational beliefs themselves; it is the
individual’s attempts to control and regulate their personal motivation that are the focus of
self-regulated learning models (Pintrich & Zusho, 2002).
Pintrich et al (1999) have articulated a model of student cognition, which argued
that students regulate their cognition by using motivational strategies in addition to
cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Pintrich and De Groot (1990) found a positive
correlation between motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning and furthermore, all
affective components were related to academic performance. Schunk and Zimmerman
(1994) reported that there was a positive relationship between self-efficacy and academic
achievement and that if students are trained to have higher self-efficacy beliefs their
academic performance also improves. Using a social cognitive model of college students’
goals and self-regulation, Pintrich and Garcia (1991) demonstrated that students who are
high in intrinsic goal orientation are more likely to use deeper, more elaborate cognitive
strategies than students who are lower in intrinsic motivation. The classroom learning
environment itself is critical to fostering motivation and cognitive engagement. Learning
environments that emphasize active participation and responsibility on the part of the
learner are likely to foster a motivational orientation toward deep-level cognitive
processing, persistence and effort (Stefanou & Salisbury-Glennon, 2002).
Recent studies showed important aspects on the relation between motivation and
academic adjustment. A recent study (Lent et al. 2009) found that self-efficacy and
environmental support were predictive of goal progress and academic adjustment.
Students reported gains in their academic functioning when they possess stronger selfefficacy and environmental support. Another study conducted by Peterson et al. (2009)
found that psychosocial factors (academic motivation, self-esteem, perceived stress and
perceived academic overload) explained about 59 % of the variance in students’
adjustment and 20% of variance in their academic performance. When a person is
confronted with difficulties and he believes in himself as competent, this can promote
167
motivation. On the other hand beliefs about oneself as ineffective when confronted with
difficulties can undermine motivation (Reeve et al., 2004).
2. Research questions and hypotheses
Our study highlights the idea that motivation bears a reciprocal relation to
learning and performance. From the literature overview it is clear that social cognitive
mechanisms have a role to play in aspects regarding motivation and learning strategies.
There is a need to examine non-cognitive factors that are associated with academic
performance. Other researches have suggested that self-efficacy beliefs and goal
orientation have a significant effect on academic performance and on academic
adjustment.
Our study aims to identify the relation between motivational orientations and
academic adjustment and academic performances.
The hypotheses were:
o Aspects of intrinsic motivation and academic performances are positively
associated.
o An internal control of learning is associated with academic adjustment.
o Test anxiety is negatively associated with academic performances.
o Motivational orientations are predictors of academic performances.
3. Method
The participants were 130 first year students at the Faculty of Psychology and
Educational Sciences, 13 boys and 117 girls, with a mean age of 22,7 years.
Instruments:
In order to asses the motivational orientations of students we used items from the
MSLQ (The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire), elaborated by Pintrich and
his colleagues (1991). We also used the Work Preference Inventory elaborated by Teresa
Amabile (1994). Both questionnaires were adapted for the Romanian population. Both
questionnaires have high coefficients of internal consistency. They were tested on a
sample of students on the university level.
1. The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire elaborated by Pintrich
and his colleagues (1991)
We used only the motivation scales from MSLQ: the value component, the
expectancy component and the affective component.
Value component: Intrinsic Goal Orientation
Goal orientation refers to the student’s perception of the reason why he is
engaging in a learning task. Goal orientation refers to student’s general goal or orientation
to the course as whole. An intrinsic goal orientation concerns the degree to which the
student perceives himself to be participating in a task for reasons such as challenge,
curiosity, and mastery. Having an intrinsic goal orientation towards an academic task
indicates that the student’s participation in the task is an end all to itself, rather than
participation being a means to the end.
Extrinsic Goal Orientation
Extrinsic goal orientation complements intrinsic goal orientation and concerns
the degree to which the student perceives himself to be participating in a task for reasons
168
such as grades, rewards, performance, evaluation by others, and competition. When one is
high in extrinsic goal orientation, engaging in a task is the mean to an end. The main
concern the student has is related to issues that are not directly related to participating in
the task itself (such as grades, rewards, comparing one’s performance to that if others).
Task value
Task value differs from goal orientation in that task value refers to the student’s
evaluation of the how interesting, how important, and how useful the task is. High task
value should lead to more involvement in one’s learning.
Expectancy component: Control of learning beliefs
Control of learning refers to students’ beliefs that their efforts to learn will result
in positive outcomes. It concerns the belief that outcomes are contingent on one’s own
effort, in contrast to external factors such as the teacher. If students believe that their
efforts to study make a difference in their learning, they should be more likely to study
more strategically and effectively. That is, if the student feels that he can control his
academic performance, he is more likely to put forth what is needed strategically to effect
the desired changes.
Self-efficacy for learning and performance
The items comprising this scale assess two aspects of expectancy: expectancy for
success and self-efficacy. Expectancy for success refers to performance expectations, and
relates specifically to task performance. Self-efficacy is a self-appraisal of one’s ability to
master a task. Self-efficacy includes judgments about one’s ability to accomplish a task as
well as one’s confidence in one’s skills to perform that task.
Affective component: Test Anxiety
Test anxiety has been found to be negatively related to expectancies as well as
academic performance. Test anxiety is thought to have two components: a worry, or
cognitive component, and an emotionality component. The worry component refers to
students’ negative thoughts that disrupt performance, while the emotionality component
refers to affective and physiological arousal aspects of anxiety. The items were translated
and adapted for the Romanian population.
2. Work Preference Inventory elaborated by Teresa Amabile (1994)
The Work Preference Inventory (WPI) was designed as a direct, explicit
assessment of individual differences in the degree to which adults perceive themselves to
be intrinsically and extrinsically motivated toward what they do.
There are two intrinsic secondary scales - Challenge and Enjoyment – and two
extrinsic secondary scales - Compensation and Reward. The instrument has 30 items
written in the first person, and respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which each
item describes them (on a 4-point scale, from 1 = never or almost never true of me to 4 =
always or almost always true of me). Although items were written to capture general
motivational orientations, they were focused primarily on the respondents' work, adults,
with a number of extrinsically oriented items concerning salary and promotions. These
items (five) were rewritten for the college student form of the WPI, with "grades and
awards" being substituted for "salary and promotions." In all other respects, the student
and working adult forms of the WPI are identical (Amabile, 1994).
169
3. Academic performance and achievement were measured by the results of the
final exams, at the end of the first semester. We also used their results of the admission
exam, as prior level of achievement.
4. Results
The results were computed using SPSS 17.00.
Our study is a correlation study.
Analyzing the motivational scales from MSLQ we found significant associations
between the motivational aspects (Table 1).
Table 1. Pearson correlation coefficients between motivational scales from
MSLQ
Variables
1
1. Extrinsic Goal Orientation
1
2. Intrinsic Goal Orientation
.026
3. Task value
.279** .553** 1
4. Control of learning beliefs
.006
5. Self-efficacy for learning and performance -.008
6. Test Anxiety
* p< .05,
2
3
5
6
1
.232* .342** 1
**
.478** .465** .277** 1
.337** -.019
**
4
.139
.145
-.185* 1
p< .01
Intrinsic goal orientation is strongly associated with the task value, thus students
who perceive they self to be participating in a task for reasons such as challenge, curiosity,
and mastery are doing so because they evaluate the task as interesting and useful. They
also think that they can control their learning strategies in order to obtain better
performances, they feel self efficacious. Students who are confident in their ability to
perform well in the courses taken and they have positive self belief about themselves in
handling difficult situations and challenges. Having a positive self-efficacy is an important
trait that can contribute to future success. This shows that students who are confident in
themselves in achieving success in their studies tend to have the need to achieve
excellence. Both these variables are related to student adjustment in university (table 2).
Students who are clear with their goals tend to have better adjustment since they know
that they have to study really hard in order to achieve the goals and to follow the right
direction. The findings lend support to other researches which found significant
correlations between the three variables.
Table 2. Pearson correlation coefficients between motivational scales from
MSLQ and academic performance
Motivational orientations
1. Extrinsic Goal Orientation
3. Task value
5. Self-efficacy for learning and performance
6. Test Anxiety
* p< .05, ** p< .01
170
Academic performance
.02
.24**
.06
.23*
.29**
-.02
Table 2 shows the correlation analysis of student adjustment, achievement
motivation and self-efficacy. Student adjustment has a positive and significant correlation
with intrinsic goal orientation (r = .24, p<0.01). Even though this correlation is rather
weak, the tendency is for students who have a strong intrinsic motivation are most likely
to adjust themselves and to perform well in university. In order to adjust themselves in the
academic environment they have to be strong in their willingness to strive hard in their
studies, in addition to their future orientation and readiness to face challenges. Student
adjustment is significantly correlated with student self-efficacy (r = .29, p<0.01). This
indicates that students with a strong sense of self-efficacy tend to be better adjusted in the
university environment. In order for students to adjust to the university campus life, they
have to develop the confidence in their ability to achieve success in the courses.
We found also a significant correlation between intrinsic motivation (measured
with WPI) and academic performances: r(108) = .29, p = .01, results which confirm the
results with MSLQ.
To test the hypothesis that motivational orientations are predictors of academic
adjustment, we used the hierarchical linear regression technique. Several models were
tested and the most significant was the model that includes as predictors of academic
adjustment the following variables: academic self-efficacy, task value, control of learning
beliefs (Figure 1). The correlations between predictors are less than .70 which eliminates
the problem of multicolliniarity (Table 1).
Table 3. The hierarchic regression for the prediction of academic adjustment
(N = 128)
PREDICTORS
R
.63
3. Self-efficacy for learning and performance
* p< .05, ** p< .01
∆ R2
.40
β
B
t
. 16
. 33
-.19
-.14
.34
-.14
-1,93*
4, 53**
-2, 12*
The model explains 40% of the variance and is statistically significant: F (4.112)
= 18.73, p =.001. We also found that variables related to motivational strategies have a
statistically significant weight in explaining the academic adaptation (Table 3).
The regression equation obtained is the following:
Academic adjustment = 38,5 – 1,93 x intrinsic goal orientation + 4,53 x control
of learning beliefs – 2,12 x self-efficacy.
171
Figure 1. The prediction of academic adjustment
Thus, the fourth hypothesis was confirmed. Academic self-efficacy, control of
learning beliefs and intrinsic motivation can predict the level of academic adjustment.
Self-efficacy and motivation have an important contribution to academic adjustment and
academic performances.
5. Conclusions
This study examined the influence of self-efficacy beliefs and motivational
attributes on the academic adjustment of first year students. The research has suggested
that self-efficacy beliefs and goal orientation have a significant effect on academic
performance and on academic adjustment. Students who have greater confidence in their
ability to succeed tend to be motivated for the sake of acquiring knowledge, and their
motivation is associated with high levels of academic adjustment. This finding suggests
that other factors can contribute to the relationship between self-efficacy and academic
adjustment. It is also important to review not only the interaction of internal processes
(self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation), but also examine the contextual framework in
which these processes take place (Cokley, 2003).
Self-efficacy and motivation contribute to academic adjustment and academic
performances. These findings show the importance of developing students' perceptions of
their ability to succeed academically. Providing experiences to increase self-efficacy
beliefs will enhance motivation and ultimately increase academic adjustment. For
example, consistent with self-efficacy theory, providing direct performance experiences
such as engaging students in goal-setting activities through workshops, seminars, and
classes may be a way to increase students’ self-efficacy beliefs. Assistance with helping
students set proximal goals that can be accomplished will increase their self-efficacy
beliefs, their motivation, and inevitably their academic adjustment.
172
References
Amabile, T., Hill, K.G., Hennesey, B.A., Tighe, E.M. (1994). The Work Preference Inventory: Assessing
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivational Orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(5), 950967.
Cokley, K. (2003). What do we know about the motivation of African American students? Challenging the "antiintellectual" myth. Harvard Educational Review, 74, 524-558.
Lent, R.W., Taveira, M.C.. Sheu H.B., Singley, D. (2009). Social cognitive predictors of academic adjustment
and life satisfaction in Portuguese college students: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Vocational
Behaviour, 74, 190-198.
Linnenbrink, E. A., Pintrich, P.R. (2002). Motivation as an Enabler for Academic Success. School Psychology
Review, 31(3), 313-327.
Peterson, I., Louw, J., Dumont, K. (2009). Adjustment to university and academic performance among
disadvantaged students in South Africa. Educational Psychology, 29, 99-115.
Reeve, J., Deci, E., Ryan, R.M. (2004). Self- Determination Theory: A Dialectical Framework for Understanding
Sociocultural Influences on Student Motivation. In: Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and
Learning. McInerney, D.M., Van Etten S. (eds.)., Information Age, vol.4, Greenwich: CT., pp: 31-60.
Pintrich, P.R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. International
Journal of Educational Research, 31, 459-470.
Pintrich, P. R., Garcia, T. (1991). Student goal orientation and self-regulation in the college classroom. In M. L.
Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Goals and self-regulatory
processes (Vol. 7, pp. 371–402). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Pintrich, P.R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college
students. Educational Psychology Review, 16 (4), 385-407.
Pintrich, P.R. & De Groot E. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom
academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), pp. 33-50.
Pintrich, P., Smith, D.A., Garcia, T., McKeachie, W.J. (1991). A manual for the Use of the Motivated Strategies
for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). Michigan: The University of Michigan.
Pintrich, P.R., Zusho, A. (2002).The Development of academic self-regulation: the role of cognitive and
motivational factors. In Wigfiled, A. Eccles, J. (ed.). Development of Achievement Motivation. Michigan:
Academic Press, pp. 249-285.
Schunk, D.H., & Zimmerman, B.J. (1994). Self-regulation of learning and performance: Issues and educational
applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stefanou, C.R., Salisbury-Glennon, J.D. (2002). Developing motivation and cognitive learning strategies
through an undergraduate learning community. Learning Environments Research 5, 77–97.
173
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4
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th
The Determinant Character of Brother Position for
Personality Shaping and Development
Mihăescu Andreea Lauraa, Dumitru Ioana Elenab
a,b
Abstract
According to the hypothesis’ that brother status could influence the shaping and
the development of certain personality dimensions, the research investigates the evolution
of decision and relational behaviour as well as the measurement of emotional intelligence
development, considering two fundamental criteria, that is “the status” and “the role”
within the original family. Significant differences were found, such as the egocentric
nature of the younger brother, the responsibility sense of the elder one, preferred ways to
relate to the group members which they belong to. The results are offering another angle
from that a person can be seen and understood.
© 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: brother; personality; decision; emotional inteligence; behaviour.
1. Introduction
Despite expanding life ideologies that we can see in our life time context, there
still are some specific traditional interests and desires. Contrary to the appearances, the
people wish for stability, solid unions, they are transmitting the traditional moral and
values, trying to obtain an equilibrium between personal interests and the demands
coming from the society of our days.
The World has big evolved in the past years but still, in the familial context we
can find sayings like “girls are father’s, boys are mother’s”, “elder brother must take care
of his younger one”, “younger brother must listen to his elder brother”, “elder brother
knows better”, “younger brother it’s the rebel one”. This is sustained also by Sulloway
who has a remarkable research on brother status. Also, E. Eriksson said that personality is
evolving taking in consideration family hierarchy, that means the role and status of each
member.
The all around story tale books are transmitting a clear message regarding
brother status, elder brother being the one that parents give biggest responsibilities and
also a bigger trust. At the same time, younger brother it’s presented as the rebel one,
urging for affirmation, with a huge potential in this way, taking every situation to prove
his abilities. All this sources are auctioning at a subconscient level, helping the person to
find his self identity and to have an image on his brother.
Mihăescu Andreea Laura, Dumitru Ioana Elena/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
The theoretical materials sustain the idea of elder brother is identifying with
parent figures, protecting his younger brother from his early childhood. The science
people from Cornell University, studied the parents manner of regarding their child
depending on their brother status. They proven that mothers participating at the research
had the tendency to protect the younger brother no matter if he wasn’t a child anymore. In
the same time, the mothers kept the tendency to ask their elder child to give support to
their bothers, at all levels, moral or material. Although being to their third age, mothers
had the tendency to call the elder son for advice or when they need to make a decision,
considering that elder one it’s more grown up that the other.
As Sulloway was saying, first born are most likely to be ambitious, dominative,
jealous, aggressive, conventional and traditional people. By change, the younger brothers
are described as rebels, adventurous, pleasing, receptive to new. Adler sustained that
before starting a research regarding any person, it must be take in consideration some
specific factors that could have influenced his development, one of them being the
brother position. The way parents are regarding their younger child, can lead to an
egocentric character formed from the excessive attention paid to him. None of this
dichotomy dimension is better than the other, each having their own advantage and
disadvantage, responding to their own needs. This confirm that brothers coming from the
same family are not alike because they adopt different styles and strategies to obtain their
objectives.
The objectives of the research were to study the preference for a specific
behaviour at brothers, the existing differences for decisional manner, the way of forming
relationships, the relation between brother status and emotional intelligence. Professional
theories, studies and researches on the determinist character of birth order as well as
theoretical arguments about the family formation and function have been used both to
support this idea and to underline the importance of relational systems which occur within
the original family. Regarding the birth order, the role of elder or younger brother involve
attributions, responsibilities or behaviour sets subliminally enforced by society from
ancient time, and all these will later manifest themselves both in the way of making
decisions and having relations with the others.
The research based on both quantitative and qualitative methods. Psychometrical
investigation instruments, such as MBTI Personality Inventory, Belbin questionnaire (for
finding the brother`s role within a significant group), the M.Rocco`s emotional
intelligence questionnaire for adults were used. The subject batch was formed of 80
brother ship diodes, the age difference being 3 years in average, and the subjects were
divided into 2 categories: elder brothers and younger brothers. There were both males and
females. The data were processed by Spss soft, work option, T Test for drawing up the
statistics research. The processing results showed the validity of the suggested hypothesis
with a significance grade of p.= ,01.
The variable “Personality dimension” is composed by “relational” and “decision”
levels. “Relational dimension” measure the “rational (J)” and “perceptive (P)” sides, while
“Decision” is combined by “sensibility (F)” and “logical (T)” sides. The variable
“Behaviour preference” were measured by styles like “co-worker type (EL)”, “implement
type (IM)”,”coordinator type (CO)”, “moulding type” (MO). The variable “emotional
intelligence” (IE) was viewed as a common trait of personality, that may vary as intensity
from one category of brothers to another.
175
A first hypothesis was that elder brothers are tending to assume the authority
(CO) in semnificative groups, such as family or working circles, having leader attributes
(J).
Table 1. Coordinative type
J
Brothers
Elder
Younger
Numberof Subjects
40
40
Average
19,850
12,500
Sig.
,062
t
6,473
6,473
Sig.(2-tailed)
,000
,000
As we can notice, for elder brothers it exists a semnificative prefference for
coordinative type, witch indicates atributes as organised, self-trust and tendance for
authority. The organisatoric aptitudes are possible to be formed under the influence of
family factors, that means the habbits and demands coming from the parental couple.
Being the eldest, the child has suffered a premature evolution and responsabilisation that
forced him to adapt faster to social demands. The coordinative type are seend as trusting
people, capable of controling their reactions, and their universe. Aswell, elder brothers
are capable of finding the right motivation to group members witch they belong to, for
achieving the common goals.
Coordinative people organise the activity with the purpose of touching common
interests with group members that they belong to, being centred to the others. This
indicates that elder brothers have the tendency to keep their responsability sense regarding
the other members of their semnificative group. Elder brothers seem to be traditionalists
by their constant need for control and organisation witch can be put on their anxiety in
front of change or new experiences for wich they don’t have yet elaborate adapting
systems.
Table 2. Tendency to Leadership
CO
Brothers
Elder
Younger
Numberof Subjects
40
40
Average
13,200
7,870
Significance
,462
t
5,668
5,668
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
Elder brothers seem to be characterised by the rational type (J), preffering to live
in discipline, planning every aspect of their life. They like to keep controle of any
situation, taking decission regarding every step they do, Well organised, elder brothers are
having a structured mind and like things to be clear and well established. They appreciate
punctuality, they need action rigor, having a great tendance for leadership. Rational people
are taking decission easily, fixing goals witch they are trying to achive with perseverence
and by being sistematic. Elder brothers are having a cognitive nature based on reason.
Elder brothers distinguish by being mostly conserving and traditionalists, whit their
constant need to be organised and to be in controle, witch can be put on their anxiety
regarding change or new experiences, for witch they can’t have yet adapting systems. We
can make an analogy here with the regresive anxiety they felt when their younger brothers
were born.
The Belbin questionnaire for role type in a group describes elder brothers as
being capable of hard work, with tendency for autodiscipline. Organisational aptitudes of
elder brothers reflect their option for concret schedule using sistematic approaches,
prefering the practical side of things. Elder brothers seem to have the tendency to be
176
meticulous with their activity for assuring the succes. They present lack of flexibility and
issues in adapting process needing solid argumentation to follow some other’s ideeas.
Elder brothers tend to compeet for position, being somehow watched as “stubborrn”.
Table 3. Implementator type
Brothers
Elder
Younger
IM
Number of Subjects
40
40
Average
12,475
7,800
Sig.
,169
t
3,833
3,833
Sig. 2-tailled
,000
,000
All this lead to confrm the existence of a high level of discipline wich helps him
to sustain a hard work activity. These are some of the defining characteristics for
“implementator” type. Elder brothers are likely to know very well the way to dose their
energetic potential using organisation abilities. We must mention that organisatoring
abilities are seen al all levels of his life, meaning work activities, time measure, social
aspects. In a restricted way, elder brothers use their abilities for organising their work
team and reacth their common goals.
MBTI results showed that elder brothers are likely to prefere afectvity (F) as an
oclusive mathode taking in consideration what is important for them and for those
arround him. F type are people who tend to become empathetic and full of tact when
taking a decission. In this context, the afectivity is seen as taking value based decission,
not referring to the emotional side itself. F people apreciate the harmony, sensibility,
being interested in human resources, things that could be seen as a weakspot.
Table 4. F type
F
Brothers
Subject Number
Average
Sig.
t
Elder
Younger
40
40
20,850
7,400
,012
11,847
11,847
Sig.
2-tailled
,000
,000
Table 5. Logical type
F
Brothers
Elder
Younger
Subject Number
40
40
Average
7,875
22,150
Sig.
,033
t
11,763
11,763
Sig. 2-tailled
,000
,000
Younger brothers tend to avoid wrong decissions and head to logical details for
having a solid point of vue, for that nobody tell their are wrong. Judging on their option
for not involve or asume wrong decissions, younger brothers are likely to pass as being
cold, insensitive or emotionless. Their prefference for logic decission type might highline
a possible undeveloped emotional state.
This can corelate with the energy-destructive pop-ups that can be seen at a
psycho-behavioral level as agressive erruptions, bad-temper, meaning a not so stable
affective level. We can conclude that younger brothers could be interested on material
things, being centred mostly on their on estate than the others. The statistical results
indicates an egocentric ego.
177
At a behavioral level, younger brothers tend to integrate in the “molder” type.
They seem to have abilities to manipulate people for their own, sometime selfish,
interests. We can draw a line between their current behavioral prefferences and the ways
of attracting attention in their early years. It might seem that younger brothers had abused
of their “younger one” status for easy reaching their parents, and why not, for putting their
elder one’s in a bad light.
Tabel 6. Moulding type
MO
Brothers
Elder
Younger
Number of Subjects
40
40
Average
8,175
14,950
Sig.
,194
t
6,956
6,956
Sig. 2-tailled
,000
,000
Moulding type it’s an open, dynamic person, bringing important changes in their
group, it’s hard to gashlight. It mould and improve group activity, modifying the inertia
state. Dinamic spirit, moulding type tend to be rough, tact less, impatient, and badtempered. They like to think they represent an authority for the others, and also like to
restructure life conditions. This can lead to younger brother’s dissatisfaction that was born
within their family regarding their brother status. Up against their elder brothers who
presented organisatoric abilities with the purpose of touching common objectives,
younger one’s quicken their group but in a big part for their own aim. When confronting
with stress, moulding types can suffer fast and dramatic changes, becoming harsh with
theyselfs and with the others, at an atitudinal and verbal level. Younger brother’s activism
has a double-value. It can be seen as positive, contribuating for actvity dynamics and
cognitive flexibility, but also negative having destructive consequences. In this situation,
younger ones cand find it difficult to take decissions, becoming indecided.
Table 7. Team worker
Brothers
Elder
Younger
EL
Number of Subjects
40
40
Average
5,900
14,900
Sig.
,087
t
7,678
7,678
Sig. 2-tailled
,000
,000
Younger brother’s dynamic, flexible, adaptable and sociable way can be
sustained by their prefference for “team worker” type. This type has the tendency to get
closer their member’s group event o create prefferencial smaller groups for supporting and
confirming their own qualities.
Table 8. Perceptive type
P
Brothers
Elder
Younger
Number of Subjects
40
40
Average
10,300
22,400
Sig.
,189
t
8,540
8,540
Sig 2-tailled
,000
,000
Perceptive type prefere to live in a flexible and spontaneous way. They live their
life as i tis rather than understand or controle it, enjoying every experience, remaining
open for any situation knowing that they can adapt fast. We can say that younger brother
can get involved in several activities at the same time, with the risk of not resolving any of
178
it. He’s unsure in relation with the others, he needs liberty, avoiding restraints. He’s
moody, rarely punctual, avoid decission taking. Their prefference for “perceptive
dimenssion” shows their actions spontaneous charactere, meaning a high energetic level,
that can be misspend on a base of organisation and persuasion lack.
In what matters the emotional intelligence developpment, there were no
significant differences. This means that no matter the brother status or their decissional or
behavioral prefferences, they dispose of various manners to adapt to life aspects and
attract people.
Consequently, the personality shaping and development manner seems to be
under a dependence relation on the brother relation. Behaviour differences are even more
important when taking into consideration the manner the parents are referring to the
brother position. In accordance with this criterion, children tend to shape their identity on
discriminative features.
The research results show significant importance to the organisational context,
psycho-social and psycho therapy domains.
References
Adler, Adler. (1996) “ Cunoaşterea omului”, ed. Iri, Bucureşti
Allport, Gordon. (1991) “Structura si dezvoltarea personalităţii”, ed. EDP, Bucureşti
Birch, A., Hayward, S. (1999) „Diferenţe Interindividuale” , ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti
Brazelton, B. (1974) „Copii şi mame, diferenţe în dezvoltare”, ed. EDP, Bucureşti
Eysenk, H. (1998) « Descifrarea comportamentului uman », ed. Teora, Bucureşti
Eriksson, E. (1959) „Identity and the life cycle”, ed. Norton, New York
Goleman, D. (2005) „ Inteligenţă Emoţională. Cheia succesului în viaţă”, ed. Curtea Veche, Bucureşti
Moraru S.,( 2007) art „Pe teme de psihologie.Locul primului născut în familie”, din 14/4/2007
Osterrieth, P. (2000) « Copilul şi familia », ed. EDP, Bucureşti.
dr. Psy. Dunn Judy, Psychology Today, Mar/Apr (2007) „ Why Brothers are so different”
International Magasine Of Political Science, New York, art. „Birth Order and political behavior”, Vol 14, No 2,
pp. 149-160,.
Somit Albert, Steven A. Peterson, and Alan Arwine, (Jan 1993), Birth Order and Political Behavior: Clearing
the Underbrush, nternational Political Science Review/ Revue internationale de science politique,; vol. 14:
pp. 149 - 160.
phd. Sulloway D. Frank (1996), Born To Rebel, www.Sulloway.org
phd. Sulloway D. Frank (1995) Birth Order and Evolutionary Psychology: A Meta-Analytic Overview,
Psychological Inquiry: An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory, 15327965, Volume 6, Issue 1, 1995, Pages 75 – 80
Virginia K. Stansbury and Kenneth M. Coll (Apr 1998), Myers-Briggs Attitude Typology: The Influence of
Birth Order with Other Family Variables, The Family Journal,; vol. 6: pp. 116 - 122
179
th
4
th
th
The Impact of Learning Difficulties Over School
Performances
Mihaela Păişi Lăzărescu
Abstract
The present paper intends to establish an as accurate possible inventory of the
learning difficulties encountered by students in primary school and to identify the levels
affected by such causes (to establish the symptomatology), as they are perceived by
teachers (schoolmasters, kindergarten teachers).
Considering the scope, frequency and negative effects of learning difficulties
over school accomplishments, over the entire school activity and life of the student, we
have considered as fundamental hypothesis of our investigation the following supposition:
the learning difficulties of reading-writing and mathematical computing represent a cause
of low school achievements.
The analysis of learning difficulties has been done observing the oral language,
the graphics of writing, reading (lexis), written and oral computing, problem solving on
age levels, residential environment, gender, end of year school results.
Analysing the data, we have obtained that the most frequent difficulties in
language are found in writing, followed by reading and then speaking, while in the field of
mathematics the most encountered difficulties were recorded in solving problems,
followed by oral computing and then the written one.
Key words: learning, school achievement, school performance, learning
difficulties, school succes/failure
In the context of the informational evolution of the latest years, the issue of
school performances of the students involves the coordinated and hierachised participation
of all psychical processes and personality traits, being a result of the interactions between
the internal development needs (which are responsible for the genesis of the exploration
conduct) and the external adaptation requirements (environment, with all its physical and
social dimensions, creating tasks to be solved or presenting obstacles to avoid).
The learning activity is not limited to enriching the sensorial – perceptive
experience and accumulating information (knowledge), but, on the basis of internal
restructuring of concepts, it should lead to a continuous modelling of psychical life, most
of times resulting in the configuration of a mature, well balanced personality, in a nuanced
and appropriate relationship with the environment.
Performance in learning is defined by comparison to its results, in the sense it
represents distinctive achievements in a certain field of activity, such results exceeding the
common level, even reaching a certain record. These performances are not only the
product of the psychological potential of that who learns, but also the effect of the
constant interactions that one keeps with the given environment. What the student
achieves during his/her activity of school learning lead to school success.
The psycho-pedagogical analysis of school achievements implies the explanation
of the sense and significance of the concepts of school success and school failure.
Success means “the favourable result of an action (...) with the sole condition that
the action presumed certain difficulties, required an effort” (Ralea, M., Hariton, T. ,1962).
School achievement, expressed by grades/qualificatives, represents a maximum
level of school success, which presumes a comparison to the school activity as a whole
and, to a lesser extend, to the sporadic learning performances.
The specification of school achievement is made through comparison to the
totality of students’ results, both in what concerns the level of scientifical training,
accumulation of knowledge and development of abilities to apply knowledge, as well as in
the development of intellectual abilities, shaping of personality traits, of interest and
motivation towards education, capability to attend training, to become.
Operationally speaking, the students’ school success may be identified by
comparison to the level of performance of each student, identified either in terms of
contents (cognitive, affective-behavioural, psycho-motive), or by relative terms
(comparison to the referential group’s performances), by a minimal level of learning,
evaluation criteria related to the proposed curriculum, by the characteristics of the learning
opportunity, interpreted from the perspective of permanent education and interconnections between formal, non formal and informal education.
From this perspective, “school success may be schematically considered to be an
expression of the accordance between student’s capabilities and interests on one hand and
school exigencies, stated and presented to the student by various instructive-educational
means, on the other hand.” (Kulcsar, T., 1978.)
School failure, seen as student’s inability to progress to the same rhythm as his
colleagues, to obtain results according to previously established objectives, designates
lower performances obtained in a certain field of study.
If we accept the idea that, on a psychological level, efficiency consists in
crossing over and solving the internal contradictions between objective requirements,
imposed from the exterior and the level of psychical development the student has reached,
then we may define school failure as the circumstance that expresses the level of
inadjustment between the student’s psycho-physical development and the addressed
objective requirements.
The psychological analysis of repeated failures in the learning activity highlights
the fact that they affect the whole personality of the student, “determining negative effects
both in the individual psychological plan, that is an alteration of self-image of the student,
who will lose more and more his trust in his own possibilities (…), and in the social plan,
because repeated school failure stigmatises, induces a social marginalisation of that
student”. (Cosmovici, A., Iacob, L., 1999.)
To have frequently school insuccess, results under the school expectations and
requirements leads to school failure and how it is evaluated takes into consideration the
persistence and amplitude of manifestation (period of time, the level of behavioural
nonconformity etc.). It may be just episodical, limited to the circumstances of a conflictual
181
orf tense situation or it may be a long term phenomenon, when it grafts on a background
of sensorial or intellectual handicaps or when the traumatising situations generating it
persist.
Considering that self-appreciation of one’s own performances builds up
according to each one’s level of aspiration and the criteria or perspectives the evaluation
is made, school success/failure are subjective phenomena (a student with a low level of
aspiration considers as high school performances getting some appreciation in school,
some qualificatives that for another over-motivated student, with a high level of aspiration
are just low performances – a 7 mark is a success to the first, but a failure to the second).
Low school performances of the students may be sometimes caused or
determined, besides other categories of factors, by learning difficulties.
As a complex reality, learning difficulties have been approached from multiple
perspectives, offering a diversity of opinions, solutions, interpretation, sometimes vague
and contradictory. The most of them are coming from a neurological perspective and from
special psycho-pedagogy, creating a bias between children/students with special
educational needs and children/students with learning difficulties. The occurrence of this
confusion started, in Romanian specialised literature, from the translation of the phrase
“learning disabilities” (used for the first time by S. Kirk) in two ways – as Learning
disabilities and Learning difficulties. (Learning disabilities comprise defficiencies in the
cases of children with special educational needs, while the actual learning difficulties refer
to children with an average IQ or situated in the lower limit of liminary intellect).
Difficulty in learning is not only a disability in the mere sense of the word, it
“refers to a delay, a disturbance, a slowed down development on the emotional or
behavioural level” (Kirk, S., 1962, in Ungureanu, D., 1998). Most definition point to
difficulties encountered by children during learning in school. “Children presenting
learning difficulties are those who show a significant educational discrepancy between
their intellectual estimated potential and the actual level of performance, which
discrepancy is prone to be associated to basical disturbances in the learning processes,
connected or not with proven disfunctions of the central nervous system, but which are
not a consequence of generalised mental retardment, cultural or educational deficiencies,
severe emotional disturbances or to some sensorial defaults.” (Bateman, 1965, Ungureanu,
D., 1998). At home, on the street, during the daily strains of life, a child with learning
difficulties is considered as “normal”, disfunctions being evident in solving school tasks,
in preparing homework and, finally, in school performances.
In the first grades, especially the first grade, school strains represent the premise
of triggering school difficulties, even though they don’t preexist in an explicit, effective
and visible manner, such as a defficiency or a disability. (Ungureanu, D., 1998) Most of
the times, the six-seven years old child’s impact with the rigurous, sometimes rigid and
anguishing requierements of the first grade, with the too fast pace of galloping through the
curriculum, especially in what concerns acquiring writing and reading abilities and
arythmetical computation lead to learning difficulties from the very first months in school,
which difficulties will grow even more accute.
This category of learning difficulties, caused mainly by a inadjustment
relationship between school and child during the first grades, generally speaking,
determins in an initial phase low performances that make the basis of insuccess or even
school failure or abandon. Learning difficulties, determined by difficulties of insertion
182
into school environment or reinsertion in the “normal” school circuit, the so-called school
retardation (lagging behind with learning) are determined by instrumental disturbances,
pedagogical errors and/or insufficient training, as well as by individual personality traits,
such as intellectual inhibition in the case or a normal, but insufficiently trained intellect,
by the type of absence of mind over learning tasks, as well as by neurological, somaticpsychic, endocrine defaults etc. (Vrăsmaş, E., 2007)
Learning difficulties that are signaled from the very beginning of school
education have a series of implications not only in what concerns school performances,
but also in the personality sphere of the student.
School Retardation (lagging behind with learning) is characterised by a set of
gaps in school preparation (Păunescu, C., Muşu, I., 1997), resulting in discordance
between the intellectual level and school performances, expressed through an
inappropriate acquirement of knowledge comprised in the school syllabus. The child in
this situation, with an acquired intellectual insufficiency, has an insuffiecient and
inefficient school activity, on a normal psychical structure, as a consequence of
educational gaps.
When entering the first grade, on the background of school immaturity
determined by disfunctions in the affective shpere and learning difficulties in the sphere of
acquiring read and written language and artithmetic calculus, school fobia may very well
occur.
School Fobia is defined as an adaptation disorder appeared in children that, for
irrational reasons refuse to got o school, crossing through anxious, dramatic reactions or
panick attacks when they are compelled to. It structures on a fragile affective background
and mostly in the context of an insufficient maturation for school. The child perceives
himself as different from the others, he self-evaluates as unprepared to face school
exigencies, laments himself, formulates critics addressed to school, refuses to enter school
or remain there, inspite of attempts of convincing him or punishments. Anxiety symptoms
are most of the times accompanied by neurovegetative disturbances, such as headaches,
stomach aches, dizziness, nausea, lack of appetite, insomnia. The child may also prove
fury crises, that may turn into agressive, distructive behaviour. Other children become
languid, lonely, depressed.
Even though it is specific to first years in school, it may also show at older ages
or during adolescence (in the circumstances of a new level of instruction), but in these
situations, in spite of similitude’s, the manifestations are totally different from childhood.
Based upon the theoretical premises we have exposed, we considered as
necessary an ascertaining investigation of possible learning difficulties in first to fourth
grade students, with the fundamental purpose of diminishing their effects over school
performance.
The present work intends to establish an as close to precision inventory of
learning difficulties encountered by students in primary school and to identify the levels
affected because of that (establish the symptomatology), the way they are apprehended by
teachers (schoolteachers).
Taking into consideration the amplitude, frequency and negative effects of
learning difficulties over school efficiency, over the entire student’s activity and school
life, we have ascertained as fundamental hypothesis of our investigation the following
183
presumption: learning difficulties in the field of reading-writing and mathematical
calculus represent a cause of low school results.
In order to achieve the diagnosis regarding the nature, frequency, etiologic of
learning difficulties, we have questioned 126 teachers in primary school, with an
experience of two to 34 years and that have answered to the questions, on which basis a
list of learning difficulties of higher frequency in primary school has been drawn.
In the second part of our study we have requested just 20 teachers from the panel
of teachers, who have established the frequency of manifestation for the identified
symptoms in primary school children, in exercises, tasks, tests, control papers, based upon
the observational indices in the evaluation grids.
The analysis of learning difficulties has been achieved noticing the oral language
(speaking), writing (method of writing), reading (lexis), written and oral calculus,
problems solving according to age, residential environment, gender, school results at the
end of the year.
To the question on the frequency of learning difficulties in primary school, all
the interviewed have responded affirmatively. Bringing in reasons, teachers have stated
that in each class there are students with either difficulties in acquiring reading/writing, or
in mathematical calculus, specific to primary education.
If some of these learning problems diminish along school years, others augment
even more and reflect over school performances that students might have in other fields,
this is what most of the subjects affirm.
Following the completion of the second item of the questionnaire (“Based on
your experience in teaching, but mostly according to observations, evaluation grids and
evaluation tests applied to students, please draw an inventory of symptoms for learning
difficulties that occur in writing/reading and mathematical calculus”), we were able to fill
in an inventory list with symptomatology aspects of learning difficulties, such as they are
apprehended by teachers.
To complete the symptomatology inventory, according to the frequency of
symptoms of identified learning difficulties, twenty teachers have been requested to
establish this frequency for each student, on a scale with five qualificatives (not at all,
very little, a little, a lot, very much). The twenty teachers (considered within our study as
subjects – experts) have investigated 28 students from the first to fourth grade, presenting
learning difficulties.
In what concerns the oral language – speaking – there have been identified the
following symptoms that affect school performances both in the area of language and
communication as well as in the other areas involving communication competencies:
poor, lacunar vocabulary; lexical errors; “telegraphic” language (short sentences and
phrases); lack in formulating requirements, questions and answers; difficulties in
understanding and formulating phrases; difficulties in getting useful information;
phonological difficulties (deformations, inversions, substitution of phonems);
morphological difficulties (deformations, replacements, “matching” of words); syntactic
difficulties (topics inversions, disagreements); semantic difficulties (deformation of
meanings, erroneous semantics).
184
Table No. 1 Frequency of learning difficulty symptoms regarding „speaking”
Orality/oral language
(speaking)
Not at all %
2,1
Very little %
8,4
A little %
22,2
A Lot %
32,5
Very much %
34,8
We notice that for “a lot” and “very much”, the percentages are the highest,
which indicates the presence of learning difficulties caused by speaking disturbances
(either speaking, or poor vocabulary).
Difficulties in acquiring lexical abilities (reading) have manifested through: slow,
clumsy, syncopated reading; omissions, words substitutes; word distrorsions (default
pronunciation of words); misunderstanding of contents (even though a fluent reading is
made); “jump” from a line to another, different than the following; reading while
following the words with the finger; aletr rhythm with a negative effect on accuracy of
reading; monoplan, monotonous reading, without intonation.
Table No. 2 Frequency of learning difficulty symptoms regarding „reading”
Reading
(lexis)
Not at all %
12,4
Very little %
15,7
A little %
20,9
A lot %
25,4
Very much %
25,6
By analysing percentages it results that difficulties in acquiring reading
determine learning difficulties in many students from primary school (it is even shown by
impossibility to understand written messages in different texts).
Writing (method of writing) implies both linguistic abilities and conceptual ones,
such as coordination between eyes and hand. Difficulties in forming writing skills occur
not only in the mechanical aspect of writing, but also in composition. The analysis of
these difficulties has identified as being frequent: ommissions, inversions, confusions,
substitution of letters or syllables; bulged or cut off words; additions of letters or syllables;
too large or too small letters; default orientation, inclination of letters; disproportions
between letters (now large, then small, within the same word); wrong framing in page;
non-observance of orthography and punctuation marks; illegible or barely legible writing;
replacement with capital letters in handwriting.
Table No. 3 Frequency of learning difficulty symptoms regarding “writing”
Written language
(grafia)
Not at all %
7,3
Very little %
12,5
A little %
25,4
A lot %
32,2
Very much %
22,6
On the graphical aspect, the frequency of learning difficulties points out to a
significant increase for the qualificatives “a lot” and “very much” (over 50%), which
determins numerous consequences, mostly in expressing ideas and solving the other
written tasks.
Difficulties in learning mathematics pass beyond the purely instrumental aspect
of difficulties related to speaking, writing or reading, although arithmetics keep the
instrumental characteristics. Most students with learning difficulties in mathematics,
during first years in school, have major problems in understanding and using
mathematical language (understanding and use of the expressive language and
mathematical terms, understanding and denominating mathematical operations, symbols),
185
have perceptive defaults (in recognising and reading numerical symbols, arithmetical
signs, fractions, parantheses, formulas etc), have an attention defficiency in copying,
transcripting exactly all figures, signs, parantheses etc.
Table No. 4 Frequency of learning difficulty symptoms regarding „learning
mathematics”
Difficulties in learning
mathematics
Not at all
%
3,2
Very
%
10,3
little
A little
%
25,4
A lot
%
27,4
Very
%
33,7
much
Concerning the frequency of difficulties in learning mathematics, we notice a
high percentage (over 60%) for “a lot” and “very much” qualificatives, which explains the
low school performances of the students in mathematics.
To identify the causes of learning difficulties, such as they are perceived by the
study subjects, we have presented an etiologic inventory of possible causes for the
occurrence of learning difficulties, of which three (considered most frequent) had to be
chosen.
On the analysis of answers we have noticed there have been grouped as
following:
Attention: defficiency in attention, defficient stability, poor concentration,
reduced mobility, absence of attention distributivity;
Memory: absence of efficient memorising skills;
Language: receptivity, processing and message emission (oral and written)
difficulties;
Willpower: lack of perseverence in learning;
Affection: disturbances in the affective balance, timidity, excessive emotiveness,
low emotional intelligence;
Motivation: overmotivation, undermotivation;
Other causes: school overstraining, precarious familial environment, tiredness,
gaps in previous learning.
Conclusions
To set a diagnosis of learning difficulties presumes a complex examination that
pursues fixed, clear criteria of tracing symptomatology.
Concerning the possible causes determining such difficulties, the etiologic
inventory we have gathered includes attention, memory, language, motivation, thinking
malfunctioning, but also the absence of efficient learning techniques, school burn-out,
precarious familial climate, gaps in learning, inadequate learning style etc.
In order to diminish the effects of learning difficulties over further school
performance, we consider as useful and necessary an improving psycho-pedagogical
intervention that should imply both supplementary help from teachers and parents,
psycho-pedagogical counseling, a change in the learning style, but also students’
motivation by a balanced alternation between rewards and sanctions
186
References
Cosmovici, A., Iacob, L., 1999, Psihologie şcolară, Editura Polirom, Iaşi
Kulcsar, T., 1978, Factorii psihologici ai reuşitei şcolare, EDP, Bucureşti,
Păunescu, C., Muşu, I., 1997, Psihopedagogie integrată, Editura ProHumanitate, Bucureşti
Ralea, M., Hariton, T., 1962, Sociologia succesului, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti
Ungureanu, D., 1998, Copii cu dificultăţi de învăţare, EDP, Bucureşti
Vrăsmaş; E., 2007, Dificultăţi de învăţare în şcoală, Editura V&I Integral, Bucureşti
187
th
4
th
th
The Impact of Parental Style upon Psychological and
Behavioral Development of Children
Stan Maria Magdalenaa, Matei Anca Elenab
a
b
Abstract
The development of interpersonal behavior in children, taking account of the
surrounding people’s needs, of the abilities to express emotions and thoughts in a way that
satisfies their own needs and wishes, but also respecting those of their interlocutors, are
the consequences of practicing efficient parental styles. By the present study we wish to
investigate the relationship between the parental style as perceived by children and their
interpersonal behavioural type.
Acknowledging the effects of the parental style on the psycho-behavioural level
of the child has a practical relevance, by developing training programmes of adapting
interpersonal behaviour, but also that type of programmes with the value of intervention
and involving parents and children.
Keywords: childhood, parenting style, child behaviour
Introduction
Education within the family represents an essential way of achieving education
and has the following main characteristics: it is carried on immethodically, by concrete,
direct life experiences; it is shown diffusely in the individual’s and groups’ behaviour;
ingraines personality with its specificity or by implicit, integral and continuous influence
(Ionescu, M; Negreanu, E, 2006, p. 6). The quality of familial education influences at
early ages the development of an individual’s personality, his chances for school success
and further accomplishment.
The influence of familial educational actions contributes to the children’s
socialization, by conveying attitudes, values, conceptions or behavioural patterns. Thus,
family becomes the main agent of socializing.
Socialization within the family has certain common components/dimensions: the
normative one (that conveys to the child the main social norms and rules), the cognitive
one (by means of which the child acquires knowledge and skills); creative (developing
creative thinking in order to give appropriate answers to new circumstances); psychoaffective (that develop the affectiveness needed to relate to parents, with the future
partner, with one’s own children and with other individuals) (Ionescu, M; Negreanu, E,
2006, p. 10).
Stan Maria Magdalena, Matei Anca Elena / Procedia – Edu World 2010
During childhood, socilization coincides with the development of the child’s
ability to distinguish and predict the other’s reactions toward his behaviour and/or to
elaborate on his own appropriate and competent answers. Both the perception on the other
individuals’ reactions as well as on his own behaviour, the way he is perceived by other
individuals, represent direct effects of the socialization process, resulting in building up
one’s personality, shaped and improved within the group processes (Radulescu, S; Banciu,
D., 1990, p. 19).
Psycho-Bevavioural Patterns During Childhood
The way a child relates to the group of other children, to adults, as well as to
social circumstances he meets is achieved by means of three qualitatively different
methods:
The assertive behaviour reflects the child’s option to take into consideration the
wishes of the others, at the same time with the attempt to fulfill his own desires.
The child expresses in a direct manner his wishes, expectations, feelings. This
kind of behaviour has social consequences: the others are charmed their desires are taken
into consideration, are motivated to treat them similarly, search for their company. The
consequences are also emotionally positive (Lemeni, G; Miclea, M., 2004, p.81).
The aggressive behaviour represents expressions reflecting the choice of not
taking into consideration the wishes of the others. It doesn not imply the direct expression
of wishes, expectations. The social consequences of such a kind of behaviour are: the
others are not happy with their desires not being considered, the others look at me with
fear, are avoiding my company, and emotionally the consequences are anger and fear
(Lemeni, G; Miclea, M., 2004, p.81).
The passive behaviour shows the choice of not taking into consideration his own
wishes, simultaneously with accepting the fulfillment of the desires of the others. It
involves either failure in expressing their own wishes, expectations, that involves
minimizing their importance. The consequences in this case are reflected in: the others are
delighted I take their wishes into consideration, the others do not respect me, they do not
trust my sincerity, while emotionally the results are fear, sadness, anger (Lemeni, G;
Miclea, M., 2004, p.81)
Children’s behavioural development takes place in the context of interpersonal
relationships, mainly within the family. The child’s behavioural patterns are therefore
learned. The mechanism of learning unadaptative behaviour is simple: most of the people
wish to involve themselves into interpersonal, reciprocal relationships, of which they may
derive benefits and, at their turn, may offer some. When they interact with an aggressive
or passive person they are just partially satisfied, because they cannot fulfill both aspects.
On the other hand, when interacting with people, an aggressive or passive person
will fulfill all wishes. In each case of interaction, aggressive individuals reach all their
objectives, offering nothing or the least, and the passive individuals care for the others,
without taking anything in return. Such interactions act as reinforcements for the
aggressive and passive persons. Thus, these types of behaviour are reinforced, leading to
searching for further similar actions (Lemeni, G; Miclea, M., 2004, p.80)
189
The approach of the parental style as a factor influencing the psycho-behavioural
manifestations of the child represents a theme of large interest, a challenge with multiple
implications both theoretical, methodological, as well as practically-active.
Parental Style
The parental educational style views the nature and characteristics of the familial
relationships in the context of which the educational process is carried on (Stanculescu,
E., 1997, p. 91).
Families convey values and knowledge, using various styles, methods and
techniques, addressing different styles, methods and techniques. The studies dedicated to
the given topic (Reuchelin, 1972; Kellerhals, Montandon, 1991) are centered around two
axes: the axis authority/liberalism or constraint/permissivity and the axis love/hostility or
attachment/reject. The psycho-behavioural indices in the first case are those reflecting the
limits and constraints demanded by parents on the children’s activities, their
responsibilities, the manner parental control is exerted, the rigourousness in applying and
controlling rules; the indicators reflected on the second axis show the degree of parental
committment into the child’s activity, the help or support they offer, time granted,
receptivity towards the emotional states and needs.
In defining parental styles, our study centers on the classification made by Diana
Baumrind (apund Stanciulescu, E, 1997, p.91) that takes into consideration two variables:
parental control and parental support. Therefore, we obtain four action models:
permissive, authoritarian, authorized and indifferent, according to the following variables:
o exigencies (“demandingness”), requirements, expectations, pretences of the
parents towards their children regarding their participation to family life,
hopes for the further mature behaviour, discipline, manner of children’s
solving issues occurring in their life.
o “responsiveness”, understanding, sympathy, support that parents grant to
their children, as to protect their individuality, self-assertion, self adjustment and to respond to the children’s specific needs.
o psychological control or focusing demands on concrete tasks.
We may characterize styles as follows:
The Authoritarian style associates a high level of control with a weak support in
the child’s activities; inviolable principles and rules for conduct are commanded to the
child: authority, tradition,work, order, discipline are values that parents sistematically
impose on their children.
The Authorized style combines the systematic control with a high level of
parental support. Parents issue rules and control how they are observed, but do not
command them, but are opened to verbal exchanges with their children, explaining the
reasons for the rules and the circumstances when they apply and stimulating at the same
time the children’s thinking authonomy.
The Permissive style is characterized by a low level of control, associated with
the parent’s identification with the child’s moods. Few norms of conduct and
responsibilities are imposed to the child and how he/she responds to the parental
expectations is under a weaker control. Parents try to understand and respond to the
child’s needs.
190
The Indifferent style is characterized by noninvolvement and indifference. Just a
few rules are requested and there’s a weak level of control on them. There is no
motivation in educating the child and the parents are not at all emotionally involved.
The Objectives of the Study
The present study aims at investigating the relationship between parental style
and the way the child behaviourally responds in various circumstances, as well as the
implications this type of relationship may have over the development of the child’s
personality.
Methodology
Participants
A number of 45 children of ages between nine and eleven years old have
participated in this study, their residential environment being the urban one. They have
been selected by simple randomization from a public school. Their parents are also part of
the selected sample. The sample characteristics are presented in the following:
Table 1. Sample of children
Age
Number of participants (N)
9 years old
10 years old
11 years old
N= 15
N=15
N=15
Gender
M F
11 4
8
7
6
9
Overview of procedure
During a monthly meeting with parents at school, they were asked for permission
to participate in this study, both themselves and the children. We mention that all the
subjects have been previously informe don the purpose of the research, being presented
briefly the basical premises and the research methodology.
After the instruction on the questionnaire regarding the type of dominant
behaviour, children were given the form to fill it in. A week after, their parents have been
asked to respond to the questionnaire on the parental style they use.
The participants were encouraged to attentively read the instructions. The written
training has been completed with supplementary information regarding the method of
filling in each form/tool.
Measures
Assertiveness Scale for Children- represents a tool which is adapted after the
ASA instrument – proposed by Dong Yul Lee, E.T. Hallberg, A. G. Slemon&R. Haase
and that measures the assertiveness in teenagers, in different circumstances. The tool aims
at: to obtain children’s reports about their typical behaviour that could be used by
practitioners to identify interpersonal problem areas, to be used as a screening device for
intervention or prevention programs and to be used as a research tool in investigating
assertiveness.
The tool we have adapted for the ages bewteen 9-11 years old describes twelve
interpersonal situations that presume three options of response on how they would usually
behave in eachof them. The three situations correspond to three types of behaviour:
191
assertive, aggressive and passive. One of each of the three options for each situation has
been designated as the assertive response. Each of these responses is assigned one point
and the scores are summed, producing an overall assertiveness score that can range from 0
to 12.
Parental Authority Questionnaire- the PAQ tool, created by John R. Buri. The
PAQ is a 30 item instrument designed to mesure parental authority or disciplinary practice
from the point of view of the child of any age. The PAQ has three subscales based on
prototypes of parental authority: permissive-relatively warm, nondemanding,
noncontrolling parents; authoritarian parents who value unquestioning obedience and
attempt to control their children’s behaviour, often through punitive disciplinary
procedures; and authoritative – falling somewhere between the other two dimensions,
using firm, clear but flexible and rational models of parenting. The PAQ is scored easily
by summing the individual items to comprise the subscale scores. Scores on each subscale
range from 10 to 30.
Results and discussion
The results were drawn following the investigation we have carried on in order to
identify the parental style, on the 45 study participant parents, 82,2% women and 17,8%
men. After applying the questionnaire for theidentification of the used parental style, we
have drawn the following results: 48% of the parents declare they have a permissive style,
24,4% practise an authoritarian parental style and 26,7% an authoritative type of parental
style.
We present in the following the distribution of parents – subjects (gender)
according to the “practised parental style” variable, as well as according to the educational
level.
Table 2
Parental style
Permissive
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Gender of the parent
Feminine Masculin
51,4%
37,5%
26,6%
37,5%
27%
25%
Parental educational level
Average level of studies
50%
21,4%
28,6%
Higher education
47,1%
29,4%
23,5%
Out of the presented data we notice that, generally speaking, mothers have a
permissive educational style, based on a low control and maximum support, whereas
fathers are both authoritarian, but also permissive, in equal proportions.
Concerning the educational level, we notice that parents with an average level of
studies are much more permissive than those with higher education, but the dfifference is
not statistically significant. The explanation may reside in the small dimension of the
sample, pointing that the present study represents a pilot one and, on the other hand, the
age of the children (nine to eleven) does not imply a much high level of parental control.
Analysing the results in the children’s sample, we find out that 28,9% of them
have an assertive behaviour, 22,2% an aggressive behaviour and 48,9% have a passive
type of behaviour. Thus, we notice that for the age interval 9 to 11 years old children have
more like a passive type of behaviour. To refine the analysis we present in the following
192
the distribution of the behaviour type variable in children, according to the gender and
according to age.
Table 3
Gender
Feminine
36%
8%
56%
Behavioural type
Assertive
Aggresive
Passive
Masculin
20%
40%
40%
Age
9 years old
20%
6,7%
73,3%
10 years old
40%
20%
40%
11 years old
26,7%
40%
33,3%
The work hypothesis in which we presume there is an association relationship
between the behavioural type and their gender has been checked using the statistical “chi
square” test, for non-parametrical data.
As such, the data of the research confirm a higher frequency of the aggressive
behavioural type in boys - 40 % - than in girls, of only 8 % (chi square = 6,68, p<0,05).
The diagrams below shows this fact (Table 4):
Table 4
16
14
12
10
8
6
Count
4
SEX
2
feminin
masculin
0
asertiv
Behaviour
agresiv
pasiv
Table 5
12
10
8
6
4
VARSTA
9 ani
Count
2
10 ani
0
11 ani
as ertiv
agres iv
pas iv
Behaviour
193
Concerning the second work hypothesis, where we presumed there is an
association relationship between the practised behavioural type and children’s age, this
was checked as well with the help of the chi square test, but it hasn’t been confirmed, the
values being: chi square = 7,695, and the value of p = 0,103 (Table 5).
The study hypothesis: We presume there is an association between parental style
and the behavioural style of children between nine and eleven years old.
We present in the following the distribution of the values recorded for the
behavioural type and the parental type that are employed.
Table 6
Behavioural type
Assertive
Aggresive
Passive
Parental Style
Permissive Authoritarian
46,2%
15,4%
40%
60%
54,5%
13,6%
Authoritative
38,5%
0
31,8%
The value of the Chi square test is 10,649, df=4, and the value of p<0,05, which
entitles us to accept the research hypothesis.
Table 7
14
12
10
8
6
STIL
4
permisiv
Count
2
autoritar
democratic
0
asertiv
agresiv
pasiv
Behaviour
Out of the presented data we may notice that practising an authoritarian parental
style leads to aggressive behaviour of the children, while the permissive style is associated
with the passive, noninvolvement behavioural type.
In social behaviour, children still immitate the style of the parental authority. A
lack of guidance, control from the parents associates with a noninvolvement behaviour, of
fear to approach an interpersonal circumstance.
Interesting enough is the association between the passive and the authoritative
parental behaviour. It may be explained by the fact that interpersonal relationships are not
yet mature enough, that social competencies still develop.
194
Conclusions
The results of the rpesent study cannot be generalised, as they are representing a
pilot-study for a much larger further reserarch about to be developed. What it has revealed
is a validation of the research direction we are heading for, that is an approach of the
parental style issues, practised in connection to different childhood behavioural types.
The practical connotations this study opens refer to conceiving and validating
some training programmes, of the social and emotional components during childhood, for
a better adjustment of children to various interpersonal circumstances on one hand, and on
the other, of a series of programmes that could make parental educational styles more
efficient.
References
Birch, A, (2000). The Psychology of Development. Techinical Publishing House, Bucharest
Cosmovici, A., Iacob, I. (coord), (1998). School Psychology. Polirom Publishing House, Iaşi
Ionescu, M., Negreanu E., (2006). Education Within the Family. Current Landmarks and Practise. Cartea
Universitara Publishing House, Bucharest
Miclea, M., Lemeni, G. (coord) (2004). Counseling and Orientation – Career Educational Guide. ASCR
Publishing House, Cluj Napoca
Popa, M. (2008), Statistics for Psychology Issues. SPSS Theory and Applications. Polirom Publishing House,
Iaşi
Stănciulescu , E., (1997). The Sociology of Familial Education. Polirom Publishing House, Iaşi
195
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4
th
th
The Relationship between Organizational Culture and
Work Motivation for Academic Staff
Cucu-Ciuhan Geaninaa, Ciucurel Manuelab
a,b
Abstract
In Romanian public policy there is a lot of talking these days about the
inefficiency of the educational institutions and the need for an educational system reform.
We think that an important part of this national problem is the deficient organizational
culture of each educational institution. The paper presents the results of a research study
that aimed to identify the type of the organizational culture existent in a Romanian state
university, the way it is perceived by the employees, and identifying the type of the
organizational culture wanted by the employees. We also evaluated the work motivation,
emphasized the association with the type of the organizational culture and the correlation
between a series of classificatory variables and the perception of the organizational
climate. The research sample included a number of 102 university teachers, aged between
25 and 57, from assistant professors to full professors. We used two measures: ESA
Questionnaire (Ciucurel, 2006), for evaluating the work motivation, and Organizational
Culture Questionnaire (Harrison, Stokes, 1992). The results showed that the main
organizational culture existent was the power type and that the employees hope for a
support type. In what concerns the work motivation, teachers from the university had a
high self-actualization motivation. The paper includes statistical data.
Keywords: organizational culture, work motivation for academic staff
1. Introduction.
The daily program of an individual means meeting with organizations:
workplace, school, transport companies, service providers and utility companies, shops,
hospitals, banks etc. As a result, it is impossible to avoid organizations when it comes to
public life. Organizational culture is formed through repeated interactions between
members of the organization, bringing together the beliefs and values of individuals who
compose it. Organizational culture exists regardless of organization, it “ties the
organization” to a chain of tacit manings, which offers specific meanings of all human
activities and organizational processes. One of the most important factors in building
organizational culture is due to peculiarities of interactions between employees and
quality of organizational communication. The impact of an organization culture is crucial
when it comes to its members’ work motivation. The organization is said to meet a series
of human needs: affiliation (explained by the fact that members receive affection from
Cucu-Ciuhan Geanina, Ciucurel Manuela / Procedia – Edu World 2010
colleagues), psychosocial comfort, social recognition, achievement. Motivation for work
generates attitudes toward work. It must be developed to enable managers of organizations
to change attitudes toward work and performance.
2. Research Methodology
2.1.Objectives and research hypotheses
The theoretical objective aims to provide a theoretical synthesis on
organizational culture and work motivation in general and academic in particular.
The applied objectives had in view the following elements:
o diagnosis of organizational culture in a state university in Romania;
o diagnosis of work motivation for teachers from a state university in
Romania;
o the relationships between the variables studied.
The present research is meant to highlight the following aspects:
o motivational structures that characterize the university teaching staff
(captured by ESA questionnaire, Form A);
o the extent to which work satisfies the employees’motivations (ESA
questionnaire, form B);
o the motivational climate expected by the employees in future (ESA
Questionnaire, Form C);
o perception of organizational culture in university (existing culture);
o the organizational culture that employees want in university (desired
culture);
o the relationship between age / academic degree and motivational structures /
organizational culture
o the way in which a particular type of motivation is associated with a certain
perception of organizational culture.
• Research hypotheses:
1. There is a correlation between age of the academic staff and their perception of
organizational culture.
2. There is a correlation between academic degree and perception of existing
3. There is a correlation between academic degree and desired organizational
culture.
4. There is a correlation between age and teachers’ motivation for work.
5. There is a correlation between academic degree and motivation for work.
6. There is a correlation between academic degree and perception of workplace
motivational valence.
7. There is a correlation between academic degree and job instrumentality.
8. There is a correlation between desired organizational culture and motivation
for work.
9. There is a correlation between existing culture and workplace motivational
valences.
10. There is a correlation between desired culture and job instrumentality.
197
The research variables were types of motivation for work (economic, social and
self-fulfillment), and dimensions of organizational culture (power, role, task, support),
age, academic degree.
2.2. Description of research sample
The research sample consisted of 102 teachers from a state university in
Romania. The average age of the subjects is 34,18 years (standard deviation 7,10),
minimum age of 25 years and maximum age of 57 years.
In terms of genre, female subjects were prevalent (75,5%). Distribution of
subjects by gender variable is illustrated by the frequency table and diagram below.
Table 1. Subjects’ genre
Valid
male
female
Total
Absolute frequency
25
77
102
Relative frequency (%)
24,5
75,5
100,0
In terms of academic degree, we obtained the following distribution: junior
assistant 11,8%, assistant 34,3%, lecturer 24,5%, associate professor 14.7%, professor
14.7%.
Table 2. Subjects’ academic degree
Valid
Junior assistant
Assistant
Lecturer
Associate professor
Professor
Total
Absolute frequency
12
35
25
15
15
102
Relative frequency (%)
11,8
34,3
24,5
14,7
14,7
100,0
2.3. Methods
The psychometric method was used to achieve the research.
ESA Questionnaire was used to assess motivational structures at the workplace
(Ciucurel, 1996). It is an elaborated questionnaire developed from Schein's classification
and the expectancy theory developed by Vroom. ESA Questionnaire comprises three
sections.
Section A seeks to capture the types of motivation at the workplace - what
motivates employees, what they want to have (salary, allowances and bonuses, profit
sharing, close relationships between team members, competent and understanding seniors;
recognition of personal competence, professional development opportunities, promotion
opportunities). There are 21 items, whose scores are calculated on three scales: economic
motivation, social motivation and self motivation.
Section B captures the characteristics of the workplace (valence), stating the
extent to which current conditions of employment meet the employees’ needs.
Section C assesses the extent to which employees expect their working place to
satisfy future necessities and desires (instrumentality).
198
Applied to a group of 100 subjects (general population) there were obtained the
following Alpha Crombach internal consistency coefficients (factors): E = 0.635, S =
0.678, A = 0.670.
Alpha Crombach coefficient throughout the questionnaire was 0.720, and on both
sides of the questionnaire (split-half method) it was 0.695 and 0.712 respectively.
Diagnosing organizational culture questionnaire (Harrison, Stokes, 1972) was
used to assess the organizational culture. On the one hand, it assesses the existing culture
of the organization to which the subjects belong, and the culture they prefer on the other
hand. The instructions of the test explicitly require the subjects to think of the top
management of the organization. Scores for four types of culture are being calculated
according to the responses to the questionnaire: power, role, task and support culture. A
high score for one culture indicates that it is more pronounced in the organization or
satisfies the respondents' preferences completely.
The culture types of the survey are:
Power (P) – in a power-based culture, access to resources is unequal. A resource
can be anything that a certain person wants, but is controlled by another person. Those
who have power use resources to satisfy or prevent the others’ needs and thus control their
behaviour.
Role (R) – in a role-based culture based, there is a system of structures and
procedures affecting the leaders’power. The power struggle takes place within the limits
of some rules. The duties and rewards of those who play different roles are clearly
defined, usually in writing, and are subject to an explicit or implicit contract between
organization and individual. Employees perform different functions to receive certain
rewards. Both individuals and organization must comply with the commitments they
made.
Task (T) – power and role-based cultures depend on the use of external rewards
and punishments to motivate employees. The task-based culture gather employees around
a common purpose. It uses the mission of the organization to attract and release the
employees’personal energy to achieve personal goals.
Support (S) – the support-based culture can be defined as an organizational
climate based on mutual trust between individual and organization. In such an
organization, people feel they are valued as human beings, not like pieces of a car or as
mere developers of tasks.
The organization grades are then compared with those of the desired culture. If
there is a perfect match, it means that psychologically there is similarity between
organization and the one who completed the questionnaire. The match is most likely not
to be perfect. The greater the difference between the scores of the organizational culture
and the desired culture, the more problems regarding cooperation with other members of
the organization.
3. Research Results
After applying the tests there were obtained a series of raw data subsequently
processed using the procedures of descriptive and inferential statistics. Data were
statistically analyzed using SPSS for Windows, version 15.0.
199
3.1. Diagnosis of work motivation
The descriptive analysis of data for the three dimensions of ESA Questionnaire
had the following results:
Section A (motivation for work) - employees are characterized by:
• well developed economic motivation (average to high interest for factors such
as: salary, benefits and bonuses, ability to obtain additional income, etc.) (score average
21.60, standard deviation 3.307);
• highly developed self-fulfillment motivation (high interest for factors such as:
recognition of competence at the workplace, professional development, promotion
opportunities) (score average 24.12, standard deviation 4.506);
• poorly represented social motivation (low interest for factors such as: group
activity, close relationships between staff members, informal leader of the group, the
formal leader's management style) (score average 17.33, standard deviation 5,194).
Section B (characteristics of workplace - valence): the current working
conditions of employees are perceived as satisfying average to low economic necessities,
average self-fulfillment needs, average social necessities.
Section C (job instrumentality): employees believe that the future working
conditions will satisfy average economic necessities, average self-fulfillment needs,
average to low social necessities.
Tabel3. Descriptive statistics indicators - ESA motivational structures
median
Standard
deviation
minimum
maximum
asymmetr
y
kurtosis
20,00
23,00
3,307
4,506
18
28
14
32
0,664
-0,204
-1,075
-0,314
socia
l
17,3
3
16,5
0
5,19
4
11
28
0,76
2
0,55
6
Section B
economi
c
selffulfillme
nt
socia
l
Section C
economi
c
6,77
10,37
4,85
6,00
11,00
5,00
3,403
3,731
2
12
3
15
0,180
-0,520
-1,473
-0,948
1,99
2
2
9
0,43
7
0,70
5
selffulfillme
nt
socia
l
8,02
10,88
8,36
7,00
9,00
3,755
5,066
3
15
3
17
0,535
-0,105
-0,889
-1,700
7,00
3,62
3
4
16
0,90
6
0,56
3
Figure 1. Dominant type of motivation
Bar Chart
motivatie dominanta
economic
autorealizare
social
60
Count
average
Section A
economi selfc
fulfillme
nt
21,60
24,12
40
200
20
0
A (motivatie)
B (valenta)
sectiuni ESA
C (instrumentalitate)
3.2. Diagnosis of organizational culture
The descriptive analysis of data for the diagnosis of organizational culture
questionnaire had the following results:
Existing organizational culture:
• high representation of power- type culture (average score 46.77, standard
deviation 9.192);
• average to high representation of role-type culture (average score 41.11,
standard deviation 8.533);
• average representation of task-type culture (average score 36.48, standard
deviation 6.245);
• poor representation of support-type culture (average score 25.64, standard
deviation 3.409). One can notice the prevalence of power-type culture, followed by the
role-type culture.
The interviewed employees consider that their organization is characterized by
unequal access to resources and power struggle. Those who have power use resources to
meet or prevent the others’s needs and thus control their behaviour. Those who align
themselves with the power are recognized and benefit from numerous advantages. The
others are asked to obey the rules or are penalized.
The role-type culture comes on the second place. In such a culture, regulations
are the most important. At university level, regulations and procedures in force are
elements of role-type culture. Leaders are interested in rules, procedures, efficiency.
Given their high number, people feel overloaded, stressed and tend to dismiss these
regulations.
Desired organizational culture:
• poor representation of power-type culture (average score 27.73, standard
deviation 10,363);
• average representation of role-type culture (average score 39.27, standard
deviation 7.373);
• average to high representation of task-type culture (average score 41.70,
standard deviation 7.335);
• average to high representation of support-type culture (average score 41.28,
standard deviation 13,345).
One can notice the prevalence of both support and task-type culture.
The support–type culture has a specific organizational climate based on mutual
trust between individual and organization, in which people feel they are valued as human
beings, not just as mere developers of tasks. This type of culture usually prevails at the
level of departments and corresponds to people-centered management.
The task-type culture gather employees around a commonly realized and
accepted purpose. This promotes a task-focused management; the task and its fulfillment
are the most important. At the same time, people are respected and self-motivated. This
type of culture usually works in project teams, Research Centers, Training departments,
etc.
201
Bar Chart
tip dominant cultura
putere
rol
sarcina
sprijin
Count
60
40
20
0
existenta
dorita
dorita / existenta
Figure 2. Dominant type of organizational culture
The power-type culture is the prevalent existing culture; it is followed (in order
of frequency) by: role-type culture, task-type culture and support-type culture. The
preference order for the desired culture is reversed. The support-type culture comes first
though it is the least developed under the circumstances.
3.3. Evaluating the relationships between research variables.
In order to test research hypotheses, there were used procedures specific to
inferential statistics (correlation analysis, Chi-square test).
Hypothesis 1: There is a correlation between age of the academic staff and their
perceptions of organizational culture.
In terms of age and perception of organizational culture, the correlation analysis
revealed the following:
• weak and statistically insignificant inverse correlation between age and
existing power-type culture;
• weak and statistically insignificant direct correlations between age and existing
role-type culture / desired role-type culture;
• statistically significant inverse correlations between: age and existing supporttype culture (average correlation r = 0.35, p <0.001), age and desired support-type culture
(strong correlation r= 0,62, p <0.001);
• statistically significant direct correlations between: age and existing task- type
culture (weak correlation r = 0.22, p = 0.023); age and desired task-type culture (weak
correlation r = 0.21, p = 0.030); age and desired power- type culture (strong correlation r =
0.58, p <0.001).
One can notice the young people’s preference for support-type culture as well as
their preference for task or power-type culture with increasing age.
Hypothesis 2: There is a correlation between academic grade and perception of
existing organizational culture.
There is a statistically significant association between academic grade and the
dominant perception of existing organizational culture (Pearson Chi-Square = 23.993, d.f.
= 8, p = 0.002). Junior assistants and assistants tend to perceive organizational culture as a
202
power-type one, while associate professors and professors lay a significant stress on the
role-type culture. It is also noted that only course holders (at which level the selfdevelopment needs are intense) culture is perceived as a task-type one.
Hypothesis 3: There is a correlation between academic grade and desired
There is a statistically significant association between academic grade and
desired organizational culture (Pearson Chi-Square = 120.877, d.f. = 12, p <0.001).
Junior assistants, assistants and lecturers tend to prefer a support-type organizational
culture type (followed by the role-type culture). Associate professors prefer the task-type
culture and professors are in favor of power and task-type culture.
Hypothesis 4: There is a correlation between teachers' age and their motivation
for work.
In terms of age and motivational structures, the correlation analysis revealed the
following:
• Section A: age positively correlates with economic motivation (r = 0.60, p
<0.001) and negatively with social motivation (r = -0.50, p <0.001); correlation between
age and self-fulfillment motivation is statistically insignificant ( p> 0.05);
• Section B: age negatively correlates with social motivation (r = -0.61, p
<0.001), other correlations are statistically insignificant (p> 0.05);
• Section C: age positively correlates with economic motivation (r = 0.50, p
<0.001) and negatively with social motivation (r = -0.41, p <0.001); correlation between
age and self-fulfillment motivation is statistically insignificant (p> 0.05);
On the whole, one can notice direct correlations between age and economic
motivation and inverse correlations between age and social motivation (as the age
increases, the emphasis on economic factors increases to the detriment of social factors).
Hypothesis 5: There is a correlation between academic grade and motivation for
work.
There is a statistically significant association between academic grade and
motivation for work (Pearson Chi-Square = 77.488, d.f. = 8, p <0.001). Junior assistants,
associate professors and professors are dominated by economic and self-fulfillment
motivation. Assistants and lecturers, however, have an intense motivation for selffulfillment and social needs.
Hypothesis 6: There is a correlation between academic grade and perception of
workplace motivational valence.
Association between academic grade and perception of job in terms of satisfying
needs has not reached statistical significance (Pearson Chi-Square = 6.159, d.f. = 4, p =
0.188). However, lecturers tend to appreciate their workplace as satisfying their selffulfillment needs to a larger extent than others.
203
Bar Chart
B_tip dominant
20
economic
autorealizare
Count
15
10
5
0
preparator
asistent
lector
conferentiar
profesor
grad didactic
Figure 3. Workplace valence and academic grade
Hypothesis 7: There is a correlation between academic grade and job
instrumentality.
There is a statistically significant association between academic level and
expectations on satisfying future needs (Pearson Chi-Square = 45.971, d.f. = 8, p <0.001).
Assistants expect to primarily satisfy their self-fulfillment needs, while lecturers and
professors are expected to meet both self-fulfillment and social needs. Junior assistants are
expected to meet social needs to a larger extent than others.
Bar Chart
C_tip dominant
20
economic
autorealizare
social
Count
15
10
5
0
preparator
asistent
lector
conferentiar
profesor
grad didactic
Figure 4. Job instrumentality and academic grade
Hypothesis 8: There is a correlation between desired organizational culture and
motivation for work.
There is a statistically significant association between desired organizational
culture and motivation for work (Pearson Chi-Square = 65.222, d.f. = 6, p = .000, phi =
0.80). The effect size index shows a strong association between variables.
204
It is apparent that power-based culture is preferred by people with a high
economic motivation. People with high social motivation want a support-type culture and
people with prevailing self-fulfillment motivation prefer support-type culture but also role
and task-type cultures.
Bar Chart
cultura dorita_ tip
dominant
40
putere
rol
sarcina
sprijin
Count
30
20
10
0
economic
autorealizare
social
motivatie_tip dominant
Figure 5. Desired culture and motivation for work
Hypothesis 9: There is a correlation between existing culture and workplace
motivational valences.
There is a statistically significant association between existing culture type and
workplace motivational valences (Pearson Chi-Square = 16.992, df = 2, p <0.001, phi =
0.48). Subjects who constantly notice the economic valences of the workplace tend to
perceive the existing organizational culture as a power-type one. Subjects who believe that
their work meets their self-fulfillment needs tend to have a heterogeneous perception of
existing organizational culture.
Hypothesis 10: There is a correlation between desired culture and job
instrumentality.
There is a statistically significant association between desired culture type and
job instrumentality (Pearson Chi-Square = 71.549, df = 6, p <0.001, phi = 0.83). People
who expect future work to satisfy their economic motivation prefer a power-type culture.
Those who expect social motivation want a support-type culture and persons who expect
to satisfy their self-filfillment prefer support, task and role-type cultures.
4. Conclusions
The research helped us draw the following conclusions:
1. Organizational culture is formed through repeated interactions between
members of the organization, bringing together the beliefs and values of individuals who
compose it.
2. There are strong paradigmatic factors that customize organizational culture,
such as: leadership style and decision-making manner, level of formality, organizational
structure, and almost all systems that provide value and support for a particular type of
work and behavior.
205
3. The organization meets a series of human needs: affiliation (explained by the
fact that members receive affection from colleagues), psychosocial comfort, social
recognition, fulfillment.
4. As regards motivation for work, teachers of the investigated organization show
self-fulfillment motivation, followed by well-developed economic motivation and poorly
represented social motivation.
5. As regards workplace motivational valences, the university is perceived as a
means of satisfying self-fulfillment needs to an average extent, economic needs to an
average to small extent and social needs to a small extent.
6. There were no differences between motivational valences and teachers’
expectations as regards their workplace.
7. As regards existing organizational culture, power-type culture comes first,
followed by role-type culture. In terms of desired organizational culture there is a need for
change, given the preference for support and task-type culture.
8. Research hypotheses were confirmed, and these results are useful in
developing an optimization strategy in terms of organizational culture and motivation for
work in this organization.
References:
Bogháty, Z., Ilin, C., Vârgă, D., Paloş, R., Erdei, I., Sava, A.F., Popescu, C., Zaborilă, C.A. (2004), Manual de
psihologia muncii şi organizaţională (Handbook of work and organizational psychology), Polirom
Publishing House, Iaşi.
Buchanan, D., Huczynski, H.(1991), Organisational Behavior, Pretince Hall International, Herefordshire
Ciucurel, M. (2006), Relaţia dintre stilurile de conducere şi motivaţia comportamentului subordonaţilor: o
abordare experimentală (The relationship between leadership styles and motivation of subordinates
behavior: an experimental approach), Journal of Social and Human Sciences, Academia Română
(Romanian Academy), Iaşi, Economic and Social Research Institute „Gh. Zane”.
Deci, E., Vroom, V. (1992), Management and Motivation, Penguin Books, London.
Schein, E.(1971), Psychologie et organisation, Ed. Hommes et Techniques, Paris.
206
th
4
th
th
Section 10 - TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION
th
4
th
th
Aspects Concerning The Future Of The Automotive
Transportation In The Context Of Pollution Decrease, Of
Classic Engines Fuel Consumption And Of The Recovery
And Reuse Of Old Out-Of-Use Automotives
Tiberiu MACARIEa, Mihail MACARIEb
a
University of Pitesti, Romania
b
Renault Technology Romania
Abstract
The future of the road transportation depends on the balance between the people
natural wish to travel more and faster, the restrictions increasingly severe concerning the
environemental pollution and keeping the natural oil resources for a longer period of time,
by means of reducing the fuel consomption of the automotives.This required and desired
condition of balance is difficult to acquire, very frequently the equilibrium is unstable,
having direct and negative consequences on the life of large and small communities Also
these days more and more often some of the actions taken to decrease pollution and
maintan the resources of raw materials is being represented by the retirement of old and
polluting automotives, and the reintroduction of their components in the economical
process, following their transformation into parts.
Introduction
People’s continuous need to travel, to discover new things and places is dued to
the very human inner structure, and the necessity to travel may appear as a result of
external favorable or unfavorable conditions for life, that lead to the entire communities or
individuals having to travel from one place to another.
The international legislation on the subject of the automotives environemental
pollution are increasingly restrictive, due to the outburst in the number of automotives and
the negative impact it has on the environement, due to the exhaust gas released in the
atmosphere, due to the pollution by old automotives out-of-use abandoned all over the
place, taking important spaces, that in time become poluted.
The available resources continuously decreasing,the negative impact on the
environement, the fuel price that goes up and the international legislation concerning the
transportation, combined with the changes in customer preferences, all togheter lead to the
development of the efficient technologies from the point of view of fuel use and pollution.
The advanced thecnologies of propulsion and the development strateges involve multiple
tehcnologies in order to supply the customer desired fuel save, a less polluted
environement, comfort and safety while driving.
Tiberiu MACARIEa, Mihail MACARIE b / Procedia – Edu World 2010
Environemental pollution
The decrease in the environemental pollution due to automotives has two main
action directions as it follows:the continuos action of improving the classic engines, that
can be found on the large majority of the automotives in the world, improvement that
should have as a result the reduction of the polluting exhaust gases and the decrease in the
fuel consumption necessary for a trip of 100 km. The second action is being represented
by the focus on constructing hybrid automotives that use two power supplies (classical
thermic engine and electric engine)
The economical and technic changes, as well as the new tendencies in our
society of increasing the mobility lead to a continuous development of the automotives
and of the means that confer the mobility. The preservation of the environement and of
the energy resources represents another important aspect of the development tendencies of
our day society. An intelligent compromise is being saught for, in the framework of those
general tendencies, that allow those factors to be integrated into a complex system that
will reach the expected performances. Such a system ensures the equilibrium between the
ecological aspects, the economical ones and as well the social aspects involved in this
process.
The decrease in fuel consumption
The continous improvement of the classic thermic engine is a concerc of the
automotive builders, permanently researching and trying to optimize the component parts
of the engine.There are important resources and opportunities to improve these
engines.The automotive builders try to improve the procceses of fuel combustion in order
to reduce the quantity of exhaust gasses set out in the atmosphere. There are opinions that
the classic engines will last for long time, without being able to predict their end.
Figure 1.Motion of automotive
Lighter and more resiliant materials are being used, board computers manage all
the processes within the engine, the transmission, the direction, the breaks, the suspension,
briefly, the entire behaviour of the automotive.
There are three main direction of research and development for the future
automotives:
o The sistematic increase of the efficiency of the engine;
209
o combining alternative sources of energy for the production of necessary fuel;
o systems that will reduce the polluting gases generates by the automotives.
The strategies of development for the engines of the future generate new
technical solutions.The core idea are the engines with direct injection (TDI and TSI ) on
the one hand, and on the other hand improving those models with hybrid energetical
systems and combining them with the burning processes of the diesel and fuel engines, in
order to create the combined combustion system (CCS)
The potential of this tipe of motorization is enhanced by use of synthetic fuel
derived from other sources of energy. The synthetic fuel contains non-sulfates and their
properties are more acceptable than the ones of the fuels used today.
These characteristics allow the reduction of the fuel consumption, especially on
diesel engines, in order to reduce the pollution. The main idea is to find a universal fuel
resource, that will save on the existing resources, without diversifying the fuel used by
the automotive engines. Such fuel are considered to be the fluid synthetic hydrocarbons as
well the electric energy and hydrogen. The main result of the hydrigen transformed into
electric energy is a electrically driven engine. The electric engine will contribute to the
development of the engine with internal combustion. As long as the quality of the exhaust
gases for short distances deplacements is continuously improving, the concentration of the
mobility for long deplacements will depend only on the limit of the resources
available.The electrical engine is being used as an auxiliary for the internal combustion
engine.
Which is the favourite engine of the future?
The improvement of the effiency of the internal combustion engines is possible
by use if thermodynamic and mechanical improved mechanisms, present on our day
automotives. From the hystorical point of view the diesel engines kept a significant
advantage over the engines with start by spark, from the point of view of efficiency and
represent a significant choice for the road transportation. But the efficiency of the diesel
engines didn’t come without a cost attached. Nowadays the gas injected engines
significantly decreased the ratio efficiency/costs.
The increased efficiency of the engines is dued to the technologies that include
direct rapid injection of fuel, technologies of variable valves and the controle of the
compression ratio. Though they do not cumulate, these technologies help ensuring
efficient processes of homogenous compression, of ignition at the right moment and
complete burn of the fuel injected.
In the case of the diesel engines, the restricting standards concerning the
pollution lead to the significant development of the engine and of the system of posttreatment of the exhaust gases. The technical restrictions appeared in the area of the
nitrogen oxit. The diesel particle filter became mandatory on many markets for these
engines. Also mandatory became the caption systems for nitrogen oxit (LNT) as well as
the selectiv catalytic reduction. (SCR)
Another direction taken for increasing the efficienty of the internal combustion
engines with spark is the use of the technology of deactivating the engine cylinder, also
calles the “active fuel management” (AFM). AFM represents a fuel saving technology that
allows the engine to function with only half its cylinders when it is not necessary all the
power of the engine, improving significantly the fuel consumption on SI V6 and V8
engines.
210
For the smaller engines, the turbo encreases the torque and the power of the
engine by delivering more fresh mix of oxigen and fuel and thus more chemical energy for
the cylinders. The negative side of the undersized engines is being represented by a
smaller value of the final torque and the slower response to its changes.
The mix of both electrical and electronical parts both on diesel and gasoline
engines creates significant opportunities for future increasing the efficiency of the
functioning of the engine. The micro-hybrid will function in a start-stop mode and will
have the possiblity of recharging the battery faster, during the trip, with a decrease in CO2
of 3%-4% .
The middle hybrid systems add the regime of recuperate brake changing the
couple motor and cutting the fuel supply during breaking, thus obtaining a reduction of
the CO2 up to 12%.
Top class hybrid automototives have a higher degree of functionality that
includes the complete management of the couple motor and the capacity of functioning for
short periods of time while functioning on the electric component. These automotives may
reduce the quantity of exhaust gases released into the atmosphere compared to the middle
class automotives.
The focus on research and development of regenerative fuel is very important
such as ethanol, biodiesel synthetic fuel and hydrogen, obtained with the help of the fuel
cells. The development of the standards for the use of this last type of fuel will be critical
for the producer and supplier as far as producting safe functioning solutions.
Taking into consideretion the growth in buyers choice, the producers have
several dillemas concerning chosing the best combination of equipping, with the right
engine. Such an example is being represented by the strategy of propulsion technology of
General Motors, illustrated in fig 2. these technologies are analyzed in the context of the
equilibrium between the wanted profit, the costs involved by the new technologies, the
risks and the demand and satisfaction of the buyer.
Fig. no.2. The development stategy of General Motors engines
Analyzing the evolution over time of the energetical resources (fig 2) used in the
propulsion of the automotives it can be noticed that the engine with internal combustion
can use alternative fuels (ethanol, biodiesel), and then can be “helped” by an electric
engine both on the same automotive. Later on the hybrid automotive will give up on the
internal combustion engine, being propelled by one or more electric engines, fueld by
211
electric batteries.The future belongs to the hydrogen engines that will produce with the
help of fuel cells the necessary hydrogen for the propulsion on board of the automotive.
Hybrid automotives
The hybrid automotives are more and more present nowdays. All the automotive
constructing companies invest in this area and create functional models, with consumption
performaces compared to the classical automotive,
Such an example is being represented by the american pick-up trucks Chevrolet
Silverado şi Sierra GMC Hybrid, equiped with 2 or 4 driving wheels, that use 14,2 l/100
km in the city şi 11,1 l/100 km, compared to the conventional pick-up trucks that use 16,2
l/100 km in the city and 12 l/100 km on highways. The economy in fuel is further more
relevant as the number of kilometers is growing. Furthermore these models are less
polluting. The obstacle in spreading their use is the purchase price, that leads to a lack of
motivation for the persons that may be interested in aquiring them. For the begining the
state should provide subsidies when buiyng them. This is the reason behind the small
number of aquired hybrid automotives on the Canadian market –150 units in 2005, 300
units-2006.
The hybrid pick-up trucks of general Motors do not use the same technolgy as
the Toyota Prius or the Ford Escape, on which the electrical engine helps the heat
engine.The Silverado and Sierra pick-up trucks the 5300cm3 V8 heat engine has 295 HP
and a torque of 335Nm, with a manual 4 gear box.
Compared to other engines that can be found on the GM pick-up trucks the
hybrid model can is set aside by the use of starter-generator of14kW, integrated in a
mechanism between the engine and transmission. When the pick-up truck stopps at a red
light or on other occasions (traffic jams) the heat engine stops and a set of electric
batteries ensures the functioning of the electricity consumers (the radio, the ventilation
system, etc) .To restart the heat engine it is enough to release the break pedal and the
starter-generator restarts the heat engine.
To recharge the batteries the system recovers the cinetic energy consumed in the
breaking process. The power of the batteries is sufficient to restart the heat engine, but it
stops at speed over 20/km /h, in order to save fuel .in order not to influence the behavior
of the servodirection and servobreaking when the heat engine stops, those can function
independent from the engine, with the help of the batteries. Furthermore those pick-up
trucks are equiped with 4 surse of 120 V and 20 A, that allow the charging at the
electricity network. In the table no 1 is presented a comparison between the performances
of the most common hybrids on the market
Fig. no. 3 The General Motor hybrid pick-up truck
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automotive
mass(Kg)
Power MT
[kW]
Power M/G
[kW]
Fracţiunea electrică [ %]
Toyota Civic
Toyota Prius
Ford Escape
Toyota Prius II
1242
1254
2053
1295
63
53
80
57
10
33/10
65/28
50/10
14
38
45
47
Puterea
specifică de vârf
[kW /125Kg]
7,35
8,6
8,8
10,3
Table no.1
The scheme of the organisation of the transmission on the hybrid Ford Escape
GS45 is shown in fig no.4
Fig. no.4. The scheme of the organisation of the transmission on the hybrid Ford Escape
GS45
The future of the diesel engine is not obvious, their future use on the automotives
that ensures high loads or on automotives with reduced loads in the countries where the
legislation is more relaxed.The mix or heat engine and electric engine represents a big
advantage for the automotive that have many stops and starts. There are also several
opportunities to create highly efficient behaviours, that combine moderate hybrids with
diesel engine, unfortunately limited by the high costs. The costs associated to the hybrid
options will decrease substantially in the following years, taking into consideration the
evolution of the batteries and of the associated electronics.
The hybrid and diesel technologies do not exclude each other.Both technologies
will coexist on the market, depending on the utility, the market perception and the profit.
The most favourable solution depends on the individual use of the automotive and of the
environement on which it moves.
The recovery of the automotives out of use
The automotives out of use are increasing in number and started to represent an
important pollution cause.During the early design stage of the automotives materials that
at the end of the active life will be degradabile or re-used witout polluting the
environement are being saught .
The negative effects of the degradation of the automotive parts are evidenced by
the decrease in the efficiency, int increase of the lubricants used, of the noise and
vibrations levels, the negative change in the economicity, dynamic and functional
behaviour, and finally the deterioration of the main elements of the mechanic system
without the possiblity of reparation.
Nowadays due to the fact that the treatement of out-of-service automotives
(VSU) implies the dismanteling of certain reusable components with commercial value
and the metal recycling (75% of the automotive mass) the rest of materials (25%) are
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being stored. The automotives out-of –use have an economical value, the owner being
paid for their turning over to the recycling centers, depending on the weight of metal they
contain. These automotives contain dangerous waste (depeding on the brand , starting
with 15 up to20kg per automotive) and the expensive recycling materials (glass, plastic,
textile, dangerous waste) represent 25-30% from the weight of the vechicle.
The automotive parts recycling should turn into a economically profitable
activity in order to be sustainable, since the european directives in the are impose certain
limits within which the materials should be reused.
When an accident happens in traffic there is the danger of damaging parts that
contains dagerous waste. The driver should have a minimun knowlegde of
enviromenmental pollution. The storage of the auto wrecks is often made in unproper
places and the owners are subjected to fines for breaking the legislation and note unsuring
the integrity of the wreck.
There are evaluation sistems of the auto wrecks so that they can be sold on the
market on demand. The EU 53/2000/CEE Directive has mandatory rules concerning the
handling of the out of use automotives, known as VSU. According to the Directive the
VSU are considered waste. The EU 53/2000/CEE Directive has been applied in Romania
through HG 2496/2004, and HG 1313/2006
Conclusions
The decrease of the pollution, of fuel cosumption and recovery of the out of use
automotives represent some of the most important problems, starting from the individual
level up to the international level that need to be treated in a very short time, with serious
implications for the future. The actions of both automotive designers and fabricants
represent a good starting point that prove there are solutions with long term or short term
deadline to be put into practice that will maintain the status of the automotive as a long
time friend of the humans.
References
Boghian M, Recuperarea epavelor de automobile, Teza de doctorat, Universitatea din Pitesti, 2010.
Ivan F., Nicolae V.,Macarie T., -Reduting environement pollution by treating the end of live vehicle, an actual
problem of our European integration The I International Conference Motor Vehicle and Transportation
MVT 2006, November 15-17th, 2006, Timisoara.
Macarie T., Macarie G.,- Automobilul-a doua casă a omului? Simpozionul SINUC 2005, ediţia a XI, 13-14
decembrie 2005, Universitatea Tehnică de Construcţii Bucureşti.
www.ford.com
www.generalmotors .com
www.renault.com
www.volvohybrid. com
www.volvobuses. com
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Computer Technology and Music Applications
Vangelis Karafillidis
Macedonian Conservatory, Thessaloniki
Abstract
The rapid development of computer technology has affected virtually all artistic
as well as scientific fields. Music software constitutes a very important and effective
implementation of computer technology. Home musicians, music lovers, professionals,
composers, arrangers and many others can utilize the advantages of modern technology in
order to expand, develop and improve their musical capabilities. This article tries to
demonstrate the benefits, advantages and new potentials of computer technology and
music applications.
Keywords: Computers; Music; Computer Technology; Music Applications
Introduction
Technological and scientific development always affects our life. The
information revolution of the last decades is undoubtedly the greatest leap of human
societies. It influenced our habits, professions, hobbies, life style, communication and
virtually any field we could imagine.
The information revolution is strongly connected with computer technology.
Actually, the digitization of information is the first step for the interaction between
computers and humans. Applied computer technology premises the digitization of
information along with the appropriate devices (hardware) and programs (software).
Computer music applications can be materialized since music information (in any form,
i.e. sound, notation, etc.) has been successfully digitized. These applications concern both
entertainment and music production in such a way that just a couple of decades ago it
would be characterized as “science fiction”. This article demonstrates the basic categories
of music applications as well as the benefits of their utilization.
Computer technology and music applications on entertainent.
Most of us like listening to some kind or kinds of music. Up until a few decades
ago, we needed to buy a Hi-Fi and our favorite vinyls or cassetes in order to enjoy music.
Some of us might have had fun singing with our friends with or without instrumental
accompaniment. In the last couple of decades, numerous technologies and computer
applications have been developed enhancing the enjoyment of music.
Vangelis Karafillidis / Procedia – Edu World 2010
Audio CDs on computer
The computer is capable of playing CDs. We should just insert our CD in the CD
(or DVD) device of our computer and choose a media player program (i.e. Windows
Media Player, Winamp, Foobar2000, etc.).
Song purchasing / downloading
Many sites offer free songs for downloading. Some others serve as electronic
markets for buying (and downloading) our favorite songs.
Internet radio
There are many internet radio broadcastings. We could choose one very easily
and listen to it through our internet browser (Internet Explorer, Mozilla, etc.).
Music storage on computer / Music recording on computer
We can store music from our CDs or media files themselves. For storing CDs we
should use a CD Ripper which makes the Audio Extraction from our CD to our Hard
Disk. Also, we can record music utilizing the audio inputs of a sound card. The source
might be a microphone, cassette player, etc. In both cases the .wav format of sound is
stored in the hard disk, unless the user specifies some other choice.
Music (audio) encoders
In order to reduce the audio file size we use encoding applications. Audio
encoders are divided into two categories: a) lossless encoders which retain the sound
quality unaltered and b) lossy encoders which deteriorate the sound quality. Both take as
an input the .wav format of the sound file and using the appropriate algorithms they
diminish the file size from (namely) 50% to 95%. For example, an audio file of 20MB can
be compressed into a file of 10MB or even 1MB.
The lossless encoders utilize specialized compressing algorithms for sound files.
The most popular lossless sound file formats are .flac, .ape and .wv. The lossless encoded
file occupies around 40% of the original (uncompressed, i.e. .wav) one.
The lossy encoders utilize psychoacoustic-based algorithms in order to reduce
the file size. These algorithms are based on the principle that the human auditory system is
not capable of perceiving all the information included in the sound wave. So, there is
some “useless” information. The lossy algorithms are capable of detecting and “throwing”
this information, resulting in the file size reduction. The user can choose the amount of
information he wants to keep. Generally speaking, lossy encoders can achieve drastic
reduction of the file size (namely up to 90%) without crucial audible consequences. The
most popular lossy sound file formats are .mp3, .ogg, .mp4, .mpc, and .wma.
Media organizers & managers / Media players
Lossy encoded music files typically occupy 10% of the initial .wav file size.
Therefore, one audio CD which normally stores 600MB of information, when transformed
into .mp3 files, occupies 60MB on the hard disk. Lately, the capacities of the hard disk
have surpassed the 1TB=1,000GB=1,000,000MB (approximately). A disk of 1TB can
store from 16,000 to 17,000 CDs. This makes the use of music organizers / librarians
necessary. Such applications can store information about the tracks (songs), i.e. song title,
performer, composer etc. and could easily organize our music collection. The most
popular programs of this category are iTunes, Media Monkey, Music Bee and Music
Organizer.
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There are numerous software media players that reproduce the music stored in
our media organizer. Windows Media Player, Winamp, iTunes, Foobar2000 and Sonique
are among the most popular programs of this genre.
MIDI and Karaoke files
Many people enjoy singing. Computer technology offers us the opportunity of
having an “orchestra” as an accompaniment. MIDI and Karaoke files carry the necessary
information for this purpose. MIDI files are actually descriptions of music-using notes,
instrument names, tempo indications, dynamic alterations and generally all the
information that is used for reproducing a song. They occupy very small size but they
need (either hardware or software) synthesizers in order to be transformed into sound. We
should note that the same MIDI file might not sound the same when reproduced using
different synthesizers. But there are some crucial advantages that make this format really
useful: a) we don’t need musicians as our accompaniment, b) we can easily change the
“orchestration”, tempo or tonality of the song in order to make it suitable for our voice and
c) it’s really easy to find MIDI files of virtually all popular songs in the internet for free.
Karaoke files constitute an expansion of MIDI files, carrying additionally the
information of song lyrics. Using our Karaoke player we can have all the advantages of
the MIDI file plus a screen display of the lyrics, which follows the music.
Music teaching / learning
Computer technology is capable of supporting both music teaching as well as
training and learning. Computer applications not only do faciliate the educational
procedures but moreover they vastly expand and drastically improve speed, effectiveness,
efficiency and enjoyment of learning. Additionally to the universal presentation tools such
as Powerpoint, music education can utilize many specialized applications.
E-books
The student can find and buy or download e-books about theory of music,
harmony, counterpoint, orchestration, history of music, etc. This material can be read
directly from the computer or be printed on paper.
Digital Encyclopedias
Digital encyclopedias, in addition to carrying information, have an interactive
interface which makes learning much easier and far more interesting. The student can
learn about the History of Music, Musical Instruments, Music Theory, Morphology
Analysis, etc. Microsoft has published some very interesting titles such as: Musical
Instruments; Beethoven: The Ninth Symphony; Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring. We could
also mention some other interesting titles: Those Amazing Musical Instruments; Art &
Music; etc.
Music training & learning applications
The pupil can develop his skills on Ear Training, Instrument Performing,
Harmony, Orchestration, etc. using specialized applications. He can replace some parts of
the conventional lesson under his teacher with computer interaction. Auralia can be used
for ear training, Garritan Interactive Principles of Orchestration by Nikolay RimskyKorsakov for orchestration learning, Teach Yourself to Play Piano for practicing piano (to
mention just a few).
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Music production / Sound editing
Since computer science has invented ways of digitizing both music information
as long as sound as physical phenomenon, the potentiality of editing music and sound
became a reality. Music production applications mainly focus on notation editing, MIDI
sequencing, as well as sound recoding and editing. All the above applications have
constitude effective and powerful tools for the modern musician and sound egineer.
Actually, music composition is no longer limited to the conventional procedure of writing
and developing some ideas on a piece of paper.
Music Notation Programs
Music notation applications are used for editing scores. Today’s composers or
arrangers can write and edit music scores using applications like Finale or Sibelius. These
programs additionally to generating professional quality scores, offer many other
capabilities, such as: a) while we are entering notes we can listen to the result, b) we can
easily transpose the whole score very easily within a couple of seconds, c) we can copy
and paste (actually repeat) any part of the score, d) we can change the formatting
whenever we want, e) we can extract parts with a couple of mouse clicks and f) we can
hear our score using high quality sound sets which produce a fairly realistic result of our
music.
MIDI Sequencers
MIDI Sequencers are used for controlling and exploiting the capabilities of both
hardware and software synthesizers. The most popular applications of this genre are
Cakewalk Sonar and Cubase. Both of them can be used as MIDI Sequencers as well as
sound editing and mixing tools. Using these applications as MIDI sequencers we can
compose and edit music very easily. The MIDI file format stores information about music,
i.e. note pitches, time durations, tempo, dynamics, etc. The flexibility of this genre of
music applications is that they don’t store the sound itself but information about music.
So, if we perform a piece on a MIDI instrument and send this data to our sequencer, we
don’t actually store any sound at all. What we store is all the above information about the
music. The MIDI sequencers can edit this material and make corrections for false notes,
wrong durations, dynamics, tempo and generally all the information that is stored in the
MIDI file. Thus, transpositions, tempo changes and orchestration experimentations can be
easily materialized.
Sound recording / Sound editing
The modern computer can serve us as a professional music studio for making
recordings and editing them with really powerful tools. Recording sound means storing its
digital representation on our computer. Digital representation can be less or more accurate
by choosing bit resolution and sample rate for our recording. Audio CDs store sound in its
digital representation of 16bit / 44.1KHz. Computers can store different representations
according to our choices. After storing this data, we can edit the sound applying effects
(reverb, echo, etc), changing pitch, reducing noise, normalizing, compressing, etc. All
these sound editing capabilities are of professional quality.
In addition to sound editing, modern computers can handle multi-channel
recordings very easily. Modern sound engineers can edit these recordings, mix them and
produce the audio CD.
The most popular programs of this genre are Adobe Audition and Wavelab.
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Audio CD burning
After recording music on our computer or generally choosing some audio files,
we can easily burn an audio CD. The most popular CD/DVD burning application is Nero
Burning Rom.
Promotion
One of the most exciting applied computer capabilities is the Internet. The
Internet actually is a huge network of computers. In this way, people who own a computer
can easily communicate. This type of electronic communication has many “faces”. The
world wide web offers the opportunity for presenting our work or even our personality.
Musicians can take advantage of what Youtube or Myspace offer in order to upload their
work and promote themselves.
Conclusion
Computer technology offers us capabilities that a few decades ago we couldn’t
even imagine. Modern musicians (either amateur or professional), students and teachers
can take the advantage of music applications in order to improve their productivity and
efficiency. And, of course, all of us can enjoy music using our computer.
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Factorial Morphology of Globalization
Carja Vasile
Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
Abstract
Morphology factorial of “Globalization”: Communications, Consumer, Credit,
Competition, Corruption, Growth, Capitalism, Cooperation, Cartel, Connection, Crisis,
explains technological origins, financial and economic logic inherent to the phenomenon
called globalization. A simple logic can identify a “Royal Flush”; of the areas on which to
legitimate phenomenon globalization: transport, tourism, telecommunications, technology,
transactions. Functionary law is defined by the corresponding increase in profit
development.
The phenomenon is ancient, took the form of specific historical. Only structural
conditioning have changed, but remained determined print attribute the ongoing process
of “ property”.
Keywords: Unity, Diversity, Identity, Hegemony, Expansion
Introduction
Like any ideal concept, globalization seems hard to catch in factual terms, the
particular and historical once. Modern term is put into circulation in 1990. First, in 1983,
it was used by Theodore Levitt, in his remarkable book, referring to digital
communications and Markets. It has revolutionized international transactions (online
transactions). Simultaneously relocated traditional market forces (multiple markets was
unified). The profit outsourced. The market economy has expanded to global geopolitical
strategies. The usual definition of the easiest and belongs to R. Robertson in his book
Globalization.“... Globalization is a complex process of copying links and
interconnections between member states of the world system”. However, the attribute
complex is too general and vague, therefore inoperative.
Understand that it must introduce some methodological principles and
relationships. Otherwise the scope of this concept is either too broad or reduce the
economic and financial field. We use the best known principles invented and used by
Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee: the comparison, the homology and analogy of
morphological features, the synchronism equivalence over historical time. Finally, what
did not accept the two philosophers, diacrhonismul, continuity and spread of civilization.
The main assumption is a philosophical formulation. Globalization may be
considered a trend towards Totality (fully universal) or Great everything. It is a broad and
common suppozition. Can be filled with concrete historical content or timing. Whether it's
physical Universe or the human Universe. Is a universal process in terms of its entire
Cârjă Vasile/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
existence. But its manifestations on various areas of life, may be considered unique.
Globalization is a stable phenomenon, a matrix, which constantly accompanies natural and
social history. Although it is manifested by constant change, modification, quantitative
and qualitative. Globalisation social catalyst is "Science" as it applied historically as
technical development and technology.
Globalization as a contemporary phenomenon, reflecting the inherent and
structural contradiction between Nature and Society, between Nature and Knowledge.
Empirical level, reached by science, there is direct relationship between man and
technology. In short, IT&C is useful but changing the way human thinking and human
interaction. Nothing can limit. We do any technology (technics) is omnipotent solution to
all problems. It became the biggest problem, ubiquitous. Technology is causing alienation
by dehumanization. Technology has created "dependency" multiple dependent, quasitotal. It is the Force civilization.
Without technological toys, sophisticated man is a being bored and helpless.
Technology tends to replace human. Like any force, technological gadgets have a positive
and a negative side. There, we believe, a principle of universal compensation acting on
human nature. Everything is paid. The more material comfort, versatile and "laziness"
unilateral brain (entertainment). These are simple truths.
First main thesis: The current technology is a tool of manipulation and
exploitation of man by man. If the state is an incompetent manager, he becomes an
exploiter. If it is corrupted, becomes the largest exploiter. He who controls the technology
is undeniable, “Lord of the world.” Fortunately, there is still an absolute monopoly of
technology. Yet, people still need each other.
The second main argument: Technology distinguishes between different
civilizations history of our time. Qualitative differences, imponderable, are the result of
subjective perceptions on the idea of Progress. Progress is relative and contextual. Vertical
and horizontal inequality is a societal.
Arguments:
The first theoretical explanatory reports are required of inequality and of unity in
diversity, the most general and therefore the poorest in content.
Morphology factorial of "Globalization" today could be simplified to a series of
instrumental relationships.
The first series factorial (methodological), communication is the common
denominator. It is the basis of all social relations, Contact as: Connection,
Communication, Connexion, Cybernetics, Computing.
The second series (theoretical) Cooperation starts at: Competition, Competitor,
Contestant (rival), Corporations, Capitalism.
The third series (empirical) identify the purpose (utility) Growth (absolute and
uninterrupted), any price increase as: Consumption, Consumerism, Claim (demand), Costs
(unfair charges, externalities), Cartel (trust monopoly prices, escapist relocation, market
manipulation, stock manipulation, handling political decision, aggressive marketing,
unfair competition, industrial espionage, economic assassination), Convenience (interest,
benefit, profit), Comfort (multiplication artificial supply, creating false needs).
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The fourth series (pragmatic) is the reference Corruption as: Cupidity (greed),
Credit (adverse loans costly), Currency (speculative banking course, bank financial
engineering, fraudulent bankruptcy), Crisis (economic, political, cultural, social), Crash
(financial, monetary, fiscal, pecuniary, fraud, insolvency).
Currently the system supports more logical inference operations and
mathematical permutations and combinations. They can be also interpreted ideology,
qualitative interpretation. Obtain a resultant-median input strong power interests.
Minimum is sufficient to explain the technological origins, economic and financial.
Intrinsic logic of the phenomenon called Globalization. Can be identified a “Royal Flush”
of the main areas, which has legitimized the phenomenon called globalization:
technology, telecommunications, trading, transport, tourism. They are vectors of
contemporary civilization.
Law running is defined by seizures growth on development, commensurate with
profit maximization. The phenomenon is ancient, clothed specific historical forms. Only
formal conditions have changed. Can not change the essence of structural capital, it
remained imprinted attribute ongoing process, led by the ownership. Nature of the
property is single, private property best express the unity of the main existential verbs: be,
do and have. Collective ownership is a variant of individual property. No matter the legal
status of capital. Decides matters that benefit from it. In the twentieth century, have
aggravated social division between productive capital (healthy) and speculative capital
(sickly). Relationship between them makes the difference between simple and rapid
accumulation and sustainable development. When the balance is broken completely, is a
general crisis. Hence the role of human factor occurs over operation of market laws.
Political factor has to address macroeconomic relationships.
In the contemporary era, globalization is the reference historical system.
o Present: Expansion of modernism (industrial), the 1789 French Revolution,
the Napoleonic campaigns and grand alliance policy. European colonial
Imperialism (fighting for the richest areas in the world: South Africa,
Southeast Asia and Latin America).
o Expanding areas of economic and ideological influence: Capitalism,
Communism. Wars by proxy procure and export of revolution. (Balkan
Wars, World Wars) and the Bipolar World of the global Superpower, the
USA and USSR).
o Global expansion of Capitalism (market economy, rule of law). First
Globalization happy: the expansion of post-industrial Society (technology,
telecommunications, transport, tourism, real); technological revolution
(automation and robots), the information revolution (digital). End of Cold
War and fall Iron Curtain, the Berlin Wall. (1961-1989)
o Expansion of global economic Growth (second Globalization happy).
Consumer society (crediting; teleshoping, shoping online).
o Expansion of global issues, causes and effects. Market globalization. Society
Knowledge.
o Expansion of the global financial Crisis.
Capitalism as a way of life can not exist without waste. Display of wealth is by
dispelling them, hoarding and cupidity are individual defects. Corruption is inherent in
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human nature. The rest is utopia. Those who approach globalization morally, one becomes
a cultural problem insoluble. Rich and poor are individual concepts.
Contemporary global capitalism has a backbone, called a rule, the vascular
system. His name is Global banking system of market economy. He became, with the
concentration of capital, creating big business's main strategic. And with globalization,
has become a supranational power autonomous.
The key proposed to capture the essence of globalization, also, process,
phenomenon, doctrine and strategy, are relations: historical reasons-political,
liberalization, privatization, centralism/expansion (diffusion), culture/civilization,
capitalism/humanism, and as average terms, human/material resources (energy)
market/productivity.
Political power is central and dominant until now. Overbid, intense affirmation of
core values and enhance the shift other fundamental values (Good, Beauty, Truth, Sacred)
in non-value.
For historical reasons, there is a single reality, the natural or artificial gaps.
Generalization history, globalization, is also an ideological axiom. It substituted practical
political and economic planning of the unequal positions of strength. A strategic game,
played between the centers of power that exists at a time.
Steady state power centers in the world have two levels, one formal and another
informal. Balance political, economic and cultural is relative. There are only a moral
imperative of peace and prosperity. It expressed the New World Order.
Formally is an industrial-economic hierarchy, general. The main indicator is the gross
domestic product (GDP) overall.
Level informal network consists of governmental and nongovernmental
forecasting, planning and innovation and initiative. It is composed of intelligence
supranational groups futurology specialized on areas and global issues. It's world-class
school of thinking, Clubs select and select and political figures who are heavy. Far it is not
a conspiracy theory in question is a political reality, international resultant intersection of
major interest group for a strategic policy.
The competition is really the engine of historical development. In an open world
system, rules are imposed by the unstable balance of power determining factors.
Contemporary world capitalism seems to be a multi-polar. There will always only
physical poles. From time immemorial, the world positioned in the civilized world and
barbaric world, between development and underdevelopment. Produces inequality
between societies, historically phase with a contact form center/periphery relationship
metropolis/colony.
In reality there is no policy or political regime and perfect form of government.
There is only the balance between order and anarchy. Political reality is “a market” where
they sell and buy “political product”, promises and illusions such as truth defends itself,
the good always comes out triumphant, life is only something positive, just you and
become any, or that welfare can multiply indefinitely. Offerings and solutions for the
good of all get a product to market.
International competition defines the status of a regional power supremacy
expansion, which tends to expand undoubtedly domination. In the current juncture secure
global power, whether we like it or not, USA and partners of its choice in various strategic
games of intimidation. It has the potential to change radically at any time during the
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history of mankind, without making use of conventional or unconventional military
arsenal. At least not known until now. It is a commonplace assertion that there are
equations planning non warrior persuasive means of aggression: economic, financial,
psychological and cultural, including organic (ecological threats and terrorist threats).
There is a time when interstate and intergovernmental solidarity effects come
into opposition with sovereignty national state, a relative or even annihilated.
Multinationals have become over nations. They require a new economic-financial and
political, that adversity is a relative, determined by a common interest: maximize profit
sharing as a condition of mutual cooperation.
Differences in cultural and religious values also lead to inevitable conflicts.
Diversity is a source of disorder, the only consensus is probably as equivalent efficiency
and coexistence.
Conclusions
In summary form expansion of the civilized world in modern and contemporary
era are: state Centralization, Imperialism, Internationalization, Mondialism, Globalization,
transnational Centralization.
The main definitions of globalization bring about these terms:
o Globalization is treated as modern imperialism finish. It highlights the
opposition of accumulation, a profit, liberalization of private capital and
national identity based on state sovereignty.
o Globalization state Power is seen opposite: the conflict between
supranational relocation management services escapist power and profits of
multinational corporations (monopolies your card) welfare state and natural
monopolies (public services).
o Globalization is equivalent westernization (global standardization of urban
civilization, post-industrial) and democratization: transplanting hybrid
uniform standards, the expansion space (the free movement of goods, people
and ideas globally) based on the explosion of trade flows financial and
human. Corollary is included the overbid of liberties and individual and
group rights of minorities (multiculturalism and cultural and administrative
autonomy)
o Globalization is billed as Americanization, invasion hegemonic American
way of life and liberal values: privatization, free market, prosperity (boom),
human rights (individual), terrorist threats successful man, world peace,
protection of ecosystems, terrorist threats. This is illustrated by the
Washington Consensus, which neo liberal doctrine assumes contemporary
Anglo-Saxon cosmopolitanism, based on the decentralized State minimum,
joint sovereignty (shared) open liberalization through privatization,
liberalization of markets (goods, capital work) liberal democracy (the rule of
law).
The paradox is that our time and increasing concentration of capital guarantee
sustainable development. Societal inequality in the North / South remains constant, the
principle of communicating vessels In the back is fundamental conflict of the private
nature of capital and work socialization. Progress of society is antagonistic. History is
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inequitable. This is the reason her ruse (devilry). Briefly, the other face of poverty is
wealth. As rich people there must be other poor.
References (General Bibliography)
Stiglitz, Joseph, (2002). Globalization and Its Discontents, W.W. Norton & Company.
Levitt ,Theodore, (1983).The Globalization of Markets in The Marketing Imagination, New York, Free Press.
Robertson, Roland, (1992): Globalization, Social Theory and Global Culture, London, Sage Publications (CA).
Tomlinson, John, (1999).Globalization and Culture, Chicago, Chicago Press University.
Huntington, Samuel, Phillips (1996). The Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order, New York,
Simon & Schuster.
Fukuyama, Francis (1992). The End of History and the Last Man, Penguin.
Sassen, Saskia. (2009).La globalization. Une sociologie, Gallimard.
Radu, Florian (1980). Procese Sociale Contemporane, Bucureşti, Ed. Politică.
Friedman Thomas, L. (1999). The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization, New York, Random
House.
Gilpin, Robert, (2001).Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order, Princeton
University Press.
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Geothermal Power Units
Bărdescu Ioana, Legendi Amelittab
a,b
Technical Universiy of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
Abstract
The paper focuses mainly the technologies and equipment producing both
electric energy and thermal and electric energy simultaneously. The main technological
components are defined along with some optimal parameters values. The simple and clear
schematic diagrams of the geothermal power units enable the possibility of easy
understanding for those who are not specialist in the field.
Keywords: geothermal electric energy, deep drilling, geyser, binary and steam
power units.
Introduction
The reclaimable energy coming from inside Earth is analyzed, energy
structured in two categories:
The geothermal energy usually localized near Earth surface, which is providing
thermal energy –worm water; for example, sources of geothermal springs;
The geothermic energy, producing electricity, is coming from the Crust of the
Earth as hot water, steam and magma located about 5 km depth, having temperatures
around 120-240°C or even about 7 km having temperatures around 300°C.
The geothermic energy production principle is based on the fact hat the water and
steam temperature is continuously increasing as the catcher depth inside the Earth is
increasing.
The exploration of resources inside Earth is accomplished by drilling and
extraction technology using geothermic wells and technological equipment placed and
employed at the ground level.
It is necessary here to mention the fact that the deepest drilling was realized in
Russia and this depth value was 12 km. [2]
The high geothermic energy, above 200°C, laying in the Earth crust, is used in
producing electric energy coming out from steam, hot water or even magma.
Italy was the first country in the world that valued the thermic energy in order to
produce electric current and now it is in a real competition with the USA.
In the Earth crust there are some huge geothermic resources, but their distribution
is unequal; among these resources a small part is used.
This green energy has to be more exploited as a real tool against pollution and
in a view to assure the energetic independence.
Legendi Amelitta & Bărdescu Ioan / Procedia – Edu World 2010
Romania is situated on the third place among the European countries from the
unborrowed resources of geothermal and geothermic energy point of view. In a view to
extend and to use to advantage these resources the Romanian Association for Exchange
Information in the Geothermic Field was created: The Romanian Society Geo
Exchange). [1]
Geothermic power units structure
The geothermic energy weight
The main resources in producing primary electric energy are presented and
evaluated in table 1.
Table 1. The sources in producing electric energy ranking method
Place
I
II
III
IV
V
Energy resource
Fossil combustibles
Hydroelectric
Nuclear
Geothermic
Regenerable (others than the hydraulic one)
Component
Coal, Natural gas, Black oil
Solar, Aeolian, Biogas, Biocombustibles aso.
The Geothermic Energy is on the fourth place nowadays, but its real tendency
in the future is the emphatically increasing so that it would reach the nuclear energy level;
in the same time the energy resulted from fossil combustibles must drastically decrease.
The geothermic energy carriers
The geothermic electric energy could be obtained from hot water or steam; these
two components can come out from Earth, from the natural heat carriers, or could be
obtained by provocation (Fig. 1).
Natural
carriers
heat
Hot water 120-180°C
Steam 200-300°C
Hot rock systems of
beds
200-300°C
Cold water injection: production of electric energy
Cold water injection + water reinjection coming from
the steam turbine and then cooled: production of
electric + thermic energy
Figure 1. Natural and induced heat carriers
The binary geothermic power units
In 1904, Lorderello – Italy, Ginori Conti was the first geothermic electric energy
producer.
In 1921 - USA, were built centrals having capacities smaller than 250 kW,
equivalent to a generator set: a heat engine and a high capacity electric current generator.
In 1960 - California, USA, a central having a 11 MW capacity was built.
Between 1987 and 1989 the biggest geothermal central, having a 750 MW
capacity was built in USA, the main sources being hot water and the steam from a geyser.
Italy and USA are two historical producers that guard even now a huge
important role in the geothermic electric energy production.
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Other geothermal electric energy producers are the following countries:
Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico, Island and New Zeeland.
The binary geothermic electric power unit building (CEGt /B)
This power unit uses hot water at low temperatures, among 120-180°C. The hot
water delivers its thermic energy to a secondary fluid (work agent) having a low boiling
temperature; this is some inferior hydrocarbon such as isobutene or isoprene, using a heat
changer. The isobutene, for example, is an isomer of butane, an colorless gas, used in a
liquid state.
The secondary fluid vaporizes (becomes a gas) and drives the steam turbine.
After that it is condensing in liquid state in a head tank.
The gas turbine is driving the electric generator that is sending the electric energy
in the high-tension network using a tension riser transformer (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Geothermic electric power unit- BINARY type (hot water + work agent)
1- production well (pipe); 2 - heat changer; 3 - internal circuit pipe for the working agent; 4 - gas turbine secondary fluid; 5 - drilling-cooled water injection; 6 - electric generator; 7 - tension riser transformer (0,4 ↑ 20
kW); 8 - high tension electric network (20 kW); A - sedimentary rock; B - hot water thermic zone.
Within the electric changer, the hot water delivers the heat to the working fluid
that evaporates and drives the gas turbine being in gas state.
It is to mention that the hot water doesn’t come in direct contact with the gas
turbine.
No emissions are taking place because the binary electric power unit is based on
some internal circuit.
The so produced electricity has a very low cost: 5…8 cents an kW/hour.
The geothermic electric power units the binary type are more used than those
based the steam.
The steam geothermic electric power units (CEGt /A)
The hot steam at 200-300°C, used by geothermic power units in producing
electricity, can be produced:
o By a direct source being between two states.
o Steam released from geysers
o Steam produced in dry hot rocks
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o By an indirect source unpressurising and vaporizing he hot water.
The geothermic power units using steam are conceived in two different
constructive ways:
Monovalent geothermic power units which provide only electric energy from
natural or induced steam;
Bivalent geothermic power units which provide simultaneously both electric and
thermic energy.
Geothermic electric power unit based on steam induced in hot dry rock
The steam is induced through cold water surface injection in the underground
hot dry rock; the cold water is warming up and is turning into steam coming at the
surface from underground and used by the steam turbines that are driving the electric
current generators. The steam kinetic energy is so tuning into mechanic rotary energy
that produces electric energy. The water resulted after the condensation process and
coming out from the steam turbine is cooled and injected again in the ground. This cycle
repeats again (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Geothermic electric power unit (CEGt /A) based on induced steam
1 - cold water injection pump; 2 - cold water drilling pipe; 3 - heat exchange surface; 4 -crashes in dry hot rock;
5 - drilling pipe for steam transport up to the ground surface; 6 -heat exchanger-accumulator; 7 -steam turbine; 8
- electric generator; 9 - tension transformer-riser; 10 - high tension electric network; 11 - condenser of water
coming from the turbine; 12 - pump of condensed water cooled and reinjected in the ground; A - sedimentary
and eruptive rocks; B - dry hot rock (granite); C - source of thermic zone about 300°C.
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The cold water under pressure is inserted in the hot rock through the injection
drilling; due to the hydraulic cracking process a huge cracking surface results which acts
later such as heat exchanger. The reinjected cold water takes over the heat of the rock
and is pushed out to the ground surface through the second drilling, named backwater
drilling, in the shape of steam or hot water sometimes.
The cracking surface crashes have low thickness about some millimeters.
A rock having a 250-300 m diameter has a cracking surface about 50.00070.000 m2 which can transmit electric or thermic energy about 10-20 MW. In this
situation the hot rock thermic zone is about 7 km deep and has a temperature about 300°C.
The geothermic electric power unit based on steam producing simultaneously
electric and thermic energy
This type of geothermic power unit has a production well that cracks mainly
steam, but hot water too.
The thermic agent is extracted first by a steam and water separator; so, two
circuits are realized:
o a circuit of steam pipe, situated at the separator superior part, goes to a heat
exchanger and after that passes into the steam turbine producing electric
energy;
o The second waste-condensed water circuit, situated at the separator inferior
part, provides simultaneously thermic and electric energy (Fig. 4)
Figure 4. Geothermic electric power unit based on steam and producing simultaneously
electric and thermic energy
1 - induced steam production well; 2 - steam-waste condensed water separator; 3 - steam; 4 - waste condensed
water; 4’ - thermic energy supplying pipe to the customer; 5 - heat exchanger-accumulator; 6 - steam turbine; 7 electric generator; 8 - tension riser transformer; 9 - high tension electric network; 10 - waste steam condenser
coming from the turbine; 11 - condenser; 12 - cooling water; 13 - cooling air; 14 - steam; 15 - cooling equipment
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(tower system) of the water injection in rock; 16 - cooled water well injected again in the rock; A - sedimentary
and eruptive rocks; B - dry hot rock (granite).
The condensed water resulted from the steam turbine is cooled in a technological
equipment cooling tower system and injected again in the rock; the cycle is repeating.
Conclusions
The geothermic electric energy is regenerable;
During the technological process there no relevant toxically emissions;
In the binary power units there are not any kind of emissions;
In the bivalent power units bivalent the signs of carbon dioxide, azoth dioxide
and sulphure that appears are 50 times less than in the factories that are using fossil
combustibles;
The energy produced in the geothermic power units is cheap, about 4…8 cents a
kW/h;
The geothermic energy production has the tendency to reach the nuclear energy
level.
Selective bibliography
[1] Bărdescu, I. (2009). Energie geotermică. Pompe de căldură. Lucrare Comunicare Ştiinţifică, SINUC-2009,
UTCB.
[2] Bratu, P., Bărdescu, I. (2009). Cutremure de pământ. Elemente de structurare şiu terminologie. Monitorul
AROTEM, nr. 23/ 2009, pg. 14-21, ISSN 1582-0335, septembrie 2009
[3] * * * htt://www.dani2989.com/matiere1/geothermal0109.ro.htm.
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Learning About Reusing and Recycling Objects through
Informatics Products
Isabelle Mihaela Alexea, Steliana Tomab
a
School No. 198, Bucharest
b
The Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
Abstract
This paper presents the projecting and realization of an educational material
about the importance of reusing and recycling objects. Reusing objects increases creativity
and pupils are asked to propose tips for reusing objects. The material contains original
photos of toys and other objects created by pupils through reusing things and some tests
for evaluation of the pupil’s acquired knowledge which permit self-evaluation.
Keywords: recycling; reusing; active learning; educational resource; ecological
behavior;
Introduction
This educational material is mend to convince pupils of the benefits of reusing
and recycling: saving a lot of energy, reducing pollution (reducing greenhouse gas
emission), saving natural resources (the materials on Earth will not last for a lifetime, it is
thus important to save them), creating employment opportunities for a lot of people,
contributes to the economic development of the state. The computer is the most circulated
hobby in spending children’s time and it’s the teacher’s duty to transform it as a useful
teaching tool. [5, 1994] It helps pupils to increase computer skills and the perception of
the computer as an instrument of working, involving pupils in a creative way in studying.
The interactivity of the programs captures the pupil’s attention and reduces the time for
study. The active learning is emphasized. The evaluation through computers is objective
and the quiz permits an immediate feedback.
Projecting and realizing the Informatics Products
1. Projecting the educational resources
The web site was projected as a didactic material for Science, Biology and
Technological Education classes. It can also be use as a resource for Informatics.
1.1 The objectives
The objectives of the web site are :
o Raising the pupil’s awareness about the importance of recycling and reusing
objects.
o Creating an ecological behavior in pupils
Isabelle Mihaela Alexe ,Steliana Toma / Procedia – Edu World 2010
1.2 The content
The content of the material is about recyclable materials, the time of degradation
of different materials, the benefits of recycling and reusing objects. It also presents some
images of toys and objects made from plastic recipients. The pieces of information
presented in separated pages are accessible, scientifically correct.
The images are original drawings realized by pupils. There is also a photo
montage presenting the realisation of a product from plastic recipients and paper. The
content of the quiz corresponds to the presented information. Pupils are allowed to read
and explore the content individually, in their own rhythm, reducing the time for studying.
1.3 The colours
The background is dark blue which sugggests “stability, confidence”. The text is
white which represents “peace, innocence” and text for the quiz is yellow, signifying
“optimism and hope”. [1, 2003]
There is a great contrast between the background and the text in order to easily
see the content.
Figure 1. Page of the educational resource, explaining the concept of recycling
1.4 The interactivity
The navigation is easy and logical. The buttons are thumbnails of the pictures.
The interactivity is realized through the buttons which lead to another page. The quiz
contains drag and drop and hot object interaction, check and reset buttons. The graphic
interface is user-friendly designed. All the graphic elements of interactivity have a stable
place on the screen, ensuring a quick and easy access to the entire content of the site. The
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graphic interface has a flexible structure and can be easily adjusted according to
educational processes. [2, 2006]
2. Realising the educational material
The educational material is realized in Macromedia Flash 8, as a slide show. It
contains 8 layers: Logo, Title 1, Title, Separator, Buttons, Images, Text and Actions.
ActionScript was used to give interactivity to the buttons.
The source code is: stop();
Button01.onRelease=function(){gotoAndStop(1); }
The images and the thumbnails are edited in Irfanview, a soft that is available as
freeware on www.irfanview.com.
Figure 2. Object realized by pupils from plastic recipients and paper
Figure 3. Page of the educational resource, about reducing fuel consumption
234
The title has a Drop Shadow filter to emphasize the text. The separator uses the
degrades from light blue to dark blue and again to light blue, in order to give a 3D effect.
[3, 2007]
The photomontage is realized in Movie Maker. It contains pictures from the
activities with the pupils.
The quiz is realized in Macromedia Flash 8. It is presented in an attractive way,
with animation, in order to maintain the pupil’s interest. The navigation through the quiz
is simple; the button which permits to pass to the next page is in the same location on all
pages. The quiz contains drag and drop, fill in the blank, hot objects, multiple choices and
true or false items. It provides clear directions at the beginning and every time the type of
question changes. [4, 2008] The chosen colours are bright, corresponding to the pupils’
preferences. There is a check answer button and the feedback is immediate. Only after the
check button is pressed, the button which allows passing to the next page become active
and thus pupils verify every single answer they provide. The number of the current page is
shown, and also the total number of pages. Only one try is allowed for answering.
In the drag and drop interaction, pupils are asked to match some objects to their
time of degradation. The images are clear and have vivid colours.
Figure 4. Page of the quiz, drag and drop item
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The fill in the blank item asks pupils to type a word in the appropriate place for
answer. The multiple choice item has more correct variants. The Hot object item asks
pupils to chose which object isn’t recyclable. If the answer is correct, the image turns red.
The final score is presented in percentage with the number of the incorrect/correct
answers.
Figure 4. Page of the quiz, hot object item
Conclusions
This paper presents the projecting and realizing of an original web site about
recycling and reusing objects.
The site represents an educational resource useful for classes of Educational
Technology, Biology and Informatics.
It emphasizes active learning and captures the attention of the pupils through its
interactivity.
It points to present to the pupils what interesting things they can do with the
computer, how they can use and expand their creative abilities, their imagination and
competitive spirit.
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This kind of teaching has the advantage of transmitting the information through
audio-visual channels, through an accessible and pleasant content, determining a positive
impact and long lasting effects compared to traditional teaching.
The purpose of the site is to raise the pupils’ awareness about the importance of
recycling and reusing objects, as well as promoting an ecological behavior in pupils.
The design maximizes the easiness of navigation and accessibility of the site
content.
The graphic interface has a flexible structure and can be adjustable according to
the educational processes.
The photomontage presents the realization of a toy from plastic recipients and
paper.
The quiz permits self-evaluation and its animation makes it interesting to pupils.
The main advantage of this kind of educational resource is that can be
permanently improved.
References
[1] Acu, Călin Ioan (2003), Optimizarea paginilor web, Iassy: Polirom Publishing, p123-128
[2] Brut, Mihaela (2006), Instrumente pentru e-learning-Ghidul informatic al profesorului modern, Bucharest:
Polirom Publishing
[3] Green, Tom, Chilcott, Jordan (2007), Macromedia Flash Professional 8: pregătire direct de la sursă,
Bucharest: Bic All Publishing
[4] Stanford University. (2007). Teaching at Stanford. Retrieved on August 8, 2008 from:
http://ctl.stanford.edu/handbook.pdf
[5] Toma, Steliana (1994), Comportamentul decizional-strategic al profesorului în condiţiile utilizării
calculatorului în lecţie, in Profesorul-factorul de decizie, Bucharest: Technical Publishing
237
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Modern Approaches in Managers' Technological Education
Leonica Popescua, Alina-Irina Popescub
a
Romanian-American University
b
Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest
Abstract
Managers have always played and will always play an important and critical role
in the evolution and the development of the society as a whole and of all its fields, but
especially on the social, economic, technological, scientific, educational and political
environments.
Managers are the ones that initiate and develop a vast network of partnerships
and collaboration relationships on multiple levels, such as at activity, organizations and
state levels, at national and international levels, and within the private and the public
sectors. Also, managers are those to assure in hierarchical structures top-down decision
systems for general and specific decisions that are based on and supported by the bottomup feedback on requirements and problems to be solved.
The great diversity of the activity domains managers act within, the complexity
of the objectives and activities they perform, as well as the elements characteristic to the
management processes demonstrate the need for new and modern approaches in the topic of
managers’ technological education.
The current paper contains part of the results of our researches regarding the
increase in the role and importance of the technological education for broadening
managers’ horizons of knowledge and action, and of the acquirement of new skills and
abilities to adopt effective decisions, together with new methods and management
practices.
Keywords: managers, technological education, scientific research, innovation,
competitiveness
1. Managers' Professional Development and their Technological
Education
Over the past decade, education reform and managers' training projects have
spent a great deal of effort to create and support sustainable, scalable online communities
of education professionals. For the most part, those communities have been created in
isolation from the existing local professional communities within which the teachers
practice. We argue that focusing on online technology solely as a mechanism to deliver
training.
Leonica Popescu , Alina-Irina Popescu/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
In this paper we seek guideposts to help education technologists understand the
nature of local education communities and of practice specifically their reciprocal
relationship with managers' professional development and instructional improvement
interventions, as a prerequisite to designing online socio-technical infrastructure that
supports the professional growth of the managers' technological education.
2. Advanced Learning Technologies
Romanian higher education institutions are seeking for improvement of academic
studies and management structures. The process proceeds intensively through
development of university information systems using web-based interfaces for databases,
as a strategic tool for information, management and planning services. The paper focuses
on an open study administration system implementing principles of flexibility,
transparency, study data sharing and distribution across the intranet and internet facilities
promoted by the modern training programmes. They must be also in accordance with the
European policies.
The European Commission asks to the social, technological and educational
sciences to contribute to solve the grand problems of our time: an eco-efficient society;
global warming; security; ageing societies; public health; pandemics; and dwindling
supplies of energy, food and water. Even physical scientists and engineers have been
persuaded by the evidence of climate change that if human behaviour has caused the
problem, then understanding and changing it needs to be part of the solution.
3. The importance of the research and innovation in the managers'
activities
Managers must know that the research and innovation are crucial to develop an
EU model based on economic growth, social responsibility and sustainable development.
Research and innovation also offer solutions to overcome unsustainable use of resources
(including energy consumption), to address climate change, and to deal with the
challenges of demographic change.
Also, managers must know that it is necessary to raise productivity, increase
employment rates and shift to higher value-added economic activities. Workers need
higher-level skills and the capacity to adapt to change. Investing in human capital is
therefore of crucial importance in order to increase research and innovation efforts.
In an open global economy, competitiveness lies in the capacity of businesses to
create high value-added goods and services. A move towards innovation-based growth is
therefore at the heart of the renewed Lisbon agenda (continued by Europa 2020) which
forms the EU response to globalisation.
The formation of regional clusters is often the key to the successful promotion of
research, technological development and innovation. Innovation is most effectively
addressed at regional level, as physical proximity fosters the partnerships between actors
in both public and private sectors.
239
4. The common or complementary policy priorities of the
Community's Research, Innovation and Cohesion Policies in the Lisbon
Strategy context and Europa 2020:
• To build a European Research Area (ERA) by contributing to increased R&D
capacity by promoting European excellence, and by reducing structural disparities;
• To improve performance in R&D and innovation, therefore contributing to
economic growth and job creation, by stimulating a healthy economic environment,
facilitating access to risk capital, underpinning the development of innovating clusters,
enhancing human capital, supporting technology transfer activities especially from
universities and research centres to SMEs and between SMEs, and helping public R&D
and knowledge institutions to connect with the local business community, for example
through networking activities;
• To strengthen competitiveness of European businesses and regions, in
particular by fostering entrepreneurship and supporting SMES, including through a
business support network;
• To strengthen the economic and social cohesion of the enlarged European
Union in order to promote the harmonious, balanced and sustainable development of the
Community;
• To promote national, regional and interregional innovation strategies;
• To promote innovation and innovative clusters.
5. European Policies, Instruments and Funding Options
Present-day managers must be aware about the efforts of the European
Commission to promote the knowledge economy, in particular through research,
technological development and innovation. Also, in order to create “more growth and
more and better jobs” at the European level is opened a “Partnership for Growth and Jobs”
programme.
To put in practice and to develop it, at the Community level, three key support
policies are used, and their synergies: Cohesion policy; the Research Framework
Programme; the Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Programme. In order
to increase the effectiveness of the three support policies, their synergies are developed
through the synergies of action by national and regional authorities as well as regional
actors.
The European Commission, in drawing up its policies for the period 2007-2013,
has examined how the three Community policies can best complement one another and
how bridges can be built between the five – but in total seven - relevant instruments,
i.e.
o the 7th RTD Framework programme (FP7), used for: Training Activities
(FP7); Research, Technological Development and Demonstration activities;
the 7th Euratom Framework Programme for Nuclear Research;
o the Framework programme on Competitiveness and Innovation (CIP)
o he three instruments of Cohesion Policy: (the Structural Funds (SF);
European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and European Social Fund
(ESF)2),
240
the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) as
the support for innovative investments in agriculture, forestry, food industry
in rural areas,
o the European Fisheries Fund (EFF) - in the field of fisheries.
The Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Programme also uses calls for
proposals at European level for the ICT and Intelligent Energy components, while the
other financial instruments work with a permanent open call for expression of interest that
will be considered by the European Investment Fund (EIF) and the Commission.
Cohesion policy programmes are implemented on the basis of shared
management between the EU and the Member States in a system of multi-level
governance. In the evaluation of proposals the Commission is assisted by independent
experts and the proposals are selected on the basis of excellence.
These instruments offer a greater potential for funding and cover the same timehorizon (2007-2013) with the three key support policies horizon.
The need for increased synergies between Research, Competitiveness and
Regional policies was repeated during recent meetings of the Competitiveness Council. A
number of advisory groups and other actors have also addressed these issues and called
for improved cooperation and coordination at national level between the different players.
Some important proposals for effective synergies in key areas are:
o strengthening and developing RTDI capacity, developing excellence, paying
due attention to SME dimension, building co-operation at European and
international level and strengthening the economic exploitation of R&D
results.
o to develop a better communication and collaboration between the national
and regional actors involved in delivering the high education, the training
programmes, the participation at the FP, the CIP and the Cohesion Policy
and the need for improved information for beneficiaries.
The EU has complementary policies in place to support research, innovation and
entrepreneurship in Europe's regions and Member States. Providing the basis of excellent
research and innovation in Europe is the precondition for maintaining the EU model of
sustainable development. Cohesion policy can help all regions to build up research and
innovation capacity, to stimulate and support innovations in the social area, and to
exchange good practice through trans-national and inter-regional co-operation. Once
regional actors have reached a sufficient level of capacity to compete successfully in
European framework programmes, the RTD FP and CIP “develop” this capacity further
by continuing the exchange of good practices, stimulating a multi-national approach and
connecting players together in concrete problem solving initiatives. In turn, the Structural
Funds might support needs previously identified under RTDI FP and CIP instruments.
o
6. Sources of advice to participate at the European programmes and
to access the funds
There are many opportunities available at EU level that can help the managers to
implement their plans. The objectives of the guides are to explain how to get to relevant
information on funding opportunities and make the best use of the possibilities offered by
individual instruments or their combination.
241
a) Practical Guides
Managers can access Practical Guides which where conceived and published on
internet, in order to help the potential beneficiaries, especially managers of public and
private institutions and organizations, of the funding programmes to find their way
through the funding instruments and to identify the most appropriate funding scheme for
them. Any practical guide provides a concise description of its funding sources, and
explains how they can in practice be combined and provides policy makers with advice on
setting up mechanisms at the national and regional levels to foster co-ordinated access to
them. For example, they must know that it is not possible to combine funding from two
different Community sources for the same set of eligible costs (Council Regulation (EC)
No 1083/2006, Article 54(5)) but it is possible to use Structural Funds, the EAFRD and
other EU funds for different aspects or phases of the same programme.
b) Websites
Before seeking advice, managers may find it useful to have a look at the main
communication tools of the three programmes: their specific websites. They can get an
overview of the different activities funded, examples of projects, etc.
c) Information centres
Managers can often get advice in information centres. There are two big
networks of centres providing information in many languages that can be found on the
whole territory of the European Union and beyond: (a) the Enterprise Europe Network and
(b) the National Contact Points. In addition, the Managing Authorities of the Structural
Funds can advise on questions related to Cohesion Policy funding.
o To identify the innovation potential and business needs of a company and for
advice on how to develop project ideas, the Enterprise Europe Network may
help the interested persons. The Network centres are able to review the
technology and business status, identify needs and explore technology
transfer opportunities. They can also provide personalized advice and
information to help apply for EU research funding, exploit technology
opportunities or find business partners.
o The National Contact Points (NCPs) are national structures established and
financed by governments of the 27 EU Member States and the states
associated to FP7 and the CIP. In the case of the CIP, the NCPs deal only
with the Intelligent Energy in Europe (IEE) and Information and
Communication Technologies - Policy Support Programme (ICT-PSP)
actions.
The NCP systems in the various countries have different structures, from highly
centralised to decentralised networks, and a number of very different actors, from
ministries to universities, research centres, specialist agencies and private consulting
companies. The NCPs provide personalised support, guidance, practical information and
assistance on all aspects of participation in those programmes. This includes advice on
technical and administrative questions concerning the calls for proposals, partner search,
national priorities, and matching national co-financing possibilities, where applicable.
d) Managing Authorities of the Cohesion Policy at the national and regional
levels.
They can help everyone with questions related to the funding opportunities and
procedures under the Structural Fund programme in their area.
242
7. The Role of the Enterprise Europe Network in the Managers’
Technological Education
The Enterprise Europe Network was launched with the aim of helping the
managers of the SMEs to go international, innovate and access European funding and
finance. “All these objectives supporting the growth of European SMEs took on added
significance and posed several new challenges amidst the current economic recovery,”
says Antonio Tajani, Vice-President of the European Commission in charge of Industry
and Entrepreneurship.
The Enterprise Europe Network helps small business to make the most of the
European marketplace. Working through local business organisations, it can help the
managers for develop their business in new markets, source or license new technologies,
access EU finance and EU funding .
The Network contains 572 member organisations across the EU and beyond.
They include chambers of commerce and industry, technology centres, universities,
development agencies and the national points (Table no.1).
In order to expand their business to another country, the managers need
competent and trustworthy partners. The Enterprise Europe Network helps to find them.
The Network has a business database which contains thousands of company profiles and
can meet potential business partners in person at the matchmaking events organised. With
hundreds of new company profiles added every week, the business cooperation database is
one of the largest in the world. When we get in touch with the Network, the network
enters a cooperation offer or request into the database. We will then receive updates on
companies interested in the same kind of cross-border business as ours.
List of network branches in Bucharest:
Table no.1
The Romanian Agency for Regional Development Bucharest-Ilfov
www.adrbi.ro
The Romanian Association of Electronics and Software Industries
www.aries.ro
The Romanian Commercial Bank
www.bcr.ro
The Foundation “Romanian Centre for SMEs”
www.imm.ro
National Institute for Research & Development for Electrical Engineering – Sfantu Gheorghe
Technological Business Incubator, ICPE-CA Subsidiary
www.icpe-ca.ro
SC Inpulse Partners SRL
www.inpulse.ro
The “Polytechnic” University of Bucharest
www.pub.ro
Meet potential business partners: Matchmaking events across Europe are
organized, occasions with which managers can meet potential business partners in person.
Matchmaking events often take place at international fairs, which helps keep travel and
accommodation costs down.
The technology market allows managers to buy or sell any technology through
the Enterprise Europe Network and to browse more than 13,000 technology profiles from
45 countries.
Some of the Latest Technology Profiles offers of Romania.
243
Table no.2
2010/09/15
2010/09/13
2010/08/19
2010/08/16
Engine propulsion for boats and vehicles
Low wind turbine provided with power magnetoresistive generator
Thermal gatter
Photoelectric Pyrometer
Romania
Romania
Romania
Romania
Offer
Offer
Offer
Offer
Technology transfer
If the managers need a certain technology or innovation to complete their
business or a business application for your technology, the Network can help them. Using
Europe’s largest database of cutting-edge technologies, containing more than 13,000
profiles, the Network brings together research and commercial applications. The database
is updated with new profiles on a weekly basis.
In conclusion, managers have at they disposal a wide variety of tools to improve
their technological skills and the technologization degree of the companies they run. The
digital economy require them to be continuous up-to-day to the latest developments in the
technology area, as technology and innovation are seen as main drivers to increase the
competitiveness of companies, business sectors, national economies and the European
Union as a whole.
References
Baregheh A, Rowley J. and Sambrook S.(2009). Towards a multidisciplinary definition of innovation,
Management decision, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 1323–1339.
Lynch, R. (2003). Corporate Strategy, 3rd Edition, 187-191, London, UK.
Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors?, The Free
Press New York, USA.
http://www.enterprise-europe-network.ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm
http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26&storycode=411203&c=1
http://www.enterprise-europe-network.ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm
http://cordis.europa.eu/eu-funding-guide/mind-map_en.html
http://www.mendeley.com/research/dynamic-capabilities-and-strategic-management/
http://www.manager.ro/index.php?pag=a&aid=446
http://us.mc1107.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1283456831&.rand=0f6l61i1qr378
244
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Researches Regarding Corrosion Protection with Thermal
Spraying Arc Process Using Two Dissimilar Wires
Lica BRATEAN
University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Abstract
This work presents a part of a research for thermal spraying arc process with 2
wire different chemical composition, whose coating is estimated to be a hybrid deposion.
Aluminium or zinc coatings are capable of providing effective long term corrosion
protection to steel in a wide range of land and marine environments. That deposion with
aluminium and zinc combines the qualities of sprayed materials The coating obtained
consists of a pseudo alloy structure when two dissimilar wires were sprayed
simultaneously. In the first part there are presented the directions for applications ,
research and some results regarding these hybrid deposions. In the second part there are
offer some ideas for applications to Technological Education classes which can be used in
technological profile highschools, like: restoration of shafts using wire arc thermal
spraying or reabilitation of Baneasa bridge, the wire arc thermal spraying process and
technology used for coating the arias (foots, straps, joints) which came in contact with
demontabil joints with high resistance screws.
Keywords: pseudoaloy, metallization, corrosion protection
1. Introduction
Advanced technology and materials development in the area metallization
resulted in various and numerous applications in the production of special equipment in
areas like aerospace, mining, shipping, oilfields, automotive, electronics.
Existing industrial facilities make great savings by using metallization on repair
and maintenance (interior or exterior structures covering parts of equipment)
When encountered: corrosion, wear, or both should be considered metallization,
if less high resistance to shock and corrosion in aggressive environment.
Arc spraying is considered by some authors the most productive process of
thermal spray
Arc Spraying deposition shows significant technical benefits, economic, and
other processes before production [1] such as:
- 100% metal coverage which gives excellent conductivity and attenuation
- Coating not deteriorate in the works and life is considered unlimited
- The process is low temperature. so there are no distortions
- Deposits are dry, can be handled and used immediately after processing
- Allow starting or stopping the process immediately.
Bratean Lica/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
- Not expensive
- Can become competent operators with minimal training
- Allows reconstruction of parts used car
- Avoid consumption of training time for new, shorter idle times
- Nedeformare workpiece
- May be associated with interesting materials (aluminum, steel) so we selected
function independent of material covering basic materials increase life with high wear and
can get different thicknesses - It is possible to spray a wide range of metals, alloys or
metal matrix composite wire form.
2. Metallization process
Arc metallization process if conducted properly is called a "cold process" relating
to material support as it can maintain low substrate temperature during the process
avoiding damage, metallurgical changes and distortion of it.In Figure 1 is shown a section
through an electric arc metallizing gun. [ 2 ]
Figure 1. Section through an electric arc metallizing gun.
Arc spraying uses an arc between two continuously fed wire installation. They
are kept isolated from each other and automatically advanced to meet at a point inside an
atomized gas stream. A potential difference of 18 to 40V that is applied over the wires
when they initiate an arc approaching the tip of both wires melting.
A spray gas, compressed air is directed across the arc spray component retezând
sprayed molten droplets. Gas velocity through the spray nozzle may be a rule of 4.0 to 5.5
m / s to control the desired characteristics of the deposit.
Molten metal particles are thrown from the bow with a speed of several thousand
particles per secunda.Temperatura of spring than the melting point of metal spray. During
the cycle of melting metal is overheated to a point where volatilization can occur
(especially aluminum and zinc). High temperatures of the particle interactions produce
metal or diffusion or both areas after the impact with the material. These local reactions
forming areas (spots) welded with good cohesive and adhesive strength. (Adherence of
20-40 MPa) coatings therefore develop an area with very good resistance. Coating
thickness varies between 0.2 and 3mm.Porozitatea is 2-5%.
246
Factors controlling the speed of application are: the value of current source
permisibilitatea power and wire speed available to carry power.
DC consistently between 100 and 500 A, a wire is the anode, the other the
cathode. Cathode wire tip is heated to a temperature higher than the anode wire and
melted with a higher speed. So the cathode atomised particles are much smaller than the
anode when the two wires have the same diameter
Producing power source voltage 18-40 V allows operation for a wide range of
metals and alloys. Strait arc and sprayed particolei size increases with increasing voltage.
Blood must be kept at the lowest level possible, with a good arc stability to allow very
small drops and large coverage density
3 Researches
3.1 When encountered: corrosion, wear, or both should be considered
metallization, if less high resistance to shock and corrosion in aggressive environment.
When two different wires are metallized simultaneously in a system of metal in the arch, a
structure formed pseudoaliaj coverage.
Research done abroad in this field are present in "Performance of 'hybrid' in
MarineEnvironment Coatings [3]
The authors focused research pseudoaliajului Al / Zn metallization obtained by
the spring for corrosion protection in marine environment.
In its final findings have shown that coating performance pseudoaliaj 55 Al/45
Zn are much better than the cover 85 Zn/15 prealiajul pure metal Al or Zn 99.95
In article, “The zinc thing” [4] the authors contend with arguments that
pseudoaliajele Zn / Al are more economical and helps to achieve corrosion protection
coatings for steel structures. Zinc metallization enables easy and has a better adhesion to
steel substrate. Aluminum coatings have good mechanical properties and good resistance
to abrasion in corrosive environment. These coatings provide a clean and economical
protection of steel structures against corrosion and are capable of producing an effective
long-term corrosion protection in a wide range of marine and terrestrial environments.
Such coatings, when properly sealed and painted, have the potential to significantly
reduce maintenance needs of a wide range of applications They also provide corrosion
protection with no need for periodic verification between 20 - 40 years spraying in spring
used as part of the process itself is a cold process that eliminates the risk of substrate
distortion
As a conclusion it can be argued that the research base is oriented in a very broad
and yet uncovered
Election process of metal wire with different chemical composition is dictated by
the actual situations faced by media professionals in terms of becoming more aggressive,
requiring maintenance action.
The process can be defined as the process of creating a zinc-aluminum
pseudoaliaj Studied in an experimental phase torque allows the corrosion materials: Al
and Zn.
The paper presents some research on the structure and characteristics
metallization layer deposited by wire arc two different chemical composition.
247
If the deposit resistant pseudoaliajelor is important to recognize that no alloying
occurs during spraying. Each wire produces discrete particles and coverage will be a
composite material containing approximately equal volumes of each composition
We have analyzed aspects of the modification of metal parameters: current,
voltage, varying the distance shooting.. Aim of the proposed tests metallographic samples,
the corrosion potential measurements.
3.2 . Achievement tests and determinations [7]
Samples subject of this study were performed inside a factory hall
simultaneously with the execution of works boats aluminizare of substrates, which are
maintained in sea water to support ships when repair in Norway.
Due to the corrosive environment stands are protected by aluminum
metallization.
Samples were performed by certified welders European sub-engineer
Prepare surface by sanding was done with the shot type GP rough on equipment
Strahl Techniek HRC 45-52, within the same institution.
Metallization was performed on samples investigated OL37 steel sheet 2 mm
thick with dimensions of 100x 200mm
Metallization materials chosen were:
-: 99.5% purity Al wire, Ø 1.6 mm diameter from the company Kovintrade
- 99.9% zinc wire, Ø 1.6 mm diameter at Lincoln company
Installation of metal pattern AFER (Romanian Railway Authority) existing
equipment company which executed operations metallization.
Parameters affect the microstructure of metal coating and affect its performance.
Quality criteria require analysis of the technique chosen and the parameters used the
behavior of the material deposited in two respects:
- Metallurgical: microhardness, chemical composition, granulometry and the
degree of compaction
- Corrosion resistance
At layer were investigated by electronic microscopy: thickness, uniformity,
strength, porosity
Metallisation parameters variations were taken into account, as follows:
Code N - projection air pressure: 3 atm, 5 atm, 7 atm
Code M - jet distance: 100 mm 170 mm 220 mm
Code I - current intensity 30 A, 50 A, 70 A
Code U - 18V-120A, 50 V 80 A
Since the wire speed is not an independent parameter, being related to the arc
current intensity, it was not considered
Measurements of each sample have been metallized as: 1/3 metallic, 1/3 metallic
then were subjected to passage of a jet diffusion flame (300 ° C) and 1/3 metallic and kept
in oven at 350°C, 30 min to study the characteristics of joint after heat treatment
Metallographic investigation of the samples was done by electron microscopy
SEM - INSPECT S
248
3.3.Rezultate obtained
Some of the results obtained from determinations of comparative analysis of
synthetic samples are given as
- Best behaved samples taken with parameters p = 5 atm, I = 50 A, d = 170 mm
considered optimal parameters for metal
- Confirming the metallisation parameters chosen to be constant for the other
samples were the optimal
- Occurs in the sample submission centrală.a denser and thick-growing narrower
towards the edges. Example sample U2 = 50V, I = 80 A, p = 5 atm, d = 170 mm evenly
presenting with very good adhesion to substrate, 489.68 mm thick metallic layer (Fig. 2)
Fig.2 thick metallic layer
fig 3 sample-flame jet diffusion
fig.4 sample in oven
-The layers over which passed the flame jet diffusion observed early
achievement, is more compact, the new phase began, acciculari of zinc-iron compounds
fig3
- Strata-samples placed in the oven, because the diffusion of advanced reaction
occurs between compounds appear bridges, reduces pores, characteristics and become
more homogeneous fig 4
The research will be complete , for the whole image on the metallographic
structure, with other sets of measurements like :
- analysis by energy dispersive X-ray (EDAX) for the identification, X-ray
diffraction (XRD) to identify the phases in the metal coating sample (I2, U1C,
M1F)
- microscopic analysis to determine the compounds
- determination of microhardness
- porosity and adhesion tester
Samples for determining electrochemical corrosion resistance will be executed
by
- Raising the polarization curves and potential changes over time in different
solutions
4.Aplications for technology education classes
4.1 The research can be studied by pupils in schools technology profile (Welding
Technology). The theme aims to familiarize them with research activities involving
249
metallurgical phenomena occurring in metallization with different chemical compositions
wires. It takes into account the scientific, technological and economic corrosion protection
of steel structures, in work in hostile environments. It may be case studies as methods of
direct confrontation of students with real life situations, requiring genuine transfer of
knowledge and skills, attitude exploration, data processing, search and assessment
solutions
4.2 Theme “Reconditioning crankshafts by metallization” can be approached
from high profile technology and can help: Starting from the idea that the underlying
quality of a product's characteristics, cost, manufacturing time and related services in a
product quality management and steps to keep in mind maintenance, repair and
reconditioning.
Reliability of a car engine is on them. Unfortunately we have a low financial
potential that use the services of maintenance and repairs to prolong the life of personal
car.
An automobile engine comprises engine mechanism, and auxiliary systems
Called crankshaft and connecting rod shaft turn together with the translational
motion of the moving group rotatie.In piston during operation it is subjected to a lot of
effort. Because of wear appeared to alter the face.
Restored to optimal levels of operation can be done by applying a metallization
deposition. The costs of such repairs are much lower than replacement with a new one.
- Familiarity with existing professional maintenance and repair workshops
- Training of practical skills:
- By identifying and analyzing dysfunction;
- Optimal solution to solve;
- Reconditioning process steps: a sheet of metal film crankshaft[2]
www.gordonengland.co.uk 2003
Figure 5 Reconditioning crankshaft
Figure 5 is a tree covered by electric arc metallizing steel wiren addressing the
theme can use the following content structure for students hours Figure 6:
It is possible to spray a wide range of metals, alloys or metal matrix composite
wire form.
250
Crankshaft
1. place role
2. Parts
2.1 design 2 .2 parts
3. Requests in
operation
2.3 Data 3.1
technical Operation
3.2
Requests
4. reconditioning
4.1
RI
RII
4.2
Film
Record
Figure 6 Topics studied by students
4.3 Baneasa railway bridge
Arc metallization process if conducted properly is called a “cold process”
relating to material support as it can maintain low substrate temperature during the process
avoiding damage, metallurgical changes and distortion of it.
Baneasa railway bridge (Mioritza), inaugurated in 1936 by King Charles II, was
ranked by the Ministry of Culture as second-class monument. Bridge, fountain Mioritza
and Baneasa station constituted a great architectural ensemble, building walls were
covered with travertine tiles decorated with reliefs representing the coats of arms of
historical province of Greater Romania.
A program to reabilitate the railway line Bucharest-Constanta section to
Bottom, developed with European funds, but also with funds from the government., part
of Pan European Corridor IV, on trains with maximum speed of 160 km / h [5]
Bridge was chosen to achieve this combination with high-strength bolts
according P1002006 Order stating:
- Screw joints of earthquake resistant structures will be designed with high
strength bolts groups 8.8 and 10.9.
- If fastening beam - column end plate, screws will use high resistance. The
assembly will provide them with pre effort 50% effort pretensioners prescribed for
friction joints working. [6) Surfaces that come in contact with removable combination of
high strength bolts were aluminum metallization
This made the aluminum coating of metal structures of bridge components: lower
and upper sole, straps, beams, lattice, antretoaze.
Aluminum metallization was done with arc by a company in Bucharest,
specialized in metallization. Wich elaborated the procedure of working technology.The
251
company has authorization rail provider for treatment and coating of metals issued by
AFER, and European operator certification. Metallization was performed at the company
that made metal frame of the bridge in Tecuci.
The papers were drafted in terms of welder engineer faced with a practical
application of electric arc spraying of a target that is complex and in close collaboration
with engineers, builders. This material may be used for Technological Education module
"forms of communication and transportation, students can be anchored in a current events
5 .Conclusion
Welding is an area with a large volume of industrial application and use of
welding processes is constantly expanding. Environments in terms of increasingly
aggressive, welders engineers face the difficult cases of maintenance works In recent
years, felt an acute personal crisis welder that indicate support for adoption profile schools
in the process of being a welder training in the EU harmonized requirements for
qualification of welders
This work can be studied by pupils in schools technology profile The theme aims
to familiarize them with research activities involving metallurgical phenomena occurring
in metallization with different chemical compositions wires.
It takes into account the scientific, technological and economic corrosion
protection of steel structures, in work in hostile environments. It may be case studies as
methods of direct confrontation of students with real life situations, requiring genuine
transfer of knowledge and skills, attitude exploration, data processing, search and
assessment solutions.in recent years, felt an acute personal crisis welder that indicate
support for the adoption of specialized schools for training in teaching process
References
[1] ITSA http://www.thermalspray.org/site_electricarc.asp
[2 ] www.gordonengland.co.uk 2003
[3] Manoj Bhuraria & A.S. Khanna(2004) Performance of ‘Hybrid' Coatings in Marine Environment Corrosion
Science and Technology , hybrid.htm(IDP)
[4] Modi SC & Dishant Mittal THE ZINC THING, www.kurimoto.co.jp/rd/pdf
[5] www.cfr.ro
[6]SR EN 14399-1:2005 Assembly of steel construction with high-strength bolts for tensioning]
[7]Bratean L, Doctoral research reports 2008-2009
252
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Settling Diagrams under the Foundation Resulted from
Experiments
Mihaela Nitu
Technical College “ANGHEL SALIGNY” Bucharest
Abstract
As a consequence of experiments, resulted simplified and empirical but very
expressive diagram under foundation.
Summing up cases, appeared calculus’ formulas and graphics about what
happens in the underground. The communication illustrates through drawing the settling,
taking into consideration normes DIN 4019/1 and 4019/2.
External actions on the constructions includes on the level of basical foundation
an effort state which determines deformation of the underground. The displacements
opposite, from vertically line are named settlings. These can be: equal, unequal, rotation,
and bend. These phenomena are described in the paper.
Through practice is found out that special factors conduce to causes of unequal
settling: the charge, horizontal movements, the ground dryness, variation of underground
water level, freeze-thaw phenomena. Where the settling are equal, then are no problems,
but they can grow to unequal which instigate degradation. Original diagrams show
relation between differences in settling of neighbor plates and how important is the
damage. At neighborhood ...plates it is also shown the line of tension, the hysteresis curve
charges-discharges. Then, it is given a formula that calculates the settling, taking into
account the bed dimensions, in relation was emerged a “form coefficient”. Finally are
presented the pressure bulbs. In the end of the paper it is discussed the tub form under a
stiffen foundation and a flexible one.
Keywords: diagram; foundation; construction
Supporting conditions
Basic data
CONSOLIDATION PHENOMENON
CONSOLIDATION = vertical movements of a construction as a result of
cumulated pressures or shape modifications of the foundations, caused by their own load
or the load of the constructions, to which the pressure of the pores from clay soils must be
added.
It is composed of:
o Share of the primary consolidation of the foundation soil
Mihaela Nitu / Procedia – Edu World 2010
Shares of the neighbouring area (volume modifications caused by the
oversaturation of the terrain)
o Share of the side effects (attack of the microorganisms upon the terrain)..
Causes of unequal sagging
a)
Total loading on the foundation under static load
b)
Dislocations of some parts of the foundation as a result of terrain
slumping
c)
Dynamical influences (earthquake, explosion, traffic vibration,
especially for non-corrosive soils)
d)
Horizontal movements of the construction (e.g. buried walls)
e)
Drying of the soils (contraction of cohesive soils)
f)
Lowering of the underground water level (own load modifications by a
variation of water level)
g)
Influence of frosting-defrosting phenomenon
h)
Aggregate eruptions of the mine galleries (coal and salt)
Observation: a) and f) shall be considered
i)
Soil categories
Non-cohesive soils – the sands settle as a result of the load or because of
dynamic influences due to particles rearrangement. The water from the pores will
evaporate quickly because of their permeability.
Their rearrangement takes place because of the frigidity increase (settling with
many empty spaces).
The resettling of compacted soils is measured in centimeters or decimeters (this
is due to the absence of honeycomb shape).
The resettling period can reach months or years because of low permeability
(DORKER /DEHNE 2002).
A certain recovery is noticed after the removal of the load, and the underground
level is going down.
j)
Loads. As a result if immediate settling of the con-cohesive soils, the
stabile loads, as well as the variable ones, shall be considered. As for the cohesive soils,
the long term traffic loads shall be considered.
Equal saggings
Are not harmful as long as they do not lead to functional problems (pipe
pathways, insulations / specific load). They can grow until the reach the danger of unequal
sagging – namely limits allowed according to local current norms – STAS 330 / 2-198,
thus leading to new damages. The following admissible sagging have been stated by
SKEMPTON/MC DONALD 1990 for high buildings with safety factor 1.5:
simple foundation
6 cm – clay
4 cm – sand
foundation frame
6…10 cm – clay
4…6 cm – sand
Unequal sagging
The unequal sagging can be classified according to size, static structure and
material and they lead to degradations, cracks, curves / bends, expulsion of elements and
of construction elements.
The causes can be:
o
254
Foundation irregularities
Opposite / reciprocal influences of the neighbouring constructions
Different depths of the neighbouring foundations
Layout (plane) foundation and different heights of the neighbouring
foundations
o Different foundation systems under a construction
o Oblique loading of a foundation
o Eccentric loading of a foundation
o Overlapping of tensions under foundation
o Foundation asymmetry (in plane)
Variation diagrams of sagging obtained by experimental determinations
The connections established between sagging and opening between two
neighbouring foundations give result to, which at its turn is in relation with the extent of
the damage, expressed in percentages (Fig. 1).
o
o
o
o
Figure 1. Dependency between (opening between two foundations) and
deformations or sagging
Vocabulary
Schadenshohe = Extent of the damage
Keine Schaden = No damages
Leichte Schaden = Small damages
Mittel starke Schaden = Medium-high damages
Sturz Abbruch = Collapse – breakage
Diagram
255
We have below in figures 2 and 3 influences originating from opposite sides (2 neighbouring foundations – and 3 - an old construction with a new one). The obtained
diagram is presented in these figures.
Figure 2. The overlapping of the sagging effects of neighbouring constructions
Figure 3 . Opposite sides influence of new and old constructions
The diagram
256
The average pressure on σo sole and the geological load γd do not differ
essentially, so the entire pressure is calculated on σo sole (without the reduction of γd).
When performing the supporting calculation, the reloading branch from pressure
- sagging line is crucial (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Correlation pressure – sagging
Vocabulary:
Wiederbelastung = Load recovery
Entlastung = Load removal
Erstbelastung = The first load
Vorbelastung = The initial load
Discussions
a) Limit depths. The practical experience show that the sagging originated efforts
must be considered only for a certain depth, otherwise high sagging values will be
produced.
In the case of σo average pressure on the sole is considered as “higher than” the
geological loading, varying in relation with depth γd and the limit of the sensitive layer
during sagging can be considered (according to DIN 4019), in ds depth, under the sole of
the foundation, where the tensions from the loading of the construction which produced
the sagging (σ0 - γd ) are 20% lower than the σii overlapped tensions. These values are
ds =b (foundation frame) and up to ds = 2b, in the case of isolated and continuous
foundation.
b) To be remembered. In the case of overlapped foundations, the limit depth can
be lower than b, and regarding isolated and continuous foundations, this value can be
257
higher than 2 b. a high variation of the limit depth takes place, even under a swelling
terrain (PUCM).
Supporting conditions
Width
Because the foundation depth where the influence of sagging can be felt varies
according to its depth, and we can have a value of z = 3 b under the sole of the foundation,
it is presented here by 5% isobar. A wide foundation with a higher ground volume than a
thin one is constructed and it will be laid better by the means of the similar efforts on the
sole (Figure 5).
Figure 5. The depth where the influences of the neighbouring foundation are felt.
The laying behaviour of 2 different surface foundations, as well as their loading
and shape can be described by the means of the following rules:
“C” shaped coefficient
(a = the other side of the foundation)
a/b
C
1.1
1.0
1.5
1.0
4.0
0.9
10
0.7
S1/S2 = (C1 σ 01√A1) / ( C2 σ 02√A2)
Where:
S1S2 – the sagging
σ1,2 - Sole pressures on foundation 1 and 2
A1,2 – surfaces of the foundation
C – Shape coefficient
Fig. 5: σ 01√A1 = σ 02√A2
CONCLUSIONS on II
258
100
0.4
To be remembered. The results of these calculation must be checked by a
theoretical sagging calculation, because, most of the times, the limit depth rule is not
considered and the influence of the depth is overrated at high width foundations.
Exactness. As a result of the simplified hypothesis, different influences and of
the necessary average shaping (Dehne 1982). The calculation of these foundations can
lead to results which have up to 50% deviation compared to us dual sagging (DIN 4019 1). They offer only the size range.
Figure 6. The channel shaped sagging under a a) flexible and b) rigid loading
surface and specific points c).
Discussions
In the case of the bending foundation, the values of different foundation points
must be found out/discovered and marked. The connection line of the sagging coordinates
give us the channel shape of the sagging, which shows the sagging differences between
the highest average saggings and those smaller on the edges (Figure 6). According to the
rigidity of the foundation, the bending moments and shearing forces are tolerated, whereas
the sagging differences decrease their values.
Example: a rigid built body can not behave in such a way, so that the sagging of
an average load and in the case of even soil should have the same value everywhere
(Figure 6 b).
In the case of an overloading for foundation surfaces, both flexible and rigid, it
shows that the sagging in established points of the foundation surface have the same value
(c from Figure 6). These characteristic points can be found near the right angled corners of
the foundation 0.74 x a/2, which are at a certain distance from the foundation axis.
Rigid foundations
The uniform sagging of an average loaded foundation with a protrusion is
calculated according to DIN 4019 -1, coming close to the following criteria:
When the value of the sagging is 0.75 times higher at the points situated at the
middle of the surface in the case of a flexible foundation
When the sagging takes place similar to the one in the characteristic points of the
foundation
From tables for rigid foundations.
259
Continuous foundations
In the case of continuous foundations, where a>2b, this value is considered as
attached to the following purpose: measuring the uniform average sagging for end, middle
and quarter points of the main axis is performed for a flexible foundation.
The more a/b relation is higher, the smaller the sagging differences for middle
and quarter points are.
260
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4
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Technological Innovation for Strategic Differentiation to
Improve Customer Experience
Alina-Irina Popescu
Academy of Economic Studies Bucharest
Abstract
In a highly-competitive world, improving customer experience with a product or
a brand becomes one of the most important aspects in achieving success for companies
across all industries. In plain words, this means offering more value to customers by
improving every interaction between a customer and the organization throughout the
customer lifecycle. To manage customer experience, companies need to create strategies
that encompass all customer touch points across the organization.
Strategic differentiation through technological innovation contributes to the
creation of competitive advantages for companies, and to the advancement of society in
general. Firms are much more likely to be successful if they have a well-crafted strategy
for technological innovation.
This paper brings to the debate various perspectives and standpoints on strategic
differentiation and technological innovation, analyzing notable experiences from national
and international markets.
Keywords: strategic management; strategic marketing; technological innovation;
product differentiation;
Strategic Differentiation, the Essence of Business Strategy
“If the three keys to selling real estate are location, location, location, then the
three keys of selling consumer products are differentiation, differentiation, differentiation”
- Robert Goizueta, former Chairman, Coca-Cola Company
“Strategic differentiation” is a concept borrowed by marketing specialists from
the field of strategic management. Actually, by applying strategic management
principles in the field of marketing, the strategic marketing area of expertise emerged.
Strategic marketing is a process that can allow an organization to concentrate its limited
resources on the biggest opportunities to increase sales and achieve sustainable
competitive advantage. The field of marketing strategy encompasses the strategy involved
in the management of a given product. A marketing strategy combines product
development, promotion, distribution, pricing, relationship management and other
elements; it identifies the firm’s marketing goals, and explains how they will be achieved,
ideally within a stated timeframe.
Alina-Irina Popescu/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
To understand how this concept was born and how it evolved over the years in
the literature of business strategy we will take a short look at its origins. Strategic
differentiation finds its origins in the works of Bruce Henderson and Michael Porter, both
considered to be parents of corporate strategy.
Bruce Henderson, founder of the Boston Consulting Group, connected the notion
of strategy with competitive advantage. According to Henderson (1989) “Strategy is a
deliberate search for a plan of action that will develop a business’s competitive advantage
and compound it.” Competitive advantage, he went on, is found in differences. “The
differences between you and your competitors are the basis of your advantage”.
Henderson considers that no two competitors could coexist if both do business the same
way. They must differentiate themselves to survive in ways most appealing to consumers
through price, product mix or ambiance: “Each must be different enough to have a unique
advantage” (Henderson, 1989).
Michael Porter concurs with Henderson’s idea of being different: “Competitive
strategy is about being different. It means deliberately choosing a different set of activities
to deliver a unique mix of value” (Porter, 1996). At the same time, Porter is the creator of
the generic strategies describing a category scheme consisting of three general types of
strategies that are commonly used by businesses to achieve and maintain competitive
advantage. These three generic strategies were defined along two dimensions: strategic
scope and strategic strength. Strategic scope is a demand-side dimension and looks at the
size and composition of the market the company intends to target. Strategic strength is a
supply-side dimension and looks at the strength or core competency of the firm.
According to Porter (1980), there are three generic strategies that a company can
undertake to attain competitive advantage: cost leadership, differentiation, and focus.
Strategic scope
Strategic Strength
Low-cost
Uniqueness
competency
competency
Broad
scope
Narrow
scope
market Cost leadership Differentiation
strategy
strategy
Focus
(Segmentation)
strategy
market
Figure 1. Porter’s Generic Strategies
Porter, M., Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors?
(1980)
a. Cost leadership Strategy
Although strategy analysis has traditionally emphasized cost advantage as the
primary basis for competitive advantage, low cost strategy offers a less secure basis for
262
competitive advantage than differentiation does. In today’s globalized world with less
trade barriers, foreign competitors with lower costs can threat the position of cost
leadership of a company. Competitors may obtain a cost advantage from labour cost
savings, for instance. Wage costs in US and Western Europe are 300-600% higher than in
Malaysia, China or Mexico, therefore global companies now assemble their products
abroad to gain low-cost competitive advantage or they are even forced to do so simply to
compete and stay in business.
In retailing, former cost leaders hypermarkets Carrefour, Cora and Auchan were
undermined by discount retailers such as Profi, Plus and Lidl on the Romanian market.
b. Differentiation Strategy
Differentiation has many advantages for the firm which makes use of the
strategy. When a company differentiates its products, it is often able to charge a premium
price for its products or services in the market. This premium price usually includes the
eventual extra costs incurred by differentiation or by communicating the disctinctive
feature to consumers. According to Lynch (2003), successful differentiation strategy of a
firm may attract competitors to enter the company's market segment and copy the
differentiated product.
Some general examples of differentiation include better service levels to
customers, better product performance etc. in comparison with the existing competitors.
Porter (1980) has argued that for a company employing a differentiation strategy, there
would be extra costs that the company would have to incur. Such extra costs may include
high advertising spending to promote a differentiated brand image for the product, which
in fact can be considered as a cost and an investment.
McDonalds, for example, is differentiated by its very brand name and brand
images of Big Mac and Ronald McDonald.
c. Focus (Segmentation) Strategy
Porter initially presented focus as one of the three generic strategies, but later
identified focus as a moderator of the two strategies. Organisations can focus on a specific
niche in the market and offering specialised products for that niche. This is why the focus
strategy is also sometimes referred to as the niche strategy (Lynch, 2003).
This strategy provides the company the possibility to charge a premium price for
superior quality (differentiation focus) or by offering a low price product to a small and
specialised group of buyers (cost focus). There is the evident danger that the niche may
disappear over time, as the business environment and customer preferences change over
time.
Ferrari and Rolls-Royce are classic examples of niche players in the automobile
industry. Both these companies have a niche of premium products available at a premium
price. Moreover, they have a small percentage of the worldwide market, which is a trait
characteristic of niche players.
McMillan and McGrath (1997) have also recognized that “Most profitable
strategies are built on differentiation: offering customers something they value that
competitors don’t have”.
Kotler (1994) notes that a firm can design a set of meaningful differences to
distinguish its offer from competitors’ offers. The same way, Aaker (2001) sees strategic
thrust as an umbrella concept that clarifies business approaches toward obtaining a
sustained competitive advantage into groups with a common theme. One theme,
263
differentiation, means that there is an element of uniqueness about a strategy that provides
value to the customer, e.g. firms differentiate their offerings by enhancing performance,
quality, reliability, prestige, or convenience. In the context of this research, differentiation
shall mean uniqueness in strategy that delivers value to customers in terms of efficient and
quality service delivery (Aaker, 2001).
Being different can take many forms. A firm might do different things from its
competitors, such as addressing different markets or offering different products. Or, it
might do the same things as competitors but in different ways, such as providing a lowercost service. In either case, what marks an action as strategic is its ability to differentiate
an organization from its competitors, letting it provide unique value to customers. Let’s
consider the following examples:
Southwest, the most profitable U.S. air carrier and the inventor of the “low-cost
model” in the airline industry, was established as a “different” airline from the beginning.
The company differentiated itself with a strategy characterized by low fares, direct flights,
frequent departures, technological innovation;
Toyota’s strategy to innovate and to develop the hybrid engine Prius lead to a
four-month waiting list of customers for this hybrid car. The strategy to create a
competitive advantage over rivals with this environmental-friendly vehicle, also cheap,
easy to operate, and employing the latest technology in auto engineering;
eBay, the most successful internet company ever, created a different way for
people to sell and buy goods: online auctions. They differentiated the company’s service
from those of traditional competitors.
It is obvious so far that competitive advantage flows from successful
differentiation. Nevertheless, keeping good ideas secret is hard, thus remaining different is
challenging. Figure 2 (Chappell, 2008) shows what typically happens: the first firm in an
industry to implement a successful innovation gains a significant competitive advantage.
The second firm to implement this strategy also derives some advantage from it. By the
time the third firm in an industry follows suit, the new approach is usually well on its way
to becoming a best practice. Companies that do not implement it is likely to be at a
competitive disadvantage. What begins as an innovation becomes an obligation.
Competitive
Advantage to
a company
Figure 2. Fading-out of competitive advantage over time
264
Throughout the late 1990s and early 2000s, Northwest Airlines enjoyed profits
and focused on improving technology to increase convenience while reducing costs. The
airline offered airport self-service check-in kiosks starting in 1997, and had more than any
other airline. Northwest was also the first large U.S. airline to offer passengers internet
check-in, with service from December 2000. Yet today, kiosks and internet check-in are
quite common for every airline - not having them would represent competitive
disadvantages.
Similarly, when FedEx let its customers track their packages directly via the
Web, this innovation was rightly considered a powerful competitive edge. Today, we
expect this from all shipping companies; the innovation is now obligatory.
Technological Innovation, as main Driver for Success
Innovation is an important topic in the study of economics, business,
entrepreneurship, design, technology, sociology, and engineering. When discussing about
“innovation”, economists tend to refer to the process itself, from the origination of an idea
to its transformation into something useful, to its implementation; and on the system
within which the process of innovation unfolds. “Innovation is the multi-stage process
whereby organizations transform ideas into new/improved products, service or processes,
in order to advance, compete and differentiate themselves successfully in their
marketplace” (Baregheh et al., 2009)
Since innovation is also considered a major driver of the economy, especially
when it leads to new product categories or increasing productivity, the factors that lead to
innovation are also considered to be critical to policy makers. In particular, followers of
innovation economics stress using public policy to spur innovation and growth.
Innovation is one of the most important success factors to build a strong
competitive position in the auto industry. In the majority of markets, the average new-car
buyer is 40 years old. By 2015, that age is expected to increase by four years. Developing
cars for this target group does not mean building “old-age cars”. It means equipping cars
with design and handling features that the target group will find useful, exciting and
desirable – without sacrificing the model’s overall statement. A car designed for an older
target group might feature:
o Ergonomically designed boarding, loading and seating solutions;
o Visual aids for better night and rain vision;
o Easy-to-use functions even for complicated devices;
o Timeless design features;
o Speed and special attention recommendation displays;
o Side and rear-view cameras;
o Customized mobility services.
Innovation is achieved in many ways by companies, with much attention now
given to formal research and development for “breakthrough innovations”. New
development tools that allow IT to rapidly develop unique applications will accelerate the
creation of more information technology that is truly differentiating. These new
applications will not only continue to improve the alignment of the firm’s business
processes, but will also create the opportunity for radical improvements in competitive
position.
265
The importance of the IT department in every company increased dramatically,
from the role of a simple provider and maintainer of IT equipments to the roles of
business processes supervisor and customer application developer. Over the long run, the
demand for new applications and enhancements to existing automation will require that IT
teams adopt the role of coach and enabler of their firm’s local development efforts.
Nowadays, every modern business strategy depends in some way on IT and
technology. Self-service check-in kiosks and Web-based package tracking are good
examples of this reality. Over time, every successful strategy becomes part of the IT
infrastructure. Considering this, it’s possible to divide IT spending into two broad
categories (Chappell, 2008):
Strategic IT, spending on new capabilities that directly support new business
strategies;
Utility IT, all other IT spending. To a large degree, technologies in this category
represent the accretion of an organization’s strategic innovations over many years. Figure
3 illustrates how these two categories fit with the competitive advantage curve shown
earlier.
Competitive
Advantage of a
Company
Strat
egic IT
Utility
IT
Figure 3. Strategic IT spending creates a Window of Differentiation
According to Chappell (2008), strategic IT supports the innovations that provide
competitive advantage to an organization, and it refers to the development and
implementation of custom applications. Getting strategic differentiation from generic
packaged software is difficult; this is why companies need to produce their own custom
applications, like the cases of airline check-in kiosks and Web-based package tracking as
shown in previous examples. As Figure 3 shows, there is a window of differentiation in
which innovations can provide a competitive advantage, that’s why a company must be
able to create custom applications quickly. Eventually, successful innovations move into
the utility category, and so these applications must also be manageable over the long term,
and what once was a “cutting-edge technology” becomes a “must” in the industry.
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Product Innovation, one way to be Different and to improve
Customer Experience
The essence of the business strategy evoked by many scholars over time was to
be different as we have already seen. Companies need to differentiate themselves and their
offers to become appealing to consumers, to offer them more value, and to improve their
customer experience. Customer experience is the sum of all experiences a customer has
with a supplier of goods or services, over the duration of their relationship with that
supplier, from awareness, discovery, attraction, interaction, purchase, use, cultivation and
advocacy.
Nowadays, consumers are more knowledgeable and more sophisticated than ever
before. They demand more value from products and services. A customer value
proposition (CVP) consists of the sum total of benefits which a company promises a
customer will receive in return for the customer's associated payment (or other valuetransfer).
A product with a successful consumer value proposition is directly linked to a
products’ actual and sustained performance versus competition. The two main attributes
that allow consumers to differentiate among products are price and quality. Finding the
correct balance between these two attributes usually leads to a successful product. If a
company is able to produce the same quality product as its direct competition but sell it
for less, this provides a price value to the consumer. Similarly, if a company is able to
produce a superior quality product for the same or a slightly higher but acceptable price,
the value to the consumer is added through the quality of the product. Kotler (1994)
identified the following possible value propositions: more benefits for more money, more
benefits for the same price, same benefits for less money, and fewer benefits for much less
money.
In 1996 MP3 players were available to the public for purchase. For the first few
years the only real value aside from price comparisons were the amount of music they
could store. This all changed when Apple Inc. burst on the scene with the iPod and
iTunes, the software paired with its new MP3 player to manage the music through a
computer program to organize and rename the music on consumer computers. This
software did not add cost to the iPod itself and was listed as a free add-on. This is a
perfect example of a customer value added proposition. The customer is given added
value through the software iTunes because it is free of additional cost to the customer. The
combination of its intuitive and easy to use interface along with the customer value added
proposition of iTunes, it is easy to see why the iPod in all of its forms dominated and still
dominates the market.
Differentiation is concerned with the provision of uniqueness. A firm’s
opportunities for creating uniqueness in its offerings to customers are not located within a
particular function or activity, but can arise in virtually everything that it does. Michael
Porter identifies a number of drivers of uniqueness which are decision variables for the
firm:
o Product features and product performance;
o Complementary services (e.g., credit, delivery, repair);
o Intensity of marketing activities (e.g., rate of advertising spending);
o Technology embodied in design and manufacture;
267
The quality of purchased inputs;
Procedures influencing the conduct of each activities (e.g., rigor of quality
control, service procedures, frequency of sales visits to a customer);
o The skill and experience of employees;
o Location (e.g., with retail stores);
o The degree of vertical integration (which influences a firm’s ability to
control inputs and intermediate processes).
Technological innovation made possible that consumers interact with products
and services at the most convenient time and way for them - in person or by phone, on the
Web, via self-service or chat. Consider the following examples that show the benefits
brought by technological innovations to increase customer value.
The supermarket self-checkout system was introduced by Tesco to improve
customer experience. In self-checkout systems, the customer is permitted to scan the
barcodes on their own items, and manually identify items such as fruits and vegetables
(usually with a touch-screen display), which are then weighed where applicable, and place
the items into a bagging area. The weight observed in the bagging area is verified against
previously stored information to ensure that the correct item is bagged, allowing the
customer to proceed only if the observed and expected weights match. The benefit to the
customer is in the reduced checkout time because stores are often able to efficiently run
two to six self checkout units where it normally would have had one cashier. Some
customers appreciate the ability not to have to deal with the cashier. The benefit to the
retailer in providing self checkout machines is in reduced staffing requirements since one
attendant is all that is required to run 4 to 6 checkout lanes at one time.
Adidas Footscan was developed to create product differentiation in a highly
competitive sports shoes market. The footscan pad records the pressures created through
consumer’s foot strike, and the software interprets this data to provide an accurate, graphic
representation of the footstrike. An on-screen visual enables shop assistants to recommend
appropriate footwear for each consumer’s individual running style. Adidas technologies such as adiPRENE, adiPRENE Plus and Torsion, help to ensure that consumer’s
individual cushion and control requirements are met in line with the data gathered from
the footscan.
ING Romania has experienced rapid growth since launching its retail banking
“Self’Bank” concept in 2004. Easiness of use, lack of queues, no human interaction with
frontdesk operators and 24h availability made “Self Bank” concept brought competitive
advantages to ING Romania. Now, the bank has a network of 205 franchised ING
branches, built on an innovative self-service banking model. Customers use in-branch
terminals, with step-by-step onscreen guidance on paying bills, withdrawing cash, and
making deposits or transfers. The bank then launched full Internet banking in 2007,
attracting 30,000 customers in the first six months; after two years, that number had
grown to 140,000 (Cisco, 2009).
America Online, one of the first internet service providers, offered a unique
innovation for accessing the nascent Internet - its unique and user-friendly interface. The
company grew at a massive rate, leading the rapidly developing Internet sector as a force
in American business;
o
o
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Mobile operator O2 Germany has three times as many online visits per
subscriber as its competitors, and far more sales online. For registered users, the
“contextual selling” in the service area generates more sales than the e-shop itself.
To conclude, the key to successful marketing and competing is differentiation.
The concept of being unique or different is far more important today than it was ten years
ago, nowadays customers have too many choices, all of which can be fulfilled instantly.
Choosing among multiple options is always made based on differences, implicit or
explicit, so companies need to differentiate in order to give the customer a reason to
choose their product or service. Thus, differentiation is one of the most important strategic
and tactical activities in which companies must constantly engage.
The essence of the differentiation advantage is to increase the perceived value of
the offering to the customer either more effectively or at lower cost than competitors do.
This requires that the firm match the requirements and preferences of customers with its
own capacity for creating uniqueness.
In this context, technology has finally moved into a truly strategic, differentiating
role. Technology eliminated geographic boundaries and physical limitations, creating
high-value, differentiated and profitable opportunities for companies. They must exceed
customer expectations during every interaction, whether provided by a live agent or a selfservice application (touch-tone, speech or Web). All examples presented support these
statements and show that companies all over the world need to be one step ahead
competitors, and even ahead of consumers, to gain and retain them by unique value
propositions and customized or even self-customized products and services.
References
Aaker, D.A. (2001). Strategic Market Management, 6th edition. New York: John Wiley &Sons Inc.
Baregheh A, Rowley J. and Sambrook S.(2009). Towards a multidisciplinary definition of innovation,
Management decision, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 1323–1339.
Chappell, D. (2008). Application Lifecycle Management and Business Strategy, David Chappell & Associates.
Cisco, Customer Case Study (2009).
https://www.cisco.com/en/US/solutions/collateral/ns340/ns517/ns224/ING_Romania_case_study.pdf
Harvard Business Essentials Collection (2005). Strategy: Create and Implement the Best Strategy for Your
Business, Harvards Business School Press, Boston, Massachusetts.
Henderson, B. (1989). The Origin of Strategy, Harvard Business Review, Nov.-Dec. 1989, USA.
Kotler P. 1994: Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control, 8th edition. Prentice
Hall International Inc., Toronto, Canada.
Lynch, R. (2003). Corporate Strategy, 3rd Edition, 187-191, London, UK.
MacMillan, I. C. & McGrath, R.M. (1997). Discovering new points of differentiation, Harvard Business Review
8, pp.133–145.
Porter, M. E. (1996). What is Strategy?, Harvard Business Review, Nov. – Dec.1996, USA.
Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors?, The Free
Press New York, USA.
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The E-Tutor Competences
Steliana TOMAa, Maria GOGAb
a
Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
b
ZAUniversity, Zambia
Abstract
The e-Learning system requires more competences then the ones from traditional
education. In Romania, the e-Learning system is used in more than 300 accredited license
and post-graduated programs of studies, but the status of the tutor is undefined and
unrecognized by the law. The tutor does not have a clear psycho-pedagogical profile. The
first part of the study sets the context by examining the tutor functions and roles in eLearning, the second part presents the main concepts and methodology used, and the third
one defines the occupation e-Tutor by the professional and transversal competences, as the
first and compulsory stage of designing of a master e-Tutor program of specialization.
Keywords: e-Learning, competence, tutor;
Introduction
Following Lisbon, the e-Europe Action Plan for the Information Society Strategy
identified e-Learning as one of its key objectives, together with e-Health, e-Government
and generalization of broadband [1, 11]. ICT for education has become, since 2007, one
of the four transversal lines of the Lifelong Learning Program and a general priority in the
four vertical programmes (Erasmus, Comenius, Leonardo ad Vinci and Grundtvig). In the
e-Learning system the tutors play a key role. According to some dictionaries [2] the tutors
are the teachers charged with the instruction and guidance of another in a private way or
in a university. They are the interface between institution and students. In spite of the fact
that in 2008 in the Romanian Higher Education System existed 247 distance-learning
license programs of studies accredited by Romanian Agency for Quality Assurance of
Higher Education [3], the statute of the tutor is yet unclear. The Ministry of Education in
Romania does not recognize this occupation in The Law on Teachers Statute (art.53) even
if the e-Learning system is already in place and people actually perform this occupation.
Not even the Romanian Classification of Occupations mentions the tutor as a teaching
occupation. Nowadays, the tutor does not have a clear psycho-pedagogical profile which
can help him to work not as a volunteer but as a qualified teacher.
The identity of a tutor will be better established when his/her competences
necessary in the e-Learning context will be described. Therefore, this paper is trying to
define the key competencies of a tutor in e-Learning for the specific context of Romania,
Steliana TOMA, Maria GOGA / Procedia – Edu World 2010
considering that it is the first and compulsory stage of designing a master e-Tutor
program of specialization.
A distinct professional profile
E-Learning system requires from tutors specific competences. The tutors in eLearning are teachers on academic position: assistants, lecturers, professors. They are
coming with a 'baggage' of competences already formed and used in the traditional
system of learning. But the E-learning system requires more competencies than the ones
required by traditional education. The professionalization of the tutor is a need in an
education system which, in 2010, has more than three hundred graduate and postgraduate
accredited programs of studies in place.
Many universities in the world which offer E-learning programs (DL, blended
learning, online learning) organize,
as well, programs for e-tutors professionalization [4]. In Romania is already
elaborated an informal model to
as sure the e-tutors training [5], but formal programs to do this are not organized
by any university.
To define the e-competencies which a tutor should have, many researchers
(Salmon, 2000; Brigitt et al, 2004; Virgil & Varvel, 2007) and authors of the professional
teacher standards [6] begin from the classification of four functions of the tutor, namely:
pedagogical, psycho-social, managerial, and technical. Another classification is given by
Theodore C. Smith [7] who begins from the idea that the competencies for an online
instructor should be built in function of the three phases of the online course:
competencies needed prior to start a course, competencies needed during the course,
competencies after the course.
The roles a tutor play have been named by different researchers as (6): facilitator
of learning (ELF, 2006; Palloff & Pratt, 2007; Ryan et al, 2000; Higgison, 2001; Ryan et
al 2000; Lentell, 2003); expert (Garrison & Anderson, 2003); instructor (Palloff & Pratt,
2007); designer (Harasim apud Higgison, 2001); coach (Lentell, 2003); evaluator
(Higgison, 2001); mentor (Charlier, 2000; Lentell, 2003); advisor (Higgison, 2001;
Berge, 1995; Harasim et al, 1997; Collins & Berge, 1997;Salmon, 2000); manager
(Higgison, 2001); moderator (Elf, 2006; Palloff & Pratt, 2007); technician (Higgison,
2001; Berge, 1995; Collins & Berge, 1997).
The description of the e-Tutor competencies is realized using a formal model of
defining the qualifications, the ACPART Methodology [8,9]. In this paper, the
qualification e-Tutor is correlated to a master’s study cycle, and is defined based on the
general description of the learning outcomes.
The level of qualification: accordingly to European Qualifications Framework
(EQF) which has adopted 8 levels of qualifications, occupation Tutor in E-learning has
level 7 of complexity because the qualification is ensured through a master university
program of study;
The master type of the study program: this qualification can be obtained by
different types of master programs of studies:
- professional master, when the entry requirement is the license in Sciences of
Education;
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- interdisciplinary/didactical master, when the entry requirement is a license in
other fields of study.
Although E-learning is student centred, the process is directed on learning
outcomes.
Learning outcomes are the set of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values and/or
competences a person has acquired or is able to demonstrate after completion of the
learning process.
Each type of the learning outcomes has its own authonomy, and refers to a
distinct aim of professional specialization and to a specific evaluation process, Between
these three types of learning outcomes exists a relationship and, as well, a hierarchy in
their achievement: the knowledge learning leads to developing of a certain skill, and both
of them lead to a professional competence development.
The description of the E-Tutor qualification consists in defining the
professional and the transversal competences the e-Tutor must prove at the end of the
master program of study. By “competence“ is named the capacity to select, combine and
use adequately, as an integrated and dynamic unit, the knowledge, skills (cognitive,
actional, relational) and other attainments (values and attitudes), in order to solve
successfully, effectively and efficiently, a certain category of problem situations, in
various contexts.[8, 9, 10]
A competence is defined in its three dimensions:
- the cognitive dimension- knowledge;
- the functional-actional dimension – skills;
- the attitudes-values dimension which is related to the individual autonomy and
responsibility in
- exerting the professional competences.
The e-Tutor professional and transversal competences
Details on the generic descriptors of the e-Tutor competences are presented in
Table 1, realized in keeping with the formal model (Matrix and Grid 1M) elaborated by a
working group of The National Agency for Qualifications in Higher Education and
Partnership with the Economic and Social Environment(8).
The Table 1 indicates the professional competences and the progress in
professional e-Tutor competences from the level of knowledge and understanding
(level 1), the primary level of a competence, to the creative and innovative level (level
5), the highest level of training. Thus, the qualification is analysed and described in light
of the 5 generic descriptors (from 1 to 5).
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Table 1 - Description of professional and transversal competencies
Field of study: Sciences of Education Studies Program: Tutor in e-Learning
Type of Master: Interdisciplinary / Professional / Didactical
Name of
qualification:
Tutor in e-Learning
Level of
qualification:
Master
Professional
competences
Level
descriptors for
the structural
elements
of the professional
competences
KNOWLEDGE
1.
In-depth
knowledge of a
specialisation area
and, within it, of
the program
specific theoretical
and practical
developments;
appropriate use of
specific language in
communication
with different
professional
environments.
2.
Use of specialised
knowledge in order
to explain and
interpret new
situations, in wider
contexts associated
to the respective
field.
SKILLS
3.
Integrated use of
conceptual and
methodological
apparatus under
conditions of
incomplete
information to
solve new
theoretical and
Occupations:
Tutor in Distance Education (ID, IDD, Online, Blended Learning, e-Learning);
Education Adviser (2352-2001); Education expert (352-2002); Surveyor education (2352-03);
Mentor (2359-02).
Preconditions of access: License in Sciences of Education for Professional Master
License for Interdisciplinary or Didactical Master
C1
C3
C2
C4
C5
Designing an eIdentifying,
Communication
Planning,
Evaluation of
Learning
selecting and
within the virtual
organizing and the programs
course/program
applying
community
holding tutorial and students’
of study
appropriate
meetings in the level of training
technologies for e-Learning
in the ee-Learning
system
Learning
system
C1.1
Defining the
particularities of
E-learning system,
its specific
theories, methods,
and activities.
C2.1
Description of the
communication
techniques in
virtual space and of
the participants’
characteristics /
styles / previous
experience of
learning in the elearning system.
C3.1
Description of
specific learning
technologies in
the virtual
environment.
C4.1
Defining the
tutor’s
moderator /
manager statue
in the virtual
community.
C5.1
Describe the
methods /
techniques for
evaluation of
study programs
and learning
outcomes of
the students.
C1.2
Establishing
differences
between the roles
of key actors
involved in eLearning and
traditional learning
system .
C2.2
Linking virtual
communication
techniques with
the participants’
characteristics /
styles / previous
experience of
learning to design /
interpret a specific
communication
situation .
C3.2
Establishing the
advantages /
disadvantages of
using various
identified
technologies .
C4.2
Description of
the advantages
/ disadvantages
regarding
organizing
tutorial
meetings in
synchronous
and
asynchronous
learning.
C5.2
Explaining the
relationship
between the
quality of
methods /
techniques and
significance of
evaluation
results between
the traditional
system of
learning and eLearning .
C1.3
Use of conceptual
and
methodological
tools specific to
the e-Learning
system for
selecting a
program in the
same field of
C2.3
Use of the
communication
techniques in
asynchronous and
synchronous
learning.
C3.3
Selection of the
e-Learning
technologies
according to the
learning
possibilities of
the students.
C4.3
Use of the
appropriate
methods to
organize the
tutorial
meetings to
develop specific
tools (calendar,
activities,
C5.3
Application of
the appropriate
methods /
techniques to
assess a given
study program.
273
practical issues.
4.
Pertinent and
appropriate use of
assessment criteria
and methods to
formulate valuable
judgements and
fundament
constructive
decisions
specialization
C1.4
Evaluation of the
chosen program
through
comparison to the
national evaluation
standards on
Distance
Education
(ARACIS).
C2.4
Specific application
of the
communication
techniques
according to the
desires/ limitations
of the participants
(student - tutor) in
the virtual
community.
5.
C1.5
C2.5
Development of
Designing of an e- Designing of a
professional
Learning course / communication
and/or research
program for
situation at
projects using a
subject matter
asynchronous level
wide range of
from the
of learning.
qualitative and
specialized
quantitative
disciplines based
methods in an
on the individual
innovative manner. research.
Minimum
performance
standards for
assessing
competence:
Presentation of a
self-evaluation
report for the
accreditation of
an e-Learning
course / program
Level
descriptors
transversal competences
C3.4
Use of the eLearning
technologies
based on
chosen virtual
learning
environments
(Moodle, Sakai,
etc.).
C3.5
Designing of a
research project
regarding the
opportunity of
using e-Learning
technologies for
asynchronous
and synchronous
learning
environments.
Development of an Presentation of a
application
research report
regarding
on e-Learning
communication in technologies for
an asynchronous
synchronous and
learning
asynchronous
environment
learning
environments
of Transversal competences
T1.
Undertaking
complex
professional
tasks
under
autonomy and professional
independence conditions
T2.
Assuming
management
roles/functions
for
the
activities within professional
groups or institutions
T3.
Self-control of the learning
process, diagnosis of training
needs, reflective analysis on
own professional activity
agenda).
C4.4
Planning
activities for
each stage of
the e-Learning
course.
C5.4
Elaboration of
the
performance
assessment
items in the eLearning
system .
C4.5
Designing a
tutorial meeting
at
asynchronous
level.
C5.5
Designing an
evaluation
system to assess
the students at
the beginning,
during and at
the end of an
e-Learning
course.
Presentation of
a portfolio of
documents on
planning,
organizing,
conducting and
evaluating an
asynchronous
tutorial meeting
Presentation of
a research
report on
student
assessment
Minimum performance standards for
evaluating competence
CT1
Application of methods to solve complex
Responsible application of knowledge situations in a particular case.
in education / science to solve
complex situations.
CT2
Putting into the practice the methods
of communication and relationship at
organizational and collegiality levels
CT3
Periodical self - evaluation of
professional knowledge and skills
acquired (especially technical) to adapt
to changing socio-economic and
technical conditions
274
Involvement in professional group
projects, institution-wide, national and
international with observance of the
principles
of
communication
and
relationship in the assumed roles.
Using self-assessment tests specific to
tutors and continuous professional
development
through
national
conferences, publication in international
journals or books in the field.
References:
[ 1] Commission of the European Communities (2008), The use of ICT to support innovation and lifelong
learning for all - A report on progress. Brussels, 09/10/2008, SEC(2008), 2629, final,
[ 2] www.stars21.com/dictionary/English-English_dictionary.html,
www.brothersoft.com/.../longman-dictionary-online.html, www.merriam-webster.com/
[ 3] HG no 635/24.06 2008, Monitorul Oficial, Partea I, nr.468/2008
[ 4] http://www.uillinois.edu/ , http://www.ubc.ca/ , http://www.gvu.unu.edu/ ,
http://www.uoc.edu/portal/english/ , www.open.ac.uk , http://www.ox.ac.uk/ ,
http://www.ettcampus.org/elearning/course/index.php , www.avln.org ,
http://continuinged.uml.edu/ , www.massachusetts.edu , http://www.sheffcol.ac.uk/
[ 5] Goga, M. (2009), Definirea profilului psihopedagogic al tutorului în E-learning, PhD thesis, Universitatea
din Bucuresti
[ 6] www..sreb.org; www.lluk.org/documents/app_prof_standards_literacy_esol.pdf
[ 7] Smith,T., (2005). Fifty-One competencies for online instruction, În: The Journal of Educators Online, 2(2),
iulie
[ 8] Zaharia,S.E.,Barbu,G.,Birlea,G.,Dragomir,T.,Korka,T.,Murgescu,B.,Neacsu,I.,Potolea,D.,Toma,S., Ivan,
M.,Mironov, C., Borzea, A.(2008) Methodology of Developing National Qualifications Framework for
Higher Education, National Agency for Qualifications in Higher Education and Partnership with the
Economic and Social Environment, Bucharest, www.acpart.ro
[ 9] Zaharia, S.E., Potolea, D., Toma, S., Murgescu, B. (2010), Romanian Qualification Framework for Higher
Education – A Component of the European Qualifications Framework, in “European Journal of
Qualifications”, ACPART, Bucharest, no.1
[10] Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2008 on the establishment of
the European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning”, in: Official Journal of the European Union C
111 din 6.05.2008 (2008/C 111/01), Annex 1 – Definitions, p. 4
[11] Toma,S.(coord) (2009), Teaching in the Knowledge Society. The Impact of the INTEL-TEACH Program
in Romania, Ed. Agata, E-Learning Romania.
275
th
4
th
th
The Passive House - An Economical and Ecological One
Bărdescu Ioana, Legendi Amelittab
a,b
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Abstract
Some constructive systems of houses having low and very low energy
consumption are analyzed and the main parameters are comparatively presented further
on, so as some kind of materials and performing components exemplified on passive
houses. Explaining the passive house concept the partial passive house and total
passive house terminology is justified and sustained.
Keywords: ecological construction materials, termoinsulation, sealing up, house
ventilation, air-conditioning, drilling wells, cycling of waste water, cycling of materials.
The evolution of the constructive system of houses
The increase of the fuel consumption for residence heating, the limitation of
heating conventional resources, the increase of gas emission that’s leading to global
warming, the increase of fuel prices are some of the factors that led to the appearance of
new constructive solutions meant to reduce the energy consumption and the emissions of
carbon dioxide.
It is also important the acoustic comfort accomplishment, as well as the houses
fire safety and protection, and the environment care and preservation.
The technological systems evolution is focused through compared values of
specific technical characteristics (Table 1).
The ecological house, the green house… the house of future
Once the exhaustion of natural energetic resources is appearing and especially
the signs of the global warming due to gas emission increasing, some new technological
solution to improve the energetic efficiency of residences, solutions that are focused in
this article: The ecological house, The green house, The multi-comfort house, The passive
house, The zero energy houses, The autonomous house on emplacement a.s.o. A zero
energetic building from outside was realized and presented in China on Expo 2010, in
Shanghai (Fig. 1).
In a view to realize the “Zero Energy House” (ZEB-Zero Energy Building)
solution in the future there have been passed through many steps ahead to improve the
energetic efficiency.
Bărdescu Ioan, Legendi Amelitta/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
Table 1. Technological elements, components and characteristics typical
unifamiliar house [7]
Nr.
crt
1.
2.
The
necessary
energy for HEATING
STANDARD
CONSTRUCTION
OF
CONSTRUCTION
ELEMENTS
kWh/m2 year
A
300…250
B
150…100
WITHOUT
THERMIC
INSULATION
INSUFFICIENT
THERMIC
INSULATION
Heating high cost
Rural buildings,
old
and
no
modernized
buildings
Dwellings built
between 19501970
C
50…40
LOW ENERGY
D
≤ 15
VERY
CONSUMPTION
ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
LOW
PASISVE
The
houses need to
reach these values
Values U (thermal conductivity), in W/m2,°K
Typical insulation thickness, in cm
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
EXTERNAL WALLS
(massive wall about
25 cm)
Insulation thickness
ROOF
GROUND FLOOR
WINDOWS
Broad-glass
1,30
0,40
0,20
0,13
0
0,90
4
1,0
0
5,10
Simple
6
0,22
22
0,40
6
2,80
Double
insulated
glass filled with
air
16
0,15
30
0,25
10
1,10
Double
insulated glass
VENTILATION
Untight joints
Windows
opening
Air
system
about 30
0,10
40
0,15
26
0,80
Triple
insulated
glass
Special
sash
frames
Ventilation
system-comfort
with heat recovery
60
60
30
CARBON
DIOXIDE
EMISSIONS
(CO2) in
2
kg/m year
outlet
2,0
It is to be remarked that all construction standards must contain ecological
elements, on green house or on multi-comfort house.
Figure 1. Inhabitable vehicle total autonomous on external utilities.
277
The present paper focuses only the component elements and characteristics
regarding The Partial Passive House up to the Total Passive House pursuing the unifamiliar houses.
The representative examples regarding the energy and the carbon dioxide
emissions decreasing, and also the use of regenerable energies:
o Sweden is the pioneer regarding the houses with neutral carbon print and
using bio-combustible in public transport (in Stockholm all public
transport means are using bio-combustibles)
o Germany is the pioneer in using the solar energy at accessible prices.
o Japan is the pioneer in automotives with efficient fuel consumption.
o Holland is the pioneer of the flourishing towns full of bicycles.
Utilities-components and technological solutions for the future house
A limited stock list of technological components and solutions to realize the best
habitable comfort is presented in table 2.
Table 2. Total Passive House (TPH) Best habitable comfort
Nr.
crt
1.
Utilities-criteria
Technological solutions
2.
Super THERMAL INSULATION (High degree
of thermo-insulation)
Sealing up with minimal number of
thermal decks
THERMAL for HEATING
3.
Thermal energy warm house water
4.
ELECTRIC ENERGY
Construction of envelope without thermal decks – from
roof to the base of structure
The thermal decks lead to heat lost, Condense risk, Air
currents
Collecting solar panels with tubes
Heating from bottom
Mechatronic-parabolic panel (Fig. 2)
Heat pump
Collecting plane-solar panels
Insulated stock pools (in the basement) of warm water
in summer time
Photovoltaic Solar Panels
Aeolian turbines
Solar / Aeolian energy storage batteries
Ventilation tower with controlled outlet and heat
recovery
Insulated pools for ice stockage in winter time and
using it for air-conditioning
Medium and deep depth drilling wells
Collection of rain water (Fig. 3)
Cycling of water from the purification station
Performing purification stations with no smell (Not
Septic Tanks)
Collection, stockage and eventually recovery (from
CO2 the ecological cement is obtained)
South orientation
Without shadows from trees, buildings, mountains,
forests
Flood zones avoidance zone and other zones adjacent
to forests (fire risks)
Membrane of specific super resistant material
Shade shields
Sun shades
Made of ecological materials
Super performing of low energy (A+ class)
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Electric energy storage
VENTILATION-CLIMATIZATION
Temperature
Humidity
Pressure
POTABLE WATER
UNEPOTABLE WATER
for washing, garden
watering, spraying aso.
SELF CANALIZATION
Reduction of glass-house gas emissions
(CO2)
Emplacement House with optimized
orientation
Maximizing solar input
HYDRO-INSULATION
PROTECTION AT RAZELOR SOLAR RAYS
ACTION pin summer time
INTERIOR FURNITURE AND TEXTILES
ELECTROCASNIC
APARATUS
AND
ELECTRONIC
278
a. Photo image;
b. Scheme
Figure 2. Mechatronic-parabolic solar panel
1 - metallic support; 2 - rotary and tipping mirror with leaves and focus point; 3 - orientation device with
geared motor, two sensors and acuator.
The concept of partial or total passive house
Starting with the “passive” term the
concept of Passive House (PH) represents all
the measures taken to protect the building, its
habitants and the environment against some
noxious factors. For example, in a view to
assure a comfortable interior climate, in
summer, both in summer and in winter, no
matter the temperature, humidity and exterior
pressure differences, without being necessary
heating-cooling supplementary resources; so,
the solution of partial passive house is ready.
It means that from now on we will use exterior
sources of utilities such as potable water,
canalizations a.s.o. (v. Tab. 1 and 2).
If all solutions in tables 1 and 2 are
applied and more, such as the use of
Figure 3. Stockage carload of rainfall
manufactured utilities using ecological
water
materials, as roads a.s.o., we can recognize a 1 - roof chute; 2 - collecting gutter;
total passive house or an almost total passive 3 - carload 2.600 l; 4 - carload support.
house.
In case that a house is rehabilitated only through thermo insulation and all
requests being accomplished in this case 5 such as the energetic consumption to be not
above 15 kWh/m2 year, triple glass windows 5 insulated glass and special and sash
frames, ventilation comfort system with heat recovery, the carbon emissions won’t be
higher than 2 kg/m2 year, and we can recognize the partial passive for the resort heating
system (Tab. 2).
279
Partial passive house with controlled ventilation tower
In order to heat this building less than 15 kWh/m2 year of energy are spent a year
(Fig. 4). This value represents less than 10% from the energy consumption necessary to
heat a classical home, construction standard without thermal insulation (v. Tab. 1)
Figure 4. Passive house
1 - base of structure; 2 - building body; 3 - roof; 4 - Controlled Ventilation Tower (TVC); 5 - natural lighted
windows; 6 - door.
The fresh air preheated through heat economizer arrives directly in the living
space and bedroom through the feeding air valves.
Central ventilation system with heat recovery in the uni-familial
house
When referring to a building correct renovation, you must have in mind a
ventilation system set up.
The air flux between the building interiors and the external space, so as the air
humidity within rooms, is leading to mildew fungus development that could lead to
diseases of the respiratory apparatus, allergies, infections or somnolent status.
The humidity, temperature and air pressure, namely the adequate
acclimatization is benefic for human health and building; so, a ventilation unit is
required.
The ventilation units are configured for houses with more families or for just a
uni-familial house with a controlled ventilation tower (Fig. 5).
280
Figure 5. Central ventilation system with heat recovery in the uni-familial house case
1 - aironomous heating economizer with air valves for fresh air feeding and evacuation, noiseless; 2 - air
element of evacuation; 3 - interior feeding air element with fresh air-airing; 4 - feeding element with fresh air
from outside through roof wall.
A central ventilation system with or without heat recovery is used, or individual
systems for bathroom, kitchen, toilets. Their functioning is noiseless, the airing being with
automatic adjustment control and usually protected against fire, smog, acoustics; the
components are incorporated in the installation unit. The energetic saving through heat
recovery is up to 90% through heat exchanger.
The driving panel placed in the living space offers the possibility to select three
different airing steps depending on the needs.
The geodesic dome - possible house of the future
Until now the dome was well known as a monumental vaulted building with a
hemispherical shape.
Lately, many houses were realized in o dome shape.
The surface of the dome is realized from regular polygons, mostly regular
equilateral triangles, as well as pentagons (the structure of carbon) or hexagons.
The hemispherical structure allows the house to cover a small surface area; for
example the dome having a 12,5 m diameter realizes o useful area about 200 m2.
The shape of the wooden dome having walls with 40 cm thickness assures a very
high resistance: supports winds having over 350 km/h speed and earthquakes about 8,5°
on Richter scale (Fig. 6).
281
Figure 6. Geodesic dome type 3V/HT/D/1400 + 2 entrance standard extensions, realized
in 2010 in Prahova, Izvoarele village.
The structure mass is small, doesn’t need o solid basement and can be realized
also without concrete.
The structure of the dome is imposing through the absence of angles that leads
to a complete space use; the windows can be put in position in one of the polygons in any
place wanted.
The dome can be associated with exterior spaces of extension such as the
entrance portico, garage, kitchen, glass-house…
Conclusions
o
o
o
o
o
The intensive use of ecological and recyclable materials;
Dwellings climatization with heat recovery;
Preoccupations regarding the accomplishments of extensions-components
associated to the interior habitable space having passive qualities towards
exterior energies and environment;
The research and design development regarding the passive houses trying to
reach the zero energetic building from exterior, meaning the total passive
house;
The elaboration of technical guides and constructive normatives to build
passive houses de case.
Selective bibliography
[1] Kincses, S., ş.a. (2007). Casă pasivă independentă, Buletin AGIR nr. 3/2007, ISSN 1224-7928.
[2] Mazilu, D., I. (2010). Domul Geodezic posibilă casă a viitorului. Hiparion Magazines, aprilie 2010.
[3] Ochinciuc, C-V. (2006). Arhitectura şi schimbarea climatică. Editura Universitară Ion Mincu, Bucureşti.
[4] * * * Instalaţii de ventilare. Prospect Maico.
[5] * * * (2010) Casă Multi-Confort construcţii pentru viitor. Hiparion Magazines, aprilie 2010.
282
th
4
th
Section 11 - LEARNING IN FAMILY
th
Alina Sanda VASILE, Manuela Mihaela CIUCUREL/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
Family Risk Factors for Juvenile Delinquency: a Descriptive
Analysis
Alina Sanda VASILEa, Manuela Mihaela CIUCURELb
a,b
Abstract
Family is the place where primary socialization occurs and the bases of social
control are laid down; its failure to accomplish those functions leads to deviance and
delinquency. To illustrate this we have conducted a research in three juvenile correctional
facilities from Romania. Family dysfunctionalities were found to be associated with
behaviour problems and repeated delinquency. Recommendations are made on the need to
support and assist at risk families and at risk children. Also, the Probation Service and the
Prison Service must work with the families of juvenile offenders in order to increase the
chances of community post-release adjustment.
Keywords: young offenders / detention / risk factors / family disfunctionalities.
1. Theoretical background of the study
1.1. The role of the family in child and adolescent development
A basic structure of social life, family is the main socialization agent. Primary
socialization - the process by which we become members of society through internalizing
norms, values and behavioural models - takes place in family; here we learn ways of
interacting with others and the basis of social attachment are laid. Family is considered to
be the frame for personality development; it has profound and persistent influences on the
whole evolution of the individual – but those influences may be positive or negative. A
positive primary socialization facilitates social integration, while the failure of it leads to
deviance and even delinquency.
Psychologists like P. Watzlawick (1972) see family as a system – open to the
environment, stable and yet in a continuous evolution (apud Born, 2005).
Modern days have brought changes in family structure and functionality
(Mitrofan, 1989): parents have more job duties and responsibilities, they may work on
shifts or take a second job; thus, time available for family life, for spending time with the
children and monitoring children’s evolution, has decreased. In addition, children have
become increasingly involved in a lot of after-school, community activities (recreational,
cultural, sport activities) (Quinn, 2004).
Nevertheless, the basic roles of the parents in relation to their children have
remained the same:
o to care for children’s health;
o to offer material support;
o to offer emotional security, the feeling of being loved;
o to ensure a secure, calm, equitable family environment;
o to share personal life experiences;
284
o
o
to help children learn about science and culture;
to encourage moral behaviour in children: genuine care for the others,
compassion, helping others, establishing positive relations with others, not
hurting others;
o to involve children in community activities.
A basic family function is the educational one – prominent especially in the first
years of life. Parents are the first teachers for their children. The education is a non-formal
one, based on examples, observation and imitation, rewarding desirable behaviours and
sanctioning non-desirable ones. Ideally, family educates children to have a positive
attitude towards work and to respect formal and informal social laws – making thus
possible the social control (as internalized behavioural control).
1.2. Family risk factors for delinquency and deviance
The failure of fulfilling its basic functions can turn family from an institution of
socialization and social control in a risk factor for a number of emotional problems,
behavioural deviances and delinquency.
Family characteristics associated with such negative outcomes are:
o family disorganization (by divorce, separation, family abandonment);
o ignoring the material needs of the child;
o persistent emotional rejection of the child (Pitulescu, 1995); not encouraging
sincere and open expression of feelings may lead the child to become
estranged from the family;
o wrong educational practices: a strict or chaotic disciplinary system; poor
child monitoring (parents know nothing about their child’s school evolution,
how he / she spends his / her free time, what kind of friends he / she has);
concentrating on child’s faults and ignoring his / her qualities; labelling the
child based on undesirable behaviours („bad child”, “trouble-making child”);
o family violence directly experimented or witnessed by the child; this
situation leads to anxiety, the perception of family environment as unsafe
and learning an aggressive way of reacting. Punishing a child has two main
negative consequences: it teaches the child that every problem can be solved
by punishment and does not help the child prevent such conflicts or solve
them in a non-aggressive manner; like in a vicious circle, punishment
reinforces a distorted view of the world (Mircea et al., 2004);
o promoting negative attitudes towards laws, work and other people;
o ignoring or punishing prosocial behaviours and rewarding and encouraging
deviant behaviours – pushing children into prostitution, theft, beggary;
o providing negative (delinquent) behavioural models; although a child may
also reject such models, the mechanisms of psychosocial learning intervene
very often (the power of example, imitation – especially if the person being
imitated is an admired one).
Numerous studies have spoken about the transmission of delinquency within
family. West and Farrington (1977) have found that half of the boys whose fathers were
delinquents are sentenced for different acts, compared to just a fifth for those whose
fathers were non-criminal (Gelder, Gath, & Mayon, 1994). Negative socialization in the
family is associated with personality disturbances; conventional social rules are rejected
and antisocial norms are promoted.
285
1.3. Studies on family risk factors for delinquency
Numerous studies have been conducted in an attempt to capture the family risk
factors for adolescent delinquency; among those we mention the study of Sheldon and
Eleanor Glueck (United States 1950), the Cambridge Longitudinal Study (United States,
1992 – 1997) and the studies conducted in Romania by Ion Pitulescu (1992-1994) and the
Romanian Ministry of Justice (2003-2004).
The importance of family risk factors for delinquency was first outlined by
Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck. In 1939-1950, they have conducted in the United States a
longitudinal comparative study on a sample of 500 delinquent adolescents and 500 nondelinquent adolescents; as a result of their work, they published the classic book
“Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency”. Their study outlined the link between family
dysfunctionalities and adolescent delinquency; they found that delinquents’ families were
different by non-delinquents’ ones in eight major aspects: the stability of the residence;
the quality of the habitat; the economic situation; the family structure; the behavioural
characteristics of the family; the quality of family life and family relations (Born, 2005).
Another well-known longitudinal study that investigated the impact of family
factors on delinquency in adolescence and adult life was conducted by D.P. Farrington
(1992, 1997 - Cambridge Longitudinal Study).
A recently conducted study on a sample of first-time juvenile offenders in the
United States and their families outlined the following risk factors for behavioural
deviance and delinquency (Quinn, 2004):
o poor parental monitoring; just a little over half of the interviewed parents
(56%) said that they knew how their children spend their free time;
o communication problems between adolescents and parents; communication
was assessed using Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale conceived by
Barnes & Olson (1982 / 1985); the scale includes 20 items referring to
family cohesion and satisfaction towards the communication process in the
family (item examples: „I found it easy to talk with my mother about my
problems”, “My mother understands my point of view”; “My child nags me /
bothers me”, “I openly display affection towards my child”);
o family dysfunctionality; this aspect was assessed using a family functioning
scale, The Family Apgar, developed by Smilkstein (1978); the scale includes
five items (rated on a three-point scale) assessing dimensions of family life
that are known to contribute to child well-being (stress, psychosocial
adjustment problems, perceived support).
The researchers also noted discrepancies between adolescents’ assessments and
parents’ assessments – compared to their parents, adolescents used to report a lower level
of family functionality. This different perception may be explained by the fact that
adolescents are misunderstood or disapproved by their parents for expressing
dissatisfaction with family life.
Similar results were obtained in Romania. In 1992-1994, Ion Pitulescu conducted
a research on a sample of one thousand adolescent offenders from Gaesti Reeducation
Center, Targu Ocna Reeducation Center and several county jails. A number of variables
associated with juveniles’ behavioural deviance were identified: criminal records of
family members (in 50% of the cases, the father had a criminal record); continuous
quarrels at home (70%); frequent acts of domestic violence (40%); divorce (25%);
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psychopathological disorders in parents (7%); fathers’ alcoholism (50%); low parental
educational attainment (37%); corporal punishments inflicted on children (52%); negative
affective climate (85%). Based on this data Ion Pitulescu sustained Travis Hirschi’s theory
(1969), asserting that the primary cause of juvenile delinquency is the failure of
socialization, of the process of implementing social control in the individual – failure
accountable by the lack of adequate parental models (Pitulescu, 2000).
A large quantitative study conducted in 2003-2004 by the Romanian Ministry of
Justice draw a portrait of the families of juvenile offenders (14-18 years of age)
(Romanian Ministry of Justice, 2005):
o more than half of the juveniles came from organized (legally constituted)
families; the rest came from monoparental families, from concubinage
relationships or were abandoned and institutionalized children;
o in 19% of the cases the parents were separated;
o conflicts between parents were found in 31% of the cases, and child-parent
conflicts were identified in 55% of the cases;
o in 55% of the cases the family environment was identified as a violent one,
the child being a witness and / or a victim of these acts of violence
(physically abused children, children driven away from home);
o most of the parents were workers (41%); a high percentage of them (17%)
had no job (lack of a job being frequently associated with a very low
instructional level and a very precarious economic situation).
2. Research Methodology
2.1. Purpose of the study
The aim of the present study was to outline the family risk factors for
delinquency in detained youths. This is very important because family risk factors for
delinquency are also risk factors for institutional maladjustment and subsequent
community maladjustment and recidivism. It is also important for prevention; intervening
at the family level may help reduce deviant and delinquent behaviors in adolescents.
2.2. Participants
The study on family risk factors for delinquency was part of a larger descriptive
research on the risk factors for delinquency, carried on from October 2006 to March 2007
in three juvenile correctional facilities in Romania. This research had two components:
o a quantitative component; a number of 64 youths form the Gaesti
Reeducation Center were included in the analysis (representing all the
juveniles detained there at the time of the study: January – February 2007);
their age varied from 14 to 17 years (with a mean age of 16.06 years); 87.5%
of them were males and 48.4% came from urban areas;
o a qualitative component; a sample of 25 youths from three juvenile detention
centers in Romania (Buzias Reeducation Center, Gaesti Reeducation Center
and Craiova Youths Penitentiary) was included in the analysis.
2.3. Measures
In the qualitative exploratory study, the interview method (a qualitative research
method) was used. Data were gathered using semi-structured interviews conducted with
287
juveniles. These interviews tried to capture the structure and climate of juvenile offenders’
families.
In the quantitative study, a more objective method of data-gathering was used:
the retrospective analysis of official documents. Using special, standard coding sheets data
were collected from the prison files – files that include information about the social
history and the family environment of every inmate.
3. Results
Data from the quantitative study were analyzed using descriptive statistics
procedures. Results were analyzed also in light of the qualitative information provided by
the interviews conducted with the juveniles.
As for the family type, in over three quarters of the cases (81.2%) the child came
from a disorganized family (by divorce or death of a parent), and in just 18.8% of the
cases the family was legally constituted. Family abandonment was encountered many
times - an event that took place especially at child’s birth or in infancy; there were cases
when the child did not know one or both of his / her natural parents. Stepparenting, also
frequently encountered, is sometimes even more problematic that the lack of a parent.
Family disorganization is associated with a multitude of negative consequences:
children sent in foster homes; children raised by relatives totally disinterested by their
evolution or well-intended, but excessively permissive - and only occasionally visited by
their parents; lack of a stable and secure home; inability to form stable attachments.
In other cases, although legally constituted, the family was in fact disorganized
by separation or was a dysfunctional type of family - characterized by permanent conflicts
and family violence, inadequate educational practices, lack of interest in the faith of the
children (parents not being involved at all in child upbringing and education).
A lot of juveniles, although they had a family, grew up in foster homes or on the
streets. Neglected, banished from home, sent to steal or to beg, have grown up from
infancy “on the streets”, have chosen to leave home, to loaf and to engage in delinquent
acts.
Juvenile I.M. recalled during the interview how he left home when he was six
years old – a decision motivated by the permanent conflicts at home: “My parents used to
quarrel all the time, to hit each other...sometimes they hit us (the children) too....” The
juvenile stayed with his relatives until he was ten years old; after that, he was sent to an
orphanage. His younger brother, to whom the juvenile was strongly attached to, was
brought in the same institution. In spite of parental rejection, the juvenile tried repeatedly
to get in contact with his parents.
The family environment may be criminogenic in many respects. For example, in
31 of the cases (almost half, 48.4%) a criminal record in the family could be identified especially for several members of the family (in six cases, the natural or adoptive father
was convicted for a criminal act; in ten cases, a brother or a sister; in 15 cases, several
members of the family). For example, a lot of the juveniles sentenced for robbery had
relatives sentenced for a wide range of violent acts (homicide, rape, incest, severe
aggression). The existence of criminal records in the family equals with the existence of
criminal models; thus it is learned not only a delinquent behaviour, but an entire
delinquent way of life. In these cases the family not only failed to socialize juveniles in
288
the pro-social direction, but also contributed directly to their negative socialization by
offering criminal models and by encouraging criminal acts (children sent to steal, praised
for hitting other children etc.). The antisociality of the environment that juveniles will reenter after release from prison, coupled with the precariousness of post-penal assistance in
Romania, reduce the chances of an adequate resocialization and authentic social
reintegration.
Another problem is represented by alcohol dependence in the family. In our
sample, this was the case in over half of the cases (54.7%). Drinking was often associated
with domestic violence – a major psychotraumatizing situation for juveniles to witness.
We must also note that often pathological drinking characterized the entire family.
Alcoholism and the presence of neurological or psychiatric symptoms in parents
complicate the etiologic context of juvenile delinquency.
This was the case of juvenile B.O.; both of his parents were alcohol dependent
and quarreled frequently; the father used to get physically violent and throw the mother
out of home. The father used to tell to his child how he committed the homicide for which
he spent eight years in prison. The grandfather was sentenced for attempted murder of his
son (!), with the child being witness at the event. Under those circumstances, the child
abandoned school and run away from home. He was taken care by social assistance
services and put in a foster home - but he ran also from the institution, committing several
offences (theft and robbery).
There are many other cases when a strong emotional trauma could be identified
in child’s personal history: emotional, physical and /or sexual abuses (for example,
beating the child as an “educative method” seems to be preferred by the parents of
detained youths), victimization of a close person (violent death of a family member) etc.
Another investigated dimension was the economic situation of the family –
which was, in most of the cases (73.4%), precarious. But, still, in 17 cases the material
situation of the family was assessed as medium or good. The families of some of the
juveniles lived in extreme poverty - for example in dwellings consisting of a single room,
with no electricity and water supply. This was mainly the consequence of the low
educational level of the parents and the lack of a stable job - a fact that could not ensure
constant family incomes. Data were available for only 43 of the subjects (67.18%). In
almost three quarters of the cases (72%) none of the parents had a stable job, while in just
three cases both parents had a stable job. Parents of juvenile offenders were usually
involved in seasonal activities, a fact that did not ensure constant incomes. Under these
circumstances, some live from social assistance support; also, illicit ways of earning
money were encouraged: theft, beggary. Lack of adequate living conditions and
insufficiency of financial resources (lack of money to buy food, clothes and school
supplies) deprive the juveniles of an evolution in accordance with their needs and socially
disables them. Family poverty and, many times, poverty in the local community plead for
the relevance of socio-economic factors in the genesis of delinquency. On the other hand,
poverty may be an at-hand excuse: many juveniles blame poverty and family difficulties
to justify their criminal acts.
A descriptive synthesis of the data is presented in the table below.
289
Table 1. Juvenile offenders – family characteristics
type of family
criminal record in the family
alcohol dependency in the family
parents having a stable job (valid N = 43)
economic situation of the family
Juveniles
disorganized (81.2%)
yes (48.4%)
yes (54.7%)
none of the parents (72%)
precarious (73.4%)
legally constituted (18.8%)
not identified (51.6%)
not identified (45.3%)
one or both parents (28)
medium or good (26.6)
Another variable that interested us in the analysis was represented by the current
relations between the juveniles and their families. This variable reflects how much the
families care for the children and implicitly children’s social support network – having a
major role in their reintegration upon release. The situation varies very much from one
youth to another. There are some juveniles whose parents live hundreds of kilometers
away and / or are poor and yet show interest for their children and support them morally
and affectively (come by to visit, sent packages, keep in touch by letters and telephone
calls). But there are also juveniles whose families live nearby the detention units and yet
do not come by to visit them – causing them a lot of suffering. Those parents have never
cared for the children or refuse to hear anymore about the children accusing them of
“making the family ashamed in front of the community”.
4. Conclusions
Obtained data point out the following family risk factors for delinquency: family
disorganization (divorce, separation); child and family abandon; the presence of
stepparents; family violence; child neglect; large families; poor families; alcoholism and
psychiatric disorders in the family; family criminality; pro-criminal attitudes in the family;
lack of parental monitoring; lack of parental involvement in child upbringing; history of
foster care etc.
The risk factors discussed so far are often associated with individual risk factors
(sensation seeking, impulsiveness, susceptibility to peer-group pressure, low intellectual
level, low frustration tolerance, tendency to externalize responsibility etc.), and thus
increase the probability of a juvenile’s involvement in delinquent acts. The risk factors for
delinquency associate in various combinations, increasing the risk in geometrical
progression.
Family dysfunctionalities have numerous negative consequences, ranging from
emotional and social maladjustment to delinquency, detention and subsequently to
correctional maladjustment and community maladjustment after release.
That is why social policies must support and assist at risk families and at risk
children. Besides this primary prevention, attention must be paid to reducing the risk of
re-offending by juveniles. Family is, theoretically, one of the key-points in stopping
recidivism; but in fact many times it bears a lot of responsibility not only for initiating but
also for perpetuating criminal behavior – by deprivation and imitation mechanisms.
Recognizing these realities, the Probation Service and the Prison Service collaborate to
develop correctional programs that try to improve the current relation of the juveniles with
their family, thus increasing the chances of community post-release adjustment.
290
References
Born, M. (2005). Psychologie de la Delinquance. Bruxelles: De Boeck & Larcier s.a.
Gelder, M., Gath, D. & Mayon, R. (1994). Oxford Psychiatry Treatise. Bucharest: A.P.L.R. Publishing House.
Mircea, T., Iftene, F., Dobrescu, I., Stan, V., Secară, O., Călin, A., Bacos, D., Dreana, L. & Vrăjitoru, M. (2004).
Handbook of children and adolescents psychopathology and mental health (vol.I). Timişoara: Artpress
Publishing House.
Mitrofan, I. (1989). Conjugal couple. Harmony and disharmony. Bucharest: Scientific and Encyclopedic
Publishing House.
Pitulescu, I. (1995). Juvenile delinquency. Bucharest: Al.I. Cuza Police Academy Publishing House.
Pitulescu, I. (2000). Juvenile criminality. The „Homeless children” phenomenon. Bucharest: National Publishing
House.
Quinn, W.H. (2004). Family solutions for youth at risk: applications to juvenile delinquency, truancy, and
behavior problems. Taylor and Francis Books, Inc.
Romanian Ministry of Justice (2005). Practices and norms concerning the juvenile justice system in Romania.
Retrived from: http://www.irp.md/files/1197642415_ro.pdf.
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4
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How Mothers and Daughters View Each Other in Finland,
Romania and Turkey
Kari Kotirantaa, Alina Cucub
Sastamala Community College, Finland
b
“Petru Poni” College, Onesti
a
Abstract
The theoretical basis of this research is Rauhala's analysis of meaning
relationships. This analysis is based on the phenomenological views of Husserl. Human
beings are organized through meaning relationships. Meaning relationships define
consciousness. The purpose of this research is to determine if there are differences in the
meaning relationships and relations between mothers and daughters in Finland, Romania
and Turkey. In addition, we wanted to explore the differences that were observed. The
approach was essentially qualitative, supplemented by some statistical tests. The main
result is that there are differences between how mothers and daughters see their daughters
and mothers, respectively, in different countries.
Keywords: mother and daughter relationships; meaning relationships
1. Introduction
This study is based on the material gathered during the Grundtvig 2 project. The
name of the project is True Interaction. The aim of the project is to help the adolescent
girls and their mothers to understand each other and themselves. The countries involved
in this project are Turkey as coordinator, Austria, Finland, Italy, Lithuania, Romania and
Spain. From those countries four religious orientations were represented – Islamic, Roman
Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant. Every culture has its own views on the role of mother
and daughter in the family.
Study groups of mother – daughter pairs have been observed in each of the
countries. Completed research material is currently available from Turkey, Romania and
Finland.
2. Background
2.1. Analysis of meaning relationships
The theoretical basis is Rauhala's (1974, 1978, 1989) analysis of meaning
relationships. This analysis is based on the phenomenological views of Husserl (1931).
Rauhala (1974) and other psychologists studying phenomenology have defined that the
human is realized in the three basic modes of existence: 1. bodily existence, corporeality
(existence as an organic process); 2. consciousness (existence as an experience of being
Kari Kotiranta, Alina Cucu / Procedia – Edu World 2010
aware of himself); 3. situationality (existence as relationships to the world within one's
individual life setting or situation).
Figure 1. Relationship between consciousness, corporeality and situation
The wholeness of a human being is organized into meaning relationships.
Impacts on human consciousness are from the situation, organic existence and action.
Meaning relationships define consciousness. Consciousness can form a number of
meaning relationships to the same object. They are not necessarily coherent, instead they
may be in conflict with each other. People give their environment objects meaning
relationships. For example, this garment is important for me, because it reminds me of an
important meeting. Mother and daughter provide each other with meaning relationships.
To be a mother or to be a daughter are important components of situation, but
they are only a small part of each other's components of life. Other components include
mother’s job, daughter’s school, friends, hobbies, etc. Those are all examples of the other
components of life, situation.
2.2. Research of mothers and daughters
Meaning relationships have been categorised into attributes such as warm and
restrictive, both of which can describe the relations between mothers and daughters.
Laurila (1999) studied similarities and differences in self-image between foster children
and children who lived in their birth homes. The role of foster mother was important to
the girls’ mental well-being. Laurila (1999) recognizes five types of mothers.
o Restricts and loves: warm, restrictive, fair, not victimizing
o Martyr mother, good: warm, restrictive, fair, victimizing
o Martyr mother, not fair: warm, restrictive, not fair, victimizing
o Mother as friend: warm, not restrictive, fair, not victimizing
o Cold authority: not warm, restrictive, not fair, victimizing
A mother’s feedback is important to the development of her daughter.
Harter (1999) defined six roles of adolescents with different people: with mother,
with father, with a romantic interest, with their best friend, with a group of friends and in
their role as student, in the classroom. The adolescent gets feedback in every one of these
roles. The adolescent’s self is different in every role. Contradictory messages from
different roles can lead to confusion about which characteristics to adopt. There are also
differences in cultural orientations. Culture and social groups offer identities to their
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individual members (Reeve, 2005). According to Rauhala (1974) there are different,
contradictory meaning relationships between the roles of adolescence and the self.
3. Methodology
The purpose of this research is to determine if there are differences in the
meaning relationships and relations between mothers and daughters in the three countries
studied. In addition, we wanted to explore the differences which were observed. The
approach was essentially qualitative, supplemented by some statistical tests.
3.1 Research method
Part of the research was carried out using a questionnaire form featuring 14 essay
questions, approaching the same subject aligned to the mother or daughter. Open
questions were chosen because it would have been difficult to establish a set of multiple
choice questions which would have been understood in the same way in all the surveyed
countries. For example, what a daughter's independence means to her in Finland, Romania
or Turkey. The understanding and comparing of concepts were difficult problems; open
questions allowed for interpretation of the meanings.
In this research we are discussing the first three questions on the questionnaire,
because they are the most relevant concerning the issue of family learning. Those open
questions presented sentences for the participants to continue. They were as follows:
1. My mother / daughter...
2. My mother / daughter and I do...
3. When I ask a question or explain something, my mother / daughter...
The questionnaires were, however, presented during the mother / daughter
course, so that mothers and daughters answered the questions separately, independently.
Mother – daughter pairs took part in this research, 13 pairs from Finland, 18 from
Romania and 21 from Turkey.
The responses to the questionnaire were analyzed and the entries were searched
for indications of the characteristics and behaviour of mothers and daughters. The entries
were classified based on the categories of scoring manual. In each country, local research
assistants made the classifications. The categories were based on pretesting. If the answer
did not fit into any category, the research assistant created a new category for the reply.
4. Results
4.1. Description of meaning relationships
The responses of the mothers and daughters to the open questions have been
collected in the following tables. In each table column, are the three most common
answers from the question forms. Every response shows meaning relationship in the mind
of the mother or daughter.
294
Table 1. The most common responses to the open question “My daughter...”
Table 1features responses of mothers, showing how they see their daughters. In
Finland and Turkey most responses are concerning appearance and essence. This category
of appearance and essence includes features such as beautiful, nice, good, very good and
so on. In Romania it would appear to be important that the daughter is obedient and works
hard.
Table 2. The most common responses to the open question “My mother...”
Table 2 shows that when a daughter in Finland and Romania speaks about her
mother, she first mentions appearance and essence. The appearance and essence category
has the same meaning here as it does in table 1. In Turkey the daughter feels herself to be
understood and sympathized with; her mother’s appearance and essence is in second
place.
Table 3. The most common responses to the open question “My daughter and I do...”
Table 3 shows mothers’ vision of what they do together with their daughters. The
kitchen and home category includes cooking, baking, tidying and so on. In Finland and
Romania most of the mothers say that those things are the most common things they do
together. Turkish mothers reply that they spend most time together talking; kitchen and
home is in second place.
295
Table 4. The most common responses to the open question “My mother and I
do...”
Table 4 shows that things are very different in the daughter’s mind. In Romania
and Turkey the kitchen and home category is the biggest. In Finland outside home
hobbies, like hiking, walking, going to the cinema and so on, are the most expressed
category.
Table 5. The most common responses to the open question “When I ask a question or
explain something, my daughter...”
Table 5 shows that in the mothers’ minds the daughters in Turkey do not listen.
In Finland mothers gave the same number of “listens” and “does not listen” responses.
But in all the countries the daughters answer their mothers.
Table 6. The most common responses to the open question “When I ask a question or
explain something, my mother...”
In table 6, the daughters feel that their mother wants to talk with them. The
mothers answer and listen.
4.2. Statistical description
For the analysis, the findings of answers given by mothers about their daughters
and vice versa (My daughter / My mother) were classified into two categories: appearance
296
and essence, and behaviour. Appearance and essence included categories such as
beautiful, good, nice, etc. Behaviour included features such as social, hard working, etc.
Classification was intended to clarify if there are differences in the responses of
the mothers / daughters in the three countries studied. Cross tabulation was made on the
basis of classification and the results were tested by chi-square test. Zero hypothesis was
that the answers are similar in all countries.
Table 7. Mothers’ responses classified, chi-square test
Table 8. Daughters' responses classified, chi-square test
Tables 7 and 8 show the chi-square test results of the mothers’ and daughters’
characteristics. The chi-square test was statistically significant (p <0.05), with the results
of both the daughters and of the mothers. This means that when a mother is thinking of
her daughter or a daughter is thinking of her mother, they evaluate each others differently
in the countries studied. This probably means that the perception of the characteristics of
mother or daughter depends on the cultural importance of features.
Table 9. Mothers' responses, at home and outside home activities, my daughter and I do,
chi-square test
297
Table 10. Daughters' responses, at home and outside home activities, my mother and I do,
chi-square test
Tables 9 and 10 show the results of the chi-square test of the at home and outside
home activities of the mothers and the daughters. In the minds of mothers there are more
outside home activities shared with daughters in Finland and Turkey than the daughters
think. Mothers’ responses are different in the countries studied. The result is statistically
significant (p<0.05). The responses of daughters are similar in each country. The result is
statistically non-significant.
5. Discussion
In general we can say that in all countries the daughter is a very important person
to the mother. The daughter receives feedback from her mother, which helps her form an
opinion of herself. The meaning relationships to her own body and to her mother get
stronger.
The main result is that there are differences between how mothers see their
daughters and daughters see their mothers in the different countries. There are also
differences within countries.
If we try to find mother types in this research as defined by Laurila (1999), there
could be the following types of generalizations: In Finland the mothers are more friends
with their daughters than in Romania and Turkey. In Turkey there might be more restricts
and love type mothers. In Romania, there are some indications of authority.
References
Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self (pp. 67-74). New York: The Guilford Press.
Husserl, E. (1931). Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Järvinen, P. (1992). On research into the individual and computing systems, Department of computer science
series of publications A A-1992-4 (pp. 13-14). University of Tampere.
Rauhala, L. (1989). Ihmisen ykseys ja moninaisuus. Helsinki: Sairaanhoitajien koulutussäätiö.
Laurila, A. (1999). Toinen Mahdollisuus (pp.141-142). Acta Universitatis Tamperensis 701. University of
Tampere.
Rauhala, L. (1978). Psykologia kokemustieteenä inhimillisestä kokemuksesta. Prof. Olavi Viitamäen 60-v.
juhlajulkaisu, pp. 149-165.
Rauhala, L. (1974). Psyykkinen häiriö ja psykoterapia filosofisen analyysin valossa (pp. 5-91). Helsinki: Weilin
+ Göös,
Reeve, J. (2005). Understanding motivation and Emotion (pp. 274-275). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The True Interaction Project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication
reflects the views only of the author and the Commission can not be held responsible for any use which may
be made of the information contained there in.
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4
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Psycho- Sociological Perspective Over the Values
Transmitted within the Family
Arsene Andreea
Abstract
The present study represents, first of all, a double interrogation for the Romanian
socio-cultural context and for the present position of the family within the current
background. Is Romania, a post-modern culture or still a society during the post
communist transition? What is going on with the Romanian family does it lose the
traditional values, does it borrow the Western lifestyle or is it just caught among the
cultural models, losing its identity?
The family is at the same time cause and effect. A community with broken values
at the level of the family, it shall have members uprooted from the traditions that give
sense for the everyday life, tear away from the norms that lead to being human. But in the
same time, the family as a mirror, it reflects and recoil on the harmony within the social
environment, it is pulled along in endless transitions, it is scared of the quick changes, of
the imposed styles coming from alien places.
The intention of this paper is that of following the evolution of the changes that
came up within the ethical-moral system of the Romanian contemporary family and
beyond the extraordinary variety of the individual profiles, to try to shape the common
features that characterize the Romanian family of the last 15-20 years. The postcommunist period emerged in Romanian along with a multitude of rapid changes,
sometimes too dramatic for being assimilated absorbed and processed; the economic
transition, the ongoing restructuration politic regime , alliances, turnovers- all being
inerrant consequences at the economic, educational and social level. If we consider the
extremely visible economic differences among the social classes, the uprising
unemployment rate, the internal migration and in particular the external one, and the
divorce and natality register rate we can speak of alterations at the level of the familial
nucleus , the norms, of the family's evolution as a social unity to a variety of forms
Keywords: Family, socio-cultural context, values, lifestyle
The present study is mainly a double interrogation regarding the social cultural
aspect of Romania and of the place the family takes at present. Is Romania a post-modern
culture or is it still a transitional society? What happens with the Romanian family, did it
lose its traditional values, did it borrow the western lifestyle or is it caught between
cultural models losing its identity?
Arsene Andreea / Procedia – Edu World 2010
The reason of this study is based on the author’s conviction that there always has
been a strong correlation between the man as a member of the social communitarian group
and the man as a member of his family. The social order comes to be seen within the
family structure, the morality of a community has a strong bound with keeping the moral
norms within the personal relationships.
The family is at the same time the cause and the social effect. A community with
altered family values will have its members’ estrangement of the traditions which make
sense keeping them apart of the norms which make them humans. But at the same time as
a mirror, the family reflects the animosity of a social medium, it is drawn in endless
transitions, is scared by too rapid changes by the styles imposed by strange places to her.
Maybe the most difficult thing to do is to define what we know best, what we
have daily, and the things that we find normal. We find the same difficulty in bringing
arguments on the study of the family and not on other things, why on values within the
family and not other contexts.
It is so normal to be born and to live in a family, to have as models our parents,
to do the things as they are done, to take joy from a wedding or a baptize, to get sad when
we lose someone dear, to work and raise our children as well as we can, to take care of the
old people to celebrate our ancestors so that without referring to definitions from law
books, sociology books, history and so on the family wouldn’t find its theoretical
beginnings. It seems indeed difficult to convince that the family is the center, the essence,
the reason that drives us in what we do as much as defining love, truth or personal ethics.
The purpose of this paper is to follow the evolution of the changes that have
occurred in the ethic moral system of contemporary Romania, and beyond the
extraordinary variety of individual profiles to try to catch the common features that have
characterized a Romanian family in the last 15-20 years.
The post communism period began in Romania with a lot of fast changes which
have been absorbed and re-evaluated: the economical transition, the political regime
constantly changing- with all the clear economical educational social changes.
If we also take into consideration the differences between the social layers, the
growth of unemployment, the growth of both inner and external migration and also if we
take into account the variability of the divorce rate and of birth rate then we can talk about
mutations on the family nucleus on the level of the norms of the evolution of the family as
a social unity towards a variety of forms.
20 years after 1989, a lot of phenomena have decreased as intensity ( for
instance the young specialized people migration has decreased), others have become
stable( after the peak 1992-1994 the number of divorces is constant).
Taking into consideration the fact that the family is the most sensitive social
unity at the changes of a community, we consider the interest within the evolution of the
contemporary Romanian family fully justified.
There have occurred clear changes within the relationships between the partners
at the level of the roles, at the level of the moral norms passed down on descendents. The
capitals society, strongly influenced by the media sends to us new norms which lead to
changes such as addressing form, expressing feelings more easily, being aware of the
rights of the woman and children, family structure, changing the educational perspective
and so on.
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While the Romanian folklore sends to obedience, hard-work, respect to old
people, pity, compassion the urban folklore, without denying the traditional values, forms
a young people centered on self-affirmation, self-value and self-development. Within the
context of world culture the norms of a society combine with others, they alter and
consequently the family will have to help the formation of European people capable to
deal professionally and personally in any type of culture.
Although they are purely philosophical notions the ethics and morals reveal
profound movements of a psychological order within the family and they enable us to
illustrate the significations of the roles of the parent, son, and relative.
The first part of the study will be based on the ethical discourse appealing to the
concepts of the philosophical history. Taking into account the fact that the family is made
up of separate individuals that are of specific personalities then we can confirm that the
moral personality is not a simple product of man’s natural and social determination, it is
the subject that identifies even anticipates the needs of its determination.
The modern philosophical thinking brings new perspectives on the family and its
moral dimension (Descartes, Spinoza Hobbes, Locke, Hume, Rousseau, and later on Kant
and J.S. Mill). The social changes, the introduction of some notions as the contractual
society vs. corporatist community, patriarchal family vs. nuclear family have also led to
norms changing and also to moral and psychological changes within the family. During
the Middle Ages the family used to be non-affective, centered on utility, having a family
was mainly done on economical or social issues, the children were used as labor force
starting with early ages.
Already starting with the VII-th century we deal with another type of
relationship, even if at the beginning only within the rich where marriages, although done
on economical and social issues, gave a greater importance to the education of their
descendents, stress is laid upon affective relationship and also on communication, a premodel of contemporary family. Easily we reach the family which works as a group in
which strong emotional bonds work, which has a great degree of privacy- what the
sociologists name affective individualism, marital relationships are done on personal
selection, led by sexual attraction or romantic love.
The roles and status between the marriage partners have been delimitated since
the beginning of history, at the beginning on biological criteria, later on religious
motivations (in Christianity the woman is the descendant of Eve, thus she bears the
original sin) when the difference between the genders became a real social norm.
The reverse was the issuing of a new philosophical trend at the end of the VIIIth
century, the feminism which defends the rights of the women in society, a movement
which became widely spread in the second half of the XIX-th century and which changed
for good the family structure.
The woman-man, natural-spiritual, fragile-strong, beautiful-manly dichotomy is
so much introduced in the genesis of thinking, in the social norms that the feminist
movement was often brought to an extreme, denying sometimes even the natural, the
biological. Many authors have laid the contemporary family crisis on the affirmation of
the woman as the man’s equal. There is research that proves that the woman because of
her features is closer to the communitarian ideal and the organic wish, while the man with
his activity based on reflection and decision seems to be closer to the ideal of the social
individual and of reflected wish.
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In a different chapter we will follow the evolution of the Romanian family, based
on a short historical and ethnological analysis, as the folklore is for certain historical
periods the only source. The good and evil, the beauty and ugliness, the hard work, the
honesty and faith, love, all these norms and values have been passed on through family
and small communities.
It is necessary to explain the key words in family’s psycho-sociology in order to
understand better the material: couple, marital partners, descendents, family functionssocializing, education, and solidarity.
Another point of the analysis will be the situation of the modern family, the
comparison between the Romanian society and other European societies, differences and
similarities , the consequences of assimilating external values on our culture and thus on
the couple and the family.
The global crisis on the family is obvious on the Romanian family too and the
social and political changes in our country are reflected on the way we raise our children,
on the way we react to the new way of life with its advantages and drawbacks. The
responsibility of the family in educating children is accompanied by the educational
institutions; consequently we can say that the ethic and moral heritage that we pass on has
extremely various connotations.
The issues that have to be detailed in order to get an impression on ethics in the
Romanian family in the post-revolution era can be separated in a few categories:
Conflicts that have to do with the role and status, as in a capitalist economy,
completely different from that of 15-20 years ago, both marital partners are involved in
achieving the family’s budget. In support of this idea the feminism, as a concept and way
of living, will have a special place in the present text.
The classical gap between generations seems to have other dimensions in a
capitalist society; values such as the respect for the elders, respecting the rules imposed by
parents are replaced or at least added to communication, respecting the wishes of all
family members, the egalitarian system.
The new forms of co-existing, which did not exist in the past, have imposed new
perspectives on the family. While up to the 19th a family divided only if one of the spouses
died and getting re-married was consequently understood, in the post-modern society
there are numerous mono-parental families which sustain themselves economically and
which perform the main part of the family functions.
The divorce is a social, demographic, cultural phenomenon that has become
accepted by the society recently. From a personal research within the Law Court’s
archives in Bucharest from approximately 100 files more than 90% had as reason
behavioral misunderstandings. It is very probable that behind this pretty unclear formula
to lay arguments such as abandon, alcoholism, adultery, etc. but what is certain is the fact
that the conflict on a psychological level between two husbands has become a real and
sufficient reason.
Besides the mono-parental family there is a large variety of ways of living
together so that it is often said that the notion of the family has become a context without
a basis.
There are couples that cohabitate as they feel constrained by the legal act of
marriage, there are also the half-marriages (a new family experiment which intends to
make the marriage last longer from a legal point of view, despite the main changes or the
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deterioration of the partners’ relationship), the pseudo-marriage (such as conventional
marriage),marriages between homosexual couples that are debated and also a source of
social, religious, political tension, more rare, swingers( changing voluntarily and
temporarily partners with a sexual purpose). The morality of these forms could be the
subject of a research paper.
Those who “benefit” indirectly from these changes are the children. We don’t
know if we could analyze ethically or morally phenomena such as abandon, incest,
aggression but the present paper has no intention to detail the anomaly or family
psychopathology. In numerous studies we find the idea that we bear the patterns and
traumas of the family. I t is a possible explanation of juvenile delinquency, a visible and
alarming social phenomenon. Which are the values of these young people, what type of
families they come from and with what type of norms heritage is another theme of debate
for humanists. The modern anthropology reveals the apparition of juvenile urban culture,
the so called youngster gangs which have a very strong influence on the new-comers. The
economical differences among young people give advantages to those with a higher
material status and consequently a stronger influence on the others. Mass-media is often
blamed for as a source of disruptive behaviour, especially among teenagers and young
people.
Giving reason for choosing the family as a subject
A first reason would be the fact that it exists in any social and cultural space and
in all the times, in so many forms that cannot be seen in any other type of human
association. And to sustain even more this we could add that the family is the space with
the most feelings, the space where the feelings are at most, where what we feel for the
beloved one prevails our life, the concern for our child is the most important thing in life,
the joy you feel when you are loved, taken care after, proud of the other members is
incomparable to anything else.
And last but not least the reason of the present study of the family is what we all
live in what some call globalization, multi-culture or post-modernism, in other words the
infusion from and to other cultures in what represents exactly the ethnical pattern of the
traditional communities. The cultures mingle as the borders have become more and more
confuse, the freedom of movement has become common practice, the lifestyles cannot be
placed entirely on a certain space or area. What has been expected happened, the young
societies have received cultural infusions from mature societies, they have often restored
at a collective unconscious level to adapting norms and rites they weren’t prepared for.
Despite all these the cultural identity seems to become stronger taking in a dual way the
form of what we call post-modernism.
The idea that sustains the present study, more precisely a profound belief in the
author’s consciousness is connected with the fact that the family is on a transitory stage,
that what mass-media calls the end of the family is but a process of de-structuralization, of
searching the new forms adapted to what we call social post-modernism.
And last but not least another reason for choosing the present subject is the fact
that the present paper is addressed to the family, as a dominant theme in the personal
professional evolution. The study of the family is an old time preoccupation for the
author. The university and MBA studies have been devoted to the family more precisely
to the Romanian family anthropology. The formation as a psychotherapist within the
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couple and family therapy enlarges the personal interest in the wide universe of the
relationship within the family.
At the beginning the research had as a purpose the study of the positive aspects
of the values that have to be promoted within the after1989 families. We have also tried to
make a clear distinction between what the family in the communist regime promoted and
the family norms in a transitory society.
I have to make clear the fact that I have often intended to change the title of the
work, to make it clear that the family that is to be presented is rather a post-modern family
than a post-December family. I found the expression of post-modernism more suitable and
more comprehensible as there one could find the opening to variety and the culture of
diversity, the society time and everything that means globalization.
Thus the question whether the Romanian family is truly post-modern has
occurred. Is there in practice a desire for multi-culture or we rather appreciate the norms,
the stability and the traditional. Do we praise what is modern and foreign but not when it
comes to our family? These questions and many others urge me to ask another question
whether we are rather modern and post-modern in attitudes.
Surprisingly and not the western societies have noticed a coming back on the
traditional family with two or more children that have closer relationships with their
grandparents, grandparents who not long time ago have been fired from the nuclear group,
families that are afraid of dissolution and that express love and loyalty towards
themselves.
And although two decades have passed since the political changes in our country,
I remained at the initial choice of the title as from a personal perspective the present
family is caught between ages and cultural models in a continuously search for security
and thirst for what is new, between the Romanian cultural archetype and the newly built
model of post-modernism.
References
Badescu Ilie, 1997, Teoria latentelor, Editura Isogep-Eu, Bucureşti
Badescu Ilie, Dungaciu Dan, Baltasiu Radu, 1996, Istoria sociologiei – teorii contemporane, Editura Eminescu,
Bucureşti
Boas, Franz - Anthropology and Modern Life, Dover Publications, New York, 1962
Clifford, James, The Predicament of Culture, Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature and Art, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge and London, 1988
Compte-Spondville Andre, Mic tratat al marilor virtuti, Editura Univers, Bucureşti, 1998
Draghicescu D., Din psihologia poporului roman, Editura Historia, Bucureşti, 2006,
Ghinoiu Ion, Panteonul românesc.Dicţionar, Editura Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 2001
Giddens Anthony, Sociologie, Editura BIC ALL, Bucureşti, 2000
Hume David, Eseuri politice, Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2005
Mill John Stuart, Utilitarismul, Editura Alternative, Bucureşti, 1994
Popper Karl, Societatea deschisă şi duşmanii ei, Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti, 1993
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th
4
th
th
The feminism and Its Role in the Transformation of the
Traditional Family
Arsene Andreeaa, Darie Despa Nadinab
a,b
Abstract
The feminism is a social and a political movement at the same time, but the
cultural valences cannot be denied. In its cultures phase, the feminism supposed the
intellectual emancipation of the woman, the rise of the education and instruction level, the
access to science, educational system, arts and culture in a equal manner with the men,
from this perspective the feminism was defined as “a desire of the cult women from the
entire world towards a new life in favor of their sex and in total equality with the public
life of the men” (E. Bogdan)”
The feminism philosophy and the genders ethics were presented into a detailed
chapter, in order to replenish the contemporary family.
From the need to build a theoretical basis for the analysis of what a couple within
the Romanian post- modernism family means , we hope that in terms of anthropology,
feminism, globalization, migration we could have an argument to explain what we have
called the ethics of the post- modern Romanian family.
Keywords: feminism, family, post-modernism, genders ethics
The feminism approach is a delicate one, sometimes avoided even by the women,
no t only rejected by manhood. In nowadays perception, the feminism represents the
etiquette wore by those “fanatics’ who” deny” the classic role of women, who pledge for
equality and even more who want to prove that they are superior to men. “they”, and even
this plural form of” she” lays down a barrier in order to keep away the pro-feminists from
the others, not to implement their idea, so in this case “they” shall declare the equality
between women and men, that the woman is ware of her power to take decisions, that she
wants to be independent not only from her family she grew in but also from the family she
built together with her husband, financially, professional, morally and intellectually
independent.
The richest references to Romanian feminism are found In Mrs. Mihaela Miroiu
works; she was a polythologist and an ethical, theoretician and feminist militant.
As a politics theoretician she analyzed the non-liberal democracy in post
communism (Romania. Starea De Fapt, In Colab.), left conservatorism( retro society
1999); politics like post communism society an syndrome she named “ room-service
feminism”( Drumul Catre Autonomie, 2004). She published. The Shadow Thought (
Gandul Umbrei). Feminism approaches in the contemporary philosophy, 1995(post
modernism and feminism) and Convenio. About nature , women and ethics, 1996( the
Arsene Andreea, Darie Despa Nadina/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
approach of ethics from the convenient idea perspective) she initiated in Romania, the
reformation of the philosophy study( 1990-1993), programmes of civic culture and for
high schools(1995), specialized studies(1994-1997), doctoral studies in politics( 2000),
first collection of Studies( Editura Polirom 2000) the research and ethic codes in
universities( 20005). She published in cultural media: Magazine 22, attitudes, Dilema,
Cultural Observator. The synthesis of her feminist articles was published in vol
.Nepetuitele femei(2006) and that of the articles based on political ethics shall be
published in vol. Dincolo de Ingeri si draci. The Romanian political ethics( in progress
2007) is worldwide known by the articles written and by the conferences based on the
political ethics, the analysis of transition and feminist theory. The feminism is the doctrine
which forecasts the improvement and extension of the women role within the society,
women related to profession, chances, social relevance etc, and the movement which
militates for this.
It represents the pledge for women’s rights and has significations as the
systematic oppression of the women and the nature of their relationships, which are
unchangeable.
The feminism has its origins, historically, from the liberation and emancipation
movements raised from the French Revolution. At the beginning it was a variant of”
style” of the furrieries or Saint-Simion doctrines, the feminism started to militate for the
equality in rights (vs. “suffragette” movement from Great Britain) under the influence of
some well known female writers who explained the humiliating and subaltern condition of
the women in front of the modern society, the feminism started in the early 70’s as a
militant movement (vs. Women’s Lib, famous feminist association from United States).
The feminist movements claimed the essential right of women that of being the sole
owner of their bodies- and abolition of all kinds of discrimination, social, professional,
etc.
Feminist ethics: the idea that the virtue is differential on genres, and the
standards and the moral criteria are different for men and women, and it is essential for the
ethical thinking of many philosophers. The beginning of such an idea of” feminist ethics”
and feminine shapes of virtue constituted the fundamental context for a great part of the
ethical feminist thinking and it dates from the XVIII century within the industrialized
societies, this century was the main witness for the beginning of the feminist matters and
of the female consciousness, very tight bound to the changes occurred within the female
social situation.
More and more, for the middle class women, the home did not represent the only
the work and taking care of the members of her family. A woman could gain her safety by
marriage, from which she was economically dependent on, and for the unmarried woman
the perspective was trivial. At the same time, the women become more and more
dependent on en practically as well as materially, and the XVIII century marked the
beginning of the family life idealization as well as glorification of the marital status,
which remained very important also during the XIX century. A sentimental vision of the
wife, loyalist mother but virtuous and idealized, started to dominate a great part of the
XVIII and XIX centuries thinking.
The thought that the virtue is differential on genres, is essential, for example in
Rousseau philosophy. In Emile, Rousseau explained that those qualities which are
interpreted as mistakes with regards to men are virtues to women. Rousseau’s justification
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with regards to the female virtues is related to his idealized vision of the rural family and
of the simplicity of life which may countervail the improper behaviour of the city, by
considering that the women could became virtuous only by their qualities as wives and
mothers. But they virtue is based , also, on the dependence and obedience within the
marriage; after Rousseau thinking, an independent woman or one that followed her scopes
not related to the family well being, lost her quality for which she was honoured and
wanted.
The concept of differential virtues on genres of Rousseau’s was attacked
especially by Mary Wollstonecraft in her work Vindication of the Rights of Woman she
sustained that the virtue would mean the same thing for a woman as well for a man and
she criticized the forms of “feminist” to which the women were asked to reach, and she
believed that this was the manner by which their dignity and power as human beings is
diminished. Since Wollstonecraft times, there is a current that was suspicious to the
existence of a certain female virtue. This suspicion had well grounded motifs. The
idealization of the female virtue which probably reached its peak in many Victorian
writers from XIX century, as Ruskin, is base on the female’s obedience. The “Virtues” to
which there was believed women should aspire reflected this obedience- a classic example
is the “virtue” of altruism, which was emphasized by a big number of Victorian writers.
Despite this ambivalence well founded regarding the idea of “feminine virtue”,
many women from XIX century, including the one who were interested by the
emancipation matter, were attracted by this idea not only because it was all about feminine
virtues, but because sometimes the women were superior to men morally and by the
influence of other women. Many women thought at their extension towards the society, of
their feminine values fro the private sphere of home and family. But unlike many other
writers, they used the idea of feminine virtue as a reason for entering within the public
“sphere” and not as a reason for limitation to “private” sphere. Within the context in
which any kind of feminine independence is so hard to reach, is easily to be observed the
preference to any concept that search to re-evaluate and declare those forces and virtues
considered to be “ feminine” from conventional point of view.
The context of the contemporary thinking is very different. The majority of the
formal barriers against the women’s access to other spheres than the domestic one were
thrown away, and a constant subject found in feminist writings form the late 20 years
represented the attack against woman’s limitation to her domestic role or to the “private”
sphere. Despite this thought, the idea of the “feminist ethic” remained very important for
the feminist thinking. Within the feminism framework a lively interest manifest itself
towards the idea of the “feminist ethics”. Maybe the most important thing is the
preoccupation with regards to the violent and damaging consequences over the human
lives and over the planet that the main activities possess with the capitalist economy. The
conception according to what the damaging nature of those things is related to the
manhood dominance, is not anymore a new to us. Of course another debate regarding the
right to vote for women started at the beginning of the XX century. A great part of the
contemporary feminist thinking related many forms of aggression and destruction to the
male nature and psychic.
These kinds of perceptions with regards to the male nature and destruction nature
of the masculine spheres are sometimes related to the essential perceptions about the
masculine and feminine nature. Though, in the famous work of Mary Daly the disaster is
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laid upon the humanity and the planet tends to be seen as a constant result of the
unchangeable nature of the masculine psychic and of the way the women were”
colonized’ by the masculine dominance and brutality. And in contrast with the disaster we
meet the Daly’s work a vision of the incorruptible female dominance which can raise as a
Phoenix bird from the ashes of the male dominant culture in order to save the world. Not
all the versions of the essentialism are as extremist or shining as the one of Daly’s; but is
not uncommon (to some pleaders of the peace movement, for example) to meet the
concept according to which the women are “by their nature” less aggressive , more caring,
more charitable than the men.
The constant tendency that woman should be considered without value or inferior
existed (but it was also idealized, at the same time) for a long time. But this devaluation
was not only awarded to women- her nature, capacity and qualities. The “spheres” of
activity to which they were accustomed with were also devaluated; and as a paradox they
were also idealized. Though the home, family, familial virtues and the role of the woman
for the psychic and affective caring were approved and considered to be the foundation of
the social life. At the same time, these things are seen as a “domestic décor” for the
activity spheres of the men, to which no man can limitate from.
The second approach of the idea of :feminist ethics” results from an essential
attack as well as from an attempt or seeing if an alternative approach of the problems with
regards to the moral judgment and ethical priorities can derive from an analysis of those
spheres from life and activities which were seen as typically feminine. Two things were
suggested; the first that there are common or typical differences regarding the way the
women and men are thinking or are judging the moral issues. This perception is of course
not new. It was expressed as a female deficiency; the women are not able to judge, to act
according to various principle, they are sentimental, intuitive, too personal etc.
Michael Freeden believed that, probably, the best definition for feminism as an
ideology is represented by the attempt of e-formulation or re-structuration of the political
language (it not just a happening that the title of the chapter is: The Recasting of Political
Language). Freeden is closer to those female writers who understand the depreciation of
the women and as an effect of their impossibility to ‘name” the things (manly monopole,
since Adam)
Freeden starts to describe some features of the feminist ideology.; so that a great
part of them are constituted in reaction or as an alternative to the masculine ideological
constructions. Sometimes, beliefs or priorities of the female authors do not stick to the
advanced theories, mostly by men. Their own theories should (form the feminist point of
view) to contain a value surplus that should lead to a new vision over the public theories,
respectively to a reconstruction of the world accepted for the feminists.
As a preference the women’s issue can represent at the same time an assumption
of some particularity eistent, anyway, and with the help of Mihaela Miroiu’s words a of
the existent limits- of those referring to theories about ideologies
Freeden propose three variants to analyze the feminist ideology:
o The analysis of the different feminist contribution to the development of the
central political traditional concepts (respectively, the examination of he
perspectives over the state, power autonomy etc)
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o
The alternative paradigms propose by the feminism to the questions related
to the traditional political theory (respectively the analysis of the central
concepts in feminism- violence, abortion, domestic work, pornography etc)
o The exploration of the feminist families in terms of ideological positions
from which they are taking part of.
There are big problems with regards to the idea according to which the feminine
practices can generate an autonomous and coherent set of “alternative” values. The
feminist practices are always situated and influenced form the social point of view as well
as from the social class, race, material poverty or wealth, which create differences among
women and are not common to all the women. Many practices as giving birth, education,
raising the children has constituted the center of some preoccupation and an ideological
constant fight; they were not developed by women separately of other cultural aspects. In
this century the history of taking care of the children was constantly reshaped (sometimes
in contradictory) by the interventions of the “experts” (who were men) or of the state.
The maternity norms were also used in different ways which strengthen the
classic and racist presuppositions with regards to the “pathology” of the working class and
of the black families. Also there were used even by the women for causes as devotion
towards the Hitler’s country or for opposition against feminism or for the equal rights in
USA. From all those reasons, if there is a use for the feminist idea, it cannot constitute of
an autonomous area of the feminist values which can offer a simple rectification or an
alternative to the activity spheres dominated by the manhood.
It is all true that a big part of the political theory from the last two hundred years
philosophy made a distinction between the “public “ sphere and the “private” one, the ate
being seen as the female appanage .but what is opposite to the “world” of home, female
virtues and sacrifice of the woman is not only the world of wars or even politics is also the
one of the “market” the “market” concept defines the public existence which is in constant
contradiction with the familial and relational privacy. The structure of individuality
supposed by the market concept, is one that demands an instrumental judgment, directed
towards the abstract scope of production and profit and personal interest. The market
concept excludes the altruist behaviour or the idea of the other wealth as a personal scope.
Morality which might seem most appropriate for the market is that of
utilitarianism, which, in its classic forms, has proposed a conception of happiness as
distinct from the various activities leading to it, from a sense of instrumental rationality
and individuality abstract, as in “felicific calculus” of Bentham, for example, where all
subjects of pain and happiness were considered equal and treated impersonally. But, as
argued also by Ross Poole in “Morality, masculinity and the Market”, utilitarianism could
not provide an adequate moral, mainly because it could never provide convincing reasons
to explain why people should be subject to a debt or obligation that is not in their interest.
Kantianism, he suggests, offers a more suitable moral for the concept of market.
Other issues to be included in the scheme of things not only in full means for
performance of the goals, but as agents, and the “individual” requested by market is to
allegedly have a form of ration that is not purely instrumental and be ready to fold
obligations and constraints experienced as more debt than the slope. However, the market
area is in contrast to the sphere of “private” familial relationships. Although the men are
taking part, of course, to the private sphere, it is a sphere where women found identity and
that identity is made up of care, educating and serving others. Since these are known and
309
specific, the respective sphere’s “moral” cannot be universal and impersonal, is always
“infested” of excess, partiality and particularity.
The first important thing to note about this contrast between the public sphere
and private sphere of family relationships is that it does not and never did correspond in
any way to reality. Thus, the women working class worked outside the home since the
early Industrial Revolution, but exclusive association of women with family and private
sphere has not disappeared. Secondly, it is important to note that the morality of the
market and the private sphere is in a state of tension. Market could not exist without a
sphere of family relationships which support its activities; however, sometimes market
goals may not be compatible with the demands of the private sphere. Their
complementarities may be appropriate only if the private sphere is subordinated to public
sphere, and this subordination was often expressed by male dominance both at home and
in public life. In many approaches to moral philosophy, political and social thought, the
effective subordination of the private sphere is reflected in the ways in which direct moral
and personal private sphere is seen as “lower” the requirements governing public life.
Moreover, although, in terms of ideological, public and private sphere were seen
as separate and distinct, in practice the private sphere is often governed by the constraints
and requirements arising from the public sphere.
A clear example in this regard is how the concepts of how to raise a child and
which involves the task of motherhood so often derived from broader social imperatives,
such as the need to create a “suitable” race for the task to manage an empire or need to
create a disciplined and docile industrial labour.
The distinction between public and private sphere has helped, however, to shape
reality and the formation of people's life experiences. It is nevertheless true that, for
example, the task of mental and emotional support of other people comes very much upon
women, who often have also this responsibility, as that of work outside the home.
Differences between male and female experience resulting from these things allow us to
understand why so often there may be gender differences regarding perception issues and
moral priorities, and why these differences can be never summarized under generalization
forms about men and women. Usually both women and men are participating in family
relations and labor market in the world. And the constraints and obligations experienced
by individuals in their daily life can lead to the generation of acute tensions and
contradictions that can be experienced both practically and morally.
If ethical concerns and priorities proceed from different forms of social life, then
those that were generated by a social system where women were subordinate to men are to
be suspicious. Probably it could not be reached an agreement between women on the
values of “feminine” values, which are deeply embedded in the “feminist” views that
depend on a polarization between “male” and “feminine” closely linked to the
subordination of women.
There is no autonomous realm of feminine values and women's activities that can
generate “alternative” values of the public sphere, and any design that depends on these
ideas may not be viable, I think.
310
References
Baissac Jules, Les femmes dans les temps moderne, 2 ed. Leipzig, 1859. Edmee Charrier, L’evolution
intelectuelle feminine These, Paris, 1931
Beauvoir Simone de Al doilea sex, , Editura Univers, Bucureşti, 2006, Vol I-III
Bebel August, La femme et la socialisme. Nouvelle tracduction francais d apres la 50-me edition allemande, par
Avanti Grand, 1911
Bunescu M.I., Condiţia femeii în diferite timpuri, Bucureşti, 1899
Buţureanu Maria Femeia. Studiu social, Bucureşti, 1921; Bogdan Elena, Feminismul, Timişoara, 1926
Degar Emil, Emanciparea politică a femeii, în "Familia", XXXVIII, 1902, nr.11,
Levy-Strauss Claude, Antropologie structurală, Editura Politica, Bucureşti, 1973
Miroiu Mihaela, Nepreţuitele femei – Publicistică feministă, Polirom, Iaşi, 2006
Mead, Margaret Sex and Temperament, in three primitive societies, Mentor Book, New York and Toronto, 1950
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Section 12 - ADULT EDUCATION
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A Threat to Education: Barbarization of Society
Gabriel ALBU
Petroleum-Gas University of Ploieşti
Abstract
We are threatened by barbarism. It surrounds us from everywhere. The
hypermodern society reduced the individual to the "sandy flowing of vital processes,
which know no other law than the law of the market and immediate satisfaction" (Mattei,
2005, p. 284). School finds it more and more difficult to cope with this wave. Its cultural
walls are more and more weak, degraded. It is pressed by the problem of professional
integration, socialization, performances, to the detriment of the humanization problem.
The university itself is more and more subjugated to financial and technological
constraints. Teachers rather think about tomorrow and less and less about culture. It is not
the soul, its sensitiveness, that interest us now, but what relates to hunger... Not the
animation, but procedures and evaluations ... Always the worry and fear of evaluation...
The fear of tomorrow, the thirst for honors, the passion for laudation (Braud, 2008)
barbarize us. It seems that we can accept anything. However, I think that not also the
destruction of the human species, as a cult and sensitive species.
Keywords: education, barbarism, teacher, culture
1. Introduction
Most of us, teachers, consider that if we sit within school walls (or behind its
fence) and do our job as good as possible, it is necessary and sufficient. We meet our
colleagues and debate with them what concerns us. We make a professional (but also
human) exchange of experience and create a special atmosphere of work, search,
conceptualization, improvement. We also gather our pupils, go to classes and transmit
them our best knowledge, what we learned (on the way), what we believe. We always tell
them what (we think) we have to say, searching – it seems – to increase the distance
between what it is lived knowing, thinking, learning, understanding, studying thoroughly
and what is lived superficially, undeveloped, improvised, from day to day.
However, no matter how much we wish, we are not let alone in the peace and
tranquility of our profession exercised within school (yard) premises, as beyond them
there are massive, strong challenges. We think some of them cannot happen, as this is
impossible since we teach science, culture, develop minds and refine behaviors. And,
however, we become aware – taken by surprise – of the fact that something is born,
increases, absorbs us: barbarism.
Gabriel ALBU/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
We have to recognize that, beyond school walls, barbarism extended, that we can
no longer underestimate its force, spread, amplitude, and that it also gets in the school
space.
2. Barbarisms and Certain Manners to Understand It
Under such circumstances, it is important to treat it seriously, to know what to
expect and what we can do. Researching, we found out there are several ways of
approach.3
Starting from the premise of the dual essence of the human being – as homo
duplex – (as approved by Platon, B. Pascal, R. Descartes, E. Durkheim, A. Schopenhauer
or S. Freud), one of them considers barbarism to be “substantial, and even consubstantial
to the human being, and not an unfortunate accident of history” (Mattéi, 2005, p. 132, and
others.). In their performance, civilization and barbarism are – according to this point of
view – the two adversary and associated sides of one and the same humankind. J. Fr.
Mattéi (2005) states that: “The barbarian is not less strange to the human nature than
barbarism is to civilization or death to life: each of the couple elements, without being
similar to it, is inseparable from the other, which means that in fact barbarism is
constitutive to humankind or, in other words, it is within it” (p. 42, and others).
Barbarism is a movement, a worm consuming civilization from the inside, as it
consumes every individual, even enlightened by the famous works of humankind culture.
The trends of ascension and decline, the divine and terrestrial dimensions struggle and
confront therein. “It is only the individual – as J. Fr. Mattéi (2005) wrote –, as a human
being, made of judgment and instinct, of intellect and passion, who can give way to his
destructive impulsions or control them in the form of a civilization work” (p. 42).
Barbarism followed and follows the progress of humankind, just like the shadow
accompanied, accompanies and will accompany the individual walking under the sun.4 In
its wish to ruin the civilization preceding it, even intrinsic to humankind, barbarism is
always secondary. The first step is made by civilization.
As firstly understood, barbarism appears as excess, destruction and sterility,
falling down in its anger everything that is built, “treading under its bare foot the residues
of the Greek crown” (idem, p. 48). It is manifested through will, cruelty, ferocity. In
essence, and pursuant to this first acceptance, barbarism aims at “annulling the idea of
civilization starting from a desire of nothingness, focused only on itself, making it similar,
at an ontological level, to the nihilism itself”, according to J. Fr. Mattéi (2005, p. 48).
1
As we shall see, they have, however, common points, which create a connection among them.
According to this approach, a consequence which is extremely important and always valid for us, teachers,
results: the fact that mankind is always under the threat of barbarism. And if barbarism did not destroy and
suffocate civilization until now, this was – largely – because the forces of culture, school, of thought and
sensitivity did not give way and could not be overwhelmed. And maybe this is how things shall always be if the
forces of culture, school, thought and human sensibility do not allow their spread and assimilation by the
destructive forces of violence and cupidity.
Thus, we establish that school, education, the teacher have the fundamental duty to always perpetuate and
build civilization but also to protect it from the destructive, regressive ferment suffocating and eliminating the
soul from the life of mankind, shatters abysm and spreads existential desert.
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2
As a regression of the ego, barbarism is related to a bad use of judgment, which
can be its own murderer; the forces of the ego break out against nature, people and God.
The barbarism releases the forces of the deformation, brutality and dissolution (idem).
As we can see, it is an illusion to think that hell is in the others; it is a dangerous
and handy lie of the self. The hell is (never) the others. Since our inner world closes to any
exterior opening, to any guiding mark outside us, then hell is (always) us, as per J. Fr.
Mattéi (2005).
The danger of subjectivity closing in itself and the need for openness to the
outside can be found in the very thought of the antique sapient. At Heraclite the Obscure
(in fragm. 107) we find that barbarism is not situated outside a language or a people but
inside it, inside what the individual has more profound, the soul. Always present in the
individual, barbarism is called – at the Ephesian thinker – the lack of measure. “This
hubris has to be quashed «more like a fire » (fragm. 43), because it destroys the souls of
all people, leaving behind it nothing more than the ash of foolishness” (idem, p. 75).
Always in the individual’s soul, the hubris must be mastered by the metrion, “measure”
and by peras, “limit”: they order the individual to get out of the undefined idiocy, without
no other limit than itself, to enter the world of logos (apud idem).
We can also meet the same principle of barbarism, as closing of human
subjectivity in itself, in the Delphic culture. The first wording of the Delphy oracle incited
to Know yourself and you will know the gods. The famous saying turns thereby against an
“arid subjectivism which will exhaust conscience in the lab of its own inferiority; it
transforms the intimate reflection in a unique act of knowledge transmitting to the soul,
through that interior mirror Plotin talks about, the image of the cosmic presence of the
divine in the charming outburst of nature” (Mattéi, 2005, p. 105-106).
We can also meet a similar context and understanding at Platon (from Republica
and up to Phaidros) (1984-1989). According to him, the soul, closed in itself, becomes the
slave of wishes. Irrespective of the individual’s efforts, the wish always remains
tyrannical and regressive. For this reason, it needs to open to the outside, from where it
can take the light to gain the conscience of its own interiority and not to close in it like in
a tomb. According to Platon, the Idea of Good takes the individual out of the barbarism
swamp (see idem, p. 81-85).
In a second understanding, at the reciprocal pole, we can find a softer, more
hidden barbarism whose outbursts are not so much in the form of brutality, cruelty and
violence but rather of softness and abandonment. It is the manifestation of vanitas (vanus
= void), of regress under the burden of the feeling of emptiness. This form of barbarism
“depicts the oriental pompousness of sensuality, weakness and corruption. The barbarian
vanitas, as the French author writes, is an arid world of appearances, illusion and
inconsistency, characteristic to a life without firmness, mollis, and without energy, iners”
(2005, p. 92).
Therefore, we can establish, in a first instance, that there are, for now, two
manners in which barbarism manifests itself: on the one hand, violent barbarism,
barbarism of force, marked by our savage instincts and whose illustration is the plenitude
of destruction, on the other hand the barbarism of submission, of renunciation, of
weakness, recognized by the softness and sterility of its morals and whose more relevant
illustration is represented by individualism and relativism (idem).
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Both kinds of barbarism tend to consume civilization on the inside; they manifest
like a regression or loss of soul. However, if the barbarism of surrender is expeditious, the
barbarism of submission is, in exchange, slower; it performs in time, discretely but
consistently eroding the foundation of civilization. It does not stop its interior spiral but
digs deeper and deeper in the individual’s soul until it reaches its own purposes and
demolishes everything it can demolish.
The barbarism of softness does not stop until soul alienates from itself (Mattéi,
2005). The soul alienated from itself is that soul which gave up any hope and thus gave up
the categories of the high, edification, meaning. The barbarism of submission produces no
meaning, emaciates meaning or – if we accept an apparently paradoxical wording – leads
us to an absence of meaning. In the context, J. Fr. Mattéi (2005) states as follows: “An
effect of barbarism is registered each time an action, a creation or an institution of the
individual engaged in social life produces no meaning but destroys or devours it through a
parasitation of previous works or their historical remains” (pp. 50-51).
Aspired by the barbarism current, the individual (nowadays) seems to go deeper
and deeper in “his inner caverns” (idem, p. 51). Nothingness is just about to annul him. He
does not want anything or almost anything from himself and his life. He is (no longer)
interested in excellence. Most of them crawl and welter in the mud of mediocrity, when
not facing and not destroying other people.
Denying all the meaning horizons, the people sold to barbarism close in their
own interiority – considered to be sufficient to itself –, thinking that this is everything that
can exist between the beginning and the end of the Universe. According to J. Fr. Mattéi,
“the absolute novelty of the modern subject, withdrawn into himself, consists in the
radical indifference manifested to any form of exteriorization, whether divine, mundane or
social. The subject becomes a stranger from everything not belonging to him/her as if eyes
rolled to look at nothing but at their own cavities” (p. 130).
Hyper-individualist, atomized and instrumentalized, the contemporaneous hyperhedonist subject participates in the grandiose vacuity of life. As a barbarian, he can be
recognized, in principal, by: his/her ignorance and (of course) arrogance, by the
impossibility to fulfill a creative act (or the excellence, as Goethe would say), by the
confuse and constant wish of destruction; and all these conjugated with a feeling of
resentment (Mattéi, 2005). He fills the world with his feelings and actions without a
grounded meaning and barbarizes it. We can say that a world where the soul can find its
purpose more and more difficult is announced.
Another approach of barbarism is that supporting the fact that, being under the
sign of objectiveness, current science and technology eliminated everything that is more
profound and intrinsic to life: human sensibility, affectivity.
Surprising as it may seem, M. Henry (2008) considers that the hyperdevelopment of knowledge, the scientific explosion and the penetration of technology in
all the complexity of life establish a new barbarism. Through the elimination of
sensibility, of what substantiates life, the individual humanity is destroyed. The modern
science – and the technique generated by it – without knowing it, eliminated the ground of
values, culture, humanity. They push our world into abyss (Henry, 2008, p. 9).
Just like J. Fr. Mattéi, M. Henry considers that barbarism is not a beginning; no
matter how opposed, it is not separated from the culture world. It is always secondary by
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reference to a pre-existing form of culture. Humanity shall be and shall remain humanity,
as long as, by reference to barbarism, culture shall remain preeminent.
Barbarism appears as poverty and degeneration by reference to culture. It is
stagnation, energy not used for the purpose of life. According to M. Henry (2008),
barbarism “appears and outbursts not as a simple stoppage of life and its development but
as a self-denial of life” (p. 186-187); it is the “regress of the manners to fulfill life”, “a
disease of the life itself”, the loss of the ethical, esthetical and religious dimensions of
existence (idem, p. 39-40).
The author establishes that, unlike other previous manifestations of barbarism –
which occurred in the history of mankind – the one now spread into our world is the most
serious, as because of it “the individual indeed risks today to die” (2008, p. 37). As
compared to those faced until now, the new form of barbarism “is no longer based on
ignorance and poverty, robbery or the desire to possess the precious object, but science, its
bodies and authorities”, as per M. Henry (2008, p. 64).
According to the famous essayist, life is in essence affectivity; and, since it – life
– is “affective in essence” (p. 47), the world is, in essence, a sensitive world. But science
(especially since G. Galilei, understood and practiced in a Galilean paradigm, we would
say), based on objectiveness, disregards sensibility; it has no sensibility. M. Henry states
as follows: “This world is the world of science, of the Galilean science which removed
from it everything that is subjective and subjectivity itself” (2008, p. 187). In conclusion,
disregarding sensibility, science disregards life.
At present, as per the author, science – and the technique derived therefrom –
behave as if they were by themselves; they decide on the world and life without taking
them into account. “Life has ceased to dictate its own laws to itself”, as the essayist
establishes (2008, p. 79). The (Galilean) science, the technique and technology shall
impose now their own law.
A product of science, technique is, according to M. Henry, “the new barbarism of
our times on the place and instead of culture” (2008, p. 98). As “an impressive ensemble
of instrumental devices, ways to do, operations, procedures more and more efficient and
sophisticated” (idem, p. 81), technique is a reality having no connection to life. It is a
“dark transcendence” (p. 103), suppressing subjectivity, human sensibility. Life is
eliminated from the game, with its rules and requests.
If some theoreticians/analysts see in the hypermodern and super-performant
technique the assertion and the control by the individual of the universe of things and an
inherent way to prosperity/welfare, M. Henry considers it the extreme and most inhuman
form of barbarism until now. Under the current conditions, the dynamics of society no
longer takes into account the affective and subjective deepness of life. It now occurs by
passing from an (existing) technical device to another one (more performant and
tempting). Therefore, most of us (younger or less young) end up believing (or are
constrained to believe) that this is what we want (in life), that this is what we need and
this is what we expect. We simply ended up identifying knowledge only with
technological knowledge, and progress only with technical progress. Consequently, as per
M. Henry (2008) warns: “the idea of an esthetic, intellectual, spiritual or moral progress
present in the individual’s life and consisting in the self-development and self-increasing
of the multiple phenomenological potentialities of this life and in its culture is no longer
successful, having no place that may be attributed to it in the implicit ontology of our
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times, according to which there is no reality other than objective reality, susceptible of
being known from a scientific point of view” (p. 101).
In the absence of and indifference to any (humanist) value, the
technical/technological universe proliferates – in the author’s vision – like a cancer, selfproducing and self-reproducing itself separated from the law and coherence which are
intrinsic to life. It incites to an existence turning against life; it pushes us in a fundamental
contradiction. All the values of our existence – ethic, esthetic, religious, civic – are
shaking. Humanist culture is rejected, bantered, mocked at, crowded in the most marginal
areas of our motivations.5
The energies of mankind are consumed in coarseness, vulgarities and
rudimentary behaviors, in the elimination from the fortress – through the total acceptance
of the Galilean science – of culture. We ended up (or these times made up end up...)
bowing to technique/technology and recognizing its omnipotence.
Without expressly referring to violence or apathy, to the overwhelming and
disastrous domination of technology, the third approach of barbarism focuses on the ever
extended manner to live on the surface, horizontally (and less and less, in deepness,
vertically).
For A. Baricco (2009), we are not in front of the most serious form of
manifestation of barbarism ever known by mankind, but in front of an existential
mutation. The Italian author reached the conclusion according to which, sooner or later,
human society shall pass to another /new way of being, no matter how much it would hide
behind a big cultural wall (as the Chinese did, in the past) or no matter how tenaciously it
would oppose to it. Most of us demolish the sacred, making an existential surfing.
People hardly read nowadays, which is something to be worried about, or they
don’t read at all. The civilization of books is in obvious decline. The bases of the
civilization of the written/printed word are more and more tenaciously undermined. The
world of books is under the prolonged and powerful siege of barbarians. They refuse – as
A. Baricco (2009) writes – the book “fully respecting grammar, history, the taste of
civilization; they consider the meaning of such a book to be poor” (p. 79).
When producing books, barbarians only think about profit. The expansion of
sales and the primate of the mercantile logics are typical to the barbarian invasion. The
commercial aspect is privileged to any other aspect. By reference to culture, barbarians
represent greed. They move “stimulated by a hypetrophic, almost immoral theft for gain,
for sales, for profits”, as A. Baricco writes (2009 p. 42). What mainly works to the loss of
their soul are the intensive commercialization, the option for spectacularity (for the facile
and sly spectacularity), simplification, superficiality, quickness, technological innovations
and their invasion, mediocrity (idem, p. 91).6
3
According to M. Henry (2008), television – as a dominant expression of technology – is the “practice of
barbarism by excellence” (p. 200). It drowns the viewer in a series of images and reduces his existence to the
simple, sensational, vulgar and superficial actuality. Life is confiscated to us by the remaining in actuality.
4
Surprising as it may seem, the current society encourages and consolidates mediocrity. Comfortable and
feeding the illusion of uniqueness, exemplarity, irrepetability, mediocrity is – according to the Italian thinker and
in the context of his reflection – “a flat structure in which a higher number of gestures can have room” (2009, p.
66); if the genius is slow, mediocrity is fast. “In mediocrity – as the author states –, the system finds a quick
circulation of ideas and gestures; in case of the genius, in the depth of the most noble individual, this rhythm is
interrupted. A simple mind sends quick messages, while a complex mind slows them” (idem, p. 67).
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The barbarian is very well adapted to the speed of these times. He adjusted to
their (extremely) alert rhythm. Without asking any question, without any nostalgia,
without any resistance, regret or discomfort, this is how he understands to live: rapidly,
with acceleration, at the highest speed.
Until several years ago, knowledge was a “travel into deepness”, an intensity of
life, a problem almost intimate between the individual and a piece of the real world (2009,
p. 110). It aimed at touching essence; required a lot, a lot of patience, a slower and more
discrete cadence of time. For those of today, the value of an idea is no longer related to its
intrinsic value, but to its deepness. An idea is no longer the sign of solidity, permanence,
accomplishment, solid settlement, but “a trajectory, a sequence of passages, a composition
formed of different materials” (idem, p. 106).
For barbarians, knowledge is equivalent to the quick crossing of the cognitive
territory, “recomposing the shared trajectories we name ideas, or facts or persons” (2009,
p. 106-107).7
In the universe of (on-line) networks, this manner of conceiving and doing is
called – according to the Italian thinker – surfing (i.e., to walk on waves); to navigate in
the network means “surface instead of deepness, travels instead of diving, play instead of
suffering” (2009, p. 107, s.n. – G.A.).
All of these changed – both quickly and radically – simultaneously with the
social scale use of the internet. It configures a new geometry of culture, a new concept:
horizontal culture. Large territories of links spread on the surface. We have to do with a
new principle of life, with another manner of breathing: now, “with Google branchiae, a
lot of people already breathe” (idem, p. 108).8 According to A. Baricco, Google is the
very heart of our civilization; we are in the very camp of barbarians, in their capital, in
their imperial palace. It helps them to find out everything they want and move quickly, not
to get into a phase difference.
Barbarians prefer any space which can generate acceleration. They do not move
to a purpose as their purpose is the movement itself. Generally, they make for where they
find temporary systems. They orient to certain gestures and moments in which it is easy to
get in and out. If they find no such systems, they tend to build the habitat: they change
everything until it becomes a temporary system. The barbarian “only looks for temporary
systems”(2009, p. 162). He wants intermediary halts not suffocating his movement but, on
the contrary, generating it. In his travels and experiences, the barbarian chose synthetic
sequences –“massive portions of the world, coagulated in a single point” (p. 162) – as
transit places. His trajectories born randomly and die by exhaustion, in a permanent
disarticulation.
For the movement itself, the barbarian is willing to sacrifice anything; not only
the meaning of his life, but also his soul. He disregards his soul, its spiritual dimension,
through which he can go beyond his purely animal nature. All the barbarian wants to do is
surfing.
5
The idea according to which knowing and understanding mean to go deep into what we study is “a good
dying idea”, as per A. Baricco (2009). It is about to be replaced by the idea supporting “the instinctive conviction
that the essence of things is not a point but a trajectory, is not hidden deep but is spread on the surface, does not
reside in things, but takes place outside them where they really begin, i.e. everywhere” (pp. 106-107).
6
We know that the idea of inventing Google belonged to Americans Larry Page and Sergey Brin; it is the
thing most similar to the invention of print we experienced.
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A profound transformation takes place, which comes with a new idea of
experience, with a new survival technique. Its value is movement. We assist to a kind of
mental restructuring.
Until now, the fundamental value – as per A. Baricco (2009) – was effort. The
access to the profound meaning of things supposed effort: time, erudition, patience,
diligence, will. It was, literally, about going deep, “excavating the rocky surface of the
world”, as written by the Italian essayist (2009, p. 138, s.n. – G.A.). There is no reward
without effort, and there is no soul without deepness. Our soul is the product of our effort
(idem).
In exchange, barbarians invented the horizontal individual (idem, p. 141),
traveling on the surface. He makes a mental surfing. It – i.e. the mental surfing – only
supposes the effort for which barbarians are built. It is a facile effort, the effort in which
they feel big and confident (idem, p. 142).
The horizontal individual finds his dispersed meaning on the surface. He is
allergic to deepness. Therefore, he is afraid of deepness, “as of a fault which would go to
nowhere but to the death of movement and therefore of life” (ibidem).
The barbarian does not have patience or limit as far as things are concerned. The
time in which he learnt to stay on things and in things keeps him far from deepness
“which for him became an unjustified loss of time, a useless impasse crumbling the
movement fluidity” (idem, pp. 110-111). He does not find the sense in deepness, but in
the image.
The barbarian reserves a limited time to thoughts; he is afraid to think seriously,
profoundly. There is a continuous and alarming depreciation of reflexivity. According to
the Italian essayist, the true nightmare of the barbarian is to “get stuck in the points
through which he passes, or be slowed by the tendency of an analysis, stopped by an
unexpected deviation to deepness” (2009, p. 155). He attempts to transform everything in
“temporary systems generating acceleration” (ibidem, s.n. – G. A.).
The barbarian’s manner of being is to travel with speed on and above the world
surface. He chooses – as A. Baricco (2009) signals – synthetic contexts as places of transit
favorite for his travels; i.e.: “from the bookstore-coffee shop and from the daily
newspapers selling books and disks (our note C.Ds) attached up to the enormous
commercial centers where church is also present”; the instinctive trend according to which
“if you pass through a point containing three or one hundred points, you can end up
collecting an impressive quantity of the world” (p. 161) prevails.
The barbarians looks for the wave back (Baricco, 2009), where there is
spectacularity –“a mixture of fluidity, quickness, synthesis and technique generating an
acceleration” (p. 155). He prefers spectacularity because, on the one hand, there the risk of
stopping, thinking decreases, and, on the other hand, because it gives him energy,
generates motion.
The preferred spectacularity of the barbarian produces and requires no effort. It
only appears as a simple shortage, as a drogue. It – the barbarian’s spectacularity –
includes everything that the civilized individual cannot tolerate: facility, superficiality,
sensational, commercial avidity (such as the Disneyland).
The barbarian is the product and the representative of these (more and more)
accelerated times. The world we live in became a world of multiple and influent
technological inventions which – whether we want it or not – compressed space and time.
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A mutation takes place, which regards all of us, whether we are school people or not. It is
not about an easy change, at a certain moment, but about a new mental habitat (Baricco,
2009, p. 202). In essence, this mutation has in view – as we saw – “surface instead of
deepness, speed instead of reflection, surfing instead of deepening, communication instead
of expression, multi-tasking instead of specialization, pleasure instead of effort” (idem,
pp. 202-203).9
For short, we live in a world frontally attacking (and challenging) soul sacrality
(idem, p. 203), in which we have to get rid of it quickly.
Despite the differences – more or less – obvious among them, we notice that the
presented approaches also have several (essential) common points. They present trends
and phenomena of (contemporaneous) barbarism which are equally real and alarming.
Among them, we retain as follows:
• the overwhelming expansion of technologies; they tend to confiscate our
thoughts, decisions, options; tend to eliminate our feelings/affectivity/sensibility, control
our life;10
• whether it is about one of the most terrible forms of manifestation of barbarism,
whether it is even about a tremendous mutation, a radical change in understanding
survival, the point of our life, human civilization is again threatened;
• superficiality, intensive commercialization, (primitive) pleasure, spectacularity,
easiness, speed/haste are excessively promoted and present;
• the moral, esthetic, religious values are marginalized (mocked at);
• the individual’s humankind is destroyed– more or less discretely, but
perseveringly; his soul degrades, is lost; becomes an useless piece in the property of the
barbarian world.
3. School under the Threat of Barbarism
In the context of such a phenomenon and such a possible trend of mankind11, at
least the following problems raise before school (and us, the teachers):
7
Just like the zapping term is more and more often used (and a term more and more accepted in our
conversations), the term of multi-tasking similarly tends to enter in our vocabulary (and our language) as realities
themselves and our new practices/habits determine us to resort more and more frequently to them.
Multi-tasking names the phenomenon whereby the individual (especially the children, teenagers, the young)
“while playing Game Boy, also eats an omelet, calls his grandmother, watches a cartoon on TV, caresses the dog
with one leg and concomitantly whistles the Vodafone musical theme. After several years, it will evolve as
follows: he does his homework while chatting on the computer, listening to music on the iPod, sending sms
texts, googling the address of a pizza restaurant and beating a rubber ball” (Baricco, 2009, p. 112).
Multi-tasking reflects very well the new concept of experience, whose assertion is in progress. In synthesis, it
refers to the occupation of several areas with a relatively low attention on our part (“mutants”, barbarians).
Baricco (2009) mentions as follows: “it is not a manner to empty from content a multitude of gestures which
would be important, but a manner to do from all these, a single gesture, very important. Astonishing as it may
seem, they (barbarians – our note. – G.A.) do not have the instinct of isolating each of such gestures to perform it
more carefully and thus to take the best of it” (p. 113). This behavior is not familiar to barbarians. A new
supervision technique is created...
8
It is interesting to speculate, maybe, the fact that as technologies tend to dominate/confiscate our life,
subjectivity tends, in its turn, to close in itself, to be self-sufficient. It –i.e. subjectivity – no longer wants and,
therefore, no longer looks for exterior fundamental values and principles giving it coherence and roots, substance
and meaning, but tends to fail in a facile, temporary, aberrant and ruining relativism.
321
a. What happened and what is happening (for some time) to school? How did it
function and how does it function that it left and leaves so much room for barbarism to
manifest itself?
b. What can it do to continue to give chances of survival to civilization and –
therefore – to mankind as mankind?
J. Fr. Mattéi establishes that currently school is no longer a place to study but “a
place to live” (2009, p. 157), open both to the outside and to the inside world of the
individual, coming to be an “intersection of all winds” (idem, p. 169).
Being more and more open to daily life, all kinds of violence get into school,
whether it is about theft, drugs, aggression, rape or crime; because social life is
permanently formed of them. But school is an institution of civilization, of deepness, and
not of violence and superficiality. It and barbarism are (and we think will always remain)
opposed realities.12
If we have in view the profound finality of school (meaning, in essence, to give
the child the freedom of thought), then the center of school is school itself. The space of
the school offers the individual free time to think; that time in which the rhythm of social
life is restrained to be able to adopt the own rhythm necessary to build the thought/idea.
It seems that a certain manner to conceive pedagogy itself and perform school
practice according to its requirements allowed barbarism to get into school life. According
to J. Fr. Mattéi (2009), in time, a pedagogy of objectives imposed itself. It comes, on a
straight line basis, from the behaviorism of J. Watson – which appeared, as we know, at
the beginning of the XXth century – and is grounded on it. The pedagogy of objectives
reduced (and reduces) education to a mosaic of fragmentary procedures which, in their
turn, fragment their users. It is unable to deeply enlighten the pupil’s soul.
Almost exclusively focused on (teaching-learning, training) methods 13, to play
a trick on the difficulty of education contents and to give it a nature as ludic as possible,
(and, therefore, more attractive), this psycho-pedagogical conception and practice tend to
close the child “in a psychological, pedagogical and static instrumentalization which only
knows the internal rules of its functioning. It results from here – according to the French
essayist – that the appreciation of pedagogical objectives and subjective results of pupils
is reduced more and more to a simple control of the compliance with the procedures used
and the objectives defined in a manner wholly exterior to learning conditions, more
exactly to the intellectual and social conformism” (2009, p. 164, and others).
9
It is recommendable to never forget about the surprise, not anticipated and/or not anticipable event, which
may change/demolish at any time any strategy, judgment, habit, prediction (see N. N. Taleb – 2009, Lebada
neagră, Curtea Veche Publishing House, Bucharest). Very many of our judgments (most of them) are
perishable...
10
J. Fr. Mattéi states that at the end of the XIXth century, along with J. Dewey’s theses, there is a
fundamental turn in the modern conception on school. The remarkable and influent American thinker no longer
recognized school as a place of specific studies and cultural occupations, but as a social center, which has to
organize the activities of the group of pupils according to the model and the requirements of the democratic
society. At the same time, its famous formula learning by doing resulting in the learning by living interpretation
and not in the learning by thinking interpretation (see Mattéi, 2009, p. 161).
11
For possible thorough studying and refinement, to those having a moment of rest to follow the quest line,
we would like to remind our work Educaţia, profesorul şi vremurile, Paralela 45 Publishing House, Piteşti, 2009,
especially p.173-181.
322
From this pedagogy point of view, evaluation standards induce to pupils a logics
of avoidance, eliminating or replacing that of learning and knowledge (Crahay, 2009).
While it contains a series of barbarisms itself, the pedagogy grounded on
objectives incites to mental and behavioral conformism. It is concerned with (initial,
formative, formatory, summative) evaluations, formulas as “adequate”, “objective”,
“stimulating” as possible, orienting pupils’ interest from cognitive curiosity to grades,
appreciations, competition, external criteria, self-estimation. Also, the (institutional)
structures and procedures, the (financial) resources and management are ahead of pupils’
knowledge and real values. Paideia remains an ideal which is farther and farther and,
therefore, vaguer and vaguer.
Pedagogy and the current practice grounded thereon deprive pupils from any
purpose and any sense, because “the sense never depends on the procedure” (Mattéi,
2009, pp. 166-167), on methods. Pupils cannot open themselves to what is beyond them,
to essential purposes. They remain in the narrow horizon of competences. For I. Kant
(2002), the purpose is a judgment idea which, by the excellence of its perfection, leads
experience. And in terms of education, it is instituted as a moral purpose of humankind.
According to the Köenigsberg thinker, to educate means to take the child up to
the human being idea, taking him/her out of his/her initial condition. The act of education
stimulates spiritual affective growth according to a transcendental purpose, prohibiting the
abandonment of the individual to himself (2002).
Therefore, to educate means to take the child out of his/her natural autism and
lead him/her to something that will help him/her to become a human being. Education is
thus an “immanent orientation to humankind, allowing each of us to find the proper place
in the world” (Mattéi, 2009, p. 171-172). Through education, (our) world makes sense.
School seems to be no longer capable – as a spiritual force or as a sufficient work
in a sufficient time – to open the pupil to the major meanings of life. Society imposes its
norms and claims, instead of school imposing to society its values and spirit (idem, p.
184). Scholarization is rather understood as socialization and then, potentially, but only
potentially, as humanization. It targets social integration and efficiency, marginalizing the
humanization scope.
Related to the “moment chain” (Nietzsche), the teacher becomes a slave of the
day, of the present (Mattéi, 2009). He has to “harmonize the contingencies of his/her
existence and the permanent necessities of the thought” (idem, p. 190), the pressure of
immediate terms with the sacrifice for culture. The teacher tends to live, such as
barbarians, from hand to mouth (like Cicero, in De Oratore).
In facing the requirements of economic and financial life, the improvement and
extension of technologies, universities also go through a confusing period (seemingly of
decline). According to M. Henry (2008), culture is removed from society, from the
University. We will soon mourn at the tomb of culture. The idea of limiting knowledge
only to that to be actually rendered to practice and only to professional and social abilities
is contradictory, but also criminal (Henry, 2008, p. 223).14 The economic and financial
12
The famous French author considers that such a trend is:
a. contradictory: because, due to the fluctuation of the demand in a world which is in a continuous change
/movement, it would be about the necessity of a constant and limited adaptation of knowledge and
specializations;
323
finality destroys the soul of the university. Its autonomy – i.e. of the university – is more
and more challenged by reference to the pressures, obsessions and worries of society; it is
more and more obviously subordinated from an economic, financial and technological
point of view.
As we know, initially, universities were established from two (main) faculties:
philosophy and theology. As regards philosophy, it was removed or marginalized, step by
step, in the academic space. It is sentenced to death, according to M. Henry (2008, p. 239).
The immediate interests of the state, firms, of the technological market matter. The
thinking, sensibility, (humanist) values are no longer recognized as life principles.
Also, the suppression of culture from the university can be seen from the study of
languages, which is reduced to their immediate practice. M. Henry establishes that: “old
languages, known especially through the literary, philosophical or historical works and
thus overcharged with culture are «abandoned». The study of living languages passes into
sociologism” (2008, p. 238). The daily communicational dialogues and hypostases
decisively exceed, in terms of educative value, Shakespeare, or Dante, Pascal or Goathe,
Dostoievski or Cervantes. Humanist disciplines are progressively withdrawn in favor of
scientific disciplines. Culture is banished from society, from the university, by
technological, financial and mass media structures. In conclusion, culture is slowly out, at
a global level (idem, p. 258).
Under such dramatic conditions, it is hard to say what school, the university, the
teacher can do (more) to give civilization (as many as possible) chances of survival. They
seem to be overwhelmed (or scared) of the new trends, the new constraints and of the fact
that the financial system shall dictate everything. Absorbed more and more by the new
technologies, school became a market for the sale thereof (Moeglin, coord., 2003). Market
needs are most imperative. Humanization is replaced by professional integration, cultural
performance by digital competences, and knowledge by economic efficiency.
We shall probably reach that limit of insupportability (of social metastasis) when
we shall discover that what we squashed with our indifference and immediate and
superficial interests is exactly our soul. And then, maybe, we shall discover and return to
our humanism, we shall choose (as we did some other time) the way to culture, to
philosophy.
4. Conclusions
We are threatened by barbarism. It surrounds us from all parts. Hypermodern
society reduced the individual to the “sandy leakage of vital processes, which know no
law other than the law of the market and immediate satisfaction” (Mattéi, 2005, p. 284).
School finds it harder and harder to cope with this wave. It cultural walls are more and
more insecure, degraded. It is pressed by the problem of professional integration,
b. criminal: because “it means for the individual the stoppage of his potential development, the deliberated
reduction of him to the condition of a wheel of the technical and economic device” (2008, p. 223, s.n. – G.A.).
The economic insertion of the individual – as the author continues – supposes the update of some of his
potentials, while “it remains indifferent to his general development”. Moreover, the author states that: “we
cannot consider economic finality as sufficient and valid in itself. To build the University on it would mean to
excessively limit its field and vocation, and if the latter means culture, it would mean to destroy it directly”
(idem, p. 224).
324
socialization, financial performances to the detriment of the humanization problem.
Teachers rather think about tomorrow and less, less and less, about culture. It is not the
soul that interests us now, but what relates to hunger... it is not the spirit that concerns us,
but procedures and evaluations. Always the care for evaluations...
The fear of tomorrow, the thirst for honors, the passion for laudation (Braud,
2008) barbarize us. But the bluntness of superficiality shall make us turn – sooner or later
– to culture. We can accept anything. However, it seems that not also the destruction of
the human species, as a cult and sensible species...
References
Baricco, A. – (2009), Barbarii. Eseu despre mutaţie, Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest
Braud, Ph. – (2008), Mic tratat de emoţii, sentimente şi pasiuni politice, Polirom Publishing House, Iaşi
Crahay, M. – (2009), Psihologia educaţiei, Trei Publishing House, Bucharest
Henry, M. – (2008), Barbaria, European Institute, Iaşi
Kant, I. – (2002), Despre pedagogie, Paideia Publishing House, Bucharest
Mattéi, J. Fr. – (2005), Barbaria interioară, Paralela 45 Publishing House, Piteşti
Moeglin, P. (coord.) – (2003), Industriile educaţiei şi noile media, Polirom Publishing House, Iaşi
Platon – (1984-1989), Opere, vol. IV – VI, Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest
Taleb, N. N. – (2009), Lebăda neagră, Curtea Veche Publishing House, Bucharest
325
th
4
th
th
Adult Education through Distance Learning
Michaela Logofatua, Anisoara Dumitracheb
a,b
Abstract
Distance learning system is a flexible form of education which can meet the
demands of adult education. A European area of lifelong learning will empower citizens
to move freely between learning settings, jobs, regions and countries in pursuit of
learning. The central role of the learner, the importance of equal opportunities, quality and
relevance of learning possibilities must be at the centre of the strategies to make lifelong
learning a reality in Europe.
EU member states and the European Commission have strengthened their
political cooperation through the Education and Training 2010 work programme launched
in 2001. According to this document for 2010 was set as a goal that average participation
of adult population in lifelong learning (age group 25-64) should reach at least 12.5%.
In 2000, Romania has reached 0.9 % participation of adult in Lifelong Learning.
By 2008 the percentage increased to 1.5% being still far from European benchmark.
European document emphasize the importance of a coherent and comprehensive
strategy for Lifelong Learning. In order to achieve this desideratum, the following criteria
have to be applied: Partnership working, creating a learning culture, and Striving for
excellence are about achieving coherence, while Insight into demand for learning,
Facilitating access and adequate resourcing ensure that the approach is comprehensive.
Distance learning represents an opportunity for all adult people because is flexible, is
valuing learning and ensure quality of learning process.
Based on our experience - ODL Department of University of Bucharest, this
paper present the way in which Distance learning can contribute to increasing
participation of adults in education.
Keywords:adult education; open distance education; EU benchmak;
European policies for adult education
Adult education represents a main preoccupation for European Union and there
were several official documents for increasing the number of adults integrated in the
educational system (formal or non-formal education). Adult education and training is
taking on an increasingly important role in overall education and training provision. With
the emergence of lifelong learning as a dominant paradigm of education and training
provision, it is increasingly recognized that the opportunity to gain and update skills and
abilities need to be available to individuals throughout their life. However, it is also
becoming increasingly clear that adult education and training is taking on a number of
Michaela Logofatu, Anisoara Dumitrache/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
different forms, as new opportunities for learning emerge outside of the formalized
institutionalized provision of education and training.
Adult learning is defined as: “access and participation relates to the opportunities
and chances as well as obstacles and barriers that confront individuals along their lifelong
learning pathway. While access is concerned mainly with structural and logistical
questions, participation encompasses motivational issues, as well as financial and cultural
ones, which must also be considered when assessing the success of any system or
process” (according to a document of European Association for the Education of Adults
(EAEA)15.
In 2006, in the Communication from the Commission, “Adult learning: It is
never too late to learn”, adult learning is defined as “all forms of learning undertaken by
adults after having left initial education and training, however far this process may have
gone (e.g., including tertiary education)”.
The Commission Communication on “Making a European area of lifelong
learning a reality” clearly defines the axes on coherence and comprehensiveness of a
national LLL strategy. Likewise the 2008 Joint Report of the Council and the Commission
guides national systems of education towards the orientation of development of coherent
and comprehensive strategies that are to facilitate learning for all and learning outcomes in
our societies under the scope of enhancing competitiveness and the process of innovation
of E&T systems across the sub-sectors, forms and levels. Participation to education
process means that an individual has had the opportunity to experience an education or
training opportunity.
In the “Communication from the Commission. Delivering lifelong learning for
knowledge, creativity and innovation”, 2007, is presented countries’ situation in relation
to the adoption of explicit lifelong learning strategy, qualifications framework, and
validation of non-formal and informal learning.
Brief review of adult learning accessibility
The preoccupations for facilitating access of adult people to learning are
considerably increasing every year. Already in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights affirmed in its article 26 that “everyone has the right to education”, but the rights
of adults to education were to be explicitly recognized much later. The issue of adult
learning goes much beyond the issue of accessibility but remain one of the most
important. It concerns also the participation of adults in the decisions regarding the adult
learning policies and programmes impinging on adult learning, their representation
especially at the managerial and decision-making level of educational programmes.
Access to learning opportunities and recognition of learning achievements is essential for
all citizens for their daily life, working life, and life within the community. In the revised
Lisbon strategy the European Commission calls for Europe to refocus its approach to
growth and employment.
In November 2001, in the Communication from the Commission “Making a
European Area of Lifelong Learning a Reality” was emphasised the need of a clear vision
an strategy about access to education; equality of opportunities between gender; direct
relation between citizen’s education and quality of labour market: “Strategies must also
15 The Common European Adult Learning Framework (CEALF), Performance Indicators and Benchmarks
of Adult Learning in the Context of Lifelong Learning, Draft, 2006
327
address issues of equality of opportunity (e.g. gender equality) and of targeting specific
groups, in order to ensure lifelong learning opportunities are genuinely available to all,
especially those at particular risk of exclusion such as people on low income, disabled
people, ethnic minorities and immigrants, early school leavers, lone parents, unemployed
people, parents returning to the labour market, workers with low levels of education and
training, people outside the labour market, senior citizens (including older workers), and
ex-offenders. Such targeting should address the needs not only of people in deprived
urban areas, but also those in rural areas who may have particular learning needs”16.
“Key points include:
o Removing social, geographical, psychological and other barriers, for
example by promoting ICT, workplace learning and local learning centres to
bring learning and learners together at times/paces and in places suited to
people’s other commitments;
o Within the formal sector, adapting entry, progression and recognition
requirements to take account of non-formal and informal learning;
o Complementing mainstream provision with tailored measures, especially for
basic skills, targeted at specific individual needs. Ensuring availability of
specialist provision to meet any unmet demand, for example by encouraging
higher education establishments to work with those at risk of exclusion;
o Social partners should work together and with other actors to ensure the
trend towards greater flexibility in the organization of work is accompanied
by adequate investment by employers in their workforce – a key dimension
of quality in work;
o Recognizing information, guidance and counseling services as a key
interface between learning needs and the learning on offer. They are also
crucial in helping learners find their place in increasingly complex learning
systems.
2002 - The Council of the European Union, in the Council Resolution of 27 June
2002 on lifelong learning, establishes the following priorities:
o providing access to lifelong learning opportunities for all, regardless of age,
including specific actions aimed at the most disadvantaged persons, those
not participating in education and training, as well as migrants, as a means of
facilitating their social integration,
o providing opportunities to acquire and/or update basic skills, including the
new basic skills, such as IT skills, foreign languages, technological culture,
entrepreneurship and social skills,
o the training, recruitment and updating of teachers and trainers for the
development of lifelong learning,
o the effective validation and recognition of formal qualifications as well as
non-formal and informal learning, across countries and educational sectors
through increased transparency and better quality assurance,
16 Communication from the Commission, “Adult learning: It is never too late to learn”, Brussels,
23/10/2006.
328
o
the high quality and broad accessibility of target group specific information,
guidance and counselling concerning lifelong learning opportunities and
their benefits,
o encouraging the representation of relevant sectors, including the youth
sector, in existing or future networks and structures, working in this area;
In 2005, into a Final Report for the European Commission, Study on Access to
Education and Training –Tender No EAC/38/04, Lot 1, is mentioned for 2005: “Despite
the emphasis placed on the workplace as a potential place of learning, with particular
mention of the learning organisation as a central component of lifelong learning, a recent
review of lifelong learning in the EU found that “there is little or no information on LLL
[lifelong learning] initiatives originating from within the workplace. Familiar concepts
such as the learning organisation or l'organisation qualifiante du travail are noteworthy for
their absence”. However, the same review also notes that “the combination of education
and training with work […] is an important factor in developing the LLL reflex. Replies
from several countries [to that EU project survey] suggest that education and training
systems are increasingly evolving towards such a dual approach, placing a growing
emphasis on work related practice and employability”
Adult learning is vitally important to the European Social Model and to the
standing of a strong Europe in a globally competitive world. Participation in adult
education remains highly unequal. Those most in need participate least. Finding new ways
to motivate and involve excluded groups is a high priority for policy, research and
funding.
Changing demography, especially ageing and migration into and within the EU,
are making big new demands on national and EU policy. Adult education must adapt and
contribute to meeting the new needs that arise. Those migrating between countries require
a new skills and knowledge. Host communities must adapt and actively accommodate
new cultural groups.
Cultural change is also occurring apropos older and very old people. Adult
education is needed to help keep them active in the workforce longer, and to be able to
live an active and rewarding life in retirement as engaged citizens. The role of the social
partners in general, and the business community and employers in particular, in lifelong
learning strategies has become increasingly prominent across Europe.
Into “Modernising education and training: a vital contribution to prosperity and
social cohesion in Europe” – Interim Report from 200617: The need to increase
participation rates in further learning remains a major challenge for Europe, particularly in
the southern European countries and the new Member States. Greater numbers of adults in
lifelong learning would increase active participation in the labour market and contribute to
strengthening social cohesion. Across Europe, insufficient priority and funding is being
dedicated to increasing access to adult learning opportunities, especially for older workers,
whose numbers are set to increase by around 14 million by 2030, and for the low skilled.
Most of the countries that record the highest levels of participation have given a high
priority to adult learning strategies as part of an integrated and comprehensive lifelong
learning strategy.
17
2006 Joint interim report of the Council and of the Commission on progress under the ‘education &
training 2010’ work programme
329
In the 2006, Joint interim report of the Council and of the Commission on
progress under the ‘Education & training 2010’ Work Programme (2006/C 79/01) Official Journal of the European Union is mentioned the idea of modernizing education
and training for increasing the social cohesion in Europe. For many countries funding
remains a key challenge and an obstacle to implementing the modernization agenda.
According to this report:
o Almost 15 % of young people in the EU still leave school early, reflecting
only slight progress towards the EU 2010 benchmark of 10 %.
o Nearly 20 % of 15 year-olds continues to have serious difficulty with
reading literacy, reflecting no progress since 2000 against the EU benchmark
of reducing the share by one fifth.
o About 77 % of 18-24 year olds complete upper-secondary education, still far
from the EU benchmark of 85 %, despite good progress in some countries.
For strengthening the implementation of education and training (Education &
training 2010’ project)18 are presented measures needed to be taken on two levels:
National level
Even though progress has been made, the priorities of the Education and Training
2010 work programme need to be taken more fully into account in national policy
making. Member States should in particular ensure that:
o Education and training have a central position in the national Lisbon reform
programs, in the national strategic reference framework for the structural
funds, and in the national strategies on social protection and social inclusion;
o Mechanisms for coordinating the implementation of the work programme at
national level are in place in all countries, involving the different Ministries
concerned and the main stakeholders, especially the social partners;
o National policies contribute actively towards the Education and Training
2010 benchmarks and objectives. National targets and indicators should be
further developed, taking account of these European references;
o The evaluation of policies is improved, to enable progress to be better
monitored, and to create a culture of evaluation, making full use of research
results. The development of high quality statistical instruments and
infrastructure is therefore indispensable;
o The various European agreements (e.g. Council resolutions or conclusions
on common references and principles) adopted in the context of the work
programme are used as important reference points when designing national
reforms.
European level
The Commission will ensure that the outcomes of the Education and Training
2010 work programme are fed into the implementation process of the Lisbon integrated
guidelines and the EU guidelines for cohesion and into follow-up action related to the
future of the European social model, as discussed at the informal meeting of Heads of
18
Modernising education and training: a vital contribution to prosperity and social cohesion in Europe,
Official Journal of the European Union, Joint interim report of the Council and of the Commission on progress
under the ‘Education & training 2010’ work programme, 2006
330
State and Government at Hampton Court. In this context, the structural funds should give
priority to investment in human capital.
In 2008 Joint progress report of the Council and the Commission on the
implementation of the ‘Education and Training 2010’ work programme — ‘Delivering
lifelong learning for knowledge, creativity and innovation’19, mentioned that Adult
participation in lifelong learning is no longer on track to achieve the EU benchmark.
Greater efforts are still required to raise skill levels in the population and to achieve
flexibility and security across the labour market.
“Progress towards the EU benchmark (12,5 %) was broadly on track until 2005.
In 2006, however, an average of 9,6 % of Europeans aged 25-64 were participating in
education and training activities, which is slightly less than in 2005. The overall figure
hides an important imbalance: adults with a high level of education are more than six
times as likely to participate in lifelong learning as the low skilled.”
Low participation in lifelong learning of older workers and the low-skilled is a
particular problem where participation rates are already low for the overall population.
Further, there is a particular concentration of low skills among migrants. Demographic
and labour market trends will lead to increased demand for high skills and fewer
opportunities for the low-skilled. More attention will have to be given to training these
groups.
Using the information received from this interim reports we can make a short
comparison between the results obtained in 2006 and 2008. This gives us an optimistic
vision about the progresses made in the adult education field through the increased
number of adult people attending to educational programs.
19
2008 joint progress report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation of the ‘Education and
Training 2010’ work programme — ‘Delivering lifelong learning for knowledge, creativity and innovation
331
Figure 1. Participation in lifelong learning: Percentage of population aged
participating in education and training in the four weeks prior the survey, 2002 – 2005.
Data source: Eurostat (Labour Force Survey)
In the Communication from the Commission on Adult learning, “It’s never too
late to learn”, 2006 is mentioned the importance of the adult learning in order to increase
economic progress in other regions in the world. In this moment are approximately 72
million low skilled workers, demographic trends are decreasing, poverty and social
exclusion are social realities. For 2010, the EU benchmark is 12,5% adults involved in
adult education programs, but we have a significant difference in participation between
member states (from 1.3 % in Romania and Bulgaria to 32.1 % Sweden).
For 2008 the increasing tendency is obvious but is not significant changes
between the comparison years for each country form the EU. In order to increase equitable
participation is mentioned the important role that all stakeholders play in increasing the
percent of participation at national and local level. Public authorities must take the lead in
removing barriers for the low skilled adults and integrate them on the labour market.
Establishing local partnerships and improving the quality of the communication can
contribute in good information of the target group.
The quality of the learning process can and must be improved through:
information and guidance and assistance, assuring a relevant learning content, assuring
learning support, assessments and validation and recognition.
Another important problem is the recognition and a system of validation of the
courses. Recognized courses and certification can be a stimulant for the adult perception
about permanent learning. In order to achieve this goal we need an increased level of
participation and contribution of all relevant stakeholders, better assessment methods and
reformulation of objectives of learning in terms of learning outcomes.
Romanian strategy for adult education
Legislative and policy framework of adult education
In Romania, lifelong learning principles have been included as priorities in
education, continuing training and employment policy documents. A coherent and
comprehensive national strategy for adult education is not completed yet but important
steps are made in order to encourage adult’s participation in learning.
332
The Memorandum on lifelong learning (2000) as well as Commission’s
Communication on lifelong learning (2001) marked a change in policy developments for
education and training in Romania. Recently, the National Development Plan 2007-2013
(NDP) and the Sectoral Operational Program for the Development of Human Resources
(SOPDHR) are the main Romanian policy documents for attaining the benchmarks set in
the Lisbon Agenda for education, training and employment. Some lifelong learning
objectives are also explicitly found in sectoral strategic documents, such as: The National
Employment Strategy 2004-2010 The Short- and Medium-Term Strategy of Continuing
Vocational Training 2005-2010, Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sport
Strategic Guidelines for 2006-2008.
An important strategic policy reference for the longer term is offered by the
National Strategy for Sustainable Development for 2013-2020-2030 (2008). The basic
aim of the strategy is the development of human capital and the increase of its
competitiveness on the labour market, by providing equal opportunities for lifelong
learning and the development of a modern, flexible and inclusive labour market.
The National Reform Program 2007-2010 addresses directly the requirements of
the Lisbon Agenda (2005) and focuses on reforms for growth and employment.
The National Reform Plan Implementation Report (Oct 2008) offers a
comprehensive view of the progresses in implementing the provisions of the renewed
Lisbon Strategy.
The legislative framework (laws, government ordinances, government decisions,
and orders of different ministers) regarding the continuing vocational training (CVT), are
designed to establish a clear and feasible strategy in order to increase participation in
education, support the measures regarding lifelong learning which are specific to
continuing vocational training, such as: guaranteeing the access to training for all adults,
encouraging the employers to invest in the human resources development, evaluation and
recognition of competences acquired through non-formal and informal learning. The
Government Decree no. 844/2002 is approving the classification of occupations, trades
and specializations dealt with in pre-university education, which aims to adapt the initial
vocational education and training offer to labour market demands. The Strategy for
Employment for 2004-2010, designed by the Ministry of Labor, Family and Social
Protection brings in some priorities referring to the development of lifelong learning.
Also the Government decision on a short and medium term strategy for
continuous professional training proposes a strategy focused on developing a continuous
professional training system, transparent and flexible, able to ensure a higher level of
employability, through labour force adaptability and mobility, so that it responds better to
the needs of the companies/society. The strategy focuses on one of the Lisbon objectives –
increasing the medium level of participation in lifelong learning to at least 12,5% by 2010,
for adult population (age group 25-64).
Adult learning through distance learning
In UNESCO document from 1997, ISCED – International Standard
Classification of Education, terms like distance education and distance learning are
differently described.
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Distance education - an educational process and system in which all or a
significant proportion of the teaching is carried out by someone or something removed in
space and time from the learner. Distance education requires structured planning, welldesigned courses special instructional techniques and methods of communication by
electronic and other technology, as well as specific organizational and administrative
arrangements.
Distance learning - a system and a process that connects learners to distributed
learning resources. Distance learning can take a variety of forms, all distance learning,
however, is characterized by (a) separation/distance of place and/or time between
instructor and learner, amongst learners, and/or between learners and learning resources;
and (b) interaction between the learner and the instructor, among learners and/or between
learners and learning resources conducted through one or more media.
Distance learning in Romania
In Romania, Distance Education knew a boom after its official recognition by
Education Law no. 84/1995 (Education Law, no. 84 / 1995, Art. 60, al. (1), (2), and (3)).
This new field was organized through some Ministry of National Education’s Orders
(OMEN no. 3289 / 19.02.1998, OMEN no. 3354 / 25.02.1999) and a Government
Decision (HG 1214 / 29.11.2000 (outlawed by HG 1011 / 26.10.2001)) from the period
1998-2000. At this moment, organization, development and certification for Distance
Education programs for high education are settled by Government Decision
1011/26.10.2001 (HG 1011 / 26.10.2001). Educational programs which envision high
education qualifications are developed under academic assessment procedures. Within the
National Council for Assessment of Academic Studies had been established a commission
of assessments of Distance Education methodology, which operates in order to analyze
educational programs, human and material resources specific to Distance Education
departments and centers.
ODL at University of Bucharest
Beginning from 1993 through the establishment of a CTI Pilot Center
(Computers and Teaching Initiatives) at the University of Bucharest it appeared the basics
of Distance Education within studies and researches about this field.
First important project for open distance learning “Multi-Country Programme for
Distance Education” (1994-1999), establishes 40 distance learning centers in center and
east Europe20. 7 of these centers are organized in Romania in important universities:
University of Bucharest (Bucharest), A.I. Cuza University (Iasi), Lucian Blaga University
(Sibiu), Technical University (Cluj), Technical University (Timisoara), Transilvania
University (Brasov), also in a non-governmental organization. During the project for each
of these centers was ensured optimum endowments for logistic and infrastructure and also
for training the administrative staff.
Involvement in this projects, programs and also bi-lateral programs (with Spain,
France, Germany and Italy) insured material resources to build infrastructure and to train
human resources. Research centers established by some of these projects had been
reunited in the Center for Resources, Documentation, Information and Services for
Distance Education (acronym for CREDIS), which was transformed University Senate
20
These countries are: Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Macedonia, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia
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Decision in May 1999 in Distance Education, Continuous Learning and Professional
Conversion Department, in a short formula ODL Department CREDIS.
The purpose of establishment was to implement, lead and control Distance
Education from the University of Bucharest and, in this context, ODL Department
CREDIS had a strong evolution, being able to offer initial university programs, as well as
post-graduate and permanent education programs.
Department’s mission is complex including an academic-didactical and research
component and a practical element, which refers to the production of study materials
(printed, CD-s and audio cassettes) for enrolled students.
By Government Decision no. 944/29.08.2002, 15 university specialties (college
and faculty as well) were certified through distance Education system. As a result of
Bologna Process decisions colleges transformed in faculties or departments with a proper
curricula. From the beginning of 2005-2006, faculties as well, changed their offers by
adapting it to fundamental fields of graduation.
Distance education, unlike face–to-face education, is the mode of education
where instruction is provided to students located in distant places, even the remotest area
of the country, through well prepared study material supplemented by audio-visual aids.
The latest developments are the on-line delivery of course material and
interactive sessions through Internet. This way of education is also known as
correspondence study at the beginning or distance learning and is often called education
delivered at the doorsteps. Distance education is an innovative development in education
that uses technology to facilitate learning without the limitations of time or place. The
great advantage of distance education is that it is an important tool for life-long education:
it gives students flexibility to achieve an appropriate balance of work, social obligations,
and educational commitments. Following the demands of labour market, the educational
offer from ODL Department has been improved year by year, having now 16
specializations for bachelor and many master studies. The main advantage of distance
learning system is flexibility, student centered, removing barriers between spaces and
learning time. Theoretically, any student can be enrolled having the opportunity to learn
and study in the same time.
At the University of Bucharest students participate in lifelong courses proposed
by ODL Department. Students are enrolled in a virtual class. In order to establish the time
table for the practical exercises we use a web application. In this way the students have the
time to prepare and can participate in all the practical activities. Students have access to
on-line courses. Beside the face-to-face meetings students have the possibility to study at
home. Assisting the students in their studies and offering technical support, a qualified
trainer is permanently present in the laboratory. He provides support to students by
answering questions, preparing pretesting sessions, helping home studying students by
replying to their messages. Students have the freedom of attending laboratory training
anytime. This learning process has proven to be a way for students to study in their own
way and rhythm.
The main tool for flexible learning is the UniBuc Virtual Campus. Web-centred,
Virtual Campus is used as a delivery platform for on-line teaching/learning. To have
access to the Virtual Campus the student receives a password and a username at the
beginning of the course. The Portal offers many synchronous and asynchronous
communication services, in this way eliminating space and time barrier. The student is
335
registered in a group, a real “virtual classroom”, where he/she can meet his colleagues,
professors and course managers.
Conclusion
Adult education is a priority for European Union in order to improve quality of
work and life of its citizens. The EU benchmarks established for 2015 are far to be
accomplished that’s why we need a coherent and comprehensive strategy for adult
education.
Open distance learning represents an opportunity for each citizen to learn and
practice, it provides a flexible learning environment, and the possibility to study to a large
category of people. Being a blended study way it has a great impact and efficiency even
for those for whom the “traditional” education hasn’t enough resources.
References
EFELSE project – Evaluation Framework for the Evolution of LLL Strategies in Europe, 2009 – 2010 (2010)
Romanian national report on
adult education. Realities and perspectives
Bogdan LOGOFĂTU, University of Bucharest e-learning experience, International Conference EDU-WORLD
2006, „Education facing the contemporary issues” 1-3 June 2006, Piteşti, Romania, Section VII, Virtual
education dream or reality (Proc. of the International conference, ISBN (10) 973 – 690 – 542 – 1, Volum 3,
pg.70-78);
Bogdan LOGOFĂTU, Alina Boboc-Corcotoi, Michaela LOGOFĂTU, Assuring flexibility to educational
platforms Case study: UniBuc Virtual Campus, International Conference on Virtual Learning, ICVL 2006,
Bucharest, 27-29 October 2006 (pg. 253 - 258), ISBN 973-737-218-2;
Michaela LOGOFĂTU, Alina Boboc-Corcoţoi, Providing distance learning using UniBuc Virtual Campus,
International Open and Distance Learning Symposium, (IODL), “Lifelong Open & Flexible Learning in the
Globalized World” Anadolu, Turkey, 13-15 Septembrie 2006, (pg. 785);
Michaela LOGOFĂTU, Anişoara Dumitrache, Alina MUNTEANU, Flexible environment for adult Lifelong
Learning, International Conference on Virtual Learning, ICVL 2006, Bucharest, 27-29 October 2006 (pg.
135 - 140), ISBN 973-737-218-2;
Mihaela GHEORGHE, Ovidiu MOLDOVAN Blended lifelong learning in information & communication
technology, International Conference EDU-WORLD 2008, „Education facing the contemporary issues” 1,
Piteşti, Romania, 5-8 July 2008, Pitesti, Romania, Section 13 “Life long learning” (1237 - 1242);
Anisoara DUMITRACHE, Conversia profesională de nivel postuniversitar vizând cadrele didactice, Simpozion
internaţional “Profesionalizarea carierei didactice din perspectiva educaţiei permanente”, 23-24 mai 2008,
CNFP, Bucuresti, Sectiunea II 01, ISBN 978-973-0-05720-1, (pg. 118 - 125);
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th
4
th
th
Adult Education, Labour Market and Sustainable
Development in the Knowledge Society
Irina DIMITRIU
Centrul National de Formare Profesionala a Personalului Propriu
din cadrul ANOFM
Abstract
One of the political strategies for development in the new society is lifelong
learning. From the Labor Market point of view, grown people education is very important
by offering the opportunities to understand the movements, to convert, to conform and to
get new jobs. In order to increase the number of employed people, a lot of new skills,
knowledge and abilities need to be thought. This makes new training course appear to
satisfy the standards labor market demand. Facing contemporary knowledge society, the
most sensitive merchandise - human resources - must be continuously intellectually
improved to ensure the sustainability.
Keywords: strategies, employment, standards, knowledge, sustainability;
Whether we are aware or not, we are all Andragogy students – we are
continuously learning. But it depends at what level we do that. Not learning consciously
means wasting your only limited resource: time. The adults find many reasons for
postponing their conscious participation in the learning process: the lack of time, the lack
of money, family responsibilities, organizing their schedule. There is also motivation –
related problems, as the adult cannot be forced to learn, as well as the lack of self –
confidence. An Andragogy specialist would try to motivate this kind of students by
inviting them to think of the satisfaction they had when achieving an objective with no
effort at all, compared to the satisfaction they had when achieving a goal they had to fight
hard for.
Any human being is able to learn anything at any age. This is qualified by Olaf
Palme’s statement that “Education is from the cradle to the grave”, an early premise for
the concept of Lifelong Learning.
Even in antiquity, great masters such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle went
beyond the borders of traditional training by using an efficient methodology in
transmitting knowledge to adults, thus creating the premises of a new school: adult
training. They believed that real education can only be achieved when the student is given
the freedom of choice, the freedom to investigate and adapt the newly – acquired
knowledge to real – situation. This is how long ago the modern Andragogy methods are
rooted!
Irina Dimitriu/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
The continuous learning has preoccupied humanity all through history. Today’s
society brings along a new challenge dictated by the concern for this valuable creation, the
human being. The challenge consists in correlating the long life education and training
process with the labor – market.
The objective of any society is full employment. This is an ideal that not even
controlled societies (of socialist type) managed to achieve, even though statistics tried to
prove the contrary. Full occupation remains however the highest objective targeted by the
employment policy of E.U., having as main objective: increasing the employment level.
The accession to the E.U. generated in many member counties a series of structural
changes with major social consequences, many of them unexpected, that disturbed the
newly – created system. At first, the E.U. policy focused on minimizing the negative
social consequences generate by structural changes, but later on they concluded that, in
view of obtaining a real modernization of the European social system, it is necessary to
take a more important step, a qualitative approach – investment in people.
In the contest of the unique European market, it is more and more obvious that
every E.U. citizen must compare his professional performance against the E.U. standards.
As full members we must perform the role we accepted to play in this new social
structure, and this implies certain responsibilities. One of the most important
responsibilities is to continuously get trained in order to reach the value level imposed by
the E.U., to have an active presence in the E.U. Our exceptional values will make us
visible.
In the knowledge society, all of us we must acquire a large volume of
knowledge. An individual’s refusal to learn is out of the question. He or she must only be
reminded that the learning process is continuous anyway and further more, the individual
himself systematically reaffirms the intention of continuous learning, as long as he prays
for his health. Understanding and observing the principles that govern the life are
elements that determine the state of physical and mental health that are necessary for
genuine happiness, which is the perfect ground for expressing creativity. There are
sociologists and psychologists who consider that creativity is a skill. This statement
cannot be supported by real examples of gaining a certain “amount” of creativity upon
applying a certain “treatment”.
Analyzing the concept essence, we realize that in fact creativity is a form of
reaction, a rebellion against something established, born from the desire to change, to
improve, born out of curiosity. The more harmonious a person is, in agreement with
oneself, the other people and the universe, the more the products of his activity are cleaner
and more creative, capable to make a change. Creativity actually means tense activity. For
this activity to be developed at a higher level, the individual must possess an important
amount of information, culture, education, and to be located in a favorable context, in
freedom.
The accelerated pace of environment change, the continuous transformation of
personality features, the social factors, especially the socio – economic conditions and the
psycho – social context, determine a certain evolution in the creativity sphere.
The result of the research studies in this field is alarming because the following
aspect has been noticed: In spite of the intellect and personality development as a whole,
the creative potential indicators show frequent involutions. However, such state of facts
cannot be accepted. Our society cannot afford to accept it.
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Andragogy develops in people the desire to act, to move and to speed up their
moment in time, in history. Being prepared this way, we can intervene in the sense of
making changes and writing the history ourselves. It is a matter of attitude, and first of all
the attitude of being present in your own life in order to make yourself visible in the
world.
The adult person is an organizational person, product of a specific organizational
culture. This person has the ideology, dreams, education, professional diseases generated
by his organizational environment. The human personality psychic features are modeled
by the structural – functional characteristics of the organization. Apparently the individual
does not have the possibility to choose to develop “in freedom”. Large part of the
influence exercised by the environment upon the human being is due to the organization.
Eventually, the individual becomes a mirror of the organizations that he has gone through
in life. Is this a good think or the contrary? It all depends on the organizational culture.
A feature of the labor market in Romania today is the standardization of the
organizational culture, together with the inheritance of certain bureaucratic values and
principles that have been time – enduring, that have been so strong and well – assimilated
so that they have migrated toward the private sector as well, affecting the work relations.
The collective standards of thinking, attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and customs that are
imposed in an organization should not, under any circumstances, be allowed to be set up
random, because only a healthy organizational culture guarantees the success. The
organizational culture influences all the products of the organization and acts upon them
in a two – way relation. Successful companies already understand these interconnections
and they take action meant to ensure the implementation of successful standards. Due to
this fact, a larger importance is given to the personnel selection and recent tendency is to
praise first of all special human qualities, that are considered even more important that the
professional skills. Any effective manager thinks of the future of his investments and
some simple math shows that a responsible person with a positive attitude can be
professionally trained, where as it is much more difficult to work with a person without
manners, regardless of his training.
Another change that the contemporary organization must understand and accept
is to encourage non – conformism. The good old obedient suns of the organization will
have to barrow some of the creative spirit of the non – conformists to acknowledge their
pioneer merits and appreciate their courage. The non – conformists are free visionary
people. Usually these people are not too preoccupied with themselves because they have
many thinks to notice, to learn, to understand, too much to live. The bureaucratic society
has created a lot of obstacles for the non – conformists, slowing down, this way, the
natural pace of evolution, as it wanted to maintain its power at all costs. The society of the
future, adhocracy imposed a new kind of person, the “associative man”, an improved
version of the non – conformist. This is the profile of the associative man, as presented by
Mielu Zlate: “ he is not concerned about the organization; he doesn’t care about the
economic security; he takes risks (knowing that in a prosperous society that is
permanently changing even the failure is transitory); he is looking for gains and prestige
outside organization; he moves from one stage to another based on a complex pattern,
mostly dictated by his personal expectations; when facing new problems, he feels
challenged to innovate; he realizes that the team itself is transitory – he will subordinate
339
his personality, for a while, to the conditions and terms that he has chosen, although it
does not mean permanent subordination”21.
So we are undergoing a period of transition for the organization, period when
today’s man has understood that money doesn’t enhance personal welfare and that in
order to feel satisfied with the job, he must make use of his personal skills is made easier
by the significant opening offered by the educational system, especially by the incentives
and opportunities the students benefit from within the European Union. However, when it
comes to “middle” generations, finding oneself requires first of all great determination and
then systematic and hard work in view of getting out of the patterns and blockages
inherited from the old bureaucracy. This courage is given by a continuous process of
learning and training. This is where the Romanian manager must intervene in imposing a
modern organizational culture oriented toward knowledge, toward encouraging creativity
and toward continuous learning and permanent training. Romania’s organizations need to
open up to the E.U., to fearlessly accept the freedom of its members, allowing them to
have exchange at ideational level, professional experience and best practices exchange.
This new wave will continuously revive the organizational culture, improving the quality
of life.
Since the IV - Conference of Ministers of Education of European countries were
indicated some important trends, including:
- Development of education is increasingly seen like an independent variable of
the economic one. Education is being asked to develop in those which are involved in the
educational process (children, young, adults) not only the ability to adapt to changes
(particularly changes belonging to the labor market, with its problems of unemployment),
but also the capacity to foresee and prepare for this new perspective.
- To respond to this new request, the education extends their activity beyond
formal learning institutions, in the enterprises and institutions, in community structures, at
those which are concerned homes. New partners are today involved in the decisions taken
in education: professors, parents and student associations, professional and cultural
associations, local communities, etc.
- The role given to the education increase in those actions destined to settle a
number of acute problems of modern society, such as drug use, diseases spread among the
masses and incurable ones, national, regional and world security (man having today the
necessary means for destruction of their own planet and for the production of genetic
mutations) and the like. 22
The conclusion resulting from issues raised at the conference was that the society
requires new demands from the educational systems.
Consequently, the education is called upon to help solve the problems society is
facing.
In the same context some solutions were found:
o improvement of coherency between internal systems and society
o provide some stability and continuity to ensure their effectiveness
o ensure the long-term effectiveness of educational systems
21
22
Zlate, M., (2007). Tratat de psihologie Organizaţional Managerială. Bucureşti: Polirom.
Jinga, I, Istrate,E., [1998] (2008). Manual de Pedagogie. Bucureşti: ALL.
340
o
providing educational systems ability to meet requirements related to the
dynamic structure of jobs, skills re-training, reemployment but also the
pressing need to strengthen the humanist and cultural dimension of
education
o finding solutions to enable education to enroll in the vast view of social,
technological and economic changes
o planning the introduction of computer systems at all educational levels.
With all these solutions suggested, is shaping the direction which education
should be directed to. It is about an integration of education systems in social context, but
this goal can’t be achieved without an adequate response from the society that is here
called upon to provide a stable framework for the development of education. The first step
towards this kind of stability is restoring at all levels, the value criteria.
Society today is characterized by one constant: the change.
It is therefore necessary to establish a functional link between school and
employment. The answer to the raised question is lifelong learning. Must be considered
human factor long-term educational and training programs in three main areas, axes of
sustainable development: economic, social and environmental. To this areas must be
given the same equal importance. Essential to harmonize actions in the three directions is
the human factor.
Consumer society will change in a society of equilibrium, with a global planned
production according to actual needs in order to stop a waste of resources that humanity
can not longer afford.
Sustainability in value will result in the effective use of resources.
The problem of education must therefore be seen today from a new perspective
in the light of profound transformation since the first decade of XXI century. Informatics,
globalization in all fields, stressing the importance of human capital, the need for a
continuous education due mainly to continuing progress in science and technology, induce
new values to the education.
It is increasingly called into question interdisciplinary and can no longer ignore
the holistic approach.
For successful completion of this turbulent period, it must link global strategies.
Contemporary social policies come to reinforce what I said above. Thus,
investment in human capital is one of the courses of action on which the Member States of
the European Union have agreed.
European Community supports in the Integrated Guidelines for Growth and
Employment 2005 - 2008, investment in human capital through a qualitative approach.
European Commission encourages sustainable development strategies and
facilitate the coordination of Member States' action in all areas of social policy and in
particular the training and professional development in order to achieve the following
objectives:
o facilitating adaptation to industrial changes, in particular through training
and retraining;
o improving initial training and continuing education to facilitate integration
and reintegration into the labor market;
o facilitating access to training, etc.
341
In this context, one of the priorities of national development period 2007 - 2013
contained in the National Development Plan is to develop human resources.
Also according to the National Strategic Reference Framework 2007 - 2013
overall goal is to have citizens better prepared to face the challenges of present and future
and able to act responsibly for future generations by promoting Andragogy specific
learning: learning to know, learning to be, learning to live together and learning to change
yourself and society, thus respecting the principle of sustainable development.
The report of the Romanian Institute for Innovation and Development Projects
for 2008 states that in a world where the stock of knowledge accumulated in the three
cycles of education is rapidly obsolescent due to technical - scientific revolution and
major cultural changes, continually refresh of the knowledge and useful skills becomes a
vital component of state policy on education. Meanwhile, in a dynamic market economy,
subject to permanent change and renewal, it is understood that part of the workforce must
change all or part of his job, at least once during their lifetime.
In 1970 Alvin Toffler wrote that the threshold of the Third Millennium, about
30% of employed persons will have to pursue other jobs than it is prepared. And people
laugh. In 2006, "World Statistics of Occupations", UN working out, shows that between
1996 and 2006, over 45% of the workforce in 100 countries had to change their
occupation.
It therefore requires the adoption of consistent and long-term stable national
policies, continuous learning, continuous training, and adults retraining of job
readjustment.
Lifelong education is now integrated for the education science. The main
functions of education, as their sets of Education Manual, can be found as follows:
“-preparing children, youth and adults for social and professional integration, and
to adapt to changes taking place in science and culture in the world of work and
occupations in society generally and in people's lifestyles.
-make available to all people the means to their continuous development
throughout life, according to the principle of continuous education.”23
Specialists argue that adult education is different from that of children. For
instance, James Robbins Kidd says: “At all ages, of course, wise men have recognized
that learning is the active, not passive process: one that teaches opens himself, make the
effort, acquire, incorporate new experience, report it to its earlier experience, reorganized
this experience, expresses or spread out what is inwards latent. Essential part of the
teaching-learning is how to help one who learns, to engage in this active, progressive,
transformers, pain, or refreshing experience, we call learning.24
There are still many invariables in human education. Here are some of the
attributes that trainer should show there were deducted from Cousinet view on new
education: attitude consists of understanding, of love, but mostly out of respect, attitude of
waiting, of patience, of mercy, more even than indulgence, admission of mistakes and
hesitations.
23
24
Idem 3
Kidd, J.R. [1973] (1981). Cum îvaţă adulţii. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
342
Today are very carefully studied the methods of knowledge transmission to those
who have completed the formal system cycle of learning and continues their education
throughout life.
Developing a global perspective, modern science of adult learning - Andragogy,
offers to adult people concrete solutions through innovative and efficient methods based
on the active age psychology study and experience in working with man integrated in his
living environment.
In the present context, the main factor restraining education is lack of motivation.
The motivation in adulthood is most often addressed in terms of socio-cultural and
economic determinism of thinking skills, human skills and attitudes development during
life.
Changes in contemporary society and new requirements dictated by these
exercises big pressures at the social, professional, psycho - physiological and teaching
level. At the social level are necessary civic skills, marital and parental development. At
the professional level is the need for highly qualification, readjustment, poly qualification,
specialization. At psycho – physiological level, we talk about motivation, ability,
willingness, ownership, etc, and at a teaching level, we talk about the continuing,
expanding, improving and professional skills individualization of adult persons.
All this educational approach aimed at, as I noted above, the harmonization of
the three essential areas: economic, social and environmental.
Retraining is how employment can increase. “It is widely recognized that
conversion, especially in conditions of modern economy, is an ongoing process, present in
any context and at any stage of development. Without conversion is difficult to achieve
economic growth and social necessary conditions to economic and social dynamism. The
economic conversion objectives are sized according to market requirements, retraining of
the workforce being also closely related to the productive system conversion. It is
occupational conversion role to bring the organization workforce after the economic
restructuring at quantitative and qualitative parameters that can assure compatibility with
the demand for labor.”25
In addition to arguments about the need for lifelong learning, and I must add that
after numerous attempts to intervene for a positive development of Member States, the
European Commission encourages today, in particular, sustainable development strategies
and facilitate Member States action coordination in all areas of social policy and in
particular the training and professional development.
Valuing and enhancement of human capital are not at all new concepts. In 1971
Paul-Henry Chombart de Lauwe wrote: “The statements of economists confirmed that the
discovery of human potential, of the internal dynamism of the population, can provide a
means by which countries can develop. One who examines the development factors or
brakes from a psychologically, sociologically and culturally point of view, reach to make
a certain number of proposals.”26
In 2003, Academy member Mircea Maliţa enunciate a number of problems for
coming years, including: “the emergence of a new kind of enterprise, whose size is given
25
Ristea, C. (2005). Piaţa muncii. Comportament. Modelare. Eficienţă, ediţia a II-a. Bucureşti: Cartea
Universitară
26
Chombart de Lauwe,P-H, [1972]. Pentru o sociologie a aspiraţiilor. Cluj: Dacia.
343
by the new map of knowledge and by many modules combined according to individual
choices, extended learning throughout life, introducing new technologies, continuous
updating of information and combining work with learning.”27All these issues are found
today as priorities in national and European Union development programs.
But most useful ideas and proposals for change and improvement is blocked
during the implementation phase.
The social evolution of mankind requires more than ever, clarify the relationship
between state and individual, the latter of feeling increasingly oppressed. Among
individual factors that induce feelings of anxiety is today the force intended to defend the
integrity of the property, to assure the relative freedom and right to prosperity, the State.
State, by nature and destination tends to stability, even to conservatism we can
say. That who’s bringing the changing, being dynamic in its essence, is civil society. State
and civil society are genetically related but each other. In the development process they
sometimes peacefully coexist, sometimes tending to grab each other spheres of influence.
After all, behind both phenomena are man and his constantly developing and then change
for the benefit of one or another party (state or civil society) are largely caused by human
qualities and changes, difficulties and problems character through which society is passing
by.
Social programs created to ensure the development of society, controlling and are
controlled by citizens themselves. Effective social programs increase human and social
capital stock.
To be viable, any social policy must receive social support, to promote measures
that are consistent with the values and aspirations of the population, to be considered
legitimate. Social policy is the base on which development can be achieved.
But really who is to safeguard the welfare in Romania? From a survey on
perceptions of social problems and subjective poverty, that people regard as primarily
responsible for social problems, the state. Despite this, in the individual welfare provision,
the report individual / state must be discussed. In this context, the individual has an active
role, the creator of his own welfare and not a passive waiting by a paternalistic state type.
Especially the national states are themselves in a period of profound transformation.
Sustainable development as a prerequisite for perpetuation of life on Earth is
dependent on each line of action of lifelong learning. Following the National Strategic
Plan of the Romanian state, every citizen has the historic duty to actively engage in joint
repair and constructive effort. This approach must be based on actual values, good
competences and skills and people wish to progress individually and globally. To this end,
education sciences seek permanent solutions by developing new programs and strategies
to meet the training, expertise, deepening and retraining needs.
It is always valid conclusion drawn from research at the end of the twentieth
century: "It is rightly estimated today that “openness” and “diversity” are the two
fundamental conditions of epistemological and related to practice status of training and
human development through guided and auto guided learning science.
We must not forget that situations, challenges and requirements facing education
and educators are outdated and will certainly overcome institutional boundaries of school.
27
Giarini, O., Maliţa, M., [2003]. The double helix of learning and work. Studies of Science and Culture.
Bucureşti: UNESCO
344
But nobody and nothing can change a belief into action the principle that schools, higher
education, must operate under a specific logic, humanistic in their real determinations, the
central axis consisting by the aspiration of leading the man from the stage of to be at the
stage of to continuously become a being more and more human, more productive a value
meaning.”28
Never in the history of humanity has it been more obvious that going on the way
of “minimum resistance” humanity is getting closer to involution. What miracles should
happen for us to have everything without doing anything? Because this is obviously
impossible, each of us understands that to get involved in his own battle can for some turn
into a war. The war is good, but only when it is against your own obstinacy, to exceed our
own limits, to know ourselves in order to become free. This is where I want to underline
the huge importance of the Andragogy approach, whose result is evolution
References
Chombart de Lauwe,P-H, [1972]. Pentru o sociologie a aspiraţiilor. Cluj: Dacia.
Giarini, O., Maliţa, M., [2003]. The double helix of learning and work. Studies of Science and Culture.
Bucureşti: UNESCO.
Grosu, N. (2007). Chintesenţa sociologiei-ediţia a XI-a definitivă. Cluj Napoca: Dacia.
Guvernul României. (2007). Cadrul Strategic Naţional de Referinţǎ 2007 – 2013. Versiunea Finalǎ.
Guvernul României. (Decembrie 2005). Planul Naţional de Dezvoltare 2007 – 2013.
Jinga, I, Istrate,E. [1998] (2008). Manual de Pedagogie. Bucureşti: ALL.
Kidd, J.R. [1973] (1981). Cum îvaţă adulţii. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
Neacşu, I, (1999). Instruire şi învăţare, ediţia a II-a, revăzută. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
Ristea, C. (2005). Piaţa muncii. Comportament. Modelare. Eficienţă,ediţia a II-a. Bucureşti:Cartea Universitară.
Uniunea Europeanǎ. Liniile Directoare Integrate Pentru Creştere Economicǎ şi Ocupare 2005 – 2008.
Zlate, M., (2007). Tratat de psihologie Organizaţional Managerială. Bucureşti ; Polirom.
28
Neacşu, I, (1999). Instruire şi învăţare, ediţia a II-a, revăzută. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
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4
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Critical Thinking in Paolo Freire’s Pedagogical Work
Daniel Mara
University “Lucian Blaga” of Sibiu
Abstract
Paulo Freire was born on September 19, 1921 in Recife, one of the most
impoverished regions of Brazil, situated in the North-East of the country, and he died on
May 1997, 2 in Sao-Paulo. He developed his first activities at the Social Service of
Industry and then at the Department of Cultural Extension of the Recife University.
One of the main objectives of his activity was to fight for the autonomy of the
oppressed people. This process of conscientization of the individuals was seen as a
political and authentic education through which the oppressed people could acquire
knowledge and power because alphabetization was favouring the political and social
perception.
Keywords: conscientization, critical thinking, critical attitude, autonomy,
authentic education
1. Paolo Freire – Internationally Recognized Personality
Paulo Freire was born on September 19, 1921 in Recife, one of the most
impoverished regions of Brazil, situated in the North-East of the country, and he died on
May 1997, 2 in Sao-Paulo. He developed his first activities at the Social Service of
Industry and then at the Department of Cultural Extension of the Recife University.
One of the main objectives of his activity was to fight for the autonomy of the
oppressed people. This process of conscientization of the individuals was seen as a
political and authentic education through which the oppressed people could acquire
knowledge and power because alphabetization was favouring the political and social
perception. His ideas about the philosophy of education were first expressed in his PhD
thesis at the University of Recife in 1958 and then during his activity as a teacher of
history and philosophy of education at the same university.
The methodology he developed was intensely used in the alphabetization
process. As it was considered a danger for the Brazilian political system of that period,
Freire was imprisoned soon after the 1964 military coup. He was released after seventy
days and forced to leave the country. Freire went to Chile where he lived for five years.
During this period, he collaborated with UNESCO and the Chilean Institute of Agrarian
Reform in the adult education program.
2. “Conscientization” Concept and Practice
The central nucleus of education as practice of liberty and possibility of social
transformation is found in the conscientization concept and practice. Although it is
generally considered that the term conscientization is a Freirean neologism, the teacher
himself confesses that the term was introduced by the Superior Institute of Brazilian
Studies (Instituto Superior de Estudos Brasileiros - ISEB) around 1964 although he
received the political, phenomenological and pedagogical meaning of it, taking it as basis
of his own philosophical approach and educative thinking.
Paolo Freire declares that when he first heard the word conscientization, he
immediately felt the profoundness of its meaning because he was convinced that
education as practice of liberty was an act of knowledge, a critical approach of reality.
This word has been part of his pedagogical vocabulary since then, and Helder
Camara contributed to its dissemination and translation into French and English [1].
Like the word education and the latin verb e-ducere, whose meaning is to draw
out, bring something to light – or even edere which means to feed – the word formare as
well recalls the action to give shape to as process of the self permanent formation and
projection. The etymological root of the concept conscientization leads us to the word
consciousness and to the idea of process. Indeed, conscientization can be considered a
way of consciousness.
Freire outlines that the method is the external form of consciousness manifest in
acts, which takes on the fundamental property of consciousness – its intentionality.
Consciousness is in essence a way towards something apart from itself outside itself,
which surrounds it and which it apprehends by means of its ideational capacity. For this,
consciousness is by definition a method, in the most general sense of the word [2].
It is clearly deduced from this reasoning the fact that consciousness is a
substantial, essential and vital component in the learning-teaching process. If the
consciousness from the inside of the self tends to the external reality, conscientization
doesn’t limit itself to this exteriorization. On the contrary, it represents the critical
development. This means that the spontaneous sphere of approximating the reality or the
object of knowledge is passed over in order to obtain a critical dimension which tends to
penetrate the phenomenological essence of the known object.
Conscientization is not circumscribed to a consciousness, conscientiousness,
responsibility research in a closed and time limited way. It means that the term of this way
represents a preceding condition for new ways. It is not reducible to an intellectual attitude
and cannot be explained exclusively through a theoretical systematization because it is a
method of knowledge closely connected to social practice; mature and germinative
through a dialect necessary between action and reflection.
This implies the assumption of the civil and social role as subjects of history able
to understand the historical realities and create the reality by determining the history. The
meaning of conscientization represents a critical attitude in history, an attitude which will
never come to an end.
3. Phases of Consciousness
The conscientization process interpolates exactly in the relation between
consciousness and context, despite all the challenges that might appear. It is convenient
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the surpassing of the intransitive phase of consciousness which is an obscurity in seeing or
hearing the challenges which are far beyond the vegetative sphere of the human being.
The more it avoids facing the reality, the closer it gets to the magical or superstitious
understanding of reality [3].
When consciousness is not willing to open its own understanding of reality by
approaching the daily challenges in a critical way and it reduces the explanations of the
events and the view of the world, it means it has motivations of magical or superstitious
nature which are often confounded with justifications for “non-action”. It neutralizes the
stimuli from the environment and supposes a progressive distance from reality by
darkening the light and hiding from life.
According to Freire, this attitude can degenerate into a phase or state of
fanaticism. This is called fanatical consciousness, the actual risk in some parts of the
world which changes rapidly without developing the means necessary to live in balance
with those changes.
For instance, fanatical consciousness can be specific to the standardized societies
or to those which were subject to a fast industrial economic development, accompanied
inadequately by socio-educational planning.
It is about an excessively fast technological growth or progress which can in fact
cause a cultural regression or withdrawal. If it is used fluently, the intense development of
technology can induce a fanaticism of consciousness. It does not mean that it has to stand
up to the progress of technology by denying or rejecting it, but it can determine as being
opportune the management with the adequate pedagogical and cultural means.
3.1. Naive Consciousness
The intransitivity or fanaticism of consciousness adheres to a state of naïve
consciousness which reveals some certain simplicity. It does not consider thoroughly the
reason to be, thinks that the past was better, tends to accept the standardized formulas of
behavior, is impermeable to research and accomplished only through experiences.
The individuals with a naïve consciousness start from the principle that they
know everything, pretend they are right, motivate the discussion with fragile arguments,
are controversial, don’t want to clarify. Their discussion is rather based on emotionalism
than on criticism. They don’t search for the truth; they try to impose it by searching for
historical means in order to persuade with their ideas.
The characteristics of Freire’s fanatical, intransitive or naïve consciousness
shouldn’t “doctrinarily” be understood as a list of characteristics, features, requirements,
verifiable from scientific point of view. It is interesting to find out how these aspects
particularly copy the attitudes of the standardized culture on which many of the left or
right-wing totalitarian regimes as well as the alienated directions of the capitalist
democracies dominated by the media thinking, are based.
It can be noticed the fact that there is something from the naïve consciousness
among the individuals. Through education, we can find the means to surpass it and
approach the challenges of life with a critical consciousness.
3.2. Critical Consciousness
Apart from the discovery of the oppressions and the consciousness of being able
to be subjects of the social changes, another inherent feature of conscientization is the
transition from naivety to critical consciousness.
348
To Freire’s mind, the critical attitude is a critical entrance in history in which
people assume their role of subjects. It is a tendency, a state of not accepting the reality
passively, but of engaging critically by means of the problematization itself.
The problematization of reality does not mean its complication, but its
simplification through a critical analysis which is not individual, but worthy of being
shared. When problematization means an abstract construction of problems, its existent
complexity is not examined. On the other hand, by analyzing the existing problems and
elaborating solutions and interpretations, it is reflected upon concrete facts by developing
a critical thinking.
The critical consciousness does not observe the reality as a simple aspect, but as
a phenomenon with a more profound vital nucleus. Consequently, when naïve
consciousness suffers from superficiality, the critical one acts in profoundness.
However, the profoundness will be educated. It needs a method of
epistemological approach of the conscientization level.
It isn’t realized only individually, but also in group. It cannot think of
conscientizators and conscientized, but to educators and educated, teacher and pupils who
– although their roles are separated – reflect together upon the given reality critically,
problematizing it and entering a conscientization process.
The dialogue favors the knowledge and critical approach of the reality, starting
from the plurality of perspectives. Supposing the relation consciousness – world as basis
of its critical thinking, the individuals will clarify the obscure dimensions which hinder
the knowledge and discovery of the importance of “their existence in the world” as
subjects and creators of history. They will create a new reality. However, the
conscientization process does not disappear, but it must be assumed as object of a new
critical reflection.
Considering the new reality as being something that cannot be touched represents
such a naïve and reactionary attitude as that according to which the old reality is
untouchable[4].
In other words, we can deduce that one of the characteristics of consciousness
ingenuity consists in assigning one type of fixities to the knowledge which limits our
perspectives on progress. However, the critical meaning of consciousness and its profound
vitality is justifiable when trying to understand the knowledge as a dynamic process, as a
process in full development.
The act of knowledge which is realized in a certain time and space must not
cease to be a process when the changed reality has another profile.
The historical profoundness highlights the present as a historical process which
contains the heritage of the past, the current flux, the future direction. This thing does not
implie the mythisation of the new or the regret of the past, but an examination of the
present in its infinite characteristic of project, by revealing the changing nature of reality.
The critical consciousness is also the historical consciousness.
The criticism of consciousness determines the individuals towards an
educational, a political and social transformation, and the ecological consciousness,
starting from the recognition of the extreme situations of oppression, violence, slavery,
degradation of environment.
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4. Social Self Discovery
In the reality of the educative, political and social oppression there is necessary a
critical education which is heading for change. It is about the realization of an ethical, a
pedagogical and political choice which doesn’t fear the change or avoid communication,
on the contrary, it lives it.
The necessary effort consists in demythising the reality and approaching the
existing social structure with a critical attitude. If it constraints the people who make it up
to be objects, we need to think of changing those structures. This thing doesn’t imply the
fact that the teacher or the social worker can determine the change, but in the relation with
other educators and educated and with humility and cooperation, he/ she can play a great
part in it.
The education and the social change are determined in the relationship. But this
is not a unique relationship of an “I” with a “you”, or of an “I” with a “We”, although this
thing is also essential. It needs a circularity of the relationship which must dialectical,
mutual and supported by participation.
If the hope of transformation is educated towards the real possibility and it
doesn’t become a disillusion, we must accept that, in order to change the world, it is not
sufficient only the education as it is not “omnipotent”. On the contrary, it is indispensable
in the processes of social change and renewal.
The socio-pedagogical challenge consists in surpassing the criticism, by learning
and understanding the social dynamics in their complexity, by acting by means of
dialectic between action and reflection upon the action itself, by formulating the theory
starting from the critical reflection upon the colonization, oppression, domination practice.
Education must deal with the delicate problem of social alienation. This is not
found only in the “colonized” theories but also in those of the “colonizers”. Alienation is a
social evil determined by the perversity of capitalism which devours both the oppressed
and the oppressors. The present model of capitalism feed itself with rapid paces, stress,
haste to consume, a model of life which loses sight of the relation. The environmental and
human relationship must be the raw material of our social life, rather than the material
goods. The human, spiritual, dialogical nature of relationning should be regained. For this
to be done, conscientization is needed. Less will be obtained by transmitting to the pupils
a large amount of content, despite the fact that they are turned to social goods. It is
necessary to reflect critically upon the problems of social dispersion and exploitation of
work, upon the ecologic, illiteracy, individualism, alienation problems. Conscientization is
a participative and social conscientization process: a method of consciousness manifest.
In this respect, we can state how much adequately the revelation of the ego is,
especially the revelation of the social ego, an ego in the making, a historical ego, an ego of
relations in the permanent dialectic with the community.
Freire states that the Utopian pedagogy of denunciation and announcing must be
an act of knowledge of the denounced reality. For this, it is emphasized the continuous
problematization of the existential situations of the educated. The more the
problematization advances, the more the subjects enter in the essence of the problematized
problem and can reveal this essence. While revealing it, its inborn consciousness deepens
leading thus to the conscientization of the condition for the poorer classes. The critical
conscientization cannot be reached only by means of an intellectual effort, but also by
350
means of practice: for the authentic union of action and reflection. People cannot be
forbidden such a reflexive action. Should this happen, they would become instruments in
the hands of the leaders who will reserve the right to take decisions [5].
5. Culture – Anthropological Concept
In the initial phase of the alphabetization – conscientization process, Freire was
often stimulating the group by means of some projections, presentations which were
encoding determined existential situations, and these were causing reflections: it was the
first phase of the reasoning over an object of knowledge. The first images were encoding
the distinction between nature and culture (as it can be seen in the image) which
represented an invitation to reflect upon the changing potential of human beings in order
to be able to recognize themselves as builders of the world and not as its lunatics. This is
what Freire defined by the anthropological concept of culture within the cultural
anthropology.
The alphabetization is a possibility of conscientization because it is realized in
communion with the community, it allows a clearer and more rigorous interpretation of
reality, starting with the research of the vocabulary field, continuing with the introduction
of the generating themes and concluding with the creation of new words and a better
understanding of the language.
People intervene in reality through the agency of their work. Their intervention in
reality is a creation of culture. All what is created by man (the culture) is built on the basis
of all what is nature. Such a distinction suggests the idea that the educated wonder about
the conditions of the generators of cultures, of the subjects of life. From the man who
makes shoes to the cook who cooks, the writer of a book, the craftsman who builds an
object, the jeweler who shapes a bracelet, they are all generators of culture.
Conscientization is the research of some more conscious forms regarding the existence in
the world: the existence in a relationship by means of dialogue which mediates, because
one’s own consciousness develops together with the consciousness of the other.
Assuming the consciousness of the human being transformation potential at
environmental level represents an indispensable opportunity in developing the necessary
ecological sensitivity. The anthropological concept of culture could evolve and could now
be renamed as “eco – anthtropological concept of culture” or “I exist and I intervene in the
world as well, I contribute to the welfare or destruction of the planet with the actions I
take in this world daily”. Human being is defined as an entity superior to the greater part
of living creatures, considering himself/ herself as being able to manage their existence.
Due to the technical and scientific progresses, the means of control and systematic
consumption of natural resources have been developed in the last three centuries [6].
The Earth sciences which have especially developed beginning with the ‘50s of
the twentieth century, offer a different perspective on the planet and on the role of the
human being in evolution, creating a new consciousness, a replacement of the human
being in cosmos and of his/ her practical actions.
Moacir Gadotti stated that the Earth is “the biggest oppressed”. We are in front of
the necessity of forming new paradigms, of livening up the ecological era. For this to be
done, there is needed both an ecological and a social process of conscientization, of
determination to abandon the naïve actions to assume a critical consciousness [7].
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„Acknowledgements: This work was supported by CNCSIS-UEFISCSU, project
number PNII - IDEI 882/2009 - Adaptarea curriculară - instrument fundamental în
educaţia incluzivă.”
References
[1] Freire, P. (1980). Conscientização: teoria e prática da libertação: uma introdução ao pensamento de Paulo
Freire. São Paulo: Moraes. (p. 29).
[3] Freire, P. (1981). Educação e mudança. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra. (p. 39).
[5] Mara, D., Păvăluc., C. D. (2010). Paulo Freire: viaţa şi opera: pentru o pedagogie a dialogului. Bucureşti:
Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
[6] Vittoria, P. (2008). Narrando Paulo Freire, per una pedagogia del dialogo. Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore.
[7] Vittoria, P. (2008). Pedagogia della Terra, pedagogia degli oppressi: dialogo con Moacir Gadotti, în
„Culture della sostenibilità, Forme e processi per l'educazione sostenibile”. Milano: Franco Angeli.
(Fscicolo I).
352
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4
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Health Education and Unhygienic Behaviour in Public
Space
Codrina Sandru
Transilvania University of Brasov
Abstract
This article treats the theme of health education as an important challenge facing
the contemporary world, in terms of contribution of this type of education to achieve
better quality of life. In the first part of the article I present some theoretical elements
about health education and discuss some sociological aspects regarding the links between
education and health. The second part of the article contains the main results of a recent
field research which has proposed to identify the main forms of unhygienic behaviour in
public space and to measure the amplitude of these types of behaviour in the urban area of
Brasov.
Keywords: Health education;
promoting campaign
Unygienic bahavior;
Public space;
Health
1. Education, health and social influences
The link between education and health represents one of the most widely
documented findings in the contemporary sociological research. The studies show that
education is inversely related to morbidity and mortality (Rădulescu, 2002).
The Lalonde model (Doboş, 2006) suggests that the main factors affecting the
health of population are: the economic life standard of individuals (directly proportional),
the genetic material inherited, the life style (eating, movement, stress, conditions work,
conduct prevention and treatment of diseases, consumption of tobacco, alcohol, drugs),
the education level (proportional) and the quality of medical services.
According to Dupre (2008) there are three groups of mechanisms that explain the
link between education and health. Firstly, the social-psychological explanation suggests
that education provides a greater sense of personal control, social support and problemsolving abilities, which promote health. Persons with low levels of education are less
capable to minimize the harmful influence of stressors, so they are more vulnerable to
illness.
Secondly, the social-economic explanation focuses on the concept of economic
resources by which individuals acquire and maintain employment and produce higher
levels of income and wealth. Lacking employment and economic resources harm health
because individuals have low access to quality health services, healthy food, good
working conditions and other commodities to prevent and treat illness.
Codrina Sandru / Procedia – Edu World 2010
Thirdly, the explanation through the concept of health lifestyle is based on
empirical correlations between health status and factors such as diet, physical exercise,
smoking, preventive health care, alcohol consumption etc.
Since the 80s, a series of studies on cancer incidence showed that there are clear links
between socioeconomic status (defined by level of education and income) and risk of the
disease. Wolinsky (1988 apud Rădulescu, 2002) found that in men case, for cancers of the
stomach, esophagus and larynx there is an inverse relationship between socioeconomic
status and incidence of disease. In other words, how economic status is higher, so the
incidence of such cancers is lower.
Other sociological studies explain the low life expectancy and higher incidence
of certain diseases for disadvantaged groups through the concept of culture of poverty. In
his studies on the poor of 60 years, Oscar Lewis (1961) stated that the poor are generally
suspicious towards public institutions. Those who can not afford a doctor and are
suspicious of hospitals „where only going to die”, turn to the treatment of self or plants
supplied by local healers and witch doctors.
According to Cockerham (1992), persons belonging to disadvantaged social
classes, beyond the lack of resources, are characterized by certain values which may
explain lower addressability to health care: the high degree of dependency on others,
fatalism, inability to postpone immediate gratuities, low emphasis placed on value health,
etc. All these elements are characteristic of what in literature is called culture of poverty.
The basic idea is therefore this: the more educated people are defined by the most
appropriate lifestyles, allowing them to more frequent use of medical services to health
care (Rădulescu, 2002). People with lower education level have a higher risk to fall sick
because of living (inadequate housing, jobs exposed to harmful factors) and stress induced
by more difficult problems which they face compared to their more educated counterparts.
Other studies emphasize the role of family in promoting health preventive
behaviour and in health care processes.
Heck and Parker (2002) have shown that health depends largely on the type of
family an individual belongs. Health needs and available resources are assessed and
managed inside family. Investments in health are also influenced by other family members
(Vicarelli, 2003).
According to a research conducted by Curie and Gruber (1996, apud Vicarelli,
2003), parents with high education are more willing to take his children to the doctor
when they experience a health problem. Thomas, Strauss and Henriques (1991) showed
that children of mothers with high education level have higher birth weight than those
with lower educational level, because mothers access more information about pregnancy,
fetus health, and their health.
Giovanna Vicarelli (2003) showed that in many cases, national health systems do
not respect family’s role and have major difficulties in acceptance of family intervention
in the medical act. The classic pattern is the authoritative asymmetrical relationship
between doctor and patient, with the doctor’s major role in the decision and the patient
removed from the context of natural life (family). Family is asked to intervene, in general,
to support the high financial costs and difficult process of treatment and recovery. In Italy,
argues the author, are rare examples of effective collaboration between operators and
family healthcare, collaboration that increases the competence and capacity to intervene in
disease prevention, in treatment and recovery processes. Because of this, there are
354
initiatives coming from universities and NGOs to increase patient and family participation
in medical decisions and to increase knowledge and capacity to intervene in support of
sick family members.
2. The concept of health education
In a broad sense, education health has always existed. People have always
wanted to live a longer and healthier life. Beliefs and practices by which people tried to
keep their health can be found in every culture. However the health education concept is
quite new in the literature.
According to Gilbert, Sawyer and McNeill (2009), “health education is, as the
name implies, education about health. Health education has its roots in education and
public health. It draws on many disciplines including psychology, sociology, education,
public health, and epidemiology” (3). The three authors consider that the core of health
education is the health education process, so they focus on how to make health education
to be effective.
The process of health education is composed of “factual information, effective
delivery, and motivational impact. This means that what is most important is how well
and effectively we perform the function of educating people and motivating them to make
good health decisions” (Gilbert, Sawyer and McNeill, 2009, 1).
Regarding the role of health educators, Bensley and Brookins-Fisher (2009)
consider that this specialists have the role to “motivate and educate individuals, families,
organizations, and communities to take action in promoting behaviours conductive to safe
and healthy environments and lifestyles” (4).
Historically, education about health became more common in the 1800s and
early 1900s. In the Unites States, The American Public Health Association was found in
1872 and the first reported academic department of Health Education was located at
Georgia State College for Women in 1917. Recently, the extraordinary development of
telecommunications and the online communication has significantly accelerated the
evolution of the health education profession (Gilbert, Sawyer and McNeill, 2009, 6).
According to Greenberg et al. (2003, apud Gilbert, Sawyer and McNeill, 2009), searching
for health information and advice on Internet is one of the most common reasons of the
Internet users.
Unlike other disciplines in education that focus almost exclusively on knowledge,
the aim of health education is behaviour change or behaviour adaptation (Gilbert, Sawyer
and McNeill, 2009). The three authors consider that wherever health education is doing –
in a classroom, hospital, workplace, online or community setting – the fundamental duties
of health educators are:
o Assessment of target population needs
o Planning for intervention strategies
o Implementation of interventions
o Evaluation of success.
In Romania, the health education concept appeared in the literature since 1990s,
although it existed before in various forms - see, for example, the Hygiene discipline that
is taught in Romanian schools in the interwar period.
355
The purpose of health education is such to train and develop a hygienic
conception and behaviour for all people, starting from the lowest age. The results of this
process would be to maintain health, harmonious development of the human body, its
adaptation to the natural environment and social conditions and the active participation of
the population to health care in human communities (Ivan, 1993). The same author
claimed, in the early 90s, that health education should be a goal of national health policy
through development of preventive health care activities and by raising the sanitary
culture level of all people.
The Romanian National Health Education Programme was launched in 2001. It
aims to introduce Health Education in all schools as an optional subject and/or integrated
into other disciplines and even as extracurricular activities, in order to shape responsible
attitudes among students towards their own health and the health of the others around.
In 2002, The Romanian National Health Education Programme was implemented
in a pilot program in 15 counties and in Bucharest. During 2003 - 2004, there has been an
intense curriculum activity: curricula and informative guide were printed and teachers
were trained so that nearly 9,000 teachers from various schools in Romania have started to
conduct Health Education optional hours. In the same period occurred more
extracurricular activities, such as the competitions “AIDS - A Challenge to Solidarity” and
“Children Say NO to Domestic Violence!”.
The main topics discussed in Health Education classes are: body growth and
body development, physical activity and recreation, mental health (group membership,
social roles, interpersonal relations, stress), health food (a balanced diet pyramid,
consumer), clean air and environmental health, family and reproductive health (sexually
transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS, family life), consumption and abuse of toxic substances,
drugs, alcohol and tobacco, accidents, violence, physical abuse, domestic violence, etc.
My goal in this article is not to make an assessment of this program, but only to
indicate the existence of a program through which we hope our children will have a good
knowledge of the health education field and will know how to take responsible attitude
towards their health and to the environment. My goal now is to present a micro-research
carried out in Brasov, together with my students, on a theme related to hygiene in urban
public spaces.
3. Unhygienic behaviour in public space. A field research in Brasov
City
For over five years, at the Community Development seminars, my students made
the following exercise: for a week, they write down all problems that occur in the public
space that they use, make a list of the issues which they perceive and submit this list to the
seminar.
In all these five years, I accounted for the problems that my students have
identified on the street, in public transport, in institutions where they are going to solve
their personal problems, etc. In the first three places, in order of appearance in the lists of
students, the following problems occur:
1) Dirt on the street, in parks or means of public transport.
2) Unfriendly and improper behaviour of officials in public institutions.
356
3) Problems in public health institutions: a) poor communication between
medical staff and patients, b) extra-payments for obtaining health care, and c) inadequate
facilities of medical offices and hospitals.
The first problem reported by students drew my attention to me often. I live in a
modern city in Romania, but I often observe litter, thrown at random. I often notice the
perpetrators in the act, throwing without remorse cigarette butts, empty packs of cigarettes
or chewing gum on the sidewalk, in parks or from cars on the road.
I feel very much disturbed by what, in this article, I call „unhygienic behaviour in
public space”: people who are coughing in the street without putting hand to mouth, or not
to use a handkerchief sneeze, or spit on the street, or leave behind them bed smell
indicating a careless hygienic behaviour. My personal list goes on with unsanitary traces
(excrement) left on my city streets by stray dogs or even by those with master.
Based on these personal observations, and having confirmed by my students that
unhygienic behaviour is a serious issue in Romanian public space, I have achieved with
my students a micro-field research in order to measure the magnitude of this phenomenon,
called „unhygienic behaviour in public space”.
We defined the concept thus: by unhygienic behaviour in public space we
understand all forms of conduct, voluntarily or involuntarily, by which individuals harm
cleanliness of public spaces and pose a threat to the health of others.
For our research purposes, I gave an operational definition of the concept. Thus,
unhygienic behaviour consists of the following forms of public space behaviour:
- Spitting in the street (on the pavement);
- Unsafe cough (coughing without putting hand to mouth);
- Insecure sneezing (sneezing without covering your nose with your hand or a
handkerchief);
- Throwing cigarette butts at random;
- Randomly throwing chewing gum.
The field research took place in Brasov, on the April 14, 2010, and the field
operators were students from Social Work, third year.
Results of observations in street:
A. The first group of observers, consisting of three students, had the task to count
the traces of saliva on the sidewalk. They chose to cover, on both sides, sections of a
central avenue of Brasov, named Iuliu Maniu Bulevard. Their observations were made
between 9.45 and 10.45 o’clock in a day when in Brasov has not rained for 48 hours
(important aspect, because rain gently removes traces of human misery on the sidewalk!).
One observer counted 14 signs for a distance of 300 meters, the observer 2 identified 13
tracks over a distance of 200 meters, and observer 3, 19 tracks over a distance of 200
meters. Thus, our observations show that every 15 meters, a person spits down on the
sidewalk.
B. The second group, consisting of two students, was placed at the bus stop
Sanitas in Brasov, located strengthen a downtown area. They counted, within 50 minutes,
the number of people seen committing the following unhygienic act: spit down on the
sidewalk. The two observers watched the behaviour of bystanders and identified 15 people
- 14 men and one woman, with estimated ages between 35 and 60 years, who experienced
this behaviour in their viewing area. Thus, on average, every three minutes a person can
be seen casually spitting on the sidewalk, even though many people are around.
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C. The third group of students, consisting of three observers, had the task to
count the cigarette butts and discarded chewing gum on the floor. On a distance of 1.5 km,
including sections of two central streets and a part of Brasov City central area, they
counted 6,730 pieces of discarded chewing gum on the sidewalk. On this route, the
students identified two areas of maximum load: a) the pavement in front of Modarom
Building, at the entry in Republic Street, a space that has - in the collective mentality of
Brasov citizens - the meaning of meeting place with friends, especially for youth people
groups and b) areas from the Universal Store bus stop to one of the most popular fast food
restaurants in the city, named Ando’s. Observers have also provided an explanation:
“At Modarom they expect each other and you can see them spitting gums down
while talking and laughing, and those who get out from the bus or come downtown to eat
at Ando’s spit gum before reaching the fast food, walking on the sidewalk” (Virgil,
student).
For counting cigarette butts, the students made observations on a length of
approximately 1,000 meters, including a part of downtown and a part of Iuliu Maniu
Avenue, on both sides. In this course they have been counted 674 cigarette butts thrown
on the sidewalk.
D. The fourth group of student volunteers, consisting of two, was placed at the
bus stop Sanitas and counted for 40 minutes, people who coughed and/or sneezed in an
unprotected way. The students identified seven people - four men and three women, with
estimated ages between 50 and 60 years – who have coughed or sneezed without
protecting bystanders. Also, observers have reported cases of four people waiting to come
bus, eating seeds and spitting the shells down on the pavement in the bus stop area.
Another case reported by students is illustrative for our investigation but also for the
functioning of ethnic bias in Romania:
“It was an old man, about 60 years, which I have even seen spitting on the floor
in front of us. He saw that we write something and asked us what we do. I replied that we
do a study about who coughs, sneezes and spits out careless in bus stations. We said: “Oh,
well, Gypsies do so!” He forgot that just two minutes before he had made dirty the
sidewalk with his own saliva ” (Roxana, student).
E. The fifth group of student volunteers travelled in the city for 50 minutes by
bus no. 51, to observe possible negligent events in terms of hygiene in public transport.
The three student observers reported the following inappropriate behaviours: three people
who pick their nose, after which, with the same hand, have supported the handrails of the
bus; 10 people who cough without putting hand to mouth; three people who yawn without
putting hand to mouth; a person who smelled of alcohol and a person who smelled of
sweat.
The next day after making this micro-research, I added my own systematic
observations to the data collected by my students. Thus, I performed an analysis of
unsanitary behaviour just on the street where I live, in the Tractorul neighbourhood of
Brasov. I made observations in the morning, between 7.45 and 9.00 and I noted the
following situations:
I) Within only 15 minutes walking on the sidewalk of my street in both
directions, I saw eight people, all male, who spit on the floor. Four of them were students,
aged between 7 and 12 years estimated that at that time went to school. The other four
were adults aged over 40 years.
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II) I saw five people who cough without lead hand to mouth: a girl under 25
years, three elderly people (two men and one woman) and a mother with a baby in her
arms.
III) I counted over a distance of about 500 meters, 24 traces of saliva, 163 traces
of chewing gum, 70 cigarettes butts, and five traces of animal excrement.
The question I have in mind, seeing this data, is: How serious is the situation? In
the literature I have not found a similar research to compare data. But starting from the
assumption that every act that violates the rules of hygiene in public space is a danger
associated with a health hazard to those around, I consider that every act we noticed
represents a serious problem for the public health. As we have seen, we risk of contacting
diseases on the street every three minutes, or every 15 meters! Or we have the misfortune
to see dirty sidewalks whenever we leave the house or every time we take the buss.
One of the students participating in the research told me when she presented her
research report: “I have never thought that there are so many uncivilized people in this
beautiful city!” (Ana, student).
4. Ideas for a campaign against unhygienic behaviour in public
space
Following our field research on unhygienic behaviour in public space, I
organized also a workshop to design a public campaign in order to reduce the amplitude of
this phenomenon. My students were invited to participate in a workshop with the theme
“Changing behaviour of citizens in Brasov in order to follow the rules of hygiene in
public space”.
The aim of the workshop was to obtain a collection of ideas for a future public
campaign designed to reduce the amplitude of the phenomenon described above.
Therefore, the students were asked to design a campaign to promote health education in
public space, with direct reference to Brasov City.
The technique used in the workshop was the group-thinking. Each of the eight
participating groups consisted of five or six students. They worked together for 50
minutes, using a simplified scheme to build a campaign, with the following main stages:
problem definition, setting goals, identifying target groups, identifying partners/allies,
setting activities, estimating the required resources and establishing campaign schedule
(adapted from Sutton, 1998).
Analyzing the students projects, I have chosen to present in this article the
following elements: the name of the campaign, the slogan proposed, the target groups, the
main activities, and the potential collaborators. I will reproduce below the creative data
provided by students in this session.
Name of the campaign:
o Health for All
o Campaign against Coughing and Spitting in the Street
o Campaign for Health in Public Space
o Take Action for a Cleaner Environment!
o Public Health - A Common Law!
o Respect the Public Space!
o Environment is You!
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o Caravan of Health and Cleanliness.
Slogan of the campaign:
o Take responsibility for yourself and others!
o Protect me! It’s my right!
o Respect… to be respected!
o Leave something nice behind you!
o Be responsible with what you throw! Do not throw chewing gum at random!
o Use me and throw me in the trash! (For disposable handkerchiefs printed
with this message)
o You also want to live in a healthy environment!
o Respecting the environment respect yourself!
o Health of those around you is a priority!
Main activities:
o Collecting information materials from DSP Brasov (The Direction of Public
Health)
o Local TV commercials
o Distributing leaflets on the disease risks caused by unhygienic behaviour in
public areas
o Distribution of informative materials on diseases which can be transmitted
by coughing and sneezing
o Putting up posters with awareness messages in buses
o A sketch designed by students at the Social Work, played by them in the
Hall Square in Brasov, once a week, titled “Stop! Microbe!”
o Awareness activities for children as they learn the rules of hygienic
behaviour
o Recruitment of volunteers (students and high school students) to distribute
daily, in congested urban areas, leaflets directly to those “caught in the act”;
leaflets contain messages like: “Did you know that by coughing remove
thousands of microbes that can sicken others?” or “How would you feel if
tomorrow you walk on the phlegm instead of sidewalk?”
o Distributing information materials in malls and parks
o Banners with message: “Are you alone ... Nobody wants to be around you ...
The solution is simple: use a handkerchief when you cough!”
o Mobilize volunteer teams to clean the gums thrown down on the paths of the
Central Park from Brasov
o Distribution of disposable handkerchiefs printed with the message: “Use me
and threw me in the trash!”
o Putting up in crowded places posters with direct messages: “Do not spit on
the floor!”, “Do not throw gum on the bottom!”, “Do not cough on others!”
o Distributing flyers and putting up posters with “standards of civilization” in
public spaces.
Target groups:
o Adult population of Brasov
o Students of all ages
o Elderly people
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o
People who are seen by volunteer observers that conduct unsanitary
behaviours in public spaces.
Partners:
o DPH Brasov (The Direction of Public Health)
o Students and teachers from primary, secondary and high schools
o The Brasov City Hall
o A company that produces disposable handkerchiefs
o The Ecological Party
o Environmental NGOs
o Sanitation services from the city.
Conclusions and suggestions
In this paper I have discussed the link between education and health, with a
special focus on health education concept. This discussion suggests that education is
inversely related to morbidity and mortality. Regarding the health education, its core is the
health education process, so the aim of health education is behaviour change and
behaviour adaptation for a healthier and longer life. In Romania, the National Health
Education Programme, launched in 2001, aims to introduce Health Education in all
Romanian schools as an optional subject in order to shape responsible attitudes among
students towards their own health and the health of the others around.
In the second part of the article I presented the results of a recent field research
that I conducted with my students from the Department of Social Work, University
Transilvania of Braşov. The purpose of this research was to identify the main forms of
unhygienic behaviour in public space and to measure the amplitude of these types of
behaviour in the urban area of Brasov. The premise of our research derived from the
results of the exercise of identifying problems in public space in the perception of
students. This exercise is done over five years by students who are enrolled in the
academic course of Community Development.
The study results are alarming: there is a high number of unhygienic behaviours
in public space, such as coughing and sneezing without a handkerchief or without putting
hand to mouth and nose, spitting on the street, throwing cigarette butts and chewing gum
at random, dogs droppings left on the sidewalk, etc.
In the last part of the article I presented the main elements of a project of public
campaigns aimed to promote health and combating unhygienic behaviour in public space,
as they were designed by the students at the Social Work.
Our research and the workshop on public campaign represent only the first step
to change behaviour and improve “the citizens’ manners” of hygiene in public spaces. In
order to obtain more information and creative ideas, I intent to achieve other two
workshops with students in Sociology and Communication Sciences by the end of this
year. Moreover I intend to initiate a community institutional network to be involved in the
project. In this sense, I already contacted the social workers from the Infectious Diseases
Hospital Brasov and I obtained their consent to participate in the implementation of a
health education campaign in our city.
361
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http://www.educatiepentrusanatate.ro/*articleID_2-articles
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th
4
th
th
Learning about Teaching and Learning: New Approaches to
the Training of Adult Educators
Jim Bradley
University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
Abstract
Between 30% and 50% of adults in Europe take part in some form of adult
education provision and this is the fastest growing education sector in the EU. However,
adult education, including formal and informal learning and VET, is undervalued, and
there is no common approach to the provision of adult education or quality standards
across the European Union. This mirrors the situation in Scotland and the wider UK. This
lack of commonality of standards extends to the training of specialist adult educators and,
in Scotland, there is no standardised professional level pre-service or in-service training
for specialist adult educators although there is common agreement on its benefits. The
University of Stirling has developed a teaching qualification for adult educators in
Scotland, as part of our commitment to raising quality standards and establishing the adult
education sector as the fourth learning sector in Scotland on par with the schools, colleges
and higher education sectors. This paper focuses on our work with colleagues in Scotland,
Europe and the USA which have informed this development and how we using our work
to help to establish a quality threshold for adult education in Scotland.
Keywords: adult; teaching; qualification
Learning about teaching and learning: New approaches to the
training of adult educators
Adult education has lost its valuable tradition, in as much as it came to life and
became a diverse activity in Europe as a tool of civil society-based voluntarism and
community and personality development of democratic society. The necessity for and
development of diversity protection is not the same. Adult learning is not visible and
seems to be institutionally fragmented.
(Adult education trends and issues in Europe, 2006)
In the UK, and across the European Union, education policy aims to create a
European ‘Area of Lifelong Learning’ for all citizens, so that they have greater security
of employment, can deal with intercultural, pluralistic social contexts, and are able to play
an active part in democracy and the market economy. For all the importance Europe
places on adult learning and the common agreement on its benefits and, therefore, the
crucial significance of adult educators, there is no common approach to the provision of
adult education and no standardised initial or in-service training for specialist adult
Jim Bradley / Procedia – Edu World 2010
educators. OECD and UNESCO studies show that in many industrialised countries
between 30% and 50% of the adult population participate in some sort of organised adult
education, which is the fastest growing sector.
Adult learning is the essential fourth pillar of the support system for lifelong
learning. Schooling, VET, higher and adult education each has a significant contribution
to make to the global competitiveness of the European Social Model. Without all four, the
long term economic and social goals of Lisbon and the EU will be at risk.
(Adult education trends and issues in Europe, August 2006)
Scotland; a Distinctive Context for a Distinctive Educational System
In the United Kingdom each member country; England, Northern Ireland,
Scotland and Wales, has an education system unique to that country. In Scotland, the
formal education system has children entering nursery at three years of age and
progressing within formal schooling where they have to remain by law until they have
reached sixteen. This is in common with the other parts of the UK. School students in
Scotland undertake national qualifications, Standard Grades, in their third and fourth year
of secondary school (Scottish children enter the senior school system at the age of twelve).
In their fifth year of secondary school students undertake Higher level qualifications and it
is these ‘Highers’ that enable them to progress to a Scottish Further Education College
(FEC) or a Higher Education Institution (HEI) which includes Scottish universities.
These ‘Highers’ are different from the qualifications, the Advanced Level, taken by
senior school students in the rest of the UK. The Higher is taken over one year and the A
Level is taken over two years. The Scottish students are encouraged to take a broader
curriculum, taking between 4 and 6 ‘Highers’ where the English student is encouraged to
take 3 ‘A Levels’
However, it is not only in ‘compulsory’ schooling that there are major
differences between Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom; the differences extend
to ‘post compulsory’ education. Scotland’s Further Education College and its Higher
Education systems reflect the uniqueness of the Scottish education sector. Scotland is the
only one of countries of the United Kingdom to offer a four year honours degree
programme to undergraduates that requires students to study across a range of disciplines
– to become a “man of many parts”.
The Further Education College system in Scotland offers government funded
further and higher education level one year or two year programmes, for full time students
up to the age of fifty five. Colleges, the provider of more than 75% of all part time
learning in Scotland, also offer a range of part-time programmes in academic and
vocational areas developed with the support of, and in partnership with, the Scottish
industrial and commercial sectors. And while the main focus of Scottish College activity
is the adult learner, an increasing part of the Sector’s provision is targeted at the needs of
young people aged 14 -19 who have disengaged from learning. Further, colleges also have
a developing international focus with many international students now studying at
Scottish colleges. The provision of this body of knowledge, delivered in this distinctive
fashion, to this diverse a student body is unique to our country.
Despite all this distinctiveness in the Scottish system, there can be found
uniformity in at least, one area across the United Kingdom public education sector, and
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that relates to the professional qualifications of teaching staff. Academics who teach in
schools, colleges and universities are required to have graduated from a university with a
recognised and appropriate degree level qualification and either have, or be working
towards, a further graduate level teaching qualification. Even within Higher Education
Institutions there is a grudging acceptance that excellence in a field of scholarship does
not guarantee quality teaching. The quality assurance body for the HEI sector, the QAA
(Quality Assurance Agency) has required HEIs to introduce the Postgraduate Certificate
in Academic Practice for new staff.
Education in Scotland, then, is largely government funded, operates within a
national regulatory framework, is monitored and evaluated through national quality
assurance systems and requires a graduate level of professionalism in its teaching staff.
This public provision is shaped and defined by national government policy and strategy
and is the main driver in the Governments goal of making Scotland a ‘Knowledge
Economy’.
The system, though, is not without is flaws. While many young people achieve
and progress through this public education system and contribute fully in Scottish society,
significant numbers of undereducated children become undereducated adults. There is a
pattern to this underperformance. In many ways the education system in Scotland is
witness to the achievements of the children and young people who, in the main, come
from the professional classes. Many children and young people from lower socioeconomic classes do not achieve the higher level qualifications in compulsory education
and, therefore, progress in only small numbers on to post compulsory education; college
or university, and then to a professional working life. For a specific proportion of young
people from these lower socio-economic groupings formal schooling is an experience that
they have to undergo and. therefore, leave at the first available opportunity. They progress
into and become trapped within low skill environment, only ever eligible for low wage
employment. As many of these young people leave school with few or no qualifications
and negative experiences of school they develop a poor regard for education generally.
This disposition towards education formed as young adults has a profound effect on their
inclination to engage in any forms of education as they progress into and through
adulthood. In Scotland very small numbers from this group will choose to re-enter the
mainstream of publicly funded adult education.
A Community Based and Community Focussed Alternative Adult
Education Pathway
For those disengaged from learning in Scotland there is learning sector which
targets its provision at their needs, however, basing its programmes largely in those
communities where there is little tradition in continuing in learning past compulsory
schooling. This provision is referred to as adult Learning or learning in the community
and it has a long history of providing learning programmes which enable disengaged
learners to return to, and continue with, their learning. However, this tem adult education
is not automatically used by those on the adult education field which uses terms such as
vocational training, adult learning, adult literacies and adult education to describe the post
compulsory adult education provision in Scotland that is not offered in further or higher
education. For the purposes of continuity, this paper will use the phrase adult education to
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encompass all the post compulsory, non-further education college sector learning in
Scotland aimed at adults. This provision, however, unlike school, FEC or HEI based
learning, is a non-standardised service where programmes are offered by a number of
providers from different sectors. Both FECs and HIEs offer programmes in the
community, often as part of a partnership provision, but others such as local government (
municipal councils) or charity and voluntary groups, (in Scotland they are referred to as
belonging to the voluntary or third sector) also provide programmes. Within this highly
fragmented sector there are two main providers, though, FECs and local government.
These two providers although partners in local Community Learning and
Development Partnerships (a Scottish Government initiative) have, in the main, provisions
subject to totally different policy and strategy drivers. The FECs, along with the HEIs, are
funded by central government, and their provision focuses on the progress and
achievement of the individual to gain qualifications, up to the highest level required,
which will enable them to enter the job market with appropriate skills and qualifications.
The community based FEC provision will focus on encouraging and enabling its
community based learners to progress on to its campus based provision where they can
progress with their learning.
Local government provided learning in the community, in the main, is centred on
the provision of an adult literacy provision. This provision in informed by policies and
strategies from central government which focus the regeneration or development of local
communities, especially those communities epitomised by a low wage, low skill
population with a poor record of academic achievement. This provision is much more
about individual learners using their skills for the benefit of the community and does not
have the same focus of individual academic achievement.
In many ways this inconsistent approach to off campus adult education is
repeated throughout the UK and in Europe.
In accordance with the requirements of the development of the 2010 ET, lifelong
learning is a priority in most countries. However, the approach to this issue varies from
country to country, as well as how to apply it in practice. It differs also in the place given
to the general adult education within them. (Toth, 2006, p1)
Further, trying to map the level or type of engagement is also difficult because of
this non-standardised approach to the provision of adult education in the community and
this situation seems also to exist elsewhere in Europe.
In these fields we know relatively little about the concrete activities that adult
education staff perform, or about the skills and competences needed. There is no precise
understanding of how adult education-related activities are combined in specific jobs. In
some European countries, like the United Kingdom and France, competence profiles have
been developed for specific activity fields, normally with a focus on vocational adult
education and training. (Adult education trends and issues in Europe, 2006)
In 1999 the Scottish Government launched a widening access initiative in
Scotland for FECs and HEIs that aimed at having 50% of the school leaving cohorts
entering higher education qualifications. Although this overall figure was achieved by
2005/6, the target set for those communities under represented in higher education, a
modest 10%, was not reached. The government response to this failure was to change its
focus to working with disengaged school students (this group were termed at that time as
NEET, Neither in Education, Employment or Training). The initiative is now More
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Choices More Chances, a title focussing on the solution rather than dwelling on the
problem. At the same time, however, it was difficult to identify comparable programmes
focusing on the needs of adult learners in these communities. In the main, the Scottish
Government’s strategies for these communities continued through its focus on
Community Learning and Development (CLD), a sector that continues to sit outwith the
mainstream of education in Scotland. In its latest strategy paper for Community Learning
and Development the Scottish Government states that:
CLD can play a vital role in relation to a range of national and local outcomes:
o Through youth work it can support all our young people (and in particular
those who need more choices and chances to achieve their full potential) to
become confident individuals, effective contributors, responsible citizens
and successful learners.
o It can offer routes into and through lifelong learning in communities,
enabling the development of skills (including, for example, literacy and
numeracy) that people can use in employment, their community, further
learning or as parents and family members to support their children in their
important early years.
o By building community capacity it can contribute to community
empowerment through people working together to achieve lasting change in
their communities, for example by further strengthening and improving local
public services.
(Scottish Government and COSLA 2008)
Contrast this with the latest policy briefings for the Scottish Funding Council,
which is responsible for the public funding for the Further and Higher Education
institution sector. In one of the Council’s latest statements it states: Increasing student participation – Since 2006 the Council has allocated extra
funds to colleges in parts of Scotland where there is low participation up to National
Certificate level. This initiative is helping colleges to reach out into communities by
increasing the choice of programmes they offer and designing new learning opportunities
for local needs…the colleges and universities are the key organisations to provide
accessible education to all, but they are also supported by other bodies…
(How does SFC help provide learning for all? 2008)
The document makes no reference to Community Learning and Development,
even though all colleges and HEIs are tasked with developing such partnerships. This
statement clearly prioritises HEI and FEC led accredited academic/vocational learning
over community focused educational requirements. The privileging of this learning
reinforces the division between the two modes of community based learning and
entrenches the ‘poor relation’ non academic nature of community learning. The only
conclusion to be drawn from this disengagement by academic institutions is that adult
education in Scotland has fallen out of favour with those funding ‘mainstream’ Scottish
education, leaving only the most limited of adult literacy provisions.
While the general pattern in educational policy has been to distance it from
supporting Community Learning and Development (CLD) through colleges, researchers,
on the other hand, has placed CLD in the spotlight. The Director of the Centre for
Research into Lifelong Learning, Professor Jim Gallagher, of Glasgow Caledonian
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University, has developed a research project entitled Understanding and Enhancing
Learning in Community-based Further Education.
In a briefing paper for the project the Senior Project Researcher, Beth Crossan,
states that:
Community Learning Centres (CLCs) linked to further education (FE) colleges
can play a key role in re-engaging learners who are traditionally very hard to reach…The
work of teaching and non-teaching staff in CLCs is complex. They need appropriate
training and support…One of the implications of this is that those who work in CLCs
must be suitably prepared for the role they are expected to take on. In this respect it is
important that colleges have appropriate methods to select staff for these demanding roles,
and provide appropriate training and support for staff working in these centres.
(Crossan, 2007)
While the focus of the project was on that part of community based learning
provided through the further education sector, it has had implications for the entire adult
education sector. It has prompted those involved to engage in an examination of the full
provision of all community based learning, exploring how resources for the provision
could be maximised and efficiency optimised. The Scottish Further Education Unit
(SFEU), the research and development unit of Further Education Colleges in Scotland, has
looked to build on the work carried out by CRLL by assembling a group of researchers
and practitioners in the field of community based adult education. The group, entitled the
Community Reference Transitions Group (CTRG), has Professor Gallacher as one of its
members and draws other members from the HEI sector, the FEC sector, the Local
Government sector and the Voluntary sector, the Scottish Funding Council and HMIe (the
Scottish Government’s education inspectorate). This group has focused its attention on
four aspects of community based adult education: o Staff Development
o Curriculum Design
o Partnership Working
o Funding Methodologies
A report on the work of this group has now been sent to the Scottish Funding
Council for comment and amongst its opening statements was the priority: “The report seeks to raise the profile of the work and status of practitioners
engaged in community delivery…”
(Guthrie, I, 2009)
Developing the adult educator
Representatives from the University of Stirling were keen to be involved in the
work of the CTRG. Of particular interest is the notion of staff development. As stated
earlier in this paper, Scotland has no specific, nationally recognised qualification for adult
education. In fact, to extend this further, there is no specific nationally recognised
qualification at a professional level in the United Kingdom or indeed across the European
Union.
It can be strongly argued is that there is a need for a greater level of professional
training for educators involved in the provision of adult education in the UK and the wider
EU and this view is echoed elsewhere.
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“Continuing training (for adult educators), if offered at all, is usually in-service,
arranged by the provider organisation. The qualifications thus generated are diverse,
hardly comparable, and lacking transparency for quality. More initiatives are needed in
this underdeveloped sector.”(Adult education trends and issues in Europe, 2006)
To provide a qualification that enhances and professionalises the teaching of
adults then it has to be one that is a tried and tested appropriate qualification that cuts
across sector boundaries, but has at its core a set of values of relevance to adult education
practitioners across the UK and beyond. In order to ensure that the new TQAE
programme mirrored best practice in the area, other education systems which have a
history and tradition of providing adult education and whose core values and beliefs
reflected those of The Stirling Institute of Education were examined. This took the
examination to the USA where the focus was on Developmental Education.
Developmental Education mirrors the core values of adult education in the UK.
The students involved in Developmental Education provision in the USA are the types of
learners who are the focus of adult learning or adult education programmes in Scotland.
At the heart of adult education in Scotland should be learner progression, personal, social
and educational, and this progression should enable learners to access academic study, or
employment, whichever meets their personal objectives. In this way, nothing in terms of
progression is ruled out for the learner but everything is ruled in and adult education
programmes should provide learners with multi-exit progressions routes to ensure that the
progression reflects the objectives of all the learners. Developmental Education provides a
core understanding of the nature of this approach and in this way has established a
baseline quality standard which we in Scotland, and the wider UK, do not have for adult
education.
Further, though, Developmental Education has a core professional qualification,
the Training & Certification of Developmental Educators, offered by the Kellogg Institute
at Appalachian State University in North Carolina. This programme contains the
component parts that adult education teachers require to enable them to enhance and
professionalise their practice. The Kellogg Institute programme is offered annually for
four weeks with students having to undertake a practicum to gain the certification. The
2009 programme will be the Institute’s thirtieth and around forty educators attend the
programme each year. The Kellogg programme informs the work of adult educators
across the USA and provides a quality threshold and standardisation of approach in terms
of the provision of developmental education.
This model has provided an outline that has encouraged investigation in Scotland
into the development of similar standardisation of professionalism, of quality and of
approach to the provision of adult education across the European Union. As a result of
this investigation, an opportunity has arisen for the development of both undergraduate
and post graduate study in Scotland, which could help to professionalise and re-energise
the adult education sector in Scotland and the UK as well as the European Union.
To this end, The Stirling Institute of Education had developed an undergraduate
and post graduate qualification entitled the Teaching Qualification in Adult Education
(TQAE). The Stirling Institute of Education has great experience in the provision of this
type of qualification as it currently offers the Teaching Qualification in Further Education
(TQFE). All lecturers in the Scottish further education college sector must achieve the
TQFE qualification. One of the results of this insistence that all teaching staff in Scottish
369
colleges gain TQFE is that it has pushed up standards of teaching within FE. A principal
reasons in developing TQAE is a fervent desire to set minimal qualification standards for
all staff teaching in adult education in the same way as has happened in the Scottish
further education college sector.
The qualification seeks to break new ground in a number of areas. Firstly, it is
the first teaching qualification in Scotland aimed at adult educators working in formal and
informal learning. Secondly, the first part of the TQAE programme will be offered at a
two week summer school in mid-June of each year instead of the programme running
during the academic year as is current practice. This is to enable paid and unpaid adult
education staff to undertake the programme as the adult education academic year in
Scotland usually ends around the brining of June and offering the TQAE programme prior
to this date would act as a barrier to attendance. Thirdly, adult education in Scotland is
mainly publicly funded and the UK government is intent on slashing its public sector
spending. In addition, a significant proportion of adult educators in Scotland are unpaid
or are on limited contracts and will not receive any significant professional development
training, if they receive any at all, through lack of funding. The focus, then, is on trying to
raise funding from private sector and other organisations that will be used to fund these
workers to undertake TQAE.
In the course of the development of TQAE, staff from The Stirling Institute of
Education has held discussions with over one hundred adult educators and adult education
agencies in Scotland, the UK, Europe and the USA to gain their input to this
development. All but a handful have not offered support to this new teaching
qualification.
If we are to encourage adults to return to learn; if we are to address the low
levels of literacy in some communities; if we are to address the inequalities in education;
if we are to enable everyone to have the same learning opportunities then we, in Scotland,
and it would appear this is equally essential in Europe, need to have a vibrant and
professional adult education workforce that will enable these things to happen.
“High quality adult education personnel are needed to manage new roles and
demands. Their professional development, support and mobility demand serious
attention.”(Adult education trends and issues in Europe, 2006)
References
Adult education trends and issues in Europe, (2006), European Association for Education of Adults
http://ec.europa.eu/education/pdf/doc268_en.pdf
Building on "Working and Learning Together to Build Stronger Communities" A joint statement on community
learning and development (CLD), including adult literacy and numeracy (ALN), by the Scottish
Government and COSLA 2008
Crossan B, (2007) Understanding and Enhancing Learning in Community-based Further Education, Centre For
Research in LifeLong Learning, Scotland, Teaching and Learning RESEARCH BRIEFING No 26
Guthrie, I, (2009), Easing Transitions from Community Based Adult Learning to College Based Provision,
Community Transitions Reference Group, Report to the Scottish Funding Council
Scottish Funding Council (2006), How does the Scottish Funding Council help provide learning for all? HMSO,
Edinburgh
Toth, Janos, (2006) Learning and adult education in Europe today, European Association for Education of
Adults
http://www.eaea.org/
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Process of Learning in the Adult Education
Elena-Lucia Mara
University Lucian Blaga of Sibiu
Abstract
Bio-psycho-behavioural characteristics of adult emphasize that this is the age in
which purchases and changes are improving continuously, enabling the individual to cross
the largest human-specific experiences as compared to other age adult walkers, is a longer
duration. Youth is characterized in terms of learning the travel hub of learning conducted
during the age of school to autodidacticism, while in middle adult age, learning ability is
lower as motivation if it proceeds in artificial conditions.
Although learning is a child characteristic, adult is concerned by this event not
only in a certain period, but throughout life, to adapt the dynamics of participation in
numerous professional and permanent changes. We can even say that learning is constant,
continuous and integral part of human life.
Keywords: method; education; adult; exopositive; interogative; learning.
1. To face the challenges of the modern world, you need to learn continuously,
properly valuing the peculiarities of their own potential as well. Adults learn otherwise,
they are aware that what they have learned the extent that I know why and what to use
those skills. Adults have a rich experience in terms of quantity and quality, experience that
can be exploited in various training activities. Self-concept of adult is much more
contoured than the teenagers, giving it the feeling of self-sufficiency. Availability for
adult learning is based on faith to promote their careers, answering the needs and desires
and social demands. The concept of lifelong learning has a correspondent in English on
the lifewide and lifelong learning ,concepts that play the longitudinal and transversal
lifelong learning. Learning conceived as understanding and personal interpretation of
knowledge is most suited to the adults.
Using the most effective methods in adult education depends largely on
knowledge and mastery of the curriculum by the trainer. Effectiveness of the method
depends on the adequacy of the objectives, content business, the capabilities of the group
working on the modalities for evaluation of participants. For adult education the most
appropriate methods shall be considered as experimental methods, methods involving a
very activism of those who teach. Some speak of a pedagogy of learning through training,
characterized by behaviour modification with a gradual adjustment of activities during
repeated similar conditions. An important aspect in the activities with adult concerns
motivating the creation. Such a situation involves putting in an emotional tension, to
Elena-Lucia Mara / Procedia – Edu World 2010
whose achievement brings satisfaction, aspirations and development needs are likely to
increase participation.
Using the most effective methods in adult education depends largely on
knowledge and mastery of the curriculum by the trainer. Effectiveness of the method
depends on the adequacy of the objectives, content business, the capabilities of the group
working on the modalities for evaluation of participants. For adult education the most
appropriate methods shall be considered as experimental methods, methods involving a
very activism of those who teach. Some speak of a pedagogy of learning through training,
characterized by behaviour modification with a gradual adjustment of activities during
repeated similar conditions. An important aspect in the activities with adult concerns
motivating the creation. Such a situation involves putting in an emotional tension, to
whose achievement brings satisfaction, aspirations and development needs are likely to
increase participation. Following research undertaken were identified several conditions
necessary for creating a motivating situation (Vinţanu, 1998, p. 45): there is a positive
interest for the work; presence of a continuous emphasis on work; resistance to fatigue
and the critical moments; for the performance or progress made; rapidly conduct of
activities. Method of learning is the way of action, with which participants, under the
guidance of trainer or in an independent manner, their own knowledge, their skills and
forming habits, skills, attitudes. Methods fulfilled certain specific functions:
• cognitive function (the method is a way to access knowledge and truths of
action for appropriation of science and technology, culture and human behavior);
• formative-educational function (methods contribute to the formation of new
intellectual skills and cognitive structures, attitudes, feelings, abilities, behaviors);
• instrumental function (the method serving as the technical implementation,
which mediate achieve goals);
• regulatory function (method shows how to proceed, how to teach and how to
learn, so as to obtain the best results).
The sequence is a teaching method, an detail, a technique limited action, or a
customization of the method. The method is a set of related processes, considered to be
the most appropriate in a case of training. Value and effectiveness of methods are subject
to the quality and adequacy of the component processes. The relationship between method
and process is dynamic, so that at any given time, can become a process under another
method, as a process can sometimes become a method according to the relationship with
other processes.
1. Active-participatory methods
Active-participatory methods have lately developed through broad multiplicity of
forms, and developing content. Using these methods, may create some difficulties. They
are due to educators that they may perceive as a threat of loss of authority and the
convenience will not waive the classical methods, which exempt the participation of
creative effort. The main advantages of the active methods are:
• engaging individuals in learning, which has the effect of increasing the quality
of learning;
• increase learning motivation, subjects were involved and interested not only in
the intellectual;
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• replacement of the classic ways of self participants / groups.
In these methods include several methods of critical thinking, which involve
active participation and creative learners.
1.1. Method of learning in small groups (Student Team Achievement Divisions STAD)
method STAD assumed through three stages:
• the first stage is the presentation topic / problem;
• in a second stage takes place in a group activity. Participants are organized into
heterogeneous groups of 3-4 members, discuss on the theme given to each other asking
questions, compare and evaluate responses. The debate continues until all members are
convinced that the master said;
• the third stage is evaluation. Educators ask participants to test the knowledge
itself. Each group presents its own for assessing the achievements that can be compared to
a better understanding.
1.2. Method Tour between teams (TGT-Teams Tour Games)
Method T.G.T. promote similar procedures with the Stade, with the difference
that at the end of the cycle of learning takes place in a tournament team, participants
competing with their peers, having the same level of competence. So, working groups,
which have the task of learning, are announced to enter into competition with each other
on a given sequence and strategy group learning becomes competitive. For the purposes of
the activity is recommended that certain conditions: each team has a first name, its
members participate in a tournament and try to accumulate as many points, each group
needs a set of questions and a summary score; in the group is achieved by distributing
roles (one who asks, the answer, the recorded score).
1.3. Method mosaic (Jigsaw)
Mosaic method involves crossing following steps:
• formation of working groups baseline. Participants are divided into groups of 45 students, by counting from 1 to 4-5, so that each student has a number between 1 and 45;
• dividing the text to be studied in many parts many groups were formed initially;
• formation of groups of "experts" and resolution of pregnancy. Persons with the
number 1 will form a group, the number 2 with the second group, etc. Each group of
"experts" have the task of studying a particular part of the text, discuss the ideas of the
text, to better understand how and then teach it to other colleagues;
• return the original participants in the groups and other teaching contents
prepared colleagues.
This method, based on reciprocal teaching, promote effective learning of content
information. At the end, each person must master the whole text and not just the learning
that took part as “expert”. During reciprocal teaching participants may require further
clarification about the fragment respectively. Also, questions can be addressed and other
"experts" in that group. Educators monitor activity throughout the deployment, ensuring
that information and knowledge is transmitted and assimilated properly. If students have
difficulty, the teacher helps them to overcome the situation.
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1.4. Method SINELG (Interactive Grading System for efficiency of reading and
thinking)
The method aims to maintain the active involvement of participants thought
reading a text, monitoring the level of understanding of content ideas, learning effective.
Participants are invited to read carefully the text for analysis. During the lecture of one
text, participants must be on some signs of having a specific meaning. Thus, students are
asked the following:
a) put a tick (√) on the text where the ideas confirms what they already know or
think they know;
b) put an addition ("+") where information read is new to them;
c) put a minus ("-") read where information contradicts or is different from what
they knew or believed that I know;
d) put a question mark next ("?") ideas they seem confused, unclear, or if they
want to know more about a particular thing or issue.
As before reading the text on the side of these four were signs, depending on the
degree of knowledge and understanding of them. These signs show a certain relationship
to the reader with the text, with its ideas.
To monitor text ideas and the degree of understanding is a useful table with four
columns corresponding to the four categories of signs used on the extracted text.
SINELG is a useful method for achieving a sustainable and effective learning based on
active cognitive involvement in reading a text on monitoring their understanding of the
content of its ideas.
2. Interrogatory Methods
Approximately 60% of adults with activities taking the form of debate.
Interrogatory methods efficiency depends on the observance of rules:
o clear determination of the objects observed;
o consistent definition of concepts, ideas, principles;
o how the approach to be consistent with the level of understanding of
participants;
o to be able to predict participants' attitude towards development.
Trainers must demonstrate willingness to listen to the participants, interventions
driver debate is carried out in key moments and to incite discussion or intervene in times
of impasse.
2.1. Brainstorming (assault or ideas) is to develop within a group, the
spontaneous and continuous flow of solutions, original ideas needed to solve problems.
Brainstorming is a method of search and individual creations but also of confrontation, the
choice of solutions developed in the group. Structure method comprises two distinct
phases:
• Stage production of individual ideas (announcing the theme / problem to solve,
the issue, preparing the participants to as many ideas and solutions for solving the
problem);
• Final stage assessment ideas (concluding meeting assault of ideas, evaluate
ideas and conclusions setting).
• The rules to be followed in this method are:
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- Stimulating the production of more ideas;
- Take ideas issue further, completing, improving them;
-Suspend intervention on critical ideas issued;
- The ranking value of ideas / solutions issued.
• Themes that may be subjects of debate for this method:
- Find some ways to improve education in rural areas of our country.
- Identify some effective measures, that you take as a manager of an
educational institution in the implementation of a desegregation project.
- What strategies for preventing and combating school absenteeism, to
adopt as your teacher?
2.2.Symposium
Involves the presentation of short exposures (not more than five), which lasts
between and 20 minutes.
Be determined in advance:
• the place where the symposium;
• problem with that start;
• who starts;
• what ideas should be emphasized and how long on average each intervention.
2.3.Colloquium
Involves a moderator and 5-6 specialists, 3-4 representatives of audience and audience.
Moderator states order, facilitating interventions, the exchange of views of experts and
audience intervention.
2.4.Consultation
May be issues in various areas, collective or individual. Implies the need to know
more and after a demarcation problem it is performed in sequence on successive questions
and answers.
2.5. Round Table
Used in the demonstrations and implies a scientific development with 3-5
participants, or a group of 15-20 people. Duration is 40-45 minutes.
• state who are participants who are needs for knowledge of them;
• defining the problem is the fragmented sequences, each sequence then it
corresponds to an idea;
• state an idea which are announced by the facts and arguments supporting the
idea or not. In the final conclusions and make assumptions for a new debate.
3. Expositive Methods
Methods expositive the ways oral presentation of topics logically organized and
presented fluently. They are based on the communication process, ie the existence of a
transmitter which has a vast amount of knowledge related to the theme and an audience
interested in the content presented. There are various forms and ways of conducting
expositive methods, but there is a common strategy for all forms. In the literature are
formulated a series of rules relating to use methods expositive. They are:
• no idea should not be presented without being supported by facts or the facts
without being accompanied by an idea;
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• whatever the method of presentation, it must always include an introduction,
content and conclusion;
• audience should know pretty quickly what will speak, for what purpose and
what will happen discourse;
• whatever form is necessary to consider the interests of the auditor.
3.1. Exposure consists of a lecture by the teacher, orally, a large volume of
knowledge, ideas, theories, concepts, through a concatenation of logical reasoning, by
confrontation and argumentation as detailed by the systematic factual material around
themes through various analysis, the survey complex links between facts and phenomena.
This method requires a high level of understanding of participants' maturity responsive.
Lecture is used when the material to be taught is rich and new participants. Since the
theme is developed through exposure to the teacher, it raises a number of matters relating
to participants' work, restricted to the mere reception and a passive attitude, devoid of
critical spirit. Excessive use of lecture lead to formalism and superficiality in the learning
process, because communication between teacher and students is unidirectional, feed-back
is very weak, and individualization of teaching and learning there. To prevent this,
maintaining the use of a series of processes directed toward capturing the attention,
interest and curiosity, to trigger a positive motivation by appeal to the questions, taking
position on some problem sequences, etc. discrimination value. To have a logical and
systematic lecture must be conducted on the basis of a previously established plan, which
has an indicative value and are applied differently from one situation to another. Exposure
may be on various topics, but it's necessary to respect the following rules:
• there is one central idea;
• shall be either inductive or deductive;
• subject defines the beginning;
• how the approach to be consistent with the level of understanding of the
particulars.
Exposure contains demonstrations based on facts which interested audience.
Duration is up to 40-45 minutes. Steps needed in preparing the exposure are:
• training ideas;
• training material (medium to support ideas);
• Psychological preparation of the exhibit that.
3.2. Conference popularization
Exposure different from content and level of knowledge relatively low audience.
By popular conference aims to make known to all an idea or a new high content current.
Duration is 40-45 minutes.
3.3. Course Judge
Draws broadly from the university and its purpose and understanding and
establish upper links between knowledge set. Duration is approximately one hour.
4. Conclusions
Method of learning is the way of action, with which participants, under the
guidance of trainer or in an independent manner, their own knowledge, their skills and
forming habits, skills, attitudes. In these methods include several methods of critical
thinking, which involve active participation and creative learners. Using these methods,
376
may create some difficulties. They are due to educators that they may perceive as a threat
of loss of authority and the convenience will not waive the classical methods, which
exempt the participation of creative effort.
„Acknowledgements: This work was supported by CNCSIS-UEFISCSU, project
number PNII - IDEI 882/2009 Adaptarea curriculară - instrument fundamental în
educaţia incluzivă.”
References
Bernat, E. S., (2003), Tehnica învăţării eficiente, Cluj-Napoca: Editura Presa universitară Clujeană.
Bocoş, M., (2002), Instruire interactivă. Repere pentru reflecţie şi acţiune, Cluj-Napoca: Editura Presa
Universitară Clujeană.
Cerghit, I.,(1980), Metode de învăţământ, Bucuresti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
Cristea, S., (2000), Dicţionar de pedagogie, Bucuresti: Editura Litera. Litera internaţional.
Cucoş, C., (1998), Pedagogie, Iasi: Editura Polirom.
Dumitriu, G., (1998), Comunicare şi învăţare, Bucuresti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
Dumitru, I. al., (2000), Dezvoltarea gândirii critice şi învăţarea eficientă, Timisoara: Editura de vest.
Ionescu, M.,& Radu, I.,(1995), Didactica modernă, Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia.
Ionescu, M., & Chiş, V., (coord.),(2001), Pedagogie. suporturi pentru formarea profesorilor, Cluj-Napoca:
Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană.
Macavei, E.,(1997), Pedagogie, Bucuresti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
Nicola, I., (2000), Tratat de pedagogie şcolară, Bucuresti: Editura Aramis.
Păun, E., & Potolea, D., (coord.),(2002), Pedagogie. Fundamentări teoretice şi demersuri aplicative, Iasi:
Editura Polirom.
Vinţanu, N., (1998), Educaţia adulţilor, Bucuresti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.
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The Building up of the School-Family- Community
Partnership
Avrigeanu Ecaterinaa, Avrigeanu Constantin Lucianb
a
Scoala cu clasele V-VIIIII, Cosereni
b
Clubul Elevilor si Prescolarilor, Urziceni
Abstract
The partnership between the school, the students’ families and the local
community represents an important part of the instructive educative process. Such type of
partnership increases the efficiency of the school, leads to the concrete recognition of the
realities and broadens the responsibilities of all those factors involved in the educational
act. Consequently, the aim of this paper is to present four scenarios of training adults
towards building up of the School – Family – Community partnership, scenarios that
include active –participatory methods of work.
Keywords: partnership; family; community
1. Ways to make more efficient the school/family/community
partnership
Subject: The family’s functions as social group. The family’s involvement in
education.
Aims: At the end of the activity the participants should define the family’s
functions as social group; establish the main differences between the “parent” quality –
educational resources and “ parent” – children breeder; identify possible barriers that can
appear in the way of the parents’ participation in education.
Challenge: The family environment satisfies the child in the measure in which it
is an affectionate and protective one, an indispensable double condition for the human
being to learn to build herself, to place herself in relation with the others, having without
any danger her first social and sentimental experiences.
Breaking the ice. The participants are placed in a circle. Following the leader,
from his left to right, everyone will say his/her name and the role(s) he/she has in the
family (husband, grandfather, father, mother, son).
Evocation activity. Activity in the discussions circle. The participants will be
redistributed in two circles disposed on the classroom’s diagonal. The rules for the activity
are clarified: no talking at the same time; if they don’t want to talk about the theme in
discussion, they can say “pas”; every participant must be allowed to speak if he/she wants
to do it.
Discussion’s theme: “What the family represents for each of us?”
Avrigeanu Ecaterina, Avrigeanu Constantin Lucian / Procedia – Edu World 2010
The course leader asks the participants to pair up. Each pair identifies and fills in
a list with family functions they know. The structure of this active learning method, called
“Know/Want to know/Learnt” is like that:
Table 1. Want to know/I Learnt
I know ( What I thought I know)
I want to know (What I want to know)
I learnt (What I have learnt)
Some of the pairs read what they have written previously and, with everybody’s
consent, those things are noted in the first column of the table.
The achievement of meaning. The team leader distributes a sheet of paper with a
text that the participants must read carefully and mark with a ,,V” the ideas which confirm
what they knew, with a “–“where the information contradicts or it is different from what
they knew, with a “+” the new information and with a ,,?” the unclear ideas or in case they
want to know more about a particular aspect.
The text for reading is “The family’s functions as social group”:
The family is a group of people constituted on marriage bonds, blood bonds or by
adoption. It is the connection between husband and wife, parents and sons, brothers and
sisters. The basic family (nuclear) represents a group made of mother, father and
immediate descendents (their children).
The child establishes his first social relations and experiences with his parents
and siblings, in the family. The parents, the family play a very important role in the
children socialization and development: within the family the child comes in contact for
the first time with the concepts of responsibility, duty, rule, interdiction. His social
integration will be easier if he understands early that with rights he also has
responsibilities.
The biological function consists in the human specie’s perpetuation through
procreation and child breeding, primordial condition for the society’s existence.
The human being’s ability to have descendents is her only revenge on death.
The psycho-affective function. According to this function, the family offers the
individual a feeling of safety, it helps him to overcome obstacles, to acquire emotional
balance. Within the family, the person finds the warmth and the kindness he needs so
much. The economic function consists in creating the material conditions necessary for
the life and development of the family members.
The educative function refers to the fact that the family has an important role in
the transmission of language, customs and behavioral patterns to its of springs. In the
family the child will learn to assess himself and the others, to grow accustom to a way of
life, he comes in contact with society’s values and rules.
The family plays an important role in the civic education of the children. After
the reading, the attention is redirected to the questions in the second column of the table
(“Want to know”) and it is established in what measure they found answers in the text.
These answers will then be written in the third column: “Learnt”. The unanswered
questions are highlighted and the participants discuss where can they find answers.
Reflection. The participants are asked to reflect on the barriers from the
community that can intervene in the way of the parents participation in education, to
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identify ways of family involvement in education that can be included in their personal
strategy, to identify ways to collaborate with the family in order to improve students’
performances.
Evaluation “Five minutes” essay. The participants grouping – pairs distributed in
circle. Necessary resources – flip-chart sheets, marker, working sheets, a “microphone” ,
the blackboard, chalk. The participants are asked to write a thing they’ve learnt during the
course and a question about it.
2. Barriers in the way of communication. The effective school –
students’ families communication
Aims: After this sequence you will be able to properly prepare a communication,
to organize a communication network for the correct circulation of the communication, to
define and overcome the communication barriers, to know and apply the principles of an
effective communication.
Challenge: The school’s important role in the community gives it the possibility
to contribute and minimize the barriers that can appear between the school and the
community and also to have an effective communication in this domain.
Breaking the ice. Exercise. The participants are arbitrarily disposed in the room
and, following the leader, each of them will say his/her name and define in one sentence
what they understand by barriers in communication.
Evocation. Communication’s definition To communicate: make known, to let
you know; to inform , to apprise, to say, to tell, to speak; to make contact with …. .
Communication: the action of communicating and its result; notice, news;
report, relationship, connection.
Barrier: obstacle, set-back, holdup for accomplishing something.
Barriers determined by factors external to the transmitting the information
The chosen place: noise, disruptive factors, a small room, insufficient
illumination, cigarette smoke.
The receiver: lack of interest for the chosen theme, other preoccupations, health
problems, preconceptions, distrust in the person transmitting the information,
inconvenient time, a previous negative communicating experience.
Barriers appeared in the information circulation
Barriers appeared in the information circulation: distortion caused by the
uncertainty of the transmitted information; selection according to some interests, even
ending with stopping the message all together; the use of other communication channels
then those verified as effective; the assignment of a different meaning to information by
the people involved; late transmission of information, lack of a communication network.
Attention! Avoid approximate information which, traveling at random, it may
become rumor!
Barriers appeared during direct communication
Barriers appeared during direct communication: the use of an inaccessible,
inappropriate language, a large amount of information, lack of authority, boring
communication, conflict of interests between the transmitter and the receiver of the
information, the tendency to avoid subjects that can generate conflicts, lack of
collaboration between the transmitter and the receiver-which can lead to formality,
380
allocation of to little time to communication, the transmitter or the receiver minimizes the
communication, an idea is sustained by a varied analysis of the information.
Activity I. Time to work - 20 minutes. Report and discussions - 15 minutes. The
course participants will be divided in four groups: A,B,C and D by choosing little notes
(with those letters). Considering a certain situation, specify the barriers that appear in the
communication between:
a) the head-master and the parents’ council at school level;
b) the teacher / class master and the parents’ council at class level;
c) the teacher and the group of students ;
d) the school and other community representatives.
The achievement of meaning. Effective communication.
Conditions for an effective communication: the precise outlining of the
message’s communication aim, defining the conditions for a good communication,
transmitting messages through channels verified as effective, receiving the message and
understanding it.
Principles for an effective communication relates to the preparation for
transmitting the message: verify the correct understanding of the message, clarify the
ideas, obtain the parts’ communication agreement, select the most favorable time, begin
the transmission with facts, not comments, use a simple, direct and basic language, use
alternate means to make the message understandable, relate to the specific conditions of
the institution, encourage the discussions, verify the understanding, adapt the rhythm to
the problem’s difficulty and to the available time, adapt the tone and the facial expression
to the aims and the audience, check the body’s vertical posture, the smile, the eye contact,
the gestures, the movements of the body and the head, adjust the voice’s pitch (the low
one captures, the high one distracts), use pauses to mark ideas and, if necessary, use jokes
for relaxation and to capture the attention.
A few ideas about the preparation for listening the person we communicate with :
create a favorable environment for an open communication, remember the participants’
names and details, adopt an attitude of utter interest, find the common areas of interest,
show empathy with the speaker, judge the content, not its form of presentation, retain the
key ideas, encourage the speaker, ask clarifying questions, resist to outside distractions or
rushing solutions, stimulate the creativity and productivity of ideas.
Activity II. Reflection. Time to work – 20 de minutes. Time to report – 10
minutes. In the teams established for the previous activity the communication can be
exercised using the principles for an effective communication, in the same situations.
Evaluation – Write an essay based on the questions. Feed-back questionnaire. Do
you consider the subject to be useful? What sequence did you find more interesting?
Specify three communication barriers more commonly encountered in your institutions.
What else the course’s support should have included?
3. The relation with the community. The educational partnership.
The school – N.G.O. relationship
Aims: During and at the end of the training session the students will be able: to
monitor, according to the criteria, the development projects for the Community relations;
to identify the characteristics of the educational community to which the school belongs;
381
to elaborate patterns, relative projects referring to the school – N.G.O. relationship; to
constructively evaluate the school’s systematic relations, according to the obtained results.
Challenge: The educational community is defined as the non-formal
organizational model of the non-scholastic factors involved locally, territorially and
nationally in supporting and elevating the pedagogical activities, projected and done in
school. The manager establishes connections between those involved in the projecting and
making education, at different levels: students, parents and other factors from economical,
political, cultural, scientific, religious domains.
The partner can be defined as one of the participants to a sports competition, a
game, a business. The partnership is defined as the relationship between two or more
people, established in order to start a business and developing a business, an activity
chain, in order to obtain profit or results quantified in instructive and educative actions for
a shorter or longer term.
Breaking the ice. Exercise. The participants will find a partner and start an ad hoc
conversation. Those who want to, one from each pair, present in front of everybody, in
two or three sentences, the essence of their talk with their partner.
Evocation. Contents. The educational community may initiate a partnerships
according to the following system: between business partners in order to make profit;
between a business partner and a social partner (support partnership, sponsorship) – for
financial, material supportive actions; between the social partner- the school and N.G.O. –
aiming at instructive, educative actions, formal and informal ones.
These partnerships can be made through a negotiating system based on the
distinction between the people you negotiate with and the problem itself. It is
recommended: don’t allow feelings to get in your way, concentrate on the interests, not
the positions, search new ideas, beneficial for both parties and take into consideration
objective criteria.
Considering that the scholastic organization is deploying its activity in an
environment that tends to become uncertain and troubled, with a competitive tendency
from some mass-media segments, such as: the media expansion in the life of the children,
the pressure applied by the written press, with influences on the market segment, the
consumption literature, the kitsch on the market, to which can be added the lack of correct
scientific information for the children and teenagers and the inclusion in a circuit of
information with two-way. It is worth taking into account a type of partnership between
the school and N.G.O. that can try to complete the school’s identity and its calling.
This can be achieved through a mutual adaptation and a condensation of the
cultural, local, territorial components. It is a necessity that at the scholastic organization’s
level to be established real strategies to make and develop ,,ecological” relations, in which
can be outlined the close and the remote environment, the internal one and the external,
with existent and possible actions.
But even if this days every school is looking for partnerships with commercial
societies and companies, with foundations and other institutions that can assure financial
support to the schools to have means and materials strictly necessary for the learning
activity of the children, also with an important role are the partnerships in which each
partner contributes with materials, finances and knowledge to accomplish a common
purpose. This formula almost symbiotic can be yet another solution that can be used by
the school to fulfill its mission in the society.
382
The range of the institutions that can be involved in schools is very wide. Almost
every aspect of the school’s life, education and child’s welfare will benefit from approach
between several institutions, which brings together a variety of attitudes, ideas and
resources, in a coordinated and unified way. It is more then likely that the initiative to
work this way will have to come from the school, because, among all institutions, the
school is the one that works more and most intensively with children.
The collaboration with the school will satisfy also the aims of the organizations
and institutions that work with it. For example, the private companies’ involvement in
schools will sustain the private sector to grow local skilled labor. The school’s
collaboration with other institutions is not always easy, some respond positively, others
don’t. It is partly the school’s role to reach the community, to encourage and persuade the
organizations to get involved. The collaboration is fruitful when this approach is perceived
as a good professional practice and not as a violation in some professional categories’
existence.
The achievement of meaning. Who can be involved? How can they be involved?
– These are questions to which every participant student can answer according to his/her
own priorities. Here are some ideas:
Table 2. The relationship with the community
Activity
„ Case conferences “ that can assist vulnerable children ( children who
show signs of stress or have behavioural problems in school as a
result of outside difficulties)
Deployment of off school activities for students to broaden their
knowledge, to develop their abilities and skills.
Conventions and carrier advice to assist the students in their choice for
a suitable profession in an informed manner (regular sessions in the
classroom ,in which business people come to discuss about
economical sectors, types of work and existent jobs in that area.)
Continuous training sessions for the teachers to analyze and solve the
school’s problems
The local approach to the national curriculum – example :from the
content of the optional school subjects the students can learn the
structure and the history of the local population , engaged after
discussing with representatives from the local authorities, the local
industry and businesses
Institutions, organizations that
can be involved
- Social services , Child
protection,
the Police, the
Church, the parents, the School
tutor (coach)
- Sports clubs and associations,
N.G.O.
Private
businesses,
A.J.O.F.M.,
- The Teachers’ House ,
N.G.O., Organizations that are
operating in the specific domain
of the training
- N.G.O., community groups,
private businesses , local
authority
The collaboration between multiple institutions will affect all the teachers, and
this is why an activity must exist at school level in which everyone of them to be
involved.
Reflection. An exercise is proposed in order to elaborate a list with organizations
- potential partners for the school.
Activity I. Elaborate a map of interested factors. The main instrument for this
exercise is a large sheet of paper and on it are drawn eight concentric circles, numbered
from 1 to 8, with 1 in the center. Then, on little notes are written names of
383
institutions/agencies/people that the school can collaborate with. For example: the
Teachers’ House, Child protection, social services, N.G.O., the City Hall, the Church, the
Police. The list includes all the potentially interested parties that we can think of. There
will be also some blank notes which will be filled during the exercise. The participants
will be divided in four groups by drawing lots; each group will fill in a map and report the
way they did it.
Activity II. Same teams from activity 1 will analyze each interested factor and
discuss the way they can best be involved in the school’s life. The results of these
discussions are registered on the paper sheet, each group presenting their conclusions to
everybody. The conclusions will also be registered in a table like this:
Table 3. Factors interested in education
4.
Interested factor
Discussions’ conclusions
Priority (High / medium / low) Involvement in the school’s life
5. Grown-up education. Ways to make more effective the school –
family partnership
Subject: School’s activity with the families from disadvantaged groups.
Aims: At the end of the activity the participants must know to work in a sensible
and effective manner with the families less involved in the school’s life; to improve the
involvement of the minority ethnic community in education and to make sure that all
minority ethnic children have the opportunity to succeed and to reach their potential in
school; to work constructively with the parents of children with special educational needs
to allow them to make progress in school.
Challenge: When we work to build a family – school relationship it is essential to
be able to work with all the families, considering that there are families of all shapes and
sizes and it exists a great variety of experiences, organization patterns and child care in the
family.
Evocation. How do we work with families from disadvantaged groups?
The information about possible types of families is updated through
brainstorming.
Types of disadvantaged families Single-parent, more generations together or
children living with adoptive parents, dramatic changes, one or both parents’ death,
divorces, particular language, cultural and religious needs and circumstances (the
minority ethnic families), poverty, low cultural level, the recently moved in the
community, difficulty in the relation with the teachers and other segments of the
community, unemployed parents, at disadvantage by their own negative educational
experience.
The key points in the school’s success to establish relationships with the families
from disadvantaged groups could be: a good communication, a flexible synchronization
between the school’s requirements and the family’s needs, a less official approach of this
partnership, a real help from the school to these families.
384
These starting points can determine the parents and the teachers to work better
and give the school tutor the possibility to do his tasks.
A few practical ideas that can be key instruments in the approach of the
disadvantaged families: visits to the students’ houses, private consultations with the
parents (from individual ones to groups of parents and the entire collective); make sure
that every family has access to a contact – a teacher they know and trust (beware of the
composition of the didactic team who makes these visits); time flexibility for the parents
talks or other collective event (the discussions will be renewed in time, whenever is
necessary and we can change every time the method to approach the relationship with the
family); organize activities like “The open gates day”; make sure that the materials sent to
the parents, addresses, briefings, letters, are accessible, easy to read and they do not
contain terms of ultimatum; elaborate special strategies with and for the disadvantaged
families in order to improve these partnerships’ quality.
How do we work with minority ethnic families and communities?
In this activity we must consider two things: first, to create a morality of a school
that knows and understands the cultural differences and similarities and reach the minority
ethnic community, the minority ethnic parents and be involved.
Ways to involve the minority ethnic families into the school’s life, ways emerged
from their positive experience:
-Involve the parents in the decision making process through a cooperative
management;
-Encourage the minority ethnic parents and the community members to
contribute to their children education;
-Develop a parents’ participation schedule in the school’s activity;
-Constantly brief the parents about the school’s activities and the progress made
by their children;
-Organize extracurricular activities to which the parents can participate to, either
as resources or as experts;
-Offer, when possible, educational and community services for the parents and
other community partners (literacy courses, ways to help the children with their
homework);
How do we work with the parents who have children with special educational
needs?
These students are described as having special needs if they have learning
difficulties, which means that they need special educational support, or if they have
disabilities that prevent them from using the generally available educational facilities.
Among the most common cases we recall: special needs children with difficulties to learn
reading and writing, with consequences on their access to the school curriculum and
students with senses difficulties, physical disabilities or other problems.
In order to accomplish an effective collaboration with the families of these
children, we must begin with some key points: listen the parents’ concerns, understand
that the parents of these children may act in a manner that hides their true feelings, adopt a
positive attitude about the student’s progress. A few ideas to help us work with parents of
children with special educational needs: if we must tell the parents that their child has
special needs, we will have to do it openly but with delicacy, so the parents understand
what we are saying, and beware of their imminent emotional reactions.
385
We must accept the fact that the parents are experts when it comes to their
children, and that’s why we must be very careful to the way they might perceive the
teachers’ message. It is necessary to always be positive and help the parents feel that their
son or daughter is welcome in school. We mustn’t neglect the fact that some difficulties
are inherited and some of the parents might have the same difficulties as their children.
We should also use the school tutor when we make house visits to the special needs
children and offer information or organize some parents courses to which they can
participate in order to gain confidence in their own abilities. We should identify resources
to help and sustain these parents, like N.G.O. and other organizations that provide
information about special difficulties and disabilities.
The achievement of meaning.
The participants will be divided in three groups by drawing lots and they will
have to solve the tasks below.
Time to work – 20 minutes. Time to report – 10 minutes.
Discuss the two questionnaires and make comments on them; the conclusions
will be written on flip-chart paper sheets and presented to everyone by a team member
from each group.
Table 5. What do the teachers want from the parents?
What do the teachers want from the parents ?
What would you like your students’ parents to do to fully support the learning process of their
children?
A To send their children to school
B To make sure that they are at school on time
C To make sure that they rest enough for a new day in school
D To check their homework daily
E To sustain the compliance of school’s schedule
F
To ask their children to read aloud every day
G To reduce the time spent in front of the TV
H To participate at the parents-teachers meetings and at the extracurricular activities
I
To sustain the school ‘s fund raising activities
J
To immediately notify the school if their child gets ill
K To ask the school’s consent before a period of absence
L To inform the school about any emotional – psychic problems that the child has, in order to take
the necessary measures
What other answers would you like to give?
Order
Time to work – 20 minutes , time to report – 10 minutes. In the same structure
the groups will make a special strategy for the special kind of families, as it follows:
Group 1 – special strategy for the activity with disadvantaged families
Group 2 – special strategy regarding the activity with families and communities
Group 3 – special strategy regarding the activity with the families of children
with special educational needs
Feed-back questionnaire. Time to work – 5 minutes.
Do you consider the theme to be useful? What sequence from the course support
did you find more interesting? Specify three actual activities from your school, made to
improve the partnership between the school and disadvantaged families (socially, families,
386
families with children with special educational needs). What else the course support
should have included?
Its objectives would be: identifying the components of an agreement between the
school and the family, identifying the expectancies of the parts involved in the agreement,
the building up of such partnership. The ideas highlighted in this scenario are that parents
are the first and the most indulgent educators of a child. They play a crucial role in
helping children to learn. Moreover, children manage better when the school and the
family collaborate. Parents could be a real help if they knew the school’s purposes and
how these purposes could help their children. Partnership agreements are supposed to be
consolidated between the groups.
The agreements between parents and school will provide the framework of
developing such partnership. Additionally, each agreement between the two parts will
include the following details: What should the agreement consist of? Which school’s
policies highlight the agreement? How would the agreement function?
Lastly, the fourth scenario would regard “The Modalities of Organizing the
Meetings with the Parents”, and its objectives would be: getting to know the ways of
organizing the meetings with the parents, identifying the principles of an efficient meeting
with the parents, and last but not least, the elaboration of a list of recommendations for the
parents whose children are about to pass through examinations
References
Dave, R. H. (Under redaction) and collaborators (1991), (pp 156-162),Foundations of Education permanently
Bucharest
Osterrieth, P. (1973), Child and family, (pp 12-14), Didactic and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest
Alexander Huditeanu (2001), Methods of psychological knowlwdge of students, (pp 62-64), Psihomedia
Publishing, Sibiu,
Nica, I, Topa, L. (1974), Collaboration school students class family, (pp12-13) Didactic and Pedagogic
Publishing House Bucharest
387
th
4
th
th
The Influence of Continuous Learning in the Development
of Individuals in Society
Adina Pescarua, George Brezoib
a,b
Petroleum-Gas University Ploiesti
Abstract
Lifelong learning ensures consistent development innovation and technical
progress. Rapid changes occurring in all areas from industry to health, culture and
education, require a system of lifelong learning to support labor market competitiveness.
The research leans on the importance of continuing education and on the factors that are
involved in continuing education and its importance in the development of the individual
in society.
Keyword: lifelong learning; adult learning; knowledge based society
1. Lifelong learning in European context
Conclusions of the E.U. Summit in Lisbon in March 2000 claim that Europe
entered unquestionably in the era of knowledge, with everything that this implies for
cultural, social and economic sector. Models of learning, work and life are changing
rapidly. This involves not only individual’s adaptation to change but, equally, the change
in the ways of action already established.
Responding to the real needs of society, education has focused on initial learning
skills rather than knowledge acquisition. The form of education has changed radically and
continuing education is being emphasized in the contemporary society.
In T. Popescu opinion, at Alexandru Ioan Cuza University - Iasi, lifelong
learning is just like a ground water, it is present in the underground social life constantly
and it is evident only in some circumstances.
In the mid’ 90s it was agreed that not only education and permanent training
helps maintain economic competitiveness and employment, but that is the best way to
combat social exclusion, which means that teaching and learning must lay individuals and
their needs in the spotlight.
According to this report, a conclusion that is extremely important can be drawn
that training has not only an individual’s development role in society but also an essential
role to prevent its exclusion from society. How can an individual be excluded from
society if education programs are not permanent? As a response to this question, among
others, it may be considered the obsolete information, techniques and technologies used in
relation to information acquired by individuals as a result of initial education. The role of
education quality and originality is in debate in this article.
Adina Pescaru, George Brezoi/ Procedia – Edu World 2010
2. Adult learning
Adult learning is a complex phenomenon. Although there are many common
points of view between how adults and children are learning, the development and
changes that occur throughout life play a clear role in understanding how adults learn. In
educational psychology, the understanding of adult learning is crucial for a commitment
to lifelong learning. The major challenges faced by those working with adults include
questions about the extent to which knowledge is discovered or built and where they stand
in relation to each focus on individual or social issues.In 1965, William Johnstone and
Ramon Rivera reported on a major national study of adult learning participation and found
that 22% of all adults in the United States participated in some form of learning activity
during the previous year.
One of the most intensively studied areas of adult learning relates to the nature of
participation in adult learning.
This involves three questions:
o Who participates in adult education?
o Why adults engage in learning?
o What are the factors that prevent or limit participation of individual in adult
learning?
To a large extent, participation in adult learning is related to life transitions.
Nowadays, service related transitions (e.g. loss of employment, promotion, new
responsibilities, and retirement) are the most frequently identified reasons for participation
in training. Other examples of transitions that can trigger the need for learning include
changes that are occurring in the family environment - marriage, motherhood and divorce,
health problems - dealing with life-threatening illness, or diagnosis with a chronic disease,
enrichment opportunities, entertainment, art, religion / spirituality.
The adults who are oriented to learning are those who commit to their own
advantage in this process. Several factors may act as barriers to adult participation in
lifelong learning process. They were conceptualized according to several categories. In
essence, the major factors that prevent participation are:
o Reasons for living circumstances of adult, which are often outside his
personal control, such as: lack of time, money, transportation or family
responsibilities.
o Grounds of institutions - policies and practices that limit participation, such
as course schedules, information concerning education offer, limited supply
and policies that discriminate directly or indirectly adult education.
o Reasons related to the participant's own attitudes and values such as a poor
self impression, fear of failure, previous negative experiences or lack of
interest.
The adult, involved in the learning process, can be studied through the following
ways:
o Biological.
o Psychological.
o Social.
Some general characteristics of the adult, in terms of continuing education, can
be listed:
389
o He is responsible for his actions.
o He is an active subject.
o He decides his own life plan.
o He conceived and carried out deliberately.
o He consciously directs its actions,
o The adult’s responsibility is different from individual to individual.
Among biological features we can mention: the loss of vision and hearing and
also the decrease rate of collection (translated by the necessary time an impetus needs to
reach the cortex).
The mental peculiarities of the adult are:
o They increase the power of involvement and selection (the adult already has
established its own structures of knowledge and lifelong learning adds or
removes some of them)
o The responsiveness decreases with age (psychomotor agility and reaction
speed),
o The memory (imprinting, retention, recognition and reproductive experience
cognitive, affective and voluntary) is dependent on the level of education,
profession and age, after the age of 25-30 years the fixing capacity of new
information decreases rapidly but increases logical-associative memory.
o The attitude changes with age, the adults is showing doubts about the
information received by training and he is having a critical attitude, he
operates filtering, selection, correlation, reduction, condensation etc. Even if
the adult has difficulties (time, budget, tiredness) he still has a favorable
attitude toward learning.
o The motivation in adults is most often intrinsic. The adult seeks immediate
applicability and usefulness of learning content and he refers to “learning by
doing”.
o The attention varies with age; it depends on time of day, the day of week and
the training sequence.
E.U. engages in lifelong learning through various programs (ESF SOP HRD,
Erasmus, Leonardo da Vinci, conferences, seminars) and through European Policy - the
European Employment Strategy adopted by Romania that contains also ideas reflected in
the Lisbon Strategy. Through the Lisbon Strategy, launched in 2000, and detailed work
program for implementation of the objectives of education and training in Europe in 2002,
E.U. includes active citizenship among its strategic objectives, aiming to make Europe the
most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of
sustainable economic growth with more jobs and better and greater social cohesion. For
the purpose of supporting the processes of training, European programs, courses and
coaching activities, specialized training and knowledge transfer are required to increase
the competitiveness of employment, labour market flexibility, in partnership with high
requirements qualification.
Probably the best known financial program for lifelong learning is the Sectorial
Operational Programme for Human Resources Development. The general objective of
SOP HRD is the development of human capital and to increase competitiveness, by
linking education and lifelong learning to employment and providing enhanced
opportunities for future participation in a modern and flexible labour market that includes
390
1.650.000 persons. This objective is equivalent to about 18% of total employment in
2006.
SOP HRD consists of the following priorities:
o Priority Axis 1- “Education and training in support for growth and
development of a knowledge based society”
o Priority Axis 2 – “Linking life long learning and labour market”
o Priority Axis 3 – “Increasing adaptability of workers and enterprises”
o Priority Axis 4 – “Modernization of Public Employment Service”
o Priority Axis 5 – “Promoting active employment measures”
o
Priority Axis 6 – “Promoting Social Inclusion”
o Priority Axis 7 – “Technical Assistance”.
Priority Axis 1- “Education and training in support for growth and development
of a knowledge based society” envisages the need for modernization and better adaptation
at labor market needs of education and training both initial and ongoing training. Under
this priority will seek to increase the coherence between education systems, initial training
and continuing vocational training and between different learning contexts.
This priority axis approaches education and initial training continuing at national
level and in an integrated manner: the improvement and modernization will be supported
by actions of the system, followed by measures to support schools / training providers for
implementation actual results of system-level actions and specific measures will be
complemented by training / development of staff involved.
The actions will target the system (standards, methodologies, tools and staff
development), education and training providers, offers of education and training, human
resources involved in providing education and training (to offer targeted support).
Education and training system will be approached at national level in terms of quality
assurance, curricula development in support of competitiveness, relevance of education
and training demand for labour market. The fundamental principle of this priority axis is
that lifelong learning is for restructuring and the development of framework of education
and training and to ensure the consistency between the contexts of formal learning,
informal and non formal learning, to create conditions for the provision of key
competences for lifelong.
Priority Axis 2 “Linking lifelong learning and labour market” will consider
ensuring equal access at national level of all people in learning and training for those skills
and abilities necessary for sustainable integration in the labour market. Low participation
in education is increasing the risk of unemployment, long-term unemployment and
exclusion from the labour market. Given that the people from rural areas are those most at
risk of early school dropping, specific measures will be promoted which will target these
groups. Reducing early school dropping phenomenon and the support for increasing
access and participation in continuing vocational training will make a significant
contribution to promoting learning and lifelong employment, thereby supporting the
integration of labour employment.
C.V.T. will consider also the health of the workforce.
Within the training courses of employees, specific modules on health
maintenance, prevention of occupational diseases and accidents will be given. The
development of partnerships and the transition from school to working life will be
supported, making the integration of graduates into the labour market much easier.
391
Similarly, Priority Axis 4 “Modernization of Public Employment Service” offers
a national approach in an attempt to diversify the services offered by SPO, to improve
their quality by making more visible and accessible and bringing them closer to the
beneficiaries. The training activities of the Public Employment Service staff will enhance
capabilities to provide labour market analysis at national level, to interpret data, to
anticipate trends and new developments in labour and business dynamics.
Priority Axis 3, 5 and 6 are addressing to individuals in terms of increasing the
employment capacity and adaptability, entrepreneurship strengthening and the promotion
of social inclusion and equality. These priority axis call for a regional approach with
regard to existing of disparities between regions regarding employment rates,
unemployment rates and certain features (long-term unemployment and structural
unemployment, including the rural areas), participation in training, entrepreneurship,
poverty rate, the labour market status of women etc. All these issues will be addressed at
regional level, which is the level what allows the involvement of local communities and
other stakeholders to identify and effectively solving these issues.
In a world where change happens quickly and the diversity is increasingly greater
the need for citizens to be active, informed and responsible is stronger than ever. The role
of education in development of such citizens is now almost universally recognized. A first
precondition of any attempt to design a training program for adults is a clear
understanding of training needs. Training needs are determined by groups of beneficiaries
of training activities organized by well-defined criteria as: level of education, readiness,
age group, profession, etc.
Training objectives must meet:
1. the needs of society in general,
2. the specific needs of the organization,
3. the individual’s personal needs.
As characteristics of targets, we can mention:
4. the objectives must be clearly defined,
5. the objectives must be formulated correctly and completely,
6. measurable objectives must address changes,
7. the objectives must be measurable,
8. achievable goals must be within a preset time.
3. The research undertaken in the University Petroleum - Gas of

Let`s Teach Physics on Computer - Education Facing Contemporary

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