A Sanpan Shan Chariot Ornament and the Xiangrui Design in

A Sanpan Shan Chariot Ornament and the Xiangrui Design in Western Han Art
Author(s): Wu Hung
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Archives of Asian Art, Vol. 37 (1984), pp. 38-59
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press for the Asia Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20111143 .
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A Sanpan Shan Chariot Ornament
and the
inWestern Han Art
Xiangrui Design
Wu
Hung
Harvard
University
1965 the cultural relics team of Hebei
province
in the People's Republic
of China
three
excavated
THE DATE
In
at Sanpan Shan,a
county.
Dingxianb
in
of the Cultural
Revolution
the advance
tombs
large
With
the following
year, however,
rials along with
the relevant
the unearthed
records were
storeroom
in a provincial
attended
unknown
remained
virtually
They
This
and was
mate
fittings
to a carriage.6
dence and relevant
left un
derive
a
fairly
manufacture,
of persons
concerned with
directly
one of
their handling
until ten years later, when
a
chariot ornament,
the artifacts from these tombs,
was
in the United
selected for exhibition
States.1
cording
are located
small number
This was
the first
tions was
these excava
to the public;
in the words
of
Li Xueqin,c
"this particular work
of art
shown
Professor
won
time an item from
of many
exhibitions
during
both in China
and abroad"2
(Fig. ia).
is signifi
Inmy opinion,
this chariot ornament
art history
cant for the study of Chinese
in two
the admiration
has pointed
out, it
respects. First, as Shi Shuqing^
skill in gold and silver
demonstrates
outstanding
It
could
be
said that in the chariot
of
bronze.3
inlay
ornament
this special technique
its apex
reached
a
in the
that
began
following
long development
this piece
and Autumn
Second,
Spring
period.4
a
art
Han
motif
that
dynasty
epitomizes
popular
may
This
ars,
be called
art motif
such
focused
the xiangruie
(good omen) design.
has been discussed
schol
by various
as Laufer
on Eastern
and Hay asi, who
have each
variations
of the Western
Han
xiangrui
design.5 To my knowledge,
no
one
Han
has
studied
the Western
ever,
Han
itself. This
matter
article will
of the Sanpan
discuss
how
design
and subject
what
ornament,
the date
Shan chariot
to the people ofthat
the xiangrui
signified
design
this
and
time, how
design related to their customs
artistic realization.
ideas, and this motif's
38
to a set of chariot
belonged
a canopy
to
used
join the handle of
From pertinent
evi
archaeological
ornament
chariot
to gather dust.
to all but the
THE OWNER
AND
historical
clear
we
documents,
can
idea of the date
and place of its
as of the status of its owner.
as well
ac
and M122,
(Mi20, M121,
to the designation
of the Hebei^ Museum)
The
three
tombs
side by side from east to west,
facing
south.7 High
earthen tumuli were built on top of
its name,
each grave,
the place
giving
Sanpan
Shan, which
tomb
means
"three
has a wooden
is further
divided
objects,
funerary
Since
deceased.8
circular mounds."
chamber
in a vertical
Each
pit
that
into parts, the front containing
the back,
the body of the
this kind of wooden
chamber
and
Han
in Hebei
prov
typical of the Western
later replaced by the brick tomb during
ince, was
this feature of the San
the Eastern Han period,9
tomb,
pan
Shan
probable
Lunu,B
a valuable
tombs provides
date of their construction.
DaoyuanV
Shuijing
were
this kingdom
to Li
According
county.10
of
four
the
of
Zhuj
princes
in the vicinity
buried
of the
capital.n Archaeological
Three
all located
tombs,
been
to the
the capital of the ancient Zhongshan*1
was
state during
the Han dynasty,
lo
feudatory
in Dingxian
cated
have
clue
identified
finds
confirm
his report.
in suburbs
as the tombs
of Dingxian,
of Prince Huaik
(d. 55 b.c.), Prince Jian1 (d. A.D. 90), and Prince
Mum
In tomb
(d. A.D. 174) of the Zhongshan.12
two seals were
M120
of the Sanpan Shan tombs,
names
found bearing
of
Liu
the
Jiaojun11 and Liu
Zhanshi.0
stamped
Another
In tomb M121
clay
that bears
tomb, M122,
was
found
a piece
of
the royal title Zhongshan.
two bronze vessels
yielded
of which
family,
These finds indicate
in four scenes. This kind of inlaid pictorial
figures
work
skillful cut
highly
requires costly materials,
an
and
ting and inlay techniques,
extraordinary
amount of meticulous
To date we know of
work.
to the royal fam
belonged
state. For identifying
the per
ily of Zhongshan
sons buried
a passage
in these tombs,
in the Shui
in the collec
only one similar chariot ornament,
tion of Tokyo
Art Institute
(Fig. 2).20 Since the
two
works
has almost identical mo
decor of these
inscribed
the characters
with
(the royal house of Zhongshan).
of the Han^
ily name
royal
Zhongshan
that these
one
was
three
lineage.
Zhongshan
Liu was
NeifuP
the fam
tombs
a valuable
record:
"The Kor
jing Zhu provides
runs
to
River
flow eastward
continues
and
north
since no
of Bai tu.s The
the earlier
tomb
of Prince
(of Zhong
Kang?
son of Prince
lies to the south. It can
shan),
Qing,u
as a group of three tombs built side
be identified
now known
as
by side."13 The ancient Ko River,
runs north of the
the Tangv River,
Shan
Sanpan
correlation
has led the author of
tombs.14 This
to believe
certain
tifs and shares
venture
I would
the
times),
that this kind of inlaid pictorial
decora
100
in
used
around
the
mainly
period
opinion
tion was
of
the
as indicated
the Sanpan
Shan
Dingxian
that lie east of the present Baitu
tombs
village
to Prince Kang's
From tomb
belonged
family.15
is the largest of the three, came the
which
M122,
pan Shan belonging
most
The motif
Zhi
elaborate
that
chariot
the
including
fittings,
in this article. These
facts may
piece discussed
was
that
this
the
of
Prince
tomb
suggest
Kang
who was buried
in 90 b.c.16 The other
himself,
tombs may be those of his wife and son.17
So far eight of the graves of five generations
of
rulers
have
been
in
found
Hebei
Zhongshan
province.18
graves, when
number
As
shown
a
by
of
of
the
prince died, a large
often buried
together
a
elaborate one. From
highly
him, including
historical
records and from
of the Zhangshan
princes,
of elaborate
chariot was
This
prince.19
royal
one had
the study of the tombs
know
that this type
we
a status
of the
symbol
a
that when
former
means
chariot was
prince's
another
contents
Zhongshan
chariots was
with
royal
the
buried with
its owner,
for his successor. The
to be made
ornament
under
particular
a set of
to
longs
extremely
here be
consideration
elaborate
chariot
Its date
tings from the tomb of Prince Kang.
to fall between
be estimated
no
and 90 b.c.,
rule.
years of Prince Kang's
Differing
in the
found
from
all other
chariot
fit
can
the
ornaments
of Zhongshan
the
princes,
Shan piece is a complete
pic
torial composition,
inlaid
with
skillfully
gold, sil
and
creates
that
ver, turquoise,
gems,
successfully
decor
tombs
of the Sanpan
mountains,
plants,
and
125 human
and
animal
and
characteristics,
in
artifacts have been found
comparable
or later graves of
Zhongshan
princes
some of the finest
these graves
contain
(though
inlaid work
b.c.,
artistic
the date of the tomb
by
to Prince Kang
at San
of Zhongshan
state.
THE XIANGRUI
ment
of the decor
has been
DESIGN
on
Shan orna
the Sanpan
the hunting design.21
Similar
have also been called animal designs.
decorations
are not com
It ismy belief that these appellations
even
accurate because
the designs
pletely
though
consist
of
differs
from
called
animals
that of
States
Warring
Iwill
pressed,
their meaning
of the
designs
and hunters,
the hunting
a new idea is ex
period. Because
as xiangrui.
to
this motif
refer
refer
Xiangrui
people of the Han
to certain
phenomena
that
the
as expres
dynasty
interpreted
sions of the will of Heaven.
For example,
if beau
came
to rest on
tiful birds of multicolored
feathers
roof, if the emperor found a qilinx (uni
a hunt, or if one stalk of wheat
had
during
ears of grain,
to mean
it was understood
the palace
corn)
many
that Heaven
peror's
omens
rule. Good
and governed
his coun
enlightened
to the auspicious
In contrast
the
xiangrui
other
natural
considered
people
phenomena,
was
emperor
try well.
Han
on the em
its blessing
indicated
that the ruling
had bestowed
to represent
such as eclipses or big gusts of wind,
This view of natural
dissatisfaction.22
Heaven's
phenomena
already
existed
nasty,
during
especially
at that time evil omens
mentioned.
Q/waa)
The
records
before
the QinY
Zhou.2
the Eastern
were
more
and Autumn
Spring
solar eclipses
dy
But
and
frequently
Annals
(Chun
earthquakes
39
Fig. i (a). Chariot ornament, bronze inlaidwith
gold
and
Dingxian,
40
silver.
Hebei
Excavated
province,
from
tomb M122
in 1965.
at
Fig.
The
i(b-e).
and drawings
Gongheguo
Wu
Press,
same.
Drawings
of decoration.
Photograph
reprinted with permission from Zonghua Renmin
chutu wenwu
1973),
pi.
zhanlan:
85.
zhanpin
xuanji
(Beijing:
Wen
Fig.
motifs
i(f). The
encircled.
same.
Drawings
of decoration,
with
central
Fig.
i(g).
The
same.
Drawings
of decoration,
with
mountain
forms reinforced in black. Fig. i (f, g) reprinted with permission
from A Selection ofArchaeological Finds of thePeople's Republic of
China (Beijing: Wen Wu Press, 1976), pi. 66.
41
2. Chariot
Fig.
from
ornament,
of
the collection
Art
Tokyo
Institute.
Reprinted with permission
from Geijutsu Daigaku Z?hin
zuroku (Tokyo: The Tokyo
Art
pi.
a hundred
about
times
as signs
of bad
political
due to the
times, perhaps
By Han
state and its
the newly unified
effort to legitimize
abounded.
xiangrui
ruling power,
of the
and
moral principles
The political
system
conditions.23
Han
of
concept of the mandate
he received Heaven's
When
rested on the basic
Heaven
mandate,
ther of
(tian mingab).
an emperor
all earth
under
became
Heaven.
could give orders
emperor
could give orders to children,
42
sovereign
Thereafter,
and fa
the
to ministers,
fathers
men
to women,
and
so forth
until
pleted.24
between
Heaven
The
the entire
first
Institute,
1978),
vol.
5,
7.
social
structure
link in this social
was
structure,
the most
com
that
and Emperor,
difficult
the most
was
to cement
link in the chain of
im
to justify. As Hea
and
portant
with people on
to communicate
ven was believed
of xian
the appearances
earth through xiangrui,
grui
seemed
the first
the most
Zhongshu,ac
Dong
theorist of the Han dynasty,
official
prominent
a
is about to rise to power,
stated, "When
King
omen will appear first."25
beautiful
signs of good
relationships.
As
thus
Dong
"tablets
xiangrui
bearing
the
first
imperial
saw many
rep
Em
considered
ruler
Every
that
"le
xiangrui
the mystical
geese,
plant glossy ganoderma,
stones
from the sky, mysterious
rays of
tripods,
stars, cloudless
thunder,
falling
light, rainbows,
grew
immortal
bluebirds,
sparrows,
a yellow dragon; a bronze figure
and
tiger,
sweet; and so on.29 During
hair; dew was
Wang
?more
time, all kinds of xiangrui
Mang's
appeared
a five-year
than 700 omens within
pe
important
to the Emperor
The elephant, white
here
Came
like jade
dew
. . .
Heaven
And drinks luminescent spring water.
This elephant reveals Heaven's will,
Bringing happiness to human beings
Above
the yellow
dragon
flies
another
. . .33
a
horse,
winged
was
said to have
xiangrui.
Emperor Wu
horses
twice.34 He
winged
seen
a
As
xiangrui.
himself
reveals:
the west.
from
It eats the morning
From
wild
and so on.28 During
Emperor Xuan's
reign, phoe
as
times
in
nixes
different
places,
appeared fifty
well as did white
five-colored
storks,
geese, godly
an
to be
dedicated
poem
to historical
xian
the important
records,
cording
awhite
uni
rule included
grui of Emperor Wu's
red
corn-like
horses,
beast,
birds, flying
flying
wrote
about
each of these xiangrui
in praise
mandate.
In the first he wrote:
poems
of Heaven's
red-breasted
Tai-yiai has given the horse of Heaven?
Moist with crimson sweat, foaming russet spittle
A will and spirit wondrous
and strange?
the floating clouds, darkened it races
Trampling
aloft.
oh this horse has leapt ten thousand
And with what can it be paired?
The dragon its companion.35
And
riod.30
ifwe
Only
can we
period
examine
such
understand
in that
ideas prevalent
the meaning
of the de
is
This ornament
signs of this chariot ornament.
into
divided
In
four
each
evenly
registers.
register
or group of
one figure,
center
forms
the
figures,
of the composition.
Each of these four centers
a different quarter
occupies
of the tube and thus forms
of the circular
At
the end of the second
. . .The
surface
a
is in the exact center of the design,
al
on
it
in
the
the
appears
though
right
reproduction,
to
ornament.
the
of
the
The yellow
pictured
right
was
most
the
because
dragon
important
xiangrui
in the Han xiangrui
the dragon
sym
conception
the emperor,
and yellow
of the Han dynasty.
The
was
the chosen
of a
appearance
the
manifest
and
yellow
dragon
signified
destiny
essential
of the Han dynasty.
vitality
Following
at
the dragon
tail
the
left of the
appears
(whose
reproduction)
is a white
elephant.
On
its back
sit
he wrote:
of Heaven
has
come
The horse of Heaven has come
Mediator
for the dragon
He travels to the gates of Heaven
And looks on the Terrace of Jade.36
a conscious
dragon
horse
li,aJ
Open the far gates
Raise up my body
I go to Kunlun.ak
spiral (see Fig. if).
to en
intended
arrangement
to enjoy
the ornament
able people
from every
side. In the upper
register
(Fig. ib) the yellow
This was
color
their
court.
of xiangrui
his reign. Appearances
gitimized"
of
the
rule
their
reached
height during
Emperor
Ac
and
Xuan,aB
Wu,af
Wang Mang.ah
Emperor
bolized
that they
may
from the south.31
snail-shaped
resent minorities
and
nakedness
indicate
During
to the southwest
time, a small country
peror Wu's
once
by sending
paid tribute to the Han Emperor
an
it was
the elephant
arrived
elephant.32 When
dynasty
important xiangrui
in Cheng
of a yellow
the appearance
dragon
the rule of Emperor Wen.ae27
jiad county during
as the
From then on, the yellow
dragon was taken
lights,
awhite
Their
drivers.
naked
of the Han
was
of the Han
symbol
after Emperor Wen
three
coiffures
mandate."26
heavenly
The
called
These
in
the fuller meaning
corroborate
poems
in the first register. Besides
the scene portrayed
the dragon,
and heavenly
there
horse,
elephant,
are also
an immortal
rabbits
and
driver
of a
flying
chariot
ancient
The
in
recorded
by two deer. All were
texts as good omens.37
a
second register depicts
hunting
episode.
drawn
In a lush mountain
an archer turns back to
valley,
take aim at a tiger. The meaning
of this scene will
in the Hunting
be discussed
below
Scene section
of this article.
43
The
significance
now
consider,
of the third register, which we
centers on a crane with
its head
a camel
back, followed
by
crane is one of the most
The white
turned
(see Fig.
auspicious
that once when
It is recorded
in history
was
sacrifices
making
birds.
Emperor Wu
saw a flock of white
edict
id).
of
crane.
He
a
issued
he
special
as sacred
cranes
white
to Heaven
recognizing
beings
Thus
down
the role of the
by Heaven.38
crane in this register may be
as
white
interpreted
to that of the yellow
in
identical
the
first
dragon
sent
both represent
the will of Heaven
register. They
and lead the other auspicious
beasts sent from trib
utary states
also aweird
tail, called
portant
to the emperor.
In this register there is
a bird's head and
beast with
leopard's
a feilian.al
xiangrui
beast was
This
an im
the Han
during
worshiped
also
dy
The
fourth
a
its
huge bird,
all the surround
features
register
singing, while
outspread,
ing birds and animals dance to its song (see Fig.
the Han dynasty,
this bird, called the
ie). During
wings
was believed
(the majestic
fengan bird),
weifengam
as the
to have divine powers.40
Just
dragon was
as the king of all beasts,
so was
the feng
regarded
It was
of all birds.
thought
generally
by
"The
weifeng
always
accompanied
appeared
cort of innumerable
animals and birds.
that a
an es
feng
is eight feet high and followed by flocks of iri
descent
birds"
10,000 line
numbering
the four directions."41
and "birds
the feng from
up facing
inHan records
These notations
scene
could
be about
the
in this register.
the relationship
between
Shi Shuqing points
of royal hunting
these scenes and the description
In my
in Sima Xiangru'sao
Fu*P42
Changyang
these
opinion,
the ceremonial
are more
scenes
attributed
songs
of
like illustrations
to Emperor
Wu:
In autumn
The flying dragon soars to Heaven
The auspicious elephant brings good fortune
Li Qiacl commented:
envoys
to pay
"This means
respect
and
Came
here
The
red wild
Came
thick
from
like jade
the West.
geese
and
fast.
...
that the barbarians
tribute."
The elephant, white
44
xiangrui!"43
can be found
descriptions
lines. The only difference
between
. .
. .
in many
Similar
Sanpan
same wishes
?the
of
and by pictures
that xiangrui
explain
Imust
of
product
the scenes
de
songs
lies in the medium
are expressed
in the other.
the rulers
in one
words
other
and on the
in these royal ceremonial
Shan chariot ornament
scribed
the fanciful
were
by
neither
the
of a few
imagination
em
nor were
cal
perors,
part of a policy
they merely
to manipulate
culated
beliefs. A strong
popular
was
In no
in xiangrui
belief
b.c.,
widespread.
a sacrifice
went
to
to
offer
Mount
Wu
Emperor
Tai.as
He
ordered
and rare birds
special animals
to Mount
to be brought
Tai.
It
far away
as if many
seemed
Mount
Tai
from
omens
good
Heaven.44
At
had
the
come
time,
to
Sima
of Emperor Wu
the Grand Historian
(and
who wrote
the Shi Jizv)
of Sima Qian,au
not able to take part in this ritual sacrifice at
Tan,at
father
was
Mount
Tai
and had
so angry
him
made
his death,
he
to remain
in Loyang.aw
This
that he fell ill and died. Before
clasped
murmured
fearfully,
great ritual performed
a miserable
fate! What
in grief and
"I could not go to see this
a
What
by the Emperor.
histo
fate!" The modern
his
son's
hand
writes
that "in reading
Chieh-kangax
after a lapse of 2,000 years, we
Sima Tan's words
and we can
find his faith and sorrow
convincing
rian
Ku
deduce
out
sent
commented:
Shiguar
from
nasty.39
king
"This means
that [the em
and
peror] acquired elephant chariots from the West
an abundance of
red wild geese from the East?what
Yan
Wu's
that
thought
the
were
important
shared
of Emperor
of that pe
by people
aspects
riod."45
Whenever
era name
of
an important
the reigning
xiangrui
the
appeared
was
changed,
dynasty
cel
country
sung, and the whole
songs were
in theory xiangrui were both
ebrated.46 Although
of communica
and the medium
the intermediary
new
tion between
ally
Heaven
ameans
and earth,
of dialogue
issued an edict
they
were
actu
an
people. When
"A linaY uni
declaring,
among
emperor
corn and a feng bird have appeared near the capi
texts have emerged
from
the Yellow
tal; divine
the
he was
and Loaz Rivers,"
informing
actually
people
that
the empire
was
being
managed
well
3. Bronze
Fig.
Gansu
province,
inWuwei,
excavated
horse,"
"heavenly
in 1969. Reprinted
with
from
permission
Ch?ka jimin ky?wakoku shiruku r?do bunmotsu ten (Tokyo:
Yomiuri
Shimbunsha,
1979),
no one
and therefore
if the people
pi.
72.
should make
Or,
started gossiping
themselves,
among
A
gone wrong.
huge tree to
saying, "Something's
a
stream
of black water
fell over;
the east suddenly
out of the ground
in the west," what
meant
is a bungler.
"The Emperor
was,
really
aminister
reign is about to collapse."48 When
had done something
that the emperor
wrong,
they
His
gushed
ascended
"Since you've
simply,
have had earthquakes,
landslides,
in the winter.
You
thunder
summer,
think about
this!"49 These
in Han
logues
he
the throne
said
we
were
felt
in the
frost
had better
dia
characteristic
of the xian
times. The
popularity
use of xian
the widespread
explains
grui decorations.
omni
It is fair to say that such images were
on
the Han
present
dynasty?whether
during
grui
idiom
chariots,
bronze
burners,
toilet
mirrors
boxes,
for
daily
use,
incense
wine
sets,
goblets,
liquor
or tombs. Many
houses,
highly
regarded works
Even
animals.
the com
of art portray
xiangrui
mon
this
of
decoration
for
type
people
adopted
their coarse ceramic ware
(Figs. 3-6).
that the por
The people of that time believed
trayal of xiangrui
daily use would
xiangrui.
auspicious
Fengchan
This
omen
shu^
images on clothes and objects of
invoke
the appearance
of real
practice
was
(faruiba).50
in the Shiji,
called
the
invoking
to
According
Emperor
Wu
the
was
in Youyu,
excavated
vessel,
in 1962.
with
Reprinted
chutu wenwu
Gongheguo
province,
hua Renmin
pi.
zun
4. Bronze
Fig.
trouble.47
permission
zhanlan:
Shanxi
from
zhanpin
Zhong
xuanji,
84.
necromancers
advised
by
communicate
their
with
divine
that
if he wanted
beings
he should
on
images
to
have
of daily use;
not appear.
portrayed
objects
the divine beings would
to build a "cloud
Wu was
Emperor
persuaded
the
breath chariot."51 This anecdote helps explain
in
Han
of
the
xiangrui designs
dynasty.
popularity
otherwise,
It also
the function
of the Sanpan
suggests what
have
chariot might
been.
possibly
The development
of the xiangrui
idea reveals a
Shan
shift in thought
from
the Warring
significant
to
Han
In
the
the Warring
States period
dynasty.
States period and even earlier, people
and sometimes
mentioned
in Heaven
as indicated
However,
of Heaven
is distant;
by the saying,
the way
of man
also believed
xiangrui.52
"The way
is close
at
as
took people
the people of this period
in their ideas. In their art,
of departure
activities
often
human
such as
portrayed
hand,"53
the point
they
scenes
and sacrifices.
This
hunting,
as
in the Han;
the concept
of Heaven
changed
of the
sumed amuch more active role in the minds
people
seemed
its will.
of war,
and dominated
as if Heaven
People
more
were
rationalized
of
their
constantly
their own
thinking.
It
expressing
as
existence
45
5. Bronzesword.
Fig.
Reprinted with permis
sion from Zheng
Zhenduo, Weidade
Yishu Chuantong tulu
(Shanghai, Shanghai
Publishing Co., 1955),
vol.
based on the mandate
as the tangible
of Heaven
and took xiangrui
mandates.
sign of intangible
MOUNTAINS
AND
10.
1, pi.
CLOUDS
An
role of the xiangrui
in Han
important
concept
was
culture
that of broadening
the perspective
of
art. It led the Han people
to cast their eyes upon
nature.
The
tastic, bizarre
environment
animals was
these fan
surrounding
not the
temple but jun
lands. People must have
and distant
gles, valleys,
of events
felt the importance
the temples. Among
mountains
and cloud
happening
outside
the many
aspects of nature,
were most
breath
(yunqibc)
two natural
were
These
prominent.
phenomena
also the most
in the xiangrui
features
prevalent
design of the Sanpan Shan chariot
as well.
of other Han art works
ornament
and
the Han people worshiped
many moun
During
could be roughly
into three
classified
tains, which
as
The
first
known
the Five
kind,
categories.
Yue,Dd
North,
China.
nese
The
Fig.
6. Pottery
hu vessel,
from
the George
Crofts
collec
tion. Reprinted with permission from Chinese Art in the
Royal Ontario Museum (Toronto: The Royal Ontario
Museum,
46
1972),
pi.
8.
occupied
South,
Itwas
the four
East,
cardinal
directions?
and West?and
the Center
in the Yue mountains
that the Chi
received
of Heaven.54
emperor
second kind were
the mandate
the Xian
believed
Mountains),
commonly
islands of Penglaibfm
the Eastern
find these three islands one could
Shanbe
to be
Sea.
of
(Immortal
the three
If one could
become
immor
tal. As
for
the
Shen
third,
Shanb?
itwas generally
believed
Mountains),
and exotic animals
inhabited
people
were
tains, which
with
rocks,
grotesque
It is this last
precipices.
that provided
the
Mountains,
the Mystical
type,
these moun
and craggy
trees,
gnarled
covered
(Mystical
that strange
for the xiangrui
design.
inspiration
is rooted
The concept of theMystical Mountains
one
in two traditions,
inherited from earlier times.
of the Immortal Mountains
Just as the concept
was
in the region of Yanbn
and Qibl
popularized
the
States
the
idea of
during
Warring
periods,55
Mountains
in
the Mystical
had already developed
Re
the state of ChubJ during
the Eastern Zhou.
tradition as barbarians
cognized
by the orthodox
of the South,
the people,of
to have
Chu
been
appeared
of their fanci
Many
describe
numerous
Shan Haijing^
as well
mountains
the gods
fantasies
have
found
source
second
stems
concept
as
from
of
the Mystical
the realities
Mountains
of Han
life itself.
tory of his empire. His western
to Tashkent
in Central
Asia.
stretched
boundary
his military
After
acquired tortoise shells
the Han
victories,
and rhinoceros
of the south,
Dawanbm
emperor
cloth (xibubl) from the Pearl Cliffs
flying horses and exotic grapes from
in the west.
Shu^n Xiyu
It is also
zhuanbo
recorded
that following
in the
his vic
came lumbering
from the
giant elephants
west
and red geese flew in from the east, glittering
iridescent feathers, dragons,
fish
pearls, wenjia,bP
tories
horses
that
sweat
birds
dogs,
blood,
lions,
events must
These
have
the Han
served
the strange
people
about in the Shan Hai
greatly
inspired
For example,
the Han
there was
to substantiate
stories
fing
was
such story. There
to
a Fire Moun
tain in the south thirty li long and fifty liwide
trees. Rats cov
burning
incessantly
hairs two feet long and as fine as silk
ered with
In the fire, the rats
lived in the burning
forest.
covered
were
with
out
red,
doused
the fire,
they were
the rats died. Their
of
water
with
then be woven
into huowan.60
If
white.
hair could
Knowledge
the makers
us understand
of such
of xian
why
a
to
world
be
of fan
creating
grui designs
the basis of these flights of
tasy. By understanding
on the other hand, we can see that
imagination,
fantasies
contained
realistic
factors.
many
realm and worldly
immortal
two elements,
fantasy
in the pictorial
and reality,
decoration
to
or
they read
must
have
and
imagination.
people's
a kind of xiangrui
called
are mingled
of
together
the Shanpan
Shan
ornament.
chariot
Besides
animals
and mountains,
the
xiangrui
also
had
for
people
special regard
(cloud
yunqi
which
forms
the
third
breath),
important
subject
of the chariot design. The pre-Qin
concept of qibs
was
close
the vitality
man
body.
to a philosophical
concept
symbolizing
in the cosmos
inherent
and in the hu
the people
However,
more
tangible illustrations
preferred
an observable
became
Qi gradually
in Han
times
of these ideas.
phenomenon
of it an important occupation.
va
could distinguish
"qi-watchers"
and the observation
Professional
riations
in the shape
which
ferocious
"exotic
abounded:
gigantic
things
can hardly
in
from
all
One
directions."57
poured
the impact their sudden appearance
had
imagine
on the local
of Central
China.
people
parochial
heard
have
events,
the forty-three
years of his reign, the Em
in
peror Wu made use of the strength accumulated
to double
the early years of the dynasty
the terri
eyes,
told one
their
the xiangrui
During
Han
signal from Heaven,
important
stories about its origins. Dongfang
colorful
many
was
to Emperor
minister
said
Wu,
Shuo,br
These
design.
The
a good omen
and
but they invented
the west
from
seemed
them.56 These
into
their way
tion of huowan
tales helps
imaginative.
especially
in the book
ful stories recorded
mystical
and demons who
inhabited
a flame-resistant
cloth. We can now
huowan,bcl58
in fact, asbestos.59 Han
say that this material was,
were much more
in their ex
imaginative
people
the acquisi
They not only considered
planations.
signified
specific
in the shape of pavilions,
mals.61 One particularly
yun.bt
quite
It "looked
find
This
color
of clouds,
Qi appeared
boats, and ani
the qing
special qi was
like
smoke
and not
quite
banners,
like fine,
is an apt description
on many
all of
phenomena.
like clouds, but
strands."62
that we
not
and
cloud-patterned
intertwining
of the forms
Han
deco
rations
(Figs. 7, 8). Furthermore,
people believed
one should
that when
for
searching
something
first seek its qi.63
47
The Han
people
The
immortality.
after. As recorded
necromancers
out
were
obsessed
with
was
immortal
the idea of
much
qi
sought
sent
in the Shiji, Emperor Wu
to sea to look for the immortal
re
Islands. When
they returned,
they
that Penglai was not far away, but they had
to reach the islands because
to
of a failure
Penglai
ported
failed
spot Penglai's
qi. Emperor Wu was so impressed
with
this report that he set up an official position
for a "Deputy
Qi Diviner"
(Wangqi
zuohoubu)
was
who
to stay on the seashore
and peer out
after day, waiting
for the islands' qi
sea day
to
to
appear.64
the appearance
of xiangrui was al
un
ways
accompanied
by qi. A bronze
tripod
was
earthed during Emperor Wu's
recog
reign
In addition,
as a xiangrui
from Heaven.
The emperor
out to accompany
himself went
the tripod as it
was
at a
into the capital. On the journey,
brought
(where the chariot orna
place called Zhongshan
nized
1 at
excavated
from
tomb no.
7. Coffin
Mawangdui,
Fig.
Hunan
from
the collection
of the Hunan Museum.
province,
with
from
7, 8, 10, 14, 15 reprinted
permission
Figs.
no hakubutsukan
Kodansha,
1981); vol. 2,
(Tokyo:
Ch?goku
pi.
was
ment
75
excavated)
and enshrouded
peared
entourage
Zhibv of
a gust of
clouds ap
yellow
the tripod as the Emperor's
back to the capital.65 In Liyue
proceeded
the Han Shu
it is mentioned
that when
a xiangrui
in the form of a
Emperor Wu
captured
red serpent itwas also accompanied
by a canopy
we
of yellow
clouds.66 Once
understand
the par
ticular significance
of qi and that of the combina
tion
Han
of
cloud
we
will
of Han
pects
i. The
Han
and xiangrui
patterns
during
be able to clarify the following
art:
cloud
decorative
bronze
as
the most
popular
not only on
It appeared
but also on clothes,
vessels,
pattern
motif.
and
the
became
lacquer
and tomb paintings
(Figs. 7, 8).
are
animals
accompa
always
xiangrui
as seen on the bronze
rhi
nied by cloud patterns,
entire body
is covered
whose
noceros,
by these
furniture,
2. The
coffins,
also
patterns
(Fig. 9). They
cious deer in the decoration
Mawangduibwtombno.
3. The reason why
shaped incense-burner)
of art was
that the
smoke
8. Silk
Fig.
the collection
excavated
permission
from
48
of
from
the Hunan
Ch?goku
tomb
Museum.
no.
i atMawangdui,
with
Reprinted
no hakubutsukan
vol.
2, pi.
from
105.
that would
surround
of
the auspi
the coffin from
1 (Fig. 10).
the boshanlubx
became
an
(mountain
form
important
incense-burners
then
envelope
produced
the xiangrui
thus provid
on the Mystical
Mountains,
most
of Mag
the
vivid
combined
ing
expressions
icalMountains,
and yunqi
xiangrui,
(Fig. 11).
carved
THE HUNTING
The
second
SCENE
in the Sanpan Shan chariot
scene; a mounted
register
a hunting
ornament
depicts
arms extended,
turns back to take
archer, with
aim at a tiger (see Fig. i c). The effect it produces
is
from
that of the Warring
States
quite different
scenes.
The
bronzes
of
War
the
hunting
pictorial
ring
and
one
a strong sense of scale
combat between man and
States
period give
of fierce
intensity,
beast
and between
hunted,
is not
the beast
beasts;
it is also on
the offensive.
only
ferocity of
The
the struggle is portrayed
through short, segmented
lines (Fig. 12). The emphasis
of the Han dynasty
on
on
the other hand,
is focused
scenes,
hunting
the gracefulness
of the riders and the fluidity
of
no
trace of intense struggle.
is
lines. There
It al
most
a theatrical performance
resembles
in its ele
9. Bronze
Fig.
excavated
rhinoceros,
in 1963,
province
from
the collection
in Xingping,
of
Shaanxi
the Museum
of
Chinese History. Reprinted with permission from Ch?goku
no
(Kyoto:
bijutsu
Tan
K?sha,
1982),
vol.
5, pi. 76.
con
in the impressions
dissimilarity
scenes
two
the
of
these
veyed by
hunting
periods
a difference
in the values
reflects
upon
placed
in
States
Han
the
and
the
Warring
hunting
periods.
In neither period did the aristocracy
in
engage
gance.
The
In the
for economic
mainly
purposes.67
a
States period, hunting had military
Warring
sig
In the Zuo Zhuan^Y we find the follow
nificance.
hunting
a minister
of the
ing comment
by Zang Xibo,bz
State of Lu,ca on hunting.
all
"Hunting
during
an
four seasons of the year is
affair of
important
the state
for
neuvers
and
ma
it provides
in military
practice
can
order and disci
help maintain
are
If hunting
the troops.
activities
pline among
carried on continuously
for three years,
will surely become
powerful."68
According
counts
activities
of large-scale
hunting
time, plans
real warfare.
involved
and
strategies
The
degree
was
were
devised
in one
participating
hunting
expeditions.
During
of a boar, the Prince was
of
thrown
verity
his
from his
foot
in
to be rescued
to this description,
of hunting
reflect none
that characterize
Fig.
io. Coffin
excavated
from
tomb
no.
i
atMawangdui.
Reprinted with permission from Ch?goku no hakubutsukan,
vol.
2, pi.
78.
of the Prince
large-scale
in
the hunt while
by his attendants.70
In sharp contrast
records
that
these
beast. With
carriage by the enraged
and
the
shoes
Prince
had
lost,
jured
and danger
of
as if for
and danger
intensity
to that of real combat.69
of Qi
dynasty
to ac
of
comparable
In the Zuo Zhuan
there is an account
pursuit
a state
the Han
of the se
the earlier
ac
counts.
The works
of some
of
the noted
literary
as Sima
such
period,
Xiangru's
and Ban Gu'scc Liangdu Fuc^ contain
of the Han
figures
Zixu F?cb
of the splendor
of im
and grandeur
descriptions
scenes.
aristocratic
It
is
and
clear
hunting
perial
from these accounts
that the Han dynasty
nobles
were
not
naturally
enclosed
hunting
roamed
hunting
in the wilds
but
parks
where
in the artificial
that were
the beasts
confines
stocked
of
with
49
Fig.
11.
Incense
excavated
burner,
Hebei
Mancheng,
from
in 1968.
province,
Figs.
tomb
11,
no.
i at
12,
17, 18
reprinted with permission from Wen Fong (ed.), The Great
Bronze Age ofChina (New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 1980); pi. 95.
For example,
the famous
im
the
Garden,
preserve,
Shanglince
animals.71
captive
perial hunting
contained
fenced-in
gamekeepers.
garden had
treasured
roses
from
birds
from
areas under
the care of official
to the
Liangdu Fu,
the state of Jiuzhen,cf
According
qilin from
the state of Dawan,
state of Huangyou,c8
steed from
the
the state of Tiaozhi.cn
These
the
the
rhinoce
and
rare
animals
were
all sent to the Shanglin Garden
from all sorts
some
of different
as
far
li,
away as 30,000
places,
from beyond
the Kunlun Mountains
and from the
other
exotic
side of the ocean.72
animals
grounds.73
vironment
Hunting
must
the need of
surely have fulfilled
to
and nobles
themselves
with
identify
emperors
the divine world
50
were
the hunts,
these
During
released
into the hunting
en
in such a magnificent
of the xiangrui.
Fig.
12. Bronze
Museum.
The Great
dou
in 1923,
province,
vessel
from
in Liyu, Hunyuan,
Shanxi
of the Shanghai
found
the collection
Reprinted with permission from Wen Fong (ed.),
Bronze
of China,
Age
fig.
97.
an
court with
also provided
the Han
for
the
conspicuous
opportunity
display of wealth
In Zixu
to
and luxury.
Fu Sima Xiangru
goes
in
the grandeur
of the
great
describing
lengths
Hunting
the extravagance
of its ceremonies,
royal hunt,
the superb horsemanship,
the various exotic beasts
encountered
countless
after
participants
and
mood
sphere
the
and
the
finally
waited
the noble
upon
the hunt was over.74 The atmo
during
courtesans
hunt,
who
reflected
accord
by the writer
on
the spirit of the scene portrayed
ornament.
with
perfectly
our chariot
Another
and the Han
difference
between
the Warring
States
is
that
in
the xian
periods
expressed
is the relation between men and beasts.
grui design
As noted earlier,
States period men
in the art works
and beasts were
of the Warring
often portrayed
Fig.
13. Detail
of
the Si Mu
Wu
ting vessel,
from
the
14. Silk painting,
Fig.
from
Hunan
province,
collection of theMuseum of Chinese History. Reprinted
with permission from Ch?koku no bijutsu (Tokyo:
K?dansha,
1963),
as locked
ings,
were
vol.
vol.
sculptures,
struggle.
and bronzes
In some o? the paint
of the period, men
as the heroic
conquerors
portrayed
once noted,
K. C. Chang
the
beasts.
gating
or at least the
became masters
challengers
animals during
the Eastern Zhou period."75
subju
"Men
of
the
In the
it is evident
from the art works
however,
that the sense of conflict between men and beasts
Han,
had diminished.
Images
of men
beasts were
forcibly
subduing
by a new scene of
2, pi.
Humans
The most
of this change
illuminating
example
lies in the relationship
between
and drag
people
were
considered
the most
ons, which
powerful
In bronzes
and divine of animals.
of the Shang01
devouring
(Fig.
as
portrayed
In
such
13).
not
but
only battled
dragons
a
them. The man
subjugated
holding
dragon's
in a Chu
found
tomb in
reins in a silk painting
period.
at ease; the
and completely
control
(Fig. 14). By Han
the position
of animals was again elevated
of ideas about xiangrui
and
the influence
is poised
ChangshacJ
his
is
under
dragon
times
supposed
en.76 Two
fate.
sometimes
Changsha,
the Hunan Museum.
a threatening
power
dragons
represented
This
that put men on the defensive.
relationship
States
the Warring
changed
during
completely
human
men
of
cases,
gradually
replaced
were
no
as a
Animals
longer presented
force
requiring vigorous
subjugation.
threatening
in harmony
animals were
shown
with
Instead,
concord.
dragons were
or
capturing
in Zidanku,
53
under
and Zhou,
the collection
Reprinted with permission from Ch?goku no hakubutsukan,
1, pi. 9.
in head-on
excavated
did not give rise to
For
the famous
silk
example,
people.
in the Mawangdui
exhumed
tombs was
immortality.
conflict with
painting
Yet
this elevation
to facilitate
the dead's
ascent
to Heav
one on either side of an image
dragons,
an
All
the deceased,
convey
upward motion.
such as the heavenly
the other xiangrui
animals,
sense
reinforce
this
of
horse,
rising motion
(Fig.
of
15).
Such concord
is fully expressed
in the Dingxian
51
Fig.
.15.
Detail
of
Fig
1 at
Mawangdui,
the silk painting
from tomb no.
excavated
from
the collection
of the Hunan Museum.
Reprinted with permission from Ch?goku no hakubutsukan,
vol.
80.
2, pi.
It is clear
between
elephant,
the harmonious
and animals
people
to the popularity
related
and
that
through
immortality.
of
that did not
relationship
in the Han
is closely
the ideas of xiangrui
the animals'
themselves
arrival
control
Chengdu,
as
their
THE XIANGRUI
AND
DESIGN
THE HAN WORLD
VIEW
hu vessel
in
excavated
in 1965,
province,
from
the
collection of the Sichuan Museum. Reprinted with
from Wen Fong (ed.), The Great Bronze Age of
fig.
107.
difference.
The
latter
a static
display
that seem unmov
structure.
Images
composition
are
in sequence
(Fig. 16). By con
ing
presented
in
characterizes
the Han
trast, fluidity
designs
all objects?mountains,
which
clouds, animals?
are
incorporated
lating system
Han view of
into a constantly
shifting,
(see Fig. ig). The formation
circu
of
the
is closely
the objects
related to the
and the five phases theories, which
lay
yin-yangck
at the base of Han thought.
The
fate.
bronze
Sichuan
permission
marked
animals were
schema,
news
to human
good
the immortalization
of
In this
envoys
heavenly
bearing
kind of beings facilitating
people.
People welcomed
messengers
the juxtaposi
and the cam
of decor,
Drawing
Baihuatan,
China,
chariot ornament
county
tion of the man,
the white
el.
16.
yin-yang
and
the five
phases
isted primarily as philosophical
concepts
ex
ideas during the
the Han dynasty,
period. During
framework
became
the
they
accepted
for religious,
and intellectual
thought.77
political,
Warring
States
however,
In comparing
Shan chariot
period
52
pictorial
xiangrui
ornament
bronze
on the Sanpan
designs
and the Warring
States
see another
vessels we
Yin
and yang express
the polar relationships
of
The
fire,
among wood,
opposites.
relationships
to be alternatively
transformation.
This
understood
and mutual
The
phases?were
resistance
mutual
relationship
for all movement
to be the basic mode
taken
universe.
overcomes
that wood
theory
if they were
constantly
treading on thin ice. Like
else living in Han
times and influenced
everyone
five
and metal?the
earth, water,
was
in the
earth,
earth overcomes
and
water, water fire, fire metal,
was a
a
metal wood,
of
circular
process.
theory
Each one of the five elements had a correspond
a
The ear
ing color, which
symbolized
dynasty.
liest ruler, the Yellow
the
Emperor,
possessed
virtue
of earth; Heaven
the form
of yellow
earth was
virtue
then revealed
dragons.
the Xiacl
When
in
xiangrui
the virtue
of
the
dynasty, with
Yellow
the
replaced
Emperor.
were
revealed to justify the rule
exhausted,
of wood,
Different
xiangrui
came
the Xia.
the Xia
Following
overcame
which
the virtue
dynasty,
of
the Shang
of wood
in
only to be overcome
turn by the Zhou
which
the
dynasty,
possessed
virtue of fire. These
successions
thus demonstrated
with
the virtue
of metal,
the cyclical
The Han
system of history.
people
that
the
thought
they occupied
succeeding
posi
Heav
tion, that of earth, in an everturning
cycle.
en again sent down
as
yellow
dragons
xiangrui.78
Constant
the Han
of the cosmos.
view
is at the center. The Han
bined
the
with
is also
transformation
the
The
of
the five
of
of earth
element
of the cosmos
view
transformations
the essence
com
elements
four
east,
directions?north,
south,
had a corresponding
color,
animal spirit, season, musical
scale, style of dress,
In short,
and so forth.
taste, virtue,
food, color,
west.
Each
direction
the system
under Heav
incorporated
everything
and transformation.
en, all in constant movement
universe.
The
considered
status.
For
around
a fixed
center
dom. He
ing,
Han
the
cardinal
points had been previously
to be fixed
as was
in place,79
social
example,
as recorded
in the Shi fi,
King Zhou of Shang squandered wealth
advisors
of
warned
him
cosmos
blue
as a
constantly
turning.
The new outlook
was
art forms.
For
different
the
black,
also
of
the
yellow,
and colors
in many
reflected
instance
the
and
the four directions
disc,
of
with
by
dynasty
to think
seemed
red, white,
giant
revolving
a
acrobats,
very
a show known
the Han,
popular during
performed
as
zhixicm
offish
(transmutation
yulong manyan
to historical
and dragon). According
the
records,
one actor dressed
as
performance
began with
a lynx, dancing
in a courtyard. When
the lynx
reached the front hall of the palace it jumped
into
a
and
pool
Clouds
transformed
a flounder.
into
itself
burst from the mouth
of the fish, obscur
sun. By the time the clouds
the
the
ing
dispersed,
fish had changed
into a dancing
yellow
dragon
and flashed
scales gleamed
eighty feet long, whose
more
than the sunlight.81
Almost
all
brightly
scenes
can
stone
in the pictorial
these
be viewed
Yinan011
from
tomb
carving
(Fig. 17 a-c).
The most
popular
literary
in describing
the fu,co which
the
.
the
. .
the west
"in
.
"in
formula:
.",
.
"below.
.",
authors
was
east.
.
"in
the
.
depicted
as if the authors
but
rather
natural
"in
.",
settings
the
scenes
structure,
It
and animals.82
had no
glided
.",
"above
.",
a
such
used
. .
south
. .
north
." Within
fantastic
of the Han was
form
set point
around-their
of observa
unfolding
subjects.
of thinking
this way
became
the domi
nant trend of
the Han dynasty,
thought
during
reasons no
absolute
the existence
longer explained
of objects whose
re
in the universe
positions
immovable
theory of continuous
believed
that the virtue
they
be replaced
of wood.
They
virtue
trans
elements
formation,
Han would
tion,
When
mained
the five
by
and his
that he would
lose his king
their concerns,
say
rebuffed
confidently
"Did not Heaven
the mandate?"80
give me
as
in contrast, worried
emperors,
ceaselessly
stylized
Highly
with
inscriptions
state of YuecP
southern
period.
bird-script
on bronze
By Han
during
the
tomb
originated
from
the
weapons
theWarring
wide
they had become
on bronze vessels
as well
as on
is the huccl vessel
example
of Liu
state (Fig.
Zhongshan
fine
sel is covered with
Prince Qing
of
Sheng,cr
ves
The
of
the
surface
18).
gold
and
silver
scroll-like
flowing,
two highly
resemblance
these
States
times
spread, appearing
stone tablets. A famous
from
characters
forming
configurations
ornamental
characters. Without
to
characters
the
strokes
create
in
inlays
forty
any
in standard
the visual
script,
of
impression
53
fluent movement
rather
than prompting
codes.
to decipher
familiar
In the design on our chariot
four
each
register.
connect with
registers
ward
tains'
undulat
ornament,
the main
define
ing mountains
ment within
the mind
movement.
ele
compositional
The mountains
one
another
in the
in an up
the moun
Following
are in constant
elements
spiraling
swirl, all the other
and animals
plants, cloud breath,
are all depicted with
curved
lines, lines
flowing
in
that seem to reinforce
the sense of movement
motion.
Trees,
mountains
could say
(Fig. ig). We
as
artistic expression,
this particular
the Han fu and the acrobats,
lies the
well as behind
sense
constant
of
transformation
embodied
deep
in the Han world
view.
the spiraling
that behind
CONCLUSION
In the above
the Han
I have
sections
and
the Warring
in their
differences
onstrating
style. On
the other
hand,
these
during
periods
of the elements
Many
by dem
matter
and
subject
the development
of art
showed
great
in Han
popular
in the Warring
States
originated
earlier. That animals are amedium
cation
notion,
times.
bird
the art of
compared
States periods
between
Heaven
and man
continuity.
art
xiangrui
even
or
period
of communi
is a very
ancient
Shang
already clearly formulated
during
For example,
in the oracle-bone
scripts, the
for which
also means
(the character
feng
was
to as "the messenger
referred
of
"wind")
is little doubt
that the forma
There
Heaven."83
tion of
the systematic
times had their origins
States
the Warring
concepts
xiangrui
in this conception.
in later
During
find
many
already
period,
omens
and calamities,
indicat
we
to good
this
kind of thinking was already on
that
ing
it had not permeated
rise, although
political,
to become
and
intellectual
ligious,
thought
references
mainstay
thermore,
as in the Han.
of social psychology
had not yet been
these concepts
the
re
the
Fur
illus
art forms;
trated by the various
the xiangrui
pat
was
not
tern of decorative
in
arts,
yet
particular,
Fig.
17.
(a-c)
Rubbings
of
the stone
carvings
of
the Yinan
Reprinted with permission from Yinangu huaxiang
shimufajui haogao (Shanghai: Administration of Cultural
Tomb.
Relics,
54
1956),
pis.
92-94
popular.
The Han
dynasty was an empire with vast ter
Han thought was a synthesis
ritorial holdings.
of
in various
ideas that had developed
before
regions
to good
in docu
For example,
references
dynasty.
can be found
or calamities
mainly
from the state of Lu in the north.
the Qin
omens
ments
of the Han
forms
of the Chu
culture
But
the
resemble
those
xiangrui
designs
to the south. The ideas of im
and the Immortal Mountains
of Penglai
mortality
came from the Qi and Yan states in the north. But
a work
from
the south,
the Shan Hai Jing, de
scribes Magic Mountains.
Qi to the necromancers
the states of Qi and Yan meant
"the immortal
"
For
Zhoucs
of the Chu
qi.
Zhuang
(Chuang-tzu)
cosmic
life in a philosophical
state, qi symbolized
sense. For Mengzict
from the Central
(Mencius)
of
Plain, qi was
tion. These
to ethical
related
regional
thesis of Han
state
The Zhongshan
riod and the state of Chu
on Han
coveries
have
civiliza
its
bearing
into the syn
each
concepts,
stamp, were combined
thought and art.
own
influence
and moral
different
in the Warring
States pe
had a particularly
strong
art. Recent
dis
archaeological
that animals were
the most
revealed
of art around the Zhong
characteristic
prominent
shan area during
theWarring
States period.84 Be
sides fluidity of style, animals also figured promi
in the Han xiangrui motif.
to
nently
According
historical
the nomadic Baidi
documents,
tribes,
came into China from the north, established
which
Fig.
18. Bronze
hu vessel,
excavated
from
tomb
no.
i at
Mancheng. Reprinted with permission from Wen Fong
(ed.), The Great Bronze Age ofChina, pi. 96.
the
state.85 Migrations
of ethnic
Zhongshan
was
one
art of the
the
nomadic
animal
groups
way
north
influenced Han designs.
the
Surprisingly,
Chu
state, which
which
had been
exerted
was
great
its own
art. The
herited
the Han
cloud
on Han
distinctive
and visual
by
design
barbaric
in battles with
defeated
influence
ture had
considered
art. The
music,
the Han,
Chu
cul
philosophy,
in
features
most
prominent
from Chu art were
and, more
and
the fluid
the mood
importantly,
of
Itmust
did not
be stressed
appear
first
that these curvilinear
on bronze
vessels,
on
The different
lacquerware.86
of bronze and lacquerware were
related
to
their
functions:
but
designs
rather
decorative
straints.
The
use.
styles
probably
directly
bronze
vessels were
in sacrificial
used
ceremonies
traditionally
was affected by more formal
their decoration
mundane
spirit of the times. Once
more
they were
lacquer
popular,
for some bronzes
of daily use. By Han
adopted
functions
of
the
ceremonial
and
times,
religious
the bronze
lacquerware
pieces
Their
decoration
were
and
con
for more
adapted
more
vessels
had decreased;
of bronze
vessels with
fashioned
for daily use. Following
restricted
formerly
decorations
became
transience.
to the changing
designs became
quickly
common
luxurious
on bronzes
bricks
in the halls
tombs.
The
designs
on
of
tastes,
changing
to lacquerware
as well.
decorative
derous, geometric
on bronze vessels was
inherited
pon
used
worship
exuded
in
and
by the
ex
the feeling
bronzes.
Following
serious
atmosphere
these bricks resembled
and the beginning
in tombs
rations
The
style originally
by the decorative
ancestral
by the ceremonial
pressed
this course, we see that around
large quantities
were
decorations
the end of the Han
^
deco
of the Wei Jin
period,
the
geo
dropped
ponderous,
55
fluid designs
style in favor of the more
more
in
life.
The
geo
daily
popular
ponderous
a
new
to
metric
then
became
transferred
and
style
metric
art in cave
art?the
Buddhist
developing
a
temples. To be sure, this is drastic oversimplifi
cation of the real development
taking place in the
rapidly
art forms.
In reality,
the
one
form
from another
by
designs
never absolute.
and the differences
various
In conclusion,
First, as shown
Iwould
inheritance
like to stress
is never
of
total
by
trying
particular
to some
of the significance
understanding
art form
of a particular
that is part of
Art is often categorized
that whole.
by the mate
as
it ismade. Art history
is viewed
rial from which
of specialized
fields
such as bronzes,
cave
decorative
and so
bricks,
paintings,
temples,
on. Research
on
often concentrates
development
a
as shown
within
However,
category.
given
consisting
not
is the development
of different
only
art
of
but also, under
interconnected,
categories
a
certain circumstances,
particular
style character
one category
can be transferred
to another
izing
above,
two points.
the xiangrui
of
by the analysis
a
of
the formation
style of art is
given
design,
to
various
connected
aspects of thought
closely
and certain kinds of already existing
art, forming
a whole
corne
and value
to reconstruct
the
only by reconstructing
of art, and
among various
categories
relationships
re
of
the various
human
aspects
conception
they
can we come
to under
flect at different
periods,
period
stand
with
Chinese
interrelated
parts. Therefore,
only
the life and thought of a
can one
in a comprehensive
way
Therefore,
category.
the development
of a particular
art form.
Characters
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Notes
Iwould
Katherine
the extensive
like to acknowledge
assistance given to me by
Lazarus and by Carmelita Hinton,
I am deeply
for which
not have been possible.
I
it, this study would
grateful. Without
K. C. Chang
and John Hay for
would
also like to thank Professors
their valuable advice and suggestions.
i. The
of China
from
exhibition
was
Finds of the People's Republic
Archaeological
in the National
DC,
Gallery of Art, Washington,
13, 1974 to March
30, 1975, and in the Nelson
20 to June 8,
Kansas City,
from April
Museum,
held
December
Gallery-Atkins
1975.
2. LiXueqin,
3. Shi Shuqing,
The Wonder
Woguo
ofChinese
1980), p. 62.
(Beijing,
gongyi, Wen Wu 6 (1973):
Bronze
gudai dejincuo
66-72.
and other artifacts,
the
4. As demonstrated
by the Luan Shufucw
bronzes with gold and silver first appeared
technique of embellishing
in the middle
of the Spring and Autumn
The
period; Li Xueqin,
Wonder of Chinese Bronze, pp. 39, 66. For the development
of the
see Jenny F. So, The Inlaid Bronzes
of theWarring
inlay technique,
inWen
States Period,
(ed.), The Great Bronze Age of China
Fong
1980), pp. 305-311.
(New York,
tures of theHan Period (Lon
5. Cf. B. Laufer, Chinese Grave-Sculp
Kandai
don, New
Paris,
York,
1911), pp. 9-22; Hayasi Minao,
kishin no sekai, Toho Gakuho 46 (1974): 223-306.
6. The
not been
contained
detailed
excavation
The
published.
in the following
report of the Sanpan Shan tombs has
is
information
the excavation
concerning
and Cultural Relics
articles: The Museum
of Hebei
chutu wenwu xuanji
Province,
Heheisheng
of Hebei
1980), p. 50; The Cultural Relics Administration
inWenwu kaogu
30 nianlai de kaogu gongzuo,
Province, Hebeisheng
gongzuo 30 nian (Beijing,
1979), p. 46.
and Cultural
of Hebei
Relics Administration
Prov
7. Museum
Administration
(Beijing,
chutu wenwu xuanji,
ince, Heheisheng
8. Cultural Relics Administration
p. 50.
of Hebei
Province, Hebeisheng
and Cultural
Relics
30 nianlai de kaogu gongzuo,
p. 46; Museum
of Hebei
Administration
chutu wenwu xuanji,
Province,
Hebeisheng
p. 50.
and Cultural
of Hebei
Relics Administration
9. The Museum
chutu de jinl? yuyi, Wen Wu 7
40 hao Hanmu
Dingxian
(1976): 59
10. Ban Gu, Dili zhi, Han Shu (Beijing,
1962), p. 1632; cf. The
Institute of Archaeology,
and the Hebei CPAM, Mancheng
CASS,
Province,
1980), vol. 1, p. 3.
hanmufajue baogao (Beijing,
11. The four tombs inDingxian
identified by Li Daoyuan
belong
to princes Ai,cx Kang, Qing,
and Xian,cy
See Yang
respectively.
Shoujing,
Dingxian
Shuijing zhushu
(Beijing,
Zhi (Dingxian,
1934), vol.
1955), vol.
2, p. 28.
11, pp.
311-312;
57
12. The
reports of these three tombs: (Prince Xiaocz)
Relics of Hebei
Hebei Dingxian
40
Province,
hao Hanmu
fajue jianbao, Wen Wu 8 (1981): 1-10; (Prince Jian) The
Team of the Hebei Cultural Administration,
Hebei
Archaeological
Hanmu
Dingxian
Beizhuang
fajue baogao, Kaogu xuehao 2 (1964):
35- BanGu,
Liyue zhi, p. 1060.
36. Ibid., p. 1067.
37. See Wu Renchen,
Shanhaijingguangzhu
p. 16.
38. BanGu, Wudiji,
p. 211.
Hebei
127-194;
Museum,
(Prince Mu) The Dingxian
hao Hanmu
fajue jianbao, Wen Wu 11 (1973): 8-20.
39. Ibid., p.
Zhuo.
Institute
excavation
of Cultural
Dingxian
43
As noted by
13. Yang
Shoujing,
Shuijing zhushu, pp. 311-312.
a mistake
Li Daoyuan
made
in identification
in this passage.
Yang,
toHan
According
not Prince Qing.
Shu the father of Prince Kang
should
be Prince Ai,
14. Dingxian
Zhi, vol. 1, p. 2.
15. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 28.
16. Ban Gu, Zhuhouwang
biao, Han
Shu, p. 414: "In the first year
era [110 b.c.] Prince Kang succeeded
to the throne
of the yuanfeng
and died in the twenty-first
year [90 B.c.]."
between
the Sanpan Shan tombs and the fa
17. A comparison
mous
tombs might
the former
Mawangdui
help clarify to whom
have belonged.
The Mawangdui
in the
constructed
tombs,
may
same dynasty
to the family of a high-level
and belonging
provincial
of three graves
consisted
that have been
officer,
tombs of Dai Hou,
his wife,
and a son (?). Among
has been suggested
tombs, on the one hand, M122
himself
Jiaojun
member
as the
identified
the Sanpan Shan
to Prince Kang
two seals bearing
the names Liu
in this article; M120
yielded
and Liu Zhanshi,
that the deceased was amale
demonstrating
a son of Prince
of the Zhongshan
royal family,
perhaps
came a Zhongshan
the third tomb, from which
to
Prince
seal, then might
belong
Kang's wife.
to the three tombs mentioned
18. In addition
in note
Kang;
family
1972), vol.
of Ying
Shao
3,
and Jin
dazi
1966), p. 24; cf. Zhongwen
Guanyin Zi (Taibei,
1963), vol. 9, p. 3602.
of ganludf third year (51 b.c.),
41. The edict in the second month
in Yu Hai.
quoted
42. Shi Shuqing, Woquo
p. 70.
gudai dejincuo
gongyi,
43. Sima Qian, Xiao Wu benji, Shiji
1959), vol. 12.
(Beijing,
40. Jiuyao,
dian (Taibei,
Sima Qian, Taishigong
vol.
zizhuan, Shiji,
Sima Qian zhuan, Han Shu, vol. 62, p. 2715.
Handai xueshu shilue, p. 21.
45. Ku Chieh-kang,
44.
30, p. 3295; Ban
Gu,
46. Cf. ibid., p. 31.
47. Ban Gu, Wudiji,
pp. 160-161.
zhi, Han Shu, vol. 27, pp. 1405-1439.
48. Cf. Ban Gu, Wuxing
Handai xueshu shilue, pp. 43-44.
49. Cf. Ku Chieh-kang,
recorded
that Emperor Wu once used the skin of a
50. Sima Qian
to invoke
inXiao Wu benji, p. 457.
the auspicious
omen,
Shu it is said that the same emperor made
the lin zhijin,dg
coins in the shape of a unicorn's
foot, to invoke good omens.
white
deer
Also
inHan
golden
Ban Gu, Wudiji,
51. Sima Qian,
52. Cf.
clay
12 and to the
193; also see the commentaries
(Taibei,
Yingtong,
53. Du
p. 206.
Xiao Wu
benji,
Sima Qian,
Fengchan
Liishi Chunqiu
(Taibei,
p. 458.
vol.
shu,
Shiji,
1968), vol.
28; Lu Buwei,
13, pp. 4-5.
1955), v?l(Beijing,
Yu,
the graves of Prince Qing
(d. 113 b.c.) and his
Sanpan Shan tombs,
in 1968. See the Institute
wife Dou Wandc were found inMancheng
of Archaeology,
CASS, Hebei CPAM, Mancheng Hanmu fajue bao
24 (the
jijie
Chunqiu jingzhuan
tian
year of Zhao Gong),
p. 2; cf. Guo Moruo,
Xianqin
shidai (Beijing,
1966), pp. 1-53.
zhijinzhan,
Qingtong
daoguan
54. Cf. Ban Gu, Jiaosi zhi, p. 1205.
gao, vol. 1, pp. 336-337.
19. Fan Yie, Yufu zhi, Hou Han
Yinke,
1965), vol. 29, p.
(Beijing,
Hebei
CASS,
CPAM,
3647; Institute of Archaeology,
Mancheng
Relics of
Hanmu fajue baogao, vol.
1, p. 204; Institute of Cultural
Hebei Province, Hebei Dingxian
40 hao Hanmu
p. 2.
jianbao,
fajue
Shu
20. Geitjutsu Daigaku Z?hin Zuroku
1976), vol. 5, pi. 7.
(Tokyo,
21. Shi Shuqing, Woguo
de
p. 70.
gudai
jincuo gongyi,
22. Cf. Dong
in Chunqiu
shunni,
Wuxing
Zhongshu,
Wangdao,
1893), vol. 4, pp. 1-3, vol. 13, pp. 9-10; Ban Gu,
(Zhejiang,
of
zhi, Han Shu, vol. 24, p. 1189. For the political
implication
see
Astron
W.
of
The
Political
Function
omens,
Eberhard,
unlucky
inHan China,
omy and Astronomers
(ed.), Chinese
inj. K. Fairbank
Fanlu
Jiaosi
1957), pp. 33-70.
Thought and Institutions (Chicago,
23. Cf. Ban Gu, Zhang Yu zhuan, Han Shu, vol.
24. Dong Zhongshu,
Shunming,
Chunqiu Fanlu,
25. Dong
p. 4.
26. Dong
Zhongshu,
81, p. 3351.
pp. 6-8.
Chunqiu Fanlu, vol.
Tongleixiangdong,
Furui, Chunqiu
Zhongshu,
27. Ban Gu, Jiaosi zhi, p. 1212.
28. Ibid., pp. 1215-1248.
Fanlu,
vol.
13,
6, p. 3.
xueshu
Handai
xueshu shilue, pp. 12-17; Chen
55. Cf. Ku Chieh-kang,
Tianshidao
yu binhai diqu de guanxi, Chen Yinke xiansheng
lunji (Taibei, 1971), p. 271.
work
scholars
56. Most
identify Shan Hai fing as a shamanistic
in south China
(Shi Jingcheng,
yanjiu lunji
Shanhaijing
originating
shilue (Shanghai,
1935), p.
gave in tribute a tame elephant."
33. Ban Gu, Liyue zhi, Han Shu, vol. 22, p. 1069.
in the third
horses were discovered
34. The winged
(heavenly)
era (120 B.c.) and in the fourth year of the
year of the yuanshou
taichude era (101 b.c.). Ban Gu, Wudiji,
pp. 176, 202; Liyue zhi, pp.
1060-1061.
South Vietnam
58
7. Yun
in the
zhuan, Han Shu, vol. 96, p. 3929.
57. Ban Gu, Xiyu
can be found in the fol
huowan
58. The information
concerning
1959),
Sanguo Zhi (Beijing,
lowing texts: Chen Shou, Shan shaodiji,
vol. 4, p. 118; Gan Bao, Soushenji
1979), vol. 10, p. 124,
(Beijing,
vol.
vols. 38, 399, 820; Fayuan Zhulin,
vol. 13, p. 165; Taipingyulan,
vol. 26; and Yiwen leiju, vol. 7.
37; Chuxueji,
59. Cf. Ci yuan (Shanghai,
1939), p. 927.
in Chen
60. Dongfang
Shuo, Shenyi fing,
quoted
p. 118.
shaodiji,
Sima Qian,
Tianguan
shu, p. 1382.
Fengchan
62. Sima Qian,
Fengchan
63. Cf. ibid., p. 1336.
64.
123.
to Ban Gu, all tribal people
in southwestern
Yi,
31. According
hairdos. Ban
and in the north of Dian wore
Miguan,
snail-shaped
zhuan, Han Shu, vol. 95, p. 3837.
Gu, Xinan Yi, Hang Yu, Chaoxian
32. Ban Gu, Wudi
ji, Han Shu, vol. 6, p. 176: "In the second year
era [121 b.c.], during the reign of Emperor Wu,
of the yuanshoudd
wenshi
1974), PP- i~77; Meng
Wentong,
Zhonghua
1962), vol. 1;Yuan Ke, loc. cit. (1978), vol.
luncong (Beijing,
that this book had its origin
however,
suggests
Xingpei,
area of western
loc. cit. (1979), vol. 11.
He-Lo
China,
(Hongkong,
61.
29.
Ibid., pp. 1248-1253.
Handai
30. Cf. Ku Chieh-kang,
eighteenth
65.
Ibid., p. 1393.
Sima Qian, Xiao
1382-1383.
66. BanGu,
67. Cf. Guo
Liyue
Baojun,
shu,
Shiji,
shu, p.
Wu
benji,
zhi, p.
1069.
Zhongguo
vol.
27,
Shou,
pp.
Shan
1336-1339;
1339.
Fengchan
shu, pp.
shidai (Beijing,
1963), p.
pp. 464-465;
qingtongqi
61.
68. Zuo Zhuan,
zuozhuan
69. Zuo
404-405.
70. Zuo Zhuan,
149.
the Fifth
Year
of Yin Gong,
Liu Wenqi,
1959), pp. 29-33.
shuzheng (Beijing,
Year of Xi Gong,
the Twenty-seventh
Zhuan,
Chunqiu
jiuzhu
the Eighth
Year of Zhuang
Gong,
ibid.,
ibid.,
pp.
pp.
148
"The
71. Ban Gu, Zhang Shizhi zhuan, Han Shu, pp. 2307-2308:
the tigers and asks the deputy of
goes into the fence holding
Emperor
the Shanglin Garden
the categories
of beasts and of birds." Yan
"The fence is the place for raising animals."
Shigu's commentary:
72. Ban Gu, Liangdu fu, in Yan Kejun, Quan Han wen (Wuchang,
1894), vol. 24, p. 4.
73. Wei Hong, Han jiuyi, in Han liqi zhidu ji qita 5 zhong, Cung
1939), pp. 16-17: "When the Emperor
shujicheng chubian (Changsha,
in fall and winter,
officials fill the
goes to hunt in the Shanglin Garden
garden with animals and birds."
74. Sima Xiangru,
21, p. 6.
Zixu
Fu,
in Yan Kejun,
Quan Han
Wen,
vol.
of Men
and Animals
in
75. K. C. Chang, Changing
Relationships
and
Chou
and
The
Bulletin
the
Institute of Eth
Art,
Shang
Myths
of
nology Academia Sinica, no. 10 (Autumn
1963): 115-146.
shuo (Taibei,
and Anthro
1967); Yao Shan-yu, The Cosmological
of Tung Chung-shu,
pological
Philosophy
Journal of theN.C
Royal
Asiatic Society 73 (1948): 40-68.
Yao dian states that Yao commanded
his offcers
79. For example,
to reside
at the points of the four cardinal directions
in order to
the zodiacal
the movements
of the sun,
spaces; to calculate
the moon,
and the stars; and so to deliver respectfully
the seasons to
the people; cf. James Legge, The Chinese Classics (Hongkong,
i960),
observe
vol.
3, pp. 1-23.
80. Sima Qian, Yin benji, Shiji,
81. Cf. Yan Shigu's
annotation
vol.
3, p. 107.
in Ban Gu's Xiyu
zhuan, pp.
fu, in Yan Kejun, Zonghua wenchi
3929-3930;
Zhang heng, Xijing
luncong, vol. 52, p. 11.
82. Cf. The Department
of Chinese
Beijing
University,
Zhongguo
wenxueshi
Language
(Beijing,
and Literature
of
1959), p. 139.
1 hao
76. Shang Zhitan, Mawangdui
shishi, Wen Wu
Hanmu/eiyi
of Western
9 (1972): 43-47; J. M. James, A Provisional
Iconology
Han Funerary Art, Oriental Art XXV
(3) (1979): 347~357
angshi,
Handai xueshu shilue, p. 1.
77. Ku Chieh-kang,
Wude
xia
78. Ibid., pp. 141-151; Ku Chieh-kang,
shongshishuo
de zhengzhi
he lishi, The Qinghua
University Journal 6 (1) (1930);
zhi laili, Dongfang
zazhi 20 (10)
Liang Qichao,
Yinyang
wuxing
and Liling, Zhongshan
85. Cf. Li Xueqin
3 qi yu Zhongshanguo
shi de ruogan wenti, Kaogu xuebao 2 (1979): 163-165.
86. Cf. Thomas
Chinese Art of the Warring States Period
Lawton,
DC,
1982), pp. 178-182.
(Washington,
(1923): 70-79;
Li Hansan,
Xianqin
Lianghan
zhi yinyang wuxing
83. JinZutong,
84. Wu Hung,
Wen Wu
Yinqiyizhu
(Shanghai,
Tan jijian Zhongshanguo
5 (1979): 46-50.
1939), no. 935.
qiwu
zaoxing
yu zhu
xue
59