Québec, ville de bois 30juin08_ENGLISH

Transcription

│ QUEBEC: THE CITY THAT WOOD BUILT │
CREDITS
Project initiated by the Quebec Forest industry Council (QFIC)
Design:
Centre de transfert de technologie en foresterie (CERFO)
Guy Lessard, inf.g., M.Sc.
Emmanuelle Boulfroy, M.Sc.
David Poulin, Trainee
Quebec Forest History Society (QFHS)
Patrick Blanchet, Managing Director
Research and writing:
Guy Lessard, ing.f., M.Sc.
Emanuelle Boulfroy, M.Sc.
David Poulin, Trainee, Forest and Environmental Management
Patrick Blanchet, Managing Director
Cyrille Gélinas, Historian (Scientific Forestry)
Editing:
Louise Côté, Specialist, History of Quebec City, Parks Canada
Yvon Desloges, Specialist, French Regime, Université Laval
Marc Vallières, Specialist, English Regime
Conseil de l’industrie forestière du Québec (CIFQ)
Florent Boivin, Forestry Advisor
Nadia Boutin, B.A.
Jacques Gauvin, ing.f., M.B.A.
Jean Maltais, Biologist, M.Sc.
Denis Rousseau, inf.g., M.Sc.
Mario Marchand, Historian
Linguistic Revision:
Claire Roy, Executive Secretary
Graphic Design:
Corsaire Design
Natasha Genest
Mélina Patry
CERFO
Murielle Samuel
Illustrations :
Alphazulu
Lorraine Beaudoin
CERFO, Guy Lessard : [email protected]
CERFO, Emmanuelle Boulfroy : [email protected]
1.3 QFHS, Patrick Blanchet : [email protected]
1.1
1.2
2 │ Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Credits
Funding Partners:
Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune du Québec
Conférence régionale des élus de la Capitale Nationale
(Programme de participation régionale à la mise en valeur des
forêts)
Quebec Forest Industries Council (QFIC)
Conseil de transfert de technologie en foresterie (CERFO)
Suggested Citation:
Lessard, G.1.1, E. Boulfroy1.2, P. Blanchet1.3 et D. Poulin,
2008. Quebec: The City That Wood Built. Centre collégial
de transfert de technologie en foresterie de Sainte-Foy
(CERFO) and Quebec Forest History Society (QFHS).
Quebec, 77 p.
INTRODUCTION
Since the establishment of a trading post in 1608 at what is
now Quebec City, wood and forestry have been closely linked
to the economic growth and development of the city and the
region. Whether it was used for domestic purposes or for
trade, wood was a key factor in the construction of the city, the
development of its economy and the shaping of its collective
psyche. The city’s wood-based economy has strongly
influenced its urban development as evidenced by examples
of the luxurious mansions of the timber merchants of
yesteryear, working-class neighbourhoods, distinctive
buildings and unusual street names. Over the years, city limits
progressively expanded towards the St. Lawrence River with
the growth of wood-based economic activities. However, this
critical period of history, with its workers, tall-masted ships,
commerce and busy port, has faded in our collective memory.
Through the activities and the life of individuals and
communities who lived there, you are invited to take a journey
of discovery through six periods of Quebec City’s history:
(1) the early days of the wood-based economy under the
French regime (17th century); (2) the heyday of squared
timber during the English colonial period (1763 to the mid19th century); (3) a transition period during which lumber
replaced squared timber as the mainstay of trade and the
development of the US market (mid-19th century to 1870);
(4) the first major forest industry crisis and the beginning of a
forest conservation movement (end of the 19th century);
(5) the beginnings of the pulp and paper industry and scientific
forestry (early 20th century; and (6) the current period,
including the development of an apparatus of government,
education facilities and research centres, and
the
development of a secondary manufacturing industry. We hope
you enjoy your journey into our past and history.
STIRRINGS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
A THRIVING ECONOMY
TRANSITION AND DIVERSIFICATION
RECESSION AND
CONSERVATION
A NEW BOOM
STILL A CRITICAL SECTOR
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Introduction
│3
1
FROM THE 17TH CENTURY TO 1763: STIRRINGS OF A WOOD-BASED ECONOMY
In the early days of the French regime, the fur trade was the economic activity that linked the American Indians with the
French settlers. In this sense, it was the mainspring of the economy of New France. However, key players among the
colony’s leaders saw the use of wood and the timber trade as a more efficient way of shaping the colony’s development.
Jean Talon, the first intendant of New France appointed by Louis XIV (1664-1668; 1670-1672), sought to develop this
important niche market for France. To this end, he built shipyards along the St. Charles River and promoted the
development of allied activities, such as the production of tar and potash.
These early initiatives, however, were subject to
demographic and economic constraints and did not
last. They were resurrected with greater success a
few years later by intendant Gilles Hocquart. An
order of ships from the home country for the
King’s Navy led to the establishment of the great
shipyard directed by René-Nicolas Levasseur,
Head of Royal Shipbuilding and Inspector of Woods
and Forests. The shipyard was first located in the “du
Palais” sector at the mouth of the St. Charles River. It
was subsequently moved to the “Cul-de-Sac” sector
which could more easily accommodate larger
warships. Work was interrupted in the early 1750s. In
fact, the home country had deemed that the quality of
the wood from the colony did not justify the high
construction costs of the day. As a
result,
construction subsequently focused on
smaller
vessels for the merchant marine.
Activities related to the shipbuilding industry
stimulated the development of the “Palais” sector
and of the “Hiché” suburb (which came to became
called the St. Roch suburb). Both areas were located
close to the royal shipyard. The area called lower
town also included a significant concentration of
merchants.
4│
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Stirrings of Economic Activity
INTENDANT JEAN TALON INSPECTING
HIS SHIPYARD IN QUEBEC CITY
▌ THE FOREST PRIOR TO THE ARRIVAL OF THE FRENCH
[2]
Any attempt to describe the region’s forests before the arrival of the French is a risky endeavour because the natural
habitats of the time, with the exception of a few delicate cliff-face ecosystems, have almost disappeared in the wake of
400 years of human occupation. However, given the minor climate and soil variations that have occurred over the past
10,000 years, we can fairly accurately describe the plant communities supported by the predominant soils based on a
climax concept. Climax refers to a type of steady state capping various stages of natural succession. In this sense,
maples would have been established some 5,500 years ago.
Quebec City is located in the maple-basswood domain. On the heights
of the city, sugar maple forests were dominant in this period. These
forests included basswood, beech and elm. Red maple and peat lands
thrived in the more shallow depressions, whereas red oak and white pine
were probably plentiful in drier areas. Traces of thermophilic species
such as ironwood and hickory were apparent here and there, most likely
on the olitostrome (limestone debris) located on the western part of the
city heights. Hawthorne cedar knolls clung to the bluffs of Quebec at the FIGURE 1.1. CEDARS ON THE BLUFFS
time, as they do today.
Champlain’s writings report that the headland at Quebec was mainly covered by a hazel stand, the trees of which were
felled to build a wooden fort called an “abitation”. In all likelihood, this shade-intolerant species took hold in an old
clearing.
Along the St. Charles River and in the surrounding plains, various soil conditions
fostered stand diversity. On the eastern shore of the river and at the foot of the headline,
balsam fir stands and stands with dominant softwoods with islands of red maple, ash
and balsam grew in humid sectors. Red oak and hemlock were present on long-standing
sandy deposits. The western shore was populated by beech-sugar maple stands with
some black ash, cedar and elm. The river’s estuary included numerous wetlands.
FIGURE
1.2.
OLD-GROWTH
At the northern limits of the city, the Laurentian foothills were probably covered with
species typical of sugar maple-yellow birch stands: sugar maple, red maple, yellow birch
with some beech and the odd giant white pine. This type of forest exists today in Mont
Wright Park located near Stoneham, where one can find an old maple forest with a few
yellow birch specimens dating back some 200 years.
FOREST ON MOUNT WRIGHT
However, to capture a more accurate picture at that time, the impacts of
periodic natural hazards over the years − fire, ice storms and insect epidemics –
must be established. When subjected to fire, species with fire-resistant bark such as
white pine and red oak resisted well, whereas spruce trees were more resistant to
insects and eventually dominated softwood stands. Furthermore, in the 17th century
setting, a few pioneer species (grassy prairies, birch or poplar groves) took hold in the
wake of these events or of the occupation of the land by sedentary Amerindian
peoples such as the Iroquoian.
The analysis of charcoal pieces from the site where Quebec City was established,
sketch maps and brief descriptions by Cartier and, subsequently, Champlain, confirm
these assumptions.
We dropped anchor at Quebec where the Canada River (St. Lawrence) forms a strait some
300 paces wide. On the north shore of this strait is a high ridge sloping on two sides, north
and south. The rest of this landscape is lovely and includes good forested lands where oak,
jack pine, birch, fir and aspen, as well as native fruit trees and vines, grow. [Translation]
FIGURE 1.3. RED OAK, WHITE PINE
& MAPLE FOREST (UNIVERSITÉ
LAVAL)
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Stirrings of Economic Activity │ 5
▌ TRADITIONAL USE OF THE FOREST BY THE AMERINDIAN PEOPLES [3, 4]
When Europeans first set foot in the St. Lawrence River valley, two native communities occupied the vast
forested areas and the shores of the St. Lawrence River: Algonquian nomad hunters and Iroquoian
agriculturalists. The latter practiced subsistence farming and occupied several villages along the St. Lawrence.
The largest upstream village, called Hochelaga, was located on the site of present-day Montreal. Downstream from
Hochelaga was another large town of some 500 people: Stadaconé, located within the city limits of present-day Quebec
City, close by the mouth of the St. Charles River. This is where Jacques Cartier made his first stop. The Iroquoians of
the Quebec City region were more nomadic than those who lived in the Montreal region. In fact, they hunted and fished
as far away as the Gaspe peninsula. Cartier also mentioned the existence of a dozen villages along the shores of the St.
Lawrence that were occupied during the summer months. Occupants probably included nomad forest peoples. In fact,
Cartier mentioned that these villages were not protected by palisades. This was characteristic of short-stay camp sites
used by these peoples.
The St. Lawrence Iroquoian tribes grew corn, squash and beans. They also used sugar maple sap. The forest
provided meat, furs, and construction materials for “long houses”, palisades and fuel wood. It also provided a
rich therapeutic arsenal, including a long list of herbal teas and plant decoctions. An anecdote about a herbal tea
made with white pine needles and bark saved the lives of those among Jacques Cartier’s sailors who were afflicted by
scurvy has endured over the years. Vitamins C and P helped replenish certain deficiencies linked to a lack of fresh
foodstuffs1.3. Several authors have described native peoples’ medicine against fever, spasms, hay fever and so on.
Today, white pine is used to treat coughing and bronchitis and as a pulmonary decongestant.
At the beginning of the 17th century, while Champlain explored the St. Lawrence River, the overall situation
evolved: the Iroquoian tribes had disappeared and groups of nomadic Algonquian hunters occupied the
Quebec City region1.4. The Iroquois, Mohawks for the most part, undertook a few forays on the south shore of the St.
Lawrence, but they came up against Algonquian and Innu warriors who controlled the Tadoussac and Quebec regions
as far upstream as Trois-Rivières. In the middle of the 17th century, Wendat-Hurons, Iroquoian farmers who came from
southwestern Ontario (Huronia), settled on Île d’Orleans and, ultimately, at Lorette (site of the present-day town of
Wendake). During the colonial period the forest provided native peoples with furs for the fur trade and game for
subsistence hunting.
▌ THE USE OF WOOD ON THE ARRIVAL OF THE FRENCH
On arriving at Stadaconé, in 1535, Jacques Cartier described the land that he could see as follows:
The land is as fertile as the land found in France. It grows lovely trees, such as oak, elm, ash, walnut, vines, hawthorn with fruit as large as
damsons, and other species. The land also grows hemp the quality of which rivals the hemp of France, without seeding or plowing.
[Translation]
The interest in various natural resources such as wood and furs was high, but the first serious attempt to establish a
permanent French colony only occurred a few years later, in 1541 [5]. This was supported by visions of strategic
occupation to counter Spanish occupation visions. Jacques Cartier’s third voyage paved the way for Roberval1.5. He
landed at the mouth of the Cap-Rouge River to establish a settlement named Charlesbourg-Royal. Two forts were
built1.6. The first was built on the lowlands, close to the river. It included at least one building and occupied an area of
approximately one acre of seeded land. The second fort was built on the height of land in order to protect the lower fort
and the ships in harbour. This fort, built on a clay soil, included at least three wood and clay buildings, several stone
structures and was surrounded by palisades. Wood had become a resource for domestic applications and for the
construction of buildings, military works and fortifications.
1.3 Additional
example: In 1918, the Wendake Hurons successfully resisted the “Spanish flu” with “cow-parsnip“.
is assumed that a few years after Cartier’s passing, the growth of the Iroquoian population through a sedentary lifestyle associated with agriculture along the
main trade route led to tensions between local native peoples. Wars during the period from 1580 to 1590 are presumed to have caused their disappearance.
1.5 King Francis I, who was determine to establish an upstream colony had appointed Jean-François de la Roque de Roberval to the position of lieutenant general for
Canada, in charge of land forces.
1.6 In 2006, news of the discovery of this site was announced in Quebec City. Excavations were conducted during the summer of 2007. The daily logs of work teams
are posted on the Web site of the Commission de la capitale nationale.
1.4 It
6 │ Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Stirrings of Economic Activity
In 1542, thinking that he had a wealth of gold and diamond, Cartier
returned to France, leaving Roberval and his fleet (more than 200
persons) in charge of rebuilding the destroyed forts (then named FranceRoy). But the colony experienced several setbacks (war, scurvy,
drownings) and this futile effort ass given up the following year.
When Champlain established the Quebec trading post in 1608 in a
second attempt to establish a French colony, the population was
small, pressure on the forest was weak and the needs of the colony
were limited. However, France experienced “a serious imbalance
between normal forest production and actual or estimated harvest
volumes.” [6] An inventory shortage, to use a modern term, was in sight.
In 1639, Gabriel Platte, a French analyst, described the situation:
The large volume of wood imported yearly from Norway and elsewhere clearly
highlights our shortage. One can also imagine the sad state of the kingdom one or
two centuries from now due to the lack of wood [7]. [Translation]
Whereas the fur trade was widely perceived to be the colony’s main
economic activity given the flow of goods to the old continent, it
should be noted that wood was the main source of energy and the
main construction material. Like petroleum today, wood was the key
raw material for many products of everyday life. Round wood was used
for heating, charcoal for forges, tar for caulking, lye for laundry, staves
for barrels and, of course, boards for various types of construction. For
Champlain, an ardent promoter of Canada, the presence of a
diversified forest ensured the prosperity of the colony and, to a
certain extent, its influence on the world stage. Whereas exports of
lumber and wood by-products from Quebec to France grew during
the 1620s, they were nonetheless sporadic and remained so until
the arrival of Jean Talon.
FIGURE 1.4. CHAMPLAIN SUPERVISING THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE FIRST WOODEN FORT
(AN “ABITATION”) IN 1608. THIS WOODEN FORT
(THE SECOND WAS BUILT WITH BLACK STONE
FROM CAP
DIAMANT) WAS USED AS A
RESIDENCE, A FORT AND A STORE FOR TRADE
GOODS, FOOD AND FURS. THE BUILDING WAS
SURROUNDED BY PALISADES OF WOODEN
▌ THE BIRTH OF A WOOD-BASED ECONOMY
PILES, CANNONS, A MOAT AND A BRIDGE.
In 1633, Canada was a French possession and Quebec City its administrative centre. The development of the colony
depended on the demands and the inclinations of the king of France, Louis XIV, and his minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert.
Colbert was one of the most influential figures of Louis XIV’s reign. He is credited with straightening out the finances of
the State and implementing one of the most important forest management reforms in France. He held the positions of
Comptroller General of Finance, Secretary of State for the Navy and Inspector of Waters and Forests. In 1669, he
issued an edict to ensure forest conservation. To this day, this order is still deemed to be the foundation of
French forestry legislation. Colbert’s ultimate objective was to build a powerful king’s navy to compete with England
and Holland on international markets. At the outset of his mandate, he was faced with an inadequate fleet and a
significant shortage of wood. In a letter to Louis XIV, Colbert emphasized that it was “to meet the needs of both his navy
and those of subjects that your Majesty has undertaken a global reform of all the forests in your kingdom” [Translation]
[6], including the forests in Canada. At the end of his reign, the French fleet was powerful and respected, and the wood
supply for its development and maintenance was ensured. To this day, in France, people still talk about the vast stands
of oak planted by Colbert.
Jean Talon was Colbert’s and Louis XIV’s right-hand man. He was dispatched to Canada to become “the eye and
the hand of the King”. [12] He controlled the major administrative levers, such as justice and the economy. Under his
stewardship, many visionary initiatives were implemented. In particular, he promoted the timber trade between
France and the colony, built the first of the King’s ships and was the first to order the protection of certain tree
species.
In 1667, Jean Talon attempted to evaluate the quality of the timber resource by harvesting trees of various species which
he shipped to La Rochelle (French port on the Atlantic coast) where their suitability for building ships for the king’s navy
was determined. At the outset of his second mandate (1672), two years following Colbert’s edict1.7, Talon banned the
following on the he land grants he awarded:
It is forbidden] to cut or harvest oak, ash, yellow birch or other tree species suitable for shipbuilding without their prior examination by the
King’s shipwrights.[13] [Translation]
In keeping with Colbert’s wishes, Talon wrote to the King:
I will do my best to ensure that over time, these lands will provide your Majesty with the wood that you must now obtain from the kingdoms of
the Baltic Sea. [14]. [Translation]
The purpose of ensuring a supply of timber was to provide raw materials for shipbuilding and manufacturing barrel
staves. Red pine was included in this edict decades later by a different intendant, Hocquart.
In describing the potential of Quebec City forests, Jean Talon told his superior, Colbert, that:
The land is covered with trees which form rich and productive forests. However, he pointed out that shipbuilding will be easier... more
specifically when we reach southern lands where trees are better developed and where oak stands are more plentiful than here. [18]
[Translation]
In fact, in the forests surrounding Quebec City tall trees were naturally scattered and the pieces sought for
shipbuilding rather rare. That was due to the fact that several pieces for shipbuilding were selected on the basis of
specific tree characteristics. To this end the king’s shipwright crisscrossed the forest, caliper in hand, to select
appropriate specimens. More specifically, he looked for tall, strong and defect-free trees suitable for ship masts. Having
identified such specimens, he then marked them with a fleur-de-lys stamping hammer, indicating royal ownership. Thus,
the potential of the forests in the St. Lawrence valley to provide pieces for export and shipbuilding was limited. In 1687,
intendant Champigny ordered all the shipwrights to survey the forests on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, between
Quebec and Ville-Marie [19]. Overall, the shipwrights stamped only 6,500 suitable oak trees. Only later would the
mountains surrounding Lake Champlain [20] and the Outaouais, more richly populated, be harvested for exports
to France and, subsequently, to England.
Although he wanted to protect the country’s most valuable resources, Talon had to cope with widespread indifference. It
seemed that settlers were unable to appreciate the importance of creating reserves in light of the immediate and plentiful
supply of wood. This problem has endured throughout our history. As noted by Roderick Nash, a specialist in US
environmental history, in this book, Wilderness and the American Mind, Americans of European descent, including the
French, had developed a real cultural antipathy towards wilderness. Nash called this “a wilderness hatred” [15]. In the
eyes of the general public, the forest was an enemy to be cut down since it provided cover for Indian attacks and
represented an obstacle to civilization (agriculture and colonization). Exasperated, Talon asked Colbert for the
support of twelve Cossacks, known for their violent behaviour, to enforce the law and to guard against the negligence on
the part of people. In a letter to Colbert, Talon wrote:
Based on the information I have received from various people, and notwithstanding the ban against the use of timber suitable for shipbuilding,
settlers continue to burn and destroy great quantities of wood for timber and land clearing, including scarce and valuable pieces. [16]
[Translation]
To date, archival research has not yielded any evidence of repression to enforce this ban.
Despite all this, the untamed countryside was richly populated by merchantable species and would eventually be able to
supplement European sources of supply. However, the colony’s capacity to this end was relative. The development of the
wood-based economy required an appropriate commercial context. It also needed to be supported by various financial,
legal and technological measures.
Colbert, Louis XIV’s secretary of state for the Navy and responsible for the administration of the colony, authored the most famous royal edict regarding waters and
forests. The purpose of this edict was to restore the colony’s forests, which were deemed to be in a pitiful condition, in order to rebuild the French Royal Navy and
compete with the English and Dutch fleets. Quebec was thereby included in Colbert’s economic plan.
1.7
▌ THE BIRTH OF A SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY
The shipyard that Jean Talon established at Quebec in 1665
was the keystone of the new colonial economy. Talon funded the
construction of a 200-tonne (566 m3)1.8 ship to foster the shipment of
goods to the West Indies and France. He organized the timber
harvest in the forests along the St. Lawrence and established
several shipyards along the St. Charles River at Quebec. For a
while, these employed up to 300 workers. His other contributions to
the development of the wood-based economy included the
construction of the Royal Tar Works at Baie-Saint-Paul. This
establishment produced tar for ship caulking using debarked red
pine, the roots and branches of which were dried and heated in an
oven. He also attempted to build potash works of which remnants
have been located in the Voutes du Palais. Potash, produced from
wood ash, was used to bleach cloth.
FIGURE 1.5. INTENDANT JEAN TALON INSPECTING A
QUEBEC SHIPYARD.
FIGURE 1.6. VIEW OF QUEBEC CITY IN 1700. Note the wooden palisade surrounding part of the city and the rigged vessels
in harbour.
The tonne is a measure that refers to the size of a ship. It is frequently combined with the number of cannons. The tonne is in fact a unit of volume of a ship’s hull. It is
an international unit of tonnage equivalent to 199 ft3 or 2.83 m3.
1.8
The departure of Jean Talon in 1672 and the lack of interest of King Louis XIV, who was no longer willing to spend
money on Canada, hampered the development of the colony. Given the precarious conditions at the time, important
merchants left Quebec for La Rochelle, France [8]. In the late 1680s, while France was at war with England, efforts were
made to rebuild the king’s navy. Quebec made a significant contribution to this effort by shipping construction timber to
France. But it would take the arrival of a dynamic intendant, Gilles Hocquart, and the know-how of his shipyard manager,
René-Nicolas Levasseur, for Quebec City to witness the establishment of the its first king’s navy shipyard.
▌ TWO KING’S NAVY SHIPYARDS AT QUEBEC
Gilles Hocquart, who served as intendant in New France from 1729 to 1748, was also a key player in the history
of the timber trade at Quebec. Not only did he oversee the inspections in the Quebec region [21] and promote exports
of masts and spars1.9 to the king’s shipyards in Rochefort, France , but he was determined to strengthen the shipbuilding
infrastructure for the king’s navy. His request to establish royal shipyards at Quebec, which had up to then been
exclusively established in France, was a significant gesture.
In 1738, the king of France, Louis XV, was expecting the breakout of war in Europe. Furthermore, the weakness of his
navy was a major concern. He commissioned the construction of a 500-tonne ship at Quebec. This resulted in the
expansion of a shipyard located at the mouth of the St. Charles River (the Palais or St. Nicholas sectors) used by the
king and private shipbuilders in Jean Talon’s time. The riverbed was dredged and rid of large rocks to facilitate the launch
of large ships [21].
In order to ensure the effective management of the shipbuilding operations, the king sent an experienced shipbuilder,
René-Nicolas Levasseur, to the colony. Levasseur managed the royal shipyards at Quebec from 1738 to 1759.
But the St. Charles River proved to be too shallow and limited for space. Accordingly, in 1748, the royal shipyard was
moved to the Cul-de-Sac sector in Quebec’s lower town, on the shore of the St. Lawrence. The new shipyard, named
Cul-de-Sac, was located near Chevalier House close to Place Royale. From this location, larger warships could be
launched. However, strong currents and the limitation of launching operations only at high tide offset the benefits of the
new location to a certain extent. The old du Palais shipyard was subsequently used to provide shelter for ships and
space for refit operations.
Given the labour shortage at the time [21], it took two years to build a ship. In all, a dozen warships and several smaller
vessels were built in the king’s shipyards at Quebec, The Canada, a 500-tonne flute1.10 (storeship) launched in June
1742, was the first warship built at Quebec. Then, in 1744, a 700-tonne, 45-gun flute, the Caribou, was launched,
followed by a 26-gun, three-masted frigate1.11, the Castor. The last ship, a 30-gun frigate named Québec, was never
completed1.12 (Figure 1.8). In addition to the two king’s navy shipyards, several others were in operation at Quebec. All in
all, from 1722 to 1742, some 115 ships (brigantines, bateaux, schooners, ships and frigates) were built there.
Although Quebec was surrounded by forests, tall trees such as those required to build large ships were scarce. As a
result, the Lake Champlain region replaced the St. Lawrence River region as the source of almost all the wood
used by the royal shipyards. Oak1.13 was used for ship hulls because of its hardness, resistance and durability. Elm
was also a favorite species because of its resistance to rot below the waterline. Pine was used for masts and spruce for
curved components [20]. But steadily rising costs slowed down production after 1750, so much so that in 1755, the king
decided to withdraw his support to this industry. Several reasons explained this state of affairs at the time, including the
decisive impact of a 1749 report entitled Mémoire sur la qualité des bois du Canada [22] by Henri-Louis Duhamel du
Monceau. At the time, Duhamel was the naval Inspector general and the top official responsible for naval construction
and wood supply issues for the French empire. His report stated that while the colony’s forest resources were abundant,
the quality of its wood did not match that of wood from France and the Baltic countries1.14.
1.9
Trade also extended to the city of Bordeaux and other colonies, such as Newfoundland, Acadia and the West Indies.
page
1.10 to 1.14 Next
However, Duhamel was convinced that, one day, Canadian wood could replace wood from other regions. On the other
hand, high wood and construction costs added to the inferior quality of the wood did not justify the sustained operation of
the king’s shipyards at Quebec. In this context and given the importance of the role played by Duhamel du Monceau in
the development of this industry within the empire, it could be assumed, although without conclusive evidence, that the
decrease in production after 1750 and the closing of the king’s shipyards in 1755 were the result of his report. On the
other hand, it is clear that despite an abundant resource, the wood-based economy evolved as a result of criteria that are
rarely linked to the dominating presence of forests [23, 24].
The royal shipbuilding industry at Quebec, having flourished for a dozen years, collapsed at the end of the
French regime. After that, the focus shifted to the construction of smaller vessels equipped with sailing rigs or oars
called barks or smacks.
FIGURE 1.7. THE QUEBEC LANDSCAPE SEEN FROM POINTE LEVIS (1761). At the extreme left hand side of the lower town (follow the
arrow), at the spot where the Cul-de-Sac royal shipyard used to be, note the hull of the frigate Québec, which was never completed.
1.10 A
flute is a warship used to transport materiel and supplies. They were heavily armed in order to protect their cargo.
frigate is a two-deck, three-masted warship with a sleek hull carrying not more than 60 guns.
1.12 Other ships built at the Cul-de-Sac shipyard in 1750 or so include the Orignal (72 guns), the Algonquin (72 guns) and the Abénaquise, a 30 gun frigate).
1.13 Quebec oak had a poor reputation in shipbuilding circles. It can be assumed that rafted timber used for shipbuilding without prior drying and conditioning could
present premature rot. Reports indicate that ships built of oak were in service for more than 40 years.
1.14 Example of poor wood quality: the Caribou (1744) began to rot less than five years after its launching. In Le Canada est un pays de bois, Delaney suggested that
the poor quality of Canadian woods is due to their location in the forests: wood from flat, swampy and accessible terrain is of lesser quality than wood from rough and
difficult terrain.
1.11 A
DID YOU KNOW?
RENÉ-NICOLAS LEVASSEUR, DIRECTOR OF ROYAL SHIPYARDS [25]
René Nicolas Levasseur arrived in Quebec in the spring of 1738. That fall, he was sent by intendant Hocquart on
a forest inspection mission: to verify information collected during previous explorations; to determine the quantity
and quality of the wood required for shipbuilding; and to identify potential harvesting areas. Subsequently, the
shipbuilder carried out additional forest inspections in search of wood suitable for building ships of 500 to
700 tonnes.
Fig. 1.8. Royal warrant charging René-Nicolas Levasseur with a shipbuilding mission in Canada, issued on April 1, 1743 by the King of France
This assignment left Levasseur with hardly any free time. From April to December, he coordinated and
supervised the work of all the workers in the royal shipyards. During the winter, he carried out cruising activities in
the forest to delineate harvesting areas. Having done this, he returned to Quebec to prepare for the summer
season, draw the plans for future ships and supply the shipyard with the requisite shipbuilding materials. He
returned to forested areas before the end of the winter to supervise harvesting operations and ensure the
availability of all the required timber pieces. Then he had to organize the timber drive from Lake Champlain all the
way to Quebec City.
Levasseur was a competent and conscientious individual and shipbuilding operations benefited from his vast
experience. He was the expert charged with solving the wood supply problems. He designed timber drive
procedures to safely negotiate river rapids and falls. It was he, instead of the king’s engineer, Gaspard-Joseph
Chaussegros de Léry, who was tasked with building wharves when the shipyards were moved to the Cul-de-Sac
location. On his arrival in Quebec he was an assistant shipbuilder, but he received a royal shipbuilding warrant in
1743. He became chief builder in 1749 and inspector of woods and forests in 1752. In short, his talents and
effectiveness were undeniable and he earned the confidence of all of the colony’s administrators.
▌
SAWMILLS
The history of water mills (flour mills and sawmills) is
associated with the history of New France seigneuries.
From 1827 to 1863, the Company of One Hundred
Associates1.15 used a seigneurial system adapted to the
French Regime in order to grant concessions to those
who undertook to attract settlers] [26]. This approach
was useful in dividing a vast territory into administrative
units. The seigneuries were delineated in parallel strips
along the St. Lawrence River. Seven seigneuries
covered all the territory of the present-day cities of
Quebec, Beauport and Saint-Augustin-de-Desmaures.
Each seigneury had at least one sawmill to provide
lumber for building construction. Sawmills used vertical
saws powered by water wheels when streams had
enough water to turn the wheels. Government
employees, merchants, shipbuilders, seigneurs and
religious orders operated such sawmills.
FIGURE 1.9. MAP OF THE SEIGNEURIES IN THE QUEBEC CITY REGION
Information on the presence of sawmills in the Quebec
City region at the time is not available. However, traces of several
sawmills have been located: on the St. Pierre or du Moulin rivers
(currently the Du Berger River on the site of the old Quebec zoo) and
at Cap Rouge. In 1739, the Quebec City region included 11 sawmills
and a rope factory. [27]
Across New France, the year 1720 stands out for the rapid growth of
the forest industry as a result of the proliferation of sawmills. A network
evolved, thereby preparing the ground for future expansion [28].
(Table 1.1) Exploitation of Canadian forests for their wood became a
profitable activity. Wood was used for building, heating, and furniture
making. In 1759, exports of construction lumber were valued at
$31,000/year [29]. In 1730, as the economic growth associated with
the development of a wood products industry took off, the fur trade
began to wither.
Legend − Figure 1.9
Maur
Guillaume-Bonhomme
Fossambault
Gaudarville
Saint-Gabriel
Saint-Ignace
Saint-Joseph-de-Lespinay
Orsainville
Quebec (fiefdom )/Saint-François
Notre-Dame-des-Anges
Beauport
Côte de Beaupré
45
47
48
49
51
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Flour Mills
Sawmills
Total Mills
Population
1666
9
2
11
4,000
1685
1713
61
10
41
71
11,000
23,000 ?
1730
120
70
190
35,000
TABLE 1.1. WATER MILLS IN NEW FRANCE DURING THE FRENCH REGIME [30]
This Company, created by Cardinal Richelieu, exercised a monopoly over the fur trade from Florida up to the North Pole in return for the development and support
of the colony founded by Champlain. In 1683, Louis XIV replaced this form of administration by a royal government regime (Colbert and Talon). In 1771, London kept
the seigneurial regime. It was abolished in 1854 because of its obsolescence. Despite this, the title “seigneur de Lotbinière” was used without interruption from RenéLouis Chartier de Lotbinière up to Edmond Joly de Lotbinière.
1.15
Quebec: the City that Wood Built│ Stirrings of Economic Activity
│ 13
DID YOU KNOW?
CONSTRUCTION: BUILDING ON SPECIES-SPECIFIC QUALITIES [31]
Cedar (thuya), for parts exposed to the elements (beams, basement window frames, etc.)
Yellow birch, for porches and stairs
Spruce, for framework, roof and floor components
Pine, for flooring, framing, doors and cupboards
Ash, for ceiling beams and window frames
Walnut, for cupboards and high-end doors
▌ THE TIMBER AND LUMBER MARKETS DRIVE THE CITY’S DEVELOPMENT
Shipbuilding and the timber trade with France influenced the development of Quebec City. The royal shipyard near the
St. Charles River fostered the development of the nearby du Palais sector and the Hiché suburb (now St-Roch). Furthermore, a significant concentration of merchants set up shop in the Lower Town sector. The establishment of the Cul-deSac shipyard in Lower Town also fostered demographic expansion. The following vignette provides a brief description of
the city’s four sectors.
DID YOU KNOW?
THE CITY OF QUEBEC IN THE MID-18TH CENTURY: A BRIEF DESCRIPTION
At the end of the French regime, the landscape of present-day Quebec City presented a striking, contrast of
woods, villages, cultivated fields and pastures. [33] One can paint a portrait of this city of 8,000 people thanks to a
census taken in 1744 [32]. At the time, the city included four sectors.
The Upper Town included 45% of the city’s total population. Its functional duality (the military and the church) is
reflected by two public places: Place d’Armes and Place Notre-Dame (present-day Place de l’Hôtel-de-Ville).
Buildings belonging to religious orders (Jesuits, Ursulines, Hospitallers, and Recollects), the Seminary and the
bishopric dominated the sector (and still do). Craft and other workers accounted for 40% of the sector’s
population while tradesmen and merchants accounted for 26%. Many household servants also lived in the sector.
St. Louis Street was the most populated street with 20% of the neighbourhood’s population, followed by St. Jean
Street with 16%. The building trades were concentrated along St. Jean Street as well as on the Seminary’s
grounds. Houses were mostly single-storey buildings and 30% were built with wood. The trend to two-storey
buildings began after 1750.
The Lower Town, close to the future Cul-de-Sac royal shipyard, accounted for 37% of the total population of
Quebec City. That is where the greatest concentration of trade and commerce players were to be found
(merchants, traders, navigators, transporters, bark captains) who made up 50% of the neighbourhood’s
population. The commercial nature of the neighbourhood intensified over time and, in 1742, 80% of the
merchants and traders had set up shop in the sector. Competition was fierce, especially between Quebec-based
merchants and the large French trading firms. Craftsmen were less inclined to concentrate their activities
although many coopers could be found at the Sault-au-Matelot. Half the population of Lower Town lived on the
Sault-au-Matelot and Champlain streets. This neighbourhood was isolated from the Intendant’s residence
neighbourhood up to 1740, when the Anse de la Canoterie was partially filled in order to build a road. This was a
dense neighbourhood where buildings of two-storeys and more were built. Stone replaced wood in construction,
especially in the wake of a 1682 fire.
The Intendant’s Palace sector was first populated by a few officers and craftsmen. Its development really took
off with the establishment of the royal shipyard at the mouth of the St. Charles River around 1740. It accounted
for 8% of the city’s total population. At the time, it was heavily populated by craftsmen who worked in the shipyard
and who represented half the sector’s population. The displacement of the royal shipyards from the Palais to the
Cul-de-Sac sector in 1748 hardly impacted this sector because of the remaining port-related activities.
The suburbs accounted for only 5% of the total population of the city. Early suburbs were taking shape at the
time: St. Louis, St. Jean and Hiché. The latter gave rise to the more densely populated St-Roch suburb, the
development of which was supported by the construction of a new compound which kept day labourers,
craftsmen and trade workers away.
In parallel with the birth of the wood-based economy, the population of
Quebec posted significant growth [32]. From 1621 to 1740, the
population doubled every 20 years or so, due to a high birthrate (average
six children per family) and the influx of migrants drawn by the
momentary economic growth of the capital. From a sociological
perspective, it should be noted that from the first half of the 18th century,
60% of the city’s population was made up of tenants. Today, this
percentage stands at 70%1.16.
Census Year
Population
1666
407
1681
1085
1716
2285
1744
5051
TABLE 1.2. DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE DURING
THE FRENCH REGIME [2]
▌QUEBEC AND THE NATURAL SCIENCES
In the trails of the many explorers looking for new territories there are often scientists who contribute to the
knowledge of wildland forests of the new world. In the 17th century, encouraged by the scientific vitality of the
Renaissance, scientists followed in the wake of early explorers of new lands and marked profound breaks with the past in
the fields of botany and mineralogy. In fact, botanists played a role in the development of an astounding network of
scientists worldwide. They foreshadowed the famous learned academies established by Colbert for the purpose of
renewing modern science.
Among the botanists of the day, the Jesuit missionaries played an important role, collecting North American plant
samples which they observed, harvested, transplanted in so-called “conservation gardens” until their shipment to France.
At the time, a great many of these plants found their way to the Jardin des plantes de Paris (also known as the Jardin des
plantes médicinales or Jardin du Roy). It therefore follows that the name of several plants discovered in Canada at the
time contains the designation canadensis or canadense.
At Quebec, Louis Hébert [9], considered to be the first farmer in the colony,1.17 played a key role in the development
of agriculture1.18. According to internationally renowned botanists, this apothecary was reported to be the first to provide
the basic material required for the first
systematic study of plants by a Paris
physician, Jacques-Philippe Comuty, entitled
Canadensium Plantarum, in 1635. This
assumption was based on the fact that he
was the sole individual in the colony with
scientific qualifications. This study marked the
birth of American botany. It highlighted the
difference between botany focused on
medicinal applications and botany focused on
environmental science, evidence of which
can be found in early scholarly works. Hébert
highlighted the diversity and the evolution of
man’s relationships with nature [10]. The
aforementioned modest study was of great
scientific interest as a result of the specimen
collection methods, classification structures,
plant properties and their medicinal and FIGURE 1.10. LOUIS HÉBERT, FIRST FARMER OF QUÉBEC. This apothecary
social uses it listed.
would have been the Canadian correspondent of the author who wrote the first
book on Canadian flora, providing him with plants specimens .
Jean-François Gaultier followed in Hébert’s
steps and carried on with his work (see vignette). After his death and the Seven Years War, the plant collections
disappeared and publications dropped off, signaling the end of a scientific movement. Indigenous naturalists would have
to begin from scratch.
1.16 For
the urban territory prior to the recent mergers.
was the first settler to ensure his subsistence solely by farming.
1.18 He lived at the “Jardin de la reine Margot” prior to his arrival.
1.17 He
DID YOU KNOW?
MICHEL SARRAZIN (1659-1734)
Born in Burgundy, France, Michel Sarrazin (1659-1734) [11] first came to Quebec in
1685 as the chief barber-surgeon of the navy. In 1694, he returned to France to pursue
medical studies. He spent time at the Jardin royal des Plantes, the future Musée
d’Histoire naturelle, where he studied botany under Tournefort. Long sought by the
intendant Champigny, Sarrazin returned to Quebec in 1697 after receiving his medical
degree at Reims. But Sarrazin no longer wanted to practice medicine exclusively. He
wanted to dedicate himself to the systematic study the country’s flora, fauna and
minerals. Despite many difficulties1.19 his collections (herbaria, seeds and living plants)
were forwarded to the first physician of France for replanting in the Jardin des plantes.
Some were even forwarded to Oxford. His notes were collected by Sébastien Vaillant
and published as a Catalogue des plantes du Canada1.20. The Observations de
Mr. Sarazzin contained the description of four species of Canadian maples and
highlighted the author’s excellent knowledge of these species. Sarrazin is also credited
with the description of species included in the 1700 and 1719 editions of Tournefort's
Institutiones rei herbariae. Tournefort dedicated one of the species, Sarracenia
purpurea, to Sarrazin, Sarrazin is also credited with the identification of ginseng and
other spikenards. He also contributed to the publication of several other scientific
publications.
Fig. 1.11. Possible portrait of Michel
Sarrazin, surgeon-physician and
botanist who came to New France
Sarazzin was eventually appointed to the position of first physician and surgeon of New France. He is credited
with having performed the first mastectomy in Canada, if not North America (1700). Today, the Maison Michel
Sarrazin, a palliative care establishment, bears witness to his dedication and his work.
DID YOU KNOW?
JEAN-FRANÇOIS GAULTIER (1708-1756) [92]
Gaultier was born at La Croix-Avranchin (department of Manche), France. During his life, he practiced medicine
and other professions: meteorologist, astronomer, botanist, mineralogist and zoologist. A few years after the death
of Michel Sarrazin, Gaultier was appointed king’s physician and moved to New France on a permanent basis in
1742.
With Governor La Galissonière’s support, he became the key player in the implementation of a timber inventory
and a harvesting program for the colony. Elected as a corresponding member of the Académie royale des
Sciences, he worked with Duhamel de Monceau. His contribution to botany was significant. He kept a permanent
collection of Canadian plants in the intendant’s garden (the first botanical garden). He was responsible for
maintaining the Sarrazin herbarium which reportedly included more than 800 specimens. Carrying on with the
work of Louis Hébert, Cormuty and Sarrazin (enshrined in Tournefort’s treatise), he focused mainly on woody
plants, several of which are discussed in Duhamel’s Traité des arbres et des arbustes. Gaultier also coordinated
the collection of specimens selected in Canada for shipment to Paris. His passion for medical ethnobotany
contributed to the popularity of child’s breath, wintergreen (genus Gaultheria, dedicated by Kain)1.21, various herbal
teas, spruce beer (effective for the treatment of scurvy), and a treatment for bronchitis. He wrote briefs on maple
syrup, pitch and resin, as well as a treatise on four species of pine. He experimented with Canadian woods used
to build three ships: Castor, Caribou and Saint-Laurent.
His contribution to science (some 1,500 manuscript pages ) was mainly indirect, through Duhamel de Monceau,
Pehr Kalm, Jean-Étienne Guettard and René-Antoine Ferchaut de Réumur. History mentions his special
contribution, as a guide, working with the renowned botanist Pehr Kalm (genus Kalmia) who wrote a Flora
canadensis based on two months of work on plant collections. This work was lost, however, but not before it was
consulted by Carl von Linné (genus Linnea) as he wrote his own Canadian plant guide. Gaultier’s comments on
the colony and nature, including his meteorological records, were also valuable.
1.19 Shipment
by ship required that sample crates be protected from the elements and that shrubs be watered using scarce drinking water supplies.
1.20 L’ouvrage This study was published between the publication of Cormuty’s Canadensium Plantarum (1635) and Charlevoix’s flora published as an appendix to his
Histoire de la Nouvelle-France (1744). Shortly after, incorporating some of Sarrazin’s results, came Jean-François Gaultier’s (1708-1756) flora handwritten before
1750, and Kalm’ flora of Quebec intended for publication as Flora Canadensis, but was never published.
1.21 One of the three sources of wintergreen oil (spearmint) used in pharmaceuticals and sweets.
FIGURE 1.12. MAP OF QUEBEC IN 1769
REFERENCES
▌
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1.1: Guy Lessard, CERFO, September 2007
Figure 1.2: Guy Lessard, CERFO, Septembeer 2007
Figure 1.3: Guy Lessard, CERFO, September 2007
Figure 1.4: Charles William Jeffery’s. Imperial Oil Collection Series, Library and Archive Canada. Accession 1972-26-760,
C-07316
Figure 1.5: Charles William Jeffery’s. Imperial Oil Collection Series, Library and Archive Canada. Accession 1972-26-7786,
C-070255
Figure 1.6: Original source unknown. Library and Archives Canada. Accession 1997-476-68, C-004696
Figure 1.7 Richardactif SHort and Pierre Charles Canot. Richard Short Collection. Library and Archives Canada. Accession
1989-286-2, C134474 and C-118259.
Figure 1.8: Fonds René-Nicolas Levasseur. Library and Archives Canada, MG18-H58
Figure 1.9: CERFO. Adapted from A.E.B. Courchesne, 1923. Source: htp://www.memoireduquebec.com/wki/images/3/39/
MdQCarte_des_seigneuries.jpg
Figure 1.10 : http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.civilization.ca/vmnf/popul/seigneurs/images/ h e b e r t
1 . j p g & i m g r e f u r l = h t t p : / / w w w . c i v i l i z a t i o n . c a / v m n f / p o p u l / s e i g n e u r s / 0 2a
fr.htm&h=438&w=650&sz=65&hl=fr&start=3&tbnid=JYwrhXUPE8FrxM:&tbnh=92&tbnw=137&prev=/images%3Fq%
3Dlouis%2Bh%25C3%25A9bert%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Dfr%26sa%3DG
Figure 1.11: http://www2ac-lille.fr/hcfq-avion/SarrazinMichel/MichelSarrazinR35.jpg
Figure 1.12: Map of the City of Quebec, 1759. Scale : 1/2700, 1759, 1 map : b l ack and white, 50,5 cm x 70 cm,
Library and Archives Canada. Reference number: H2/340/Quebec/1759. Reproduction number: NMC 20595.
2
FROM 1763 TO THE MID-20TH CENTURY: A BOOMING FOREST-BASED ECONOMY
In the wake of the British Conquest, the London market ignored Canadian timber, deemed to be too expensive and of a
lesser quality than timber from competitive Baltic States. However, when France, under Napoleon Bonaparte imposed an
embargo on its major source of supply (the Baltic States), England turned to Canada for its timber. When the embargo
was lifted, England decided to maintain he competitive edge of timber from its colonies by granting a preferential
tariff for timber. Meanwhile, in Canada, the colonial government enacted a law on timber trading the purpose of which
was to ensure product quality.
In the following years, timber exports grew significantly. Quebec was considered as one of the five most
important ports in the world and the third most important in North America. As many as 1,760 ships pass through
Quebec each year. About a hundred timber coves were developed on a 15-kilometer stretch along the St. Lawrence,
from Cap Rouge to Montmorency Falls, as well as on the south shore. At times, up to twenty-eight shipyards were in
operation. It was the golden age of shipbuilding.
The shipbuilding boom coincided with an unprecedented demographic explosion of the city due to a strong influx
of immigrants. The city’s population grew by 700% over a period of 60 years. New population clusters grew on the site of
what would become the cities of Limoilou and Sillery. Many merchants built their villas along the bluffs overlooking the
St. Lawrence and their respective timber coves. In the shipyards, Irish, Scottish, English and French-speaking workers
learned how to work together. A significant floating population (sailors and soldiers) and immigrants benefitted from welldeveloped groundside infrastructures.
TIMBER DEPOT NEAR QUEBEC (LOOKING TOWARDS CAP DIAMANT), CIRCA 1838
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ A Thriving Economy
│ 19
▌ THE DECLINE AT THE END OF THE 17TH CENTURY
Following the British Conquest, the timber trade experienced a significant slowdown. As a result, merchants needed to
develop a network with a new metropolis: London. They also needed to restore confidence in a product that was
frequently compared to wood of better quality from the Baltic States. Finally, they had to create conditions that would
foster the growth of the wood-based economy.
In 1787, twenty-five years after the Conquest, only 16 masts were exported to England, despite the fact that the British
were the most important shipbuilders in the world. The shipyards on the St. Charles and St. Lawrence rivers were
inactive because he British were building their ships in England [34]. But convinced that the timber trade would
eventually recover, the colonial government took pains to protect the resource by establishing reserves of rare species,
just like the King of France had done years before.
At the end of the 18th century, land-clearing activities intensified. Thousands of citizens and soldiers from the new
American Republic who had remained loyal to the British Crown found refuge in Canada. From 1786 to 1809, the
colonial government granted them at no charge some 660,000 hectares of the best forests of Western Quebec. These
concessions accounted for a large part of Quebec’s private forests which played a key role in the subsequent economic
recovery.
▌ THE REVIVAL OF EXPORTS AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY
At the beginning of the 19th century, certain timber merchants felt the need to diversify their sources of supply. The
onset of the Napoleonic wars bred a set of dangerous alliances that threatened British trade. A few visionaries journeyed
to Quebec to open a new market similar to the Baltic States market. They sought to protect themselves from the
possibility of an interruption of imports from Baltic countries, mostly of square timber, planks and staves.
In 1806, fear became reality. The French Emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, imposed a naval blockade on England, thereby
cutting off access to timber from the Baltic States. As a result, timber from Finland, Scandinavia, Prussia and Russia
could no longer be shipped to the British Isles. At the time, these regions owned the world’ largest boreal forest reserves
and the British imported some 300,000 cubic meters of wood a year. This situation was critical: the war was being fought
in large part on the water and the need for shipbuilding had never been greater. The British then turned to their colonies,
and to North America in particular, thereby reviving timber exports. Quebec became the centre of the wood-based trade.
British firms acted as intermediaries between timber merchants and the British Navy. They recruited local agents,
including William Price) [35]. Businessmen seized the opportunity to develop a timber transport system (see the vignette
on Philemon Wright) and the use of timber (see the vignette on Henry Usborne). From the early years of the 19th
century, the port of Quebec experienced a phenomenal expansion.
In 1807, the United States, an ally of France, imposed an embargo on all the products intended for British ports
[27] .Three years into the Napoleonic blockade, Russia broke its treaty and resumed imports with England. Canada’s
wood-based economy was once again threatened by European exports. However, in an attempt to fill its coffers which
had been emptied by the war, to lessen its dependence on the Baltic States and to develop its colonies, England opted
for a policy of differentiated prices. It levied higher taxes on timber that did not come from its colonies to which it offered
preferential prices. The situation generated a significant spread between the value of timber imported from the Baltic
States and timber from the colonies. This policy made it possible to competitively price Canadian timber.
While this was a good deal for Canada, certain British merchants took a dim view of the obligation to pay more for raw
materials from the Baltic States, believing that Canadian timber would be inferior in quality. In 1808, to ensure buyer
confidence, the colonial government enacted the first law on timber trading in Canada. This law was designed to ensure
that colonial merchants met the requirements of the Royal Navy and the British market. Inspectors were posted at
Quebec to validate the requisite timber dimensions and quality.
20 │ Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ A Thriving Economy
DID YOU KNOW?
PHILEMON WRIGHT: A PIONEEER IN TIMBER TRANSPORTATION FROM THE OUTAOUAIS TO
QUEBEC [36,37]
As the timber trade expanded to Lower Canada,
Philemon Wright, a land development agent
and wealthy businessman in the Outaouais
region saw an opportunity to further his
business operations. He personally directed the
first timber drive from the Ottawa Valley. In
1806, he sent men to harvest the white pine,
red pine an oak of the Ottawa Valley. Harvested
timber was squared and assembled into rafts of
1,500 to 2,000 pieces, then floated down the
Gatineau River under the direction of dauntless
raftsmen, all the way downstream to the
St. Lawrence River [38]. In order to go around
the falls and rapids which could damage the
square timber pieces, Wright adopted a
common Northern European practice: the
construction of timber slides. Timber rafts finally
reached Quebec where they were taken apart.
Their pieces were then loaded onto ships
leaving for England. From 1807 to 1823, Wright
alone sent 300 rafts to Quebec [38]. Naturally,
many imitated Wright’s approach and the best
of the Ottawa Valley’s pine forests were soon
invaded by loggers. At that time, the Ottawa
and St. Lawrence rivers were true highways for
the transportation of squared timber.
Fig. 2.1. Illustration of the first squared-timber raft moving down the Ottawa River in the spring
of 1806.
FIGURE 2.2. RAFT OF SQUARED TIMBER ON THE OTTAWA RIVER IN 1899. This photo shows a typical arrangement for timber
transportation. Note the cabins that provided shelter for the raftsmen during the trip to Quebec.
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ A Thriving Economy
│ 21
When the war with France ended, England’s trade policy favoured a reduction of its preferential tariffs. At the time, Britain
was strongly influenced by the free trade theories of David Ricardo who maintained that protectionist policies harmed the
British economy by increasing the price of goods. Accordingly, preferential tariffs were significantly reduced while
maintaining the colonies’ competitive edge.
DID YOU KNOW?
THE BASIS OF STUMPAGE FEES
▌ QUEBEC: THIRD LARGEST PORT IN NORTH AMERICA AND COMMERCIAL METROPOLIS OF CANADA
During the first half of the 19th century, the timber trade grew by leaps and bounds. Entre Between 1810 and 1840,
exports from North America grew by 150%. In 1808, the value of timber exports from Quebec stood at $400,000,
reaching $8,700,000 in 1861. Ships sailed to London, Liverpool, Newcastle, Dublin and Greenock, Scotland. Each year,
some 1,700 ships passed through the port of Quebec despite a navigation season that lasted only six months a year [34].
Quebec was then deemed to be the third largest port in North America and the fifth largest in the world. Timber exports
accounted for three quarters of the exports from Quebec.
Tides at Quebec facilitated the work of the stevedores, allowing the floating of timber up to the ships at anchor. Along a
15-km stretch of the St. Lawrence, from Cap Rouge to Montmorency Falls, there were approximately 100 timber coves. A
timber cove was a bay where timber was stored prior to its loading on board a ship. Sawmills were established on both
shores of the river (see maps in Appendix E). Sillery
Croissanceowth
des exportations
de chêne
of oak and pine
xportset de pin
stood out with 18 firms: managed by Gilmour, Roche,
au port de Québec de 1813 à 1852
Fitzpatrick, Bogue, Sharples [40], Dobell [41], Timmony,
McInenly, O’Connel and Munro. At that time, the vast
Chênes
Pins
majority of the timber exported from Quebec (mostly
squared white pine and, to a lesser extent, red pine and
Tonnes
oak) came from the Ottawa Valley. The timber was
floated in rafts and stored in the timber coves [42, 43].
Années
Years
TABLE 2.1. EXPORTS OF OAK AND PINE (1813-1852) [39]
FIGURE 2.3. TIMBER DEPOT NEAR QUEBEC (CAP DIAMANT IN THE DISTANCE) IN 1838. Timber rafts arrived at high tide
and were broken up for loading the squared timber onto ships. Note the narrow strip of land at the base of the bluffs.
Houses were frequently damaged by landslides.
FIGURE 2.4. COVES UPSTREAM FROM QUEBEC IN THE DIRECTION OF SILLERY IN 1840.
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ A Thriving Economy │ 23
DID YOU KNOW?
HENRY USBORNE: AN ENGLISH VISIONARY IN QUEBEC (1780-1840) [44-46]
At the beginning of the 19th century, Henry Usborne was an important timber merchant in London. He did
business in Russia and in the Baltic States. At the time, Britain’s economy and shipbuilding technologies were
perfectly suited to the quality and dimensions of the species that grew on these lands. In 1801, Usborne started to
worry about an interruption of his Baltic timber supply. Napoleon’s victories on the continent had weakened
Britain’s commercial situation with respect to the port cities controlled by France. Usborne therefore left London
and sailed to Quebec, convinced that Canadian timber could be substituted for European timber.
Upon his arrival, Usborne bought a vast timber yard at l’Anse-au-Foulon and acquired timber lands and sawmills.
In 1802, he dispatched seven ships filled with masts, spars, planks, dowels, bowsprits and squared pine and oak
timber. The following year, his exports tripled. His achievements would subsequently be lauded by the Lieutenant
-Governor of Lower Canada who pointed out that, since the Conquest, Henry Usborne had singly exported more
timber in one season than all Canadian exporters combined. However, problems quickly thwarted his efforts in
England as the product quality issue continued to plague Canadian traders. This time, it was the Chatham-based
shipbuilders who considered that Canadian oak timber did not meet the British Navy’s quality requirements.
Moreover, the navy awarded its contracts to a firm, Scott Idle & Company, that considered Henry Usborne to be a
hereditary enemy. Usborne nonetheless succeeded in penetrating the market and, subsequently, obtained
Admiralty contracts. The war and Napoleon’s embargo fostered consideration of Canada as a source of timber
and Usborne found a way to carve out a larger share of the British market and to refute his detractors.
Trade flourished. In 1809, Usborne passed the helm of his companies to his associate, Peter Patterson, and
returned to London to oversee business expansion operations. The Empire had opted for an economic policy that
favoured the colonies from which Usborne hoped to benefit. That year, London increased the tariff on timber from
Europe. This tariff increased by 240% from 1809 to 1814. As a result, exports of Canadian timber grew
exponentially, even exports of masts that had been deemed to be of inferior quality! Usborne was the first to seize
the opportunity and benefit from it. However, the entire region was given a boost by the new wood-based
economy of the day.
In 1814, Patterson and Usborne bought a sawmill that was
under construction at Montmorency Falls. They turned it into
one of the largest in the British Empire. The facilities must
have been gigantic because in 1815, Usborne had secured
half the Canadian market for masts, spars and bowsprits. That
year, Patterson acquired Haldimand House (Manoir Haldiman)
which he used as his home. The sawmill, operated by his
associate, Usborne, was awarded an exclusive contact by the
British Admiralty. This allowed it to supply a vast market. That
is when it could be said that Canadian timber lost its bad
reputation.
Fig. 2.5. Haldiman House today
A visionary and an entrepreneur, Usborne was the forefather of the wood-based economy in Canada and one of
the most important pioneers in the economic development of the Quebec City region. No one can fully appreciate
the value of his ability to export Canadian timber to the British market. In fact, Usborne was the key driver of the
country’s economic development. The specific environment in which he operated, notably the Napoleonic wars,
allowed him to succeed where the French had failed.
▌ SHIPYARD
DEVELOPMENT
Massive timber exports to England stimulated the development of shipyards at Quebec. The number of shipyards
reached 25 [21], from Cap Blanc and Sillery to Cap Rouge2.1, and along the south shore of the St. Charles River where
the greatest concentration (14) of shipyards could be found, including the Jones, Trahan, Cantin, McKay and Warner,
and Parke yards. The first shipbuilders included Patrick Beatson, John Blackwood, Louis Dunière and John Mure
followed, in 1797, by Francis Badgley and John Munroe and, in 1798, John Munn [21,38] A large number of skilled
tradesmen left Scottish shipyards to work for these shipbuilders. In 1825, 69 ships were built at Quebec. This was by far
the best year since the early days of this industry at Quebec.
From the end of the 18th century to 1820, the average number of ships built at Quebec trebled. From 1820 to 1860, it
increased six fold. [21] The 1850s and the 1860s were considered to be the most productive decades with 28 shipyards
built at Quebec during the first decade and 25 during the following one. In 1851, the shipbuilding industry was the city’s
largest employer. At the outset of the 1850s, shipyards were still concentrated on both shores at the mouth of the
St. Charles River. Other yards were located at Cap Diamant, l’Anse-au-Foulon, Lévis and Île d’Orléans. Major
shipbuilders included H.N. Jones, Pierre Valin, Allan Gilmour [47], George Taylor Davie, Thomas Conrad Lee, J.E. Gingras, Baldwin and Dinning, Hypolite Dubord and Narcisse Rosa.
Nombre maximum de chantiers navals par
décennies à Québec et dans les environs
Nombre de
chantiers
Décennies
Appendix 2.1 shows the location of all the shipyards during the English regime (1765 to 1867). Appendix 2.2 presents
(for the period between 1786 and 1893), a few timber coves, villas and shipyards (that built ships with a tonnage
exceeding 20,000 tonnes) owned by some of the principal merchants.
The ships built at Quebec were mainly used to ship timber to England. It is interesting to note, however, that some ships
were broken down upon arrival and their components used to build houses in England. [21,48]. The latter practice had
become popular because there was no tax on timber used in a ship’s structure. During that period, ships scheduled to
return to Quebec transported immigrants, British for the most part, although Irish families largely dominated the
immigrant passenger lists as of the 1830s [49].
Shipbuilding involved many construction trades. These include pitsawyers (lengthwise sawing for planking or
sheathing ), carpenters (making templates, slipways and keels (frequently made of elm), frames, pairing templates and
curved wood pieces, etc.); planking installers2.2 (frame sheathing on the outside of hulls and on the bridge); caulkers
(fitting oakum between planks and pitch coats); joiners (planing and mouldings); sculptors (figureheads); blacksmiths
(making nails, dowels and ironwork such as shackles, tiller gudgeons, etc.); painters, guilders and glaziers; pulley
makers (assembly of pulleys with lignum vitae sheaves); mast and spar makers; pump makers (pumps made from
20-foot to 30–foot long elm, birch and larch wood to cope with frequent leaking problems); rope makers (in very long
buildings called roperies which used tarred Russian or local hemp or even Manila hemp from the Philippines), sail
makers (sail lofts were frequently set up in the lofts of St. Pierre and St. Paul streets); and riggers [38].
2.1 Also
on the south shore, at Lauzon, and Île d’Orléans. The largest sailing vessels ships ever built came out of the the Anse-au-Fort shipyard on Île d’Orléans in
1824: the Columbus (3,3700 tonnes) and the Baron Renfrew (309 feet long and 5,888 tonnes).
2.2 The external wooden covering of hull frames was called planking.
DID YOU KNOW?
TYPES OF SHIPS OF THE ERA
At the time, sailing ships fell into two main types: square-rigged and fore-and-aft rigged (Figures 2.6 and 2.7).
Squared-rigged ships, (96% of the sailing vessels built at Quebec in the 19th century) include at least one large
sail2.3 tied to a yard. Fore-and-aft rigs include sails with sheets2.4 [38]. Note, in figures 2.6 and 2.7, that the
number of masts influences ship terminology.
Three-master
Brick
Barque
Brigantine
Three-masted schooner
Snow
Fig. 2.6. Square-rigged ships [50]
Schooner
Three-masted schooner
Figure 2.7. Fore-and-aft rigged ships [50]
2.3 Yard:
a cylindrical spar tapering to each end slung across a mast for a sail to hang from.
rope attached to the lower corner of a sail to control it.
2.4 Sheet:
Sloop
FIGURE 2.8. CAPE COVE SHIPYARD IN 1865. In the distance, Cap Blanc and the Anse-des-Mères shipyard. Tied up to deep-water
jetties, ships wait to be loaded with their wood cargo.
▌ SAWMILLS
From 1800 to 1830, the boom in lumber demand for shipbuilding and housing construction (especially in the suburbs)
triggered an increase in the number of sawmills. Sixty were built between 1820 and 1831 [28]. Existing sawmills were
expanded (Hill and Plamondon, on the old site of the zoo) and new ones were built along the nearby rivers 2.5. In several
cases, sawmills were built in timber coves, a practice that reduced wood transportation costs. That was the case at the
Cap Rouge, Gilmour, Wolfe, Black and Munn yards. The Patterson-Hall sawmill (see the vignette on Henry Usborne)
was the largest one around, followed by the Caldwell sawmill on the Etchemin River [51].
It is interesting to note that the Goudie sawmill [89] boasted a steam engine, an innovation that could power four frame or
gang saws featuring 22 vertical saws and 8 circular saws to manufacture shingles and laths. Each day, the sawmill could
process 200 logs from Upper Canada and from communities between Montreal and Quebec2.6. The information on the
development of the sawmilling industry at the beginning of the century is not well documented, but a non-exhaustive list
of sawmills at various timber coves is presented in Table 2.3.
In the Quebec City region, sawmills sprouted up along the Chaudière, Etchemin and Jacques-Cartier rivers.
The army promptly opted to do business with Goudie. Shipyard sawyers, however, viewed the Goudie mill as a threat and, on May 10, 1819, they succeeded in
causing a fire that destroyed the mill. Despite losses of some £10,000, Goudie was not intimidated. The next year, he built an even larger sawmill to which he added a
nail factory in 1821.
2.5
2.6
Rivers or Coves
Sawmills
St. Charles River
Jones and Richard mills
Yellow River
Luc Pelletier mill
Beauport River
Mill near the St. Joseph range
Creek near the Baron Rouge restaurant
du Moulin Creek
Mill
Montmorency River
Patterson (Patterson-Hall) sawmill
Montmorency River
Ste. Brigitte-de-Laval mill
Yellow River
Notre-Dame-des-Laurentides mill
du Berger River
Joseph Plamondon sawmill and match factory (1806)
St. Lawrence River, Wolfe Cove
John Roche mill purchased from A. Gilmour
Cap Rouge River
Young mill
Mouth of the St. Charles River
Goudie mill
Molehill Cabin [33]
TABLE 2.3. MILLS ASSOCIATED WITH RIVERS AND COVES (1822 MAP BY RUDDELL)
▌ EXPANSION OF THE CITY: WORKING-CLASS NEIGHBOURHOODS
The economic vitality of the day resulted in a demographic explosion of the city, the population of which increased from
8,000 inhabitant at the beginning of the 19th century to 59,700 in 1871. That year, 40,890 inhabitants were of French
ancestry, 12,345 of Irish ancestry (21%, representing 1/3 of all workers), 3, 874 of English ancestry (6.5%) and 1,861 of
Scottish ancestry. In 1854, nearly 5,000 workers were employed in the shipyards. When their families are taken into
account, these workers represented close to half the population of the Greater Quebec area, including Lévis. Across the
region, thousands of French-Canadian workers were
employed by merchants of English and Scottish
ancestry. The working classes moved away from
Upper Town which the elite gradually occupied.
Certain neighbourhoods, such as Saint-Roch grew[52].
Other urban areas stemmed from Limoilou [53-55],
founded in 1893 as a result of the timber trade and
shipbuilding. [33] These include Hedleyville, NewWaterford, Parkeville and Smithville. In Lower Town,
workers at the Henry Dining, William Lampson,
William Baldwin and John Gilmour shipyards settled
along the Champlain and Petit-Champlain streets, at
Cap Blanc and at Près-de-Ville. The Irish
predominated in the Cap Blanc and Près-de-Ville
neighbourhoods2.7. The St. Colomb-de-Sillery
parish [53, 56] ((today the St. Michel-de-Sillery
parish) was also established in those
days.
Labourers settled along chemin du Foulon2.8. From
1835 to 1845, three major owners (Sheppard,
McInenly and Nowlan), due to unfortunate
circumstances or not, rented out lots to workers. This
resulted in the development of three suburbs:
2.7 The
FIGURE 2.9. LIMOILOU, CIRCA 1860 DELINEATED ON A CURRENT MAP. .
Note the four communities of the original Limoilou district.
third neighbourhood inhabited by the Irish was the St. Jean suburb.
A “foulon” or fulling mill was a mill where wool was fulled to produce cloth for protection aagainst the cold. In 1770, the priests of the Séminaire de Québec built their
own fulling mill which used water from the Saint-Denis brook that flowed into a cove (Anse-au-Foulon). The road was named chemin du Foulon along which were
booms, sawmills and shipyards belonging to major timber exporters and shipbuilders, interspersed with small working-class houses. The last shipyard, Sharples, closed
in 1913 and peace and quiet returned. Lebel, J .M. Les chroniques historiques: Le Chemin du Foulon, mémoire du grand fleuve. 2007 [cited. Avalable at http:// capitale.
gouv.qc.ca/souvenir/chroniques/archives/chroniques_001.html.
2.8
Côte-de-l’Église, Côtè-à-Gignac (Nolansville) and Sheppardville (frenchified as Bergerville). The latter is on the bluffs and
major streets are named after the members of the Sheppard family
A few working-class houses in these neighbourhoods are a part of the current urban landscape. They are architecturally
similar except those in a part of the Cap Blanc neighbourhood, which have brick walls. Houses are built on very small
lots, right on the street. They have two-sided low gable roofs, with dormers hat rest directly on masonry walls. Cap Blanc
and chemin du Foulon houses, however, reflect a trend stemming from the small size of the lots: the presence of a third
storey.
FIGURE 2.10. PRESENT-DAY VIEWS OF LIMOILOU (HEDLEYVILLE, STADACONA), ST. ROCH, ST. SAUVEUR AND MONTMORENCY,
ABOVE AND BELOW THE FALLS.
A) HEDLEYVILLE (East of the boulevard des Capucins).
B) STADACONA, Papineau Street (near Lairet)
Last remnant of the neighbourhood.
C) ST-SAUVEUR
D) ST-ROCH
E) ST-ROCH
F) MONTMORENCY (Above the falls)
G) MONTMORENCY (Below the falls)
FIGURE 2.11. PRESENET-DAY VIEW OF THE MAJOR SILLERY NEIGHBOURHOOD OF YESTERYEAR
A) CAP-BLANC (WEST)
C) NOLANSVILLE
E) CHEMIN DU FOULON
B) CAP-BLANC (EAST)
D) BERGERVILLE
F) CÔTE-DE-L’ÉGLISE
▌ THE VILLAS OF THE MERCHANTS AND BUILDERS
Working-class areas characterized by narrow streets and modest wood houses stood in stark contrast with the
areas occupied by rich merchants who commissioned spacious villas reflecting their financial success. In 1850,
there were approximately twenty villas in Quebec’s Upper Town, in particular along the Grande-Allée, St. Foy and St.
Louis streets. In many cases, villas overlooked the coves where the merchants carried out their activities, with the
notable exceptions of Sillery House and Dobell House. The merchant elites also settled along the Canardière, Lorette
(St. Vallier West) and Charlesbourg (1st Avenue) roads on sites with great views of the St. Lawrence River, the Ste.
Charles River or the Laurentians. Most of these estates were developed in accordance with English trends and practices.
The residence was not the central element as in the French way; it was rather nestled in a green setting including lush
vegetation. Hothouses, music halls and drawing rooms were necessities at the time. Far from the hustle and bustle of the
city, the middle class wanted to live in a healthy environment at a time when cholera was rife.
The residence of builders usually included their business office. In the case of shipbuilders (Alexander Munn and Patrick
Beatson at the foot of Cap Diamant, John Munn in Sainte-Foy and Parke near the Anderson shipyards), villa size and
proximity to the yards bore witness to well-established businesses. [58] Figure 2.12 presents several major villas. The
history of Henry Atkinson and his successive Redcliff and Spencer Wood residences is summarized in a vignette.
As a result of massive appropriations of large properties by religious orders after the departure of British businessmen,
certain estates remained intact and a few villas were preserved from encroaching urbanization. Certain estates have
been turned into parks or cemeteries, such as Spencer Wood (Bois de Coulonge), Bagatelle, Redcliff, Cataraqui and
Woodfield, whereas others have become completely assimilated into the urban fabric (Marchmont, Wolfefield) or isolated
in an estate that has completely been subdivided into lots (Spencer Grange, Kilnarmock, Ringfield).
A few of the villas still exist and their splendor of yesteryear is still evident (Cataraqui, Gore House). Others are isolated
in subdivisions (Ringfield and Kilmarnock) in more or less variable condition or have been hemmed in by new institutional
establishments (Beauvoir). Of the villas built before 1850, only five remain (see the Ringfield footnote below. Of those
built between 1850 and 1875, nine remain: Cataraqui (see the section on the 20th century) [59, 60], Ssns-bruit (1850),
Sous-les-bois, Spencer Grange (1848), Broad green (1860), Elm grove (1863), Beauvoir and Bijou (1874) [58].
A
B
FIGURE 2.12. A FEW VILLAS (OR REMNANTS) THAT BELONGED TO TIMBER MERCHANTS (C TO H ON THE NEXT PAGE)
A) Marchmont. Surrounded by a forest of ash, maple and pine offering protection from chemin Saint-Louis, “with a view of our noble estuary.”
Today, the Jardins Mérici condominiums stand on these grounds.
B) Woodfield. William Sheppard redesigned ornamental gardens that gained a widespread reputation. He also built hothouses and a conservatory.
The residence was built on a sunken piece of ground featuring ancient oak and pine. In 1842, fire destroyed the residence and its imposing library
which contained many valuable works on natural history. Thomas Gibb purchased the property and exchanged it for Bellevue which belonged to his
brother James. It was said that the decor and furnishings were simply enchanting. Today, the grounds include St. Patrick’s cemetery, a reception
building and a superb stone outbuilding (1835).
Quebec: the City that Wood Built│ A Thriving Economy │ 31
C
D
F
E
G
FIGURE 2.12. A FEW VILLAS (OR REMNANTS) THAT BELONGED TO TIMBER MERCHANTS (CONT’D)
C) Dobell House. Built during the French regime. Note the asymmetric front. Stone walls are nearly one metre thick at their base and are covered
with parging and lime to prevent the development of rot in supporting beams. The absence of a basement gives the house squat look. This house
was classified as a historical monument in 1972. [26]
D) Wolfefield. A magnificent villa with a large porch. The estate and villa no longer exist. A subdivision (Mont St-Louis) occupies the estate
grounds.
E) Kilmarnock. A large part of the estate has been subdivided, but the magnificent Georgian manor remains. This private residence is the oldest
villa in Sillery.
F) Ringfield [58, 66]. The estate name refers to the circular traces left over from the circular fort of Montcalm’s army. The window layout is
symmetrical in a neoclassical style with a triangular pediment recalling Grecian architecture. The pyramid roof is typically British. Access to the villa
is along a long row of trees. This is one of the five pre-1850 villas that still exist today, along with Kilmarnock (1813), Westfield (1828), Benmore
(1834) and Henri-Stuart (1849). Hemmed in by urban development, the villa, reminiscent of Wolfefield, is the last trace of Parkeville.
G) Beauvoir. English-style residence with a magnificent wooded area and natural terraces. It is said that the lushness of its lawns exceeded that of
the neighbouring villas. Interior furnishings reflected opulent good taste with its woodwork, paintings, oriental rugs, organ, credenzas and furniture.
[56] The St. Michel creek, running in the western part of the estate was foil of trout. Today, the residence is embedded in a building of the Marist
Fathers seminary.
H) Gore House. A large sober residence dating back to the beginning of the 19th century, located on a large lot in the old Beauport Seigneurie and
combining French and English architectural styles. In addition to a row of windows and a row of dormer windows, the house included two small
dormer windows looking out from the attic. In the front, a triangular pediment overhangs the entrance.[67]
H
DID YOU KNOW?
HENRY ATKINSON: LIFE ON THE MANOR [61, 62]
Henry Henry Atkinson was one of the four Atkinson brothers who profited from the development of the timber
trade. In 1823, he built a grand villa, Redclliff, on the plateau overlooking the mouth of the Cap Rouge River,
where he established his timber business. His
brother, Edward, worked in the Atkinson
shipyards. Brother Anthony, a London
merchant, supplied the family firm. Shortly
before undertaking a long voyage, Henry
transferred ownership of Redcliff to his brother
William, who carried on with the family
business, particularly in the squared timber
trade. William also landscaped the estate with
paths, gardens and flower beds [33]. Redcliff
also included a few outbuildings (a lookout,
stables and barns) a magnificent English
garden and a suspended pavilion overlooking Fig. 2.13. Redcliff
the cape. Construction of a viaduct resulted in
the destruction of that part of the estate
located on the rail right of way. The city of Cap
Rouge purchased the land in 1997 and
established the Cartier-Roberval public park
on the site (bird-watching and archeological
site).
At the end of his voyage during which he
collected plants and seeds, Atkinson
purchased Spencer Wood (today Bois de
Coulonge). As an amateur scientific
horticulturist, he designed Spencer Wood and,
with the help of his gardeners, Melville and
Lowe, created gardens worthy of the great Fig. 2.14. Spencer Wood (Bois de-Coulonge)
British, French and Italian estates. In a way, he perpetuated the contribution of the previous owner, Anne-Mary
Perceval, a herbalist whose specimens are kept at the Philadelphia Natural Sciences Academy and the New York
Botanical Gardens. His residence was considered to be one of the most richly appointed in the country. In 1842,
he hosted the famous naturalist, John James Audubon.
In 1844, on the same estate, Atkinson built a second
residence, Spencer Grange. In a 100-foot long hothouse,
his Scottish gardener, Peter Lowe, grew orange, peach,
almond, and fig trees, and even a banana tree. In 1848, he
also built Spencer Cottage or Bagatelle in a Neo-Gothic
style with an English garden. Atkinson left Spencer Wood
for Spencer Grange when the Governor-General rented
Spencer Wood with a promise to purchase.
Spencer Wood burned down in 1860 and was rebuilt in
1863. Twenty-one governor-generals stayed there until
1963, when the building burned down a second time.
Fig. 2.15. Spencer Grange
Lieutenant-Governor Paul Comtois perished in that fire. The
estate is now a public park named Bois-de-Coulonge in honour of the lord of the manor who lived there in 1657.2.9
Spencer Grange was the home of Sir James MacPherson LeMoine, a historian and naturalist who organized the first edition of the Festival of the Vine which ran
from 1866 to 1896 . He also published an interesting description of the villas of Quebec City. Like Spencer Grange, Bagatelle continues to exist today.
2.9
DID YOU KNOW?
CATARAQUI: THE LAST EXAMPLE OF AN OPULENT PERIOD [59] [63]
Fig. 2.16. Cataraqui estate 2008
In 18312.10, James Bell Forsyth [86] acquired a property that
used to belong to the Jesuits. The Cataraqui estate, probably
named after his home town on the Iroquoian lands known as
Katarokwen. In 1850, Cataraqui ownership was transferred to
Henri Burstall, a Fortyth relative and timber merchant. The villa
he built melded with the landscape and the estate design was
grounded in the Picturesque movement. Burstall added a
hothouse in 1856. Landscaping was carried out by the famous
Peter Low (see Spencer Wood).
In 1860, after the Spencer Wood fire, Cataraqui became the
residence of the Lieutenant-Governor. Subsequently, Charles
E. Levey, a timber merchant and first president of the Union
Bank of Lower Canada, acquired the 9.7 ha estate.
Fig. 2.17. Benmore Villa 1008
The estate was joined with the neighbouring estate, Benmore, by the Rhodes family. Godfrey W. Rhodes, a
gentleman-farmer, acquired it in 1905. His daughter, Catherine, was born there and lived in the villa until her
death in 1972.
During this period, at Catherine’s urging, Cataraqui experienced its most prosperous period. All forms of art
were encouraged. The estate was acquired by the Quebec government in 1976, thereby preventing its
subdivision into housing lost, but it remained unused up to 1994. That year, the Bagatelle Foundation offered to
manage the estate as an exhibition centre, a heritage interpretation centre and a public garden. In 1906, it was
classified as an official Quebec government facility.
2.10 There
is some uncertainty as to the date. It could be 1836.
DID YOU KNOW?
▌ FLOATING POPULATION OF THE QUÉBEC PORT
[49]
During the 19tth century, as a result of the activities associated with the timber trade, Quebec City had all the attributes of
a major port and garrison town. Sailors spent their layovers there (50 to 150 ships could tie up at the docks at the same
time), hundreds of raftsmen floated down the St. Lawrence and several regiments were billeted in garrisons. Sailor
layovers lasted from 10 to 30 days while ships were unloaded or loaded. In 1820, some 8,000 sailors stopped over. Their
number grew to 12,000 in 1830, to 20,000 in 1840 and remained high up to 1870. Comparing this floating population to
the population of Quebec, which had reached 59,700 in 1871, its importance can be fully appreciated. Quebec had
become an international and cosmopolitan crossroads.
However, the situation led to a significant increase in the number
of bars, taverns and night clubs. In 1852, there were 37 night
clubs on Champlain Street alone. [31] The numbers of prostitutes
and hostesses also increased. In 1860, there were 20 brothels
and14 “houses of assignation” (Figure 26).
Ships sometimes lacked crew. In order to provide ships with the
requisite number of sailors and other crew, individuals known as
crimps used coercive techniques to impress sailors who would
then be bought or sold. Some 200 to 300 crimps operated in
Quebec City. They would slip aboard ships at night, subdue
sailors (beating or stabbing those who refused to follow them) FIGURE 2.18. HOUSES OF ILL REPUTE, on Deligny and
and sell them to the highest bidders. Deserters would be jailed or Lavigeur streets were denounced in a petition signed by
fined. After a night of boozing, some would wake up on board an the residents of the Saint-Jean suburb in 1857. [1]
unknown ship, headed for an unknown destination under a
captain who was also unknown. During the winter, crimps would move to southern ports and return to Quebec City, a
good source of bodies, in the spring. This practice was legal up to 1845 when a law made it illegal. Stories are told about
a certain crimp who controlled a large part of the business.
Quebec also welcomed important numbers of immigrants who passed through the port on their way to Montreal and the
northern regions of the continent (Ontario and the United States). These immigrants provided income for ship owners
sailing back to Quebec after unloading their timber cargo in England. Between 1830 and 1865, it is reported that
1,084,765 immigrants from Great Britain passed through Quebec (in 1831, 51,729 immigrants arrived in 960 ships and, in
1847, 90,000 Irish immigrants came across as a result of food shortages in Ireland, with thousands dying of typhus.
▌ APPENDIX 2.1 MAP SHOWING ALL THE SHIPYARDS AT QUEBEC BETWEEN 1765 AND 1893
Shipyard
Village
▌ APPENDIX 2.2 : COMPOSITE MAP SHOWING A FEW TIMBER COVES BELONGING TO THE MAJOR TIMBER MERCHANTS, THEIR
VILLAS AND THE MAIN SHIPYARDS (THO
Shipyard
Timber
Merchant house
Sawm
▌ APPENDIX 2.3. VARIOUS TIMBER COVES AT QUEBEC AND THEIR OWNERS
Cove
Dalhousie Cove (Plage Jacques Cartier Est)
Atkinson Cove
Owner
Henry Atkinson (timber merchant and shipbuilder)
M.I. Wilson
Henry Atkinson (timber merchant and shipbuilder) Cap-Rouge
Pier and Wharf Co.
Alexandria Cove
J. B. Forsyth
Victoria Cove
James Hackett heirs
Bridgewater Cove
Charles Ross (timber merchant)
John Sharples (timber merchant and shipbuilder)
Ringsend Cove
Timmony Jackson & sons
New London Cove
John Roche (timber merchant and shipbuilder)
Munroe Heirs
Union Cove
Stevenson & Co
Dobell Cove
Richard Reid Dobell (timber merchant)
Mrs Frances Lemesurier (timber merchant)
Bowers Cove
J. Bourn & H. Fry
Sillery Cove
John Sharples & co (timber merchant and shipbuilder)
Woodfield Cove
William Sheppard (timber merchant and shipbuilder)
Thomas Gibb (timber merchant)
Spencer Cove
Henry Atkinson (timber merchant and shipbuilder)
Wolfe Cove (Anse du Foulon)
at the foot of Gilmour’s Hill
(the largest in Sillery)
Des Mères Cove (Anse des Mères)
Booms on the north shore of the St. Charles
River, Hedley, New Waterford, Smith.
Patrick Beatson (shipbuilder)
John Gilmour (Allan Gilmour co) (timber merchant and
shipbuilder)
Thomas Beckett (timber merchant)
John Roche (timber merchant and shipbuilder)
John Munn (shipbuilder)
Anderson et Paradis, timber merchants.
▌ APPENDIX 2.4. VARIOUS VILLAS AND THEIR OWNERS RELATED TO WOOD INDUSTRY
Villa
(Construction date)
Owner
(Year of purchase)
Current State
(Estate)
Current State
(Villa)
Cataraqui
(1836 or 1831)
James Bell Forsyth, merchant (1831)
Henry Burstall, merchant (1850)
Charles E. Levey, merchant (1866)
Cataraqui estate
Villa preserved
Spencer Wood
(Powell Place) (1790)
Spencer Grange (1848)
and
Spencer Cottage (1849)
Patrick Beatson, shipbuilder (1797)
Henry Atkinson, merchant (1833)
Bois-de-Coulonge park
Sir James MacPherson Lemoyne, historian (1860)
Parc Lemoyne
subdivision
Burned down in 1860
and in 1968
Villa St-Joseph
(seniors’ home)
Villa Bagatelle
Jardins Mérici
condominiums
Torn down in 1971
Mont St. Denis estate
Old Price estate
Burned down
Marchmont
(1810 to 1819)
Wolfefield
(1810 to 1818)
Sir Thomas Hill
John Stewart (1836)
John Gilmour, shipbuilder (1847)
Thomas Beckett (1882)
Henry Caldwell, owner, Etchemin sawmill
David Munro (1818)
William Price (1828 up to 1867)
Price estate (1867)
Woodfield
(1816, rebuilt in 1842)
William Sheppard, timber merchant (1816)
Thomas Gibb, merchant (1847)
James Gibb, merchant
East: St. Patrick Cemetery (1879)
West: Augustine Fathers Assumption
estate
Burned down in 1842
2 stone outbuildings
Remain
Beauvoir (1849)
(West of the old
St.Denis lands)
John Stewart cf Marchmont
Frances and Henry LeMesurier, merchant
Richard Reid Dobell, merchant (1871)
Marist Fathers estate
(1921)
Integrated in a Marist
Fathers building
Ringfield (1840)
(Smithville) [58]30]
Georges Holmes Parke, shipyard owner (1840)
Subdivision
(1909)
Community, recreational
and cultural centre (2002)
Georges Holmes Parke, shipyard owner
Subdivision
?
John Munn, shipbuilder
Subdivision
Disappeared
Woodlands
(prior to 1865)
Séminaire de Québec
South:Mount Hermon cemetary (1848)
North: St. Michael’s church (1854)
East : Saint-Joan-of-Arc Sisters (1917)
Burned down, end of
19th century
Clermont (1850)
Thomas Beckett (1872)
Boisé des Augustines
Holland House (1840)
n/a
James McNider, merechant, shipbuilder and
Seigneur de Métis (1815)
Charles William Ross
John Sharples, merchant (father and son)
(exception: built at the foot of the bluffs)
William. Atkinson
James Bell Forsyth
Joseph Bell Forsyth (James’ son)
Peter Paterson (1822), John Richardson (1824)
Richard and William Jeffreys (1836)
Beckett, timber merchant (1857)
Richard Reed Dobell (1896-1925)
Henry LeMesurier (rented since1839, bought 1853)
Richard Reed Dobell and family 1860-1946)
James Lawson Gibb, merchant, seigneur and president of
the Banque de Québec
Samuel Holland Park
Herri Caldwell, owner, Etchemin sawmill
Fairview 1951
(north of Smithville)
«Villa Munn»
Grant Street, St. Roch
Kilmarnock (1785)
Sillery House,
Cliff Cottage
Redcliff (1823) [61]
Jesuits’ House
Dobell House
(end of 20th)[26]
Rosewood Villa
Belmont property
Gore House
Montmorency Manor
(1780)
Peter Patterson, Beauport seigneur, timber merchant and
owner of Patterson-Hall
George Benson Hall (son-in-law), 1851).
Peter Paterson (1811)
Georges Benson Hall, owner of the PattersonHall sawmill
Burned down
Centre de l’ouïe et de la
parole
Le Samuel Holland
Subdivision, 1977
for 17 houses
Private home
Subdivision
Private homes
Cartier-Roberval Park
City of Cap-Rouge
Torn down 1906 and
1911 (railway)
n/a
Museum
Subdivision
Private home
Cité Bellevue and
St. Stanislas College Park
Torn down in1960
Collège St-Stanislas
Belmont Cemetery
Villa turned into a centre
for alcoholics
Private estate
Private home and
historical monument
Estate converted into a tourist site
Burned down in 1992
Manor rebuilt
REFERENCES
▌
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2.1: William Jefferys, Imperial Oil Collection series, Library and Archives Canada. Accession 1972-26-792,
C-073702.
Figure 2.2: William James Topley, John William Woolsey and Family Fonds. Library and Archives Canada.
Accession 1978-092 NPC, item 2, PA-144140.
Figure 2.3: William Henry Blett. Temporary record for orphaned ICON records, Library and Archives Canada,
C-016549.
Figure 2.4: Millicent Mary Chaplin, Millicent Mary Chaplin Fonds, Library and Archives Canada. Accession 1956-6271, C-000868.
Figure 2.5: Guy Lessard. CERFO, June 2007.
Figure 2.6: Source : Marcil, C. Histoire de la foresterie. [cited 2007, June 21]. Available from:
http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/kiosqueforet/page3foret.html
Figure 2.7: Source : Marcil, C. Histoire de la foresterie. [cited 2007, June 21]. Available from:
http://www.sciencepresse.qc.ca/kiosqueforet/page3foret.html
Figure 2.8: London Stereoscopic Co, Edward McCann collection, Library and Archives Canada. Acession 1975295 NPC, item 128, PA-03102.
Figure 2.9: Ville de Québec. Limoilou, à l'heure de la planification urbaine. 1987: Les quartiers de Québec.
Figure 2.10: A) to G) Guy Lessard. CERFO, July 007.
Figure 2.11: A) to F) Guy Lessard. CERFO, July 2007.
Figure 2.12: A) James Pattison Cockburn, Watercolours and Prints Collection, Library and Archives Canada. Accession
1988-10-1, C-131924 – recto. B) and C) Guy Lessard. CERFO, July 2007. D) Charles Ramusca Forrest, Peter
Winkworth. Collection of Canadiana at the National Archives of Canada, Library and Archives Canada. Accession 00233,
R9266. E) Guy Lessard. CERFO, July 2007. F) http://www.ccjgd.ca/a_propos/pdf/depliant_villa2007.pdf
G) et H) Guy Lessard. CERFO, July 2007.
Figure 2.13: Guy Lessard. CERFO, July 2007.
Figure 2.14: Photography collection of Jules-Ernest Livernois. Library and Archives Canada. Accession 1963-157 NPC,
PA-023535.
Figure 2.15: Guy Lessard. CERFO, July 2007.
Figure 2.16: Guy Lessard. CERFO, July 2007
Appendix 2.1: CERFO 2007.
Appendix 2.2: CERFO 2007.
3
FROM THE MID-19TH CENTURY TO THE 1870S:
NEW MARKET DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCT DIVERSIFICATION
Although preferential tariffs applied by England on timber from Canada had decreased progressively over time, Canadian
timber could not compete with timber from the Baltic States and exports to Europe began to drop. However, the
decline of the timber trade only lasted a decade. In 1849, exports to the United States increased as a result of a 1854
free trade agreement between England and the United States. This agreement was terminated ten years later, but trade
with our southern neighbours continued to grow as a result of an increase in residential construction. In 1867, the union
of the British North America provinces into a federation created a vast internal market for wood products.
The development of this new market saw a shift away from squared timber to lumber. The Patterson sawmill, at the
foot of Montmorency Falls, one of the largest in the region, bet on the resulting product diversification. The sawmill
operated throughout the 19th century, despite the global economic crisis of the 1870s.
During this period, the timber trade shifted from Quebec City to Montreal due to the influence of Montreal merchants.
Their influence was due, on the one hand, to the opening of St. Peter’s Canal, which allowed ships to reach Montreal
(1853) and, on the other hand, to the delay in linking the city of Quebec to the railway network (1879 vs. 1854 for Lévis).
Quebec City maintained a certain level of activity based on a few important sawmills and shipbuilding, but Montreal
became Canada’s wood hub.
BIRD’S EYE VIEW OF GILMOUR AND COMPANY’S LOG
LOADING FACITILITIES AT L’ANSE-AU-FOULON, 1860
THE PATTERSON SAWMILL AT THE FOOT OF MONTMORENCY
FALLS OPERATED THROUGHOUT THE 19TH CENTURY
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Transition and Diversification│ 41
▌ THE DECLINE OF TRADE WITH ENGLAND
England progressively lowered the preferential tariffs it had granted to Canada. The decision to abandon its
protectionist policy in favour of a free trade economy was consistent with the rise of neo-liberalism inspired by the
writings of economist David Ricardo (1772-1823). In 1814, preferential tariffs on timber from the colonies were five times
lower than those on timber from the Baltic States, whereas, in 1851, the price of timber from the Baltic States fell below
the price of timber from the colonies (Table 3.1). This coincided with the repeal of the protectionist Corn Laws that
England had applied to grain imports from 1815 to 1846. As timber from Quebec became less competitive, exports to
England began to fall. In fact, the number of ships leaving Quebec with timber cargos, which exceeded 1000 in 1860,
dropped by half from 1860 to 1880.
▌ MONTREAL’S GROWTH AT QUEBEC’S EXPENSE
For various reasons, Quebec City’s economic decline coincided
with a gradual shift of the timber trade to Montreal. In 1853, the
opening of the channel in Lac St-Pierre allowed ships to
navigate straight through to Montreal without stopping in
Quebec City. But, in that city, railway construction lagged behind
Lévis, on the south shore. In fact, the link between the shores
was established only in 1879 whereas the link between Lévis
and the United States had been established as early as 1854.
Furthermore, under the influence of Montreal merchants, timber
from the Outaouais was being shipped to the United States by
train or via canals, thereby completely by-passing Quebec City.
1814
Colony
(Canada)
10
1842
10
25
1846
10
20
FIGURE 3.1. BIRD’S EYE VIEW OF GILMOUR AND
1848
10
15
COMPANY’S LOG LOADING FACITILITIES AT L’ANSE-AU-
1851
10
7
FOULON, 1860. Note the narrow shoreline and the nearby
Baltic States
55
TABLE 3.1. EVOLUTION OF PREFERENTIAL
TARIFFS
ON
WOOD,
cliff face.
PER PROVENANCE
(shillings per load).
FIGURE 3.2. RAFTS OF SQUARED WHITE PINE A THE SHARPLES AND DOBEL COVES, 1901.
42 │ Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Transition and Diversification
DID YOU KNOW?
▌ LUMBER: GROWING MARKET DEMAND IN THE UNITED STATES
While the Quebec timber trade declined in the wake of lower exports to England following the end of preferential tariffs on
timber from the colonies, it should be noted that this was a temporary decline. The year 1845 marked a massive
resumption of exports to the United States. Strong population growth and industrialization south of the border brought
about a pressing need for lumber. From 1850 to 1890, in California alone, the population grew from 100,000 to
1,200,000. The construction of the railway increased overall demand for lumber that the western and eastern States
could no longer meet. This brought American investors to Canada, which led to the expansion of sawmill size and
capacity [8] to meet demand. Quebec merchants shifted their activities to this booming market. Gradually, the trade in
squared timbers and staves was replaced by the 2x4 lumber trade. Exports of lumber products to the United States
peaked during the 1850s as a result of a reciprocity treaty signed by the two countries, which remained in effect until
1855. In 1861, the value of lumber exports reached $8,693,638 by comparison to $400,000 in 1808 [21]. Sawmills shot
up everywhere, as did harvesting operations.
Early in the 1800s, Peter Patterson’s sawmill (at Montmorency Falls) and Henry Caldwell’s (on the Etchemin River)
were considered to be the largest and best equipped in the world. [28]. The Patterson sawmill, which operated
mainly in the early 1800s, produced squared timber, plank lumber, staves and ship components used in shipyards.
Production diversification after 1851, however, saw the sawmill produce buckets, matches, lathes, broom handles,
shingles, venetian blinds, boards, and other products.
▌ TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS CRITICAL TO THE LUMBER BOOM
At the beginning of the 19th century, the economic policy that favoured preferential tariffs opened the lumber trade in
Canada, with Quebec City as its metropolis. In the middle of the century, as U.S. demand exploded, innovation and
technological development sustained the wood-based economy in the province of Quebec. Quebec City, however, was
no longer the major player it had been a few decades before.
At that time, two technological developments profoundly affected the forest economy. The first one involved an American
who invented and marketed an industrial nail manufacturing machine. Prior to this development, nails had been made by
hand. On the other hand, George Washing Snow (1797-1870), a Chicago timber merchant and real estate agent,
capitalized on the potential of ordinary nails and developed a new type of light wood-frame structure called balloon
framing, which triggered the switch from log-home construction, using large-dimension logs or squared timbers, to nailed
2x4 and 2x6 assemblies.
This development allowed settlers to build houses all by themselves using smaller-dimension lumber. Nailed boards
sparked a far-reaching revolution. It allowed processing of smaller-diameter trees, thereby contributing to the opening of
new forest lands. The use of 2x4 and 2x6 lumber also launched the standardization of building materials. Canada
adapted to this innovation, both for exports to the American West and for settlements within Quebec.
Several other innovations influenced the size and yield of sawmills in the 19th century [33] Turbines, invented by
Fourneyron, a Frenchman, were generating more energy with a lesser volume of water than the larger bucket wheels.
Steam, like the turbine, extended the operating season and accelerated production. And the combined use of circular
saws and 5-, 10- or 20-blade gang saws resulted in unprecedented productivity gains. Some mills employed up to
500 men who worked from 6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. [68].
DID YOU KNOW?
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PATTERSON-HALL SAWMILL [69]
From the early years of the 19th century up to the 1880s, the Patterson sawmill included several serially located
sawmills at the foot of Montmorency Falls. The sawmills ran on hydraulic power generated by water channelled
from the top of the falls. In addition to these sawmills, the company operated port facilities including log basins,
wharfs, booms, timber yards, etc.
Many thought that these sawmills represented the largest
facility of its type in the British Empire. In 1860, their daily
production capacity stood at 800,000 fbm (foot board measure)
and could have matched the production capacity of the most
productive sawmills of the 1940s [69]. It should be noted that
one of sawmill’s flagship products was the 3 x 11 plank.
George Benson Hall, son-in-law of Peter Patterson, who
founded the sawmill, took over the family business following
Patterson’s death. At the end of his life, he was deemed to be
one of the richest timber merchants in Canada.
Wood supplies came mainly from the upper reaches of the
Ottawa, the Mauricie and the St. François River basin (central
Quebec) or, in other terms, from an area of 3,370 square miles
in 1872. By comparison, Price Brothers, another family
business at the time, owned 3,993 square miles of forest lands.
Fig. 3.3. The Patterson sawmill operating at the foot of Montmorency Falls
during the entire 19th century.
At the peak of its activity, the Patterson sawmill and sales of its lumber supported some 800 families (labourers,
stevedores, clerks, etc.). The majority of sawmill workers lived the Sault (Falls) area (present-day the Villeneuve,
Courville and Montmorency districts), but many lived as far away as the Sainte-Thérèse and Saint-Joseph
districts.
Despite its success, the Patterson sawmill did not escape the difficult economic times of the 1880s. At the
beginning of the 1880s, the heirs of G.B. Hall decided not to invest to modernize the sawmills, which had become
obsolete. As of 1884, the Hall family gradually sold off it assets and, in 1889, the sawmill was replaced by the
Whitehead cotton mill.
FIGURE 3.4. IN THE 19TH CENTURY, THE PATTERSON SAWMILL WAS ONE OF THE LARGEST SAWMILLS IN THE WORLD
FIGRE 3.5. VIEW OF PLANK PILES FOR EXPORT AT THE FOOT OF MONTMORENCY FALLS
REFERENCES
▌
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 3.1: William Notman, Library and Archives Canada. Accession 1983-130 NPC, item 509, PA-149-93.
Figure 3.2: John Thomson, Library and Archives Canada. Accession 1969-001 NPC
Figure 3.3: Beauport Municipal Archives
4
FROM THE 1870S TO THE END OF THE 19TH CENTURY:
RECESSION AND THE EARLY DAYS OF THE CONSERVATION MOVEMENT
From the beginning of the 1870s, the timber trade between Canada and the United States declined with the onset of a
global economic crisis. Shipbuilding experienced a decline with the arrival of steel-hulled steamships. The dire
economic conditions of the day affected Quebec City, which experienced a decline in population. However, furniture
manufacturing was one wood-based economic activity that held its own. At the time, this industrial sector stood
fourth in terms of the provision of jobs in the city on the outskirts of which several sawmills remained in operation.
However, with the advent of Confederation (in 1867), the wood-based economy would henceforth evolve with the public
interest in mind, e.g., major forest policy decisions would be taken in Quebec.
The end of the 19th century also coincided with the first efforts to promote forest conservation. This movement
involved parliamentarians, academics and industry leaders in fostering the conservation of forest resources endangered
by indiscriminate land clearing in the wake of colonization initiatives. Henri Gustave Joly de Lotbinière was an
influential advocate for this movement. The Abbot Provancher also played a key role at the time.
In Europe and North America, the expansion of cities due to a population explosion led to the reintroduction of green
spaces in urban areas. In Quebec City, one example of this trend was the establishment of the Plains of Abraham
Battlefields Park.
THE BATTLEFIELDS PARK AND THE PLAINS OF ABRAHAM: THE LUNGS OF THE CITY
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Recession and Conservation │ 47
▌ DECLINE OF LUMBER EXPORTS AND SHIPBUILDING
At the end of the 1860s and for several years thereafter, several factors negatively affected the lumber trade in
the Quebec City region. The number of ships carrying lumber from Quebec fell from 1000 in 1860 to 370 in 1885,
170 in 1896 and 28 in 1900 [61]. Furthermore, the lumber trade with the United States declined with the expiry of the
free-trade agreement with the United States in 1866 and the global recession in the 1870s.
This decade coincided with a generalized decline in shipbuilding4.1 at Quebec city. This resulted in the closing of most
of the Quebec City shipyards, in 18804.2. Specialized workers then moved to other yards in the Montreal or Great Lakes
regions. Several reasons account for this decline, notably the arrival of steel-hulled steamships4.3. The opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869 also contributed to the decline. It shortened distances and rendered sailing ships obsolete which, it
should be pointed out, are fuel-independent on long voyages [52]. Sales of wood-hulled ships to French clients helped to
delay the inevitable for a few years. During the last decades of the century, a Quebec City merchant, James Gibb Ross,
was bent on ensuring the viability of this industry through his connections with the British. After 1880, a few remnants of
shipbuilding facilities endured, notably two or three shipyards dedicated to ship repairs, like the one belonging to
F.X Drolet (see vignette). Eventually, only one major shipyard remained in the region. It was located in Lauzon, across
from Quebec City, on the south shore. The reason for its survival was its conversion to steel hulls in 1989. The Davie
shipyards are still in operation on the site.
DID YOU KNOW?
THE F.X. DROLET SHIPYARD: THE TRADITION ENDURES [71]
In 1908, François-Xavier Drolet built a small shipyard on the shore of the St. Charles River, near the Dorchester
Bridge. This popular location had attracted others from the beginning of the 19th century. A slipway allowed
pulling ships into a dry dock where workers could make the requisite repairs to ship hulls. Heavy machinery was
brought into the factory for repairs or tuning in wheeled carts that moved along a set of rails. One of the L-shaped
sections of the factory housed the mechanical shop; the other, a foundry and a forge. Its final closing during the
Second World War brought an end to the shipbuilding tradition on the St. Charles River.
This old mill, with its large bow windows, simple ornamentation, ventilation in the central hall and natural lighting,
is a one of the rare remaining examples of industrial architecture in the beginning of the 20th century. Restoration
of the outside walls of the building was carried out in 1993 and 1996 by the City of Quebec.
(Source: http://www.drolet.ca/construction-navale.aspx)
FIGURE 4.1. SHIPYARD BEHIND THE FACTORY
FIGURE 4.2. PERIOD VIEW OF THE
FIGURE 4.3. PRESENT-DAY MUNICIPAL
F.X. DROLET SHIPYARD FRONTAGE
BUILDING
In 1851, shipbuilding accounted for 47% of the manufacturing labour pool. This dropped to 13% in 1871.
This crisis triggered a lively debate: merchants accused the government of not supporting them and unions of exaggerating their demands. The government replied
that shipbuilders had not reinvested their profits to convert their production to steel hulls. The truth probably lay in between. It should be noted, however that
government support would have been inadequate and that attrition was inevitable.
4.3 The first one arrived in 1833. The iron-hulled ships arrived in 1843 and the steel-hulled ships in 1879. Quebec City. Saint-Roch, un quartier en constante mutation.
1987: Les quartiers de Québec.
4.1
4.2
48 │ Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Recession and Conservation
DID YOU KNOW?
▌ SURVIVAL OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY
During these difficult years, the lumber industry survived thanks to a few sawmills. At the end of the 19th century,
each parish had one or two mills that produced flour and staves, carded wool and sawed logs for lumber. Most of these
mills were located at the foot of cascades and waterfalls, and near river bends. These mills were frequently the industrial
centre of a parish, especially when they were designed for
producing commodity products such as lumber and flour, and
for carding wool, like in Cap Rouge. One example was the
Smith paper mill (later Reid) built near the Kabir Kouba Falls,
the Peters sawmill on the St. Charles River (employing in
excess of 100 men [27]), the turbine-powered Édouard
Vachon mill 2 km north of the Montmorency Falls [70], and the
Patterson sawmill that operated throughout the19th century4.4.
On the Du Berger River, the site of the old Jardin zoologique
de Québec, not less than five mills took advantage of the
many river bends and slopes suitable for their establishment.
These mills produced various consumer products: tobacco,
lumber, matches, flour, carded tissue, boot soles, staves and
so on. This became one of the most important pre-industrial FIGURE 4.4 SMITH PAPER MILL, 1863-1870, KABIR KOUBA
centres of the Quebec City region, reflecting the development FALLS
of the first family and small business in the area. The Bédard
family first occupied the land in 1780, but ownership passed to an important merchant and snuff and chewing tobacco
producer in the Quebec region, John Samuel Hill.
The industrial boom began with the mechanical manufacturing of footwear in 1864. In 1871, this sector was Quebec
City’s most important employer, replacing shipbuilding which dominated in 1851. At the time (1871), wood processing,
including furniture manufacturing, was the fourth largest employer and a thriving sector in the city [2]. Among other
important sectors were ready-to-wear clothing (Dominion Corset), tobacco manufacturing (Roch City Tobacco Ltd, 1899),
metallurgy and steel-making, printing, and binding.
4.4
On the south shore, two family businesses prospered: the Breaky and the Atkinson sawmills.
▌ IMPRINT ON THE URBAN LANDSCAPE
During this period, thousands of residents left Quebec City. In 1865, hundreds of civil servants and politicians
moved to Ottawa, the new capital of a United Canada. In 1871, the British garrison (3,000 soldiers, clerks and
dependents) also left, as did many Irish labourers and stevedores, especially after a fire that destroyed some 150 houses
in the Près-de-Ville district, between Place-Royale and Cap Blanc. Representing 40% of the urban population in 1861,
the number of Anglophones dropped to 15% in 19014.5. The economic decline also prompted leading merchants to leave
Quebec City. In many cases, these merchants moved to Montreal. From 1860 to 1900, the population of Quebec City
increased by only 12,000.
The impact of the wood-based economy on the city’s development diminished somewhat as a result of the sector’s
recession. However, the establishment of new sawmills on the outskirts of the city contributed to an increase in
population close to these facilities. The birth of the village of Notre-Dame-des-Laurentides reflects this trend.
The spectacular development, circa 1890, of the footwear, corsetry, furniture, farming machinery, and agro-food
industries, along with a revival of the marine transportation of grains from the port of Quebec City [2], resulted in new
expansion of the city along the St. Charles River and into the St. Roch and St. Sauveur districts. Working-class families
could build a home quickly and more cheaply. In 1889, the St. Sauveur district was annexed by Quebec City. The city
also annexed Victoria Park in 1896 and a small Sillery district in1901.
▌ BEGINNINGS OF FOREST
CONSERVATION
From the mid-19th century up to the beginning of the 20th, Quebec City became a important centre for forest
conservation advocates. This movement gave rise to the 1869 Comité sur la protection des forêts, to the first Loi sur la
protection des forêts contre le feu, to the work of the American Forestry Congress and to the establishment of permanent
forest reserves and the Commission de la colonisation du Québec.
Comité sur la protection des forêts (1869)
The number of individuals who were concerned about forest renewal grew significantly in the second half of the
19th century. These included English timber merchants, liberal politicians and natural resources specialists. At that time,
the best agricultural lands in the St. Lawrence plain were occupied [75]. This
increased pressure for extending colonization initiatives inland, especially
in the boreal forest. The resulting threat posed by uncontrolled land clearing
efforts for colonization purposes quickly became a major problem in the eyes of
forest conservation advocates. Furthermore, settlers considered the forest as
an enemy to be cut down and as a threat to civilization’s mores rather than a
source of prosperity. Many were conscious of risks, notably of forest fires, which
became a major concern. Others worried about the deforestation of
thousands of hectares of forest lands unsuitable for agricultural purposes
at the expense of precious raw materials for the timber economy. This
was the background of a meeting, in 1869 at which various experts,
industrialists and politicians gathered in Quebec City to form the Comité
sur la protection des forêts. The Comité’s mandate was to address fire
protection, deforestation and reforestation issues [76].
FIGURE 4.5. TITLE PAGE OF THE 1869
COMMITTEE REPORT
4.5 According
to Blair’s chart (2005), the Anglophones, mainly of Irish descent, represent only 2.5% of the current population of Quebec City.
Father François Pilote, founder of the École d’agriculture at Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière and an advocate of modern
agriculture, summarized the settler’s attitude towards the forest for the benefit of Comité members:
The settler, subjected to an on-going need to clear land in order to live, views the forest as his most formidable enemy, to the point where
he can no longer stand the sight of a tree, not even on rocky terrain unsuitable for cultivation. [...] There are exceptions, of course, but they
are few and far between. [...] The time has come to protect ourselves from indiscriminate land clearing. [76] [Translation]
In their final report, Comité experts concluded that, each year, those who set forest fires destroyed more forest products
than the overall demand for such products. The Conservative MLA for l’Assomption, Etienne Mathieu (1804-1872)
estimated that since 1850, one third of the pine forests of the St. Maurice River basin had been destroyed by fire [76].
Aware of this reality, Sydney Robert Bellingham (1808-1900), who was in charge of the development and sale of lands in
Argenteuil County, wrote the following in his memoirs:
[...] In a few short years, Canada’s pine forests will no longer exist and [...] this important source of revenue will be lost to the country
unless the Executive Council, vested with extraordinary powers, takes more rigorous steps to arrest and punish those who, deliberately or
by ignorance, cause fires that destroy our forests. [Translation]
At the time, and for several years thereafter, the colonization movement systematically associated all conservation
measures and all initiatives to exclude forest lands from settlement clearing as anti-patriotic and for the benefit or rich
English merchants. A lengthy battle of ideas was just beginning.
Quebec adopts the first forest protection act (1870)
Against this background, forest conservation advocates attempted to explain that, despite the illusion of a vast and
unlimited resource, forests were in fact a limited resource, in economic terms, given their remoteness, the high cost of
infrastructure construction and the competiveness of international markets. For all practical purposes, the debate
gradually focused on the important role of the two lobby groups involved—the settlers and the lumber merchants—on
their interdependence and complementarily with respect to land use, and, from the settler’s point of view, on the
importance of settling on fertile land to ensure the sustainability of his efforts. Accordingly, the first advocates for the
rational use of the forest called for both control and education efforts. In February 1870, they achieved their first major
success when the first forest fire protection act was passed into law. This law was intended to counter the fear of
seeing vast forest regions destroyed by fire and to ensure the protection of nearby populations. Given their initial
pessimism, forest conservation advocates never expected to see their vision so quickly come to pass. In fact, only a few
months following the adoption of this act, in May 1870, a large forest fire killed seven persons, destroyed the property of
550 families in the Lac-Saint-Jean region and burned down an unbelievable volume of standing timber. In the wake of
this catastrophe, it was easy to understand the anger of the first forest protection advocates, as expressed in the Quebec
Morning Chronicle: “... the origin of this fire is attributable of the stupidity of certain farmers who had set fire to the
woods.” [77]
The American Forestry Conference (1882) and its repercussions
Promotion of the forest conservation movement [73] received unprecedented support with the foundation of the
American Forestry Association in 1875. The Association held its first official meeting, The American Forestry
Congress, in Montreal. Timber merchant William Little organized the event that was chaired by Henri-Gustave Joly, a
politician from the Quebec City region and leader of the opposition. Attendees included representatives of Quebec,
Premier Joseph-Alfred Mousseau (1837-1886), the Commissioner of Crown Lands, William Warren Lynch (1845-1916),
his assistant, Eugène-Étienne Taché, and several Crown land agents. Industry leaders had also been invited to defend
the interests of forest companies. These included John Rudolphus Booth, William C. Edward and George Bryson. In
addition, various scientists attended the event to discuss their work and their views.
The Conference addressed a wide range of topics, but attendees were particularly interested in the forest fire issue,
the major cause of the widespread timber supply destruction. To fix this problem, attendees submitted the following
recommendations:
Remove regions unsuitable for farming and agriculture from colonization plans and create forest reserves in
order to protect pine and spruce forests;
Prolong the restriction period for slash burning;
Create a new organization to develop and implement forest fire detection and firefighting programs; hire fire
wardens reporting to the appropriate authorities. This organization should be funded by industry and
government (and, as needed, through a small levy on limit holders).
The impact of the American Forestry Congress was significant across Quebec. In September, Henri-Gustave Jolyde-Lotbinière founded the Canadian Forestry Association of Quebec and implemented measures to protect the
forests and increase government and public awareness of the negative impact of indiscriminate deforestation
[74]. A few months later, the government passed a law officially creating the National Tree Day. In 1883, Jean-Charles
Chapais published the first silvicultural guide based on Quebec forests, entitled Le sylviculteur canadien. Moreover,
Commissioner Lynch tabled two forest fire protection laws before the Legislative Assembly of Quebec and established,
through the Timber Act Reserve, the first forest reserve in the Outaouais.
In 1886, the powerful colonization lobby was instrumental in electing the government of Honoré Mercier who
immediately abolished the first forest reserves. The forest fire threat was ever present but, given the importance of
the wood-based economy, Mercier compromised and established regions called “fire districts”. These were subject to a
stricter legislative framework regarding the use of fire and were patrolled by fire wardens paid jointly by the Quebec
government and the forest industry. This first program for the protection of forests against fire was the first active
forest industry involvement in effective forest protection programs in the Outaouais and the Mauricie regions.
Unfortunately, this did not prevent deforestation by land clearing. More importantly, it delayed the establishment
of forest reserves.
FIGURE 4.6. TITLE PAGE OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION
The American Forestry Association Conference (1890)
In 1890, the city of Quebec hosted the ninth annual meeting of the American Forestry Association. The meeting
was held in the Quebec Legislative Assembly. Some of the most important players on the North American
forestry scene at the time were in attendance, including Bernard Fermow, the German-born forester who was the
first professional to work for the American federal government and who was, at the time, Chief of the Forestry Division of
the United States Department of Agriculture. Femow founded the first university-level forestry establishment in 1907, the
Faculty of Forestry, at the University of Toronto. At the AFA meeting, Fermow made a presentation entitled The Forest as
a National Resource. The next speaker on the program was Quebec’s Deputy Minister Eugène-Étienne Taché, who
outlined his government’s forest policy
The Laurentides National Park (1895)
The influence of the forest conservation movement was such that, in 18954.6, a new Conservative government
established the first permanent forest reserve north of Quebec City: the Laurentides National Park. Its first director and
founder, W.C.J. Hall (son of George Benson Hall) was tasked with developing forest fire prevention and suppression
programs and a fish and wildlife protection program. The main goal was to protect the province’s richest and most
accessible forest lands. Furthermore, according to Hall, “... the extra forest protection measures within park limits will, we
hope, help to interest timber merchants to buy limits.”4.7 [Translation] The Laurentides National Park was and remains, in
some way, a laboratory for the development of modern forest conservation methods. Harvesting operations were not to
be excluded, but carefully supervised. More importantly, settlers were banned. It should be noted that the current park
area (now called Réserve faunique des Laurentides) represents the only uninhabited lands between Quebec City and the
Lac-Saint-Jean region.
4.6 Act
to establish the Laurentides National Park, QS Chap. 22
Rapport du commissaire des Terres de la Couronne pour les douze mois expirés le 30 juin 1896, appendice no 39.
4.7 Quebec.
Creation of a Colonization Commission (1901)
The on-going debate on which lands should be designated for forestry and for agriculture led to the
establishment of the Colonization Commission. Commission hearings, held in Quebec City, lasted from 1901 to 1904
and involved the two main pressure groups that had been convened to resolve the land allocation issue. The
Commission was established by Napoléon Parent, a Liberal premier who was elected in 1897 after some 30 years of
Conservative rule. Mr. Parent was a strong advocate of industrialization and forest conservation. In order to ensure the
development of the forest industry and natural resources, he served as prime minister and as commissioner of lands,
forests, mines, and fisheries.
At the outset, the Commission was chaired by Mgr. J.C.K. Laflamme (1840-1910), Université Laval rector and a wellknown conservation advocate. In 1902, because he was seen as being too closely identified with this cause, he resigned
and was replaced by Senator J.H. Legris, a colonization advocate. Prime Minister Parent appointed his right-hand man,
Jean Chrysostome Langelier to the position of Commission Secretary4.8. Parent’s objective was to ensure that
colonization advocates would find the Commission to be a strong negotiator that could not easily be influenced4.9.
Langelier, who had served in the Crown Lands Department since the 1880s, was appointed Superintendent of Woods
and Forests in 1901. In this position, he supervised the forest operations royalties program. These royalties were the
province’s main source of revenue. He was also in charge of the forest rangers and lumber scalers. Moreover, he served
as an advisor to various commissioners and ministers of Crown Lands. He gave the impression of being a staunch
advocate of conservation and a faithful servant of the province4.10.
After three years of work, the Commission’s findings led to a clear consensus to the satisfaction of the two parties
[90] .For more than 30 years, the industry and the Crown Lands Department had tried to convince the government and
colonization advocates that certain lands were unsuitable for farming. The Commission’s work led to an
understanding of this reality and a willingness to remove forest lands unsuitable for farming from settlements,
thereby ensuring exhaustive forest development wherever appropriate. Protected lands could no longer be
deforested by speculators called “bogus settlers”. Colonization advocates, on the other hand, were promised that
they would be consulted in the land classification process. They now had a say in the establishment of forest
reserves. In order to prevent criticism, a representative of the colonization movement was appointed by the deputy
minister to oversee the work done by the department’s agent. However, despite significant progress, the colonization
advocates began to fight among themselves within the party4.11. Conspirators also accused Parent of corruption and poor
forest management4.12 [78]. Even though these allegations were never proven, they nonetheless had their intended
effect: Parent’s departure.
▌ THE TREND TO LARGE URBAN
PARKS
In Europe and North America, population explosions resulted in an exponential growth and expansion of cities. Urban
reformers were proposing the reintroduction of nature into urban areas. City dwellers wanted places to relax in
enchanting surroundings. The trend to large urban parks originated in London and Paris. At the end of the
19th century, it had spread worldwide [73]. This could be seen in New York (Central Park, 1858) and Montreal
(Sainte-Helen’s Island, 1870). In Quebec City, Victoria Park was created in 1897 and the Plains of Abraham in
1908. However, large areas were greatly coveted and were threatened by urban expansion4.13.
4.8 Information
on Langelier in: ANQ E21, 1960-01 038, “correspondance générale”, example, S.N. Parent. Sa nomination à la charge de Surintendant des gardes
forestiers, lettre reçue le 26 octobre 1897, ANQ E21, 1960-01-038406. Correspondance générale, lettre 12657.
4.9 According to historian Robert Rumilly, Parent could not have hoped for more. In fact, it was the settlers and their promoter who became the victims of a merciless
adversary, “[...] a friendly giant whose deliberate surly air intimidated witnesses.”
4.10 Robert Rumilly. Histoire de la province de Québec. Vol. XI. S.N. Parent, Montreal. Éditions Bernard Valiquete: 1930, p. 114-117.
4.11 Liberal Senator J.H. Legris, probably frustrated at being simply a signatory to a report written by Langelier, joined with Senator Choquette in an attempt to remove
Parent from the party, along with a ministerial threesome including Lomer Gouin, Adélard Turgeon and William Alexander Weir.
4.12 Adélard Turgeon. Considérations générales. Rapport du commissaire des Terres et Forêts pour les douze mois expierés le 30 juin, 1905, 2 décembre 1905,
Québec.
4.13 Vast areas vacated by the British garrison in 1871 were coveted by many interested parties. The government negotiated with the Ursuline Sisters to exchange their
property (present-day Quebec Museum and the Mérici Convent for the Marchmount property). Having consolidated all these properties, the federal government
created the National Battlefields Commission in 1908. The Commission was assigned responsibility for tercentenary activities and for the management and
development of the Plains (Montcalm and St-Sacrement).
Creation of the National Battlefields Park (1908)
In tune with the Romantic Movement of the day, the National Battlefields Park Commission asked landscape architect
Frederic G. Todd to transform the battlefields into a national park to ensure their restoration and their
conservation over time, but without altering their beauty or historical aspect.
Todd’s approach involved respecting the site’s history and natural beauty. The site was divided into five large zones that
were subjected to different treatments consistent with their respective nature and history. He used a formal landscaping
treatment based on rigorous planimetric development, but his overall approach was inspired by British gardens. He kept
uneven terrain and imitated nature, historical “witnesses” were brought to life (e.g., glorification of Conquest heroes).
“The trend in these gardens go back to the 18th century, a period in which England was fascinated by the Italian
landscapes reproduced by the great painters of the 16th century.” [1] [Translation]
More clearly concerned with respecting historical features than with the glorification of Conquest heroes, the National
Battlefields Park (official name) includes the Plains of Abraham (site of the September 13, 1759 battle) and the Des
Braves Park (site of the April 28, 1760 battle won by the French). Symbolically, it was hoped that this site would unite
the two peoples involved.
Work on the development of the park went on up to the second half of the 20th century because of the lengthy
negotiations required to proceed with the demolition of several major buildings on the site (the Scott armament
factory witch occupied space from 1902 to 1930), the Quebec Skating Ring, the Arsenal, military huts and an
observatory. For its part, the Association of Retail Merchants of Canada, which considered the park to be an important
tourist attraction, protested in 1923 against the suspension of park development work. During this work, a large
underground water reservoir was built.
FIGURE 4.7 . THE BATTLEFIEDS PARK (PLAINS OF ABRAHAM): A LUNG FOR THE CITY
REFERENCES
▌ ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 4.1: Source - Lieu historique national du Canada du chantier A.C. Davie: Petite histoire d’un grand chantier
[cited July 2006, 2007]
Figure 4.2: Source - Lieu historique national du Canada du chantier A.C. Davie: Petite histoire d’un grand chantier
[cited July 2006, 2007]
Figure 4.3: Guy Lessard, CERFO, July 2007
Figure 4.4: Source – Dumont, J.P. Une rivière dans la ville; l’usage urbain de la rivière Saint-Charles : Origines et
perspectives, 1998, Université Laval, p. 89.
Figure 4.5: Quebec Forest History Society
Figure 4.7: Courtesy of the National Battlefields Commission
5
THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY: A NEW BOOM AND THE BIRTH OF SCIENCE-BASED FORESTRY
In the beginning of the 20th century, Quebec City was one of the major industrial cities in North America and had gained
prominence as a regional industrial centre. At the time, 225 factories and workshops employed some 10,000 workers, mainly
in the footwear, leather, and furniture-making sectors.
In the wake of a newsprint sector boom, several paper mills were built in the province of Quebec, including the Anglo
Pulp and Paper mill in Quebec City. This mill, built in 1928, is today called White Birch Papers – Stadacona Division. The mill
was a major employer and a key economic driver for the city; it was located in the Limoilou district which, as a result,
experienced a rapid development that included the establishment of several parishes nearby.
The beginning of the 20th century also saw the birth of science-based forestry. Quebec’s first two foresters, Gustave
Piché and Avila Bédard, set out to implement a knowledge-based forest management system. Three of the concrete
achievements of the science-based forestry movement included: 1) a soil classification system to determine the agricultural or
forestry potential of various soils; 2) the replacement of the men called “grand walkers” (men who used to estimate timber
volume by walking through forests) by systematic forest inventories; and 3) the development of the science of silviculture.
This period was also marked by the establishment, at Université Laval, of a forestry school that would later become the
Faculté de foresterie et de géomatique. This period also saw the development of the Forest Protection Service, the
Berthierville nursery and the first township reserves which served to mitigate the negative impacts of colonization initiatives.
THE ANGLO PULP AND PAPER MILL BUILT IN 1928 IN THE MIDDLE OF QUEBEC CITY
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ A New Boom │ 57
▌ A REGIONAL INDUSTRIAL
CENTRE
In the beginning of the 20th century, Quebec City was one of the major industrial cities in North America and had
gained prominence as a regional industrial centre. At the time, 225 factories and workshops employed some
10,000 workers. Key sectors of the city’s economy included not only the footwear industry, corsetry, tobacco products,
and armaments sectors (during the two world wars), but also furniture making.
▌ PULP AND
PAPER
At the end of the 19th century, the development of the new pulp and paper industry paved the way for using a new
source of abundant wood fibre in the province of Quebec: black spruce5.1 [80]. Stem quality, and especially tree
dimensions, were no longer important selection criteria; quantity now trumped quality. A new fibre abundance cycle
based on black spruce emerged while that of white pine (squared timber and lumber) declined. New harvesting areas
were established and these gradually shifted eastward on the North Shore and from south to north in western and central
Quebec. The impact of this industry on economic development was unprecedented. As a result, public forests were
subjected to enormous pressure.
Thus, early in the 20th century, many pulp and paper mills were built in the province of Quebec. They were built along
major rivers, close to the resources the industry needed: wood supply, transportation infrastructures, and hydroelectric
power5.2. The City of Quebec welcomed the industry. For example, the Daily Mirror Newspaper of London, England,
built the Anglo Canadian Pulp & Paper mill, at Limoilou, in 1927-1928. The mill was built at a cost of $25,000,000, a
tremendous amount of money at the time (see Table 5.1).
In 1928, this mill employed 500 labourers, managers, and engineers. It was the largest employer in the city and Limoilou.
In 1935, the mill had 700 employees. Their number increased to 1,000 in 1945 and 1,050 in 1985. Indeed, in 1985, the
mill was the largest private sector employer in Quebec City, but recent attritions have reduced the number of workers to
700. It has been estimated that the mill’s presence generated 2,000 indirect jobs in the community.
The mill has had several owners since 1926. Built by Anglo Canadian Pulp & Paper Mills, it became a subsidiary of Reed
Paper International in 1960, adopting the name Reed Paper Ltd. in 1975. Following its acquisition by Daishowa (Japan)
in 1988, it added a thermo-mechanical pulp mill and, in 1992, a deinking mill. The mill was bought by the Enron Group in
2001 under the name Stadacona Ltd. The Stadacona S.E.C. mill was acquired by White Birch Paper in 2004. White Birch
Paper is the third largest newsprint producer in North America. At Quebec City, White Birch Paper supplies the daily
newspaper Le Soleil, Publisac (locally-distributed advertising fliers), and cardboard for a wide range of packaging
products.
Number of Employees: 700
Payroll: $65 million
Average hourly rate: $30.50
Production: Newsprint: 410,000 metric tonnes
Directory paper: 95,000 metric tonnes
Recycled cardboard: 45,000 metric tonnes
TABLE 5.1 MISCELLANEOUS DATA FOR 2007
Source: Le Soleil, Aug. 24, 2007
5.1. J.
C. Langelier In 1905, J.C. Langelier predicted that, on the basis of the allowable cut of the day, the pulp industry could count on a wood supply for the next
350 years.
5.2. Personal communication, Marc Vallières.
58 │ Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ A New Boom
DID YOU KNOW?
A PARTICULARLY STRATEGIC POSITION FOR ANGLO CANADIAN PAPER MILLS [81]
The location of the paper mill at the confluence of two navigable waterways (the St. Charles River and the
St. Lawrence River) and the proximity of deep-water port facilities was ideal. The mill could receive floating wood
and provide docking space for schooners and other ships transporting logs. The railway to the Saguenay and
Charlevoix regions was close by. Water, an essential input for a paper mill, was constantly available and electrical
power generated by the Isle Maligne hydro-electric station at Alma, was cheap. A 200 km transmission line was
built to link the station and the mill.
However, building the mill at this particularly strategic location required large-scale work to consolidate shorelines, raise the ground level of 96 ha of flood lands and build a 415 m breakwater/wharf. Two million cubic meters
of sand were transported to the site and 7,000 concrete pillars were set into the ground in order to stabilize the
mill and its outbuildings and to avoid landslides. For a whole year, one thousand men worked on this impressive
construction site.
FIGURE 5.1. PHOTO OF THE PAPER MILL LOCATED IN THE CENTRE OF QUEBEC CITY. Note the fill-in zone built between 1928 and 2001
(Courtesy of Michel Rivard)
The paper manufacturer quickly became a major player in the development of the Limoilou district (1927)5.3 [53-55].
Hundreds of workers and their families moved to Limoilou as a result of the paper mill construction project. This district
had schools for the boys who would form the future generations of
Census Year
Population
workers. Université Laval and the École technique, located on Langelier
1896
1,236
Boulevard, trained candidates to meet the need for a more specialized
workforce. The population of Limoilou increased sevenfold from 1909 to
1920
9,279
1929 (see Table 5.2). By comparison, population growth in other
1931
26,082
districts, such as the Montcalm district, only doubled5.4. As a result of
the rapid population growth in the Limoilou district, it became necessary TABLE 5.2. LIMOILOU POPULATION GROWTH
to establish a new direct link between the mill and centre-town. In 1930,
the construction of the Samson Bridge near the railway met this need. Limoilou had been annexed into Quebec City in
1929.
5.3. It
is interesting to note that the perpendicular street and avenue layout is like Manhattan’s. According to Limoilou, à l’heure de la planification urbaine, published by
the City of Quebec, Limoilou Park is to Greater Quebec what Central Park is to New York. The author also says that Limoilou is also a reflection of New York with
respect to the layout of the streets and the use of numbers rather than names to designate streets.
5.4. Several parishes were established in this district over the years: Saint-Fidèle (1927), Saint-Esprit (1930), Saint-Albert-le-Grand (1946), Sainte-Claire d’Assise
(1950), Saint-Paul-Apôtre (1965), Saint-Pie-X (1956) and Sainte-Cécile (1951).
In 1929-1930, the Price Brothers company, a major paper
producer in the Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean region, decided to
build its head office in Quebec City. This decision gave rise to
the first skyscraper in the city and Canada, and reflected the
company’s financial strength. The final cost of the building
amounted to one million dollars. The Beaux-Arts style building rises
up 16 storeys with several recesses on the way to the top. The
building is covered with limestone from the St-Marc-des-Carrières
quarry (light beige patina) and Queenstown (Ontario) stone (buffy
browish patina) and topped with a copper roof [82]. At the time, its
construction was the subject of a lively debate that ended in 1937,
with the adoption of a municipal regulation prohibiting the
construction of any building higher than 65 ft. (approx. 20 m) above
ground in the City of Quebec5.5.
In 1929, Canada is the world’s second largest producer of pulp
wood with 4,519 thousands of tonnes (2000 lbs.), second only to
the United States and ahead of Sweden and Germany [14].
FIGURE 5.2. THE PRICE BUILDING IN QUÉBEC CITY
THE PRICES: A LONG LINE OF MERCHANTS, BUSINESSMEN AND POLITICIANS [35, 83-85]
DID YOU KNOW?
William Price pursued an interest in exporting pine timber, then in wood processing. In the 1840s, he built
5.5.
sawmills all along the Saguenay and the St. Lawrence rivers. With Peter MacLeod, he founded the city of
Chicoutimi in 1842.
William Evan Price (1827-1880) was an industrialist and a Quebec politician. He and his father shared the
management of William Price and Sons from 1855 to 1867. He subsequently founded the Price Brothers
company. In 1872, he was elected to the House of Commons and, later, to the Quebec Legislative
Assembly. He lived in a neo-Tudor style villa on Grande Allée East. The Price family also owned an estate
in Sillery.
His nephew, William Price, was appointed company president in 1899 and decided to refocus the
company’s operations on pulp and paper. He bankrupted Price Brothers in order to form Price Brothers
Ltd.
John H. Price took over in 1924. He built the Price Building, but teetered near bankruptcy in 1932. The
company was reorganized in 1937 and carried on with its activities.
Price Brothers and Company merged with Abitibi-Price in 1974, then with Consolidated Bathurst, to
become Abitibi-Consolidated Inc. in 1997. The new company then acquired Donohue, another major
player in Quebec’s wood products industry. The most recent merger with Bowater in 2007 resulted in the
formation of Abitibi-Bowater, currently the largest newsprint producer in the world.
The only other highrise building was the Hôtel-Dieu Hospital.
▌ THE
SAWMILLS
The 1929 market crash hit all industries hard. Several sawmills and pulp and paper mills had to scale back their activities.
Some even had to shut down [48]. In 1937, only four or five sawmills in operation in the province could produce more
than 10,000,000 fbm of lumber a year or 50,000 fbm daily [14]. The three major sawmills were those of Cie Price Bros. in
Rimouski, Price and Matane. Sawmilling was the second most important sector after pulp and paper. In 1838, many small
sawmills (2,092) produced lumber with a value of $11.7M while providing employment for 17,491 wage earners. A few
operated in Quebec County (see Table 5.3 for other data).
County
Number of sawmills
Nunber of mills with a capacity
of 1 to 999 thousand fbm
Québec
30
29
Portneuf
70
66
Charlevoix
42
42
TABLE 5.3. DISTRIBUTION OF SAWMILLS IN NEIGHBOURING COUNTIES
In those days, a significant number of sawmills opened and closed each year. Product quality and machining was
uneven. As a result, the reputation of our lumber suffered by comparison with Swedish, Norwegian and Russian products
processed with multiple-blade saws to produce products that appealed to consumers [14]. Finally, wood did not compare
favourably with steel or aluminium and did not benefit from technology in the areas of lumber drying, machining, blue
stain prevention, and so on.
▌ 1905: THE FIRST MAJOR FOREST POLICY FOR QUEBEC
The growth of the pulp and paper industry was very capital intensive. Although the supply of spruce, the species of choice
for wood pulp, was plentiful, the forest industry wanted timber supply guarantees. Caution was of the essence, especially
with respect to the protection
of standing timber, in light of
the supply problems that the
sawmilling industry had
experienced during the last
quarter of the 19th century.
The constant threat of
colonization initiatives, which
gobbled up productive forest
lands, required the clear
separation of colonization
and forestry areas. The pulp
and paper
industry
b r o u g h t s u f f i c i en t
pressure to bear, enough
to impose major change in
forest practices provincewide.
FIGURE 5.3. THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY AROUND 1900
DID YOU KNOW?
The resignation of the Premier and the Commissioner of Lands, Forests and Fisheries, Simon-Napoléon Parent, in 1905
appears to be another factor in the development of a new forest policy for Quebec. The Parent regime (1897-1905)
coincided with a context of exceptional circumstances which transformed the economic conditions of the country and
triggered a period of growth that the Premier himself referred to as unheard-of and even abnormal5.6. At that time, the
Government was becoming more interventionist and its structure more complex. The forest management program
needed a major overhaul to meet the increasing societal demand on the province’s natural resources. Despite favourable
circumstances, Parent, like his predecessors, was accused of having poorly managed the public domain and was forced
into retirement. Regularly accused of corruption and favouritism in favour of Anglo-Saxon timber merchants, the
Department of Lands, Forests and Fisheries needed to review its management approaches in order to become more
than a simple tax collector. It also needed to adopt new and more progressive form of natural resources management. In
fact, the conflict between colonization advocates and timber merchants required that departmental decisions be the least
controversial from the colonization movement’s perspective. Scientific forestry thus appeared to be a sound footing on
which to erect a new public domain management system.
▌ THE BIRTH OF SCIENTIFIC
FORESTRY
The first step: two French-Canadians sent to Yale
At the turn of the 20th century, the City of Quebec became the centre of scientific forestry. The first steps in this direction
were taken during the regime of Lomer Gouin who, in response to a request by Mgr. J.C.K. Laflamme, rector of
Université Laval at the time and an ardent advocate of forest conservation. Laflamme had recommended sending two
French-Canadians to Yale to study forest science. It was decided to fund the training of two students, Avila Bédard,
a student at the Séminaire de Québec and a friend of Laflamme’s, and Gustave Clodomir Piché, a graduate of the
Polytechnique and a friend of Ferdinand Van Bruyssel5.8. The Yale University School of Forestry in New Haven,
Connecticut, was selected for this initiative. The School, founded by the Pinchot family, was considered to be one of
the best of the day. The science built into its curriculum originated in Germany and France in the middle of the
18th century and flowed from a long tradition of European silviculture. Needless to say, the curriculum was adapted to
North American conditions. Gilbert Pinchot, one of the founders of the school, was an American born of French parents
and trained at Université de Nancy, in France.
5.6. Quebec.
Département des Terres, des Forêts et Pêcheries. Rapport […] pour les douze mois expirés le 30 juin 1902. Quebec: Charles Pageau, 1903, p.VII.
of Quebec, 1867
5.8 Bruyssel, a Belgian diplomat, was the founder of the Belgo Canadian wood pulp company. He was a strong advocate of forest conservation. He was also a regular
advisor to the various Lands and Forests ministers.
5.7. Statutes
DID YOU KNOW?
GUSTAVE CLODOMIR PICHÉ (1879-1956)
Gustave Clodomir Piché’s achievements are legion. His first achievement
was the establishment of the Berthierville nursery upon his return from
Yale, where he obtained a degree in forestry. He had been tasked with
setting up a scientific forest management program from scratch. The
nursery became the starting point for his program. That is where he
trained his assistants, designed his first experimental research projects
and produced plants for educational purposes. His ultimate objective was
to share his great love of trees with his fellow citizens.
In 1910, he founded the École forestière at Université Laval and served as
its first director. He also founded the École des gardes-forestiers at
Berthier, the École de papeterie at Trois-Rivières and the Ordre des
ingénieurs forestiers du Québec. He also served on the board of directors
of the Canadian Forestry Association, was a member of the Society of
American Foresters, honorary life member of the Société forestière de
Belgique and member of the Société forestière de Franche-Comté et Fig. 5.4. Gustave C. Piché
Belfort, and of many other organizations. He was awarded the Mérite
Agricole de France for his reforestation efforts in countries devastated by the First World War. In 1920, he
received a Master of Arts degree from Université Laval, and a honorary doctorate in 1937. Finally, in 1937, he
was appointed professor emeritus at the École forestière he had founded at Université Laval in 1910.
DID YOU KNOW?
AVILA BÉDARD (1884- 1960) [88]
Avila Bédard studied at the Séminaire de Québec from 1896 to 1905,
graduating with a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree. During his studies, he came
to the attention of the University rector, Mgr. J.C.K. Laflamme, who was also a
professor of natural sciences.
Upon his return from Yale, Bédard, quiet and unassuming, served as Piché’s
assistant. In 1918, he became director of the École forestière. He held this
position until 1954 when he became Dean of the Faculté d’arpentage et de
génie forestier. Founder of the forestry program, he also served as a professor
of silviculture, forest management, dendrology, forest mensuration, and history
of silviculture.
It should be noted that this intellectual used his excellent writing skills to
defend his most treasured projects. Recognized as a poet, an historian and an
economist, he was first and foremost an educator and an environmentalist. In
1921, he published the first French-language periodical in North America: La Fig. 5.5. Avila Bédard
vie forestière et rurale. Throughout his life, he worked to popularize and teach
the values of forest conservation and protection. During the 1920s, his activities led him to a position on the board
of directors of the Canadian Forestry Association. He was one of the founding members of the Association
forestière québécoise (1943) of which he became the president. In 1944, he coordinated the writing and
publishing of a volume entitled La forêt for a collection called Notre milieu edited by Esdras Manville. This was an
extensive work if one goes by the bibliography prepared by a University Laval student in 1958 and which included
206 pages of notices and notes. By all accounts, he was a prolific writer and among the thousands of articles he
wrote, a significant number addressed the issue of forest fires in Quebec.
This learned and expert forester was appointed to the position of deputy-minister of Lands and Forests at the age
of 52. He held this position until his death. In 1943, Bédard was awarded the British Empire Imperial Service
Order medal for his exceptional contribution to public service. Université Laval, the University of Toronto and the
University of Fredericton awarded him an honorary doctorate, and France named him commander du Mérite
agricole.
The new Minister of Lands and Forests, Adélard Turgeon, declared that the
objective was to increase the awareness of students not only of silvicultural
theory and practice, but also of forestry economics, a science the name of which
more accurately reflected the needs of the day5.9. The objective was also to
promote this new science within the French-Canadian community, to train a new
Francophone and Catholic elite capable of taking over and directing the
management of public forests, and to actively participate in the development of
the new pulp industry.
DID YOU KNOW?
Implementation of a new forest management system
Piché and Bédard returned to Quebec City in 1907, each with a Master of
Science degree in Forestry. They joined the Department of Lands and Forests,
FIGURE 5.6. CREST OF THE ORDRE DES where they worked on the implementation of a new forest management
system based on scientific knowledge (see the vignette on their actions). The
INGÉNIEURS FORESTIERS DU QUÉBEC
Laval forestry school (1910) and the Association des ingénieurs forestiers
(1916) were established in this tradition. This association eventually changed its
mission and was called Ordre des ingénieurs forestiers du Québec, a
professional regulatory body that was officially incorporated in 1921. Gustave Clodomir Piché, a well-known Liberal,
worked for the Department until 1936. He was forced into premature retirement following the arrival on the political scene
of Maurice Duplessis, a populist Conservative politician who was a strong promoter of colonization. As for Avila Bédard,
he became Deputy Minister and retired in 1960. Piché and Bédard both lived in Quebec City throughout their careers and
are buried side by side, so to speak, in the Belmont Cemetery located in Sainte-Foy.
Implementation of scientific forestry
The Department of Lands and Forest is given the mandate of establishing a soil classification. To that end, the
officials take a spectacular action: they set aside a large portion of forests (19 reserves, 45 million hectares), a decision
contested by the colonization movement. The real issue, however, remains local, near cities and villages. The arrival at
the government of these two recently promoted forest engineers will allow the application, for the first time, of scientific
forestry procedures.
5.9 RMTF,
30th June 1905, p. XV
Laval was the third university to create a faculty of forestry, after the University of Toronto (1907) and the University of New-Brunswick (1906), but
before the University of British Columbia (1918). The push for the establishment of such facilities came from the first bilateral conference of the American Forestry
Congress, held in Cincinnati and Montreal in 1882 and from intensive awareness raising efforts by the Canadian Forestry Association in 1900. The establishment of
forestry schools was delayed because of a lack of scientific expertise.
5.10 Université
DID YOU KNOW?
Fig. 5.7. Forest engineer of the Société de conservation de la Gaspésie
mandated for destroying a colonization village by the Department of Lands
and Forests
This was the background against which a huge undertaking to determine the agricultural potential of the forested lands of
certain townships was launched. Piché determined that this mandate was a key issue for foresters who were tasked with
on-going work and provided with opportunities for training through this project. Essential data on the types of forest
stands and their rate of growth, as well as ecological data required for the management of forest operations, were
gathered. Piché established a soil classification bureau headed up by Rosaire Valin, a forester with expertise in forest
economics. Valin wanted to define a sustainable vision of colonization and sought to eliminate lands that would be
unsuitable for farming. This approach, however, did not defuse the debate which became polarized.
The second phase of the scientific forestry movement stemmed from the realization that modern science required more
than visual inventories. The time had come to develop systematic inventory methods in order to demonstrate, with actual
figures, that harvesting proposals were more profitable, not only financially, but mostly from the perspective of
regeneration after felling. This change in culture marked the end of approximations on the basis of the observations of a
few “forest explorers” called “cruisers” or “grands walkers”, in French.
Another scientific forestry milestone was the development of silviculture as a science. Towards the end of the
19th century, lawmakers included in the legislation governing Crown lands management the requirement to fell
merchantable trees of specific diameters, depending on the species (e.g., 13 in. for pine, 11 in. for white spruce).
Diameter measurement was a simple task that did not require specialized workers. Members of the scientific forestry
community quickly questioned the relevance of this approach. Given the requirement to establish an inventory, foresters
could go beyond the diameter limit rule and justify harvesting methods based on species, harvesting sites and desired
products. Foresters could also call for exception felling, similar to clear-cuts which involve felling all trees with a diameter
greater than 5-6 in., as long as it could be shown, with actual figures, that this was the most appropriate treatment. Thus,
according to the new forestry science, an old-growth or decadent forest required clear-cutting, as defined at the time,
something that the diameter limit rule did not allow. In other situations, diameter limit felling would have left too many frail
stems. More intensive logging would be required provided that an inventory of regrowth would show that young stems
would be sufficient.
Thus, the dawning of scientific forestry allowed for the protection of forest lands from unscrupulous timber limit
holders and speculators. This new science forced limit holders to adopt more appropriate practices. It also
eliminated speculators by leading to a tightening of the law and surveillance.
REFERENCES
▌
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 5.1: Daishowa calendar 2001
Figure 5.2: http://www.ogesco.com/fr/realisations.asp
Figure 5.4: Division des Archives de l’Université Laval, U571/92/2, 9109 (BU-N-052)
Figure 5.5: Division des Archives de l’Université Laval, U519/92/2, 7320 (BU-P-99)
6
THE FOREST SECTOR: STILL CRITICAL
Today, the forest sector continues to play a critical role in the city’s life and activities. Several government
departments with links to the forest sector are headquartered in the city and employ more than 1,500 persons.
In the area of research and teaching, Quebec City includes the largest number of forest-related research centres in the
province and these account for more than 50% of the provincial complement of researchers. As well, several teaching
establishments offer forestry programs. These include the only university in the province of Quebec offering
programs designed to train forest engineers. Forest genetics and engineered wood are only two of the areas of
excellence in which research and development work is carried out.
From an economic perspective, employment statistics for 2004 indicated that the region numbered more than
8,000 jobs in the primary, secondary and tertiary wood processing sectors, in papermaking, printing or allied activities
and in the woods. (More recent data are unavailable at this time.) In 2004, the region included 17 sawmills and seven pulp,
paper, and board mills. Furthermore, maple syrup production and apple-growing activities are widespread across the region.
Recreation and tourist activities are also popular in the region. In fact, the proximity of city and nature, combined with
the specific historical charm of Quebec City, are driving the expansion of this sector.
Finally, in the services sector, some 20 forestry-related associations and organizations are based in Quebec City.
Whilst the activities, the history and the built heritage of Quebec City continue to bear witness to the wood-based economy of
yesteryear, it should be noted that the old economic paradigm has evolved into a new one based on all the forest-related
resources, benefits and services. This Conference provides a great opportunity to recall the place of wood and the forest in
the city’s history through a wide range of activities and writings.
FORINTEK-CANADA (WOOD PROCESSING
RESEARCH CENTRE)
MINISTÈRE DES RESSOURCES
NATURELLES DU QUÉBEC
FACULTÉ DE FORESTERIE
DE L’UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL
Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Still a Critical Sector │ 67
Whilst the forest sector as such is no longer a major driver of Quebec City’s economy, it nonetheless remains the
focus of a wide range of forest-related services and forest management activities.
▌ TEACHING AND
RESEARCH
The Quebec City Region is unquestionably the provincial
leader in forestry research and education. The region
has the largest number of secondary, collegiate and
university establishments offering forestry programs.
The Faculté de foresterie et de géomatique at Université
Laval is the only establishment in the province offering a
forest engineering degree program. The faculty also offers
M.Sc. and Ph.D. programs in forestry. The Cégep de SainteFoy (a college) offers training in forestry technology and
forest products processing. Other establishments offer
technical or occupational programs related to the forest
sector through, for example, forest recreation and
woodworking programs.
FIGURE 6.1. FACULTÉ DE FORESTERIE ET GÉOMATIQUE
(UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL)
FIGURE 6.2. ÉCOLE DE FORESTERIE ET DE TECHNOLOGIE DU BOIS DE DUCHESNAY
FIGURE 6.3. CÉGEP DE SAINTE-FOY
68 │ Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ Still a Critical Sector
Quebec City also includes the largest number of forestrelated research centres in the province. These include
Université Laval, the Laurentian Forestry Centre (Canadian
Forest Service)6.1, the provincial government’s Direction de la
recherche forestière6.2, the Centre d’enseignement et de
recherche en foresterie de Sainte-Foy (CERFO), FPInnovations
(eastern Canada laboratory), the Centre de recherche
industrielle du Québec – Secteur bois (CRIQ), the Centre
québécois de valorisation des biotechnologies (CQVB), the
Institut national de recherche scientifique (INRS – Eau, Terre et
FIGURE 6.4. FPINNOVATIONS-FORINTEK: EASTERN Environnement), etc. Nearly 50% of the researchers and
research assistants in the province are concentrated in Quebec
CANADA LABORATORY
City. They conduct research in a wide range of fields, including
forest economics, forest pathology, forest management, silviculture,
wood technology and many others.
If Quebec City shines in such advanced fields as optics, brain
research, pharmaceuticals, the forest sector is busily involved in
developing engineered wood products6.3. The most recent
establishment focusing in this
area, the Centre de transformation
sur le bois ouvré at Université
Laval, includes facilities for basic
and applied research on the FIGURE 6.5. LAURENTIAN FOREST CENTRE
development of value-added wood
products. Target sectors include
commercial wood buildings and the prefab market in a context of sustainable
development criteria. Three major projects in the Quebec City region showcase
Canadian wood products: the École forestière de Duchesnay, FPInnovations and the
Centre de transformation sur le bois ouvré at Université Laval.
▌ GOVERNMENT
INFRASTRUCTURE
The City of Quebec is unique in the province in that it is the home of the National
FIGURE 6.6. CENTRE DE TRANS- Assembly where forest legislation is drafted and enacted. Elements of the
FORMATION SUR LE BOIS OUVRÉ government infrastructure headquartered in the city include the ministère des
Ressources naturelles et de la Faune, which oversees the sustainable management
(UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL)
of Quebec forests; the ministère du Développement durable, de l’Environnement et
des Parcs, which protects the environment and natural ecosystems for the benefit of
current and future generations; and the ministère du Développement économique, de l’Innovation et de l’Exportation
which, among other things, provides support for businesses.
6.1. The
Laurentian Forest Centre was first located in Université Laval premises, but moved to its own location, on route du Vallon, in 1960. It is the Canadian Forestry
Service’s main facility in the province of Quebec.
6.2. In 1970, the Government of Quebec inaugurated a scientific complex which housed laboratories that had, until then, been scattered across the province. At the
outset, the nucleus was formed of six departments, including laboratories of the departments of Natural Resources and, subsequently Lands and Forests. This
objective was to stimulate R&D and complement basic research conducted at universities.
6.3. Engineered wood components are used as prefabricated structural elements (struts and joists). Such components are now products of choice in house construction.
Wood struts are used in most of the new houses built across North America. Prefabricated joists allow the design of large spaces without columns or support.
Laminated engineered wood includes glulam beams, parallel strand lumber and laminated veneer lumber. On a weight-for-weight basis, these products are stronger
than substitute steel products and can bridge longer spans without supporting beams. Engineered wood panels include plywood, oriented strand board (OSB),
particleboard and medium density fibreboard. Plywood has been manufactured in Canada for more than 100 years and OSB is quickly becoming the standard product
for supporting walls, floors and roofs in single-family homes.
Finally, several Quebec offices of Natural Resources Canada
(Canadian Forestry Service) are also located in the City of Quebec.
This high concentration of departmental offices and the critical mass
of employees who work there (approximately 1,500 permanent and
occasional employees and students) gives the region a special
status in the forest sector at both the provincial and federal levels.
▌
ASSOCIATIONS
Quebec City is also home to some 20 associations or
organizations with a link to the forest sector. Some, such as the
Ordre des ingénieurs forestiers du Québec and the Quebec Forest
6.7. MINISTÈRE DES RESSOURCES NATURELLES ET Industry Council, are provincial in scope whereas others, such as
the Association forestière du Québec métropolitain (AFQM) and the
DE LA FAUNE (880, chemin Sainte-Foy)
Agence des forêts privées de la région de Québec 03 (afpq-03), are
more regional in scope.
The City of Quebec includes more associations with a link to the
forest sector than any other city in the province. Some
30 associations are headquartered in the city. Some even have an
international mandate. This critical mass of forest sector
representatives significantly enhances the region’s reputation for
expertise in a wide range of forestry matters.
Certain associations represent various forestry stakeholders.
These include the Quebec Forest Industries Council (QFIC), with
more than 300 members, and the Rassemblement des sociétés
d’aménagement (RÉSAM). These two organizations are national in
scope. The Agence des forêts privées de la région de Québec and
the Syndicat des producteurs forestiers de la région de Québec, on FIGURE 6.8. QUEBEC FOREST INDUSTRY COUNCIL
the other hand, are more regional in scope.
Others focus on forest protection. They promote sound resource management and work to preserve the biodiversity
and ecological processes of the province’s forest. Nature Québec and the Fondation de la faune du Québec (FFQ) are
two examples of organizations that are national in scope, whereas the Association forestière du Québec métropolitain
(AFQM) works within the greater Quebec City area.
▌ FOREST
INDUSTRY
Although the forest industry is not as important as it was under the English regime, it nonetheless holds a
special place in the Quebec City region. Indeed, in 2004, the industry provided some 8,000 jobs in the fields of wood
processing, printing and allied activities. The region also includes 13 forest-based companies which have signed a
TSFMA (timber supply and forest management agreement), 17 sawmills and 7 pulp, paper and board mills. The major
ones include the Abitibi Consolidated paper mills at Beaupré and Clermont, the Bowater Produits Forestiers paper mill at
Donnacona, and Stadacona S.E.C. at Quebec.
Finally, other organizations promote the recreational potential of forest areas to the public as well as commercial and
governmental stakeholders. These include the Société des établissements de plein air du Québec (SEPAC) which
manages, develops and opens up provincial parks, game reserves and tourist resorts all across the province. Another
example is the Quebec Outfitters Federation (QOF) which represents 11 regional associations, including the Charlevoix
Outfitters Association headquartered in the Quebec City region.
▌
REVIVAL OF THE URBAN FOREST
Over the past twenty years, a new trend has been gaining headway. Mentalities are changing and a new
relationship with nature is growing stronger6.4. In the past, trees were meant to be cut down. Land-clearing was
common, probably carried over in the wake of past settlement practices. Today, builders take care to preserve standing
trees before building. Citizens plant trees. Cities also plant trees and maintain them along municipal rights-of-way. The
Commisssion de la capitale nationale du Québec has taken on the mission of facilitating access to the St. Lawrence River
(via the Champlain riverfront promenade). Parks are planned before construction begins in new housing developments
(e.g., Mont-Bélair). New trail networks are developed.
The rehabilitation of the St. Charles River and its shorelines stands out as a striking symbol of these changes.
The river had long been used as a dumping ground
into which city sewers flowed. A first rehabilitation
initiative, designed to clean-up the river and make it
attractive once again, was undertaken in the 1970s
under Mayor Gilles Lamontagne. To this end, a long
concrete elevated walkway was built on each shore of
the river. The rat population disappeared, but so did
the natural environment. A second initiative, in the
1990s, did not succeed, leaving behind tonnes of fill.
Under citizen pressure, especially the “Living River”
movement, sedimentation basins were installed, FIGURE 6.9. REHABILITATION OF THE ST. CHARLES RIVER AND ITS
sewers flowing directly into the river were eliminated,
SHORELINES
and the shores were rehabilitated and replanted over a
four-mile long stretch. The river is alive once again and
has become an attraction. Several luxury condominiums overlooking the river have been built nearby and make up a
posh living environment. In fact, a 32-km footpath extends along the river from the Old Port sector to Lac-Saint-Charles.
According to M. Beaulieu [91], a revitalized St. Charles River will be a counterpart of the Plains of Abraham and confer on
Quebec’s Lower Town the noble character that Champlain had imagined it could achieve.
The links between the neighbourhoods having been re-established, green spaces are being developed to enhance quality
of life. During the period extending from the 1950s to the 1980s people would leave the city for the suburbs, the
countryside or the forest for clean air and contact with nature. Today, however, citizens now seek to improve the
urban environment. This has given birth to a new urban forest economy. Evidence of the benefits of urban trees and
forested areas can be seen in a wide range of on-going landscaping projects, the added value of properties with wooded
areas, numerous plantations, the impact of greenery on people’s health and comfort provided by green canopies in the
urban landscape, future carbon credits, etc.6.5.
6.4 Réjean
6.5 Please
Lemoine, Urban Issues columnist and historian, evening lecture entitled “De quel bois est fait Québec?”
refer to the Web site to view a document on the roles of trees in the city.
▌
CONCLUSION
Since the foundation of Quebec City in 1608, the growth and development of the city has repeatedly been tied to
wood-based and forestry initiatives. The shipbuilding, timber, lumber and the pulp and paper sectors successively
played a critical role in the city’s economic, social and environmental development. In the 21st century6.6, government
services, teaching, research and interest groups highlight the city’s involvement with forestry. Although harvesting and
processing activities no longer represent one of the main economic drivers of the city, their importance is still significant in
the capital’s Administrative Region 03 (which extends from Portneuf to Charlevoix).
Thus, the wood-based economy made a huge contribution to Quebec City’s growth and reputation throughout its history.
Even now, albeit in a different way, the wood-based economy continues to support the capital’s growth. In fact, the forest
economy, which involves the sum of the forest’s resources, its benefits and allied services, has gradually replaced the
wood-based economy of yesteryear.
Over the centuries, the wood-based economy has left behind a rich legacy: working-class neighbourhoods,
remnants of luxurious homes that belonged to rich timber merchants, street names harking back to the old timber coves,
expansion of the city’s urban area in the direction of the river and, in particular, its magnificent urban parks. Today,
Quebec City is surrounded by a green belt and remains an urban territory bordered by nature. The city’s forest cover is
constantly being enhanced through various landscaping initiatives (Champlain Boulevard, Charest Boulevard, St. Charles
River, etc.). This revival of the urban forest and the exceptional access to nature on its outskirts represent a significant
tourism development potential based on nature. These gems have always been targeted by developers, but popular
resistance is growing to preserve green spaces that represent the city’s most valuable asset for the future, both for the
real estate and tourism sectors6.7.
Even though certain chapters of its history are little-known, this conference presents a great opportunity to review the
exceptional contribution o f wood and the forest in the growth of Quebec City’s economy and urban development. A wide
range of writings and activities can only encourage all interested parties to pursue their exploration of its historic past6.8.
6.6 For
a better understanding of the importance of the forest sector to the economy of the Quebec City region, please refer to the socio-economic portal to the forest
sector which is also presented on this Web site.
6.7 The Coalition pour l’arrondissement historique de Sillery (CAHDS) is rallying to preserve 6 historic estates (Fédération des Augustines, Domaine Benmore, Collège
Jésus-Marie, Sœurs de Sainte-Jeanne d’Arc, Pères assomptionnistes and Cimetière St. Patrick)
6.8 These include sources mentioned in this booklet, museums such as the federal government’s new maritime museum, activities promoted by the Sillery, Cap-Rouge
and Charlesbourg historical societies, as well as a wide range of books on Quebec City
REFERENCES
▌ ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 6.1: Guy Lessard, CERFO, July 2007.
Figure 6.2: Frank Grenon, CERFO, August 2007.
Figure 6.9: Guy Lessard, CERFO, June 2008.
REFERENCES
▌
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74│ Quebec: the City that Wood Built │ References
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Québec, ville de bois 30juin08_ENGLISH

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