1 CHAPTER 1. PERSPECTIVES 1.1 Agenda of

1 CHAPTER 1. PERSPECTIVES 1.1 Agenda of

1
CHAPTER
1.1
1. P E R S P E C T I V E S
Agenda o f t h e T h e s i s
This
thesis
reports the investigations carried
South Sulawesi
Prehistorical
and H i s t o r i c a l
o u t by t h e
Archaeology
Project
( S S P H A P ) o n t h e o l d M a k a s s a r k i n g d o m s o f Gowa a n d
Tallok.
From
century,
its
Gowa a n d T a l l o k
peak,
eastern
t h e mid-16th century
the largest
archipelago.
t h e Makassar,
ethnic
groups,
Netherlands
of
The empire's r i s e
cultural
It
The
matrix
voice speaks
which accompanied
indigenous
i seasier
tradition
no l e s s
eloquently
to the Austronesian
the formation
the importance of
f o r the highest
b y many h i s t o r i a n s ,
1975) r a t h e r than
specifically
be
to Gervaise
entity
1981; Patunru,
organisation
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The other
i . e . Makassar
ViUiers,
1990).
composition
Following
(1688),
b y t h e name w h i c h
emporium,
dual
( e . g . Andaya,
those
main
r e c o g n i s e s Gtowa a n d T a l l o k a s k i n g d o m s ( a n d
of comparable s t a t u s .
collective
body. T h e
s u l t a n a t e s , following the adoption
t r a c e d back
within
especially
1986) and d e s c r i b i n g i n t e r n a l
naming c o n v e n t i o n
to call i t .
status lineage
1983;
1605)
this
and Dutch r e c o r d s o f t h e day used t h e
narrating events
(Mukhlis,
of
t o know w h a t
concerned with
Sagimun,
than t h e
t h e empire's h i s t o r y
and f o r t h e empire a s a c o l l e c t i v e
i s followed
i s further
states.
to recognise
same t e r m , Gowa, b o t h
of
as a "contact h i s t o r y "
complex o r g a n i s a t i o n than
empire,
important
I n d o n e s i a ) . The s t o r y
of the transformations
Makassar s c r i b e s
the
were
but a l s o i n t h e long-term establishment
study
profoundly
i n the
i n t h e wedded h i s t o r y o f t h e B u g i s
I n d i a (today's
Indonesia's
based
and e c l i p s e
v o i c e . E v e n more s i g n i f i c a n t l y ,
a case
o f what was, a t
two o f t h e a r c h i p e l a g o ' s most
where t h e i n d i g e n o u s
is
the late 17th
empire ever
major h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l i n t e r e s t
foreign
until
l a y a t the fulcrum
indigenous
turning points not only
and
AD,
(Reid,
Mattulada
of Islam i n
a terminology
these
which can
studies refer
to the
f o r e i g n e r s gave t o i t s
1981, 1983; P e l r a s , 1985;
(1982a) emphasises
the polity's
by k i n g d o m s whose g e o p o l i t i c a l
cores lay
outside
the c a p i t a l
city,
"Makassar" as s u i t a b l e
While
refer
concurr:/ng
to
term
body a s
retains
faction.
I t a c c o m m o d a t e s my
t o be
discussion
terminological
o f Gowa a s a
of
I
and
will
several
identifying
falling
while
kin-based
a third
powerful
i t allows the c i t y
Makassar without
trap
analysis
" g r e a t e r Gowa" f o r
r e c o g n i t i o n of
i n Maros. F i n a l l y ,
called
"Gowa-Tallo"
t h e e p o n y m o u s s t a t u s o f Gowa,
independent
1-1)
both
with Mattulada* s b a s i c
allowing
family based
so p o s i t s
names.^
cne c o l l e c t i v e
r e a s o n s . The
and
in
(Photo
the
the p o l i t y
with i t s
empor i um.
Historical
archaeology,
encompasses s i t e s
at
f o r which
i t s most e l e m e n t a r y
the written
information d i f f i c u l t
or
alone. These
i n f o r m a t i o n may
vials
of
records
level,
provide
i m p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n by
associations with events,
archaeology
include dated
individuals
and
institutions,
not
to mention r e f e r e n c e s to the e s t a b l i s h m e n t or
abandonment
the s i t e s .
address
On
t h e o t h e r hand,
questions which
questions or
the
texts
may
ask but
the p h y s i c a l
and
social
protohistorical
origins.
On
perspective asks c r i t i c a l
which
texts.
i s devoted
By
solidify
and
the
As
endeavour,
1983)
study
and
this
of
the t e x t s ,
thesis
landscape,
and
vision
this
framework of
lead of
of
the
of
texts,
and
the general p i c t u r e
' Mattulada f u r t h e r f r e q u e n t l y uses
body a s a l i t e r a r y c o n v e n i e n c e .
between
deepen
will
build
framework
Tallok.
academic
Macknight
(1975,
Bugis-Makassar
(historical)
the Bugis-Makassar
further
my
Makassar
to
thesis
r e s p e c t i t t w i n s w i t h C a l d w e l l ' s (1988)
h a s come t o v i e w
the
dialogue
f o r Gowa a n d
a diachronic
interpretation
the Bugis
much o f
interpretative
follows the
on
questions
Consequently
recursive
multi-tiered
e.g.
an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
a n a l y s i s of
i t s place w i t h i n the
anthropological
this
notice.
and
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l records, so as
in seeking a refined
historical
In
questions of
p r e v i o u s l y been attempted
regards
answer,
landscape,
that,
t o an o r i g i n a l
can
then not
foundations of both,
a more s t r u c t u r e d
than has
of
following the profoundly
the h i s t o r i c a l
and
top
might o t h e r w i s e e s c a p e
research
archaeology
of
philological
suggests that
i n a new
texts.
the
time
way.
"Gowa" f o r t h e
collective
^ .^ .{] Naming a n d i n t e r - r e f e r e n c i n g
As
yet there
available
system
i s no g e n e r a l l y
p r o p e r names a c r o s s
spellings
follow
do e x i s t
f o r most
administrative
general,
have
i n Bahasa
represented
for administrative
down
I follow
Indonesia.
i s not found
Official
t o t h e kecamatan
I can
as for
level.^ In
Kamaruddin e t a l . (1985-6) i n
Specifically,
i n Bahasa
glottal
would
stops are
i s doubled
i f i t both
(a characteristic
Indonesia).^
which
As an example,
t h e k i n g d o m o f Luwuk o r t h e Luwuk
plain, to indicate the glottal
be w r i t t e n
Sulawesi
divisions, as well
and b e g i n s t h e next
word. B u t n o t e t h a t
will
official
names, and t h e s e
by a "k", and a c o n s o n a n t
I u s e "Luwuk" when w r i t i n g
coastal
a n d no
and M a k a s s a r names i n t h e s p e l l i n g t h e y
ends one s y l l a b l e
I believe
language,
government p u b l i c a t i o n s .
centres
Bugis
s p e l l i n g system
the s p e l l i n g of a l l South
administrative
however,
rendering
accepted
f o r any South S u l a w e s i
standardising
conventions
stop
a t t h e end o f t h e
t h e kabupaten which takes
K a b u p a t e n Luwu t o f o l l o w
t h e same name
the official
spel1ing.
As
regards
swamps,
but
features
be r e n d e r e d
as Sungai
highest
such
features
(e.g.
name
such
as h i l l s
(e.g.
Balang
mountains and l a k e s
Jeknekberang River
and
Sari),
will
as well
J e k n e k b e r a n g ) . To e n h a n c e t h e f l o w o f t h e t e x t , t h e
level
administrative
in English
Propinsi
Sulawesi
divisions
as rivers,
i n English
rendered
and
topographic
I r e f e r t o them b y t h e l o c a l
major
often
minor
will
kotamadya
(e.g.
divisions will
South Sulawesi
Selatan), while
usually
province
references
sometimes t r e a t t h e Indonesian
(broady equivalent
to
be
rather
than
lower-level
words
kabupaten
t o a c o u n t y and a
^ I may a l s o u s e o f f i c i a l a c r o n y m s w h e r e c o n v e n i e n t , f o r
i n s t a n c e F i g u r e 1-4 u s e s " P o l m a s " ( P o l e w a l i - M a m a s a ) a n d
" S i d r a p " ( S i d e n r e n g - R a p p a n g ) , a n d F i g u r e A-2 r e p r e s e n t s T a n a
Toraja with
"Tator".
^ One a r e a w h e r e I d e p a r t f r o m K a m a r u d d i n e t a l . ( 1 9 8 5 - 6 ) i s
i n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f compound w o r d s w h e r e t h e f i r s t word
ends i n "-ng". I n M a k a s s a r t h e "-ng" t e n d s t o be l o s t i n
pronunciation,
e.g. Borong + l o e i s pronounced B o r o l l o e . I
r e t a i n t h e " - n g " t o e m p h a s i s e t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e f i r s t word,
e.g. t h a t B o r o n g + l o e , o r B o r o n g l o e , means e i t h e r "many
gardens" or "great garden", i . e . "great garden area".
municipality
respectively),
kecamatan
and
a s though they
were E n g l i s h words.
kampung,
This
thesis
i sdesigned
blocks of r e l a t e d
and
often
another
text
brackets,
i n a report
a t the chapter
the subsection
part
(district),
level.
of the t h e s i s
format
which
simply
"Chapter
1, S e c t i o n
section,
the reader to
provide
e . g . " A . I " m e a n s " A p p e n d i x A, S e c t i o n
" 1 . 1 . 1 " means
dusun
tags
(or appendix),
When r e f e r r i n g
I will
desa,
1, S u b s e c t i o n
the tag in
1", a n d
1".
1.2 A P e r s p e c t i v e f r o m Human G e o g r a p h y
Sulawesi,
covers
the ungainly
189,216 s q u a r e
largest
island
four-armed
island
east of
kilometres,
making
i tthe fourth
i n Indonesia
and e l e v e n t h
(Webster e t a l . , 1984:A-9). S u l a w e s i
origins
and p e c u l i a r l y
According
to recent
Sulawesi's
formation
we m u s t
archipelago
first
t h e embryonic
Burma, T h a i l a n d ,
Kalimantan,
Sulawesi,
Tertiary
period.
continental
peninsula)
this
fragment
itself
called
western
the northern
southwest
Sumatra, west
t o Buru. These
fault
Sulawesi
period
about
and e a s t
of
islands
land
a fragment o f
from C e n d r a w a s i h
western
(the Irian
The spur of
and
Banggai-Sula,
Sulawesi's
Sulawesi
i n the
1987) a t t h e zone o f c o l l i s i o n
(seeFigure
1-1a).
into i t s present
arm n e a r l y 90 d e g r e e s c l o c k w i s e
peninsula
Tibet,
position i n the early
which comprise
with
(Audley-Charles,
the Palu-Koro
distorted
The components o f t h i s
consisted of Eastern Sulawesi
arms. They c o l l i d e d
mid-Miocene
a giant
towards Kalimantan.
two g e o l o g i c a l p r o v i n c e s
eastern
et
present
and d r i f t e d
with
and t h e h a l f - e l l i p s e
I n the mid-Tertiary
land detached
Jaya
the
at their
understand
landmasses o f southern
from F l o r e s t h r o u g h t h e K a i i s l a n d s
fragments a r r i v e d
t h e complex
from t h e a n c i e n t c o n t i n e n t of
t h e Malay p e n i n u l a ,
western
to
start
i n t h e middle J u r a s s i c .
were
epitomises
evidence,
which had separated
Gondwanaland
i n t h e world
c o n s t e l l a t e d landforms of e a s t e r n
Indonesia.
archipelago
Kalimantan,
The c o l l i s i o n
shape by r o t a t i n g
and t h e
35 d e g r e e s a n t i c l o c k w i s e
(Whitten
a l . , 1987:2-4).
Sulawesi's
complex g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y and i t s p o s i t i o n
straddling
the equator
ecological
diversity.
have c r e a t e d g r e a t
c l i m a t i c and
Volcanic chains run along
Sulawesi's
5
northern
and s o u t h w e s t e r n
dominates t h e h i g h l a n d s
Eastern Sulawesi
arms, w h i l e
due n o r t h
on t h e o t h e r
i n s t e a d d o m i n a t e d by u p l i f t e d
sedimentary
intrusives
Sulawesi
landmass h i l l y
are too high
t o mountainous,
and s t e e p
1987:91-94; s e e F i g u r e
Straddling
i s devoid
Mesozoic
to suit
peninsula.
o f v o l c a n i c s and
and T e r t i a r y
ophiolites
1978; s e e F i g u r e
t h e topography tends
volcanic belt
of t h e southwest
hand
r o c k s , metamorphics,
(Katili,
a third
and T e r t i a r y
1-1a).
Throughout
t o be rugged, w i t h
83% of the
c h a r a c t e r i s e d by u p l a n d s
agriculture
(Whitten
eta l . ,
Sulawesi
i s a f f e c t e d by two
m o n s o o n s . T h e m a i n n o r t h w e s t e r l y monsoon g e n e r a l l y
southeasterly
(Whitten
tend
and A p r i l ,
leading
e t a l . , 1987:21).
monsoon, a n d c a s t i n g
rainshadow over
1977:4-6).
These e f f e c t s
rainfall,
permanent h u m i d i t y ,
c a n be s e e n
(1977). Conditions
o f more o r
much o f c e n t r a l
enclaves such
(Zone E ) c h a r a c t e r i s e s
higher
tends
less
mean
to prevail
less
rainfall,
S u l a w e s i , and
a s a t the t i pof the
i n the
southwest
agroclimatic
t h e l a n d from P a l u t o
of the central
e n c l a v e s of t h e southwest
climate
areas sheltered
when we c o n s i d e r
( F i g u r e s 1-2a t o 1 - 2 c ) . The d r i e s t
half
humid,
(Oldeman and D a r m i y a t i ,
arm a n d o n t h e h i g h e s t m o u n t a i n s
the n o r t h e r n
however
a more o r
usually associated with
elsewhere, a s c l i m a t i c
zone
some a r e a s
i n a broad band over
peninsula
belts
s e a s o n a l i t y , or the a g r o c l i m a t i c zones of
Oldeman and D a r m i y a t i
north
The main h i g h l a n d
and June
winds and r e m a i n p e r m a n e n t l y
permanent
occur
marked,
t o marked s e a s o n a l i t y i n t h e lowland
from one o r t h e o t h e r
annual
and t h e l e s s
occurs
monsoon g e n e r a l l y b l o w s b e t w e e n A p r i l
t o t r a p t h e moist
which
1-1b).
the equator,
b e t w e e n November
acid
Gorontalo,
e a s t arm a n d v a r i o u s
p e n i n s u l a , w h i l e a monsoonal
elsewhere
( F i g u r e s 1-2a t o
1-20)."*
^ Owing t o d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n s o f " w e t " a n d " d r y " m o n t h s ,
t h e n o r t h arm o f S u l a w e s i i s d e p i c t e d a s m a i n l y " p e r m a n e n t l y
h u m i d " t o " s l i g h t l y s e a s o n a l " ( F i g u r e 1 - 2 b ) , y e t a s b e s e t by
the d r i e s t a g r o c l i m a t i c zones ( F i g u r e 1 - 2 c ) . I n t h e former
c a s e a " w e t " month r e c e i v e s a t l e a s t 100 mm o f r a i n a n d a
" d r y " month l e s s t h a n 60 mm o f r a i n ; i n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , 200
ram o f r a i n a n d 100 mm o f r a i n r e s p e c t i v e l y . A s a l s o s u g g e s t e d
by F i g u r e 1 - 2 a , most o f S u l a w e s i ' s n o r t h arm c a n b e
c h a r a c t e r i s e d a s an a r e a o f moderate r a i n f a l l d i s t r i b u t e d
evenly throughout the year.
6
The
and
poor g e o l o g i c a l b a s i s
t h e rugged
over
Sulawesi,
year
Sulawesi
( 1 9 8 5 ) . The p r o v i n c e
supports
relatively
concentrations
have p o p u l a t i o n
around
coastal
the highlands
of
island
higher
supports
of Palu
( F i g u r e 1 - 3 ) . As a l s o
Makassar a r e a s
(1976:56),
some o f t h e h i g h e s t
at
Indonesia]
well-established
other
rural
alluvial
the coast,
in certain
densities
rural
and
of any a r e a
Only North
extreme p r e s e n t s any s i m i l a r
c o m m u n i t i e s . From
then,
c a n be thought
t h e southwest
of l i k e
islands,
expanse of
the point
and n o r t h
of view of
arms o f
separated
populated
Sulawesi
from
each
land.
c o n s t r a i n t s which topography and c l i m a t e p l a c e on
population
densities
c a n be s e e n
consideration of the province
are dealing with
stepped
dining
illustrated
with
r a t h e r than
northern
wettest,
most
f r o m a more
detailed
o f S o u t h S u l a w e s i . O v e r a l l we
a north-to-south
cline,
gradual
but i n a pattern of
change,
a s c a n be
a broad c a t e g o r i s a t i o n of South
i n t o human g e o g r a p h i c a l
The
combination
noted by Jones
population
by a l a r g e e x p a n s e o f t h i n l y
The
the
'the h i n t e r l a n d of Ujung Pandang h a s
rural
human s e t t l e m e n t ,
Sulawesi
p e n i n s u l a and
c l i m a t e , and
outside of Java or B a l i ' .
Sulawesi's other
and a t a
u s u a l l y i n e x c e s s of 100
persons/km^ and above 6 0 0 persons/km^
[in
concentrated
and Kendari
however,
monsoonal
Sulawesi
100
than
densities
of Palopo,
densities
particular
Sulawesi,
w i t h i n wide open v a l l e y s o r a l o n g
population
Supraptilah
with
I n the southwest
volcanically-based soils,
belts either
(1982),
generally
r i m of South
population
locations.
northwest
a s taken
K o t a m o b a g u a n d Manado, a n d
arc. Central
capitals
from
(1979) and South
densities
and t h e n o r t h e r n
the provincial
other
(district)
densities generally less
persons/km-^, w i t h
schizoid
of North Sulawesi
around Gorontalo,
Sulawesi
conditions
T h i s c a n be s e e n
Sulawesi
population
the v o l c a n i c Sangihe
Southeast
few
high
Sulawesi,
books f o r North S u l a w e s i
(1980), Southeast
Sulawesi
humid
led to a
d e n s i t i e s by kecamatan
from r e c e n t s t a t i s t i c a l
on
have
of Sulawesi's population.
the population
Central
in eastern
topography with dauntingly
much o f c e n t r a l
distribution
for soils
third
divisions
(Table 1-1; Figure 1 - 4 ) .
of the province
r u g g e d a n d most
Sulawesi
thinly
i n c l u d e s some o f t h e
populated
land i n
T A B L E 1-1.
A BROAD C A T E G O R I S A T I O N
OF SOUTH SULAWESI'S
RAINFALL
(MM/YEAR)
ALTITUDE
(M A S L )
Northern C e n t r a l
Highlands
c. 50%
> 1500m
1500->3000
Mandar
0-800
1000->3000
Coastal
Peninsula
m
RAINFALL
HUMAN GEOGRAPHICAL
TYPE
Permanently
Humid
Seasonal to
P e r m a n e n t l y Humid
DIVISIONS
AGROCLIMATIC
ZONE
Mostly
POPULATION D E N S I T I E S
BY RURAL KECAMATAN
(PERSONS/KM
B
< 1 -
50
B - E
10
-
600
Southern Central
> 150m;
H i gh1ands
c . 3 0 % > 1500m
2000->3000
S l i g h t l y Seasonal
t o P e r m a n e n t l y Humid
A - D
10 -
600
Luwuk
2000-3000
S l i g h t l y Seasonal
t o P e r m a n e n t l y Humid
B - D
10
300
Strongly to
S 1 i ght1y Seasona1
B - E
10 -
900+
50
300
Coastal
Plain
South Sulawesi
Peninsula
Selayar
N.B.
Island
<
c. 50%
rarely
150m
< 150m;
> 1500m
0-700m
F i g u r e s a r e summarised
1000->3000
1000-2000
from
the sources used
i n compiling Figures
1-2a
-
-
t o 1 - 2 c a n d 1-3.
8
(Table 1-1).
Sulawesi
Highlands"
strips
a
of
lesser
changes
I call
to emphasise
low
along
sediments
i n the west,
northwest
of
(Friberg
and
and
The
languages
found
the
of
marine
Tertiary
The
population tends
Tertiary
coastal
"Southern
sediments
along
found
(Operational
explain
of
marks
S u l a w e s i and
1-2
and
1-5).
western coastal
up
(Figure
consists
plain
and
Inland
the
s e c t i o n s of
of sago
the coastal
and
1 - 1 a ) , which
broader
"Northern
uplifted
I call
the Sungai
and
less
Central
Sheet
have the
plain
a centre for local
as
well
to
be
(River)
Highlands"
M-11), helping to
trade
c r o p on
(Osozawa,
there.
the eastern c o a s t a l
is
the
altitudinous
"Luwuk C o a s t a l
as a staple
healthy population densities
s e c t i o n of
topography
comprised
these lowlands are poorly s u i t e d
the adoption
1-1a).
more s e a s o n a l
intrusives
of
a
plains,
Human s e t t l e m e n t t e n d s
N a v i g a t i o n Chart,
t h e G u l f o f B o n e , we
around
(see Figure
the
mostly
I n general the region i s well
valleys
i n the
stretch,
into h i l l s
1-3).
valley
the
w i t h more e x t e n s i v e
mountains,
acidic
land
Central
t h e e x t e n s i v e human s e t t l e m e n t . F i n a l l y ,
Climatically
but
t o human
the
c o n c e n t r a t e d on
the broad
(see Figure 1-3).
those
east
1 ) . I t further
lifted
Highlands".
provided with r i v e r
than
t o be
(Figures
Central
concentrated
i n the
of
alluvial
of v o l c a n i c s ,
marine
metamorphics
uninhabited expanses
n o r t h but
steepens to a block of
geologically
and
inimical
i n the s o u t h where a d r i e r
climate prevails
Sakdang
further
to
geology
t h e p r o v i n c e m a i n t a i n s many o f
sediments
s m a l l b e l t s of
and,
marine
"Mandar P e n i n s u l a C o a s t l i n e " ,
few
particularly
intrusives
though
plain
The
uplifted
(Figure
f o r human s e t t l e m e n t . T h e
here c a l l e d
rapidly
several
1989:Map
of
even
Bone, t o u l t r a b a s i c s
includes
third
characteristics
fault.
associated
zone between t h e South
middle
pockets
topography,
region i s generally
groups of
Central
the t h i n c o a s t a l
to a c i d i c
Laskowske,
transitional
Sulawesi
and
the G u l f of
1 - 1 a ) . The
settlement,
along
"Northern
the Palu-Koro
from v o l c a n i c s
(Figure
t h e rugged
land occur
degree,
i t the
plain
The
1986)
most
lies
( G r i m e s and
a s an a r e a of mixed a g r i c u l t u r e
at the
Plain".
for
the
head
cereals,
western
maintains
important
around
Grimes,
(Tanaka,
Wotu,
which
1987:62-63)
1986).
The
a n t i c l o c k w i s e r o t a t i o n of the South Sulawesi
s i n c e t h e Miocene
(e.g. F i g u r e
clearly
i s less
1-1b) t h a n
b e t w e e n Gunung B a r u p a
Lompobattang
i n the south;
from t h e Tempe d e p r e s s i o n
southeast
to Sinjai;
in the south
the squat
runs.
rotating
uplifted
i n the north
along
be
and f u r t h e r
which
plains
"trail
behind"
i n the area of Pinrang,
appears
major
Walanae r i v e r
Sidenreng
sea
lakes,
level,
the higher
closely
images t o
north of
drains internally
whose f l o o r s
and then
are less
between
the Cenrana c o a s t a l
been a f r e s h w a t e r
for which
indicates
t h e Tempe d e p r e s s i o n
the corresponding
plain.
partially
during
southwestern
has
4400
(Gremmen,
years
1990).
t h a t t h e low r i d g e s e a s t and west
have remained above s e a l e v e l
during
belts
peninsula consists of
arc-shaped and
i n the north
between t h e c o r d i l l e r a s )
monsoon
i s caught
t h e Gunung L o m p o b a t t a n g
parallel,
(including the
and along t h e
( F i g u r e 1 - 1 a ) . The western
coastline
t h e n o r t h w e s t e r l y monsoon w h i l e
southeasterly
During
probably
the last
i s available
volcanic cordilleras,
valley
Cenrana.
above
period.
with extensive a l l u v i a l
catches
f i v e metres
L a k e Tempe i t s e l f
In broad o u t l i n e the South Sulawesi
northern
than
7 1 0 0 a n d 2 6 0 0 BP, t h e s e a
lake, at least
i t s pollen record
This observation
two
t o w a r d s t h e Tempe a n d
out t o s e a v i a t h e Sungai
sea levels
Sakdang
1-2).
a p p r o a c h e d L a k e Tempe f r o m t h e e a s t ,
covering
of
(Photo
and
coastal
on L a n d s a t
low r i d g e w h i c h s t r i k e s
the
corner
Gunung B a r u p a a n d s e p a r a t e s t h e m o u t h o f t h e S u n g a i
The
starts
and t a p e r s t o t h e n o r t h a s
landmass a t t h e p e n i n s u l a ' s southwest
from t h e Tempe d e p r e s s i o n
extends
morasse^ through which the Cenrana
Extensive coastal
t r a v e r s e d by a t h i n
a n d Gunung
the Halanae r i v e r
a r o u n d t h e mouth o f t h e C e n r a n a . T h e t h i r d
plain,
marine
and an e a s t e r n c o r d i l l e r a
of Celebes
latter
t h e Walanae graben which
as a volcanic block
belt
images. The
maps
a r c s formed by t h e c o r d i l l e r a o f
v o l c a n i c s , some m i x e d w i t h
sediments,
river
from t o p o g r a p h i c a l
from L a n d s a t
show t h e p a r a l l e l
Tertiary
apparent
peninsula
the less
cordillera
marked,
by t h e e a s t e r n c o r d i l l e r a
highlands.
As a r e s u l t
populations
and
on
C e l e b e s m o r a s s e - c o n g l o m e r a t e , s a n d s t o n e , c l a y s t o n e and
marl, i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h l i m e s t o n e and l i g n i t e , l a t e Miocene t o
P l i o c e n e i n age (Sukamto, 1 9 7 5 ) .
10
t h e e a s t e r n and
especially
expect
flooding,
seasonal
January
and
in Pinrang
protected
of
low
runoff
and
intensity
Sidrap
the
inundated
the South Sulawesi
which are
lowlands,
and
(Oldeman and
and
climatic
island
speaking,
of
rural
western
followed
less
as well
by
rural
Java
is
crop,
made by
in "Inner
exceptional
into the
in
the
(not
strip
of
Geertz
as Bali
The
proximity
set
the South Sulawesi
the
to Singapore
(Figure
i s grown p r i m a r i l y
mainly
wider
staples are
i n the
Indonesian
d e n s i t i e s by
the
hills
context,
kabupaten
f i g u r e s correspond
(1963) between
and
coastline
principal
Inner
and
Lorabok a r e g r o u p e d
I f we
exclude
i t s strong Chinese
its
mixed v o l c a n i c s
fieldnotes).
speaking
Indonesia".
for
(Sukamto
m o r a s s e and
copra,
population
Broadly
long
areas
s o u t h e a s t e r l y monsoon, c h a r a c t e r i s e s
1987:29;
Grimes,
as
cordillera
Celebes
dry
coastal strip.
Indonesia's
Indonesia,
extensive
of
i s , geologically
as the peninsula's southern
place Sulawesi
distinction
the combination
dominates
cassava which are c u l t i v a t e d
county).
the
Sidrap
limestone
of
of
c l i m a t e , p u n c t u a t e d by
the
consider
leading
A relatively
along
To
lowlands
most
and
half
a
S e l a y a r ' s main c a s h
and
from
g e n e r a l i s e d map)
1-2).
(Grimes
of
a strip
reliable
western
valley
discharge
over
but
1-3).
(Figure
the
southeast.
and
rice
a c o n t i n u a t i o n of
weaker and
corn
wet
f a r south
in K a t i l i ' s
Selayar
of
the
northwest,
1-2c),
a year,
around Pinrang
1982). A strip
Immediately
alluvial
twice
Selayar at
Supriatna,
seasons
Walanae
factors maintains
land
wet
and
internal
1977). All in a l l ,
Darmiyati,
of wel1-populated
in the
of
the
partially
(personal notes). Nearly
cropping
double cropping
topographical
shown
a result
of
p e n i n s u l a c o n s i s t s of
single
two
( F i g u r e s 1-2a
reaches
monsoon
local
low-lying
1977).
Darmiyati,
lower
of
The
i t experiences
can
and
in that, being
r e g u l a r l y indundated once or
to a p a t t e r n of
effects
highlands.
differs
region
as
the main n o r t h w e s t e r l y
and
coastal areas
m o n t h s a r o u n d May
the
(Oldeman and
L a k e Tempe a n d
The
from
i s a rainshadow
are annually
of
in the
from b o t h monsoons,
southeast
here
western
r e s p e c t i v e l y , from t h e combined
precipitation
land
the
to
presence,
a s i d e , we
alongside
which
stimulated
1926:239-241),
find
the
Outer
Kabupaten Riau
(e.g. Vleming,
peninsula
(or
densities
by
and
of
TABLE 1-2. MODERN INDONESIAN POPULATION D E N S I T I E S BY
KABUPATEN ( E X C L U D I N G KOTAMADYA OR C I T I E S )
(Summarised from F i g u r e s t a k e n from t h e 1 9 7 9 - 1 9 8 5
Indonesian P r o v i n c i a l S t a t i s t i c a l Year Books)
Kabupaten
Population Density
(persons/km^)
K a b u p a t e n R i a u , SUMATRA
SUMATRA, o t h e r K a b u p a t e n
17-625
WESTERN INDONESIA
JAVA K a b u p a t e n
BALI K a b u p a t e n
K a b u p a t e n Lombok B a r a t , Lombok T i m u r
Lombok T e n g a h ( N u s a t e n g g a r a B a r a t )
CENTRAL INDONESIA
K a b u p a t e n Sumbawa, Dompu, B i m a
(Nusatenggara Barat)
P r o p i n s i I r i a n J a y a , Maluku, Timor
Timur, N u s a t e n g g a r a Timur
KALIMANTAN K a b u p a t e n
EASTERN INDONESIA ( e x c e p t S u l a w e s i )
Propinsi Sulawesi Utara
P r o p i n s i S u l a w e s i Tengah
Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara
K a b u p a t e n E n r e k a n g , Luwu, T a n a T o r a j a ,
P o l m a s , M a j e n e , Mamuju
OTHER PARTS OF SULAWESI
Kabupaten S e l a y a r
K a b u p a t e n Gowa, S i n j a i , B o n e ,
Maros, Pangkep, B a r r u , Soppeng,
Wajo, S i d r a p , P i n r a n g
Kabupaten Bulukumba, B a n t a e n g ,
Jeneponto, T a k a l a r
SOUTH SULAWESI
625
17-250
PENINSULA
229-1737
237-983
412-466
229-1737
38-85
2-165
1-140
38-165
41-153
11-22
11-47
11-132
11-153
104
116-214
276-340
104-340
12
1-250
persons/km^ f o r "Outer I n d o n e s i a " and d e n s i t i e s o f
229-1,737 persons/km^ f o r " I n n e r I n d o n e s i a " ( T a b l e 1 - 2 ) . The
population d e n s i t i e s
i n t h e South S u l a w e s i p e n i n s u l a
s t r a d d l e t h i s dichotomy between O u t e r and I n n e r
clearly
Indonesia
( T a b l e 1 - 2 ) . L e t u s t a k e 250 persons/km^ a s t h e d i v i d i n g
l i n e . The f o u r kabupaten a l o n g t h e p e n i n s u l a ' s s o u t h c o a s t
(Bulukumba, Bantaeng, J e n e p o n t o and T a k a l a r ) ,
p h y s i o g r a p h i c a l l y dominated by l o w l a n d s
of M a k a s s a r - r e l a t e d
languages,
i . e . t h e ones
i n h a b i t e d by s p e a k e r s
t h e n have " I n n e r
Indonesian"
d e n s i t i e s , whereas t h e r e s t of t h e p e n i n s u l a h a s d e n s i t i e s i n
the h i g h e r p a r t o f t h e r a n g e h e r e a s s i g n e d t o "Outer
I n d o n e s i a " . More t o t h e p o i n t , t h e S o u t h S u l a w e s i
peninsula
forms a l a r g e b l o c k o f l a n d more o r l e s s c o n t i n u o s l y s e t t l e d
at d e n s i t i e s exceeding
100 persons/km^, w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r
s e v e n e a s t e r n I n d o n e s i a n k a b u p a t e n w i t h comparable
in Kalimantan,
southwest
settled
densities,
F l o r e s , Timor, and S u l a w e s i o u t s i d e o f t h e
p e n i n s u l a , a r e e n c l a v e s surrounded
by more
lightly
l a n d . T h e s e c o m p a r i s o n s s e r v e t o h i g h l i g h t t h e human
geographical d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s of t h e South S u l a w e s i
in the e a s t e r n Indonesian
peninsula
context.
A f u l l y comparable s i t u a t i o n e x i s t e d
i n t h e 1930s. The
f o u r South S u l a w e s i k a b u p a t e n mentioned above, p l u s Gowa and
Maros, s u p p o r t e d
population d e n s i t i e s
i n e x c e s s o f 125
persons/km^, a s was a l s o t h e c a s e w i d e l y
universally)
in Bali
and J a v a . T h e s e p r e d o m i n a n t l y
kabupaten, a l o n g w i t h t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y
immediately
(but not
Bugis
kabupaten
to the north, c o n s t i t u t e d the l a r g e s t
continuously populated
Makassar
area
a t d e n s i t i e s above 50 persons/km^
o u t s i d e of Java-Bali-Lonbok
(Royal Dutch
Geographical
S o c i e t y , 1938: B l a d 8 a t o 8 d ) .
1.3 A P e r s p e c t i v e from C o m p a r a t i v e
All
the Sulawesi
languages
languages
are Austronesian.
Austronesian
range from T a i w a n t h r o u g h i s l a n d S o u t h e a s t
much o f t h e P a c i f i c ,
a few o t h e r
with o u t l i e r s
i n Vietnam, Madagascar and
A u s t r o n e s i a n and
non-Austronesian
i n t e r d i g i t a t e , b u t o v e r most o f t h e i r
Austronesian
A s i a and
l o c a t i o n s . I n e a s t e r n N u s a t e n g g a r a , Maluku and
p a r t s of Melanesia,
languages
Linguistics
i s the s o l e indigenous
range
language group. B e l l w o o d
(1985,
1988a),
archaeological
f o l l o w e d by
evidence
Spriggs
(1989), wraps
around the broad
the
phylogeny of
Austronesian
languages
linguistics,
i n what
i s currently
the standard
explanation
the dominance of
Austronesian
languages
island
for
Southeast
Asia. In this
i s l a n d s were s t i l l
communities s p e a k i n g
northern
first
I n d o n e s i a . The
horticultural
absorb
populated
the middle Holocene,
ancestral
cultivation
c o l o n i s e d Taiwan,
Sulawesi, with
horticulturalists
the P h i l i p p i n e s
languages
acquired cereal
communities
view
quite sparsely
hunter-gatherers during
already
r e c o n s t r u c t e d through
the
subsequent
then
a drawn-out, complex
and
Indonesian
by
whereas
to Austronesian
and
and
Austronesian
western
c o n f e r r e d by
a
the Austronesian speakers
communities
had
Daughter
the P h i l i p p i n e s
movements o f
demographic advantages
the non-Austronesian
in
i n South China.
into eastern, central
economy a l l o w e d
historical
i n w h a t was
to
probably
process.®
*^ Meacham ( 1 9 8 8 ) c o n t e n d s t h a t t h i s v i e w l e t s t h e l i n g u i s t i c
t a i l wag t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l dog, a n d t h a t i f we p u t t h e
a n i m a l o n i t s l e g s we w o u l d p l a c e t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e
A u s t r o n e s i a n languages i n the Indo-Malaysian a r c h i p e l a g o
i t s e l f . W h i l e l i n g u i s t s seem u n i t e d i n r e j e c t i n g t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of an o r i g i n s s o u t h of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , I would
c e r t a i n l y argue that the s p r e a d of A u s t r o n e s i a n
languages
s h o u l d not be c o u p l e d w i t h t h e s p r e a d o f a p h y s i c a l t y p e ,
u n l e s s i t were t a k e n a s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e A u s t r o n e s i a n
l a n g u a g e s had i n d e e d o r i g i n a t e d , i n t h e a r c h i p e l a g o . B r i e f l y ,
t h e H o l o c e n e o s t e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s do p o s s i b l y s u g g e s t l o w
l e v e l s of "Mongoloid" i m m i g r a t i o n from n o r t h e a s t A s i a i n t o
I n d o n e s i a , b u t a s an o n g o i n g p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n a s a n y
i d e n t i f i a b l e m i g r a t i o n ( B u l b e c k , 1981; T u r n e r ,
1987).
B e l l w o o d ( 1 9 8 5 ) p l a c e s g r e a t s t r e s s on t h e b i o l o g i c a l
d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s of t h e " N e g r i t o s " from s o u t h e a s t A s i a ' s
"Mongoloid" p o p u l a t i o n s . However, g e n e t i c and o s t e o l o g i c a l
studies are yet to f i n d evidence l i n k i n g Negritos with
A u s t r a l o i d s or Melanesians r a t h e r than w i t h non-Negrito E a s t
A s i a n s ( e . g . U y t t e r s c h a u t , 1 9 8 3 ; Omoto, 1 9 8 7 ; H a n i h a r a
and
S a i t o u , 1 9 8 9 ) . E v e n i f t h e d a r k s k i n and w o o l l y h a i r o f t h e
N e g r i t o s a r e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d a s r e m n a n t r e t e n t i o n s o f t h e
e a r l y s o u t h e a s t A s i a n c o n d i t i o n , and n o t a s l o c a l
s p e c i a l i s a t i o n s or c h a n c e outcome r e s u l t i n g from g e n e t i c
d r i f t , t h e r e i s no a p r i o r i r e a s o n t o d a t e t h e s p r e a d o f
f a i r e r s k i n and s t r a i g h t h a i r to the middle Holocene r a t h e r
than, say, t h e l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e .
I n a l 1 I am n o t f u l l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t
unambiguous p r e s e n c e of t h e " N e o l i t h i c " ( p o t t e r y ) i n S o u t h
S u l a w e s i , w h i c h I w o u l d d a t e t o a r o u n d 3500 BP ( B u l b e c k , i n
p r e p , a . ) , n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t s the a r r i v a l of
A u s t r o n e s i a n - s p e a k i n g "Mongoloids" i n South S u l a w e s i . Untying
t h e k n o t w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e Mongoloid p h y s i c a l t y p e had
14
The
historical
not
deal with
any
detail.
linguistic
the
southern
f o r two
1979)
South Sulawesi
out
emerging
The
from
similarly
Sulawesi
detailed
(Grimes
studies,
work
by
of
This seemingly
or
Grimes,
with
1987).
G r i m e s and
Grimes
picture,
Southeast
revision
Sulawesi
of
the
shows a major c l e f t
the
f a r south
furthermore
languages
Finally,
and
adjacent
offshore
the
outliers
overall
matches our
great
generally
proximate
p a t t e r n of
barriers
survey
a more
group
related
southern
diverge
languages
linguistic
diversity
population
and
of
complex
(or
stock)
languages
The
at
group
Tamanic
in
press).
Selayar
In particular,
from t h o s e
of
and
been l o c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l i e r ,
languages
too.
existence
of
differentiation,
and
a s n o t e d by
two
the
(Bajau, Tamanic,
corresponds
the
reflect
p e r s p e c t i v e of
densities
to communication,
(1987:89).
w h i l e Grimes
(Figure 1-5).
complications
human g e o g r a p h i c a l
low
major
islands.
linguistic
linguistic
four
linguistic
of
of
and
i n c l u d e s Wotu i n t h e G u l f
languages
whose a f f i n i t i e s
geographically
The
the
1-2d).
a ream
(Grimes
group,
(Adelaar,
way
either
Makassar-related
Kalimantan
in
(Barr et a l . ,
recognise
members
t h e Muna-Buton s t o c k
Some o f
of
between the
interior
Bone, a s w e l l a s
are
South Sulawesi
the other
of
(or "stock"
languages
includes the g e n e t i c a l l y
of
group
languages
that a
The
(1989)
show m o s t
could conceivably enable
taxon.
carried
variation
unknown a f f i l i a t i o n
out
are
(Barr et a l . ,
however, c o n c e a l s
e t a l . (1979)
(1987:55) p o i n t
surveys
[1987]) which g i v e s
subgroups w i t h i n the C e n t r a l Sulawesi
Grimes
in
four e x t r e m i t i e s (Figure
Philippine-related
Barr
languages
1987),
linguistic
a Central Sulawesi
as of
do
supra-language
i n North Sulawesi,
simple
regarded
Grimes,
1988)
a l o n g s i d e Sneddon's
complications. Sulawesi's Bajau
1979)
and
l a n g u a g e and
groups at S u l a w e s i ' s
classified
Sulawesi
provinces. Central Sulawesi
these
terminology
to other
central
main p a t t e r n s of
covered
(e.g. Blust,
lexicostatistical
to d e l i n e a t e the d i a l e c t ,
boundaries.
the
and
However, d e t a i l e d
available
and
syntheses
to
however,
Sulawesi.
The
Sulawesi's
immense p h y s i c a l
Whitten et a l .
a r e a s of
and
Wotu).
substantial
possibly
Austronesian
15
population
densities,
the north
peninsula,
appear not
only
separated
by
as
islands.
languages
on
(Sneddon,
1989);
Sulawesi
Indeed
arm
s t o c k a r e unknown b u t
Sulawesi
stock
( A p p e n d i x A,
overall
human g e o g r a p h i c a l
the
long-term
involved,
examined
two-dimensionsal
by G r i m e s a n d
w h i c h a map
fitted
of
a c o n t r a c t i o n of
the other
differentation
s i d e of
Grimes
contrasts with
Makassar
further
from
stock" than
s t o c k " ) do,
criteria
( F i g u r e 1-5,
be
presence
attributed
of
any
lexical
one,
reflect
can
specific
the
differentation
populated
chaining,
expectable
divergent
lexical
Makassar
to the
Wotu o r L a i y o l o
which
outcome,
s t a t u s of
belonging
Grimes would c o n s i g n
l a r g e r map).
to borrowing
other
languages
Sulawesi
languages
Laiyolo
(e.g. Figure A-3),
the a s s o c i a t e d d i s c u s s i o n ) .
comparisons
too
This
a
the
diverges
"South
Makassar
Moreover,
aberrance
substratum
identify
the
1975a:513-514),
the
the
to i t s
y e t compared, e i t h e r
Indonesian
and
("Muna-Buton
lexical
from or
(pace M i l l s ,
or
be
areas.
i s an
languages
Central
linguistic
compared
t h a t a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a p p l i c a t i o n of
o f G r i m e s and
stock
cannot
such
dialects
most o f
linguistic
found,
either
is
a
a contorted
Lexicostatistically
the other
by
e t h n i c groups
the c o i n , exaggerated
the s u r p r i s i n g l y
languages.
Sulawesi
own
(1987)
and
but
populated
South S u l a w e s i ' s u b i q u i t o u s
G r i m e s and
somewhat
distance) in densely
in lightly
central
lexicostatistical
the d i s t o r t i o n s
distortions
on
the
South
differentiation
the
the
albeit
relationships,
and
the
with
instance,
on
historical-cultural
areas,
the
p r o d u c e s a c o n f i g u r a t i o n upon
Some o f
(compared t o g e o g r a p h i c a l
of
when S o u t h S u l a w e s i
languages
South Sulawesi,
reflect
of
clearly
based
t h e 40
(1987)
(Figure A-2).
be
of
complicated
trajectories
scattergram
Grimes
also
the P h i l i p p i n e s
linguistic
(Appendix A ) . For
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of
but
s e c t i o n A.5).
emerges p a r t i c u l a r l y
in detail
are with
constraints,
historical
islands"
( F i g u r e 1-3),
need not
c o n g r u i t y between
and
southwest
genetic a f f i n i t i e s
Sulawesi
The
the
the g e n e t i c a f f i n i t i e s
Sulawesi's north
the wider
and
"human g e o g r a p h i c a l
t h e main body o f
as l i n g u i s t i c
arm
( s e e F i g u r e A-4
Wotu,
and
qualitative
Makassar
as the
outlier
16
among t h e l a n g u a g e s p l a c e d
(Mills,
1975a; S i r k ,
main
i s best
of the peninsula,
or better y e t along
The l a t t e r
trend towards
population
coast
during
languages.
"Neolithic",
then
Maros s h o r t l y a f t e r
the divergence
approximately
the
of t h e South
Sulawesi's
with
the arrival
of the
i n prep.
three
i n Kabupaten
a). This
thousand y e a r s f o r
of t h e South Sulawesi
languages;
and t h e expansion
by t h e h i g h e s t
( F i g u r e 1-4);
linguistic
of
and ( i i i )
present
and Bugis
within
Perspective
d e f i n i t i o n o f what c o n s t i t u t e s a s t a t e
fully-fledged
t h e time depth of
distribution.''
While a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have n o t agreed
1989:376-395),
mountains of t h e
a n c e s t o r s of Makassar
area of their
1.4 A G e n e r a l
by a l l a c c o u n t s
"early
( P h o t o 1-1) s e r v e d
archipelago
Highlands",
l a n g u a g e s w i t h i n an a r e a c u t o f f from
cordillera
general
south
a n d c o l o n i s a t i o n o f new
of t h e Makassar stem
developments f u r t h e r n o r t h
the d i r e c t
speakers
now
a s we move f r o m t h e
i n t h e Leang-Leang s i t e s
t h e northwards expansion
western
where Bugis
expansion
3 5 0 0 BP ( B u l b e c k ,
would a l l o w
Makassar
either
t h e r e l e v a n t datum w o u l d be t h e i n i t i a l
appearance of p o t t e r y
the
buildup
I f we e q u a t e S o u t h
by A u s t r o n e s i a n
(ii)
located
Sulawesi
would match t h e
densities
a south-to-north
colonisation
(i)
l a n g u a g e g r o u p . As
t o t h e "Northern C e n t r a l
a model o f p o p u l a t i o n
territories
scenario
from t h e
t h e Makassar-dominated
location i n particular
lower
peninsula's south
Sulawesi
divergence
be most p a r s i m o n i o u s l y
the centre-south
fitting
by an e a r l y
of t h e Makassar
i n A p p e n d i x A, t h e " h o m e l a n d " o f t h e S o u t h
prevails,
coast.
aberrance
of t h e South Sulawesi
languages would thus
within
the general
explained
l i n e of descent
explained
group
1989).
On c u r r e n t e v i d e n c e ,
languages
i n t h e South Sulawesi
state"
on any s i n g l e
(e.g.
Fagan,
g r e a t e r Gowa w a s a
by around
as the largest
1600 ( 1 3 . 3 . 5 ) .
emporium
Makassar
i n the eastern
f o r the r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of primary
products
(most
^ ^rj:^^
Y)9T5a,
1 9 7 5 b ) p l a c e s t h e "homeland" o f t h e South
S u l a w e s i l a n g u a g e s a t t h e mouth o f t h e S a k d a n r i v e r , a n d
adumbrates a complex m i g r a t o r y s c e n a r i o o f t r u l y e p i c
proportions. T h i s view i s not tenable (A.7).
notably
s p i c e s ) and s l a v e s
t o t h e west,
exchange o f manufactured
items
silver
Following
and I n d i a n c l o t h -
such
as well as the
as Chinese
the initial
of a M a l a y c o l o n y
i n t h e mid-16th century,
began t o f r e q u e n t
the c i t y
English
1622,
i n 1613, Danes
i n 1618, C h i n e s e
of Golconda
1660s M a k a s s a r
ranked
with a population
Following
greater
Luwuk
of around
(Pelras,
1985),
Between t h e 1630s and
largest
cities
100,000 r e s i d e n t s ( R e i d ,
wars"
forcefully
by t h e
from t h e s o u t h
a s one o f t h e w o r l d ' s
the "Islamic
Gowa
Portuguese traders
i n 1619, Frenchmen i n
agent
(Reid, 1987).
Mexican
establishment
1600, f o l l o w e d
and by t h e 1650s a permanent
Indian state
fell
after
goods,
i n the early
17th century,
Islamised the Bugis
the entire
1983b).
when
kingdoms s o u t h o f
South Sulawesi
u n d e r g r e a t e r Gowa's s u z e r a i n t y ( A n d a y a ,
peninsula
1981; R e i d ,
1983a).
Far
from m o n o p o l i s i n g
Indonesian
those
products,
the direct
g r e a t e r Gowa s p e c i f i c a l l y
t r a d e r s who d e f i e d t h e e f f o r t s
Company
resolved i n favour
protected
by t h e Dutch E a s t
o f t h e Dutch, during
M a k a s s a r War, when t h e D u t c h n a v a l
Speelman b e s i e g e d
greater
and o c c u p i e d
Gowa's I n d o n e s i a n
t h e war h a d i n i t i a l l y
1688),
of eastern
India
(VOC) t o m o n o p o l i s e t h e s p i c e t r a d e . T h e c o n f l i c t
ultimately
the entrepdt
closely
corresponded
operations
recent history
Makassar
(Andaya,
sent Makassar
t h e 1667
the a i dof
1981).
Even
after
into decline (Gervaise,
the "capital"
of the peninsula
dominance o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e p a r t i e s
to their
(Bulbeck,
was
commander C o r n e l l s
Makassar with
enemies
remained
in that the p o l i t i c a l
In
acquisition
share
i n the entrepdt's
1 9 9 0 ; Noorduyn,
and today,
i n the ability
1987a).
the Bugis
t o c o l o n i s e new
have outshone t h e
l a n d s and economic
n i c h e s on t h e b a s i s o f complex,
long-distance networks (e.g.
Lineton,
But t h e a b i l i t y
1975; A c c i a o l i ,
characteristic
of
1989).
o f t h e Makassar,
t h e Makassar trepangers
1976).
joins
Similarly,
the Bugis
central
and Makassar,
Indonesian
"Southeast
includes,
groups
a s e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e h i s t o r y
i n northern
a statistical
study
alia,
Australia
(Macknight,
of cultural repertoire
a l o n g s i d e some w e s t e r n
(Javanese,
Vietnamese,
and
Balinese, Batak),
A s i a n High C u l t u r e S e c t i o n "
inter
i s also
(Obayashi,
Sundanese,
into a
1987) which
Acehnese,
Cambodians and H i n a h a s a n s . T o r a j a - S a k d a n , w h i c h h a s a c l o s e r
linguistic
relationship with
o t h e r hand
falls
"Southeast
Asian Cereal
(Obayashi,
1987). The c u l t u r a l
Makassar
the
into a t o t a l l y
towards
large-scale
social
social
brought
the
in
the
societies,
indicates
and advanced
and h i s t o r i c a l
t h e B u g i s and Makassar
South Sulawesi
eastern
peninsula
Indonesia
on t h e
Subgroup"
of Bugis and
especially
those of
t h e openness of the Bugis
and i n t e g r a t e
complex
t e c h n o l o g y . Thus,
social
into
developments
a single
koin^,
an o u t p o s t of " I n n e r "
have
a n d made
Indonesia
(1.2).
The development
o f complex
establishment
of i t s f i r s t
among t h e M a k a s s a r ,
does,
cluster, the
orientation
systems to receive
institutions
"protohistorical"
different
Horticulturalists
western archipelago,
and M a k a s s a r
Bugis than Makassar
totally
developed h e r e . The e n t i r e
societies
state
fits
i n t h e p e n i n s u l a , and
(Gowa)
specifically
the general
perspectives
peninsula stands out a s an area of
u n u s u a l l y dense p o p u l a t i o n by t h e s t a n d a r d s o f "Outer
Indonesia",
in
and t h i s
the earliest
[Andaya,
While t h e f i v e
today outnumber
languages
o f t h e p e n i n s u l a c a n be
European overviews (Gervaise,
map o f S o u t h S u l a w e s i
1792:72ff.).
portrait
1 9 8 1 : Map
million
t h e two m i l l i o n
1 6 8 8 ; t h e 1693
9 ] ; Forrest,
Bugis i n South
Sulawesi
s p e a k e r s o f Makassar
(Mattulada, 1982b), t h i s
reflects
t h e much
a r e a o c c u p i e d by t h e B u g i s , a t p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s
those of t h e Makassar. The u l t i m a t e
Gowa w o u l d
Makassar
appear
t o have been b u i l t
languages e s t a b l i s h e d
more i m m e d i a t e
Sulawesi's
c e n t u r y AD
historical
(13.4).
greater
below
foundations of greater
on a l o c a l
presence of
by 3000 y e a r s b e f o r e h a n d . T h e
f o u n d a t i o n s c a n be t r a c e d
first
found
to the rise
kingdoms by a t l e a s t
of South
the 13th
*—^
T
1
Latest Tertiary
to Quaternary
Deposits
Middle Tertiary
to Quaternary
Volcanics
Ophiolites
Upper Tertiary
to Lower Q u a t ernary Marine
Sedimentary
Rocks
Tertiary Acid to
Intermediate
Intrusives
Metamorphiics
o
cc
<
z
o
-2°N
2°S
\R F A U L T S
SUBDUCTION
ZONES
FIGURE 1-1A
-
A°S
MAJOR GEOLOGICAL
FEATURES OF SULAWESI
l A F T E R K A T I L I , 1978)
-6°S
120°E
122°E
12/.°E
1
Altitude (metres above sea level)
^
Fbrtly Sligtitly Metamorphised Mesozoic
to Middle Tertiary
Sedimentary Rocks
^
T
126°E
•
0 - 150
g
1 5 0 - 300
H
300 - 1500
•
1S004
Permanently Hunid •
> 30CO
2SOO-3CXX)
S l i g l r t l y Seasonal
2000-2500
Quite S e a s c n a l
15OO-20OO
S t r o n g l y Seasonal
10OO-15OO
FIGURE 1-2B.
FZGURB 1-2B.
MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL IN rttLLIMETRES
(ATER FOTJTANBL AND CHANTEFORT, 1978)
SBASarmLITY
(AFTER WOTTEN EI AL.. 19Gr7:FIC. 1.13)
SANGIHETALAUO
» GROUP
PHILIPPINE-
RELAfED
LANGUAGES
OTHER WESTERN
MALAYO-POLYNESIAN
LANGUAGES
FIGURE 1-2C.
AGROCLIMATIC
TONES
(AFTER OLDEMAN AND DARMIYATI, 137V)
A. 10-12 C c r a o c u t i u e Wet Months
B. 7-9 C o n s e c u t i w Wet Month*
j 3 C o r a e c u t i v a Dry Months
C. 5-6 ConBBCutivB Met Months
f 3 CcnBecutive Dry Months
D. 3-4 C o n s B c u t i v s Hart Months
2-6 C o n s e c u t i v a Dry Months
B. 0-2 C o n s e c u t i v e Uet Months
$ 6 C o n s e c u t i v e Dry Months
FIGURE 1-215.
MAJOR LINGUISHC D I V I S I C f B OF
SULPi^T
SALZNER-S MAP MODIFIED AFTER BARR FT AL- (1979) AND
^ ^ A N D GRIMES (19er7,. T E B t U ^ l ^ OF
GRIMES (19ff7) USED FOR SOimWEST INDWreSIAN GROUPS-
FiGtra:
MODERN
POPULATION
D E N S I T I E S
IN
1-3
SUI^AWESI
KECAMATAN
BV
KAWIO t
ISLANDS »
TALAUO /
ISLANOS^
SANGIHE
ISLANDS
f
300 - 600
600 -
TUKANC
MSI
*
SOUTHEAST
SULAWESI
SOUTH
SULAWESI
BONERATE
ISLANDS
^
ISLANDS
900
km
Human G e o g r a p h i c a l
Kabupatsn
Divisii
Divisions
F>rovirK:ial
Capital
Kahtipaten C a p i t a l s
I
o
/
NORTHERN
MANDAR
CENTRAL
COASTAL
\
O t h e r Main
(.Kabupaten
capital
Places
h a v e t h e same name a s t h e i r
unless otherxjise indicated)
HIGHLANDS
RENINS ULAl
\
\
o
MASAM8A
LUWU
O
o
SA89ANG
MAMUJU I
\
TANA
\
/
MAMASi^^JORAJA
'MANDAR/)
LUWUK
'COASTAL PLAIN'
\
je,^,Ep^o\\.<^LOPO
/MAKALE.,'
^
r/
~\
G U L F OF
;
_^POLMAS
\
WOTU
BONE
\BUKIT1
— I R A N T E ^
VsOUTHERN^iO-^,-^^
POLEWALI
V
\\CENTRALT
ihlGHLANOr"^
"Majene
/•sungaiV-^
,
)SAj<DAJiC_5^'^3
; SIDRAP
PINRANG^IS^
^
VIA^R^'-^";"^^^" W A J O
- - ^ SID-eTOANAU
PAREtA<ENRD*fc(SI OE N R E N Q
PARE /
\U TEMPEj
1
•CirASENGKANG
(SOPPENGl
SOUTH
^
SULAWESI
VL
*SUNGAI ^
CENRANA^
AWATAN-
PENINSULA
^ WATAMPONE
/SUNGAI
(WALANAE
Major Goomorphological
F e a t u r e s o f t h e E»eiiinsula
a s t a k e n from L a n d s a t Images.
BONE
'GOWA
•
SINJAI
J>
/
, I,
rSUNGAntKN-(
SEKBERANG
1/(
TAKALART
/-—•
. ^
SOUTH
GUNUNG^^
?
^ ^ T T A N ^ / 1 ' ' M E N G \A
JENEPONTO
SELAYAR
ISLAND
SELAYAR(
SUI-AWESI
J^j-
PROVINCB
BCIUNMRY
LEXXOOBinnsmcAL
BOUNDRRXBS
75-30%
(LA^EUnGHS)
60-75%
(SUBFAMILIBS)
45-eO% (FnMXLZES)
25-45% (STOCKS)
'REMAINDER
STOCK"
"MAKASSAR
STOCK"
(AFTER GKDSBS
LAIYOLO
FIC3UKE
1-5.
FOEiMM^
X^ICXDSTATISTICAX.
S O O T H StXLAWESI HJUSKStJAG
AND GRIMHS, 1987)
P h o t o 1-1.
M a k a s s a r , c . 1 6 3 8 . P a r t o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f c o l o u r e d maps
c a l l e d t h e Secret
A t J a s o f t h e E a s t I n d i a Company,
drawn
C.1670 f r o m s k e t c h e s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s b r o u g h t b a c k b y VOC
s h i p s , and h e l d by t h e O s t e r r e i c h i s c h e N a t i o n a l b i b l i o t h e k
B i l d - A r c h i v und P o r t r i t - S a m m l u n g .
P h o t o g r a p h by Anthony R e i d .
A.
Somba
Opu
fortress.
B.
The r o y a l p a l a c e , s t a n d i n g on m a s s i v e
with a covered entrance stairway.
c.
Another
D,
The
royal
storehouses.
E.
The
royal
mosque.
F.
The
Portuguese
G.
The
Gujerati
H.
The
Danish
L.
The
English
M.
The
great
0,
The
new
P.
A f i n e r i v e r , n a v i g a b l e by s h i p s
mouth, r i g h t o f t h e p h o t o g r a p h ) .
R.
A r i v e r on t h e n o r t h s i d e o f t h e r o y a l p a l a c e w i t h
two t o f o u r v o e t e n ( a r o u n d o n e m e t r e ) o f w a t e r .
wooden
pillars,
palace.
quarter.
quarter.
factory, previously occupied
by t h e
Dutch.
factory.
market.
market.
( t h e main G a r a s s i k
P h o t o 1-2.
A u s s a t ' s L a n d s a t image o f t h e S o u t h S u l a w e s i p e n i n s u l a
( o r i g i n a l s c a l e 1 : 2 5 0 k ) . N o t e t h e t w o a r c h e d c o r d i l l e r a s of
v o l c a n i c s and u p l i f t e d marine s e d i m e n t s , e n c l o s i n g t h e
W a l a n a e g r a b e n w h i c h e n d s i n t h e Tempe d e p r e s s i o n , w h i l e the
Sungai Walanae i t s e l f c o n t i n u e s e a s t w a r d s a s t h e Sungai
Cenrana. The Sungai J e k n e k b e r a n g a p p e a r s a t b o t t o m - l e f t .
C 049681
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