KSCPP Series VII The Practice of Hongik Ingan

The Practice of Hongik Ingan
“To Live for the Benefit of All Mankind”
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Published by Diamond Sutra Recitation Group
Publisher Jae-woong Kim
Editorial Board Hyang-jin Jung, Ji-seon Lee, Hang-jin Chang,
Yoon-sang Han, and Matthew Jackson
First edition, March 2011
Second edition, November 2014
ISBN: 978-0-9797263-8-5
Not for sale or profit
Printed in the Republic of Korea
The Romanization of Korean words in this book follows the Korean Government’s
“Revised Romanization of Korean,” except in the case of prominent figures and places
for which alternative usages are better known.
After reading this book, we would appreciate it if you would donate it
to a library or school near you, so that it can be shared with others. Thank you.
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Contents
Timeline of Korean History  4
Founding Philosophy of Korea  5
Dangun Wanggeom’s Eight Codes of Conduct  10
Gojoseon in Chinese Thoughts and Literature  13
Ancient Korean Civilization  16
The Hongik Ingan Lives On  23
The Noble Families of Korea  27
Queen Seondeok: Korea’s First Female Leader  39
Master Wonhyo: Sharing Enlightenment  59
King Sejong the Great  87
Yi Yulgok: An Exemplary Seonbi  125
Heo Jun: A Legendary Doctor  161
Kim Mandeok: Jeju Island’s “Lady of Virtue”  173
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Timeline of Korean History
BC 2333~BC 108
Gojoseon: The First Kingdom of Korea
(Bronze Age & Iron Age)
BC 57~AD 668
Three Kingdoms Period: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla
668
Three Kingdoms unified under Silla
668~ 935
Unified Silla and Balhae
918~1392
Goryeo Dynasty
1392~ 1910
Joseon Dynasty
1910~1945
Japanese Occupation
1948
Korea divided into North (DPRK) and South (ROK)
1950~1953
Korean War
1988
South Korea hosts Summer Olympic Games in Seoul
1995
South Korea joins OECD
2002
South Korea and Japan Co-host 2002 FIFA World Cup
2010
South Korea hosts G20 Summit in Seoul
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The Founding Philosophy of Korea
In the distant past, it is related that Hwanin (Lord of
Heaven) had a son by the name of Hwanung. Hwanung was
intrigued by the world below and wished to know more of the
human race. Aware of his son’s wish, Hwanin looked out
upon the earth. His gaze fell upon Samwi Taebaek, and
perceiving it to be a place where the philosophy of Hongik
Ingan (living for the benefit of all mankind) might flourish,
Hwanin gave his son the Cheon Bu In and sent him down
1
from Heaven to rule in the world below.
With a retinue of three thousand, Hwanung lighted upon
the summit of Mount Taebaek. Catching sight of a divine
birch tree that stood nearby, he named his new dwelling place
“The City of God.” From this point on, he was known as the
Heavenly
1
Emperor
Hwanung.
Together
with
his
three
Although we cannot be certain what is meant by Cheon Bu In, the three
items it refers to could well have been a sword, a mirror, and jade. The
sword is an instrument used to punish criminals, a round mirror is an
instrument that reflects the round sky, and a bell made out of jade is an
instrument that conveys the voice of Heaven. These three items are the most
common relics that survive from the Gojoseon period.
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Ministers—Wind, Rain, and Cloud—he lived in the mortal
realm and enlightened the souls of the people, keeping watch
over
the
three-hundred-and-sixty
cares
of
mankind,
including items such as grain, span of life, disease,
punishment, and good and evil.
During this time, a bear and a tiger dwelled together in a
certain cave. Their deepest wish was that Hwanung would
turn them into human beings. Hwanung heard their prayer,
and set before them a bundle of divine mugwort and twenty
bulbs of garlic, saying, “If you eat only this food and see no
sunlight for one hundred days, you will take on a human
form.” The bear and the tiger agreed, and ate only what
Hwanung had given them. After some time, the tiger was
unable to endure the hardship any longer, and gave up
before fulfilling his vow. The bear, on the other hand, after
enduring for twenty-one days, was transformed into a woman.
Because Wungnyeo (bear-woman) had no one to wed, she
prayed devotedly under the divine birch tree for a child.
Answering her prayer, Hwanung assumed human form and
took her for his wife. She bore a son, and he was named
Dangun Wanggeom. In the year of the tiger (2333 BC), Dangun
Wanggeom established the country’s capital in Pyongyang
and named the country Joseon (Land of Morning Calm).
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The above story is taken from the famous work Samguk Yusa
(Memorabilia of Three Kingdoms) compiled by Iryon (1206-1289). Iryon, a
Buddhist monk, was appointed as State Counselor to advise the king’s
court on issues of national importance. Samguk Yusa contains not only
official historical records but also various myths and folktales, and is
regarded as one of the most important historical sources on ancient
Korea.
The founding story of Gojoseon, the original kingdom of Korea,
appears in the opening pages of Samguk Yusa. While brief, it contains a
number of profound symbols and ideas that are intrinsic to Korea’s
cultural and spiritual foundation.
The story suggests that Korean civilization came about due to the
grace of Heaven. From ancient times, Korean people have revered the
Heavens as a source of life and prosperity. In modern times as well, on
every 3rd of October, Koreans celebrate the festival of Gaecheonjeol
(literally “the day when Heaven opens its heart”) as a national holiday,
and perform ceremonies to express their gratitude.
Hwanung (Lord of Heaven), his son Hwanin, and his grandson
Dangun represent Cheon (Heaven), Ji (Earth), and In (Human). They are
not separate but linked as one, symbolizing the harmony of the universe.
This concept is found in almost all aspects of traditional Korean culture,
including language, music, art, architecture, scientific inventions and
even cuisine. One example is the vowels of the Korean alphabet (ㅏ, ㅑ,
ㅓ, ㅕ, ㅗ, ㅛ, ㅜ, ㅠ, ㅡ, ㅣ), created by King Sejong in 1443. They are a
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combination of symbols representing Cheon (—representing the round
heaven), Ji (horizontal line—representing the flat earth), and In (vertical
line—representing a human being).
Finally, the original purpose for the founding of Gojoseon was to
allow the practice of Hongik Ingan (living for the benefit of humankind) to
flourish. This founding philosophy has been passed from generation to
generation and become the spiritual foundation of the Korean people.
Throughout its long history, Korea has never invaded other countries,
and its dynasties have enjoyed rare longevity. The Goryeo and Joseon
dynasties each lasted 500 years, Goguryeo and Baekje 700 years, and the
Silla dynasty lasted for 1,000 years.2 It is thanks to this longevity that
Korea possesses a truly exquisite cultural heritage, and has made
an extensive contribution to the development of Eastern civilization.
There is another lesson that we learn from the story of the bear and
the tiger, and their endeavor to become human. In order to overcome
difficulties and to achieve the great aim of the Hongik Ingan,
perseverance is more important than brute force. Garlic and mugwort
2
In Chinese history, there were many short lived dynasties—for example the
Sui, which existed for only thirty—eight years. Even the longest dynasty
(adding together the duration of both the Northern Song and the Southern
Song) existed for about three hundred years. In Japan, although there was an
emperor, the position was that of ruler in name only, and the actual power
was held by nobles and samurai, so that it had no period of dynasties with
centralized power. In contrast, Korean dynasties such as Goguryeo, Baekjae,
Silla, Goryeo, and Joseon, all lasted for over five hundred years.
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taste bitter but are good for one’s health. In the same way, life’s
hardships are painful to deal with, but they make us wiser and stronger.
Perseverance is a vital quality that enables us to endure and transcend
our difficulties. The Mongol invasions of Korea in the 13th century and
the Japanese colonization in the early 20th century, to name two
examples, were times of great suffering for the Korean people. During
such times, this teaching of endurance served as a powerful source of
strength and inspiration, making it possible to overcome such national
crises and preserve Korea’s cultural identity.
The spiritual values conveyed in the story of Korea’s founding can be
summed up in three words: reverence, compassion and perseverance.
Living a life of revering the Heavens, practicing compassion toward all
living
beings,
and
overcoming
obstacles,
discouragements
and
impossibilities with perseverance—they can be seen as the basis of a
spiritual education. The following pages will go further into the teachings
of the founding father Dangun, and how these teachings have been put
into practice by Koreans throughout history.
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Dangun Wanggeom’s Eight Codes of Conduct
Dangun was a title held by the rulers of Gojoseon. The Dangun Segi
are the annals of 47 Dangun, compiled by renowned scholar and civil
official Yi Am (1297-1364). According to Dangun Segi, the first Dangun
guided people to lead a virtuous life by establishing the “Eight Codes of
Conduct.”
Dangun Wanggeom issued a royal edict as follows:
1. There is only One Law
3
in Heaven, and there are no two
separate entrances to Heaven: only a person who possesses
the One Mind4 , founded upon sincere devotion, can behold
the face of God.
3
The “One Law” means principles based on the Truth that are wholly just
and completely free from error.
4
The “One Mind” is a spiritual concept; it refers to a pure mind without any
doubts and discriminations that has become one with the teachings of
Heaven. Traditionally, Koreans have believed that everyone is connected
with this One Mind, and all conflicts and confusion arise from the
forgetfulness of this fact.
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2. Just as there is One Law in Heaven, so is there One Law for the
human
mind.
Examining
your
own
mind,
deepen
your
understanding of the minds of others. If your mind is in harmony
with others, this is in keeping with the law of the Heavens. With
this mind, you will bring peace to the whole world.
3. Take thought for your parents, who gave you life. Since your
parents are descended from the Heavens, it is only by serving
them well that you can serve the Heavens.
4. Animals have their mates, and even a worn out shoe has its
fellow. Even so, men and women should live in harmony. Do not
harbor resentment or jealousy, and
refrain from sexual
misconduct.
5. No matter which one of your ten fingers is bitten, the pain is
the same. Therefore, love and do not find fault with one another.
Help and do not hurt one another. This way your household and
nation will prosper.
6. Look at the horses and cattle—they share their food and do not
quarrel. So should you yield to one another, refrain from theft by
stealth or by force, and work together to make your household
and nation prosperous
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7. The tiger’s nature is wild and violent, and it causes calamities.
Do not act with violence and impatience, for these bring harm to
yourself and to others. Always abide by the laws of the Heavens,
and harbor love for all beings. Protect the one who is in danger,
and do not disdain the weak. Help the one who is in misery, and
do not despise the poor. If you go against this principle, you will
never receive the help of God and your body and household will
come to ruin.
8. If you fight with one another and set the fields ablaze, the grain
will be burned up, and you will incur the wrath of both men and
God. No matter where you go or what you do to hide yourself,
good and evil each have their own scent and will reveal you.
Guard your inner nature well and do not cherish evil thoughts.
Do not conceal evil, and do not harbor the intent to harm others.
Only revere the Heavens and love the people, and your blessed
fortune will be boundless.
Let all the people honor and practice these words sincerely.
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Gojoseon in Chinese Thoughts and Literature
The founding philosophy of “Living for the benefit of all humankind”
and other noble teachings by successive Dangun purified the people’s
minds and filled their hearts with warmth and generosity. We can gain
valuable insight into the culture and customs of Gojoseon by examining
ancient Chinese records.
In ancient Chinese literature, the people of neighboring countries are
commonly portrayed as uncivilized and barbaric, but Gojoseon was an
exception. In many of these historical works, Gojoseon was often referred
to as “a land of the virtuous (君子國),” and it is said that Confucius,
having become disillusioned with Chinese politics, desired to live and
share his philosophy in Gojoseon. He admired the enlightened sages of
ancient Korea, such as the legendary Emperor Shun, and we find that
their teachings regarding filial devotion, loyalty, self-discipline and
compassionate way of life reflected in tenets of Confucianism.
In 268 BC, Kong Bin, a descendant of Confucius, compiled the
Biographies of Dongyi (東夷列傳)5. In the preface, referring to Gojoseon,
he said: “Although it is a powerful nation, its people are not arrogant.
5
Korea is located to the east of China, and so Korean people were called
“Dong Yi” (Great People of the East) by the ancient Chinese.
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Although it has a strong army, it does not invade other territories. Its
customs are virtuous, and people yield to one another on the streets. The
hungry are fed so that no one will starve. In that country, men and
women keep separate living quarters. In view of this, it is truly a virtuous
and civilized nation in the East.”
In Shenyijing (神異經), Dongfang Shuo (東方朔; BC 153-BC 93), a well
known scholar of the Chinese Han Dynasty, spoke of the Korean people
as follows: “They sit with decorum and do not try to harm others. They
respect one another and hold back from criticism. When they see others
who are in danger, they do not hesitate to sacrifice themselves to help
them. ”
One of the world’s oldest geographical works, the Classic of
Mountains and Seas (山海經), states: “In the East there is a righteous
nation. The people are of seemly dress, men wearing a sword at their
waist. They enjoy putting others before themselves and do not quarrel.”
Book of the Later Han (後漢書) compiled by Fan Ye and others in the
5th century, mentions that “Dongyi people are compassionate and take
care of all living things. Since they are good-natured, their country is
ruled with morality. They are immortal beings of virtue.”
A belief that the people of Gojoseon were “immortal” seems to have
been widespread in China. Qin Shi Huang, famous for uniting China
under him in 221 BC and building the Great Wall, feared death and
desperately tried to obtain the fabled elixir of life, which he believed
would allow him to live forever. He is said to have been certain that the
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elixir could be found “in the East,” and dispatched thousands of young
men and women in search of it. Many scholars think the “East” refers to
Gojoseon, which is known to have produced famous medicinal herbs
such as ginseng. Much to the emperor’s dismay, all his attempts to find
the elixir failed, and he died at the age of 50. Rather than any mysterious
herb, the “secret of immortality” that the Gojoseon people possessed is
more likely to have been their love of peace and respect for the divine.
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Ancient Korean Civilization
The territory of Gojoseon was vast, covering not only the Korean
peninsula but also the greater part of Manchuria, which is now held by
China and Russia. Later Korean dynasties such as Buyeo, Goryeo and
Balhae were also established in this area. Recent archaeological
excavations and scientific studies show that Gojoseon was at the cuttingedge of both arts and science.
A Kingdom of Dolmens
Gojoseon existed from the 24th to the 2nd century BC, or in
archaeological terms, throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages. It also
coincided with the so-called megalithic period, when dolmen (Kor.
Goindol; single-chamber structures consisting of vertical and horizontal
stones) and menhirs (freestanding boulders) were erected, often for the
purpose of burial or religious ceremonies. In terms of scientific history,
this is when Korean astronomy began.
The largest concentration of dolmens in the world is found in
Manchuria and the Korean peninsula. Of the 80,000 dolmens across the
world, more than two-thirds are located in this area.
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A Dolmen Structure
The Mesopotamian region, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer,
Assyria, and Babylonia were located, has traditionally been regarded as
the birthplace of ancient astronomy and one of the four cradles of
human civilization. The Babylonian star catalogues dating from about
1200 BC are commonly regarded as the earliest examples of astronomy.
Remarkably,
recent
research
has
confirmed
that
images
of
constellations found on dolmens near the Daedong River in the northern
Korean peninsula date from 3000 BC, preceding the Babylonian charts by
some 1800 years. The dolmens with engravings of astronomical charts
number around 200, and are found mostly in Pyongyang.
17
The most well-known of these constellation patterns is found on the
surface of a dolmen from Woesae Mountain in the South Pyeongan
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Province. The cover stone of the dolmen tomb bears 80 holes, with the
center representing the North Pole, and the other holes making up 11
different constellations. The size of the holes also varies according to the
brightness of the star, and when the observations were dated, taking the
precession of equinoxes into account, it was determined that they
represent the night sky from 2800 BC (±220 years).
Dolmen constellations have also been discovered in the southern
Korean peninsula. In 1978, Professor Lee Yung-jo discovered a small
stone tablet (23.5cm wide, 32.5cm long) in a dolmen site submerged in the
Daecheong Dam in North Chungcheong Province. The tablet bears 65
small and large holes, between 2cm and 7cm in diameter. Through
computer simulation, Professor Park Changbom of the Korea Institute for
Advanced Study established that it was an astronomical chart from 500
BC, depicting constellations such as the Big Dipper, the Little Dipper, the
Dragon and Cassiopeia. There was also a correlation between the size of
the holes and the brightness of the star.
There are no other monuments in the world that depict the
constellations as early as several thousand years ago, let alone on such a
vast scale and with such accuracy, discriminating by level of brightness.
Astronomers have remarked that these dolmen stones deserve to be
classified as one of the wonders of the world. However, these findings are
not yet widely publicized.
We can assume that this mysterious astronomical legacy is related in
some way to the culture of the Gojoseon people and their deep reverence
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for the Heavens. The astronomical tradition was kept alive by their
descendants, who created the world’s oldest all-sky star chart, mapping
1,467 stars, in the 1st century AD, as well as the world’s oldest
observatory (Cheomseongdae) in the 7th century AD, and in addition
more than 20,000 systematic records of astronomical phenomena over
two millennia.
Bronze Mirror
It is often assumed that humanity’s grasp of science during the
Bronze Age was rudimentary, given its proximity to the Stone Age.
However, there is an item from the Bronze Age that 21st century science
still struggles to recreate. The item is a small bronze mirror, made 2,400
years ago in the Gojoseon period. Its name, “Danyusemungyeong,”
means a finely-decorated mirror with multiple handles.
The intricacy and minute scale of the geometric design and molding
technology
represent
the
culmination
of
centuries
of
metal
craftsmanship. The diameter of this bronze-mirror is 21.2cm, no greater
than the span of a palm. On its surface we find elaborate engravings,
consisting of more than 13,000 separate lines. The distance between each
line is just 0.3mm. The thickness of the line and the tread is
approximately 0.22mm, and the tread itself is about 0.07mm deep. No
part of the mirror is left undecorated.
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A Bronze Mirror Created 2400 Years Ago
Given this level of precision and detail, it would be a difficult task for
a professional technician to replicate the mirror on a drafting board,
even with modern equipment. The mirror’s delicate designs, however,
21
were originally achieved with the use of a casting technique (melting
bronze and pouring it into a mold), which would make the task far harder
to manage with precision.
Similar fine-patterned mirrors can be found all throughout the
Korean peninsula, and in other areas influenced by Gojoseon such as
Manchuria and parts of Japan. The fact that they are not found in China
indicates that these mirrors are part of Korea’s unique bronze heritage.
Approximately 100 examples have been excavated to date, with National
Treasure No. 141 being the largest and the most exquisite. The mirror
can be regarded as a true masterpiece of advanced molding techniques
and refined aesthetics.
To date, there have been numerous efforts to reproduce National
Treasure No. 141. Attempts to make a wax mold by engraving designs
onto copperplate, lead, or mud, have met with little success, and copies
made using this method have without exception been inferior to the
original.
This mastery of metal has endured through the ages. It can be seen
in the world’s most delicate gilt-bronze artworks, also produced in Korea,
such as the Banga Sayusang, the Great Incense Burner of Baekje, and the
Sarira Reliquary of Gameunsa Temple. This tradition would continue in
the 13th century with the invention of the world’s first moveable metal
type, and in the 16th century with the world’s first iron-clad warship.
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The Hongik Ingan Lives On
In 1997, Korea faced a deep economic crisis. Excessive expansion by
conglomerates, coupled with non-performing loans and aggressive
trading by currency speculators, had left Korea bankrupt—in a similar
fashion to the recent Greek debt crisis.
The response, however, was unique. People lined up outside banks,
not to withdraw money, but to donate gold, often in the form of prized
family heirlooms, in support of the beleaguered economy. Housewives
gave up their wedding rings, war veterans donated medals and trophies,
and many gave their golden “luck” keys, a traditional present intended to
bring good fortune, usually given upon the opening of a new business or
a 60th birthday.
To witness people from all walks of life rallying together in a spirit of
self-sacrifice was a truly heart-warming spectacle. These grass-roots
efforts alone raised more than a billion dollars, and the government was
ultimately able to repay the bailout loans years ahead of schedule. Two
decades on, Korea is a member of the G-20—representing the world’s 20
largest economies—the 9th largest trading country, and the 6th largest
exporting nation.
Korean history contains many such examples of public self-sacrifice
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and working together for a greater cause. 90 years before the gold
donation campaign in 1997, there was a similar movement called
Gukchae Bosang Undong. Prior to the invasion and colonization of the
Korean peninsula, the Japanese government lent a large sum of money to
Korea, hoping to place the country under their effective control. When
this became known to the public, a campaign to repay the debt with the
private funds of ordinary citizens was launched in Daegu, and soon
spread to the entire country. In order to provide these funds, women
donated hairpins and jewelry, and many husbands gave up smoking. Not
only the privileged in society, but day-laborers, beggars, courtesans,
prisoners and foreign visitors inspired by the movement, all either
donated money or supported the campaign in whatever way possible to
help save the country.
Another notable example of the Korean people working together for
the common good comes from the 13th century, during the time of the
Mongolian invasions. In 1232, faced with repeated attacks by an enemy
that had already conquered as far as the Middle East, the Goryeo Dynasty
(918-1392) relocated its capital to Ganghwa Island on the country’s
western coast. It was here that the national defense project—the Tripitaka
Koreana—had been launched.
The Tripitaka Koreana was a complete collection of Buddhist
scriptures carved on more than 80,000 printing blocks. If we were to pile
the woodblocks on top of one another, they would reach a height of 3.2
kilometers, more than 8 times taller than the Empire State Building, and
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just a little shy of Mont Blanc, the highest point in Europe. The text
consists of 52 million characters, and would take one person over 30
years to read.
The making of 80,000 printing blocks, from the preparation of the
wood itself to the actual engraving of the letters, required considerable
resources and manpower. Moreover, the project was undertaken in a
time of war. Nonetheless, the people of Goryeo believed a spiritual
foundation to be of utmost importance in defending the country. They
therefore turned to Buddha to restore peace in their land. People of
diverse social status, from high-ranking scholars to workaday farmers,
contributed to the project either with financial assistance or by taking
part in its actual making.
Because participation was entirely voluntary, the faith and devotion
of those who took part was wholly sincere. The engravers are said to
have made three full ceremonial bows to Buddha before carving each
character—in total, 150 million bows for 50 million characters. Such
dedication is difficult to imagine today, and perhaps this is why the
Tripitaka Koreana remains the world’s most accurate and beautifully
engraved copy of the Buddhist scriptures, and a place of pilgrimage for
many Buddhists in Asia.
In Korea, Buddhism was introduced in the 4th century AD and
flourished for the next 1,000 years. Confucianism took the place of
Buddhism as the official state religion during the 14th century, and in the
20th century Christianity grew to be one of the country’s main faiths.
25
While various religions and philosophies have exerted a profound
influence on the country over different time periods, the Hongik Ingan
has remained as the spiritual foundation of the Korean people.
In the following pages we will look at examples of families and
individuals who made sincere efforts to practice the Hongik Ingan,
through actions as well as words. While philosophies, religions and social
norms may have shifted, and while the characters in the stories vary in
social status and position, we find the same core values in their deeds
and in their daily lives. When facing great hardships, they never
abandoned what they felt to be their duty, and consequently made an
invaluable contribution to the fortunes of their country and its people.
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The Noble Families of Korea
For Korea, the last century began with Japanese occupation (19101945), and continued with the Korean War (1950-1953) and the country’s
subsequent division. For the South, this was followed by a period of rapid
economic development. In the course of this troubled period, many of
Korea’s national heritage sites were lost.
A small number of the old buildings and palaces have survived,
however, and through them we can behold the beauty of ancient Korea.
We can also discern within them a scientific approach combined with a
respect for nature—the hallmark of traditional Korean architecture.
At
first
glance,
the
surviving
palaces
in
Seoul,
such
as
Gyeongbokgung and Changdeokgung, and the traditional houses in other
regions of Korea, appear plainer and more ordinary than the palaces,
castles, and stately homes of other countries. The opulence of France’s
Versailles Palace, for example, or China’s Forbidden City, cannot be
found in Korea’s old buildings.
This was not due to lack of skills or resources. As mentioned,
Koreans had a high regard for nature, and aspired to learn from it and
emulate its beauty. Furthermore, when an extravagant palace is built, it
places a heavy burden of tax and labor upon the people. For this reason,
27
while recognizing the importance of preserving the dignity and authority
of the nation, Korean kings tended to avoid extravagance when building
palaces.
Likewise, people who owned properties in areas of great natural
beauty generally erred on the side of modesty, while making an effort to
keep their houses and gardens tidy and unspoiled. What made a house
beautiful, they believed, was not its outward appearance, but the nobility
of the owner’s mind and spirit. The saying “Good fortune follows a
generous household” is an ancient one, going back thousands of years.
The sense of duty and moral obligation was more powerful even than the
guiding force of the law.
The Seongyojang of Gangneung, Bukchondaek of Hahwe Village,
Wunjoru of Gurye, and the Wealthy House of Choi in Gyeongju are wellknown examples of this ideal being put into practice.
Seongyojang
Seongyojang is a 300-year-old stately home located near the eastern
coast, and is considered to be one of the most beautiful examples of
traditional Korean architecture. It was built by Yi Naebeon (1703–1781),
11th descendant of Prince Hyoryeong, who was himself the second son of
King Taejong and brother of King Sejong. Later, his own descendants
extended the building, until eventually the estate contained 120 rooms in
total.
28
Seongyojang in Gangwon Province
The picturesque Gyeongpo Lake is located in front of Seongyojang.
The hill behind it is covered thickly with old pine trees, and the mountain
tops and ocean can be seen in the distance. The Gyeongpodae pavilion is
known for having the most exquisite views in Gangwon Province. It is said
to be a place where five moons can be seen—in the sky, in the East Sea,
in Gyeongpo Lake, in one’s drinking cup, and in the eyes of one’s beloved.
The beauty of Seongyojang, which has held so many visitors, scholars,
writers, artists, and foreign dignitaries captive, does not lie merely in the
buildings and scenery, but in the warm and benevolent spirit of those
who dwelled there. At a time when inns and taverns were not well
established, Seongyojang was known for providing free room and board
29
for those traveling through Gangwon Province. Indeed, the estate was
said to keep enough bowls to provide 300 visitors with a seven-dish meal
all at one sitting. As they departed, guests were given new clothes and
money for their journey.
Yi Naebeon, having cultivated salt farms and accumulated great
wealth, came to own a substantial amount of land in Gangwon Province.
By the time his grandson Yi Hu (1773–1832) was born, these lands were
producing in excess of 10,000 sacks of grain per year. When his two
brothers passed away, he had more rooms added to the residence, and
invited the families of his deceased brothers to come and live with him.
To his descendants, Yi Hu bequeathed the words according to which
he lived his own life. “If you acquire wealth rightfully, your prosperity is
assured. If you acquire it wrongfully, you will come to ruin. If a man does
not share his wealth with others, Heaven brings disaster upon him, takes
his wealth away, and gives it to others just the same.” He was considerate
in his dealings with farmers, and managed his land with their economic
wellbeing in mind. In gratitude, the tenant farmers once presented him
with an umbrella made of calico. Because it bore the signatures of 10,000
people, it was known as the “Shade of Ten-Thousand Men.”
The descendants of Seongyojang honored the tradition inherited from
their ancestors of sharing and giving away what they had. Yi Bonggu
(1802–1868), who was mayor of Tongcheon during King Yeongjo’s reign
once distributed 5,000 sacks of rice to the starving, when a severe famine
fell upon the land.
30
Seongyojang in Summer
31
Yi Geunwu (1877–1938) was an active patron of the arts. He invited
accomplished musicians from all over the country to stay at his home for
several months at a time. During their stay, he organized public concerts
so that many people could appreciate their music, and paid the
musicians handsomely in respect of their efforts. More broadly, he
devoted himself to education, converting the storage buildings of
Seongyojang into a school for the general public. He also donated
substantial funds to those leading the independence movement during
the Japanese occupation. The family of Seongyojang knew that their
wealth was a blessing from the Heavens, and used it as means of
practicing generosity and virtue to be accumulated in the Heavens from
generation to generation.
Bukchondaek of Hahwe Village
In the southeastern part of the Korean peninsula, there is a village
called Hahwe. It is a peaceful town, consisting of picturesque tile-roofed
houses and thatched huts, protected by a range of hills that extends from
Mount Taebak. The Nakdong River curves gracefully by on its way to the
sea. This serene and beautiful town is often referred to as “The Town of
Nobles,” as it has produced many high-ranking officials and shcolars,
including Prime Minister Ryu Songryong.
There are many historic houses in the village of Hahwe, but
Bukchondaek (literally “House of the Northern Village”) is regarded as
32
Hahwe Village in Andong
one of the nation’s finest. The house is the largest in the village,
occupying approximately two acres of land and containing 72 rooms in
total. As a household, it has enjoyed both wealth and high reputation for
over seven generations.
The house originally became well-known in the region following a
flood that occurred in the summer of 1859. One night, a ferry boat that
was carrying a group of mourners to a funeral ceremony in Hahwe was
overturned in mid-course.
At the time, there were no electric torches or street lamps, and so the
area was completely dark. Those who fell into the river screamed for help,
but no boats were nearby to rescue them.
As luck would have it, there were beside the river many piles of well
dried chunyang (a variety of pine tree that grows in the mountains of
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Gangwon Province). Ryu Dosong, who was the governor of Gyeongsang
Province, had been drying them there for three years in order to build a
tile-roofed house with the timber. Since chunyang trees usually grow
straight and do not become knotted, they were highly sought after for
building houses.
Wishing to save the people, Ryu threw the chunyang wood into the
river in order to give them something to cling on to. When everyone was
able to float, he set fire to the remaining timber to provide light and
warmth to those who had paddled to shore. Thanks to his efforts, many
lives were saved.
Later on, with some difficulty, Ryu was able to replace the chunyang
lumber he had lost. After he had dried them for another three years, the
house could finally be built. The house was called Bukchondaek, and
remains standing to this day. Even after 150 years, his descendants are
more proud of Ryu’s generous spirit than the tile-roofed house that cost
him so much effort to make.
The Rice Chest of Wunjoru
In Gurye city, Jeolla Province, there is a house built by Yu Yiju (17261797) who served as governor there during the reign of King Yeongjo.
The house is called Wunjoru, which literally means “House of a Bird
Hiding in the Clouds.”
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In this house, there is a rice chest that has been in the family for
generations. It is a cylindrical chest, made from a hollowed-out log. On
the underside there is a small rectangular opening (5cm x 10cm), and on
the handle of the chest there is an inscription which reads “Unto each
and all,” meaning that anyone could freely take rice from the chest.
The Yu family used the rice chest to help needy people in the area.
Travelers who were passing through could also take rice from it. The
family placed the chest far away from the main building, so that those
who needed rice could take it without being observed.
The chest held up to two and a half sacks of rice (200 kg). When the
handle with the inscription was turned, the rice flowed out through the
opening at the base. Each person who used the chest normally withdrew
around two to four liters. People rarely took more than this, even though
there was no one to prevent them.
The Wunjoru family owned approximately 20 acres of rice paddy,
producing 200 sacks of rice every year. 36 of these were used to re-fill
the rice chest—meaning that the Yu family gave away almost one fifth of
their yearly income to those who needed it.
The owner of the household checked the contents of the chest each
month, and if there were ever any rice left over, he would say to his
daughter-in-law, “For our family to prosper, we must practice the virtue
of giving. Find out if any of our neighbors are in need of food and give it
to them straightaway. Make sure that the chest is empty by the end of
every month.”
35
The Gurye area experienced many peasant uprisings towards the end
of Joseon period and guerilla warfare during the Korean War.
Nevertheless, the Wunjoru house survived it all. This is without doubt
due to the family’s benevolent spirit, embodied in the rice chest that
brought warmth to the hearts of many people.
The Wealthy House of Choi
The Kingdom of Silla lasted for 1,000 years, from the 1st century BC
to the 10th century AD. As mentioned earlier, such a lengthy period of
unbroken rule is uncommon in world history.
The capital city of Silla was Gyeongju. In this city, for 400 years, there
6
lived a household of manseokgun , who were known as “The Wealthy
House of Choi.” The house consisted of 99 rooms spread over two acres
and ten acres of surrounding land, with a staff of 100 servants.
It is difficult to become wealthy, and harder still to remain so. The
House of Choi remained the wealthiest and most respected family in
Gyeongsang Province for 12 generations.
Nor was this by chance. Each generation remained faithful to the
following set of principles, inherited from their forebears: Do not allow
your wealth to exceed 10,000 sacks of grain. Never purchase another’s
6
An expression for a person whose income is equal to or greater than 10,000
sacks of rice per year.
36
land during a time of drought. For three years after marrying into the
family, daughters-in-law shall wear clothes made of cotton only.
Travelers who stay with us must receive good hospitality. No one within
100 li (40km) of our house must be allowed to perish from hunger.
Knowing that excessive greed would bring disaster, they gave back to
society anything they earned beyond 10,000 sacks of grain. This could be
done in various ways, for example by reducing the rent payable by the
tenant farmers. Prohibiting the purchase of land during a drought
followed a similar reasoning. When drought strikes, the price of land
generally falls. Buying up land during such a time was an easy way for
rich people to increase their wealth. However, the house of Choi was
ashamed to profit from the misfortunes of others.
Furthermore, in spite of their riches, they tried to live frugally. Since
the keys to the storage houses were kept by women and not by men, it
was particularly important for the women to have a frugal attitude.
Although during that time wealthy people normally wore clothes of silk,
new daughters-in-law were expected to wear cotton for three years, to
help them grow accustomed to the frugal lifestyle of their new family.
Thus, they were strict with themselves but generous to others. It is said
that of the annual income of 3,000 sacks of grain, 1,000 were spent on the
upkeep of the house, 1,000 upon serving household guests, and the
remaining 1,000 on helping people in the surrounding area. The bulwark
of the household, which helped to preserve its wealth and honor for 400
years, was the practice of caring for those around them and giving to
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others.
Today, the house of Choi is no longer wealthy. The last manseokgun
of the house was Choi Jun who, after Korea was liberated from Japan in
1945, donated his entire wealth to found Yeungnam University in Daegu.
His descendants today live in Seoul as ordinary citizens. Even the family
home, located in Gyodong, Gyeongju, has been made over to the
Yeungnam University Foundation. It can be safely said that the house of
Choi is one that has practiced Hongik Ingan to its fullest extent.
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Queen Seondeok: Korea’s First Female Leader
1,400 years ago in Korea, in the kingdom of Silla, King Jinpyeong was
concerned that he had no son to whom he could give the crown.
Recognizing the achievements of his first royal son-in-law, Yongchun, as
a leader in the elite youth forces or Hwarang, he decided to abdicate the
throne in his favor.
Aware of his intention, Princess Deokman, went to the king and said,
“Father, I request that you make Yongchun my private subject.”
The king was surprised, for it was clear that she herself was asking for
the throne. He was so impressed by her spirit, however, that he
eventually succeeded in having princess Deokman appointed as the new
heir to the throne.
Also, in deference to her request, the king commanded his son-in-law
Yongchun to pledge his allegiance to the new Queen. So it was that Queen
Seondeok came to power, the 27th ruler of the Silla kingdom, and the
first female monarch in Korean history.
39
Silla: the Unifier of Korea
In the first century BC, three rival kingdoms, Goguryeo, Baekje and
Silla, were established as separate nations in the Korean peninsula.
Goguryeo was located in the North. It successfully defended itself against
the continually invading forces of China, and steadily built up its power
against the influence of its formidable neighbor.
With its advanced steel-making technology and powerful military
system, Goguryeo had recovered the states of Yodong and Manchuria
from China. These states had originally been part of Korea during the
Gojoseon period (2333-108 BC). Goguryeo was at its zenith during the 5th
century, when it gained supremacy in the home peninsula and went on to
become the greatest power in East Asia.
The kingdom of Baekje lay in the southwest of the peninsula, covering
the present day provinces of Chungcheong and Jeolla. It was blessed with
the largest area of fertile agricultural land among the three kingdoms,
and so enjoyed the greatest economic prosperity. Fully exploiting its
geographical advantages, it became a focal point of ancient commerce,
serving as a trading intermediary between China and Japan.
The kingdom of Silla was slowest to develop, with a strong tribal
tradition that hindered its progress as a unified state. Being in the
mountainous southeast, it further suffered from a scarcity of farmland.
From the 6th century BC however, under the reign of King Jinheung, Silla
greatly increased and expanded its influence and power. By capturing the
40
basin of the Han River, previously held by Baekje, it came to occupy the
most strategically important point in the whole peninsula, and was in a
position to threaten even Goguryeo in the North.
In the early 7th century, during the reign of Queen Seondeok, the first
foundations for a unified Korea under Silla were laid. A series of attacks
by Baekje had brought the kingdom to a point of crisis, and the Queen
made the decision to form an alliance with the Chinese Tang Dynasty. Not
long afterwards, in 660 AD, the Silla-Tang coalition was victorious over
the forces of Baekje and conquered the entire kingdom, under the
command of the new Silla King Muyol (Kim Chun-chu) and his general,
Kim Yushin. The process of unification was completed eight years later
when Goguryeo finally admitted defeat before the forces of the alliance.
From that time onward, Tang China began to make its influence felt in
the former territories of Goguryeo and Baekje, and eventually came to
threaten Silla itself. In 670 AD, war broke out between the two powers,
when Silla crossed the Amnok River to attack its former ally.
Victory in two critical battles at Maesoseong (675) and Gibeolpo (676)
enabled Silla eventually to drive out the Tang from the peninsula, and
thus the integration of the three kingdoms was completed. The separate
states of Korea were established as one nation together, known from then
on as Unified Silla.
How was it possible for a small and remote country to defeat the
kingdoms of Baekje and Goguryeo, overcome the formidable Tang forces,
and bring the country under one rule? Behind the means which
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accomplished this great task of the day, there lies the sincere and
cherished resolve of a single mind. It was Queen Seondeok’s earnest
devotion that moved and guided the Silla people, and the concentrated
power of her will which enabled the dream of a unified Korea to become a
reality.
The Political Power of Queen Seondeok
Queen Seondeok’s first concern as ruler was the livelihood of her
people. Directly after her coronation, she sent royal inspectors to every
province to oversee the care and maintenance of the widows, widowers,
orphans, poor and elderly who had no family to support them. Through
this act of kindness, the Queen won the people’s support, and her
position was strengthened against opposition from the male aristocracy.
As a female ruler in a society dominated by males, Queen Seondeok
overcame her disadvantage by making the best use she could of the men
in her court. The most striking examples are those of Kim Chun-chu and
Kim Yushin, who were in charge of general political affairs.
Kim Chun-chu was the grandson of King Jinji. Jinji had been
dethroned for misgovernment by the nobles. He was also the son of Kim
Yongchun, who had originally competed with Seondeok for the crown. He
could therefore have become one of her most bitter adversaries. Rather
than alienating him by branding him as a potential rebel, Queen
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Seondeok eventually succeeded in making him her most loyal subject. By
entrusting him with foreign affairs, she gave him a chance to make full
use of his abilities. Kim Chun-chu never challenged the Queen’s position;
on the contrary, he remained her steadfast supporter all throughout his
long and distinguished service.
The case of Kim Yushin, now one of Korea’s greatest national heroes
thanks to his role in unifying the country, also shows us her wisdom in
dealing with men. Kim Yushin had originally been a member of the royal
house of the Gaya Kingdom, which had been defeated by Silla in the 6th
century. Although the royal family of Gaya were admitted into the Jin-gol
class of the Silla nobility (then second to the Seong-gol class, whose
members alone were eligible for the throne), the aristocracy were never
fully able to accept them as their own. He was thus a nobleman in name
only, and in reality a foreigner who suffered from discrimination. Queen
Seondeok recognized his potential as a great commander, and helped
him to consolidate his position by arranging a marriage between his
sister and Kim Chun-chu, who later became king. Though there is no
doubt that ability and diligent effort were the basis of his achievements,
Silla was nonetheless a class-conscious society where even a person of
the most outstanding personal abilities was limited by status. It is
reasonable to say that he could never have become established in a
public career without the support of the Queen.
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Kim Chun-chu and Kim Yushin
There is an interesting story about the family alliance between Kim
Chun-chu and Kim Yushin. Yushin had two sisters called Bohee and
Munhee. Bohee was of a shy disposition and delicate appearance, while
Munhee was a tall and outgoing girl.
One morning, Bohee awoke to find herself blushing. When Munhee
questioned her about it, she confessed that she had had a strange dream
the night before. In the dream, Bohee had urinated until the capital city
was underwater. Realizing that this was no ordinary dream, Munhee gave
Bohee a silk dress, and so bought the dream from her.
A few days later, Chun-chu came to Yushin’s house for a game of
Gyeokgu (a sport played on horseback). During the game, Yushin
accidentally tore off one of the tassels on Chun-chu’s robe. Yushin sent
for Bohee to mend the garment, but she was too nervous to come into the
presence of a stranger. Munhee therefore came out to mend the tie
instead of Bohee, and when they met, Chun-chu and Munhee fell in love
with each other. Yushin hoped that the two would marry, but Chun-chu
hesitated to propose to Munhee since he already had a wife. In the
meantime, Munhee fell pregnant. Yushin scolded her severely for
becoming pregnant out of wedlock, and declared in public that he would
have her burned alive in punishment.
Not long afterwards, Queen Seondeok was taking a walk with her
officials on the Namsan Mountain. When he found out about this, Yushin
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made a pile of dry logs and twigs in the garden outside his house, and set
it alight. High up on the mountain, the Queen was able to make out the
black clouds of smoke, and asked those accompanying her if they knew
the reason. No one dared to answer her, but simply looked at one
another in embarrassment. When the Queen pressed the issue, she
finally learned from them that Yushin was on the point of burning his
sister and her unborn child at the stake.
She was astonished and exclaimed, “Yushin is not the kind of person
to do such a thing! There must be a reason. Who could the father be?”
Chun-chu, who was present, blushed scarlet and was speechless with
embarrassment. After the truth was revealed, the Queen ordered him to
go and save Munhee’s life, granting him permission to marry her as his
second wife, to become his lawful spouse when his first wife passed away.
When Chun-chu later came to the throne as King Muyol, the 29th ruler of
Silla after Seondeok and her sister Jindeok, Munhee thus became his
queen. Their child grew up to be King Mun-mu, who completed the
unification of Korea 29 years after Queen Seondeok’s death.
The tearing of Chun-chu’s robe and his feigned intention to kill his
sister Munhee were in fact both in accordance with a carefully laid plan.
Thanks to the Queen’s royal favor, Yushin and Chun-chu were able to
form kinship through marriage. And through this tie of kinship, a
political alliance was formed that swiftly brought the process of
unification to its fulfillment.
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The Nine-story Pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple
In 642, 11 years after Queen Seondeok had come to power, persistent
enemy invasions had resulted in 40 castles in the western part of Silla
falling to Baekje. The enemy, who had now combined forces with
Goguryeo, was now close to taking Danghang Castle, a fort that bridged
Silla and China, and which was therefore a position of great strategic
importance to Silla. The country was helpless in the face of this disaster,
and not far from total ruin.
At this point of crisis, Queen Seondeok sent for the renowned
Buddhist monk Jajang, who was studying abroad at the time. Jajang
returned to Silla in 643, having been abroad for seven years. He
proposed the Queen and her counselors the building of a great ninestory pagoda, for the dual purpose of blocking foreign invasion and by
uniting the minds of the people, furthering the larger task of unification.
Although the Queen was pleased with his proposal, she could not
accept it without hesitation. The new construction project would place a
heavy burden of tax and labor on her subjects, already weary from
constant warfare. After careful reflection, she decided to proceed, seeing
it as a task of national importance necessary to overcome the present
danger and eventually unify the peninsula. Having come to this
conclusion, she requested the opinion of her courtiers on the matter, and
learned that they were strongly opposed to it, owing to the condition of
the state treasury.
46
Model of Hwangnyongsa Temple (Gyeongju National Museum)
The Queen decided to go ahead with the plan, however, in the firm
belief that a work of religious devotion would bring the people together to
deal with the current crisis. Those who objected on financial grounds she
calmed by giving her assurance, “If we lack the means, tear down my
palace and use its bricks and timber.”
47
After two years, the pagoda was finally completed. Inside it, Jajang
enshrined the holy relics of the Buddha which he had brought from
China.
The nine levels of the pagoda stood for the peoples of nine different
countries, including Japan and various other districts which are now part
of China and Korea. According to the ancient architectural record
Chiljugi, the pagoda was 80 meters in height. This is as high as a 20-floor
apartment block today, and an almost unheard of size for a building in
those days. The pagoda was a physical expression of the earnest wish of
Queen Seondeok and the Silla people to protect the country and
eventually bring the three kingdoms under one rule. At the same time, it
was an offering made to the Buddha with the utmost sincerity, in the
hope that these wishes would be fulfilled.
In the year 1238, during the Mongolian invasion, the pagoda was
burned to the ground, and today only the cornerstone survives. At the
site of the Hwangnyongsa Temple, however, the spirit of Silla’s
magnificent cultural heritage remains, even after the passing of 1,300
years.
The Queen’s Compassion for her People
The following story shows us the compassionate nature of Queen
Seondeok. In the kingdom, there lived a young carriage bearer of humble
48
birth named Jigwi, who greatly admired the Queen in spite of their
difference in age and social status.
He had first encountered Seondeok as she passed him in the street
while on a visit to the capital city, and had fallen in love with her at first
sight. He stopped eating and sleeping, and did nothing but call out the
name of the Queen all day. Eventually, he went out of his mind.
One day soon afterwards, the Queen went to visit a Buddhist temple.
As she was passing a certain street corner, Jigwi appeared, calling out the
Queen’s name as usual, and was immediately thrust aside by the Queen’s
guards. The sight greatly stirred the onlookers, who lined the whole
street. When Queen asked one of her attendants about the disturbance,
he answered, “Your majesty, a madman who tried to approach your royal
person was apprehended by the royal guard.”
“Why did they prevent him from coming to see me?” the Queen asked.
The attendant was ashamed, as if he himself had committed a fault, and
said, “Let me inform you then, Your Majesty, that the man in question is
named Jigwi, and is known to admire you.”
The Queen’s heart was touched, and she ordered the attendant to
allow Jigwi to follow with her retinue to the temple, to the surprise of the
crowd and to the delight of Jigwi, who danced for joy.
As the Queen was praying in the temple, Jigwi waited outside, sitting at
the base of a pagoda. It was a long time before she came out, and so Jigwi
at first grew bored, and then impatient as time passed. Eventually, he fell
asleep.
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Queen Seondeok portrayed in an MBC TV series in 2009
When the Queen finally appeared, her eyes were met with the curious
sight of Jigwi asleep beneath the pagoda. She gazed at him thoughtfully
for a while. Then, taking a gold ring from her finger, she placed it gently
on his chest. After she had gone back to the palace, Jigwi awoke and was
overwhelmed with joy to find the ring the Queen had left him. According
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to one story, as he clasped it tightly, his joy soon turned into a fire. The
fierce flames of his love burned up the pagoda, and Jigwi himself, until
nothing remained of him but a fiery wraith.
From this tale we learn of the Queen’s great beauty, which made a
common man forget his position, fall lovesick, and eventually die in the
flames of love. What is even clearer, however, is the noble character of
the Queen, who accepted the devotion of an ordinary man, who dared to
love so far above himself.
An ordinary person might have been surprised or troubled by his
attention. If Seondeok had been intolerant or self-possessed, she might
have had him imprisoned or even executed for slighting her dignity.
Contrary to what one might expect, the Queen tried to understand the
unfortunate love of her humble subject. When Jigwi fell asleep waiting for
her, she could have taken offence, as it was a most indecorous thing to
happen in the presence of a queen. The guards must have been shaking
the man awake, while her courtiers would have urged her to hurry back
to the palace and her daily business. Queen Seondeok, however, asked
for silence and waited for a moment, looking at Jigwi with gentle eyes and
a calm smile. Since he continued to sleep, the Queen left him her own
ring so that he would not be disappointed when he later woke up.
Her love for Jigwi was not romantic, but she chose to empathize with
his feelings rather than ignore or reject them coldly. It is worth
remembering that, during her reign in Silla, the kingdom was constantly
at war, and she always had to fend off invasions from neighboring
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kingdoms. In these circumstances, it is truly extraordinary that she was
able to keep a heart so warm and loving towards her people, and the
memory of this lives on to touch our hearts today.
A Ruler of Great Wisdom and Foresight
During her 16 years as ruler, Queen Seondeok is said to have
perceived things that were beyond the comprehension of those around
her, even enabling her to foretell the future on some occasions. Three
notable examples of her insight and perception are narrated here.
Emperor Taizong of China once sent the Queen a painting depicting
three peony flowers—one red, one purple and one white—together with
some seeds. When the Queen had the seeds planted in her garden, she
predicted that the flowers would have no scent. Time proved her words to
be correct; until the very moment they wilted and died, the flowers never
gave out any scent. People were surprised that she had known this, and
in response to their questioning she answered, “The painting showed no
butterfly beside the flowers. When he sent me this gift, Taizong was
mocking me because I have no husband.”7
This anecdote demonstrates the Queen’s sharp intellect and powers of
7
Not being married was seen as highly dubious in the social climate of the
day, and regarded as a question mark over one’s character. This insult was
intended to be very offensive indeed.
52
observation rather than any supernatural intelligence. From the fact that
bees and butterflies are known to gather around flowers, she inferred
that the flowers in the painting had no scent. Emperor Taizong’s implicit
ridicule of Queen Seondeok’s celibacy as related here also illustrates for
us the refined level of intellectual competition between the two monarchs.
Outdoing the emperor in taste and graciousness, Queen Seondeok later
responded by founding a Buddhist temple which she named Bunhwangsa,
or the Royal Fragrance Temple.
Five years after her enthronement, the Queen caused wonder among
her people by defeating an invading enemy force with the help of frogs.
Near the banks of the Seongjin River in the capital city, there was a
temple called Yeongmyosa. In the temple grounds was a pond named
Okmun, which means, literally, “Jade Gate.” On a certain day in winter, a
number of frogs gathered together at the pond and began to croak loudly
for several days. When this strange phenomenon was reported to the
Queen, she immediately ordered two of her generals to lead 2,000 of her
best soldiers to the western suburb of the city, and to look for a valley
named “Yeogeungok” (Cradle of Life). She added that an enemy force
would be found there lying in wait, which they would be sure to take by
surprise. The two generals led their armies to the western suburb, found
the valley the Queen had mentioned, which lay near Mt. Bu, and
destroyed not only the detachment of 500 Baekje soldiers they found
there, but also a force of 1200 reinforcements which came later to aid
them.
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Her bewildered subjects asked the Queen how she had foreseen the
Baekje invasion simply because of the croaking of frogs. The Queen
explained, “A group of angry frogs signifies an army. ‘Jade Gate’ is an
expression for a woman’s chastity. Woman is one of the meanings of Yin,
which also has the meaning of white, and the white color stands for the
West. So, I knew that an army was lying in the West. As we say, a man is
supposed in some sense to die during the act of creating new life. Since
the Baekje army was hiding in the valley known as the Cradle of Life, I
knew that it would be easy to defeat them.” All who heard the Queen’s
reasoning were amazed at her insight.
In this way, Seondeok defeated the enemy without the need for a
major battle. She was well-versed in the philosophy of Yin and Yang, and
interpreted all the icons correctly: Female=Yin=White=West. It is
remarkable also to see the Queen’s reference to the symbolic “death” of
the male during the act of love. Even today, it is not usual or easy to talk
about such things in public. 1,300 years ago, the Queen openly dealt with
the subject in front of her male courtiers, who were most likely
embarrassed by her boldness.
The third story concerns the Queen’s death. One day, although in
good health, she announced before her subjects that she would die on a
certain day in a certain year, and requested that she be buried in the
Doricheon, which in Buddhism refers to a certain level of Heaven. When
asked where the Doricheon was, she replied that it was on the southern
side of Mt. Nang. As she had predicted, she passed away on the foretold
54
day and year, and was duly buried on the southeast-facing side of the
Nang mountain.
32 years later, King Mun-mu founded the Temple of the Four Devas
on the same mountain, some way beneath the Queen’s royal tomb on the
slope of the Nang Mountain. According to the Theravada Buddhist
scripture Gusaron (倶舍論), Heaven has many levels; above the Heaven of
the Four Devas lies the Doricheon, where 33 heavenly gods reside. Thus,
when the Four Devas Temple was built below her tomb, the Queen’s
prophecy finally came true, and her extraordinary powers of perception
were once again revealed.
A famous novelist once remarked, “The day before you die, you are
sure to buy a new pair of shoes.” For all of us, there is nothing more
certain than death, and nothing less certain than when death will come.
Queen Seondeok knew when she would die and where her body would
rest; furthermore, she asked to be buried in a place which did not exist
on earth, and in the end her wish was granted. It is certain that the
Queen’s noble wish to make Silla into Buddha’s realm remains with her in
the tomb at Doricheon.
Everlasting Fragrance of Silla
In 1429, the 17-year old heroine Joan of Arc went to war in obedience
to God’s voice, which told her to save France from disaster. Her
55
incredible patriotism, loyalty and courage all stemmed from a revelation
she received from God.
The Buddhist faith was to Queen Seondeok what the Christian faith
was to Joan of Arc, the foundation of all her life and works. It was her
religious devotion and belief that enabled her to exercise benevolent rule
and accomplish so many great achievements. During her reign, Silla built
18 temples, as well as pagodas and Buddha statues that would turn out to
be the finest of the age. The Queen often visited Hwangryongsa temple to
pray for wisdom and strength to save Silla from danger. By dint of sheer
determination, in the face of widespread opposition, she had the Great
Pagoda built so that the people of Silla might come to realize fully that the
task of unification was their responsibility. The temple itself is an
embodiment of her devotion to Buddha, her love for her people and
country, and her great vow to achieve unification, whilst remaining
celibate for her entire life. The Hwangryongsa temple continued to be a
source of support and inspiration for her countrymen long after her
death, and it is no coincidence that many of the greatest Korean Buddhist
masters, including Master Wonhyo, went on to study and achieve
enlightenment there.
Making her way to the throne against the claims of men, and later
enduring derision at home and abroad for being an unmarried woman;
devoting herself to the care of the kingdom’s people and strengthening
her weak nation’s influence among the other warring kingdoms of the
day; relieving the oppressed and defenseless among her subjects,
56
shrewdly avoiding dissension and mutiny among her courtiers, making
friends of rivals, enemies and foreign nations by good judgment and
restraint; leaving behind temples and monuments that speak of her
vision and deep wisdom, no less than her insight and skilful planning; in
one life, founded upon a devotion to her country and to Buddha, we find
a sacred legacy of virtue.
The scent of a flower cannot spread against the wind, but the
fragrance of virtue scents the air on every side. Queen Seondeok,
everlasting flower of the Silla kingdom, makes our present day fragrant
with the scent of a virtue that has endured through centuries of history.
57
References
Historical sources
Samguk Yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) by Iryon
Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) by Kim Busik
Other sources
Kim, Jong-Seong. Silla’s Unification and the Culture of the Three
Kingdoms. Seoul: Munye, 2004.
Park, Soon-Jung. Great Wisdom Revealed Through Queen Seondeok.
Seoul: Oneul, 2000.
58
Master Wonhyo: Sharing Enlightenment
Master Wonhyo (617-686 AD), one of the most seminal thinkers in the
history of Buddhism, contributed greatly to the development of a
distinctively
Korean
style
of
Buddhist
philosophy
and
practice.
Posthumously honored as the “National Preceptor Who Harmonizes
Disputes (Kor. Hwajaeng Guksa),” he analyzed the most controversial
issues among the Buddhist sects of the day, and resolved their differing
belief systems into what he called “One Vehicle Buddhism.” Since then,
the tendency of Korean Buddhism has been towards concordance rather
than fragmentation. If the political basis of the Three Kingdom’s
unification was laid by Queen Seondeok, the spiritual unity of the people
through Buddhist insights and wisdom is mostly attributed to Master
Wonhyo.
Wonhyo was an accomplished scholar and prolific writer who
produced about 100 works, consisting of 240 volumes. His works
represent a pinnacle in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition of East Asia, and
were transmitted to China and Japan, where they exerted considerable
influence.
Known
as
the
Haedongso
(Korean
commentary),
his
commentary of the Awakening of Faith, which sets out a theoretical
system resolving the controversy between Madhyamika and Yogacara, is
59
one of the three great commentaries on that text. His commentary on the
Adamantine Absorption Scripture, which represents the practical theory
of his Buddhism, was elevated to the status of non (treatise), indicating
that the author was an enlightened Bodhisattva, not a mortal man. His
Treatise on Ten Approaches, together with Meaning of Two Obstructions
influenced Fa-tsang’s Wu-chiao chang and was said to have been
conveyed to India to be translated into Sanskrit.
Most of all, Wonhyo was a true practitioner who went beyond mere
theory and put his teachings into practice. He lived outside the confines
of authority and form, choosing to live a life of Muae or “Nonhindrance,” face to face with reality. Enduring the severe criticism and
jealousy of other Buddhist monks and scholars, he tried to remove the
distinction between sacred and secular, and associated freely with
ordinary people, even taking part in music and dancing. The ideal he
pursued was a perfect, holistic understanding of the real and ideal. This
is one of the reasons why he continues to exert influence and commands
a respect comparable to famous artists in modern times.
The Break of Dawn
Wonhyo was born in 617 AD, during the reign of King Jinpyeong (579632). Wonhyo’s grandfather was called Sir Ingpi, and his father,
Seoldamnal was a government official.
60
Wonhyo’s childhood name was Seodang. Once he embarked on the
spiritual path at the age of 15, he took the name Wonhyo, which means
the “Break of Dawn.” One of his famous works Balsim Suhaengjang (The
Awakening of Faith and Practice), which has been held up as a guide for
young spiritual seekers for more than 1,300 years, contains Wonhyo’s
own experiences of practice and the mindset of his younger days.
High mountains and rough peaks are where wise men dwell.
Green pines and deep mountain valleys are home to those
who practice. When hungry, they pick fruit from trees to calm
an empty stomach. When thirsty, they quench their thirst with
water from the running stream. Though we feed this body
with delicacies and nurture it with care, it is certain to fail us
eventually. And though we cover it with fine clothes, the time
will come when our lives must cease.
A rocky cave that resonates with echoing sounds, make this
your hall of recitation. The wild geese that cry in solitude,
make these the joyful companions of your mind. Though your
knees are cold and numb from continuous bowing, have no
thought for a fire. Though your empty stomach feels severed
from the body, have no thought to look for food. Before you
know it, you will be a hundred years old, so why do you
neglect to learn? Could life ever be long enough for us to idle
it away, and neglect our studies?
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A Great Awakening
In 650, Wonhyo and his friend Uisang embarked on a journey to study
in Tang China. At the time, it was common to make the journey by sea.
The sea-route passed through Liadong in Goguryeo, which bordered with
China. Liaodong was a key transport link between China and Korea. In
the year 650, it was also a place of heightened tension due to a recent
invasion by the Tang forces. Because of this, the two practitioners from
Silla were wrongly identified as spies by a Goguryeo patrol, as they
attempted to cross the border. Wonhyo and Uisang were apprehended at
Liaodong and detained for several weeks. Finally attaining their release,
they made their way back to Silla with great difficulty, frustrated in their
hopes of studying abroad.
Wonhyo made a second attempt to study in the Tang in the year he
turned 44, again in the company of Master Uisang. In order to cross the
sea to Tang China, they traveled westward. By the time they reached the
harbor of the Danghang Castle, darkness had already fallen. Met with
strong winds and heavy rain, they were forced to spend the night in an
underground shelter.
When they awoke the next morning, they realized they had in fact
spent the night in a burial chamber. The heavy rain continued, and they
were compelled to spend a second night there. During that night, Wonhyo
was unable to sleep, kept awake by terrifying sounds and visions of
ghosts. This occasion served as an opportunity for a great awakening in
the young master.
62
On the previous night, his mind had been at ease because he thought
he was sleeping inside a harmless shelter. On the second night, however,
because he knew he was sleeping inside a place of death and burial, he
felt very uncomfortable. From this experience, he realized, “When a
thought arises, all dharmas (phenomena) arise, and when a thought
disappears, the shelter and the tomb are as one”.
The Three Worlds are simply the mind,
All phenomena are mere perception.
There being no Dharma outside the mind,
What is there left to seek?
I shall not go to the Tang.
Wonhyo then returned to Silla. He had been awakened to a great
Truth that the Dharma does not exist outside the mind. Truth is not
something that one can seek outside oneself, but is an inner realization.
Wonhyo perceived the essence of the mind that resides within the innerself of a human being. This realization of Master Wonhyo became famous
in later years, and was re-conceived in the more famous version of the
tale.
According to the story, Wonhyo felt very thirsty during the night, a
nd began to search for water in the darkness. He was able to discern
an object that looked like a gourd. He picked it up, and found that t
here was water inside. He tasted it, and it was very sweet. He drank t
he contents in one gulp, and having satisfied his thirst, slept soundly
63
until dawn. The next morning, when he awoke, he remembered what had
occurred and looked for the gourd. The gourd, however, was nowhere to
be seen, and he saw only human skulls littering the ground. The gourd
had in fact been one of these skulls, and the sweet-tasting water,
raindrops that had collected inside. Examining the inside of one of the
skulls, he saw that the water was alive with maggots. The profound
realization he attained through this experience brought to his mind a
Dharma Lecture he had read in the text Awakening of Faith.
When a thought arises, all manner of different minds arise,
When a thought disappears, all these diverse minds disappear.
As the Tathagata said, all the Three Worlds are illusion,
All is a mere fabrication of the mind.
Having realized the principle of Mind-Only through this experience, he
no longer needed to travel abroad to seek the Dharma. Having thus
attained enlightenment in a single moment, he expressed the state of his
mind as follows:
Because a mind arises, many kinds of dharma come into being.
When the mind subsides, the sanctuary and graveyard are one.
The Three Worlds are simply the mind,
And all phenomena are based on consciousness.
Since there is only the mind, what else is there to seek!
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Here “the mind” refers to karmic hindrance or a discriminative mind.
Because discriminations arise, the Dharma exists as a method of
eradicating such discriminations. Therefore when all karmic hindrances,
or discriminations of the mind, are purified and eradicated, there is not
even the distinction between calmness and anger.
Wonhyo, on his return to Silla, stayed briefly at the Bunhwangsa
Temple and dedicated himself to study and practice. Using his
realizations as a basis for his writings, Wonhyo composed commentaries
on the Buddhist scriptures, and his renowned works such as Geumgang
Sammaegyeong Non (Exposition of the Vajrasamadhi Sutra) later served
as a guide to countless scholars and practitioners in East Asia.
Shortly afterwards, the king asked Master Wonhyo to give a Dharma
Lecture based on the new sutra at the Hwangnyongsa Temple. The night
before, a group of envious plotters stole the commentary he had
prepared. Wonhyo postponed the lecture for three days, informing the
king as to why. He then wrote a new commentary in three volumes, which
in later years was regarded as the writing of a Bodhisattva rather than an
ordinary practitioner, and referred to as non (treatise).8 It was produced
8
Commentaries on Buddhist scriptures are usually referred to as so, which
means discourse or discussion. But this commentary of Wonhyo was given
the title non, which is better translated as “treatise.” The designation non
signifies a work of the highest importance, and that the text forms part of the
Great Canon of Scriptures, also known as the Tripitaka. In fact, non is
reserved only for the writings of the Buddha and great masters such as
65
by Wonhyo at the peak of his intellectual powers, and contains several
themes that are common in Wonhyo’s work. These themes include the
role of meditative absorption (Sanskrit. samadhi), the importance of
innate potential for enlightenment (Sanskrit. tathagatagarbha), the
inspiration of original enlightenment, and the abandonment of the
spurious to percieve reality.
When the king and queen, government officials, renowned monks and
the ordinary subjects were gathered together at the Hwangnyongsa
9
Temple, Master Wonhyo let out his Lion’s Roar .
People live burdened with manifold delusions and endlessly
repeat the cycle of rebirth over eons. This is due to their
discriminative
mind,
which
is
firmly
attached
to
discriminative notions, such as distinctions between “I” and
“you” and “mine” and “yours.”
As we are now determined to put an end to a life of drifting
along the flow of instinct, and return to that pure stream to
Nagarjuna or Vasubandhu, whose level of enlightenment was similar to that
of Buddha. In the history of Buddhism, only five people have written works
that have been classified as non. This places Wonhyo very highly indeed
among the Sages of the East.
9
A Buddhist term designating a powerful form of teaching that subdues
karmic hindrances and awakens inner wisdom in the listeners.
66
enjoy it at leisure, first we must forsake our attachment to
notions created both by others and by ourselves, and open
the wisdom eye to behold the true state of things.
When we do something, if we can behave without the
subjective “I,” or without the discriminative notion that
invariably brings harm to others, such a mindset is in fact
our true mind and the original enlightenment.
When we find this mindset, which is essentially full of
radiance, everything we do becomes fully enlightening, and
thereby we can bring benefit to all living beings. What
benefits do living beings stand to gain? They would be
willing to abandon their misleading thoughts and live a
truthful life.
When the Dharma Lecture came to an end, the crowd remained still
for a long time, their minds filled with profound reverence and joy. Then
Wonhyo departed from his place and said, “A hundred rafters were
needed, and yet I was not summoned. The main bulwark is needed, yet I
alone am capable.” This statement was referring to the fact that he had
not been allowed to attend the Assembly of Hundred Seats, a council of a
hundred eminent monks, or “rafters” according to the metaphor used
here. By referring to himself as the “main bulwark,” Wonhyo signified
that he alone was needed to provide a solid foundation for Buddhism in
67
Silla. It is important to realize that these words were not spoken out of
arrogance or disdain. By reprimanding the monks who were motivated by
success and praise, he thus liberated them from their ignorance and
conceit. Hearing Wonhyo’s reproach, it is said that the assembly of
distinguished monks lowered their heads in shame, and repented deeply
for their error.
Spreading the Dharma
Wonhyo’s philosophical ideals were indeed high and profound, but his
methods of spreading the Dharma were remarkably “down to earth.” One
day, as he was walking, Wonhyo came across a pair of acrobats
performing by the roadside. One was walking a tightrope, while the other
was below, wearing a mask and holding a small gourd in his hand,
dancing to the rhythm of the music. Crowds gathered on all sides to see
the performance, and in their excitement began to join in, dancing and
clapping. Seeing this, an idea occurred to Wonhyo.
He decided that he should make Buddha’s teachings into a song, and
teach it to everyone. Taking the phrase “When one is unhindered in all
things, one is freed from the cycle of birth and death,” he composed a
song called Muae (Non-Hindrance), and began to teach it to many people.
Eventually, children followed him in crowds, singing the Song of NonHindrance together with him.
The phrase on which the song was based comes from the Flower
68
Ornament Sutra. In the words of the song, Master Wonhyo distilled the
meaning of the original phrase in words that could be understood easily.
When a person has cultivated the mind, because he or she has no
discriminative thoughts, each and every task is approached with wisdom
and equanimity. When the mind has thus become completely free, one is
liberated from the unending cycle of rebirth. To be unhindered means, in
other words, to have no grudges, ill feelings or other obstacles or
hindrances in one’s mind, and therefore to treat everything and everyone
wisely and reverently. In a mind that is truly liberated, no feelings of
regret or guilt remain. Singing this Song of Non-hindrance, Master
Wonhyo traveled from village to village, never staying long in a single
place, wandering through every part of the country.
All sentient beings, listen!
Listen to Lord Buddha’s words!
Good and bad depend on the mind,
Clean and unclean depend on the mind.
If the mind is compassionate and benevolent
Like the mind of Lord Buddha,
All shall enter the Land of Happiness!
Making Buddha’s teachings accessible to everyone, the song became
known in every village Master Wonhyo visited. Moreover, as people
gathered to build temples and pagodas, it helped to foster a sense of
harmony and cooperation among the citizens of Unified Silla.
69
Saving a Thousand Monks from Death
There are numerous tales and anecdotes about the life of Master
Wonhyo, some of which contain fantastical elements. The following is a
well-known tale, which relates how Wonhyo saved the lives of many
Chinese monks with his Dharma power.
Once, Master Wonhyo was staying at the Taegosa Temple. As he was
about to begin his evening meal, he saw with his wisdom-eye that a large,
ageing temple in China was about to collapse.
Meanwhile, at the temple in China, the 1,000 resident student-monks10
were about to eat their dinner, unaware that they were in danger of being
crushed to death. At that moment, Wonhyo quickly removed the plates
from his dining table and hurled the table towards the temple in China.
The monks’ supper was interrupted when a strange object appeared in
the sky and began to circle above the temple courtyard. The kitchen
monk saw it first and alerted his fellow practitioners. The monks stopped
eating, astonished by the remarkable sight and poured out into the yard.
The object began to make its way slowly towards the forest outside the
temple, as if beckoning the monks forward. When the monks had all
emerged from the temple grounds, the temple suddenly collapsed behind
them. The monks turned, and saw in disbelief the place where they had
recently been standing reduced to ruins. It had all happened in a matter
10
Novice monks who focus on studying the Sutras, before progressing to the
practice of meditation.
70
of moments.
The object fell from the sky into a field, and the monks pressed
around it. It was a wooden table, and on it was written “This table is from
Wonhyo in the East to save his fellow monks.” Finally realizing what had
happened, they all folded their hands and bowed with reverence towards
Silla in the East. As they continued to give thanks and express their
respects, the table rose again into the empty sky and began to move
slowly eastwards. The monks followed it, and having boarded a ship,
crossed the Yellow Sea to seek Master Wonhyo in Silla.
Wonhyo was staying at Cheokpanam Monastery, which was part of the
Jangansa Temple in Busan. He was surprised to find a thousand monks
suddenly requesting an audience with him. As the monastery was too
small to accommodate 1,000 people, Wonhyo arranged temporary
residences for them at Jangansa, and searched for a place where the
monks could be housed permanently. Eventually, he built a large temple
to accommodate the monks. Above the temple was a plain where he
taught the monks and trained them in the teachings of the Flower
Ornament Sutra. For this reason, the mountain is called Mt. Cheonseong
(Thousand Saints Mountain), and the stretch of land is called Hwaom
(Flower Ornament Plain).
Although this tale is extraordinary, at the very least we can infer that
a considerable number of Chinese monks studied under Wonhyo and that
the basis of his teaching was the Flower Ornament Sutra. It is a fact that
the Chinese Dharma Master Xianshou Fazang, a proponent of the Flower
71
Ornament School, makes frequent references to Master Wonhyo in his
writings. Similarly, the author of Zhengdaoge (Songs of Enlightening
Truth), Master Yongming Yanshou, speaks of the importance of
Wonhyo’s philosophical writings. In this story, we see how Wonhyo’s
influence extended beyond the borders of Silla and was felt widely
throughout China.
Returning to the One Mind
Throughout Wonhyo’s works, the idea of “returning to the source of
One Mind” often recurs. He asserts that all living beings exist within the
One Mind; however, because we have forgotten this, we must “return to
the source of One Mind.” The aim is to awaken reverence and
compassion within us, since all living beings are endowed with One Mind,
the “repository of Buddha-nature.”
In the Daesung Gisillon So (Commentary on the Awakening of Faith),
Wonhyo explains the meaning of “One Mind” as follows:
What is One Mind? Because all phenomena of purity and
impurity are not separate in nature, and the doors of truth
and untruth are likewise the same, it is called “One.” Where
there is no discrimination between the two, all phenomena are
at their truest and are like empty air. Because their nature is
naturally understood, it is called “Mind.” Since there is no
72
such thing as two, there cannot be such a thing as one, and if
there is no “one,” what can we call the Mind? Because this
Truth defies description and abstract thought, not knowing
what words to use, I reluctantly call it “One Mind.”
“One Mind” lies beyond the horizon of “the other.” When we are
awakened to the One Mind, which is the source of everything,
discriminating minds do not arise. The division of the Three Kingdoms,
the division of East and West, North and South—all melt away in the
furnace of the One Mind.
As the absolute and the worldly are brought together by means of the
One Mind, the cycle of birth and death and Nirvana become non-dual.
Furthermore, the world of birth and death and the Pure Land of Nirvana
reside together in the One Mind. Likewise, the world of sentient beings
and the world of Buddha both proceed from the One Mind. Once we
realize this, our One Mind will have recovered its essence. Until we
realize this, we cannot help but live as ignorant sentient beings. We are
with One Mind, and yet we are without One Mind. This is the reality of
worldly life and sentient existence.
Wonhyo’s purpose of re-iterating the concept of One Mind is to reveal
the true mind, which is above all suffering and abides in a liberated state
without attachment. He explains that owing to the waves of ego which
assail us, we lose the freedom of our own true will, and so wander amid
unending sufferings. Therefore, we must return to our original state and
73
rediscover the root of our One Mind. Here, we find a parallel with the
German philosopher Martin Heidegger's concepts of homelessness and
homecoming. Sentient beings are in essence “homesick,” and Buddha is
the home they seek. Methods of spiritual practice are simply a means of
completing this journey homewards.
With the One Mind as his guiding principle, Wonhyo devoted himself to
serving Buddha. It was with this One Mind that he produced literary
works, and it was with the ever-present goal of the One Mind that he lived
his life of Muae or “Non-Hindrance.” By returning to the root of One
Mind, he sought to be with his true self and to benefit all living beings.
Muae: The Ultimate State of Freedom and Compassion
Muae (Non-Hindrance) is the consummation of Wonhyo’s thought in
action. Muae stands for freedom, unconfined by dualistic opposites and
fixed conventions. It is different from pursuing individual desires, as it is
rooted in One Mind, which evokes harmony and compassion within us. In
other words, Muae means that one is no longer bound by the duality of
“self” and “others,” and can live a truly compassionate life.
From the perspective of Buddhism, freedom without compassion is not
true freedom, but self-indulgence. Compassion without freedom, on the
other hand, is passive and not true compassion. If we truly attain one, we
naturally come to attain the other. Freedom and compassion are
74
inseparable in Muae. It is not based on atomistic and possessive
individualism, but is rooted in the unification of “you” and “I” or “others”
and “us.” Muae aims at benefitting both oneself and others, and this
touches the heart of Buddhism, “the great compassion of unity.”
Wonhyo saw that an inherent, limitless freedom existed in the minds of
sentient beings and that he himself could become a wholly liberated being
through cultivating the mind. In other words, he believed the ceaseless
practice of compassion and mercy towards all sentient beings was the key
to sustaining a life of perfect Non-Hindrance.
Hwajaeng: Harmonizing Disputations
People’s interests are often in conflict, and peaceful days in the world
are few. Although everyone seeks peace and reconciliation, yielding to
the will and opinion of others is hard.
The 7th century AD was a time of great discord in East Asia, and the
Korean peninsula was engulfed in war. The constraints of the rigid class
system had also created civil unrest. Wonhyo’s life was not untouched by
this general strife. He was frustrated in his plan to study in China when
he was arrested as a spy at Liaodong. Though Wonhyo was originally
invited to attend the national Assembly of Hundred Seats, his position
was undermined by rivals and the invitation was later withdrawn. He also
was robbed of his first commentary on the Adamantine Sutra prior to the
inaugural Dharma Lecture ordered by the King.
75
Wonhyo, however, chose a path of reconciliation that embraced
discord and conflict. As a way of dealing with such situations, he
proposed the method of Hwajaeng. Hwajaeng did not allow for a
distinction between positive and negative, but emphasized that everything
in the world is interconnected. Due to this interdependency and the
common origin shared by all things, the whole and the part exist as one.
From one perspective, we are one, and from another, we are many. This
thought is summarized in the following passage of Wonhyo.
Viewed as a whole, there is One Perspective;
Viewed separately, there are Ten Gates.
Though viewed separately, the One is not greater in number.
Though viewed as a whole, Ten are not smaller in number.
When viewed as many, the Ten are not unwieldy;
Though viewed alone, the One is not finite.
Like this, Wonhyo was unrestricted in his treatment of the one and the
many. Nor was he concerned as to whether his views were accepted or
rejected by others. If there is no attachment to acceptance, there is
nothing to gain by affirmation, nor is there anything to lose if one’s views
are rejected.
In an argument, we often ignore the opinions of others and hold fast to
our original position. However, when we try to understand or propose
something whilst attached to our own position or preferences, it is hard
for us to view the issue objectively, from a holistic perspective. Thus it is
76
difficult to see an object as it really is. We see the world filtered through
our own perspective, we measure things by our own personal standards,
and approach matters with ourselves as the central point of reference.
All such expressions of arrogance come from the ego.
To avoid distorting reality with a self-centered perspective, we need to
be free from preconceptions and prejudices. This means both to humble
and to open our minds. As Wonhyo remarked in the Commentary on the
Awakening of Faith, “If you are free from preconceptions, you and the
other person will be equal.” In order to measure something with
dimensions that exceed the limitations of our own standards, we must be
prepared to discard these fixed standards.
Although it is easy to say that we have “let go” of something, it is in
fact very difficult for our mind to truly let go. As long as we cling to
ourselves, or believe that others are separate from us, it is impossible for
us to empty the mind. A person who tries to stop a fight must be impartial.
Hwajaeng is possible only when it is based on absolute impartiality. When
we are capable of acts that are truly without ego, like the acts of the
Buddha, we can finally be freed from differences and disputes between
scholars and academics.
If we remain trapped within the narrowness of our own perceptions,
and insist on the absolute validity of a certain viewpoint, or dogmatize a
given position, problems will inevitably arise. Wonhyo described this
attitude as follows: “There are those who put forward their own limited
opinion on the basis of the little they have heard; if others agree, they are
77
pleased, but if others disagree, they say that they are wrong. Like a man
who observes the sky through a hole in a reed, such people approve
when others view the sky through the same hole, but claim that those
who do not are unable to see the sky.”
Wonhyo reprimanded the foolishness of those who, being narrowminded and weak, maintain that only their opinion is correct and do not
accept the words of others. Though standards are not always the same,
they are not always different. Nothing is the same, and yet nothing is
really different. In the words of Wonhyo: “Because they are many, many
ways are possible, and because they are one, all ways are ultimately one,
single way. How could there be only one path in life? There is a broad
highway, a sea-route, and a solitary footpath. How could we say only one
road is right? Any of the paths can lead us to the ultimate goal of
happiness. If we open the narrow and constrained mind, an open sky of
possibilities is revealed.”
The spoken or written word is like a finger that points to the moon. It
is important to look at the moon, rather than simply look at the finger. As
Wonhyo said: “With words, I will illustrate the Dharma that is beyond
words. Just like the finger that points at the moon, the moon and the
finger are not the same.”
If one focuses on figures of speech, it is easy to miss the essence of
what is being said. Therefore it is better to seek the meaning behind the
words, rather than focusing on the words themselves. Looking at words
alone, it is difficult to accommodate another’s opinion, whatever it might
78
be. But if we look at the meaning of the words, there is nothing that
cannot be accommodated.
With words, there is nothing to accept;
With meaning, there is nothing to deny.
This is another lesson from Wonhyo. If we lose sight of the meaning,
and merely cling to words, it is no different from examining the tip of
one’s finger and concluding that it is not the moon. It would be better to
shed our preconceptions and prejudices, and listen to the words of others.
Better still if we were able to look through the eyes of others and perceive
the true unspoken words of the mind.
The Pure Land
Wonhyo’s methods of spreading Buddhism were often unconventional,
and this was possible because he did not belong to a specific school or
sect. Wonhyo was therefore a true pioneer of Buddhism for the ordinary
person. Buddhism, he believed, should not be the preserve of an elite
group of intellectuals, or used as a tool to reinforce tyrannical power;
such is a religion based on formality, or a religion for the nobility.
Although a Buddhist, he felt it was necessary to go beyond Buddhism.
Wonhyo made a great effort to visit every part of the country and to
convey the Buddhist teachings in a way that could be easily understood
79
by everyone. Conversing with royal persons and aristocrats, lowly
beggars and wayward children, he spread Buddhism far and wide. Due to
Wonhyo’s efforts, everyone in Silla came to believe in Buddhism. One of
the reasons behind its popularity was the new Pure Land doctrine.
Wonhyo was a proponent of Pure Land Buddhism and incorporated it
fully into his teachings. Pure Land theory is closely connected with the
theory
of
Hwajaeng
and
One
Mind.
With
respect
to
personal
enlightenment, the Hwajaeng and One Mind philosophy suggest that
anyone can attain enlightenment through means appropriate to their
situation and spiritual level.
This view, which stresses the equality of all beings in regard to
attaining Buddhahood, was at odds with the spirit of early Silla Buddhism,
which looked to justify the social hierarchy by placing emphasis on the
concept of karma11. According to Wonhyo, the door leading to absolute
Truth is open to all. This challenged the typical view of the lay follower as
a passive subject, rather than an active participant in the spiritual path
of enlightenment.
The Pure Land where Amitabha Buddha resides is an ideal celestial
realm and “pure abode.” Anyone who purifies his or her mind by
chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha with utmost reverence is able to
11
Karma (Sanskrit). Any kind of physical, vocal, or mental action that is
imprinted in the mind and subsequently gives rise to certain consequences
in the future. Karmic action can be positive or negative, intentional and
unintentional.
80
enter the Pure Land after death, regardless of age, gender or social class.
Because Pure Land Buddhism was easy to understand and practice, it
spoke to those who were not well-versed in the more complex aspects of
Buddhist philosophy and practice. This is why Wonhyo chose this simple
and approachable doctrine to propagate Buddhism amongst ordinary
people.
Wonhyo’s Lessons for Today
Wonhyo’s unhindered way of life began after his realization of the One
Mind. Spending time with clowns, butchers, prostitutes, aged farmers,
and unlettered peasants, he shared in their joys and sorrows, and
practiced compassion towards all he met. As he travelled the country
singing and dancing, everybody from housekeepers to young children in
the streets came to know Buddha’s name through his words. Wonhyo had
become fully aware of the innate preciousness of all living beings. He
tried to bridge the spurious division between the nobles and common
people. If Korea was to be unified, it was not enough for the borders of
three kingdoms to be erased and for one monarch to rule the country.
True unification could only be achieved when the walls within people’s
hearts were broken down and everyone desired to live together without
hate and mistrust. Thus Wonhyo conceived, from a Buddhist perspective,
what the true unification of Korea’s three kingdoms should be.
81
While staying at Bunhwangsa Temple and writing the Commentary on
Flower Ornament Sutra, Wonhyo suddenly broke the writing brush he
was using, having come to the chapter entitled “Returning Merit to
Others.” This symbolic action was based on a profound insight he
received while contemplating the message of the Flower Ornament
Sutra—namely, that its profound teachings could not be carried out to
the fullest extent by study alone. The Flower Ornament Sutra taught that
one must become a Bodhisattva, resolve to attain enlightenment, and
give back one’s merit to all living beings. He believed that “giving back
one’s merit to others” could be achieved by sharing the experience of his
own enlightenment with all. However, he realized that the real meaning of
the sutra could not be understood through words and letters. So, he left
the temple to live the teachings of the sutra fully in the wider world.
Wonhyo’s theory of Hwajaeng was the product of his own reflections
on history. Using it as a basis, he harmonized and resolved the opposing
views he saw in the Buddhist world. Practitioners were being diverted
from attaining Buddha’s true teaching as a result of the conflict between
Voidness Buddhism and Consciousness-Only Buddhism. Thanks to the
theory of Hwajaeng, Buddhist philosophy in Silla did not waste further
time on fruitless discussions, but was able to develop.
Furthermore, through his theory of One Mind, which served as the
basis for the Hwajaeng philosophy, Wonhyo emphasized that the world of
Nirvana does not exist separately from this world, and that consequently,
the world where we live can also be the realm of the absolute. Wonhyo
82
insisted that anyone who realizes the truth of the One Mind can be
enlightened in this world.
Wonhyo also thought that the ultimate purpose of Buddhism was to
rescue sentient beings from suffering. However great a theory may be, if
it is not applied in our daily lives, it is lifeless and useless. His own life is
a perfect example of the propagation of Buddhism based on philosophical
truth and the coming together of theory and practice. In this sense, the
life and works of Wonhyo, a pillar of Korean Buddhism, remain a source
of guidance and inspiration for us today.
A Beacon that Burns Eternally
The fierce conflicts between the Three Kingdoms of Korea ended in the
year 686 AD. Ten years after the final remnants of the Tang Chinese
army had disappeared from the Korean peninsula, Korea was filled with a
renewed sense of peace. In this year, Wonhyo’s life of vigor and devotion
also reached its close. At the age of 70, on the 30th day of the 3rd lunar
month, the height of spring, Wonhyo ended his karmic ties with the world
at a temple near Hyeol in Gyeongju. Upon his tombstone is inscribed, “He
strove to master the principles of the universe and set as his goal the
most profound Truth of all.”
Master Zanning from China, author of Song Gaoseng Zhuan (Lives of
Eminent Monks Compiled in Song), portrays Wonhyo in the following
terms:
83
Wonhyo valiantly assailed the bastion of opinion, fearlessly
made his way through the multitude of the scriptures, and
with swiftness and resolve, marched ever onward, never
retreating. Widely versed in the Threefold Principles of
Observance, Clarity and Wisdom, the people of his country
called him a “Match for Ten Thousand.” Such was his mastery
of Truth, such was his holiness.
It is noteworthy that the people of Silla praised him using the terms
described above. A “Match for Ten Thousand” means one who has the
wisdom and courage to confront countless enemy troops alone without
difficulty. Legendary generals such as Guanyu and Zhangfei were given
this title, and it is interesting that Wonhyo, a Buddhist monk, was
compared to the most capable generals from ancient times. It is a way of
expressing his vigorous and distinctive approach to life, on the battlefield
of the Dharma.
For the people of Silla, “a match for ten thousand” was certainly no
exaggeration. In the 1,600 year history of Korean Buddhism, his teachings
and writings occupy the summit of achievement. No previous master had
scaled the heights attained by Wonhyo in his lifetime, and subsequent
masters of a similar caliber are few and far between.
Sharing the Buddha’s teachings and his realizations for the benefit of
all were his earnest wishes. The 100 works Wonhyo is known to have
written, covering almost every aspect of Buddhism, including Hinayana,
84
Mahayana and the Tripitaka of sutras, vinaya and shastras, can only be
described as a superhuman effort of study and authorship. The depth of
perception and clarity of interpretation that are evident in his key works
such as Daesung Gisillon So (Commentary on the Awakening of Faith)
and Geumgang Sammaegyeong Non (Exposition of the Vajrasamadhi
Sutra) have inspired countless Buddhist scholars and practitioners
across the globe, and remain a beacon of Truth that burns eternally.
For the Dharma world, here I light a beacon of the Truth
May you share it with others and enlighten the whole world.
- Master Wonhyo (617-686 )
85
References
Historical sources
Samguk Yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) by Iryon
Other sources
Kim, Sang-Hyon. Historical Studies on Wonhyo. Seoul: KOREAONE, 1994.
Park, Sang-Ju. Wonhyo: His Life and Philosophy. Seoul: Hanguk
Munhwasa, 2007.
Park, Tae-Won. Wonhyo: Opening the New One Way. Paju: Hangilsa, 2012.
Yi, Gi-Yeong. Studies on Philosophy of Wonhyo Vol. 2. Seoul: Korean
Buddhist Institute, 2001.
________. Philosophy of Wonhyo. Seoul: Korean Buddhist Institute, 2002.
________. Selected Lectures on Wonhyo’s Phisophy. Seoul: Korean
Buddhist Institute, 2003.
86
King Sejong the Great
The Chinese of the early 15th century referred to their king as “Son of
the Heavens,” while isolationist Japan gave the title “Ruler of the
Heavens” to its emperor. At a time when the monarchs of neighbouring
states were glorifying their offices with divine-like honors, King Sejong of
Korea established the notion of the “People of the Heavens.” Sejong
revered each and every one of his people as being of Heavenly origin and
served them as such. He believed that the duty of a king was to look after
the people of a noble, heavenly race.
Sejong’s care and attention extended to every member of his kingdom.
Female servants in government office, for example, were given 30 days of
leave prior to giving birth and a further 100 days of leave after, while
their husbands were granted 30 days of paternity leave. He also
considered the rights of prisoners, frequently inquiring about the
temperatures at which the prisons were kept and ensuring that they were
cleaned and maintained properly.
The “People of the Heavens,” in King Sejong’s view, were not simply
the people of Korea. Even foreign peoples, such as the tribes of Jurchens,
then considered by Korea and China as barbarians, were, as he believed,
no less worthy of his respect. His views are all the more remarkable, if we
87
King Sejong the Great (1397-1450)
88
consider that this was an age in which men were classed by common
perception as either civilized or barbarous.
Sejong did not regard the people simply as objects of his care and
governance, but believed that they possessed a limitless potential to
transform, realize, and awaken themselves to a higher cultural and
spiritual level. To help them achieve this, as he thought, was the real
duty of kings and officials. The great efforts he devoted to developing the
new alphabet Hangeul and to advance printing technology for the
publication of books on many and various subjects were all made to
achieve this one end of helping the heavenly race of mankind educate
and improve itself.
“To share in the joys of living with Heaven’s People” was the goal of
King Sejong, and he never rested for a moment in his pursuit of it. When
his people starved during times of famine, he starved with them and
prepared himself for death, offering up prayers to the Heavens. Even
when his eyesight became seriously impaired and his health was in a
grave condition, he devoted himself wholly to the betterment and
progress of the country. He fortified the nation’s defences by
strengthening the army and improving its standards of weaponry. He also
revolutionized the sciences, particularly those of agriculture, medicine
and astronomy. A scientific dictionary, published in Japan in 1983,
recorded that 29 of the world’s scientific achievements in the first half of
the 15th century were made in Korea, five in China, none in Japan, and 28
in the rest of the world. In step with scientific progress, literature and the
arts also flourished and the people’s standard of living rose substantially.
89
Prince Chungnyeong
Sejong was born on the 15th of May, 1397 (April 10th by the lunar
calendar) and given the birth name of Do. He was the third son of Queen
Wongyeong and King Taejong of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). At the
age of 12, Do became a prince and was given the name of Chungnyeong.
Prince Chungnyeong had two elder brothers, Yangnyeong and
Hyoryeong. Prince Yangnyeong was burly in physique and lively in spirit.
Although he possessed talents in poetry and calligraphy, he preferred
wild amusements in the outside world to reading quietly in the palace
behind nine fast-closed gates. Prince Hyoryeong was tender-hearted by
nature. He was obedient to his parents and kind to his siblings. Later, he
became a Buddhist monk and built many temples.
In the Confucian Joseon Dynasty, it was customary for the eldest
prince to succeed to the throne. Accordingly, Prince Yangnyeong was
proclaimed Crown Prince at the age of 11. Crown Prince Yangnyeong had
to receive daily lessons in the classics and in princely deportment from
royal scholars. However, much to the disappointment of King Taejong,
Yangnyeong soon lost interest in studying and would instead go out
shooting with a bow and arrow, or climb over the palace walls in the
mingled company of his servants, or summon his companions of loose
conduct into his palace to drink, sing and laugh at naughty plays the
whole night. Still worse, Yangnyeong was a notorious philanderer. Once,
he heard of the beauty of Ori, a concubine of Gwak Jeong, vice counsellor
90
to the King’s Central Council. He ordered his servants to bring her to the
palace and made her his mistress.
For many years, whenever these bad reports reached the throne, the
King reprimanded Yangnyeong, who in turn would read aloud his written
words of repentance before the spirits of his ancestors at the Royal
Shrine. Nevertheless, he had already reached an incorrigible state, and
his bad habits of drinking and love-making had become hardened. King
Taejong was chagrined at the conduct of Yangnyeong, whom he found to
be unworthy of throne, and grew to hate the very sight of him. Other
courtiers were also becoming deeply concerned over the abnormal
behavior of the Crown Prince and the future of the state.
Finally, a formal complaint against the Crown Prince was submitted.
The Prime Minister, the heads of the six cabinet ministries, the supreme
military councillors, together with important officials from every
government department, presented a request to the throne under joint
signature to depose Yangnyeong as the Crown Prince, since he had
shown no sign of repentance for his sins and his wild behaviour was seen
to be inimical to the state.
King Taejong, who had long pondered this very course of action,
approved the request. Accordingly, on 2nd of June 1418, the King decided
to remove Yangnyeong from the seat of Crown Prince. The discussion
then turned to who should be his replacement.
At this time, Prince Chungnyeong was 22 years old. He had read
almost all the books in the palace library and acquired knowledge
91
unequalled by many great scholars in the nation. Moreover, his gentle
behavior and noble personality bore all the hallmarks of the wise
sovereigns of former ages. He was therefore universally admired and
held in the highest respect.
Eventually, Chungnyeong was inaugurated as Crown Prince in June
1418 at the age of 22, in place of his older brother Yangnyeong. In August
of the same year, he ascended to the throne as the fourth king of the
Joseon Dynasty.
Even after his expulsion from the seat of Crown Prince, Yangnyeong’s
wild conduct and his love for drinking and women did not change, to the
shame of the royal family. Nonetheless, Sejong always treated his elder
brother with sincere affection, often inviting him to the palace banquets
in spite of strong opposition from the officials. Whenever Yangnyeong’s
antics were reported to the court, Sejong persuaded the officials not to
make them an issue. Sejong also maintained a close relationship with
Prince Hyoryeong, who became a Buddhist monk, all his life.
Sejong’s Devotion to Learning
Since early childhood, Sejong had always loved to read. Once he had
read a book, he would read it again 100 times, and some books, he read
over 200 times until he had learned them by heart. Seeing his son’s
devotion to reading and studying, King Taejong grew anxious for his
92
health and forbade him to read during the night. When his reading
continued, Taejong sent an attendant to confiscate and hide all the books
in his room. Disheartened, Sejong began to search, and found one book
that had escaped the attendant’s notice called Guso Sugan (Ou-Su’s
letters) lying behind a screen. Overcome with joy, he picked it up and
proceeded to read it several hundred times. When he learned of this,
King Taejong said, “Why do you let your body suffer so, as if you were a
scholar preparing for the state examination?”
Sejong’s desire to learn grew even stronger when he became king and
began to attend the Gyeong-yeon, where he studied and discussed
Confucian Classics and historical texts with the country’s most
accomplished scholarly officials. After ascending to the throne in August
1418, Sejong began to hold the Gyeong-yeon in October and attended it
as part of his daily routine. After 20 years, Sejong had participated in no
fewer than 1,898 of its lectures.
As time passed, various problems arose with holding the Gyeongyeon. The officials in charge of the meeting were still obliged to perform
their routine government duties, and as a result were often unable to
prepare the lectures adequately. Furthermore, the young king’s
knowledge was already so advanced and his zeal for literature so fervent
that the number and depth of the lectures he required were often difficult
to provide. To solve this problem, Sejong appointed full-time teachers to
oversee the Gyeong-yeon, laying the foundations of what eventually grew
to become the Jiphyeonjeon.
93
Jiphyeonjeon, the Hall of Scholars
In response to Sejong’s request for the establishment of a royal
institute of research, the Jiphyeonjeon was established within the palace
grounds in March of 1420, the second year of his reign.
Ten scholars initially resided there, and the number later grew to 20.
The number increased again to 32 when a national project was being
undertaken, and returned to 20 after it was completed. As we learn from
Gukjo Bangmok, all but one of the scholars who resided at the
Jiphyeonjeon during the institution’s existence had succeeded in the state
examination, and just under half were among the top five in their year.
They were clearly a very talented group, despite being very young when
they joined the Jiphyeonjeon, usually at the age of 23 or 24.
Sejong earnestly supported these scholars in the belief that they were
essential to the country’s livelihood. As residents of the Jiphyeonjeon,
they enjoyed many privileges. Sejong ordered the stewards of the Royal
Palace to take charge of their meals, providing them on occasion with the
kingdom’s finest food and drink. The King would often visit the
Jiphyeonjeon in person to encourage the scholars in their studies. They
were also granted exemption from routine administrative duties and the
mandatory cycle of offices, as well as special leave for intensive periods
of study at home or at quiet Buddhist temples in the mountains.
Once, as the King was taking a quiet walk in the Royal Palace at night,
he saw a lamp burning in the Jiphyeonjeon, where a scholar named Sin
94
Suk-ju was reading, forgetful of sleep. Sejong returned to his room, and
ordered one of his servants to observe the scholar’s movements. Upon
learning from the servant later on that the light had not been put out
until dawn, the King went to the Jiphyeonjeon and gently placed his
Gonryongpo (a regal coat made of silk) over Sin Suk-ju, who was now
asleep, and some time after went to bed himself. As soon as the young
scholar awoke, he saw the King’s coat had been put over his body and
had kept him warm all night. Astonished at the King’s kindness, he bowed
toward the King’s chambers with tears in his eyes.
12
Sejong took on many projects in the 32 years of his reign, all of which
contributed to the welfare of the public, but took many years to complete.
He was determined to achieve perfection in these projects, and made
great use of the intellectual resources available to him at the
Jiphyeonjeon.
The duties assigned to the scholars ranged widely from purely
academic assignments to more active advisory roles in politics. They
included the preparation of lectures for the Gyeong-yeon, historical and
cultural research, an investigative study of the rituals and institutions of
ancient
dynasties, administration
of
the state
examinations,
the
collection of an extensive library, and the publication of works of
literature deemed important to the state. Of the duties assigned to the
Jiphyeonjeon scholars, the last was the most demanding. Eighty new
books and several hundred pamphlets and reports were published
12
Yolryosil Kisul (Collected Works of History by Yi Kung-ik)
95
through the Jiphyeonjeon during the reign of King Sejong, covering the
subjects of politics, history, literature, linguistics, geography, philosophy,
law, music, agriculture, medicine, astronomy, and others.
The most noteworthy publications included Nongsa Jikseol (A Plain
Guide to Farming, 1429), Taejong Sillok (The Annals of King Taejong,
1431), Paldo Jiriji (The Geographical Descriptions of the Eight Provinces,
1432), Samgang Haengsildo (Illustrated Guide to Conduct and the Three
Bonds, 1432), Hyangyak Jipseongbang (Great Collection of Native Korean
Prescriptions, 1433), Jachi Tonggam Hunie (Notes on the History of China,
1436), Hunmin Jeongeum (The Proper Sounds to Instruct the People,
1446), and Goryeosa (The History of Goryeo, 1450).
The volume and variety of books published through the Jiphyeonjeon
demonstrate King Sejong’s deep concern with improving the daily life of
all his subjects regardless of their class or status through wise
government and the study of literature. Though the Jiphyeonjeon existed
for a relatively short period of 36 years, it won unparalleled fame for its
lasting cultural achievements, which have been an important legacy for
the nation of Korea.
96
Hangeul, Alphabet of Love
The perfect alphabet may be a hopelessly remote ideal, but
it is possible to do a better job than history has made of the
western alphabet, in any of its manifestations. We know
this because there is an alphabet that is about as far along
the road towards perfection as any alphabet is likely to get.
Emerging in Korea in mid-fifteenth century, it has the
status among language scholars normally reserved for
classic works of art. In its simplicity, efficiency and
elegance, this alphabet is alphabet’s epitome, a star among
alphabets, a national treasure for Koreans and “one of the
great intellectual achievements of humankind”, in the
judgment of British linguist, Geoffrey Sampson.
13
The Korean alphabet Hangeul, which today has become a visual
ambassador for Korean culture, was created in 1443 by King Sejong.
Three years later, it was set out in published form together with a manual
explaining it in detail. Sejong named the alphabet and its accompanying
volume Hunmin Jeongeum (The Proper Sounds for Instructing the People).
The Korean alphabet is nowadays commonly referred to as Hangeul,
which means the “Script of Han (Korea)” or the “Great Script.”
13
John Man, Alpha Beta: How 26 Letters Shaped the Western World (New
York: John Wiley & Songs, 2000), 108-109.
97
Hangeul calligraphy
Of the 6,000 languages in existence today, only a few hundred have
their own alphabets. Of these few hundred languages, Hangeul is the only
alphabet whose inventor, theory, and motives behind its creation have
been fully set out and explained. Roman characters have their origins in
the hieroglyphics of Egypt and the syllabic Phoenician alphabets, and had
to undergo a process of gradual evolution to become what they are today.
Chinese characters, similarly, began as inscriptions on bones and
tortoise shells, and took thousands of years to reach their current form.
However, Hangeul is neither based on ancient written languages nor an
imitation of another set of characters, but an alphabet unique to Korea.
Moreover, as a highly scientific writing system, based on profound
linguistic knowledge and philosophical principles, Hangeul is practical
and convenient as well as beautiful.
98
According to the Explanations and Examples of the Hunmin Jeongeum
(1446), the basic consonant symbols were schematic drawings of the
human speech organs in the process of articulating certain sounds, while
the other consonants were formed by adding strokes to these five basic
shapes.
The velar ㄱ (k) depicts the root of the tongue blocking the throat.
The alveolar ㄴ (n) depicts the outline of the tongue touching the
upper palate.
The labial ㅁ (m) depicts the outline of the mouth.
The dental ㅅ (s) depicts the outline of the incisor.
The laryngeal ㅇ (zero initial) depicts the outline of the throat.
The pronunciation of the aspirated velar ㅋ (k’) is more forceful
than that of ㄱ (k), and therefore a stroke is added.
99
The vowel symbols were formed according to the three fundamental
symbols of Eastern philosophy.
The roundㆍrepresents Heaven.
The flat ㅡ represents Earth.
The uprightㅣrepresents Man.
These were the three basic vowels, and others were made by placing
the round dot above or below the horizontal line, and to the left and right
of the vertical line : ㅏ, ㅑ, ㅓ, ㅕ, ㅗ, ㅛ, ㅜ, ㅠ. The vowels therefore
represent the harmony of heaven, earth and men.
The consonants and vowels each represent a phoneme, or unit of
speech, and together the letters make a syllable. For example, “Moon” in
Korean is “달” (dal), which consists of: ㄷ(consonant) + ㅏ(vowel) +
ㄹ(consonant). In other words, Korean is both a phonemic and a syllabic
language.
Hangeul’s qualities have fascinated modern-day scholars around the
world. Robert Ramsey, a professor at Maryland University, described the
originality of Hangeul as follows:
The Korean alphabet is like no other writing system in
the world. It is the only alphabet completely native to
East Asia…The structure of the Korean alphabet shows
a sophisticated understanding of phonological science
100
that was not equalled in the West until modern times.14
In his book Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction, British linguist
Geoffrey Sampson devoted a special chapter to Hangeul, and asserted:
…we may well marvel at the outstanding simplicity and
convenience of Hangeul. Whether or not it is ultimately
the best of all conceivable scripts for Korean, Hangeul
must
unquestionably
rank
as
one
intellectual achievements of humankind.
of
the
great
15
The praise of renowned scholars for this relatively young alphabet is
seemingly endless. Professor Jared Diamond of UCLA, who won the
Pulitzer Prize in 1997 for his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, wrote an
article entitled “Writing Right” for Discover magazine. In the article, he
described Hangeul as “an ultra-rational system” and “a precise reflection
of a people’s speech.”16 Some other scholars even attribute Korea’s rapid
economic development and growth in information technology during
recent decades to Hangeul, which has helped to keep illiteracy rates in
Korea among the lowest in the world.
14
Robert Ramsey, “The Korean Alphabet,” King Sejong the Great, ed.
Young-Key Kim-Renaud (Seoul: Singu 1997), 198.
15
Geoffrey Sampson, Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1985), 144.
16
Jared Diamond, “Writing Right,” Discover, June 1994, 107, 109.
101
The spoken language of our country is different from that
of China and does not suit the Chinese characters.
Therefore amongst uneducated people there have been
many who, having something that they wish to put into
words, have been unable to express their thoughts in
writing. I am greatly distressed because of this, and so I
have made 28 new letters. Let everyone practice them at
their ease, and adapt them to their daily use.
– King Sejong’s Preface to Hunmin Jeongeum (1446)
This passage, though short, demonstrates clearly the benevolent
attitude of King Sejong the Great, whose sincere hope was that all people
should learn to read and write. Unfortunately, the circumstances were
not favorable for his new invention.
A call for universal literacy was in King Sejong’s day something of an
anachronism. It would have been considered by many unnecessary and
undesirable for the general population to be able to read. Some of those
in power would even have thought it dangerous to put a tool as politically
important as writing in the hands of the common people.
Nevertheless, King Sejong was very concerned about the education of
his people. Not only did he often write about the importance of literacy,
but he also urged those who had been educated to do their best to
educate others, and encouraged women also to learn how to read. While
devoting himself to the creation of the Korean alphabet, Sejong almost
lost his eyesight.
102
Thanks to the new alphabet, the lives of ordinary people, men and
women alike, changed dramatically. They were able to access a wealth of
knowledge by reading books and to write letters to their loved ones. With
an illiteracy rate of almost zero in Korea today, the Korean people are
still benefiting from the king’s determination and self-sacrifice.
In memory of King Sejong’s noble spirit, Koreans commemorate
Hangeul Day as a national holiday every year on October 9th. UNESCO
has also established the “King Sejong Literacy Prize,” annually awarded
to individuals or groups that have contributed greatly to the battle
against global illiteracy.
Used now as an alternative alphabet for the world’s minorities who
have no written language, Sejong’s invention continues to be a guiding
light for the illiterate. The Chepang Tribe from Nepal, who are without an
alphabet of their own, have adopted the Korean letters Hangeul in an
effort to preserve their language and culture. Over in Indonesia, the CiaCia, a small ethnic group with a population of 60,000, has adopted
Hangeul as its alphabet for transcribing the aboriginal Austronesian
language.
Linguists of the world acknowledge the originality and depth of
Hangeul, and its logical and pragmatic basis. More valuable than the
alphabet itself, however, is the selfless love and devotion of Sejong
embodied within it. His sincere wish that all people be able to express
their thoughts in writing is the true pride of Korea and a spiritual
heritage to share with the whole world.
103
Scientific Progress in 15th Century Korea
During King Sejong’s reign, a great number of noteworthy scientific
achievements were made in Korea. The advances made in the disciplines
of astronomy, meteorology, medicine, and printing are among the most
ingenious and impressive in world history, and deserve recognition
alongside the other distinguished accomplishments of the Far East. As
mentioned before, the Japanese Dictionary of Science and Technography,
published in 1983, recorded that of the major scientific achievements of
the period 1400-1450, 29 were made in Korea, five in China, none in
Japan, and 28 in the rest of the world.17
Sejong’s concern for the productivity of agriculture led to many
inventions such as the world’s first rain gauge, a discovery to which
Korea owes the longest systematic record of rainfall in the world. He also
sought to raise the standard of the farming methods commonly used to
cultivate the land, and published Nongsa Jikseol (A Plain Guide to
Farming). The dissemination of advanced farming techniques enabled
continuous cultivation of the land for the first time in the history of
Korea.
Sejong improved the astronomical devices such as armillary spheres
and sundials, and published the monumental work entitled Chiljeongsan
17
Sang-woon Jeon, “King Sejong the Great: The Leader of 15
th
Century
Science History,” Twelve Historical Figures of Korean Science and
Technology (Seoul: Haenamu, 2005), 77.
104
(A Calculation of the Motions of the Seven Celestial Determinants; the
Sun and Moon, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn) in 1442. The
book calculates one year to be 365.2425 days and one month to be
29.530593 days, values correct to six significant figures when compared
to today’s calculations. With the help of the formulae contained in the
book, astronomers were able to calculate the position of all the planets
with respect to the Korean capital, as well as the times and occurrences
of solar and lunar eclipses. The only civilized nations capable of
producing astronomical calculations to such a high degree of accuracy
at that time were China and Arabia. 240 years later, the book would be
introduced to Japan by Royal ambassador Bak In-gi, thus enabling Japan
to publish a native almanac compiled with respect to its own position.
King Sejong reformed the medical system so that everyone could gain
equal access to medical care. He established public health clinics and
medical schools, and held national examinations to select those most
talented and learned in the field of medicine. Before they could sit for the
examination, prospective physicians were required to undergo an
internship to learn medical practice as well as theory.
Most of all, Sejong made a great effort to offer medical benefits
equally to people in general. He sent government doctors to such remote
places as Hamgyeong Province in the far northeast and Jeju Island off the
south-western coast, in addition to making medical textbooks available
for scholars and students there so that they would have an opportunity
to learn about medical science.
105
In a Confucian society where there was a strict segregation of different sexes,
female patients were reluctant to see a male doctor. Sejong recruited and
educated female physicians so that female patients could be provided with
better medical care before they became seriously ill. He also extended his
concern to those in prison, and arranged for the medical staff working in
public clinics to take turns in providing better health care for prisoners.
In 1445, a joint effort by the Jiphyeonjeon scholars and medical
experts culminated in the publication of a medical encyclopaedia of 365
volumes, entitled Uibang Yuchwi (A Classified Collection of Medical
Prescriptions).
Due
to
the
knowledge
provided
by
the
medical
publications, there was a noticeable decline in the infant mortality rate
and overall rise in population growth at this time.
King Sejong promoted improvements in printing technology in order to
provide vehicles of knowledge for the people. In Korea, the method of printing
using wooden blocks (xylography) began in the 8th century, and movable metal
type (typography) was used for the first time in 1234, some two hundred years
before Gutenberg developed his famous printing press in Germany. In order to
meet the demand for a great number and variety of printed texts, Sejong
ordered his technicians to make typography more efficient. The King was also
responsible for the invention of a variety of lead-based metal type. He and his
technicians were aware that lead had a low melting point and cooled quickly,
and was consequently well suited to be used for casting large-type publications
for the elderly, whose failing eyesight made it difficult for them to read
characters of standard size.
106
Whenever a book was published, Sejong would hold a great feast in his
delight. Through his earnest desire to share the blessings of culture and
literature with many, the art of printing in 15th century Korea took many great
steps forward.
Sejong as a Reformer and Innovator
The society of 15th century Korea was rigidly hierarchical, as was the
case in the most of the world at that time. High-ranking positions in
government were open only to the nobility, namely the “yangban” class.
“Yang” means two or both, and “ban” means seat, position, or status. In
the royal court, officials were seated to the right and left hand of the king,
and this is how the name was derived. Yangban families married into one
another and lived apart from the other classes.
In Joseon Korea, there were three types of state examination: Literary,
Military and Technical. Since proficiency in literary studies was more
highly regarded than expertise in more practical studies such as law,
medicine and foreign languages, the highest roles in government were
awarded to those who had been successful in the literary examinations.
The literary state examinations could only be taken by the offspring of a
legal wife of yangban rank; the children of a yangban’s concubine could
only enter the science-based technical examinations, and such men
generally went on to become professionals such as physicians, inspectors,
107
auditors, translators, and technicians. Those born to the concubines of
yangban were called jungin, or “middle men.” While still considered in a
broad sense to be part of the ruling class, the jungin were in fact treated
very differently.
In Joseon society, those who worked in science and technology tended
to be of jungin rank, and were invariably victims of discrimination when
selection was being made for government office. In the early 15th century,
however, a large number of talented scientists were chosen for important
offices by King Sejong, since he believed that ability and talent were more
important than social status. The most notable example of Sejong’s
resolution to promote talent regardless of social status is his decision in
the case of Jang Yeong-sil. This decision turned out to be a very prudent
one.
The Class System of Joseon Korea
Yangban (“The Right and Left”)
Scholars and Military Commanders
Jungin (“Middle Men”)
Physicians, Inspectors, Auditors, Translators,
Technicians and others
Sangin (“Commoners”)
The greater populace, consisting mainly of farmers
Cheonin (“Lesser Commoners”)
Private and public servants, professional entertainers,
jesters, butchers, shamans and others
108
Jang, who later became famous for his invention of the sundial and
automated water-clock, began his career as a servant in the government
offices at Dongrae. According to the Sejong Sillok, his father was from
Sohangju in China and his mother was a gisaeng (professional
entertainer) from Dongrae. Despite his lowly origin, he displayed an
exceptional talent for mechanics and engineering.
When he learned of Chang’s gifts, Sejong sent him abroad so that he
could familiarize himself with the most advanced theories in technology
and science. After studying at various observatories, Jang was relieved of
his servant status and appointed a Royal Scientist in the seventh year of
Sejong’s reign (1425). When the decision for his appointment to office was
first made known, opposition from several ministers temporarily halted
proceedings altogether. When Taejong later added his support to Jang’s
case at the next discussion of his appointment, he was finally given the
undisputed right to become an official of the Royal Household.
Having been raised from servant status to the rank of Royal Scientist
within a single day, Jang continued to enjoy the favor of Sejong for the 20
years that followed. He went on to contribute to the design and
construction of the celestial globe, the astrolabe, the sundial, the
automatic water clock, and the rain gauge, many of which were solely the
result of his own work. He also worked with Yi Cheon to improve printing
technology, and so made great a many contributions to the study of
science before he died.
During Sejong’s reign, many political reforms were undertaken, and the
109
changes of legal system are among the most noteworthy. Sejong was deeply
concerned that the majority of judicial officers were giving judgment on a
subjective basis, rather than on grounds of evidence obtained through proper
investigation, and that many mistakes and failures were taking place within the
justice system. Thus, in the 13th year of his reign, he composed and dispatched
a letter of almost 4,000 words, urging officers throughout the country to give
fair and carefully measured verdicts.
Though he was eager that trials should be carried out fairly, Sejong’s
ultimate aspiration was a country which could exist without a penal system,
and a harmonious society whose prisons were all empty. Faced in reality with
circumstances that required penal laws, Sejong often agonized greatly over
verdicts he was called to deliver, and would often lighten punishments as far as
possible whenever he could.
A True Altruist
Sejong firmly believed that it was the duty and mission of a king to
serve his country as well as he possibly could, and to sacrifice himself for
the sake of its people. The people’s happiness was the sole standard
against which he measured his success as ruler. Furthermore, Sejong’s
love for his people was not confined to a particular class. When we
consider his warm compassion for the young and old, his concern for the
rights of slaves and prisoners, and his policies of welfare and openness
110
to the peoples of other nations, it seems incredible that Sejong inhabited
an age in which kings were generally cruel and brutal oppressors of their
subjects.
Following are the extracts from the Sillok, or Annals of the Joseon
Dynasty, giving examples of Sejong’s words and behavior, and an insight
into his character and spirit as a true altruistic leader.
5 February, 3rd year of Sejong’s Reign
By the Royal Order,
“The continuous flooding and drought of recent times has led to
successive years of bad harvests. This last year has been particularly
severe, and the lives of the people have become wretched. The Governor
and the Chief Administrator of each province must provide relief for all,
giving priority to the sick and handicapped. In due course, an official
from the central government will tour and inspect the various districts. If
it is discovered that there is one person who has died from starvation in
the residential district of any province, the official responsible for that
province will be convicted of felony.”
3 July, 5th year of King Sejong’s reign
The King said,
“The common people are the foundation of any country. It is only
when this foundation is strong that a country may be stable and
prosperous.”
111
20 June, 7th year
The King said,
“The courtiers and officials will keep in mind the hardships of the
people and endeavour to point out every one of my faults, as well as
errors and oversights in my ordinances and commands, so that I may
fear the Heavens and have the utmost regard for the wellbeing of the
people.”
28 July, 7th year
For the past 10 days, the King has stayed awake until dawn out of
concern for the drought. He has become ill as a result, but has forbidden
the announcement of his illness to the public.
23 February, 10th year
To the inspectors who were leaving to investigate reports of starvation
in their provinces, the King said,
“Go in person to the hamlets hidden in the hills and the mountains,
and if you come across a person in hunger, give him rice, beans, salt and
soy sauce, and save his life. If a local governor has hidden anyone who
has died or suffered from malnutrition, you must punish him according
to the disciplinary laws. If his position is equal to or higher than three
pum18, you must first inform the Central Government. If his position is
18
All government officials were given ranks from one pum to nine pum, with
one pum being the highest level.
112
equal to or less than four pum, you may judge his offence there and then.
If the need for relief is urgent, open the storehouses yourselves and give
the people relief.”
5 November, 1st year
When the mother of the exile Kim Han-ro passed away, the King said,
“Returning home to attend the funeral of one’s parent is an obligation
in keeping with natural law and with human nature. Moreover, since the
former king has already given the order, I must abide by it. It would be no
great offense for Kim Han-ro to take care of the funeral, provided that he
returns to his place of exile after he has done so.”
The courtiers petitioned the King two or three times, alleging that it
would not be right to allow a criminal to return from exile. The King did
not listen to their recommendations and summoned Kim Han-ro home
together with his son Kim Kyung-jae to oversee his mother’s funeral.
11 February, 5th year
A Royal Ordinance was issued as follows:
“From now on, any soldier who wishes to visit his sick parents should
be granted leave immediately, and should not be required to submit an
official report until later. Let this practice be followed from now on.”
7 April, 5th Year
The King ordered the royal family to pour wine for one another. When
113
the turn came for Prince Hyoryeong (King Sejong's elder brother) to pour
wine for the King, the King stood to receive it.
Later, two envoys from China asked Hwang Hee, “At today’s banquet,
why did the King stand to receive wine from Prince Hyoryeong?”
Hwang Hee replied, “If you think of His Majesty and Prince Hyoryeong
as a king and his subject, he was under no obligation to stand. The
reason that the King stood up was because he regards it as his duty to
respect his elder brother.”
The envoys were moved by the King’s actions and praised his virtue
highly.
29 September, 14th year
When his horse ate a handful of rice from a farmer’s store, the King
said,
“The farmer has taken great trouble to farm this rice, and since my
horse has eaten it, he should receive what would have been due to him.”
He then ordered that the farmer be given a sack of rice in recompense.
26 March, 11th year
The officer Jeong Yeon said,
“Yesterday, a man leaped out in front of Your Majesty’s carriage.
According to the laws, he should be executed.”
The King replied,
“That is most unjust. If he jumped in full awareness of the law, the
114
rule should be applied as you have said. But to punish an ignorant
person who acted out of bewilderment, not knowing his way, is not right.
25 February, 14th year
While the King’s ostler was on guard in the mountains, a large wild
boar, struck with many arrows, managed to break through the fence and
charged into the King’s horse, killing it. The officers Choi Yun-deok and
Jeong Yeon declared,
“In their neglect, the palace staffs have allowed the Royal Horse to be
killed. We request that Your Majesty permit their offence to be judged.”
The King replied,
“It happened quite unexpectedly. How could they have known that a
large boar would run into this particular horse? Do not speak of this
again.”
19 April, 7th year
The King said,
“Appreciation of the good must be long-lasting; hatred of the wicked
must not.”
19 October, 12th year
The King said to his Secretaries,
“In the past, when a government servant gave birth, she was expected
to return to service seven days later. This provision was made out of
115
concern for the fact that harm might come to the baby if she returned
leaving the child at home, and so this period of leave was later increased
to 100 days. However, there have been instances of women whose time
was near, and who gave birth before reaching home. I therefore suggest
that one month of full leave be granted prior to giving birth. Please
amend the relevant laws.”
26 April, 16th year
Dispatched to the Ministry of Justice:
“It has been enacted that a female servant, who is due to give birth in
a month’s time or has given birth within the 100 days, shall not be
required for government service. Since no leave has been granted to the
husbands of such women, however, they have not been able to provide
assistance to their wives in childbirth, and because of this some women
have even lost their lives, which is most pitiful. From this day forward, a
husband is not required to return to service for 30 days after his wife has
given birth.”
1 May, 7th year
The King ordered the Ministry of Justice:
“The purpose of a prison is to punish those who have committed
crimes—not to be a place in which they are left to die. However, the
officials in charge of prisons, instead of sincerely caring for those under
their charge, sometimes incarcerate men in extremely cold or hot
116
weather, causing them to become ill, or freeze to death. This is most
unfortunate and deserving of our pity. In deference to this most sincere
wish of mine, let the officials of both central and provincial governments
make a habit of inspecting the prisons in person, and see that they are
kept in good repair and in an orderly state. They should also provide the
sick prisoners with medicine. For the prisoners who do not have families
to bring them supplies, the government will give them food and clothes.
Officials who do not faithfully carry out these directives will be strictly
supervised and punished by the Office of the Inspector General in Seoul
and by the Governors in Provinces.”
27 November, 12th year
A Royal Ordinance to the Ministry of Justice:
“To be imprisoned and tortured is an ordeal for any man. In the case
of children and the elderly, it is pitiful indeed. From this day forward, the
detention of those aged below 15 or above 70 is forbidden, unless the
charge is one of murder or robbery. Persons below the age of 10 or
above the age of 80 shall under no circumstances be detained or beaten,
and any verdict passed in their case must be given on the basis of many
testimonies. Let this Ordinance be known throughout the country, and
anyone in breach of it be punished.”
28 July, 13th year
A Royal Ordinance to the Ministry of Justice:
117
“When a person who is without spouse commits a crime and is
imprisoned, his or her young children may die from cold and starvation
if no one cares for them. From now on, let such children be taken to
their relatives. Babies that still require breastfeeding shall be given to
those who can accommodate them. If the children do not have relatives,
the local government office should take custody of the children and raise
them. The officials of the local governments should raise them with the
utmost care. If they fail to do so and the children suffer from cold
weather and starvation, the Office of the General Inspector and
Governors of the Provinces will investigate and discipline those
responsible.”
2 July, 30th year
The King said,
“In the past, I have not been afraid of the heat. As the climate has
grown more extreme in recent years, I have begun to soak my hands in
cold water during hot weather. When I do so, the feeling of heat
immediately disappears. This has led me to reflect how easy it must be
for a man in prison to be affected by the heat. Some, I believe, even lose
their lives because of it, and this is greatly distressing. When there is
very hot weather, let us place small jars of water in the cells of the
prisons, and replace the water frequently, directing the prisoners to wash
their hands so that they are not affected by the heat.”
118
Gyeongbokgung Palace
119
28 January, 16th year
Sin Sang, an official from the Ministry of Rites, reported,
“The Alta Tribe of the Jurchens have submitted this message to the
Royal Court, ‘We understand that you have established a military base in
the region of Hoeryeong, and wish to know whether you will allow us to
live in peace with you as before, or intend to drive us away.’ I believe,
Your Highness, that it is their genuine wish to settle with us in peace.”
The king responded,
“If they wish to become part of our nation, we cannot drive them away,
and if they wish to leave, there is no need for us to prevent it. Our
establishment of a military base will not please them, but it cannot be
denied that the rural district of Hoereyong is our rightful territory.
Dongmaeng Gacheop Moga (the chief of the Jurchens) once leased the
land from us, but after his tribe was defeated by the rival Oljeokhap, the
region became desolate and empty, and so now we have been compelled
to establish a military camp there to maintain peace. Other Jurchens
have settled in Hamgil Province, and if the Alta Tribe wishes to come and
live in our country, it would be unjust to discriminate against them.”
15 November, 31st year
The King said to Yi Gye-jeon,
“In the Year of the Serpent (the 7th Year of the King’s Reign, and a
year of great drought), my illness became so grave and my chances of
survival so slender that a coffin was prepared for me.”
120
16 June, 24th year
The King said to several of his Secretaries,
“Ever since I came to the throne, I have thought nothing more worthy
of diligent effort than consideration of the affairs of state. Therefore, I
have held councils every day to debate and discuss issues of national
importance. Through these, I have met with many officials each day, and
have given my personal attention to state affairs, dealing with them
individually. For this reason, the delivery of sentences has never been
delayed, and no important matter has been left unheard.”
22 February, 32nd year
The King would rise at dawn every day, and would hear debriefings
from his Ministers at daybreak. He would then consider general affairs,
and hold council to determine the principles of governance. He would
personally interview the governors as they left for their provinces. He
actively participated in Gyeong-yeon in order to reflect upon the
Literature of the Sages, and hold discussions about past and present
events. Later, he would go to read in the Royal Chamber and would not
set down his book until retiring late into the night.
121
The Everlasting Light of Korea
Unlike many other kings given the title “Great” by posterity, Sejong’s
greatness did not lie in brute force or in the conquering and subduing of
other peoples, but in a series of intellectual and cultural achievements that
have continued to benefit his nation throughout many generations, and which
enrich the lives of his people today.
Through his intelligence, creative energy, compassion, and good judgment,
the King worked with untiring dedication to free his countrymen from poverty,
injustice, and ignorance. He surrounded himself with capable scholars and
scientists, whose ingenuity found an ordered and splendid means of expression
under his leadership. It is for this reason that the name of Sejong is given to
many streets, schools, research institutes, cultural centers, and even
businesses in modern Korea.
Sejong was a king who served the people with reverence and humility, who
promoted the power and beauty of culture out of love and benevolence, and
who instilled in his country a sense of independence and a new cultural identity.
He possessed a deep respect for history and tradition, valued learning and
scholarship, and led his country forward with bold and innovative reforms.
Dressed in patched clothing and living beneath a humble roof, he never
faltered in his sense of duty and responsibility even in the days when his work
on the alphabet caused him to become almost blind. He was a father to the
poor, the weak, the ignorant, and even those who committed crimes
against the national law.
122
Royal Tomb of King Sejong
Sejong, the fourth and greatest monarch of Joseon Korea, continued after
his death to be a deep root and inexhaustible spring for all Korean people.
Despite the many words that have been written about this king, and may yet be
written, his virtues can never be described in full.
123
Bibliography
Historical Sources
Sejong Sillok (Annals of King Sejong)
Other Sources
Bae, Kichan. Korea at the Crossroads: The History and Future of East Asia.
Seoul: Wisdom House, 2005.
Diamond, Jared. “Writing Right.” Discovery, June 1994.
Jeon, Sang-woon. Science under King Sejong. Seoul: King Sejong Memorial
Society, 1986.
———. “King Sejong the Great: The Leader of 15th Century Science Histroy,”
Twelve Historical Figures of Korean Science and Technology. Seoul:
Haenamu, 2005.
Kim, Jung-soo. The History and Future of Hangeul. Seoul: Youl Hwa Dang,
1990,
Kim-Renaud,Young-key. King Sejong the Great: The Light of 15th Century
Korea. Seoul: Singu Munhwa Publications, 1998.
Ledyard, Gari. “The Korean Language Reform of 1446: The Origin,
Background, and Early History of the Korean Alphabet.” Ph. D.
Dissertation. University of California, Berkeley, 1966.
Man, John. Alpha Beta: How 26 Letters Shaped the Western World, New York:
John Wiley & Songs, 2000.
Pak, Pyong-ho. Legal Systems under King Sejong, King Sejong Memorial
Society, 1986.
Sampson, Geoffrey. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1985.
The Academy of Korean Studies. Culture under King Sejong, Taehak
Publications, 2002.
124
Yi Yulgok: An Exemplary Seonbi
In terms of their fundamental nature, the ordinary person
and the great sage are not different. There are of course
differences between people—some have greater talent and
are purer in heart than others. Yet if one sincerely tries to
do away with one’s old habits and recover one’s true
human nature, the result will be an infinite number of
good deeds. Therefore, why should an ordinary person not
aspire to be a sage?
– From Gyeok-mong-yo-gyeol19 by Yi Yulgok
Yulgok Yi Yi 20 (1536-1584) was the most distinguished Confucian
scholar of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), together with Toegye Yi
Hwang (1501-1570). He was also a statesman and conscientious
administrator. Yulgok has been compared to the eccentric peak of a
19
Yulgok composed this work in 1577 to provide a basic guide for young
scholars. After its publication, the book was widely used as a textbook in
secondary schools until the end of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). The title
of the book means “Dispelling Ignorance.”
20
“Yulgok” is the courtesy name of Yi Yi, originating from the name of his
ancestral home. “Yulgok,” “Yi Yulgok” and “Yi Yi” are used interchangeably.
125
summer-time cloud, and Toegye to
the warmth and splendor of a lake
in spring time.
As a philosopher, he established a
new paradigm of exemplary conduct,
and as a statesman, he proposed
deep and sweeping reforms. His
conviction was that the purpose of
learning was to apply what one had
learned practically in real life, and
his life and deeds answered to this
conviction.
He
contemplated
profound
philosophical questions about human ethics and the purpose of the
universe, but he did not stop at ideas. He pursued policy reforms with
passion, with the aim of fully realizing the Confucian ideals in human
society, and even dared to offer corrective advice to the King, in the face
of a majority of statesmen in the court who opposed his views. He
comprehended the international politics of the day, and foresaw the
great misfortune that loomed over the nation. Even on his deathbed, he
continued to exert himself for his King and his people.
A Confucian to his very heart, he espoused a society founded on the
Confucian social order, and yet he appreciated the dignity of the human
being, which he believed was equal in all people regardless of social
126
status. Hence, he was aptly compared to “the eccentric peak of a summer
time cloud,” in view of his remarkable character and prominence in his
own day. Combined with the careful education he received from his
mother Shin Saimdang, his scholastic endeavors and inner discipline
made Yulgok one of the greatest and most significant figures in Korean
history. Considering that his lifespan of 49 years was relatively brief, his
impression upon his country’s culture and traditions was far-reaching
and vasat.
Mother Shin Saimdang
If we have to name a single person who exerted a significant influence
on Yulgok’s life and philosophy, it would without question be his mother
Shin Saimdang (1504-1551). She was an example to him of scholarship,
artistic refinement, and moral character. His love and respect for his
mother were so profound that after she passed away, he wrote a record
of her life out of filial devotion, and stayed at a Buddhist temple for a
year to recover from his grief.
Saimdang was not only a scholar, well-versed in the Confucian
classics and other great works of the literary tradition, but also an artist
of genuine distinction who was deeply admired by later generations as
well as by her contemporaries. She established the painting of plants and
insects as a distinguished genre in Korean art. Enriching the tradition of
Korean painting, her contribution to the field was immeasurable.
127
Depictions of Shin Saimdang and Yi Yulgok on Korean Bank Notes21
While growing up, Saimdang received an excellent education in
literature, philosophy and art, studying at home rather than in school.
She began learning to read and write at the age of 4, and soon after that
began calligraphy and painting, as well as embroidery. Her father Shin
Myungwha would borrow famous paintings so that Saimdang could
practice by copying them. At the age of 7, Saimdang surprised her family
and relatives by making a near perfect replica of a landscape painting by
An Gyeon, a renowned painter of the early Joseon period.
21
The 5,000 won bill has a portrait of Yulgok, as well as pictures of his
birthplace and Sin Saimdang’s art. The portrait on the 1,000 won bill is of
Toegye, and Sin Saimdang appears on the 50,000 won bill.
128
Watermelons and Mice
Painted by Saimdang, 34cm x 28.3cm, National Museum of Korea
129
Eggplants and Bees
Painted by Saimdang, 34cm x 28.3cm, National Museum of Korea
130
Cockscomb and Dung Beetles
Painted by Saimdang, 34cm x 28.3cm, National Museum of Korea
131
From her mother, Saimdang learned to practice virtuous conduct in
her daily life and how to teach her own children. Saimdang’s father once
became ill while travelling from Seoul to his family in Gangneung. No
medicine was effective, and he was between life and death. Saimdang’s
mother offered prayers for seven days and nights, but to no avail. She
performed her ablutions and went to grave of one of her ancestors. Here
she made an altar, and cut off half of her left middle finger as a sacrifice.
She then prayed with utmost sincerity for her husband’s recovery.
Meanwhile, Saimdang was nursing her father. As she drowsed for a
moment, she had a dream in which a divine person gave heavenly
medicine to her father. After this, her father miraculously recovered. All
the people in the village believed that the Heavens had been moved by the
prayer of Saimdang’s mother and honored her wish. This became known
outside the village, and several years later, Saimdang’s mother was
awarded a monument of virtue by the royal court. Saimdang took her
mother as a role model to emulate, in particular for her love and
perseverance.
A Black Dragon Swoops In
In the spring of the year in which Yulgok was born (1536), Saimdang
had a mysterious dream. In the dream, Saimdang made a journey to the
East Sea, and a sea nymph emerged from the waves with a baby boy in
her arms. The skin of the baby boy shone and sparkled with unnatural
132
Yulgok’s birthplace
brightness. The sea nymph gave the baby to Saimdang, and she awoke.
Soon after the dream, she became pregnant, and on the night before the
baby was born, she had another auspicious dream. This time, a black
dragon soared upwards out of the sea, flew to her bedroom and landed
on the balcony. For this reason, Yulgok’s boyhood name was
“Hyeonyong,” literally meaning “a dragon manifests itself.” His birth
room was called Mongyongsil (literally, “Room of Dragon Dream”).
Several years later, Yulgok’s father also had an unusual dream. In the
dream, a sage-like gentleman pointed to the boy Yulgok and said, “This
child will be reckoned among the greatest philosophers of our land.
133
Therefore, let his name be Yi.” From then on, the letter “Yi” was used for
his given name. The Chinese character of “Yi” refers to a halo, or corona,
and was here used to signify the future greatness of Yulgok.
As these dreams portended, Yulgok showed an extraordinary
precociousness from a very early age. His biographies state that as soon
as he learned to speak, he was able to read. At the age of 3, his
grandmother took up a pomegranate and asked him, “What is this like?”
Yulgok replied with a phrase from an old poem, “Broken red gem stones
are wrapped in the skin of a pomegranate,” to the amusement and
surprise of all.
His intellectual progress was so rapid that, at the age of 10, he had
read all the major historical works and the classics of Daoism and
Confucianism. His progress received official recognition when he passed
the qualification for the civil service examination at the age of 13.
At the time, there was another prodigy taking the exam, who was the
same age as Yulgok. As both of them passed, the court officials in charge
of the examination were very impressed, and arranged to meet with them.
The other boy was apparently very boastful, while Yulgok was modest
and humble. Many who witnessed this meeting foresaw that Yulgok would
become a great scholar and a man of character.
Later at the age of 29, Yulgok won first place at the final stage of the
examination. The civil service examination consisted of many stages, and
candidates had to pass the beginner and intermediate stages before
reaching the final exam. Yulgok’s achievements became legendary after
134
he succeeded in securing first place in every one of the nine exams.
However, it was not simply his intellectual acumen that distinguished
Yulgok as extraordinary. The following episode, which occurred when he
was 5 years old, shows his humanity and compassion.
A man crossing a river slipped and fell into the water. Many people
laughed at the frantic attempts of the poor man to climb out, but Yulgok
clung to a nearby pillar in great anxiety at the man’s plight. Only when
the man reached safety did he finally relax. The warm heart and sense of
justice that the young Yulgok had showed continued to characterize his
life, bearing fruit in his service to the nation.
Filial Devotion
Like his mother Shin Saimdang, Yulgok was known for his filial
devotion from early childhood. When Saimdang once fell seriously ill,
Yulgok, then only 5 years old, went into the ancestral shrine to pray for
his mother. Other family members consoled the young boy and brought
him back home.
At 11, when his father became ill and was in a coma, he cut his arm
and let the drops of blood fall into his father’s mouth. He then prayed to
the ancestors to take his life instead of his father’s.
At the age of 16, when Saimdang passed away, he and his brothers
together held a three-year mourning period at the burial site. During that
time, they dressed in full mourning attire, and personally carried out all
135
the ceremonial rites, from setting the daily memorial table to washing the
dishes, and left none of the duties to the servants. After the customary
mourning period, Yulgok continued to mourn in conscience for another
year. “Mourning in conscience” means to continue to observe formal
morning rites even though the official mourning period has ended.
Although mourning at the burial site of one’s parents was common
among aristocrats of the day, Yulgok, who was only 16, practiced it out of
a genuine affection and respect for his mother. He paid further tribute to
his mother by writing A Record of My Late Mother’s Life, which remains
an important historical source about Saimdang’s life and art.
Yulgok was known for his love and filial devotion towards his
maternal grandmother as well. When he was 31 years old, he was
appointed to the post of Civil Affairs Official after returning from a
diplomatic trip to China. Hearing that his 89 year old grandmother was
seriously ill, he immediately resigned his post and left for his
grandmother’s house. This incident became a minor scandal in the court,
since he had left before he was permitted to do so. Certain officials
pressed strongly for his dismissal as punishment for his error. The King
did not listen to them, however, reasoning that Yulgok’s act signified
great filial piety, rather than disloyalty to his country. Yulgok also wrote
An Account of the Virtuous Acts of Lady Yi to record how his
grandmother had come to be awarded a monument of virtue by the court.
This was the story of the sacrificial prayer for her husband (Yulgok’s
grandfather), narrated earlier in this book.
136
The stories we have regarding Yulgok’s step-mother tell of his selfdiscipline as well as filial devotion. Shin Saimdang told her husband not
to marry another woman if she should die early, as in fact she did.
Perhaps with regard to Saimdang’s request, Yulgok’s father entrusted the
management of the household to a concubine, instead of formally
marrying someone of his own class. The concubine, who was rude and
coarse in manner, did not treat Yulgok and his siblings well.
When Yulgok’s father passed away, his step-mother began to drink
soju (rice wine) in the morning, a habit she acquired out of lonesomeness.
Instead of criticizing her, Yulgok called on her every morning, warming
the jar himself before serving her wine. He took good care of his stepmother, so that she would not feel isolated from the rest of the family
members. His step-mother’s attitude towards him eventually softened,
and later when Yulgok passed away, she remained in mourning for three
years to express her deep gratitude.
Scholarship
22
Yulgok was a seonbi (gentleman scholar) , an archetype of the ruling
class of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). Although the aristocracy of
Joseon consisted of two categories—scholars and warriors—greater
22
“Seonbi” refers to a respectful scholar. In terms of social significance,
“seonbi” is a counterpart to the “samurai” of Japan. The difference is that
seonbi is a scholar, whereas samurai is a warrior.
137
honor was generally conferred on the former. Within the Confucian
tradition, scholarship was regarded as the true occupation of the
aristocratic male. The sway of Confucianism was absolute during the
Joseon Dynasty, as the nation had been re-established on the NeoConfucian system of governance. With the beginning of the new dynasty,
Confucianism had become the state religion and basis of government.
Neo-Confucianism was a new synthesis of classical Confucianism and
other philosophical traditions such as Buddhism and Daoism. This new
school of thought had been developed by Zhu Xi and the Cheng brothers
during the Song dynasty (960-1270) of China. The founders of Joseon
envisioned their new nation as the realization of the Neo-Confucian
paradigm. Therefore, while Buddhism was the national religion during
the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), Joseon (1392-1910) made it its policy to
repress Buddhism, as well as Daoism and even other currents of
Confucianism, and the ruling class in particular shunned their study and
practice.
Yulgok, however, was an original thinker. He critically assessed the
dominant Cheng-Zhu school of Confucianism and freely drew on the
insights of other traditions to develop his own ideas. In his poems, he
makes frequent reference to Laozi and Zhuangzi, the founders of Daoism.
He even wrote a commentary on Daodejing23 by the former.
Moreover, after his mother passed away, Yulgok went to Mt. Kumgang
23
Written in approximately 600 BC by Laozi, it is a classical text fundamental
to the Daoist school of Chinese philosophy.
138
to recover from his deep-seated grief, learn from the monks about the
Buddhist
scriptures
and
to
practice
Buddhist
meditation.
His
understanding of Buddhist concepts and his practice of meditation
surprised many of the monks he met. He eventually left Mt. Kumgang,
having reached the conclusion that the Buddhist notion “Mind is Buddha”
was no different from the central Confucian concept of “true human
nature.” Even though it was only for one year at a young age, the episode
is a clear sign of his non-conformist approach. Thanks to his openmindedness in learning, Yulgok could carve his own philosophical
perspective out of the existing Confucian tradition.
Self-Discipline
To Confucian scholars, the most important virtue was to put one’s
knowledge into practice. “To learn and then to act” was a Confucian
tenet that required inner discipline. In this regard, Yulgok was genuinely
an exemplary figure, and tried hard to live up to the ideal throughout his
life. His resolution is clearly seen in two pieces of his writing in particular.
One is “Minding the Self,” written after he returned from Mt. Kumgang at
the age of 20. It tells of his resolve to follow the example of the sages and
other great men, how to conduct everyday speech and behavior, and the
correct attitude to learning. In it he says, “One with peaceful mind does
not talk much. Putting one’s soul and heart to a given task is a way to
calm the mind. All evils result from not being mindful when one is alone.
139
Facing disaster and hardship, find faults in oneself and repent. Learning
should be neither hurried nor desultory. It should cease only at death. If
one seeks to reap the rewards of learning too soon, this is greed. If one
does not pursue learning, this is a disgrace, and one is no longer
human.” Here “learning” means more than academic study. More
precisely, it means disciplining and cultivating one’s mind according to
the principles of the Heavens.
Another work which deals with self-discipline is “Repentance on
Winter Solstice.” Yulgok wrote it at midnight on the winter solstice, in a
reflection on his life up to that day, at the age of 25 years old.
Contemplating the many changes in the world and the universe, he came
to realize: “When all is in flux, is it not right that I too should change?”
The following poem expresses his intention in greater detail:
The cycle of the Heavens is about to repeat itself,
Filling me with awe and wonder.
The cosmic essence lives and breathes in all things,
The three elements of Heaven, Earth, and Man.
Virtue is the gift of the Heavens,
As bright as the moon and the sun.
But foolish thoughts have dimmed its brightness,
Small at first, but great in time.
As an ax devours the tree,
Foolishness has gnawed at my soul.
These five and twenty years
140
I have been lost in a deep slumber.
Looking back on the wrongs of yesterday,
My mind is filled with sorrow and grief.
Now, with all my heart and mind,
I vow to be awakened.
Heavens, may you see and hear.
Yulgok put reverence at the center of his life, and regarded learning
to practice reverence as the ultimate purpose of academic study. He
warned himself against mere bookishness and sought to apply knowledge
and moral lessons in real life.
An episode from the year 1583 illustrates his inner discipline. Yulgok
was at the time making frequent diplomatic missions to a northern town
called Hwangju. In this town, there was a gisaeng (professional female
entertainer), named Yuji. Yuji had known Yulgok since she was an
apprentice gisaeng. Now a grown woman, she had fallen in love with him.
One night, Yuji appeared at Yulgok’s residence. Yulgok said, “If I
close the door, I close my heart. But if I share her bed, I harm my soul.”
He thus allowed her to come in, but showed her to a separate bedroom.
Thinking that rejecting her outright would be uncompassionate, but
spending the night with her out of desire would be unjust, he found a
middle ground. Yulgok was candid and frank enough to write a poem in
praise of the beauty of Yuji, but he did not lose his presence of mind or
self-control. Later when Yulgok passed away, Yuji mourned him for
three years, as if he were a family member.
141
Yulgok lived a life of integrity and honesty. When he came into the
possession of a house, he immediately sold it and shared the money
amongst his poorest relatives. At times he barely had enough to feed
himself. A statesman recorded, “When Yulgok passed away, his family
was so poor that they had to borrow clothes to dress the body. Not
having a house of their own in Seoul, they were constantly on the move,
suffering from cold and hunger. Yulgok’s friends and the other scholars
all contributed to buy them a house.” At the time, it was common for
government officials to embezzle funds and abuse their position. But
Yulgok was exemplary and heroic in his inner discipline and dedication to
the country’s good.
Visiting Toegye
Yulgok visited the great scholar, Toegye, when he was 23 years old
and Toegye was 57. Although Yulgok had won the first place at the civil
service examination a year before, he was still largely unknown. By
contrast, Toegye had long been renowned for his scholarship and
virtuous conduct. However, when they met each other, Toegye
recognized Yulgok’s character and potential. In a letter to one of his
students, Toegye wrote: “He [Yulgok] is positive and cheerful in
personality, and has an excellent memory. He is thoroughly set upon
learning. A sage once said, ‘A man must respect his juniors.’ I now
appreciate the wisdom of this saying.”
142
Toegye acknowledged Yulgok’s genius and greatly encouraged his
aspirations. Later in a letter to Yulgok, he wrote, “In these present days,
when other men greedily pursue their own interests, I am very thankful
that you at least are trying to find a way to the greatest virtue.” Toegye
correctly foresaw that Yulgok would become an important person.
For his part, Yulgok appreciated Toegye’s depth of thought and moral
probity, and regarded him as a mentor. He wrote many letters to Toegye
to ask his opinion on matters of philosophy and other subjects, and to
articulate his own ideas. Twelve years later when Toegye passed away, he
composed a funeral oration. To show respect for his mentor, he wore a
white robe and mourned for him in conscience.
Toegye was a scholar who explored new possibilities within the NeoConfucian philosophy. He fashioned a creative synthesis based on a
comprehensive survey of past works by Chinese and Korean scholars.
Yulgok was able to elaborate his own philosophical framework using the
foundation Toegye had laid. In the letters that the two scholars
exchanged, differences of opinion are very infrequent. But in the last
letter that Yulgok sent to Toegye in his mid-thirties, we see evidence that
he was growing more critical of Toegye’s theories. Yulgok’s fully matured
philosophy
differs
from
Toegye’s
in several
important
respects.
Eventually, Toegye and Yulgok came to represent two distinct schools of
Korean Neo-Confucian philosophy, that is, the Yeongnam school and
Giho school respectively.
143
Contemplating the Nature of the Mind
In spite of an unstable economy and a volatile political situation, the
period of the Joseon Dynasty in which Yulgok lived was a time of great
progress in the fields of literature and philosophy. Thanks to the Joseon
scholars who had expanded the theories of Neo-Confucianism and
developed them to a greater level of sophistication, the new philosophy
had become firmly established.
The “School of Human Nature and Principle”
24
served as the
orthodox school of Neo-Confucianism in Joseon. Also known as the
Cheng-Zhu school or Zhu-Hsi school, it is associated with Song Chinese
thinkers such as Cheng Yi (1033-1107) and Zhu Hsi (1130-1200). While
classical Confucianism, as taught by Confucius and Mencius, remained
focused on the morality and ethics of the human society, the Cheng-Zhu
school of Neo-Confucianism grew to encompass metaphysics and
psychology. From this was derived the name Seong-li-hak, or the
“School of Human Nature (seong) and Principle (li).”
The main concepts of the school were as follows. Li means principle,
reason, truth, law or pattern. It refers to the underlying laws of the
cosmos and of nature. The li of human nature specifically is called seong.
Ki (Chi in Chinese) refers to material force or energy. Due to the workings
of ki, cosmic transformations are possible, and through it everything
comes to exist. Li is the principle behind every phenomenon, and ki is the
24
Seong-li-hak (Korean), Hsing-li-hsueh (Chinese)
144
material cause behind it. Li and ki together make up sim (mind). Jeong
(emotion) arises when the mind responds to the outside world.
Yulgok’s contribution to the development of the Neo-Confucian
philosophy centers around two metaphysical issues. One was the issue of
human emotion in relation to li and ki, which eventually came to be
called the “Four-Seven Debate.” The other was the question as to
whether the nature of humans was the same as that of other beings, such
as animals. The Four-Seven debate initially began between Toegye and
Gobong, another philosopher. Yulgok re-opened the debate 13 years
later. By further elaborating on the issues explored by the two
predecessors, he resolved some of the disputed points and built a unique
and compelling framework of metaphysics with profound philosophical,
ethical, and political ramifications.
The Four-Seven debate marks one of the most important events in
Asian philosophical development. It culminated in a distinctively Korean
interpretation of Neo-Confucianism, and is testament to the vitality and
maturity of the intellectual world in 16th century Korea. The debate
reached its height at the time of Toegye and Yulgok, and lasted for three
more centuries, engendering fierce controversy among Joseon scholars.25
“Four-Seven” refers to the “four beginnings of virtue” and “seven
emotions.” According to Mencius and Zhu Xi, the principles of human
nature are the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and
25
Chung, Edward Y. J. (1995), The Korean Neo-Confucianism of Yi T’oegye
and Yi Yulgok, Albany, NY: SUNY Press, p. xiv.
145
wisdom. The virtue of benevolence is manifested in the ability to
empathize with another; righteousness in the ability to feel shame and
aversion; propriety in the inclination towards courtesy and modesty; and
wisdom
in
the
understanding
of
right
and
wrong.
These
four
manifestations come from the original essence of human nature, and
therefore are called the Four Beginnings. The seven emotions refer to joy,
anger, sorrow, fear, love, hatred, and desire, and constitute the totality
of a human feeling.
Although the Four Beginnings and the Seven Emotions were
important concepts in Neo-Confucianism, the link between them was not
clearly articulated by Chinese thinkers. Joseon scholars undertook the
task to understand the relationship between the “Four” and the “Seven,”
and ultimately between li and ki.
Toegye asserted that the Four Beginnings should be understood in
terms of li and the Seven Emotions in terms of ki, making a clear
distinction between the manifestation of li and the manifestation of ki.
For him, the Four Beginnings are the manifestation of the cosmic
principle (li), whereas the Seven Emotions are aroused by physical and
material conditions, and thus the manifestation of ki. His position was
that li and ki are independent from each other and become two different
sources of human feelings. Gobong challenged Toegye’s view, by arguing
that li cannot exist apart from ki. He maintained that li and ki are
inseparable in regard to concrete phenomena including the mind and
146
feelings.26
When Yulgok took up the issue years later, he adopted Gobong’s
position and developed it into a clearer, more original and systematic
viewpoint. While Gobong somewhat modified his initial position after the
debates with Toegye, Yulgok totally opposed Toegye’s dualistic thesis. He
criticized Toegye for postulating two different sources of goodness.
According to Yulgok, because li and ki are always inseparable in physical
phenomena, it is not possible to have one group of feelings (the Four) as
manifestations of li and the other group of feelings (the Seven) as
manifestations of ki. From Yulgok’s point of view, the Four are rooted
within the Seven as a subset consisting of “good” feelings. Thus the Four
encompasses good only, while the Seven includes both good and evil.
27
Toegye, as a dualistic thinker, separated the mind into two parts: the
moral mind and the human mind, assigning the former to the Four, and
the latter to the Seven. By contrast, Yulgok argued that the mind is
fundamentally one and cannot be separated into two minds. This is
because the Seven, or the totality of feelings, include both the moral
mind and the human mind together. Yulgok stressed that the moral mind
and the human mind refer simply to two dimensions of one mind—
virtuous and emotional. Unlike Toegye, Yulgok strenuously asserted the
inseparability of li and ki in the phenomenal world. While Toegye
assigned an active role to li so that it could manifest itself in human
26
Chung (1995), pp. 48-58.
27
Chung (1995), p. 168.
147
feelings, Yulgok insisted that whereas ki can operate as an active force, li
cannot. Therefore li exists within ki, but cannot exist outside ki.28`
Yulgok went further, presenting an original hypothesis about the
interdependent relationship of li and ki. In his words, “Li encompasses,
while ki is limited.”
Why is it said that “li encompasses?” Li has neither a beginning
nor an end, neither before nor after...For this reason, as li rides
on the circulating movement of ki, it creates irregularities and
non-uniformities.
Its
original
mystery,
however,
exists
everywhere. Where ki is partial, li is also partial. But in this case,
what is partial is ki, not li. Equally, where ki is complete, what is
complete is ki, not li. Li exists everywhere, even in ashes, dregs,
excrement, soil, and dirt, each of which has its own nature. Still,
the original subtlety of li is not diminished. This is what I mean
when I say that “li encompasses.” Why is it said, “Ki is limited?”
Ki already incorporates physical form and traces of the
material; therefore, it has a beginning and end, before and
after…Since
ki
moves
without
ceasing,
ascending
and
descending, flitting and fleeting, it is irregular and uneven, and
thus gives rise to myriad changes…This is what I mean by the
statement “ki is limited.”29
28
Chung (1995), pp. 163-175.
29
Translation from Chung (1995), pp. 114-115.
148
Yulgok applied the above theory to address the issue of whether
humans and animals have the same nature. He concluded that humans
and animals are not the same, because of the discriminative force of ki.
Humans and animals are the same in principle, because of the
universality of encompassing li. 30 After Yulgok, in the seventeenth
century, philosophical explorations of this issue advanced further. In
Yulgok’s theory of the inseparability and interdependence of li and ki, we
can detect traces of Daoist and Buddhist influence, which appear to have
influenced his appraisal of the orthodox Cheng-Zhu school of NeoConfucianism.
This metaphysical thesis of li and ki had ethical, educational, and
political implications. Yulgok presented a very optimistic viewpoint,
namely that basic human desires are part of human nature and can be
transformed into positive impulses. In his view, the sages and ordinary
people are born equal, in the sense that they all have fundamental
instincts and desires. The one crucial difference in the case of the sage is
that the human mind follows and is subject to the moral mind. The
conclusion is therefore that even though one may begin with a human
mind caught up in basic feelings and desires, one can always give
sovereignty to the moral mind if one follows moral principles and
overcomes selfish desires.
Yulgok’s philosophical stance was directly related to his deep sense of
social
30
and
political
responsibility.
Hwang (1995), pp. 97-103.
149
Yulgok
took
government
administration very seriously and believed it was an important part of his
duty as a practitioner of Confucianism, working as an official and
statesman almost continuously following his first appointment at the age
of 29. This contrasts with Toegye, who spent most of his adult years in
study and self-cultivation, and held an official position in the court only
briefly. It can be said that while Toegye tended towards abstract idealism,
Yulgok was a pragmatic reformer.
The Reformist Vision
Starting his public career at the age of 29, Yulgok worked as a
government official and statesman for about 20 years until he died at the
age of 49. In his career, he vigorously pursued reforms in many areas,
particularly regarding domestic issues and national defense. Taxation,
military conscription, and the civil service examination, all were targeted
with bold reforms that required changes to be made to the existing class
system, benefiting the commoners and other disadvantaged people. As
his reformist vision was against the interests of those in power, he faced
resistance, opposition, and even the threat of dismissal, whenever he
proposed such reforms. Nevertheless, he was tireless in his efforts.
Much of the mid-Joseon period was spent in political turmoil, so that
many conscientious scholars, including Yulgok’s maternal grandfather,
purposely decided not to pursue a public career. Domestic politics had
become more secure by the time Yulgok came of age, but it was far from
150
being totally safe. Furthermore, the country’s economy was in a
precarious position, and the people’s daily lives were greatly burdened.
Outside Korea, the Qing family were about to overthrow the Ming dynasty
in China, while in Japan, Hideyosi Toyotomi, later responsible for the
Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, was rising to power. Yulgok
understood what this portended and what needed to be done, more
clearly than any other statesmen at the time.
Yulgok believed strongly that the nation needed to transform itself in
order to survive. He warned that the ruling establishment was like a sick
old man, and would fall unless it underwent a massive and thorough
process of reform. In a letter to Toegye, he voiced his concerns as
follows: “It has been some 20 years since this country sank into these
ongoing troubles, but because all the statesmen and officials on every
level are wedded to convention, they are unable to improve the situation
even slightly. It is unclear for how much longer the people will endure,
and our national finances are exhausted. Without reform, the country
will, I am afraid, not remain a nation. As for me, a government official,
am I any different from a swallow that has built its nest on a billowing
tent in a gale? Thinking about the current state of our nation, I am kept
awake throughout the night.”
Perceiving reform as a matter of national destiny, Yulgok proposed
radical measures, in particular pertaining to freedom of speech, selfregulation of the governing sectors, and effective personnel management.
A firmly held belief of Yulgok was that knowledge of public opinion was
151
one of the pillars of good governance. He advised the King that freedom
of speech must be encouraged, so that the ruler would know clearly what
his people wanted. Second, Yulgok urged that in order to restore the
integrity of the government, bribery must be eliminated altogether. At the
time, corrupt practices were commonplace among government officials
of every rank. Third, Yulgok recommended that those born of
concubines be allowed to qualify to take the civil service examination. In
Joseon, concubines were legally permitted to the ruling class, but
children from such unions were not given the same status as the father.
Because only those of aristocratic status were qualified for high-ranking
government positions, such men had no prospects of a public career and
thus inhabited a kind of social limbo. Yulgok reasoned that only the
talent and character of a person should be taken into account, and not
his background. Moreover, he also proposed to lessen the compulsory
duties of servants belonging to government offices, and is recorded as
saying “Servants also rank among our people.” His reform measures may
well fall short of modern democracy. Nonetheless, it would be fair to say
that Yulgok strived to establish a more egalitarian and democratic
society in the context of the highly stratified Neo-Confucian social order.
Yulgok continually advised the King to test new reforms in order to
make the nation more stable and prosperous. The ruler and most other
statesmen did not understand the urgency of change, and thus their
actions were not of much use. Rather, many of them considered that
Yulgok’s proposals were unbalanced, and even that he was exaggerating
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some of society’s problems. In this political climate, his ideas for reform
could not be realized. At the time, the Joseon Dynasty was in great need
of reformers like Yulgok, but the royal court and the ruling class were
not ready either to implement or to accept any of his plans.
Proposal to Train 100,000 Soldiers
Yulgok was appointed Minister of Defense in 1582, when he was 47
years old. In February of the next year, he presented a political treatise
to the King, entitled “Six Urgent Measures for the State.” The six
programs were as follows: first, to appoint wise and capable persons in
government positions; second, to train soldiers; third, to replenish state
funds; fourth, to guard the border securely; fifth, to prepare cavalry
horses; sixth, to educate the people.
In March, he made a proposal for “10 years saving, 10 years
educating, and 10 years training the forces.” Finally in April, his proposal
developed into one of training 100,000 soldiers for national defense. In
his own words addressed to the King: “We must train 100,000 soldiers in
order to prepare our nation for a military emergency. If we do not, within
the next 10 years, there will be a disaster, just as when a dirt wall
collapses without warning. Your Highness, issue a command to gather
and train 100,000 soldiers. 20,000 of these should be placed in Seoul, and
10,000 in each of the eight prefectures. The soldiers should be made
exempt from other duties and given military training. In time of peace, let
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them take turns to guard the capital, but in time of war, let them come
together for our national defense. If we do not prepare in advance, we
will be unable to do anything should an emergency arise, but merely
drive untrained people into the fields of war. Then we will be without
hope.”
The proposal to train 100,000 soldiers arose from an acute sense of
crisis on Yulgok’s part. He had been following the international
developments outside the Korean peninsula carefully, and was concerned
that the country was unstable domestically and highly vulnerable to an
attack by neighbors. King Seonjo seemed initially inclined to favor
Yulgok’s proposals, but a prominent statesman by the name of Yu
Songnyong set up a vigorous opposition to the plan. Yu reasoned that
training military forces in time of peace would serve only to provoke
neighboring countries, and his point of view gained the support of other
officials.
In June, Yulgok was impeached by a group of fellow statesmen on the
charge of “abusing his power and humiliating the king.” The aim of this
group was to put pressure on the King to dismiss Yulgok from office.
Yulgok himself offered to resign six times, and was each time refused by
the King. King Seonjo trusted Yulgok absolutely, but owing to mounting
pressure eventually had to accept his withdrawal from the government.
Both the King and his advisers would live to regret their decision, and
had ample time to contemplate their foolishness amid the disastrous
train of events that followed.
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Yulgok passed away in the January of the following year. Within less
than a decade, the country was invaded by Japan. Just as he had feared,
Joseon was thoroughly unprepared to defend itself. Prime Minister Yu,
who had originally thwarted Yulgok’s proposal, shed tears of contrition
and declared, “Yulgok was truly a leader, thinker, and sage.” He realized
with sorrow that Yulgok’s advice had been inspired by his deep sense of
responsibility for the country and people, as well as his grasp of reality.
A Black Dragon Flies Away
While other government ministers believed that they were enjoying
the blessings of peace, Yulgok soberly appraised the geopolitics of the
day, and proposed a practical solution to save the country. He lamented:
“Alas! Our troubles in this country have never been more serious than
now, and the difficulties of the people have never been greater…In the
Book of Odes it is said, ‘A boat on the river drifts without destination. A
mind that is disquieted has no resting place.’ Even so is my troubled
mind.”
Yulgok’s health was poor towards the end of his life, and following his
effective dismissal from government, he became seriously ill and passed
away shortly afterwards. Two months before his death, the King reappointed Yulgok as minister of internal affairs, hoping to implement the
reform measures he had proposed. Unfortunately, it was too late.
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Yulgok spent the final 13 days of his life confined to his bed. During
these final days, he made no mention of family matters, but spoke only of
national affairs. The day before his death, King Seonjo sent an official
responsible for policing the border to Yulgok to ask his opinion. Family
members and others advised him against meeting with the official. “My
body exists only to serve the country,” he replied, “Even if my illness
worsens, this is my destiny.”
With help he raised himself into a sitting position, and his brother Wu
took down the words he dictated. This was to be his final work, “Six
Articles for Guarding the Border.”
When he had finished dictating, he collapsed and fell unconscious, as
the exertion had drained him completely of energy. The final moment
came later after an attack of asthma. He said, “Let me cut my nails and
bathe.” Lying down restfully after this, he died in peace with his head
directed eastwards. It was January 16th in 1584, the 17th year of King
Seonjo’s reign, and he was 49 years old.
When the news of Yulgok’s death came, King Seonjo wept. He ordered
that no meat should be served at his meals, and cancelled three
consecutive daily meetings of the cabinet. A scholar named Wu
Seongjeon recorded: “Even country folk from remote villages cried and
wailed in grief. University students, soldiers, shopkeepers in the market
place, lower officials in government offices, and people from all walks of
life hurried to bow in front of the funeral altar, many of them shedding
tears. When the funeral procession left Yulgok’s home, the streets were
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filled with people bidding him farewell.”
For a long time, Yulgok remained a cherished memory in the hearts
of the common people and received tributes after his death. People in
Haeju, which Yulgok made his residence and where he opened a school,
honored the anniversary of his death by abstaining from eating meat or
holding wedding feasts. From the king down to the commoners, people
respected him deeply for his devotion and compassion.
The night before his death, his wife the Lady Roh had a dream about a
black dragon soaring out of the bedroom into the heavens. She
remembered that Yulgok’s mother, Shin Saimdang, had dreamed of a
black dragon flying towards her bedroom before she gave birth, and
marveled that both the opening and closing of his life were marked by the
same auspicious symbol, which signified a man of greatness.
Ever since Yulgok’s death, a story has been passed down among the
people of Korea. As stated, Yulgok foresaw that a great disaster would
follow from a failure to provide for national defense. His concerns
became a catastrophic reality eight years after he had died, when Japan
invaded Joseon in 1592. The ensuing war lasted for seven years. During
that time, tens of thousands of Koreans were killed, palaces, temples, and
schools were burned down, national treasures were stolen, and many
famous artisans were kidnapped and taken to Japan. Japanese soldiers
would even cut the noses from the dead bodies and take them home as
trophies of their victory. The nation of Joseon was shaken to its very
foundations.
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As the war continued to go badly, King Seonjo was at one point forced
to flee his palace in the capital and seek refuge in a remote part of the
country. According to the story, when the King and his retinue arrived at
the banks of the Imjin River, north of Seoul, it was extremely dark and
raining heavily. The King’s attendants were at a loss as to how to cross
the river in the dead of night, when they chanced upon a small pavilion
near a ferry. They set this pavilion on fire to provide a light by which to
work, and were able to convey the King safely across the river.
This pavilion had been built by one of Yulgok’s ancestors. Yulgok had
visited it frequently during his lifetime, with his mother and siblings when
young, with friends and students when grown, and occasionally by
himself. In later years when Yulgok was visiting the pavilion, he would
make sure that his disciples carried with them a bottle of oil, and ordered
them to apply the oil to the wooden floor. He would also apply pine resin
to the pavilion pillars, and when asked why, he would reply that he was
preparing for an emergency. Thanks to these measures, the pavilion
could be used as a torch, and its flames were not extinguished even in
the pouring rain.
Yulgok himself was a torch that shone brightly in the darkness of the
age in which he lived. It is tragic indeed that his contemporaries chose
not to see the reality which he might have shown them.
Above all else, Yulgok was a man of action and of integrity. He is the
most outstanding among the many prominent scholars of Joseon Dynasty
Korea, thanks to his tireless efforts to realize Confucian ideals in the real
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world.
While the Neo-Confucian scholarship of Joseon has often been
criticized by many later scholars for being overly theoretical, Yulgok was
exceptional and even pioneering in his pragmatic reform efforts. Even
though most of his proposals for political and social reforms were
dismissed during his lifetime, they were accepted and enacted in later
years by King Yeongjo, Jeongjo and Gojong.
He was a genuine seonbi who sought to reach sagehood through
self-cultivation on the one hand, and to improve the living conditions of
ordinary people through action on the other. Throughout his life, he
maintained his convictions and did not compromise his ideals. For his
knowledge, filial devotion, compassion, and loyalty, he has been held up
by subsequent generations as a model for study and imitation. As in his
lifetime, he is still the most popular of all the famous Confucian scholars
amongst ordinary Koreans.
In its history, Korea has experienced many difficulties, owing in part
to its geographic position between Japan and China. Yet, despite these
difficulties, Koreans have maintained their identity as a nation. Yulgok is
one of the national heroes that Koreans have traditionally looked to as an
archetype of this identity, and is still alive in the hearts of his people
today.
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References
Sources in Korean
Han, Young-Woo. Yulgok: Biography. Seoul: Mineumsa, 2014.
Hwang, Jun-Yeon. An Understanding of Yulgok’s Philosophy. Seoul:
Seogwangsa, 1995.
________. Yi Yulgok: A Portrait of A Life. Seoul: Seoul National University
Press, 2000.
Yi, Eun-Sang. Saimdang and Yulgok. Seoul: Seongmungak, 1980.
Yi, Jong-Ho. Yulgok: His Character and Ideas. Seoul: Jisik. 1994.
Yi, Yi. Gyeok-mong-yo-gyul. Annotated by Hu-Soo Jung. Seoul: Jangnak,
2004 [1577].
Sources in English
Chung, Edward Y. J. The Korean Neo-Confucianism of Yi T’oegye and Yi
Yulgok. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1995.
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Heo Jun: A Legendary Doctor
Although he lived some 400 years ago, Heo Jun (1539-1615) remains
the most famous and revered doctor in all of Korea. In his day, he
overcame the class restrictions placed on medical officials, achieving the
highest position attained by a physician in the 500-year history of Joseon
Korea. His crowning achievement was the Dongui Bogam, a medical work
composed over 14 years amid many trials and tribulations. This book, a
classic in the medical tradition of East Asia, is still widely read and used
today.
The many novels and dramas about the life of Heo Jun have enjoyed
great popularity. In particular, the biographical drama “Hur Jun,”
broadcast by MBC in 1999, enjoyed record-breaking viewing figures in
Korea and was exported to many countries.
What is the reason behind the popularity of works based on Heo Jun’s
life among people of different ages and countries? As well as being a
skilled doctor, he was also a noble and compassionate human being who
saved the lives of many, making no distinction between aristocrat and
commoner.
Many folk tales about Heo Jun have been handed down. The following
story is recorded in the Yakpa Manrok written by Yi Hui-ryong (16971776).
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Once, while traveling to China, Heo Jun encountered an
elephant. The elephant led him to a place where a baby
elephant lay injured, having been bitten by a wild beast.
Heo Jun cured the baby elephant and acquired great
renown.
Another collection of folk tales, collected in the 1970s by the folklorist
Im Seok-jae, contains the following story:
When the emperor of China fell sick, doctors from many
different countries were sent to treat him. Heo Jun was
selected as the representative doctor of Joseon (Korea). On
his way to China, he came across a tiger with a golden
hairpin trapped in its gullet. He removed the hairpin, and
received in return a golden acupuncture needle. With this
golden acupuncture needle, he was able to cure the
emperor of China. Until this point, all the Chinese doctors
who had attempted to cure the emperor’s disease had
been thrown into prison. The emperor, having been cured
by Heo Jun, declared that he would grant him anything he
wished. Rather than asking for wealth or a higher position,
Heo Jun instead requested that the other doctors be
released from prison.
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In reality, Heo Jun never traveled to China to treat the emperor.
However, he did cure many diseases that were at the time considered
incurable. The Dongui Bogam, which has been reprinted almost every
decade owing to its popularity, received high praise from Chinese
medical scholars. These facts were enlarged upon in the story of Heo Jun
curing the Chinese emperor of a disease that could not be treated by his
own doctors.
Many other fantastical stories have been passed down relating how
Heo Jun cured animals that he met in the mountains. While we cannot
take them literally, these stories suggest that he was more than a
physician of great skill, but also a man of great compassion, and that the
benefit of his medical skills touched the lives of many.
Education as a Physician
Heo Jun was born in 1539 to an aristocratic family. His grandfather
Heo Gon was a military officer who served as the Commander of Right
Gyeongsang Province. His father Heo Ron was also a military officer who
held the post of magistrate at Yongcheon.
Thanks to his affluent background, he was able to study various
subjects and develop his intellectual capacity. According to the 18th
century work Uirimchwalyo, a compendium of the lives of famous
doctors, Heo Jun was “intellectually gifted and enjoyed learning when he
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was young” and “well versed in history and the classics.”
He was also related through his mother to the brothers Kim Anguk
and Kim Jeongguk, distinguished Confucian scholars with expertise in
medicine, and who had published books on the subject. It is therefore
likely that his family background predisposed Heo Jun to enter the field of
medicine.
Although there is no record of how he initially studied medicine, it
seems that he did not study under a famous teacher, but taught himself
by reading medical books and discussing them with experts.
In his early thirties, Heo Jun cured many people and began to gain
recognition as a physician. Yu Hui-chun, a scholar and civil official
during the reign of King Seonjo, left a diary of his daily life. In this diary,
we learn that when his wife developed a boil on her tongue, he
summoned a nurse to administer acupuncture, and also called for Heo
Jun to give advice on what medicine to use. Heo Jun prescribed ungdam,
and his wife’s condition began to improve the very next day, eventually
healing completely. Shortly after, when Yu Hui-chun developed a boil on
his face, Heo Jun prescribed another medicine and once again the
condition was quickly cured.
Nowadays, a boil on the face can be dealt with easily, but at that time
it was potentially fatal, and considered to be a very serious condition. Yu
Hui-chun was very grateful to Heo Jun for having completely cured him
and his wife. As a Confucian scholar with some knowledge of medicine,
he recognized that Heo Jun’s skills were great indeed, and wrote a letter
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to the Minister of Personnel recommending him for the post of medical
officer at the Naeuiwon (Palace Medical Office). When Heo Jun eventually
accepted this post and joined the Office, he found himself among a group
of the finest doctors in the kingdom.
Saving the Life of a Prince
Heo Jun joined the Naeuiwon at the age of 34. His tasks included
selecting and overseeing the use of medicinal ingredients, assisting royal
doctors, and revising and editing medical books. Through these tasks, he
gained considerable experience.
In his early fifties, there finally came a chance to demonstrate his
medical skills to all. In 1590, Prince Gwanghae contracted smallpox, and
his condition quickly became critical. The king and queen had lost a
beloved daughter to smallpox a few years ago, and were stricken with
grief at the news. At the time, smallpox was considered an incurable
31
disease.
One simply offered prayers to the Heavens and left recovery to
fate. As a result, prescribing medicine for smallpox was considered taboo.
If a doctor were to attempt to treat the prince and fail, he would be open
to public censure and potentially face a severe punishment. Out of fear,
none of the doctors in the palace would step forward.
31
Until the procedure of vaccination became common, smallpox carried a high
mortality rate. In 18th century Europe, for instance, about 400,000 people died
from it every year.
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At this juncture, Heo Jun volunteered to treat the prince’s condition.
He was determined to fulfill his duty as a doctor and not ignore the
suffering of the patient, even though he might endure much hardship if
he failed, or even lose his position and be exiled.
The prince had been suffering from both high fever and a rash for 10
days, and was in extreme pain. After taking three doses of the medicine
Heo Jun prescribed, his condition stabilized and he fell into a deep sleep.
A few days later, he recovered fully.
King Seonjo was overjoyed, and awarded Heo Jun the rank of
Dangsanggwan. This was one rank higher than the maximum rank a
medical officer was officially allowed to obtain. Certain government
officials opposed the appointment, stating that, while they recognized the
great deed Heo Jun had performed, to award him such a high position
would bring disruption to the social order. The king, however, responded,
“My son’s condition was critical and we had no hope for him to live. Yet
in 10 days, Heo Jun brought about his fortunate recovery. There is no
way to repay his deed without raising his official rank.” And so the king
firmly imposed his will.
The medicine that he prescribed to cure the prince’s smallpox was
called Jeomigo, created by mixing a medicinal ingredient called Yongnwe
with pig’s blood. Using this medicine, Heo Jun cured another prince and
princess of the disease, as well as countless ordinary citizens. About 10
years later, Heo Jun wrote a book in Hangeul (the Korean alphabet)
describing in detail the cause and symptoms of smallpox, and how to
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prevent and treat it. In the afterword, he specifically stated that he wrote
the book in Hangeul, rather than in Chinese characters, in order that
everyone in the kingdom would have equal access to the knowledge it
contained.
Standing by the King’s Side during War
In April 1592, Japan invaded Joseon Korea. After landing on the
southeastern coast of Korea, the Japanese army swiftly advanced
northward and occupied the capital Hanyang after a mere 20 days of
campaigning.
When his trusted general Shin was defeated at Tangeumdae, King
Seonjo abandoned Hanyang and fled north to Uiju. While the fate of the
country hung in the balance, many officials fled the king’s court to
secure their own safety. By the time the king’s retinue arrived at Uiju,
only 17 remained of the 100 or so civil and military officials who had
made up the original party.
Heo Jun was one of the two royal doctors who stood by the king’s side
to the end. It reveals Heo Jun’s sense of duty and responsibility that he
remained true to his duties as a royal doctor instead of looking to his own
safety or that of his family. Later, Heo Jun reached the position of Chief
Physician, the highest post among royal medical officers, which he held
until the end of king’s life.
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Dongui Bogam, a Masterpiece Created in Exile
When King Seonjo passed away in 1608, the government held Chief
Physician Heo Jun responsible for his death, and exiled him to Uiju. The
new king (formerly Prince Gwanghae), who owed his own life to Heo Jun’s
skill as a doctor, tried his best to defend him. He put it to the court that it
was “beyond Heo Jun’s skill” to save King Seonjo and that the will to save
the king had not been lacking. However, as Heo Jun had attracted so
much jealousy and criticism from the civil officials, owing to his exalted
rank that transcended his social status, even the new king could do
nothing to save him.
His exile lasted for one year and eight months. In this period of
greatest hardship, Heo Jun completed the most important achievement of
his life, the Dongui Bogam. Drawing upon all his medical knowledge and
experience,
he
wrote
this
book
to
provide
the
reader
with
a
comprehensive collection of East Asian medical knowledge.
The work was initiated by Royal Decree in 1596, and he undertook it
in the company of many other doctors. After the second wave of
Japanese invasions during the Imjin War, the responsibility devolved
entirely on to his shoulders. Since his role as Chief Physician demanded
his full time and attention, he was unable to make much progress with
the book. Around half had been completed at the time of the king’s death,
and it was during his exile that he finished it.
In 1609, despite spirited opposition from the Office of Censors, the
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king (formerly Prince Gwanghae), recalled the 71 year old Heo Jun to the
Naeuiwon to tend to the king’s illness. After returning to the capital, Heo
Jun set before the king the 25-volume work Dongui Bogam, now finished
after 14 years. The first edition of the book, printed by the Naeuiwon in
1613, has been registered under UNESCO’s Memory of the World
Programme.
Even after completing the Dongui Bogam, Heo Jun did not allow
himself to rest. He devoted the remainder of his life to teaching the next
generation of medical officers at the Naeuiwon and writing a number of
books on contagious diseases. He died in 1615 at the age of 77.
The Significance of Dongui Bogam
“This book was written by Heo Jun of Joseon. Although he is a
foreigner from a distant land, distance is no obstacle in the pursuit of
learning. The book has been presented to the Emperor for his
attention, and it has been acknowledged as the most excellent of
medical works. Regrettably, it has until now been confined to the
Palace, and it has been difficult for ordinary citizens to read it. A
treasure under the Heavens should be for all beneath the Heavens to
enjoy.”
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This was the afterword to the Chinese edition of Dongui Bogam written by
Lingyu, a Chinese scholar. In Japan, the book was published by order of the
Shogun, the purpose being to establish Dongui Bogam as a common medical
standard for all to follow. Minamotono Motodouru, a Japanese medical scholar
from the 18th century, praised Dongui Bogam highly, saying, “It is a divine work
that keeps the common people from harm and contains the secret methods of the
medical profession.”
Heo Jun made it clear in the Dongui Bogam that it is of greater importance to
prevent diseases through the care of mind and body, rather than relying on
remedies after disease has struck. He also helped people to understand that the
natural environment, human disease and its treatment are all part of an
interconnected whole. In this way, he combined the tradition of medicine
(restoring health) with the art of maintaining health; and from this perspective he
discussed each body part and the conditions that affected it. This holistic
approach is what gives Dongui Bogam a special place in the history of East Asian
medicine.
The book was more than a means of conveying detailed knowledge to medical
professionals. Its more important function was to be used as a widely available
guide for ordinary people, who lacked the medical knowledge to perform essential
tasks such as delivering a baby, caring for mothers who had given birth, or
dealing with emergency situations when no doctor was available or nearby. It
furthermore provided a list of medicinal herbs by name, with information on
where and at what time of year one could find them, and how to prepare them for
use as medicine.
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For the benefit of the poorer citizens who could not afford to buy expensive
medicine, the book focused wherever possible on common ingredients that could
easily be obtained. While we find some medicines that require many expensive
ingredients, there are also many simple remedies that require just one ingredient.
Gathering together the whole of East Asian medical knowledge at the time was
a great accomplishment from a scholarly perspective. Heo Jun’s greater purpose,
however, was always to pursue “medicine for the benefit of all.”
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References
Historical sources
Seonjo Sillok (Annals of King Seonjo)
Gwanghaegun Ilgi (Annals of Prince Gwanghae)
Other sources
Shin, Dong-Won. 2001. Joseon Saram Heo Jun. Seoul: Hanibooks.
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Kim Mandeok: Jeju Island’s “Lady of Virtue”
Kim Mandeok (1739-1812), known as the “Lady of Virtue” of Jeju Island,
was born into the commoner’s class. Her father was a merchant who
traveled back and forth between Jeju and mainland Korea, trading the
island’s maritime produce, such as seaweed, abalone and oyster, in
return for rice from the mainland. However, in the autumn of the year
that Mandeok turned 11, her father encountered a terrible storm at sea,
and lost his life. The tragedy of his death proved too great for Mandeok’s
mother to bear, and within a year and a half, she also passed away.
Having lost both her parents at such a young age, Mandeok and her
brothers were left in the care of their uncle. When his fortunes declined,
however, Mandeok was sent to an old gisaeng (professional entertainer)
who noticed her talent for singing, dancing and playing music, and so
had her registered as a gisaeng. At the time, Korean society was strictly
hierarchical, and gisaengs belonged to the lowest class. As she grew
older and became more aware of how the world perceived her, she hoped
to be restored to her former status. She appealed several times to the
provincial authorities, but was refused on every occasion. She
persevered, however, and eventually managed to meet the Governor of
Jeju Island, Shin Gwang-ik, who listened to her plea, and at long last
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allowed her to be removed from the register of gisaengs. Later, at the age
of 20, she was married to Go Seonheum, but lost her husband soon
afterwards to an infectious disease.
Having suffered so many of life’s hardships so soon in life, Mandeok
began to save money and to lead a life of thrift and diligence. Noting the
advantages and unique characteristics of Jeju as a harbor city, she set up
an inn for traveling merchants near the port. Besides being a place where
they could rest, it offered commercial services as well, such as the
handling and sale of foreign goods shipped on consignment.
Gifted as she was with a natural talent for business, her inn soon
prospered. Drawing upon her experiences as a gisaeng, she sold textiles,
personal ornaments, cosmetics and the similar wares to the female
aristocracy of Jeju Island. She also traded in Jeju’s own specialties, such
as tangerines and the antlers of young deer, selling them on to the
mainland. She sought to attract more shipping to the port, eventually
possessing a ship of her own.
In an age when talented women were often overlooked and even
suppressed, the story of her success soon became a common topic of
conversation. In spite of her success, she continued to lead a frugal life.
Her belief was, “In a year of good harvest, we must prepare for a bad
harvest, and save for the future. Those who live in comfort must think of
those in need, and live sparingly in gratitude to the Heavens.”
In 1794, as Mandeok neared her mid-fifties, the whole of Jeju fell
under a great famine, as a result of a series of typhoons which battered
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the island in succession. The Governor of Jeju submitted a request for aid
to the Royal Court, stating that the Island had suffered devastating
damage when “powerful easterly winds blew on August 27th and 28th,
sending roof-tiles flying and stones rolling.” In the February of the
following year, five ships carrying relief supplies were sunk in a storm,
and as Jeju looked forward to a barren spring harvest, death cast its long,
grim shadow over the island.
Meanwhile, Mandeok thought to herself, “Has not all my wealth come
from the people of Jeju? What is the use of holding on to my riches if they
are all to perish? What benefit would my wealth be then? Since it
belonged to the people to begin with, to them it should be returned.” She
then used all her wealth to purchase 500 sacks of grain. She shared a
tenth of these with her relatives and those who had shown her particular
kindness, and offered the remaining 450 sacks as general relief for the
public.
The Governor of Jeju was very surprised by Mandeok’s gift. The
greatest donations up to this point had been from the former local
magistrate Go Hanrok, who had donated 300 sacks, and the military
official Hong Sampil and the scholar Yang Seongbeom, who had given
100 sacks each. The Governor of Jeju had described Go Hanrok’s
contribution as “an astonishing amount,” and the King had granted him
the special appointment of chief local magistrate, later awarding him the
mayorship as well. Hong Sampil and Yang Seongbeom were promoted to
the Royal Guard in recognition of their gifts. The King was heard to say at
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the time that “to give 100 sacks in a land as barren as Jeju is equal to
giving 1,000 on the mainland.” Therefore it was only natural that the
Governor should be astounded by Mandeok’s donation of 450 sacks, by
which she exhausted her entire personal fortune. The government of Jeju
distributed the rice given by Mandeok to the people, according to their
level of hardship, and the streets were filled with grateful citizens calling
out her name.
In time, news of Mandeok’s act of charity reached the Royal Court.
Such an act of compassion, from one who was not even a member of the
aristocracy, greatly moved King Jeongjo, who immediately ordered the
Governor of Jeju to “carry out any wish the lady Mandeok might have,
however difficult it is.” Hearing this, Mandeok made a request which no
one expected: “I have no other wish than to visit the capital Seoul and
look upon the Palace where our King resides, and to behold the Twelve
32
Thousand Summits of the Kumgang Mountain .”
Although during that time it was forbidden for the women of Jeju to
32
Mount Kumgang (kumgang = diamond) is considered by many to be one of
the most beautiful sights in the world. It is particularly famous for the
splendor of its 12,000 peaks. Comments on its beauty, from the past up to
the present, include: “To be born in Goryeo, and to behold the Dimaond
Mountain, that is my heart’s greatest wish.” (A scholar of Northern Song
China, 960-1127); “Surely the beauty of that eleven miles is not much
exceeded anywhere on earth…” (Isabella Bird, an English explorer, 1890); “Of
the six days God spent creating Heaven and Earth, He must have devoted the
last day solely to Mt. Kumgang.” (Gustaf VI Adolf, King of Sweden, 1926)
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leave the Island, the King willingly granted her wish. He provided a horse
for her carriage, and ordered the various provincial governors to tend to
her comfort as she made her journey from the south.
In 1796, upon her arrival in the capital, the King gave her an official
position within the Palace Infirmary, so that she would be able have an
audience with the King and the Queen (according to the law of that time,
commoners could not be granted a direct audience with the King). On
this occasion, the King said to her, “That you have saved thousands who
were suffering from starvation in a heroic spirit is indeed worthy of
praise.” And with these words, the King bestowed special gifts upon her.
Mandeok spent the winter in Seoul that year, and in the following
spring traveled to Kumgang Mountain, where she was greeted by the
magnificent spectacle of the Twelve Thousand Summits. It was there also
that she came across a golden statue of the Buddha, before which she
reverently bowed down and offered her respects. At the time there were
no Buddhist temples in Jeju, and this was the first time that Mandeok had
seen a temple and statue of the Buddha.
On her return to Seoul, she visited the Palace again and expressed the
wish to go back to Jeju Island, whereupon the King again presented her
with gifts. By this time, Mandeok’s name had spread far and wide in the
capital, and many were seeking her acquaintance, including scholars and
nobles of the court. Chae Jegong, the Prime Minister, wrote a biography
of her, and great scholars of the time such as Pak Jega, Jeong Yakyong
and Yi Gahwan, all left verses commemorating her deeds—deeds which it
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would have been difficult for aristocrats, officials, and even the state
itself to accomplish.
With all her wishes fulfilled, Mandeok returned to Jeju Island. 15 years
later, in October 1812, she died at the age of 74. According to her wish,
she was buried on a mountain which commanded a view of the entire
island. The Province of Jeju has since established the Mandeok Award, a
yearly
prize
awarded
to
a
lady
of
outstanding
conduct,
in
commemoration of the virtue and grace which Mandeok bestowed upon
her home island.
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About the Editorial Contributors
Hyang-Jin Jung is an associate professor in the department of anthropology at
Seoul National University. Her research interests include self, emotion, education,
American culture, and North Korea. She is currently conducting research about the
emotional culture of the postmodern American society and cultural psychology of
North Korea. She is the author of Learning to Be an Individual: Emotion and Person
in an American Junior High School (Peter Lang, 2007).
Jiseon Lee is a full-time editor of the Korean Spirit and Culture series. She
graduated in English Language and Literature from Ewha Womans University, and
studied Literature and Philosophy at Wilson College and Boston College in the
United States.
Hang-Jin Chang is a lawyer at Linklaters LLP in Hongkong, specializing in
international finance. He read Law at Oxford University, and has extensive
experience in Korean-English translations.
Yoon-Sang Han is a lawyer in New York City. He majored in Economics at
Wesleyan University and received his law degree from William and Mary School of
Law. He has translated various texts from Korean to English, including Polishing the
Diamond, Enlightening the Mind (Wisdom Publications, 1999).
Matthew Jackson is a management consultant in Dubai. He read Classics at
Oxford University, and has worked for many years as an editor of English
translations. He regularly writes on Korean issues, in particular the traditional arts
and science.
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Korean Spirit and Culture Website
www.kscpp.net
All booklets published in the series are available on
our website, as well as additional materials covering
various aspects of Korean history and culture.
Published so far:
Admiral Yi Sun-sin
King Sejong the Great
Chung Hyo Ye
Fifty Wonders of Korea
Master Wonhyo
The Practice of Hongik Ingan
Taste of Korea
Online video library includes:
Hangeul, Alphabet of Compassion
UNESCO World Heritage in Korea
Korea Today
And more…
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