s C - International Conference on Sustainable Future for Human

ISSN 1884-8850
Proceeding
International Conference
The 186th Symposium on Sustainable Humanosphere
Kihada Hall, Uji Campus, Kyoto University
Kyoto, 8-10 October 2011
Sustainable Future for Human Security
Organized by
PPI Kyoto
PPI Kansai
Co-hosted by
Supported by
KBRI - Tokyo
KJRI - Osaka
PPI Jepang
The Second International Conference on
Sustainable Future for Human Security
(SustaiN’2011)
The 186th Symposium on Sustainable Humanosphere
Kihada Hall - Uji Campus, Kyoto University
8-10 October, 2011
Organized by
Indonesian Student Association (ISA) Kyoto
Indonesian Student Association (ISA) Kansai
Co-hosted by
Global Center of Excellence on Energy Science, Kyoto University
Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University
Global Center of Excellence on Human Security Engineering, Kyoto University
Research Institute of Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University
PROCEEDING OF SUSTAIN 2011 INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE - [ISSN 1884-8850]
©2011 - Indonesian Student Association (ISA) Kyoto, Japan
Information:
e-mail: [email protected]
website: www.sustain-kyoto.com
INTRODUCTION
We are living in an important historical point. The rise of Asia had brought waves of
optimism across Asian nations. This brings many opportunities to shape a sustainable future
for human security in Asia. However, there are still many problems and challenges lie in
various aspects and levels, from community to governance, from politics to economy, and
from global to local.
The shift of pendulum generated some consequences; some of them lead to natural
resources depletion, shortage of carbon based energy, shortage of food and water, as well
as over-utilization of natural and human resources. The future economic and technology
heavily rely on either the proper utilization of Asian natural resources, or well-prepared
human resources.
To create breakthroughs for ensuring the prosperous future of the Asian people,
deep understanding of problems and the dynamics shaping them is at paramount
importance. Thus, students and scholars are at the forefront of this process.
Learning from the advanced West is important. However, it is clear that “one size fits
all” is not always applicable. Asia, with its unique and vibrant culture, history, and sociopolitical contexts, offers various different kinds of wisdom and solutions. It depends on us to
answer this intellectual challenge. Thus, we believe that building a network of students and
scholars working on various aspects and levels of challenges for the future of Asia with
various academic backgrounds is an important step to find creative and fresh answers.
However, scholarly understanding of challenges and their creative answers to
problems should not stop at books, journals, and conferences. They should inspire policies
and actions, both by the government and civil society. We should create bridges to bring
ideas to realities.
Therefore, to answer above some mentioned issues, an international annual
conference 2010 was carried out by the Indonesian Student Association (ISA) in Kyoto,
Japan. Regarding related issues and its effort to continue provide international gathering,
this year ISA continue and organize this event entitled ‘The 2nd International Conference on
Sustainable Future for Human Security’ (SUSTAIN 2011).
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COMMITTEE
Advisory Board
Muhammad Lutfi, Indonesian Ambassador in Japan
Ibnu Hadi, Indonesian Consulate General in Japan
Eddy Sulaeman Yusuf, Head of Indonesian Bank, Tokyo Representative Office
International Scientific Committee
Dr. Nuki Agya Utama (Chairperson) Japan
Prof. Susumu Yoshikawa
Japan
Prof. Rinaldy Dalimi
Indonesia
Prof. Sudharto P. Hadi
Indonesia
Assoc. Prof. Ben Mclellan
Australia-Japan
Asst. Prof. Miguel Esteban
UK-Japan
Asst. Prof. Taro Sonobe
Japan
Dr. Per Stromberg
Japan
Dr. Alex Gasparatos
Spain-Japan
Dr. Hady Hadiyanto
Indonesia
Asst. Prof. Khoirul Anwar
Japan
Dr. Sidik Permana
Indonesia-Japan
Dr. Qi Zhang
China-Japan
Dr. Nattapong Chaiwato
Thailand
Steering Committee
Suharman Hamzah (Chairperson)
Dr. Arif Bramantoro
Dr. Eliani Ardi
Dr. Hagus Tarno
Dr. Lisman Suryanegara
Dr. Moch. Rahmat Sule
Dr. N. Agya Utama
Dr. Retno Kusumaningtyas
Dr. Ruliyana Susanti
Dr. Susanti Alawiyah
Dr. Yudi Irmawan
Syafwina
Agus Trihartono
Chairman of PPI Kansai
~5~
Organizing Committee:
Chairperson
Vice Chairperson
Secretary
Treasurer
Website Manager
Program Manager
Secretariat Manager
Documentation Manager
Sponsorship Manager
Supporting Manager
F&B Manager
Public Relation Manager
: Yulianto P. Prihatmaji
: Sofwan A. B. C.
: M. Ery Wijaya
: Hatma Suryatmojo
: Rizky Januar AKbar
: Robby Permata
: Slamet Widodo
: Puji Harsanto
: Prawira F. Belgiawan
: Oktana
: Sritayani
: Dedy Eka Priyanto
~6~
(Kyoto University)
(Ritsumeikan University)
(Kyoto University)
(Kyoto University)
(Ritsumeikan University)
(Kyoto University)
(Kyoto University)
(Kyoto University)
(Kyoto University)
(Ritsumeikan University)
(Kyoto University)
(Kyoto University)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The committee would like to acknowledge the Global Center of Excellence on Energy
Science, Kyoto University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Global
Center of Excellence on Human Security Engineering, Kyoto University, Research Institute of
Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University as co-hosts of International Scientific
Conference on Sustainable Future for Human Security (SustaiN’2011).
Special thankful to Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia-Japan, Consulate General of the
Republic of Indonesia in Osaka, Central Bank of Indonesia, and Garuda Indonesia for
supporting this conference.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PARALLEL SESSION
TOPIC: SOCIAL SCIENCE (S)
S-003
BUILD SYNERGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH
CONSCIENCE AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Darmawan Achmad, Ishak Ramli, and Galuh
S-011
SUSTAINABILITY PARADIGM IN THE ARENA OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION
THROUGH MICROCREDIT PROGRAM
Gulsan Ara Parvin, Kazi Farzana Shumi and Muhammed Emranul Haq
S-015
EFFECTS OF PARTICIPATORY MAP MAKING TO COMMUNITY-BASED
DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
Yusuke Toyoda and Hidehiko Kanegae
S-016
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND INFORMATION DISCLOSURE IN THE
PHILIPPINES: POTENTIALS AND CHALLENGE
Ria Adoracion Apostol Lambino
S-020
POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS IN BUILDING INNOVATIVE COOPERATION
BETWEEN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF CHONAIKAI (NEIGHBORHOOD ASSOCIATION) IN JAPAN
Puntita Tanwattana and Hiroshi Murayama
S-021
DONORS, GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SOCIETY IN DEMOCRATIZATION: AN
ANALYSIS OF THE US DEMOCRACY ASSISTANCE TO INDONESIA
Asra Virgianita
S-022
THE ROLE OF JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY IN
PROMOTING GOOD GOVERNANCE TO ENABLE ENVIRONMENT FOR
HUMAN SECURITY
Warangkana Korkietpitak and Sarunwit Promsaka Na Sakonnakron
S-026
INDONESIA’S NEW LABOR MIGRATION POLICY: PLACEMENT AND
PROTECTION AND THE HUMAN SECURITY OF MIGRANT WORKERS
Madyah Rahmi Lukri
S-029
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOMENT UNDER GLOBALIZATION REGIME
Kumar Das
S-030
INVESTIGATING POLITICAL BUDGET CYCLE (CASE STUDY IN CENTRAL
JAVA-INDONESIA)
Sandy Juli Maulana, Amelia Gita Tifani, and Jessica Hardiani
S-031
THE JAPANESE MEDICINE TRADERS IN NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES 1900S1910S
Meta Sekar Puji Astuti
S-032
A MYRIAD OF SATOYAMA, AND LOCAL WISDOMS: SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL
PRODUCTION LANDSCAPES OF INDONESIA
Mochamad Indrawan
~8~
18
29
41
45
48
51
54
57
66
71
75
79
S-033
S-034
S-035
IS IT ‘ORDER’ OR ‘PEACE’? SECURITY, POLITICAL STABILITY, AND
DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE IN POST-CONFLICT POSO DURING 2001-2011
Nino Viartasiwi
GLOBAL CHANGES, NATIONAL LANDSCAPE, AND THE FUTURE OF
INDONESIA’S DEMOCRACY
Shofwan Al Banna Choiruzzad
REVISITING CONTROL OF PRE-ELECTION POLLING IN THE CONTEMPORARY
INDONESIA: BEYOND THE BAND-WAGON ISSUE
Agus Trihartono
83
97
102
TOPIC: CITIES (C)
C-001
C-002
C-006
C-009
C-012
C-014
C-015
C-016
C-017
C-018
C-019
UTILIZATION OF EUCALYPTUS OIL REFINERIES WASTE FOR CEMENT
PARTICLE BOARD
Rudi Setiadji and Andriati Amir Husin
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE WITH TAILING
AGGREGATE
Rudi Setiadji, Anita Firmanti, Andreas Triwiyono, and Rochmadi
CONSERVATION OF KAMPUNG BALUWERTI AS ROYAL VILLAGE OF
KASUNANAN SURAKARTA, INDONESIA
Naniek Widayati
URBAN FRINGE AREAS STUDY TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE SETTLEMENT
GROWTH: CHALLENGES FOR SEMARANG CITY-INDONESIA
Bambang Setioko
APPLY GIS SPATIAL ANALYSIS TO STUDY URBAN COMPACT
Chien-Liang Tung and Han-Liang Lin
SEEKING WAYS TO OVERCOME THE BARRIERS TO MAINSTREAMING
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION INTO ODA FROM THE EU AND JAPAN TO
VIETNAM: A CASE STUDY OF CAN THO
Hanne Louise Knaepen
A STUDY FOR ANALYZING SPATIAL CONFIGURATION AND
TRANSFORMATION OF URBAN LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY IN TAICHUNG CITY
Meng-Jung Yang and Hsien-Hsin Cheng
AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAND-USE AND URBAN
STREET CONFIGURATION BY SPACE SYNTAX
Li-Ting Chen and Han-Liang Lin
TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS TO MULTI-TRANSPORTATION NETWORK SPACE
SYNTAX PROBLEMS
Yu-You Chiang and Han-Liang Lin
ANALYZE SPATIAL PATTERN OF NEIGHBORHOOD CONFIGURATION
Cheng-Yun Ho and Han-Liang Lin
AN EFFORT IN QUANTIFYING DESIGN METHOD (CASE STUDY FROM
RETROSPECTIVE OF TOLAKI ARCHITECTURE TOWARD ITS PRESENT FORM)
Yusfan Adeputera Yusran
~9~
110
118
124
129
137
142
146
152
161
169
178
C-020
C-022
C-025
C-035
C-037
C-038
C-039
C-041
C-043
C-044
LANDLESS PEASANT MOVEMENT IN BRAZIL (MOVIMENTO SEM TERRA)
AND ITS COMPLEMENTARY ROLE FOR SAFETY NET
Kanae Ishimaru and Shigeo Kobayashi
ARCHITECTURE AND OUR ANCHECTORS (HOW TO LEARN ARCHITECTURE
BY “BUDAYA NUSANTARA”)
Abraham Mohammad Ridjal
THE STUDY OF THE MECHANISM OF THE DELIMITATION WITH THE URBAN
RENEWAL UNIT FROM THE ASPECT OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Ruei-Hua Huang and Hsien-Hsin Cheng
MANAGING THE GROWTH OF GREATER JAKARTA: TOWARDS A
MEGALOPOLIS WITHOUT SPRAWL
Danang Priatmodjo
SUSTAINABILITY OF VERNACULAR KAMPONGS OF FLORES A VALUABLE
LESSON FROM THE ANCESTORS FOR FUTURE ARCHITECTS
Martinus Bambang Susetyarto, Eko Budihardjo, Galih Widjil Pangarsa, and
Gagoek Hardiman
PASSIVE COOLING PERFORMANCE OF A VENTILATED ROOF APPLICATION
IN TROPICAL TERRACE HOUSE
Agung Murti Nugroho
THE EXISTENCE OF GREEN OPEN AREA ON PRIVATELY OWNED LAND AND
THE NEED OF SPACE FOR BUILDING EXPANSION CASE STUDY: HOUSING
AREAS IN PLAMONGAN AND BANYUMANIK, SEMARANG CITY- INDONESIA
Siti Zubaidah Kurdi
THE POSSIBILITY OF COMMUNITY-BASED CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
MANAGEMENT THROUGH RURAL TOURISM IN BOROBUDUR, INDONESIA
Titin Fatimah and Kanki Kiyoko
PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS: A POSSIBILITY OF BOT MODEL FOR
INDONESIAN AIRPORT
Suharman Hamzah
ESTIMATION OF LINK COST FUNCTION PARAMETERS OF URBAN ROAD
TRANSPORTATION NETWORK FOR TRUCK BASED ON INDONESIAN
HIGHWAY CAPACITY MANUAL (IHCM)
I Made Suraharta and Intan Novianingsih
183
192
195
201
208
211
216
222
232
241
TOPIC: ADVANCE TECHNOLOGY
AT-002
AT-009
THE EFFECT OF TIDAL FIELD ON THE DEPLETION OF DARK MATTER FROM
GLOBULAR CLUSTERS
Eliani Ardi and Holger Baumgardt
THEORETICAL STUDY OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HAZARDOUS AND
SAFETY PRESERVATIVE SUBSTANCES USING SURFACE PLASMON
RESONANCE BASED BIOSENSOR
Rina Dewi Mayasari, Devy Pramudyah Wardani, Kiki Megasari, Wahyu
Hadi Saputra and Kamsul Abraha
~ 10 ~
250
254
AT-012
AT-013
CD SPECTRAL AND THERMAL DENATURATION PROFILES FOR THE CT-DNA
BINDING OF CATIONIC METHYLENE BLUE DYE
Mudasir, Nurul Hidayat Aprilita and Naoki Yoshioka
UPLINK SC-FDMA (4G) WITHOUT GUARD INTERVAL IN THE PRESENCE OF
DOPPLER SPREAD
Khoirul Anwar
259
263
TOPIC: NATURAL HAZARD (NH)
NH-001
NH-002
NH-007
NH-008
NH-009
NH-010
NH-011
NH-013
NH-014
NH-015
NH-017
NH-018
NH-019
CYANOBACTERIA BLOOM AND TOXICITY OF LAKE KASUMIGAURA IN
JAPAN
Md. Nazrul Islam, Daisuke Kitazawa and Ho-Dong Park
SAA PAPER PULP WASTEWATER TREATMENT BY OZONATION
Jitthep Prasityousil and Nuchonkan Phrommathep
ARSENATE ADSORPTION MECHANISM ON NANO-BALL ALLOPHANE
Elvis Anup Shukla, Naoto Matsue, and Teruo Henmi
PROBABILISTIC SEISMIC HAZARD ANALYSIS (PSHA) OF YOGYAKARTA CITY
WITH THREE DIMENSIONAL SEISMIC SOURCE MODEL
Abdul Rochim
SOIL EROSION AND EROSION HAZARD LEVEL OF TULIS SUBWATERSHED,
JAVA, INDONESIA
Ambar Kusumandari
A STUDY OF SPATIAL FEATURES OF COMPOUND DISASTERS - A CASE
STUDY IN TAINAN CITY, TAIWAN
Juei-Hsuan Wang and Hsueh-Sheng Chang
A TIME-LAGGED ENSEMBLE SIMULATION ON THE MODULATION OF
PRECIPITATION OVER WEST JAVA IN JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2007
Nurjanna J. Trilaksono, Shigenori Otsuka, and Shigeo Yoden
THE RESEARCH OF PRECAUTION AND RESCUE MECHANISM WHILE
FACING SERIOUS DISASTERS IN TAIWAN
Yi-Chun Lin and Yung-Nane Yang
AN ASSESSMENT OF TRMM DAILY RAINFALL: DRIVING TO DECREASE
SUSCEPTIBILITY IMPACT ON SOIL EROSION
Ponthip Limlahapun and Hiromichi Fukui
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS IN SEMI OPEN EMBAYMENT
Eka Oktariyanto Nugroho and Akihiro Tominaga
FACTORS INFLUENCE FLOOD PREPAREDNESS BEHAVIOR
Wignyo Adiyoso, Hidehiko Kanegae and Chaweewan Denpaiboon
266
USING THE CONCEPT OF STICKY POLICY FOR FILLING THE GAP IN
COMMUNITY-SELF DISASTER INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Penpathu Pakdeeburee, Siyanee Hirunsalee And Hidehiko Kanegae
LANDSLIDE CHARACTERISTICS IN THE AREA OF XIAOLIN VILLAGE DURING
MORAKOT TYPHOON
Yuan-Chang Deng, Jin-Hung Hwan, and Fu-An Tsai
335
~ 11 ~
276
283
289
298
304
312
315
318
322
332
344
NH-020
NH-022
HYDROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOOD HAZARDS: FOCUSING ON
THE RIVERINE CHAR COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH
Mohammad Najmul Islam
LEARNING FROM YOGYAKARTA EARTHQUAKE EXPERIENCE: TOWARDS
URBAN EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN GUIDELINES
Catharina Dwi Astuti Depari
352
362
TOPIC: EMERGING DESEASE (ED)
ED-001
ED-002
ESTROGENIC EFFECTS ETHANOLIC PEELS EXTRACT TANGERINE (CITRUS
RETICULATA) MODULATION IN BLOOD CHOLESTEROL PROFILE AND BONE
DENSITY OVARIECTOMY RATS
Fany Mutia Cahyani, R. Adelina, and Meiyanto
IN VIVO ANTIHYPERGLICEMIC TEST OF ALBEDO DURIAN (DURIO
ZIBETHINUS M) EXTRACT ON ALOXAN-INDUCED DIABETIC WHITE RAT
(RATTUS NORVEGICUS)
Fany Mutia F. M. Cahyania, R. Ratnab, Y. D. Panggic and Y. Pravitasarid
372
375
TOPIC: ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT (ENE)
EnE-004
EnE-008
EnE-011
EnE-016
EnE-018
EnE-022
EnE-022
EnE-028
STUDY ON REMOVAL OF STRONTIUM FROM WASTE BY
ELECTROCOAGULATION METHOD
Susetyo Hario Putero and Kusnanto
ENHANCEMENT OF PHOTOCATALYTIC HYDROGEN PRODUCTION UNDER
UV LIGHT IRRADIATION OVER MESOPOROUS-ASSEMBLE TIO2-ZRO2
MIXED OXIDE NANOCYSTAL PHOTOCATALYSTS
Surakerk Onsuratoom, Sumaeth Chavadej, Satoshi Horikoshi, and
Masahiko Abe
STORAGE REQUIREMENT FOR A ZERO EMISSION RENEWABLE SYSTEM IN
JAPAN
Miguel Esteban, Qi Zhang,N. Agya Utama and Keiichi N. Ishihara
COMPARION OF CARBON FOOTPRINT OF WATER TREATMENT PLANTS: A
CASE STUDY AT CHACHOENGSAO PROVINCE, THAILAND
Harnpon Phungrassami, Nalinee Chindarat, Woranee Paengjuntuek and
Phairat Usubharatana
PROCESS OPTIMIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION OF
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM GLYCEROL
Woranee Paengjuntuek, Harnpon phungrassami, Phairat Usubharatana
and Amornchai Arpornwichanop
ACETOSOLV PULPING MODELLING OF OIL PALM FROND FIBERS
Nasrullah RCL, WD. Wan Rosli and I.Mazlan
378
INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS IN THE ENERGY SECTOR TO SUPPORT
INDUSTRIAL ESTATE SUSTAINABILITY IN INDONESIA
Ahmad Mubin
METHOD FOR DETERMINATING SIZE SEGREGATED CARBONACEOUS
INDOOR AEROSOL OF PM2.5 RELATED TO JATROPHA CURCAS SEED
407
~ 12 ~
384
387
391
395
399
415
EnE-032
EnE-040
EnE-042
EnE-044
EnE-045
EnE-046
EnE-048
EnE-059
EnE-060
EnE-061
EnE-063
STOVE AND TRADITIONAL WOODSTOVE EMISSION THROUGH
WATER BOILING TEST
Haryono S. Huboyo, Puji Lestari, A.Mizohata and Susumu Tohno
THE RESEACH OF NUCLEAR SAFETY SUPERVISON AND COMMUNITY
PRECAUTION AND RESCUE ORGANIZATION – A CASE STUDY OF NUCLEAR
POWER PLANTS SURROUNDING COMMUNITIES
Yung-Nane Yang and Yi-Chun Lin
AN OVERVIEW OF MALAYSIAN GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TOWARDS
GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENT (GGP) PRACTICES
Khairul Naim Adham and Chamhuri Siwar
421
423
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FOR SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION AND
CONSUMPTION: TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF THE 3RS TECHNOLOGIES
Kyungsun Lee
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MODEL IN THE INDUSTRIAL PARK (CASE STUDY OF
INDUSTRIAL PARK IN WEST JAVA PROVINCE)
Aviasti Anwar
NEW LEARNING APPROACHES IN DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
PHYSICS GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY TO DEVELOP ENERGY
TECHNOPRENEUR IN GREEN ECONOMICS ERA
Rachmawan Budiarto and Susetyo Hario Putero
THE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP AND THE DILEMMA
IN THE ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY AT A
CONVENIENCE STORE IN JAPAN
Shino Koda
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF WOOD AND
THEIR SUGAR RELEASED
Fitria, N. Sri Hartati, Wahyu Dwianto, Danang Sudarwoko Adi, Rumi
Kaida, and Takahisha Hayashi
A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF ADSORPTION AND DESORPTION
CHARATERISTICS OF ORGANIC SORBENT POWDER IN TWO CONNECTED
FLUIDIZED BEDS
Akihiko HORIBE, Sukmawaty, Naoto HARUKI, and Daiki HIRAISHI
DECAY TIME EFFECT OF SPENT FUEL LWR ON FBR FUEL BREEDING
CAPABILITY
Sidik Permana
430
FUTURE NATURAL GAS PRICE PREDICTION IN INDONESIA USING
NETBACK MARKET VALUE METHOD
Erwin Gitarisyana, Athikom Bangviwat, Jaruwan Chontanawat, and Djoni
Bustan
STANDARD OF THERMAL COMFORT FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION IN
BUILDINGS
Muhammad Nur Fajri Alfata
462
~ 13 ~
433
440
445
449
453
459
471
EnE-071
PROCESS OPTIMIZATION OF RICE STRAW DELIGNIFICATION FOR
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION USING PHANEROCHAETE CHRYSOSPORIUM
Arni Gambe Gilbuena, Rizalinda L. de Leon and Ma. Auxilia T. Siringan
480
TOPIC: SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (A)
A-005
A-007
A-012
A-013
A-016
A-021
A-022
A-026
A-028
A-039
USE OF CARBONACEOUS MATERIALS FOR THE TREATMENT OF KRAFT
PULP MILL EFFLUENT- REMOVAL OF COLOR AND PHENOLIC
COMPOUNDS’
N. Kaushalya Herath, Yoshito Ohtani, and Hideaki Ichiura
SYNTHESIS OF ZSM-11 ZEOLITE FROM SMOKELESS COMBUSTION SYSTEM
OF RICE HUSK
Erni Johan, Kiyotoshi Ogami, Zaenal Abidin, Naoto Matsue and Teruo
Henmi
ADSORPTION OF DIAZINON PESTICIDE FROM WATER USING IRON
MODIFIED MONTMORILLONITE AS AN ADSORBENT
Ponyadira Kabwadza, Erni Johan, Naoto Matsue, Teruo Henmi and
Zaenal Abidin
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN HOMEGARDEN AND LIVELIHOOD:
CHALLENGES AND POTENTIALS OF A CASE STUDY IN VIETNAM
Daniela Maekawa and Ueru Tanaka
THE INFLUENCE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY OF UTAPAO RIVER, THAILAND
Saroj Gyawali and Kuaanan Techato
ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SAP FLOW AND
MICROCLIMATE BY STREET TREES
Yin-Hsuan Sun, Feng-Chung Jan, Chun-Ming Hsieh and Mikiko Ishikawa
THE INFLUENCE OF BUILDING COTTAGE TO LAND USE FROM
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ASPECT
Tzu-Ling Chen and Hsueh-Sheng Chang
PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF
PARTICLEBOARD USING ADHESIVES WOOD VINEGAR FROM OILPALM
EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH
Hasan Ashari Oramahi and Farah Diba
ANALYSIS OF FATTY ACID TYPE AND QUANTITY IN SEA SLUG (DISCODORIS
SP.) FROM SERIBU ISLANDS-INDONESIA AS SOURCE OF FOOD
DIVERSIFICATION FOR THE FUTURE
Abdul Rahman, Saraswati, Monica Agustina Ameliawati, Putriana Sari
Sirait, and Nur Syafiqoh
LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION AFFECTING THE GROWTH OF
TENGKAWANG TELOR (SHOREA MACROPHYLLA) PLANTED IN THREE
DIFFERENT SITES IN PT. SARI BUMI KUSUMA
Widiyatno, Arom Figyantik, Haryono Supriyo, Susilo Purnomo and Yeni
Widyana Ratnaningrum
~ 14 ~
491
498
503
509
515
520
530
539
544
548
A-045
IMPACT OF CANOPY COVER CHANGES TO RAINFALL INTERCEPTION IN
THE INTENSIVE FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN TROPICAL INDONESIA
RAINFOREST
Hatma Suryatmojo, Masamitsu Fujimoto, Ken’ichirou Konsugi, and
Takahisa Mizuyama
557
SPECIAL SESSION (JSPS)
JSPS-01
JSPS-02
JSPS-03
JSPS-04
JSPS-05
JSPS-06
JSPS-07
JSPS-09
JSPS-10
PALM OIL MILL EFFLUENT (POME) VALORIZATION USING MICROALGAE:
WASTE TO ENERGY AND FOOD
Hadiyanto
THE MAKING OF GREEN MALAYSIA: BUILDING, NEIGHBOURHOOD, CITY,
REGION AND NATION
Teh Bor Tsong and Ho Chin Siong
EFFORTS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE FROM GLOBAL TO NATIONAL: A
PERSPECTIVE FROM MALAYSIA
Koh Fui Pin, Joy Jacqueline Pereira and Sarah Aziz
NITRITE AND NITRATE CONTENTS OF SOME FRESH VEGETABLE
Ngo Thi Ngoc Thuy and Huynh Trung Hai
SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS TO ADDRESS DOMESTIC DEMANDS IN ENERGY
AND CLEAN WATER
E.Q.B. Macabebe, S.P. Granada, G.L. Tangonan, P. Cabacungan, N.
Libatique, A. Favis, F.R. Cruz, and J.R. Arguelles
RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN MALAYSIA: PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES
Mohd Amran Mohd Radzi and Nasrudin Abdul Rahim
565
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF DIESEL MIGRATION IN POROUS MEDIA BY THE
SIMPLIFIED IMAGE ANALYSIS METHOD
Suwasan Sudsaeng, Giancarlo Flores, Suched Likitlersuang, Siam Yimsiri,
Takeshi Katsumi and Toru Inui
INCORPORATING ROAD HIERARCHY INTO PEDESTRIAN INDEX
Nabila Abdul Ghani and Muhammad Zaly Shah Muhammad Hussien
3D SNMR MODELING FOR GROUNDWATER PROSPECTING AND
PROTECTION
Warsa, Hendra Grandis, Djoko Santoso and Ugur Yaramanci
599
~ 15 ~
569
579
586
590
594
603
613
TABLE OF CONTENT
POSTER SESSION
TOPIC: SOCIAL SCIENCE (S)
S-028
SOUTHEAST ASIA: POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INTERACTION IN
THAILAND
Shafinaz Md Ismail and Seng Choi Yee
616
TOPIC: CITIES (C)
C-007
C-013
C-029
C-032
C-042
JAKARTA (SUSTAINABLE CITIES) THE FUTURE OF CITIES: POPULATION
GROWTH AND URBAN SUSTAINABILITY
Rahmat Hidayat
THE ACCEPTANCE OF ON SITE SYSTEM WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
SERVICES IN INDONESIA
Hary Agus Rahardjo, Adri Pontiati and Dwi Dinariana
ASEAN HERITAGE SITE : INTEGRATED TURISM OBJECT TO SUPPORT
ECONOMIC OF KERINCI’S PEOPLE BY ENVIRONMENT AND CULTURAL
CONSERVATION SYSTEM
Abdul Rahman Putra and Dewi Citra Sari
PERCEPTION OF SAFETY IN NATURALISTIC URBAN PARKS
Sara Farbod, Mustafa Kamal, M.S. and Suhardi Maulan
TOWARDS RELIABLE TIMBER REPAIR: THE ADHESIVE-VACUUM METHODS
Yulianto Prihatmaji, Akihisa Kitamori, and Kohei Komatsu
632
635
640
644
653
TOPIC: ADVANCE TECHNOLOGY
AT-001
AT-003
EVALUATING THE EFFECT OF DISPLAY TYPE, PLAY-REST SCHEDULE AND
GAME TYPE FOR VIDEO GAME PLAYING ON VISUAL FATIGUE
Chih-Long Lin and Mao-Jiun J. Wang
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE HOMECARE SOLUTIONS FOR AN AGING SOCIETY
Carsten Röcker and Martina Ziefle
659
663
TOPIC: NATURAL HAZARD (NH)
NH-021
NATURAL HAZARDS INDUCED SOCIO-ECONOMIC VULNERABILITIES OF
CHAR-WOMEN IN BANGLADESH
Sultana Taufika Akter, Shahnaz Hoque-Hussain and Mohammad Najmul
Islam
667
TOPIC: ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT (EnE)
EnE-007
THE ACCEPTANCE OF ON SITE SYSTEM WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT
SERVICES IN BEKASI – INDONESIA (STUDY ON WILLINGNESS TO ACCEPT
AND TO PAY OF NORTH BEKASI DISTRICT COMMUNITY)
Hary Agus Rahardjo, Adri Pontiati and Dwi Dinariana
~ 16 ~
677
TOPIC: SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (A)
A-003
A-004
A-010
A-020
A-024
A-044
A-047
NOODLES MADE FROM GANYONG (CANNA EDULIS KERR) WITH THE
ADDITION OF RED PALM OIL (RPO) AS A FOOD SOURCE OF
CARBOHYDRATE AND PRO-VITAMIN A
Ibnu Malkan
ESTIMATION OF SAGO PALM YIELDS USING SEVERAL SAMPLE METHODS
Edi Wiraguna, M. H. Bintoro, Iskandar Lubis, Pasril Wahid, and David
Allorerung
WATER CRISIS, CHALLENGES OF WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Muhammad Fadli
COMPOST UTILIZATION OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCHES OIL PALM TO
INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY IN RICE PLANTS IN PEAT LAND LUBUK SAKAT
VILLAGE, RIAU PROVINCE
Indra Purnama, Prantino, and Agri Septiadi
ECO-FARMING WITH CROP LIVESTOCK SYSTEM TO FACE THE TWIN
CHALLENGGES, FOOD SAFETY AND CLIMATE CHANGE: CASE STUDY IN
JAMBI PROVINCE
Evi Frimawaty, Adi Basukriadi, Jasmal A.Syamsu, and T. E. Budhi Soesilo
SUSTAINABLE CONTROL OF FRUIT FLY TO IMPROVE QUALITY OF MANGO
IN INDONESIA
Agus Susanto, Tati S. Syamsudin, Agus D. Permana, RCH. Soesilohadi dan
Hiroichi Sawada
FERMENTED MILK YOGURT WITH ANTIOXIDANT BASED ON FIKOSIANIN
BIOPIGMENT FROM SPIRULINA FUSIFORMIS
Neng Tanty Sofyana and Rayhanah Bey Nasution
~ 17 ~
682
688
692
693
697
700
704
[S-003]
BUILD SYNERGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
THROUGH CONSCIENCE AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILTY.
Darmawan Achmad*, Ishak Ramli and Galuh Mira Saktiana
Permanent Lecturer of Economics faculty, Tarumanagara University
Jakarta Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The environmental conditions of in Indonesia had damage is dramatically, either that are caused
by external and internal forces. External factors are triggered by forest fires, illegal logging or natural
disasters, while the internal factors are caused by the development of industrialization, exploitation of
mining materials beyond the limits of decency, activities agro-business that are less coordinated, not
consisten in law enforcement etc.The Environmental conditions as above, the government should force
companies to not only think about the level of profitability, but also must be concerned with social
issues.
The main purpose of this study was to monitor the effect of industrial growth the mining and forest
logging toward the welfare of local communities. Furthermore, researchers will estimate the extent of
damage and loss of biological resources for the survival of the next generation.
This study provides empirical evidence that, excessive excavation of mineral resources and
forest logging without considerate of environmental sustainability, not just eliminate people's
livelihood, but increasingly uncomfortable their survival, since often a wild animal disturb they at night.
Thus can be concluded that the development of industrialization in a particular region, precisely
become a cause of increasing for suffering to the local community.
For condition the Indonesian state, implementation of CSR is are not always aligned with the
vision and mission. The weakness of law enforcement made Indonesia as an ideal state that treats CSR
as a cosmetic. To achieve success in implementing CSR programs, required a strong commitment,
active participation, and the sincerity of all parties to implement environmental sustainability program.
Therefore, CSR programs become so important because the human obligation to remain responsible for
the preservation ecosystem environments, primarily for the benefit of other human beings in the next
generations.
Keywords: Environmental damage, Natural disasters, Corporate Social Responsibility, community
empowerment and Sustainable Development.
INTRODUCTION
The Indonesian state was blessed with natural resources are abundant, whether it is biological
or non biological. But the abundance of these resources can not be enjoyed by all levels of society. The
proof is in spite of the natural resources almost drained run out, most people are still shackled by
poverty, ignorance and alienation in his own country. Even many people who were driven from their
own land. Customary rights are often marginalized, natural resources extracted blindly, while the lives
of the people around him did not move from a marginal position.
Concrete reality that is very obvious is that Indonesia has lost its original forest by 75 percent.
Deforestation in Indonesia is not controlled for decades has led to shrinking tropical forests on a large
scale. The rate of forest destruction period 1985-1997 was recorded 1.6 million hectares per year,
while in 1997-2000 period was 3.8 million hectares and in the period 2000-2008 was 2.1 million
hectares per year. These conditions make Indonesia as one of the places with the highest deforestation
rates in the world. Based on the results of the interpretation of Landsat imagery in 2000 there were
101.73 million hectares of forest and degraded land, covering 59.62 hectares of which are in forest
areas. [MoF Planning Agency, 2003] With the loss of forest land, so large areas of Indonesia has
become the region vulnerable to disasters, whether drought, floods or landslides. Since 1997 until
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mid-2008, recorded 5801 incidents had occurred with the number of victims of the disaster 147,366
people died, including 129,508 people affected by the tsunami with the loss of trillions of rupiah,
while 85 percent of non-tsunami victims from the earthquake, floods, droughts and landslides caused
by the destruction of forests [Bakornas Penanggulangan Bencana, 2008].
The biggest losses as a result of forest destruction, in addition to decreased the capacity of the
soil water availability, also great influential on lose animals and plants that became the pride of the
nation. For rural communities more severe the suffering of them, because when the dry season they
suffer from drought, conversely when rainy season they are plagued by floods and landslides. In the
Urban region, environmental quality increasingly serious caused by trash, liquid sewage even the air
pollution the participate polluting the river, water, land and air.
Deforestation is very influential on carbon sequestration by trees, consequently the increase of
carbon emissions by 20%, and change the local micro-climate and hydrological cycle, thus affecting
soil fertility. Whereas soil contains 24 billion tons of carbon and Indonesia forest CO2 emissions
contributed for 2.6 billion tons per year, although it contains 19 billion tons of carbon. If we are to
observe carefully, we are can ensured that the main pollutant sources are forest fires, household waste,
mining waste,industries and transportation waste. During 1985 - 2000 the number of vehicles for
transportation increased from 1.2 million to 19 million. In the year 1985 - 1997 of 20 million hectares
of forest burned and be burned, and in 1997-1998 the forest area that burned and be burned is 10
million acres. The Mining Industries contribute in of waste such as tailings and mercury in large
amounts, while other industries contributing the waste liquid (black liquor) because the system of
waste recycling is not available, incomplete, also contribute emission CO2 as much as 275 million
tons per year.
The Neglecting of environmental issues at the level of perspective and the implementation of
public policy seems to have become a chronic disease that is very difficult to regenerate. Over the
years of environmental degradation in Indonesia is getting worse. Indications of this damage can be
seen from the high ecological disaster that occurred until the end of 2009. Call it a series of
catastrophic floods in Jakarta and other big cities in Java, Sulawesi and Kalimantan. The series of
earthquakes caused by the collision or the shifting plates at several places in Indonesia, including
Padang Ciamis and, landslide until a tornado that devastated several the major cities of the province.
However, this condition does not arouse the government to act decisively in order to consistent in
maintaining environmental sustainability
In the most environmental cases, no visible law enforcement efforts to protect the ecosystem,
environmental case settlement, is still limited to things that are conventional, such as completing
administrative matters and provide compensation, while the rehabilitation of the environment remains
as a solution that is often avoided even often overlooked.
The absence of strict legal action against perpetrators of pollution, prolonged settlement for
the compensation to the victims who is the embodiment of the principle of strict liability (strict
liability) as the demands of the Law No.23/1997 on Environmental Management is often disappointing.
Although environmental settlement are not seen a serious, even the government was already
providing various facilities & incentives to company to extend its production, even though those
company has been doing excessive exploitation that caused various losses the for society, so that
condition of the environment that before as a source of livelihood community are now on the verge of
collapse, even many of the facts reveals that environmental protection efforts that promote economic
growth (conventional) face the large obstacles for them, they are Increasingly marginalized and their
rights to get livelihoods sources is increasingly vanished. They are become the most of hit disaster
vulnerable group because they were as recipient of the most large environmental impact including
the ecological disaster that occurred.
The worst effects the most visible of illegal logging among others include :
1) Causing of habitat wild animals in the forest became increasingly extinct.
2) The previous area of forest that functioning as a reservoir of carbondioxide from atmorfer, are
combinate with water and light energy to produce organic materials are now increasingly
threatened.
3) Forest-dwelling animals, like tigers, lions, snakes, wild boar, elephants and others came out of the
woods and enter to residential areas to prey on livestock and even pounce some of the members of
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the community in the region. This condition occurs because the food supply chain they are
disconnected, so look for food outside the forest.
Another impact of illegal logging is flash floods which flows to the sea with bringing mud
and pieces of logs, that caused the sendimentasi high at sea and damage of coral reefs. Damage of
coral reefs will suffer huge losses, both in terms of the environmental and economic sectors which
related to tourism areas. its meaning the sea and beach areas become less attractive, especially for
diving tours, which will eventually cause a decline in the number of responses fishermen fish, because
fish migrate to other areas where is unspoiled coral reefs.
So in general that the uncontrolled illegal logging activity has indeed created a condition that
is exacerbating socio-economic communities as well as opening opportunities for the creation of
process of impoverishment of a systematic society.
The further for the case the mining industry indicated that credence given to the holder of the
license rights of the mining industry, in the last two decades has given rise to ecological damage such
as reduced river discharge and ground water, sea water pollution, soil degradation through
sedimentation is now increasingly troubling. Adverse effect is sustained in the long run is the
exploration of gold and copper mining not only changes the degree of the quality of natural resources
and environment (triggering denude the land) but also will create pockets of poverty. On active
poverty was caused by loss of resources to sustain life and accepting the adverse effects of water
around their residence which contaminated by mercury waste. Passive poverty occurs because the loss
of access to be involved in the decision making process and the utilization of available resources
around them. Active and passive widespread poverty which is the major cause of poverty is
characterized by massive starvation amid luxury, mass dropout the amid the wasting the education
budget, the mass suffering amid extravagant and wasteful lifestyles from the financiers. This fact
occurs in almost all areas where the mining industry sector investors to explore gold, copper and
various kinds of precious stones, minerals, metals, tin, nickel, and others.
In the last a decade appear again decentralization of power through regional autonomy, and all
the autonomous regions are faced on the demands of routine operational funding & development fund,
which have been forcing Head regional took the initiative to utilize the potential of natural resources
in order to achieve short term goals, consequently the problem of maintain sustainable environment,
balance of the ecosystem and ecological preservation be forced no longer a consideration.
Understanding of regional autonomy that was wrong, either by officials or by member of the
community led to the implementation of regional autonomy are opaque increasingly to prospects the
protection of the life environmental. Thus it can be interpreted that the implementation of regional
autonomy tends to be a failure, especially in the environmental field. Examples of such failures as
evidenced by the destruction of forests in Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, and damage to several rivers
such as the Citarum, Solo, Kali Konto, and several other places.
Decentralization policy was initially expected to be a correction device to improve the
environment so the quality of the ecosystem become healthy, government organization more flexible,
responsive, efficient, effective, innovative and able to foster community participation in the process
of development. But after seeing the pattern of the unprofessional handling, it was difficult to be able
to improve the situation.
Another the case with the island of Bangka, The Community, on initially complacent with
what they already has such a rich ocean, forests, abundant minerals, natural panoramic beauty and so
on. All parties was complacent with the pride that without full awareness to cultivate and use it for the
welfare of the people and the responsibility to maintain its sustainability. Now the potential of such
property has been largely exploited to meet the specific needs of the ruling circles and big financier.
The investment proposals are clearly displayed for the interests of the people, but in the
implementation of the community only as a cover to achieve the goal. This situation is compounded by
lack of awareness and responsibility entrepreneur towards sustainability business ecosystem.
So likewise the condition of the Government of Tulungagung district, East Java, issued
regulations to exploit mineral deposits of marble, when the material is located on forest land owned by
Perhutani. In fact there are some districts that issued the Regulations on the designation of marine
areas and so on. This is certainly a challenge that must be addressed before natural resources become
more damaged.
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Disaster in Indonesia in 2008
Source : www.Bakornas.go.id
The main factor of this catastrophe, in addition to weak law enforcement, regulatory
governing the environment just mere jewelry the legislation, also due to its development vision is
not oriented to the long-term interests. Each policy is more concerned on short-term interests and for a
moment, without thinking of the next generations. Local governments should realize that good
environmental management will to give birth of healthy environment. The quality is good and healthy
environment will result in a healthier society and ultimately will produce the local government with
work ethos of community to be proud of.
To achieve the above conditions require entrepreneur to in run their business with more
environmentally responsible. The emergence of disasters due to exploitation of natural resources
overload, should be open the awareness of businessman to begin to change the paradigm, that the
wealth of natural resources not only to be dug continuously without contributing to the rehabilitation
efforts. its mean that the natural resources please are used for business purposes, but a form of concern
for the harmony of ecosystems still must be considered seriously.
Thus the corporation is no longer as an entity that only selfish, but a business entity is obliged
to adapt culturally to their environment. To achieve these goals, the nation is now Indonesia require a
massive movement in order to create a better environment. It takes hard work to defend community
rights over the environment. Although still in an obsession, but this process should continue to be
encouraged & increasingly extended to form a movement that became part of the style, outlook on life
and policies, as well as taking the real part to stop the damage to the environment.
Implementation of these principles of corporate social responsibility in Article 15 letter (b) of
Act No. 25 of 2007 states that corporate social responsibility is a responsibility inherent on each
investor to continue creating a relationship harmonious, balanced, in accordance with environmental
norms and local culture. Thus, in the management of natural resources, environmental damage
incurred, can be anticipated by the businessman with a cost budget of recovery.
Article 74 of Law Number 40 Year 2007 regarding Limited Liability Company stated that the
company that runs its business activities relating to natural resources, shall exercise social
responsibility towards the environment. Social responsibility towards the environment as referred to in
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paragraph above is an obligation that counted as operating costs, the implementation is carried out
with due regard to the appropriateness and reasonableness. Company which does not carry out the
obligations referred to in above paragraph should be punishable in accordance with the provisions of
the legislation.
In Article 5 of Law Number 24 Year 2007 on Disaster expressly states "The central
government and regional governments in charge of disaster management." Article 6 stated that
responsibility covers all aspects of the starting reduction of hazard and guide risk reduction of disaster
with development programs up to the safety aspects of life, property, maintenance documents
authentic and credible than the threat and impact of disasters.
The question is whom is in charge of the heavy burden of all aspects relating to prevention and
protection against to disaster? the remember this issue was born as a result of incomplete regulation in
terms of exploitation of natural resources, the human being safety and property they are actually the
responsibility of all parties, especially those that have the capacity and capability to do so. Either party
has the capacity and capability it is the business world, because in many aspects, especially technical,
access, funding even in many cases, they are more qualified than the government. Thus will be very
relevant, if the bulk of the responsibility must addressed to the company in the form of "Corporate
Social Responsibility " activities.
The success parameter of a company in view of Corporate Social Responsibility is to
prioritizes the moral and ethical principles, it meant to reach a best result without harming the
community. One of the moral principle that is often used is the golden rules, which teaches that a
person or a party to treat others the same as what they want to be treated. That way, a company that
works with the prioritizes moral and ethical principles will provide the greatest benefit to society.
That commitment to the implementation of the maximum and effective CSR will generate a
positive image for the company, and became a necessity for a businesses, along the concept is
implemented as its substance. John Doorley and Helio Fred Garcia (2007) in Reputation Management:
The Key to Successful Public Relations and Corporate Communications describes: "Reputation is the
end result performance and behavior consistent , which then consistently also communicated to the
public."
For the practitioners of communication, in the end what was raised Alison Theaker (2001) that
"Public Relations is about reputation - the result of what you do, what you say and what others say
about you," should be translated in their entirety. It meant that a performance and good achievement is
as important as behaving transparently. Achievement and good performance will not add value if it is
not known to the public, and most importantly of performance is an attempt to communicate it to the
public in order to establish a positive reputation, in order to create the image that supports the
sustainability of the company's operations. conversely of communication in any form, will not be
able to replace or cover up poor performance.
Another phenomenon seen today shows most entrepreneurs agree that both profitability and
social responsibility, both are the goals to be company achieved. Although it was realized that these
two often mutually contradictory. The shareholders certainly hope the company can increase
profitability, but sometimes this desire will to become conflict of interest for stakeholders, who want to
optimize the company's existence, especially as related to social responsibility. In other words, there
are always disputes between economic profits and social responsibility
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CSR ACTIVITIES.
In the decade of the 1990s up to the present issues concerning the application of "CSR" has
evolved into a critical discourse between governments, corporations and civil society. The
development discourse is stimulated by the increasing pressure on multinational companies which
exploiting natural resources.
Discourses that developed eventually narrowed on three schools of thought, each basing his
thinking on CSR practices & experiences that took place during this time. Three groups are thinking,
Neo-liberal group that to focus its view of CSR as an initiative that came from his own company
based on conditions of business risk and public appreciation toward CSR activities that have been
implemented. The second group is called as the group Led State that focus its thinking on the role of
state and government at national and international levels in implementing the CSR program, through
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the implementation of regulation both unilateral and multilateral cooperation. While the third group to
focus thinking on the role of nonprofit organizations on profit oriented in carrying out CSR programs.
Thought of the above three groups each containing weaknesses, especially when associated
with the development process at large. Neo-liberal group think for example, considered to have failed
to resolve the problem of misallocation of productive resources caused by the implementation of CSR
programs. Thought group thinking "the Led State" considered to have failed in encouraging the
emergence of political support from the government and parliament reversed the government's own
involvement. While the thought of the Third is deemed to fail in encouraging the development of
personal initiative to be involved directly in the implementation of CSR programs.
Reputedly the group third of thought over each had been evolved with its own variations. In
the New Order period, the group thought "State Led" had sticking out and grow. Government at the
time, issued a Presidential Directive which requires each state-owned enterprises (SOEs) to set aside
2% of his business profits to be allocated in the CSR program. The role of New Order the
government's in encouraging the implementation of CSR is also touching the private sector, specially
conglomerate business groups that dominate business activity in the homeland. Some times the major
business groups are collected and are encouraged to set aside some of the profits or special budget for
CSR programs. "Led State" dominated the thought is now echoed back after the legalization of
Limited Liability Company Act of 2007, where in article 74 requires the company, particularly on
those engaged in mining, applying the activity as well as providing a special budget to finance the
CSR program.
Admittedly, that CSR activities heared again in the last decade. Demands of society and
democratic development as well as the swift currents of globalization has encouraged awareness of the
industrial world to carry out social responsibility. Actually, the concept model of CSR has long been
regulated in the law corporate sphere. But from the results of a survey conducted by Suprapto in 2005
toward 375 companies in Jakarta showed that 166 company (44.27%) stated the did not do CSR
activities, 209 (55.73%) companies do CSR is nuanced familial. Of these 209 groups above , 116
companies gave donations to religious institutions, 50 companies became donors to the social
foundation, 4 companies had participated in community development and the other 39 do not have a
concrete activity. This condition indicates that the CSR undertaken by the company is very dependent
on the willingness of the management company concerned.
The results of the Company Rating Program (PROPER) 2004-2005 Ministry of Environment
reveals that of 466 companies which monitored there were 72 companies report card gets black, 150
red, 221 blue, 23 green, and no one has a gold ranking. The picture is showing so many companies that
received report cards black and red. This phenomenon indicates that they do not have plans to
implement social responsibility, even if one is doing CSR. the implementation is only at the level of
prestige and to compete, so it is not able to contribute that has a significant influence on improvement
of community life. This condition occurs because corporate CEOs still believe that CSR as a parasite
that can burden the cost of capital maintenance.
Referring to article 74 of Law No.. 40 In 2007, CSR is a theoretical basis of the need for a
company to build a harmonious relationship with the community Tempatan. In theory, CSR can be
defined as a company's moral responsibility towards its stakeholders, particularly the communities
surrounding the area where operations. With or without the rule of law, a company still must uphold
morality, so that the position of CSR as the standard operation of the company which can be one of the
parties which contributed to reduction the burden of suffering community.
The common target another of CSR were as a corporate strategy that integrates the
implementation of triple bottom line (people-planet-profit = society, the environment & economy)
towards business and sustainable development. Formulation of Triple Bottom Line meant that the
community is dependent on the economy, society and economy depend on the environment, even the
global ecosystem. The third component of Triple Bottom Line is not stable, but dynamic depending on
conditions and social pressures, political, economic and environmental, as well as possible the
conflicts interest.
In the article "How Should Civil Society (and the Government) Respond to 'Corporate Social
Responsibility'?" had been assessed that the motivation to accept the concept of CSR as a business
policy just merely cosmetic, superficial, and partial. CSR is made to give a corporate image that
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responds to the social interest. However, the realization of accommodative less CSR is hard to bear
fundamental changes in corporate business policies.
The above phenomenon, perhaps as a reflection of the CSR implementation situation in
Indonesia. In terms of diversity and elaboration of the program with respect to efforts to increase
public welfare and maintenance of the environment, then the concept of CSR is considered as an
activity that is based on voluntary principles. The nature of this CSR voluntary , associated with
weak law enforcement, making Indonesia as a country that is ideal for corporation who are treating
CSR as cosmetic. Importantly, the Social Annual Report appear glossy, complete with a photo display
of social activities and fund development programs community that have been realized. However,
dispite the large amounts of funds have been disbursed, formed CSR management, strategies and
programs had been made, reality demands in the form of a demo of the community/activist non
governmental organizations is remain ongoing.
With the enactment of Law Number 40 Year 2007 regarding Limited Liability Company,
corporations in Indonesia is actually in a position quite clear to implement CSR program.
The problem is that the tendency of the implementation of CSR is highly dependent on the chief
executive officer (CEO) of corporations. This means that CSR policies are not automatically aligned
with corporate vision and mission. If the CEO has the moral consciousness and the business the
human face , large corporations are likely to implement CSR policies are feasible. Conversely, if the
orientation CEO dwell only on the interests of shareholders and the satisfaction of personal
achievement, so policy on CSR may simply cosmetic.
CONDITIONS OF CSR IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES
The currently indeed is not yet available formulation who can to show the relationship of
CSR practices on company profits, so that too many business groups, skeptical and considers CSR did
not give any impact on the achievement of business, they view that CSR is only a component of cost
that reduces profits, so as not to attract to be realized. The entrepreneurs should be realize that the
practice of CSR will have a positive impact if viewed as a long term investment. Because by doing
sustainable CSR practices, companies will have a place in the hearts of the public.
By contrast, in developed countries, awareness about the importance of implementing CSR is
becoming a global trend, in line with the increasingly widespread public awareness about to products
environmentally friendly who are manufactured with attention to social norms and principles of
human rights. Many banks in Europe the implement the lending policy in granting to companies which
implementing CSR just fine. even European bank only give loans to the plantation company in Asia if
there is guarantee of the company, where is when opening the land for plantations is no accompanied
by burning the forest.
Other global trends in CSR implementation in the field of capital markets is the application of
an index that includes the category of stocks that have been conducting of CSR. New York Stock
Exchange has the Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI) for shares of companies that have a value of
corporate sustainability categorized with one of the criteria is the practice of CSR. Similarly, the
London Stock Exchange that have Socially Responsible Investment (SRI) Index and the Financial
Times Stock Exchange (FTSE) which has the FTSE4Good since 2001. This initiative started followed
by stock exchange authorities in Asia, as in Hanseng Stock Exchange and Singapore Stock Exchange.
Consequence of these indices spur global investors such as pension funds and insurance companies
will only invest their funds in companies that are included in the above index.
In Britain, have been long the company tied up by a code of business ethics. Because there are
many rules and laws governing business practices in the country, therefore it is not required special
law CSR. just to know, the company in the UK is not separated from public observation (community
and state) that must be transparent in its business practices. The public may do open protest to the
company if the company to the detriment of society / consumer / labor / environment. Seeing this
development, three years ago, after the Companies Act 2006 was requires companies which already
listed on stock exchanges to report not only performance, but social and environmental performance.
The report should be open for public access and questionable. Thus, companies are urged to be more
responsible.
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FORMING SOCIAL CAPITAL FOR COMMUNITY
If the CSR program is run with sincerely , Entrepreneur will be able to increase the
accumulation of social capital and improve the welfare of society. The definition of social capital is
included elements of mutual trust, cohesiveness, altruism, mutual aid and social collaboration that has
a major influence on economic growth. Through various mechanisms, social capital will be able to
increase the sense of responsibility to the public interest, strengthening community harmony and
reduced levels of violence and crime.
For long-term goals, social capital accumulation will provide positive benefits for companies
and society in general. Harmonization of the company's relationships with the community will
establish the harmony of social life around the operational activity. Next will be formed strong
cohesiveness between companies and communities, and strong cohesiveness collaboration will
strengthen social, so citizens will feel disturbed if the corporate interests getting interference.
Fertilization of social capital is at once can help accelerate the improvement of public welfare.
Harmonization of corporate social relationships with the community will be realized if the public both
directly or indirectly the enjoy the economic benefits of corporate existence. Further the Collaboration
& harmonization of regulations in CSR program oriented to the principle of "Sustainable
Development" will bear a strong synergy when implemented consistently accompanied by law
enforcement.
In order for CSR's role in shaping social capital can take place effectively, currently takes the
role of government to influence the growth of mutual trust, cohesiveness, altruism, mutual cooperation,
participation, social collaboration within a community. Government involvement here can form a
refinement of regulations, code of conduct for the management and facilities/incentives that can
encourage companies to enhance its role in fostering social capital. Thus, CSR obligations due to
pressure of regulatory, then the rule would reinforce the concept of sustainable development who are
oriented to reinforce the maintenance of environmental and empower socio-economic society.
With the process of mutual engage each other and influencing each other, meaning the
government and citizens responsible for the continuity of the CSR program. So CSR is not solely the
responsibility of the company, because in reality on the ground, implementation of CSR programs
should still be controlled by the government and local communities. Because anyhow in the running
CSR activities, company's often confront the limits of financial capability and economic resources.
This responsibility is necessary to be emphasized his understanding to the public in order not
to forget the responsibility to themselves. Surely the community remain responsible for over the life of
their own, to environmental sustainability and social responsibility of its economy. This condition is
necessary to be emphasized that the responsibility for the welfare of community life can not be
transferred completely to the shoulders of the company. Society still must take responsibility to reach
as well as embody individual welfare by working hard. Likewise, the government is not likely the
move responsibility to the public welfare to the company, due to hand over the implementation of
sustainable development entirely to the company, means it have charged the company with obligation
beyond the capabilities .
Emphasis and this assertion needs to be understood by local communities and local
governments so that the CSR had no effect on the occurrence of moral degradation in the form of
laziness and loss of zest for life. Because CSR is not an activity is based philanthropic and
compassion. CSR did not aim to educate and familiarize local people become lazy with live dependent
on the help and compassion of others. While at the same time they do not have the responsibility and
initiative to improve conditions of them life.
CSR nor intends to take over the responsibility of individual communities to achieve a better
standard of living. Through CSR are expected be educated local community and encouraged to be
more enterprising and diligent work to improve the quality of life and welfare. Thus, CSR should
avoid the effects of relax who pampering community. Therefore, CSR that lead to takeover the
responsibility of society and government, is actually an act of duping that indirectly has plunged the
population in the abyss of ignorance and laziness.
The impact the advanced of this duping process is the weakness of social capital in the
community concerned. Factor of social capital formation in the form of cohesiveness, mutual
cooperation, participation, mutual trust, social collaboration, and responsibility for the public interest
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will be eroded bit by bit unnoticed by the community itself. The Negative impacts should be avoided,
therefore misguided application of CSR that will be become a process duping to citizens, should also
be prevented.
The socialization process of understanding the concept of CSR is that community should be
able to improve their standard of living and a higher welfare as real result of their hard work and
perseverance of their own. While the CSR program is run by business people is as additional
supplement to help them improve their social economic life and safeguard preserving the natural
environment
CONCLUSION
CSR concept basically aims to clarify the responsibilities of the company in achieving
sustainable development objectives, this concept emphasized how important the role of CSR as an arm
of the company to participate in the development process. In order to maintain the continuity of
development, the design CSR program should be sustainable , not partial. which of course requires a
commitment decisiveness officials company to escort the its implementation
Therefore the World Bank said, CSR as a means to achieve economic development, education
and local public health, countermeasures natural disaster, as well as environmental preservation
undertaken together with the government. Thus, each firm has an extensive social obligations and
always attached to each business them activity.
Social responsibility could not be separated from the company's existence and will not be able
to break away from the surrounding environment, both of social environment of local communities
and the natural environment. Damage to the social life of society and the natural environment can
certainly be inconvenient or even stop the production process the company, which will ultimately
thwart the maximization of shareholders gains.
Economic benefits from the existence of an enterprise will only last a moment and perceived
narrowly by shareholders, while a negative result because the company's treatment of nature,
environment and society will take place in a very long time.
With a deep understanding, in general CSR has a function and a very strategic role for the
company, ie as part of risk management in the form of social safety valve. Through CSR the
companies can build a reputation, such as improving corporate image, the image of its shareholders,
the company's brand positioning, and corporate business sectors.
Therefore it should be stressed that CSR is different with social donations. CSR must be
executed in a program by give attention at the needs and long-term program sustainability. While
the social charitable giving is more impact momentary and temporary , The company's management
decision to implement CSR programs on an ongoing basis,is a rational decision. For the
implementation of CSR programs will effect a circle of gold that will be enjoyed by the company and
its stakeholders. Through CSR, welfare and socio-economic life of the community to be more
guaranteed. This condition in turn will ensure smooth operation of the entire process production and
marketing of the company's production, while safeguarding the natural environment other than
guarantee ensure smooth production process but also the ensure availability of supplies of raw
materials that originating from nature.
Public welfare will encourage increased purchasing power of them, thereby strengthening the
absorptive capacity to the firm's market production, whereas the preservation of the factors of
production as well as process fluency production which awake will be can increase efficiency. Both
these factors will increase the potential for corporate profits, consequently will enhance the
company's ability in allocate a portion of its profits to finance various CSR activities at the years
following.
Benefits the application of CSR are that implemented based on ethical values have been
much enjoyed by various multinational companies from European countries. Willingness of European
multinational companies to implement CSR on their own initiative have helped create market
differentiation over their competitors from Japan and the USA. besides that will be supports the
company's efforts in managing the workforce, maintain customer loyalty, create brand strength, save
costs, reduce risks of social and business, and build business credibility in the eyes of the public as
well as stock investors.
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Because it's the executives of multinational corporations in Europe increasingly convinced
that companies that have social and environmental preservation performance of stronger will be able
to achieve better performance than companies that do not have a concern for social responsibility. The
Adidas, The Nestle, and Volkswagen are just a few examples of multinational companies from Europe
who managed to harness CSR for the development on business networks.
The research results in the Indonesia Stock Exchange toward the issuer who carry out CSR
program showed, that the CSR activity was positively correlated with company performance and stock
returns. Because CSR consists of a series of programs that consider the interests of all company's
stakeholders in the long-term, thus CSR can not be viewed as a social burden but rather as a social
investment of company.
In the long term positive benefits of sustainable CSR program will support the activities of the
company's business. Long-term benefits of this will increased confidence of investors in the stock
market over the company's prospects in the future. The positive business prospects by itself will open
the chances of rising the value of investing in the stock exchange that traded at this time.
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SUSTAINABILITY PARADIGM IN THE ARENA OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION
THROUGH MICROCREDIT PROGRAMS IN BANGLADESH
Gulsan Ara Parvin1* and Kazi Farzana Shumi2
Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University
2
International Islamic University Chittagong (IIUC), Bangladesh
1
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
According to the Brundtland Report- ―Our Common Future‖ elimination of poverty
especially from Third World is the first out of the four prime principles of global sustainability. But
microcredit program, which is considered as one of the effective tools for poverty alleviation is still far
behind to alleviate poverty in a sustainable manner. Despite having positive impacts, microcredit
programs are criticized for making the poor dependent on the credit program rather raising their
capacity to be self-reliant and thus to ensure sustainable poverty alleviation. This study has highlighted
some salient characteristics of potential microcredit program to induce sustainable benefits for the
poor. Along with the indication of probable factors needed to be considered in inducing sustainable
benefits, this paper has formulated a conceptual road map to facilitate inducing sustainable benefits
through microcredit programs.
Keywords: sustainability, poverty alleviation, microcredit programs
INTRODUCTION
Glance over the history of sustainability reveals its first emergence in the global arena at
United Nations Conference on Human Environment, in 1972. Initially, cleaning up the environment,
pollution and natural resources depletion were the principal components of sustainability [1]. It proves
that sustainability emerged with the environmental issues. In order to upgrade the environment as well
as to protect nature from depletion, antigrowth agenda was adopted. In fact, it introduced a conflict
between developed and developing economies, since lack of access to basic needs is the prime
problem in developing countries rather over consumption. Brundtland Report- ―Our Common Future‖
tried to resolve this conflict. For the first time this report incorporated poverty issue with sustainability.
In this report, elimination of poverty, especially from Third World is considered as the top one among
the four prime principles of global sustainability. Likewise Brundtland Report, later on the Earth
Summit in 1992, World Summit for Social development in 1995, Beijing Conference in 1995, Habitat
II in 1996, and Rio+5 in 1997, Millennium Development Goals adopted in 2000, all these highlighted
similar thinking and views of numbers of scholars and policy makers who realized the intimate
association between poverty, environment and overall global sustainable development.
Poverty is recognized as one of the principal reasons for environmental degradation and
depletion of natural resources, since poor are left with no option other than to destroy their
environment [2], [3], [4]. On the other hand, employment generation for the poor through microcredit
program is considered as one of the effective tools for poverty eradication in most of the developing
countries [5], [6]. Microcredit program has been praised for its success in empowering women and
alleviation of poverty. On the other hand, skeptics suggest that rather than addressing the causes of
poverty, micro-credit programs are dealing only with the symptoms of it [7]. It is also claimed that
small enterprises supported by micro-credit programs have limited growth potential and are not
favored by market forces, resulting in no substantial impact on the poor. Furthermore, some evidence
suggests that micro-credit programs consume scarce resources without significantly affecting
long-term outcomes. The result is that these programs make the poor economically dependent on the
program itself and the poorest of the poor yet to benefit [8], [9], [10], [11]. In spite of being praised for
achieving success in alleviating poverty to some extent, a huge number of shortcomings and criticism
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associated with microcredit program created confusion regarding its role in eradicating poverty in a
sustainable manner.
Recently sustainability issue is being incorporated with microcredit approaches. For
instances, World Bank has conducted few studies on sustainability and performance of Grameen Bank,
BRAC, and such other credit programs of Bangladesh Government (e.g. Rural Development-RD 12
Project). But in most cases, concern is given mostly to the sustainability of the program itself
neglecting the beneficiaries‘ perspective. Whereas, instead of making the poor dependent on the credit
program itself it is necessary to raise their capacity to be self-reliant as well as to ensure sustainability
of the benefits induced by the programs. ―Sustainable Livelihood‖ strategy adopted by UNDP is
supposed to be an effective approach in this regard.
A review of different literatures related with sustainable development has been made with a
view to address various concepts and views related to sustainable development and dimensions of
sustainability. Since poverty is multidimensional and sustainable development is a holistic approach,
poverty alleviation in a sustainable manner deserves integrated comprehensive approach that is lacking
in traditional microcredit programs of Bangladesh. Therefore, recently the approach is criticized in
inducing long lasting, sustainable benefits for the poor.
This study is an attempt to develop a conceptual model of a microcredit program that is
expected to induce long lasting benefits for the poor and thus it would enhance the attempt of
sustainable poverty alleviation. It also attempts to indicate probable factors needed to be considered
in inducing sustainable benefits. Along with the intensive literature review related to sustainable
development, poverty alleviation and microcredit program this study conducted Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA) and Focused Group Discussion (FGD) with the beneficiaries of different microcredit
programs. Based on the conceptual framework developed by literature review and the perceptions of
the microcredit beneficiaries this paper aims to formulate the conceptual model of microcredit program
to induce sustainable benefits for the poor.
CONCEPTUALIZATION OF SUSTAINABILITY
Environmental consequences of economic development, technological innovations, natural
resources depletion and poverty have raised growing concern towards sustainable development. In
recent decades, sustainability or sustainable development has been used as one of the most frequently
used terms in environment and development studies. Since its emergence the concept is extending its
periphery and embracing a wide rage on views and aspects. Scholars, researchers, professionals, and
policy makers in almost all development fields are blending as well as twisting the concept of
sustainability in their own way. Therefore, hundreds of definitions are cited in different studies and
researches though majority of those are environment oriented. An overview of those diversified
concepts is required before analyzing the sustainability paradigm in the arena of poverty alleviation
through microcredit programs.
The simplest way to introduce sustainability is to denote the meaning of the term ―sustain‖.
To sustain means ―to maintain; keep in existence; keep going; prolong [12], [13]‖. In a similar way
Pearce and Atkinson (1998) suggested sustainability as a development path that ensure non-declining
per capita well-being over some time horizon. But sustainability will not contribute much in human
society if it is restricted or applied only in this sense. One of the most popular concepts of
sustainability has been highlighted in Brundtland Commission Report, ―Our Common Future‖ [4]. The
report viewed sustainability as ―development that meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs.‖ In fact, sustainable
development is not a targeted level of development to be reached rather it is a vision and constant
process of change. Sustainable development allows and sustains all kind of changes in a society and its
environment, technology and culture, values and aspirations. This dynamic concept must welcome
continuous, viable and vigorous development where exploitation of resources, the direction of
investments, the orientation of technologies, and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance
both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations.
Intergenerational equity and environment are at the core of most of the concepts of
sustainability. Naess (1995), Castle (1993), and Kline (1995) all have advocated to limit the use of
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natural resources in order to minimize environmental impact so that future generation can attain a
higher degree of health in a sound environment, well-being, and economic security [14]. Furthermore,
most of the concepts of sustainability have greater implication in developed economies [15]. As
socio-economic, political and environmental structures of developing economies differ from developed
one, sustainability also comprises different connotation for developing countries. In recent efforts
scholars and policy makers have incorporated a wider perspective in conceptualizing sustainability,
which has justice for both developed and developing countries. In broad terms the concept of
sustainable development encompasses an enabling approach rather than solely a path of change. This
enabling approach relies on the equity and access to the productive capacity, especially for the poor. In
fact, the World Commission‘s Report prioritizes the poor to ensure sustainable development [16].
It is important to note that, since poverty and low level of economic growth are the main
problems of developing countries, sustainable development efforts of these countries are primarily
concern about sustainable livelihood approach. This approach addresses multidimensional nature of
poverty and aims to promote
 improved access of the poor to high quality education, information, technologies and training
and better nutrition and health (human capital);
 a more supportive and cohesive social environment (social capital);
 more secure access to, and better management of, natural resources (natural capital);
 Better access to basic and facilitating infrastructures (physical capital);
 More secure access to financial resources (financial capital); and
 policy and institutional environment that supports multiple livelihood strategies(institutional
capital); and
 equitable access to competitive market for all
Achievement of all the abovementioned aims would develop human, social, natural, physical
financial and institutional capitals of the mass population of developing counties and thus ensure
sustainable development [17]. For the less developed countries in fact, sustainable development should
denote the process of improving living condition of the poorer majority of mankind while avoiding the
destruction of natural resources, so that increase of production and improvements in living conditions
can be sustained in the longer term. Here, the primary goal of sustainable development is to promote
the capabilities of people in the present without compromising the capabilities of future generation
[18].
By taking regards to the above mentioned concept, this research revolves around the concept
of sustainability where sustainability of the benefit induced by the microcredit programs denote the
promotion of accessibility and enabling environment for the poor and longevity of the benefits for
future generations without causing any adverse effect on mankind and on world‘s total social,
economic and environment system. However, this concept has quite resemblance with the sustainable
livelihood concept of Chember, Conway and Carney [19]. They mentioned that this is a situation when
the livelihood of the poor can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain or enhance
capabilities assets both now and in the future, without undermining the natural resource base.
Therefore, poor people, and their access to basic services and facilities, resources, infrastructures and
institutions that address multidimensional nature of poverty and enabled the poor are the prerequisites
components of a microcredit program to induce sustainable benefits (fig.2).
DIMENSION OF SUSTAINABILITY
Initially the concept of sustainability emerged as a concerning issue of developed countries.
Natural resources depletion, massive waste generation and eventually environmental degradation have
been the prime problems in almost all developed countries since last century due to their unlimited
consumption and luxurious life leading. Therefore, most of the existing and initial studies on
sustainability tend to focus on a single perspective, which is environment and ecology [13], [15].
Brundtland Report published in 1987 and later the action program of Earth Summit, 1992, Agenda 21
have encouraged the whole world to incorporate social, economic, and institutional perspectives in
every sustainable development exercises. Thereafter, numerous scholars and policy makers have
recommended a holistic approach of sustainability efforts [12], [19], [20], [21]. Figure 1 depicts a
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holistic model of sustainable development showing different dimensions and the existing interlinks
among the various dimensions.
Social
Dimension
Economic
Dimension
Sustainable
Development
Institutional
Dimension
Environmental
Dimension
Figure 1. Interdependencies of different dimensions of sustainability
Both academicians and decision makers have realized that sustainable development seeks to
integrate economic development, social concerns and environmental protection in a mutually
reinforcing manner, rather than advancing one at the expense of the other which will lead to ultimate
unsustainability of any development efforts in the long run [22]. It has also been advocated that
sustainability efforts should incorporate another dimension, which is institutional efficiency, since it is
the agreed and applied way of all development policies and strategies [23]. In fact, in every society all
the abovementioned dimensions collectively form a comprehensive system through their mutual
interaction and interdependencies while each has a certain measure of autonomy too. Therefore, any
attempt or aim to avail sustainable development requires embracing every dimensions of sustainability
giving appropriate priority to each. . Likewise, poverty alleviation through microcredit programs
demands holistic approach addressing social, economic, physical, environmental and institutional
aspects of poverty in order to induce sustainable benefits for the poor.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF MICROCREDITPROGRAM
Being one of the least developed countries Bangladesh faces numerous problems
simultaneously. Alleviation of pervasive poverty, provision of basic human necessities to all,
stabilization of population, stimulation of economic growth, and conservation of natural resources for
sustainable development are among the most common problems. But often these problems contradict
with each other. Therefore, to achieve overall development in a sustainable manner, comprehensive
approach is a foremost requirement. Including poverty alleviation every sector of development should
follow such comprehensive approach through addressing every dimension of sustainability.
Holistic approach for sustainable poverty alleviation
Poverty means not only to a condition of barely sustaining physical needs, but also to a lack
of access to goods, services and infrastructure such as energy, education, skill, sanitation, healthcare,
communication and shelter [24], [25]. UNDP Poverty Report 2000 emphasizes in attacking ―human
poverty‖ than addressing to the ―income poverty‖ only with a view to avail long lasting impacts on
poverty alleviation. Asian Development Bank [26] argues that without the access to basic education,
primary health care, and other essential services poor will have little opportunity to improve their
economic status and to participate fully in society. Therefore, interventions to enhance only income
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and consumption through microcredit programs would fail to improve the human capital and
productive means of the poor on a sustainable basis. Similarly, programs that address only the social
and human capital aspects of poverty (e.g. literacy, awareness building, health care services etc.) often
prove ineffective in addressing the economic dimension of the problem. Therefore, an effective
microcredit program for sustainable poverty alleviation requires a resourceful design and
implementation that can confront all dimensions of the poverty problem simultaneously in a specific
socio-economic context to ensure sustainability of its impact [27].
Microcredit programs and sustainable benefits for the poor
As an attempt to alleviate poverty almost all development organizations have focused on
income generating programs through disbursement of microcredit, especially among the poor women.
Since after the emergence in 1976 by the experiment of Professor Yonus (founder of Grameen Bank in
Bangladesh), microcredit movement has been established as one of the principal tools to fight against
the poverty. A number of studies conducted by scholars like [5], [8] and [28] have assessed the impacts
of different income generating microcredit programs for the poor. Most of the evaluations found a
positive impact on household outcomes in spite of having instances of several negative impacts. But
the macro picture on trends in poverty shows that Bangladesh has not yet made noticeable progress in
arresting the growth of poverty and still about half of the people live below the poverty line [29]. In
fact, the income generating programs failed to empower the poor to impact on the social balance of
power [30].
In spite of having evidences of many positive impacts, most of the microcredit programs
suffer from numerous institutional and managerial problems. High interest rate, bureaucracy,
corruption, mismanagement, lack of appropriate policy, planning and implementation and other
institutional weaknesses have prevented to get percolate flow of benefits from the projects and long
term continuation of those benefits. Expansion of credit operations with the increase of number of
beneficiaries and timely recovery are the routine activities of most of the organizations. The
achievement in the case of structural and attitudinal change, capacity building of the poor and human
resource development approach is negligible. Therefore, in most cases, external interventions like
financial aid or loan have enhanced income and consumption on a temporary basis rather to improve
human capital and productive means of the poor on a sustainable basis [27]. It has been noticed in
different areas that during the operation period of an income generating project people engage
themselves in various types of income earning activities with the help of technical, financial and
advisory supports from the project. But after the withdrawal of this support people could no longer be
able to continue the activities. Most often it is observed that people enjoy the benefit of the project for
a while, but cannot be enabled to continue the benefit for the long term. Most of the projects provide
various types of support to facilitate income earning activities of the poor rather than making attempt
for social development by enabling the poor, developing their skill, and improving their human capital.
In fact with the human capitals like skill, education and good health etc. poor themselves can be able
to continue the economic benefits achieved by the projects. Most of the beneficiaries‘ opinions are
economic and social development are interactive and therefore be perused simultaneously [6].
Observing this scenario as well as failure of income generating efforts of development
organizations it is necessary to reorganize the policy, planning and implementation approaches of
microcredit programs. It should be designed and implemented in such a way, which would be able to
enable and empower the poor women rather introducing immediate improvement in family outcomes.
Instead of increasing the number of beneficiaries and expansion of credit programs emphasis should be
given on capacity building, attitudinal change in case of gender relation and social classes, social
mobilization and overall empowerment of the poor women. It is obvious that in a sound social
environment a well-trained and empowered woman would be able to continue her activity in a
productive and profitable manner even after withdrawal of external supports. Thus the income
generating efforts of development organizations would sustain for long term and benefits would be
carried over into the future generations.
Conceptual road map to induce sustainable benefits by microcredit programs
[31] and [17] viewed ―sustainable livelihood‖ as those that are economically efficient,
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ecologically sound, socially equitable and able to cope with and recover from shocks and stress. It is
assumed that any program performing or have performed in the abovementioned way will be able to
induce sustainable benefits which will be enjoyed not only by the beneficiaries and their families at
present time but also would reach to unborn generations.
After having analytical exercises on diversified concepts of sustainable development, sustainability of
microcredit program (from beneficiaries‘ perspective) can be attributed for this research in the
following way. A microcredit program having the potential to induce long lasting benefits i.e.
sustainable benefits for future generation of poor is one that
 facilitates income generation, not only to meet all basic needs but also for capital accumulation
to invest in productive sectors; furthermore, the income is enough to cope with and recover
from shocks and stresses;
 empowers them, within their community and family;
 builds capacity to be self-reliant;
 improves access to productive assets, secured shelter, quality education, information and
technologies, health and nutrition, clean water and sanitation;
 introduces as well as enhances economic activities to produce need oriented non traditional
goods/services;
 encourages as well as contributes to environmentally sensitive activities.
It is obvious that a microcredit program that aims to contribute to all the abovementioned
aspects and induce sustainable benefits must require addressing each dimension of sustainability and
poverty and thus to ensure both social and economic development of the poor simultaneously. It
should comprise the components that can effectively build financial, human, social, natural and
institutional capital of the poor. Conceptual frameworks for sustainability of the benefits induced by
the microcredit program and the associated issues related with sustainability have been presented in
Figure.2 and Figure. 3
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MICROCREDIT
PROGRAM
Credit
Training &
Skill
Development
Education &
Health services
Need
oriented
training
Ensure
productive use
Ensuring
quality
Extension
services
Environmental
Sensitivity
Timely available,
adequate & effective
Long-term
effects, emerging
issues
Reached to
Poor Women
Investment & contribute to
Contribute to
Involvement &
Continuation of
Economic Activities
I








N D U
C
Participation in
Household &
Community Welfare
E D
I M P A C T
Adequate and Nutritious Food for All
Access to Consumer Goods
Access to Productive Assets
Decent and Secured Shelter
Adequate, Affordable & Quality Health and Sanitation
Better Education
Capital Accumulation, Investment, Employment Generation and
Further Income
Ability to Cope with Shocks and Difficulties
Figure 2. Conceptual Road Map to induce sustainable benefits by microcredit programs
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Figure 2 demonstrates one of the ways to enhance sustainability of the benefits induced by
the microcredit programs aiming for poverty alleviation. This diagram advocates that microcredit
programs have to embrace diversified strategies in a packaged form in order to induce long lasting
impacts and ensure sustainable poverty alleviation. Following an integrated approach this packaged
program should provide diversified services concerning multidimensional nature of poverty. Among
various diversified services and efforts coupled with credit, training and skill development, education
and health services, awareness building and motivation, and environmental sensitivity have to be
emphasized. It is expected that the integrated and comprehensive delivery of all support services
would build the human, social, natural, physical and financial capitals of the poor and thus be mutually
reinforcing in long lasting poverty alleviation. When all these services will reach to the poor women in
a packaged form they will be skilled, empowered and enabled and be able not only to pursue economic
activities efficiently but also to contribute to household and community welfare. With all these
comprehensive support services a skilled, enabled and empowered woman will enhance food
consumption and nutrition, decent and secured shelter, education, health and sanitation, productive
assets and capital accumulation, further investment, and income for her family. With the revolving of
this process backward and forward linkage of all these positive outcomes will be multiplied with the
passing of time and gradually the induced benefits will be stable and last long. Eventually, within such
an enabling environment the household will be self-reliant and strong enough to cope with shocks and
difficulties and finally will come out of poverty.
Figure 2 has shed light to a potential way of effective poverty alleviation and gradually
bringing the poor out of poverty. But sometimes there might have numerous socio-economic and
institutional factors that would either minimize or restrict the expected outcomes or facilitate the
outcomes of the efforts. Therefore, these factors often have considerable role to determine the level of
sustainability of the benefits induced by microcredit programs. Credit programs have to conduct
SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunities and threats) analysis to point out the probable factors and
their role. Accordingly attempts should be taken to neutralize or minimize the role of hostile factors
and to maximize the role of amiable factors. The following diagram draws list of several probable
factors that may influence different parts of the road map proposed for inducing sustainable benefits by
the microcredit programs.
~ 36 ~
[S-011]



MICROCREDIT
PROGRAM


Community Environment
Political environment
Administrative structure &
strength
Strategies & mechanism
Financial Dependency
Poor Women
Involve and
Continue
Economic
Activities








Household
Management and
Community
Participation

Return/Income
Demand & Competition
Marketing & Infrastructure
Facilities
Extension Services
Job satisfaction
Employment Generation
Family & Social Acceptance
Environmental Sensitivity


Acceptance & Support from
Family
Social Acceptance
Empowerment (participation in
decision making, control over
income, access to assets)
Figure 3. Factors on the way of inducing sustainable benefits by microcredit programs
Figure 3 is an attempt to identify the most common and general factors that may play vital
role in inducing sustainable benefits by the microcredit programs. But it should be noted that these
factors vary according to circumstances, areas, programs and target groups. Nevertheless, these should
be kept in mind during program preparation and implementation.
~ 37 ~
[S-011]
CONCLUSION
Irrespective of developed and developing countries everywhere every sector of development
is now concerned about the sustainability of their development efforts. Not only at the local level but
also United Nations, World Bank, Asian Development Bank and such other development organizations
have given serious attention toward sustainability issue since 1987 after publication of Brundtland
Commission Report, `` Our Common Future``. Therefore, Bangladesh should no longer be inactive at
the issue of sustainability. Sustainability concept should be blended in every step to have a sound and
prosperous future.
Bangladesh is a country of huge population, scarce resources and pervasive poverty. This
huge population can be turned into the most productive and valuable resources through efficient and
effective planning and implementation of human resources development programs. Eventually they
can participate to achieve a strong economic base. Poverty alleviation efforts should welcome the
concept of sustainable development and follow the integrated approach of poverty alleviation. Rather
giving focus to the income poverty only ignoring human poverty the microcredit programs of both
Government and Non-Government Organizations should be aware about the sustainable potentiality of
every program before its planning and implementation. Further, the potentiality of microcredit
programs in inducing sustainable benefits could be varied due to the interplay of different
socio-cultural, economic, environmental, institutional and spatial factors. Both formulation and
implementation stages of projects attention should be paid on these critical issues.
Instead of the provision of basic needs and services as an attempt of poverty alleviation
enabling the human capacity should gain attention by the development organizations. New paradigm
of development emphasizes not only to enable all individuals to enlarge their human capabilities to the
full in every sector of development; but also to preserve the benefit of development for unborn
generations. This study is an attempt to incorporate this new paradigm into the development efforts of
GO and NGOs, which would induce long lasting benefits for the poor and thus poverty would be
alleviated in a sustainable manner.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Financial support from Japan Government in the form of Monbukagakusho Scholarship is greatly
appreciated. Further, Prof. Dr. Onishi Takashi, Prof. Dr. Tetsuo Kidokoro and Prof. Dr. Peter J.
Marcotullio of University of Tokyo are highly acknowledged for extending their guidance and support
to conduct this research.
References
[1] Newman, Peter and Kenworthy, Jeffery, 1999, Sustainability and Cities, Overcoming Automobile
Dependence, Island Press, Washington D.C.
[2] Ravnborg, Munk, Helle, 2003, ―Poverty and Environmental Degradation in Nicaraguan Hillsides‖,
World Development, (Vol. 31), Issue 11, November 2003, Elsevier Ltd.
[3] Singh, Naresh C. and Strickland, Richard S., 1994, Sustainability, Poverty and Policy Adjustment:
From Legacy to Vision, published by International Institute of Sustainable Development, Canada.
[4] World Commission on Environment and Development (WECD), 1987, Our Common Future,
Oxford University Press, New York.
[5] Llanto M. Gilberto and Fukui Ryu, 2006, Innovation in Microfinance in Southeast Asia, Philippine
Institute for Development Studies, Research Paper, Series No. 2006-02, Makati City, Philippine
[6] Ahmed, Salehuddin, 2009, Microfinance Institutions in Bangladesh: achievements and challenges,
Managerial Finance, (Vol.35), No. 12, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, DOI
10.1108/03074350911000052, pp. 1007-1008
[7] Wright, Graham A N, 2000, Microfinance Systems – Designing Quality Financial Services for the
Poor, The University Press Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh
[8] Khandker, Shahidur R., 1998, Fighting Poverty with Microcredit, experience in Bangladesh,
Published for the World Bank, Oxford University Press, New York
[9] Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2000, Finance for the Poor: Microfinance Development Strategy,
Published by ADB, Manila.
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[S-011]
[10] Parvin, Gulsan Ara, Marcotullio, Peter, J. and Haq, Muhammed, Emranul, ―Micro-credit: Extent
of Utilization, Dependency and Indebtedness of the Poor‖, presented at The Bangladesh in the
21st Century Conference at Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, June 13-14, 2008
[11] Fujita,Koichi, 2010, Re-thinking Economic Development- The Green Revolution, Agrarian
structure and Transformation in Bangladesh, Kyoto University Press and Trans Pacific Press,
Japan
[12] Bossel, Hortmut, 1999, Indicator for Sustainable Development: Theory, Method, Applications, A
report to the Balaton Group, Published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development,
Canada
[13] Rajyalakshmi, V., 2004, Environment and Sustainable Development, A. P. H. Publishing
Corporation, New Dilhi
[14] Bridger, Jeffrey C. and Luloff, A.E., 199), ―Towards an international approach to sustainable
community development‖, Journal of Rural Studies, (Vol. 15), Issue 4, published by Pergamon
Press, Oxford , New York.
[15] Wang, Y. K., Palanivel, T., and Cooray, N. S., 1997, ―Sustainable Development Framework for
Developing Countries‖ United Nations University‘s Program on Development/Environment,
Japan
[16] Pearce, David and Atkinson, Giles, 1998, The Concept of Sustainable Development: AN
Evaluation of Its Usefulness Then Years After Brundtland, Publised by Centre for Social and
Economic Research on the Global Environment, University of East Angila, Uk
[17] DFID, 2001, Sustainable Livelihood Guidance Sheets, Department for International Development,
London
[18] Sen, Amartya, 2000, ‗Ends and Means of Sustainability‘, Key Note Addressed at the International
Conference on ―Transition to Sustainability‖ in Tokyo.
[19] Moser, Caroline and Norton, Andy, 2001, to Claim our Rights: livelihood security, human rights
and sustainable development, Overseas Development Institute, London, UK
[20] UCN-World Conservation Union, 1993, Guide to Preparing and Implementing National
Sustainable Development Strategies and Other Multi-sectoral Environment and development
Strategies, prepared by the UCN‘s Commission on Environmental Strategies Working Group on
Strategies for Sustainability.
[21] Smith, David, Drakakis, 1995, ―Third World Cities: Sustainable Urban Development, I‖, Urban
Studies, (Vol. 32), No. 4-5, Carfax Publishing Company, UK
[22] Miller, Donald, 2001, ―Developing and Employing Sustainability Indicators as a Principal
Strategy in Planning: Experiences in the Puget Sound Urban Region of Washington State‖, Paper
presented in the International Workshop on New Approaches to Land Management for
Sustainable Urban Regions, held in Tokyo.
[23] UK Govt., 2000, Sustainable Development Research: Gaps and Opportunities, Department of the
Environment, Transport and Regions, UK
[24] UNDP, 2000, UNDP Poverty Report 2000, United Nations Development Program
[25] IMF, 2005, Bangladesh Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF Country Report No 05/410,
Published by International Monetary Fund
[26] ADB, 1999, Fighting Poverty in Asia and The Pacific: The Poverty reduction Strategy, ADB,
Manila.
[27] Kahandker, R.S., Khan, Z. and Khalily, B., 1995, Sustainability of Government Targeted Credit
program Evidence From Bangladesh, World Bank Discussion Papers, The World Bank,
Washington, D.C.
[28] Hashemi, Syed M, and Lamiya Morshed, 2001, ―Grameen Bank: A Case Study‖, in Wood and
Sharif (eds.) Who Needs Credit? - Poverty and Finance in Bangladesh, The University Press
Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh
[29] World Bank, 2002, Poverty in Bangladesh: Building on Progress, Report No. 24299-BD, Poverty
Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, South Asia Region, World Bank,
[30] Sobhan Rehman, 1998, How Bad Governance Impedes Poverty Alleviation in Bangladesh,
Development Center Technical Papers No. 143, Organization of Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), France.
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[S-011]
[31] UNDP, 1999, Global Program on Sustainable Livelihood, Published by Sustainable Livelihood
Unit, UNDP
~ 40 ~
[S-015]
EFFECTS OF PARTICIPATORY MAP MAKING TO COMMUNITY-BASED
DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
1
Yusuke Toyoda1* and Hidehiko Kanegae2
Graduate School of Policy Science, Ritsumeikan University
2
College of Policy Science, Ritsumeikan University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study shows effects of participatory map making to community-based Disaster Risk
Reduction (DRR). The study first introduces its effects to participants indicated in previous studies:
raising awareness of dangers, improving capability to prevent or mitigate injuries from the dangers,
promoting communications among participants and generating attachment to communities. Next, the
study shows that map making participated by residents and facilitated by the authors had the same
effects as the previous studies indicate. Then the study shows how distributing the map affects to
non-participants and willingness to participate of the participants and non-participants with focus on
the four effects introduced above, which had not been discussed in previous studies, contributing to the
further community-based DRR activities.
Keywords: Map Making, Community, Disaster Risk Reduction, Participation, Evaluation
INTRODUCTION
Participatory map making is one of the crucial activities to disaster risk reduction (DRR)
(disaster risk is determined based on the function of natural hazard, exposure and vulnerability [1]). It
is conducted not only with residents‘ active participation but also with students as a disaster education
method. Through map making, participants know well more about their communities, such as
vulnerability to and advantages against natural phenomena, and move them forward to further
activities needed for DRR. Previous studies found out some effects of map making to participants. As
map making reveals vulnerabilities and advantages of communities, residents who do not participate in
map making also can get benefits from receiving the map. They are also beneficiaries of map making.
And it is recommended to make the map in the early stage of community DRR to let residents know
strong points and weak points of their communities in terms of natural hazards before tackling with
community-based DRR [2]. However, there is no study tackling with its effects to such the
beneficiaries and to the further activities.
This study, first, summarizes effects of map making to participants in previous studies,
introduces steps of map making held in one community in Kyoto, and then identifies its effects not
only to participants but also to non-participants and the further activities with focus on their
willingness to participation.
MAIN FOUR EFFECTS OF MAP MAKING TO PARTICIPANTS IN PREVIOUS STUDIES
Map making, or sometimes referred to as town watching, can include a variety of maps such as
crime map, vulnerability map, evacuation map and so on. Even though map making activities have
many purposes and methods according to reasons to make maps, some common effects can be
identified in previous studies. This section summarizes effects of map making to participants from
studies on map making of crime and any kinds of disaster such as natural disaster risk and traffic
accident.
Komiya [3] [4], talking about map making for crime prevention for kids, recommends to make
safety maps to make residents have awareness of and capability to prevent crimes, raise concern of
kids about their communities through exploring their communities and discover a various things in the
communities, and promotes communication. Hira [5] explored effects of map making for crime
~ 41 ~
[S-015]
prevention to elementary school students and finds that map making raise capacity of the students to
prevent crimes, improve capacity of communication, generate attachment to community and prevent
their delinquencies. Hamamoto et al. [6] conducted the same map making as Hira and evaluated effects
of map making to elementary school students three days and twenty-eight days after the map making.
They found that map making had long term effect on capacity to prevent crimes, but short term effects
on communication and attachment to the community. And they could not find the effect to prevent
their delinquencies. Muranaka et al. [7] evaluated map making against any kinds of danger with target
of elementary school students and their parents or teachers, held every year in the form of competition.
According to questionnaires answered by parents or teachers, map making could raise awareness of
elementary school students as well as the parents and teachers of the safety in their community and
their behavior to mitigate injuries. Hanaoka et al. [8] also evaluate the same map making competition
next year after Muranaka et al., and also found that map making could raise awareness of elementary
school students as well as the parents and teachers of the safety in their community. And the map
making raised their understanding of their communities. Moreover, map making promoted information
exchange between students and parents or teachers, or communication.
According to the previous studies, map making affects participants in ways of raising
awareness of dangers; improving capability to prevent or mitigate injuries from the dangers; promoting
communications among participants, and; generate attachment to communities through getting more
understanding of their communities.
EFFECTS OF MAP MAKING TO COMMUNITY-BASED DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
A Hypothetical Model for Map Making and Residents’ Participation
Taking the four elements mentioned above, this study explores effects to non-participants
(beneficiaries) and effects to the further activities with focus on residents‘ participation as a contributor
to promoting the further activities in terms of DRR.
From the previous studies, communication and attachment to communities would promote
residents‘ participation, such as [9] [10]. Therefore, this study develops a hypothetical model to clearly
identify effects of map making against disasters to non-participants and to the further activities (figure
1). In this model, map making hypothetically raises the four elements of non-participants and each of
elements hypothetically promotes residents‘ participation, contributing to the further activities.
Participant
Social Capital
Place Attachment
(Communication to DRR)
Behavior
(Self-help for
DRR)
Awareness
of DRR
Non-participant
Social Capital
Place Attachment
(Communication to DRR)
Motivation to
Motivation to
participation
participation
Behavior
(Self-help for
DRR)
Awareness
Participation
of DRR
Products (map)
Figure 1. Hypothetical Framework
Steps for Map Making
Map making in the case community started by demand from the leader of Jisyubosaikai
(Voluntary Community-based Disaster Mitigation Organization) of the case community and support
from our research center. The case community is located next to the University which is ‗Wider Area
Evacuation Site (Koiki Hinan Basho).‘ After six-month discussion and a questionnaire survey
(pre-survey) asking residents‘ opinions on map making and disaster especially earthquake, the items
below were decided what to be put on the map:
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1. Possible Temporary Evacuation Sites of each district (the case community has three districts);
2. Evacuation Routes from the Temporary Evacuation Sites to the Wider Area Evacuation Site, and;
3. Other relevant information which would be helpful to disaster mitigation, such as on which fire
extinguishers are located and so on.
In this case study, map making was implemented with a series of activities from exploring
around residents‘ own districts to get familiar with their districts, deciding on places to evacuate first
(Temporary Evacuation Site) and finding safe routes to move from the sites to ‗Wider Area Evacuation
Site‘ avoiding dangerous spots which participants found in exploring. After exploring, they discussed
each district and made their own map of each district by their drawing. After making draft maps,
university researchers combined them into one map, arranged it in a digital file and gave it to the
leader of Jisyubosaikai. Then, the leader distributed the map to all of residents (beneficiaries).
Effects of Map Making to Participants in the Case Study Common to Previous Studies
A questionnaire survey conducted just after the participants completed to make the maps
shows the same effects as indicated by previous studies (behavior change against disaster cannot be
evacuated for the survey conducted just after making the map) (figure 2).
Awareness of DRR
I think safe places and unsafe places in my community
revealed (through map making);
I had misunderstood the places of the Wider Area
Evacuation Site;
I found that we do not have enough fire extinguishers in my
community
I could check where fire extinguishers, fire buckets and fire
hydrants are located in my community, etc.
I could get familiar with
other participants
who I had not known
ever;
It was good that I could
talk with others, etc.
I could share
information of my
community.
Understanding of Community
Communication
Others
I found the situation of my
community, etc.
We could cooperate one another;
We got deeper relationships among one another, etc.
Figure 2. Effects of map making to the participants
Effects of Map Making to Non-participants and to the Further Activities
Based on the hypothetical model mentioned above and the pre-survey and a post-survey
conducted before and after making maps and distributing the map to all of residents (beneficiaries),
this study finds effects not only to participants but also to non-participants and the further activities.
References
[1] UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction), 2011, Global
assessment report on disaster risk reduction, UNISDR, Geneva.
[2] Architectural Institute of Japan, 2005, Machizukuri with Safety, Maruzen Publishing, Tokyo.
[3] N. Komiya, 2005, Crime happens „at this place‟ Kobunsha, Tokyo.
[4] N. Komiya, 2006, Theory and Practice of Machizukuri strong against crime: A correct way to
make local safety map, Imagine Press, Tokyo..
[5] S. Hira, 2007, A Preliminary Analysis of Effects of Local Safety Mapping Activity, Bulletin of
Mental Health Consultation Room of Fukuyama University, (1) 35-42.
[6] Y. Hamamoto and S. Hira, 2008, A preliminary Analysis of Effects of Local Safety Mapping
Activity by Elementary School Children with the Aid of University Students, Bulletin of Mental
Health Consultation Room of Fukuyama University, (2) 35-42.
[7] A. Muranaka, S. Otsuki and A. Yoshikoshi, 2010, Achievements and challenges of the second
contest for local safety map for elementary school students, Historical Disaster Studies in Kyoto,
(9) 21-26.
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[S-015]
[8] K. Hanaoka, A. Muranaka and A. Yoshikoshi, 2010, Achievements and challenges of the second
contest for local safety map made in summer vacation, Historical Disaster Studies in Kyoto, (10)
37-41.
[9] C. Grootaert, C. Narayan, V. N. Jones and M. Woolcock, 2003, Measuring Social Capital: An
Integrated Questionnaire. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
[10] M. Lewicka, 2005, Ways to make people active: The role of place attachment, cultural capital,
and neighborhood ties, Journal of Environmental Psychology (25) 381-395.
~ 44 ~
[S-016]
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND INFORMATION DISCLOSURE IN THE
PHILIPPINES: POTENTIALS AND CHALLENGES
Ria Adoracion A. Lambino
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
In search of solutions to curbing industrial pollution, governments are trying to go beyond
traditional regulatory and market-based instruments and turning to innovative policies such as
disclosing information about company‘s environmental performance in the hope of generating
additional public reputational sanctions. Disclosure is also expected to transform roles of regulators
as facilitators in stakeholder empowerment. This paper makes use of case studies in the Philippines
to argue that governmental regulations remain as the primary drivers for environmental compliance
and that direct pressure from the public cannot be expected when conditions such as green
consumerism and high regard for the environment are not present.
This paper furthermore clarifies
the potentials of information disclosure policies as a complement to regulation well as the challenges
in their institutionalization and sustainability.
Keywords: information disclosure, environmental performance, regulation, environmental policy
INTRODUCTION
Despite the increasingly urgent calls for sustainable development, production processes are
still far from sustainable especially in developing countries. The challenge of limiting and
minimizing industrial waste and pollution emissions in these countries are incumbent on government
agencies that are often characterized with weak regulatory capacities, lack of budget and technical
capabilities. Alternate strategies such as information disclosure are hoped to overcome these
deficiencies in order to address these environmental issues. Disclosure is premised on the concept that
information when made available to the public serves as a pressure for the disclosed entity to change
behavior for the better. Listings of companies and the toxic substances they released as published
through programs such as Toxics Release Inventories (US) and Pollutant Release and Transfer
Registers (in countries like Japan, Canada, Australia, EU), have led to subsequent reductions in
company emissions. These innovative policies are spurred by today‘s information age as well as
globalization and democratization processes. Their increasing use and popularity in pollution control
merit closer study especially for the case of developing nations.
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES
In the mid-1990s, with the help of World Bank, developing countries developed information
strategies in the form of disclosure of environmental performance ratings of companies. Multiple
benefits such as empowerment of stakeholders, improved environmental compliance and the promise
of low cost of implementation have attracted government agencies to adopt these disclosure programs.
While some country-specific researches in China, Indonesia and India have attested to the
effectiveness of disclosure strategies [1] [2] [3], more recent papers have since watered down some of
these earlier expectations--public pressure may not be strong enough [4]; net effectiveness of the
strategies are being questioned [5] and long-term effects have yet to be observed [6]. This paper
attempts to build up on this literature by providing additional critique and insight through the analysis
of environmental performance rating and disclosure programs in the Philippines. The paper will
attempt to clarify under what conditions the potentials of disclosure strategies can be generated and if
the purported benefits are real or overrated. The challenges in implementation as well as
sustainability of the programs will also be defined using the case studies of the national program,
Industrial Ecowatch and Public Disclosure Program in Laguna de Bay Region, Philippines.
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[S-016]
METHODOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
A comprehensive literature review of disclosure programs implemented especially in
developing countries provides background and deeper understanding of how these programs work and
some of the conditions for successful implementation. This article essentially makes use of a
comparative analysis of the Ecowatch and Public Disclosure Program (PDP) using coherence
framework [7] in generating insights into the benefits, potentials and the challenges that underlie
sustainability of the programs.
A critical program evaluation of the PDP in Laguna de Bay using program logic and
implementation theory framework [8] generated a deeper understanding of the inner workings of the
program, its underlying assumptions and the mechanisms by which it works.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ecowatch and Laguna de Bay Region Public Disclosure Program are almost identical in
design and intent differing only in scope, location of application and implementation. The programs
basically undertake a color-coded rating scheme that identifies the environmental performance of
businesses registered with the agency that is then subsequently disclosed to the general public through
mass media. Positively-rated companies (compliant to environmental standards) are honored while
negatively-rated companies (non-compliant to environmental standards) are shamed.
The two
programs have reported improvement in environmental behavior of companies after disclosure
especially of noncompliant firms. Anecdotal evidence suggests that companies that were shamed
tend to improve their behavior and those that were honored maintained their status or were inspired to
do better.
The critical program evaluation provided initial evidence that the pressure from the public in
the Philippines is not as strong as had been expected. There was minimal response to news articles
regarding the environmental performance of companies revealed through the programs. Consumers,
communities and NGOs were not motivated enough to respond to the disclosed information. While
this could be due to poor dissemination of information, it seemed that consumers, clients and markets
in the Philippines do not care about the environmental performance of companies they patronize.
Green consumerism provides the impetus for direct pressure from the public but when this is lacking,
disclosure programs fail to activate this mechanism.
The research finds that the regulatory incentives and sanctions offered by the disclosure
program may be the stronger driver for companies to improve compliance. Other mechanisms such as
enhanced regulatory threats on top of disclosure and pressure from industry peers and associations
may be more effective in getting businesses to improve their environmental performance.
The potential of information programs may also lie not in focusing on disclosure mechanisms
per se but in maximizing the use of the rating systems. The rating process provides an opportunity to
strategize monitoring and enforcement activities leading to administrative efficiency. Rating results
also help promote the company management‘s internal awareness and can lead them to voluntarily
reduce their pollution.
Furthermore, despite institutionalization of the program at the national level through
administrative policies, Ecowatch failed to function properly beyond its pilot phase—this has been
attributed to the inability of higher officials to approve disclosure of negative ratings of well-known
businesses. The PDP in Laguna de Bay on the other hand though hampered by a number of
monitoring inadequacies, weak information flows and limited dissemination routes have successfully
completed 5 disclosure cycles. Coherence framework analysis revealed firstly that localized, spatial
management work better for disclosure programs. Ecowatch suffered due to the centralized and
extremely bureaucratic implementing agency whose final action was dependent on the whims of
politically appointed officials who were anxious not to offend businesses. Secondly, the strong
monitoring regime and institutional capacity exhibited by Laguna Lake Development Authority
enabled credible disclosures whereas the weak enforcement regime undermined implementation of
Ecowatch. Lastly, while both programs initially received external funding for the pilot phase, LLDA
had buy-in and continued support for the program whereas Ecowatch floundered when its program
champions were lost. These factors are important realizations for disclosure programs to be functional
and sustainable.
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[S-016]
CONCLUSION
A variety of disclosure programs currently exist all over the world and are being replicated.
The potentials for these strategies to be effective in enhancing regulatory processes especially in
countries like the Philippines exist, although it is largely dependent on the degree of understanding of
the actual mechanisms that will make the program work, as well as careful considerations of design
and implementation. Policy and program implementers need to be able to figure out ways in which
to rework the design and operations of the program so as to fit the context in which it is being applied,
and if enabling factors such as institutional commitment and capacity are present, then disclosure
strategies can serve as a good complement to a mix of policies for environmental governance.
Innovative policies like disclosure are a step towards stakeholder empowerment but until such
conditions as prevalence of green consumerism, high regard for environment and a pro-active and less
dependent community are present, the Philippines and other developing countries would still be very
much reliant on governmental regulations as a means to control pollution.
References
[1] H. Wang, J. Bi, D. Wheeler, J. Wang, D. Cao, G. Lu, Y. Wang, 2004. Environmental Performance
Rating and Disclosure: China‘s Green-Watch Program. Journal of Environmental Management,
71(2), 123-133.
[2] S. Dasgputa, D. Wheeler, H. Wang, 2007. Disclosure strategies for pollution control. International
yearbook of environmental and resource economics 2006/2007. A survey of current issues, ed. T.
Teitenberg and H. Folmer, 93-119. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
[3] N. Powers, A. Blackman, T. Lyon, & U. Narain, 2008, October. Does Disclosure Reduce
Pollution? Evidence from India‟s Green Rating Project. Resources for the Future. Environment
and
Development.
Discussion
Paper
Series.
Retrieved
from
http://www.rff.org/RFF/Documents/EfD-DP-08-27.pdf
[4] A. Blackman, S. Afsah, & D. Ratunada, 2004. How do Public Disclosure Pollution Control
Programs Work? Evidence from Indonesia. Human Ecology Review, 11(3).
[5] B. Van Rooij, 2010. Greening Industry Without Enforcement? An Assessment of the World
Bank‘s Pollution Regulation model for Developing Countries. Law & Policy. 32(1).
[6] T. Bruijn, V. Norberg-Bohm, 2001. Voluntary, Collaborative, and Information-Based Policies:
Lessons and Next Steps for Environmental and Energy Policy in the United States and Europe.
Energy Technology Innovation Project, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs and
Regulatory Policy Program, Center for Business and Government, Kennedy School of
Government, Harvard University.
[7] R. Lejano, 2006. Frameworks for Policy Analysis: Merging Text and Context. Routledge, New
York.
[8] C. Weiss, 1998. Evaluation: Methods for Studying Programs & Policies 2nd edition. Prentice Hall.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.
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[S-020]
POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS IN BUILDING INNOVATIVE COOPERATION
BETWEEN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF CHONAIKAI (NEIGHBORHOOD ASSOCIATION) IN JAPAN
Puntita Tanwattana1* and Hiroshi Murayama2
1
Doctoral Student of Graduate School of Policy Science, Ritsumeikan University
2
Professor of Graduate School of Policy Science, Ritsumeikan University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Community organizations in Japan are recognized as a neighborhood association (or
Chonaikai in Japanese). Chonaikai are certain form of civil society organization omnipresent
throughout the country. These widespread local civil society organizations have strong roles in the
promotion of social capital, despite the fact that it is not legally founded. Neighborhood associations in
Japan are ‗ambiguous associations,‘ or ‗state-society straddler organization‘. In other words,
neighborhood associations are not considered as a part of the state even though they are linked to the
state. The purpose of this paper is to clarify roles and relationships between community organization
and local government in cooperating projects and to synthesize possibilities and limitations in
cooperating projects through the case studies of Kameoka City and Kusatsu city. Finally, this paper
will conclude an innovative cooperation based on specific roles performed by chonaikai.
Keywords: Community organization, neighborhood association, chonaikai, civil society, local
government and innovative cooperation
INTRODUCTION
The definition of community organization here refers to an independent and self-governing
organization -- which is, in other words, a collective group of residents or civil society that are
autonomous from the government [1].
Civil society paradigm somehow dominates current
discussions regarding citizen associations in the terms of politics. This study, however, excludes those
political issues but focuses mainly on roles and cooperation between community organization and
local government.
The roles of chonaikai in Japanese society can be divided into two roles: (1) an official role
as a linkage between local government in terms of information disclosure, budget management, sport
activities, activities of elderly people, etc. and (2) an additional role through local initiatives such as
festival, event, visioning, planning, etc. Regarding so-called official role, each chonaikai has a
responsibility and is obliged to be a mediator between residents and local government. However, not
every chonaikai will succeed in its additional role, which significantly depends on the leaders. Still,
most of active chonaikai are able to play both roles while cooperating with local government and other
sectors. However, chonaikai have limited ability to contribute to policy debates through advocacy [2].
It is interesting to clarify how chonaikai can effectively manage the two different types of
roles (official and additional roles) and how chonaikai can cooperate with local government
innovatively. This study discusses an important role of neighborhood association in cooperation with
public administration and highlights the relationship between the roles of chonaikai and the roles of
public administration. Therefore, possibilities and limitations will be found, according to cooperation
in implementing projects.
CASE STUDY
This research conducts two case studies: Kameoka city and Kusatsu city. Both cities have
different characteristics of chonaikai according to the context of the cities itself.
Kameoka City is located in Kyoto Prefecture, Japan. In March 2008, Kameoka became the
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first member of the International Safe Community network in Japan. Kameoka is also the first city
designated as a ―Safe Community‖ by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Collaborating
Center on Community Safety Promotion in Sweden. The city has continued to gradually develop
various programs to further the promotion of ―safety and security‖ at community level. One of Safe
Community programs is ‗Ai-Ai Network‘, which is established based on local realities. This is a
program developed since 2009 in Shino-Chonaikai, a pilot neighborhood area of Safe-Community
promotion. The purpose of this program is to ensure safety and secure the well-being of senior local
residents [3].
The characteristics of Shino-chonaikai are self-operation and to act as a linkage with local
government. They have strong leader, clear vision, good relationship with the residents and strong
bond with local government and other associations and especially; they have their own fund. Since
2004, the starting point of Shino-chonaikai was the leader‘s initiative in the evaluation of current
management style. Consequently, Shino-chonaikai had changed the way of management from
traditional way and to go beyond an ordinary chonaikai. They started to change policy initiatives and
plan formulation by taking additional role of chonaikai out of official role related to local government.
The reason why Shino-chonaikai was able to successfully change the style of management system and
to play its additional roles effectively was because of the strong supports from Kameoka City
Government. If Kameoka city government still pursues its traditional government-oriented
bureaucracy, it will surely affect the cooperation with Shino-chonaikai and obstruct the association‘s
additional roles. Currently Shino-chonaikai is very active in both official and additional roles.
However, there are some limitations based on the interviews with the leader and former
leader of Shino-chonaikai [4]. Those limitations of chonaikai indicate the significance of management
system such as the lack of participation of the young generation, a small number of executive members
participating in the process of decision-making, planning and visioning.
Actually, both chonaikai and public administration have limitations to run a project without
cooperation. Referring to an interview with one Kameoka city government officer [5], the relationship
between chonaikai and local government still needs to be clarified and there are some difficulties in
planning and decision-making process. Generally, an unequal cooperation among community
organization and public administration is a current trend of civil society studies. The leader of
Shino-chonaikai also agrees with the idea; Shino-chonaikai‘s ultimate goal is to become an equal
partner with local government. This implies that the present situation is unequal and obviously,
Kameoka City plays a more important roles comparing to chonaikai in cooperating projects. The
relationship between chonaikai and Kameoka City is that public administration will lead chonaikai in
project initiation, budgetary support, fundamental facilitation, etc. Recently, cooperation between
chonaikai and Kameoka City is growing rapidly because chonaikai is getting stronger and becomes
more self-reliance while Kameoka City government changes attitudes towards cooperation with
chonaikai instead of providing and facilitating as traditionally done. It is a typical case of the
relationship between public administration and community organization that can lead to the possibility
of equal cooperation between community organization and local government.
Nevertheless, some limitations are also founded in this pilot neighborhood association
according to cooperation with Kameoka city government. Since 2004, Shino-chonaikai has started to
make plans, even if, the main role of planning still belongs to the local government planning sector. It
leads to a question that once each chonaikai can make a plan, what kind of roles will remain for
Kameoka City government. This seems that the additional role of chonaikai: planning and
decision-making are overlapping with the main role of city government. Therefore, this difficulty
needs to distinguish – to what extent chonaikai can contribute itself and what is the appropriate role of
chonaikai in relation to the city government. It bases on chonaikai internal management system to
clarify this crucial question.
One the other hand, the case study of Kusatsu city shows a different point of view reflecting
a lesser participation of chonaikai, especially, their official role as information dissemination [6]. The
reasons why chonaikai in Kusatsu city hardly participate and cooperate with Kusatsu City government
are; (1) Traditional chonaikai in Kusatsu city are decreasing because of new comers according to high
growth of industrialization in Kusatsu city. (2) There is no actual feedback from chonaikai as one
reason is due to the representative of chonaikai itself. (3) There is no obligation to join or make
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chonaikai because chonaikai has no legal based, so new comers participate less in chonaikai. In this
situation, the problem is that it is not necessary to deliver official information. At present, 90% of
organizations of chonaikai have been decreasing. Moreover, chonaikai are seen as ‗closed society‘ and
‗limited theme oriented‘ from viewpoint of government officer [7]. Therefore, the direction of Kusatsu
city government are not mainly focused on chonaikai but attempt to establish new frontier
organization as a ‗New NPOs‘ which has broader theme and with more flexibility. However, there are
some alternatives for chonaikai in Kusatsu city to be an intermediate organization or intervening
organization among different sector, according to their strengthening characters of area-based
organization. It leads to possibilities and also limitations at the same time, according to the
management system inside chonaikai itself to clarify all crucial points as mentioned. Consequently,
Kusatsu city attempts to enact the ‗Self-government fundamental ordinance‘ (or Jichitai kihon Jorei in
Japanese) that mainly focuses on the role of citizen-based cooperation with other sectors. This
ordinance is seen as a constitution of local government. According to this ordinance of Kusatsu City,
(now, on the proceeding to enact) there will be another possibility of chonaikai in the new direction of
cooperation with local government.
The situations of Kameoka city and Kusatsu city case studies reflect different contexts and
characteristics of chonaikai in Japan. Chonaikai represent a ‗fundamental cultural form of Japanese
community‘, but with its ambiguous role in Japanese society. This study argues that chonaikai‘s roles
are needed to specify; based on current situation, possibilities and limitations of each context of
chonaikai. Local government also needs to understand and re-recognizes the role of chonaikai in
relation to their affairs. Therefore, in order to build an innovative cooperation between community
organization and local government; these two sectors should concern each other role and relationship.
Especially in project implementation, an innovative cooperation will come from the understanding of
each other‘s roles.
References
[1]
Pekkanen R., (2009), ―Japan‘s neighborhood associations: Membership without advocacy‖,
in Benjamin L. read and Robert Pekkanen, ―Local Organizations and Urban Governance in East
and Southeast Asia – Straddling state and society‖, Routledge, 2009
[2] Kuninori Inouchi, Ex-President of the Shino-Cho Neighborhood Association, June 6, 2011
[3] Application to the World Health Organization, Collaboration Center on Community Safety
Promotion for the designation of Kameoka, Kyoto, Japan, 2007
[4] Yoshiaki Makino, President of the Shino-Cho Neighborhood Association, June 6, 2011
[5] Hidekado Tanaka, Assistant manager Planning Section, Department of Planning Kameoka City,
June 6, 2011
[6] Kimura Hiroshii, Group leader and Secretary of Local Collaboration Group, Section of
Machizukuri Collaboration, Department of Machizukuri Collaboration, Kusatsu City
Government, June 1, 2011
[7] Soul Yoshihiro, Group leader and Deputy Secretary of Civic Activity Promotion Group, Section
of Machizukuri Collaboration, Department of Machizukuri Collaboration, Kusatsu City
Government, June 1, 2011
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DONORS, GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SOCIETY IN DEMOCRATIZATION:
AN ANALYSIS OF THE US DEMOCRACY ASSISTANCE TO INDONESIA
Asra Virgianita
Graduate School of International Studies, Meiji Gakuin University
Lecturer, Department of International Relations, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences
University of Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]/[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper analyzes the United States (US) democracy assistance to Indonesia by addressing
two questions. First, how has the US designed/formulated its democracy aid to Indonesia? Second,
what are the characteristics of the US democracy aid in supporting democratization in Indonesia? This
study found that the US has been formulated its democracy aid to Indonesia ambitiously by designing
their aid focused on political approach. Although after 2000 year the US government has formulated
their democracy aid program broader than before, political line was still dominated the US aid
approach. Moreover, the US aid to Indonesia targeted more on collaborating with civil society rather
than government.
Keywords: democratization, democracy aid, civil society
INTRODUCTION
Democracy assistance is one of the international factors playing a role in democratization.
Many scholars have argued that besides political conditionality, international factors have played a role
by providing the ideas and models of democracy, which are gradually internalized by domestic actors
and induce a process of converging perceptions and general acceptance of codes and rules of political
competition [1].
This paper will examine the implementation of democracy assistance to Indonesia as a
fledgling democratic country focused on the US supports. This paper will analyze the US democracy
assistance to Indonesia by addressing two questions. First, how has the US designed/formulated its
democracy aid to Indonesia? Second, what are the characteristics of the US democracy aid in
supporting democratization in Indonesia?
DEMOCRACY ASSISTANCES: DEFINITIONS AND SCOPES
Democracy assistance is defined as the support (as funds or technical assistance) for efforts,
which have the intention of bringing democratic structure to the developing world [2]. Democracy aid
is the most common and significant tool for promoting democracy. Quigley describes democracy
assistance as a variety of programs initiated by the international community to strengthen democratic
institutions and processes in less developed and other countries, which involves different issues such
as political participation, governance and human rights [3]. Knack notes that aid potentially can
contribute to democratization in several ways [4]: 1) through technical assistance focusing on electoral
processes, the strengthening of legislatures and judiciaries‘ checks on executive power, and the
promotion of civil organizations, including a free press; 2) through conditionality; 3) improving
education and increasing per capita incomes, which he pointed out were conducive to democratization.
Schoofs and Zeeuw also explained that democracy assistance has proven to be instrumental in
the organization and legitimating of elections, raising awareness of and monitoring human rights
issues, and stimulating a more professional media sector. They categorizes the international support on
three sectors; elections, human rights and media sectors. They found that most support has been
awarded to elections, human rights came secondly and significantly less attention was given to the
media sectors [5].
Referring to Carothers‘s work which considering four dimensions i.e. value and concept of
democracy, concept of democratization and method of supporting democracy, there are two distinct
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overall approaches to assisting democracy; namely the political approach and the developmental
approach., A political approach believe that the advance democracy is necessary for social and economic
development, while developmental approach stressed that basic feature of democratic governance
contributes more equitable to socioeconomic development. In addition, political approach stressed the
importance of political and civil rights, while developmental approach tends to see economic and social
rights as being no less important than political and civil rights. Moreover, for political approach,
democratization is seen as a process of political struggle, in the other hand, developmental approach
believe that it is better to achieve a certain basic level of socio economic development (effective state
and the rule of law) before proceeding with democratization. Thus, related to method of supporting
democratization, political approach stressed direct and indirect method with focused on non political
actors and key institutions such as media, while developmental approach stresses the importance of
partnership with host government and focused on indirect method. As a result, he classified the US
democracy aid policy as part of political approach, while the EU aid policy as part of developmental
approaches [6].
In case of Indonesia, democracy assistance has been allocated more on supporting democratic
elections. Election under Soeharto has been designed as a tool for him to have a legitimate power.
Therefore, democratic election is seen as necessary conditions for political reform in Indonesia.
There was a great support from donor countries for the 1999 transitional election. Almost sixty million
dollars fund has been provided by donor countries including Japan, the US and the EU, to support the
first Indonesia democratic election in reform period.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE US DEMOCRACY ASSISTANCE IN THE WORLD
After the end of the Cold War, the containment strategy as part of the cold war strategy was
replaced by the strategy of democratic enlargement. Promoting democracy has been the most
important element of America‘s global strategy until now. Azpuruh‘s works on ―the US Democracy
Assistance 1990-2005‖ [7] shows that since 1990-1997, the bulk of the US democracy assistance has
been allocated for Latin America and Africa. Following that period, Europe, Eurasia, Asia and the
Middle East have received more democracy assistance than Latin America and Africa. Especially for
Asia, since 1999, aid has been allocated more than 10% compared to the previous period. Indonesia
placed as the greatest recipient of the aid compared to other Asian countries during the period.
In addition, looking at the US democracy aid by sector, civil society sector was placed as a
priority of aid. However, since 2003-2005, the governance sector has replaced it as the top sector by
receiving the biggest amount of the US democracy assistance. This indicates that the priority of the US
democracy assistance has shifted from the civil society sector to the governance sector. In the case of
aid priority for the rule of law sector, the priority has fallen year by year since 1997. Nevertheless, the
aid allocation for the elections sector has been increasing since 2001.
THE US DEMOCRACY ASSISTANCE TO INDONESIA
The US democracy assistance to Indonesia which actively implemented by the USAID is
unique. Indonesia has been the greatest recipient of US democracy assistance compared to other Asian
countries, and received 255.92 million dollar for 16 years, from 1990-2005. The aid has channelled to
government and civil society. This fact indicates that after the Cold War the US Government put more
attention to political development in Indonesia. Refer to the USAID Congressional report in 1997 the
US government has put their effort to build democracy in Indonesia by focusing their support to
Indonesian NGOs [8]. In some cases, the NGOs, supported by the USAID have worked with
Indonesian Government to improve policy formation such as for labor law, legislation at that time.
According to the decline of Soeharto in 1998, these kinds of civil society support had influenced
indirectly towards the process of regime change at that time. The USAID (and other donor countries)
program to introduce human rights and democratic values society through civil society in Indonesia
could be seen as one of factors in building a base of democratic movement in Indonesia.
After the decline of the Soeharto government in 1998, USAID‘s democracy section began
implementing a program called ―Democratic Transition Strengthened‖ in Indonesia and actively
providing financial assistance to support political reform in Indonesia. For instance, The US provided
electoral assistance in the 1999 election especially for Indonesian NGOs to support election
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monitoring activities and voter education. However, considering that Indonesia has successful
conducted the fair and free election in the 1999 and made a transition to the world‘s third largest
democracy, the US support for election monitoring and voter education gradually became less in 2004
and 2009 election. In 2004 election, USAID provided US$24 million for electoral assistance that
meant the fund has been decreased about US$6 million compared to the 1999 election which the U.S.
provided US$30 million. Moreover, it is important to note that the allocation of fund was managed by
the USAID itself, without coordinating with Indonesian General Election Commission as an election
administration body.
Furthermore, this study noted that the US democracy program since 2001 has been including
broader area such as decentralization, mitigation of conflict, humanitarian and support for peace [9].
Looking at the US program for the period of 2004-2008, the US government committed $129 million
for democracy and governance programs including justice sector reform, legislative strengthening,
election and local governance, mitigation of conflict and support for peace, and promoting democratic
culture which Aceh became the most favored area of the American aid distribution by region [10].
Some
programs were carried out by collaboration with Indonesian and the US NGOs, a method
which has long been perceived as a characteristic of the US aid approach. Working with civil society is
believed to be a substantial component for the democratic process.
CONCLUSIONS
Those facts above shown during 1997-1999, the US democracy program was focused on
supporting political areas and designed on indirect and direct assistance. It meant the political approach
dominated the US democracy assistance to Indonesia. However, after 2000, the US democracy program
tended to involve in developmental approach area such as decentralization, support for peace, etc.
Considering these facts, after 2000, the US democracy aid to Indonesia is colored by a mixture of
developmental and political approach using direct and indirect method. The USAID has supported
election monitoring, voter education and program to train political parties while continuing to support
efforts to strengthen press freedom, promote judicial review, support for human rights, etc. However, by
placing the ―consolidate national level democratic reforms‖ as the umbrella of the USAID DG program
(2004-2008), it shown that the political line was still dominated the US democracy assistance approach
to Indonesia.
References
[1] Schmidtz, Hanz Peter, Katrin Sell, 1999, ―International Factors in Process of Political
Democratization‖ in Jean Grugel,‖Contextualizing Democratization,‖ in Jean Grugel (ed.).
Democracy without Borders: Transnationalization and Conditionality in New Democracies,
London & New York: Routledge/ECPR Studies in European Political Science, 1999, p.33.
[2] JICA Study Group, 2003, Roads to Democracy and Governance, Institute for International
Cooperation, Tokyo, Japan.
[3] Quigley, Kevin F.F., 2000 ―Democracy Assistance in Southeast Asia: Long History/Unfinished
Business‖, in Peter Burnell. 2000. Democracy Assistance: International Cooperation for
Democratization, London. Frank Cass, p. 263.
[4] Knack, Stephen, 2000, Does Foreign Aid Promote Democracy?‖, Working Paper, IRIS Center.
[5] Schoofs, Steven, Jeroen de Zeeuw, 2005, ―The Future of Democracy Assistance‖, Netherlands
Institute of International Studies. Seminar Report. Nairobi, 28-29 April 2005.
[6] Carothers, Thomas, 2009, ―Democracy Assistance: Political Vs Developmental?‖ Journal of
Democracy, 20(1), p. 5-19.
[7] Azpuruh, et.al., 2008, Trends in Democracy Assistance: What Has the United States been Doing?
Journal of Democracy (19) 2, Supplementary Graphics, published in Appendix C of the Table 1
referred to http://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/gratis/SeligsonGraphics-19 -2.pdf (accessed
on 13th September 2008).
[8] http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/cp97/countries/id.htm (accessed on 8th June 2007)
[9] http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/cp97/countries/id.htm (accessed on 8th June 2007)
[10] http://www.usaid.gov/location/asia/countries/indonesia/ (accessed on 8th June 2007)
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THE ROLE OF JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY
IN PROMOTING GOOD GOVERNANCE TO ENABLE
ENVIRONMENT FOR HUMAN SECURITY
1
Warangkana Korkietpitak1* and Sarunwit Promsaka Na Sakonnakron2
Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Policy Science, Ritsumeikan University
2
Master Student, Graduate School of Policy Science, Ritsumeikan University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to deepen the understanding of the concept of human security
based on Japanese approach as well as the linkages between human security and good governance. It
also aims to identify how Japan provides its Official Development Assistance (ODA) through Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for enhancing good governance in developing countries in
terms of human resource development. Qualitative methodology based on documentary research was
utilized in this study. The results found that JICA‘s aid projects on good governance have been
implemented in limited areas; the legal and judiciary sector, the public administration sector, and
democratic institution. Moreover, people‘s participation should be taken into consideration in response
to the real needs of citizens, which is the basis of human security. Finally, good governance based on
participatory development will bring developing countries to sustain democratization.
Keywords: good governance, democratization, human security, people‘s participation
INTRODUCTION
After the end of the cold war, the concept of security studies has shifted from national
security to human security - security of individuals. That is because globalization has brought
numerous problems, such as poverty, inequality, terrorism and so on, which affect directly individuals‘
lives or human well being. Human security became one popular aspect of security studies throughout
the 1990s, though it has been criticized for broad and ambiguous definitions. The concept of human
security has been implemented by many donor countries, in particular Japan, through Official
Development Assistance (ODA) in order to assist developing countries to solve those problems.
However, this paper attempts to explore the concept of human security from the Japan‘s approach and
how it has a relationship with good governance. Also, the paper demonstrates how Japan supports
good governance enabling environment for human security by reviewing Japanese ODA Policy and by
examining Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)‘s implementation.
THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN SECURITY BASED ON THE JAPANESE APPROACH
Japan is one of the most active donor countries which promote the concept of human security
in international arenas. Japan has advocated an approach to human security closely related to the 1994
formulation of UNDP, thereby embracing a broad definition of both freedom from fear (such as from
conflicts and terrorism, natural disasters, and environmental degradation, infectious diseases, and
economic crises etc.) and from want (such as that resulting from poverty, malnutrition, lack of
education, health and other social services, underdevelopment of the basic infrastructure etc.).
However, the Japanese interpretation of human security emphasizes on freedom from want rather than
human from fear. Its definition of human security based on Diplomatic Bluebook 2003 is ―a concept
that focuses on the strengthening of human-centered efforts from the perspective of protecting the lives,
livelihoods and dignity of individual human beings and realizing the abundant potential inherent in
each individual.‖ In addition, the government and other organizations safeguard people from serious
threats of fear and want through various services (protection), and at the same time ensure that they
can cope with the threats by increasing their ability to act for themselves or others (empowerment). To
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put it simply, the way to achieve human security is to protect and to empower people at individual
level. From this perspective, the government agencies have a key role as a mechanism to implement
the government policies on the protection of people in order to ensure that they can live in safety and
dignity. To implement policies successfully, it requires good govern enabling environment for human
security.
However, a number of developing countries, particularly in Africa, have problems of
governance so they lack inefficient administration, an unclear decision-making process and corruption
etc. Then, what requires good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent and
accountable, effective and equitable, and the rule of law. It ensures that the exercise of economic,
political and administrative authority to manage a country‘s affairs at all levels. For this reason, good
governance is one of the fundamental elements to the way in which we can strengthen sustain
democratization.
JAPAN OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE POLICY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE
The ODA Charter 1992 states good governance in the basic philosophy and principles. As for
the basic philosophy, Japan will implement its ODA to help ensure the efficient and fair distribution of
resources and ‗good governance‘ in the development countries through developing a wide range of
human resources and socioeconomic infrastructure, including domestic system, and through meeting
the basic human needs (BHN), thereby promoting the sound economic development of the recipient
countries. Also, each of four principles in aid implementation is related to the debate over good
governance, particularly the forth one – which clearly points out efforts for promoting democratization
should be taken into account. Since the first Charter was approved for more than 10 years, Japan
revised the ODA Charter in 2003 in response to the global challenges such as terrorism and conflicts.
Thus, Japan supports the self-help efforts of developing countries based on good governance. In so
doing, Japan will give priority to assisting development countries that make active efforts to pursue
peace, democratization, and the protection of human rights. However, these ODA policies relating to
good governance will be discussed in more detail in this part.
FROM JAPAN’S ODA POLICIES TO JICA’S PRACTICE: IMPROVING GOVERNANCE
As for the third mission of JICA, an implementing agency, states that a state's capacity for
governance refers to its status as a society that can take the resources available to it and direct, apportion,
and manage them efficiently and in ways that reflect the will of the people. The primary areas of JICA‘s
support in governance focus on 1) the legal and judiciary sector; 2) the public administration sector; and
3) democratic institution. Focusing on the public administration sector, JICA offer support aimed at
improving administrative capabilities of partner countries in order to facilitate the effective provision of
public service that meet citizens‘ needs. In the end, this kind of support fosters the institutions and
human resources needed to manage the fundamental systems appropriately.
JICA participated in a project in Thailand and in Cambodia‘s first full scale national survey in
fiscal 2008, and in countries such as Ghana and Bangladesh. Moreover, JICA has been provided
assistance in Tanzania, Zambia, and Pakistan for strengthening organizations and developing human
resources to help local government provide services that meet the people‘s needs. In this part, some
cases implemented by JICA will be discussed in more detail.
ENHANCING HUMAN SECURITY THROUGH DEVELOPING GOOD GOVERNANCE
Based on Japanese ODA Policies, Japan aims to provide assistance to promote good
governance in effective ways, through it has not specifically identified the support as a primary project.
As for implementation, Japan‘s aid projects have been implemented in limited areas since we can
witness through JICA‘s operations which have involved only human resources for the development of
public administrative officials. To achieve sustainable democracy, it needs to take root more directly to
people‘s participation in order to promote good governance based on participatory development.
Therefore, it is important for Japan to support participation at the individual level, at the end this will
bring about human security. However, some partner countries might be unsatisfied with this concept
because Japan will bypass them in order to reach their people directly.
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Available online: http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/oda/reform/paper0411.pdf (accessed on 7th July
2011)
[8] Koji Makino, 2006, Human Security and Aid from the Perspective of and Aid Practitioner, In
Search of New Approaches to Japanese Development Assistance, Available online:
http://www.fasid.or.jp/english/publication/research/in_search_pdf/7.pdf (accessed on 8th July
2011)
[9] James Michel, 2005, Human Security and Social Development Comparative Research In Four
Asian Countries, New Frontiers of Social Policy: Development in a Globalizing World, Arusha,
Tanzania.
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http://www.jica.go.jp/english/publications/reports/annual/archive.html (accessed on 10th June
2011)
[12] Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2010, JICA's "Human Security" Approach: Features and
Case Studies, Available online:
http://www.jica.go.jp/english/publications/jica_archive/brochures/pdf/human.pdf (accessed on 5th
July 2011)
[13] Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2003, Japan‘s Official Development Assistance Charter, Available
online: http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/oda/reform/revision0308.pdf (accessed on 5th July 2011)
[14] Paris Roland, 2001, Human Security: Paradigm Shift of Hot Air ?, International Security, (26)
87-102.
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Highlighting Japan, 6-7, Available online:
http://www.gov-online.go.jp/pdf/hlj/20110301/06-07.pdf (accessed on 10th June 2011)
[16] Sabina Alkiro, 2003, A Conceptual Framework for Human Security, University of Oxford,
Available online: http://www.crise.ox.ac.uk/pubs/workingpaper2.pdf (accessed on 21th June
2011)
[17] Taylor Owen, 2008, The Uncertain Future of Human Security in The UN, International Social
Science Journal: Rethinking Human Security, Blackwell Publishing, 113-127.
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INDONESIA’S NEW LABOR MIGRATION POLICY:
PLACEMENT, PROTECTION AND HUMAN SECURITY OF MIGRANT WORKERS
Madyah Rahmi Lukri*
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper will try to analyze implementation of Indonesia‘s most current labor migration
policy, Law No. 39/2004 on placement and protection upon migrant workers, in implementing better
placement and protection for Indonesian migrant workers (Hereafter TKI, Tenaga Kerja Indonesia).
Labor migration seems to be the right answer in answering Indonesia‘s unemployment problem and
also contributed in economic income of Indonesia. In contrast with these benefits that they bring, TKI
still face numerous human security issues. Cases such as deaths, sexual harassments/abuses,
confinement, extortion, document fraud, underpayment, unpaid wages and illegal placement are faced
by TKI on regular basis. In order to solve these problems, Indonesian government has tried several
policies. The most notable one is the implementation of Law No. 39/2004 on placement and protection
upon Indonesian migrant workers. This set of law is notable because it is the first set of law that
contains formal mechanism upon protection towards TKI and its established BNP2TKI, the first
national agency that is proposed to improve the protection of TKI and to simplify placement
procedures of these workers.
As a result of fieldwork conducted throughout August-September 2010 to BNP2TKI, several
migrant labor organizations and sending companies, this paper intends to clarify how placement and
protection is implemented. It will start with a profile of Indonesian migrant workers and how
government policies so far are accommodating them. Then it will give explanation of the current
government policy on migrant workers: placement and protection. It will then focus on the
establishment of BNP2TKI as national agency that is specifically made for accommodating placement
and protection of TKI. This paper will try to analyze the cause of the current policy is still considered
ineffective in providing placement and protection for TKI and will try to seeks potential answer in
solving the problem of protection.
Keywords: labor migration, migration policy, social science, human security.
Indonesian Labor Migration: A Brief Introduction
Indonesia is a labor surplus nation with high rate of unemployment, especially after the Asian
economic crises in 1998. This triggers labor migration (Hugo 2007, Firdausy 2006, Ford 2005)
especially for unskilled workers. As of 2010, the stock of emigrants in Indonesia is 2,502.3 thousands.
Comparing to the percentage of the population, stock of emigrants in Indonesia is 1.1 percent of the
whole population. While the top destinations for Indonesian migrant workers are Malaysia, Saudi
Arabia, Singapore, Hong Kong and so on (Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011). While
Indonesian labor migration bring a lot of benefits especially to the country‘s income (see figure 1),
there are several main problems regarding Indonesian labor migration. First is that even though
government encourage and made official programs in sending labor migration abroad, most
prospective workers chose to avoid it. This is because the official government programs are seen to be
troublesome, hard to access and too difficult and expensive. And second, the main problems that is
faced by Indonesian migrant workers are underpayment (overcharging) and abuse especially among,
but not limited to, female migrant workers going to the Middle East (Hugo 2003)
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Figure 1. Migration Remittance (Indonesia)
Source: Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011
Therefore in ensuring the process of labor mobilization that is beneficial not only for the people of
Indonesia, but also for the state, two important points needed to be fulfilled by the policy that is issued
by the state regarding labor migration. First is that the basic rights upon human security should extend
to all migrant workers. These include non-discrimination on the bases of race, color, sex, language,
religion or social origin; the right to life; the prohibition of torture, slavery and servitude, the right to
recognition before the law, and the freedom of thought, conscience and religion. And second, is that it
is also essential for the state to ensure the proper application and interpretation of these rights, in order
to guarantee the rights and fundamental freedoms of migrants are respected in place (Tigno 2003).
Based on this, I will try to analyze and give explanation upon Indonesia‘s current labor migration
policy.
The Evolution of Indonesia’s Labor Migration Policy: From Sending to Placement and
Protection
Before the release of Law No.39/2004 on Placement and Protection upon Indonesian Overseas
Workers, the policies released by the government regarding Indonesian labor migration consists of :1
 Ministerial Decision No. 4/1970 on worker‘s deployment
 Ministerial Decision No. 1/1983 on private company that is in charge of worker‘s deployment
 Ministerial Decision No. 5/1988 on employment between countries, which is extended by
Ministerial Decision No. 1/1991 under the same name
 Ministerial Decision No. 2/1994 on placement of workers inside and outside the country
 Ministerial Decision No. 204/1999 placement of Indonesian overseas workers extended by
Ministerial Decision No. 104/2000 and then extended again by Ministerial Decision No. 104
A/2002 on same issue.
Paying attention to all the policies mention above, we can see that before the release of Law
No.39/2004 policies regarding labor migrations from Indonesia have the same characteristics, that are
first, they only regulates sending of Indonesian migrant workers abroad, while the notion of protection
were never the headline of the issues regarding migrant workers. And second, all the policies
mentioned above came from the ministerial level in the government, so in a sense they are still not as
strong as rules and regulation coming from presidential level. These lacks of protection mechanism
and willingness to protect from the higher level of government then resulted in more demand on
protection coming from workers and migrant labor organizations.
The lack of protection mechanism reached its biggest impact when the Nunukan Case
occurred. In August 2002, Malaysia began mass deporting Indonesian workers as the result of the
implementation of the country‘s Immigration Act (Ford, 2006). By that time, the Indonesian
Consulates in Kota Kinabalu and Tawau cities of East Malaysia registered almost 140,000
1
Copies of laws and government regulations regarding migrant workers can be accessed at
http://www.nakertrans.go.id
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undocumented workers returning home to Indonesia through Nunukan (Ford, 2004). Although the
majority of these deportees were moved to another areas of Indonesia, around 25,000 returnees
remained in the 21 camps set and run by sending companies.In Nunukan, some deportees were housed
in tents or buildings of sending companies, but most constructed shelters, slept in markets, sheds or on
building sites. Here, sanitation and lack of clean water became a major problem (both in camps and
outside them) and resulted in major illness such as breathing problems, fever, dysentery, malaria,
stomach problems, skin diseases, dehydration and anemia. As the end result of this crisis, between
67-70 deportees are reported died2.
Although this was a severe case, the government response was in negligence. Only little serious
effort was made to deal either directly with the crisis or the underlying causes of the crisis3. This
prompted the NGOs dealing with migrant labour to forced governments to take steps in dealing with
situation in Nunukan. Several recommendations were given to government by these NGOs which were
initially ignored by the government. This resulted in the first citizen‘s lawsuit4 in Indonesia filed by
these NGOs to the nine government officials including President Megawati Soekarno Putri in
September 20025.
This severe case is one of the main reason government then decided to enacted the Law No.
39/2004 on placement and protection of Indonesian Overseas Workers. The enactment of this law is a
breakthrough in terms of governments policy in dealing with migrant workers. With the regulation
now in the form of law, governments have rights to give legal sanction to the party that violate this law.
This is a remarkable change from previous regulation that is only on ministerial level, where the
sanction given can only be in the form of administrative sanction (Solidaritas Perempuan, 2010). A
stronger policy instrument is achieved through the implementation of the placement and protection
law.
As reflected on the title, this law is intended to ensure a better placement for Indonesian workers
and, mostly, to provide protection from the government. In a glance, the release of this law is
synchronized with the demand from NGOs and migrant workers. Although in chapter 3 it is stated that
this law was enacted more to give protection towards migrant workers, the clause of protection is
hardly seen in this set of law. Out of 109 chapters included in this set of law, only 8 chapters (chapter
77-84) deal with protection upon migrant workers. 17 chapters deal with placement process with the
addition of 50 chapters dealing with the implementation of placement process
The National Agency of Placement and Protection of Indonesian Overseas Workers (BNP2TKI)
The National Agency of Placement and Protection of Indonesian Overseas Workers
(BNP2TKI) were formed based on the Law No.39/2004 upon placement and protection of Indonesian
Overseas Workers (TKI), through the Presidential Decree No.81/2006 upon placement and protection
of TKI. Under Law No. 39/2004, it is stated that BNP2TKI is an agency who, working together with
2
Palupi and Yasser 2002: 15-16; Purwanto and Kuncoro 2002 Appendix, in Ford, 2006
Purwanto and Kuncoro, 2002 p. 11 in Ford, 2006
4
Citizen lawsuit is proposed by private citizens in order to enforce a statute. Citizen lawsuit can come in three
forms: First, a private citizen can bring a lawsuit against a citizen, corporation, or government body, for engaging
in conduct prohibited by the statute. Second, a private citizen can bring a lawsuit against a government body for
failing to perform a non-discretionary duty, this is the case that happened in Indonesia when citizen‘s lawsuit is
proposed against the Megawati government for failing to response to the humanitarian crisis happened in the
island of Nunukan. And third is citizens may sue for an injunction to abate a potential imminent and substantial
endangerment involving generation, disposal or handling of waste, regardless of whether or not the defendant's
conduct violates a statutory prohibition. Further references on citizen‘s lawsuit can be accessed at
http://www.tulane.edu/~telc/assets/articles/Citz%20Suits%20Teeth-ELR_95.pdf
5
The lists of defendants in this citizen lawsuit includes several government officials at the time of the lawsuit
(September 2002), which are: President Megawati Soekarno Putri, Vice President Hamzah Haz, Coordinating
Minister for People‘s Welfare (Menkokesra) Jusuf Kalla, Minister of Foreign Affairs Hassan Wirajuda, Social
Minister Bachtiar Chamsyah, Minister of Manpower and Transmigration Jacob Nuwa Wea, Health Minister
Achmad Sujudi, Indonesian Ambassador to Malaysia Hadi A. Warayabi Alhadar, and the Directorate General of
Immigration, Ministry of Justice and Human Rights.
3
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other departments in the government, acts as an operator of the rules and regulations regarding TKI
that is issued by Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration. This is the most significant difference that
is stated by this new set of rules. If before the Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration along with
private companies is the one who regulates, coordinates and also acts as an operator of the policies and
rules issued, BNP2TKI was established to take all the tasks except for regulation and supervision,
which is still the task of Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration.
The significant differences brought by BNP2TKI to the dynamics of Indonesian labor
migration are; first, if before the Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration along with private
companies are the one who regulates, coordinates and also acts as an operator of the policies and rules
issued, BNP2TKI was established to take all the tasks except for regulation and supervision, which is
still the task of Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration. Second, BN2TKI is a non-department
government body that has a direct responsibility to President in terms of implementing policies upon
placement and protection of Indonesian migrant workers making it positioned in the same level with
Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration. And third, BNP2TKI acts as a coordinator with other
departments that are responsible for Indonesian labour migration such as the Immigration Department
in terms of passport issuing in departure area and overseas workers special immigration services in
both debarkation and embarkation points. Coordination is also conducted with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, Ministry of Health and with the Indonesian National Police.
In response to the issues and problems faced by migrant workers, several measures have been
taken by BNP2TKI. In terms of salary, BNP2TKI has successfully raised the wages of Indonesian
Overseas Workers by 33.3% in seven Middle Eastern countries (Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Jordan, Bahrain,
UAE, and Saudi Arabia) since 1 August 2007. The wages rose from US$150 to US$ 200 per month in
Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Jordan and Bahrain; from 600 Dirham to 800 Dirham per month in UAE; and
from 600 Real to 800 per month Real in Saudi Arabia6. Furthermore, since July 2007, the minimum
wage of Indonesian workers in Singapore increased from S$280 to S$350 per month, though still
lower than the S$400 per month received by Philippine workers7.
In order to make placement process less difficult BNP2TKI then established the ―One Gate
System‖ that was inspired by the Batam One Gate System that was established during the era of
President Megawati Soekarnoputri as an attempt to regulate the movement of Indonesian Labor
Migration to Singapore. Picking up that concept, in 2008 BNP2TKI then established their own version
of the one gate system under the name of Integrated One-Gate Service System based in Mataram, a
city in the Indonesian province of West Nusa Tenggara for labour migrants originating from this region
(IOM, 2010). The newest project of one gate system is the West Java one gate system established in
2010 with the same project that includes cooperation between BNP2TKI, local offices of Ministry of
Manpower and Transmigration, Ministry of Education‘s Population and Civil Registration, Ministry of
Health, the regional police, and the tax office. This interdepartmental cooperation provides service for
migrant workers that includes passport applications, the management of overseas fiscal exemption
documents, overseas workers identity cards (KTKLN), the work documents to place and protect labour
migrants, insurance, case management, pre-departure briefings and checking the credentials of labour
migrants who are due to depart Indonesia (identity documents, work visas, employment and placement
agreements, work competency certificates and health certificates).
On attempt of protection, the notable measure taken by BNP2TKI is the issuance of Overseas
Workers Identity Card (Kartu Tenaga Kerja Luar Negeri / KTKLN). KTKLN is a smartcard that can
be accessed online both by workers and BNP2TKI that contains all the data on migrant workers
including basic identity such as name, passport number, address and as such; biometric data; workers
6―Upah
TKI di Timur Tengah Naik 33,3%‖ Bisnis Indonesia, 5 July 2007 and ―BNP2TKI Telah Naikkan Upah di 8 Negara‖
Tempo Interaktif, 8 August 2007 on Ananta, A. and Arifin, E. N. ―National Agency of Placement and Protection of
Indonesian Overseas Workers: Marketization of Public Services‖. Paper presented at Regional Symposium on Managing
Labour Migration in East Asia: Policies and Outcomes: Singapore, The ILO and Wee Kim Wee Centre of Singapore
Management University, 16-18 May 2007.
7
―Indonesia Tetapkan Upah Baru Bagi TKI di Singapura‖, Antara News, 16 May 2007 on Ananta, A. and Arifin, E.N. ―National
Agency of Placement and Protection of Indonesian Overseas Workers: Marketization of Public Services‖. Paper presented at
Regional Symposium on Managing Labour Migration in East Asia: Policies and Outcomes: Singapore, The ILO and Wee
Kim Wee Center of Singapore Managemeng University, 16-18 May 2007.
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data that includes the name of sending companies, insurance, worker agreements and as such; and the
data of problems and cases faced by migrant workers in the destination countries8.Unfortunately, based
on the findings of my fieldwork, at the time of writing this manuscript the interdepartmental online
system is still established yet due to the complication of the process9.
Despite the success BNP2TKI has reached in implementing their functions, there are also
challenges that caused BNP2TKI to not be able to fully implement their function in securing
placement and protection for Indonesian migrant workers. The challenges included; first, the
unsynchronized functions of the agency, which tasks are BNP2TKI trying to perform, placement,
protection or evaluation actually need to be more well defined. Second, the lack of clarity and
jurisdiction among the agency and the Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration. And third, the lack
of data and information provided by BNP2TKI as the official agency in providing placement and
protection upon Indonesian migrant workers. Information for migrant workers actually come more
from migrant labor NGOs and organizations.
Evaluation of Placement and Protection: Between Government and Migrant Labor
Organizations
Migrant labour NGOs play a significant role in Indonesian labour migration. Pudjiastuti (2003) on
her work upon roles of NGO in relation to female Indonesian labour migration identifies five major
functions of Indonesian migrant labour NGOs: data collection, provision of assistance, provision of
information and training to migrants, policy advocacy, and raising public awareness 10. Based on
findings of my fieldwork, NGOs indeed play a significant role in the dynamics of labour migration.
Prominent migrant labour NGOs such as Solidaritas Perempuan and KOPBUMI provides yearly
reports, publications, leaflets, information and assistance towards migrant workers11. The latest work
of Solidaritas Perempuan was published in 2010 that focused on the abuse of human rights upon
Indonesian migrant workers based on the cases of women and domestic workers that was handled by
Solidaritas Perempuan throughout the year of 2005-200912. This information is also readily available
for migrant workers and Indonesian people in general, in contrast with the information from the
government that is usually hard to get and not readily available, the lack of information that in the end
leads to more problem faced by Indonesian migrant workers13. Assistance was also provided by
non-NGO migrant labour organizations. SBMI, for example, provides a shelter for troubled migrant
workers in their headquarter in Cipinang, East Jakarta. Assistance provided at this shelter varied from
providing a place to live for troubled migrant workers until they find a way to solve the problems or
return to their hometown, to providing pick up and funeral services for deceased migrant workers
whose body were just sent from their destination countries14.
In analyzing the mechanism of implementation of Law No.39/2004 migrant labor organizations
and NGOs also play a big part. Because of the lack of official mechanism on evaluating the
performance of BNP2TKI, NGOs and labor organization also play a big part in evaluation, while from
the government, the task of evaluating the performance of BNP2TKI has been put to the hand of
BNP2TKI itself. Throughout my fieldwork, I found that the evaluation given by BNP2TKI upon its
own performance on implementing placement and protection is too simplicistic. Moreover, this
8
BNP2TKI. Pelayanan Penempatan TKI Berbasiskan Sistem Informasi (Sistem Pelayanan Penerbitan Kartu Tenaga Kerja
Luar Negeri – SPPKTKLN. Unpublished Report. Jakarta: Placement Section BNP2TKI, 2010.
9
Personal interview with Drs. Arifin Purba, MSi, Preparation and Departure Director, Deputy of Placement, The National
Agency of Placement and Protection of Indonesian Overseas Workers. Jakarta, 23 August 2010.
10
Pudjiastuti, T. N. ―The Changing Roles of NGOs in Relation to Female Indonesian Labor Migration‖. Asian and Pacific
Migration Journal, Volume 12, No. 1-2 (2003): pp. 189-207
11
Personal interview by the author with with Thaufiek Zulbahary of Solidaritas Perempuan. Jakarta, 6 September 2010
12Solidaritas Perempuan. Menguak Pelanggaran Hak Asasi Buruh Migran Indonesia: Catatan Penanganan Kasus BMP-PRT
Solidaritas Perempuan 2005-2009. Jakarta: Solidaritas Perempuan, 2010.
13
Further information upon the linkage of information and exploitation of Indonesian migrant workers can be found on Hugo,
G. (2003) ‗Information, Exploitation, and Empowerment: The Case of Indonesian Overseas Workers‘ in Asian and Pacific
Migration Journal, 12 (4):pp. 439-467.
14
Personal interview by the author with Muchamad Chairul Hadi of SBMI, 3 September 2010. During the interview that was
conducted in the headquarter of SBMI, a body of deceased migrant worker just arrived in Soekarno-Hatta International
Airport and SBMI was arranging picking up and burial for the deceased.
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evaluation is also only available for inside BNP2TKI, while people still do not have access to the
result of evaluation. A more comprehensive and vast evaluation of placement and protection is
provided by migrant labour organizations. Based on the fieldwork conducted around
August-September 2010, it was found that from BNP2TKI the evaluation upon placement and
protection come in form of interim reports, that was divided into two main sections, placement and
returning data15. The nature of this report is interim, making it not accessible to public, while actually,
in the spirit of good governance, evaluation upon government‘s policy should be accountable to the
public. This government interim report also only covered workers that go through the official overseas
contract work system provided by government for migrant workers while actually, as stated by Hugo
(2003) many of migrant workers who leave the country actually avoid this system because it is too
time consuming, cumbersome, expensive, and often involves traveling long distances from their home
to be processed and spending long periods there before being deployed overseas. Hence the level of
undocumented overseas labor migration is high16. Moreover, the category of success/unsuccessful in
implementing placement and protection upon migrant workers is too simplicistic, as seen on the table
below:
Table 1: Indonesian Overseas Workers – Returning Data
Year
2007 (%)
2008 (%)
2009 (%)
Completion of Contracts
209,765 (72)
279,864 (82)
292,456 (83)
On Leave
26,608 (9)
16,132 (5)
15,477 (4)
Non-Completion of Contracts
54,537 (19)
45,403 (13)
44,742 (13)
TOTAL
290,910 (100)
341,339 (100)
325,675 (100)
(Source: Yearly Report of Sub-Directorate Returning, Unpublished Report, BNP2TKI 2010, Appendixes)
Reasons
According to BNP2TKI, there are two classifications of returned migrants. Returned migrants
are considered successful and not in trouble if they manage to finished their contracts no matter in
what conditions they finished that contract, while the category of troubled migrants are migrants that
cannot complete their 2-3 years work contract17. Based on those classifications, BNP2TKI evaluated
themselves as a successful agency in implementing placement and protection towards migrant
workers.
In contrast with the simplicity provided by the government, migrant labour NGOs and
organizations provided vast evaluation towards placement and protection policy. KOPBUMI, for
example, provided legal analysis on Law No.39/2004 on placement and protection of TKI that
provides extensive analysis on legal aspect of Law No.39, from the bases that construct the making of
the law until the substantial analysis of the law18.
Solidaritas Perempuan (2010) also gives evaluation upon placement and protection policy and
BNP2TKI. Seven main points are highlighted as weaknesses on placement and protection policy 19:
first, upon the fact that this law puts too much attention on placement, making the protection aspect
somehow left unattended. Second, this law fall into the category of economics law, that shows how the
state see migrant workers as trade commodity, not as citizen that needs to be protected. Third, this law
is not based on principals and values stated in the United Nation Convention on Protection of Migrant
Workers and Their Families (1990) as the basic convention that regulate labour migration. Fourth this
law does not have a clear case handling mechanism.
Fifth, the procedure and mechanism of data collection of migrant workers does not regulated
15
BNP2TKI. Data Penempatan 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 (Januari-Juni). Unpublished Report. Jakarta: BNP2TKI, 2010.
Hugo, G. ―Information, Exploitation, and Empowerment: The Case of Indonesian Overseas Workers‖. Asian and Pacific
Migration Journal Vol. 12, No. 4 (2003): pp. 441-442.
17
BNP2TKI. Laporan Kegiatan Edisi 2007-2009, Januari-Juni 2010 Sub. Direktorat Pemulangan. Unpublished Report.
Jakarta: BNP2TKI, 2010.
16
18
KOPBUMI, Legal Analisis Undang-Undang No. 39/Tahun 2004 Penempatan dan Perlindungan Tenaga Kerja
Indonesia di Luar Negeri. Jakarta: KOPBUMI, 2005.
19
Solidaritas Perempuan. Menguak Pelanggaran Hak Asasi Buruh Migran Indonesia: Catatan Penanganan Kasus
BMP-PRT Solidaritas Perempuan 2005-2009. Jakarta: Solidaritas Perempuan, 2010, pp. 100-101.
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in this rule yet, making it more difficult to handle cases because of difficulties in communication. Sixth,
the conflict between BNP2TKI and Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration that happened because
there is no jurisdiction clarity between these two departments on this law. And last, this law does not
specifically acknowledge the existence of domestic workers (pembantu rumah tangga) working abroad
despite the fact that there are quite high number of Indonesian migrant labour abroad work as domestic
workers.
The most extensive and recent evaluation upon placement and protection was given by
Jaringan Advokasi Revisi UU 39/2004 tentang Penempatan dan Perlindungan TKI (JARI-PPTKLN,
Advocacy Networks for the Revision of Law No. 39/2004 on Placement and Protection of Indonesian
Overseas Workers) is a coalition of migrant labour NGOs and organizations that focusing in providing
information through focus group discussions and throughout migrant networking in relation to the
revision demand of Law No. 39/200420. These awareness and advocacy campaign are the first steps
taken by NGO framing the problem to a larger political issue (Shigetomi, 2002) with the revision of
Law No.39/2004 as their destination point. Through the evaluation Law No.39/2004 in all three stages
of migration, the networks then conclude 4 points that need to be put into consideration in the revision
of Law No.39, which are; 1) the need of clear mechanism of placement, should it be done by the
government or private sectors; 2) the mechanism on the role of people of Indonesia in general from
recruitment until reintegration; 3) to change the role and function of BNP2TKI, from placement and
protection to evaluation and protection; and 4) to provide clear mechanism upon the existence of
special terminal for migrant workers in the airport21
Conclusion
Labor migration has become an important entity in Indonesia. Remittances and bigger chances of
employment have become main factors that boost labor migration from Indonesia to several
destination areas. Despite of the benefits labor migration brings to Indonesia, mistreatments, abuses,
and exploitations are the realities that have to be faced by Indonesian migrant workers. These constant
threats upon the safety of migrant workers has led to the outcries from civil society organizations and
Indonesian general public about safety concerns for migrant workers from these mistreatments, abuses
and exploitations. These outcries have then lead to government policy that regulates labour migration
and in turn improves the quality of life for Indonesian migrant workers.
This study has analyzed how the government has attempted to accommodate Indonesian
labour migration through its policies. Using the enactment of Law No. 39/2004 on placement and
protection of Indonesian overseas workers and its implementation through BNP2TKI as its main focus,
this study analyzed the interaction between demands from public and the government‘s efforts to
answer those demands. In the beginning, this study provided description on how, prior the release of
Law No. 39/2004, the government policy towards labour migration focused only on the deployment of
migrant workers. This raised concern from civil society groups and Indonesian public in general and
prompted them to pressure the government in establishing policy that put more concern on protection
upon migrant workers rather than just deployment. These movements and outcries then resulted in the
enactment of Law No.39/2004 on placement and protection. Although in a glance the enactment of
Law no. 39/2004 seemed like an answer to protection of migrant workers, it still raises concern from
public in general as it still focusing more on placement rather than protection.
In conclusion, to answer the question of whether placement and protection policy has
effectively address the main problem of Indonesian labour migration or not, we ought to expand our
way of thinking. In a traditional and over-simplify way of thinking, we can simply conclude that
placement and protection policy is inefficient because it does not answer the main demand of migrant
workers, protection. However, we have to also see that despite its inability yet to provide a genuine
protection mechanism towards Indonesian migrant workers, the establishment of this policy has
become the evident how government‘s has raised the issues of better placement and protection to its
20
21
Personal interview by the author with Muchamad Chairul Hadi of SBMI. Jakarta, 3 September 2010.
JARI-PPTKLN. Kondisi Penempatan dan Perlindungan TKI di bawah UU No.39 tahun 2004 tentang
Penempatan dan Perlindungan TKI. Unpublished Reports on Focus Group Discussion. Jakarta: JARI-PPTKLN,
2010.
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concern rather than just deployment. This change also successfully addressed some concern of
Indonesian migrant workers such as salary improvement. However, with the amount of problems still
faced by migrant workers even after the establishment of the policy and the new agency, somehow
placement and protection of migrant workers somehow is still seen as rhetorical. In reality, the
supposed new programs and promises towards better placement and protection is still more oriented
towards using migration as a solution for the country‘s economic and employment program. More than
creation of new agency and specialized government positions, what is urgently needed is reevaluation
of the country‘s labour migration program that put more attention on long term economic development,
better organization of governmental cooperation, and a genuine mechanism to protect Indonesian
migrant workers. In the end, although it has not yet achieved its main goal yet, the need of termination
of the whole policy does not exist. However, adjustments are needed in order to achieve the genuine
migrant program reform and long term economic development for Indonesia.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In completing this work, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Motoko Shuto from the
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba; BNP2KI; KOMNAS
Perempuan; Solidaritas Perempuan; and Serikat Buruh Migran Indonesia.
References
[1] Ananta, A. and Arifin, E. N. ―National Agency of Placement and Protection of Indonesian
Overseas Workers: Marketization of Public Services‖. Paper presented at Regional Symposium
on Managing Labor Migration in East Asia: Policies and Outcomes: Singapore, The ILO and
Wee Kim Wee Centre of Singapore Management University, 16-18 May 2007.
[2] Ball, R. and Piper, N. ―Trading Labor-Trading Rights: The Regional Dynamics of Rights
Recognition for Migrant Workers in the Asia-Pacific‖. In Transnational Migration and Work in
Asia, Hewison, K. and Young, K (eds.). New York: Routledge, 2006.
[3] BNP2TKI. Data Penempatan 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 (Januari-Juni). Unpublished Report.
Jakarta: BNP2TKI, 2010.
[4] BNP2TKI. Laporan Kegiatan Edisi 2007-2009, Januari-Juni 2010 Sub. Direktorat Pemulangan.
Unpublished Report. Jakarta: BNP2TKI, 2010.
[5] BNP2TKI. Pelayanan Penempatan TKI Berbasiskan Sistem Informasi (Sistem Pelayanan
Penerbitan Kartu Tenaga Kerja Luar Negeri – SPPKTKLN. Unpublished Report. Jakarta:
Placement Section BNP2TKI, 2010.
[6] Firdausy, C. M. ―Indonesian Labor Migration after the 1997-98 Asian Economic and Financial
Crisis‖. In Mobility, Labor Migration and Border Controls in Asia, A.Kaur and Metcalfe, I
(eds.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
[7] Ford, M. ―Organizing the Unorganizable: Unions, NGOs, and Indonesian Migrant Labor‖.
International Migration, Volume 42, No. 5 (2004): pp. 99-119.
[8] Ford, M. Migrant Labor in Southeast Asia, Country Study: Indonesia. Unpublished Report.
Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (FES) Project on Migrant Labor in Southeast Asia, 2005.
[9] Ford, M., ―After Nunukan: The Regulation of Indonesian Migration to Malaysia,‖. In Mobility,
Labor Migration and Border Controls in Asia, A.Kaur and Metcalfe, I. (eds.). Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
[10] Hugo, G. ―Information, Exploitation, and Empowerment: The Case of Indonesian Overseas
Workers‖. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal Vol. 12, No. 4 (2003): pp. 439-467.
[11] Hugo, G. Indonesia‟s Labor Looks Abroad. Migration Information Source: April, 2007.
Retrieved from http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/print/cfm?ID=594
[12] International Organization for Migration. Labor Migration from Indonesia: An Overview of
Indonesian Migration to Selected Destinations in Asia and the Middle East. International
Organization for Migration Report. IOM, 2010.
[13] JARI-PPTKLN. Kondisi Penempatan dan Perlindungan TKI di bawah UU No.39 tahun 2004
tentang Penempatan dan Perlindungan TKI. Unpublished Reports on Focus Group Discussion.
Jakarta: JARI-PPTKLN, 2010.
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[14] KOPBUMI, Legal Analisis Undang-Undang No. 39/Tahun 2004 Penempatan dan Perlindungan
Tenaga Kerja Indonesia di Luar Negeri. Jakarta: KOPBUMI, 2005.
[15] Manning, C. ―Structural Change, Economic Crisis and International Labor Migration in East
Asia‖. World Economy Vol. 25, No. 3 (2002): pp. 359-384.
[16] Pudjiastuti, T. N. ―The Changing Roles of NGOs in Relation to Female Indonesian Labor
Migration‖. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, Volume 12, No. 1-2 (2003): pp. 189-207.
[17] Silvey, R. ―Transnational Domestication: State Power and Indonesian Migrant Women in Saudi
Arabia‖. Political Geography, Volume 23 (2004): pp. 245-264.
[18] Solidaritas Perempuan. Menguak Pelanggaran Hak Asasi Buruh Migran Indonesia: Catatan
Penanganan Kasus BMP-PRT Solidaritas Perempuan 2005-2009. Jakarta: Solidaritas
Perempuan, 2010.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOMENT UNDER GLOBALIZATION REGIME
Kumar Das
Vice Chancellor , FM University, Balasore, India 756020
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
The pragmatism of modernization of 21st century has generated an over optimism around the
globe. It has created an atmosphere of excitement of instant economic growth. It is being projected
throughout the globe, as an impetus having no alternative. It is being regarded substantively as the
growing interdependence and interconnectedness of the world that is the part of the logic of modernity.
It is expected to create unprecedented new opportunities for rapid economic development. In fact all
sectors of developing countries seem to be vibrating with economic buoyancy. It has generated an
atmosphere of excitement of instant economic growth. There is expansion of trade, investment, market,
and increase in GNP, productivity, per capita income, profit, efficiency, salary etc. across the globe.
Life style of metro people in developing countries has become more attractive, comfortable and
fashionable than ever before. But the new emerging world economic order poses a great challenge for
the environment. There is acid raining, global warming, greenhouse effect, erosion and sterility of soil,
degradation of land, environmental pollution of water and air, ozone layer depletion ecological
imbalances, frequent recurrence of natural calamities and instability in the coastal ecosystem.
Therefore the
concern for sustainable development has become very serious.
Sustainable development is an eclectic concept, as a wide array of views fall under its umbrella. There
may be as many definitions of sustainability and sustainable development. All the definitions have to
do with:
 Living within the limits
 Understanding the interconnections among economy, society, and environment
 Equitable distribution of resources and opportunities
Sustainable development involves the simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity,
environmental quality and social equity. "Sustainable community development is the ability to make
development choices which respect the relationship between the three "E's"-economy, ecology, and
equity:
 Economy - Economic activity should serve the common good, be self-renewing, and build
local assets and self-reliance.
 Ecology - Humans are part of nature, nature has limits, and communities are responsible for
protecting and building natural assets.
 Equity - The opportunity for full participation in all activities, access, benefits, and
decision-making of a society.
The figure-1 illustrates all three dimensions of sustainable development.
Sustainable
development cannot ignore any of the three. If we ignore the social dimension, the development
process may be viable, if we ignore the environmental dimension, development process may be
equitable and if we ignore the environmental dimension, the development process may be bearable, but
not sustainable. In other words the search for equity(a) neglects environmental aspects, and the search
for viability(b) neglects social dimension and search for bearability(c) ignores economic efficiency.
Thus sustainable development process is that trajectory which is the synergy of efficiency, equity and
social acceptability.
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a
Equitable
Economy
Society
Sustainable
b
c
Viable
Bearable
Environment
Figure-1 :
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable development shows a compassionate concern for the posterity and for the world as
a whole. It contends that social development, environmental soundness and economic growth are not
contradictory or incompatible. Healthy Environment and goos society are rather prerequisites for
sustainable development. Sustainable Development is based on a broader economic system which
fulfils inter-generational equity criteria. Its objectives are focused on future not present, quality not
quantity, protection not production, conservation not consumption.
Sustainability implies irreversibility in the process of development. It necessitates the
maintenance of the level of well-being so that it improves, but at least never allows a decline through
time. Thus sustainable development has three interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars:
economic development, social development, and environmental protection. It does not focus solely on
environmental issues. We should differentiate between green development and sustainable
development . The proponents of green development prioritizes environmental sustainability over
economic and cultural considerations. But cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as
biodiversity is for nature. It is one of the roots of development understood not simply in terms of
economic growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory social, intellectual, emotional,
moral and spiritual existence. In this sense, cultural diversity is the fourth policy area of sustainable
development. Developing countries are not only rich in biodiversity but also in cultural diversity. In
Fig.2 illustrates the path of sustainable development. It shows that Path N is non-sustainable and
non-survivable. Development path E is efficient but non-sustainable. But path S is sustainable. Path E
looks more attractive but Path S is not impressive in the early stage. Path-E has a maximum point after
which it curls down. But path-S is slow and steady ,having no maximum.
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S
Y
Well being
E
Minimum Survivable Limit
N
O
Time
X
Fig. 2: Sustainable Development Path
Sustainability is related to the quality of life in a community -- whether the economic, social
and environmental systems that make up the community are providing a healthy, productive,
meaningful life for all community residents, present and future. It involves following three questions:
 How has your community changed economically?
 How has your community changed socially?
 How has your community changed environmentally?
Thus the field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three constituent
parts: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and sociopolitical sustainability. Sustainable
development integrates the imperatives of developmentalism and environmentalism. It highlights the long term
doomsday scenario and puts emphasis on economic, social and ecological integration. It has three objectives :
i. Economic efficiency,
ii. Social acceptability and
iii. Ecological sustainability
Sustainability is an issue for all communities, from small rural villages that are losing the
natural environment upon which their livelihoods depend, to large metropolitan areas where crime and
poverty are decreasing the quality of life. Sustainability does not mean static equilibrium that nothing
ever changes. Nor does it mean utopia, that nothing bad ever happens. Sustainability is not about
maintaining the status quo or reaching perfection. It is not a community where nothing ever goes
wrong. Sustainability does not mean that businesses never fail or that people never go hungry or that
pollution never happens .A sustainable development process seeks to maintain and improve the
economic, environmental and social characteristics of an area so that its members can continue to lead
healthy, productive, enjoyable lives at present and in future. Sustainability implies that when
problems arise, we look for solutions that take into account all three parts of the community instead of
applying a quick fix in one area that causes problems in another. It is not antigrowth nor it implies
unlimited growth. Rather at some point, a sustainable community stops getting larger but continues to
change and improve, to develop in ways that enhance the quality of life for all its inhabitants.
Sustainable development improves the economy without undermining the society or the environment.
Sustainable development focuses on improving our lives without continually increasing the amount of
energy and material goods that we consume. A sustainable community does not consume resources
energy and raw materials faster than the regenerative capacity of the natural systems . We are
currently living unsustainable lives. If we are not careful how we use and dispose of resources, our
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children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren will have a poorer, more polluted world to live in.
A sustainable community interacts with four types of capital: natural, human, and social and
built capital. All four types of capital need to be cared for, nurtured and improved over time in order to
continually improve the quality of life of all its inhabitants. To invest capital is to manage it in a way
that improves its value, so that the capital provides benefits now and in the future. When you invest
monetary capital, you earn interest so the value of that capital grows. When you invest in natural or
social capital, its value also grows, but in ways much harder to measure:
 Educating children, providing preventive health care, eating right, getting plenty of exercise,
training workers, and developing peaceful relations with other nations are all examples of
investing in human and social capital.
 Preserving prime farmlands and wetlands, preventing pollution, using resources no faster than
they are renewed, and managing wastes in ecologically sound ways are all examples of
investing in natural capital.
When a child grows up hungry and uneducated or a wetland is paved over, our community
capital is degraded. A sustainable community wisely manages all its capital -- using and improving the
social, natural and built capital in ways that allow that capital to continue to support that community in
the future. Living off the interest of community capital is one way to live with in the limits of
carrying capacity. Living within the limits of an ecosystem depends on three factors:
 the amount of resources available in the ecosystem,
 the size of the population, and
 the amount of resources each individual is consuming.
A simple example of carrying capacity is the number of people who could survive in a lifeboat
after a shipwreck. Their survival depends on how much food and water they have, how much each
person eats and drinks each day, and how many days they are afloat. Similarly, food and water are the
natural capital of the island. Living within the carrying capacity means using those supplies no faster
than they are replenished by the island's environment: using the 'interest' income of the natural capital.
A community that is living off the interest of its community capital is living within the carrying
capacity. A community that is degrading or destroying the ecosystem on which it depends is using up
its community capital and is living unsustainably. Equally important to community sustainability is
living within the carrying capacity of the community's human, social and built capital. Carrying
capacity is much harder to measure for these types of capital, but the basic concept is the same. For
example:
 A community that allows its children to be poorly educated, undernourished, and poorly
housed is eroding its human capital.
 A community that allows the quality of its social interactions to decline through lack of trust,
respect, and tolerance is eroding its social capital.
 A community that allows its buildings, roads, parks, power facilities, water facilities,
and waste processing capability to decay is eroding its built capital.
So, in the context of sustainability, carrying capacity is the size of the population that can be
supported indefinitely upon the available resources and services of supporting natural, social, human,
and built capital. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at
which they can be replenished naturally. An "unsustainable situation" occurs when natural capital (the
sum total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. Inherently the concept of
sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. In fact natural capital,
social capital and economic capital are often complementarities.
Development cannot subsist upon a deteriorating resource base and social values . Therefore
Development process should be less "energy-intensive" and more sensitive to environmental impacts
and social parameters.. No country, no economic agent should be allowed to exploit its comparative
advantage in producing any energy-intensive or pollution-intensive goods or do any thing at the
cost of educational and health status of the society. Thus there is urgent need to develop an
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‗ecosystem approach‘ or inter generational approach to the management of natural capital and social
capital. Ultimately an ecosystem approach tends to evolve a change from a consumptive economy to
an economy oriented towards conservation, maintenance of capital stock and recycling of materials.
It can only ensure a sound and sustainable balance between a productive environment and a protective
environment. Ecosystem approach is not anti-life. Its fundamental objective is total wellbeing of the
society now and in the future. The welfare of the individual is ultimately dependent upon the
viability of the life-supporting system. Impoverishment of an ecosystem means impoverishment of
the entire society dependent upon it. Thus ecosystem approach is a compassionate concern for the
posterity and for the planet as a whole. Mere economic growth is not enough in bringing welfare to
the mankind. Man is an organic being, whose total development depends to a large extent on the
non-economic, sociological, psychological factors and on a meaningful sustainable balance between
him and his environment(social and natural) in which he lives. There should be an organic growth of
the entire environment. The man is only a part of the whole. Therefore, an inter-disciplinary
approach or holistic approach in planning is sine qua non for the sustainable development of the
economy.
There are many contradictions and inconsistencies in the goal of sustainable development. It
poses a great dilemma and great challenge. Confronting the challenge is very costly but not
facing the challenge is really disastrous for the whole society. Therefore the idea of sustainable
development should be less idealistic and more practical. The Sustainable development should
reconcile the ‗need to produce‘ and the ‗need to protect‘. At theoretical level there is large
agreements but at practical level there is large gaps. Therefore we need to outline a series of
"strategic imperatives," inherent in the concept of sustainable development. We do not have to choose
between an environmentally healthy and economically robust nation. Both are compatible. We can
have both. We are intelligent enough, have the ability to develop enough new technologies, and can
change our behaviors enough to confront all the problems facing us and create the optimal solutions. We
have to wake up. We should recognize the dangers of an over governance and over commitment of
public sector and over exploitation of resources by the private sector. Thus in order to achieve
sustainable development two sets of policies are warranted: harnessing the positive links and
breaking the negative links. This is possible through :
i) Improving information base
ii) Changing Institutional Setup
iii) Involving/empowering local People
Reference:
[1] Das Kumar 2009, Sustainable Development, Reference House, New Delhi
[2] Das, Kumar (2000) Development Through Decentralization, Discovery Pub. House , New Delhi
[3] Gupta, S P (2006)Globalisation, Economic Reforms and Employment Strategy in India,
Academic Foundation, Delhi , 276 P
[4] Hanumantha Rao, C , B B Bhattacharya , N S Siddharthan (2005) Indian Economy and Society in
the Era of Globalisation , Academic Foundation, Delhi, 439p
[5] Nayyar, Deepak(ed) (1997) Industrial Growth and Stagnation, Oxford University Press
[6] New Delhi
[7] Radhakrishna, R. S.K. Rao, S. Mahendra Dev and K. Subbarao (2006) India in a Globalising
World, Academic Foundation, Delhi , 528p
[8] Rangaranjan C (2002) Economic Reforms: Some issues and Concerns, The Indian Economic
Journal, Vol.49(2) Dec.
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INVESTIGATING POLITICAL BUDGET CYCLE
(CASE STUDY IN CENTRAL JAVA-INDONESIA)
Sandy Juli Maulana, Amelia Gita Tifani, Jessica Hardiani
Faculty of Economics and Business, Diponegoro University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The executives who propose to the next election (Incumbent) has specific advantageous on
allocating the resources to their self interest. The aim of this study is investigating the presence of
opportunistic electoral budget cycles in Central Java and also the inclination of Region‘s budgetary
exploiting to the election. Multiple regression model will be use to examining the data that has 1
dependent variable which is the fiscal data includes central government total revenue, total expenditure,
financial aid expenditure, and social aid expenditure and the independent variables such as politic
which is using dummy variable from election results, macro economic that can be seen on inflation
and the economic growth. The result is showing that there is no the result of analysis showing that the
fiscal numbers has tendency to increase drastically not significant. That things not yet fully show the
presence of opportunistic behavior from fiscal policy but that tendency is direct to the opportunistic
behavior.
Keywords: election, opportunistic electoral budget cycles, Central Java, multiple regression, fiscal
policy
INTRODUCTION
Based on Law of Republic Indonesia Number 3 of 2004, concerning Regional government,
the chief of Regional government is chosen by the society directly on the Election. Since the election
that held on 2005, 467 elections has been held to vote the executives in 33 provinces, 352 regency, and
83 cities.
But the election also where the significant political budget cycles are seen to be primarily a
phenomenon of the first elections after the transition to a democratic electoral system (Drazen, 2005).
The political budget cycle literature argues that incumbent governments may use expansionary
economic policies prior to elections to influence voters and maximize chances of re-election. (Faal,
2007). It is happened when the executives who going to end their period and will propose to the next
election, the revenue and expenditure potentially to be exploited and will automatically increasing the
numbers.
The executives who propose to the next election (Incumbent) has specific advantageous on
allocating the resources. According to Government Regulation Republic of Indonesia Number 58 of
2005, as the authority holder of governance finance, the executives has authority including establish
Regional Revenue and Expenditure Budget. By those authorities, incumbent has big opportunity to
spend the budgets on expenditure to their self interest. Moreover it is supported by the
decentralization systems that allowed the executives of region manage the governance finance for their
own region as explained on Law of Republic Indonesia Number 32 of 2004.
There are several conjectures toward political budget cycle practice in Central Java Indonesia.
Some anecdotal evidence that found on Regional Revenue and Expenditure Budget said there is a
drastically increase on government spending on a year before election held and the number of
government spending was drastically decrease when the election has passed.
The aim of this study is investigating the presence of opportunistic electoral budget cycles in
Central Java and also the inclination of Region‘s budgetary exploiting to the election. Multiple
regression model will be use on this paper to examining the data that has 1 dependent variable which is
the fiscal data includes central government total revenue, total expenditure, financial aid expenditure,
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and social aid expenditure and 4 independent variables such as politic which is using dummy variable
from election results, macro economic that can be seen on inflation and the economic growth,
administration and the legal which assumed on constant rate.
Equations
yt =  + Elect t + Inflation + Econ.Growth + 
Figures and tables
Figure 1. Total Expenditure
Figure 2. Total Revenue.
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(1)
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Table 1. Correlation Result
Total Revenue
Total
Expenditure
(1)
(2)
Total Expenditure
(without Cost of
Election)
(3)
-0,641
-0,490
Inflation
-0,46
Economic
Growth
0.631
Political
Variable
(Election,
Dummy)
Social
Expenditure
Financial Aid
Expenditure
(4)
(5)
-0,533
-0,054
-0,306
-0,285
-0,285
0,056
-0,081
0,420
0,510
-0,451
0,206
Table 2. Regression Estimation Result
Total Revenue
Total
Expenditure
Total
Expenditure
(without Cost of
Election)
Social
Expendiure
Financial Aid
Expenditure
Political Variable
(Election,
Dummy)*
0,087
(-90188.8)
0,124
(-157927.7)
0,072
(-143832.6)
0,992
(401.7)
0,098
(-216416.1)
Inflation*
0,358
(32150.2)
0,313
(69653.6)
0,126
(82846.7)
0,729
(-9716.7)
0,130
(139963.6)
Economic
Growth*
0,165
(120320.1)
0,434
(130459.3)
0,167
(180733.7)
0,137
(-109884.7)
0,585
(98149.6)
F-test
0,015
2,153
3,607
0,920
1,367
R2
0,419
0,301
0,303
0,216
0,272
Durbin-Watson
2.592
2,279
2,541
2,813
2,401
*Significant and Coefficients
References
[1] Faal, Ebrima, 2007. Political Budget Cycles in Papua New Guinea , Working Paper, IMF
[2] Citrawati, Fitri, 2009. Political Budget Cycles Based on Society‟s Interest, Working Paper,
Brawijaya University
[3] Lema, Daniel, 2008. Conditional Political Budget Cycles in Argentine Provinces, Working Paper,
Universidad del CEMA
[4] Drazen, Allan and Adi Brender, 2005. Political Budget Cycles. Journal of Monetary Economics,
pp. 1271-1295
[5] Bank of Indonesia, 2006. Quarterly Review of Regional Economic. Avalaible
online:http://www.bi.go.id/web/id/DIBI/Info_Publik/Ekonomi_Regional/KER/Jateng/default.htm
?Page=1&Year=2006 (accessed on 30th July).
[6] Bank of Indonesia, 2007. Quarterly Review of Regional Economic. Avalaible
online:http://www.bi.go.id/web/id/DIBI/Info_Publik/Ekonomi_Regional/KER/Jateng/default.htm
?Page=1&Year=2007 (accessed on 30th July).
[7] Bank of Indonesia, 2008. Quarterly Review of Regional Economic. Avalaible
online:http://www.bi.go.id/web/id/DIBI/Info_Publik/Ekonomi_Regional/KER/Jateng/default.htm
?Page=1&Year=2008 (accessed on 30th July).
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[8] Bank of Indonesia, 2009. Quarterly Review of Regional Economic. Avalaible
online:http://www.bi.go.id/web/id/DIBI/Info_Publik/Ekonomi_Regional/KER/Jateng/default.htm
?Page=1&Year=2009 (accessed on 30th July).
[9] Bank of Indonesia, 2010. Quarterly Review of Regional Economic. Avalaible
online:http://www.bi.go.id/web/id/DIBI/Info_Publik/Ekonomi_Regional/KER/Jateng/default.htm
?Page=1&Year=2010 (accessed on 30th July).
[10] Bank of Indonesia, 2011. Quarterly Review of Regional Economic. Avalaible
online:http://www.bi.go.id/web/id/DIBI/Info_Publik/Ekonomi_Regional/KER/Jateng/default.htm
?Page=1&Year=2011 (accessed on 30th July).
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THE JAPANESE MEDICINE TRADERS
IN NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES 1900S-1910S
1
Meta Sekar Puji Astuti*
Graduate School of Human Relations, Keio University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper analyzes the activities of the Japanese trading community in the Netherlands East
Indies (NEI) prior to 1942, specifically focusing on Japanese medicine traders during 1900s-1910s,
and placing it in the context of the long relationships between the Netherlands, Japan and Indonesia
(NEI).
From the early 1900s until the late 1930s, Japanese commercial communities increased
significantly and in the beginning of 1940s, they were already spread throughout the archipelago, most
of them related to toko Jepang (Japanese shop in Indonesian) business. The first wave of Japanese
immigrant had been dominated by women who served as prostitutes in the 1890s. Later, the ratio of
women in Japanese communities decreased as male medicine traders arrived. Since the Japanese press,
exaggerated the Japanese economic expansion into Southeast Asia and the influx of these medicine
traders, the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) government became suspicious. As a result, the central
government ordered local governments to monitor their activities. From the early 1900s until the late
1930s, Japanese commercial communities increased dramatically. In the beginning of 1940s, they were
spread throughout the archipelago. Lastly, these communities vanished before the outbreak of World
War II, and the context changed dramatically with the Japanese military occupation of the Netherlands
Indies from 1942.
The aims of this paper are: 1) to analyze the historical background and trading activities of the
Japanese medicine traders in the NEI 2) to analyze the activities of Japanese medicine traders and their
relations with local people 3) to analyze the monitoring and controlling of the NEI government with
respect to Japanese traders. To complete this analysis this paper also provides the results of the secret
missions from 28 NEI regional governments, which were initiated in response to instructions in a
confidential mission letter from the first secretary of the NEI government, E. Moresco, to observe
Japanese medicine traders in NEI.
Keywords: Japanese medicine traders, Netherlands East Indies, Japanese commercial communities,
toko Jepang, prewar Indonesia
INTRODUCTION
The modern history of Japan-Indonesia's relations can be traced back to the late of the nineteenth
century. Up to about the outbreak of World War II, about 6500 people of Japanese immigrants were
present. Large scale of Japanese immigrants during the prewar period in Netherlands East Indies/NEI
(present Indonesia) was starting by ‗improper trades‘ such as prostitutes, pimps and gamblers (Yano
2009; Astuti 2008; Post 1991; 1993). In this stage, the Japanese population in NEI dominated by
women who were karayuki-san, prostitutes-based profession women. They came mostly from
impoverished agricultural villages in Shimabara peninsula and Amakusa, Nagasaki prefecture
(Shimizu 1991). Later, for economic reasons, in the middle of Meiji Era (1890s) the males' traders,
most of them, who came with low capital. It was different with Japanese immigrants who settled in
Hawaii and South America which supported by Japanese government, Japanese immigrant, who went
to Southeast Asia (Southern) usually initiated by their own motivations. Firstly, most of them were
peddlers‘ traders. After several hardship years later, they opened small retailer store (usually named as
toko Jepang, which means Japanese shop in Indonesian) in throughout NEI as traders' immigrant
status (Shimizu 1991).
According to Shimizu Karayuki-san played an important role of helping in introducing Japanese
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products to Southeast Asia markets (Shimizu 1991: 41). Besides karayuki-san, the Japanese peddlers
also laid important foundation for Japanese economic expansion in the next years later (Shimizu 1991;
Astuti 2008; Post 1991; 1996). In the early twentieth century, Japanese company began to expand their
economic activities in NEI. It was different with previous phase, which dominated by small-scale
traders, chuzain or the big company (zaibatsu) representatives, seized the domination.
In 1909, Mitsui Bussan commenced their branch in Surabaya. In the 1910s, Japanese
government established the Japanese consul in Medan, Surabaya and Makassar. In addition, Japanese
schools were also inaugurated in several cities in NEI. Several Japanese newspapers published, and
Japanese community association (Nihonjinkai) took an important role. However, in 1940s ‗Greater
East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere' plans started to be implemented by Japanese government. In
consequences, Japanese military government took over the authority of NEI. In 1942, as the beginning
of World War II, Japanese communities became extinct. The rest of Japanese communities who were
still in NEI caught by Netherlands government police officers and expelled them to Loveday (Tatura
camp), Australia.
This paper discusses one part of Japanese trading communities' history in prewar Indonesia.
The period discusses in this paper is focusing from the 1900s to the 1910s period. During this period is
the first phase of the life and activities of Japanese immigrant, particularly Japanese medicines' trader.
At the same time, it was also the transformation period from improper traders (karayuki-san, gamblers
and pimp) to the representatives of proper trader's community.
There were two kinds of Japanese medicine commercial activities' type in this period. First
type was peddlers, which sold goods by carrying their goods and went round a village one village after
another. The second one can be said a static type, such as operated a shop (Post 1991:167). This paper
is, tend to focus on discussing the peddlers‘ activities. These peddlers sold patent medicines but also
match, yarn, comb; traditional daily needs, including sundry goods, drapers‘, and shop hairdresser
(Shimizu 1991: 41). They put their goods into the box and carrying from a village to another village.
These shops/ peddlers initially supplied for karayuki-san, but soon their customers also began to
include another Japanese as well as the karayuki-san's regular customers. Lastly, local residents
utilized them as well (Shimizu 1991: 41; Astuti: 2008; Yano: 2009). In this paper, I intended to choose
two important patent medicine products, that played a significant role in sprang up Japanese goods and
patent medicines to indigenous people in NEI, such as Japanese Jintan and eye drops.
This paper investigates the Japanese medicine traders‘ community‘s life and activities,
particularly their historical background. Furthermore, it will discuss how the present of karayuki-san
triggered the coming of Japanese medicines' traders. This study also investigates how these
communities had done between the interactions and contacts with indigenous people. Moreover, it will
analyze and to look at the long history of triangle relationship between Indonesia, Japan, and the
Netherlands.
METHODS
The examination of this study employs a historical approach. The option is constructed on the
fact that this research is considered as a history study. Therefore, historical method is the best way to
refer this subject matter. According to Gottschalk, historical method principally consists of four
phases: 1) heuristics (source materials collecting); 2) external criticism (examining the authenticity of
historical sources); 3) internal criticism (examining the credibility of information), and 4)
historiography (composing an historical account by synthesizing credible historical facts) (Gottschalk,
1986).
This study will obtain from both primary and secondary sources. The primary sources include
from the collection of national archives from the Netherlands, Indonesia and Japan. Three major
materials in this category are; geheim mailraporten (secret mail report) collections of Minister van
Kolonien (Ministry of Colonial) 1900-1951, Algemene Secretarie van de Nederlands-Indische
Regering en de daarbij gedeponeerde Archieven (Registered Archives of Secretary-General of
Netherlands Indies Government), 1942-1950 three of them were collected by the Secretary-General of
Netherlands Indies Government. Likewise important, Stukken Inzake de Economische Penetratie van
Japan in Nederland-Indie 1922-1951 the collection of the Archive of De Javasche Bank (present Bank
Indonesia), Jakarta. Another primary source is Tien Jaar Japansch Gewroet in Nederland Indisch,
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published by NEI Government, Batavia. This report was written by J. Van Mook the acting Governor
General NEI (1942-1948). Another important source is the collection from Japan Foreign Minister
Affairs, namely South Ocean Japanese Immigrant Related Documents. The secondary sources include
all relevant published and unpublished materials collected from various places especially in Japan,
Yogyakarta, Jakarta (Indonesia) and The Hague (the Netherlands).
DISCUSSION
The structure of this paper will discuss will be divided into three parts as below:
1. The historical background of Japanese medicine's traders in NEI. In this part will be discussed
from the coming from first wave, karayuki-san, and the number of Japanese population in NEI
and how Japanese immigrant spread to NEI.
2. Focusing to the 1910s period will analyze the activities of Japanese medicine trading NEI. In this
part will answer the questions such below; 1) what kind of medicine products sold in NEI and
how was the strategy they did 2) how were the interactions and contact Japanese medicine's
traders with indigenous people and 3) how did Japanese medicines traders marketed Jintan and
eye drops.
3. In this last part, it will be analyzed the Japanese trader's medicines in every region in NEI. Since
Japanese press, as some articles on newspapers in Japan, Advisor of Japanese and Chinese Trade
NEI (Adviseur voor Japansche en Chineessche Zaken), Wettum, recommended to central
government to pay attention to this community. As a result, NEI government represented by its
Governor-General, A.W.F Idenburg, through the first secretary of the government, E. Moresco to
command every local government to control Japanese medicine traders. In 10th September 1913, a
secret mission letter written by E. Moresco. This confidential mission was an order to control and
monitor Japanese medicine's community in every region. Twenty-eight regional governments in
NEI responded to this mission letter. In this part, the opinion from each regional government‘s
reports regarding to this Japanese medicine's community will be discussed and analyzed. In
addition, it will look at the different opinion central government and regional government of NEI.
Finally, it will be investigated and analyzed the possibility of Japanese medicine's traders as the
governmental spy agent.
Figure 1. Typical Japanese medicine trader in the 1900s (Otomo Shintaro, in Tegal Taken in 1909)
Figure 2. Advertisement of Oyama Eye Drops by R. Ogawa (Taken in 1911)
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Reference:
[1] Astuti, Meta Sekar Puji, 2009, Apakah Mereka Mata-Mata?: Orang-orang Jepang Indonesia
1868-1942. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak.
[2] Boomgaard, Peter, 2007, Syphilis, Gonorrhoea, Leprosy and Yaws in Indonesian Archipelago,
1500-1950, in Manusya: Journal of Humanities, Special Issues No. 14 Chulalongkorn University,
Bangkok, 2007：21-41
[3] Booth, Anne, 1994, Japanese Import Penetration and Dutch Response: Some Aspects of
Economic Policy Making in Colonial Indonesia in International Commercial Rivalry in Southeast
Asia in the Interwar Period, Yale Southeast Asia Studies, New Haven, 133-164
[4] Goto, Ken‘ ichi, 1997, ‗Returning to Asia‘: Japan-Indonesia Relations 1930-1942, Ryukei
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[5] Inventaris Arsip De Javasche Bank, 1933, Stukken Inzake de Economische Penetratie van Japan
in Nederland-Indie 1922-1951, inventory number: 2959-2964.
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[8] Mook, H. J. Van, 1942, Tien Jaar Japansch Gewroet in Nederland Indisch, Report of the
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(Ministry of Colonial: Secret Archives), 1901-1940, access number 2.10.36.51, inventory number
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[12] Post, Peter, 1996, The Formation of the Pribumi Business Elite in Indonesia, 1930s-1940s In:
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[13] Post, Peter, 1996, The Characteristics of Japanese Entrepreneurship in the Pre-War Indonesia
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A MYRIAD OF SATOYAMA:
SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL PRODUCTION LANDSCAPES IN INDONESIA
Mochamad Indrawan1,2, Mitsuyasu Yabe2, Mitsuru Osaki3
Hisako Nomura2, Kazuyo Hirose3
1
Center for Biodiversity Strategies, FMIPA, Universitas Indonesia
2
Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University
3
Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The high levels of biological richness and endemism of Indonesia are matched by the high
levels of bio-cultural diversity found there. Bio-cultural diversity, in turn, is reflected in traditional
knowledge systems, and manifested in SEPLs (socio-ecological production landscapes), in Japan
known as satoyama. Unfortunately, Indonesia‘s cultural landscapes are now quickly being eroded by
short-term development and impacts of globalization. However norms and values related to these
landscapes survive in places, and can be used to promote conservation and sustainable development.
Keywords: landscape-sustainability, tenure, local-knowledge.
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is the largest and most densely populated archipelago in the world, totaling close to
17000 islands, 990 of which are permanently inhabited. Indonesia spans the Oriental and Australasian
zones and encompasses no less than seven major biogeographic regions including the unique transition
area between the two major zones known as Wallacea.
The biodiversity of Indonesia is noteworthy [1 - 3]. Indonesia ranks first in the world for the
number of mammals, palms, swallowtail butterflies, and parrot species [4]. Indonesia is also one of the
world‘s centers of species diversity of hard corals and many groups of reef-associated flora and fauna
[5].
The high levels of biological richness and endemism of Indonesia is matched by the high level
of bio-cultural diversity. Bio-cultural diversity [6,7], in turn, brings about traditional knowledge, and
its advanced manifestation: socio-ecological production landscapes (SEPLs). By definition, SEPLs
involve wise and sustainable use of biological resources, in accordance with traditional, and in some
cases, modern practices. SEPLs take different forms in different countries. In Japan, for example, they
are known as ‗satoyama‘ [8]..
As a matter of course, SEPLs are not a panacea. For instance, the totality of the economic and
ecological value of satoyama are not readily quantifiable [9]. Furthermore, under the political drive of
contemporary development, SEPLs as a symbol or image, can be subject to appropriation, aimed at
softening the perception of national and international developments that damage the environment
[10]--in short, potential green-washing. Still, the landscape harmony which underlies the SEPL
concept can provide residents and visitors with significant cultural and social benefits [9].
In Indonesia, bio-cultural landscapes are currently being eroded by short-term development
and the impacts of globalization. With careful observation and a conservative approach, norms and
values of importance to conservation and sustainable development, which have survived in these
places can be used to promote desired outcomes.
METHODS
The present review is based on a desk study, combined with first-hand observations made in
several locations in Indonesia, and complemented by interviews and policy analysis [11 -15]. The
conceptual framework is based on the premise that traditional tenure systems found throughout
Indonesia harness wisdom of importance to conservation and sustainable use.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Throughout Indonesia, examples of surviving traditional systems and the corresponding
SEPLs can be found. For example, the famous Baduy community of West Java have a zonation
strategy that includes community conservation areas [16], while the nearby Kasepuhan practice a form
of integrated cultivation.
On the island of Bali, the Subak System, which is a participatory form of governance for land,
and water resources, has long been in place, and is considered as a manifestation of the Tri Hita
Karana Philosophy [17], which aims to achieve a harmonious balance between human and fellow
human beings, Nature, and God. In Riau and Jambi Provinces of Sumatera, traditional systems are
practiced by proto-Malayan tribes of Orang Rimba and Talang Mamak, who co-habitat the Bukit Tiga
Puluh National Park. The Talang Mamak alone are able to utilize 100 medicinal plants to cure 56
diseases. The Talang Mamak also recognizes 22 species of fungi with medicinal properties [18]
In Kalimantan, traditional societies such as Dayak and Punan retain their indigenous wisdom
and land tenure systems. Of some 10,000 Punan hunter-gatherers that live in East Kalimantan, 800
comprise the Punan Tubu, which live in small hamlets across the Tubu watershed, in the district of
Malinau. The Tubu are no longer nomads, although those living upstream in the remotest part of the
Tubu watershed still seasonally leave their recently-established permanent settlements and migrate into
the forest to hunt wild boar and gather a wide range of forest products for sale and for their own
subsistence. [19]
Sulawesi and the surrounding islands, which are biophysically fragmented by mountains and
oceans, also harbor numerous traditional tenurial systems. One of the best documented SELPs, is
located in Central Sulawesi, 3% of which is covered by the Lore Lindu National Park. [20]. Data from
2009 indicated that there area a total of 64 villages located around Lore Lindu National Park with a
population of 64,000 people. One of these is Toro village, with a population of 2,000 people (based on
2000 data) in 536 households. The Toro community has revived their customary law system,
successfully protecting it from cooptation by potential patron-client relations.
The indigenous community of Toro has long recognized the various land-use areas, by way of
a detailed description of vegetation, and using a comprehensive system and nomenclature. A
rule-based system of resource use was maintained. The customary law was harnessed into statutory
form, compiled into a series of documents, and enforced by the traditional group, which was recently
re-established and called the ―Tondo Ngata‖. In ensuring the detailed rules on resource collection,
sustainability was thus ascertained [20]
Traditional tenure has also been documented across Indonesia‘s coastal marine systems,
especially in the eastern portion of the country.. A community-based system known as Sasi in the
Moluccan Islands, for example, ensures the implementation of a closed hunting season, which protects
the top shell snail Trochus niloticus from unsustainable exploitation [22].
In conclusion, a number of SEPLs in Indonesia, which benefit both human society and the
landscape they live in, have survived to the present day. These traditional tenure system should be
further encouraged and maintained. The protection modality provided by these traditional systems
should be viewed as complementary to the existing state-based ones, therefore enriching the options
for promoting the conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems, in landscapes increasingly
predominated by human activities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study constitutes part of the Asian Public Intellectual – (API) Fellowship, which in Indonesia is a
co-operative arrangement between the Nippon Foundation, and the Indonesian Institute of Sciences
(LIPI). For the purposes of the aforementioned API fellowship, undertaken by Mochamad Indrawan,
facilities are being provided by Faculty of Agriculture – Kyushu University, Japan. Dr. David
Neidel and an anonymous reviewer kindly reviewed this paper.
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IS IT ‘ORDER’ OR ‘PEACE’:
SECURITY, POLITICAL STABILITY, AND DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE IN
POST-CONFLICT POSO DURING 2001-2011
Nino Viartasiwi
Graduate School International Relations, Ritsumeikan University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Security sector is a main arena in the post-conflict recovery, followed by political stability and
democratic governance. This study seeks to describe and analyze security, political stability, and
democratic governance that have been conducted in Poso District, Central Sulawesi Province,
Indonesia during 2001-2011. This work based on my field research in the affected area, from
December 2010 until January 2011. Poso had suffered severe violent conflict based on religious lines
during 1998-2001. The period of 2001 onward is the peace-building period that should be carefully
observed. The main argument of this chapter is that, despite the frequent government claim that the
current state of security in Poso is stable and head to sustainable peace, it is in practice the state of
‗order‘ not ‗peace,‘ that has existed. Open conflict ceased and reconciled, and mass violence settled;
however, evidences illustrate the remaining conflict and disagreement that spark violence once in a
while. Moreover, there are also many potential conflicts related to the political development that
should be addressed before claiming that Poso is in the state of sustainable peace.
Keywords: post-conflict, governance, security, political-stability, democracy
INTRODUCTION
Security sector is a main arena in the post-conflict recovery. The United Nations, in its
famous An Agenda for Peace states that security is the key issue which must be settled to prevent
societies from falling back into violent struggle.22 Building up the government capacity to provide
security, in an accountably manner, is crucial. Once security is maintained, the next step is political
stability to ensure that democratic mechanism works to perform legitimate and accountable
government.
This chapter describes the security governance that has been conducted in Poso during
2001-2011. Two periods of time are dividing the chapter, the 2001-2007 period and 2007-2011 period.
The time line is needed since the security governance in Poso has faced different challenges in those
periods. The implementation of security governance in post-conflict Poso did not run smoothly in the
first period since the violence continued in a different form; terror actions. The second period started
after a police raid in 2007 to arrest the terrorist suspects. Since then, the state of security is improving
in Poso. The main argument of this chapter is that, despite the frequent government claim that the
current state of security in Poso is stable and heading to sustainable peace it is in practice the state of
‗order,‘ not ‗peace.‘ Open conflict ceased and reconciled, and mass violence settled; however,
evidences illustrate the remaining conflict and disagreement that spark violence once in a while.
Moreover, there are also many potential conflicts in the future that should be addressed before
claiming that Poso is in the state of sustainable peace.
This chapter also discusses the democratic governance performance and the political
stabilization in post-conflict periods. The democratic system has been introduced, and political
stability has been made, the result of peaceful elections in the last years. However, democratic
governance in Poso is under the shadow of uncertainties since the function of supervision by the local
parliament (DPRD) is extremely weak. Moreover, the tendency of local elites to use the fear of people
to re-fall into conflict for their political benefits is compounding the condition. We argue that the
visible political stability in Poso is very superficial, since people refrain from actively expressing their
22
See the United Nations An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping,
A/47/277-S/24111, 17 June 1992 http://www.un.org/Docs/SG/agpeace.html
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political views and interests. It should be also noted that there were two regional splitting in Poso as a
result of political contestation, and there are now initiatives of other split in Poso. Hence, this paper
argues that the elites are hijacking peace in Poso for their own benefit and interests. The claim of
political stability in Poso is largely questionable.
1.
Security as a Prerequisite of Governance in Poso
For the better governance in post-conflict society, Brinkerhoff (2005) suggests that it should
have three pillars. The first is legitimacy; referring to the acceptance of a governing regime as correct,
appropriate and/or right. The strongest legitimacy source for governance is taking the form in
democracy. The second pillar is security. This is an essential element to ensuring political stability as a
foundation for normalizing economic and political activities. The third is effectiveness.
Poso is a small town in Indonesia. Even though the region was chaos, the state was strong,
and the national government was legitimate. Therefore, the government legitimacy was not the issue
in Poso‘s peace-building agenda. In the post-Malino peace agreement of 2001, the central government,
through the provincial government, appointed a high-rank official as the District Head of Poso. The
election (not appointment) to choose the district head was first held in Poso in 2005. Although there
were some criticisms regarding the leadership of the appointed District Head in post peace-agreement,
the legitimacy of the government was strong.
However, it did not mean to have the legitimacy of security forces. The police admitted that,
during 2001-2005, the legitimacy of security forces was weak, and it enhanced terrorism (Karnavian,
et al. 2008).
1.1.
The 2001-2007 Period; the Terror Period
The 2001 Malino peace-agreement did not put an end to violence in Poso. Radical groups had
their own targets even after the agreement. Poso embraced many radical groups working for both
Christian and Muslim sides. In the Muslim side, Laskar Jihad (LJ) is a paramilitary force came from
Java Island after a mass massacre of Muslim by the Christian.23 They believed that Poso was the
place for a real jihad. 24 Since then, radicalism entered Poso. Then some members of Jamaah
Islamiyah (JI), a regional terrorist network, infiltrated and took advantage to Laskar Jihad‘s efforts. In
Poso, JI recruited and trained angry young man from Muslim side. After the peace agreement, Laskar
Jihad dispersed, and its members went back to their homelands. However, the JI stayed (ICG 2007).
Repelling the peace agreement, JI maintained the battle in smaller scale targeting individuals.
It was notable that terror actions replaced communal violence since the peace agreement. Hit
and run shootings, kidnapping, killing, and bombing terrors stained Poso and the neighbourhood areas
such as Palu City and Morowali District. The police recorded that, in the initial period of post
peace-agreement, the violence were involved armed groups which attacked a village or
neighbourhood. After the police raided the suspected groups, the form of violence shifted to attacking
individuals and smaller groups. Bombing terror in public places took shape as well as random
shooting toward ordinary people. The public got panicked; even farmers had to go to their farms in
groups due to the fear of being shot. The shooting targeted various individuals such as civil servants,
police officers, church ministers, journalists, even farmers, and lower-class workers. My informants
23
There was a mass massacre conducted by the Christian militias against 200 Muslims hiding in Walisongo
Pesantren on 28 May 2000, and it destroyed the adjoining village of Sintuwu Lemba (HDcentre 2009). The
incident triggered anger from a radical Islamic group including Laskar Jihad, (Fealy 2001). Laskar Jihad went to
Poso and spread radicalism in Poso; the situation was deteriorating since then, especially when an organization
so called Jamaah Islamiyah, which was also believed as a terrorist organization linked to Al Qaeda, rode Laskar
Jihad and join in Poso‘s combat (ICG 2007). Later, not only Jamaah Islamiyah adjoined the combat, but also
another hard line organization named KOMPAK. They generated some terrorist cells, and were active until
years after Laskar Jihad left Poso.
24
There is a distinctive difference between many Indonesian Islamic organizations and Laskar Jihad in defining
jihad. Laskar Jihad defines Jihad as a battle toward what they believed as Islam‘s enemy (Fealy 2001), whereas
major Indonesian Islamic organizations led by Indonesian Islamic Theologian Councils (Majelis Ulama
Indonesia, MUI), defines Jihad in a context of peace (ishlah), or making an improvement or correction to society
with a pacifist actions such as religion teaching (dakwah) (Dakwatuna 2009).
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mentioned that, at the moment, people used to hear the sound of gun shoot. 25 Furthermore, bombing
terrors were also flared. Three biggest bomb blasts that claimed high fatality were; the bomb in
Central Market of Poso, a day before Islamic holy day of Idul Fitri in November 2004, which took six
people dead and dozens injured. Another blast was at Tentena Market in May 2005, which cost the
lives of 23 people and around 90 people injured. A bomb blast in Maesa Pig Market at Palu City, on
the last day of December 2005, caused 8 people dead and 44 people injured. In addition, there was
also a robbery, in the parking land at Poso district government office, with the loss of 478 billion
rupiah (47.800 USD) that was for the salaries of the civil servants. Nevertheless, the most awful case
was the beheaded of three school girls in October 2005, which gained national public concern and a
stern pressure to the police.
The weak and unprofessional law enforcement was the source of the lasting violence in post
peace-agreement of Poso. The governance actors failed to conduct disarmament of armed groups and
enforced the law. Moreover, the radical group blamed the police for its unfair law enforcement. The
accusation derived from the process of the Malino peace-agreement. In the peace processes, the
Muslim side were unsatisfied with the statement and decision of Jusuf Kalla, the initiator of
peace-agreement and the Minister of Social Welfare, which considered all cases of violence have been
closed and resolved to the peace treaty.26 Jusuf Kalla stated that since the peace was achieved, both
parties should forgive each other, and the violent cases were closed. The Muslim side was
disappointed by the statement, since it also could be translated as follows: perpetrators of the violence,
and massacre toward Muslims during the crisis were free to walk away. Jusuf Kalla insisted that his
view was based on the fact that the form of violence during the conflict was communal and almost
every person was involved. Therefore, everyone had the possibility to be punished.27 The Muslim
side, however, argued that since Muslim suffered many in the loss of lives, the murder cases should
not be closed without legal actions against the attackers.28 The lack of justice and the lack of
neutrality in law enforcement were the reasons of the sustaining violence in the post peace-agreement.
In fact, the government conducted law enforcement toward the suspected persons involved in
violence. The police caught Adrianus Tibo, Dominggus da Silva, and Marinus Riwu as the suspects of
the massacre of Muslims in Pesantren Walisongo at May 2000. They were tried in court and
sentenced to the death penalty in April 2001. In the trial, which went under the public high pressure,
Tibo and his friends insisted that they were innocent and accused 16 other people as the master-minds
and the real perpetrators of the violence.29 The death penalty stimulated public discourses. Judging
from the education and religious background of the convicts, who were uneducated migrant
farm-workers and Catholics, many people and institutions doubted that those men were the real actors
of the violence. On the other hand, Muslims in Poso supported the court decision based on the
witness‘s confessions. Nevertheless, the police tried to investigate the alleged involvement of the 16
persons; yet, the police declared there were no enough proofs to charge them. 30 Interestingly, the
25
All names used for inhabitants of Poso in the text are pseudonyms. Interviews with: Siriyu (news reporter and
NGO activist) and Taufiq (Muslim‘s ex-combatant) at Poso, December 2010.
26
There was a dispute during the process of peace agreement. The Muslim side insisted that the agreement was
not to make peace with other party; instead they insisted that it was merely a cease-fire. The Muslim side hoped
that during the cease-fire the perpetrators of violence toward Muslim (the massacre of pesantren Walisongo and
Sintuwu Lembah) would be punished by the government. Jusuf Kalla agreed with the semantic discourse of term
―peace‖ but went with the treaty which was ―peace-agreement‖ in essence. Interview with Jusuf Kalla, Jakarta,
January 2011.
27
Interview with Jusuf Kalla, Jakarta, January 2011
28
Interviews with the signers of Peace Accord from Muslim‘s side: Haji Adnan, Ustad Jamaludin, Sofyan
Leumbah, Palu, December 2010
29
Those people are: Paulus Tungkanan (retired army), Ladue (retired army), Theo Manjayo (retired army),
Impadeli (retired civil servant), Eric Rombot (civil servant), Edi Bunkundapu (civil servant of Poso District
Government), Yahya Patiro (a high rank official at Poso District Government), Sigilipu H.X. Obed Tampai (high
rank civil servant), Rungadai Son (teacher), Yanis Simangunsong, Angkou, Angky Tungkanan, Heri Banibi,
Sarjun alias Gode alias Guntur Tarinje, Ventje, Sanrua Gadi (Tabloid Rohani Populer Sabda No. 85/thn IX/2006,
April 2006)
30
In April 2006, the final months before the executions of Tibo and his friends, the Central Sulawesi Police Chief
(Kapolda Sulawesi Tengah) Brigadier General Oegroseno conducted a meeting to confront Tibo with one of the
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former Central Sulawesi Police Chief, Commissioner General Oegroseno, shared his personal view of
the doubt regarding the Tibo‘s role as the sole perpetrators of violence. 31 Oegroseno, however, was
promoted to another province before the execution of the three men. His successor, Police Brigadier
General Badrodin Haiti, conducted the execution three weeks after his assignment. The investigation
of the 16 other accused men stopped.
The trial of the three men was the only trial with the killing accusation and the death penalty.
Other trials that had been conducted were on the possession of weapons, arms or bombs. The trials of
violence resulted in the decisions of under 3-years imprisonment in average. It was such as the trial of
Yeni Tandega, of her involvement in the attack toward Muslim villages during 2000. The radical
groups saw the judge was unfair, and they felt being cheated by the Malino peace agreement.
In the final months before the execution of Tibo and friends, the tension increased. The
government deployed more troops and police to the region. The army formed a new battalion in Poso,
the Infantry Battalion 714 of Sintuwu Maroso, to back up the two battalions that had been deployed in
advance. At the same time, the police deployed one company of mobile brigade (brimob), deployed
three companies of police troops, enhanced the status of Poso police resort office to be the special
police resort office with 2000 officers, and created the Security Operation Command (Koopskam).
Inevitably, the increased tension caused street demonstrations held by the supporters and protesters of
the execution and the city was almost chaos. The presence of security forces managed to tame the
violence atmosphere during the demonstration. However, there were lethal violence, attacks to the
police offices, bombings, and killings committed by the angered groups, which occurred after the
execution.
The long periods of violence existed due to the lack of legitimacy of the police in front of
public. Karnavian (2008) pointed out that the source of the lack of legitimacy was due to the fear of
the police officers to be the target of violence actions. Moreover, the clash between the police officers
and the army soldiers, that happened several times, worsen the image of the security forces. There
were several armed clashes between the police and the army during security operations in Poso, and
they were caused by the institution rivalry between the two security forces. The leaders of these
institutions were also holding some disagreement regarding the implementation of security control in
the region. Civil society organizations strongly criticized the performance of security forces. The
accusation was that the long violence in Poso was ―by design‖ to smooth the plan of security forces to
enlarge territorial commands, covering corruptions, and for the interest of the so called ―security
project‖ (proyek pengamanan).32
Violence decreased sharply in 2007, after police conducted stern raids on a place that was
suspected to be the home base of terror actors on 11 and 22 January 2007. The place was Pondok
Pesantren Amanah at Tanah Runtuh neighbourhood of Poso City. Pesantren Amanah, also known as
Pesantren Tanah Runtuh, was owned by Haji Adnan Arsal. It was also the shelter for child refugees
from the former Pesantren Walisongo that had been attacked and burned to the ground during the
crisis. The students were mostly young girls and children of the refugees. However, some teachers
(ustad) from Java Island were the member of radical groups who came during the crisis. They
composed the place as the centre of the radical groups (ICG 2008). Surprisingly, not until 2004, the
police did not recognize the role of these teachers in organizing terror actions in Poso (Karnavian, et
al. 2008). In the raids, police received hard resistance and the suspects fought them hardly. ICG
(2008) reported that Muslims from across Poso and neighbouring districts came to join forces with
their Tanah Runtuh colleagues in solidarity. Though, the Police succeed in the operations. Around
eleven people of the suspects got killed. During the raids and sweeping that followed, the police
caught 64 people, seized dozens of heavy weapons, thousands of ammunitions, and dozens of
homemade bombs. Although there was criticism of human rights abuses in the way the police
conducted the raid, it resulted in the decrease of violence in Poso.
man accused to be highest master mind of the conflict. Tibo, however, could not recognize the man he accused and
rectified his confession regarding the name of the master minds. See Tempo Magazine April 23, 2006.
31
Interview with Commissioner General Oegroseno, Kyoto, May 3, 2011.
32
LPS-HAM, KontraS, and Yayasan Tanah Merdeka were NGOs who have long accused the security forces‘
involvement in violence of Poso.
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1.2.
The 2007-2010 Period; the Stabilization Period
The second period of security governance in Poso started after the police operation in January
2007. The violence disappeared, and the tension reduced. However, even though the police had
succeeded jailing some criminal actors, some suspects managed to escape. The remaining uncaught
ex-militia and the ex-militia prisoners who already completed their short sentences were the factors
that lingered radicalism. Additionally, the Chief of the Indonesian Military, General Djoko Santoso,
stated the same warning. He affirmed his subordinates to be wary of terrorist threats in some
conflict-prone areas of Indonesia, such as Poso (Antara News September 7, 2009). Therefore, one of
the hard tasks in nurturing peace in Poso is still countering radicalism.
Radicalism is still the biggest problem of security governance in Poso. The remnants of
radicalism even can be seen in 2011; three policemen were shot in Palu City, 25 May 2011, with two
policemen killed, and one seriously injured. The police investigation found the link between the
criminal suspects and the former radical groups. The shooting was also a proof that even the police
and the army have raided and confiscated guns, and have appealed to the people to give up their
weapons; illegal arms are still circulating in Poso. 33 Moreover, my informants shared their concern
about the existence of radical thought laying in the society. They point out the possibility of activities
in small musholah (little praying centre) in the rural villages as the new spot of the study place of the
radical groups.34 However, judging from the response of the public toward violence threat, the
situation is heading to the positive side of the state of security in Poso. Nowadays, people do not
easily to get panicked when rumors and violence threats spread.35 On a police raid to chase police
shooter perpetrators, in June 2011, people did not move to defend the suspects. The situation was
different few years back, when people stood against the police in a police raid on suspected shooters.36
Despite the fact that there are still disappointments over the judicial process regarding the
former violence and that there is no explicit resolution to overcome the underlying grievances, the
tension in Poso has reduced and the live of people has been rebuilt. Nevertheless, it is too
overconfidence to claim Poso is stable and normal. The potent of violence present not only the
potential for violence associated with the past, but also the violence related to the current social and
political development. These potential conflicts of Poso are discussed below.
1. The land ownership disputes
There are conflicts potentials in to the dispute over land rights. During the past conflict, many
people sought refuge and left their land. In aftermath, many have not gone back to their former
neighborhood. Some went back only to find that their old houses and lands were used by other people.
Few people were able to manage the land trouble, and some stuck in debate of lands ownership
33
The Police conducted raids to confiscate illegal arms both the crude contraptions guns (senjata rakitan) and the
original weapons of heavy and light caliber. Sometimes, police appealed people to giving up their weapon
possession and gave some money. In October 2010, Central Sulawesi police held a ceremony to destroy the seized
guns of 2010; 334 firearms, long barrels and short barrels, homemade and original, and 2752 rounds of
ammunition of all types, grenades and homemade bombs. See Media Indonesia October 10, 2010 at:
http://www.mediaindonesia.com/read/2010/10/10/173140/76/20/Senjata-Sisa-Konflik-Poso-Dimusnahkan
The similar ceremony had been held several times before.
34
Interviews with: Ustad Ibrahim (Muslim‘s leader, ex-combatant) at Poso and Ustad Jamaludin Hadi (Muslim‘s
leader) Palu, December 2010. They also point out that there are children of the past conflict victims who are
unnoticed and unmonitored. They are saved during the crisis. Recently they are adult burdened with resentment
due to the justice against violence perpetrators who attacked their parents and families. Ex-Central Sulawesi Chief
of Police, Commissioner General Oegroseno stated the similar concern in interview in Kyoto, May 3, 2010.
35
One of the rumors was the rumor of ―Bloody Lebaran‖ (Lebaran Berdarah) in 2010. The rumors said that
Christians from Tentena would attack Poso Town during Lebaran. The rumor was a continuation of a rumor about
hundreds of radical Muslim radicals had arrived in Tentena to hold tarawih prayer (a special prayer during
Ramadhan month). The rumors were defeated after community leaders, ex-combatant networks and NGO
activists contacted each other to confirm. Interviews with: Jemmy Matusala (Christian‘s ex-combatant), Telly
(Christian‘s ex-combatant), Reverend Felix, and police officer Landung at Tentena, Ustad Ibrahim (Muslim‘s
leader) and Sofyan (news reporter from Matahari radio station) at Poso, December 2010.
36
See Karnavian, et al. 2008 .
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evidences.37 The land ownership was one of the points carried out by Malino Agreement that have
not been implemented successfully.38 The local government is aware of the situation but it has not
decided any policy to overcome this serious problems.
2. The dispute over development policy of the government: transmigration
After a long break due to the crisis, the national government is re-conducting a
government-sponsored migration, so-called transmigration (transmigrasi), to Poso. It started to locate
hundreds of people from other part of Indonesia, mostly from East-Java Province. Despite the fact that
the people of Talabosa Village and Betue Village rejected the idea of their 600 hectares of land being
used in the resettlement project,39 the government went on the program. The project started in 2010
and the Poso district government is providing 5,347 hectare land for the project. The government is
preparing an ―independent integrated city‖ (Kota Terpadu Mandiri, KTM) in Lore Peore sub-district
to welcome the migrants. Regarding the rejection of the people, the head of the department of Public
Works of Poso District Mathius Tungka explained that the transmigration is a national policy project
that should be conducted by the district government.
3. Ethnic and identity competition
Like elsewhere in Indonesia, the revival of the sentiment of ethnicity and religion has been
used to win the people‘s votes in the election. The phenomenon is a new development in the last ten
years of democratic political contestation in Indonesia. Ethnic leaders are revering their custom (adat)
in campaigns of certain interests. The romance of adat is used to mobilize the support from the people
(Bourchier 2007). In Central Sulawesi, Aminudin Ponulele, the governor during 2001-2006,
established an ethnic organization called the Pitu N‘gota Ngata Kaili as his political vehicle to
mobilize the Kaili ethnic and its sub-ethnic groups and differentiate it with the migrant Bugis ethnic
group (Li 2007). In the context of Poso, however, even though the organization intended to be the
umbrella of sub-ethnic groups, operationally, it did not work. During the crisis, as an attempt to avoid
the conflict between migrant Muslims versus native Christians, the native Muslims of Poso
established the identity of Muslim To‘ Poso (the native Muslim of Poso). They tried to differentiate
them with their Muslim counterpart from migrant groups, especially Bugis. Furthermore, in the
aftermath of crisis, people in Poso are no longer identifying themselves in term of ethnic group, but
neighborhood. Marzuki, an academic from Tadulako University, is analyzing the issue as the people‘s
effort to avoid the religious identity that sticks to the ethnic identity.40
Though, during election times, candidates are still exploiting the religious identity as the
instrument to win the votes. In the district head election, the unwritten rule is to have a running mate
from different religious groups. The combination is to keep the religious/ ethnic harmony in district.
However, when the ethnic groups of Poso are getting more complicated and the other religious groups
entering the power contestation, a simple combination of Muslim and Christian is no longer useful
enough to maintain the social balance. The post-conflict period is the best period to introduce
pluralism and tolerance to the people.
4. The treatment to ex-combatant
The police and local government have undergone a reintegration program to tame the violence
potentials. Mc Rae (2009) noted that the best attribute of the programs was its side effect: the police
were able to develop relations with ex-combatants which they were then able to leverage to develop
37
Interviews with: Ustad Gani (the member of DPRD of Poso District at Poso) and Ustad Ibrahim (Muslim‘s
leader) Poso, December 2010. Interviews with: John Losikoy (NGO‘s activist), Jemi (Christian‘s ex-combatant,
NGO‘s activist), Reverend Felix (the current minister in GKST), lady minister Lies Sigilipu, and Abdullah (civil
servant, the head of local office of religious affairs in Pamona sub-district), at Tentena, December 2010.
38
One of the 10 points of Malino Agreement is the return of people‘s land ownership rights.
39
The natives rejected the program due to the fear of losing their earning since income depended only on their
land. Giving up the lands may create the shrinking in income resources. Interviews with: Sofyan (local news
reporter, NGO‘s activist) at Poso, Vincent (environmental NGO‘s activist) Yandi (NGO‘s activist), Heidy
(NGO‘s activist), at Tentena, December 2010.
40
Interview with Muhammad Marzuki, Palu, December 2010.
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their ability to manage security. Not only the police who got the benefit of good interaction with
ex-combatants, however. The local government, politicians, and businessman also benefited from the
good relationship. The ex-combatants are activated as an early-warning instrument, to tame the
approaching violence. The networks of ex-combatants of two communities have been instrumental in
counteracting black provocation such as the issue of an attack of a community toward the other.
However, the risk of over-using ex-combatant group‘s service is also present. Since there is
no strict definition of the term ‗ex-combatant‘, many youth joined the group and claimed themselves
as ex-combatant and enjoyed their privileges. The complication occurred when those groups abused
the good faith of the government to them by demanding assistance and financial support.41There is a
trend of ‗project businesses‘ (bisnis proyek) in which the ex-combatant groups demanding to be
appointed as the executers of the government‘s projects. The case of a beating against the chief of the
Department of Settlement and Regional Plan of Poso District, Ir. Max Tungka, regarding the
dissatisfaction of a tender of a project in 2008, was a signal of a morbidity of the government and
ex-combatant groups‘ relationship.42
Moreover, the politicians‘ behavior of using ex-combatant groups as their political backup is
also adding the risk of future violence. The ex-combatant groups are serving as bodyguards, election
campaigners, and supporters for the politicians. Sometimes they even clash each other and created a
tension. The cases of terror bombings and threats in election times and violent demonstration are all
proving the danger of having violence-familiar groups into the post-conflict political process. Aspinall
(2009) found the same condition in Aceh; the ex-combatants in the aftermath of war became powerful
actors in society. The Poso case is following the same path, since Poso is also the second place of the
repatriation program project of the government after Aceh. Thus, the current treatment for the
violence-experienced groups should be reconsidered to prevent the risk of future incidents.
5. Security forces and exploitation of natural resources
Security forces are visible in Poso. Their posts are scattered all over the city. Police raid is still
been conducted once in a while. The presence of heavily armed security forces guiding an event or
demonstration is not a rare vision. During the post-conflict period, the police have formed a police
special resort office in Poso to accelerate its duty; it is a distinction in comparison with other districts in
Indonesia. Moreover, the police also placed its officers, three until five personnel per village, in every
village, as an instrument of early-warning system. The army created a new infantry battalion in Poso,
i.e. the battalion 714/ Sintuwu Maroso, as a measure of security deterrence in the future Poso. What is
more, the battalion is also an initial step toward the building of new regional military command in
Sulawesi Island.43
NGOs have been criticizing the presence of security forces based on at least two reasons as
follows. First, there are indications that the security forces, especially the military, have been riding the
issue of communal violence to push the idea of increasing the number of territorial commands and by
splitting Sulawesi Regional Military Command (Kodam VII/ Wirabuana) into two Regional Command
(Aditjondro 2001; 2004). Furthermore, the suspicion that the Poso violence was ‗by design‘ of the
military to conserve the ‗military business‘ is spreading. One of the problems of military business was
that gun and ammunition trade with militias (ICG 2010; YTM 2004), illegal logging and exploitation of
Poso‘s forest (Kontras 2004), and security protection business. The local military strongly denied these
allegations. However, these are widely recognized as ‗off-budget‘ revenue for the local territorial
commands and, in fact, many informants during my interview mentioned that during the crisis, the
military personnel were charging their operation cost, such as gasoline, truck‘s tire, foods and even the
41
Interviews with: the chief of BakesbangLinmas (the office of social and political affairs) of Poso District
Government, a local news reporter (anonymous), and a Muslim‘s ex-combatant (anonymous), Poso, December
2010.
42
See Radar Sulteng 28 March 2008.
43
Sulawesi Island has been under the control of Sulawesi Regional Command (Kodam VII/ Wirabuana) since
1985. However, the military is planning to expand its territorial network by splitting Kodam Wirabuana into two
Kodam. The Army Chief of Staff General TNI George Toisutta stated the issue to upgrade Santiago District
Command in at North Sulawesi to be a Regional Command overseeing Central and North Sulawesi. He expressed
the statement in Makassar in July and November 2010.
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phone expense to the district government.44 It was raised the question of where did the official budget
of security forces from the central government go. The indictment of military‘s unofficial business
cannot be ignored in understanding the lack of neutrality of the military during the crisis.
The second allegation is regarding the allocation of security forces‘ posts and bases are that
mostly sited near the place of natural resource exploitation. In the creation of new army battalion in
Poso (Battalion 714/ Sintuwu Maroso) the chief of local territorial command, Colonel Suwahyudi,
claimed that the new battalions with its three companions are designed to secure oil field and gas mining
areas of Sinorang Toili. The area is located from the Batui sub-district at Banggai District until Tolo
Bay of Morowali District. It should be noted that a notorious national-level businessman, Tomy Winata,
is investing three million US dollars for the mining exploitation.45 Thus, a suspicion says that the new
battalion is to protect the business of particular elites in Jakarta.
In Poso, PT Bukaka, a company owned by the former Vice President, Jusuf Kalla, entered the
region in 2005 to exploit the water by building a hydropower plant. The investment, located in the
Sulewana Village, is around 6 billion rupiah (660 million USD), and it is intended to provide electricity
in South Sulawesi.46 The army has supported the site by locating an infantry companion of the new
battalion in Saojo Village, a village located between Sulewana Village and Tentena area (the Christian
basis of Poso). The company is also located between headquarter of Battalion 714, and the Saojo
Village as the companion base. By chance, Sulewana Village is also the hometown of the Poso Head
District, Piet Inkiriwang. The project met protests since the beginning. People were objecting the
takeover of their lands and the use of the water that could decrease the population of Sogili fish and
threaten their fisheries livelihood. Yet, the project went on under the local government and the support
of the security forces. The informant mentioned that the project officers of the company have used the
military personnel to persuade people giving up their ancestral lands. Some people are threatened will
get the mark as ‗unsupportive to development‘ as well as PKI (communist), if they resist.47 An incident
happened in March 2011 when the people of Peura Village objected the construction of two electricity
towers in their village, due to the fear of the impact of the hanging wires to their health. The people
expressed no objection to the construction of 19 other towers in the area, but asked for relocating 2
towers built in a residential area. The company responded by sending military personnel, police and
state apparatus to confront the people. It created a tension in the area.48
Therefore, judging from these facts, the connection between security forces and investments is
clearly unfair for local population. The security forces have been used to back up the business
investment.
2. Political Stability and Democratic Governance for Sustainable Peace
2.1.
Decentralization as an instrument to accelerate peace-building
As discussed by many obesrvers, the cause of conflict of Poso was power rivalry of elites,
therefore, the stabilitization of political life is important. However, the violence shifted the form of
political contestation in Poso District. One of the visible shift was the split (pemekaran) of the District.
Poso had been split into 3 districts during and after the crisis. The former Poso District became Poso
District, Morowali District and Tojo Una-Una District. Informants suggest that the local parlianment
already approved the plan few years before the crisis,49 yet, the rushy implementation of the plan
were disturbing since it was also exposing the insensitive policy to conflict of the government. Aragon
(2007) pointed out that the conflict also become a catalyst for regime change from one ethnic to
another. She also analyzed that the conflict enhanced the sentiment of ethno-religious centricism
which was stngethened by the split out of the district.
Decentralization is a new rule of the game in management system of governance in
44
Interviews with Malik Sahadat (former Poso‘s vice District head) and Arnold Bouw (the head of Social and
Political Affairs‘ Office of Poso District), December 2010.
45
Radar Sulteng 3 March, 2003. Winata is known as Indonesia‘s ‗god father‘ in the criminal underworld
46
Interview with Jusuf Kalla, Jakarta, January 2011.
47
Interview with NGO‘s activists: Vincent Lumintang, Lian Gogali, and Yandi, Tentena, December 2010. The
mark of PKI is the threat long used by the regime during Suharto period to identify the enemy of the country.
48
Personal communication with Lian Gogali (NGO‘s activist), March 2011.
49
Interview with Malik Syahadat (Poso‘s former vice district head), Palu, December 2010
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Indonesia under democracy (Nordholt and Van Klinken (eds) 2007). Decentralization intends to
provide regions with a bigger power and authority to reach a more effective governance system. If it is
handled well, decentralization could support peace-building efforts. However, if it is handled badly,
the relocation of power and resources may create a new power struggle of elites that can hamper the
peace-building process. Poso‘s experience of decentralization shows evidence of the last premise. To
some extent, the decentralization process, which was implemented by the split of one district into
three helped simplify the peace-building programs by dividing the responsibility and jobs to three
different districts. Yet, the fact that peace-building and reconciliation efforts during the post
peace-agreement were only conducted in the Poso district should be carefully considered. The concern
is based on the fact that even though during the conflict and its aftermath, Morowali and Tojo
Una-una is also affected by violence actions. Even though the scale of the violence was not big, the
kidnaping, shooting and bombing terror were also happened. Moreover, during the post-conflict,
disagreement over development strategies between people and the local government has been
arousing tension in the regions.
Another important fact is that the elites that were involved in the power struggle of former
Poso also became key political actors in newly separated districts.50 It raises a question about the
elites struggle for power and its role as the trigger of the conflict. Recently, Poso is also facing a new
discourse of another split. The first discourse is the desire to create a new province; East Sulawesi
Province. The new province will consist of some districts including Poso District, Morowali District
and Tojo Una Una District, Banggai District and Banggai Islands Disctrict. The reason behind the idea
is to take over the funds and resources from the Central Sulawesi Provincial government (Shatifan, et
al. 2004). The idea was campaigned at the moment with positive signs of its success, since it was also
in line with the military idea to build a new regional military command (komando daerah militer,
kodam) in the region. Even so, the dispute already started regarding the choice of the provincial
capital. Luwuk and Poso are competing each other to be appointed as the provincial capital.
Interestingly, the Poso Districts officials made a statement that Poso District will withdraw from the
East Sulawesi Province, and rejoin the Central Sulawesi Province, if it is not chosen as the capital of
the province.51
Another discourse is the idea to split the current Poso District into two regions, i.e., Poso
City and Pamona Raya District. The idea derives from the frustration of the local elites of the two
communities regarding the social cohesion. By separating the region based on religion, it is expected
to accelerate development and mitigate conflict between two sides. The initiative does not gain any
support from the government so far; nonetheless, the informal community leaders are signaling their
approval.52 Hence, the decentralization endeavour by splitting the regions can also indicate the failure
of the current local government in managing conflict.
2.2.
Elections and the restoration of political dynamics
In order to obtain a legitimate government, election is the most appropriate mechanism in
democracy. During the post-conflict era, Poso District has been conducted several elections since
2004 including legislative elections, presidential elections, governatorial elections, and district head
elections. All of them were carried out in fairly peaceful and orderly, thus creating an impression that
Poso is politically stable now. While many areas of Indonesia are facing violence during elections,
Poso is surprisingly peaceful, thanks to the peace-minded candidates and diligent election organisers
(ICG, 2010). Yet, it raises curiosity about the current political dynamics in Poso. The elections in Poso
can be used, as the mirror, to see the Poso political dynamics.
Identity, as the political vehicle to gain votes is still important in the Poso elections. Indeed,
50
Damsik Ladjalani, the District Head of Tojo Una Una (for 2005-2010 period and 2010-2015 period) was also
the one who had been expected to be Poso District Secretary in pre-conflict Poso but defeated. The power rivalry
of that moment stimulated the violence in Poso 1998-2001. For the details see chapter 2.
51
On this comment see Media Indonesia, October 10, 2010
52
Interviews with: Lies Sigilipu (lady minister from Central Sulawesi Protestant Churches in Tentena), Rev. Felix
(Central Sulawesi Protestant Churches‘ Secretary of Poso Branch), Ustad Ibrahim (Muslim‘s leader from Al
Khairat organization), Ustad Gani (Muslim‘s leader), Arnold Bouw (the head of Poso‘s social and political
affairs‘ office), Ibu Ruwaidah (Muslim‘s leader), Budiman Maliki (NGO‘s activist), December 2010
~ 91 ~
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it is not much different from the days of pre-conflicts. What makes Poso different in comparison to
other regions is the fact that politicians mobilize the jargon of peace in their campaign, while using
ethnic and religious identity as the differentiator to others. Politicians identify themselves to certain
ethnic groups or religious backgrounds. They also try to obtain support from religious leaders The
words and terms of peace and reconciliation also popular during the campaign. However, there are
politicians that manipulated people‘s trauma of violence as an ‗Ace card‘ to impose public support for
their political benefit, as seen in Piet Inkiriwang campaign. Furthermore, in the District Head election,
there is an unwritten rule that requires the candidate and his/her running mate consist of two
individual from different religious groups. The Muslims and Christians were in all campaign teams.
This political development has diverted the tension between two communities. Albeit, it raised
another tension as well in regard to political contestation among elites.
While using ethnicity and religion as political commodities, Poso‘s politicians are also
exploiting the presence of ex-combatant groups as their political back up. The ex-combatant groups
have acted as politician bodyguards and vote getters during the campaign. Their activities create a
tension among them, as seen in the quarrel among these gangs during the campaign or mass
mobilization in protests. These ex-combatant groups are mostly organized by the youths, but this
means that during the conflict period, these member were still in children age. Thus, their involvement
in the past crisis is doubted. Many of them pretend that they are ex-combatants. McRae (2008) points
out that there are no available of a simple, accountable mechanism, to verify the ex-combatant status.
He also argues that the fluid and clandestine nature of combatant entities in Poso have created
difficulties to find a genuine ex-combatant, except for those who had been serving a prison sentence.
Thus, it is not an exaggeration to say that the ex-combatant groups have been exploiting the term of
‗ex-combatant‘ to gain their economic interests. Moreover, politicians are also hijacking peace in Poso
by using the violence-experienced groups as their political utility.
Another reason for the successful election series in post-conflict Poso was the security forces‘
presence which was very visible. Even so, the bombing terror and violence still occurred occasionally
in every election. A few weeks before the direct election of District Head in June 2005, bombing
terrors spread in Poso. Some low explosive bombings did not bring a lot of damage, but one high
explosive bombing in a market in Tentena on May 28, 2005, took 20 lives and 53 people injured.
However, the voting day was held as scheduled under an extra-strict custody of security forces.
Recently, in the newest election in 2010 for the Poso District Head, there was also a bombing which
made the security forces on alerted.
The election results have invited another complication in the stabilization effort of Poso‘s
political live. There was a dispute over the result of the election in 2005 which put Piet
Inkiriwang-Abdul Muthalib Rimi as a pair of new Head and Vice-Head of Poso District. 15 of 25
members of the local parliament of Poso denounced the vote counts, with a reason that legal
proceedings for election violations were not finished yet. Nonetheless, the central government ignored
the rejection and inaugurated the election winner. The dispute disrupted the governance in Poso
afterwards.53
Another complication in political stability is the severe corruption. As in the post-conflict area
elsewhere, corruption is the object that should be aware in post-conflict reconstruction since it can
undermine the peace (Mac Ginty and Williams 2009). Corruption in Poso has been disturbing the
society reconstruction, creating political instability and sustaining violence. In the Poso post-conflict
reconstruction, corruption has hampered refuges repatriation program, eliminated the right of the
refugees to get aid, and caused violence related to the manipulation of the number of
refugees.54Political instability is institutionalized in Poso since the massive and visible corruption of
53
The dispute of the Poso District Head versus the head of local parliament (DPRD) was long and severe. The top
of the feud was the warrant from the District Head to every institution under his commands to not come to every
invitation from DPRD regarding the use of the Recovery Funds. In return, DPRD cut the operational fund of the
District Head from the Local Budget (APBD).
54
Corruption toward the repatriation funds had led the delay in the rebuilding of homes for refugees and caused
the delay of refugees to go back to their homelands. When the funds finally handed to them, the amount were only
half of the amount that they were supposed to get. Moreover, there was a case of a killing toward Pinedapa Village
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the elites has not been controlled by legal means. The violence sustain when the local elites use the
―ex-combatant‖ groups as their political backup by funding their activities.
2.3.
Transparency in governance
―Pengsungsi dapat supermi, pejabat dapat super kijang‖ the refuges get supermi (a brand of
instant noodle), the government officials get Super Kijang (a brand name of a car); this is the famous
idiom in Poso to express the condition of aid distribution to the refugees in Poso. The idiom indicates
the corruption in the allocation of economic assistance conducted by the government officials. Poso
had received a big number of aids during 2001-2011. Considering the fact that Poso is merely a
district, the amount of economic assistance is huge. During 2001-2002, Poso received humanitarian
aid, as big as 33 billion rupiah (3.4 million US dollar), house building grants for 29 billion rupiah, and
refugee‘s repatriation aid for 13 billion rupiah. In 2003, there was another house building grants in the
amount of 6.5 billion rupiah. In 2004, there was another humanitarian aid for 59 billion rupiah. In
2006, there was a recovery aid for 58 billion rupiah, and in 2008 another recovery aids as big as 50
billion.55 This impressive amount is not including other aids under the department‘s programs such as
the victim compensation aid, aid for the development of pesantren and schools, or economic
assistance by the police department. The distribution of aid is largely unaccountable.
NGOs and CSOs in the region have been actively guiding the distribution of aid. However,
since there is no mechanism to ensure public accountability and transparency of the government, and
the weak oversight function of DPRD, the supervision of civil society over the economic assistance
distribution is far from sufficient. Nevertheless, in 2005, the former Poso district head, Andi Asikin
Suyuti, was brought to trial and imprisoned for 2 years for corruption related to the refuges
repatriation aid. But the former governor of Central Sulawesi Province, Aminudin Ponulele, was able
to elude from the same case in the trial. The case of the corruption in the recovery aid program of 58
billion rupiah, for example, caught only the fraud of 1.7 billion rupiah from the total aid. Moreover,
the trial only prosecuted one suspect, M. Nelloh, the former chief of the regional development agency
of Poso district, and ignoring the testimony of the witnesses regarding the involvement of other
actors‘.56. In sum, the massive corruption caused by unaccountable governance is adding more
complication to Poso peace and development prospects.
CONCLUSION
The long way of peace-building in Poso has shown the fact that the legitimate security force
and impartial law enforcement are the initial key for the successful post-conflict management. The
security forces‘ apparent lack of legitimacy brought another phase of violence in the post
peace-agreement in 2001-2007. Since dealing with grievance and hatred is the challenge that is
common in governing the post-conflict society and the impartial law enforcement is crucial. But in
Poso, security apparatus has enjoyed its economic relations with business entrepreneurs both local and
national, and the military engagement in economic activities seriously jeopardizes its professional
orientation.
We have also seen that, after the peace agreement, political elites have used ‗ex-combatants‘
to strengthen their political basis and to gain more power in the series of local elections. These
predatorily politicians even use the ‗fear of losing peace‘ as a discourse to justify their rule. Moreover,
the post-conflict recovery aid seemingly became a source of massive corruption, and it ignited local
power struggle.
The post-2001 Poso has long been widely assessed, both domestic and international as a
‗successful‘ case of conflict resolution since chaotic violence is no longer visible and local elections
have been conducted smoothly. However, this chapter illustrates that it is an illusion to see peace in
Poso. The peace-related projects have been hijacked by local power elites who are now capable of
taming the scale of violence.
Head; Carminalis Ndele in 2004. Ndele was beheaded after he refused to inflate the number of refugees in his
village and to cut their aid.
55
These are compilation from various sources, i.e., documents from the Poso‘s social and political affairs office
and document from the ministry of public works.
56
The witnesses testify that the wife of Poso district head was involved in a fraud project.
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GLOBAL CHANGES, DOMESTIC CONSEQUENCES:
MAPPING FOUR DIMENSIONS OF GLOBAL CHANGE AND THEIR IMPACTS TO
INDONESIA’S POLITICAL LANDSCAPE, AN EARLY ASSESMENT
1
Shofwan Al Banna Choiruzzad*
Graduate School of International Relations, Ritsumeikan University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
While there are many scholarly works that use domestic politics to explain international
relations or particular state‘s foreign policy, works that look at the different direction is rare or even
nonexistent. This paper is an early experiment to ponder on the impacts of international relations and
global changes to domestic politics. To do so, this paper takes Indonesia as a case study. Inspired by
previous works on the ongoing global changes and formulate them based on the concept of ‗power‘ in
international relations, this paper maps the changes and put them into four dimensions. Using these
four dimensions, this paper identifies their impacts to Indonesia‘s political landscape.
Keywords: international relations, domestic politics, power, global changes, Indonesia
INTRODUCTION: UNEQUAL CONTRIBUTIONS
If International Relations and Politics were husband and wife, probably their marriage will
not last long. Sharing similar roots, both had developed themselves as distinct subject of study with
their own competing school of thoughts and theories. Fortunately, it is inevitable that both subject
often cross each other‘s path when studying a particular issue in this global era. However, it seems that
they have unequal relationship.
There are many scholarly works that use domestic politics to explain international relations
or particular state‘s foreign policy [1]. In the opposite direction, studies that explain domestic politics
using the lens of international relations or global studies is rare or even nonexistent. This is intriguing,
since it had been proven many times that global changes had changed the direction of domestic
politics in various countries. Recently, the strongman of Italy, Silvio Berlusconi, had to resign after the
Parliament approved austerity measures following the Eurozone crisis.[2]
This paper is an early experiment to ponder on the impacts of international relations and
global changes to domestic politics. To do so, this paper takes Indonesia as a case study. Inspired by
previous works on the ongoing global changes and formulate them based on the concept of ‗power‘ in
international relations, this paper maps the changes and put them into four dimensions. Using these
four dimensions, this paper identifies their impacts to Indonesia‘s political landscape.
THE CHANGING POWER
Before going further, I would like to clarify a few important points. First, as I have
mentioned before, the idea of the ―global change‖ was largely influenced by previous works (of
[3,4,5,6,7]). What I would like to do by introducing the ―four dimensions of global change‖ was to
map and simplify the complex dynamics and to unify the different aspects and perspectives that were
discussed by those works.
Second: then, how do I put those different aspects and perspectives into the ―four dimension
of global change‖? The answer is by going back to a basic concept of International Relations: ‗power.‘
The concept of ‗power‘ is central to the studies of international relations, even since the early
development of International Relations as a discipline (see Morgenthau [8]). Until now, even when IR
studies are no longer confined in the studies of the interactions between nations, the concept is still
central. As the discipline grows, the concept had been defined into various definitions, influenced by
the wide variety of perspectives employed by IR scientists.
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Because of limited space, this paper will not go to elaborate these various definitions, but
directly to the definition of power (summed up from my reading of that many definitions) and its use
in understanding the global change. [To elaborate more, see [9])
This paper defines ‗power‘ simply as ―the capacity of a particular actor to influence others.‖
This capacity emanates from various resources, ranging from military power, economic prominence,
to cultural influence; and also exercised in various ways: from coercive to attractive (thus giving birth
to the concept of ―soft power‖ by Joseph S. Nye [10]).
How could this simple concept of ‗power‘ help us to unify various works on the ongoing
global change? This eclectic paper argues that all of the global changes could be framed into four
dimensions of change by seeing the aspects of power in global politics:
1. The distribution of power
2. The locus of power
3. The form of power
4. The world where the power is generated, distributed and executed.
The Four Dimensions
The first dimension is the distribution of power. As neorealists suggest, even though
various actors have emerged in international relations, states are still important actors of it. Thus, we
will start by understanding that one dimension of the global change is the change of distribution of
power among nations in the international system.
This change will affect the constellation of power between nations and creates different
dynamics in various parts of the world (this is in line with the argument of Kenneth Waltz, see [11]).
As happened in the past, shifts in the distribution of power in the international system had reshaped the
world: multipolar world was ended after WWII and replaced by Bipolar World (which was
characterized by Cold War between the two blocs) which in turn was replaced by a unipolar world
(which seems to be ending soon).
Superpower
Major power
Middle power
Minor power
Fig. 1.Shifts in the Distribution of Power
What are the significant trends that shift the distribution of power? As [9] and [11] suggested,
here they are: (1) The Rise of China, India, Brazil and other emerging markets (including Indonesia);
(2) The relative stagnation of the West; (3) Changes in power distributions in various regions
(including Middle East) among regional powers and its orientation because of the changing global
constellation (i.e. China is now active in Africa).
The second dimension is the locus of power. As many analysts already suggested, states are
no longer the only actors in international relations. Other actors gain more and more capacity to
influence others in various international issues. As Mary Kaldor had noted [12], sovereignty trickles
from states up (to supranational institutions), beside (corporations), and down (sub national groups,
individuals).
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MNC
IO
State
NGO
individuals groups
Fig. 2.Shifts in the Locus of Power
Here are some major trends in this aspect: (1) The emergence of non-state actors
(international organizations, powerful individuals, NGOs, transnational movements) in international
politics; (2) The expansion of free market; (3) States are losing their monopoly of sovereignty
(including the use of violence) – look at the birth of private security companies, internal conflicts, and
vigilantism all over the world (including FBR or FPI in Indonesia).
The third dimension is the form of power. In this aspect, I would like to echo Nye‘s
argument: the attractive ―soft power‖ will gain more and more weight. [10]
Soft
Hard
Fig.3.Soft Power gains more weight
What does this mean? (1) The rising importance of Soft Power; (2) The return of identity,
ideas and culture; (3) Hard Power (such as military prowess and its coercive projection) still matters.
The fourth is the world where the power is generated, distributed and exercised.
Fig. 4. Difussion between the ‗material world‘ and the ‗cyber world‘
Now we are witnessing a difussion between the material world and the cyber world. We see
the growth of cyber life: cyber dating, cyber market (Rakuten, Amazon, etc.), cyber activism
(―Facebook revolutions‖), and also cybercrime.
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CONSEQUENCES TO INDONESIA’S POLITICAL LANDSCAPE: AN EARLY ASSESMENT
As other parts of the world, Indonesia is no exception. The waves of change in the four
dimensions also reach Indonesia‘s shores, in various aspects and at varying degrees. Of course, these
changes had been and are still affecting our social (increasing religiosity, cyber life, crystallization of
identity), economic (fluctuating oil price, underground economy, etc.), and political lives (the rise of
businessmen cum politician in political arena, the emergence of local strongmen, fluidization of
politics, etc. Understanding these changes will be important in predicting the future of democratization
in Indonesia.
Table 1. Four Dimensions of the Global Change: Impacts to Indonesia‘s Political Landscape
Dimensions
Impacts to Indonesia’s Political
Landscape
What is happening


Distribution of Power


Sino-Japan-US rivalry in the
region
Indonesia is the stepping stone
for India’s ambition to reach
Asia
South America is still ‘far far
away’, but it is getting closer
Middle East changes and the
fluctuating price of oil








Locus of Power


Crowded arena of foreign
policy
Bound by many international
commitments, mostly free
trade agreements
The proliferation of power and
violence
The rise of transnational
organized crime (narcotics,
terrorism, maritime piracy,
etc.)





Form of Power


The reemergence of primordial
identities
Increasing religiosities and
crystallization of identities
Popular culture






‘The World’


Cyber economy, cyber activism,
cybercrime
Digital divide

~ 100 ~
Elite and International Network
(Golkar‘s visit to China)
Changes in Epistemic Communities
 influencing policymaking
Changes in Bureaucracy
Changes in Business Sector
Less Stability, More complex power
relations
Bound by many international
commitments, mostly free trade
agreements  Less Policy Options
Military and police rivalry for
gaining institutional benefits from
the securitization of transnational
crime
The rise of underground economy
(non-formal sector, illegal economy,
‗security services‘)  making of
local strongmen
Businessmen-cum-politicians
dominating politics (the danger of
state capture)
Fluidization and pragmatization of
politics
The reemergence of primordial
identities in Indonesian society
(FBR, FPI)
Increasing religiosities and
crystallization of identities
Popular culture for politics
The emergence of ‗Media War‘
government attempts to control the
internet
Digital divide creates gap between
the connected middle class and the
unconnected masses 
―social-media driven politics‖? 
danger of manipulations?
Ex: SBY commenting issues on
twitter!
[S – 034]
CONCLUDING REMARKS: FUTURE RESEARCH
As implied by its title and abstract, this paper is an early experiment to map out the
consequences of global changes into a particular country‘s domestic politics. Thus, given the limitation,
I did not elaborate the consequences in detail because it is only aimed at giving a broad idea that
international relations matters and global changes could be used as a tool to understand changes in
domestic politics. To push this promising experiment forward, future research on the impacts of global
changes to domestic politics is needed.
References
[1] De Mesquita, Bruce Bueno (2002) ―Domestic Politics and International Relations.‖ International
Studies Quarterly 46: 1-9.
[2] http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/europe/silvio-berlusconi-resign-italy-austerity-measur
es.html
[3] Giddens, Anthony (1999) Runaway World: How Globalization is Reshaping Our Lives. London:
Profile
[4] Rosenau, James N. (2003) Distant Proximities: Dynamics Beyond Globalization, Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
[5] Friedman, Thomas (2005) The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty First Century, Farrar,
Straus & Giroux and Friedman, Thomas (2009)Hot, Flat, and Crowded (Release 2.0), New York:
Picador.
[6] Fukuyama, Francis (2005) State Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty First
Century. Profile Books.
[7] Mahbubani, Kishore (2008) The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to
the East. New York: Public Affairs.
[8] Morgenthau, Hans J. (1948) Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf
[9] Nau, Henry R. (2007) Perspectives on International Relations: Power, Institutions, Ideas.
Congressional Quarterly Press.
[10] Nye, Joseph S. (2004) Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public
Affairs.
[11] Waltz, Kenneth. (1979) Theory of International Politics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
[12] Kaldor, Mary (2006) New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. (Second Edition).
Cambridge: Polity Press.
~ 101 ~
[S – 035]
REVISITING CONTROL OF PRE-ELECTION POLLING IN CONTEMPORARY
INDONESIA: BEYOND THE BAND-WAGON ISSUE
Agus Trihartono
GSIR, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto-Japan
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study revisits the reasons behind the limitation of pre-election poll and quick-count in
Indonesian elections, mentioned in national Law (number 10/2008, and Number 42/2008) and the
regulation of Election Commission (KPU, Komisi Pemilihan Umum). Previous justification indicates
that the rules was designed to avoid a so-called direct bandwagon effect, to protect the community
from the possibility of mass distraction caused by the publication of inaccurate pre-election poll and
quick-count, and to minimize the complexity of the elections. Yet, this paper argues in reverse. From
fieldwork carried out since 2009-2011, I found the fundamental reasons which encourage law-makers
to silently limit pre-election poll and quick-count were the fears that elites, businessmen, and mass
media concentrated their supports to the prospective winner shown by the polls and quick-count.
Accordingly, the previous justification on bandwagon effect to control pre-election polls and
quick-count was inessential.
Keywords: public opinion polling, Indonesian politics, regulating the polls, band-wagon effect
INTRODUCTION
This paper re-examines the reasons to restrict pre-election polls and quick-counts (QC) in
Indonesia‘s post Suharto era. Following the position of the pollsters, which are significantly increasing
in Indonesian electoral politics,i controlling the pollsters also expanded and enlarged both the intensity
and the level of legislation. The regulation was not only the accreditation and limitation of pollsters‘
activities in the elections, but also the publication of the results of pre-election polls and the
quick-counts on quiet week and election days.ii Publication of pre-election poll and the quick-count
on the days has been limited by the Law Number 10/2008,iii the Law Number 42/2008,iv and the
regulation of Election Commission (KPU, Komisi Pemilihan Umum).v
So far, control over the activities of pre-election polls and quick-counts were to prohibit
pre-election poll and quick-count publications on quiet week and election days. The attempts to ban
Pre-election polls and quick-counts were based on the rationales that the publications might inform but
also affect the voters. Put another way, the limitation of pre-election polls and quick-counts were based
on the allegations that such publications led to the works of the so-called ―direct band-wagon effect.‘
Some politicians claimed that these bans were to avoid the possibility of social riots due to the
possible inaccurate announcement of pre-election poll and quick-count results in the day of election.
Moreover, the law makers thought that credibility of pollster bodies was not convincing, thus the
research outcomes were accused to be the source of the election complexity.vi
Unlike those politicians‘ arguments, in this article I argue that the reasons behind such
regulations were neither the direct band-wagon effects nor the credibility of pre-election polls as
incitement of social disorder, and even social riots. More specifically, it was something to do with the
funding flow and elites to support the most prospective party or pair candidates. Simply put, it was the
political move to minimize the wave of financial support from businessmen and elites to the probable
winner shown by the polls and the quick-count (an indirect bandwagon) rather than to reduce the
influence of the publication to the voters (a direct band-wagon), which publicly claimed so far. In
addition, blaming the publication of pre-election poll and quick-count as the source of disturbance of
the post elections is also somewhat over-exaggerated since, as we will discuss later, the majority of
national pre-election poll and quick-count, methodology speaking, were tremendous.
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In doing so, the paper comprises key issues as follows: the first section highlights the
principal development and the significance of political polls and quick-counts from 2003 onwards as
well as considers the latest changes. The second discusses the regulation to control the dissemination
of pre-election poll and quick-count outcomes both in the parliamentary and the presidential elections
and exposes the official rationales behind the controls. The third section, on the other hand, exposes
that control of pre-election poll publication primarily for reasons to refrain the elites‘ to support to the
party or candidate who are the potential winner. It is far from the prescribed reasons which weighted
the impacts of publication of pre-election poll and quick-count to the voters. Throughout this study, I
would like to spotlight the picture of controlling Pre-election poll and its justification. This paper
shows the efforts to limit pollsters had neither to do with the direct band-wagon effect nor with the
credibility of pollsters. It had to do with elites support to possible winner candidates.
DIRECT-BANDWAGON, UNDERDOG, AND INDIRECT-BANDWAGON
Before we analyze the issues, it would be helpful to define what we mean by bandwagon and
by underdog, as well as by indirect bandwagon. These three concepts are the central idea of this paper.
a) Bandwagon. The so-called direct bandwagon is the power that polls supposedly have to
influence voters. More specifically, voters change their position after being exposed to polls.
Simply put, the publication of Pre-election poll supposedly encourages voters who support the
candidates leading in the polls, and discourage voters who support those trailing in the polls.
Meanwhile, undecided voters might congregate to the winning candidates (Roll and Catril,
1972).
b) On the other hand, the so-called bandwagon is also followed by the opposite situation of
so-called underdog. Underdog occurs when people vote, out of sympathy, for the party
perceived to be "losing" the elections shown by the poll result. Either bandwagon or underdog
remains in the area of voters (Young, 2009). Those effects occur simultaneously so that there
is a tendency to nullify one to another. Indeed, underdog always presents along with the
bandwagon. The extent to which these two elements influence voters, academically, is not
without a doubt. Identifying these two effects, so far, has brought to a serious academic
debate.
c) Meanwhile, there is also a situation known as Indirect Bandwagon. It is an effect which
supposedly functions to influence the elites, not the voters. The effects mattered on campaign
workers, active supporters and financial contributors as well as the media (Field, 1983). They
are all about businessmen support, media coverage, and the rise of enthusiasm and confidence
for campaign teams to perform. Put simply, according to Gallup (1947) it is known as the ―3
M.‖ It is all about money, media, and morale. In this paper I add one more aspect, namely the
support of political elites.
THE EMBARGO, THE JUSTIFICATIONS
The Embargo
Since the increased role of pollsters in Indonesian electoral politics became obvious with the
first direct election in 2004, interestingly, Indonesia took the position to prohibit all implementation
and publication of survey results during the last period of the campaign and quiet week. The level of
regulation is divided into two layers, namely: the election commission rule and the national law
(Undang-Undang). Two layers of the rules contain conditions and restrictions binding the
implementation of pre-election polls and quick-counts as well as the sanctions. The sanctions comprise
both fines and imprisonment which is subject to criminal in election.
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Table 1. Regulation on Polling and Quick-Count
State Acts
Regulation Of the
Elections Commission
(KPU)
Legislative
none
No. 701/2003:
Election 2004
Exposing Methodology
Presidential
none
No 48/2004:Prohibiting
Election 2004
the publication of
Polling and
Quick-count in
so-called ―Quiet Week
― Period (Minggu
tenang)
Legislative
Law number
Required pollsters for
Election 2009
10/2008:
pollsters register
accreditation.
Presidential
Law number Law
Required pollsters for
Election 2009
No. 42/2008
register and
accreditation
accreditation.
Source: KPU Regulation Number 701 year 2003, KPU Regulation Number 48 Year 2004, and KPU
Regulation number 40 Year 2008. Law Number 10 Year 2008 and Law Number 42 year 2008
The Justification
There are four justifications over the control of the polls and the quick-count as follows:
First, a direct bandwagon effect mattered as voters rally to the leading candidate. Almost all
parties feared that the results of pre-election opinion poll led voters to favor particular candidate and
certain party shown by the polls as the possible winner. The concern was based on the (common)
assumption that the polls prompted the development of advocacy-polls. This is the use of polls by
interest groups to make an impression of strong popular support, for specific candidates. Proponents of
this idea view that since the Pre-election poll were prevalent in the election period, polls‘ issue was
certainly about the political realm. Accordingly, many politicians saw, mostly suspiciously, the polls as
merely a part of a political conspiracy. Since the intensity of the polls was obvious and numerous, the
poll was seen as a means of raising the particular party's or candidate‘s victory in the elections. At this
point, the politicians have seen the polls as a political tool of a political party rather than an academic
research.vii To mention some opinions, the Gerindra (Gerakan Indonesia Raya) party leader, also the
presidential candidate, Prabowo Subianto, argued that the Pre-election opinion polls were simply a
tool to shape public view. Although Prabowo did not deny if there were also pollsters which conducted
surveys objectively and independently, the poll was widely used as a device to influence the public
opinion to vote for the possible winner. Polls publication mattered especially to simple-minded people
who would follow the 'polls' as the reason to choose the most popular pair. viii
In line with Prabowo, a Golkar Party Chairman, Muladi, and Bambang Eka Cahya Widodo, a
member of the Election Supervisory Board (Banwaslu, Badan Pengawas Pemilu), also noticed the poll
results were easy to be manipulated to mislead the public choice. Specifically, polls influence people's
choice as "the pollsters can distort people's preference. ix In addition, Ganjar Pranowo, a law-maker of
the PDI-P admitted that the assumption that poll results affected voters was very obvious among
politicians. Therefore, many politicians were very sensitive to the bandwagon issue, proved or not,
because it affected the victory or the defeat in the election.x Accordingly, a member of the Election
Commission, Andi Nurpati, requested that pollsters must perform disclaimer that ―the activity of
pre-election poll and quick-count was scientific, not to influence community in the vote."xi
Second, despite useful, some politicians perceived that Pre-election polls and quick counts
were the source of election trouble. The concerns were that both poll and quick count produced by
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‗incredible‘ pollsters led to the possibility of mass disruption. Such rules, therefore, were essential to
deter the community from the possibility of post-election riots caused by the publication of the poll
and quick-count. The politicians argued that the control was needed to reduce the complexity of the
elections. Accordingly, some politicians doubt that pollsters which are mostly funded by individuals or
groups associated with the candidate in the election, were not only dependent, but also subject to be
manipulated. Even President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, a person who really gained most benefit
from polls activities in the 2004 presidential election, expressed his wrath against the poll results of a
number of pollsters that were not based on need, but by the order: "Not all the results of the public
opinion polls are valid, credible, and reliable."xii
Many discussions, therefore, were dominated by the question about the independency of
pollsters. Accordingly, an event at Metro TV, a nationwide television in the country, media observers
from the University of Indonesia, Effendi Gazali, invited people not to believe in either Pre-election
poll or quick-count in the country. There were proponents who perceived that the rules to control the
pollsters were imperative to ensure that only reliable pollsters conduct pre-election poll and
quick-count. Hence, there was a proposal that the election commission (KPU) was not only to register
but also to conduct such an accreditation of pollsters. In addition, according to KPU commissioners,
Andi Nurpati,xiii the commission required the pollsters to explain to the public how the data had been
obtained, how the research methods had been applied, which was the financial funding, and most
important, pollsters should also make disclaimer whether they have proximity to political parties or
particular candidates. The regulation, therefore, was vital since there were some pollsters that were not
reliable.
Third, as pollsters who participated in the pre-election poll and quick count were truly varied
in their reliability, it was possible that the outcome of the polls and the quick-count differed from one
another compared to actual results of the election commission. In such cases, if the difference is
obvious, the survey results and as well as quick-count move from problem-solver to problem-maker.
The losing candidates were most likely to use the results of the polls and quick-count for demanding
cancellation of the election or a re-election to the constitutional court. Furthermore, differences in
pre-election poll results and a quick-count with the actual results could spark riots and clashes between
supporters of competing parties or candidates in the elections. In this sense, controlling the pollsters
was in order to prevent the possibly of erroneous results affecting the quality of elections and social
order.
NEITHER DIRECT-BANDWAGON NOR UNDERDOG
In this section, this paper shows two aspects, firstly, issue of direct-bandwagon, which has
been used as one reasons for controlling the poll and the Quick-count, does not have an underlying
reason. In contrast, this paper underlines that the so-called indirect-bandwagon effect clearly mattered.
At the very least, indirect-bandwagon has four aspects, namely the concentration of the flow of funds
(usually stand by the businessmen), mass-media coverage, morale of the campaign team, and the
support of political elites. In this paper, I will only show two aspects to be discussed namely the
support businessmen and the supports of the political elites. Second, accusing pollsters as unreliable
seems to me over-exaggerated. In fact, utilizing ―Median Average Deviation‖ on quick-count, as we
will discuss later, the pollsters that participate in national elections mostly are credible.
Direct-Bandwagon
There is no single convincing academic evidence indicating that direct-bandwagon mattered.
All claims of politicians so far did not bring into play any fundamental and empirical research.
According to Saiful Mujani, the Indonesian authoritative researcher on voting behavior,
indirect-bandwagon was not detected in any Indonesian voting behavior. Based on empirical data from
four national surveys conducted by the Indonesian Survey Institute in legislative elections in 2004
showed the effect of the announcement of pre-election poll results prior to the election of political vote
on Election Day were not significant.
The study analyzed 40 percent who stated they had participated and gave notice on the poll
results, and the data crossed-checked to their choice of political parties in legislative elections 5 April
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2004. The results showed: paying attention to poll results had no any correlation with their choice of
political parties in the elections. It also shows that the direct-bandwagon effect did not work in the
voters‘ behavior in Indonesia (Mujani, 2004). Furthermore, Dodi Ambardi, an executive director of the
Indonesian Survey Institute, wrapped up that there has not been any proof that certain voters choose a
party or a candidate just because the party or the candidate had high rank in many surveys. Moreover,
Agung Prihatna, the former research director of Jakarta-based LP3ES, heighten that the study of
LP3ES showed that the number of people who make their decision on the party and the candidate at
the period moment of quiet week (Minggu tenang, cooling off period) until D-day of election were less
than 5 percent in average. Indeed, the majority of Indonesian people have already made a choice even
far before the campaign period. Related to the 2009 presidential election, for instance, Indra Piliang, a
member of JK-Wiranto campaign team, confirmed that the image of the candidate before the campaign
is more powerful than after the campaign (Piliang, 2009). Thus, it is clear that there is no academic
evidence shows pre-election poll and quick count was the factor of so-called direct-bandwagon.
Underdog Effect
From the empirical data of four national surveys conducted by the Indonesian Survey
Institute in 2004, the impact of the publication of the survey results before the election which
encourage voters to choose the defeated party in the polls was also not significant. There was some
hypothesis that underdog effect might work on voters of the Democratic Party (PD) and the Justice
Party (PK). Nonetheless, after crosschecking voters who followed the publication of the poll were
concentrated in Democrat Party and Justice Party and the effect was zero (Mujani, 2004). Simply put,
it was not the underdog effect that influences the voters‘ choice to Democratic Party and Justice Party,
but it was the level of education of voters. Put another way, the level of education was correlated with
the behavior to pay attention to the polls. Thus, the education levels are the factor why voters chose
the Democratic Party and the Justice Party. In short, the underdog effect did not occur.
Indirect-Bandwagon
My main argument is that indirect-bandwagon worked in national elections both legislative
and presidential one. As I previously mentioned, indirect-bandwagon is all about the ―3 M‖: money,
media, and morale. In the context of Indonesia, I found one other aspect is the support of political
elites. This paper specifically highlights two aspects of them, namely: money and political elite. The
results of opinion surveys sparked an indirect-bandwagon which affected to political elites behavior.
Simply put, the information which was produced by pollster affect to the concentration of the flow of
businessmen financial aid, the political elite support, and even the head of the region support, to a
party or a candidate who has the greatest chance of victory. Based on the acknowledgment of
campaign teams, as we will discuss later, candidates, who have a small probability of victory, had
abandoned by their businessmen friends and political elites. Instead, the supports were concentrated to
candidate with the highest chance of victory. Accordingly, the support of elites, openly or secretly,
shifted to the pair SBY-Boediono candidate which, according to majority of the poll, will be the
winner of presidential elections.
a. Financial Flow
Regarding the concentration of support for candidates who are most likely to be the winner
(SBY-Boediono), the campaign team Jusuf Kalla-Wiranto and several senior politicians Megawati
Sukarno PDIP-Prabowo reveal some key aspects as follows:
Team leader Jusuf Kalla-Wiranto campaign (JK-Win), Mr. Fahmi Idris, complained the help
businessmen, political elites, including the support of local heads, in 2009 presidential election
decreased dramatically after a poll showed the pair would lose. As Golkar Party, JK-power based, was
the winner and runner up of 2004 and 2009 legislative election, the JK-Win team obtained an
extremely small both financial support and political support. Although few businessmen were still
loyal to Jusuf Kalla, many of JK‘s friends truly moved to the pair SBY-Boediono. Consequently, the
JK-Win campaign team has many limitations in implementing the winning strategy.
In addition, Mr. Fahmi Idris argued that the small chance of JK to be the election winner,
~ 106 ~
[S – 035]
shown by polls, also lowered Golkar party elite support to Jusuf Kalla. The Golkar party elite no
longer concentrated to JK. Some of the Golkar party elite supported SBY-Budiono even openly. In the
mean time, chairman of the Golkar party, Muladi also stated that the poll that showed the victory
chances of SBY-Boediono, has been a divisive tool of Golkar party, even breaking a coalition of
Golkar Party and the Democratic Party as the poll results made the relationship the two parties
becomes degraded.
Meanwhile, in the 2009 presidential election Mega-Prabowo had also a bitter experience. In
time the pair of SBY-Boediono predicted to be a winner by polls, many businesses were leaving this
pair. Senior politicians PDIP, Heri Akhmadi, acknowledge that businessmen support to Team
Mega-Prabowo were acutely decreased and dried. Consequently, the campaign team was mostly
financially supported by both Megawati and Prabowo, particularly from both the family of them.
Support from other businessmen was, very limited, only from those who ideologically have an
attachment to Sukarno (Megawati's father).
Regarding financial assistance, there was even one embarrassing situation of the Indonesian
Democratic Party of Struggle (PDIP). It was the migration of support from Mr. Murdaya Poo from
Megawati to Susilo Bambang Yudoyono. Previously, Mr. Poo was a staunch supporter of Megawati
and one of the financial pillars PDIP. Mr. Poo was also a national businessman and the owners of
Berca Group and formerly a party treasurer moved to be the chairman the PDIP. Following the 2009
election, Mr. Murdaya Poo was accused to be unfaithful cadre as he also alleged to support the pair of
SBY-Boediono. At the mean time, Mr. Poo's wife, Hartati Murdaya, a leading Businesswoman, has
been the important campaign funders of the pair of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's-Boediono of
Democratic Party. The PDIP finally fired Mr. Murdaya Poo from his position as one of Chairman of
the Central Executive Board of the PDIP and the House of Representatives member.
Before the era of poll, businessmen had difficulties to know where the funds need to be
focused. Prior to the poll, businessmen had no clear picture of potential candidates to succeed. It was a
dilemma. For a safe play, businessmen usually provide the same financial support to all candidates.
The calculations are, whoever the winner will be, they are still beneficial to the businessmen. However,
this old way is terribly expensive. Businessmen are also seen to play in ―a set of cards‖ so that it is
unsafe and perceived as pragmatic. However, supporting only a candidate has a tremendous risk since
it is a real gamble. The polls, therefore, have changed the pattern of businessmen‘s support to the
candidate. Since the 2009 presidential elections, the support businesses to the prospective candidate
shown by polling results, has been an obvious trend.
b. Political Elites Support
In the 2009 general elections, the support of significant political elite is the contributions of
regional heads (governors, regents, and mayors) to the potential winner. Prior to the elections, the
position of the head region is theoretically neutral. However, the fact is not always that way. First,
many regional heads explicitly or implicitly in the side of the candidate who has the greatest chance of
victory. One of the obvious examples was the move of 17 local leaders of the province of West
Sumatra (governor, district heads, mayors, and 9 Vice Regents and Mayors) to be the campaign team
member of SBY-Boediono. Other pattern is local leaders secretly supporting a potential presidential
candidate during the campaign. Once the candidate is elected, the local leaders migrate to be the
member of the ruling party. Accordingly, local leaders‘ supports were actualized when SBY-Boediono
was elected to be the winner. Some local heads change their political party-based to the ruling party
(Democratic Party). This pattern is currently known as "party switching" or (Bajing Loncat, footpads).
The chairman of National Executive Board of the Democratic Party, Achmad Mubarok, confirmed that
along with the victory of Yudhoyono-Boediono, many local heads confirmed to leave their old parties
and join the Democratic Party.
Further, from the JK-Wiranto side, the support of Golkar Party functionaries in the local areas,
most of them are local heads, split to the SBY-Boediono. Interestingly, some regional heads of Golkar
Party largely attended the SBY-Boediono campaign rather than those belonged to JK-Wiranto.
Conversely, many of local heads preferred to roll out other activities so that they have reason not to
meet with JK (Piliang, 2009). In short, polls have torn the internal support of Golkar party to their
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presidential candidate.
The similar phenomenon was also existed in Mega-Prabowo side. Many PDI-P cadres,
mostly local heads, switched their power-based to the Democratic Party (the SBY-Budiono
power-based). The many PDIP cadres move to Democratic Party because they wanted to seek political
protection. In addition, there was an understanding among local leaders that only the ruling party
could provide any political protection. To mention some, the North Sulawesi Governor, SH
Sarundajang, and the mayor of Semarang, Central Java, Sukawi Sutarip are among local heads that
move from PDIP to Democratic Party.
From the above explanation, this paper shows that indirect-bandwagon worked after the
publication of polls.
CONCLUSION
The politician concerns of so-called the band-wagon effect and the credibility of pollsters
does not have the basic arguments. This paper shows that the impact of publication of polls and
quick-count was the business and political elite support migration to the most likely candidate. In
addition, the both the bandwagon and underdog effect was not significantly proved.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Directorate General of Higher Education of the
Republic of Indonesia for the doctoral program scholarship at the GSIR, Ritsumeikan University,
Kyoto, Japan; Professor Jun Honna as my academic supervisor, and the Ritsumeikan University Office
of the Graduate Studies for a grant that enabled me to do fieldworks.
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Election of President and Vice President (Peraturan KPU No. 40 tahun 2008 tentang Partisipasi
Masyarakat dalam Pemilihan Umum Anggota DPR, DPD, DPRD Provinsi, dan DPRD
Kabupaten/Kota serta Pemilihan Umum Presiden dan Wakil Presiden).
~ 108 ~
[S – 035]
[10] Trihartono, A, ―From Periphery to the Centre of Power: the Raising Role of Public Opinion Poll
in Indonesian Electoral Politics,‖ International Conference: Sustainable Future for Human
Security 2010 (SUSTAIN-2010), Japan, Kyoto, Center of Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS),
(Kyoto University, 12 December 2010), Proceeding CD (ISSN : 1884-8850).
[11] Ufen, Andreas (2011), ―Electoral Campaigning in Indonesia: The Professionalization and
Commercialization after 1998,‖ Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, Vol. 29, No. 4.
[12] The Jakarta Post, 21/2/2008.
i
For example Mietzner, M (2009) ―Political Opinion Poll In Post-Authoritarian Indonesia: Catalyst or Obstacle
to Democratic Consolidation?" Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde Bijdragen tot de Taal-,
Land- en Volkenkunde (BKI), 165-1 2009: 95-126; see also, Mohammad Qodari, The Professionalization of
Politics: The Growing Role of Poll Organisation and Political Consultants, in Edward Aspinall and Marcus
Mietzner (eds.), Problems of Democratisation in Indonesia: Elections, Institutions and Society, (Singapore:
ISEAS, 2010), pp.122-140; Andreas Ufen (2010), ―Electoral Campaigning in Indonesia: The Professionalization
and Commercialization after 1998,‖ Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 29, 4, 11-37; and Agus
Trihartono, ―From Periphery to the Centre of Power: the Raising Role of Public Opinion Poll in Indonesian
Electoral Politics,‖ International Conference: Sustainable Future for Human Security 2010 (SUSTAIN-2010),
Japan, Kyoto, Center of Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS), Kyoto University, 12 December 2010, Proceeding
CD (ISSN : 1884-8850).
ii
The Jakarta Post, 21 February 2008.
iii
Law Number 10 Year 2008 regarding the General Elections of Members of the People‘s Legislative Assembly,
the Regional Representative Council and the Regional People‘s Legislative Assembly (Undang-Undang Nomor
10/2008 tentang: Pemilihan Umum Anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, dan Dewan
Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah).
iv
Law Number 42 Year 2008 regarding the General Elections of the President and Vice President
(Undang-Undang Nomor 42 tahun 2008 tentang Pemilihan Umum Presiden dan Wakil Presiden Republik
Indonesia).
v
KPU Regulation Number 40 of 2008 on Public Participation in Elections for of Members of the People‘s
Legislative Assembly, the Regional Representative Council, and the Regional People‘s Legislative Assembly and
the General Election of President and Vice President (Peraturan KPU No. 40 tahun 2008 tentang Partisipasi
Masyarakat dalam Pemilihan Umum Anggota DPR, DPD, DPRD Provinsi, dan DPRD Kabupaten/Kota serta
Pemilihan Umum Presiden dan Wakil Presiden).
vi
Kompas Daily, 21 November 2007.
vii
Interview with Taufiqul Hadi, Vice General Secretary of United Development Party (PPP, Partai Persatuan
Pembangunan), Jakarta, 9 August 2009.
viii
See Suara Merdeka daily, "Prabowo: Poll Affects Public Perception, July 29, 2009.
ix
See Koran Tempo, Bukan Semata Registrasi Lembaga Survey (It is not merely about pollster registration), 13
January 2009.
x
Interview with Ganjar Pranowo, Jakarta, August 2010.
xi
Kompas Daily, KPU Imbau Lembaga Survey Cantumkan Sumber Dana (Commission urges Pollsters expose
Funding Source List), 22 December 2009,
http://www.kompas.com/read/xml/2008/12/22/16355577/kpu.imbau.lembaga.survei.cantumkan.sumber.pendana
aan (visited, 16 August 2010).
xii
See Koran Tempo, November 2, 2008.
xiii
See Koran Tempo, Bukan Semata Registrasi Lembaga Survey (It is not Merely about Pollster Registration),
January 13, 2009
~ 109 ~
[C-001]
UTILIZATION OF EUCALYPTUS OIL REFINERIES WASTE FOR CEMENT
PARTICLE BOARD
Rudi Setiadji1* and Andriati Amir Husin2
Experimental Station of Building Materials, Research Institute for Human Settlements
2
Experimental Station of Building Materials, Research Institute for Human Settlements
1
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Utilization of eucalyptus oil refinery waste in the manufacture of building material
component of cement particle board is expected to reduce the price of housing units. This research
used laboratory experimental methods, eucalyptus oil waste in the form of branches an twigs from
eucalyptus tree. The variation of the testing were mixtures composition of the particle: cement,
additives as accelerators, cold press load during manufacture of cement particle board. Cold press
duration of cement board was 24 hours. The size of particle boards were (40 x 40) cm2 and 13 mm
thick. The samples were tested for its density, water content, water absorption, flexural strength,
thickness swelling, adhesion strength, and the nails pull out strength.
Keywords: particle, eucalyptus, cement board.
INTRODUCTION
Prices of building materials can be reduced by use of basic materials derived from waste.
Utilization of waste in this study was eucalyptus oil refinery waste in the form of eucalyptus twigs.
Eucalyptus plant in Forest Stakeholder Unit (KPH) Indramayu were scattered at five sections of Forest
Stakeholders Unit (BKPH). Based on existing data (KPH Perhutani Indramayu, 1999) sustaining areas
for eucalyptus oil refineries were amounted to 5,300 hectares with an estimated production of
eucalyptus leaves (DKP) at 3 tons/ha. The utilization for eucalyptus oil processing plant is 60 tons/day.
Eucalyptus oil refinery waste form might be liquid, leaves, and eucalyptus wood. Details of the waste
generated were 40% leaves for fuel, and 60% twigs with a diameter of 0.5 to 1 cm of 550 kg/ton dry.
Means that in 60 ton/day oil refinery waste in the form of wood was 550 kg x 60 tons/day equivalent
to 33,000 kg. Utilization of eucalyptus oil refinery waste as alternative raw materials for cement
particle board is expected to reduce the price of housing units.
Figure 1. Landfill of eucalyptus oil refinery waste
Based on data from KPH Perhutani Indramayu, there are some eucalyptus oil factory in
Indonesia which is under Perhutani and five are located in the island of Java, Sukabumi, Kuningan,
Indramayu, Gundih, and Ponorogo. As example of the eucalyptus oil factory (PMKP) Jatimunggul in
Indramayu has a production target which increases every year, 12,000 tons/year of eucalyptus oil were
~ 110 ~
[C-001]
processed in 2008 and this factory was included as the largest in Southeast Asia. At present, all of the
waste is used as a plantation compost. Eucalyptus oil produced from every 1 ton of material is
equivalent to 7 kg. Most of the waste, approximately 6,000 tons/year, can be used for boiler fuel so
that the average remaining 6,000 tons/year of waste that has not been exploited economically.
Many previous research on cement bonded particle board has been conducted. Aini [1]
studied cement board with oil palm stem, the flexural strength up to 14,36 kg/cm2. It was predicted
because insufficient clamp load. Antonios N. P. [2] made cement bonded particleboards with
hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) wood particles and CaCl2 additive as 3%. Heat hydration test was
done to gain the inhibitory index for characterizing the relationship between wood and cement. Results
show that hornbeam-cement mixture can be classified as moderate inhibition. Wood : cement ratio
used were 1 : 3 and 1 : 4. Increasing wood : cement ratio improved the characteristics of cement
bonded particleboards except the modulus of rupture. Idris, A.A [3] studied cement bonded
particleboards with reed fiber. Flexural strengths with lime immersion were in range of 40,18 – 70,66
kg/cm2, while flexural strengths with water immersion were in range of 28,25 – 61,24 kg/cm2.
Ling Fei Ma [4] concluded that there is a relationship between cement hydration with
mechanical properties of cement board from wood and other lignocellulosic materials. Mechanical
performances can be predicted from total of energy released from hydration proccess. Materials being
used was wood chip of sugi, hinoki, kenaf, bamboo, rice hull, and rice straw. Cement portland type I
has added with MgCl2, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, NaSiO3, CaCl2 additive as 0%, 2,5%, 5%, 10%, and 15%.
Increasing additive content increased the modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture with maximum
additive content range between 5% to 10%. Sudin and Swamy [5] made bamboo flakes and oil palm
fibres, tested the sugar content , and its effect on strength development of cement Portland mixture.
Accelerator materials used were CaCl2, MgCl2, Al2(SO4)3, Al2(SO4)3+Na2SiO3 as 2%, fly ash, rice husk
ash, and latex for cement partial replacement as 10%, 20%, and 30%. Bamboo-cement board with
bamboo : cement ratio as 1 : 2,75 with aluminium sulphate additive as 2% complied with local
standard MS 934 requirement. Oil palm fibre-cement board with cement replacement range between
10% to 20% satisfied the local standard MS 934 requirement.
Based on previous research and available potential resources, there is a need for research
about properties of cement bonded particle board with eucalyptus oil refinery waste and variation of
chemicals additive that complied with standard requirements.
MATERIALS AND RESEARCH METHOD
The research using laboratory experimental methods carried out in the Building Materials
Department in Research Institute of Human Settlements of the Ministry of Public Works in Bandung.
Waste eucalyptus branches and twigs were obtained from PMKP Jatimunggul Indramayu. Eucalyptus
oil waste was tested for heat of hydration. The composition of the mixture between the particles :
cement were 1 : 3, 1 : 4 and 1 : 5. Additional materials as an accelerator were CaCl2, MgCl2, Al2(SO4)3.
Cold press loads during the process of cement particle board making were 20 kg/cm2, 25 kg/cm2, 40
kg/cm2 and 50 kg/cm2. Cold press duration of cement board was 24 hours. The size of particle board
was (40 x 40) cm2 and 13 mm thick. The number of repetitions of each test were 3 times and were
tested for density, water content, water absorption, flexural strength, thickness swelling, strong
adhesion, and the nails pull out strength. The test results were compared with SNI 03-6861.1-2002
Building Material Specifications Part A (Non Metallic Building Materials) and ISO 8335-1987
Standards of Cement-bonded Particleboard.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Eucalyptus Particles Physical Properties
Eucalyptus wastes was crushed resulting of 4.8 mm minimum size. Physical properties of
eucalyptus particles are given in Table 1.
~ 111 ~
[C-001]
Table 1. Physical properties of eucalyptus particles
Properties
Results
Specific gravity
Water absorption
0.21
9.97
%
Water content
1.70
%
Heat of Hydration
As given in Table 2 that mixture composition without accelerator have greater value of
inhibitory index than mixture composition of plain cement, it shows that cement is not well hydrated
eventough the cement content was increased up to composition of cement to eucalyptus particles as 5 :
1 and the inhibitory index can not be increased.
Table 2. Heat of hydration test results
t
T
[hours]
[⁰C]
Eucalyptus
particles : cement
Accelerator
0:1
-
8.0
28.2
0.27
0.000
1:3
-
6.5
27.3
0.10
0.893
1:4
-
6.5
27.3
0.10
0.893
1:5
-
6.5
27.3
0.10
0.893
1:4
CaCl2
5.0
28.9
0.13
- 0.140
1:4
MgCl2
7.0
29.0
0.20
- 0.409
1:4
Al2(SO4)3
7.0
28.0
- 0.09
0.519
S
I
Accelerator addition as 2% is increased the inhibitory index. Best performance for
eucalyptus to cement composition is resulted from MgCl2 followed by CaCl2 addition. Maximum
hydration time is reached faster with CaCl2 addition. Addition of Al2(SO4)3 is not recommended for
eucalyptus particles to cement composition. Based on smallest inhibitory index and hydration time, all
samples was made with composition of eucalyptus particle to cement as 4 : 1 with CaCl2 addition as
2%.
Density of Cement Particles Board
Increasing of clamp load increased densities as given in Figure 2 due to the thickness is not
limited by stopbar as the volume decreased but the weight is relatively constant. Density test results
are given in Table 3. Samples density with stopbar treatment, clamp load as 20 kg/cm2 and 40 kg/cm2
are complied with SNI 03-6861.1-2002 requirement. All samples are satisfied with the ISO 8335-1987
requirement.
Clamping was done by Universal Testing Machine (UTM) for 24 hours and cured at room
temperature. All samples thickness with stopbar greater than designed thickness as 13 mm, it was
predicted because less clamping duration so samples swelling back.
~ 112 ~
[C-001]
1300
Density [kg/m3 ]
1250
1200
1150
SNI 03-6861.1-2002
1100
ISO 8335-1987
1050
1000
Stopbar
20
25
Clamp load
50
[kg/cm2 ]
Figure 2. Density of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board
Water Content
Increasing clamp load decreased water contents as given in Figure 3. Samples water content
with clamp load are complied with ISO 8335-1987 maximum requirement as 12% due to clampping
pressure forced the water leak out. Cement particle board making with clamp load treatment results
lower water content than cement particle board making with stopbar.
16
14
Water content [%]
12
10
8
ISO 8335-1987
6
4
2
0
Stopbar
20
25
Clamp load
50
[kg/cm2 ]
Figure 3. Water content of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board
Water Absorption
Increasing clamp load decreased the water content as given in Figure 4. High pressure from
the clamp minimize voids and reduce water infiltration. Higher clamp load results higher density and
increasing density decreased water absorption.
~ 113 ~
[C-001]
30
Water absorption [%]
25
20
15
10
5
0
Stopbar
20
25
Clamp load
50
[kg/cm2 ]
Figure 4. Water absorption of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board
Flexural Strength
Cement bonded particle board samples is satisfied with SNI 03-6861.1-2002 requirement.
Increasing clamp load increased the flexural strength as given in Figure 5, probably bonds between
samples materials composition increased as the clamp load increasing.
Flexural strength [N/mm2 ]
50
40
30
20
SNI 03-6861.1-2002
10
ISO 8335-1987
0
Stopbar
20
25
Clamp load
50
[kg/cm2 ]
Figure 5. Flexural strength of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board
Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)
Increasing clamp load increased modulus of elasticity as given in Figure 6 but none of
samples complied with standards. It is predicted that eucalyptus particles have low stiffness or low
bond strength with cement.
~ 114 ~
[C-001]
3500
3000
Modulus of elasticity [N/mm2 ]
ISO 8335-1987
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Stopbar
20
25
Clamp load
50
[kg/cm2 ]
Figure 6. Modulus of elasticity of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board
Thickness Swelling
Thickness swelling of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board after soaked in water for 24
hours as given in Figure 7 are complied with ISO 8335-1987 maximum requirement as 2%. Higher
clamp loads do not reduced thickness swelling.
0,4
0,35
Thickness swelling [%]
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
Stopbar
20
25
Clamp load
50
[kg/cm2 ]
Figure 7. Thickness swelling of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board
Bond Strength
Cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board bond strength that satisfied with SNI
03-6861.1-2002 requirement only for samples with clamp load as 50 kg/cm2 as given in Figure 8. It is
assumed as minimum value of clamp load for complied board.
~ 115 ~
[C-001]
6
Bond strength [kg/cm2 ]
5
SNI 03-6861.1-2002
4
3
2
1
0
Stopbar
20
25
Clamp load
50
[kg/cm2 ]
Figure 8. Bond strength of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board
Nail Pull Out Strength
Nail pull out strength of of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle boards are complied with SNI
03-6861.1-2002 requirement. Increasing clamp load increased nail pull out strength as given in Figure
9, probably clamp load increased the density and improve frictions between eucalyptus cement board
to nail.
60
Nail pull out strength [kg]
50
SNI 03-6861.1-2002
40
30
20
10
0
Stopbar
20
25
Clamp load
50
[kg/cm2 ]
Figure 9. Nail pull out strength of cement-bonded eucalyptus particle board
CONCLUSIONS
Potential waste eucalyptus oil based on data from KPH Indramayu Perhutani are quite
numerous and scattered in various locations in Indonesia. Material in the form of branches and twigs
fairly easily obtained in terms of collecting, cleaning, and transportation. The heat of hydration test
results showed that although the amount of cement was increased to the composition of eucalyptus
~ 116 ~
[C-001]
fiber : cement at 1 : 5, it could not increase the inhibitory index. Inhibitory index was best for the
composition of white cement-eucalyptus fiber using accelerator MgCl2, and the maximum heat of
hydration time was reached quickly by using CaCl2, whereas Al2(SO4)3 results was not optimal for the
composition of the cement-eucalyptus fiber. Based on its density, samples was complied with SNI
03-6861.1-2002 except samples with cold press loads at 25 kg/cm2 and 50 kg/cm2. The value of water
contents that meet the maximum 12% requirement was obtained with a cold press load at 50 kg/cm2.
Water absorptions were ranged between (22.0 to 27.6)% and the lowest value was obtained by cold
press load at 50 kg/cm2. The entire value of flexural strength specimens were complied with SNI
03-6861.1-2002 but the modulus of elasticity were not complied. Value of thickness swelling of the
entire specimen thickness were ranged in (0.13 to 0.43)% and were qualified as the maximum value at
2%. Cold press load value at 50 kg/cm2 could be the minimum boundary for eucalyptus cement board
in order to get a strong adhesive that meets the requirements. Nails pull out strength were range in
(45.00 to 60.33) kg, complied with SNI 03-6861.1-2002. Based on test results, it was concluded that
all specimens of eucalyptus cement board in this study using a mixture of eucalyptus fiber : cement at
1 : 4 and additional materials as much as 2% CaCl2 addition, resulted the best characteristics when
combined with cold press load at 50 kg/cm2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A gratitude and sincere appreciation are presented for the Research Institute of Human Settlements in
Bandung, KPH Perhutani Indramayu, eucalyptus oil factory (PMKP) Jatimunggul in Indramayu for
finance, materials, and test facilities support that have been provided.
References
[1] Aini, N, 2002, Pemanfaatan Limbah Sawit untuk Bahan/komponen Bangunan Perumahan,
Research Institute for Human Settlements, Bandung.
[2] Antonios N. P., 2008, Mechanical Properties and Decay Resistance of Hornbeam Cement Bonded
Particleboards, Research Letters in Materials Science Volume 2008, Article ID 379749.
[3] Idris, A.A., 1994, Penelitian Pemanfaatan Alang-alang sebagai Papan Semen, Jurnal Penelitian
Permukiman, (10) 3 - 4, Research Institute for Human Settlements, Bandung.
[4] Ling Fei Ma, 2005, Manufacture of Bamboo-Cement Particleboard, Institute of Wood Science and
Technology, Zhejiang Forestry University, Linan, Zhejiang, China.
[5] Sudin, R., and Swamy, 2006, Bamboo and Wood Fibre Cement Composite for Sustainable
Infrastructure Regeneration, Journal of Materials Science, (41) 6917-6924.
~ 117 ~
[C-002]
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE WITH TAILING
AGGREGATE
Rudi Setiadji1*, Anita Firmanti2, Andreas Triwiyono3, and Rochmadi4
Experimental Station of Building Materials, Research Institute of Human Settlements
2
Experimental Station of Building Materials, Research Institute of Human Settlements
3
Civil Engineering and Environment Department, Gadjah Mada University
4
Chemical Engineering Department, Gadjah Mada University
1
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Full replacement of cement by fly ash type F with activators NaOH and Na2SiO3 while
tailing waste of PT. Freeport Indonesia as filler material has a potency to increase the utilization of
waste. Research activities was conducted through three stages, consisting of the manufacture of
mortars geopolymer with NaOH activator, making of mortars geopolymer with a combination of
activators NaOH and Na2SiO3, and the manufacture of geopolymer concrete with a combination of
activators NaOH and Na2SiO3. Mechanical properties include compressive strength, flexural strength,
modululus of elasticity, stress-strain relationship of compressive test, density, absorption, and volume
of permeable void. The influence of factors contributing to the mechanical properties, characteristics
of short-term geopolymer concrete, and the optimum mixture composition that produces good
mechanical properties has been discovered.
Keywords : waste, fly ash, tailings, geopolymer, mechanical properties.
INTRODUCTION
Ordinary portland cement is usually used as a binder in concrete mixtures. Portland cement
production process has a huge impact on the environment. The energy required and the amount of CO2
produced in combustion process is very large. The addition of polymer into the concrete mix can
improve the mechanical properties of concrete, such as compressive strength, resistance to chemicals
and corrosion, and lower water absorption compared with portland cement concrete. Davidovits
introduced geopolymer in 1979, which is a binder that can be produced from the reaction of alkaline
solution with silica and aluminum that is contained in siliceous materials such as fly ash, blast furnace
slag, metakaolin or rice husk ash [1]. The utilization of waste materials is expected to reduce CO 2
emissions and production costs. Geopolymer is potential to reduce the domination of portland cement
as it allows to make full substitution of cement in concrete construction applications. In Timika,
Mimika District, Papua Province, there are materials such as sand-sized which is a waste of PT
Freeport Indonesia (PT-FI) as a by product of gold and copper ore processing, called tailings. These
wastes have been produced since the 70s with a total production of about 80,000 to 100,000 tons per
day. This number increases every year and now has reached 300,000 tons per day. Tailings is dumped
to the river Aghawagon / Ajkwa located east of the town of Timika. This can lead to negative impacts
on the surrounding environment due to the growing number of waste.
The use of fly ash as a geopolymer binder with tailings aggregate as filler material in
concrete has a potency to increase the utilization of both the waste. The problem is how to develop the
optimum mixture of fly ash based geopolymer concrete with tailing aggregate that complies with the
mechanical properties of concrete. The aim of this research is to study the contribution of affecting
factors in the mix design to the mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete, to study the
characteristics of short-term mechanical properties of geopolymer mortar and concrete with tailings
aggregate, and to determine the optimum concrete mix design with mechanical properties that meet
requirements for concrete.
~ 118 ~
[C-002]
MATERIALS AND RESEARCH METHOD
The materials for making geopolymer mortar and concrete were fly ash from Suralaya in
Banten, the tailings from PT. Freeport Indonesia in Papua, coarse aggregates from Lagadar in Cimahi,
caustic soda (NaOH) in the form of flakes from Bratachem in Bandung, waterglass (Na2SiO3) in the
form of a solution from Bratachem in Bandung, water from potable water network of Research
Institute for Human Settlements in Bandung. The fly ash content was determined as 500 kg/m3 for
each mortar and concrete mix. The composition of the mixture using a ratio in weight.
Geopolymer mortar with NaOH solution activator cube specimens (5 x 5 x 5) cm3 were
tested for compressive strength at 7, 28, and 60 days of each 3 pieces. The variation of the mixtures
were prepared using following constituents.
1. The tailing were fixed at 100% of the fine aggregates.
2. The activator/fly ash ratio 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5; (fly ash : tailings) ratio (1: 2), (1: 3), (1: 4); sodium
hydroxide concentration (NaOH) 8, 10, and 12 M.
Geopolymer mortar with NaOH and Na2SiO3 solution activator cube specimens (5 x 5 x 5)
cm3 were tested for compressive strength at 7, 28, and 60 days of each 3 pieces. The variation of the
mixtures were prepared using following constituents.
1. The tailings were fixed at 100% of the fine aggregates, (fly ash : tailings) ratio (1: 3), and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) concentration 10 M.
2. The activator/fly ash ratio were 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6; Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio 1, 2, and 3.
Geopolymer concrete with NaOH and Na2SiO3 solution activator cylinder diameter 10 cm
and 20 cm high were tested for compressive strength at 7, 28, and 60 days of each 3 pieces, to test the
density, absorption, and void volume at 28 days of each 3 pieces. Plain concrete beams (10 x 10 x 40)
cm3 were made for flexural strength test of 14 and 28 days of each 3 pieces. Weight ratio of tailings
and coarse aggregates is based on Graph 11 SNI 03-2834-1993 Standard Proportioning of Normal
Concrete.
Table 1. Mix Design of geopolymer concrete with NaOH dan Na2SiO3 activator
Aggregate
Code Fly ash Aggregate
Activator/ NaOH Na2SiO3/
(FA)
Tailing Coarse Aggregates
FA
(M)
NaOH
C1
0.4
C2
1
3
43%
57%
0.45
10
2
C3
0.5
NaOH and Na2SiO3 solution was made 24 hours prior to mixing; aggregate in saturated
surface dry (SSD); aggregate and fly ash were mixed for around 3 minutes or until evenly; mixing of
aggregate, fly ash, and an activator was carried out for approximately 4 minutes; casting and
compaction method similar to normal concrete. Mortar cube test specimens were stored in a constant
humidity cabinet at a temperature of 26 ºC prior to compressive strength test. The concrete cylinders
and beams were cured at room temperature without special treatment.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Materials Chemical Characteristics
Total oxides of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 are needed for fly ash and tailings to be used as an
Pozolanic material conforming to ASTM C 618-03, classified as class N and F with CaO content of
less than 10%.
Materials Physical Characteristics
Physical characteristics of fly ash, tailing, and coarse aggregates are given in Table 2.
~ 119 ~
[C-002]
Table 2. Physical characteristics of starting material
Coarse
Properties
Aggregates Fly Ash
Tailing
Water content
[%]
2.66
0.28
0.31
Percentage of fraction
passing 0,075 mm [%]
1.05
95.55
0.63
Absorption
[%]
6.98
1.02
Specific gravity
2.52
2.50
2.70
Contributions of Affecting Factors In The Mix Design On The Mechanical Properties
The influence of tailings content, activator /fly ash ratio, NaOH concentration,
waterglass/NaOH ratio, and age factor on compressive strength of mortar was studied by the Minitab
16 program for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and that on the strength of concrete was studied
manually.
The influence of tailings on the compressive strength
Higher amount of tailings reduces the compressive strength, the difference in the tailings
content greatly affects the compressive strength value. Tailings is a potential source of alumino-silicate
but it does not contribute to compressive strength and is better regarded as filler material. The higher
amount of tailings, the smaller percentage of fly ash binder is, so that the compressive strength
decreases.
The influence of activators/FA on the compressive strength
The amount of activator/fly ash on mortar A has the optimum value of 0.4 and increasing
activator/fly ash ratio would decrease the compressive strength significantly. Excess amount of
activator does not react with Si and Al of fly ash and tailings acted as filler in the mortar and did not
increase strength. Increasing water in activator solution, potentially increased the void. The optimum
value of activator/fly ash ratio mortar B is higher for increasing workability due to waterglass addition
that more viscous than NaOH solution. Activator/fly ash ratio mortar B was optimum at 0.5 and
beyond it decreased the compressive strength of mortar due to excessive workability. The activator/fly
ash ratio in mortar with NaOH activator had an optimum value at 0.4 and mortar with the waterglass
addition activator at 0.5 while the concrete did not have optimum value as ratio between 0.4 and 0.5
decreased the compressive strength.
Influence of NaOH concentration on the compressive strength
Fansuri et al. [2] found that at concentration between 8 M and 10 M resulted in the increase
of NaOH concentration increased the compressive strength, but at excessive amount it weakened the
solidification of geopolymer. NaOH concentration of mortar A between 8 M and 12 M, slightly
decreased the compressive strength.
Influence of waterglass/NaOH ratio on compressive strength
Waterglass addition increased the content of SiO2 oxides to strengthen the geopolymer
binding. The maximum compressive strength was obtained at the optimum value waterglass/NaOH
ratio of 2. Increasing the waterglass/NaOH ratio over 2 decreased the compressive strength. This was
probably due to SiO2 content in waterglass at its maximum value that can react or most of the NaOH
reacted with waterglass first then the remaining NaOH activated fly ash. Ekawati and Atmaja [3]
showed that the optimum waterglass/NaOH ratio was at 1.5. Increasing the ratio decreased the
compressive strength of geopolymer if the mixing sequence was fly ash added with NaOH-waterglass
solution. Increasing the waterglass/NaOH ratio higher than 1.5 raised the compressive strength if the
mixing sequence was fly ash-NaOH stirred 30 minutes then added with waterglass. Sathonsaowaphaka
et al. [4] also showed that an optimum waterglass/NaOH ratio was at 1.5 with maximum compressive
strength of 48 MPa. Increasing the ratio caused the mixture sticky, difficult in compaction, and
decreased the compressive strength. The optimum value of waterglass/NaOH ratio of Kosnatha and
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Utomo [5] was at 2. While Hardjito [6] showed that increasing the waterglass/NaOH ratio increased
the compressive strength.
Influence of age on compressive strength.
The compressive strength increases significantly with increasing age of mortar A, age factor
has a significance effect on the compressive strength up to 60 days because the rate of chemical
processes takes time. Same effect was obtained from Mishra et al. [7], increasing time of curing would
increase the compressive strength. Influence of age on compressive strength of mortar A, B, and
concrete C was similar. Strength development rate from 7, 28, to 60 days was decreased but because of
the research time boundary so age of mortar and concrete which has a relatively constant strength
development can not be determined.
Characteristics of Short-Term Mechanical Properties And Design of Optimal Mix
Compressive strength of geopolymer mortar with NaOH activator.
Compressive strength of normal mortar using ratio of (PC : tailings) at 28 days with fas 0.5
was tested, at ratio (1 : 2) resulted 20.49 MPa, ratio (1: 3) resulted 13.83 MPa, and ratio (1: 4) resulted
10.80 MPa. Geopolymer mortar with activator/fly ash ratio at 0.4, NaOH concentration of 10 M can be
used as full replacement of cement-tailings mortar at fly ash : tailings ratio of (1 : 3) with compressive
strength 27% greater. A geopolymer mortar can be used for masonry based on SNI 03-6882-2002
Standard Specification of Mortar for Masonry as presented in Table 8. Mix design optimization of
mortar B subsequently base on mixture A14 with considerations :
1. the proportion of (fly ash : tailings) on mixture A14 (1 : 3) contained more tailing than mixture A2
(1 : 2), but had equal 28 days compressive strength;
2. the 60 days compressive strength of mixtures A14 (18.07 MPa) was smaller but not much
different from mixture A2 (19.33 MPa).
Compressive strength of geopolymer mortar with NaOH and waterglass activator.
Mortar compressive strength increased significantly up to 49% after the addition of
waterglass activators on mortar A14 and A17. Geopolymer mortar B can be used for masonry based on
SNI 03-6882-2002. Mixture B5 had the maximum compressive strength value at 7 and 28 days but the
age of 60 days compressive strength lower than mixture B7. Mix design of concrete was based on
mixture B5, determined by a maximum compressive strength at 28 days.
Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete with NaOH and waterglass activator.
Compressive strength of 7 days ranged from 28.21 to 35.51 MPa, 28 days ranged from 40.43
to 44.42 MPa, 60 days ranged from 44.84 to 46.33 MPa. In this study, minimum compressive strength
of 7 days at 28.21 MPa was obtained with curing at room temperature but Hardjito [6] compressive
strength of 7 days at 29 MPa was required oven curing 30 °C for 24 hours. Strength development rate
of geopolymer concrete in this study was similar to normal concrete. Failure mode was dominated by
columnar form, cracks and spalling were parallel direction to the cylinder height. Voids in concrete
cylinders were visible and scattered in small sizes, compressive strength might still be improved by a
better compaction.
Workability of geopolymer concrete
Fineness characteristics of tailings, round shape granulated of fly ash as full replacement of
cement and slick waterglass were significantly influenced slump values. Minimal slump value of 203
mm was obtained without the addition of extra water, while at Hardjito [6] slump value of more than
200 mm was reached after the addition of extra water as much as 20.7 kg/m3. High slump value might
be related to segregation, but geopolymer concrete mixture in this study have considerable cohesion
and sticky.
Density, absorption, and void volume
Density of geopolymer mortars A and B ranged between 2003 kg/m3 to 2498 kg/m3 were
classified as normal concrete, which ranges from 2100 to 2500 kg/m3. Absorptions of concrete C were
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classified as water-resistant as values under the maximum absorption of 6.5% according to the SNI
03-2914-1990 Standard Specification of Impermeable Concrete. Volume of permeable voids were
between 8.79 to 9.39%, so the standard compaction method with rodding was not effective because the
mixture is quite thick and sticky even though the mixture was able to spread without treatment. More
number of rodding and compaction layer, or vibrated compaction were recommended.
Elastic modulus of geopolymer concrete
Hardjito [6] showed that maximum stresses were increase with increasing modulus of
elasticity, similar to the trend obtained from the calculation of SNI 03-2847-2002 Standard of Concrete
Structure Building Design. That trend were not shown on concrete C. Probably due to the limited
amount of data. Strain at maximum stress of geopolymer concrete by Hardjito [6] ranged from 0.0024
to 0.0026 similar to the value in this study, which ranged from 0.0020 to 0.0027.
Flexural strength of geopolymer concrete
Flexural tensile strength value of 28 days was more than 5.90 MPa and can be applied to
road pavement, according to the Pd T-05-2004-B Code of Practice for Concrete Pavement as required
28 day flexural tensile strength is 4 MPa. Application at age of 14 days can be done because the
strength was more than 4.59 MPa. The opening to general traffic based on 28 day compressive strength
requirement of Pd T-05-2004-B is 27.6 MPa for the thinnest plate thickness 12.5 cm, while the
strength of concrete C at 7 days had reached at least 28.2 MPa so it can be used earlier.
Stress-strain relationships of geopolymer concrete
Stress-strain curve shapes of concrete C for variation in activator/fly ash were similar.
Carreira and Chu's equation can be used to predict stress strain curve up to the maximum compressive
strength. Hardjito [6] had similar conclusion that the stress-strain relationship geopolymer concrete can
use the concept of normal concrete.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Contribution of affecting factors in the design mix to the mechanical properties are as follows.
a. Increasing of tailings and NaOH concentration would decrease the compressive strength;
b. Ratio of activator/fly ash, waterglass/NaOH, and Si/Al has an optimum value;
c. Increasing mortar age increased the compressive strength significantly.
2. Characteristics of short-term mechanical properties and design of optimal mix are as follows.
a. Strength development rate of geopolymer concrete in this study was similar to normal concrete;
b. Minimal slump value of 203 mm was obtained without the addition of extra water;
c. Density of geopolymer mortars A and B ranged between 2003 kg/m3 to 2498 kg/m3 were
classified as normal concrete;
d. Absorptions of concrete C were classified as water-resistant as values under the maximum
absorption of 6.5% according to the SNI 03-2914-1990;
e. Volume of permeable voids were between 8.79 to 9.39%, the standard compaction method with
rodding was not effective.
f. Flexural tensile strength value of 28 days was more than 5.90 MPa and can be applied to road
pavement, according to the Pd T-05-2004-B as required 28 day flexural tensile strength is 4 MPa.
Application at age of 14 days can be done because the strength was more than 4.59 MPa;
g. The opening to general traffic based on 28 day compressive strength requirement of Pd
T-05-2004-B is 27.6 MPa for the thinnest plate thickness 12.5 cm, while the strength of concrete
C at 7 days had reached at least 28.2 MPa so it can be used earlier;
h. Carreira and Chu's equation can be used to predict stress strain curve up to the maximum
compressive strength, the stress-strain relationship of geopolymer concrete can use the concept
of normal concrete.
3. Optimum mixture proportion with complied mechanical properties as concrete was at ratio of fly
ash : the aggregate of 1: 3, tailings : coarse aggregates of 43 : 57, activator/fly ash of 0.4, NaOH
concentration of 10 M, Na2SiO3/NaOH of 2 which produced compressive strength and flexural
tensile strength of 28 days up to 44.42 MPa and 5.90 MPa.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A gratitude and sincere appreciation are presented for the Research Institute of Human Settlements in
Bandung, PT. Freeport Indonesia in Timika for finance, materials, and test facilities support that have
been provided.
References
[1] Davidovits, 2002, J., 30 Years of Successes and Failures in Geopolymer Applications, Market
Trends and Potential Breakthroughs, Geopolymer 2002 Conference, Melbourne, Australia.
[2] Fansuri, H., Swastika, N., and Atmaja, L., 2008, Pembuatan dan Karakterisasi Geopolimer dari
Bahan Abu Layang PLTU Paiton, Akta Kimindo, (3) 61 – 66.
[3] Ekawati, D., dan Atmaja, L., 2010, Studi Perbandingan Sintesis Geopolimer Secara Normal Dan
Terpisah Dari Abu Layang Pltu Suralaya, Proceedings of Final Paper 2010/2011, SK-091304,
FMIPA Surabaya Institute of Technology, Surabaya.
[4] Sathonsaowaphaka, A., Chindaprasirt, P., and Pimraksab, K., 2009, Workability And Strength Of
Lignite Bottom Ash Geopolymer Mortar, Journal of Hazardous Materials, (168) 44–50.
[5] Kosnatha, S., dan Utomo, J.P., 2007, Komposisi dan Karakteristik Beton Geopolimer dari Fly Ash
Tipe C dan Tipe F, Petra Christian University, Surabaya.
[6] Hardjito, D., 2005, Studies on Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete, Doctor of Philosophy Thesis,
Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia.
[7] Mishra, A., Choudhary, D., Jain, N., Kumar, M., Sharda, N., and Dutt, D., 2008, Effect Of
Concentration Of Alkaline Liquid And Curing Time On Strength And Water Absorption Of
Geopolymer Concrete, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, (3) No. 1 February.
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CONSERVATION OF KAMPUNG BALUWERTI
AS A ROYAL VILLAGE OF KASUNANAN SURAKARTA, INDONESIA
1
Naniek Widayati1
Lecturer at Architecture Department of Tarumanagara University, Jakarta, Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Surakarta city has long history in relation to kingdoms in Java, in the past time up to now visually
still seen completely namely complex of Royal Palace of Kasunanan Surakarta and Regency of
Mangkunegaran. Both historical inheritances have characteristics in space order and its physical
embodiment. Kampung Baluwerti resides between two walls surrounding the Royal Palace (Keraton) of
Kasunanan, in size of 2 meter width and 6 meter height. Morphologically, Baluwerti area in the beginning
was influenced by concept of space order of royal town of Mataram kingdom (Java). From visual aspect,
Baluwerti area was formed from the area identity-forming element configuration. Since then, it takes a
study of Baluwerti area conservation in the form of area revitalization concept in capability of increasing
economic activities ekonomi (economic revitalization) by referring to social-cultural aspect as well as
environmental aspect (environmental objectives). Thus it can provide social-economic-cultural benefit for
Baluwerti residents, by not abandoning “spirit” existing in the inside.
Keywords: conservation, kampong Baluwerti, royal village, history, Kasunanan Surakarta
INTRODUCTION
Surakarta has long history related to kingdoms in Java in the past time up to present time has
been still visually visible with completion namely complex of Keraton Kasunanan and Kadipaten
Mangkunegaran (Mangkunegaran county). Both historical heritages hold typicality in space order and
physical embodiment.
In area of Keraton Kasunanan Surakarta there is a village surrounding nucleus of keraton
commonly called as Baluwerti village. In the beginning that village was trench then in its development
became high fence called as fort that surrounded nucleus of keraton. However word of Baluwerti itself
derives from Portuguese baluarte meaning it is fort. In Ducth bolwerk means fort. According to Javanese
word baluwer means jagang or large trench containing water in function as fort. However location of
kampong Baluwerti lies between two walls in circumference of keraton in size of 2 meter height and 6
meter width. This area has two doors/gates namely Kori Brajanala Utara (Northern Kori Brajanala) and
Kori Brajanala Selatan in which one another is connected by two alley furrows in parallel with Keraton
walls. That door connects keraton area with outside world.
In 1900, Susuhunan Pakubuwana X enlarged area of Kampung Baluwerti and added with two
doors of butulan (side entrance) namely in the eastern and western part, so that it added facility for those
living in Baluwerti in order to relate with the outside world.
Characteristics of Baluwerti area from research outcome of Hardiyanti (2005) state that village
existence in Baluwerti Surakarta has special relationship to Keraton Kasunanan Surakarta.That latter is a
process of village creation, where in the past this village (since 1745) has been residence of Keraton
kindship and Keraton house servants commensurate with their own occupation. As for this area entitlement
is conformed with profession of each abdidalem/house servant (entitlement is based on toponymy).
Environmental condition and houses of prince physically degrade in its material quality and even
there are some having collapsed even there are some having wrecked. With the governmental system
alteration in keraton (king is not again as head of government but just as a guide of culture) it causes
dwelling of abdidalem (house servant) under go its space function alteration. Their residence is changed
partly as business place so that their household economy is not disturbed. As effect of that business
therefore in micro, its space order starts to change. The latter must at once be handled by making guides
lines of clear rules thus even though there are changes then still in corridor of correct space ordering.
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Figure 1. Gradation of Keraton Sacredness
Figure 2. Concept Application to Site
Morphologically, Baluwerti area in the beginning was influenced by concept of (Java) Mataram
royal town‟s space order. From visual aspect, Baluwerti area is established from configuration of the
area-identity forming element (Lynch, 1960), namely path is area circulation channel, edges is fort, district
is house building (dalem) and village, nodes is knot of activity area, and landmark is keraton and house
building (dalem) (Nafsiah, 2010).
Baluwerti holds two patterns of district, namely pattern dalem and pattern kampung (or pattern of
kampung enclave). Every district holds meaning and different background. House pattern (dalem) is cluster
of building with a wide courtyard and surrounded with courtyard walls. However, dwelling pattern in the
beginning was dwelling house appointed for house servants in one profession (Farkhan, 2004).
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In 1755 (King Paku Buwana III) started to provide dwelling for house servants in south of Keraton
assumed as sacral area, namely Tamtaman (corporal soldier), Carangan soldier, and Wirengan soldier.
Meanwhile prince‟s house building (or dalem Pangeran) in the north and south of Keraton, where all house
buildings of princes appear before the south. (before = menghadap). Placement of princes in the house
buildings is commensurate with occupation that the prince bears (toponymy = place entitlement based on
function/duty from a person/a group of persons occupying the place).
Culture displacement process can take influence on displacement of culture embodiment contained
in societal life order or area physical order (Sidharta, 1989). Currently, Baluwerti societal life pattern
commences to change, utilization of house function and dwelling also commences to displace. Baluwerti
society recently establishes privately with space order and building construct (or building shape) in
pursuant with each desirability so that up to now it seems to lack of linkage with Surakarta keraton. Sense
of belonging on area identity has decreased.
Since the Keraton‟s union with NKRI (or state of union of Republic of Indonesia), Keraton has no
political power in issuance of rules of Baluwerti area control. During the era of Paku Buwana II to Paku
Buwana XI, keraton has power in government politics. Furthermore, during era of Paku Buwana XII and up
to present where keraton under King Paku Buwana XIII, keraton loses of its political power due to the
keraton‟s union with Government of Republic of Indonesia, is no longer as government center but also as
culture center (interview, 2010).
PROBLEMS
Based on empirical facts in field, recently some elements of area identity formation are indicated to
undergo displacement. Physically imaginary axis named mancapat-mancalima as part of concept of (Java)
Mataram royal town‟s space order starts to shift. For instance there are new building with building
construct/shape not reflecting situation in its near vicinity (not contextual), change in a building front shape
from its original shape, so that historical impression of Baluwerti area starts to fade away. Besides,
increasingly more development of activity types that occurs in Baluwerti a re-uses new function that the
area accommodates. Society starts to hold new comprehension due to economical demand namely devotion
concept toward Keraton starts to shift to be economical concept namely how a great number of houses as
many as possible can be benefitted to produce money. They start to forget concept magersari (concept
magersari is a concept in Java where a person may occupy field/house from a person without necessarily
paying the rent but he has duties to serve to that person). New function development mostly is not
contextual and lacking of paying attention on area historical aspect, there is worry to displace the area
identity-forming element.
House building (or bangunan dalem) as one of area landmark previously is a place for nobleman
(bangsawan), some of which under went component increment not contextual with concept of house
building, even house building of Sindusenan changed into Topograhy Education Center of TNI-AD (TNI
AD is Indonesian Ground Force Army). Since dwelling houses today starts to under go functional
displacement to be convection production house, dormitory or contract house, boarding house, or house for
rent. Many changes occurring in Baluwerti area can eliminate historical process represented by
visualization of area architecture heritage.
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Figure 3: Map of Dwelling Complex
CONCEPT NEEDED IN CONSERVATION
In conservation it takes some standard terms to be followed so that value contained in it does not
undergo alteration. However the value concept is as follows: (1) Conservation is based on sustainable
development concept, (2) Conservation is through managerial approach proper with accountability system,
(3) Paying attention on environmental sustainability based on its function, (4) Every citizen deserves rights
of healthy and good environment, (5) Prevention attempt is more emphasized than counteraction and
recovery.
TO-DO STRATEGY
In order to reach the notion/idea it takes strategies so that no any conflict of interest occur.
However strategy is: (1) Cultivating society for continuous/sustainable development, (2) Performing a good
governance (3) Order of policy and law.
CONSERVATION STEPS HAVING BEEN CONDUCTED
Area physical development and various activities as well as function that occur in Baluwerti area
need a controller for not increasingly displacing its area identity. With Decree of Surakarta Major No.
646/116/1/1997 starting that Baluwerti is conservation area. However, conservation activities recently
applied in Baluwerti has not energized new function with potential that the area holds due to still limited in
area aesthetic (beautification) (Nafsiah, 2010) and has not paid attention on non-physical aspect (social,
economy, culture etc) conducted in certain building as single object without seeing Baluwerti area as one
unity. For instance in renovation of space Pendapa, Dalem, area greening, assembly of signage, still not in
pursuance to follow true conservation regulation.Therefore, the existing policy is not yet able to represent
conservation context, and area changes increasingly occur, either in functional or physical function.
In process of making a Baluwerti area conservation study in form of area revitalization concept
able to increase economic activities (economic revitalization) by referring to social-cultural aspect as well
as environmental aspect (environmental objectives).Therefore it can grant social-economic-cultural benefits
for Baluwerti residents, by not abandoning “spirit” available in it.
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References
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455-464.
[4] Fu Tuan, Yi, 1981, Space and Place: The perspective of Experience, USA, The University of
Minnesota Press.
[5] Graaf, H.J.D, 1986, Puncak Kekuasaan Mataram, Jakarta, Grafiti-Press.
[6] Hardiyanti, Nurul S, Antariksa, dan Hariyani, Septiana, 2005, Studi Perkembangan dan Pelestarian
Kawasan Keraton Kasunanan Surakarta, Dimensi Teknik Arsitektur, Vol. 33, No.1, December,
Page 112 – 124.
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[9] Ichwan, Rido Matari, 2004, Penataan dan Revitalisasi sebagai Upaya Meningkatkan Daya Dukung
Kawasan Perkotaan, Makalah pribadi Pengantar ke Falsafah Sains, Sekolah Pasca Sarjana/S3
Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor.
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Preservation Planning, and Public Education in the Northeastern United States Wesport,
Connecticut, London, Bergin & Garvey.
[12] Kostof, Spiro,1991, The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings through History, London:
Thames and Hudson.
[13] Krier, Rob, l984, Urban Space,Third Edition, London: Academy Editions.
[14] Kusumadilaga, M.W.R, Perpindahan Kraton Kartasura ke Surakarta, Surakarta, Perpustakaan
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Kalurahan Baluwarti Surakarta, Malang: Skripsi PWK Universitas Brawijaya.
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Surabaya), Unpublished, Surabaya: Pusat Penelitian ITS
[17] Sabari Yunus, Hadi, 2002, Struktur Tata Ruang Kota, Yogyakarta, Pustaka Pelajar.
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Budaya Manusia, Yogyakarta, Universitas Atma Jaya Yogyakarta.
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Arsitektur, Vol. 6, No. 1, March, Page 537-546.
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URBAN FRINGE AREAS STUDY TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE SETTLEMENT GROWTH:
CHALLENGES FOR SEMARANG CITY-INDONESIA
Bambang Setioko
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Diponegoro University - Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses on the rapid growth of urban sprawl in the urban fringe area and set the
effort to reveal the existence of local wisdom that can be used to support the sustainable growth of
settlement in the Semarang urban fringe areas. Lesson learned from the urban fringe study in United
States is the occurrence of "white flight"; the white race society moving out from the city centre to the
fringe area; and the rapid growth of urban sprawl causes fringe area characterized by chaos. The fringe
areas are segregated by race and income, prone to social conflicts.
The research has successfully revealed the existence of local wisdom in the form of
collaborative interaction in people living in the three groups of settlements. The policy and strategy of
Semarang city growth should be synchronized with local wisdom and sustainability issues in its effort
to establish liveable and sustainable city.
Keywords: urban fringe, urban sprawl, collaborative interaction, local wisdom, sustainable.
INTRODUCTION
City will continuously grow in line with the natural population growth and the urbanization
process. At the initial phase, urbanization process take place in the urban cores, however in the few last
decades, the process tends to be dominant in the urban fringe area. Currently, most of urban dwellers
moving out to the fringe areas; follows the urban growth trend; causing the role of urban core
decreases while urban fringe increases. As a consequence of the above phenomenon, the structure of
the city run into metamorphosis, i.e. shifting the urbanization from the urban core shifted to the fringe
area. City grows from inside to outside. This phenomenon has affected the changes of urban landscape.
City shape changed to inverted metropolis. The role of city centre decreases while fringe area
increases (Soja, 2000). The decreasing of centrality of the urban core and the increasing of urban
fringe role occurred in all metropolitan cities, either in the developed or in developing countries. The
physical growth of the urban fringe is dominated by the urban sprawl, which is predicted have changed
thousand hectares of rural areas and productive land becomes housing estates and caused food
productivity decrease. According to the environmental analyst, the growth of urban sprawl is
considered as one cause of the degradation environment quality. From the economist point of view, the
growth of urban sprawl in the fringe area is criticized as a lavish development, since it is considered
not efficient utilizing the existing urban infrastructure. Therefore many people ask question about the
growth of the urban sprawl in the fringe area whether it becomes a sign of the increasing economic
vitality, or it becomes a threat for ecology.
The growth of urban fringe areas in Indonesia generally has high complexity. The area
possesses besides dualistic characteristic; formal and informal settlements, traditional and modern,
urbanity and rurality; it is also mixed with autonomous housing; built by individual or family out of
municipal authority supervision. The settlements built independently by the inhabitants are usually
located attached to the planned settlements that have been completed with urban infrastructure, or
adjacent to the traditional rural settlements, which have been constructed earlier. In general, urban
sprawl on the fringe areas is a mixture of three types of settlement.
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THE URBAN SPRAWL PHENOMENA
Urban fringe area growth in the context of developed countries
During the last decade, the urbanization on fringe areas has been one of the most important
trends happen in the developed countries (Kivel, 1993). In Northern American, the migration of white
middle class moving out of the city centre flows to the fringe areas, seeking good environment and
safer neighbourhoods, called white flight phenomenon. Meanwhile, in 2000, 86% of all Black
Americans lived in metropolitan areas-nearly two thirds in the city centre (Gilham, 2002). The urban
fringe areas explosion causes the social segregation between the city centre and the urban fringe. The
outward movement of urban population to the fringe areas has considerable city center‟s role
implication. The declining of residential densities in city centre and fast growing settlement in the
urban fringe area could boost the fringe area's role and replace the urban core as the main focus of
urban activities. Fringe areas are segregated by income and race, prone to social conflicts. This
phenomenon makes city landscape inverted, and city grows onto the borderless city. From the
economists point of view, the fringe area growth has been criticized not efficient used as municipal
infrastructure which is potentially reducing food productivity. In fact, many people still wonder
whether the urban sprawl growth is the sign of increasing economic vitality or an ecological threat. On
the other hand, taxpayers might see the construction of the facilities itself. The infrastructure in urban
fringe areas should not be taken as a priority, because it is only intended for a small number of people
who do not want to live together in a dense urban area. They prefer to live in the fringe area,
unfortunately. To serve this group of people, the municipal was forced to provide various urban
amenities which require a huge cost.
Urban Fringe area growth in the Context of Indonesia
There is a clear distinction between the phenomenon of urban sprawl in Indonesia and
Western countries. In Indonesia the growth of urban sprawl is triggered by land prices disparity in
fringe areas and urban cores, whereas in developed countries are triggered by preferences. In
developed countries, people prefer migrate to the fringe areas looking for good environment. In the
contrary, in Indonesia, people are forced to live on the fringe area because of high land prices in urban
core. For the low income people there is no other choice. Living on the urban fringe area for dwellers
means not only living on the heart of the city, but also on the edge of urban society (Jenks, 2000). The
fringe area becoming the location of mixed enclave of settlements; namely planned settlements,
unplanned settlements, and autonomous settlements; characterized by the sprawl development. All
types of settlements located side by side and they grew simultaneously. This condition makes the
fringe area has dualistic characteristics, mixed between modern society and traditional/rural society,
urbanity and rurality, formal and informal. In the future this area will integrate to the urban core. The
integration process will largely determine the future shape of cities.
Metropolitan port city in Indonesia generally have a fast growing fringe areas. Physical
transformation of these cities has specific characteristics (Mangin, 2004). In general, there are three
phases are often distinguished: [1] colonial era; [2] after independence era and [3] modern city era.
In the initial stages of urban growth, the city acts as a port city. Urban authorities are highly
control urban growth on a lower level to keep the labour remained live in rural areas to explore natural
resources and to cultivate agriculture. Although the regional transportation network grew but it does
not emerge a new urban growth centres. The centrality of existing port city is maintained to guarantee
continuing supply of natural resources from hinterland areas.
After independence era, percentage of urban growth was very high. Modern urban
infrastructure is established, such as airport, highway and other transportation facilities. The vast
developments of hinterland areas push the city become regional growth centre.
At modern city era, city set up regional and local transportation network. Ring road is
established to cope the traffic congestion in urban areas. Usually intersection between ring roads and
regional roads are the best location for emerging new sub centre. In initial phase of urban development,
ring road was planned to be an urban boundaries. However if urban areas growing continuesly, and
fringe areas became overcrowded, a new outer ring roads are needed and usually located more distance
from urban core. This type of development will be repeated in the next phase (Fig. 1).
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Figure 1: Urban transformation
Due to the expanding modern transportation, internal structure of the city was changed,
especially in fringe areas. The overall pattern of settlement no longer tied to the finger shape corridors
of transit lines, changed to a more symmetrical shape. Increasing number of factories, and housing
estates at the urban fringe areas all took advantage of a switch from rail road to trucks (Knox, 1994).
Recently roads become determinant factors for urban growth.
High levels of urbanization and the land price disparity between fringe areas and urban core area
boosted Indonesian cities grew horizontally and rapidly towards the fringe areas. The growth of fringe
areas are dominated urban sprawl development. The absence of master plan and the lack of law
enforcement encourage un-balance urban development and drive the fringe areas grow like an
archipelago of enclaves (Fig.2).
ARCHIPELAGO OF ENCLAVES
30/10/2011
Seminar Synopsis
30/10/2011
3
Seminar Synopsis
1
Figure 2: Archipelago of Enclaves
THE METHOD OF RESEARCH.
The proper method to diagnose the problem of a city must start by recognizing the historical
and social phenomena and then followed by the perspective to respect for local wisdom and
indigenous urban characteristic. To obtain an authentic and original local wisdom cannot be done with
the generalization manner. Therefore the research should be run with qualitative approach within
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naturalistic paradigm umbrella. Grounded theory method is chosen because could reveal the tacit
knowledge upon the form of concept that is able to explain the settlement growth phenomena in the
fringe area that has not been identified completely and has not had theoretical knowledge explanation
comprehensively. Western theories of urban fringe areas still leave many questions and blow a
prolonged debate. This method also can give the intricate details phenomena that difficult to solve with
some quantitative methods (Strauss, 1990).
Figure 3: Inductive Process
There are four main stages in building the local knowledge of the field, [1] coding [2]
concept, [3] categories, [4] theory. The step of theorizing data can be broadly described as follows:
Coding is the process of analyzing data, while concept may appear as conceptual labels placed on
discrete happening events, and other phenomena. Category is a classification of concepts. This
classification is discovered when concepts are compared one against the others and appear to pertain to
a similar phenomenon. Thus, the concepts are classified onto the higher order than abstract concept
which called category. Conceptualizing data with grounded theory model starts from labelling the
discrete phenomena which called coding, followed by building a concept using interpretive procedures.
The interpretative procedures are a base to formulate the categories and theories. These procedures
include the techniques for conceptualizing data can be seen schematically in Figure 3.
This procedure gives the advantageous to determine the accuracy and distinctiveness concept
of theorising data. The first level of abstraction results in concept as well as the main component is
forming a theory. Concept itself is emerged, has to be built not presented naturally.
The next step is to build multiple categories at a higher level of abstraction, from a number of
interlocked concepts. From some of the tentative categories, one will be selected to construct a
substantive theory.
THE SETTLEMENT GROWTH IN SEMARANG URBAN FRINGE
General Condition of Semarang
Semarang city is the capital of the Central Java Province. It is located in the middle of Java
Island, on the north coast. Semarang has a strategic location on the main national transportation
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corridors between Jakarta and Surabaya. In 2010, Semarang consisted of 1.592.632 inhabitants, and
had growth rate 1.90 % per year. By having 37.366 hectares of the administrative area, and the gross
density is 43 inhabitants per hectare; unfortunately Semarang does not have an advance level of
population growth.
Figure 4. Map of Semarang city, 2009
According to the study conducted by the “Department of Human Settlements and Regional
Infrastructure” (2003) for urban and suburban areas of Semarang city, it can be said that urban sprawl
in Semarang is fuelled more by fast growing housing estate as an impact of abundant housing supply
(Fig.4). Based on 2007‟s statistical data the city centre has a negative population growth rate while
urban fringe areas have high percentage. The condition demonstrated that partly of inhabitants moved
out from city centre to the fringe areas. During 2002-2007 the population of city centre tended to
decrease while urban fringe areas are increase. Unstructured urban sprawl scattered in fringe areas like
archipelago of enclaves. Physically, fringe areas consisted of three types of settlement. First type is
planned settlement developed by housing estates which mostly occupied by middle and high income
groups equipped with luxurious urban amenities. Second type is indigenous rural settlements grew in
natural pattern; there are lack of urban services and have been categorized as un-planned settlements.
Third type is autonomous settlement consists of mixed settlement and shopping facilities. Due to the
irregular growth, spatial expression in the suburbs becomes chaotic. New housing estates are not only
occupying vacant areas or paddy fields but often occupy the existing traditional rural settlements. The
growth of this area is followed by the emergence of an individual settlements built in order to take
advantage of public and social facilities which have been built by the developer. These phenomena
potentially rising a social conflict.
Locus of research
This research conducted in Kelurahan Meteseh - Tembalang District, one of the fastest
growing urban fringes in Semarang city. The research area consists of three types of settlements i.e.
planned settlement in the form of housing estate called Permukiman Bukit Kencana Jaya, traditional
rural settlement in the form of Rejosari hamlet and autonomous settlement in the form of
Kedungwinong hamlet (Fig.5).
Generally, Permukiman Bukit Kencana Jaya fulfilled by the middle class inhabitants,
meanwhile the rural settlements is inhabited by low social strata. The autonomous settlements lived by
people with a social strata mixture indeed (Fig.6).
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Autonomous Settlement
(Kedungwinong hamlet)
Planned Settlement (Housing Estate)
Permukiman Bukit Kencana Jaya
Rural Settlement
(Rejosari hamlet)
Figure 5: Locus of research
Those three types of settlements above lies side by side, one another have an impact on the
inhabitant‟s interaction. To reach the Rejosari hamlet must pass through the Permukiman Bukit
Kencana Jaya and the Kedungwinong hamlet
Figure 6: Planned, Un-planned and Autonomous Settlement
Bukit Jaya Kencana Jaya settlement built in 1990 and inhabited in 1992. This settlement is
dominated by the types 36 and 45. Most of the inhabitants work as employees and civil servants. The
premium type is placed on the main road until now has not been fully filled. Although the developers
had taken control of land use permits more than 300 ha. The difficulty to obtain the drinking water
supply becomes determinant factors for developers to develop bigger housing estate. Therefore,
developers tend to build shopping complex.
Rejosari hamlet - a rural settlement- lies adjacent to Permukiman Bukit Kencana Jaya, has
organic pattern follows the hilly topography. Most of its inhabitants have a low socio economic
stratum. The arrival of newcomers with higher social economic level rising the income opportunity.
Many of Rejosari dwellers become vegetable vendors and domestic workers working on Permukiman
Bukit Kencana Jaya. Observing from the physical aspect of the built environment is identified the
emergence of spontaneous public space, in the form of market and street vendors. This space is used as
a place for a gathering between the rural inhabitants and the dwellers of Bukit Kencana Jaya housing
estate. This situation triggers the interdependence between the two types of inhabitant (Fig.7).
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Figure 7: Spontaneous public space
Kedungwinong hamlet is a village that is located at the main road to the settlement of Bukit
Kencana Jaya. Ten years ago, this surrounding area is sparsely populated. The emerged of spreading
settlement in the surrounding of Permukiman Bukit Kencana Jaya have boosted physical changing of
Kedungwinong hamlet. The increasing numbers of the population in this area are followed by an
increased need for shopping facilities such as shops and stalls. Kedungwinong have a good access to
the many new settlements. Therefore, stalls and shops are growing fast, especially along the main road.
Establishment numbers of supermarkets and shopping arcade in this area, Kedungwinong grows into a
modern environment (Fig.8).
Figure 8: A new shopping arcade at Kedungwinong hamlet
CONCLUSSION
A series of analysis that has been done successfully revealed the existence of local wisdom
about the integration of space in the fringe area of Semarang city. This is done through a series of
collaborative interactions, performed by entities that live in the three types of settlements i.e. planned
settlements, rural settlements and autonomous settlement. Interaction is done using two mechanisms of
adaptation approaches that instinctively performed by rural residents to remain able to survive in an
increasingly narrow social spaces. Firstly, using territoriality approach by modifying the existing
environmental setting and establishing new social spaces to fulfil safety and comfort optimally.
Secondly, using self-competency approach, where the urban space actor perceives space as the
uncomforted situation, arising by the presence of others in the amount that cannot be controlled,
thereby limiting the freedom of motion.
From the above discussion, we can conclude the existence of local wisdom in the form of
willingness to interact collaboratively. The discussion has also revealed the existence of three entities
that live side by side, dependence each others in establishing consensus to cooperate in fulfilling
mutual interest and interrelated purposes by sharing roles and experiences. The fragmentation of the
urban space on fringe areas into three variants is not identical to the configuration of a unified social
structure (Fig: 9). the interdependency in the economic sector creates co-existence between society in
the middle and low income level. The existence of interdependence factors have contributed in shaping
the behaviour of the urban actors, either as individual or as group in establishing the system of local
values characterized by tolerance, brotherhood, and easy to build consensus, all far from the sense of
conflict competition and hegemony.
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Figure 9: Superimpose physical space and social space.
The policy of Semarang municipality in managing the growth of the fringe area shall
accommodate the local values. This study highly recommends not using the “ideal city model”, which
are blindly adopted idea from western country. Some evidences indicated to solve the fringe area
problem using ideal city model, not fully comply with the Indonesian social condition. Approach to
urban policy and strategy by utilizing local wisdom can ensure the sustainability of urban growth.
In order to reach sustainability of growth in fringe areas, the rapid development of housing
estate in fringe areas should be reduced and the growth of indigenous rural settlement should be
stimulated. So the balance growth of the social structure will develop naturally. The balance growth
will shape social structure and have an implication to the spatial configuration of a city. To eliminate
existing indigenous housing settlement and replace with a new exclusive housing estate does not
demonstrate a proper solution which has capability to increase prosperity and sustainability.
References
[1] Bogart T, William. 2006. Don‟t Call It Sprawl. Metropolitan Structure in the Twenty-First
Century. Cambridge University Press. New York.
[2] Dieter Evers, Hans & Korff, Rudiger.2000. Southeast Asia Urbanism: The Meaning and Power of
Social Space. LIT Verlag.
[3] Knox.L, Paul. 1994. Urbanization, an Introduction to Urban Geography. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
[4] Mangin, David. 2004. La ville Franchisee, forms et structures de la ville contemporaine.
Ediions de la villette, Paris.
[5] Meligrana, John E., 2003. Developing a Planning Strategy and Vision for Rural-Urban Fringe
Areas: A case study of British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, Vol.:12 Issued 1
Supplement, p: 19-41.
[6] Setioko, Bambang. 2010. Integration of Urban Space on Kelurahan Meteseh - the fringe area of
Semarang. Doctor Dissertation. The Faculty of Graduate School - Diponegoro University.
[7] Soja, W. Edward. 2005. Postmetropolis, Critical studies of Cities and Regions. Blackwell
Publishing. USA.
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APPLY GIS SPATIAL ANALYSIS TO STUDY URBAN COMPACT
Chien-Liang Tung1*, Han-Liang Lin2
1
Master Student of Department of Urban Planning, National Cheng-Kung University, Taiwan
2
Assistant Professor of Department of Urban Planning, National Cheng-Kung University, Taiwan
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Compact city is one of the most important concepts in the context of urban sustainability,
especially issues of urban sprawl, energy consumption and green house gas emission. Most research
studied compact city measurements from nation levels using census data of zone scheme of city. The
results were not able to help understanding the interior spatial structure because of the data without
locational information, moreover, not able to help knowing the distribution of compactness while
planning. In view of this, this paper aims at improving the measurement using the technology of GIS
network analyst that not zone scheme based at city level to provide more specific insights of how city
is compacted.
Keywords: compact city, network analyst, measure, mixed-use
INTRODUCTION
Compact city is one of the most important concepts in urban planning, mainly through the
compact development to reduce energy waste and environmental pollution. Therefore compact city is
also one of the significant concepts for sustainable development.
So far, many researchers have intended to find the methods to measure compact ratios. Most
of them are overall assessment methods to distinguish the compact ratios of cities and villages at urban
scale. However, the structure of spatial relationships has not been detected in those measurements.
Therefore, there are following questions. First, data will be limited to administrative or government
statistics, and the date are with no spatial location. Second, It just can compare the compact ratio
among different cites, but it‟s difficult for urban planning to implement. Third, if urban structure does
not belong to the homogeneous distribution, it will be misjudged. In views of this, this study for
visualizing the compact ratio in spatial structure .If the structure of cities could be appropriately
described at smaller scales, the compact ratio and pattern of cities could be precisely studied.
Therefore, this paper aims at improving the measurement to further discover the pattern of
compact.. It has to reduce the measuring unit scale, besides, the used data have to be made with spatial
properties. Two major factors of compact city are "density" and "mixed-use". This paper focuses on
the improvement of "mixed-use".
BACKGROUND
The compact city
Compact city is the intensive urban development to against the urban sprawl, scholars
believe if the urban sprawl unrestricted will cause the energy consumption and environmental damage,
so they proposed the concept of compact city to counter urban sprawl.
The concept of compact city was raised in the last twentieth century, the first book to talk
about compact city is " Compact City – A Plan for a Livable Urban Environment " by Dantzig and
Saaty in 1973.Their vision was to enhance the quality of life but not at the expense of the "next
generation" Dan compact city in which the theory was raised early and did not get much attention.
Until the Commission of the European Council (CEC) released the Green Paper on the urban
Environment referred "compact city, assuming that it makes urban areas more environmentally
sustainable and improves quality of life. ", and than compact city become the important concept in
urban planning, many scholars discuss about it includes supporters and opponents.
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Generally, compactness proposes density of the built environment and intensification of its
activities, efficient land planning, diverse and mixed land uses, and efficient transportation systems.
Most researchers agree with the two factors of compact city are "density" and "mixed-use".
High-density population is a condition of compact city (Mclare1992). Walker and Rees
presented the density and dwelling type affect sustainability through differences in the consumption of
energy; materials; and land for housing, transportation, and urban infrastructure (Walker and Rees
1997).
Mixed-use is a way to decrease the travel distances between activities by close proximity to
one another (Parker 1994). It is argued that the local provision of services and facilities within a
neighborhood, as opposed to the development of large-scale out-of-town retail and leisure facilities,
reduces the need to travel by car (Elkin et al, 1991). For a sustainable urban form, mixed uses should
be encouraged in cities, and zoning discouraged ( Breheny, 1992).
The measurements
According to the literature reviews, the past of compact city researchers have proposed
many methods to measuring compact ratio. Most methods can divide into two classifications.
Respectively is single-index and multi-index, include the single-index researchers Richardson (1961)
and Cole (1964), and multi-index
researchers Galster(2001),Burton(2002) and Yu-Hsin Tsai(2005).
The earlier researchers proposed the single-index measurement, such as the Richardson proposed
a formula to survey the compact ratio in 1961.
Compact ratio= 2 A /P
(1)
A means measure of area, P means perimeter. And Cole proposed a formula in 1964.
Compact ratio=A/A‟
(2)
A means the area of urban built-up areas, A' means the urban built-up areas the
minimum circumscribed circle area,
The others scholars also proposed other way to measure the compact ratio, such as Gibbs
proposed it in 1961 and Nguyen xuan Thijh proposed in 2002. Due to brief consideration, single-index
measurement is usually the size of whole city that the composition and structure of city hasn‟t been taken
into account. Thus, it‟s difficult to show more in line with the current situation of the measurement results.
The later scholars, including Burton, Calster, Tsai and others, proposed the multi-index
measurement. Burton is a well-known scholar studying on compact city. He raised the method of
measuring compact ratio. In his point of view, the compact city can be divided into three basic types,
high-density, mixed-use and intensified, and each type should be measured with varied factors. For
example, the factors of mixed-use are the levels of public service, horizontal mixed-use and vertical
mixed-use with respective measurement. And then estimate the compact ratio by statistic methods.
On the other hand, Calster took the density ,continuity, concentration, clustering centrality,
nuclearity, mixed-uses proximity as factors, and COV coefficient and Delta coefficient as
measurement. In 2005, Yu-Hsin Tsai raised four-dimensional indicators, including the size, density,
degree of equal distribution and degree of clustering, and then used the Moran‟s I, Geary‟s C and Gini
coefficient as factors, the spatial autocorrelation for simulating compact ratio.
After review all methods that will know whether single-index or multi-index measurement
is not taken the structure of cities into account, road network and other issues, this research hoping
to join the network and the structure of the city, try to improve assessment methods.
EXPERIMENT
Research framework
For visualizing the compact spatial structure, It has to reduce the measurement unit scale and
make every unit with the compact ratio, so this study treats the building as the measurement unit, and
use the Gam software to visualizing the spatial structure
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The experiment intends to improve the "mixed-use" factor. For the level of mixed-use, the
higher level the mixed-use reaches, the more different the types of land use are in a certain area. In
other words, it takes less time to travel among the uses. Therefore, based on one of Network Analyst
Tools of ESRI ArcGIS, the Closest Facilities, the experiment takes the distances between residents and
vital functions as the measurement of mixed-use.
The Closest Facilities can let us know the shortest distances between the residents and vital
functions, it need to set up the incidents and facilities，but it can‟t compute large numbers，therefore ,it
is necessary to reduce the point numbers, so we use the rode node be the relay point. This experiment
can know the shortest distances between residents and vital functions. It has to divide into two parts.
d1:The distances between rode nodes to vital functions.
d2:The distances between residents to rode nodes.
At last, sum up the d1 and d2 to be the total distance between residents and other functions.
Figure.1 In order to reduce calculating loads, make the intersections as Incidents instead of residential
plots. That is, calculate the distances from intersections to functional plots instead of residential plots
to functional plots.
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Figure.2 The road network nodes and function points using the Closest Facility method to calculate
the distance of each node function of the nearest point distance.
Research area
The research area is East District, one of the earliest development areas in Tainan. Since it‟s
been highly development and mixed-use, the results of analysis might be more plentiful. The total area
of East District is 12.72 Km2. And there are 7,837 buildings including 4,587 residents. The amount of
route nodes is 2,382. All the data is based on the Land Use Investigation of Taiwan.
Result
The following figure shows out the single peak distribution of the total distance. The top of
the peak is around 2,000 - 2,300 meters. If equally divide the total distance into 6 functions, it takes
only or no more than 400 meters from all residents to each living function in Tainan. As the figure.4
shows, the distribution of distances is generally clustered in East District whether near or far.
Figure.3 The achievements of experiment shows that the distribution state of distance displays single
peak consequence and that the peak is about in the middle of 2000m-2300m
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Fig.4 The distance information displayed on the map ,and the darker color means nearer distance.
The distance distribution whether near or far all have cluster relationship.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The experiment helps understand the distances of each resident to their nearest functional
points. And putting back the distances to the residential plots helps understand the relationships and
display the spatial distribution.
For further studies, use the GAM software to know if there‟s any clustering data. The
Geographical Analysis Machine (GAM) is an attempt at automated exploratory spatial data analysis of
point or small area data to discover the degree of spatial autocorrelation. The required input data
parameters are coordinates of each point of X and Y, length and average distance, thereby
computing the degree of spatial autocorrelation, and displayed on the map.
References
[1] C.L.Fang,W.F.Ql,,2007, Research Progress and Thinking of Compact City and Its Measurement
Methods, urban planning forum, vol.170,pp.65-73
[2] A.T.Yang ,2004, Empirical Analysts on Sustainability of Compact city.
[3] Burton, E ,2002, Measuring urban compactness in UK towns and cities,2002 Environment and
Planning B: Planning and Design,Vol.29, pp. 219-250.
[4] Burton. E, Williams. K and Jenks. M,1996, The compact city :A sustainable urban form.
[5] L. Lin A,2008, Conceptual Analysis on Compact Urban Planning Forum, vol.175 , pp.41-50.
[6] Y.M. MA ,2007,The Birth and Development of Compact City, pp.10-16
[7] Burton, E., 2000,The compact city: just or just compact? a preliminary analysis, Urban Studies,
Vol. 37, No. 11, pp. 1969-2001
[8] Jabareen,Y,R,2006,” Sustainable Urban Forms : Their Typologies, Models, and Concepts”
Journal of Planning Education and Research , pp38-52
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SEEKING WAYS TO OVERCOME THE BARRIERS TO MAINSTREAMING
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION INTO ODA FROM THE EU AND JAPAN TO
VIETNAM: A CASE STUDY OF CAN THO
Hanne Louise Knaepen*
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Despite the general recognition of the urgent need of mainstreaming climate change
adaptation (CCA) into Official Development Aid (ODA) by EU and Japan donors, as well as
ODA-recipient country Vietnam, it is not a general policy yet. This study identifies the barriers to
mainstreaming and emphasizes that, for efficient mainstreaming, policies at urban-level should be
implemented in accordance with donor and national plans. Therefore, Can Tho, a medium-sized urban
settlement in the Mekong Delta is chosen as a case-study. An analysis of interviews with key persons
from the EU, Japan, and Vietnamese ODA-related institutions, as well as an internship at the Climate
Change Coordination Office in Can Tho in August and September will conclude if the hypothesized
barriers to mainstreaming, viewed from the perspective of the adaptation needs of Can Tho, are
correctly identified and how they could be overcome.
Keywords: mainstreaming, adaptation, urban policy-making, Official Development Aid (ODA)
INTRODUCTION
Climate change adaptation (CCA) in developing countries is becoming an increasingly
prioritized international policy objective, and one of the key responses is mainstreaming it into Official
Development Assistance (ODA). Mainstreaming, in this case, is the process by which development
policies are (re)designed from the perspective of climate change adaptation.
The EU and Japan, major ODA providers to Vietnam, as well as Vietnam itself, clearly
emphasize the need for mainstreaming in their policy documents, but the overall image that emerges
from the evaluation reports is rather negative: mainstreaming is not a general policy yet.
For effective mainstreaming of climate change adaptation into ODA there should be full
incorporation of CCA on three levels: donor, national government, and urban. The coordination-flow
between these three levels, viewed from the urban perspective, is the focal point of this work.
Moreover, for mainstreaming on urban-level, Can Tho City, located in the low-lying Mekong River
Delta, is chosen as case-study. Yet, in spite of various assessed climate risks, there is no
comprehensive formal adaptation plan with concrete measures in response to climate change in Can
Tho. Therefore, this study identifies three hypothetical solutions to overcome the barriers to
mainstreaming: (1) stronger integration of climate risks among Vietnamese ministries and city
departments; (2) more cooperation between NGOs and governmental institutions; (3) stronger EU and
Japan donor pressure on mainstreaming CCA in national development plans in Vietnam.
Finally the credibility of the above mentioned solutions will be assessed during a six
week-long field study in Vietnam starting from August. The concrete results and a practical roadmap
will be presented during the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Future for Human Security.
OBJECTIVES
The aim of this study is to understand the barriers to mainstreaming CCA into ODA on three
levels: the EU and Japan donor level, the Vietnamese national government level, and the urban level,
more precisely, Can Tho City. Doing so, this research follows the flow of coordination between these
three levels, with special attention given to the urban level. Through testing the above mentioned three
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