Foe us on Qlect-lle}fgfg]`if

R e a d i n gS t , C l a i r D r a k e :A
Methodol
ogi cal Essaywi th a
Foe
us on Qlect-lle}fgfg]'if
by
G]enn H. Jordan
'1982
March,
About the Author
G l e n nH . J o r d a ni s S t a f f A s s o c i a t ei n t h e A f r o - F * n e r i c aSnt u d i e s a n d
P r o g r a mU
, n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s - U r b a n a . l ' { ei s a l s o S e c r e t a r y Research
T r e a s u r e ra n d C o - P u b l i c a t i o n sE d i t o r f o r t h e A s s o c i a t i o nf o r B l a c k A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . H i s a c a d e m i icn t e r e s t s i n c l u d e t h e p h i l o s o p h y ,h i s t o r y a n d
s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o no f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e sw i t h p a r t ' ! c u l a re m p h a s i os n
s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . H e i s a P h i B e t a K a p p ag r a d u a t eo f S t a n f o r dU n i v e r s i t y
v * h e r eh e a l s o r e c e i v e da A . M . i n a n t h t o p o l o g y . H e h a s d o n ea d d i t i o n a l
work toward the doctorate. He workedas a reasearchassistant to Professor
S t . C I a i r D r a k ef o r s e v e r a l y e a r s .
Prefece
TheseAflu-Scbglor |iorki ng Pq.persare being di stri buted by the AfroArnerican
S t u d i e sa n d R e s e a r c hP r o g r a m
at the Univcrsity of Illinois for the
p u r 0 o s eo f s h a r i n g w o r k s i n p r o g r e s s ,a n d r e p r i n t s o f a r t i c l e s i n t h c f i e l d
o f A f r o - A m e r i c aS
n t u d i e s . E a c ha r t i c l e i s c h o s e nf o r i t s r n e t h o d o l o g i c a l
ancl/orsubstantive contri buti on, or i ts i nnovativeness. tle bel i eve thi s
series is imporiant trecausethrough it r'recan sharc our work and the work
o f o t h e r s . T h e p u r p o s eo f t h e s e r i e s i s t o p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r c r i t i c i s m .
This i s essential .
tdewelcorneyour conments
.
Gerald A. l.icl{orter, Director
( P h . D . , U n i v e r s i t yo f C h i c a g o )
L u k eS . T r i p p , V i s i t i n g A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r
( P h . D . , U n i v e r s i t yo f I ' i i c h i g a n )
J o h nH . l 4 c C l c n d o nV,i s i t i n g L e c t u r e r
( G r a d u a t eS t u d i e s , S U N Y - B i n g h a m t o n )
G l e n nH . J o r d a n , S t a f f A s s o c i a t e
(1,1.
A. , Stanford Uni versi ty )
A d d i eL , l { i l l i a m s , S e c r e t a r y
D o n n aK . J a c k s o n ,R e c e p t i o n i s t - T y p i s t
D o r o t h yJ . h i i l l i a m s , C l e r k - T y p i s t
TASLE OF CONTENTS
A.
Pre face
B.
Introductlon
c.
context
1.
2.
3.
4.
1
1
of the present paper and methodoJ-ogy
General Focus of the Research
Modes of PresentatLon
Focus of the Investigatlon
Method of Successlve Readings
2
2
5
8
9
D.
Four BasLc Aspeets of Our Approach
27
E.
Toward an Appllcation
33
F.
Blqck Metropolls1.
of the Method
34
Flndtngs
B.
b.
c.
d.
€.
f.
34
B1ack Metropolls versus Deep South
Ideolory and paradox
Black Chicago and the Larger Context
Asslmilatlon
of ltltrlte Ethnles versus Af roAmerlcans
Forn and content of B}ack Metropollsr
rnstitutionaL Llfe versus that of Chicago
Bronzevll-l-e t s upper, Lower and Mlddle classes
i;
il.
The Ftrst set of comparatlve cr-ass Relatlons
fire Second Set of ComparatLve C1ass Re_
lations
35
52
53
56
57
58
58
60
2.
0rganlzatlon
of the Book
61
3.
Style of the presentation
66
4.
soclal
8.
b.
c.
d.
€.
Relattons
of Research and publicatLon
Funds and Sponsors
0riglnal
Thrust
Teanr Research
Unlversity
of Chicago ConnectLon
Publication
and promotl.on
ti
74
74
75
76
77
79
5.
BO
t"lettrodology
B.
b.
c.
d.
€.
f.
g.
Fundamental QuestLon
Fundamental- Assumptlons
Data Sources
Anthropology ln the Clty
Hunan Ecology
HLstorlcal Method
Ethnographlc Method
81
82
83
B7
88
89
90
Detail-ed Fleld Study
Appreach
Holistlc
PartLclpant 0bservatl,on and DataRecordl,ng
lv.
Investlgation
and Analysls of the
EthnographLc Present
ttldeal Typesto and ttPatternlng"
Cornparatlve Method
Fleldwork, Ethlcs and class Blas
I'Verstehen" and SubJectlvlty
0bj ectlve,
90
9L
i.
it.
11i".
h.
1.
j .
k.
6.
105
8.
b.
c.
d.
105
107
108
109
Social Ontology
Social Change
f,thnlc Relations
Socf,al- CLasses
Historlcal
8.
Polltlcal
B.
b.
c.
context
l-18
11_9
L20
Warner
Cayton and Drake
Polltlcs
and the Text
L2L
LzL
L22
L22
Prob l-ems
Tenslons
Sllences
of the Main Argurnents
L24
L24
Black Metropo.lie
@
llaj or works
L13
LL7
OrLentatlon
Recapltulatlon
1.
2,
and Intended Audlence
Probl-erns, Tensions and Silences
I .
b.
c.
G.
93
94
99
100
101
Theory
7.
9.
92
rn the context
of Drakers Other
L29
t- l- r-
H.
Concluslons
130
1.
2.
130
Conpleted and Uncompleted Aspects of our ProJect
More on Areas of Dlvergence and Convergence wlth
Other Approaches
8.
b.
C.
Certaln Tendencles wlthln Marxlsm
A MaJor Debate wLthin Soclal Anthropology
Afro-American Studles as a "D1-sclpllne-LnFormationtt
135
r_36
138
139
I.
Btb f.iography
140
J.
Appendlces
L46
1.
2:
3.
L47
148
4.
5.
Monographs Prepared for BLack Metropolls ProJect
Autoblographlcal
Sketch of the Life of St, Clalr Drake
ComprehensLve Llstlng
of Research Grants Received by
St. Clatr Drake, L935 to Present
Btbltography of St. Clair Drakers Publtshed and
Unpubllshed I,Iri tLngs
Tabl-es of Contents from MaJor Publtshed and Unpub+
l-ished works by St. ClaLr Drake
iv
L52
L54
L62
JSi-$Slp-[qJJs$.
T h e t a s k c f t h * i : r e s e n tp, u p e r i r f u n d a n i e n t , n 't$w' lC
y I * f o T dF. i n s t , i t ' i s
an attemp'btCIe'[abarate,in $$m$ietat'l , & rnethcrdslagy
fr:r "r*adfng" social
t f f r s t n g ' i ei l u t h u r o r " ' s c h o o l * f t h r : u g h t " ,
s c l e n c ei e x t s t h a i ; n r e t h e p r u , J u c o
By the tenn "!"seciingr"I refer to & serieis of tntsracticns cccuring between
subject ("r*acier") and object (text) that taken iog*ihen corist,'itLrte
a subjecti.nitiated attenrptto both repl"ociuc:e
the e;<pl'ir:itand inrF:ltcit argurnents
cf
t h e t e x t a n d t p r e n d e r e x p l i c t t i t s ' [ n t * r n ; t ' trr' a h r s e n c e -'$n,i"i j J e n c e s ,a" n d
tql ur$icui*te the f*yrn and
"contradtcti'ons."lhat isn rlt*wjll be L:oi"r*er'il€d
content of an approa*hthat ?,recari u$e tn n*ad the texts--in the sen$ethnt the
t e r m " r e a d " ' i s g e n e r a T l yu n r l e r s t $ o d * * u nt od . a t ' t , i c u J ; i t rn1n a p p r o a c ht h a t t r r ec a n
u s e t o e n s a g ei n a p r o c e s $o f r t g o r o u : ie x e g e s i s "T l r i ' ss o i " t o f r e a d i n g i $ ,
of ceurse, simultaneouslya (necessari
( i ri '[he
1y ni*dif i ed) r"eprcduct'ton
ordinary $enseof this term) of the av'gurnents
r:f the text{s} and a pruduct ' i o n ( ' i n t h e f ' ! a r xaf n , s t y " u c t u n ai sj t * M a r x ' i s ta n e lp o s t * s t y ' u c t u r a j ' i sst e n s e { s }
of the term) of fi "rlsw'*iext"
Second,the present psFer is &n atterrnpttc iltiiire
tl're aprpruach
I
will elaborate to heg'inftn analy.t'!
s of the major acariemic
writings er.crny
msntor, Dr. 5t" Clait' ilr'ake (Frofess*r"[rnnr"t'fus
ui l\rrtl'rrcrpu'lc,g5,
and former
Directar of the African anclAfr,cr*.&rnev'ic*ri
Stridies Flrcgra.rn
at StanforC
University) .
0rakeoswot'k, tri ke th*t of i'*ustuf t.he s*:in'ina'l
Af r"o*foner$can
t h i n k e r s o f t h i s c e n t u r y oh a s n e v $ r h e e r is y s t e n i a t t e u l l yc r i t r c a l l y a n a l y z e d - a s"ituat'ionthat is fl sad eonrnentary
on the state *f Airc,*American,'tndeed
A m e r i c a n ,i n t e l l e c t u n l 1i f u r .
The present work includes fCIurappendices.'Ihereader riiayfind these
extremeiyvaluable, perhapsof preater use than the $ns hundredpase$that
*t*
'r:l tr iiEt r:f rnr'ni:er';iStlrs
precede theni- Spg,li,.nil,l.t-ilnii
by v,Tl''iCIus
ii:r"e1:av'*ci
projeL-i. Thesepn$videct
authtrs for t.he tl'lackf'ltitnapo'|"[s
the txrsis for
mueh
f$glgp*q]:S"" $ppgn:tjXJi:,q_
of the ar$urrsnt of the bo*k "Hj_"***+ck
is & r^ather de*
cal sketclt ci' 'the i t fe *f lit" C"l*'[r Drake. Agggf-d"iXtai 1i*d autob'iographi
* n e i* r r r r u h l ' t E t rw* dr t t t n g s c f S t .
I h f g g t s a b t h l i o g n a p h yo f t h e p u t r l ' i * [ i e d
C I a t r D r a k e{ a n d ' $ sa p p f t n e n t l tyh * * r i t y s r . r c i }r i t ' i i a w - a p h oy f h i s w C I r kn v a " i J able)" $pgSl$^l.I--frgf
ccntains the tables rrf c*nt*rits fr*r, Llral,.e'sfour majar
wnitings" (An ovsv'visw
c f t h i s w a r k i s p r c r v t c i * icrti i " l i * { ' u l l * r ' + t n sg e c t i s n .}
This paper {s part uf & develop'lnglcriE*teril project.
It is & HH"EjIg
pqfigf in the sn*st I'iteral sense. tr welconre
e'ominerir";s
f rrrmth* resders" hiithout
ri gon*us, cr'iti c*i piler evaluatt on a scieint'ifi c i.rncicr"standf
ng of the Afno*
f t n e r i c a n ,a n d E n y a t h e r r e x p e r i e n c ei s c i * u n c ct u
i r e n r a { np * t . e n t i a i ' i t y - - i . e . ,
nevel"to beconeactuaTrty"
CONTIXTOi" TI-fI PRISTNT PAI}IRAND}t[ I},{(}N*LOGY
EETIIKqL
TCCIUS
$F'TIITRISTAI?CH
F u n d a m e n t a l ' i5yto. C l a ' f r l i r e k e ' s p r " t n i a i j"ny t e i l e c [ u a i e a n t r t b u t i n ni s
refTecte* in four key vuoy'ks
r*ritten uvl))"a sLroni:i .rlioucf *t ty $r:iir-$. These
wor"ks
ere Elgsh*lfegffs.sl'1"$"r
Hg"l-fp-Jg*.Lqii.r--l'
..$i:,rJ-+i*$l*;.r,l;i*urg*eitg-&gL-fisl-qLi.gfr:"
i:ftiiitlqs"K-IslI--lier*
an{:"n-ll}s-gntlsl--lslg.g.;-Aft:s$"-$rs*qiH-gl.ilcs*kis.i:i:rila;
LLe,"ei.*S$*5gsy-i
t*-qruA*"r:i-Li-ye_!il,Tj"Hx-qr$*"{!t$F$irsls.t?,x"
miack-J{gHgpp-jjg.X
i s $ stuc}yot [i] ack uhtca,:T*tf 'rnrnthe tur* of the
i""
?,
The origtnn'! edition tnlasf,rilevo'lr,lme"Tire revtsed g":epel"back
ed'it'ion
is two v*Jum*s
k e t n * p r : l t : rai "r : d ' n * | ^ r : r l " r z * u i J Ttch"e' i n
R e f e r n e dt o a s o ' & i a c M
bo*k.
+
century until the period of the segondworld war. It emphasizes
the historic
d e v e l o p m e notf B l a c k C h i c a g o( i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e h i s t o r i c , e s p e c i a l l y
economic,developmentof Chicaggas a whole gnd in the context of the competition betweensroups that w,asintrical ly I inked to this developnrent).
But
the greater part of the work focuseson the institutions and "waysof Iife"
of various strata of the ChicagoBlack coffinunity,Co-authoredwith Horace
Caytonand published in 1945, the prinraryresearchfor Black I'letropolis rvas
done by a teamof researchers, mainly from 1937through 1940.
, Socidl Slructirre and RaceRtatig-ns i-n the, Briji sh
Yalue Systems
I s l e - si s D r a k e ' sP h . D .d i s s e r t a t i o n o n t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s ( e s p e c i a l l y , C a r d i f f ,
h f a l e s )a s a " r a c e r e l a t i o n s s i t u a t i o n . " P a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i sl s p l a c e do n
(1) the relations, in Cardiff, lnlalesb
, e t w e e ni n d i g e n o u si n s t i t u t i o n s ( o f t h e
A f r i c a n , b l e s tI n d i a n , S o m a l i a n
a n d A s i a n p o p u l a t i o n s )a n d " i n t r u s i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s " , a n d o n ( 2 ) " i d e o l o g i e s "a n d " u t o p i a s "o f v a r i o u s g r o u p s .T h e f i e l d
work for the study b,asdone by Drake (with someassi stance f rom hi s r,rife ,
Dr. Elizabeth JohnsDrake) in 1946and 1,947.He urasawardeda Ph.D. in
Social Anthropologyfrorn the University of Chicagoin 1954.
pt pages
Afri ca arfd the Blacl! Figspg:E, presently two thousandmanuscri
(i.e.1 on Africa and both her
ryfg
Old and l,lewl'lorld Dlasporas), It is especially concernedwith "Black Pot{er"
in length, literally
f o c u s e so n t h e B l a c k
in the pre-colonial period and with patterns of dominance.
Bl ack Folks; Her:eafr_dJhere
:_Jssays i L.Comparati
ve History and Anthropo]ggy i s concernedwith the hi stori cal i nterpl ay, or 1ack of i nterpl ay,
a m o n gr a c i s m , c o l o r - p r e j u d i c ea n d s l a v e r y i n t h e B l a c k l , ' l o r l d - - b o t h
as a result
-3-
of internal developments
and of,the infusion of ideas, behavtorsand institu'from'other
tions
s o c i e t i e s ( e , e . , i o n c i e f r tH { n d u , I. s T a m i ca n d J u d a i c s o c i e t i e s ) .
Recently'written, the flrst
work is to be,published
volumeof this two riiolume
in 1982by the University of California-Lcis AnQe'les.1
'
of DrakeIs-wdrk"Is often presumed
of Black
to be knowledge
"Knowledge
l 4 e t r o p o i i g , ' I ' ti s a r c e n t r a l t h e s i s o f t h i s p a p e rt h a t B l a c k . l i e t . r o p q l iiss , i n
manyrespects, outSide of the 'maincument of Drake's foremost concerns. But
this is to anticipate a bit of the,argument.
s i b l e t o u n d e r s t a n dD r a k e - - e i t h e rm a 3 o ra s g e c t so f : h i s l i f e o r t h e l o g i c o f
hi s wri ti ngs--without real i zi ng that , f undameltal
l.v, D.rale_i: lot {sghqlar
.r'
' ,
t:
:
i
:
in _thestrict sensebut essentially a .sch.olar_ag!,lviS-t.
Perhaps
this point
:
. -
'
:
'
. j
:
, '
s h o u l d b e e l a b o r a t e di n s o m ed e t a i l .
A p p e n d i xT w oi 1 a n a u t o b i o o r a p h i c asl k e t c h g f ! t . C l a i r D r a k e ' s l i f e
. :
and unand work. Appendi
x Three i s a bi bl ioqrapfryof Drake's publi
thed
publishedwritiqgs.
lven a casual reading of tfese two items clearly reveals
the fact that Drake's career gal be frui tful ly vi ewedas
ni ng
connbi
.one
( 1 ) p o li t i c a l a c t i v i s m , ( 2 ) p o p u l a r ( a n d s e r n i - p o p u l a rw) r i t i n g f o r " c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s r a i s i ' n g " p u r p o s e s ,( 3 ) a d m i n i s t r a t i ' v e. r e s p o n s i b i tl i e s ; a n d ( 4 ) s c h o l a r l y
writings and activities in the morestrict sense. Thereare ma-jorperiods in
Drake's life whenhe chose, apparentlyqulte del{berately, to pursueconcerns
in one or more of the fonner three categor.iesat the,expenseof the pursuit
of concernsin the latter categtrory.
This explains, to a considerabledegree,
':
'
r :
{
1. Fromt h i s l i s t , i t i s o b v i o u st h a t m o s tof Drake's key academic
work is presently unpublished.However,muchof thi s vrork i s
being preparedfor publi cati on.
-4-
w h y s o m u c ho f h i s w o r k i s , a t p r e s e n t , i n u n f i n i s h e df o r m .
I'loreover,Drake's "involvernnt" has substantially structured hls entire
i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o j e c t . I f o n e f a i l s t o u n d e r s t a n dt h i s p o i n t , o n e f a i l s t o
understandDrake--bothhis life and his work. This esq.aytends prinlgrily !o
discuss DBFe's work as socialJqience. Twoasp-ectsof this S;.t:,:.:'.:nt
must be
s t r e s s e dh e r e . F i r s t , o n e c- o u l d , w i t h . a t l e p s t e q q g ] i u s t i f j c a t i o n , . f o c u s
primarily on DfakeaL Pan-Africanist schol;rr-acti_vis!qr _D.rake
as fro-Amelican
Sludiep (or Africal Studjes) pragtitioner. Second,th_isproject is Inoreconc e r n e dv r i t h t h e w o r k o f S t . C l a i r D r a k et h a n w i t h t h e l i f e o f S t . C l a i r D r a k e .
T h a t i s , w e o n l y d i s c u s st h e l a t t e r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f o r m e r . D r a k e ,i n f a c t ,
intends to write an autobiography.The reader interested in learning moreof
D r a k e ' sI i f e v l o u l du n d o u b t e d l yf i n d s u c h a w o r k f ' s c i n a t i n g .
A c o n s i d e r a b l ea m o u not f t h e d i s c u s s i o ni n t h i s p a p e rp r e s u m eas d i s ti ncti on betweenmodeof . presentati.onand rTpde.of i nvgsti.qation. That i s , we
w i l l d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e nh o wa p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f r e s e a r c hf i n d i n g s a r e p r e s e n t e d ( e . 9 . , f o c u s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o no f t h e w o r k , s t y l e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n ,a n d
so forth) and howthey were producedin the context of social sciencel investig a t i o n . b l ew i l l u t i l i z e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b o t h i n d i s c u s s i n gO r a k e ' sp r o j e c t
a n d i n d i s c u s s i n gm y o w np r o j e c t .
T h i s w o r k i n gp a p e r h a s i t s o r i g i n s i n a r a t h e r a r n b i t i o u sm u l t i - y e a r
j ' ^ , . I , r i t s e t , r r , i ' . ' " i - r - : . st h; ,t , ' r ' i : c t F c ' t s : j s
p r o j e c t t h a t I a mp r e s e n t l ye n g a g e d
o n t h e f o u r t e x t s m e n t i o n e da t t h e b e g i n n i n go f t h e p a p e r . E v e n t u a l l y , i t w i l l
T h e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o ni n t h i s p a p e r i s I imited to social
s c i e n c e , d l t h o u g ho b v i o u s l ya s p e c t so f i t may have wider appli cati on,
-5-
c o n s i d e rt h e w h o l eo f s t . c l a i r D r a k e ' sp u b ri s h e , Ja n d u n p u b l i s h e w
t Jo r k . I n t h e
m o s t f u n d a m e n t asl e n s e ot h e ' p r o j e c t i s c * n i ; e r n e dw i t h t h r e e c e n t r a l t a s k s . O n e
m i g h t c a l I t h e m ' r q v e l a t i o . I Ig, r i t t g q t g n a t J S ' t ta n d refqf$g_Lation vi a a process
of dialectical transcendance.
.:
Regard i:ng. rgvgl_ati on, wri ti ngs r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e p r o j e c t seekto
present:
.!.nv4s.Ii ot,
1. the gbjpqt( s )=gf_Ffqkq
j_l.glio_'t.afJ;v
sati
r . e , , t n e r e a l w o r l d 0 f . t h i n g s , p e n s o n se, v e n t s . ,
and relations that are his ultimate focus;
1
I s scholar'ly "asendo
2: the Fasic. -cqilponents
of Dra'ke
."
i . e. , the qudfi ons
agll q'is't,,most i nterested i n pilrsuing;
3 . t h e r n o d e . ( .sq] t i n v e . s t i g a t i o no f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s ;a n c i
' 4. the w
o f t , h es u b s e q u e natn a l y s i s .
T h i s r e a d i n gp r o v i d e st h e b a s i s f o r c r f t j c a j a n a l y s i s .
Regarding cr.jlijgl
ana-lysiq, wri ti ngs resulti ng f rom the project seek
to present:
1 . u n s t a t e da s s u m p t i o ni sn D r a k e , s , t e x l s i
.
j.
:
2 - " g a ' p b ' r r ' ' r r s i l e n c e"st e
r "n s i o n s "a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n si n
the texts; and l
. 3r overal.Jstrengths and weaknesses.
Thqt is, this aspect of rnywork will a'ttemptto preseht the 1-+!qVe
of Drake's
t e x t . B u t w h a t i s t h i s n o t i o n o f t h e l . a n g - uosf" a t e x t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f
texts ?
T h e F r e n c ht e r m s " l a n g u e f,'d n d" p a r s l e " e r € g e n e r a l l y ' a s s o c i a t e d
with
1 . f4y use of the' terrn "agenda"should not b,etaken i n a n y r e i f i e d o
i d e a l i s t s e n s e .T h e " a g e n d an" e c e s s a r i 1 sy h i f t s . " I t n i s n o t s o m e
s u p r a - hsi t o r i c a l c o n c e p t i o nt h a t i s i n d e p e n d e nof
t the ci rcums t a n c e si n w h i c h i t i s ( r e ) f o r m u l g t e d .
-6-
t h e v r o r ko f F e r d i n a n dd e S a u s s u raen d o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l i s t l i n g u i s t s . I n t h e l r
w r i t i f l g s , t h e t e r m " l a n g u e "r e f e r s t o t h e . f : , s t . r a c tl a n g u a g es y s t e m( " l a n e t u a g e " ]
that speakersof a particular "tongue'lor languqgemaydraw on for purposesof
v e r b a l c o n r n u n i c a t i o nI .n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t l i n q u i s t s , t h e t e r m
" p a r o l e " r e f e r s t o i n d i v J d u a l s p e e c ha c t s , i . € . , t o t h e l n d i v i d u a l u t t e r a n c e s
madeby speakersin everydaysituations ("speech").
,
L e v i - S t r a u s se x t e n d st h i s c o n c e p t i o nt o t h e a n a l y s i s o f c u l t u r e . " H i s
q u a m y , i n s h o r t i s t h e l a n q u go f t h e w h o l ec u l t u r e , i t s s y s t e ma n d i t s
g e n e r a l l a w s : h e s t a l k s i t t h r o u s t ht h e p a r t i c u l a r v a r i e t i e s o f i t s p a r o l e "
( H a u ' r k e 1s 9
, 7 7 ,p . 3 9 ) . A s t h e r e a d e r i s u n d o u b t e d l a
y w a r e ,L e v i - S t r a u s s '
" e x t e n s i o n "h a s b e e ns u b j e c t e dt o d a m n i n gc r i t i q u . s . l
T h o u g hI p e r s o n a l l y i ' : - : l t h e u s e o f t h e c o n c e p t s" l a n o u e "a n d " p a r o l e "
i n t h e q e n e r a l a n a l y s i s o f c u l ' ; ' t i " l p h e n o m e nl eaa d s t o m o r ec o n f u s i o nt h a n
c J a r i t y , I t h i n k t h e i r u s a g e ,i n a n y c a s e , d s a h u u r i s t i c d e v i . . r ' i .
defen-
s i b l e i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f s o c i a l s c i e n c et e x t s . i l y p r i n c i p a l c o n c e r ni s t o
.'
present the. texts' "system"and "glenerallaws" that makethe uttera.nces
p o s s i b l ea n d i n t e l t i q i b l e . 2
T h e c r i t i c a ' l a n a l y s i s , b y p r e s e n t i n ct h e " l q n g u e "( i . e . , n o t j u s t t h e
"parole" of the theory), will providethe basis for dialectical transcendence/
reformulation.
Regardingreformulglion by llay oJ a proce,ssof--dia'le.cticql,transsend e n c e ,w r i t i n g s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e p r o j e c t w i l l s e e k t o p r e s e n t :
1.
For an exampleof a critique of Levi-Straussthat raises rnanyof
t h e i s s u e s t h a t I c o n s i d e rg e n n a n es, e e G i d d e n s( 1 9 7 9 ) . A l s o , s e e
Godeli er (t977').
?.
T h e " p a r o l e t e x t ' ' l ' l a n c u a g et e x t " d i s t i n c t i o n h a s s o r n ep a r a l l e l
w i t h t h e n e o - s t r u c t u r ails t d i s t i n c t i o n , " p h e n o - t e x t " / " o e n o - t e x"t .
-7-
,
,
:I
dpproachto manyof the. fundanrentalquestlons
, 1. , ai ,"new'r,
Drake''s tbxts ra i se, but one thit i s nonetheless
slmultan,eously
'2.
a n " o l d " a p p r o a c ht o t h q s e q U e s t i t [ s I n t h a t i t i s
d i a l e c t i c a l l y g r o u n d e d( a u f q e h o b e n rl )n D r a k e ' s
: ori,gi,nal texts. t ,,
The present paper is necessarlly a partial presentationbasedon a
p a r t i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n - - a p o i n t I w i l l e m q h a s i zaet v a r l o u s p o i n t s i n t h e
fo:llowing; The point vulll be repealedbecauseif one fails to understandit,
one fails, to Sraspwhat this paper does and does not--indeed can and cannot-i sh.
accompl
The abovepresumes
a rigorous investigation. To provide,anoverviewo f
t l
t h e d e v e l o p i n gi n v e s t i g a t i o n , I v i i l l m a k ea n a n a l y t i c ' d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e nthe
i
focus of the investig6tion (or whgt it seeks to analyze)'and the !Elh_q!_
it
ernploys(referred to belowas a "methodof succesiive readings").
e a r l i e r t h a t w e a r e l n t e r e s t e d b o t h i n t h e ia n a l y s i s o f ' t e x t s t a k e n i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d t h a t o f a Q r o u po f t e x t s t d k e n ' ' a sa u . r h o l e . ' T hi e
nvestigation of
Drake's primary texts taken as individual texts s'*eksto analyze in each
i nstance:
:r
1 . f i n d i n g s ( b a s e do n e m p i r i c a l research', secondary
reading, and so forth);
2 . o r g a n i z a t i o no f , t h e t e x t a n d Etyle of presentation;
1.. Tirl Se!ir:1ii'/;r'
auflx-':1";.;
lrau tiir,:
s:ci"rinqly inconsistent connota-
tions : ( 1) "to lTFirp somethi
rg, " (?, "to lreserve or save or
St':rc IJt,," a.nd(3)"to cancel out or-annul," Whereas
these connotat i n n s a r e i r r a c n n c i l , r b l ei n n r n - r i i r l e c t i c r l I n n i q s , t h e y o r n s e n t
'
r l . : " - r ' f i c r : J- ' l ' " r '
J-' r frr
, ' j ' ;' 1 - c t , i c , : i : . ' - ,rr,' . : t c ' i , r j s . T l i r ' - . : r .i . l i ; i i s
3.
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f r e s e a r c ha n d p u b l i c a t i o n ;
4.
e p i s t e m o l o ga
ynd social ontology;
5.
methodol
ogyi
6.
theory;
7,
h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , a nidn t e n d e da u d i e n c e i
8.
political orientation; and
9.
p r o b l e m s t, e n s i o n sa n d s i l e n c e s .
The investigation of the texts taken qs_a whole seeksto analyze fundamental coltinu.i-ties and dis.gonUng_i_Ues
in Drake's work. That is, it seeksto
di scover the extent to which one can di scern the outl i nes of a pJobleFnatic
( o r , p e r h a p s ,m o r et h a n o n e ) a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e r e i s b a s i c m o t i o n
w i t h i n t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n . I t s e e k st o a n a l y z et h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h , a n d t h e
manneF
i n w h i c h , p r o b l e m s ,i . n r i o n s a n d s i l e n c e s i n e a r l i e r t e x t s a r e r e s o l v e d , s u p p r e s s e dd, i s p l a c e do r p o s s i b l y a c c e n t u a t e di n l a t e r t e x t s .
F r u i t f u l e x a m i n a t i o no f t h e t e x t s , t a k e n b o t h s i n g u l a r l y a n d t o gether, requires one to look at certain factors in addition to the specific
writings, This is a point we shall return to.
T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a s s u m eas m e t h o do f r e a d i n gt e x t s . l
A s k e t c ho f t h e
d e v e l o p i n g - s t i l l * t o - b e - f u r t h e r - r e f i n e dm e t h o dt h a t I a mu t i l i z i n g i n t h i s
project i s provided i n the fol I owing.
0F SUCCESSrVE
METH0P*
-B[gprNGS
:
I refer to the approach
I amutilizing in this study as a "method
of
1, A very useful reviewof a numberof the extant readingmethodsis
provided i n Coli n Sumner's
work Rgegi-{r,g
Idealogies., Sumner
di scuSsesapproachesthatmaybegroupffi1owingheadings:
qgalysiq,
i lq, sgliol ogI, neo-structlrral
g.gn.tenl
i sryand
h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i:lry.ctqral
ai sl t ,
-9-
Succc3Slvcruldfttgs.' Thc retttod of investlsatlon sny,i* *trsreCr ri conslstfng
of the follorlng
l.
rtcprl:
Detcrnlm the basfc atrted (rnd nemly strtGd)
questfoni thrt a partfcular tert trlci m ltr
obJectfor fnvertlgrtfon.
2 . Detcrntnethc theory, rptho&loey rnd barfc'
rtated (and nerly rtrt€d) arsu4tlons In a
partlsulw text that ls onesfocus.
:
'
3 . Deterrnfne
"gbrenccsr."fflenceg" and *gipgn
ln tlhe tertl,
f. Brfng-tb 'ihe Durfice" f Wortant unstrted
questfonr, cigurptfonsr conceptsqnd Froposltlons'thrt are only latcnt 'fn the text,
5 . Ihtermlnbthe plltlcal orlentrtfon(sl of
the text rnd lts f ntrirldedaudlence(s!*
6.
l.
Repergrlepr l, A, 3 and4 for m.lltfple
texts I liked by the satre.tutbrr oF
'prnrdf$rnrl etc. thrt art the focul of .ones
raseatth.
0ue to the partlcularitieS of the investigatiori,these steps
nay not be pursuedln strict order. Hortever,they do essentially
representa logical sequence.Thus,the coursedelineated
here ls not simplyanalytical. It has practical application.
2. l{trat exrctly hF mrn by the termsenclcgedln quotatfonmrhs rfll
becmeclear fn the bodyof the prcsrnt dfrcuss{on.For the nnmnt,
..
let us sfrply note the follodngi irbsenc€ir*"sflence$r*u0rpgrn
'contraAfctions*
and
allo "ten3fons"rnd
my result fnoli both'
'f n!grnq\'
( logfcal I and 'extenral' (mef rl) factons. Srnemqy
restilt fr.orn-the'factthlt ttre ruthor'ts not-r .sistemati; ahin:ker.
rnd thus producestextg contatnfng logfcal
Inconslstcnclgs.Sme
'ctate
of socfrl scfence
$cy result fruxnthe frct that, gtien tlre
knowledqe
rt ttre t!m" tt couid not havebeqnpthervfse.-(.I am ,
thf nk{ngherr, "6;!i;, of ,Foucrult's,not!on;'.i:fccussedat sdrrn
*epfstenn.r
length ln _ThF,
lrgh$r.e.gJ_gqy*gf
Qgl.lq4q$, of an
-10-
7.
For this same gsoup of texts, delineate the continuitLes, diseontinuities
and riialectical
transcendences
as these are urade manifest i.rr thelr theory, methodology,
basic assr-rmptions, and ttgaF*tt and ttsilences. " From this
analysis a prchrematicr or perhaps a loose set of more
or less conf i-icting problernaties r ilay emerge,
8.
Study the biographical context (e. g. , f amf"Iy an,J
unique f.ife experiences) as these relate"to
Ehe constructj.on of the group af texts.
9.
stuclir the intel-lectuar context (e"g., social reLatisns
of. academic production in ttreir rel-ation to trhe authorts
student and professional- qareer) as these re1ate to the
construction of the texts.
10"
S tu d y th e l a rg e r
soci o* hi storfcal
contextr
or as tr w oul -d
prefer
tc put if , patter$s
of econonic practicesn
politi.cal^
p ra c ti c e s
a n d cul tural
prractf.ces (e, g, , the dynaml cs of
social
c l -a s s e s o pei l i t.i .c.a1 movements, i naj or. soci oeconomi c
tra n s fo rma ti o n s ,
changes i n the socl aL organi zatton
cf
th e u n l v e rs i ty ,
ancl so forth)
as these rel ate
to the
p n o d u * ti :o n o f t he texts i n questi on.
11.
" G ro u n d ." c o n c e p ts and proposi tr-ons : l ook for Li mi taE i o n s o f p a rti c u l " ar
concepts and proposi tl ons
a$ these
a .re a fu n c L i c .tn of tl i e vari " ous tnl evel stt of contexts
(e.g',
theoreticaL,
nnethodological and socfal)
in whtrch
tF re ;i t o c .c -u r1 i n € . ;
aut.empt to gresp, w here appropri ate,
th e a b s tra c to
o ne-si ded character
of the concept$ and
proposi"tions.
72.
Looit for tensiou between fhe textst object(s) as klor^m
and object.(s) in :ltslthelr
actualit;r and development.
Examine and assess this tenslon.
13 .
DialecEic,alJ-y trans cend @rf ireuung) the theory ,
methodr:l"ogy and basl.c ass.
fffii$
these texts vj-a
a meEhod of t?deter:ni.nate negatj.on.,'l This will FTovl-de the basis f or a ttnew app.roach"--that is, one that
is grcunded ir: the inltial
approach but that has overcome many of its clif f iculties,
firis Eerm is r:tilized
in sr:meroha.f,
differerrt
roays by various
author.s work:i"ng ir:. ilegelian and lfax'xlst traditions
(e.g.,
varlous members of the 'u$'rankfurt Schc'ol") . A working def lni"tlon i-s offered shortly.
-11-
T h e a p p r o a c ho u t l i n e d i n t h e a b o v ei s r n a d ep o s s i b l e b y c e r t a i n a d v a n c e s
in other approaches(nranyof r^rhichI reject as ultimately, thouqhgenerally
not v.rhoJ
ly, unacceptabl
e.
S t e p s 1 a n d 2 a r e m a d ep o s s i b l e b y d e v e l o o m e n ti sn e m p i r i c i s t a n d p o s i t i v i s t m e t h o d o l o q r iaensd p o s i t i v i s t p h i l o s o p h i e so f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s .B e f o r e
w e n o t e t h e s p e c i f i c s o f t h i s p o i n t , i t m a yb e u s e f u l t o c o n s i d e rw h a t w e m e a n
h e r e b y t h e t e r m s " e m p i r i c i s m "a n d " p o s i t l v i s m . "
ogy i n the
By "empiri cl srTl,
" u,e refer to epi stemoloqy and methodol
s o c i a l s c i e n c e s( a n d e l s e w h e r e )t h a t e t i o l o c i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e ss p o n t a n e c u s l y
with the circumstancesin tthich they appear. Colin Sumner,
observedphenornena
es:
cl ear exampl
in hi s book, Reading ldeolonies provides solTre
I n o r t h o d o xc r i m i n o l o g y or e s e a r c ho f a n e m p i r i c i s t
kind ha.sobservedthe co-existenceof poverty, crimin,rl i.rehaviour,brokenfamily ties and delinquent
j u v e n i l e g a n q sw i t h i n w o r k ' i n $ - c l a sns e i g h b o u r h o o d s ,
F r o mt h i s s i q h t i n g , c r i n r i n o l o q i c a lr e s e a r c h e r sh a v e
gone on to correl ate crirne wi th poverty, broken
homes,working class values etc. Ratherthan seeinct
a l l t h e s e c i r c u' l m s t a n c e (si n c l u d i n g c r i m e ) a s n o r m a l
e x i e l e n c i eosf i f e f o r a c l a s s w i t h a s p e c i f i c p o s i tion within a particular social structure (and, thus,
comprehendinq
social structhe connectionsbetureen
ture (and, thus, comprehending
the connections
b e t w e e ns o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d c l a s s c o n d i t i o n s ) , t h e
and
theory-less researcherstook the appearances
atternptedto makethemexplain each other. Sim*,:
J a r l y , i n p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m yo, b s e r v e r ss u c h a s
I'lalthus noted the conjoint appearanceof poverty
a n d " s u r p l u s " p o p u l a t i o n ,a n d p r o c e e d e d
to explain
poverty by the fact of surplus population. blhat
the political economistscannot qrasp is the fact
t h a t p o v e r t y a n d a r e l a t i v e s u r p l u s p o p u l a t i o no f
lr.!,ouF€rS
are necessaryconjoint effects of the
a c c e l e r a t e da c c u r n u l a t i oonf c a p i t a l , t h e e s s e n t i a l
i nner rnechani
sm of capital i st societi es. Li ke
o r t h o d o xc r i m i n o l o g y ,p o l i t i c a l e c o n o n yJ a c k se x p l i c i t , s y s t e n r a t i ct h e o r y a n d c o n t i n u e sb y c o n foundingappearances
urith their causative mechanisrn.
Until a social science learns that the outward
-L7-
appearances
or lmpressionsflained in social practice
a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e i n n e r e s s e n c e so f s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e , i t r e m a i n st r a p p e dw i t h i n a v i c i o u s c i r c l e .
The practi ce of empiri c i st epi stemq!oSrytends to push
e t i o l o g i c a l s o c i a l i c i e n c e i n t o a c u l - d e - s a c .I t s e e m s
to di vert attenti on f r:qqthe specif i ci ty of a thi ng
and di rect research towards i ts forms of appearance.
The peculi ari ty of empiri ci sm i s i ts i nsi stence on
the transparencyof the real. It thus effectively
I i m i t s t h e d e v e l o p m g notf t h e a r y i . t h e p r e c i s e r e a l i ty of the real beicomes
by the techovershadowed
n o l o q y f o r l i n k i n n a p p e a r a n c e sI .m p l l c i t a s s u m p t i o n s
a n d i d e a s d i r e c t t h i s t e c h n o l o g y ,b u t a r e r a r e l y c o n f e s s e d i n p u h l i c ( S u r n n e r s1,9 7 9 , p p . l B B - 1 8 9 ) .
I want to ernphasize
thropoints here. First, enpinicismernphasizes
fonns_of apllegrlnceat the expenseof an analysis of conditions of existence
and fo-rmsgf_deyelgTren!. In fact, it fails to makeany distinction between
the former two aspectsof phenomena.
It assumes--inpractice, in any case-that a phenornenon's
essential nature is the sameas its historical form of
a p p e a r a n c (et h u s , € , g . , t h a t t h e e s s e n c eo f c a p i t a l i s m i s a s i t a p p e a r sa t
time X to observe
most ri gorous i n the social sci ences. Fof elample o the w,ho]ef iel d of stati s t i c a l m e t h o d s( b o t h d e s c r i p t i v e a n d i n f e r e n t i a l s t a t i s t i c g ) i s , a t t h e
level of its basic assurilptions
and crf most of its practice, basedon empiri'
:,
ci st epi sternoloey.l
T h e t e r m p o s i t i v i s m ( a n d r e l a t e d t e r r n sI i k e " p o s i t l v i s t i r l r i l o s o p h y "
a n d " p o s i t i v i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n " ) i s u s e di n t h e I i t e r a t u r e i n a v a r i e t y o f
u n y s . l t o r e o v e r ,m a n ys c h o l a r sw h oa r e n e n e r a l l y l a b e l l e d , " p o s i t i v i s t " r e f u s e
t o a c c e p t t h i s d e s i q n a t i o n . ( P o p p e ri s p r o b a b l yt h e m o s t o b v i o u sc a s e
1 . 0 f c o u r s e ,t h i s does not necessarily imp'lythat one cannot use
s t a t i s t i c s f o r n o n - e m p i r i c i s et n d s .
-13-
1
i n p o i n t . ) I F o r .t h e p u r p o s e so f t h i s p a p e r , v , ew i l l u s e t h e t e r r n " p o s i t i v i s m " i n a r a t h e r l o o s e s e n s e . I t w i t l b e u s e de s s e n t i a l l y a s a s y n o n y nf or r
w h a t G i d d e n sc a ' l l s t h e " p o s i t i v i s t i c a t t i t u d e " ( e x c e p tu r h e r eh e u s e s t h e
t e r r n " p o s i t i v i s t i c a t t i t u d e , i n s o c i o l o q y "w e v l i l l s u b s t i t u t e t h e t e r m " p o s i t i v i s n ri n t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s " ) .G i d c l e ncsl e f i n e st h c " p o s i t i v i s t i c a t t i t u d e " a s
m a i n t a i n i n f rt h e f o l l o v u i n q :
.
proceduresof natura]
1.. That the methodolorri'cal
sciencemayffipted
to sociolouy,
Accorclinqto this stanripoi'nt,the phenomeni-of
I I , do
!1unapsubjecti yi !y, of vol i ti on and r,^ri
not tiffer any parlicular tiarriers tp the treatment of social conductas an "object," on par i
witlrobjbctsinthenatura1ulorld.Positivism
-q#,.,,,.
lf;:-Jl?iiil,i,oli'l[3ll[-i'3?':,:?li
.2. That the outconeor end:resul,tof socioloqical
investi gatioffin-be
fornulated'"in terms parallelto..thoseofinaturals.cience;thatisto
s a y , t h a t t h e r r o a lo f s o c i o l o q i c a l a n a l y s i s
can anCrnustbe to formulate "laws" or "law- ,
l i k e " q e n e r a l i z a t i o n so f t h e s a m ek i n d a s t h o s e
r' ' . whi.ch'havebeen.'established
in' rel.at'ion,,to
n a t u r a l r e a l i t y . P o s i t i v i s mh e r e i n v o l v e sa
def,in,ite;view ofi tt'e Soc'iolopist'as,anal.ystorl
"interpreter" of his subject-rnatter.3 . T l r a t s o c l o l o g yh a s a t e c h n i c a l c h a r a c t e r ,
proviclinnknoul]edg;er,rhicffily,.instrumenta]]'
in form; in other words,that the iindinqs of
'
r?ffi
:fi
iif 1.
;31'
fil uffe :'if
il,l
{n"
:l,l iiT,i
3i'
;fi
"ol'^::t'
o
v
a
s
.
S
o
c
i
o
l
o
g
y
n
a
t
u
r
a
l
r
l
u
r
s
u
i
t
k
e
,
i.
s c i e n c ei s " n e u t r a l" i n r e s n e c t o f v a l u e s . F r o m
t h i s a s p e c t , D o s i t i v i s r np r e s u m ees s p e c i f i c
standpoint upon the socioI oni st as pIqgU-cg:UJ
ilvolvqd in the social order.
l:
F o r e x a m p l e s, e e t h e d e i : a t e si n A d o r n o( e d i t o r ) , T h e P o s i t i v i s t D i s p u t e i n G e r m aS
n o c i o l o q r , ,S u p n s( e d i t o r ) , T h e S t r u b t u r e o f S c i e n t i and i'lusgrave(eU
Al so, see lttadni
tzky, conteririo@
@r,rledg1e.
- 14-
Giddensadd, ."0bviousJyacceptanceof any one of these three suppositions
does not necessarily entail adoptionof the other two" (Giddens,L979, pp,
3-4).
The approachhere acceptsaspect. of ernpiricist and positivist methods,
t h o u g hi t r e i e c t s r n a n yo f t h e i r b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n sI .t l e . g . 1 a t l e a s t i m p l i c i t l y a c c e p t st h e p o s i t i v i s t / e m p i r i c i s t e m p h a s i o
sn the rignrous formulation
of conceptsand hypothesesiand acceptsthe ernphasis
of
on the development
i n t e r s u b i e c t i v e p r c c e d u r e so f v a r i f i c a t i o n a n d f a l s i b i l i t y ,
and so forth.l
Steps 3, 4 and 7 are madepossible by, on the one hand, rnainstream
history of ideas approachesz
and, oh the other.hand, by certain morerecent
d e v e l o p m e n ti sn F r e n c hp h i l o s o p h ya n d s o c i a l t h e o r y , e . q . , i n t h e w o r k o f
. ' : c ; , i ,:''l1. ' . 1 . . , , C ' - , 1At lJ" t; h
. u s s e r ,t l a c h e r a ya n d F o u c a u l t . 3T h i s i s n o p l a c e t o
1 . T h e l i s t o f r , r h a tI r e j e c t i n e m p i r i c i s ma n d / o r p o s i t i v . i s mi s
rather I ong. For exampl
e , consider the fol I or'ring. I reject
e r n p i r i c i s m ' si n h e r e n t c o n s e r v a t i s n ri ,. e . , i t s a c c e p t a n c e
of
t h e g i v e n ." ( I n t e r m s o f t h e a c t u a l l o g i c o f i t s m e t h o d o l o g y ,
thoughnot necessarily in terms of practice of its adherents,
e m p i r i c i s mw o u J d" a c c e p t "f a s c i s m" a s g i v e n . " ) I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
I reject ernpiricisrn'sfailure to analyze'phenomena
in terms
o f t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s o f e x i s t e n c ea n d f o r m s o f d e v e l o p m e n t ,
I reject positivi sm's fai l ure fg ;: 'rr1"r:cf
tt;, r ".nI ri.r'-.r(!rrs'ly
fL:Y"rru'lrrtr,
tlic si:ci f i ci fl' rif t?.,:humansci ences. That i s ,
I reject its tendencyto accept uncritically the (often
presurned)
methodsof the natural sciencesas directly applic a b l e t o t h e h u m a ns c i e n c e s . ( H e n c e l€ . e . 1 i t s p r o b l e m si n
c o n c e p t u a l i z i n cg u l t u r e . ) I r e j e c t p o s i t i v i s m ' s r o l e a s a
handmaiden
of technocratic bureaucracy.
?.
" G e n e s i s ,c o n t i n u i t y , t o t a l i z a t i o n : t h e s e a r e t h e $ r e a t t h e m e s
o f t h e h i s t o r y o f i d e a s , a n d t h a t b y w h i c h i t i s a t t a c h e dt o a
c e r t a i n , n o wt r a d i t i o n a l , f o r m o f h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s " ( F o u cault,' l e1972,
wi 1I be concernedwith conti nuity and,
s s e r p. 137) . !,,le
to a
extent, with origins.
3 . T l r e s es c h o l a r s a r e a v e r . yp r o l i f i c l o t . A s a m p l i n go f t h e i r
, e c o u r t , 1 9 7 5 ;A l t h u s s e r ?
w o r k si n c l u c l e sB a c h e l a r d 1
, 9 3 8a n d 1 9 4 0 i L
1 9 7 1; A l t h u s s e ra n d B a l i b a r , 1 9 7 A ;l ' l a c h e p d y1,9 7 8 ; F o u c a u l t ,
1972, I 980.
pursuetl,re,specifics of the arguments(and, incidently those on each side
a r e q u i t e a d i v e r s i f i e d l o t ) . T h g c r u c i a l p o i n t f o r t h e p r e s e n t p u r p o s e si s
the follouring: while mainstreamhistory of ideas approaches
tend to emphasize
quantitative, curnulatlvedgveloprnents
in the formation/transfornration
of sets
of ideas, the approaches
employedby those in,the latter category emphasize
rupture , flaps, i sconti nui ty , contradictori ness anrl so forth . The-Eqsgn.t
f
approachtends,.qu!-te*dgl
iberqtely, to ernphasize
brgjlks and dis.contingity in
Drake's work more than homoqeneityand smoothcontinuity (which mayon
occasioncausehis writin-gs to appeal to be less logically integrated than
they in fact are). This does not reflect any disrespect for Drake's achievem e n t s - - i n f a c t I h o l d h i s w o r k i n t h e h i g h e s t t ^ . O u r d - - b urte f l e c t s a b e l i e f
that in $eleral- lhg_qreatestj Lri butq to onFs inlel lectual forelunngr.s i s t_o
gubjqct thei r wgrL to_thg most ri qorqus, -cli !i ca'l i nvestiqati on l',hiI e simultqneoUs_]y
qn_the_lglitoJ
QuiJdiJLs
Jha!. urork. (This vieur, incident]y, runs
)
c o u n t e r t o t h':e p r a c t i c e , i f n o t ' t h e t h i n k i n g , o f m a n yo f o u r p e e r s , € . ! 1 . ,
in the areas of both Afro-Ar'1br.ican
Studies and A,rrthr:opology.)
':
Slep 4 is madepossib]e by a number:
of non-empiricist reading methods.
:
) ,
I
It is a cormonfeature in'social science;readin(ls.l.lonetheless,
what is rneant
'\
by "basic assumptions"mayvary a bit from one forn of reading to the next.
Thus,somedefinitionoftermsrnaybe.usefulherne'
'
By "basic ,assurnptions",
I refer principally to rnattersof epistemology
and social ontolof!y. By "social ontol ogy" I refer to a conception of the basic
entities of social I i'fe (persortsor institutions) , the fundamentalforms of
s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d t h e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l c h a n q e .I t i ' s ' i m p o r t a n ti n t h i s
context, to underscorea seeminglyobviouspoint that is all too frequently
o v e r l o o k e d :q u e s t i o n so f t h e c o n c e p t i o no f s o c i a l o n t o l o o yn e c e s s a r i l y i n c l u d e
r1,6-
q u e s t i o n so f t h e c o n c e p t u ai z' !a ' t i o n o f t i n r e { i " , e , , t e m p o r a l i t y a s i t r e l a t e s ,
8 . g . 0 t o p e r i o d i c i t y a n d p e r i o d i z a t i o n ) a n d s p a c e . A n t h o n yG i d d e n sf o r c i b l y
a d d r e s s e st h e s e , i s s u e si n t w o r ' e c e n tb o o k s( G i d d e n s ,. | 9 7 9a n d l g 8 l ; a ' l s o , s e e
B a u e r ,I 9 8 0 ) .
T h e a s s u m p t i o nusn d e r l y i n gs t e p s 1 , ? n 3 , 4 o 6 a n d Z ' l a r g e l y r e f l e c t a
f undamental
f s of structu.rali st and post-structurali st analysis :
emphas
the
emphasison relat'ions, The argumentis succintly stated by TerenceHawkesin
hi s book, Structurali srnand Semiotics.
Hawkes
wrt tes:
T h i s R e t vc c n c e p t , t h a t t h e w o r l d i s m a d eu p o f r e l a *
t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r t h a n t h i n g s , c o n s t i t u t e st h e f i r s t
p r i n c i , p l eo f t h a t ,w a y . o f t h i n k i n g w h i c hc a n p r o p e r l y
b e c a l l e d " s t r u c t u r a l i s t " . A t i t , s s i n r p l e s t ,i t c l a i m s
t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f e v e r y e l e m e n ti n a n y g i v e n s i t u a t i o n h a s n o s i g n i f i c a n c eb y i t s e l f , a n d i n f a c t i s
d e t e r m i n e db y i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a r Il t h e o t h e r e l e m e n t si n v o l v e di n t h a t s i t u a t ' i o n , I n s h o r t , t h e
f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a n y e n t i t y o r e x p e r i e n c ec a n n o t b e p e r c e i v e du n l e s s a n d u n t i l i t i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o
the str.t{c!u$l of which i t forms a part (Hawkes
, 1977, pp. 17-18).
B y d r a w i n ga n a n a l o g yw i t h a n o t h e ra s p e c t o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t e n t e r p r i s e , w e
c a n f u r t h e r c l a r i f y t h e n a t u r e o f n y p r o j e c t : a s p r e v i o u s l yn o t e d , i n t h e l a n g u a g eo f s t r u c t u r a l i s t l i n g u i s t i c s , t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o ns e e k st,o d i s c o v e rt h e
(not so rnuchthe p-aIole)o'f Drake's approach.
]-angu.g
T h i s p a p e r i n r p l i c i t l y r e j e c t s a g r e a t m a n yo f t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l i s t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : e . g . , : i t s i d e o l i s m , i ' t , ss u p p r e s s i oonf d i a c h r o n i ci n v e s t i g a t i o n , i t s s u p p r e s s i o on f t h a s u b j e c t a n d i t s o v e r a l i n o n - d i a T e c t i c a l
-17-
character.l However,its emphasison relations is useful, dt minimurn,
ds a
fundamentalmethodological,and theoretical; directive. hteare undoubtedly
rnorelnterested in the structuralist conceptionof "structuring" than of
"structure." That is, we are concernedto avold reification and to emphasize
motion and transformation.
Steps I and 9 share someaffinity
to sociology of knowledgeanproaches
(c3. Mannheim,
1936), though I ammoreconcernedwith emphasizinqcertain
p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s ( e . 9 . , s p e c i f l c f a c t o r s h a v i n gt o d o r q i t h t h e a u t h o r ' s
family, specific graduateschool experiencesthat impactedon the author,
and so forth) tfran sociology of knowled$eapproachesoenerally are.
Step 9 (along urith step 5) ls, of course, the aspect of our method
that is most frequently referred to as "the Marxist approach"to reading
textsZ--in any case, with recluctionist l'larxist approaches.In the case of
the present work, Step 9 sharesan affinity with work in certain Marxist
traditlons and with the work of P;lichelFoucaulton the relations between
d i s c u r s i v e a n d n o n - d i s c u r s i v ep r a c t i c . s . 3
L. As is welI-knowna
, great deal of the "post-structuralist"
writings try to overcomeprecisely these sorts of problems
(which derive from the herltase o? de Saussure(1974), LeviS t r a u s s( e . 9 . , 1 9 4 9 ,l g b 8 , 1 9 6 6 ,1 9 6 6a n d 1 9 7 C ) ,a n d o t h e r s .
Amongthe rnost interesting work is that by RolandBarthes and
Jul ia Kri steva. l.lost of thei r work i s in French. Cnc cf tlie
fnteresting overviewsof this work, oS it interfaces with
(and, in this instance, with Lacan) is provided in
l.'larxism
Corvardand El I i s ' book, Langualleand l4aterial i sm: De-ve-l
op.mentl_i n Sern_i
o1ogy .and _t
.
, 2 , C f. G o l d m a n n ' s
" u . l o r l dv i s i o n " v r h i c hf i q u r e s a s p a r t e f h i s
"genetic structural ism."
3 . I f w e a s s u m eF o u c a u l t ' sw r i t i n g l s h a v e i n c l u d e de a r l i e r , m i d -
dle and recent phases(dominatedrespectively by psychoanalysis,
"archaeolotly"and "genealogy"),then it could be said that I am
interested in aspectsof the latter two phasesof his work.
-lt-
The operations involved in steps 8 and 9 can perhapsbe moreclearly
articulated by fornrulatingthe issue in the following manner:Thesesteps
have to do wi th the examinati on of texts I n rel ati on to ecgn_ogri
c practi ces,
political,jPl'ag-tjsesand cultural pracficqs, but not in such a way as to
either deny individual accomplishment
or to hypostasizethe realm of the
social. This statenrentrequires someexplanation.
If one defines the three above-mentioned
practices in terms of the
of the practices, one concludesthat: (t) "economicpractices are
"produce'n
distinguished from others by the fact that they result in use-values
( w h e t h e rf o r p e r s o n a lu s e o r e x c h a n g e ) " ;( ? l " p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s a r e d i s tinguished by the fact that they result in forms of institutiona'lized social
p o w e r "( e . ( l . , l e g i s l a t i o n , a r m e dr e p r e s s i o na n d s o f o r t h ) ; a n d ( 3 ) , ' c u l t u r a l
practices are distinguished by the fact that they result in the expression
o f f o r m so f s i g n i f i c a t i o n ( o r i d e o l o s i e s ) , '( S u m n e rl,g | g r p . z ! ? ) .
Becauseof the nature of ou!. s,_tudy
( i . e, , the analysis of the content
r o d u c t i o n a - n dl a t e n t p o t e n t i a l i t y o f s o c i a l t e x t s ) " w e w i l l e s p e c i a l l y b e
cgncernedwith cultural practices, in any case, with the use Drake's texts
makeof t.heF. liy conceptualization of cultural practice--a sub-categoryof
fol lows that of sumner.The fol lowinq is quotedat lenqth trecauseof its
d i r e c t r e l e v a n c et o c e r t a i n c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n si n v o l v e d i n o u r i n v e s t i o a t i o n :
I n m o s t s o c i e t i e s , c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e m e a n sa r t , m u s i c ,
science,the dissernination
o f n e w s ,F i t u a l , t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o no f b e l i e f s , l i t e r a t u r e , d r a m a ,d a n c ea n d
o t h e r f o r m s n o t c o v e r e db y t h i s l i s t . s i g n i f i c a t i o n s
pl ay the fundamentalrol e vlithi n cul tura r practi ce
becausenot only are they the end result but al so
they usually form the raw material of the practice
and heavily structure the meansof production. As
ln econ'unl'c
and polf tlcal practtce, peoplef n cultunal
practlce drawih&avtlyupon,the ,propgFtles,sf.natur€.
Thls conceptfanof cultural practlce ls muchwlder
than Althusser1q,conceptof t deolBgtcet, .practl ce. I t
seemsto re that sclentific'umrk ls one fcrm of cultural practlce becmrEe
th€ accuracyof stgnlf{catfons
fs not a dtsttngu{rhtngfeature xfthln cultural prac.tfce, I wquldsugggstthat sctenttflc prectlce has
alt the seneral features sf cultural piactlce but that
ft ls distfnct wlthfn fts fleld because
of.fts methods,
t ts formalt zed statsuents, I ts use of evl dencernd I ts
publlc rFt$re,. Alttrusserelcvrtes rci,ent{f{c rgprkIn a
Haythat nysttffes lt" H{s notlon of the dtatectlc of
sclenttff c practlee as one,,{nternalto theonetlcal
th{nkfng forgets (l} that, sglenttsts' rellance on
"pr:act{caltntell lgince" ,andrcutslden'tdeolog.{esf s
often great, (7) tnat sc{enttf{c urork{s carnled out
rlthlrr soc{al reltt,{sns and contexts wh{chdeterwrlne
the procedureand produce,and (3) that what counts
soclglly gs "scl qnceol{ s oftqn a matter where,weFlth,
porrerand tdeologyplay a.$reater part than loglc,
e,\rer.l
fn the,llnatural" sc{ence$..
,
Several *nportant conelus{onscan be drarm fran my
conceptuallzattonof th{s fonn '0f soctal praitlcei
t. Speclffc .ldeolog{esare,generated
f n cultural
' practlce, reflecting
.the swlal structure (relatlons)
of srtch,pract{c.e.
i"
?, tdeologrles generatedfn eeononife
and pollt{cal
practl€e mayoperate;ln cultural praetlce and:ddopt
'foim3""
' rcul turhl
3.,IdeolosNeggeneratedl.nCulturalpractlcenaybeoperitlve {n economlc
co$!e
aqd polttica! practfle
'r"
' '
',' a f t d t a k e o n ' a p p r o p r t a t e n e v l f o r " i n s;' '
.t-
;
'
I
Theseconcluslonsshouldbe-contra$ted
w{th someof
the twentleth century ltarxfst analyse$wh{chreduce
:
ecsnoqyor a
,
Ideo'logy'to,tn eplptrenexneaon.of,.the
speclf{c class, Nst only do I f{nd-ny'ownconceptf
on
::
. of the place"of ldeologyln, goclal.'prfiet{eepreferable to those analyses,but th€ nstton of the soclal
rel atf ons of culturq? practlce:seema' par"ttcularly
fruf tful one;(sumner^,
1979n FF. ?13-?141
.
'
I stated-ear'l{ er thet- we tvant to u*o,st,,e the texts t n rel at{ on tu
..:..
,. :.
qultural
polltlcal
practtces,wlthoutdeny{ngthe 'tndlvfdual sr
economfc,
and
hypostatlzfng the soclal . Therrrannerin wh{chwe seek to avold hypostatlzatlon
of the socfal realm should be clear frcm nrycorrnents(anA Sunner's)
*e0-
' j
iliilivid*sj
;
vfe
& L ' c t r f i i'fiir' ,l h m * n *v { t i i r i e ; : l l s r i i l v s i t l i n . t l n t i l n r f ' [ v t e l u a l l r t i c * p r p r u t t c ! ' i o
r',,i'li kerlp irr lt.'int1tire l.*rllt.ri+in$,(vtirirh c:qrr, he rr,*fci''iiri.r'ierturi
6s ir trl*thadtii*if ical
i
h'fnr:,;*'ifrr*alirsdu $()li1il
d'irccttve) I "/sg:F?+rl''li
5rr[rfrgupi.(i(;arr ra'i se tfretirseJ'u'et;
jr:t'ively
w e l ' l i t b i i v * * h e l j r : s { : , c i f r,1. ; i } n t t } x t ,b-u i . . a n d t h i s i s t h r r k i * ll n r L r l * v r
fiit-intJjuirJua.|t"$p;i"]:'i.1IiJ'.'.t|iJg'"t|$t.''.p,-*!:,ij,.."i],iii;'.I,.ji.g,j'l'.s"|',!"trg'!-.qltl:3,.$.1:.
ci itEts requrrt a reii,li.li'f.r'
tiic*m* trnn, fi*pif,.r,T?ilnrr't. inrJirricJua'l
i:;ts terrri ttl
h a v e i i r i r J r J l e * r : i a *j c gi h s ? i l c r n i ' f ' f r e e * t h r i n k e i ^ ; , 'l i r : r r o ' l ' ' if Ll o r n t : h * i r v l i d i , :f l x F e r i '19;;9*
elrc* r*ithtn dif i'er*ernti:iepiisrie*u] t:urer:iiirirj sor;it;frlt?;' f,$,,inuou'r"
[r. ?].]] "
.ig+ttir-rri,
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corlr;ftpt'
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'
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t eep$.ci'ini
t j, r* j ates t:u litr;: [1, t.hrEe;*nc*p[ ,, *,nd rai]a.tErJ
I
c,crncerpt,$
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uf :i,*cl.irl sc,ier-}i:;g
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cif l;iri:id i :i;cienr.c p:t'r:ctitr;
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ci lie riiilpg Lrti
"rliscirt:
exiil*inerC. Obv'iouo'i:r,tlres+ fioricriFLs[rr],i'ill1eilitai',x'fqeritirii] .c{r*c.:*1rts,o
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flnd "s{ic;'ial
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he cai ls s 1r:ter'*r"yi,ncrrJe
r:if prtrclur:t'irn (l-l,tit), "l"hr,:
linsil ;ispei;t.a*f flngictr:rr*s
C0nc*Frt'i
$n ar'* the fcl I *lti rrg:
*c1.i.*
A I i terary modeof production ( t-itp) i s a uni ty of
certain forces and social relations of literary
p r o d u c t i o ni n a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n . I n
a n y l i t e r a t e s o c i e t y t h e r e w i l l n o r m a l l ye x i s t
a nurnberof di sti nct modesof I i terary producti on, one of which wi I I normalI y be dorninant.
Thesedistinct Ll'{Pswill be rnutually articuI ated i n varyi no rel ati ons of homol
oQI, c,rnfI i ct
andcontradiction: they r^rill constitute an
cal " total i ty , s i nce the dor,ri
nanceof
"asynunetri
a particular Lt{Pvli'll force other modesinto
p o s i t i o n s o f s u b o r d i n a t i o na n d p a r t i a l e x c l u s i o n .
Structurally conflictual LtlPsmaythus coexist
w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l f o r w r a t i o n :i f i t i s
possible in blesternsocieties to producefiction
f o r t h e c a p i t a l i s t m a r k e t ,i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e
to di stri bute one's handwri
tten poetry on the
streets. Coexistent Ll'4Ps
however,
need not be
,
hi stori cal ly synchronouswi th one another. A.n
Lt4Pproducedby an historically previous soclal
formation maysurvive within and inter-penetrate
I ater rnodes.
The disJunction bettryeen
historically coexistent
Lf{Ps, ffidVbe synchronic determined by the
structural distribution of possible modesof
literary production enabledby the social formation
or diachronic (determinedby historical
s u r v i v a l s ) . T h e r ei s a l s o t h e c a s e o f d i a c h r o n i c
d i s j u n c t i o n w h i c ha r i s e s n o t f r o m s u r v i v a l b u t
from "preffgurement":Lt4Psnhich enter into cont r a d i c t i o n w lt h t h e d o m i n a n L
t l l Pb y " a n t i c i p a t i n g "
the productive forms and social relations of a
future social forrnation(ttre revolutionary artists'
cornnune,
"epic theatre" and so gn). A particular
LllP, then, ffidycombine el enrentsor structures of
other past, contemporaryor "future" rnodes.An
Ll4Prnayconsti tute a complex uni ty I n i tsel f ,
as welI as forming a complex contradictory uni ty
wi th other LllPs; i ts i nternal connpl
exi ty wi l l be
a f u n c t i o n o f i t s m o d e so f a r t i c u l a t i o n w i t h t h o s e
other Ll',tPs.
Every LMPis constituted by structures of product i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n , e x c h a n oa
en d c o n s u m p t i o n .
Production presupposes
a produceror set of prod u c e r s , m a t e r i a l s , i n s t r u m e n t sa n d t e c h n i q u e s
of production, and the product itself. In devel o p e d s o c i a l f o r m a t l o n s ,a n i n i t i a l p r i v a t e s t a g e
of production maybe transmutedby a subsequent
s o c i a l m o d eo f p r o d u c t i o n( p r i n t i n q a n d p u b l i s h i n q )
t o c o n v e r t t h e o r i g i n a l p r o d u c t ( " r n a n u s c r i p t " i)n t o
'2?-
a newone ("book"). The forces of literary production
c o n s i s t i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f l a b o u r - p o ' r 4oerrg a n i z e d
i n c e r t a i n " r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n "( s c r i b e s , c o J l a b o r a t i v e p r o d u c e r s ;p r i n t i n o a n d p u b l i s h i n go r q a n i zations) to certaln materials of production by means
of certain determinateproductive instruments. These
forces of I i terary production determine and are overdetermined by the rnodesof I i tera ry di stri buti on,
exchangeand consumptlon.
Unified with these productive forces, then, are spec i f i c s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i o n( E a g l e t o n , L 9 7 6 ,p p, 4 5 - 4 7 ; i t a l i c s a d d e d ) .
For reasonsof space, add becauseonly E ferv aspectsof the conception
del i neated i n the aboveapp'lydi rectly to the present paper, I have del i berately stated Eagleton'sarcrurnent
in a highly abstract theoretical manner.
T h e r e a d e r i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f t h e a p p r o a c hs h o u l dc o n s u l t
.
Eagleton's C.ritiqisrrlAtrdl4golgqy: ,A.ltudy _in Flqfxist_l=!!q_r,a_rJ
Theor.v.The
p r e s e n t p a p e r i n c o r p o r a t e sc e r t a i n a s p e c t so f E a g t e t o n ' sd i s c u s s i o n . L a t e r
w o r k w i l l i n c o r p o r a t eh i s w o r : ki n a m o r es u b s t a n t i a t f a s h i o n .
S t e p s 1 1 a n d 1 2 a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y g r o u n d e di n i . ' i a r x ' sw r i t i n q s ( t h o u g h
n o t i n a c o n s i d e r a b l ea m o u not f " [ ' t a r x i s t "w r i t i n g s ) . T h i s a s p e c t o f o u r
methodfundamental
ly derives from l4arx's methodof "critique" or "critical
analysis"l (nhich he employed
i n a n a l y z i n gH e q e l ' sw o r k , t h a t o f t h e p h y s i o c r a t s a n d t h e c l a s s i c a l p o l ' i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s - - e . 9, . D a v i dR i c a r d oa: n d A d a m
1.. llany of l"larx's works contai n t h e t e r m s " c r i t i q u e " o r " c r i t i c a l
a n a l y s i s "i n t h e i r t i t l e s o r s u b t i t l e s . V o l u m e
oneof Capital,
for examDl
e, i s sub-ti tl ed A Critical Analysis of Capi6Tiff
Production.
-43-
S m i t h - - a n dt h a t o f t h e " U t o p i a ns o c i a l i s t s " - - € . { 1 . , P r o u d h o n0, w e n ,C a b e ta n d
-r:
h,!eitling).1
:
'
I n her book on the GiunAr"i-sse
, Boloslhdescri bes l4arx s methodof cri ti ':
cal ly analyzing other socia,l theori sts as, fol I ows:
The other poi nt of i nterest i s the way i n which f,'larx
enqagesi n the cri ti que, His cri,ti ci sm rests nei ther
on charging and trying to prove that these theorists
of the Ratural individual were unrealistic romantics,
nor that they were just ifriiplb-mincled
or mistaken.
Rather, he treats these eiqhteenth-centurynotions
n o t a s r n i s t a k e s ,b u t a s p r o d u c t so f a f o r m o f l i f e ,
a f o r m o f l i f e w h i b hr e p r o d u c e s ' t h ei n d i v i d u a l a s a n
i s o l a t e d i n d l v i d u a ' !a n d o n w h i c h t h e y r e p o r t , T h e
eighteenth-centurytheoristi do not reconnizetheir
notions as being so qrounded,
l'larx does not simply try to prove that these theorists kere wronq, but tries to account for howthey
could producetheir ideas by showinqin what sense
t h e y c o u J d. b e r i g h t . H e d o e sn o t ' p o i n t t o p o s s i b l e
i n d i v i d u a l m o t i v e so r i n d i v i c l u a li n t e l l e c t u a l f a i l u r e , b U t d i s c u s s e sh o wt h e i r c o n c e p t i o n ,a s a n i n t e l l i g i b l e p r o d u c t i o n ,i s p o s s i b l e , h o wt h e i r i d e a s
are grounded
in a'form'of life; Their theorizing'is
by
takinq for Oran,led
possible
ownto* of
,their
1,
Thesecritiques span the whole of; lia,rx's intellectlr^raluritings. The
cri ti que of Hegel i s developed i n the l{anus,cliptlo_f 1844, The Germanldeolooy, The Holy FamiI v. The GTu
ETG-
ffiimaffi6noffifound
in The
Gfundri:se,Cap,ital,T_be.o-11ie1
par:ticular)end'
of SurplusValue(in
-socialism
A'iseulF'ere.
Th'effi p
is iound
in ThePovertyof Philosophy.
-7i',-
l f f e a s n a . t u r a,l r a t h e r - t h a na s a f o r r no f l i f e - - a
socially procluced
forrn.l They fail to analyze
t h e ' i r o u r ni d e a s , t o i n q u i r e i n t o t h e i r p r e suppositionsH
. e n c ei t i s n o t a n a n a l y s i s a t a l l ,
but a projection of the concrete appearance
of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e b o u r q e o i ss o c i e t y o f t h e
eiqhteenthcentury on to the oriqins of history.
T h u sl ' { a r x r sn o l e m i cm a yb e s e e na s i l l u s t r a t i n q
the first rule: "Treat conceptssuch as the natu r a l i n d i v i d u a l a s o r o u n d e di n a n h i s t o r i c a ' l l y
s p e c i f i c f o r r no f l i f e . " R a t h e rt h a n a r c u i n g t h e
truth or falsity of a conceptabstractly, he
n r o u n d si t i n t h e f o r m o f l i f e t h a t i t p r e s u p p o s e s .T h e c o n c e p ti s o n l y v a l i d f o r t h a t f o r n
of I i fe (Bolocrh
, 1979, p. S0) .
I h a v ep r e s e n t e dt h i s s t a t e m e n t i n i t s e n t i r e t y ' b e c a u s ei t b e a r s
d i r e c t l y o n t h e m e t h o d o l o qtyh a t i s b e i n q e m p l o y e d
i n t h i s p r o j e c t ( t h o u g hi t
is of little
p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c ei n t e n n s o f t h e p r e s e n tp a p e r ) .
S t e p 1 3 i s a l s o s p e c i f i c a l l y q r o u n d e di n ! t ! a r x ' sa p p r o a c h a
, n c lt o a
l e s s e r e x t e n t , H e o e l ' s a p p r o a c h . 2I t c a n b e e s s e n t i a l l y s u r , . r n a r i zaesd f o l l o w s :
:
The developrnent
of consciousness
throunh determinate
n e q a t i o nc o n s l s t s p r e c i s e l y i n t h e e x p e r i e n c eo f s u r mountinqold forms of consciousness
and in incerporatino these moments
into a ne$,reflective attitude.
1 . Hence,llarx is opposedto those economistsvlhosee "the operation
of the economy
as a mechanicaland a historical interaction of such
componena
t ss p r o d u c t i o n ,d i s t r i b u t i o n , e x c h a n a ecr o, n s u r n p t i o nw, a g e s
g r o u n dr e n t , p r o n e r t y , i n d u s t r y , a q r i c u l t u r e a n d s o f o r t h . " T h e s e
and the total econorny,
chanqein historical/soci,al.,,context."Thus
aqriculture cannot be seen as sornethinqlike a platonic essenceor
ldea: there is no fixed cateclorysuch as land-ownershipwhich remains the same"under dlfferent nodesof production. "F.atherthe
p a r t s a r e r e l a t i o n a l , a n d e v o l v e a J o n aw i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e
v r h o l ei t s e l f " ( J a m e s o n1,9 7 1 ,p . 3 3 0 ) .
?,
S e ee . g . , H e Q e l ' si n t r o d u c t i o nt o h i s L e c t u r e so n t h e H i s t o r y o f
? h i j g s o p h y .I n c i d e n t ally , H e q e l ' sl e c t
phitosophyrepresent undoubtedlythe rnostclear and concise statem e n to f h i s m a t u r et h i n k i n r t . O n ei n t e r e s t e d i n b e g i n n i n ga s t u d y
o f H e g e lt h r o u g hH e q e l ' s o w nu l r i t i n g s r n i q h t d o w e l l t o b e g i n w i t h
these works.
-25-
Hegel sought to showhow the identity of phenomena
cannot be separatedfrom history and, in the last
analysis, from the qenesisof the subject. The
wor:ld as we understandand i nterpret i t 'changes
with the development
of' the subject. But any
determinate "thi [g " , or cbnceptof a"'thi ng"',
, or any finite perspective, is not thereby dism'issed out of hand.
.'
For Hege], then, the cri tique of knowledqe seeks
:limitedness,
to, revgal the essential boundedness,
i sgl atedness, etc. of conceptsand curplexes of '
cohcepts throuqh thei r .'lpnogressi
ve inc,orporatlgn into the total picture, of the whole," The
r e s u l t i s n o t ,t h e " s i m p l en e g a t i o n ! o
' , f e a c hs u c h
view. The,recoqnition of the conditional nature
of knowledge, i tg, parti al f!y, ,does not I ead,to
s k e p t i c i s mo r r e l a t i v i s m . f n s t e a di t l e a d s " 0 t
l e a s t o n H o r k h e i m e i " rse a d i n go f H e g e l , t o t h e
:
ti$:'iluli?il,;I,;';?
Hllf,t'(il:ix,'inB8i'ffi:176-177) ,
t
Step 14 representsqood sqnse. Moreoverr,.
i t fol lows from'several of
oned propositi ons.
the above-menti
,
I f w e , g r o u pt h e , s t e p s t o g e t h e r , w e n o t e c e r t a i n m o r eq e n e r a l f e a t u r e s .
T h e e m p h a s i si n s t e p s 1 a n d 2 e s p e c i a l l y , b u t t a l s o s s t e p s3 , r 4 , 6 , B a n d 9
a r e o n o p p o s i t i o n t o ' r e - d u . c t i o n i sM
t a r x i s m sa n d r : e d u c t i o n i s ts o c i o l o q i e so f
k n o w l e d g e .T h e e m p h a s i s ' t so n o r u r e r v i n q t h e i n t e q r i t y o f t h e t e x t s : t h e y
are not sirnply "reduced"to exemplarsof "petty-bourgeoisethinkingl or'to\
.
:-
0f' course, most i ntel I ectualS, ( non-f4arxi
st and ,l4arxist) , wi th
the 'excsption of those ,Gramscical I s pr:oletari at "organic i ntel I ectuals " ( Gnamsci
, 1971)odre petty-bourgeois ;' After having so
identifjed thenr--which
is a less than bri'lliant thouglh,one
'l must
not forget, important momenti n one's analysis--one sti 1 has to
e x p l a i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f t h e i r . i d e a s . A n di f o n e i s f o c u s i n g
o n a p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r , o n e h a s t o e x p l a i n ,t h e p a r t i c u J a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f i d e a s f o u n d i n t h e u r o r ko f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r , i n d i v i d u a l
person. 0f al I the major twent'ielh ,century thi nkers who are referred to as "l{arxistf in the literature, Sarrtrehas probably
qone the farthest in attempting!o grapp,lewith this problem.See
hi s Searchfor a l4ethodand hi s work on Fl aubert ( Sartre, 197.|
and
-26-
''ref 'l*ctis)lst'
'itnp$irerislitrc}
.r;oirrepti0n.
tif t,he elcilnurriy
cn" tri s0rir{}o't.ii*rl'..'rii;:lt
,frreen:ith'*ris'isl';iEi:f,)',j'rI.e-t'tl,t'lli.rii]1..i.tr'iiiii:l:ui1t,!;{'i.l{.]:!ll{:
n*t, tFrnt il.ti ttlttlOt'st.ii.rrclilrq
ot tf're alrihur.vir:1cls,1 coriip"ltrf*unde'r"st.arid"il5t
c{'tfie
tei(t..'*i'l:, in 'f*ct,u rle\rBi"d*r:r"**hu.t:
thnt ii; hq"llrs.
'I'he
'
€ . n i $ h a s ii:l r' r l i t ; * p s 3 , $ * ' i , 8 , . ! ] , . l { i , J i , J . l o 1 : l n n c l : 1 4f l r f : .trr , i
op*ns'it.iun 'tcr frI'?rrsat{ir*s,**o.!i,n
niirpiric;,i l.t+rdirigu "cci}tcretter.*l:tiirig',tRci,i0gl.r,'
"r.i;.
'15i7$) *'grid
'ilifrl""-iV]ij]-" th;it.
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und [tn^i
s.trrri:ivtt,],;rl'i"hc
{&,1tlrut*f;#i"'
,; jli'ii'ri Glii,rnsitinn
tf i','eri#s thg' eihSect,rf t"frciir'tnriestiglat'inri"'l'fic r:nri:lhi-rs'i
ai:ji(iroilijhe$
tiiat: iit*{:rncrt histrlr"ir:ii'li (:i''jt'ir;;tj iiriri s.\,ste-ri)ii}'t,'ir:;.i1.1,
ci.ialrri;t:icaJ,
I'lcltte
il.iieiiUss',r,
i:h* reaclnf Sh;-rtrlci
f e:i:rtl:l* fitJr,,r1:1;rn,lCh
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l-euidirif,gmpi:r.iCa,'l
i"{lts_ptil.:i.$$I:tt:t"1".
:Qi
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!:i
'it, i s .inrirCryterit
14efoi^tl C0r'i(luditlrJ c;Jr ttie*Cre,tica
I tJ.igir:i;:;,siC1,
{;r: elSt,ah,-.
I {sh {'r:rurliasic s$ptc:t,i,;
u'f'''the ovr:}}',s'i"i
atripl"c&*h;(i i "fl'reappr'6*chjs l.ar.fiEly
'itu,sield{ir]t.ire..ir,:iuitli:ititl;.it|rtl,*;.-.tji:l|t-qql$iilriqif-.sqc-i*i'-isg"1
'*d..i&'k'
:---***'
Pifl [ls.-ql-jrel"]]-;-q.11$i--lg-i"g
l"rji],..ii-Trg;*9t!:i.i]Ilx..$Itjl$J.ru];*l'i.
il ) Ilre aiiprcrrr:hi s,
ha*,eid0liagJi,i]fgiiiIj-qI^t'J...,tJ"rg'.s}.JlliJi|..*ii.|li:.,,:f'.gl.{i|f:ii.-i:,-lii5rf,.|{il*:,.J.9'..--t*.*,...'tl
. { 3} I hE fipfr]"i)ilcn'i.s
Iti:i.b]--"nii
*-firp-,q"qi"lrff- ,,-1t',ijsl:.-Ji,is'l1uq,IigLi
"a["*t]$g*11]4.i!-prelf*unril.)'$.i*tggfi.tg1." (4) "lfrc ii1.,pr,'CIric:h
is furrclarneltnl
l.v arr :r*iiny:gt"l"
.
J;"tiLjitii-.?
['oi nLs t1] anrj t ?) rxrr: twg-ii,f.isr.s:.n]-s-!,glIit.1-ffi
lJ.iJ--gltull:itiir?[r", P r : i n t s { : t } * n r J{ 4)
arc tv$:1".-b*S-i.t-Iig!hg*i]$.gftri"l:ll:#li!,1):ti.,t. idrtrqi1l r:ari$'i{tereach of i.fr*r;e 'in tur"r1,
i{rin'*ilEhuut }i'is u,ji""it"!ngt* l{i.rlnrrtl I}ar:t}.rii,l,h;1.*r't}{iltncled iJ$ t;iia*; thi:lye i *
1 1 0' * ' i n t l 0 c e n t , " n e i a c i i n l } , a r i r l, l i k * t , l ' is * o f l i l " i t ' r t r f t f : f l t . i t i", , l r " i ' i . ' i t i i j , T
I t',i*.praint has
i.
,it",i-iiri
0rref inqis t;hi*; {'hs1t*it' Bei.'t"tir*s'
r,,,r'it'in11t
i..e[iegrerilr]r*frcJe
J.l&t::it!jr-q]{1$i$3ittr.rf,ijtltr:pr'ti.'t}t1t:"Pei"hai:r.E[laiiijies*'n'0H.'[,*fntsy.ristln.q ref i*:cLi *'n:r or1thi s tupi r: r,'.u,'in 1;t;*]f,i:j_r:."q.i-iri.,
. h-i*
t-
f,*ryr:itJs
t:*ller:tirn
0f' rls$iiy$ flr! thE [ir,<lnc]'r
ir;al,'$'iiiei]ru:"*-*
* ( ^ ;- '
also beenrnade,in one way or another, by a nurnberof other scholars, rnost
n o t a b l y b y c e r t a i n l i n g u i s t s , a n t h r o p o l o o i s t s ,p l r i l o s o p h e r sa n d s o c i o l o g i s t s .
O n ew r i t e r , i n a d i s c u s s i o no f B a r t h e sw o r k , m a k e st h e p o i n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
rnanner:
The notion that we "encode"our experienceof the
world in order that we mayexperienceit; that
t h e r e e x i s t s , i n a e n e r a l , n o p r i s t i n e r a n o eo f
experiencesopen to us, cornesdirectly, as bJe
have seen, from the work of Sapir, lJhorf and LeviStrauss.
ble thus invent the world ureinhabit: we moCifyand
reconstruct what i s gi ven. It fol I oursthat, impli catedas weall are in this giqantic, covert, coll a b o r a t i v e e n t e r p r i s e , n o n eo f u s c a n c l a i m a c c e s s
to uncoded,"pure" or objective experienceof a
" r e a l " , p e r m a n e n t l ey x i s t i n g w o r l d . l ' l o n eo f u S ,
i n s h o r t , i s i n n o c e n t . I t i s n e c e s s a r yt o r a i s e
these rather general matters aqain, however
briefly, before discussln.c-t
the work of Roland
Barthesprecisely becausethe totality of his work
rnaymost fruitfully be seenas an attack on the
presumptionof innocence:somethingwhich Barthes
sees as a characteristic corruption of rnodern
bourqeois society ( Havukes
, 1976, pp. 106-107
).
The notion of the social construction of knor,rledge
about realityl-i . e . , t h e n o t i o n t h a t w e c a n n o t , i n B a r t h e s ' t e r m s , " p r e s u r nien n o c e n c e " - - h a s
o b v i o u si m p l i c a t i o n s f o r o u r w o r k . B r o a d l ys t a t e d , t h e s e i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e t w o :
( 1 ) D r a k e ' sa n a l y s i s i s s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d a
; n d ( 2 ) , n y r e a d i n qo f D r a k e ' s
a n a l y s i s i s s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d .T h e c r i t e r i a f o r a s s e s s i n <t lh e u s e f u l n e s s
of either Drake's work or my readinq of it must be basedon intersubjective
evaluative methods.Hopefully, the argumentsin this paper are formulated
w i t h s u f f i c i e n t r i q o r t o f a c i l i t a t e s u c he v a l u a t i o n .
1.
I have adoptedthis rather awkwardterm ("the social construction
of knowledqe
about reality") to avoid the use of the term "the
social construction of reality" which might be interpreted by the
r e a d e ra s a f l i t t i n q i n t o t h e r e a l mo f i d e a l i s m .
:28-
Thus, gne of our.basi_cassurnp_tions to do wi th the soci al__gqnstruc:
' .
"'
'' .
about regJity-. Discussionof a secondhasi.c-assumptiog
!ign .gf -knowledne
fol I ours.
'r '
'
Reoardingthe
,
a\!
pfgcessof gggial prg4uqt-iin,the gs3umRtion
research and p
;is *ua"
madethat researclr
l i s h i n q i n t h e ' a c a d e r nmea yb e ' f r u i t f u l l y v i e w e da s a p r o d y c t i . o np r o c e s s . o f
' ; '
j .
s o r t s , [ ^ f eh a v en o t e d t h a t i t i n v o l v e s a k i n d o f - s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f p r g d u c ! 1 p ! - - € , g , i a n a u d i e n c e r ' r n 6 or er . l E s s s o c i a l l y i o r g a n i z e dr e s e a r c he f f o r t s ,
a n d o r $ a n i z e ds t r u c t u r e s f o r r e v i e w a n d p u b l i c a t i o n . ' I n ' t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s e
r e l a t i o n s r , a n dw i t h t h e i n p u t o f " r a w m a t e r i a l s " ( e . g . , c l a t a ' a n ct ol o l s s u c h
a s p e n s , , p e n c i l s , t y p e w r i t e r s , p a p e ra n d c o m p u t e r sa) n d o f m e n t a la n d p h y s i c a l
l a b o r , ( e . g . r f o r m u l a t i n , qa n d r e f o r m u l a t i n qi ' d e a s ,c o l l e c t i ' n g a n d a n a l y z i n g
data, and constructinq the researchreport), products.such as manuscripts
a n d ' p a p e r sa r e f o r m e d .i l o r e o v e r ,t h e s c h o l a r ' s p r o b l e m r , r a t i c - - i . ,e .t h e s o c i a l
o n t o l o g y , ' e n i . s t e r n o l o tm
t } ,e t h o d o l o e y",s i q n i f i c a n t s i l e n c e S " , l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l
conceptsand propositions that appearin the various sta.qesof her/his vrork-a.re thernselvesproduced.Obviously, they are th'e result of strch f a c t o r s ' a s
the fol I ouline:
1.
b i o n r a p h i c a lf a c t o r s ( e . q . , f a r : i l y , s o c i a l o r i q i n s a n d
i ences) ;
2.
intglle_ctqalcontext (e.{r., cfraduateschool experiences,
s a n d d i a l o ! ! u ew i t h c o l l e a g u e sa n d
s t u d e n t s ) ;a n d
"
. '
3.
:
! :
, ,
l a r g e r s o c i e t a l f a c t g r s ( e . n . , m a j o r e c o n o r n iacn d / o r
i at irre iocieta'l leve'l).
1.. This term i s taken from Fi erre Bourdieu, 'pg!l i ne of _aIEgt"J_d
Practice.
-29-
The approachassumes
work can be fruitfully_ conceptuthat acadernic
alized as a socigl p.rag-tice.The internal compositionof a social practice
maybe f rui tful ly vi ewedas consisti ng of the fot I or,ri
no:
A.
t.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B.
The elements
Rawmaterial or rnatter ulorkedupon.
H u m a bn e i n g s i n c o n s c i o u sa c t i v i t y .
lieansor instrumentsof the action.
The social and Feoqraphicalcontext of the action.
The inmediate,material product of the action.
The class and technical relations betweenthese
e l e m e n t s( S u m n e r1, 9 7 9 ,F . 2 0 9 ) .
(I urouldPFefer to SilV, "gegja! and technical relations betureen
these elements"
r a t h e r t h a n " c l a s s a n d t e c h n i c a l .r e l a t i o n s . " T h o u q ht h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s f r e cluentlyturn out to be class relations, they neednot be so--althouohrollI
class relations are generally overdeterrninedr
by re'lations of class. )
T h e a p p r o a c hi s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y ,p r o f o u n d l yd i a l e c t i c a l . T h i s i s r e vealed both in the choice of the object of the investiqation and in the mode
o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . F i r s t , t h e e m p h a s i si s n o t o n D r a k e ' su l o r ka s a " c l o s e d
system"and/or one "frozen in timef', but as a moreor less inteorated problemmatic. Weuse the term "productionprocessof sorts" to beqin to decipher lts
m o t i o n . T h e e m p h a s i st,o u s e H e q e l i a na n d M a r x i a nt e r m i n o l o 0 y ,i s o n b o t h
b.eingand becoJning,
actuality and potentiali!y. Second,the approachis antireductionist. It seeksneither to reducethe text to the author nor the author
to the text. It also does not seek to reducethe text to "its" historical or
intellectual context. lrlordoes it reducethe text to the "social relations or
academicproduction." It accepts the inteqrity of each of these elements,but
\
L . T h e t e r m " o v e r d e t e r r n i n e da, " p s y c h o a n a l y t i ct e r m i n i t s o r i q i n s ,
e n t e r e dl " l a r x i s ts o c i a l s c i e n c e: l j s c . , i lEl l J , , - " . , I L - : i s l . : : , : ! _ 1 "
and hi s fol l owers. liy usageof the tenn fol l ows that of Goran
T h 'r b o r n ( 1 9 8 0 )a n d E r i k l ^ l r i a h t( 1 9 7 8 ) .
-30-
a l s o u n d e r s t a n d tsh e i r i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e - - i n d e et h
de
, ir dialectica'l interpene: m a i n t a i ' r rt sl r a t " s i l e n c e s " a n d' " Q a p s "a r e ' i n t e r tration.l -Third, this approach
nal to the'discourse; that they are not '"absent"but"'present"' in the text.Z
I t i s , l n t h i s a n d o t h e r a s p e c t s ,c o n s c i o u s l ya n t i - e r n p i r i c i s t . F o u r t h , i t i s
not concernedvrith the question of urhetherthe text is "right" or "v,ronq".
I n f a c t , t h e a p p r o a c ha c c e p t st h e n o t i o n t h a t a t e x t ' c a n b e b o t h " r i q h t " a n d
" w r o n g "s i m u l t a n e o u s l ' y - - e . g .t ,h e l i t e r a t u r e i s f u l l o f e x a n r p l eisn w h i c h a
correct empirical observationis madedespite an approachthat is seriously
f]arvedi n terms of i ts epi stemology, ontolo{J.y,theory anC so forth. This i s
o n e - o f t h e ' r ^ e a s o n s ' v l e : u lfi ol Jc u s o n D r a k e ' sw o r k a t r n a n y" J e v e l s " . l , ' l o r e o v e r ,
these"'i r,vl:ls 'r i nterpenetrate. Fi fth ,' the approachl ooks for tensions, and
" c o n t r a d i c t o r : l n e s si"n, t h e t e x t . I n f a c t , i t c o n s i d e r st h e d i s c o v e r yo f
t h e s e t o b e q u i t e n a t u r a l ; F i n a l l y , o u r r e a d i n g i s i n f a c t m a r J pe o s s i b l e b y
D r a k e ' s a p p r o a c h - - w h i cnho t o n l y p r o v i d e st h e " r a w m a t e r i a l " f o r o u r
1.
I n t h e ' l 4 a r x i a ns e n s e( a s r e p r e s e n t e d €
l .g. e in the first part .of:
V o l u m e1 o f C a p i t a l ) a n d t h e H e g e l i a ns e n s e( a s r e p r e s e n t e d€l . g , g
in the PhenoffiiiloT6Ey
and the Loqic). 0f course, this is not to
saytha@',or'.in-uF-iongrun,',eichoftheseeIem e n t sc a r r i e s e q u a l i w e l g h t ;s u c h ' ap o s i t i o n i s p a t e n t l y a b s u r d .
However,the terrns "ultirnateJy" and "in the long run" imply
e x t e n d e dt i m e f r a n l e s( c f . l J r a u d e l : 1"sl o' n o u e ' d u r e e " ) .B u t t h e
present analyqis concernsa relatively short period of tirne
(about fortl'yedrs). The relations betweenthe above-nbntioned
e l e m e n t sr n u s tb g , i n . e a c hc a s e , e r n p i r i c a l l ye s t a b l i s h e d ,i . e . ,
o n e c a n m a k e ' f e w ejru s t i f i a b l e a s s u r n p t i o nosf t h e i r a c t u a l l y
i n t e m e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a n i n a n a l y s e si n v o l v i n g t h e " l o n g u ed u r e e ."
2 . This argumentis one repeatedlynradein Frenchpost-structuralist
w r i t i n q s - - i n u r r i t i n q s i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , i n F o u c a u l t ' sw o r k ,
i n A l t h u s s e r ' sw o r k , i n t h e w r i t i n n s o f t h e T e l Q u e l s c h o o l , a n d
so on.
-31-
i n v e s t i Q a t i o nb u t a l s o i n f l u e n c e so u r m e t h o d o l o qdyn d t h e o r y i t s e l f . T h i s
l a s t p o i n t i s s i q n i f i c a n t : o u r a p p r o a c hr e j e c t s t h e u ' l t i m a t e l y i d e a l i s t n o t i o n
( a r e c u m i n g o n e ei n c i d e n t a l l y , i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e " A . l t h u s s e r i aSn c h o o l " )
that methodology
development
and theory construction can be purely locrical
( a s i n " i n d e p e n d e n to f t h e r e a l w o r l d " ) e x e r c i s e s . T h a t i s , w e t a k e s e r i o u s l y
F l l a r x ' sc r i t i q u e o f H e q e'ls d i a l e c t i c a l m e t h o d .
The matter of dialectical transcendence
fundamentallyconcernsthe
utilization of a rnethodof irrrnqnent,critique.The terrn "irnmanent
critique"
(initially
a s s o c i a t e dw i t h K a n t ) i s u s e d i n v a r i o u s w a y si n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y
literature, Perhapsthe term, and the associatedmethod(s),occurs most freq u e n t l y i n t h e v r r i t i n g s o f m e m b e rosf : t h e " F r a n k f l r t S c h o o"l ( e s p e c i a l l y i n
t h e w r i t i n g s o f H o r k h e i m e rAed o r n oa n d P , l a r c u s e ) F
. 1o r ,t h e , p u r p o s eg f t h i s
p3per the me,thod.
oJ irnnangntcritiqlre can be said to. e$bod.vtrgo fundarnental
notions--in moretechnical langua1tre,
two fundamentalr',rethodological
directives,
's itinerary
First, th-emeth-o.d
seeks to. i-dentify the,param.eters
-gf the authsf
as s/he sees ttle.rn.That is, the methodassumes,for the Durposesof analysis,
t h a t t h e a u t h o r ' s q u e s t i o n sa r e l e g i t i r n a t e . I t t a k e s t h e a u t h o r n ' sc l a i m s ( i n
terms of what s/he wishes to analyze) seriously.
S e c o n d - - a ntdh i s i s t h e c r i t i c a l m o m e not f t h e i n v e s t i q a t i o n - - t h e
nret.hqd
seeks to anal.vzet_heext-ent.to whiqhjhgjrythof 's vrgrk has or has not
succeeded
in advancinqthe parametersof her/his itinerary. T h a t i s , t h e
methodseekstD ascertain the extent to r.rhichthe author's q u e s t i o n sa r e
1.
For a goodoverviewof these various usalles,see D a v i dH e l d ,
Introdqglloq-[o _Cri_t]gglllsgg. (ruhich i s, i n my v i e w , t h e b e s t
$luagesource on the vlork ot the Frankfort
School" ) .
-32-
a n s w e r a b l e - - t h e ries a l s o t h e q u e s t i o no f w h e t h e rt h e y h a v e i n f a c t b e e na n s w e r e d - - g i v etnh e a . i l t h o r ' sp r o b l e m a t i c( i . 9 . , t h e a u t h o r ' s r n o r eo r l e s s i n t e g r a t e d " s y s t e m "o f c o n c e p t s ,p r o p o s i t i o n s ,d s s u m p t i o n s",g a p s "d n d " s i l e n c e s " )
islre.{Iy yray*gfJlle lrocess.-gj
and obiect (s ) of i nvesti gati on. ThiL.i s*a.c-cglmpJ
determinate !g$Ug1 di scussedearl i er.
TOI^IARD
AN APPLICATIONOT THEMITI{OD
The precedi ns qe.UtsdglpSjc.a:!jUt.C_$9_*Lt_Ltgo-LCtj
qLL.'-9.Ig-!9nt9!.!has obv i o u s l y b e e na r a t h e r a m b j t i o u su n d e r t a k i n g .I b e g a nb y s p e c i f y i n g t h a t t h e
ggneral .oJ.e{gJl"-fo.glsgllhe,
Ig$ggIS! is 0n the academicwrit'ings of St. Clair
D r a k e ,e s p e c i a l l y o n h i s f o u r m a j o r t e x t s . N e x t , I d e l i n e a t e da p r o s p e c t i v e
mode.
in, wh.iq.Ltltg-Jin_rilng_s.
qtj t.bgjeqsggb":99.y"13__Ee
I noted that the
-p-fes"e$,e9.
modeof presentation would be concerned
with three pri ncipa1 tasks: rev_e]gllqn
,
qr!t=tcq1'an-a]ystqand@viaaproceS5ofdia]ecticaltranscendance'
l'{ext, I detailed fourteeil.spgcillic_stgfgwhich taken together corrrprise
our melhoCof suscgssj_ve_.Ie.Sdin_gs.
The steps focus nnimari1y on the texts but
are concernedas well with the disculsj,v-e.ejld_Jron-.rliscgrsj.ve
]r{:ti_cg:
that
makethe texts possibl e as welI as the texts' &rnls. o.f__dglgl_qruejrl.
Next, I
demonstratedthe rel atj-o"ru:f pf i n.cipq] and sg.cpl_dgry.asp_S:J.g.g[
ovl.$ethod ro
o _ t h e r _ a l p [ q L c l :wt .i et h: m o r eo r l e s s r e l a t e d f o c u s ( e . 9 " , a p p r r : a c h ewsi t h i n
M a r x i s me, m p i r i c i s m ,p o s i t j v i s m , s t r u c t u r a il s n ra n d s, e m i a t i c s ) .
Finally, I detailed the *tgFa'i:iq"_e.pj$_!gp]qql,,gg.]
t-wo
Ss"-qumpljo-[-g_and
basi c tlHtho{ql_ogi,-cjtl
dj rgcti ves underlying my approach
, Theseconsti tute , one
m i g h t S d . y ,o u r m e t h o d o l o g i c aal n d m e t a t h e o r e t i c a fl o u n d a t i o n .B u t n e i t h e r t h e
" f o u n d a t i o n "n o r t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s a r g u m e r ri st w j t h o u t m o v e m e n t .
r n o d i f i c a t i o nw j l l o b v i o u s l yo c c u r i n t h e c o u r s e , o ft h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Some
T h e r e n a i n d e ro f t h e p a p e ri s a n e c e s s a r i l yp a r t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
m e t h o dt o a b i t o f D r a k e ' sw o r k . O u r p r i m a r y f o c u s w j l l b e o n B l a c k M e t r o g . o . l * ! . s _ .
- 33-
't
B l,.t cK ti$,l.'R.ilPilI:,.i'!l'i
F'INTTTKG$
Thoug,h fltrls
pofnfl
i.s nof
expl.f.r:ie.[y
stated
arl,'t"where in
the
textuS
lj,eJss#-*I"bnl-l-t-**"$:*x t#str-Ls1..j*g$lg$s- Qle,* "-Ust.rqsqr
ancl n as we shall.
gee,
I
great
ni{-rr.:*..*re*or*}vs. srr:r.rnti seven
denl
sets
of
cofi.*
:
rg:]*sss- {s{ r.e}sgleJ}*.
l.
r:f Black
clevel.r-rpme,rnt:
of the h1.etcr{cal.
an analyeis
fn the conte.qt r:f tlie deve.l*pincnt rif {ilii.r:egrr {sndo
e x te trt,
th * l a rp ,e r s* * l * ty)
ae & u' hcrl q:;
2,
cf the a,qr:j -,ni .-l ai :[* n ci f: w hJ.rer non*
a c o c l p a ra .tl v e a n a l v n is
Anglo ethn:i.cs into the rneinsErea$ of Chlca.g,nts ec(lnofir:lc
and seicie.-l ]-trfe ver$rrs that q:f Af;ra*'Amer:5cans:
3.
a c o mp a ri s o n o f th e f.i :rrn antl ce:ntent * f. fi :re i nstJ.trrti r:nal
a f Bl " a e i t Me L r:a p* } 1s v$tr' sus t.ha.t sf C hl c.agu * s a w trol .e;
l l fe
4,
a ccfirparatirre ;lnal1''sis r.,f pahter:n* of behalvf.or anci at.t::J"b*Ees
among and wiillrln i+'h*t the aulirc,rs refer
flo ds the varic>rrs
tte l a s s e s n n o f l tl .a c k C h{.c* g* ;
5.
a n fu u p l -l c i u c o mp a ri s on
rniddLe classnt;
5.
& compari.son *f" the t.deology af f,re*ctorn ;.rnct derncicracy
fa c ts of B l ack l l .fe l .n C hfcaga (antJ
w l th th e a c tu a l
e l s e w h e re 1 n th e U n i.ted $tat.t-rs) I
7.
a coml:arl.von of
beep SouLh {$.*,
of
fi he" qe cl ssseri
vri .tl t tl i e
ChJ,cago
tCI aome
" t-rhfr*
.i.n tire
rilcfi rel.ati.*ns
Bl,tck*wi:fte
* rns prc*senf;e<l lr: Al-"l"i*orr l}ft"o"i^,$,Brrri.eigh
Gardner and Flary Gardner- Eggp*$,t_.litU,
.4 _Lq^g,:Li{.
wi r b pat ter**
tl."o.:n.iii
4*thfseg.lggjggl*t:$,U*gi__ {tF_e*gruI*
' l r:
f;h$-cag,ooa norl hcrnn
c f B l a c k * w h l te
ra c e rel ,;rtJ.uus
1ndus l_r j"s I" ni* t:rc,y:oj j- s:
These sets
Ln the
textt
beg,l.n wlth
bec aus e
cf
colnpar:i.sL1*$ ancl re1at.[eins
nonetlieless
the
thLs
Lssue of
iesue
each fs
tlie
ceriflr:a"i i-* *he=:o'uerall
r*lat.ion
w a s a p p a re n tly
rir-e. cl<*veJ.erpetl
wi.th
at
uneven
arg$ment.
ernptrasis
Ide will-
L:etween Dt:rrp $or:t-h end Hl"ack I'fetropol!-s
tti e
heart
of
the
enti .r€! Jnve.qti g,ati on.
1"" llnLese othenslee noted, aLl" di.seus*Lon
"f Elgg!*Hgggggllpthis paper refers t* the orj,Afuy:"1.-g{illo_!'
2,
That is, nei.ther it the body r:f Lhe bclok ncr: in Wrightts
ntl te"
c r W ;rrner' s rrettrodol ggi cal
i n tro e l u c ti .o n
* 34-
f"
ge E *jLg9j,L_ggg'd ij,
B,I a_-cbtle t l?po_l$L
l{uch of !{arnerre
the fludtngs
of the Bl"ack lletropolle
South reeearch projeet,.
proJect
Ln the conf*xr
of the perlod
mentloned ln
Note"
"Hethodalogtcal
reeearch proJect
In dotng thLs,
of the varlous
focueee otr the relatlonehtp
hE e{tuates
Warnertan,
to thoee of the Deep
the Black Hetropolls
Chf**go School lnvesttgatlone
(but also cyofts ee-rloue d.tecuna*"onof the orher
the above).
of
r*Lx factore
Warner notes:
The suthors conclude thnt t,h* st-ruetural organlaatlon of the t'legro-u*:lte ranktng {I{nrnerre
terml csrl be eurnrnarfzcd sornewhs"tas fol]"uwsl
t h s t t h e N e t r 4 r o{ n B l a c k H e t r o p a l l s n } s r e o f t e n .
than not ls subordtnated to nenis} t$s!"-sbut,
nevertlreless, has 6ome c.hance for Job sdvance*
ment; that f,he Negro has made real polttfcal
gaine both tn votlng and poltt{cal
pilweri that
tn hls socj-at relatlons wlth whltes there le
t6 htgh degree of
exclusLonr; antl thnt vhlle
lntermarrlage ln lega1Ly sanctloned 1t {s
t
genera lly discoura ged
(BllSl*Ug!^-epgl{1,
,
P, 778).
li'arne.r point.o out thstr
8B compared wtth Deep South, in BLack fhleago "[r]eal
galns are found ln goverrinentei" and economl"c sregsr ? i e lmportant
have been made ln
tn spat{al
of
the fteld
and fanrtly relatl"sns,
f eoclali
eqrrality
(-E#,,
overvi.ew af thege potnts
peges.
of educatlon,
very moderate gaLne have been made
but llttle
p . ? 7 S )"
tn the table
has been accorupllehed ln the srea
WarnetrFr*sent,s a qulte
that
advances
le
useful
cletatl"ed
repraeluced on the fotlowtng
See Table l.
Fol,lorrlng hts presentafJ-crn of thlt:
[larner proceeds to serlously
I.
dlst.crt
accurate
the enrptr{cal
BJ--qckltgtfep^gltg w11.1be referred
that
el*d fLl-trmlnatlng
tabl.er
flriding,s preeented Ln
to as B"t'tr.ln the references
.
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the
is
J'n $-lil,.t[_Sg!.lqp_q&g
c!'le r;l*tr relatj.ans
ai.*r: m,$ny pr'idnt*
Arid thotrtrlii there
af
a rsirlte classE system
u wen' (l -ec.i r crrnrr!r1,r c:r* n l :e ch* .rnrt-* ri " red
th e
&s st (oft,e:ri:implic.it)
point s
c.lasseso i*e,,
C hl -cago ,
J.r: & cnste.-s+ysflelii.
sut.q$ nr*ar1y
Ig_eg__qgggh"
aleo
s*cial.
$ i )? $ te m" Id o trel ov* ro they
d e :c e te l e so f
i $ t' c,nti te-l i netrLn
e l i r;cover/producel
s drral nysi*ru of
c l a u r:
s ev er e l
the
c I* n p t
riatrri:e. ctf the
Fre*
situatl,on
there
in
sre
even {f
W ar ner *-
cumpari non,2
I4go_loel ap$_Igtg{gs
An under,Iving
as t he
fire
t t $y rri a l
fs
flret
whi.ch declara*
t.
f.hesls
tl re s i s .| t
in
the
br:oir is
ontt that: e\r*.neui1-i1-,vbe,*aure knawn
T h e tttll u.si tgtt & cruol l y
tha,t clespf.te
the equality
the
of
of.{|ci.el
all
iri*ology
hunv:n belngs,
consi sl .s
of
of
rl ro sul :.-tl reses *
freq.,:eloruunil dernocrac.y
thtrrt: is
an*ther,
also
I $ a Yr tu d .l s c * v e r/p r* d L i (:eut tcr unde,:r$c{ }r" " sf} :r:erJ.* ct that,
fn
c o n fl ra s t t* th e r trt:].J ,efs * .f ni l i rr* er* pi -ri ci .sl ri , socfetl s* fence
ttdi-scnve.rtestt sr:t; in geil*rfitr. p:fiir-iirr.:t-sriut sc\ int.rc:k
uf: Ehe ttraw
d s .u a * ' 1 " t" .re I" f h u N - * f i i ,n i nreract-i r:n
tre.t.w ee;l f,i ri s data and the
th e c re ti c a l
ori ei l t" i i i i i .cr: o:f thr: * bse.rver(.* )
a rrd .f.d e r ul ug:i i ::a1"
I s i u $ ,&e s t th a t th j " s ,1s art * trvi t' ;ur,r} y de" l -i ber* te di .storti on.
Idarn*-r herel.&c,**ris t-t: i:l:e derteo ilnd ln$s vlell ffhvar* *f Cavton end
Drake I s conc.}"rlsi crr:irl;
.,
*4?*
d eeply
rrn ,* Il e rv i i * .$ .v s l r h e i .t.tl i ; uti at
r r t ot e tl
(e,g-
the.n others
af
freedom
in
fact,
u S.]-a*.kslt.
lfire set:clu.d :[.,ethnt:.
an,J clen<.,{:rlir-:1r,
varf.crus r***Jal , ethnlc.
nof
ciuls j.de ,:f
onil:
; r ut hor s
of
Chlcago
&s ifi
l J l a c k h fe tro p { :l Is
r* h;tt* * }
$$' i ff:l {* ,g.,
sr:e
dei.*:frif.CIthe
asrrl/*r
p o f.n t' orrt thal
q:f f .cj-"q.l icieo"l*gy
uu.Ltural" S,,:ouFr* $rer
na.l-nsfi.'r,:ea$nrut strbordfr:.ntccl
the
t* urol :s equalt '
ar* rselJ. "
such * sf tunti .cl l ' r obt* S ns
in
T'it*
$I" a* : k
elaes +lru*,wtrcir* bhrougtrc]rif, t.Iie l.in'il.eicl ,$t*tes.
q+-cs3,-Sbtsqss.*gg*-93"s*Is^rsss-"ge"sgsxt
In
points)
of
th{c* genertr}" e"r'se* flhree
are nnEnJeirr the
tCI $iricagu
Black*
tsxt-"
f,ur;,cl*nei:taJ. ;:r'r$.nt,s {*lrd
The ffu"st
cirffie r:t*-Laui'vel^*t lef.e
gi*$.nt ts
negat f - v e
c i n u h * i .r
ef fe c l
th{}i: sfgrriffe.;rnt
lesser
fn-"migr*.tf..on
tJ."e. u r:e,l*f i.v"e t.o Any4l,:*'Jt.n;"e-ric$ris
Hux'*1"rs;151
f"rnmlgrilntsi r Eilci tirlri: '[ir.:Ln 1*t*
and cther
* i:tr,mtisr *f
ett-::y has heul I
clfrecf
s
w * 1 1 h * i -rrg:
tJor-Lcl Welr, l{*grc".,<i.rIi;,lv*. t:e*
Si"ncc* tfie Fj.r*t
plec*cl tmns"gr:ant.r ;rs Eh.e prt.:unrlr ciuur{"er$ crf
unsli,{^tle,;1 gnil $errL;*"[- labr:rr"
.[i: [hr; uuir*ri,
thev rilst
et f,tre bof;-i;"iimcrf the* sr:cJir]"ri:d
ec.pn*mir: p'vraeif.il arrd h*ve ftrtrelrited. fli:e
el.ums.
Attrciut*d
bv ttre Arnex'i.cen Dreirin
ttre ltlegrer resisiq:nbs, i.n ntnnbers $ h*ve
e n [* :re E3 .th e e l t.y ? e l ff*
* t s pai nt. el ]* rost
& hundrs:d ye;rr$ trey*rir,.dtis *r5.gin"
thern
have l:acl f,c> c*r*pete for: a p.[ae:e fn & **nl]rL.ex
patte.rn. *Ire,xd;* 1;rfr* cl*wno f.n il c:rri:in:r-rn5"fl_v
rrher"* tkre ma{n ciut.f.l^rier* oi: iretiv;i,ry
iin$
tracliifun
h;ive 3.ong [:**rr s** {rir-S,, F* iS).
The seccrnd fiudirrl4
Low the
rilre !;..ir;:y
ci.i.sfi-i;rs;tisn.s between
and u'lottd;*est Mr:Hr:eipol.f.*" {i,r*"
Sq.tqggglk
mariJ.y
J.s th;+t
to
elo no[
surfac.e
lclfh
of
the
fornr bur
fa^i"rr**tc
Black
o tlllf r:sgqcltlikt'r'r rxs a c$itol.*'l} tiavel prl-
trf itr q:i;nt-r:nt "
'Ii:f
,s eipp.]"Les***i,t€:{nsne leroks be*
ttpai;t"*rtr$ erf
LL,f* anrl t1ri*.uglrE, atuftudes
- 43*
and
custornsil t.$".S,, F, 12),
Ilrahe. ancl Llnyton Fut i"r this
w.ty:
I.Ih " []e B ro n r:c + v i l -I et s i nsul " f:uti ons
ci i .f fe:: l i rtl e
:i,rr form fr*m thcrse i.n t:iheir Hlcturese btefr:otr.rr:.!-is
conarnunitl-t,:s- tliey ei:.tffer c:onside.r'i*l"rl.v trr
c c r:t* u t,' Ih e
d l r * sJni l -;* ri ..f.rr sp r:5.ngi r:;:r:{.ri ,arr:J-J" y
frcu tw* J:a.ci:s: Bec.suse the t:oiilrur-lnjt.yis
spir$.tual"I1n tsoJ-att*d f.rr:u [h,:: 1*,rger yqrlrr.idr
the developrnent- t:f :l"ts farn-|1.1.*s.i,c|rirrcli*rro
$ c l i * c l l s . ;Iu e l v * J "unt-ar5r * .* .,r:oci .at:i
$ns l :* rr;
proce*cled <1ui.Le cli.f ferenu-L1r f ri"rm t):r, c:CIrrrfirj
ta h e n b y $ rra l c g o r i $ i ,,r' hl te i nsLi tut:j .ai ' !s;
erudo
ser:crnd, i'lroneevl.l1ena ti:u-Ltilrs"t j"r; br.ir a pcrt
e i f a 3 .a rg ,e rr rr,tt. i onaJ Fk:.g:r:r-r
c:ul tu]:cr" i * s
pe$liJ.e being tlerd ic.r tlr:r:n*:e.n ui:f.lljui.r. otlrer
Neg,rnes by d"nnumerabl.e trcnt3s c:f k.instrLp,
ri$$$ciati#oal
nrrd chur*}1 ffiuirril)e]:$li.ipr,anC ti
conftnc'tnmi.nor$.ty st&trH{.
F.he Cu$tOTlI} :i"n*
treri.terl try Srone*vl1l ei hnve hr*en skx+J.1r
growtng ufl among Anreri.*;*n blegr*es in t ire elghty
y e a l :ri s .fn c e s l a v e ry .
Ihe
second hel"f
e't* Sjgg&. .F1i1U_o3ggj-!1
r:$ris i.srsi i n i .arge ui easure < i f ;l dfscussf cn
of Bronzevill..er s inr*cf fruIi.c]n,$ compnris*n vr"i.ttr(:.ruxtrgralb
lc
"
sther
ctiicngo conmiiinitj"es*-at
eulture**ls
Black"white
r*l-etions
t tv a l u s s tt
ldealismt').
equiv ale$t )
t hi. s
of
those oj. thr: ncruiattve n r,uhite Anrerican
irnpllcj-t.
T he th i " rc l fi * d i n -g
e' x t ent ,
leaet
lnstittrtions
h a s to
as a functi.an
{i. *, , ihe
The tl-resis in
In
em pir i c a l
do r+ dth the
i'r nusiber af
of
the patterns
<:f econoniicnu pai.itics
* tAmeri csn
stateci
shi ft$-n6
t r* eJi ti on
oi
p l .i l ces f-n th*
g e i re r::l l f.z a t j .r:rr a ppears
i :* ci !i "
t:* he rhe
aLl
i i l er brnad* sl
fu.l .-t.crnr" i ng:
Tlir+:psr[ [eru of lrfelgrei*loh:i
tc* r:e]-irt,ion* {_n Mi"d
3:g*!_-W.!ff.g1ij3n.sirrce rhe ei*y*: erf, fire. fl,fei; t
to Fr:eeclonr
hns heen charac:rer{";LecJ
hy cc:nsfiriI{-'
-44*
tu iI lcsner
C i rri s;ti an-l }e$l ocraf
vatrl-ous f*r.urs (not
in
and,
pf
ic
of wir:f^ch.ere
$tat$.nent
of
"i5re gen*r:;r i
$ * J.!$-3 :.l.,l,.".f.I1*jrg,*q.
S*fgi,*igf*,f*ili
*rtirit* c,t^ reiu*i-rlnsihi"ilrJ has varie.d f r^e:rirpeFi.rrel
in l:s.fip,Jii|3t:tn the cli.t:t;r{:es qif
t-r":period
gj1*Iig*{j'_1ig:rgt,fiLliJ",
slre: iriip*rai lver; rf' .91}|-!3;
;niri
-gg.i_*g1i^p-S*.Tlgg.t):", t"l"r* f ! rrt tir;r 1":1.ugcfiv*r'g*l-nce
an'J cni.nridr,,ric* l-:etw**n tiler;:rr tsctcrs
a.nd the
Anx*rican tracli1".:it;ri -1ii5-;--i"i',i
of ehr.lrii t :i.g:r-'li*innt:I ll **"
t.i"r-:
-
jdss"l:ilril??i:F1';;
p.
Often,
:LiiH ;,i;il;il-:
fn -ElgS&.*_$eltff31l!,t9",t"ire i:*ulse' cf
ilirt: lii.utu::ic;il-i;'
shlftiirg
patt.ern of
Btr.ack*whj"
t*. I:ctl-&t"il)rts {ei" g, , :l"n t*nnl; cvf t.}re cl*:c-upitt
.i r;nal, e.list,ributl"cn)
s f m plv
faet,
thj.s
l. f nh e e l tn ttr,= c :o n o mi ..cn { :r-e$sf-t:yt' r-l nd t\:cr)' .i i i ci :i l
is
*fre ru*gt ft'ecluairir sLiiii:€:m,ent.Eli t.htl tlir,c;j.s.
ar$r.xn{}nE is
.ts
ea1:ed:f" enc-v" " l l h:[" s, f-r r
ilnri $)"*Trri.grylliat-em*nt
of
f,s f*l.J-rrws:
$uf enp L *yei:r': l'rer* c.l I ahr::: ; rul::i t.r: .l ;tb ur: nt*e clsi
e.1.1ie.sr; p*"[-:[t,i u.i airs rrorl;d \i oi].i]s "
ld*g: *tis Li;rx.re
s :a n c ttrf n g tc r * f { i * r.
} :* nel s
l i r} ttre eol * r* ' l ,{n*
and breakrs here anci ttrics:el as thonse cl*nulrirlr*
'!:l-irc$
welci
c:f Negru*s *r:qi vrh:if,e*l ts.F.rlttier
ternpsrj#rt1.1/ fr:r cr]$ffilLltr;lct j.on. + t c l.itrcr-''r.'isr:i.tluslp,
ttegrcie* and r.rhj.tes+ m;:i-r:lta:ln fi ui*vJ"rig. *r1u^{-,i"I"*
trr-trrnr of ireacel'u"L irit:erl:rei.*t.i*nritr.[Fs r*fttr cc'rr*
f.l.L*t rnuted *ntl c#iril,rst:!tf.*n {";r.f,nur(}i..1*E-l
arrrr:
rJ"tuall"recl "
$d:ml*fJ-nleso ttr*i:gh o t:t.ie F,-ttL*i:n
" L:e:roo.i c:ns
b re a k s : b ro th t4 ro ;." rFFj
become rer* tl ess,
a rl * e -" * a n ri tl i r: c c , Ir:r* ]i i l e
1:* cL-ui errl
a tl ;i ttl e*
l"i.rierrn { F T.n t.he J.ouB runr thq* ecnnoruic ;lrr<1
1:cii.*,tical fi:.{l["ox"$ e]'i:* irru]:abL:y deci sivr: irr
ef f et:t irlg :rrsj or *lii t tr; in tlrc e:rllur'*J.j.rnl
i"E*It",p" ziJdi.
$omettnes,
is
tire *ll:L f t-ing peltt,erlrs
a r ec ur r e n t
e r' g l rr$ i e ti t' !.i : t.l l s r" ' [i tl c],:th;:r
on ghe cne hitnd,
and ot lr er s
the
other
i n to
i:ire f.irlhr+ri 'c* e.{,r,:::urir:i.c
f act.ars
sl.*na.
t,i l er' e :i * : i i rx j .i tt" rerse reJ.ai l j .on ]:etvtr c, en,
!+e.trL*ll*,:irr:i {t.!L.l {:htl r:r:rir;t+r1u.e-ilil
e-*,c.einon$"il
*bllr:r1:rtiun
ti i e
]n b o .r' -t-r:r' * q :{ e" S .
hancl,. racl";ri- c*iif .Lj^rt:"
"
dur' :I.rl g,\}crr.}-tti rrar:s I entJ i tr} ,
lt'l:itL is,
*4S-
Therg
in
of
Blacks
* atl r. o n
i:erlii.c.riir*o1.' ruajr:r ecrrn()Infc
expansiorr,
rsclal
t"e.'lrds tr); tre,
ttrsre
conf Lf.ct
b1r wt:v oi
a rried:i.r'rt*.d r:asu.al
(and tll*r,s :; rnCIre ha'rm*rii.CI\i.sp;lti:ern-{^n.g of
l.inko
a d.ecv^'t*ase ].Ii
Bl"it*k*rohit*
!
*
I
relatj-ons)
Assirnilati"on
l;:ri
.
t* Ht'finicri
crf "rry'trit
af
the
Chl-cago by var.lous
f,ir*t,
\(:r$us
*irair'ti*i: *f
r,.1.
ri:'*i\nw:ricitns
1!lnck
i$Rq-Lqgsi*irci l er{ :s
i he
s* ttl .fng
elfl]rr:l-c Sririllps"
t'frei f i rf.t g,H{:iil \drtvr} of :irmui.i4ratr.[r,;n {n tire
F o rti e s
b r* u 1 4 !:t the l ri ri h, fl ee* :i n;" r i t' oti i i t
f*lnj.ne brt:ru5',irt trri by f,he *."t:1"]r"rrei::ri: ehe pCIteto
ltiiird qrf F.n5il.ich
cr$p anci f.r:elrn ttre h,*';:r*J);"
irhseutt:tl j-and,[cirq1* ,
F::l*:l,.gt'11.*f.$fi " ill glie.;tf,
nr,lubers f*und *hi*ag.ri i{ hidl*crn*. hsvc*r: in the
y e a rs s :i te l r: ti :e sup' Fr* srsi .urr of th* ri s* l $ocratl c
re v r> l " u ti c n s o f l " S /+ 8" l i :v .l [' i 50. c]vnr hi * J.r c' ' f
the. j".ntrab:i.i:Rnts uf ilhi r:.ar91*\{(.r"c fr.*i:tligri.-*l-'r)rn.
ThE .trf"sh i.tnlqecl first,
thcr (le::"ur*rrr+eecelri.d,
r.irtri "c;crL!-Sli.to*
whtLe the .iiu6!lo.[,
_I:t-Sri:?h.g e th e r fc rn re d l h e tl tJ.rti l " nr:g* st 54re:u1:r"
By 1 S 9 $ , c * " x ty y e $rs ;nf t-er: f t s bi rtl :.,
C tri cagei
iracl becoure fl *l-ty eif a rnil"l.j-,.rn persc\rlsi l*nd
thre*"*qrr4yt.gFS cf them vrere efther' 1'or-e5.pr.b*rn $tr ctrL.l$ren cf thci f*r*J-gn*bq::rn"
J.ire
Germans , the lrfsi"l l &rrd thc " cancliuarri.srr*
hed tres'n ar:rfvtng
by the srreusrrndilTd;r"teged
b,y ttrur:nerstt tn Ner*l Yorh* rrdro rnet the i:oaus
a n d p * rs u * d e rJ fi nmi grants t* r:eek th* i r'
i o rtu n e s i J " n t{ J .d w esf Mett:opr:l j ,s.
Tl he.}sl rt* sm cf
Nart.hern Hur:openrr l-uim.ig::lints Elirrrii:isl'rec] .i-r.rt"iie
fii gh t te s, sncl H;.rE;
fr*r:rr li5lli"i,"l'1
eiijl.t, pn r t. :Lt':rii al: Ly
^.'bl*[il;rr-To
"uif';iriai
i ri :[.ur:r:e,t
si.rrp.
,
-{g}ge auc} igiqg
'1'h:i-s $il.ew irrir:ii.
nunrbelrg,
!:l'u.L:iont rElacired
1.
tr)rak.* aLr.EJ
il*.;ir).t-'n nofe that Llr:p:'ielsi.ql_r)ir.*Lftk.ecJ
"i.ni:o:: a.ctLvJ.Ey tn
tlhLcagi: l"e'l whf.t* w6rkr,:rs t-g llrci::cy.rs:i.ng].1'et_:r:epfrftlacks tt*s
Ieconour$"ei equai* .i-n tlre cr:rui:*tteive
Frr]r.er*hr] firrqLiibr j,rlnt
' i j hj " s
p a rtl " c l " p i l n t$
i u c * n f l l cts
i ri th * mpruyers.tt
w sa
accorapanfed by $ rattler
general {rccept.rnce r:f F}aci.is i.6
eertal.n, sent*1-rubl.i* sltua.tf.sns.,
tlrld€v#fi 1 {:lreye wsre fe.l,t
changes fn iraffierns cf tatntIy,
cl,f.que :ln.cl a!'rsoc.f,3tJ-trna].
(.8 _ " S o
" F. 359) "
re l a t{ o n e h i p s
- 46-
nf
fj,urtrett.,i.tJ*hi:t.rrr*c::r.r1^$i.lti{1nd 1,1,}}(j,.wfe}r
r}or}r{.)
llt], fttiil ,l!:l,l:i-*.li*,. r:ii], (i0* LittPsJl;lilt, 24, s$(;
i)$rt:r'lirp,jirii:.,ti
, *r'rci.5,LItXJi-:,qg:Slig.
JllUliu.li,)::illf
,;l'rrr c i"t 'ir ri tr r'1.lr g{ t:l:i.i s g:tirr"i # d .,
tlhe f,.1-*w of
",'-nrtil-tgrnitrt-s;
r^lasi sh;lrply
di'nri n.i-*iir*:il
& seeildy
ei.i: f-Ttc, Ilj.r:st
wi.t:ir t.hsr i:r,-rlL''r"rl.r*t1r^
'Ilher .fJ,jr::riLutlrl $ei*crrril.i:Jur:j_d Wars 'hr'ought
wRi' i. rltlu:l t:r ie $*-'o\rer
fli r,: r,r;;tr:rtr.rt.iti"riq
fl..*';.r r:f scurlirt;
ifl{ir.c}'|.,i:'fiv(le:rrIl*ilr:,i.. i'i;lr]:ur
5S'0C}* befwenn 3$1h sr,ii
'lly
L:i'li4,
evefy
i,st:i.
nrou.nd tht*
d]..L tlre*:rrr R"i'$uF!hi i rti. t..i",ri
r'"*ntle)'r *i'
*rrd [.1."1]rry.
t llt.! cr,l&:** .l ,,i'i " ., rre:;.*.1.
i.y CIne Fer'$()n in
r{e}:{i 'i.i }
tlr*rr:
I.'lcrrl,J ldatt', a.nd
t t r V ; ' t i. , l ' i . i t
lirlrI t.l!.cil .1-i.tf trei vrelt:sir*i:1.i'eaS i"n a.lrei
l'it /.(t,.1 ult'!ii:.r."1
.1.5;
:
IIflt
I.t. J-s nrli;' u.Rtlsr;rl.J. J-or: ri .l.nrrllrr;r-p_1c*,
r,r;ii..'i.olu,:,"li.
t;r,
'[:t::p1:".n
ft:a re*:tlr.i. S.I:outl t*
.i.:ii'c :i,ri 't-irr,i r:i t y itri
t
t
i3 i:olr>It'f
:f'rr,..:til.*t..i-lr,:t:ivel
[L'i:i nrl:. rr]:,.-:r.rt:t itc"
"
,Litii,l,rr su,i:h rr:*J.uri:.;gl;t
l:ierii: $s i.I-t;;l in"lri"1.,,.t
$l;:.tk
--l,lr::rdl:lp.^
s.sr.q-.J,JrB:iiii" .-U!.
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The frul-tfulness
cf this
divlsJ"on nil-l
l:crcomeapparent :i.n the pages that
fo11ow.
Once a decision was rnadeto publish BLack Metropolls,l
intention
wa$ to publish
it
methodology in the "soclal
have been the llniversity
as a research report
with
sciences'n (I*$- , F. xiv) ,
of Chlcago Press.
th* origlnaL
emphasls upon
'irhe publ
The introducEion
l-sher was to
was to have
been written
by I.l" Loyd Warner, who wasr at that time, Professor of (social)
Anthropology
at the University
of Ch:i-cag;o, St. Clair
had sirnpLy been one of many fleld
Research ProJect, was, in late
one year to write
a" first
1940, o$fere<l finances and released time for
draft
for many years. )
two chapters--i*€"
color-llne."
of the. r*ork"
(The fuudfng was provided by
wlth which Warner maintalned a
Drake rrrote a draf t of twenl-T*one of the twent,y-
1 of the entire
(fire latter
who, since 1937,
workers i-nvolved ln the Cayton-Wutrror2
the Rosernoald Founclation, an organization
relation
Drake
trook except one of th.* r:hapters on "the
was written
b5' Cayton.) 'fhj.s was the ini.tial
Later a decision !{as made to gear the mode of presentation3
larger
audtence.4
text,
to a
Cayton secured an agreement with Harc.ourt-Brace to
1.
The research
2.
Th e re s e a rc h p ro j e c .t was i n f;rttt cl i recteri l ry C ayton.
W arnerrs
ol fuuds-*a business he
rol"e had to do roith the acquisition
and
w a s q ti i te g o o d e l t--.1 n cl w i r" h provJ" cl i ng (ol ' ten unsol i c.i ted
someti.mes unr.iantecl) advice,
3.
4,
was qql
origlnal."Ly
intencled for
publlcation,
rrmode of
T " tri s u s a g e i .n n n l i e s a n an;l l yt' i cal
di st.i .nctl -on betw een
s
Tihl
distiilcrfon
and "rydg*€_p:_e.g-g,!!qjF.ir:j!.'t
_51g*igg$g:1"
i s a s s u m e d th ro u g h o u t
thi * paper r i l $ npterl earl i er.
We will
return to certain
concerns regarcling the relation
a c tu a l
a n d p ro s p e rc ti v e aud:l enc.es to the forrn and cpntent
Drake t s mai or r.torks.
*62-
of
of
p ublis h
presentation
the mode of
b ook t c
' Ih i s
t he w o rk ,
fo r
t har
RLc har d W r lgh t
asFnme tts
a g re e rn { -:n t w as sub-i eet
be altered
a rro re g e n e ra l
tt: u ' ri re
presenr
th e
form.
ltre core of
from
that
re.adershi p;
i n tro d u cfi on
The g!1*
the hook is
1.
!'lighr
2.
l,and of
3.
T h e G r:e a t M:i g ra ti o n
4.
Race Riot
5.
lletrtre*n
to
and that
the i o' ork.
**
(2)
for
I
Part
IT
tc-r l'reedoin
Prcxnise
e n d A fte rm a tl" r
T-\.roWars
6.
Al o n g
7.
Crossing
8.
T h e Bl a c k
L
The.]otr Ceiling
th e
C o l o r* l ,i n e
the
Color*Line
G tre ttc r
10.
T h e S h .i f t:i n g L i n e
1,1.
Democracy arrd Eccincnr-i,cNecessi.ty:
Job Ceilirrg
I3r:eaking Ehe
L7- ,
D e mo c ra c y a rrd E c o n o mj c N ecessi .ty:
Workers and th"e New Lini.ons
B l ack
13.
Democraey and FoJ.itica-1. Expediencv
of
C al or
-63-
convi nce
The book thus
knornr is
rhe
thar
a scholarrs
C ayton
as ft:lJ,ows;
P art
(1)
tsro r:ondi ti ons:
appropri.ate
$gt_l?J>glig
dlr ided
to
revision.
came to
Part
III
14.
Bro n z e v i l l e
15 -
th e
16.
t{ e g 5 ro B u s i n e s s : I-fy th and FacL
17 .
Business
18.
The l"terasure of
19.
Style
of Living*llpper
24.
Lower
Class:
2L.
fi re Wo r:i d o f
22,
Ih e
23.
Advancing
P re s s
Fcwer of
a n d P ul pi t
Uncler & Cloud
the
Man
Cl,ass
Sex and lr;ltii.lv
l i re l ,o w er C l ass
Wa y of
Mi d d l e * c l a s s
l " i fe
Race
th e
I.\j
P art
24,
Of Tlrlngs
The r eal1" y p i v o ta l
to
divislon
occurs
between Chapters
tu t ing
( 1)
is
C h a p te rs
a. case unto
far
distinct
Come
itself
l
th e
f3 a^nd 14.
occupied,
at
the hlstorical.
a given
point
(especiall1',
time,
t-i re
has
the effeet
C hapte.r:s 14 ttrrough
bc,ok.1
is
prinrarily
of
eons[l-
ZL (C hapter
cl evel op-
Chicago predominarely
of
in
ttre context
of
"I'IiCwest Metropolts"
this
"hookt' that
to n . oE e ttraL w tren the fi w o vol umeu revi sed,
I t j " s i n te re s ti n g
pa p e rb a c k e d i ti o n
o f Bl a_gk {gt-r_o-qol i s w as puhl -i shed by H arper
i nto preci sel " y
an d R o w i n 7 9 6 2 ., th e v ol trmes w ere di vi ded
t h e s e ttrw o b o o k .s . tt
-64-
24
hook" would
the i ri stori cal
tr.y Afro*Arnericans)
e c c l n o r r r i " c .d) e v e l o p m e n t
f:i -nci i ngs
suf ficient.ly
llre ilfirst
anal .,vsi s of
thr:se areas of
It
research
entJ.tf"es*'-perhaps,
q u a s i -l { a rxj " st
in
of
division
each to have beerr a seperate
Ctricago takerr as a wirole).
l- ,
This
) as two di.stincc
ttBlack Fletropo.List' (i.e.,
menc of
presc..ntati on
ttrre ru g h 1 3 and (?)
h av e been a s r:c i o l o g i -c a l .,
(i,e',
in
Rlchard Wright discusses in his
But i{right
introduction.
l"s ajr'iare that
there
j-s another aspect to the methodol-ogy
of the work (and, pertraps, the theory as well),
following
insighrful.
Thus, he makes the
cooulent :
The ck:minant
hallmark
of
book
the
i.s tire
t o"!.Ui9__q1
q:]l.lI"sg*, nJ
soqb$gl:-es-fbg-ssgbgu
pe!!*_E_esis&sy-_e11{_ant!3nglgsr.
rhe book
e.xgnllngg ttr e sr:clel_C i_1-qg.!g5g.-eg
l\ggeh^;i!
ftgesL-g.p-a -serLsr!-*Ur*!irs,_yEgbjs_lhe"
and i t gx,gg!3es.
epfl{ggg!-*gg-ju-tglfqgglggy;
lhe_-p_Lqggsses*!nd dy4+rtiss wFi+ t.a}g
ig3lgl*fi_qlgf lqrg ,. whlgl_t $ t-be:tpploacil-l€
so.cj.olo8y(L.I. , lr. xx) , I Tralics added.l
O bv lous l y ,
th e
which Wright
nam ely ,
(i
la
p e ri o d
th e
pr io r
t he
P ars o n l a n s )
reflects
1 9 30ts
of
d o m l n a te r{
the
tti e
h e ma k e s l s
q u i te
' r s oc io l o g i c a l
, i*
p e rs p e c L i v e t'
an " ant h ro p o l o g l c a l "
and 1940' s
bistorical
$i tren methotl ol ogi cal
of
de-fi nj .ti ons
there
soci al
socl ol ogy
the booktt of
w oul d
tw o nrodes of
of
argui ng
anal ysi s
thi rteen
cl omi rrates chapters
()
S t.at e. s.
anal yse s
that
(dri ch
nrgue
ctrapLers,
fourteen
ther e
As d i s ti .n g r-ri s h e d
f rom Mal i now skl an
- 65-.
is
tha t
w hl le
through
tr,Jenty-three.
1.
la
the under-l yi ng
l ci nds
thtrn hi s
f i .rst
anthropol og y
the l l nj -ted
have been more ac.curat.e to
donri nat.es the
p e rs p e c ti v ett
i ri
Lw o di stl nct
I' Iow ever r r& E her
functi on alLsm
furrcti onal i sm
may be outrnoded,
are
anthropofu:gytt
coniuncture:
i nfl uencl ng
di sci pi i ne
c o rrect:
th ro u g h o u t
s ta te m e n t)
.q specifi.c
1950ts r* hen theoretl cal
BL a c k H e tro p o l i s .
a t t c o m b L n a ti o n
and ttsoci al
" soci ol ogyt'
w a " r si gni fi cantl y
L tro rrg h l fri g h trs
noL an u n L ru e
a
th e
ttre . p e rl o c l
to
Nonet he l .e s s ,
ls
of
R a d c l i ffe -Brc ,w n l )
em ploy e d i n
b etw een
eniploys here
but
point
d l s tL n c ti o n
funcf i " onal .i sm and others.
Laterr
w€ w111 consJder some methodological- distinci:ions
two segments of the book.
presentation
SfiTE
AL present , the facus wil"l be on the mode of
empl_oyed
.
OT TI{R PRESENTATTON
We have already
noted that,
by Caytoa, a considerable
nhereae Drake was hardly
nrLtlng-styLe
to,
of the writlng
responsrble
hls--a
for
and concLse, but the text
all
fact
Drake can readlly
Drake's work as a whoi-e (r*cludrng
le slnple
though the ieaeareh project
proportlon
ls unmlstakenly
of even llstenlng
nlght
between these
was ctlrected
tras done by Drake.
of che content
Thua,
of che book,much of the
anyone who has apent years reartlng,
attesr
to.
As ls
his dissertatlo,,),
the caee ulth
the Bentence 6trucrure
ls lreLl-fnt egrated and r'11ve1y"__one
even say, ttenterlalning.,,l
Perhaps, the best example of (non*f tetionalteed)
vivaclous,
comes frcrn the chapter on ntTheWorld of the Lower*Class."
wrltlng
reader may have suspected as much. )
The headinge and sub-headings
sprlghrly
(The
Ln that
chapter are the followlng;
IThe World of Bronzevillets Lower.-il],assJ
Introdnction to this World
SS"tting c>rlt,the Depre$sion
The Prinracy of ntpJ-easurett
The Unclerworlcl
l.
That is, ther:e are .interesting tltl.es ancl subtttles,
"livelyt,
and vlvid adverbs and adjectiV€cr ancl sc) fi:rth,
At po1nts, the
book reads a bit like a ncvel--a point thatp BS we shall
see,
has Lts negative as well as posLtive slde,
perhsps, this style
reflects Drakets background in English Llterature
(whlch he
studted wlth Alri.son Davls at Hampron r'stitute)
arrd his
chlldhood assocLation with literaie
preacher$.
The l-aeter
certainl"y
generalLy have a rray with lllustrative,
metaphorlcal
language.
-66-
Rel.igian
and
O l -d Wl n e
Prodigal"
Snatching
llhe Tiine
the flhurch
l n N ew B ottl es
Sons and Dairghters
Brands from ttre Burnlng
of the End
The Con-rrnunianof
A Jovful
Tles
Noise
th a t
Shepherds
Hherever
Re1j"gious
$aints
t}:e Lord
Bi n d
of
ttre Sheep
of
Ne\,r Gorls of
Revolt
unto
Two or
D e fe n d e rs
the
Three
th e
the
are Gathere,J
Fai th
City
C ro s s * C u r rent.s
against
H e a ven
Whren tlre Old Gorls Go
Gett,i.ng Ahead
Social
a lly
r at her
gent junior
science
termiriology
s p a ri -n g l y .
T h e w o rk
eollege
is
utilized
ccul .d be " eaei l y
c ri .ti -c i z e
foc us ,
th j " s
B ut
res pons e
wou l d
1.
is
tfk e l y
Black
Metropolis,
but
actu-
comprehended by an tntel Li -
stuqlent.o'l
S om e-, e * !J' , mo re . me th o d o l o g i cal l " y
u n doubt edly
in
D re k e ts
ttre h i n d
b e ti ra r
ri goro' us
w o rl t aa J" acki ng i n
socl ;rl
sci enti sts,
arnal .5rti cal - preci sl on
r:f r:r:j .ti r:fsm D rake * * or,rl eireadi l y
a p rospecti ve
w oul d
acacl eml c author
ancl
aceept.
al w ays
has eertal n
Th i s i s l { L p rh ra s e D ra k e onee used w hen di scussi ng
w i fh me the
k i n d o f re a d e r: h e tro p e d w oul d be abl e to undersfancl A fri can
and the 44.g-gF-Q&q$gj..e,.
Almosr a77 of Drake I s work
d be
"oui
re ader.
" n rl e rs t
-67-
Hls
not the least
chotces,
of which hes to do wJ.th decirlirrg on the make-up of
one's potentLaL audience and gearing oners work accordtngly.
Drakers choicesr
1
liberate.-
ln any case, have apparently
IIe has almost always opted to either
always been qulte
dfrect, hts wrltings
de-
to a
popular audience (e. g. , to Eake the uost olrvious case, in the articles
publtshed Ln nonacademic Journals,
end of thls
whlch are incluclecl in our list
paper of Drakers published and unpubllshed writlngs)
audience that
lncludes
breth academlcs and lay-persons *
at the
or to an
He has rarely,
dLrected hts publieations
strictl.y
af an audtenr.e of hi,s academic
,
co11-eag,.res.' (An obvlously intere$tfng
exceptiorr to this tendency wouli
have been the publ-icat lon of the lnltf
as it
turns out , ft
However, wlthin
dLfference
and that
parts
But ,
was never publlshed. )
So $1?ck-l'{S!Igpgllg
cover,
al draf t of Blask MetroPglls-,
fs wricten
tn ordinary
larrguage*-from
cover to
these general parameters, there J"s a detectable
between the mode of presentation
of the next ten.
of the ftrst
thirteen
Althougtr the bastc source materlaLs
of the book were intervlew'documents
for
and newspaper excerpts
chapters
botlr
coll-ected
1.
We wlll consider the questi"on of conscious and noE-quLte
conscJ-ous choices in a later section of t-trl"s paper.
It is a
terribly
lmportaut issue.
2.
In thls vein, Drake wrote the fo.Llowing Ln a July, 1.981 letter
prrbltshed tn an anthroto the author: "Itve never had an article
pological,
or sociolog{cal , Journal- exeept ttre one ln lluman
O r g a n l " z a t l c n [ 1 9 5 5 ] a n d t h e one Ln the Brfttsh $octologlqal Rey.lgw
[ 1 9 6 0 ] . " H e a d d e d , " T h e b o o k revlews aonT[*cffiilr-
* 68-
I
b y r s s ellr : r : her s
i n rrc J -.re c l w i th
t :f. th e b o ri k i s
se c c : nd p- il' r : f ,.
a nal- " y s is is
t-h e r Caytorr* W ar$er R esearch
fa r
m* re
p re s i :n t.e rd I,ri a ti i ri e l e s s
' rethnographi ctt
(ari d. tl i us
Froj ec.t-,' '
t.trl rn the
fi rst.
c..' l eartr.ydl stort.ed)
the
The
ttethrrographi c
4
pre.ient.tn'-
In
the
sr,r:,rnd parc,
t,tiere is
a t,iignf.ficanl-1.v greater
attempE on
D::ake ancl Cairtcn"ts parrl
r i ) " $ e e t h c r s o r l . r J t ' ; i { l t . i ' r er r a r i o r . i s s u b . ! e c - t s o f
investig;rt.iclr:r "se{*t'it,
aiid ftve.n tr; teilk
lltris
shift
abcr.rt ir
i"s i.r'nmanenfi.i.r: & cornment rnade in
fn
iltr;lirtt:r
t'their
t4"
the
?
own languag€"to-
The courment is
as
follaws:
G l re tto i .n n l l .i l t-s i r fe rm, * ;l rryi rrpl {Iver:tones crf
povt:rty
;rn"cl suf fer.-i"ngn of exr:lr"rsiorr *ncl slrbr:rdinatf,etn,
I.n M.iclwtrst. ]*tetrop6rlf s it i*
u s e C h ./ c i v l -t: l e a c l e rs w herr they w ant to shi :ck
l 4r:st of tLre nrrl i " c rrmp rl " a c e fi c .yj .n tc ; ;rc tj on.
p
e
o
p
.
l
e in ther Biack BeIt refer [o tlieir
riery
i:arnmririity *$j tllie. $cr.rtl: Slclen I Lrut everStbc,dy
:i"s il] st-i fami.l iar wittr anr:[her name f crr the
srea*--Braneevll.l.e,
Thls n€.me seeils to h;lve
b e e n u s e d a ri .g i n a rl l y
of E ti e
by rrrr edi tor
SgiSggg-_Bf5o r+ho, ln 1y30, sp(]rriior:ed a
c t-rn t.e s t, to e .l .e c t- a 'l ntayor of B ronz.evi .l l et,
A y e e r o r tw c l a te r
rul i en ttri s new spapermarl
"
joined
fh e l ]e f e n c l e r st.aff , i re. tocl k tri s l rrai rrc l ti ..l ' i i ^ ri th tr.tm, ' Ih e annrral el ecti on
of tl re
tl .I;ry o r a f Bro n z e v i l l e *
gr:ew J-ntt: al cornrnuni ty
e v e n t w i fl l i i ! s i g n l fi c ance
far beyond thaL
of a circula[j-on srunt*. " The tHayort,
u s ti ;:1 1 y a b u s i n e s s $ l *l r, j .s i .naugur:i rtecl w ,l tl r a
co I CI:-i uI cerenony and i-l lral 1 .
] I o w e v e r" , fh e tv ro p ;rr:fl s of [ti e boc' k i l .pparentl ,y cl o not make equl vaJ . e n t u $ * r q . i L s e c o n r l n r y s o u r c r s ( e " 9 . , s r : c l " e r l "s. c i e n c e s t u d i - e s ) .
T h i s p r i l c t . i * e i . s c r ' : it l q i . i c * d i r r c r r r i : r l i s c t r s s j - o n o f m e t h o d u l o g v
gfgg[*f$.I55j.111-ig"
It lu-rs ai l ring. trj.s tcry in ;rnf hropology ,
We will
type *f
in
re trrrn tc s o n l e o1' the nrethodol .ogi ca.l prt:bl erns i n thi s
str.idy,
{The terminol,rgy enpl,*yed here is €he authorts,)
-69-
Throughout hts tenure he is expected to
serve as a symbol of the comriunity t s
lle vtsits
asplratic.rns.
churches, files proM
a
y
o
r
o
f
tests with the
the city, and acts
greeter
vieitors
to Bronzeas offfcial"
t"rf
people
vi.lle.
Tens of thousands of
partlcipate
l.n the annual electl-on o1' ttre
tMByort .
Throughout the remalnde.r of thls hu*k vre
shall use the tmrffi.*rlack
Metropolts becauge it see.nsE--*rup'j:ess the"
feellng that the people h.nve about tireir
own cornurunity . They -l"fve in the BIa clr
Belt irnd to them it is m.ore than the
t ghetto t revealed by sti:tistical
analysis.
Chapter 20, the chapter on the "Lower Class: Sex and Fan:ily'r , actually
gLns wlth
a s o rn e w h a t fi c i l o n a l i z e d
account
of
an al.l
too
real
inciderrt
beI
-I
It was Chrlstmas Five, f 938"
Dr. Maguire
fl n i s h e d
had just
a hard day.
N our for a
highball,
H e shrugged hi s
a n El th e n t o bed.
shoulders and relaxed.
He was just drifting
o ff to s l e e p w h e n the tphone rang.
Sylvia
bounded from the beel ltke
a tennis
bal.l coming up afte:r a smastr f rom the net.
She was that w&f r a.l^ways ready to prof ect
h i m a n c l c o n s e rv e h L s strength.
W hat r+ oul d
h e d o w l th o u t
h e r?
Are you one of the dclctorrs regr.rlar patients?.,.
W e l -L , w h y d o n t t y o u cal l your regul ar
doct,or?. . .
I k n o w , b u t D r. H a g u J-re l s. . . H e snatched
the tphone froru her hancl ln fLrne ta cauctr
tThn.tts the w ay
th e s tre a m o f d e n " rrnci ati on:
you dtcty nlggers atre" You so hr.gh tnn
-l .i ..i rr
llc
mi g h ty n o b o d y k i n re ach yar"
l ay
h e re tn t d i e .
l ,Ih i te doccorr< 1 c:offi e ri .ght
ya. l l l ce dogsr"
Yo re o w n p e o p l e treat
away.
D r. Ma g u i .re w J n c * d .
w h e n th L s h a p p e n e d .
W h e n h e a rri v e e l
l.
at
H e atrw ays shr" rddered
A nd l t. happerred, of ten, . .
th*
buf.l di ng,
the
squad
I n a fo o tn o te ,
Il ra k e explains whi.ch aspects of
a re fi c tl o n a L i z e d
a n d whl-ch are nCIt"
- 70-
the presentatlon
car was at. the door " lier and the police went
in 'gogether. Dr. Maguire puphed his r{ay
through the ragged group of uhil"dren and their
excited elders who jairunedthe hall, of the
dii-apidated hul-lding.
Right this wily, Drlc,
someone call"ed. What is tt? he asked jauntll-y.
Shootlng or cuttJ.ng? Slre stahbed him,
r , ' o l u n t e e r e . da l i t t l e
girl.
B*y, she shore
put that blade in hinr too ! A teen-arge boy
spoke wich obvious admiratJ.ono while a murmur
or corroboraflon
rLppled through the" crowcl
fascinated by tragetly.
For a moment, Dr. Maguf"re felt sicr.k at his
sLomaeh" Are these ury people? he thought.
What in the hell <1o I have ln c:c)$lmon
wi-Eh
them? Tht.s is nThe Race t we t re always
spouting about being proud of . Yealr, Itm
j u s t a n i g g e r , t o o , h e m u m b l e db i t t e r l y .
Then he forgr:t errerything*squalor$
raee
prejudice, his ordrrltttle
trtcks of psychological adJustmenE, lle wa$ a Coctor treaf,ing a pat ient , swif. tly n compffeln
anA
wfth composure.
Howrdja llke to have to give that needle,
honey? A teen-age girl shlvered and squeezed
her boy friendrs han<Ir ES she asked the
question,
Me? I ain I t no doc. But , girl,
he flipped that olt needle in hia shoulder
sweeL, Just llke Baby Ctrlle dict when she put
that bl.ade fn FIr. Ben. You gotta have
e d u c . a t i - o nt o b e a d o c . L o t s o f i t , t o o ( B . l t . , p p , 5 6 4 - 5 6 6 )
It
is important
tr: note that _!S-*gb,."g_glqs,rp_ts,af.S-.I"
{gtte_qtlruLggl--.so atypi.ceil, in fact,
the passage helps to establish
of character
ls
nonet heles s
with
the rest
m e re l y
th e
.
that i.t is a case rrnto ltself.
the basic point:
thi.s quotat,ion,
Ilowever,
though out
of the pr*sent,nfiion in Cirapters 14 through 23,
e x tre me
< :a$e uf
tendency toward t'loose ethnographic
a tendency* * one
ctrescrlption"-*that
*71-
ml ght
cal l
ls present
it
a
throughout
thls
sectlon
of
passage
T his
d o ubt edly
the work.
notl * e d
helpa
alss
tl -re u s e o f
cl as s / s out her n
Bl a c k
p e r s ons
scene of
th e
an attenpt
at
well
at
the
indlcate
fl - ec t s
a c las q _ h { g p
b e llev e
all
t hat
{gtJ:opoJ}s_
utilized
The book is
b e ar s
take
of
w ri tte n
on t he
lssue
tra n riqr-l tretl
En g l i s h )
of
t he
e p l s o de.
" dJ.a1ect"
It
th l s
attri buted
the
Flciie\rei r it
di .f fl cul .[:* -crne
st.anrtard Bngltsh
case.
in
Tl ri s
is
and t o
rnay
re-
B .l -ack
.etatements.
The above-quotecl
rneLtl r:dol ogy,
l ow er-
fmpassi bl e--to
in
their
ufi -
cal -l er
also
rrrghc so)' r
w tro ttspeak"
persons
w e re the
in
to
0b' vi .ous}-1,, such s transcri " ptJon
is
e l a s s rb i a s
Tl re reader
non-stancl arrl
{ j -.e,,
eqF-rrc)gqap.b+c,
?csrrf*gJ.
mainstream
ss lf
a second, poi nL.
sLqtements
n o n -l o w e r-cl ass
pure
of
in
s o rts ,
th e
establ l sh
to
passage al so
a mauter
w e w i l -l
later.
"i
In Chapters I through 13, the tendency r*ward "loose ethnographle
descrlption"
ls
considerably
dlmJ-nlshed.
Therer are signi.f icantl.y
attempfs to ttsee the world throtigh the eyes of the observed."
ls a bit
(e.g.,
"more d.istant " "
historio*l?
1
There ls greater
and statl-stical
context of soctety-in*history.3
data).
f ewer
The crbserver
rel.iance on seeondary sourees
The analysis
takes pl-ace ln the
Thua, one get,$ a $*n.qeof historleal
I.
O f c o u rs e , th e n o ti o n o f ttneutral
ol i $erl ' €l .rt'
n n i s g u i d e d L ma g trra ti r:rr of nai ve eni pi ri ei srn.
w i th o rrt s a y i n g th a t th ts i s nor an i trgume.nt
p rc l p o s i -ti o n t-h a t c e rta J -n bi ases ca.n ben and
?,
As n o te d , th e
present. tt
3.
I use this
rather
awkwarcl*sorlndirrg term here to underscore
the
f act that,
for the socLal scientist--in
any ca$e, the sc'c{al
who chooees Eot to engage irr rnytlr-maklng--ttrere
ean
scientist
tthistorytt
be no
from t'soclecytt and no ttsocietytt
abstracted
f ro n t' h fs to ry " t' It l s al most al w ays dangerous to ena b s trn c te d
'l:easons,tt
gage in such abstrilction,
even ttfor rnethodological
fo rrn e r
s e cti on
is
*77.-
w ri tten
in
hel ongs to the
B ut tt .shoul d go
ag,ai nst the
sl roul d be, control J-ed.
ttethnographi c
tl re
tra ns f or r nat iot t .
a n d s oc ial
T h e re a d e r
pr o c e s s
th a t
is
i n v i t ed
invclves
c ompeti ng
tra n s f or r nat ions
(re s u l ti n g
fro m
World
Depressicln
and so forth)
Wars,
the
see for
to
th e
Great
hersel f/i ri rnsel f
i ntereri t$
M:i grati on,
.
$rake
a ternporal
an6 real ,
l i stori ca]
the
and S econd
Fi rst
apd Caryton write
in
the
i n t. r oduc t ion:
A u o re fru i tfu l
a p p roach to Mi ..dw est Metr:opcrl .i s
th a n g e n e ra l i z i n g
a l ro ut the t spi rS -t of
C h i c a g o n i n th e a h s tra ct
i s to v:i ew the ci ty
a$ spli.t
i.nto cumpeting ecorrornic groulls !
soclal
classes,
ethnl.c groups, and rell-gious
a n d s e c u l a r a s s o c i a ti o ns,
eac.h w i th i ts ordrr
s e t o f tra d i t.i o n s .
fi re vi ol ent
sl ri f ts i n pubri e
sent^iruent and action which char:aclerize
chic.ago
h i s to ry
re fl e c t
th e courbi nati on arrd recombi nati o n o f th e s e g ro u p $ r* hen tti ey feel that thei r
i n t.e re s ts
a re me n a c e cJ. Out of thi s w el [er
o f fe a rs a n d l ,o y a l ti e s
and i nterests
have
e x p l o d e d i i o m e o f A m e r i .cars most bi zarre
and
clrama tic iricidents-*rilrts
, strike-s r eolq.pgrrle l e c tl o n s ,
re f o n n mo vements , and reactj .ons
a g a i n s L re f o rn r (BrU " , p, Zg ) .
In
i sti c
of
wro t e
all
sum' one'basic
but
o n e c h a p te r
manuacript
f lnal
t ex t "
p rl m ar ily
is
style--a
Dr ak e f s w c rk --d o m i n a te s
Ilglrogo.lis
th e
rvritlng
"
of
th e
th e
Ilrake
enti re
and Cay[on
a n c l e d i to r,
a c oll- abor at i v e
e ffo rt.,
it
T i rus,
is
readable
booi c.
character-
A s ncl ted earl i er,
Orahe
l ost)
collaborated
tire pr.otlucti.on
iu
of
ttre chapters.
in
spi -t*
D rake!s
style
(nor.r apparerrtl y
i n i fi al
D ra k e p ro d u c e c l d ra fus
as e rl ti c
highly
of
tti e
B tack
C aytr:n func.ti -oned
f;rct
w r:i r,$.ng styJ.e [hat
that
Lhe w ork
cl omi nates
Ehe text.
B ut
t he
te x t,
even in
te ::rrr$ of
"styleiln
is
not
part
of
BJ.a.cE-.I'tpLq$_olig that
the
d l ffer s
wit-trout its
s ubs t an ti a l l y
"Bronz ev ill. e"
in
th e
fro m
divisj.ons.
th e
p a rt
| te fh n o g ra p h .i c
that
aspect
w e at-e her:e cal l i ng
The node of
i.s concerned
concerned
present.
-73-
tt
with
w i uh
presentation
of
"society-in*historyil
the
gf
cl escri pti on
r:f
SOCIAL REI.ATIONS OF RESBARCHAND PUBLICATION
Rega rd i n g
are
five
basic
th e
social
points
t,o be established
(2)
lt began as a program of "problem*or:iented"
re s e a rc h th a t w a s n o t J.ntended for ptrhl i cati on;
(3)
lt
(4)
it involved
conneiction;
( 5)
p rn d u c t w a s pubi i stred by a rnai nstream
th e fi n a l
p re $ s a n d p rr:m o te d b y tl re l i bera,L " errl i .gJrtened' f
communi ty .
was a project
clf)
the
groups 1n the
interest
the Work Projects
W ar ner Res e a rc h "
a period
of
im por t ant
to
was lntended,
for
proJect was a pr:oject
r:esearch;
tearn r:esearch;
a strong
and
lJniversity
p o i rrts
is
of
lar:ger
Chicago
i :rs fol l -ow s:
and to powerful
State
of
proj ect
Thi s
w as ti ed
{rrsual-iy relatively
to
friendly)
society.
a{rd ,Sp.gqqglg
t'The origi.nal
ploy ed
of
there
here:
the Black Metrupcl.is
fu n d e d a n d s p o n s o re d
r€sources
l']rnds
ancl publ l cati on,
research
of
(1)
O ne way t o s u mma rL z e th e s e
(the
o rg a n i zati on
wer e
their
In
daEa were gaEtrered on a series
AdnrinisEration,
(S ^ rl !-, p .
x i i j .)
anri referred
"
econornic crisls--lasted
n o te
in
ttra t
large
g ra d u a te
th i s
fu n d i ng
measure , to
s tu d e n ts
' fhl s
of
to:in
pr'cjects
thjs
fundi ng* * provi ded
fi.nanced by
book as the
by the
from appro><imately 1936 to
came near
prr:vide
w i r o rrsed the
c:n the
jSF-q.
encl of
$c'i11saf
furrds bhey recei ved
S tate
l-940.
the
the
Caytonduri ng
IL
D epressi on
persons
em-
to hel p
pay
schoo.lJ.ng.
addition
to
funding
from
t . [ - l eW o r k l r r o j e c t s
-74-
is
administration,
the
and
Ros en w a l d F u n d p ro v i d e d
Ju lius
w e re p re p a re d b y members of
that
m onogr aphs
(D uplic aLlon
w a s p ro v i c i e d
(i ,e .,
year
addit ional
to produce
run out)
It
Fund.
Rosenwald
ongci.ng
Fund pai. d f or
fe llows hips
ft:r
g ra tl u a te
ter,
ccrnsult
should
Embree was fr:rmerly
t ' lT he v a rL o u s
sear c h,
t he
lllinois
I' ubl. ic
W elf a re .
Wirth,
of
here
A dmi ni strati on
t\ry' ogeneral
h i s to ry
i :f
s o ci aJ. research
th a n
a ny other
Bdr'eind Ernbree .end Julia
the
p ro :i e c ts
$ ta te
the Universiry
l^lar-ner maintained
Secorrd,
:l t
agency;
in
i ntere* tei rJ
an
Rosenwald
the
al -so provi ded
expl orl ng
nr o: : e
ma t -
tl ri s
hlaranan, J"ygAlg"n-tjfr_ts.qF-lg.
F'und.)
Emp l o yrnerrt S ervi e.e and the
of
(8.M.,
Chicaga"
p.
R e-
Juveni l e
Cook Countv
iSureau of
and lir " Louis
s p o n ri ors w ere D r:. Har:l Johnson
of
the
regardi tg
w e re spC In$ored by ttre Insri -tute
In d i v i d u a l
had
con< l ucted by A fro-A meri cans
fundi ng
(:i tre reader
s c ,.i d y .l
iread of
an
for
furrdi ng
poi nts
a nunben clf ye..arsi.
F-und for
m o re . p rC Ij e c ts
in
t his
P roj ecu,s
ttre project
with
.
The l tos en-
A d:ni ni strati on.)
, as wa.s not.ed e.arli-er , W" Lloyd
e ra
dur ing
t.o remain
vari ous
ttre hook..
e s ta b l i e h
to
r^rith the
relation
of
a,Craft
First
for: Ilrake
the
team (B ,y. r p . xi l i )
research
the
of
eompLeti on
the
b y the W crk P roj e* Ls
th e ll ork
a f te r
i m p o rta n t
is
fo r
pr-orr.i.r1edfunds
wa1c1 Fund also
for
a s si st-ance
xiv).
OriJLinaL Th{rs u
evi:n[ua13."y
amergr,:cJ
BlAc\"*!!g*!.fq.il91:{ji
a*;,a gencral study of the internal
s t r uc t ur e
l ar ger
of
m et r o p o l i s .
o pinion,
it
oppos it e
was th e
s ay ,
pr o j e c ts :
t he
*l .
and of
" B ro n z e v i l .l e "
'l'hough
has no obvious
A ].i s t
social
ca$e in
ti r*
fi h e w ork
e a rl .y
t' T h e s tu d l .e s
Is
phase of
Fl acl c. I" l etronol i s
of
r:bvl ousl .v
practi cal
d i re r:t
th e
re.l ati .on
i ntended
emphasi s.
ftre proj ect,
or,
o f th o s e fu n d e d reads al most
sci.entlsts
of that €r8.
lihe
a
of
ttwhu t
E h.e
publ i c
i nfl uence
o.r t' appl i * dt'
began el s i nrresti geti ons
-7S-
to
to
The
one shouJ.cl
the
general
s whott
of
U'lack
n g tl-re p-rob lgg._ o f j tg1t*lgjg$gqggll@
s o c ia 1 condl t i ons s urroundi
I South Side.
"'1
EvenEuall.y, the research grew to asaume "the character
a study of the cul"ture of the entLre
context wlthin
p. xiii;
comnnunlty, in order
to determine
of
the
which the problem of delinquency could best be analyzedt' (8.M. ,
ltalies
added),
The Work ProJects
Aclminisf"ratj-on fundlng hras not for
produclng a book, and no book was initially
persons involved
ln the prsject.
ttre purpose of
envlsioned by the prlncipal
Ttre. intent
was to develop a data-base
that
could be used by persons doing (more or Less f srmal ) ,qocial research on
Chicagots Black corununLty.
Tt was also assumed that
soree of the field
workers
would make use of the data they gathered.
Team Research
T he B l a c k
As not ed
F fe tro p o l i s
ear l l e r,
p ro j e c t
th e p ro j e c t
w as a prr:j egt
soci.ologist,
Horace R. Cayt.on.
a nd t he
pr ir na ry
t.o fu n c l i n g
S oeiology
an d A n th ro p o l o g y ,
a r elat iv ely
ch ur c hes
the
and a s s o c i a ti o n s
"lower
1.
m l -n o r f tg u re
class,"
(fnat
at
in
organi aed
w a s headecl i ry a B l ack,
trained
link
of
s o urces,
The chlef
th e
U si versi cy
advisor
operat.i on,
of
C hi cago.
supervi sed
he was a sub*cii-rectrrr
of
of
the
C hl cago-
project,
Frofessor
D rake,
the
n a n d w a s a parti c.i pant* observer,
is,
to
w as W , Ll oyci hl arner,
th e U ni veroi ty
team research.
of
i ni tl al l y
regearch
orl
especl al l y
arftoi l g
ttre project.)
I n th i s c o n n e c ti r:n i t i " s i uter:est[:i .ng to note that,
duri ng thl s sa m e
p e rl o d ,
a n u m l re r o f r:th * r studi e.s * f B l ack ycl uth w ere conducted
u n d e r ti re a u s p i c e s n f the. A merj .can Y outh C onuui ssi on: A l l l son
D avi s
and John Dollartl, Sir_.{sgLgf_Ag*_*-ir.gg:
The Eqr"sryter,irylsyetopme"ng
gt Ngs.r-q
o Fffinklffi- ru"*
.\orrtr'*lg__ge__ueq"jG\f
@
aL the crossygxil* &eit_Ssrgp:le$-qy*!s:gl9
;
charl.es s. Johnson, Growi"ngL1pJ.n the E1acffi
Ruta.l S.guth_;W. Lloyd tr{arner, Bufurd H. Jnnt;i
Color and HurnanNature:
Xggtq Personality
rest"ffirs-
f)errelr:prneni:in a Northern
Black youth.
CCIlor and lluman Nature utllized
Fletropolis
AariJeilf:
-76-
Y6m--iliE;
and Iffi
data f rorn the Black
From 1936 to 1940, ttapproxirnarely tr{enty re$earch students with back*
grounds in specialJ"zed fiel,ds parti-clpareci in tlre coll-ection
(F-r!!. r p. xiii.).
of materiaL"
who were trained,
techniques.
these
vLa the project,
prev:iorrsly,
Ln partf-cl"pant*nbservat:!-on and interviewing
monographs
is
in
fncl"ude,l
ty of gh{gajo
the wri.tjng,
in
century"
on lts
C hic ago
work
sc ienc e
In his
Rober t
s e n s e th a n
te c hnJ . ques o f
of
st
th e
proJect
is
of
that
the
developed ln thls
cllnate--
Lts perma*
demo[strated.
arid putrl,ications
research
rnlntions
areas
(uti l i ri ng
(uttllzlng
l } l :.rcL, Merropol l s
one nrtp$* say,
< i i .scrrssed i n
ls
the
of
th e U n i v e rs J -ty
part
of
C ayfon
of
t'caste*cl,ass
of
a l arge*
of
the
* 7 7*
soci al
researchtti " n
atrove.
' i uras
trai .ned
re"$pective
soci ol ogLcal
soci-al
by P rcfessor
C hi .eago ancl uas w el -I equl ppect w i th
a n d w i th
the
freme-
the
the
ttteam
Note,'r Warner comments on the
C a y to n a n d l l rake.
e c o l o g i .s ts
decades of
c o mi l l .ement.s the w r-,rk of many vol umes
a i ) e x a mpl e,
th n t
four
donfnated aoelology,
as we have" to sone extent,
on race
ls
l -t
t'Hethodological
t r ainL n g
E . P a rk
Thie
the flrst
th e w ork on urban
h e re
re s e a rc h i
wr l- t ln g s .
a m uc h lar ger
scienc e
of
during
thar
and ttrat
The basicr point
sc a] - e t r adit lon
of Chlcago Lirerally
one of the most irnnortant corrtexts in whieh Black
p a rti c u l n ro
of human ecology)
m odel" ) .
that
shouLd be viewecl i*
S c hoo l ---i n
of
ill'ri,l paper,
l.ts auccess, but. which aleo left
product,
flnal
We noted earljer
Sgltglgl-i-s_
mono-
A cornpLete lisC
fhe book.
Ttte Black Metropolls
which nay weLj- have insured
nent laprlnt
a number of
Connectlon
and urban eocla1 sciences in general,
a fact
af
an apSiencl.f-xto
As ls wel.l kuorl-n, the Unlvefslty
the t!{entieth
resu.l-t.ed in
Lhe tean-r"resecrch
were utj,lized
that
Unlversi
Ttrio team wes supplemented by "orciinary people"
The team included both Bl.acks and whites.
As noted
graphs
and organizatlon
nethod*
used. by
the
Fark and Burgess In the str-rr1yof c*nunrrnity life"
Tfres;e techniques
were adcied
to those used 1n the study' of Yankee Cit5' and Deep liouth (9",!I. r p. 777) .
(Cayton would lat,er develop considerabl"e interest
psychoanaJ.ysis. ) Wartrer nr:tes that
techniques by Prof essor Allison
had been tralned
Davis 1 ar Dillarcl
ln partictpanf,*observation
ttlower classtt---ttand was
continui"ng his
of Chicago" (S*lq, , p.
Ihis
that,
brings
u.s [o questions
It, is also
ancl intervj-ewtng
prim;rrily
of re]"at,j-ve pcwer " It
important
a heavily
the first
is cruci.al- to note
had yet
to
As nc.rted earlj-er,
by tl're Un{versltS'
piece,
to publish
five
Yankee City
sttrdtes
lf.st, hj-nr es seni.or auttror),
but
tho'ugh Warner r^ranted Bl*glq".4g!:ro-
of Clhleago Press and wanted iE Eo be
Cayton indeirendently
secured an agreement
the book. During the cerurse of the projecL,
of who would be senior euthor arose.
1.
at the University
to note that. r €r$ is w5.<Ie11:
known, the overwhelming bulk
rnethodologtcal
wl-th llarcourf-Brace
question
work on the
exarninatlons ; Warner was € prclf essor of some eminence,
graduate students"
to be puhlished
f or his
proj ect tregirn, Cayton and Drake were grq4ua.lg
was not done by Warner (though these stutlles
pgllg
involving
e. e Drake
shllls
sf,uciies Ln anthropology
maJorLry of the rese*rch g**t r+ritirrg for
by hls
Universttyrt--i.
former an advanced graduate student , the latter
preliminary
take his
and
777) .
when the Black Metropolis
-€lgge.{lg--the
theory
Drake t'had been tral-ned :iq research
rol"e j-n the Ileep South study,
two-year
in personality
f[
wa$ I{arnerts
contention
the
that
g ra d u a tl n g
D avi s
Afte r
fro m W Ll l j " ams C i * 3l * ge 1n L924, A l l i son
studiet{
at l{,arvard tinivc,rsley
and reee'ived m.asters I degrees ln
(Jn s fel l ow shf p frour the R osen*
h o th En g l i s h a n d a n tt i no;rol i i gv.
wald ltund, he attended
r.he Lorrclon iiehool of Econcmics where he
I'lai"inotEski ancl l"anceloE Hogben" Agaln
studied
under Bronislaw
he c.ompl eted l i i s P h . D . tn anthropol -og y
o n a R o s e n w a l d f e l l o wshi p,
of Chicago. Drrring 1935-1940, he was Professor
at the University
Studies
at
of Anthropology
and Head of the Dj"vi.sion of Social
i n N ew or.l eans.
D i l l a rd
U n i v e rs i ty
*78-
as sen.Lur au t hor * Cayt-t-rr:L
s$ second arrt-hor, and Drake aa
he should be listed
all
Warner then said he would provide
of the bookg Warner wrote none of it.)
Th,is evenfual-ly Lrecarnethe'tMethod.ological
the introduction.
of the book. The brasic polnt
here tr.s the follcwing:
endeavors) included
stetus
this
the same relative
r:e.lafiicns u.f pow*r;
l-hat there was a status
other
similar
that
hierachy
hleraciry
woul<l lrave been wliol.try transformed,
ranh.ings, into
ttr is quite
a hieraciry
of relations
wich exactly
of power had not
agai.nst Warner. I
possibJ-e ttrat.sCIme of Ltre methcrdology and
i.n Slach .$etrop,olj"q owes $ore ttr lirake and Cayton I s def erence to thelr
theory
professor
there
reLations
Cayton in tile micldle, and Drake at the bottoml
Cayton consj-stentJ.y intervened
- Incldent,ly,
the soclal
(as undoubt,edly in all
included Warner at the top,
an<i that
fhat
Note" at the end
pr*ject
Lrv tire l]lack I'fetropolis
invalved
than to tirelr: own thl"nki.ng--a point
are , as we shall
MosE of
publis hed
the
by small
not
in
p re s s e $
pr e s u m a b 3 y
(i .e .
seien*e
wricJ"ng
a n d the
, Q"la*
by a leatli.ug
s eeno by p o w e rfu l
l.
why
so many tttensi.cn.stt in the book "
see shortly,
soc.ial
a1.1. others)
was published
aut hor s
which may explaJ-n, in part,
and Prornotion
Publi.cation
(but
icleia, (As noted earJ-i-er" D,rake wrote almost
Cayton vetoed that
autlior.
third
o leading
c o n s c i .o u s l y
pre$ses
K"tfgpo]-"t-q
pres.s
on ttre Black
of
B l ack
belongs
(tlarcourt*Br:ece)
l i treral )
ent-ered i nto
experience
cc:l 1-eges, In
tras been
thi s
tEr Ehe "mainstream.
and promoted,
" It
as we have
org;l n:* rnri ti :r J,arge pu.bl i c
tl ' l j .s i :el ati onshi -pc
sens e
appeal .
.
Caytorr c.onsciousS.y prot-i-tcterl" Ilrake j"n ttris sl"tual!-<.'n, realizing
D ra k e ' s ' i u l -r;r:rs ' b i l i ty
as a graduat.e student i u the earl y phases
involved
here:
of hls vrork. There w&s also a ser:oncl rrariable
Cayton r,vas not st,udying for irj,s degree under Warrrer. He was
r*'crkfng urrder Wi rth and Park.
-79*
The
I'fETtICIDOLOGY
In considering
it
is
drafr
ir4]ortant
(explicit
and implicit)
to i<eep in mind a point
of B1a,*-Ugg5gpgli1
that was established
that was published, was stripped
detailed
di-scussion of methodology,
exeuqlar
discusslon
work that
methodology in Blacb- M,elr_opglls,
of social
The original
than-prominenL places:
work was apparently
social
in the nittes to Chapter fE**i.er
text,
the bcok, an<l (3) sCI'me
of St. Clair
ln
this
seetion
1..
fundamental
quest.ion;
2.
fu n d a m e n ta l
a s s trmp ti o n s ;
3.
data sources;
4.
anthropology
5.
h u ma n e c o .L c g y ;
6.
a hlstorical
7"
an ethuographi-c
8.
a c o n p a ra t,i v e
9.
obj ectivity,
These divl-sions
are
in
The
i not even in a foot-
The f ollowi.ng discussios
comments in
other places scattered
throughorrE
Drakets nore recent reflections.
is divided
Ttre
found in two less-
(1) these two sCIurces, (2) some methodology-related
the authors I aekncnr.l-edgementancl in various
an
but in three notes at the back
of the .book--ancl in Warner t s "Methodologica1 Note. t'
discussion
scierrce wrtting.
of methodology in [trj"s work is
note on the bortom clf a page in the:naln
makes use of
of inosr of rhe
science. nrethodolog,,yin an urban rnllieu.
a.ppeareclis a uodel of semi-popular
most extenderl dlscusslon
on: the
earller
The
as f,ollows:
city;
the
methocl;
ruetiroil;
me th o d ;
and
"versteher:t'
ob',riously
ancl $ubj ectivit.y.
made for
analytical
-80-
purposes.
I*lost of
them are
not nade by the authors , nor
fruitful
here,
'by
ancl ln a later
\rlarner or Wri.gh,t.
1?rey w11.1.
, however, pro$e
cllscussi.on as well ,
Fllndamenta l_Q.uqgt i on
In his
ttMethodcllogical $nterr Warner sf.ates the followlng
n
the ori.gins of the Black l4etr:opolis FrcJeetl
question that was its
concernlng
and the fundamental research
key focus:
bet" w een Mr" C ayton
Ou t o f n u $ e ro u l s d i scussi ons
of
l arge-scal e
reo
u
t
l
i
nes
a
a n d rn y s e l f th e
p
ro
J
e
c
t
s e a rc h
o n the N egro i n C hi c.ago emergecl .
of t,i l e research si raped i tT tre l e a d i n g p ro b l e n
'lg.:j:e_q"-.ggsel.f into
the foll.owi.ilg questicn:
sJe"eig_the _liegrsr Lub9f41.*gfg{*e19-SXq;l*q*eg.
:iglbS* *Wiet;.,
J3...tg1,+tle:.!g wtj.te pg.qglS..
glg_!*.*:le_Ure_Tlecba++qq$J,_y
yhlqb_.f, iyg!-gq
i s mai.nt ai ne$.' ary{_hgy_39_gl9*li.Le:?Jt[_&^&r.g
gS
qnd-sry-c
lw-i qu?'
regle-g!.-IhiE- -s:Sqr-d3*e-t1-ell*
( B . M . , p " 7 7 6 i : l u a ]f c s i n o r i g i n a l . ) 2
It
1n one form or anotl:xlr, thi.s que"stj.on i.s the leadlng
turns out that,
search problem for
the impl.lcations
to establish
a good deal more than Illack M,glIS!g$j-"
of this
stateilIenE ln a later
section,
We wil"l
Here, it
is
consider
important
an.other poi.ntr Warner, fot.lowing Cayton anct Drake, ig correct
his identification
of the key research questiorr underlying
research project.
T.trestatement can, harnrever, be made more precise
lt
re-
the Black l'letropolts
by seatlng
wirh ce::tain ctarif ications.
l.
Warner I s
The passage he.low onLv tcruches ()n-r in s uilrmary f ashinon,
a b o u t th e * rl .gi .ns of thi : pr,rj * ct,
Ti re qu$sti on
s ti l te me n t
of
ttoriglnstt,
conc,ern to us here.
howeverr, :ls of little
2.
The qilsstion in
f rom a research
quotation
niarks is,
rneinoranrltrru |:repclreri
-81-
in
Warner say.s i.n a footnr:te,
!,ry &lggh_ Jei_f-SpoLis.' aurhurs.
Cons ider
t he
fo l l o w l n g
re fo rmu l .a tj " cn:
T h e I-e a d l n g p ro b l e m of the B l -ack Metropol i s
p ro j e c t
s h a p e d i ts e l f
i " nto the fol l ow i ng
question(s):
to what extent are Afro-Americ a n s s u b o rd i n a te d
and exel uded i n rel ati on
to
white people in the society,
what are the
mecXranisms by whj.ch this
s3,'st.em is (re)
p ro c l u c e c i , a n d h o w d o the l i ves
of A fro* A meri c a n s re fl e c t
th i s s uhordi nati qn
and excl usi -on?
In p{}rticu1ar.,
horo do these 1:henornena obtaj-n
J .n th e c c n te x t
o f the seven fundamental
(cl e3J-neated at the
c o mp a ri s c n s a n d re l ati ons
o f ts tre d iseussi on
beginning
of l i l ack
Ilgtlgp^g.1is_in this paper) tlrat i-r'e"-"r tire
h e a rt
Fundamental
of
re s e arc.h?
Assrimp tions
The investigation
c er t ain
th i s
f und a m e n ta l
of
the
above-mentioned
a s s rrm p f,l -o n s .
questi.on
fundamental
The$e asoumpti ons
have
to
do w tth
involvecl
(1)
data
sour"cgs' (2) the ggg"o-{@1-!,gg
}-tls.; (3) L}re q.qe*-g{-j*e-g9$se.}*-d*!*;(4) the Esq "oj.-an
lbs.-e!q{vsl-.'I}aq.
,l'erhnogl:jrphlg-gg.tllo$";
previously,
tween (3),
and (5) th* ggg
these distj.nctiorrs
(4) and (5),
are perhaps overly
.
strict,
As noted
especially
br:t they wj.ll Donetheless prove frultful
be-
in the
present investi.gation,
In hisltMetlr,odological
assumptions gulding his
plication,
Noteto, Warner pol"nts to some r:f the rnost basic
own work on United States communlties, and, by im-
I{a'rner-inspi"red work on these corrunun"ities" These include
folJ owlng.
1.
Adgg€tg_Kggy.lgC-giq of socieL5r and crtlture in ijnited $tates
communities necessi-tate.s detailed field studies of
"Arnerican group lj-fe" which e*t,,r.ty ir Til it **ift"dology
the following trso epproache.s:
4.
where che
"""ggi.gl.tg_g9ro"$"Ll_egjfl_thglgs
several. interconnected social instit,irtlons
are seer functloni.ng in the total soci..r1
econonry, and
*BZ-
the
rrsubjecting the results of the field studles
to the hypotheses eleve.J.opedfrom the study of,
ottrer social" systems in or:cter to determ:ine
what our soclal r+orld is like when vj"ewed
from the detached and broader generalizations
(gg. r pp. 77L-772).
of the comparative sociologistff
b.
2.
for tire
sclence
"The use of Ehe comparaEive r.nethod l.n social
study of contenTporary cnnnnunities is sinr.ilar
to tliat used in
the blological
sclences where man is vf-ewed a6 but one of
species.
many contemporary
f.iving
I'fan is compared with and
co n tra s te d
to o th e r s p eci es l n order better
ri re
to understand
n a tu re o f l l v i n g
Once thi s coi rcepti on of the human
th i n g s"
sp e c i e s w a s a d v a n c e d some of the mosc si gni fi cant
know l edge
about oursel.ves was discovered"
{4.M., tr}" 771).
3.
It i.s fruitful
ta study ccmmunities as a rrset of lnLerconnected
human bei.ngs living in a vast web of vital. rel,atfons" (8.M.,
p , 7 7 2 )"
4.
It is necessary to learn of the relaticns which bind people
toge ther and "maintafn their interactions
in a cohesive uniontt-a process which requ.i-res investigation
of "a11 aspects of the
l-ife of a people" (IJ.]{., pp" 772, 770).
The only way to c.ometo adequate knowledge of tr3r' is by t'li.vlng
with the people belng studie<l, i nterviewing them, and observing
what ttrey do" (_q:1S.,F. 772).
Jr
rtDark-skinned races with MongcloiC or i$egroid ancestrytt, trand
the Negro in particular,
have hul1t social systems [i.e.,
subsystems ] of their awn which order thelr comrnunity llfe
and relate them to the dorni"nantwhlte groupo' (LI, , pp . 769- 770) ,
and it Ls fruitful
to take these units as the object of
lnvestigation
in soeial research.
6.
If
one makes a rigorous
statements,
it
data sources;
is possible
that
distLnction
to argue that
Statements la
between ttrese various
Statements I and 5 have Eo do with
4 and 6 have eo do wi rh hunari
ecology; that. a number of these statemenfs, but especially
have to do with
"the
ethggglgpl$g
classes of
jg.!bg{";
and rhar
Statements 1 and 5,
Statenrents Ia
2 and 6
havetodowith''t}reCoM'''Conr:ernshavingt.cdow1ththeuse
of anth{opglgej-,ca.1 t.echqiqggg in
several of these statements,
the study of urban l i fe
gqggrgl
arguments for
-83-
the
are embedded i n
use of
an hi storLcal
f ,h e n o t.i o n
llowev er ,
in
es pe c ta i l y
M or e o v e r,
Park
Friend
idea)
of
the
is
as s uf t l) t io: r
b y a q u o * a rto n
regardJ-ng
underlying
concl -u,l l ng
the
tfdedi cated
Chic.ag$,
i mpl -i ed
t-o th*
and Fj.sk;
qir.l<iic;rfifon iwhic.h,
throrrghr:ut
the
chapter,
l ate
P rofesscl r
American
R gber t
Scirolar
f"ncident,3.y,
and
\i,aasCaytonts
f:rom P ark:
$re
eh*: .*qg-S{-*-I}lhf*pg-lgg1*1gjhg*$.!I
tire BL*r.k F{eti.-opc'1i.s project
"
There
is
th a t:
T h e ru o s t fru i tfu i
approach to the study of
a cross-disclplinary
urban Llfe requires
a p p ro a c h , e s p e c ta l l y
one fhet conrbi nes the
t'methods of scrcioicgyt'
Ii.er., hietorical
onai.ysis arrd witl'i ext.encled, ternporal dimension,
tttbj eetl ve
Itd e L a c h e d o b s e trv err"
concern + i i th
ttr*
ethods
of * nthropol og-r' t'
r.ri th t he
a n a l y s i s tl l
clf, the 'oettrnographi-c presenttr,
IJ^-e., analysis
t' ver*
p a rti c i p a n t-o b s e rv a ti on,
concer' i l ;' l i ttr
stehen"l "
lftils point is rnad* bl' Wright,
by allDrake and Ca-vtnnn anC itTanrer-*{"e*,
penneri
secriclnEr ,rf ,Ll gk_Sg{fgp-itlis.,
those who
l
8.
the
9.
'Itris
is
hl stori r--.al
a ttrace
nf
i nvesti gati on
the book"
ttAn th ro p o i .c rg .5 ' , i :he sci ence r:f man, hes nai nS -y
been coucetrr€d ui) f.c the preserit with che
man
B ut ci vLl i zed
s tu d y o f ,r-!ri rn i -i :i vr: pe* cl es.
is qutre as inlerestl"ng
an ohject of j,nvesti"gais nrore
and at ttle same tj,sre his life
tion,
$pen to sbserveti,on
ancl s"cud.y" L'irban l-ife and
and ccrnpl i cated,
subtl e
e u l tu re
a re mo T :ev ari ed,
hut the fund.amen.tal r*s?Lives a.rs in b',:th
j .n s ta n c e s th e $ a ri i e. tt
assumpti.ons
is
Peap1-e*u'
the
of
end i n
h a tf
Bi ,a c k i \te tr:* p o l i s
Negr*
fo l i o w e d
is
sssuuptions
There
E h e fi i :s t
Ttrskegeen Lhe Urr-5-versity of
of
7.
firese
a m,a J o r aspect
1 s n e c e s $ a r l J-y
s trtu a ti o n ? '
r elaE ions
book ,
th a t
iii
stated
not
a s s r.ri l rpt,i + ns, at:e apfi ' i i r:o.nt11rr
a a re l a te d
8s w e l l
m et hod,
assur.;lption
i:ilat:
It u s e fu J - to i :$ n c eFtuaJ-i se fr-he hi sl " " cri cal o u * o::ri n.E tt of
tts i fti n g t'
ancl
the val :i eus penpl e
grow'ttl
of
of Chicago in t.ernc
:dones of cify
(EJ" , pp " 13*17)"
-84-
crltical
ai.sc an
E.
This assumption
links
and the bookt s historical
on cert,ain theoreticaL
has to do with
incidentl-y,
assumption*-based,
a methodologlcal
assturptions and a soc.{al ontclogy
qrrite untenable*-that
to human ecology
nrethod.
Finally n Warner states
attitudes
uri:arr anthropologr
Pleqk ltgtfff'gjlgl
tirat are arguably
investigation
the indirect
of white
towarrl Bl"acks:
I0,
"I.dhite atEi"tudes t,oorrard ttre Negrr-r msy be i.nfe rre d . fro rn f,h e N e grots posi ti un
i -n the eoci ety,
of the
B y d e s c ri b i n g . u ri rru i el y the i :csi ci on
N e g ro i n ti re s p * ti a "tr-r eccnsm:i cn pol tti cal -,
tsoci'alt,
a.nC ottren struct-ures cf Chicago (an<l
k r:o ' * ri n g th e N e g rr;rs reacti on
to hi s posi tl on)
w e a re a b l e to i n fe r
ti re acfi tu< l e ' .:f vsr' i ou.s
segments of tlre white pop,iilation
wj.Chor-rt making
an extensive srudy of white peCIpl-ers
:e-5}:!1-ag!lq:n (9.$., Pll. 777- 778).
Though it
is
is
less clear
clear
cirar Warne.r rsarrls t.n rnake uile of this
extrapoJ.ation,
'Ih*so
hotr much Drake *nd Cayton nake use of it.
this
assumpLi"on nrqY.have one of the fundamental asr*umptions underlyi.ng
tt
l-atter
t,he nethodo-
or methocologJ.es, employed in the Black Metropoli.s project,
logy,
Data $ources
LJ"ke nos t p rodrr.cts
pr im ar y
bot h
f or
the
over
dents
zation
This
in
of
monographs.
in[erview
about
of material.
whour wer e
the
speci.alized
coLl-ection
social
science
research
(or
s e c .o n d a ry c l o c u menLs. Ttre basi c
and
book were
a period
of
*rn various
by
the
"*ptrrroximately
[w-ho] partf cipated
in
the
phases c,f Negro life"
and organlaation
The manographs were
d o c to ra l
pri nary)
eJ"ocunents ancl newspaper
f otir years,
fields
, n!*gk
of maferial*
prepared
s tu d e n ts ):
-85-
led
by the
"4q5fp.ngli-E
zed
scrnrce ma.teri als
exeerpts'
twenty
col]ectic,n
($_:Y., pp.
to sixteen
util"i
coll-ected,
research
stu-
and organi*
xlv,
xili),
i.ndividual
f,ol-J"or^ringFersCIns (most
of
1"
Iulargaret cross (st.
,1
St. Clair
J.
Flar,t Gardner
Drakets sister*in-law;
creir
now) a lawyer)
Dx'ake
John Given
Vj"crl"a llaygoocl
J t
6.
El.mer Henderson
7,
Winifrect
8"
Ei.izaberh .Ichns ii,e.,
Elirebeth
trained
sociclogist
end r*ife cf
9.
Ge.orge McCray
Ingram
L 0 , Mary Eleine
Jchns Drake, University
Sr. C"l-air flrake)
of Chicago-
Ogcien
1',!.
Lanrtrence Recirij.ck {}rist*ri.an,
C * l l e c ti o n
i n l l a rl e m)
L2"
ir:y Schul.tz
13.
EsteJ-Ie Hi.l"1 Scr:tt
14.
Juseph Senper
15 "
Sarnuel-Sf,rr:r'rg
16.
El*izabeth Winnp
and curator
of the Schomburg
The monogr:aphsprepared by ttrree of tire i:br:'ve researchers were published
m L r n e o g r a p h e df o r m i ; y r t h e W o r l c s P r o j e c t A d m i n i s t r a t i - o n ( i . e " ,
St . Clai r Drake,
Qhfc"eggr .J$9!-]9.3Q.
end of this
I{iIt
Scotr,
A.[g*-tiS*lisel
_Qggqpgq3qlel*[email protected]__ltggleeg fg
of these mailuscriprs
J-is.[ing of then is prr:vid.ed in arr appendix at i-he
paper.
valuable
s;econdary sclul:ces [were] thase prrblications
o f i l h i c a g i o P r n s s r e f e r ' r e c J t o t i r r o r . - r g , h o ut h
t e book?t(Brg.r
These largely
c o n s i s t e q J o f p u b l - i c a ! : i o r i s L r a s e do n e m p i r i c a l
of varl-ous a$pect,s crf firicagu life)
In this
jgryigg$g:
Apparent],y, copies of atL sixteen
A parrial
t'T'he most
Unlversity
ogden, Se_SblSeffL*$g.go_
and Estelle
stll"I- exLst.
the W.p.A.):
Chtrr,* es qpd - V!rh$!g$:*$f3ggle_l*Sgg_-!ff*M
Cqnlgruti_lyt Hary Elaine
Qqgcrlprioq;
in
connection,
-86*
p. xi.v).
reseancir (e,g.,
fry Chicago School social
Richard Wrlght makes an tmportant
of the
scientists.
stateuent
in his
introductton:
Espectally has no other corununity in Anerica
been so intensely s tr-ldi"ed, has had brought
to bear upon lt so b1"indl.ng a scrutLny as
Chl cago t s South Side
It was tn the Llniver"
sity of ChLcagots Department of Sociology
that such uen as E. Franklin Frazier who
produced The_-ge.grg .tr'arully in.:Qtricqgg and
fn the Unl"ted Sracesn
W
Bertrand Doyle who produced Ttre HriqgglLq
ffi;rora
ef-ec
r.
Gosnel 1 i,rho produced ]qeglq..IgllLfgl€lg,
r^7eretralned and guidecl. In no other c"tty
has the di f f erentiation
between g,roups and
races been so clearly shown; nowhere has
it been revealed so vi,vidly, for exampl_e,
trcw birth rates, death rates, etc. n vaxy as
people move out of the center of the elty to
its outer edges. Thisn tn short constitutes
sclme of the vast amount of research ttrat
preceded flr:akers and Caytont
" U11SE
MeLrgtolls (g*U. r F. xix).
Anqhropologyjn
rt
social
tFe Ciry
is arguable that,
fn terms of the varue of
@
sci-ence, i.ts greatest
methodology and t'cross (i.e.,
contribution
lies
in its
cross-d,isciplinery)
as
pi-oneering use of
fertilization."
Warner
puts i t t,hls way :
This sign+fj_cgl$: s$uqy by !Ir. Drake and
M::. Cayton of Black ldetropolis presents us
with a ctqaq gtalXgis of JLe
gtlgt.irs-qgqsg-lgr$ff9-lhgrgge.
tf-io rhe
trryJ ptu.,ryof e-mrqh
*il'1"@sp"
uq atr e$i tf, ,;{:3olgsy.
anl_SoefgJlllal
Ttre specifics
s"*i, ,ir*'l_s a
. g*thl-gRglqgyris
contributl-cn to science and furth,r"r
_g_Ec,gJ
( - L : ] 1 .' p . 7 7 4 ; i t a l i c . s
a c l d e d ).
of ehis methodology is
the subject
and of many of the pages ttrat follow.
-87*
of many of the preceding pages
Fqgrn ESol_o_gy
In a recent paper,
has f ive essential
disciplinary,
aspects "
(4) historical
ecoJ"ogv orientation
Slaughter:rnd
It
l4ci{crter: not,e t.hat the C:hicago School
j.s {1} empl"ricaJ-, (2} ecological,
and (5) p'ol-icy*oriented"
erf tire school,
Slaughter
(3) multi-
Regarding the human
and I'tcWort.er state
the fotr-lor*ing:
The Chicago School was fundamentally
based on
p o si ti on
th e th e o re ri c a l
that tl rere \dere soci al
forces maklng up the c.omrnunityo operating
ind e p e n c te n ' u o f p o l i c y
cl ecf" si ons, Ll i at consci tuted
an objective
enr"rirunment impacting
socj-al dev e l o p u re n t.
frre y focused on thi s strr.l cture of
soc.ial forces
and devel*ped
[he }'Ebgg_ggs].g!
g3lggggg. with &n emphasLs on rhuruan e.cclogye.
Tn-s" doing, Parkrs notLon *"*Jftailfn
*ffi
c i ty
th e re w e re In aturaJ., areast i n w hi ch
p e o p l e a n d i rrs tl tu ti o ns
w ere concentrated,
an.d in which there was a c.olffnon cul.turallinkage
a n d re l a t.e < ! economi c acti vi ty"
B urgess
'lug.gltqgqlg-'
developed
notions
of' a ':ggl
vhic.h
eonslsred
of a taxcnomy ?;f ffitur.afireas.
Although
this
schema rras mo]:e ciassificatory
l h a n e x p l a n a to l T ,
g raduafi e researeh vl -gorousl y
d e s e ri b e d a ro ri .d ev a ri ety
of ecol ogi cal cratterns
(Slaughter
and Mcltiorter, i-9S1, F. 1.6; {talics
added) .
In a paper written
in tl're 1930rs, Wirth assessecl the progress of the ner.rly
developed human ecol.ogy orj-entation
in the Chicago School of the sociaL
sciences:
In the past decade or so wha0 amount.s to a new
df.sciptr.ine within the social sci-ences, hug3n
_e.gglggl, has ernerged and has become wltiel_y
dtsseninated"
Ttrrough the studies of park,
Burgess , MeKenzie, and other$ the .ehygiSgl.
g-tructure. and the qgglo.&!gg1 -pfSgo:gegg of
coqgsn_tfqllot,
sesggsgllgl,
and
djfpgt"lgg,
sucgessiqn of men, instltutions,
and cuJ-tural
characteristics
as between the varj.oua
natural areas and conrmunl"ties that make up
the physJ-cal fra.mework of the ,rrrban world ha've
been revea-!.ed through indices which are quite
preclse, quantitatl"ve, and adaptabl"e to
comparlson as between cities . . . . Irt recent
years r 8s these issues have taken acute fonn
-8tt-
in the Chlcago area, w€ have shifter our enphasis fron
the minute analysis of the local connnunities within the
*nci "gjllg: i-n the metropolicity to the larger t.1=g-t"gl1.
added).
tan re&iol (Wirttr, 194t1,pp. 5t'-57; italics
Assuming one accepts the rafhr:rbroa.c! dr+fj.nj,tian of "human ecology" offered
by Slaughter
ogy
and l"lcllcrter, then one could arguabll,assert
perspective
dominales a considerable
(and theoretic.al)
ori"entation
means exclusively,
Ehe first
a m o u n t .o f t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
of B-la.gkMe"tjnoJ:o-l.itrespecially.
large
ment patterns
pat't of'fhe
concern in the first
of the various
ethnic
(Shapter 21). Iience,
book witir Lhe settle-
gr$ups in relation
t o " Z { : r n e so f C i r y
Crowds", and the concern in Ctrapter 2i with the interface
(2) the soc:i-al vorld,
l.lorld",
"Physical
and grobp behaviors.
ls
and (3) patterns
of
(l)
the
of inilividual"
The presence of the human ecology perspective*-one
tempted to sBy, its
hegemony--helps to explaJ-n why cert'aln
and processestt were thoroughly
structures
but by. no
few chapters of tlie boak and the chapter on
Ehe ptrysi-eal and s;ocial "worl-cl of the lower class"
the rather
the human ecol-
that
"social
invest.igated and others barely
considered.
Historical
Hethod
Thehistcrri'ea1aspectofW|methodo1ogy8ppearsio
derive
f rom three
ttrace relations.t'1
researcher
data will
Parkian
fabric.
sociology
sociology , Harxism, and t.ire sociol-ogy of
Each of these perspe.ctlves, in part,
to the investigatlon
reveal
the social
sources : Parklan
of historical
competiton aud conflictu
dl.rects.the
data, ancl $uggests that
transf,ormari.on orrcl rupture,
A rnethodolog,y born of t-his marriage,
social
this
in
e"speciatr.ly that
of
pnd l,Iarxj.sn, ? domirrates the f i.r'st hal.f af tire book. This
1.
The forrner and latger perspecti'ves largely had their origins
in the Chlcago school; the ori.gins of Harxisrn lie els*o,*trere"
)
This "narriage'o is considered in a bit more detail in the sectLon on theory. A more confilete analysis will be undertaken in
a Later draft of the present work,
-89-
appe€rrs to have tra<l few. jf
perspective
methods use.d b;.r the fielcl*workers
(I,fhich, incidentl-yr
proJect.
i. e. , tlagl*. qS_F"rwlilf
in the historj.cal
Warner, i.e.,
project.)
author
it
of the first
i:elongs more to Drakeo
of , annl advisor to,
fundamentally
the research
directs
the attention
of re,i.atively long tlme*spans (e.9.,
prscesses (e"9",
soon discover
ttiat
trrhanization
**his is a perspective
a number of ressons ultiruateL3' lounttr* to do wlth
epistemology,
the
hal,f of the bock, than to Cayton and
and of o'macr$"sr:clr:ioglcal
We will
the research
and the author of al"l of the chapters
to the consideration
.
for
researeh for
However, in the use of -q3:sgnqglgsclurces, it
years)
for
principai.
respecti.vely the direetor
inriustrialization)
is,
t+ho did the etggSlcal
perhaps suggests that
discussion
of the investigators
fifty
any, inplicattons
social
and
that
ontology
at odds r^rith the auttrorsr "ethnographic
and
rnethod.t'
Etqn%t-{j|jphi_g I'le t h gjl
For the present purposes, we wil"l
I ' I e c r o p o 1 , 1 sp r s j e c t t s ' r e t h n o g r a p h S - c
(4) investigation
and analysis
was a project
IL is
critical
involvirrg
ttre
and the r:ecording of data;
of the 'tethnographic pre$ent.'ri (5) "ideal
and "parterni"ng'n; and (6) objectivity,
PeLai,l"g4_fiel* s,tudg.
f ive aspects of the Blaek
m e t h o d r r : ( 1 ) d e r a i l e c i f i e L d s t r . r d y 1 'Q )
approach; (3) partic:lpant-observation
holistlc
project
consider
types"
"verstehenil and subJectivity.
to note that
the Illack Metropolis
about Ewenty socl-al l:esearc.hers concerned, for
about four years" wtth tlle detaileC study of nearl"y n'all aspectst'(Warnerts
term) of Black l.ife
on the Ilfe-styles
social
networks)
structure.
in Ctricago.
(including,
Ttre stuciy lnclueled detailed
e. g" e (:snsumption patferns)
of the v;rrious strata
of Bronzeville
By the tlme the book was written,
-9Cl-
dara eollection
f amily life
ancl of lts
and
lnstitutlonal
the authors hacl a great deal of
inforrnation
( whic h,
a.botrt the
.? s w e s h a l l
observations
hour "
public
see,
undoubtedly
ob s e rv a ti o n s .
I loliglic
insttt.utions
ttlevelstt,
trained
of
and pracesses,
the
the purposes
and so forth.
In
s t udy
ha s 1 1 o fo c u s .
T h e re i s
inrititutions
knor^rJ-edgemust be a holf stic
kncxrled,!;e "
data via
observation
study .
researcher s,
in
particit'level-st'
eif- & nr"rmber of
or<lerl
only
€"g.1
trn the
economic
religious
sense),
argurnent tl at
the
adequa t e
I
of behaviors
parrl cipanr-observers
and formal and informal
mostly of ttre unetructrrred varlety)
to note that
worlc for
l- .
soci al
the proJect
views (apparently,
field
of, 'omarl-
fl el d
aud proces$es,
H n i mpl i cft
Pa,rtJ.qipapt._Oh^qq
{ygJ;SI_.qryl ue"tjr:4ggo.l{Ltg,
collected
scrcial
Ehis sense (thr:ugh perhaps
obvi ousl y
detai l ed
i nvol ved
of
The
& few decades
j-n s study
ttre lironzevil"le
l-ife,
of
proj ect
resielents
consl deratl onss),
a rnocl el of
techr"rique::,
legal
Bronzeville
eti r.i cal -
rei nai ns
for
gf
equivalenr
l {etropol l -s
and interview
cf
l-tves
on cerE ai n
included
T tre B l a c k
and trordLnary persons"
and aspects
b e a rs
T h e p ro j e ct
Aq p q g q q i :.
pant-observation
and pri.vate
B1ack Metropolls
"
It
is
inter-
important
precedecl the cleveJ-opmentof
Obviously,
th e re i s no such thl ng
a$ " hol i sri c
knor+ l erl get' i n ,t he
' I" h e re
a b s o l u te
sense.
i s never a ofte* to* one rel ati on
betw een l- deas
about soeial
p h e n o n re na anC the actual phenomena ttLn the rahr.tt
l'hat ls, all
i d e a s L nvol ve Froces$es of abstractJ" on i n w hi eh
c e rta i n
a s p e c ts o f p henomena are gi ven grester
emphasi s tti an other
a s p e c ts .
th e " h o l L s tlc
approacl r' tt* -actual l y
there are many
different
holisuic
approaches (compare, e.g", Hegelian holisrn
w i th fu n c ti o n a l i s m)--fts ! -mpl yo'
dj .rects the l nvesti gator
to avol d
r' l eveJ-s' r of
slngular
e mp h a s i s a n d Lo vl ew the vari ous
soci al
l i fe
(e . g. , economic, political
, Ldeo1ogica1, e tc , ) in ters-rs of their
i n te rre l a
ti o n s h i p ( s ) .
-91-
t ape
Itl o re o v e ro
r ec or d e rs .
t ak ing
aa th e i r
s u b j e c ts
fi e l d
w orkers
ta l -k e ,C w i th
had no knor,rledge ttrey were being
The method
project
to
pr iv a te
bat hc oom
v iew
( 4)
ln
in
or
to
ta k e
p rl v a c y
wr:uld ttfree
th a t
view
h e r/h l s
take
lhe
the
two,
and then
n o te s
three
cnly
is,
often
in
would
in
or
then
o rd e r
four
hotrrs
senui-verbatj-m
in
(andi or
The
w oul d
to
sC Ime
go to
w oul d
l -he course
pri " vate
relation
of
the
pl ace),
trr the
w oul d. w ri te
1-n w hatever
cut*and*paste
the
reconstruct
the
the
e.ngaglng himltrer
go honrer or
w oul d
i ntervi ew er
to
suspeet.
on i te.ms c,t.her ttrari w ri ci ng
reconstruct
to
caure to
parti ci pant-observer
ttre i nl ervi .ew
associatett
the
that
inf r:rmant r+-triIe
d o .;n th a .t cane to rni nd,
the participant-observer
rnlght
method
home (,:r some. ottrer
o f h e r/h i s
c on v e rs a ti o n
m ent s ln
1
data--a
(1)
not-e*
l ntervi ekrees
the
r even i.f somewhat
after
s C Ime n o te s,
often
extensi ve
"
s i o me o Eh e r l n c r.rn s p i .cri .r;rrspl ace tl ul :i ng
eom plet eql tti n te rv i .e w tt,
t he
of
i ru u e .i i a te l y
participant-obser:ver
of
stateinents
engage i n
fact,
tl re p a r:ti c i p ant-observeu
place,
ord e r
t he
the
(? )
c onv er sa t,i a n ;
intricate-
fe rl l n r,u i n g a spects:
th e
intentl5'
listen
ot her
i.nterview
not
in
them;
i"nter:vier*,€d
recording
by way of Warner--r^ias
m et hod incl u d e d
in
for
di d
collection
i ntervi ew .
a thirty
i ntertabl ets) ;
the
recently
every
order
it
aspeet
came; (5)
of
state-
Tj rus l t
rni-nute inter*
,nrnruur.2
l-.
F o r e x a rn p l e , F ro fe s s o r
D rake often reLatrs
the fact that one af
the parti..cipant"-observers
wa$ a young rnan who r^ras paid to t'keep
h i s e y e s a n d e a rs o p e n" sl x houre per day for several nont.hs i n
a lacal pocl hall""
It is douhtful
tliat any erf his companions atthe pool tables suspected thac they were subjects of a social
s c i e n c :e i n v e s ti g a ti c * n
2
Th e d i s c u s s i o ' *
h * re
is
the
based on an i nt* rv{ew
-92-
r+ i th
S t.
C l -ai r
D rake.
i { e n o t e d , l n o u r d i s c u , s ; i s i D no f t h e c l e r * r i l " e d f i e l d
study aspect cli
the Cayron-$trarner Research ProJect,
Lhat the participant-observers
had intimate
of thelr
here that
knowleclge of the lives
gation but from the fact
that
the mode of inv*sci.g;rtion
underlying
tn the first
and mode of presentation
Tn termsi of lts
methcdologieal
underpinnlngs,
use uhe language of functionel.isn,
of the book is
and itfunction.$",
1.
of the toplcs
larg*ly
an a*temporal ana}ysis
and Bronzevillett
Sernreaspect...;of this
methodology
I4arxism and the soeiolory
of the book is based on methudologS.cal functionalism,
not erplleitly
investigatlon.l
hal"f of the book isu as we have noted, a historical
race relat,ions.
and,
The methodology
""
based on perspecti\.res from Parkian sociology,
system."
some caees,
of the subjects of thelr
household units,
gTtd.A,S.a.1JsJF,:f-,j.hq
"3c
I*ygsllgStiqt
half
(in
the observers were often
in other cases, by design) meubers of the sc,cial circ1es
in some instances,
half
Inleshould note
knowledge not only deri.ved from the I-ength of the lnvestt-
this
naflurally;
subJects,
often
the fact
If
is
the second
the authors do
that, the second
of struetures,
ls viewed as a more.or.[ess
methodology ls inclicated
of
relatlcns
t'closed
ln a sLaternent in
(one of
S t . C l a i r D r a k e , e . E l ,, l i v e d i n a h o u s e h o l d r ^ r i t h | t s l i c k t '
af the l ow er* cl -a.qs).
th e ma i n c h a re tc te rs i n the di scussi on
perhaus drrr:f" ng one of hi s mffny
i .t s o h nppens that,
In c i d e rrtl y ,
p e rl o d s o f c o n f i n e m e nt i n prJ" son, " $l i c;k"
read $l + cE j {errgpqU l t
IIe l ater
had
a n d , to h i s s u rp i rs e ;
found hf.rnsel f therei n.
occasion to discu.ss ttri.s matter wish Professclr Dreke.
-9 3-
Chapter
l4
(i,e.,
the
transit-ion
chapter: in
the book);
In order tc under-sfi:lnd tiiis
cj-t-y r,rj-thln a city,
we shall
fi rs t
e x a m i ne four nraj or i ns| i tuti ons
w i th s p e c i a l
re fe re n ce
to the manner i n w hi ch
th e y re f l e c t th e s y stem of N egro-w hi te
rel -ati ons:
the Negro newspaper,
the Negro churc.h, Negroo w n e d b u s l n e s s e n te rprl seso
ancL the Ipol l cy
racketr.
Chapuer 15 deals brtefly
with
influence
the over-all
of the ner^rspaper and
th e c h u rc h , d e ta i l e d
of the church
di scussi on
b e i n g re * s e rv e d fo r l ater
chapters "
C onsi deratrle attention
is given to tNegro busLnessl
ln Chapter 16, since the whol.e temper cf
N e g ro l i fe
i s k e y e d to tl re myti l ei f t sal vati on
through Negro businessr.
When Negr* rioters
i n H a rl e n n D e tro i .t,
ox Fhl i .aci e.Lphi .a dernol i sh
th e s tC Ire s th a f w h i te men opernt" e i n the B ].ack
Be l t,
th e y d ra ma ti z e ttrf.s pi .vot.al aspect r:f
Negro*u'trfte rel.at:Lons,
In Chapter: 7.7, the
policv
racket is present.ed as a t proLectedr
b u s i n e s e ra th e r
ttran as a crLmtnal acti vi ty,
s i n c .e b o th Bro n s e v i l l e an{ J the pol i tl cal "
machine in Midwest lt1etropall-s deal with it
as t big bus j^ness t .
H a v i n g d e s c ri b e d
these maj or i nst" i tuti onsr
\de
s h a 1 l th e n n o te th e w ay i n w hi ch the i deal of
I g e tu i n g a trre * d r o p e rates
to di vi de
the com*
muntiy into a nurnber of tsocial
cJ-assest
w h i c h , i n tu rn ,
s e t the pattern
for the w ay
i n rs h i c h a n i n d i v i d u al
rnay rhave a g* od ti mer
or rpraise the Lordr.
Chapters LS-23, incor'r.cc.rned r^rlltr
are priurarily
clusive,
inte_rnaLJg.lgli.ogp_
r^rfthin Bron aevi lle , though
even theser wB shaJ-l see, are dorninatecl by
the system of Negro-whire relatLons.
T h e p l c tu re
o f l i fe
tn B ronzevi .l -l e that
emerge.$ from these chapters
is a canclidshot
of
the
community
ln ttre Finat.
_ggggrg
srages of rhe DeprEssion and ln the midst
of the Second World ltlar (E*I.,
Flp. 39i]*397),
*l 4""J- Ivp ed-er4*J.r q.gg-rgllts't
A c rl .ti c a l pr ojec t - - aga l n ,
s t udies - - ha s
aspect
of
th e
a me th o d o l o g i r:a l
to
d o w i th
met-l rodal ogy ernpl oyed i .n the
feature
th e a n *l ysl s
of
*94-
of, a nuurber of
I' soci al
cl as$esi l
B l ack
other
Metrcpol is
tr* l arrrer $chool
and rel ated
prestige
andbehav io r.
t hr ee
not e s
1.
.
T h e u e th o d o l o g y
to
C tra p te r
l .nvol ves
forrr key steps
(del -l neated
in
the
1 8 ):
i
AssumetFqt l'Fhg ,ggidiB tb*ad. in tbe sql:rdy
.of. Lqlass ) should
rv
6e jan
;rlGfTn-Glol
churehes 6r!ci so forth.
associations,
Drake ancl Cayton put lt
way:
Yet, in contradist,inction
to some of the prevlous studies, the authors have concentrated
. not upon defi.ni.ng and descritring classes as
Inaturalr grollps on the other trand nor ta
serj-es of
continuar on the otheri rather, they have
trleC to defiue t4oqe p"at!er#L._q{*!Shgy}CIq
gn$ alrr.lb-!*9"s. tb-al vqiEiogs.seHlentE o{ _tk-comm
s
a number of research problems, fcrr it not
only f.nvoLves taking cues from intervi"errT matertal
anrJ the notes of partlcipant-observers,
but also necessltat,es tryf.ng to mediate the
ettrgq, of variotrs groups within tlre cornmunlty,
with all of the conseq(reirt dangers of falllng
lnto subjectivism (cf . Kr"rrt H, Wo1ff , "A
M,ethodol-ogical.Note cln the Empirl.cal Establishment of Culture Patterns,"
AileLigan _spcjlologisaJ-,
B g - v i g ! v _1, 0 : 2 , A p r i l , 1 " 9 4 5 . )
this
2.
(i , e . , "the $ea"qures of
g.i{*qebgjsf
tirnes reFelr-ea to in Black l{etJ_gpgllg)
an{ slI_qtify.tlrg:Jn- on the bases of their relativ6$EFti[e
as
-lndicated by way of interviews and observatJ.on. Drake anrl Cayton
note that "It]his
s t e p i s a m e . n a b l et o s t a t i s t l c a l
controls
through the use of social distance scales and questlonnaires
administered on a sampling basis to various secrors of the
populattnn, onee the student has ascertained (rwhat questions
to ashr from his lntimate knowledge of the eommuntty" (8.S",
p. 789). However, they apparently did nct r:tilize
thi-s
control. mechanisrn.)
3.
'
Elu{y ghege_parleg$
-of j:g}egg
_bgh*::fg1-l!:.{S.p_q1i to deterrni-ne
(a) their dorntnant mr'rtifs, (h) the contrasts between them, and
(c) additional asfrects of their evaluertlon by the subJectsi
Because of the pecul{ar characterlst.ics of each "class" (j-n terms
of both its ttlnternal.tt features ancl rel*rtion to other ttclassestt) ,
the specif5^cs of tfre mode uf investLgation varj"es a trit in each
case:
As certei
E,
t'The task is least difflcult
at
,.
popul
.at.i
on
for
aggregate
status-' Level -s,
th e h i g h e s t
the
i s s m a l l a n d the patterns
standardl .zed and
are h{ghl y
-95-
are closely related tc the controls irnposed by the
menibership in prnfessions or by busi.ness careers or
the demands of tsoefety,n
At rhls level-, the class ls
definttely a Inatural groupt (9.9.r p. 789).
b.
C.
Lrl-yef- cl.ass Fa..ttergg . t'Tlre l.ower.-elass patterns
were studied ds, and are presented &s r t p.gl_at-g.IrpgFitgs.l
t,o the upper-class styl"e of living.
There are definite
a<lvanrages in using a modl"fication of Voegelint s
I contrast
conceFtian! or I counter conceptionr in
studyi-ng social stratifLcr:tion.
In taking a point of
departure from the upper-class conception of the
lower cLass , howevel-, o$e ends up with a r stereotype. I
rt is possible to take this tstereotyper as a researeh
lead arrd by studying those people who actual.ly approxi*
mate the stereotyi:re to reshape if, closer Eo reality,
Thenr on the basis of the stereotype and the empi.ricaL
data, one ean coustruct an tjdeal typer of lovrer-class
behavior, against which an indi.vidual, a famllyo or an
institutional
increment csn be studled" (q._4,r F. 7gg,
italles added),
"Sj"nce the lower*class pattern
Wgg1g"
exists tn a conie.\t- made up of upper- and ml,ddle-class
patterns! some clues to the nature of these are picked
up fron a study of the lower class"
For instance,
'typicalt
lower-class peopl.e are not dominated by
mobility aspirations,
but mcst lou'er*class peopre
fantasy at some ti-me about rgetti.ng aheadr t ancl soyne,
r.ry ro |5g mobile.
By srudying
Ln Ft',.e1-r*o.r:ertkihggi.gl
the fantasl-es cf tlre larger group, ,and the overt be*
havi-or of the texcepttonsr it J.s possible to arrive at
the meaning of f rniddle-elasenessr to lower*class peopre.
Groups of people exl-s t in the community who are doruinated by a drive ta 'ger aheadt*gs shake of f lowerclass tralts,
to p]-ace social dLstance between the:n*
selves and otilers tbel-owt them. There are others,
wlro have nade th is rnobi li ty s tep , or who were bo rn in
famllles that tred macie lt in ttr* pasL. By studying
such peopler w€ arrive at the cnnclusl-on thaE actua.l
boncls ,af social solidarit,r' t"lxisE between theru*obJectl*
fi.ed in clique, associatlonal and church llfe,
and
that in numerCIu.s
insfances ttrese social boncs override wide differences in crccupatic.rnand income*and even
educatiori.
thus, Lhe drive for trespecLabilityt
and
Iright connectionst
an,J tfrontt is iserlated as the
dominant rnotif of wha.t we call 'the uriddle*class way
of 1ife. r lYpe of, rifu;ll
and public behavj.or become the
touchstone fnr stratifying
chtrrclres detailing
and
instl.tutions
rather than the economie or occupational
-96-
status of the members. The latter are stated as
dependent variables in terms of ranges and modal
averages.
4,
SsFiryrtg-lh.e p,ryr:_o-r.!.ioq€, -E.hs_sub.iqcl p.ogpkltion .irr eaclr
of the tbreg_"gJas,ses-. " llhe Cayton-Warner project arrived
e of the proportfon" on the basis of
three tradlrional
class-indices
used by persons ln the
sociel stratifj-catlon
school(s): education, income and
occupatlon.
In etriki.ng a rougtr average percent 'cf
the three indice* for each class level...
the middle*class figure uas weighted at
the expense of the lower.-class figure since
some people with very lor* educatlonal level
and occupational" status ere nntddle class if
jrrdged by gg.qnd-a,T-4_gE
llvl*g,
Iglllc
Lqhavlq€,
and associalignai
t.ies, The concept of class
.rsed
es the laLter patmdeclslve in e.stablishing the social sEratlfication of an individuaL or fami.ly ln Bronzeville (84..r p. 791).
5.
!.qtgr-n.uiqe the glags -:gs.g JoJ_ _ga9F.o_q
Jhg eFoy
indexgg. "ltre approximate class range f or eactr lndex was
arrived at from a study of interrrj"er,'r dats and an analysis
of the soclal characteri.stics
of the ineubers of social
clubs, churches and familiels tha[ had been prevLously
stratif ied on ttre basis of theJ.r behevior paEr-ernsf' (8.r.{. ,
p. 791).
6.
,'F!ggli.{y']_1T}s_!itgEt-q**_}.,._VJti!s, "The f irsr rerrrarive srudies
by the Cayton-Warner Research involved an attempt at Istratifylngt
Lnstitutional
uniEs. It was a relatively
simple matter to iden-'
tify individual
church and social clubs which had very high or
very low soclal. stattrsr' (L.9., p. 791),
7,
Igol.qgq.y_q.l:{1o.**_q.rgsligg
_g}ge_-tgq$SCgelg_egg
farnj.Ligl githi.n tbg_Ab.o:rg-:n9|rtioqg$,
.rnq!{Igt*oryl}
Snl_Is tSrf..aS'tstratifvin&"
tailed str*dJ.. FoJ"lowing ttre
the nerrt sfep pr:esent:er.ci
J-tsr:If :
uf institutianal
units,
It w a s th e n possi bl e
for: parLi ci pant-observers
to i * ro l a te
ttr* i ndi vi ci ual " s
and farnl l l es
w i thtn
ttrese groups who hnd tlie highest
CIr lni^rest prest1ge, subjectirrg
tirtrm to Cecalled study. In the
rn e a n ti mr:, ti r e r:Ieri cal ,sta.ff,
usi ng data suppl i ed
by tiie 1-rarticipant-crbser'\,'ers,
analyzecl membership
l j s t.s to d e termi ne the occul patl " onal and educati onal
ra n g e s , a n d the exfent of membershi p i n other c1ubs,
-97-
clrurches and cli-ques " Ilembers we-re_interviewed
to find their atttfudes toward other indtrrnits ancl toward
vtdu;r]-s .rn<l Lnst:itutionsl
of strati.f-tr eation, Eveptually,
the criteria
the research etaff was able Eo'arrange
rrumerous clubs and ehurches in a rough
hierarchy and to defi.ne status level's
wi thl-n l-arger groups that were not themFroin a study of the
selves clase-typed.
prople who heLonged to these organlzations
it r+as posslble f.o find other fndiv{duals
of s!.milar oecupational and edueati"onalcratus wtth whon they tre.d t socLal t relatlons but wha' cli.d not belong to any
organi-zatfons or who be l-onged to ot"hers
.
( 9 * 9 . . ,P . 7 9 1 ) The combined procedures of rt6rr and rrTrr vield ancther way of
determining and descrLtring class features. I'hat. tsi, cne
method proceeds from the study of behavior pa,tterns, the
other from the ffstratif ylng" of J.nstltutlonaL unl"ts. The
procedure agai.n yieLds an upper-c.lass, a mlddle*class and a
lower-c1ass.
&.
Ijppqt-*krg*.
Given the relatlvely
"natural'f
charaeter of ttre uppsr-class n and its relatively
smal-l- size, it was falrly
easy to
deterrnine hlgh status ehurches and associ.ations
and to determtne the patterngr of 'nsoc.lal-ttrel-ations of indivldrrals and fanilies
r+ithln
thege.
b,
"In studying the lower class the
!o"g:SlSES".
research staff began vith a study of several
rlowesto ln a number of prestlge
Broups that ranked
hierarchles*those
wlth the least education,
the leaet money, the poorest housing in the
worst rrefghborhoods r aod the merubers of storefront churches. Here agaln tt wae possible Lo
srate ranges and urodal averages of tralts
within groups I €. g, 1 most store-f ron'L churetl menberg
lrere poor and uneducated; rnost, but not a1"1, of
the poor and uneducated wtro belonged to churches
belonged f o those wlth 1or..r*status rituals i there
were very few soc"'*at clubs ilL ttre areas of
poorest housing.
It rrras also evident thrat lowstatus church people we:re censorf.ou* of other
farnllles of si-ni ar socto*economic etatus wtro
haC no assoclatlonal
ti.es and a"ho were
characterLeed b'y exfrene scclal- disorgarrizationttre tLower shadie*, r There h?ere few stable faurily
grouprs which were nof I church*centered r at ttris
level (8.M" pF. 79I*792).
"
-98*
l'11ddle-class.
"Both the lower class and the
clrs= recognize people with another
"pfr
tcenter of interest I in the co;rextensive
'getting
t
81'
nunity-those
ahead.
who stress
who bTere 'getting
studying
tndivlduals
t tadvancing
t
ahead, t timproving
themselves r
r
lt Lras possible
to ldentif y the churches,
c1ubs, and nelghborhoods which were looked
or lgood connections.r
upon as trespectablet
Further study of these institutions
and
and
neighborhoods
in terms of uniformities
ranges of education,
occupation,
overlapping
nremberships, etc,,
resulted
in a gradual
of the middle-class
building
up of the pattern
way of 1if e" (B .M. p . 7 92) .
Use marginal and borderllne cases to gain further knowledge about
t h e b a s e s o f p r e s t j - g e i n t h e c o r m n u n l t , vu n d e r s t g q f .
Once the criteria
for social stratification
had been ascertained
some 8r000 individuals
were rstratifiedt
on the basis of educat j.on,
occupation,
memberchurch and associational
ships, nunber of years in Chicago, skin-color,
posltions
area of residence in the clty,
held
in the political
hierachy
and in cormnunity
organizations.
l"larginal and borderllne
cases
rrere studied
l-n order to arri.ve at the crucial,
crlterla;
e.9., a Red Cap found associating
people or a prowith professional
socially
fessional
man who attended a very 1o;* status
church.
These fexceptionst
threw addjtional
p
r
e
s
t
ige
o
f
ln the
light
upon the bases
(
8
.
U
.
p
.
conununity
792) .
,
C o m p a r a t i r r e I 1 et h o d
As we noted
earlier,
Black Metropolis,
communitv
within
part
(somewhat planned)
of
e
knowledge
should
a sing)e
b1- wav of
be viewed
in
cjtr',
is
nonetheless
program of
a comparative
approach.
to Deep south,
Yankee Cit.v studjes
as we1l.
(Each of
aware,
connection).
n ot
only
industrial
l, la rn e r
but
societies
also
the
authors
complements the
that
study
-99-
to
viewed
generate
Specifica11y,
and,
these,
Iloreover,
focuses
frujtfullY
research
relation
has a Warner
thougtr it
it
the
of
to
BS the
sone extent,
is
vJas apparently
study
of
"Dan" in
t'mFn',
as
social
Black
reader
on a
science
}letropolis
to
the
undoubtedly
the
in
ttprimitive
view
of
the
societies',
bv
contributing
Fieldwork,
Ethics
During
central
era.
to
empirical-
generalizations
and Class
the last
Biasl
scj.ences that were more peripheral
We noted earlier
t h a t much of
project
the
observation
was done without
The investigators,
tigators
it
of
the
then
era,
there
if
granted
that,
identities
of
for
the
was no ethical
today
find
It
lmportant
ls
took
and that
Process,
cealed,
would
the
problem.
to note that
(One suspects that
this
That
continuously
the
that
of
these
to
ln
uJth
that
t.
there
the
in
most inves-
"informants"
is
a logic
the
aware that
no one was being
the
aspects
have
contrjve
all
of
faml1y
hurt
were con-
that
and personal
lntlmate
rnanY
1s an unconsclous
the
simila:
sexual)
have used in
famlly
1t
is
had
in
have
llves
the
cJear
and personal
overwhelmingly tends to be
publlcations.
do thls
(e.g.,
lloreover,
of
period
investJgators
energ-v they
knouledge
that
quite
is
science
ttJower-cJas6t'11fe.
thLs informatlon
to
the work of
social
same amount of
research-related
researchers
like
the present perlod
examine the
the ree1l-to-do,
suPPressed
but
of
apparently
This
nearly
pett5-bourgeoise
is,
even when observers
lives
that
falled
more affluent
e>:aninatlon
subjects
of
being
if
and field
inadequate.
a class-bias.
regard.)
ethics
subjects
the
they were being studied.
a previous
in
Among these concerns are lssues having to do with
Black lletropolis
of
the human species.
trwo decades, a number of concerns have emerged as
in the social
work.
by
about
(though
mechanlsm of
In
this
6um, the
argument
is not
may happen on occa-.ion),
class-blas
that
videl,v
operates
on November 7, 1981, Professor st. Clair Drake delivered a
lecture entitLed "How We Wrote Black lletropoIis"
at the University
ofChc1ago.TheeventUasspo''"o'fficagoCenterof
Afro-American StudLes and Research.
This discussion is based
on this lecture and on a ,subsequent interview
with St. Clair Drake.
-100-
1n social
sclence
relation
to other
This
bias
"cfasses.
quite
is
on the upper-class
slngular)y
or in
t'
apparent ln Black Uetropolls,
and niddle-c1ass
I'Lower-class:
entltled
of the ',1ower-class,"
investlgations
that
There are no chapters
are equivalent
sex and Fanily."
to the chapter
one suspects that
there
could have
been.
But none of
this
Black Metropolls.
indlwiduals
is
to lnply
Some material
were used, and then apparently
record.
Further
if
insight
one r-iews the
t jvit.v.
This
that was viewed as potentiall),
in
harmful
(Drake's
to
term).
Only names of public
figures
sketcbes tend to be conposites,
,'rypes."
i.e.,
and Subjectivity
into
niatter
identities.
€thics
only wben the events discussed lrere a matfer
Biographical
'rVerstehen"
Objectivity,
was no concern trith
there
by way of .'Sudicious ornission"
was onitted
Great care was taken to preserve
of public
that
the methodologv
in
terms of
consideration
will
of
Black
objectivity,
help
}letropolis
"verstehen"
us synthestze
some of
provided
is
and subjecthe
discussion
i n th e pr ececling pages .
Obviousl},
in
the
sense of
Pure
have come to
notion
that
the
the
reality
(e-g.,
the
social
direction
b1'way
no criteria
assessed.
sense
notion
the
explicltly
move in
are
the
that
term ls
reject.
sciences
it
there
can be an t'objective'
an idea
of
more rigorous
the
-I'letropolis
presents
relative
is
does not
should nonetheless
objectivit-v--i.e,,
at
of
describing
- 101-
strive
to
different
aspects
of
science
either
the
approximate
that
strategies
soclal
science
increasingly
the notion
obJectlve
of
preclude
increasingly
methods)--or
an attempt
statements
to
worth
socjal
most philosophers
that
However, this
of
by which
Black
that
there
can be
sclence--ln
empirical
reallty
and takes-these
(social)
by the use of
statements
sclentlfic
to be observable
Dethods,
e ciences --espe cial l-1- as understood
social
philosophy
tached"
book's
of
s clence--presupposes
The first
half
second half
have this
quallty
of
Presentation
tabLes of social
Black Metropolis
both sides
a great
of 1t.
deal of
social
action,
of
and (2) desplte
the usefulness
frorn this
of
by an "uninvolved,"
"de-
and sone parts
the maps, historical
the
of the
atatemenrs,
and so forth).
nonrational
especially
crl.teria,
the subjectlve
in the
achools
of "verstehen"--
aspects of the ldea are the following:
interpretatlon)
derived
older
accepts lJeberrs notion
o n a n t ' u n de r s t a n d i n g r '
Dust reat
hypotheses
(e.g.,
indices,
measured or analyzed by objectlve
sctions
certain
of Black lletropolis
also lrnplicitly
The't"o
in
especlally
I'objectlvity"
lloreover,
investigation
observer.
or verifiable,
action,
(1) beacuse
cannot be
the comprehension of some soclal
(i.e,,
experience
an empathetic,
of the social
lntultlve
actor
of the nethod of "verstehen"
or actors;
as a tool ,
method nust be supplemented by verlfication
and casual explana tions.
The concern lrith
thls
paper,
lntroduced
I'Throughout
for
it
their
because lt
or.rn comrnunity.
is more than the
is,
at some length
the remainder of thls
Blaek Metropolis
have about
'rverstehen"
as $'e noted in another
ln Chapter 14.
book ve shall
Another
exarnple of
chapter
on "The lJor1d of the Lower Class."
sense of
night
the tern,
see lt.
in
the Black
Belt
but a view of
(See Figure
ls
that
2.)
-to2-
the people
and to
analysis"
not a map ln
the rrworldt' as Bronzevllle's
reads:
rBronzevillel
concern 1s the "roap" at the beginning
It
of
the text
use the tern
rghettor revealed by statistical
this
In part,
6eens to express the feeling
They live
section
them
(8.U., p.
of
the
the usual
lower class
385).
Flgure
2
The World of the Lower Class
-S
.UP NORTH" |ryHERE THE
etcrl wtilTE FOt xS LtvE
.I9-
oio,
r,rn, ;?[}f,rYfX;;frXii:Ii,E
z7-7
-
To JoLtET GrATEmlsorv)
./
1@,/
Sr cHARtg (MALE nercnu-5?xoot16y' tt'T'-I1'g
GENEVA (A145
E,EFORM SCHOOL)
C E N T E PO F
vra ir.
t/- ?RoJE
STOCXYARDS
EOIUM DANC€ltAtl--'-rf
''
%yyF- d*"*ffNc.*ou
.OVER
68Sr.6ANG
BYTHE
L A K E ' W H E R , ET H E
W E L L - T O . D OW H I T E
UNIVERSITY
FOLXS UVE
OF CHICAGO
WH'TE
TSIAND
.OUT SOUTH'
WUrPP THE
.DICTY
NEGROE
PULL*IAN
WORKS
STEEL
tvltLLS
SIIADING'ND'CATESfHE AREAWHEPE
lAoSI LOwEP- CL A55r/v5r/TUnONS
AND FAM'UESAPE FOUND
(From 8.M., p, 601)
-103-
There ls
some obvlous
overlap
here wlth
the concerns o f cogni't lr'e anthropol gy .
danger in the uae of "verstehen"
The chlef
as a method ls
that
subjectivism.
That is,
one may emphaslze the feelings
the subject
(or the perceived
feelings
of the subject)
descriptlon
(1.e.,
may lapse
of
lnto
an t'objective
the phenomenon thought
frequentIy
steps
"over
of.
approximatlon")
t{e urill
the Ilne"
lnto
later
subjectivism'
-1 04-
of
at the exPense of a
of the actual
argue that
one
attributes
Black }letroPolis
:ruq5r
I he
f or
it s
Chicago
s y s L e m a ti c
s quar ely
tn
th e
Sc h o o l
t ex t
tr:a d i tj -o n
ther:ry
i ts
th a n
be based on close,
v olv ed
wll- l
in
tc
book :
in
of
B ut
rl gor
than.
fal -l .s
$gtrapg-l i q
is
thj s
not
argu e
to
practLce,
soci-aL science
is
f urther
freinr the
A ci et* -l i l ed accounti ng
$tlcr.e.ssive" readi.ng;r; of
of
the
methodol .r:g-i )7 .
a fei w of
the
cl f thi s
(e.g.,
text
tl l e
maj cr
u f ql''Siql_q}1"-cjLg*gy; ( ?)
of
_ii"qsr.gl.he*gg;
*f
dynaurics
a n c l (4 )
sort
ttre coi l ceptual J.i :a{:i on
(3)
of
the
in*
paper
readerf s atl enti on
theoreti cal
the
must
theory
clf the
genera"l- conception
the
surf ace of
A J.i l ter draf c cl f thi s
Ii r ttl e ui r:anti me,
a e o n s L d e rr;rti .o n o f
(:. ) the
j s #vcn
&l*_gtc *&.:g:p.gllfi
ls
cC Incerns of
general
rhe
general
conceptton
soci al gl g,q" gu.1
9ntol.o_Sl
If
entities
s oc ial
Ql .g*
S chool .
procitrct
arry other
m e th o d o l o g y .
et h] r ie-.re l a ti g $ s ;
Sotiail
or
cri feri a,
tt re C hi cago
s u c h a . re a d i n g .
conceptiralization
of
of
o rl r :i .n v e s ti g a ti r-rn
r ef le c t
dlr ec Led
the
C }n thi s
me[herdol ogi cal .
th e o ry " It
the
t he
k nourn rnore i .or i ts
th e o rl -" i rg .J '
that,F-lgS3-.Ie.ffgpg-1!g.'
ft wit hout
is
we consider
of
social
in te ra c ti o n ,
conflicting
1.
socLal
social
llfe
o ntol ugy
(persons
or institutfons)
a n d th e n a ture
ont*lngies
i"
f,.o mean one t s coneepti on
of
soci al
n the
the basie
fundamental
change* -then
ELgS&-lklgSU4gS-.
oi
there
One coulcl
are
argue
forms
of
argua bly
thar
An o th e r-* a n c tr, p e rh a .ps, ti i e rr' r," ]ricentral
t
* * .area
of theoreti cal
c o n c e rrr i n ttre b o o k has t.o cl o w i rh B l ack/w hi te
race rel ati ons
a n d th e p h e u o m e n o n of u' sci " sm. Tl ri s Js a topi c
that meri ts
thorough dj.scusslon.
lfirjs is a lupic ttrat I intend to consider
i t i n s a m e d e ta j l
Lr: a p;{pe:r I ai l r devel opi ng w hi ch i s rentati vel- y
e n ti -tl e c l * ' l i a r:e a n d C l ass l n th* . $oci al ' \nthropol ogy
of S t. C l alr
Drake,"
fh* i.*ct that filiis qrrestlon is not rhoraughly
considered
h e re s h c l u l C n o t, i n i eny rdayo tre fakrl n Lc-rsuggesf that l .t i s
rel.acfvelv
untrnport ant .
*r05*
there
is
a soctal.
indiv iduals
ec c nom ie
oc.tol"ogy whlclr
a n d E i ro u p s th a t
an c tr te rri to ri a l
per s pec t iv e
c l e a rl y
second haLf
as r+ell-.
are often
it
is
s oc let ies
affinne.d
th a t
or
One could
laps e
well
in
log i c .
ref lect
dlscussion
& g r:e a t d e a l
fi r:st
hal f
that
of
of
broad
interdepenrJent
an< i . corrfi i ct
eeonornLc ni ci res,
the book,
theory.t,
0n the
adhei :e to
ct:nrenE ed togetl i er
other
the vi ew
EJ:at the
thar
confLict
th e re
is
a n o th e r .q" q1gj hl g.
expl anati on.
r.rse of- Prurk t s soci al
coumtents on Parlrrs
an l-nexcusabl_e
The probl em
ontolcgy,
socj.aJ- ontoLogv:[rr
Coser,
l l u ma n s o c i e fi " e s ,
to hi nr, have a doutrtr.e aspe* t:
they are ruade up of interdepen,Jent
i.ncti*
viduals
anrl grolrps competf-ng wlth one anr:tlrer
fo r e c o n o m i c a n d terr:i " turi al
douri nance an.-l
for favorable
ecological
niches; but the,y are
a l s o tre l d to g e th e r by sl tnbci L:i .cal l y affi rmecl
s o l i d a rl -ty ,
c o n s e n .$us , and conmC Inpurpose.
The social
a n d m o ra l or< l er soff_ens the i upact
o f th e c o m p .e ti t:i v e ,struggl -e for exi stence
th ro u g tr s o c i " a l - e o n t rcl r
normati .ve guJ.cl al nce,
and involr""enent in trangiinciir,ri6.r* t t"asks
(C,rsser J"n Bottamore er:d l{esht tt,
IgTti,
p, 317).
ttPrejucli.certt
e"g", is
ttA m e ri c a n
v a J .rJ e s ,It
r;een asi cut
-106-
of
$teF wirh
rnay
ln
ttre followi.ng
manner:
1,.
handn
t,y symbc,,Ji cal l y.
aborre repre*certr,$ a. case of
more general
t he
that
do r+i"ch maladjristerJ group values.L
argue
Park,
Ttri s
and tl re end of
va.l.rre consensLlsi and ccir11511i3r,
pr.!.rFciri*, and that
to
for
asgregaLi-onof perspectives
the hooi t, seems to
e o c :l e f.J ,es are
an gggy1gbe"q,ijn4
of
Ln conpet:i t-i on
as c{)nstttutin.gttconftir:r
s e g tri e n ts o f
has fundamentally
th e
trt bel.ongs to
to
solidarity,
fundamental l y
h e g e m o n y and f,or favorabl -e
d c rn i n a te s
referrecl
c lear
a re
ir.l*vts socLE:h_viis rruacleup of
a
In
any c as e ,
IIo c l e a r
St.a te me n rt of
aei suned soci el
ontol ogy
is
made tn
the
I
bookr* and the baok is wri-tten in suclr a way (in€..
histor-v' separated from the analysis
fnterpretation--L.,Q,,
logies
of structures
that tJrere ere! ln fact,
wl.th the analysi.s of
and values)
tha.t the forrner
two camoetin.gsocia1 snto*
in the book--seems mr:st plausible,
oSigl, 93gee
'
t he
rmpli'cit:ln
sociology.
Shif ting
Lfne
ec onom ic
n e c e s s i ty ,
of
the
ecCInomy is
lng
a mediatirrg
bor r ow
a blt
first
half
c o m b i n e s e l e me n ts
" t heor y tt
P ar k ian
the
T h fs
Color"
of
of
the book is
a.n hi stori c;rl
p o l i ti c a tr
ftren:e has
function"
tn
tn
fro rn i l s c h e ma p re s e nterJ
in
th e B l ack
socia;approach
poli-tiual
Ffetr:opol i s
w i th
r-ay between
i .cl e:l -[i smr,-* and w h er e
instance
social
l nl arnerts E l ack
change.
on ,,Ttre
chapter
do wj-uh an interp
The lrnplf.clttotheorvttof
fc i r
the
e xpecl i .ency and " democrati c
seen as doniLnant arrci the
m onogr aph D ra k e p re p a re d
mnteri aLl .* ;t
e $ s p rl cfal l .,rr refl ected
r^rhere the
& theoi:y of
is
viewed
as play-
change ney also
C i vi l i zati on.
stud5r, he cJ.escri bes thl s
as f ollows:
As Dtr. l.Iarner
has pointed
out
in
hj.s B]-ack
_Qi:U!"r,gliqg, a conununiry may lre vl_ewffi'rurt
only ln i"ts spati.al aspecLs, i:ut may be
ttro u g h t o f a l s o l " n tenns oi t l evel s
of
adaptation. I
Thus, Et the first
level_, l-s
to nature,
a technology
lrants adapfation
for controlling
1ti then as econcmj"c system
fgr orderi"ng fhe tectrnology; next, a $y,$tem
of social
organlsation;
ilnd f inallv,
*r
system of r"social" logf.csr r ttre absolute
i d e o k :g i e s
a rrd s a nct" i ons opera[i ng
i n the
society.
Tires* aspecf,$ of society are
i n te rre l a te -." d *
a n d a chi i nge j .n one i s
1 " . Perhaps t.herc wou]-C have belen such a statement
had the fi nal
"
d r a f t o f t h e h o o k t r e e , nw r i t t e r r f o r a n a u d . i e n c e o f s c h o l a r s .
Perhaps not.
-107*
In
the
m odel_
reflected
Vo l u n ta ry
TLre reLat.i onships
in the others (Ctrurches ancl
A s s o c . L a t i o n s , p , I . 3 ")
can be ciiagrarnrned as follows
Fig,trre
:
]
S,egnnde
noetrine*c
Soeial. Lorice
a
!'runily Church Aes oclnt i on St c.
gqctal 0rsanize,ticn
Eo ononie,
S1'steiu
I
!14chirrary
Tool a
lTeapons
Te chnoJ-oev
%--.+d-
Animat s and Inanimrte
Sbj octs
tlbid.,
Ri c har d
social
W r ight
p o i n ts
ta
s$m$j nf
change : inclustriaSizat,ion,
differenttatian
{.gr$",
p,
the
Nnture
p" 14.)
reutral
cfineepts
seclrlarlaatinn,
ln
this
t,theoryrt
urbanizationo
of
social
xx).
^
Eth nic
Relat ion s
Inplicit
in
the clj-scussion o f e t h n i c
-108-
relatfons
(io€.,
of
relations
obtai.nlng
among the varJ.r:us wllife
*nd non-whi te eEhr:ics and between various
these groups a.nd Anglo-Americans) iso it
social
wouLrl appesr, the Farkian notion
of
ttrat
l-ife may be conceived as grrverneiJ by f our prlmary socj.al processes;
eogpgl+.tloF ' *qgntl&!,
ac-ggryrqod4}j-gt ,rnd -*glSmilg*ign.
is only occasionallv *xpl.ic.itly
places-*i.t
different
sEa[ed-*i.e.1
Though this
parts of- it
wr:uld appear to unclerl.ie the eualysls
experiences of the various
ethnic
scheme
are stated l.n
of the relatl"ve
groupu in {lhicago and the c:omparisons that
are drawn based on a vie.w of ttrose experierr*u*.1
Social Classes
The prevallinp,
cuseed at length
Here, let
"class"
concept of "ci.;lss*r in n.lggLllglgg*qj.lg
In the section
cept of the upper-cl.a*u "
1.
2.
onttFi.rrclirlgs" and tirat on ilI"letlrodolr:gy.tt
us simply rernlnci ourselves
tn Black-*tglg.Spgli_g- is
has been dls-
of a few Eroint.$,
rln i{q.gl;!.ypg-
blrst,
fcrrnrulatlon,
the coneept, of
except
for
the con--
2
frequently rrti.liee a from
$etro.Ilj*ig does explicitly
PLa.ck
t'Sq1ggl"-to-assimilati.on
schenne (wher:e 'ocoJ,ony" is clefi.ned as a
separate, suborclinate, ethni-c resiclenti;rl area. in the city).
'attributes
As noted, the preteeclure (i.n sum) for determl"ning the
of the upper and lowertrc.lasses" was as feil]"ows: (1) Chart the
relations
of Lhe upper-cl.ass and s trrdy i ts members errF
Sgg3l
pirl-cal1y in depth.
This cirn be done fairl.y easitlr because ttris
group is rather srnall ancl has relativel5r easy-to-trac.e interpersonal/lnter-farntly
(2) Deterrninr: tire upper*classt view
ties"
of the lower--c1ass. This w11.1be a stersotype.
(3) Engage in
participanE-observation
alnong the l.ower-class to check and correet
thls stereotype.
!'ronr.thts, a concel:t of the typj"e.a1 attri.hutes
of the lc'wer*class emerges,
Assunr-t"ng
onet s research straf.egy is part.icl"pant*observation
(as
opposed, e,9,, to survey researeh), lhe onl.y way fia clreek to see
if onets concept of the "lower-clas.c'f is co'r6ect is to engage in
a d d i t i o n a l o b s e r v a ' c , i o n sa m o n g d i f f e r e n t s e c L a r s o f t h a t t t g r o u p . "
In practice, this latter strategy i.s rar:ely punsued.
-109-
This
B .g f
l- it er at ur e:
f ic at ion
ancln it
:i s i mp ont.rnt
in
whf.ch rr'as uti.lized
which was,
.B l- ac k t le! f op q * { .e thec-rretical
f or
t he
par t i c u l .a r
subjec t i. v e
b een s eek ing
it
nore
to
useful,
g ro u p s
understand,
e.g",
t hat
is ,
in
i fs
but
bei ng
saJ/ thi i t,
D ra k e p trts
to
in
as l arge
concept
never
could
as C hi caga--and
thet
thi s
of
ttcl-asstt utflized
the
general ,
Inrl i ana,
producti orr..
the
u sing
researcher
H ad he ari ,{ C ayton
ttrey w oul d
to
have fou ncl
iclentify
cne w i s}res
p.La,vground, thr:r*
1"1'lef6cus: in
on i nferpersonerl
w tro i s
based on
l { c,w eve.r, i f
whom c>n a school
l argel y
is
any
usefulness
researcher
try the
w ayi
in
i .e.,
abstr:actr}'
cl.asu r,rhich seehs
are nrcrre ,-,sefu.L,2
ts
of
one.t$ o\dn vi ew ,
rnrorke.rsrJ.n Garv,
ttre i l e a n s of
s e r:c n d h a l f,
"in
rai sed
' {:i re nratter
who a.ssociates with
crf "rilari.s"
a ci ty
ttrl .sr argi ri menf , i n
tcr use a l,ls.rxierr concept
of
concepts
is
always
o :.-g a n i u e s te e l
relat ian( s )
other
q u e s L .i -o n th a t
c ri [e ri a " ]
the I' i i l rneri an
c*val.r-ratecli.n t.erms *.f its
l:,asL ul.rlur*tely
.-..f c o u r$ i e ,
strati *
vi l ri ous
aq,rye,l.lcommunities*-ft
*oncept
answ sred
c &T l n o t b*
t he w ro n g q u e s ti s rn ,
rais ed
st.udy of
the
of u-hettrer the
trs e fu l
concept- is
( O ne c a n r
lt .
is
of
sci enc.e
&n empiric;r1.ty^baseci concept),1
hor+ever cleficlt*
Second, che issue
underscore,
to
rtre sfucly
hav e been a rn a n a g a b l e c o n c a :p t i n
soci al
the
fl " re Marxi .an. concept,
th e We b e n i a n c $ncept,
",
c on e e p t$
(a concept
mo s t crl i rcept,$ cl i . cl " ans i n
w i th
c o n trs s ts
c onc ept
the
to
are
9-1+S.h.Jf*gfgjlq]!:-,
neti i rorl qe an,l sty],es
J,.
T h a t i $ . th e fo rmu l a t. i onri
of E he rtl ow er:1* k.rss{ es)tt and i tari ddi e*
c l a s s (e s )t'
w a s n o t b a seci C In an .[.rl ea1* t-y* peforrntrl ;rti on but on
(everr if que$tioriprbl*) measur:ements. See I!'. l,leiyd
rather precise
l^Iarner (l'r{th Mav:r:hi.a $echer and Kenns.th Fel.Ls, &glASfgg.g-_lS.
funerica; .A l,1s:nuaJ-of Proc*d,,.rre f *r th.e Measurenenl: cf Scrci.al" SEatus.
2"
Persr:nal
ccmrnrini"cation n I'l*vermbr:r:
o 1.9SI
-110-
of l"ife;
moreo\ler' i-u is
not an, atteiir;:t tn des.crj.t,e macrc.-level hJ"s;turtcal
<levelopne'nEbut & more miero*leve]
ttre inves tigati
situation
a.q it
exi.sred at ttre in.stan"ce crf
on,
The pofnt
is
not
that- the rroftnn
of
l'{et€.p9.119 i-s not open to riu{:st"lon, but thnt
ttr:lasstt
it
a$ arriculated
in
is most fruitfully
Black
cririqueel
in rel-ation to the aut.hors* purporscr(s)" rt mJght, $f course,
turn out that
the corrc-ept is inatlequate fc,r ttrej.r purpCIso, clr that
cross-elutting
ful
for sofie of these, it
suspicion
that
T hir d ,
one ntght
call
us age o f
the latter
th trs fa r
and that,
nay RL!- be rlu*ful
for others,
si-ttratlon 'ls, ln fact,
w e l ra v e concentrated
it-*is
th e
the prinary
te rn i " C IR s s o ' i .n
the
rr is
this
authorrs
"***"1
on cl ne eoncept
one irl the book, tt
thei l :* ok"
in fact,
El-iougiithe corlcept- nray be use-
Though rhe concept wtl have fr-'cused on--*the
"lif
SglggPg$S-'
t he
purpo$e,$ ilr tile text
there are,
of
cl ass
e-style,!
in
B l ack
eoncept,
by n$ nrcans rncnopolizes
There fi re arguabl v
-l g51 concepts
of cl-ass ln Black lletropo.lis:
1"
the ttlife
2"
a n't'ion. of soc:lar cre.,rse$ as st.attrs
sro*ps-{whi.ch over:lap."l
signi"fi'canttry with t.he "ljfe.*style'o
concept2 and ls thus
revealed vl,a a close r*ading of Teble l tn the abcve,
t?re noters to ctraprer rB in
&!*sL$9'!__qrgg.Llq, and so forrh);
3.
the more widely*known concept of social, classes frorn the
sociaL str:atI"f{cati*n literature
which defines sccial. c]-asses
i n t e r n r s o f t t l ' , r e u k $ t ta l o n . q a c c , n t i n u r i mo f g o c ' i a l i n d i c e s , e . g . ,
j"*come (a concept vshich thel authors (ire,quent-1y
enci up inpr5-ci.tiv
1.
T h i s i s a q u e s * i .o n I i .ntetrrl ter prrrsrrc tn the paper menti onerl
i n & J l o o tn o te a f" ttre be,gi .nn:i .ng of tl i rs sectton
on thecr;r.
L,
T h e tw o c o n c e p ts , tro rnrevr:r' frre nsL the same.
For i l i ustra;,i on,
we can returir
to the exampl"e from Si.ack Metropolis
cf the two
s te e l w o rk e rs (s e e T ati i e l -) ,
It i s rn* re l i kel y
that they w oul d.
b e e J -a s s i fi e e l i n " t$ tC I dj -ffer* nt
cl asseso' i f ool uti l i zes
ti fe*
styl€ criteria
thirn if one utLLl.zes status crjlerj.a.
l,{oreover,
th e c o ri c e p t o f s ta tu s
i s uore cl .osel y LJ.nked to (thr:ugh obvi ousl y
d i s ti n g u i s h a b j -e
fro m) the concept crf pow er than i s f-he ttfe_
style
concept"
stylett
c*n.cept of soctar clas,eesl
-1lr-
endorsing r+hen they draw on thtl secort.ciaryJ'itera!-trrei e "9,,
census material,s, to make tiieir cl!se-- Largely clue.to the f acr
that most of the ernpirical data on 'rsocial classesff l-n the
United States has been eotrlected/pr:oduced based on
methodological and theoreti.cal asstnrptions of tire ftsocial
strat,iftcatj-on
rnodel") I anC
4.
a l,Iarxian concept. of soelal
A |darxiair concept of soeial
text,
especi.ally in the first
classes,
clasees explicl.tLv
hal-f of the book.
surfaces at many points
In fact,
might arguably be said to be the majc'r one in the first
In any case, it
is utilized
rather: extensively,
has to do witir _qapiggl-_lgboJ:. fglgqi"ggg..
an absent concept,
1,
thls
half
in the
conc.ept of elass
of the book.
A gc'od deal of the dlscussion
The concrept of pet ty-bourgeoisie
is
I
T tre re i s a t l e a s t o ne i nsE a" nce i .n the text w here thr..re i s reference
in a sing.l.u $t,s,t.ementto tt}&lrorrtt tt*spi.Lal1*tt the toupper-classtt
and the ttml-rld.l"e-c.lasst'*'*i.e* I i+here llarxi-an enei non.-Marxian con(J1,}t", p. 21].
cepts are curi.ously juxtaposed
- 1r2-
I
gl
a![ruuggThls paper is
study in
the history
neither
a study in
of ideas as this
L972>, nor a study in intellectual
in the i.ntr:oductionr
detail
context
the socfol-ogv of knowledge, nor a
is generaLly understood (Foucaultn
to the text.
It
as we noted in some
However, the historical
aucllence are,
in a certain
began tn the mfd-tirirt.i.es and ended 1n
spanned the distinct
periods
r:f the depression
(accompanied by the "Ne*s Deral") and the Second World War.
a period
a perlod
ln which massive immigration
make-up of United States society,
imtigratj.on
of Blaeks from the South
the sociological
arrd encled during a perlcd
in which tslack
f rom the $or.rth to the Nnr:th was afiain on the tncrease.
was a perlod
in whlch there were ar.tesomeshifts
of the Afrc-Amerfcan population
in the United States.
(as exempl"if ied l^n sharecropptng
labor).2
and B.lack.{etropg}ig
and fenancy)
Blacks rdere nehr a.rrivals
was the f ir$t
Drrring this
period
shif ted frorn rural
to urban (as exeurpli f l,ecl in
tn the nortfrern urtran areas
stuciy in that
l.
Mtrch of tlre discussl"on irr thi.s section
with St. Clalr Drake.
2.
S e e F e * p l e ' s C o l l e g e , Introdr"rction
valtrmes one and two.
- _rr3-
Indeed,
in the demographic make-up
the modal experience of ttre Afro-Amerlcan population
industriaL
thus spanned
I'{oreover, the study began imrnediacely
to the urban areas of the North trad permanently altered
lt
It
of rapid et-:onomie"doqrn-tutrnrt (the ttlean yearstt) and rapid
econoriric ttlrp-turntt (the t'fat yearst').
after
real-
Thrrsr we consider Ehe foJ-lowing.
The Black Fletropolis project
the nld*forties.
is,
orl irwranent critique,
and both ttre intended ancl actual
sense, i.nternal
It
biography.
era to extensively
expfore
ls ba.sed on conversatJ-ons
to Afro-American
Studl,es,
1
this
new phenomenon.'' Blaclc l'{c[r;'l{.}]j-s states
1t tirj:s wa'y:
The s tory of the gronth of Black I'tretropo1-ls betr.reen the Civil I^Iar and the D*pressi.on 1s, wlth
rnlnor variations,
the story of the Negro Ln
N e r eY o r k * D e t r o i t r P h i l a d e 1 p h i . a , P i t t s b u r g , h ,
and a nrmrber of other citi.es in Amerieats
l.ndustrial areas "
narthe*srern ancl east-central
During the $econd World hlar j"t beicarnethe
story, too, of San Francisco ancl Los Angel"es
as Negroes str:eamed to ttre West Coast to help
man the arsenal of d.emocracy, Negrnes in
Ameri.ca are becornirrg a c:i"ty pecpJ"e, and it ie
ln the citj.es that the problem of the Negro
ln American life appears in its sharpest and
most dramatic f ,rrrns" T.t may be, too, that
the clties viill be the are.na in r+hi.r:h the
'Negro problem' wi}.l- be finally settled.
A
scudy of Negro l-i,fe in Chi.cago is important
not only because it is tytriical of northern
urban conrmuniti-es, but also beeause tt i.nvolves one of the clties in whi,:h change is
Laking place mast raptd-ly and trhere in the
next decade fricti"an,
and even confLict, be*
tween gi1plg3t and labo_r, Hegro*FTnJ-iilltes,
wJ.ll probably reach lts most intense for:m, and
where a new pattern of ra.ce relati.ons is
most li.kely to el'crlve (8.M., pp. 755*756).
This statement is made posstbl.e by a real,
naLure of the "Black experience"
of the authors
phenr:menonas lt
to view societal
Its
in the Uni-ted, States,
also tmportant
This was exeurpliftedp
was*hggp-e$gg.
to note that
transformat{cns
€.9,e
There v,ras a general
l"n the ri-ots
1.
ri o ts .
For this
(T i ri s
fear
ls
to the credit
I
certainl-y,
in ehe patterns
at
for
-l-14-
of
race
jobs during
cnce tr{ortel i.lar II
am indebted
r:f Illacks
che end of Wcr-l.dWar I
w as bi rsed on ti { o poi nts;
fe a r
poi.nt,
that
(Tt is,
massive influx
this
phenomena acconrpanying tire int-ense cr:nrpetition
be r qas s iv e
It
nruch
by r+ay of hlndsight.)
transformations
cLti-es led to qualitative
years.
in the
transforsnation
of Bl ack Uggf .ggq.li-g.Ehat they grasped the esserlce of the
dynamics of thls
easier
material
into
the
rel"ations.
and in
the Depression
ended, t-here wou}cl
(f i
to my colleague,
it
w ;r$ aesumed
Gerald McWorter.
t hat
s oldle rs
f r eedom
( 2)
it
w h o h a d fo u g l tt
ov e rs e a s
wouLd not
was a s s u me d th a t,
a posr-war
fo r
to l e rate
given
economy which
t' thel r
the
countrytt
and experi eneed
toJi m-C ror^ri smtt
return
woulcl inevitably
r:f w hl te
ouce they
sol dl ers
contract,
.and
r aeial
t ole ra n c e ' th a t
- lr ould
be a q u a l -i ta ttv e
Fl-nally, lt
d e rl v e d
i n r:re a s e
i s irnportant
Djrl-qqngg
had Just recently
fr om a sense of
j -n antl -B l ack
to consider
l tus agai nst
sentl ment
the f act that
been publishe<l (1.e.,
a bi t
returned;
and
j obs,
needi ng
& decllne
of
ln
the
t,he enemyrtt there
and acti ons,
)
lfyrdal t s Amerlcan
l.n ].g4/+othe year prevtous
to the publlcat ion ot LlggF=Ugt-{gpgfj$-) , and clisc.ussion of the I'race prob-lem"
tras I'in the air,t'
lfeSk*Ugggpg$g
Myrcialts work had re*efved considerable pubJ.icity;
f allowed
Because of this
on Lrs treel-s.
combi.rration cf factors,
vletred as a work that night
harmonious relations
struggle
to tbetter
between Blacks arrd whites,
the schol'arty writing
wtrite liberal-
contribute
understandllgrrt
ft
wils, like
to more
almost all- of
on ?he Black experience of that er&r direc,ted toward a
"enlightenecl"
to transform
was widely
.4lq"h.&!Lryjf1F_
audfence that woulql hopefully
racj.st Aurerica into
be an ally
a soc.iety more consistent
in the
wlth
the t'American ieleal" t'
In general-, the aucll-ence respon$e to
Sl.a.ck }Ie[qcrpolls was as follows.
Ttre l"iberal
its
acadeuric conmuni.ty pralsecl it
(except for a handful who questioned
methodology), and, by and L"arge, conlinues ta praise
1.
it.l
The llberal
nb-!!t." ltgqlopqllg i s stllI
cited wlth some f requency in rhe
sociological
literature--ahnrst
cirtrty years after its
publication'
It is Drakets view ttrat, in eplte of at l.east one
gl-aring methodological def i"ciency r the work was never subj ected
to systematic, criuical
peer review due to the above-mentioned
soclal climate.
*1r.5-
t'enllghtened"
front
section,
grounris that
attacked
cailed
the
New York
lt
"let
white
Ri chard Wrlght,
tlmes
folks
and ln
if ,
Ttre book receiveci
the New York Herald
know too much of
e.g.,
our business."
ln
i.e.,
the prospective
e
Trlbunets
by some B1ack nationalLsts
on
It
was
a f946 book revieu
who had by then broken with
the book was overly
lncidently,
aiscr praiseo
conununists as t'ref ornl-st,t'
the book "StallnlEt,"
corrmunists in
coumunity
The book was attachei
bv orthoclox
in lier+ lilrsses .
ln
in
Page'review
book review
the
non-acadernic
argued that the portrayal
the comrunlers,
of orthodox
synpattrefj_c,
race
riots
C'hlcago,
-116-
never materlalized,
8t
least
not
POLITI CAL OR.IENTA'IIONT
We observed earlier
of members of rhe white
that Black l"letropolis was geared to a readershtp
"midr3le*classtl liberal
assurned on the basls of that clisctrssj-on that
political
orientation
wi.th certaln
that manifests itself
conimunity"
there i.s a single
other aspects of the text. (namel-y, its
orientations
l^Ia rn e r e n d s h i s
at H'ork ln the l:r:ok.
t' M e rh o d ol ogi cal
(llberal)
in the bocrk" As ls the case
theory) , a close reading of the bocrk reveale that
politieal
Perhaps, the reader
methodology and its
there are conf liettng
Consider the fol"lowlng.
N otett w i ,th
thi .s
statenen.t:
D e s p i te th e ffi rl n y encouragi ng si gns of beter*
ment already indj"cate4 in ttris excellent
study,
ttre m o s t i mp o rta nt
i s yet t;o be menti oned.
At th e p re s e n t time therre are i ndi catl ons
th ro u g h o u t
th e l l ni i ed S tates and fhrougi rnut
th e w o rl d th a t i m portent
c" hanges are on thei r
way ancl that the present
systern rnay reform into
s o rn e th i n g q u i te cl i fferent
w hi ch w I11 gi " ve
l d e g ro e s m a n y * i f
not al l * the
opportuni ti es
n o w d e n i e d th e m"
It must he enphasi " zed that
such rnlracl.es clo not corne hy rhernselves,
they
must be r"'orked frrr.
A system as deeply imp l a n te d tn th e l j .ves of al L of us a.s thi s one
n e e d s m o re th a n the trumpets of equal i ty
to
b e s o u n d e d fo r i ts w al 1s to tumbl e dow n.
ft
is rny belief
that the next generation's
p ri n c i p a l
ta s k w i l l
be the hard and pai nfu.l
o n e a f d e s U ro y i n g col -or-caste
i n the
U n i te d Sta te s (9 :,[. , I] n 782)
A lt hough
th i s
s c a L e m e n t m a y b e rri .erqed asttprci gressi veri l
f or r nis t .
T h e ma i n te x t
statement
tirat,
1.
of
ti re }:c;ok. ends on a qui te
one su.$pects,
cculd
only
j -s cl earl y
di fferent
have been writfen
Biographical J .n fn rmati on i .n ti rj .s seeti on
interviews of $ t . C l a i r D r a k e .
-117-
it
is
note
re-
(w i " th a
by Drake):
l argel y
based on
r0ne Worlcl.t
The problerns
So it is really onLy
that arise on Bronzevillers
Forty-seventh street
encircl-e the globe.
But the people of Black
Metropolls and of Midwest l"Ietropol_is do noL
feel that thls relieves them from maintainLng
their own constant struggle for a compLete
democracy as the only way to attain the world
we say we want to build.
TLrepeople of Blaek
Metropolis and of lrlidwest Metropolis and of
all their count,erperts are intertwined
and interdependent,
Iolhat happens to one af fects all.
A blow struck for freedom in Bronzevilre flrrds
its echo ln Chungking and Hoscow, in paris and
Sene.gal. A vlctory for I'asc{.sm ig MldwesE
I'letropolis wil.l sound the knell of doom for
the Courmonltan er,'erywhere (8.I1., b. 767),
'
This statement clearly
nationalist
embodies, in its
Cormnunist ideology
most fundamentaL aspects,
and a (at Least, l-atent)
Bo inter-
I'pan*Col6rer1"
1'
ideolo.gy.political
The divergences in these statements reflect
orientations
respective
orLentations
of Warner, Cayton and Dra.ke.
the respective
Sone notes on their
follow.
Warner
Warner had no party politics
per se, but hact a genera.l orientation
ward Keynesian econonics arrcl the Denocratic
with
o'NewDeal.',
(Here, he had ties
and t'gate-keeperr'r Ctraules S. Johnson.)
the Black soctologlst
to*
Warner
was a ref ormer.
be treated
He was for a demoerati-c world in wlrich 1 €. g. 1 workers would
I'rightr'--a
view he continued to hol-d even durlng the tinre when he
and Gardiner established
a consul,ttng'enterprise
what members of the vari-ous social
f-ikely
to buy.
He belleved
to atlvise businesses on
classes in the United States might be most
that scholar:ship could be fruitfully
used torvard,
ends that wouJ-dsdvance the p(lor, and is reputecl to have once diligently
l-.
Ihe
the
t'Pan-Coloredt'aspect
ls
clearer
text.
-118-
in
a feru ather
passages in
sought to be appolnted Research Director
of the National
A d v a n c e m e n to f C o l o r e d P e o p l e ( N , A * A . C , P , ) ,
venture,
Assoeiatlon
Following this
for
unsuecessful
he began working w:[th ttre Rosenwal-d Fund through Chicago,
lowing his
departuree after
Worlcl War lln
aecept a $35,000 per year positir:n
one quarter
per year),
politics.
his
froru Ehe llniversity
hlarner became more conservative
of Chicago to
and unlnvolved
in
appears to have been toward I'gettf.ng
t'shead""
family
Fo]-*
of l'{lchigan (teaching
at the University
His general orientilti.on
aheadt' ancl getting
the
His writiugs
concerning businessmen anC the uTllitary.
shifted
to toplcs
He was alwoys anti*tdarxlst.
ceyj-o,l.*qC-IreKe
Horace
an er a
( t he
friendly
Lef r
Cayton was a lfberal-*Democrar-**
1930r s)
worlklng
s inc e
th e e e
in
relatl-ons
He was the
f at her ,
Hi.ra m R e v e Is ,
west
coast-,
b e i ng
rsi th
o rg a n i ra ti o n s
Deal. "
was an aes i s ta n t
which
brother
th e
to H a rry
the
thtl
of
Re'vels Cayton,
r el a ti o n s
B rtd g e s
Nationel
though a ltte1e
At
af
tions
the
the
hLs t or y
to
the
Llme of
Drake
former
w i th
in
i .n the
the
b o rrh er"
lef t
appear
w o u L d o ri e n t
in
meant sustai ni ng
ancl the
wiia (naned
non-Troskeylst
for
of
tfl e
theLr
ttN ew
grand-
c' f tl i e R econstructl on
of
Cormnr-rnist PartSr.
(whlch
cluring
Revels
Cayton
general_Iy
is
orp;ani eatl on).
l ongshoremen
of
on the
eventuall*y
::eputed
to
C aytofi nal ntai ned
Il orace
l l e w as supporti ve
era )
the
N ew D eal ,
J-r.
the writinp;
was more involved
t ha t
of
Denrocrat
the pr:l J" ti cs
organi ei ng
Negro Ccngress
his
and Cayton
in
fa n ro u s B l -srck poLi ti ci an
hav e been a C o n n i u rri s t P .a rty ttf ro ntt'
wor k ing
l l emocrat
Coun'nunist Partv
were i nvol ved
and r,cas prorninent
becane head of
a l l beral
j". €. e a f.iberal
crf 9..[g[SgqISJoUg-,
ttre potitlcal"
to have been approximately
"J-eft-i*ing,;
h i m m ore tow ard
-119-
pressure
groups
P an* A frl canj .sm,
the
orLenra-
same, though
and harl a 1ife
lt.should
However,
(with
tellectr-rals
elements)
necessarily
trajectc'rj.es
trad an overl"ay of
qrrite
l.argely
largely
a "valuet'
rationa"l
tirrough
by ttris
whose raclicalism
!{et-rop.ol-is is,
is
life
be not.erl thato
obviously,
problenr,
dlalogue,
and tirat
Teis
is
tirne,
they were both
petty-bourgeoise
including
ideology"
iiberal
Black
based on the pretuise
ir
in-
that
t'prejudice"
can be substanti-a11.1' arneliorated
hardIy
ir consistently
radical
view
of
the natter.
Politics
an^d the Text
One of
political
the
striki"ng
statements
in
Il-rat is,
m ent s out
spire
of
and theory.
seem to,
c r:n te x t,
th e w o rk
are essentiall.v
s u m, th e p o i n t
odds with
ontology.
l.
its
suspecl
I'fall
is
th i s :
that
of
its
the^sky
radical
at
read certain
use of Marxl st
you,tt
state-
methodol og y
" c c r n d e m n e d t tn o t b y t h e a c t u a l
of
ruoral appendages to
is
out
were one to
lack.s a systemati -c
(e. g. , Marxt s theory
nents
are. at
S.Lg_qE_.Ug-LqgIgUeis
one rniglrt say,
Thusr c.B, r exploi-tation
categorles
fn
of
of wtrat one might
anal.ytical
that
aspect$
In part,
most preval-enf, tireoryo
surplus
lrrlrr")
but
by st.ate-
the argument,
rhe pol i ti cs
re thodology,
of
n]ggb* Igl fq1_g-Lfg_
and sociai-
-t
Andn apparently,
i L s e p l s f , e . r m o l c r g ya s w e l l
"
is not one tittt
idc (:an I)r-rrs;
ue he re .
-120-
i thj -s pol nt,
how ever,
PROBLNMS TUNSIONS ANN S TLBNCIS
Froblerns
Ls St"
It
the work is
Srakets
problem
the key rnethodalogical
that
view
the observations
that
i.n
are nct stattsticaLly
on the lower*class
We noted ear'lj"er thafl the coneept c'f the ttl.ower-classtt in Black
control-l-ed,
ls
4gt{gpo.lis
Clair
an "ideal- type" formulation
survey procedures utilized
and that
there were no sampl-ing or
to check the composite ptcure
that
emerged from
the investigation"
p o i n te d
We also
The latter
T lr ls
the
second
t ing
t he
t he
p i c u te s
p rese" ntati on
danger
of
to
T he re i s ,
m or e f undam e n ta l ,
i n to
In
th e
re a d e r
aspecl
populat ion,
p a rti c rrl a r,
at
class
of
the
of
the presentatl on
text).
neans
of
1n
valida-
the
i nvestl gatars
pr:esent,
r:f their
ttworlelrttthere
sri bj ecti vl sn.
Thi s
blas.
investigation
some clea.r
view
to
u r;a y have al ready
th j -s probLem.
ts
and of
is
a probl -em B l ack
r eseari :trer
a p a rti c u l a r
j -n p ;t, snce i n
th e p ro L rl e m i s
m et hods as s u r\re -y re s e a rc h .
not
' l hi s
aspec:t i s
l cnov; that' * l rat
f ramerserk,
grappl e
i mmedLatel y
sol v* d
*121*
rai se
ul ti matel y
s/he
epi sLe-
t' k" now st' Is
w ork among a segnl gn.! of
ti .rne, w i thi n
Yh e se methods
perhaps
ncrtecl r {l r.r adcl i ti ona},
h o w d o e s on* doi .rrg fi el .d
t heo re ti c a l /td e o l -o g i c a t
( T nc ident ly ,
i.mplicit
i s,
avoid.
n a rn e ].y , h o w d o e s th e
m ologic al:
deal
the
e:f the subjeccsr
l .a p s i n g
(w rl ti ng
& great
that
the w ork--that
the mode af
Wi thout
g ro ups
in
the workrs
to
both
u n d erl i es
of
the accuracy
falls
Iglr.qpg}ig.
p ro b l e m
ln
of .Elag!*$-grgpgli:s-.
half
c on rp o s l te
ascerraining
tic ular
standards*and
a n d th e m o d e o f
g e n e ra l
probl ems
ethi ca.L
was seen fo be reflected
( net hodology )
v alt d?
c e rta :l n
problerns by todayrs
etbical
a lway s
to
(neeessari l .y)
a
a par-
r,r:l r.h thi -s probl em?
by the
i ncorpor:ati on
epi stemol ogi cal .
such
questi ons
as
\r ell- . )
Tensl ons .
ttrere ere 6r number sf apparent tensl-ons J f one considers
We noted that
to be one book rather
Blpch--llPt-rgpoli"s
second
halves
t ens { ons
of
we n o te d
not
the book rea113'do
l re re
That is n the f irs t and
than two ,
eonstJ.tute
a unity.*
1
Arnong the
fo l l o w i "ng:
th e
1.
the ttdetachedn social science" language of
(aj " rnost fl cU i onal )
p a rt v e r.$ u s ti re l l te ra r y
passage.s in tlre seconcl;
of certain
2.
parE versus the
methoclcLoW of the first
the hisLorical
o ' e th n o g ra ptri c" xreE hodotogy of
a -te mp o ra l
the second;
3,
th e a p p a re n t
ontologies;
4.
the use of
conflicting
5.
the bookrs
radical
6.
the bookts polttics
versus its generally
m e th o d o l o g y a n c i s o c i a l
ontol og-.1,
j u x t* p o s i t :l ont
of
tw o cl l uergent
*oncept,s of soeial
politics
ehe first
character
versus
its
soci al
cl"ass;
poJ.itics;
llberal
prevailing
and
theory,
Silences
As we noted
ehar ac t er iz ed
in
so fat
answering
in
by what
as what iL
it
t' s a y s "
doe-s nct
the question(s)
it
With
consider
underdeveloped,
l
mind,
coneept
At best,
in
al so
b-v w hat
i.s central
poses itself;
own structure
in
but
$ey (1)
the problernmati.crs
this
a pre:b-l-enu'rultic is
intrr:duction,
the
(of
does not
to its
sncl/or
concepts,
ttre fol-lowing.
tt
(2)
only
say--especi al l y
argument!
i.e,,
to
cannot lie saiel due tci
assunDptionsn and so forth).
Aa o}:r'iously
i.s that
.B]-+_c.1i._![e_rggg31:!1
of
they con,stitute a unit.y-in-te^nslon.
^L22-
not
mlssi*g,
power.
or at
There
is
least
no
s y s t em at lc
of
cliscussion
th e p o wer-r:eJati ons
oht-ai nj .ng he.tw e.en B l ack
and the J"arger Chicago conmurii.ty (though the basis
might possibly
beqtleln the various
Nor ls
between the ellte
there systematl"c di.,scussipn of the power relations
strata
of over-emphasizlng
of Bronzeville
ln;
role
ttrace rel.atj-ons situationt'
(petty:bourgeoise,
the
baok is
concerned with"
There is in
strate-gies for soctal
.general-,
a n d t t m a c r o t tl e v e l s .
Itself
surfaces--most
.3
T?ris, of .course, i*
They also have the
of production,
tlre;essence of a:ilajclr .
in the final
one intght be trble to clefend this
attempt
t'see
to
a l -1 th e
a I'cheoryt'of
through
abseuce
occasj.ons ln
the
commoninterests
HCIweverr the
the capi.talist. node
of labor)
withj"n wtrl"ch
clal-m
discussicln
the world
But this
paragraph of the book.
of irryrerialism and of the exploltation
Des p i te
they
change.
ciass of the poor with
no general framevrork (e.8",
book offers
and working-
hornogeneous. ]-inallyn
For examplg, oo several
world-wide
dramaticall"y
the
no !Iu::g{y___99*__?!L}gg}g-!;Lqg
berween *inicro,
in other realms,
book, the notLon of
obtalning
case) and
(re)productng
porti"on of the above coynents regardi.ng pcl.,,,*er
Ielations.
reveals
not
th.e effect
i-nterestsff nf the petty-bcurgeoi.se
class sectors tn o'Eronaevilleto to appea[ essentially
eould Lead one to iLl-advised
in this
Thesettsil-encest'have
of values and gonsensus in
of rnaking the "objective
levels
Discussion, of the
ffelas,sesrl in BronzevJ.lLe l-s simply
t h e c e n t e r s o f e c o n o m i . cp o w e r i n C t r i c a g o .
effect
such a d{seussion
tre gleaned from passages in the text).,
power relations
discussed.
for
C l ri cag o
of
l l l acl cs
in
Bronr.evill.ets
B ronzevi l .l e,
i ncJ-udi ng
eyc$o' (rny terrn),
an
the book
litsral_Iy,_ says_slnost- notb:lqa *rbug!-ll9S3pgq!en.qgE_g_{_[leg!tq_in _rJ"rgworld of
w or k .
It
is
a n i n c re d i b l e
A s w e n o te d ,
t his
des plt e
th e
ttei l e n c e;
concept
th e b c l o k rs u s e o f
of
o t her
r' '
the
petty-bcurgeoi ui ,e
I.l arxi st.
-123-
concepts
of
ls
an absent concept--
cl ass.
RECAPITULAT.IONOF lIrE MAIN ARGI'MEMS
St.
four
Clalr
key works:
prlnary
Drake's
Bl,ack Metropolis
lntellectual
contrLbutlon
(co-authored
with
ls
reflected
ln
Horace Cayton and publlshed
l.n 1945) i Value Systems, FgclaL stru.cture_ and_Race Rel-gt,lgns ln the.. BfltLsh
(DrakeIs dlssertatlon,
Islgs.
and the ll-ac\
Dlesl?orp (an unpubllshed
script
pages);
pology
(a two voLr:me work,
the UnLverslty
tions
based on fleldwork
done Ln L946-L9t+7); Afrlca
work consl.stlng
of two rhousand manu-
and Black Folks .Here and Therg: An Essay ln Hlstory
the fLrst
of Callfornla-Los
of many, Black.Metropglts
and Anthro-
vol-ume of whlch ls bel.ng publlshed
Angeles durtng
ls,
(Contrary
1982).
ln many respects,
outslde
by
to the asstrmp-
the nalnstream
of Drakers foremost concerns).
This paper--part
flrst
ls a theoretical
Ls dellneated
ln detall.
of the fourteen
of a devel-oping i.rg"r
dtscussion
work--has
ln whlch a method for
Thls dlscusslon--the
steps that
constltute
our method of successlve
to revj.ew thls
second major eomponent of the paper ls an "applLcatlonil
of Black Metropolls_.
ny study of Drake
core of whlch is
sumnarized on page 33. (The reader ts lnvited
of an analysls
two mal or parts , fiie
thls
dtscusslon
ls
the detalllng
readlngs--ls
stmmary. ) The
of the method by way
sunurarlzed ln the
foLlowtng.
BI.ACK I'{ETROPOLIS
Flndlngs
Ttre paPer argues that
revolve
the fundamental
flndlngs
of Black l,letropolls
around seven sets of eomparlsons and relatLons:
1.
An analysls of the hl,storLcal development of BLack
ctricago i.n the context of the devel.opment of chl,cago
(and, to some extent, the Larger soclety) as a whole;
-124-
. :
2.
A comparatlve analysts of the asslmilation
of white,
non-Anglo ethnlis
into the matnstream of ctrlcagors
economlc and social l,i.f e versus that of Af roAtrrertcans i
3.
A comparLson of the forur and content of the
lnstltutlonal
llfe of, Black Metropolls versus
that of Chlcago aa a whole;
4.
A comparatLve anaJ.ysls of patterns of behavlor and
att,rlbutes among and withln the varlous ttclassestt
of Black Ctricago;
5.
An implicit
comparlson of these "classes'r wlth
ttwhlte mtddle
elagstt'
,.. ,
6.
A comparlson of the tdeoLogy of freedom and democracy with the actuaL facts of Black Llfe in chtcago (and elsewhere in, the Unlted States);
:
,
the
7, , A comparison of Black-whlte
race reratlons
rn the
Deep south wtth patterns of Black-whtte race relattons tn chlcago, a northern,
lndustrlal
metropolls.
grgantzjrtlog
'Flacli
Metropolls
L4 and 15 essentlaLly
quasl-ldarxlst
toricaL,
polts"
in relatLon
a-temporalr
has slx maJor components. Ttre dlvlslon
corresponds to a dlvlslon
analysts
of the hlstorical
to the overall
trethnographictt
between chapters
between two books: one a hl.sdevelopment of "BLack Metro-
development of Chlcago; the other
analysls
a stattc,
of "BronzeviLLerr.
Styl-e of Presenta.tton
The style
concise,
of wrltlng
is
somewhat tfentertalnlngt'.
ders on t'f{ctlon".
conststent
wlth
The writing,
Questlons of ethnographlc
Drakers other wrltlngs:
8t least
slmp1e,
ln one lnstanee,
accuracy and class blas
bor-
surface
here,
Socl.al- Relatlons
of , Researcb and publ_icatlo{r
the' Black I'letropolls
proJ ect
( I ) was a proJ ect of funded and sponsored
-125-
(2) began as a progranr of "problem-orlented"
research;
use as a data barik rather
than as a publlshed
book;
research
(3) rras a proJect
research;
(4) lnvoLved a strong
publlshed
by a matnstream press and promoted by the llberal
Unlverslty
lntended
of Chleago connectLon;
for
of team
and (5) hras
"enltghtened"
establlehment.
{eth.orfology
LncLudes the f oLLowlng components : ( 1) f trndamental questlon ;
Thls sectlon
(2) fundamentaL assumptLons; (3) data aources;
(5) hr:man ecology;
(6) a hlstorical
,
ls
to rigorously
hypotheses,
dellneate
"verstehent'
.the
nated and excluded ln relatlon
ts
thls
subordlnatlon
viewed tn the context
sectlon
and subJectLvLty.
The
assumptions,
ln the BLack Metropolls
study.
thls : "to what degree Ls the Negro subrodl-
to white people ln the soclety
mechanLsms by whlch the system is matntalned,
reflect
method ; (8) a
frurdamental nethodoLogtcal
concepts and technLques utlllzed
Ttre fundanrentaL questlon
ln the city;
method; ( 7) an ethnographic
comParatlve method; and (9) objectlvlty,
attempt
(4) anthropology
and how do the llvee
and excLusion?'r--1.€.1
of the seven relations
and what are the
thls
of Negroes
le the questlon
and comparleons dlscussed
lf
ln the
on flndlngs.
Ttre sectlon
lGtropolls
proj ect I I actual
the proJectIs
observatLon
on "ethnographtc"
f leldwork
use of detalled
fleLd
and data recordlng,
the basLs of the later
logy ls provlded
crltLque
in thls
I'tre Black ltetropolls
(though arguably
method gets to the core of the Black
rnethods. It
study,
an tttdeal
LncLudes a dLscusslon of
a "holistLc"
approach, partlcl.pant
typett formulatlon,
and so forth.
aspects of the proJ ect I s methodo-
of certaln
sectlon.
study was methodologlcally
not transdlsctpllnary).
-126-
It
lnterdlsclpllnary
draws on both socLology and socLaL
anthropol-ogy
Ttre book utillzes
both what ls often
generally
method" and what ls
consldered
to as an "obj ectLve
referred
a "subJecttve
method". These methods
are Ln tenslon.
:
. l
Iheory
Ttre theory
text
than l-s lts
further,
taln
ls even further
from the surface of the
.,
methodol-ogy. A det,alled account of thts theory must awaLt,
Ln Black MetropolLs
cLose, successive
readLngs. In the meantlme, the paper dlscusses
key aspects of the textrs
soclal
conceptlons regarding
cer-
soclal
ontology,
change, ethnlc relatlons , and class reLatlons . The key argumeirts in these
:
points . ( 1) Ttrere may be conf lictlng
soclal ont,oareas Lnclude the following
'::
logles underLying the text: one soclal ontology betng a vlew of soclety as
made up of Lnterdependent
and groups that
indlvtduals
are fundamentally
ln
. i
competltlon
economic and terrltorlal
:
',
the other being the vlew that
able economic nlches;
.
societtes
for
and conflLct
r
.
hegemony and for
socLetlea
favor-
or segments of
'
, l
t
,
are cemented together
consensus and cormon purpose,
by s1mbolically
and that
confl-lct
af f tr:ured solldarity,
has fundamentall-y
value
to do wlth
uraladJ usted group values . I
l.
an
On page 106 I argued that thls dual conceptlon may reflect
'uns)mthesLzed use qf, Parkts social ontology, There ls another
posslble explanation that I dld not mentlon but that ls probably egually;plauslble.
It is concelv.ed that Drake and Cayton
practlce,
vl,ewed, at least in
the "conf llet modelt' as aPProprlate to the, analysle of lntra-group Lnteraction (e.g., between
varlous ethnic groups, between soclal cLasses ln the larger
'ovalue
soclety,
and so forth) and the
eonsensust',model as aPPro(e,g.,
priate to Lnter-group interactlon
gno+g Blacks tn "Bronze(Thls assumes, of corlrse, that one can ldentlfy
in some
vt11e").
rrLnterrl
way the rel,evant ttgroupst'. It aLso aasumes
lntersubjective
separate, but seParate ln
and "lntra"
are not slrnply. analytlcally
fact.)
St. Clalr Drake suggests the above as a possible working
hypothesls.
:.
- L 2 7-
(2) The text t s conception
posslbly
with
an overlay
of soclaL change ts essentlally
of some ideas from Warner. (3) Iurpllclt
deal of the argtrment l-n the text
be frultfully
fllct,
ls
the ParkLan notlon
vlewed as governed by four
Ls an "ldeal- type"
fully
critlqued
formuLatlon,
ln relatLon
prlmary
contaLns at least
the usefulness
Hlstorlcal
diffeient
l-lfe
may
I coo-
of soclal
of which ls most frultpur-
and unstated)
prevails,
the book
concepts of class.
Context and Intended AudLence
Ttre perlod
of BLack Metropol,ls was ( 1) a perlod
in the demographie malce-up of the Afro-Amerlcan
north,
soclal
conceptlon
(stated
to Drake and Caytonrs
four
ln a good
processes : competttion
Poses. (5) Although one concept of class apparently
actually
that
(4) the prevalllng
sccomodatlon and aselmll-atlon.
class
ParkLan and Marxlst,
of maj or , rapld
(shlfts
populace
shlf ts
from south
to
to urban) t (2) a perlod of qualltattve
ln the
transformatlons
'
(3) ttre period of' the Myrdal study (4g-4g".,1""o
of race relatlons;
rural
patterns
Dilerma) , i. e. I an era ln whlch dLecussion of the "race problem" was in the
alr.
The lntended
audlence conslsted
audience response eras varied,
Pol-itlcal
PersPectlve
lts
"enLightened"
whites.
The
but general,ly quLte posltlve.
OrLentatLon
two poL1tlca1
At least
ton,
of Ilberal,
and a llberal
perspectlves
perspective.
occur Ln the book--a
These refl-ect
Drake and Warner. ltre bookf s radlcal
nethodology,
has the effect
theory,
poLltlcs
the orlentatlons
are at odds wlth
socLal ontoLogy and, posslble,
of rnaklng certaLn polttteaL
radlcal
statements
of Caymuch of
eptstemology.
Thls
appear to be appendages.
ProbLems, Tenslons and trsil-encestt
Ttre study has at least
type" method
that
two maJor methodoLogleal problems:
ls not statlstlcally
controlled;
-128-
an "ldeal
and a (reLared)
method
that
lapaes into
temological
"tensionstt
politics
subJectlvism.
concern that
ls not eastly
Ln the work: €.g.,
and theory,
Chlcago conmuntty.
of articulation
methodologLes, tenslon between
concepts of class",
consplcuous "sllences".
of pohter-reLations
dlscussion
There ls no systematl.c
between Bl-ack Chlcago and the larger
obtaining
There is no systematlc
between certain
epls-
to a larger
Ttre paper suwnarizes slx
resolved.
confllctlng
and conflLeting
Ttre book has certaln
problem Ls tled
the latter
statement
dellneatlng
a concept,lon
VLrtual-ly
"mlcrott and "macro" levels,
nothlng
is sald about experl.ences of Bl-acks in the world of work,
BLACK METROPOLISIN TIIE CONTBXTOF DMKE I S OTI{ERMA"'ORWORKS
For the purpose of further
study,
I provLde the following
relatlon
to Drakefs later
and Soclal
{gg4tng
estabLishlng
surnary
0rgantzatlon
project.
subsequent work.
or faculty
tends to involve
the typlng
Drake ls essentLally
Hls wrlti,ngs
in any of Drakets
a very modest amount of funding.
a l-oner. Hls work rarely
are not generated ln a context
where there
only mlnimal
lnstitutional
ls
systematlc
ties--even,
peer revlew.
e.g.,
(e. g. ,
His work
at the level
of hLs manuscrlpts.
Brea{th
Black Metropol-is, ls
on the United
ln
fr:nded and sponsored
hras never repllcated
-
seminars)
Tempo,ral and Spatlal
prlnartly
was a multl-year,
He has onLy recelved
As a socLaL researcher,
graduate
Black Metropolls
of. ResearcL
Thls pattern
lnvol-ves team research.
comments regarding
of the present
work.
Ttre Black Metropol-ls project
team research
the context
.of AnaLysls
the only one"of Drakers"major works that
States.
Hls major recent works are hlstorical
-L29-
focuses
and
of
comparatlve,
Intended AudLence and Polltlcal
.
OrLentatlon
Drake no longer wrltes
Large proportlon
students.
ptoductb
and are not the dlrect
of hls
He refers
SeLf-Conceptlon
a white
research.
of Work
llberal
audlence.
IIe assumes a
be Black Studles practlt
audlence wlLl
to hfuneelf as a "neo-llarxLst
loners
and
Pan-Af ricanLst".
of Role
Drake largely
vlews hlmself
(and elsewhere)
anthropology
for
of emplrlcal
as a person who uses tools
to grapple wlth
lssues
that
from social
are fundamental
to
of the "Black experleoc€. fl
an understandlng
ResoLutLon of Problems, Tenslons and "Silencestt
answer to the questlon
A ystematlc
and "sllences"
of Drake!s earlier
awalt a detaLled
of whether the problems r tttensLongtt
work ts resolved
tn his l-ater
work
must
study of the whole of hls work.
coNctusIoNs
By way of concluslon,
general
areaa of concern:
overlaps
wlth
and/gr
of the exterlt
I would llke
to make some couments regardlng
the questLon of what. general,positions
*s exp-11:S1.tly wrltten
to whiclr the "applicaqion"
has been complete or oartLal.
though lncornplete,
The flrst
ln a previous
yet to be consldered
ln any of lts
{ri opposltlon
section
paper
and the questlo+
method of successlve
oll:he
polnt
to;
this
realllngq
has recei.ved some attentlon,
of thls
paper.
dinensLons. We wlll
polnt
Ttre latter
consider
lt
first.
C0MPLETEDAND UlTCOi'p,LETitD
ASI'EOTS Cr gup: pF.OJry
It
f alrly
flrst
ls
lmportant
preelse
thirty
,at thts
polnt
ln ouq d.lscussLon, tg_egtabLlsh,
terms . whLch aspects of our program (as deljlneated
threejagqs
-gf ,th+
paper)
have .b.een acconpllshed
-130-
two
ln
lp tlre
and whjlch
has
have ngt.
rn order to faciLltate
(fn
restate
preclse
somewhat abbrevlated
dlscusslon
language)
of thls
the fourteen
matter,
I will
steps artlculated
as
part- of our method of grrccessive readLngs.
step One. -Detgnnfute the baslc
-1og_lgy_eg_t!gatf_o:r_
.foi_,a p.arllcuLaf
f lndings
tlons
of Black"Metropolr.s
Step Ibo.
lglernine
questtons
stated)
text . In the dlsc!,rssil.on of the f undamental
r argued that
and comparisons) are central
wh1le ,others are unstated
stated , (and 4early
seven questLons (lnvolvlng
to the text.
rela-
Some of these are stated
(see Step Four) .
the theo
(and
and bastc stated
. In the dlscussLon of methodology ln
B'M' r w€ went a long way toward a conprehenslve
especlally
thts
ProJect.
flt
the methodological
"social
researchers
rigorous
cepts)'
comparison of
ProPosttions
and models utillzed
of,
The discuss{on
ref lects
spectficatlon
and subsequent use of,
rega:ding
theory
the fact
that
what I have done in thls
sunmary fashi.on'
(tools,
some of the baslc
r bene-
used by soclal
from a more
technlques
by the project--i,€.
Ttre discusslon
the concept "science,,.
one.
is not t'glven,, in the
base.d on careful
paper ls simply
-131-
could
of what r mean by "obJectJ-vtty,'
such dlscusslon
theorettcal
and con-
I both ln terms
has onJ-y been an Lntroductory
but' must be almost wholly' (re)constructed
the text.
couldr,€.g.
€.g. I benef it
ln and of how they l,nteracted.
from a $ore qlgorous
and by a definttlon
could alsol
of the modes of observatlon
of what these , conslsted
text
in the Black Metropolis
cLasses" as compared to the method typlcally
dlscussioq
this , 1n part,
of .the methodology,
the way Drake and Cayton methodoLoglcally
of the ttWarner schooltt. It
also beneflt
utilized
discusslgn nonetheless ip not complete. It
from a systematLc
ldenttfled
assumptlons,
analysls
to:dtscuss,
readlngs
in a rather
assumptions and concepts
of
utlltzed
ln the constructton
The dLscusslon was deliberately
of the text.
only.schematLc.
In addlt,l.on to not "brlnglng
!!eas, and prastices
rettcal
tq thd surfes:e" all_gf-
in the text
aqd rel-ated research prqlsct.
did not provLde an adequate _frarLework withln
gatlon.
conceptlon
of lts
ln relation
and so forth,
to ldeology
or,
1980), Such a theoretlcaL
vlous
lmportance,
slmply
no def inttton
of "theoryt',
nor any
components and theLr lnterreLationshtps,
of the l-tnktng of theory
soctal- ontology
I alsq
ybJ.ch to cqnduct such an investl-
To take the most obvLous exampl-e: I provlded
nor any spectflcatlon
theo-
the lqportant
to observattons,
methodoLogy, epistemology,
theory
I aLso dld not take up the issue of soclal
to be more precise,
dlscussion
ideological
and "appl-icatlon",
practlees
(Sumner,
ob-
of lts
in splte
could not be attempted here,
Step Ttrree. Det.ermiqe ttabsencestt , ttsilences tt and ttgapstt Ln the text .
I provided
a swrmary of several- key'ttabgenc€stt, ttsllencestt and ttgap"tt found
ln our analysi.s of the Blagk Metropolls
that
we will
not dlscover
Step Three obvtously
cepts and proposltLons
make substantiglly
etructurallsm
text.
There ls no reason to assume
ones ln future
additlonai
has Largely
to do with
f rom t'post-structuralismt'
phases of our lnvestlgatlon.
the use of technlques
and semLotics.
Sgedter. use of developments ln semiotlcs
unslated
tto-ng. goncgpts and propos_lrllons ttraL are .onlv lateF[:Ln
cusslon of St,ep One above, I alluded
dlscovered.
certain
In our dlscusston
latent
assunptlons,
of theory
and of methodology,
concepts and propositlons.
emerge.
-132-
paper.
guestlonsr_ ee€lmp-
the text.
to some of the unstated
to
and pgst-
of the present
than mLghg-be apparent from a reading
Step Four. Brl-ng to rrthe surfacerr important
I tntend
con-
In the dis-
questions
I polnted
!'{ore wllL
we
out
undoubtedly
Lbe polltlcal
8!gg F,fve. Dete{lrlne
intended-audLence(s).
I provided
these methodological
dlrectlves.
rrere perhaps especially
pollties
and that
some suunar-y cotrmenta regarding
each of
Ttre comrents regardlng
audlence
schemaLic. I{e noted that
polLtics
some of its
of qtllr text_a- l lrs
orientatlon(s)
lntended
the book has conf licting
are ln confllct
wlth
other
cert'ain
aspects of the text.
'One
Repeat SEeps
through- FLve for mul,tl-pl,e texts
Step Slx.
Thls part
ones focus.
I made certain
has yet to be attempted,
of the lnvestlgatlon
suunary cotrments ln
thls
regard
in the precedlng
the paPer. These corments were not Lntended as rigorous
slmply provided
the present
with
.ahd dlalectl-caL
transcendences as tllgie
problematlcs.
a hint
or two in the dlscussLon of "81""k
gation.
thls
texts.
task is.
(1. e. , his
Given thg qveral-l
Study the blographical
taken in lsolatlon.
M.ttopoli"
omitted
thls
Ls not especially
ir
the
f ocus of thLs lnvestl-
coq-t-exts as thgse relate
task of
to the
step ln the present fnvestlgatlon.
and most Lmportant reason l-s that
'rlif e")
ln
or a set of
as the reader mav have guspected. the central
'
I have'dellberately
The flrst
are nade manifesc
Ttris task remains to be undertaken,
of Drake I s Other MaJor Wori<s".
Step Etght.
of
the continuitigs,
the emergence of a problematlc
Context
our proJect.
but were
methodoLogy, Q,aslc assumptioqs , irnd rigaps'r and -ttsilencestt,
conflicting
though I provlded
of
and dlrection
s?me group of texts , delfneate
an eye toward discovering
more or less
although
-
SteP Seveg- For thls
the texts I theory,
are
sectlon
expositlon
to glve' the reader a sense of the context
workr
dlscontlnqltles
that
helpful
an analysis
Ln analyzlng
(as the reader wil-L recall,
-133-
of Drakels blography
this
Black Metropolis
book 1s not the product
of research Drake lnltiated.)
I will-
ls qulte
of "DrakeIs l-lfe"
Thus,
wtth hts work taken as a totallty.
dlscuss aspects of hts blography at a l-ater stage in my proj ect , 1. B. e
when I am dlscusslng
(e.9.,
to come to grips
ln attemptlng
helpful
Howeverr ern analysls
Afrlca
"impactt'
ruultlple
texts
and. the Ela,ck Dtg-spora and hls other
of blographlcaL
factors
focus ls
on hls
As I noted,
contrlbutlons
Drake intends
frankly,
to wrlte
texts
two maJor works) where the
f want to lnsure
to lntellectua1
Later
fire second reason I have
is more apparent.
Step 8 is because, qutte
omltted
and/or when I am dlscusslng
work--not
that
on hls
He wilL
an autobiography.
the pr1mary
per s€.
Llfe
telL
what he
chooses.
Step Ntne. Study Lhe lnlelLecFual
strucllon
of the texts.
was Lntertvrlned
wlth
as' the.se relate
I made some comments regarding
PLack YetFopgLis (whlch is also,
eially
context
certaln
of coufse,
soclaL relatlons
whole area of lntellectual
context
with
regard to BLack Metropolls
but obviousl-y wtth
quate,
the text
occured within
underscore
regard to the rest
the fact
attentton.
in the context
the larger
that,
by Step len ts critlcal-
ecpnomic practlces,
as these relate
has receLved very little
that
unexplored--not
only
of
lnade-
orlentatlon.
and metatheoretlcal
Ftep Ten, Stgdy the larger
to placing
remains vlrtuaLly
However,
the "Chicago School". ) Ttrls whoLe area is obviously
key gl"ven our methodologlcaL
practLces
esp€-
Cayton's work) r BS tt
(I havel €.g. e only made a few sunrnsryi and necessarlly
comments regardlng
and cuLtu:al
Drakets workl
of academlc productlon.
thls
Drakets work.
,to the con-
to the texts I production.
Some snall
of certain
socLety,
poU.tl_cal prac.tlces
amount of attentlon
but thls
the understandlng
-134-
Idas glven
socloeconomic transformatlons
waa all.
Again, I must
though work ln the whole area of inqulry
for
TtrLs area
of lntellectual
speclfled
hlstory
(and
certatn
rel-ated areas of concern) , tt
investlgation.
It
ls,
ls not a prlmary
however, necessarlly
focus of the present
an Lmportant area for
secondary
focus,
Step Eleyen.
some steps
ln this
dl,rectlon,
project--overwhelmingly
thls
task--a
thts
ln lts/thql.T
Thts task wlLl
one for
the present
betyeen. tFg texts t obj ec-t (p) as lfno$r+
a_ctu.all,ty and develolment , . a{rd ?s.sess thls
task remains to be undertaken.
steps.
crLtieal
remalns to be completed.
Step. Twe-lve. Look foT tenslon
a+rd obl.ect (s)
and prqposLt4ons_. Though we have taken
"Ground" concefts
It
ls perhaps the most dlfflcult
remaln onLy partlally
tenslon.
of our
cornpLet€d, even at the end of
the proj ect.
I
Ttre compLetion of Step Thlrteeq--Dialsctlgally
methgdology and laslg
negatl.on"
asstmptlogr
ln theseje.xts
,
frary
vlg .a process of rrdeterninate
and thus prodgce a "new" approag\) -..'ard Step Tourteen--Rearyze
undoubtedly
thls
"gel^r" approach qilL
away. ObvJ.ously, thelr
whole of the project.
l.tself
be tran-scended--are
compLetlon assumes the essentlal
that
some years
completlon
of the
We have only begun.
MoRE ON AREAS OF DTVERgETICE
W4TH.OTHER4PPROACHES
4Np COI.IVERGENCE
In the nethodologl,cal
the partlcular
certain
areas tn whJ.ch our approach dlffers
tendencles
1.
and metatheorettcaL
and "schools
of thought"
dlscusslon,
I noted some of
from and overlaps
ln the soclal- sclences:
Ttris concept, +ufhebunq ln Ger:man, ts sometlmes rendered
ttsubLatett ln Engllsh.
-135-
wlth
namely,
as
emplrlctsm
-l
I structurallsm
and posltlvlsu,
Marxtsms and socLologies
proaches (lncludlng
of knowledge, and traditlonal
r'lndivlduallstlc
I woirld l-lke to note how, in tts
and overLaps wl,th certaln
selences.
thls
to phrase lt,
dlscursive
. three more or less
We will
consider
Certatn
Tendencies l,Iithfn
those tendencles
should note,
of thought"
th the soclal
or r as I wouLd pref er
and non-
ensembles of dlseurslve
lntegrated
from
our approach differs
thfus-t,
and "schools
,
: Marxlsma r: soclal
anthropol-ogy
and Afro-Ame,rican
Studles.
each of these J.n turn.
We have already
'
tendencles
of ldeas ap-
In the present discussion,
approacl."").
overall
?treductionlst'l
hlstory
concerns 'three areas of tnqulry
matter
practlces
and semlotics,
wlthin
Marxism
noted that
Marxlst
the approach detalLed
social
are not necessarlly
sclence
unlversaL
ln this
paper opposes
(whtch tendencies,
ln Marxtst
dlscqurse)
the reader
to reduce
'texts and authcirs to ttsocLal':dontejct " and thus to hyposta tLze the socLal
,
dimensLon3 and slnultaneously
to relfy
texts,
authors
and ttsoclety".
Ttris
1.
and- enpirIt should be noted that 'our dtsc@tiVlsn
lcism had prlmarlLy
to do wlth the conscious and unconsclous
ldeas .in th_e soclal scle.nces.
us.e of .posltlvlst
pnd "egpirlcfst
In the phil-osgphv of . scl-ence ll.teraturer.
tlre aE€ruments generally
tend to be more complex. lloreover. one ls hard-pr€ssed to find
In Praeor empirlctsts.
any who clalm to be t'pure" positivJ.sts
such persons alnong
tice at Least, lt ts much easler to ldentlfy
soclal sclenttqts.
2.
That is, those aspects of "Marxism" that
wlth social anaLysis.
3.
poLnts
I use thls term advlseCly. One of the rnain theoretical
of this paper ls that the dLvlslon between "the soclaL" and
"the textr! r 8s this Ls understood ln a good blt of soctal
ts a specLous divlslon.
sclence writlngs,
-1 36-
have prLnarily
to do
paper,
ln fact,
ls generally
posltLons
aLso opposes two other
referred
and Marxologlsts
(wfth
Soviet
Republlcs
Soclallst
the Eastern bloc).
posltlon
to as the dlarngt. school--a
by the overwhelming naJorlty
ln general-,
and, to a lesser
This positlon,
France,
Ger:many, Italy
the arguments of this
phllosophers
shares certaLn
other
t'schoolst'
reJects
papel
cent,rryr2
the foLlowlng
core ldeas.
polnt
noted much earller
Ttre second positlon
slmpllstlcl
along wlth
fact:
school
and i'tendencLes" menttoned
ls_ not "dlaqa!"--a
doubtedly
but to a much less extent
(whlch are rather
of the concerns of thts
many of lts
(e.g.,
of the world
ln eountrles
and dognattc)
nor
has been aptl-y done by most of the uraJor Marxist
of the twentLeth
I simpLy want to underscore
malntaLned by
or even England) . Thts ls no pLace to delLneate
"school,"
1ts work (that
to crltlque
scholars
of schoLars elsewhere ln
extent,
however, ts tenaclously
the Sovtet Unlon and the UnLted States,
dlscredlted
of schoLars ln the Unlon of
persons in t'cormnunlst organLzatLonstf Ln many countrles
ltke
clearly
produced by Marxlst
of the lLterature
the exceptlon,
Marxfsm. One posltion
wlthln
Although
(as tt
ln thls
The dlalectical
anyone farnlllar
many soclal
sclentlsts).
the present
does wlth
paper),
lt
rnost of the
overnrhel-urlngly
methcrd articulated
wlth
Marxlst
approach
Ln thts
seholarshtp
un-
oo.
wlthin
certaln
(but by, no means, all)
the tendency to conceive soclaL scLence as ttsuperstructurett.
Marxlsms is
Leavtng aside
1.
A fac.t I became more aware of whll-e teachlng an lntroductory
course on MarxLsm to a group of Stanford undergraduates severalyears ago. The students, many of them Leftist
and genulnely
lnterested
ln tncreaslng
thelr knowledge of MarxLsur, found the
arguments of Cornforth and even of Mao (ln hts tour Essays on
P.\:llosgphy) rather f aclle,
however lntrigulng.
2.
E.9., Lukacs, Korsch, Gramsci, Althusser, Sartre, Godelier, Horkhelmer, Marcus€ , Timpanaro, Collettf,
Della Volpe, Kosl-k and a
host of others.
- 137'
here the questlon
conceptlon
for
of whether the "base/superstructure"
most social
poLnt : Our conceplfqp
science research,
dLchotomy ls
I want to underscore
of academLc work as a set of practlc.es
materlal
of -texts)
as .both- "superstrugturert
grnd r'basett (1. e. 1 that
the foJ-lowlng
whLch constltute
ghe ploductlon
,productigr,r prgcess vleEg. academlc work (e-g..
p soclal.
tt
not only conslsts
of ttLdeastt and so f orth , but of ttraw materlals , " tooLs and a socLal
tion
Socl-al Anthropologl
A ural or debate tn social
leadlng
ftgures
volumlnous
to even attempt
wlth
no-t o*ly
I My purpose ls not to eontrlbute
the foll-owlng : firis
possible
but desirable
the ana\{sls
to_mueh.more sygtglnatlcal-ly
for
soclal
appLy rlggrous
lt
work wlthln
be vLewed as a smalL contrtbution
withln
the dLsclpline
the latter
to
anthropologv
rewardlng
f or soclal
technlques. (couplgd
itself.
life)-
area of concern.
ftso falrly
recent books that attempt to confront
are Pelto and Pelto (1978) and Johnson (1978).
2.
I purposel-y avold the use of the term "sciencett here because
that eoncept has not been deflned ln this paper. In any case,
what 1s often meant by t'science" tn the context of the aforementioned debate ls the use of rlgorous lntersubJ eetLve
procedures of vertfLcatton
and falstflabtllty
and Bo forth,
thts
tg
Thls paper uray
1.
-r38-
debate
lrs . ln
e. g. , co+cerned wLth the soclologv, of tntellectual
of lnteLLectual
to
(as opposed
to this
paper assumes that
would be quite
.rl-gorous methodoLogy ,2 and th.at it
sound theory,
(too
here) but has remalned unresolved--has
anthropol-ogy l-s and/or should be "a science"
but slnpl-y to assert
anthropology
has lnvoLved many of the
and produced a volumlnous llterature
to cite
to a branch of the humanltles),
many. lqstances,
anthropology--whtch
ln the dlscipllne
do wLth whether social
utllize
otganlza-
of labor).
A lLalor Delute lJlthin
here,
a frultful
lssue
Afro-Amerlcpn
Studles, as a "Dlseipllne:in-Fgrmatlon"
Afro-Arnerlcan
fruitfuL1y
referred
its
(1.e.,
lf
work.
the theoretical,
have more to do wlth
coherence per se).
of cLessLc texts
It
lt
the spectflcatlon,
dtscusslon
ls posslble
especlally
past),
it
has yet to
terraln(s)
(some of wtrlch
ltself
lnteLleetual
through peer agreement,
aLong wlth
the instltutLonallzed
8t least
ln my vLew and in that
t_o ldentlfy
of many of my coll-ea-
a "cl_assical tradltlon"
Thts tradltlon
is
of sgciaL sc{ence
represented
L 9 3 2 , 1 9 3 9 a n d 1 9 4 0 ) , C a r t e r G . W o o d s o n( e . g . ,
Mann Bond (e.g.,
and Allison
L934 and 1939), St. C1air Drake (e,g.,
Davis (e.9.,
(e.g. ,
1899 and 1935), Horace
Drake and Cayton, L945),
of a classlcql
qreric:rn SErdLes. and thuq as a srnall coqgributtgn
text
Wtrether tt does, of course, depends--not soLe1y, but in the
f inaL analysJ.s--on the chol-ces Af ro-Ameriean StudLes practl-tloners make.
-139-
ln
I'dlscipLine!o thLs
Ln-formationtt.
1.
as
Davls and Dol-Lard, L940; and Davls, Gardner and Gard-
nere 1941). Thls paper mav be vlewe_d qs an analysis
Afro-
by the
during the 1930'sr 1940rs and 1950?s, of such figures
Charles S. Johnson (e. g. , Johnson , L934 and 1941) , E. Frankl-in FrazLet
Frazier,
of
of these texts,
on tLe A:9-ro:Ameftcan experience.
writlngs,
one assumes the
and empirLcal
establlshes
ln the emerging disctplLne,
can be argued,
gues, that
perhaps most
resources and power than with
Among these ls
use and systematlc
wllt:Lngs
methodologlcal
Ttrere are many ways a dtsclplLne
ultimately
Textg
to may or may not emerge).1 Ltke any emerging disclpline
sociology and anthropology in the not so dlstant
clearJ.y establLsh
Classic
is a newly deveLoping area--one
vLewed as a dtscLpLtne-Ln-formatlon
"discipllne"
(e.9.,
Studles
with
BlfiL r.ilcRirP}ry
Adorno,Theodor.ThePositiv1.st'nis.ffiSq-"+g-1.oey.London:
Helnemannuffi,
Althueeer,
Louts .
igzZ.
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Egf.,JgIx.
Althusser'
Louis and Balibar
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Etienne.
neadigg Seplgg!.
Bachelard, Gaston.
f,€r Foruration de USp#"1
gne Ps.yqLo"n4,y.sgjle_1a
New York:
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Pantheon
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Bache1ard'Gaston'Lar!,!lg.9M.Paris:PressesUniversita1res
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Bauer, Janet L.
Chances in the Behavior and Consciousness of IranLan Women
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Bond, Horace Mann. The Education of_ lhe_Neetg.inlLbg
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Bourdieu,
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Universit.y of Chieago I'ress;Tmil."-
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_-S99J..1"-91g_
t972*1e77.MFT
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An rnt,roduction
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!9g!h'
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Marx' Karl and Fre.derick Engels "
Publisherse 1964.
Ne.wYorh:
"qf "Stglgf
Intern;rtional
Publishers !
New York:
4etgg"lif.gs*qllFtt.
!hS_ter"g*:r._L4eol9g"y.. Moscor*r:Progress
Marx ' Karl ,
tgp;i}t l., Vol . I "
Marx' Karl .
The.orLes o{.SgfL.fgs__Y-g}t.*-,VoI-s. I,
Marx, Karl .
Grundrisse "
Ner^rYork: InternatLonal
puuI is t'.ers . -fg 6il-.i 968:rrrA-'TqTT.
II
Publlshe.rs,
1967.
Moscow: Progress
and IIL
New Yorlr: Vint,age Bcoks , 1973.
l'lcCarthy, Thomas" Tire Crit icai- Theof{ _ei"fr.lulLel$glrSry*9.
I"IIT Press, 1978:-*_*
Merton, Robert. Sccia1 3!gg1;1"en{;$rg$!*q!fj9.!S5g."
Press, 1968':-
Cambricige, l*1A
":
New Yorks The Free
I"tyrdal r Gunnar. The Amerlca* Direm*+ L Tlq.Jggqq ,g-r.g
Ds.uio.Sf-aeJ.."
NeilTrr[i
I{"rpeFK
, gg{-
,[
o|Br1en,GeorgeDennis(editor)"eeg"Ctrf'cago:T1re
University of Chicago Fress, 1975"
ogden, I*{ary Eiaine. The Negft9E9*Sg*cSg!gn,i{Iijj_t_a!1.u!*g.q}_Pgqglfliqq.
Chicago: WorhtTffiF
Parsonsn Talcott.
1937.
The $tructure
of $oc.ial" Action.
New Yorkl McGrau'-I{iilo
Parsons, Talcott , Robert F, Bales and Edward A. Shils . Worki.gg SgggIs jlrr
tlx: Ilrqory*gF Acllgr.r.
New Yorkr The Free Press, f3-55.
Pelto,.Pertti
J., and Gretel. Il , Felto,
"Stbfggqlg$-{gg,}_3gggt.rglr.
Cambr5-dge
t i n i v e r s i t y F r e s s , 1 9 7 8,
Carntrridge:
Peoples College.
-Inl5.g,t$-t*Ls]s-Jla^fLlug:Amexican--S-tudies-, Va1 . One arrd Vol.
Chicago: Peoples Colleg* Pressl fl.d.
-l 43-
Two.
Radclif
fe-Brown,
4ggrlcg
On Eire {Joncept of
llhtgP-olo$t:!,
Radeliffe-Brown,
London:
R.
A.
A" R.
Funcr-i.r:n in
St-rucLure and Functlon
ln Prfnnitive
$ocieties.
Cohen ano wGtl*T95Tl--
RadcLtf f e-Brown, A. R. Uethod in $oqial A}thrgIS}-gSL.
of Chicago Pressrffi
Chicago : University
Radnitzky , Gerard " ContqTeg:aJy..
gghgg]F .gq ryglajlg lelgg .
*'Regnery, 1968.
Seott,
Sc.i-ence.
Soci.ltl
xxxii II u ].935.
CltrLcego: llenry
Esteltr-e Hill.
occup3f_{sLa.l 9lmm.f_4gplg{gffggg__
Chicago : Work Prrje'cts Adminj..rrffi"r"l%0-.
Seddon, David .
rg Heonouig
{e-1aElgns of Froduct ion : IlIarxi st ,4ppJc,achg.s-
srrJhroegl
slater , Phil .
.
il;;iTiE".
Qtlg*1.."*.n{"$.leg}gigewgo{ , {te- 9T"..q*ktut!
.,sghggl:-4 .ttarq*S:t_
P-g:ppSStjyS,.
Londrrn: Routl"edge and Kegan Faul- , 1977 .
Slaughter, Diana and Gerald l"lc[Jor:ter. Socia]- Orlgins and Early Features of
" of ttre Scientific
iitudy of Black Ameri.can Children and Families.
Af ro;Seholar Work;frg.lgpgq /16. Urbana, Ill-friois : Af ro-American Studies
ffiw.
Sumner, Colin.
Egg4i{rg. Jdgp.b.eqgq i.
of--Ideolaey -at$- Lqw" New York I Academic Press , 1979 G
Suppen Frederick
editlon,
Therborn,
lruzzLo
(ed j.tor) . Thg -$.*rug!.u.tej*{. Sgie}}.i-+.c_Tbqofiggo
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Goran,
$cignce,
Clsjls-a*$.;foSlg31"
l,lareello.
t****t
Reading' MA.;Efrson-w
second
London: Hurnanities Press ,
Lg76.
,
UUOTU
iE7A c
T s e - T u n g ' M g 0 . F o- -ul 'r E s n M " P e k i n g : F o r e i g n I - a n g u a g e s F r e s s '
1968.
Tung, Fei Hsiao.
1981.
-Towar,h g lggLlds*S$lggglggl.
Beijing;
Turnero Jonathan H., ancl Alexan<lra $aryanski, Igr.rc.glolf1llgg.
Benjamin/Cummings Publistring Cumpany, 1979.
New World Press,
Menlo Park, CA. 3
Wa11ace'wi11iam.M"t}xfnr'd:C1arencionPress,1975.
Warner , I{. Lloyd "
Warner, W. Lloyd,
Natu
Net^'York : Harper , 195S
}1**}.*!5J}ig*!lntl.
Buford H. Jur:.lter, and Walter A. Adains, CoJ.gr qgd. Hurnan
. Washington' DC
-L44-
Warner, W. Lloyd (r*ith Marchi.a l*feeker and Kenneth Fells) . Soci.al_-Qlg.,:s.l.$
Amerlce: A Manual of Procedure f or tir.e I'feasurement of $ocia1 Sratus .
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New York: The Free Press,
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I*IewY,:rk:
Wol-ff o Kurt H. A Methodologlcal Not,e ou the Empirical EstabLishment, of
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Wright,
Erik 0"
Class, Crisi-s and the State,
-r45*
Washlngton, D . C . 3 Assoctated
London: New Left
Books, 1978.
APPENDICES
-L46-
One 1
A ppendi x
I' l o n o g ra p h s Pre p a red
t.
St.
2.
l" f ar y G a rd n e r,
3.
J ohn G i v e n ,
4.
Elmer Henderson,
Educational
5.
Winifred
Social
6.
Elizabeth
7.
George Francis
8.
Mary Elaine
9.
Estelle
Clair
Drake,
T h e N e g ro F a m i l y
Johns,
P roj ect
Associations
in
C hi cago
C hi cago
and Legal
in
Status
the
Negroes in
Occupational
Mobility
of
11.
Lawrence D. Reddick,
L2.
Viola
Vanderhorck,
A Social
There
Negroes
Negro Workers
Statistical
Chicago
Personality
History
Some Aspects
listing.
of
Cfranges Among Negroes in
Negro Types of
Chicago
Negro Community
and l"lobility
Migration
McCray, Occupational
of
Ogden, The Chicago Negro Conrnunity--A
Scott,
a partial
in
Agencies
A Study of
Samuel Strong,
is
R el ati ons
N e g ro -Wh i te
Ingram,
l " l etropol i s
Churches and Voluntary
10.
-1T h i s
f or B l ack
of
were
of
the
Negro Life
four
-r47-
Negro in
in
additional
Chicago
Chicago
studies.
in
Chicago
Description
Appendix
T\,vo
Autobiographical
Sketch of the
Life of St. Clair Drake
I
(Ju1y, 1981)
project
I view my life
as one vast participant-obse:rration
and all
the
fragments
I have wri-tten as sort of ethnographic
reporting
on the black experience
in various
places around the g1obe.
My projected
autobiography
will
treat
my travels
in the fashion,
I hope to do it after
the two books I am
working on are done.
periods of my life:
These are the significant
1911-L923.
g ro w i -n g u p a n onl y chi l d
i n a bi cul tural
mi ddl e-cl as
s
faurily context.
Father,
John Gibbs St. Clair
Drake (Sr. )
(Barbadian),
was a West Indian
educated Baptist
minis ter2
(w h o b e c a me l nternati onal
f or l Larcus Garve y t s
C oordi nator
U n i v e rs a l
and w as part o f
N e gro Improvement A ssoci ati on
th e s ma 1 l g ro up appoi nted
the U N IA w hen
to admi ni ster
Garvey was sent to jail).
Mother, Bessie Lee Bowles, lras
Fourteen room house with third
floor
a native
of Virginia.
i n an i ntegrated
l i b ra ry .
school i ng
school in
E l ementary
PittsburBh,
Pennsylvania.
Spent 12th year in Barbados,
British
West Indies.
Spent much time as a child
listening to conversations/debates
among father
and other educated preachers about questions of religion
and race;
very
close to father,
1924-1927, .
at Booker T. Washington High School, Staunton,
Virginia
of small-tovm
and learning
sub-culture
Afroadolescent
A m e ri c a n a l -n upper
south.
H ad moved f rom P ennsyl vani a
parents'
with mother and grandmother following
divorce-moved from rnlddle class to lower.
L 9 2 7 - 1 9 3 1 ..
at Hampton Institute
taking a B.Sc. with
also considerable
course work in English
Davis.
Allison
From July,
1981 personal
communicatj-on with
mented by other autobiographical
information
Drake.
)
biology major,
literature
with
is supplethe author.
List
from St. Clair
received
Father lat,er held a number of positions
in the Af rican Methodis t Chureh
(and earned a law degree).
sketch (and picture)
of Drakefs
A biographical
f at her
i s c o n ta i n e d
i n th e 1 948 edi ti on
of the E ncycl opedi a
of A fri can
M et hodis u r.
T h i s re f e re n c e , how ever, i mpJ-i es that the f ather had been M et hodist
even prior
he was a Baptist
to coming to the U.S. (when, in fact,
pr eac her
fo r ma n y y e a rs i n P ennsyl vani a);
makes no menti on of hi s fi rs t
wj- f e ( D ra k e I s mo th e r) ;
the Ga:rrey connecti on;
and und o e s not menti on
doubtedly
misrepresents
educational
background.
the fatherrs
-148-
193l
l93r-r935.
l 935-1937
t o o k t w o g r a d u s t e - 1 e v e 1 a n t h r o p o l o g v c o u r s e s r ^ : ti h l { a r n e r
First
at Columbia [-rniverslty during sunmer term.
f ormal
training
in anthropology.
. sPent one year attending Pendle Hill
Quaker Graduace Cent e r l n t ' l a l l l n g f o r d , P e n n s v l v a n i a , a n c i w o r k e d u ' i t h t h e A m e rican Friends Service Cournittee and Ehe Joint Commitree on
Race ReJations of the Societv of Friends.
Taught fron AuLumn, l93l unEiJ Spring, 1935 at Christianburg Norrrral and
during acader'ic year and worked at
lndustrial
Instirute
social acrion
in
Quaker Work carDpsin surrrDers. First
sector of peace movemenL.
framework of Christian socialist
Around 1934, joined A.J. Llusters American lJorkers' Parry
(only polltical
party ever joined).
in li'ew Orleans and doing
Universitf
instructor
a! Dlllard
on Deep Souttr (see preface to hardfieldwork in llississippi
tJorked f rom Sunurer, 1935 Lo
back edition of that book).
Autumn, 1937 as a research asslstant Eo Professor AIlison
I ' l e wO r l e a n s , L o u i s l a n a w h o
Davis of Dillard
Universlty,
Ltas doing research in }lississlppi
on the system of race reinteraction
lations thaE controlled
between black and r.rhite
people.
Our of this came the book, Peep South:
A Social
AnthropoJogical Study of Caste and Class, Dy role in r^rhictr
ls discussed in the preface (also see Uarnerts nethodological note to Black lletropolis,
and my article
on Allison
Davis in Harryard Educational Review as uell as m). piece in
the pub)i
AnthropoJol,, and Education);
b e c a T n ec o n s c i o u s l l '
first
contact u'l th deep south;
llarxist in or j entat ion but never j oined el ther CP or soci aI (See wrltlngs
ist party.
Jlsted ln Crlsis and Opportunit)'.)
t l o r k e d u l t h N A A C Pa n d l i a t l o n a l
llegro Congress.
Joined Leag u e A g a i n s t r t ' - a ra n d F a s c l s m i n e a r l y 1 9 3 5 .
1937
entered Universlty
of Chlcago on a Brant from the Julius
Rosenuald Fund to study Anthropology with Redfleld,
Fay
Cooper Cole, €! al.
llet Cayton and began work on Black
(see Dy 1940 mimeographed pubJl cat lon .rtrd.t
Hetropolls
H A P ). H e t E l l z a b e t . h J o h n s ; " h o - r - a s D a v l s L t o r t h I s a s s i s tant and rr'asr.'orking on Ph.D. in Sociology.
I 9 3 8- t 9 4 t
uorklng on bullding up data bank for Black }{etropoJis;
in
and out of classes at Universlty
of ChicaBo. Graduate training ln Anthropology uas focused on the theory and method of
studylng urban couruunlties and upon the ethnography of Af ri ca.
1 9 4I
returned to Dillard
Hetropolls.
t9 42
returned to Chlcago and marrled
an englnb lathe operator.
for
-r49-
a year and began first
in
June.
drafr
of
Began training
Black
as
L 94 3 - l g 4 5.
i n U n i te d States l " l ari ti rne S ervi ce and fi ni shed
B l ack l let r opolis
i n 6 p are ti ure.
C ayton pi cked name and f ound pub lisher ,
but contrary
biography of Richard Wright ,
to story in fabre's
I
d i d n o t w ri te
most of the book.
That s w hy my name i s in
senior position.
Fabrets story is fabricated.
1946 .
back at University
of Chicago preparing
Joined facultv at Roosevelt.
o
for
A nthropol ogy
exam s
L 94 7 - L g 4 g .
total of aeven months spent in British
gathering
Isles
data
for doctoral dissertation.
Met George Padmore, introced
to
classical Marxi.st literature,
1948-1953.
writing
doctoral
while teacher at Roosevelt
dissertation
(note publication
Taught "Soci.al Structure"
list).
for one
quarter
B
o
s
t
o
n
University.
at
1954...
awarded Ph.D. in Anthropology from University
of Chicago with
on Values, Social Structure, and Race Relations
a dissertation
in the nritish
ft UniIsl
years
versity where would sen/e on faculty for next fifteen
(during which time very active in trying to interpret
rapid
changes in African societies
to Americans and American culture
to Africans;
one of founders of program in African Studies
at Roosevelt University,
Afriean Studles Assoclation of the
United States, and American Society for African Culture;
a1so faculty
advisor to Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee during lts early years).
1954-1965..
in and out of Ghana on Ford grant r 8s teacher at unj-versity
and trainer of Peace Corps teachers;
head of Sociology Department at University of Ghana, 1958-I961; worked closely
with Nkrumah; decided to stay out of Ghana after Nkrumah
overthrown in L966.
t966
t a . a
1967...
19 6 9 - L 9 76 .
published small book on Race Relations in a Tiql g!_Rap.i.d_
t
change (part of contribtr
to an understanding of change taking place in United States--"
other work in form of articles
and book chapters).
In Apri1,
L966 attended First Festival of Negro Arts 1n Dakar, Senegal.
Idea of writing Black Diaspora occured while there.
six months in Jamaica and began drafting
a a a a
Black Diaspora.
on faculty at Stanford University
teaching courses on
Africa and Caribbean ln Anthropology and (for first
few years)
program in African and
Sociology Departments, administering
Afro-Arneriean Studies and heading Cormittee for the Comparative Study of Africa and the Americas.
Received DuBoisJohnson-Frazier Award from the American Sociological
Assoeiation in 1973.
-150-
since
1976
retired.
Becannenember-at-l-atre
of Executive Board of the
Council on Anthropology and Education of the American Anthropology Association
in 1976. Last few years prinarlly
intellectual
work has been on Black Folks Here and There. some arrplan to rrit.
icres,
"ntffi'
-15 1-
A ppendi x
Conprehensive
Received by St.
Three
of Research Grants
Llstlng
Drake, 1935 to Present
Clair
The Reader vlll
recall that the Black Metropolis project nas a
Dultl-year,
funded and eponsored tesm reoearch project.
fh16 pattera has never
been replicated
1n any of Drakers eubsequent work.r
Hi6 dlasertstiotr
was,-iTcourse, funded, and he has recelved Dodest aoounts of funding for a few indlvidual research efforts 6ince then. As a socl.al researcher (and in uany oifrEirespects as well), Drake is essentially a loner.
The following is a list of
the funding he has recelved, dlrectly
and lndirectly,
for research and writing
(not including graduat€ Etudent fellouships frou the Universlty of Chicago):
l.
I 935-36
1936-37
Grants fronr Rosenwald Fund for Drake to
partJ-clpste J.n Deep South proj ect.
Allison
Davist research proJect;
Drake was a participant.
r937-38
Grant frorn Rosenwald Fund for Drake to leave
to come to the Unl1n llisslsslppl
fleldwork
verslty
of Chicago to study social anthropology.
t 94 r - 4 2
Grant from Rosenwald Fund to wTite first
draft
Part of Cayton-k'arner proof 3lack Hetropolls.
j ect.
L 94 5 -4 6
GranL frorn Rosenwald Fund (not used untl1 1947)
to go tg Cardlff , l,lales for dissertation
reFlrst tlme Drake recelved funding for
Bearch.r
his olrn research.
r950
Small grant from Field Fund to complete flnalana1y616 for, and typlng of, artlcle
on "Color
Probl. en in Brl talnf ' that appeared in Brl t lsh
Revlew.
Foclologlcal
r 954-55
Ford Foundatlon grant
tions ln lJest Africa.
l 965
S u n rner grant
S ci ence R esearch
from S ocl al
c l l - f or studi es
of urbani zatl -on
i n Ghana.
to study mass conmunica-
This pattern
of assocl-ation with the Rosenwal-d Fund a s a f e l l o w
typlcal
of Black s o c L a l s c L e n t i s t s
of that era.
-152-
Coun-
was rather
1977
Independent Research grant from National
Endow(NEH) for comparative
ment for the Humanities
in Coping and Co-optation."
Drakers
"studies
(Srmrmer,
in Anthropology
article
and Education
1978) and Black Scholar (September/October,
1980)
on Blacks and Anthropology
article
worked up
during that year, BS were parts of Black Foll:s
Here and There.
f98l
N E H. C h a i r n a n r s G r a n t f o r s t u d y o f H i s t o r y o f
Black Educational Institutions,
along with
Iawrence Reddick and, initially,
Benj arnin
Quarles
(Though he did not have a grant per se, the generous support offered professor
Drake during the two years and several months he spent as head of the SocioJ,ogy
Departnent at the University
of Ghana allowed him to pursue projects
that he
I^'ould otherwise have had to seek outslde funding for. A number of publications,
including
the well-knor'n rrHamitlc Llyth" article,
resulted,
largely
or in total,
fron that association. )
-153-
A p p e n d ' i xF o u r
B j b l i o q r a p h y o f S t , C la i r D r a k e 's
P u b li s h e d a n d U n p u bi l s h e d t ^ Jj rt i n s s
I.
BOOKS:
(1)
N e g r o e si n
C h u r c h e sa n d V o l u n t a r yA s s o c i a t i o n sA m o n g
C h ic a g o , l , l o r k sP r o j e c t s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,C h ic a g o , 1 9 4 0 .
(2)
( w i t h H o r a c eR . C a y t o n ) ,B l a c k M e t r o p o l i s , H d r c o u r t ,
B r a c e , N e wY o r k , 1 9 4 5 ; J o n a t h a nC a p e ,L o n d o n ,1 9 4 6 .
(3)
( w i t h H o r a c eR . C a y t o n ) ,B l a c k M e t r o p o l i s , r e v i s e d
a n d e n l a r g e de d i t i o n p u n l f f i o r c h b o o k s
s e r i e s , N e wY o r k , 1 9 6 ?( t w o v o l u m ep a p e r b a c ke d j t i o n ) .
(4)
( w i t h D r . P e t e r O m a r i ) , S o c i a l W o r kI n t , l e s l _ A F 1 1 s g ,
ent,
D e p a r t m e not f S o c i a l t , l e l
G o v e r n m e notf G h a n a ,1 9 6 3 .
(5)
R a c eR e ' l a t j o n si n a T i m e o f R a p i dS o c i a l C h
(6)
,
66.
( w i t h H o r a c eR . C a y t o n ) ,B l a c k M e t r o p o l i s , F e v j s e d
and enlarged edition published by Harcourt, Brace,
N e wY or k , 1 9 7 0( t w o v o l u m ep a p er b a c k e d it i o n ).
II.
DRP U B L I C A T I O N :
B O O KBSE I N GP R E P A RFEO
( 1)
B l a c k F o lk s H e r e a n d T h e r e:
E s s a y si n H t t o r i c a l S o c l g ]! g . f
Studies, UCLA,
Afro-American
p r o b a b l y i n S p r in g , 1 9 8 2 .
III.
(2)
A f r i c a a n d t h e B l a c k D j a s p o r a(.C u r r e n tm a n u s c r i p te q u i v a l e n t
d e f i n e d P u b l i c a t i o n d a t e .)
(3)
C o n s i d e r a t i o ni s b e i n g g i v e n t o p u b l i s h i n g d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
V a l u e S v s t e m sS
. o c i a ' lS t r u c t u r e a n d R a c eR e l a t i o n s i n t h e
PAMPHLTTS
( 1 ) T h e E h a n cpi a t i o n C e n t e n nail L e c t u r e sg ' iv e n a t R o o s e v et l
U n i v e r s i t y i n J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y1,9 6 3 ,a n d p u b l i s h e db y
the Univers'ity under the ti tl e , The Anlg"ican Dreamand
t h e N e g r o : A H u n d r e dY e a r s o f F r e e d o m ?
(2)
O u r U r b a nP o o r : P r o m i s e st o K e e pa n d M 'lie s t o G o ,
-15 4-
w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n b y B a y i r d R u s t i n , p u b l i s h e db y
t h e A . P h i ' il p R a n d o l p hE d u c a t i o n a F
'l und,1967.
(3)
IV.
B l a c k R e l i g i o n a n d t h e R e d e m p t i oonf A f r j c a , T h i r d W o r l d
P r e s tr , . t 9 7 t .
CHAPTERS
I N BOOKS
(1)
Afri ca"
s n d S o c i a l Changein Contemporary
"SociaJProblema
'in t,lalter Goldschmi
dt (ed. ) , T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d A f r i c a ,
P r a e g e r , N e wY o r k , 1 9 6 3 .
(2)
" H i d e M y F a c e : P a nA f r i c a n i s ma n d N e g r i t u d e , " i n H e r b e r t
H i l l ( e d . ) , S o o nO n eM o r n i n g ,K n o p f , N e wY o r k , 1 9 6 3 ;
reprinted in@
E l l i o t t R u d w i c k( e d s ) ,
T h e l ' l a k i n go f B l a c k A m e r i c a ,A t h e n e u m1, 9 6 9 .
(3)
a tn d t h e T r a d i t i o n a l C u l t u r e s
" R e p r e s e n t a t i v eG o v e r n m e n
a n d I n s t i t u t i o n s o f W e s tA f r i c a n S o c i e t i e s , " i n H . P a s s i n
a n d K . A . B . J o n e s - Q u a r t e(ye d . ) , A f r i c a ; T h e D y n a m i cos f
by
Changep
, u b l i s h e df o r t h e C o n g r e s so f C u l t u r a l F r e e d o m
I b a d a nU n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 .
(4)
s nd 'The Africa Interest, "' in JohnP. Davis
" N e g r oA m e r i c a n a
( e d .) , T h e A m e r i c a nN e g r oR e f e r e n c eB o o k , p u b l i s h e db y
r the Phe'lps-Stokes
Prentic
Fund, 1966.
(s)
d it r i k e , " ( w j t h L e s l i e A . L a c e y ) ,
"TheSekondi-TakoraS
i n G w e n d o l eCn a r t e r ( e d . ) , P o ]i t i c s i n A f r i c a : S e v e n
C a s e s ,H a r c o u r t , B r a c e r 1 1 9 6 7 .
(6)
c t a t u s o f t h e N e g r oi n t h e U n i t e d
" T h e S o c i a ' l a n d E c o n o m iS
S t a t e s , " p u b l i s h e do r i g i n a l l y i n D a e d a l u s J, o u r n a l o f t h e
A m e r i c a nA c a d e moyf A r t s a n d S c i e n c e s ,v o l . 9 4 , D o . 4 , o f
s f t h e A c a d e m yF, a ' l l , 1 9 6 5 ; r e p r i n t e d a s a
t h e P r o c e e d i n go
c h a p t e r i n T a l c o t t P a r s o n sa n d K e n n e t hC l a r k , N e g r oA m e r i c a n s ,
1966.
(7)
" V i o ' l e n c ea n d S o c i a ' lM o v e m e n itns t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , "
i n R o b e r t H . C o n n e r y( e d .) , U r b a nR i o t s : V i o l e n c e
l i ti cal
and Soc_U]_
Charyg,Proceedin
University, xxix, no. 1, 1968.
(B)
" R e s e a r c ho n I n t e r g r o u pR e 'al t i o n s a t t h e N e i g h b o r h o o d
L e v e ',l " R a c ea n d R e s e a r c h ,N a t io n a l S o c ia l l , l o r kA s s o cai t i o n,
NewvorkF
(9)
" T h e P a t t e r n so f I n t e r r a c i a l C o n f l i c t i n 1 9 6 8 , " i n P a t r i c i a
} J . R o m e r o I, n B l a c k A m e r i c a ,U n i t e d P u b l i s h i n g C o r p o r a t i o n
S t u d y o f N e g r oL i f e a n d H i s t o r y ,
for the Assffi
1969.
-155-
( t O 1 " P r o s p e c t sf o r t h e F u t u r e , " i n N a t h a nH u g g i n s ,M a r t i n K i l s o n , a n d
D a ne
i l M . F o x , K e v I s s u e s i n t h e A f r o - A n e r ic a n E x p e r ie n c e , H ; r c o u r t ,
1971.
(ll)
" T h e B l a c k E x p e r i e n c ei n B ' l a c kH i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e , " i n C a r l e n e
Y o u n g( e d . ) , E l a c k E x p e rei n c e, L e s wni g P r e s s, ! 9 7 2 .
( 1 2 ) ' ' P r o s p e c t sf o r T o t a l D e c o 1 o n i z a t i o inn t l e s t A f r i c a , ' , i n A g u i b o u
Y . Y a n s a n e( e d . ) , D e c o J-o n i z a t i o a
n n d D e p e n d e n c yG, r e e n w o oP
dr e s s ,
h J e s t p o r t ,C T , 1 9 8 0 .
V . I NTRODUCTI
:
ONSTO BOOKS
(1)
t o R . H u g oG a t h e r u , C h i l d o f T w oH o r ' l d s : A K i k u y u ' s S t o r y , R o u t l e d g e , K e g a n ,P a u l,
i i shed
s u b s e q u e n t l ya s a C o u b l e d a yA n c h o rp a p e r b a c k .
(2)
t o C h a r l e s S . J o h n s g n ,G r o w i n qU p i n t h e B l a q k B c t l t , S c h o c k e nB o o k s ,
NY, 1966. ( repri nt )
(3)
to F. Franklin Frazier, Iggfo Youth at the Cros_sways,
Schocken
Books, NY, 1967. (repriffi
(4)
t o N e g r oH i s t o r y a n d L i t e r a t u r e : A S e J e c t e dA n n o t a t e dB i b l i o o r a o h v pub
t i o n L e a g u eo f B ' N a i B r i t h , a n d t h e N a t i o n a l F e d e r a t i o no f S e t t l e ments, NY, 1968..
(5)
t o C l a u d eH c K a y ,A L o n g[ a y _F r o mH o m e H
, arcourt, Brace, NY, 1970.
(reprint)
(6)
t o R o b e r t A . h l a r n e r , N e r yH a v e nN e g r o e s : A S o c i a l H l s t o r y , A r n o
Press, NY, 1970. ( reFFTntf
( 7)
t o ! 1 .E .B . D u b osi , T h e N g g r gi n t h e N o r t h : A S o c ia ' l S t u d y , A r n o
Pressr NY, 1970.
(8)
t o H o lI i s R . L y n c h , B ' l a c kA m e r i c a nR a d i c asl a n d t h e L i b e r a t i o n o f
A f r i . u t T h g C o u n . li
t
a n d R e s e a r c hC e n t e r , C o r n e l l U n i v e r s j t y , I t h a c a , N Y , 1 9 7 8 , N o . 5 .
(e)
t o R a n d aJ' l K . B u r k e t t , G a r v e y i s m
a s a R e l i g i o u s M o v e m e n ts, c a r e c r o w
Press,1978.
I
VI.
A R T I C L EISN A C A D E MJI O
C URNALS:
(1)
" C h i c a g o : A P r o f i l e , " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a 'Sl o c i o l o g y , V o l. 1 8 ,
No. 5, January,1945.
(2)
" T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a 1 I m p li c a t i o n s o f R a c ea n d R a c eR e J a t i o n s , " J o u r n a l o f N e q r o E d u c a t i o n , S u n m e r ,1 9 5 1 ,
-156-
(3)
" T h e ' C o l o u r P r o b J e m ' i nB r i t a i n : A S t u d y i n S o c i a l D e f i n i t i o n s , "
S o c i o l o g j c a l R e v i e v rn, . s . , 3 , D e c e m b e r1,9 5 5 .
(4)
" P r o s p e c t sf o r D e m o c r a ci yn t h e G o l d C o a s t , " A n n a l s o f t h e A , m e r i c a n
A g a d e moyf P o li t i c a l a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e ,V o l.
(s)
" S o m eO b s e r v a t i o n o
s n I n t e r - e t h n i c C o n f li c t a s O n eT y p eo f I n t e r g r o u p C o n f li c t , " J o u r n a l o f C o n f l i c t R e s ou' lt i o n , V o l. 1 , N o . 2 ,
June, 1957.
(6)
o n t h e N e g r oi n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " I n " R e c e n tT r e n d si n R e s e a r c h
V,o l. I X , N o . 4 , 1 9 5 7
t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i a l S c i e n c eJ o u r n a l , U N E S C 0
(7)
" A n A p p r o a c ht o t h e E v a l u a t i o no f A f r i c a n S o c i e t i e s , " i n A f r i c a
F r o mt h e P o i n t o f Vj e w o f A m e r i c a nN e g r oS c h o d
l Fg, speciaT-nffier,
form in Jacob
, C r o w el l- C o ll i e r P r e s s, 19 6 3 .)
(B)
" D e t r u i r e l e m y t h c h a m i t i q u e ,d e v o i r d e s h o m m ecsu l t i v e s , " i n L '
r f Presence
u n i t e d e s c u l t u r e s N e g r o - A f r i c a i n e ss, p e c i a l n u m b e o
h o r ' s E n g li s h m a n u s c F T F t l - D e s Foy-fne Hamitic Myth") .
(9)
" T r a d i t i o n a l A u t h o r i t y a n d S o c i a l A c t i o n i n F o r m e rB r i t i s h l , l e s t
A f r i c d , " H u m aO
n r g a n i z a t i o n ,V o l . 1 9 , N o . 3 , 1 9 6 0 ( B o b b s - M e r r i l l
r e p r i n t N o . 6 i n P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c eS e r i e s ; r e p r i n t e d i n } l i l ' l i a m
J . H a n n a( e d . ) , I n d e p e n d e nBt l a c k A f r i c a , R a n d ,l ' l c N a 1 ' layn d C o .,
i c k , T h e M a k i n qo f B l a *
1 9 6 4a n d i n A u g u
A , r njecra, A t h e n e u m1, 9 6 9 .)
( t O 1 " D e m o c r a coyn T r i a l i n A f r i c d , " A n n as' l o f t h e A m e r i c a @
P o li t i c a l a n d S o c i a ' lS c i e n c e ,V o l
(11)
" T h e B l a c k U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e A n e r i c a nS o c i a l 0 r d e r , " D a e d a l u s J, o u r n a l o f t h e A m e rci a n A c a d e moyf A r t s a n d S ci e n c e s, S u n r t n eTr9, 7 1 .
(tz1
" I n t h e M i r r o r o f B l a c k S c h o l a r s h i p", H a r v a r dE d u c a t j o n a lR e v i e w ,
s p e c i a f i s s u e , S u m m e r1, 9 7 3 .
( 1 3 ) " i h e B l a c k D i a s p o r ai n P a n - A f r i c a nP e r s p e c t i v e , "T h e B l a c k S c h o l a r ,
V o l . 6 , N o . 1 1 , S e p t e m b e r1, 9 7 5 .
(14)
" M a r x i s t s , B l a c k s , a n d R a d i c a l si n S o c i o l o g y : A R e a c t i o nt o t h e
P a n e lD i s c u s s i o D , T
" h e i l a c k _ _ S o c j o l o g i s tV, o l. 7 , N o . 1 , F a l l , 1 9 7 7 .
( 1 5 ) ' i R e f I e c t i o n so n A n t h r o p o l o g a
y n d t h e B l a c k E x p e r i e n c e , "A n t h r o p o l o q y
a n d E d u c a t i o nQ u a r t e r l y r " V o l. 9 , N o . ? , S u n r n e r1, 9 7 8 .
( 1 6 ) " W h a tH a p p e n etdo B l a c k S t u d i e s , " N e wY o r k U n i v e r s i t y E d u c a t i o n
Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 3, Spring,
(17)
" A n t h r o p o l o g ya n d t h e B l a c k E x p e r i e n c e" , T h e B l a c k S c h o l a r , V o l. 2 ,
N o . 7 , S e p t e m b e r / O c t o b e1r ,9 8 0 .
-r57-
VII.
B O O KR
SE V I E W S :
(1)
W i l s o n R e c o r d ,T h e N e g r oa n d t h e C o m m u n i sPta r t y , i n P h y l o n , V o '.l
XII, No. 3, 1951.
(?)
i st Par!y,
and the Conmun
tli Json Record, TIF__NsgIo
nal of Soci
(3)
t ^ J o l fL e s l a u , F a l a s h aA n t h o l o g y ,i n P h y l o n ,V o ]. X X I I , N o . 1 , 1 9 5 2 .
(4)
L . S . B . L e a k e y ,M a uM a ua n d t h e K i k . u y ui n A n e r i c a nA n t h r o p o l o g i s t ,
VoJ. 59, No. 3, June, 1954.
(s)
A n d r e wL i n d ( e d . ) , R a c eR e l a t i o n s i n l ^ l o r l dP e r s p e c t i v e , i n A m e r i c a n
A n t h r o p o l o g i s t ,V o ] . 5 9 , N o . 2 , A p r i l , 1 9 5 7.
(6)
A . S o u t h a l l a n d P . G u t k i n d ,T o w n s m ei nn t h e M a k i n gi n A m e r i c a nA n t h r o p o l _ o g i s t ,V o 1. 5 9 , N 0 . 5 , 0 c t o b e r , 1 9 5 7 .
(7)
, l a v e r y , M . M .T u m i n ,D e s e g r e g a t l o na, n d- C . l , l a g l e y
C . h l .G r e e n i d g e S
a n d 1 4 .H a r r i s , M i n o r i d e s i n t h e N e v u _ l ^ l g ! i!n, S o c j o J o q i c a lR e v i e w ,
V o J . 7 , N o . ? , D e c e m b e r1; 9 5 9 .
(B)
G e o r g eh J .S h e p h e r dT, h e P o l i t i c s o f A f r i c a n N a t io n a 'il s r n, K .M .
P a n n i k a r ,R e v o l u t i o ni n A f r i c a , a n d eaffnrc-gm
canism
s.etri
in Africa
.
(e)
V e r n o nM c K a y ,A f r i c a i n l , l o r l d P o li t i c s i n A m e r i c a nJ o u r n a l o f S o c i o logy, Vol. 69,
(to1
M o m a d oDui a , U g l ! [ f & q n
of llodern Afr
i n A m e rci a n J o u r -
t l a t i o n s a n d h i o r l d S o 1i d a r i t y i n T h e J o u r n a l
.
( 1 1 ) B o r i s G u s s m a n , O ui tn t h e M i d : - Q g y . l g _i !n- , A m e r j c a nS o c i o l g g i c a l n e v i e w , V o ' .l 3 0 ,
( 1 2') A u g u s tM e i e r , N e g r oT h o u g h ti n A m e r i c a : 1 B B 0 - 1 9 1i5n lnrerican Soci o'logicalRevie
( 1 3 ) P o l 1 y H i l ' l , T h e H i g r a n t C o c o a - F a r m eor fs S o u t h e r nG h a n a ,i n Americ a n J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y ,V o l . L X X I I , N o . 1 , J u l y , 1 9 6 5 .
( 1 4 ) I n r m a n u el ,ll a l l e r s t e i n , A f r i c a : T h e P o l i t i c s o f U n i t y , i n A m e rci a n
09.
Journalof Socioloqy,
( t S 1 M e l v i l l e H e r s k o v i t s , N e wl , l o r l dN e g r o e s : S e l e c t e dP g r e r s i n A f r a m e r i c a n S t u d i e s i n A f r i c a R e p o r t , V o ] . 1 1 , N o . 9 , D e c e m b e r1, 9 6 6 .
( 1 6 ) H o l l i s R . L y n c h , E d w a r dW i l m o tB l y d e n : P a n N e g r oP a t r i o t i n l l g w
h l o r ld R e v i e w ,V o l
( t Z 1 T h e A u t o b i o g r a p j royf } | . E . B . D u B o i si n P o li t i c a l
VoI. , No. , 1970.
-158-
S c i e n c eQ u a r t e r l y ,
(te1
A b d u l A l k a l i m a t a n d R o n a l dB a i i e y , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o A f r o - A m e r i c a n
S t u d i e s : A C o u r s eO q ! 1 i n e - G u i dfqo r S t u d y G r o u p si n The-Black
(ts)
R o b e r tA . H i l l ( e d . ) , T h eB t a c kM a n ,A M o n t h l yI ' i a g a z i noef N e s r o
T h o u q hat n d0 p i i i o n , l
.
9;-iio:E-Cnuary/Februa ry, I 978.
( 2 0 ) A ] b e r t J . R a b o t e a uS,l a v eR e il g i o n , t h e " I n v i s i b l e I n s t i t u t i o n i n
in the lfntebellumSo
chl
m
VIII.
SELECTIONS
PUBLICATIONS
NON-ACADEMIC
OF ITEMSFROM
(1)
(2)
" D o d g i n gT h r o u g hD i x i e , " F r i e n d s I n t e l l i g e n c e r , F a ]1 , 1 9 3 1 .
" E c o n o m i cfso r J a m e s ,J r . - R e v i s e d , " 0 p p o r t u n i t y , D e c e m b e r1,9 3 5 .
(3)
n d P e a c e r "C r i s i s , F e b r u d r y ,1 9 3 6 .
" C o n r n u n j sam
(4)
" A l o n g t h e B a t t l e f r o f l t r " C r i l i s , N o v e m b e r1, 9 3 6 .
" l ^ l h oA r e J e h o v a h ' sl ^ l i t n e s s e s ?C" h r i s t i a n C e n t u r y , A p r i l 1 5 , 1 9 3 6 .
" R e p o r to n t h e B r o w nB r i t i s h e r s r " C r i s i s , J u n e , 1 9 4 9 .
(s)
(6)
(7)
(8)
" A s i a , N o wA f r i c d , " C r e s c e n t ,S p r i n g , 1 9 4 9 .
" H o wI t o ] d M y C h i l d A b o u t R a c e , " N e g r oD i g e s t , A p r i l , 1 9 5 1 .
(s)
"Bri ta i n Faces the RaceProb'lem" EbonX,November,1951.
( 1 0 ) " T h e T e r r o r T h a t l , l a k' l s b y D a y , " N a t i o n , N o v e m b e?r9 , 1 9 5 1.
( 1 1 ) " I n d e p e n d e n caen d C r i s i s , " A f r i c a T o d e J ,M a r c h / A p r i l , 1 9 5 7 .
( 1 2 ) " N e wL i g h t o n t h e D a r k C o n t i n e n t , "$ X ( R o o s e v e l tU n i v e r s i t y A l u m n i
J o u r n a )l , V o l . V I I I , N o . 2 , W i n t e r , 1 9 5 7 .
( ts)
" T h e P a n - A f r i c a nM o v e m e n t ,A" f r i c a S p e c i a ' lR e p o r t , A p r i ) , 1 9 5 8 ,
(14)
y ,9 5 9 .
" P a n - A f r i c a n i s m : t , l h a tI s I t ? " A f r i c a T o d g y , J d n u a r y / F e b r u d F 1
(15)
" S o c i a J S u r v e y sa n d t h e N a t i o n a l l , l e l f a F € , "a n d " S o c i a l S u r v e y si n
G h a n a , "i n A d v a n c e t, h e m o n t h l yb u l l e t i n o f t h e D e p a r t m e notf S o c ia l
t ^ l e l f a r ea n d C o m n r u n i tDye v e l o p m e n tA, c c r a , G h a n a ,N o . 2 3 , J u ' l y , 19 5 9 .
(16)
" T h i s i s A f r i c d , " T o n e , I , l a y ,1 9 6 1 .
(17)
" P a n - A f r j c a n i s mN
, e g r i t u d e ,a n d t h e A f r j c a n P e r s o n a l i t y , " i n B o s t o n
U n i v e r s i t y G r a d u a t eJ o u r n a ,l V o l. X , 1 9 6 1 ( r e p r i n t e d i n l ^ l i l l i a m - I o f i - n
c k A fr i c a, R a n dl ' l c N a 1 1 y1,9 6 4) ,
( 1 B ) ( w i t h E l i z a b e t h J o h n sD r a k e )" T h e A f r i c a n R e v o l u t i o na n d I t s I m a g e
i n A m e r i c a , " i n N e wP o l i t i c s , V o 1 . 1 , N o . 2 , 7 9 6 2 .
( 1 9 ) " T h e N e g r o ' sS t a k e i n A f r i c d , " N e g r oD i g e s t , J u n e , 1 9 6 4 .
(20)
" T h e A n e r i c a nN e g r o ' sR e l a t i o n t o A f r i c d , " A f r i c a T o d a y ,V o 1. X I V ,
N o . 6 , D e c e m b e r1, , 9 6.7
(21)
" E m e r g e nN
t e wV a l u e s i n t h e Y o u t h S u b c u l t u r e , " i n f o r t h c o m i n g1 9 6 9
i s s u e o f t h e J o u r n a ' lo f t h e C h i c a g oT e a c h e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n .
- 159-
I
(2?)
(23)
(?4)
(25)
IX.
' B l a c k S t u d i e s ' ? " , i n R e a d e r ' sD i q e s t A l m a n a ca n d
" J u s t l J h a tA r e
Yearbook: 1920.
" N e g r o , A n e r i c a n , " i n E n c y c l o p e d iBa r i t a n n i c a ' t 9 7 ? .
" T h e T r a g e d yo f N k r u m a h ,!"' l a t i o n ,J u n e 5 , 1 9 7 ? " D a n i e l P a t r i c k M o y n i h a n : O u r l ' l a ni n t h e U . N . ," N a t i o n , J u l y 5 , 1 9 7 5 .
MANUSCRIPTS:
RESEARCH MEMORANDA
ANDOTHERUNPUBLISHED
(1)
r e p a r e df o r
" N e- g r oC h r u c h e sa n d A s s o c i a t j o n s , "1 9 4 1 , a m e m o r a n d up m
use by Gunnarl,lyrdal i n the wri ti ng of An American DiI emma_;extent
ofusbmentioneiinhispreface(minuscSchomburg
C o lI e c t i o n, N Y P u b 'i lc L i b r a r y ),
(?)
V a lu e S s t e m s , S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e a n d R a c eR e l a t i o n s i n t h e B r i t i s h
r t a t i o n , 1 9 5 4 , a v a i l a b e o n m ic r o f i l m ,
Isles,
H a r p e rL i b r a r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ' i c a g o .
(3)
" P r e s s , F i l m a n d R a d i oi n T r o p i c a l A f r i c d , " a d e t a i l e d m e m o r a n d u m
w r i t t e n i n 1 9 5 6f r o m r e s e a r c hd o n eo n a F o r d F o u n d a t i o ng r a n t , a n d
u s e d a s a b a s i c w o r k i n gp a p e rb y G . H . T . K i m b l ei n T r o p i c a l A f r i c a '
19 6 0 .
(4)
R e s e a r c hm e m o r a n dpar e p a r e dw h i l e s e r v i n g a s H e a do f t h e D e p a r t m e n t
19
, 61
, c t o b e r ,1 9 5 8 - F e b r u d F Y
o f S o c i o l o g y ,U n i v e r s i t y o f G h a n a O
( l i s t e d i n D a v i dB r o k e n s h aA, p p i' le d A n t h r o p o l o g yi n E n q 'i ls h - S p e a k i n g, A f r i c a , M o n o g r a pNh o . B ,
Y):
( a ) ' ( w i t h E l i z a b e t hJ o h n sD r a k e )" T h e G r o w t ho f T e m a , "
" H is t o r y a n d D e v e ' l o p m eonft T e mra" " T h e P e o pel o f
T e m a".
( b ) " M a g i c , R e l i g i o n a n d a ' l , r r a t e rC r i s i s ' i n A c c r a ;
a P r e li m i n a r y A n a ' l y s i so f D a t a C o n c e r n i n gB e 1i e f s
a n d R i t e s R e ] a t e dt o l l e a t h e r C o n t r o l. "
( c ) " T h eM a s sM e d i ai n T r o p i c a l A f r i c a : A F r a m eo f
R e f e r e n c ef o r R e s e a r c h" .
( d ) " N u d i t y a s a S o c i a ' lP r o b ' l e m
in Ghana."
(5)
M e m o r a n dpar e p a r e df o r u s e i n t e a c h i n gP e a c eC o r p sV o l u n t e e r sf o r
Ghana:
(a)
(b)
y c h o o l so f G h a n a . "
" C 1 i q u eS t r u c t u r e i n S e c o n d a rS
" T h e G a S a c r e dL a n d s . "
(6)
l ' l o n o g r a pbhe i n g p r e p a r e df o r p u b l i c a t i o n o n " S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e a n d
S o c i a l P r o b l e m ii n T e m a ,a P l a n n e dC i t y " ( . d a t ag a t h e r e dw i t h s o m e
a s s is t a n c e f r o m S o c i a l S c i e n c eR e s e a r c hC o u n c i)' .l
(7)
l l a n u s c r i p t s b e i n g p r e p a r e df o r p u b li c a t i ' o n . S e e I I . 7 a n d I ' I . B a b o v e .
- 160-
(B)
0 t h e r u n p u bil s h e d p a p e r s :
, ic h i g a n C o n 1 9 4 5 - 1 9 6 (9t J a y n eM
( a)
T h e B l a c k l ' l id d le - C la s s:
v o c a t j o n , 1 9 6 9 .)
(b)
( S . U . N . Y . ,B u f f a l o , 1 9 6 9 ) .
R e f l e c t i o n so n P a n - A f r i c a n i s m
(c)
S o c i o ' l o g yo f P o v e r t yo r P o v e r t yo f S o c i o l o g y ? ( A m e r i c a n
S o c i o ' l o g i c aA
l s s o c i a t i o nm e e t i n g , 1 9 5 9 ')
(d)
B'a
l c k S t u d ie s: T o w a r da n I n t e l I e c t u a l F r a m eo f R e fe r e n c e
( M a r t i n L u t h e r K i n g L e c t u r e , B r o o k ' l y nC o l l € g € , N Y , 1 9 6 8 ) .
-161-
Appendix Five
Tables of Contents frorn !'lajor Publ"ished
and Unpubiished tdorks by St. Clair Ilrake*
The follouing includes ihe tables of contents froo Drake's najor Publlshed work Ql=S!_!&ggJggE)
and unpublished utorks (Vaiue Systens' Soci
nace
Afrlca and the Black Dlasporai and
ReLations
{n
the
Brltlsh
Isles;
?nd
in Conparative Htotory and Atrthropology).
Black Folks Here and fherellqsays
The works are listed 1n the order in nhlch the orlginal uanuscrlpts of thelD aPpeared.
BlqgL {g}rg.p"-g1i.s
by
St" Clair
Drake and Horace R. Cayton
Authors t Acknovledgment
xiii
Introduction
xvli
by Richard Wrtght
fntroduction:
,i
Midwest }.letropolis
PART I
3l
1.
Fl{ght
2.
Land of Promise
46
3.
The Greaf, tligratiern
58
4.
Race Riot
65
5.
Between T\^rol{ars
to Freedorn
and Af,termath
7V
PART II
99
6,
A3,ong the CoJ"or-Line
7.
Cross{ng the CoLor-Lfne
129
B.
The Black Ghetto
174
9.
The Job Ceiling
2L4
10.
The ShifLing
263
11 .
Democracy anel Economic Neeesslty ;
Ceillng
Breaking the Job
Democracy and Economlc NecesstEy;
the New I]nions
black !{orkers and
12.
13.
Li.ne of Color
Democracy and Folitical
287
Expedienuy
-162-
312
342
PART III
14.
Bronzevtll-e
379
15.
The Power of Press and Pulpit
398
16.
Negro Business;
17.
Bueiness Under a Cloud
470
18,
The Measure of
495
19.
Sfyle
20.
Lcwer Clas s :
2L.
The licrld
22.
The Middi-e-Class Way of L:i^fe
658
23,
Advancing the Race
7L6
430
Myth and Fact
the lIan
526
of LivJ"ng-Upper Class
Sex anC Farnily
564
of the Lower Class
600
PART IV
24.
Of Thlngs to Csue
755
A Methodolog,J"cal Note by W. L3-oyd Warnen
769
Notes and Documentation
783
A List of Seiected Books Dealing n'1th Ehe Amerlcan
Negro
IVJ
797
Index
-163-
and
' V a lu e S 3 ' s t e m sS, o c i a l S t r u c t u r e
R a c e ' R e l a t i c n isn t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s
by
q+
(The fol lowing
is
Ciair Drake
copied
from the origi,nal.)
Pese
LIS?OT'TABLSSI,
t
I
LIST OT' TULUSTRATIONS
Chauter
T
CCT{SEPT$,ME?I{OF$,AND TEC}S{TqUES
In?rnductS.gri
e o c .
.
World fdeologlee end fis o $ R e l e t l o n s
Tbe Soslal Anthrnpologl cal Approach
$yeteme of Rese Relat lone
V s : " u e - 5 y s t e m e , R s e e Re l a t l o n t s a n d A s s o c l e t l o n s .
The Concept of ilActlo n*Structurg8fl3.e.e..
. . . .
The Hesearoh FrobJ.en sn d t r t e $ t g r l f t c e n g e
. Freposttlo'ns App3.31ngto the Brl t 1 sh Race
Relatlons Sltuat1on
R ee e e r c h T ec ! : n i q u e e
f,
a . G r a o l v
c
fI.
c
o
a
a
c
a
OF A RACE RELATIO};S ACT].OI']*
T}IE DEVTLOPME}TT
STRUCTURE
WorLd a*ar . . r . .
Flrgt
F . 3
The Race Rlot e of 1919 anC the Afterrnsth
S
e
a
n
e
n
- - i
C
o
l
o
r
e
d
Unton Presgure agalnsi
P
r
o
b
l
enrf
F
o
r
t
T
h
e
t
o
Ulcldle- claes Reactlon
"
. The Reacilon of Rellgloue-Hunanltarlans
g.|:
t,rSd
5S
G'qR
LJ L',
ss
6g
EH.
tr,
a c
??
?s
Qfj|
a a
| t a . 6
FATTEHNS OF RACE RE}-ATTCINSIN fIiE CONTEMPOFART
BRI?ISH N.ECEF,EI"ATICNS STTU"AI'ION
A).1 liaee Oontaet Sltuatlone Involve the Aealgnrneat
.
of e Eaclal, Status to Col,ored Pecple . . r . .,
-164-
40
t i
enge
?he Connunl s t Chs13,
The Leegue of Coloured People s--I{unenl ta r l a n l B m ,
III
ps
C,$
fi.ece Re1atJ.ons tn the Br1t5. sh f el-es : L?O') to the
Pan*"Afnlcan Style
Crlsls
of 19$S e'nd After$ath
The flardlff
$tyle
.
Fan*Afrl csnlsih-$larxlan
The f;",rcact of the Seeond vfsrIf, W g r i 6 . 3 , ! .
BrltaLnts
Post-l{er Race Frsb}em
&B nsovernaent Feeponslbllltyrl
Fece Felstlona
9n
fdv
6'+
ss
]04
1 nr, |
4i./
"113
13e
lUS
13S
1$1"
Fage
lhapter
T:r.
PAT?SRNSOF RAOE RE]*&TISNSTN T*iE flO!{?AHPONAH.Y
BRrTIsii RAOEa'sLsTIoN$ sIruATTOll { €p-etl,n$g"*}
ff"H;*3=fil.:t'ffi:'*:{*H:fr-o$t?lltl;"t":
:.:":": ls*
.
141,
s...
PatterrrgtntheEcononlc$trueture
,.
Fetterng tn Pleeee of PubLl c Acsommodati.on . .
Patterndr ln the Church and AesoclatlonaL
146
148
Eco).ogl*al
Pgttgrng
St::ueturg
q
.
{r .,
o o .
.
6,
!
.
e
,
.
.
3
.
,
i
.
.
,
F
.
r
e .
.
e
149
.
Cllque Fatterng . .,
. . . q . . e r .,
. . .
Patterne of Oourtshlp and Merrlage
, , r . c .
Oompsri.eonwl th Tlplcal- Ceete snd. Clase Fatterns .
The FxLstlng AeeoclatlanaJ, Sy*iem Wlll- Functton
ln the Prcce s s of Fat tern lng Race Relat Le,ne,
and New fncrements Wl11 Em*rge
$urnrnary
W.
c
.
.
.
c
.
r
r
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
i
CARPIFF''ASAHACEREI.ATION$SITTJATION..I
RssleL end Ethnt p Fetterns
&
O "
?
a
Patterns ln the Shlppl"ng Induetry.
. . .
Empl"oyrnentln Dockslde fndtrstrles , . c .
Emp),oyrnentln Ngn*Dockstd.e Areee . . . .
e o o .,
*
r
r,,
..
aa
a
ca
3
aa
a
ia
a
THE SOCTATgTRUCTIJ}15
OF BUTE TOWN
913.
P]?
qlln
ra
9lfi
Gi
ges
9q>'l
Orlgntattonrre.o.
Untt s
The l'taJor 3t ructural
P?S
pffl
Irrcllg enoue As g$e t et:. CIRs
Structurg
.
$ o c,
.
.
.,
.
.
{
.
i
r
.
-165-
q
c
o
.
.
.
o
?frS
a l a ! t
Ethnlc $tratlflcattron
withln Bute Toun
The Rsnk Order of the Ethnl c Segnents
toclal 0laee Dlfferenttetlon
.
10:q
e1?
oraaaarg
$urnma'ry
l-86
1S6
lpP
lps
l ? ,
0rlentatlone and Intereets ln tsuteTorxnjee
as & Theme
Color-$oLtderlty
Gambllng as p Prlmary Focue o f A c t l r l t y . e
Athletles a6 an Integrettng 0rlentati.on..
the rr0uS.tand, the Chl ld't &s e n I n t e g r a t l n g
fntruglvg
18CI
1S4
Reele1 and Ethnlc Factors ln the Ecologlea1 gertut e rn5,ng o
Pet t ern s o f nace R e l a t t o n s O u t s l d e o f t h e S u t e
Town Area
v.
1?0
l"?$
ln the Occupattonal
Strueturg?a.6$
ThgSglf-En,ro1nyeft
1$O
1,5fi
LAS
c
?,r34
f;ffi
*4S
a a G . a
G a t a l
.
.
o
c
.
p.ds
r5
js
.fl
$
;,"fl
ffi
ffi
i{
rs
ii:'il
?$g
Chapter
VI .
Pege
PATTEBIIS OF I.{Af ING AND FT"AF$IACEIN TIGEP( BAY
2SL
-J
t.!l
Tranelent i'{en end R eJ e e t e d l,Ionen
Whlte
and Colo red. Men
ite.if*ca"domen
st e Ho:nen
P e t t e r n g 0 f F a m t l y and K l n s h l p R e l e t l o n €
The nffaLf-csste I ft
;r.il
i::.$
'l.i
.;l
:111
:..$
'i,.F
ia;
w
it
.{c(,
i?
VII.
2$1
as5
r
46.5
?.6',V
279
e o
gg?,
T H E I N : R T J S I \ T S I N S T T T U T T O N A L S T R U C I '.I.J. N
. . .E
;"f;
"a
'+
E x t e ns l o n I of tbe Munlnlpal Governnent $tructure
E x t e n B t r o nI o f t h e N a t l , o n a l G o v e r n m e n t S t r u c t u r e
Extenslon I of $eculsr Aeeoelatlonel
$tructure
S x t e n B l o nB 0 f i h e C h u r c h S t r u c t u r e . . . ,
t .
Hanneh S t r e e t G o n g r e g a t l c n e l
. ( r . G . . r
St " l.lar y t e Church
Loudon $ q u a r e H L g g l o n f o r G o l o u r e d
o,..
o
fhe Ange l L n a U l n s l o n
r . r G . e . c . . , .
S o c l a l $ er v L c e A g e n c l e e t n B u t g T o r + n ,
r.,
.
The Pael " f l s t S e r v l . c e Un1t
John Hoo L$en Eiouse o
fhe But e Town "Tunl,or irun'( i'rh"'ri*y iunt*";l
The $et tlgngnt
l{ousg,
. o
.
. . . r e,
Sunmery
ri
,l
:$
VIII
r
r
c
.
o
.
.
r.
.
.
.
.
.
.
r
.
q
..
.
"
.
es8
soo
?n?
302*
sLs
s14
sls
s17
$31_
tr,?A
-'
lr''i-
r .
.
8SS
gs7
3L4
TNDIGENOUSASSOCSATIONALSTRUCTUFT
: T}TE UC$LEI':S
The Arab C o m r n u n l t y . .
? h e $ o m a L1 C o m m u n l t y r .
Surunary
TY
trQ&t
.
c
?
.
.
3,u '!
s4$
-4
r\ fi
IND IGENCUS ASSOCIATIONAL Sf RUCTURE: THE I''IEGRO
ET}{Nr CS
z.H,A
ss9
Tlre Af 11 cafrs ,
The r Bl zarre rl S o c l a ] - IT y p e s A m o n g t h e A f r l e a n
Potrulat 1on
C o n v e n t l . o n s . l L e s d e r s h l p T y p e s A n r og
n the
Afrlcgne
.
.
The Ambltloue
Thg',.Iest
IndLanE
.
a
,
.
r
.
.
G
,
Younger Afrl"ceng
c
.,
.
a,
r
c
.
.,
.
o
j
.
o o .,
r
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
$61
.
ss7
.
5?O
.
The West fndlen 'tleft-1{Lngtt
, . . , .
. .
T h e O l d e r U n s t t a c h e d l r t r e e tf n d i " a n H a l e e . , . .
The Weet fndlan Ycunser $et
. e . . .
. .,
T h e r r $ t e b l e C o r e r r s f t h e h t es t i n d t a n C o n r n u n t t y
Case No. 1: The F.okrlngonFaml1y . . . . . .
Cgee No, 3; fhe Sryee Faml1y . r o . . . . .
$urnrnery
s72
5?6
$?g
s80
$8S
o5k
sEg
39S
-166*
Pege
Che,nter
X.
$iE
COMMUNITY LEABES$
,
.
s
c D e c .
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
Les$er
Larry--Left-Wlng
Lee.der
J&ck*Pen-Afrlcen
NeL Bsn*-Aecor"uncdat
tve Lead,er
OLd l{en Jacob:
Summary
XI.
.
.
t
.
$$6
40s
9tetggmen
Elder
.
.
r'
.
?
r
.
. .
.
.
o ,
.
i} .
r
.
o
6
i
.
.
4S9
41$
4?0
.
.
4E?
r
|
TN CANPIFS,
T}E HSCE RSI*ATIONSSCTION*gTRUCTURE
WALSgo
...
.
.
r
?
e'G
o
!
r.
r
...
.
l
The Functtonl.ng of the frace Rel"atlone Act ton
$trr.leture between 1.935 end, Lg$O o r o . . . . . r
Aaeoclatlone ln the Post-Crlale Perle<l . . s .
Aeeoclstlonal Aettvlty Durlng the War Yeere , .
Tlre Colonla1 Oentre.
Ttre Unlt ed Comnlttee o f (C sloured and. C ol o n t a I
Feoples Orgenlzstlcns
* o,.
TheContenporarySltueflon
..
t o..
Ath1etl c 01ub . .
Thre Coloured Internatlonsl
The But e Town Soc1a} and llel"f are Club . . . .
. o e e .
The llew Bute Tawn Communlty Center
**drg
v\.,i.lt'.la.L€.J.
Surunary
xr I.
.
.
Y\.raav*v
.
c
r
.
r
.
'
.
;*19S
4
G .
i
.
.
r
.
.
.'
l
..
..
gU},$,UTRY
AND CONCLU$TON$
4?3
4SS
4$8
44;5
454
469
4?0
482
494
486
490
Gard,l f f &B a R a c e R e l a t l o n e g t t u a t l o n . . . a r .
[Re11ef for the Poor-*Upltft
for the Fetienn
.
trFre edorn f o r t h e $ l " a v e - - A l d f o r f n d L g e n t
Bla ck e rl
$ o c l a l l B m - - F o r l{hltes CInly ,
Tlger Bay-*Test Oaaefor the Eruptre r.,
| ..
Reactton of the Dl slnherlted,
Coloured
F r o m H a I f - C a e t e to Cardlff
'
Cornparlsone wlth O t h e r R a c e R e l a t l o n g sri'uiti o**
tnBrltaln....,.)
Comparleon n'lth Other Fsce Re1atlong $ltuatlcns
wl thln the Anglo-Anrerl c&n C u l t u r e T n p e
...,
o
490
491
495
495
4S8
dQq
sos
FrflA
a a 9
s0?
;?P3!:DIXEg
A.
L I S T O F SELECTEDBOOS$DBALTNSi{IfH VARIOUS rYTES
0F n||cEREJJTIO}i$ SITUATTCI}TS
IN DIFFERSNTPAi.TS
B.
CIF THE WORLD
sl,1
NoTE oN UNPUSLISHEr}
Dosuusufg
5ts
-167-
Afri.ea anrJ fhe El;rck Diaspora
by
St, Clair
Drake
I
1.
Af ri.ca Before Europeans Calne
2.
West Afri"ea;
3.
tlerncries of thre MidCIe passage
4,
Ref omr, Revolut ion and Racisn
5.
Fre*elom ln Amerfca:
6,
Bl-ack Nationali
7.
Af rican
European Intrusions
A Drearn Deferred
sm and hrhlte power
Resis tance ta Dornination
B"tProvidenti-al
Designtt and "ctvilLaing
PART II:
g.
The Black-I.thite
tsLACKSURVIVAL IN THB DIASPORA
Conf rontation
10.
The Spanlsh Legacy
II.
The Pcrtuguese patrimony
L2.
the Three Guinas:
13.
tsarbadoes:
L4 .
Jauralca :
15.
Mission"
Black
fhe Brltish
ftnprtnt
The BLaek protes t
North Anerlcan ttluli.norities"
17.
The French Fresence and p.qgS-ggqe-,Afrlcq*lg
t'f sl_and
Trinitlad:
of Experinent"
18.
Pan-Afrlcan
16.
Cross-Currents
I4&T._lI{i-*-Is
19.
Black NationaLlsu
2c.
Thre caribbean:
2L .
Af rica:
22.
$llermras and Faradoxes uf, Black Fcwcrr
and Marxisrn:
Hinl-polLtics
unity
$f, fipposires?
pr-ural"ism
of
Dependency and l{eo*Colorrial-f s-r'-r
*168*
Africa
;*nd the Black Diaspcrra
Appendlces *
Slaveryn Co1or-preJudlce and Racism
Slavery Ln Europe and North Lfrl-ca
Sub*Seharan $lavery
critique
*
of Recent Literature
These appendicea sre now the basis
Blac.k {.olk llqqe and 'Ihere.
on cor-or-prej udice
ft-',:: Ehe f,orthcomtirg two volune work,
.
-L69-
BLACK FOI,K"S}iH}IE ,,{T'{NTi{iiRI]
t ..l}1-l_q}:::.$l}_..?_jt}1
Esg f:r:s {Jl* ! o.rqLqrre
9__{g;]u gl_g]-clsJb y S t " C l a.i r
D rake
Voluroe I
Pre fa .c e and A cknow l edgements
Coping and Co*optation
Introduction:
T h e m e s i .r: B 1ack H i storY
P a rt
I:
Be fo re" the
E ra of, W hi .re } taci " sm
Chapter l-
Col-or Prej udl.ce , Slavery , and Racism
Chapter 2.
Comparisons in T.lme and Space
.
Chapter 3.
The Ancestral
Chapter 4.
The Judeeo-Christian
Chapter. 5 "
Color and Sl.avery j"rr th*r }fus1im Worl-d
Chapter 6,
The Roots of Whlte Racism in Hedieval
Appendix I:
bLackness--Word, Cnncept, and Referents
Appendix II:
as
i{clrneland
errd Classical
Traditior:s
Europe
Slavery in Africa
V ol ul ne II
Paft JI:
$,-la.ckR-qs-pgIlgFs_@
Chapter I.
the Diversity
of Social and Cultural
Chapter 2.
High Culture
Chapter 3.
Being Bleck in Latin
Chapter 4,
The Black Arts
Chapter 5.
The Vindicationist
Chapter 6.
Pan-African
and the Folk Tradition
Contexts
in Ehe Di.aspora
Arne.rica
in Nor:th Anrerica
Tradj.ticn
Perripectives
-170*
iii Afro-Aruerican I,iteratrrre
AfroAmerican
Studiesand
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