Performing the Other: Mami Wata Worship in Africa - source url

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Performing the Other: Mami Wata Worship in Africa
Author(s): Henry John Drewal
Source: TDR (1988-), Vol. 32, No. 2 (Summer, 1988), pp. 160-185
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1145857 .
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theOther
Performing
MamiWataWorshipinAfrica
Henry
JohnDrewal
In theirreligious
thewaterspiritMamiWata,Afripractices
involving
canpeoplesfromSenegalto Tanzaniatakeexoticimagesandideas,interpretthemaccordingto indigenousprecepts,investthemwith new
themin new and dynamic
and re-present
and thenre-create
meanings,
devotional,and socialneeds.In so
ways to servetheirown aesthetic,
external
forces,usingthemto shape
doing,theyevaluateand transform
theirown lives.'
whatRoyWagner(1981)calls
The MamiWataphenomenon
illustrates
one'sreality,
of
of culture,
an ongoingprocessof creating
theinvention
neveroccursin
Suchinvention
constructing
meaningout of experience.
a vacuumor by accident,
butrather
emergesoutof whatalreadyexists.
Like anthropologists,
Mami Wata devotees"study"others-overseas
and other
visitors-andgeneralize
themfromimpressions,
experiences,
evidenceas iftheywereproducedbysomeexternal
"thing."Thisinvenor reification,
ofthat"thing"(WagnerI98I:26).
tionis an objectification,
orpatterns
of
Theirstudyofour"ways"-our lore,writings,
possessions,
our symof them,transforming
worship-isactuallya resymbolization
of
bolsintotheirs(WagnerI98I:30). Thisstudyis myownobjectification
fromoverseas
invent
theprocessbywhichMamiWatadevotees
foreigners
inhonorofwater
ofbeliefs
as modelsforan evolvingsystem
andpractices
forMami
spirits.Thatprocessis at thesametimeone of self-definition
Watadevotees,achievedin largepartthrough
performance.
toanAfrican
MamiWata,PidginEnglishfor"MotherofWater,"refers
in origin.Africans
use the
waterspiritwhomAfricans
regardas foreign
its
as wellas to indicate
thespirit's
otherness
pidgintermto acknowledge
intotheAfrican
between
Africans
world.Thetermmediates
incorporation
andthosefromoverseasandrepresents
Africans'
at understandattempts
withoverseasstrangingor constructing
meaningfromtheirencounters
ers.PidginEnglishalso servesas a linguafranca
Sharing
amongAfricans.
andforeign
material
similarkindsofexperiences
withforeigners
culture,
Africans
WestandCentralAfricaand
spreadMamiWatalorethroughout
it through
lensesto makeit a transcultural
filter
phenomemanycultural
nonofremarkable
proportions.
an economiccontext;
suchlanguages
The pidgintermsuggests
develop
andthetradofEuropeans
trade.Thearrival
duringperiodsofexpanding
I6o
MamiWataWorship161
ancientAfrican
ideasofwealthfrom
ingwealththeybroughtreinforced
thesea in theformof coraland cowries.It is therefore
mostappropriate
thata trading
languagebe usedtonamea spiritwhoseprimary
giftto her
devoteesis wealth,especially
richesfromabroad.
monetary
Butinimportant
Forone
waysMamiWatais nota pidginphenomenon.
arenotformulating
beliefs
andpractices
for
thing,MamiWataworshipers
theconsumption
offoreigners.
thetermis notmediative
inthis
Therefore,
sense.Secondly,
rather
thanbecoming
a reductionistic
andsimplified
version of a particular
code, Mami Watais a varied,complex,and fully
fromwidelydispersed
and
expressive
systemthathas drawninspiration
diversesourcesto forgea uniquelyAfrican
faith.
WhatcanaccountforMamiWata'spresence
amongso manydifferent
theirsharedexperiences
peoplesoversucha vastareaofAfrica?
Certainly
withEuropeans
is crucial.MamiWatarepresents
a "free,"unencumbered
spiritofnaturedetachedfromanysocialbonds.Sheis broadlyidentified
withEuropeans,ratherthanwithanyspecific
African
ethnicgroup.Althoughhername"Mami," sometimes
spelledMammy,is usuallytranslatedas "mother,"she has no children,
no familyof anykind-she is
outsideanysocialsystem.Herappellation
of"mother"connotes
entirely
hersexualidentity,
herdomination
overtherealmofwater,andthosewho
comeunderhersway.Herrelationship
withherdevotees
is moreas a lover
thanas a parent(Gerrits
forherjealousy.
1983).In Ghana,sheis notorious
to drivea man'swivesoutofthehouseortokillthem.In
Sheis saideither
in return
forriches-profit
in
Zaire,shedemandstotalsexualabstinence
exchangefor progeny(Fabian 1978:319).Likewise,the benefitshe
wealth-is acquiredrather
thaninherited
andis therebrings-monetary
foreoutsidethekinship
As a foreigner,
sheprovides
alternatives
to
system.
established
cultural
avenues.Herotherness
andherindependence
together
novelmodesofaction.
legitimize
as
Buildingon indigenousbeliefsin waterspirits,oftenrepresented
incorsuchas fish,crocodiles,
andwatersnakes,Africans
aquaticcreatures
suchas themermaid,
whenEuropeansarrived
along
poratednewspirits,
exthecoastin thelate 15thcentury
(platei). The earliestdocumented
ample of an Africanrenderingof a mermaidjuxtaposesher with
crocodiles.
The imageoccursin an Afro-Portuguese
ivoryfromSherbro,
SierraLeone, knownto have been in Denmarkbefore1743 (Fraser
associated
them
thatAfricans
travelers
reported
I972:277). EarlyEuropean
an impression
thatwouldhavebeenreinwiththesea andwaterspirits,
forcedby thesightof theirlargesailingvesselscomingintoviewfrom
ofAfrican
belowthehorizon.One oftheearliest
Europeaninterpretations
ideas aboutEuropeanswas madeby Cadamosto,who voyagedto the
western
coastof AfricanearCape Verdein theyears1455and 1456(see
Crone1937:20-21).In 1700oo,
duringa voyageto theislandsofBissaoand
AndreBrue reported
an "Odd Ceremonyof
Bissagos,the Frenchman
a Cock":
sacrificing
withfiveNegros;oneofwhomcameon
[A] canoaapproached
Deck,holdinga CockinhisleftHand,anda Knifeinhisright.After
a MinutebeforetheSieurBrue,without
herose;
kneeling
speaking,
andturning
to theEast,cuttheCock'sThroat,andplacinghimself
on hisKneesagain,letsomeDropsofBloodfallon theSieurBrue's
Feet.He didthesameto theMastandPumpoftheShip,andreturnhimtheCock. TheGeneral,
ingto theGeneral,presented
ordering
hima BumperofBrandy,askedhimtheReasonsofthisCeremony:
162 HenryJohnDrewel
1. A mural
byanEweartist
wall
ontheexterior
painted
ofaMamiWatashrine.
Thiscentral
paneldepicts
therainbow
andMamiWata
as a mermaid
gazingintoher
mirror
whilecombing
her
longhair.Hersnakecompanion,inthisareaassociatedwiththerainbow,
looks
on. Thetwoflanking
panels
arebasedonIndian
popular
ofHinduspirits.
prints
Ghana,Ewe,1975.(Photo
Drewal)
byHenry]J.
2. A MamiWatamedium
-a trident
paddleonher
hip,lines,andtridents
onherbodywith
painted
white
clay,and
powdered
rainbow
beadshung
serpent
around
herneck-leansin
an off-balance
poseduring
trance
her
before
beginning
dance.Togo,Mina,1975.
(PhotobyHenry
J.
Drewal)
He replied,
thatthePeopleofhisCountry
lookedon theWhitesas
theGodsoftheSea; thatthemastwasa Divinity
thatmadetheShip
walk,andthePumpwasa Miracle,sinceitcouldmakeWaterriseis to descend(inAstleyI968:Io4-5).
up,whosenatural
Property
Otherauthorshavedocumented
similarresponses.2
Thesecurious-looking
whitevisitors,
theirpossessions,
and especially
their
iconsmadea profound
De Barros'15th-century
accounts
impression.
some Abbyssinians
describing
reportedthat"theybowed down and
adoredthefigurehead
of thePortuguese
of
flagship-awoodenstatuette
theAngelGabriel"(inJayne197o:47).Marinesculptures
(especially
figureheadsoffemales)
becamepartofwaterdivinity
altarsatleastas earlyas the
One
that
from
came
a
offthecoast
century.
figurehead
shipwrecked
I9th
of southern
Africain the I870s was allegedlyacquiredby Africans
and
intoa shrine
localsea divinities
incorporated
honoring
(Pinckney
I94o:27,
coast,a Baroque
amongtheBidjogoon theWestAfrican
I30). Similarly
stylefigureheaddominateda shrineon FormosaIsland (Bernatzig
I933:plate 221).
As a resultoftheirincreasing
awareness
ofEuropeanloreandimagery,
Africans
whosemostcharacteristic
adaptedtheconceptof themermaid,
showheremerging
fromthewatercombing
herlongluxurious
depictions
hairas she gazesat herreflection
in a mirror(plateI). The mirror
has
becomecentralto Mami Watabeliefand ritualpractice.Familiarwith
mermaidlore,devoteesconsiderthemirrorone of Mami Wata'smost
Themirror's
surface
islikethesurface
ofthewater.Itis
prizedpossessions.
theboundary
betweenthecosmicrealmsofwaterandland,a symbolof
thepermeable
threshold
crossedbyMamiWatawhensheenters
thebodies
ofhermediumsandtheygo intopossessiontrance(plate2). At thesame
Mami Wata Worship 163
164 HenryJohnDrewel
MamiWataWorship165
crossedby thosetroubled
time,it is thethreshold
by MamiWatawhen
in theirdreams.Furthermore,
theyvoyageto herwateryunderworld
the
mirror
allowsnotonlypassagebetweenwaterandland,butbetweenthe
andthefuture.
As one Ewe devoteein Togo explained
present
abouther
MamiWatamirror,
"I cansee thefuture
in it;themirror
cananswermy
questions.It doesso at nightduringmydreams"(inChesiI98o:57).
Atanother
is a metaphor
fortheveryprocessbywhich
level,themirror
devoteesconstruct
theirworshipandritualperformance.
In theireffort
to
becomeone withMamiWata,devoteesre-create
herworldbymirroring
datafroma variety
ofsources-popularimported
dreams,foreign
prints,
tradegoods,andtheactionsofthosefromoverseas(Europeans
literature,
andIndians).Yet thismirroring
is notsimplereproduction;
itis a creative
and re-presentation
of thethingstheysee and experience.
interpretation
devoteescreateMamiWata's
Usingexoticsourcesas modelsforbehavior,
herwateryworldin theirsacredspaces,andimpersonate
construct
attire,
herduringrituals,
trance.
frequently
goingintopossession
As animportant
partofthemermaid's
the
image,themirror
symbolizes
ofthisirresistible
creature.
ona rockand
alluring
beautyandvanity
Sitting
in themirror,
combingherluxurious
longhairas sheadmiresherself
the
mermaid
canluretheunwaryorunprepared
totheirdestruction
or,under
othercircumstances,
canbestowenormous
wealth.3
Mirrors
indevotees'communications
withthespirit.
figure
prominently
One Igbopriestess
thatmirrors
areusedto "call"MamiWatato
explained
possesshermediums.BecauseofhervanityMamiWataenjoyslookingat
and mirrors
arethought
to attract
herself,
herto thesitewhendevotees
seekherpresence,
orto distract
herwhenshe"worries"themexcessively.
adornMami Watashrines.In one Igbo shrinein Nigeria
Thus,mirrors
surfaces
ofthemirrors
heldbya MamiWatafigure
(plate3), thereflective
echothepoolofwaterthatshestandsinandthesunglasses
thatshewears.
As thepriestofthisaltarexplained,
MamiWatawearssunglasses
because
"she is a fashionable
lady"-a commenttotallyin accordwithpopular
Butsunglasses
aremorethanexpressions
offashion.
imagesofmermaids.
thesurface
of thewater,thethreshold
They,likemirrors,
represent
that
as wellas unitesMamiWataandherdevotees.
separates
For manyMami Watafollowers,
communications
withthespiritare
seenas cosmicjourneys.Initially,
Mami Watamakesherpresencefelt
vividdreamsand visionsthatcontinually
through
"worry"thechosen
person.One Minapriestin Togo explainedhow hisworldbeganto fall
apartand"whirlaroundhim,"turning
everything
"upsidedown."He lost
allsenseofdirection
orpurposeinlife,untilhelearned
divination
through
thatMamiWatawas causinghistroubles
andthathe mustworship
herto
setthingsright.
Often,people'sfirstencounters
withMamiWataarein visionsofseaatLome,Togo, wasfirst
scapes.An Ewe priestess
drawnto theseasidein
herdreams.Shedescribed
how,insteadofgoingto schoolas a child,she
wouldgo to thebeachandremainthereforhours,gazingintothewater.
Whenherfather
learnedof her"unnatural"
behavior,he punishedher.
Soonafterward
shebecameseriously
ill.Thefollowing
dayshewentdown
totheseaagainandthistimewentin,feeling
tocoverherself
in
compelled
water.Somefishermen
rescuedher.After
thisincident,
herfather
tookher
to a priest,who divinedheridentity
as a chosenofMamiWata.Shewas
laterinitiated
intotheMamiWatapriesthood.
In dreams,MamiWatatoldthepriestess
to collectclay,first
fromone
river,thenfromanother,and also froma third.ThenMami Watain-
3. Mirrors
andsunglasses
adornan IgboshrinesculptureofMami Watathat
standson Coke bottles
in
a smallpool ofwater.In
front,
a botplates,a bottle,
tleopener,woodenand
metalsnakes,talcum
powder
kolanuts,anda
containers,
candelabrum
cluster
on a
table.Nigeria,Igbo,1978.
(PhotobyHenry]. Drewal)
I66 HenryJohnDrewel
theshorethewatersparted,
hertogo tothesea.Whenshereached
structed
makinga road,and shewentinside.She cameto a door,openedit,and
areoverherhead.
to herwitha sweeping
saw MamiWata,who gestured
ofa girl.The
MamiWatatoldherto makea claystoolandthena figure
madeboth,butwhenshesaw someonecomingto lookat what
priestess
shehadmade,shetriedto chasetheintruder
away.Thenshewokeup.
hashad manyothers.MamiWata
Sincethatdream,theEwe priestess
of whatshe sees (plate4). In another
toldherto makeclaysculptures
withthedeity
leavesassociated
thepowerful
dream,shewastoldto gather
or rainbow.The verynextday,shebegan
waterserpent
Dan, thecelestial
theleavesontothe
Shesculpted
themandputtheminthestatues.
togather
or in thehandsof someof herMamiWatafigures,
shoulders
depicting
MamiWataas shehadappearedin herdreams-comingoutofthewater
floorofher
coveredwithDan's leaves.The wavylinesintheclay-covered
themesin
ofwater,andsnakes-allcentral
shrineevokea beach,rivulets
whatshesees
andreflects
hervisions(plate4). Thusthepriestess
interprets
MamiWata'srealmin herown.
in herdreamsin orderto re-present
intheMamiWataphenomeDreamsappearto be significant
universally
non; some of theirmotifsrecurfrequently
(see Dupre 1978:63;Gerrits
1983:36).Not onlydo devoteestravelto MamiWata'srealmbeneaththe
totheworldofherfollowers,
sea,butMamiWataherselfjourneys
causing
4. Underinstructions
from
Mami Watathrough
dreams,
an Ewe priestess
sculptsclay
offemalesandmales,
figures
snakes,andother
figures,
themwithcowrie
decorating
andother
seashells,tridents,
itemsandcovering
thefloor
withwavylinesofclayto
evokerivulets
andsnakes.
Ewe,
1975.(Photo
Togo,
byHenryJ.Drewal)
5. A MamiWatamedium
losescongoingintotrance
andiscaught
sciousness
by
anassistant.
Togo,Mina,
1975.(Photo
byHenry
J.
Drewal)
themto go intopossessiontrance.Shivers,shouts,and disequilibrium
in Togo, a
signalthe onsetof possession(plate5). At one ceremony
withhands
intospace.Then,posturing
priestess
swayedandstaredblankly
thenforon hips,she surveyed
thesceneand beganto walkbackward,
intoa song,andthepossesseddevoteeleanedforward.Otherslaunched
characteristic
wardina danceinwhichthewingingarm/shoulder
gestures
armgestures
withlargestroking
ofEwe andMinastylewereinterspersed
characterize
or swimming.
Suchswimming
thatevokedpaddling
gestures
trancein southern
MamiWatapossession
Togo (plate6).
herselfthroughventriloIn otherinstances,Mami Wata manifests
informed
an
Mami
Wata
Once,
ThompMargaret
Igbo
priestess
quism.4
formorethansevenyearsinorder
sonDrewalandmethatshehadtrained
to "invokeMami Wata's voice." She removedher pinkheadtieand
coveredin
a shrine
on a low stoolbefore
donneda whiteone.Then,sitting
168 HenryJohnDrewel
a
6. In theforeground,
emMami Watamedium
gesployslarge,swimming
turesas partofhistrance
whilehe leads
performance
a procession
ofdevotees.
Togo,Mina, 1975.(Photo
byMargaretThompson
Drewal)
and
substance
whitecloth,shepinchedoffa smallamountofa redclaylike
froma smallbottle.She
it on thegroundalongwithperfume
sprinkled
also put some perfumeon her headtiejust above her forehead.The
and then
ranga smallbell as she enteredtheshrineenclosure
priestess
Soon
to theaccompaniment.
addedthesoundof a woodeninstrument
of Igbo and Englishthathad a deafter,she begana songin a mixture
hymnlike
cidedlyChristian
quality(we weretoldlaterthatMamiWata
The
andthatshe"beat"thosewho failedto go to church).
was Christian
smallbellwas replacedbytheloudclangofa largeone,followedby the
voicethatpiercedtheroomseemedto
voiceofMamiWata.The ethereal
Its qualitywas otherworldly.
come fromanotherdirection.
Although
MamiWataspokein someformofEnglish,we werenotableto follow;
womanservedas translator.
another
and
ranas follows:Mami Wataextendedgreetings
The conversation
tocomeand
askedformoneytopayforthegasshehadusedinherjourney
Mami WataWorship I69
speak-as everyoneknows, she drivesa car. The amountrequestedwas
sizable, because (it was laterexplained)Mami Wata had traveledall the
way fromthe Indian Ocean where she lived. We said we could not pay
suchan amountand offereda smallergiftwhichwas accepted.Then Mami
Wata asked ifwe had been "seeing things"on Fridaynightsfor,she said,
she had been visitingus. A markon thebody would confirmherpresence
(earlierwe had been told thatMami Wata "marks" herpeople).5Then she
askedifwe wantedto see her"faceto face." We said yes and themedium's
sisterasked, "If you see Mami Wata,won't you runaway?" We answered,
no, because we heard thatMami Wata was very beautiful.Mami Wata
questions.Whenwe askedwhat
gave moreblessingsand asked forfurther
she looked like, Mami Wata firstsaid thatno one had ever actuallyseen
on the wall
her, but then directedour attentionto a chromolithograph
(plate 7).
Afterthe ventriloquistperformancewas over, we asked the priestess
how she knew that Mami Wata looked like the print,and she replied:
"Someone withspecialpowersmusthave gone underthewaterto snapher
pictures,regardedas photographs,are
picture."This and othernaturalistic
underwater
the
believedto capture
realityof Mami Wata.
of colonial
the establishment
19th
of
the
half
second
the
century,
By
empiresand the expansionof tradelinkingAfricawith both Europe and
theEast providedthe settingfortherapidspreadof images and ideas that
helped to inspirethe diversityof Mami Wata iconographyand performances. The most widespreadimage of Mami Wata is the one the Igbo
of European
priestesshad hangingin hershrine.It is a chromolithograph
origindepictinga snake charmer.Dating circa I885, it was subsequently
widelyin
in largenumbersin India and England and distributed
reprinted
sub-SaharanWest and CentralAfricawhere it became the key image of
Mami Wata in less than 80 years.6
of
7. Thischromolithograph
is the1955
a snakecharmer
in Bombay,
edition
printed
India,bytheShreeRam
CalendarCompany
froma
Europeansource.African
itas a picture
devotees
regard
or "photograph"
ofMami
Wata.
8. Studiophotograph
ofthe
Maladamatsnakecharmer
jaute, ca. 1887.(Photo
oftheWilhelm
courtesy
CircusArZimmermann
chive)
170 HenryJohnDrewel
thisimagesymbolized
theexoticOtherfortwo vastly
Remarkably,
different
culturalareasin theworld:she was a mysterious,
sensuousOriental snakecharmerforEuropeans,but a EuropeanwaterspiritforAfricans!
The origin of this image can be tracedto the northernGermanport of
Hamburgin thesecondhalfof the19thcentury,
duringan eraof wide-
spreadpublicfascinationwiththingsfromdistantlands. Carl G.C. Hagenbeck's 1848 success exhibitinganimals as a popular attractionled to a
rapidlyenlargedmenagerieof more exotic animalsfromGreenland,Africa,and Asia, housedin hiszoological gardenin Hamburg.Soon he added
anotherattraction-exoticpeople-creating a new formof popularenteror "People Shows" (Benninghoff-Luhl
tainment,the Volkerschauen
1984).
About 1880,when Hagenbeck's game huntertraveledto SoutheastAsia
and thePacificto trapanimalsforthezoo, he returnedwitha wife(probably Samoan) who began to performas a snake charmerin Hagenbeck's
show under the stage name of "Maladamatjaute." A photographof her
takenabout 1887 in a Hamburg studioshows manyelementsof thesnake
charmer
thestyleandcutof
chromolithograph
(plate8). Note especially
the bodice, the stripesof buttons,the coins about the waist, the armlets,
the positionof the snake around her neck and a second one nearby,the
nonfunctionalbifurcatedflute(see the inset in the print),and her facial
featuresand coiffure.There can be littledoubt thatMaladamatjautewas
the model for the image called "Der Schlangenbandiger"(The Snake
Charmer). It was probably made between 1880-87 by an artist(as yet
undetermined)in the printingstudios of Hagenbeck's close friendand
associateAdolph Friedlander,a leadingprinterwho producedforHagenbeck a wide varietyof circusand "People Show" postersin thestyleof the
snake charmerprint(see Malhotra 1979).
Not long afterthe print'sappearancein Europe, the image reached
Africa.The earliestevidenceof theprint'simpactin Africawas recordedin
a 1901oIphotographbyJ.A. Greentakenat Bonny on theNiger Riverdelta
(plate9). It shows an Africanheaddresswitha somewhattwo-dimensional
thatis unquestionablybased on the snake charmerprint:note
half-figure
thethick,blackhair(a wig) partedin themiddle;theearrings;thecutofthe
garment'sneckline;thepositionof the snakeand of thefigure'sarms;and
especiallythe low-reliefrenderingof the insetshowingthe kneelingflute
player facing several snakes (to the lower rightof the centralfigure).
Featherplumes, toy rattles,and a large numberof mirrorssurroundthe
figure.
The chromolithograph
thatinspiredthisBonny headdressalong with
theIgbo sculpturein plate 3 has had an extraordinary
impactin Africa;its
styleand inconographyhelp to explain its widespreadsignificance.The
snake, an importantand widespread Africansymbol of water and the
rainbow (Hambly 193I), is a most appropriatesubjectto be shown surrounding,protecting,as well as beingcontrolledby theMotherof Water.
The snake's positionover the head of Mami Wata reinforces
its link with
thearchingrainbow.One standsfortheother,as in thecentralpanelofthe
Ghanaian mural illustratedin plate I and in the Ewe priestess'sdream
image of Mami Wata's sweeping gestureover her head (cited above). In
this chromolithograph,snake/water/rainbow
divinity is dramatically
combinedwith female/foreigner/mermaid
Mami Wata.
Betweenthe 15thand 19thcenturies,themajorityof overseasforeigners
seen by Africanswere WesternEuropeans,followedby Lebanese and Indians. All were associatedwith commerce,thatis, wealthbroughtfrom
overseas. Therefore,the same clusterof ideas associatedwith mermaid
photograph
9. This19gol
by
atBonny
J.A. Greentaken
ontheNigerRiverdelta
shows
anAfrican
masheaddress
witha
querade
baseduponthe
sculpture
European
chromolithograph
ofasnakecharmer.
(Photo
courtesy
oftheNigerian
National
Museum,
photo
archive
neg.#Io6.g94.17)
images would have also been associatedwiththismore recentimage of a
snakecharmer,firstobtainedfromEuropeansand laterfromIndians.The
naturalismof theprintcontributed
to itsacceptanceas a pictureofa foreign
spirit.As a "photograph,"theprintis seenas a productof foreigntechnology-only logical sinceMami Wata is everywhereregardedas a foreigner.
The snake charmeris thus interpretedas a depictionof a non-African
femaleby her complexion, her facial features,and especiallyher long,
flowinghair-all of which she shareswithmermaids.The print,like the
image of the mermaid,also epitomizesbreathtaking
beauty.Withoutexception,informants
emphasizedthe beautyof Mami Wata's symmetrical,
balanced,intense,and composed face7-characteristics
thatevoke comeliness and well-being.Icons of wealthshown in theprint-golden armlets,
earrings,neckline,pendant,and waist ornaments-evoke the richesthat
Mami Wata promisesto thosewho honorher. The themeof wealththat
underliesmuch of Mami Wata worshipis sometimesexaggeratedby the
amountofjewelry (plates2 & 3).
Since Africanstend to depictcompletefiguresin theirvisual arts,the
half-figure
renderingof Mami Wata is takento be significant
by African
viewers. In discussingthis aspect of the print,devotees point out that
Mami Wata in hermermaidmanifestation
is halfwoman, halffish;whatis
not shown becomes important.The concealedlower portionof thesnake
charmerconveysto devoteesthatMami Wata is "hidingher secret,"the
fishtail.In theprint,theambiguousrendering
of theclothbelow thewaist,
reminiscent
offishscales,reinforces
thisidea and also recallstheswimming
gesturesof devoteesduringtrancedances.
The use of an overall blue-greenbackgroundand the absence of any
contextualfeatures,such as landscapesor buildings,contributeto theimpressionof an underwaterscene. This aspecthas become importantin the
creationof Mami Wata environments.
In an Igbo shrine,theworshiperrecreatesMami Wata's world by fillingthe aquamarine-coloredspace with
mirrors,canoe paddles, fishnets,and low-reliefsnakesfloatingacrossthe
walls (plate Io). Near the centerof the raisedplatformis a coiled, stuffed
cloth snake which, in procession,the priestesswraps around her torso,
drapes over her shoulders,and holds aloftin her righthand,just as the
snakecharmerdoes in the print(AnonymousI975:72). Also imagingthe
shrine
1o. Anaquamarine
environment
re-creating
MamiWata'sunderwater
canoe
with
world
fishnets,
coiled
anda stuffed,
paddles,
thepossessed
snakewhich
her
around
medium
wraps
inher
neckandholdsaloft
handinimitation
of
right
thesnakecharmer
print.
Igbo,1978.(Photo
Nigeria,
Drewal)
byHenryJ.
thepriestess
wearsa longblackwigpartedinthecenter,
a profusion
print,
of goldenbanglesaroundherneck,and a European-style
formalgown
in gold.
trimmed
Theenormous
ofthesnakecharmer
ledtoa growpopularity
lithograph
inIndianprints
market
ofHindudeitiesandspirits
overthelast
ingAfrican
as a hostofMami
variousHindupopularprints
30years.Africans
interpret
Wataspirits
associated
withspecific
bodiesofwater.The expansion
ofthe
andthegrowingnumber
inAfrica
ofMamiWatadevotees
have
pantheon
stimulated
a further
ofimagery.
As a Yorubamanwhosells
proliferation
popularHinduprintsin Togo explained:
butwe
[F]ormerly,
duringthecolonialperiod,we hadthepictures,
didn'tknowtheirmeaning.
Peoplejustlikedthemto putintheir
rooms.ButthenAfricans
started
to studythemtoo-about whatis
ofthesepictures
themeaning
thattheyareputting
lights,candles,
andincensethereeverytime.I thinktheyareusingthepowerto
MamiWataWorship173
collectourmoneyaway,orhow?So we started
to befriend
theIndiansto knowtheirsecretaboutthepictures.
FromtheretheAfricansalsotriedtojoin someoftheirsocieties
inIndiaandalloverthe
worldto knowmuchaboutthepictures.
Readingsomeoftheir
whattheymean.
books,I couldunderstand
Thisstatement
rather
theprocessofinvention,
thecresuggests
explicitly
ationof meaningthatis at workas Africans
visualandwritten
interpret
datafromtheOther.The printsellerdistinguished
severalstagesin the
Africans
considered
theprints
as "decoprocess.In thebeginning,
simply
ration"untiltheybeganto "study"them.Whentheystudiedthem,or
theiriconography,
interpreted
theycameto viewtheprintsas religious
iconsthatheldsecretsto be unlocked.Moreimportantly,
Africans
determinedthattherewas a directconnection
betweentheseIndianimages,the
beliefs
withthem,andIndians'successinfinancial
associated
matters
(just
as mermaids
andothericonssuchas marinesculptures
andsaints'statues
hadbeenlinkedwithEuropeanwealthandpower).
But Africans
werenotcontentsimplyto studyimages,theybeganto
Hindurituals
in relation
to
analyzeIndianactionsas well.Theyexamined
thesereligious
iconsandattributed
theirown meanings
to them.Finally,
Africans
theknowledge
enlarged
gainedfromtheimagesandtheactionsof
Hindusby seekingadditional
information
in theirbooks,pamphlets,
and
Mami Watadevotees
religiousparaphernalia.
Using all theseresources,
continue
to evolvean elaboratefaith,actualizing
it in theirsacredspaces
andritualperformances.s
One of themostinfluential
of thenew lithographs,
printedin India
andEngland,is knownin GhanaandTogo as Densu,a maleMamiWata
spirit(plateII). Densu shrinesoftenmirrorthe themesin the Hindu
shellsechothe
lithograph
(plate12). On one altar,paintedandunpainted
one in theupperrighthandof theHunduspiritin theprintand also
reinforce
thethemeof water.So doesthereflective
surface
ofthemirror
betweenthestatue'slegsthatrefers
to thesurface
ofthewaterandto the
rivershownin theprint.Greenplasticparrotsflanktheclaysculpture,
to theanimalcompanions
of Densu. The figure's
threeheads,
referring
andjewelryarecopiedas wellas mostoftheobjectsshowninthe
coiffure,
hands,whilethestatueitselfis paintedbrightgold to evoketheriches
bestowedby MamiWata.
Theseand othershrineelements-white
and
cloth,flowers,
perfumes,
talcumpowdercontainers-constitute
MamiWata's"table."The use of
theterm"table"is itselfrevealing,
forthetableis nottraditional
in many
seenas
partsof Africa.Ratherit evokes"foreign"
waysandis therefore
mostappropriate
forMami Wata. The icon derivesfromat leastfour
sources:thedressing
tableofEuropeanladies,thediningtable,theChristianaltar,andthealtarinHinduhouseholds
withitspictures,
candles,and
incense.The processof makingthetableseemsto have becomemore
elaborate
withtheadventofanexpanded
as wellas
corpusofHinduprints,
theincreased
ofprinted
matter
fromIndia(books,pamphlets,
availability
sales catalogs)dealingwithHindureligiouspractice.A Mina priestess
explainedthatthe"old" formof MamiWatawas "withthesnake,"but
about1955theybeganto worshipthe"new" formsdifferently,
usinga
andbooks.Plate13showsa Mami
table,perfume,
candles,fruits,
flowers,
Watatablethatsynthesizes
theoldandthenew.A carvedrepresentation
of
the snakecharmerprintbecomesthe focalpointof a moreelaborate
"table"withplasticflowers,
bottlesand talc
dolls,andanimals;perfume
174 Henry
JohnDrewal
inprint
11. Hindupopular
Mami
as
the
male
terpreted
known
as Densu
Wataspirit
in TogoandGhana.
a bottleof Gordon'sgin;and,frontand center,theBible
tins;mirrors;
surmounted
by a plasticturtle.
how meanings
illustrates
The Yorubaprintsellerin Togo dramatically
evolveandspread.He
andhowMamiWataritualpractices
areconstructed
forhis
andOccultismas references
usesbookson Buddhism,
Hinduism,
necesandtheparaphernalia
divinities
andindigenous
offoreign
synthesis
inparticuclients
expressaninterest
saryfortheirworship.WhenAfrican
names;
themabouttheir
heinforms
larprints,
Hindu,andAfrican
English,
as well as thematerials
theirpowersand attributes;
requiredfortheir
worship.Each waterspirit,he explains,has itsown incenseor perfume
"driveaway
becauseMamiWatalikespleasantscentsandthefragrances
evil spirits."He adds thatMami Wataabhorsfilthand lovesbeautiful
andcoveredin white
wellarranged,
so hertablemustbe spotless,
things,
forthetableinclude
clothor cleansand. The remaining
requirements
"sweet"foods(suchas candy,bananas,oranges,eggs),candles,
flowers,
andtala notebookor individual
sheets),money,perfume,
papers(either
cumpowder.
established
SinceabouttheFirstWorldWar,whenIndianmerchants
theirways,espehavebeenobserving
firms
alongthewestcoast,Africans
Mami WataWorship 175
A tablefortheMami
WataspiritDensudisplaysa
gold-colored
clayfigurebased
on theHinduchromolithographshowninplate11.
Togo,Ewe, 1975.(Photo
byHenryJ. Drewal)
12.
oftheold
13. A synthesis
andnewstyleofMami
a
Wata,thistablefeatures
statuebasedon thesnake
charmer
at its
print;a mirror
back;plasticdolls,ducks,
fish,andflowers;
perfume
talcum
bottles;
powdercona Gordon's
tainers;
gin bottle;a Christian
picture;and
a claytortoise
on topofa
book.Togo,Ewe, 1975.
(PhotobyHenry
J. Drewal)
176 Henry
JohnDrewal
arebasedon thepractice
of
ciallyHindudevotions.Manyoftheserituals
whopredominated
inAfrica
andwere
Gujeratis,
amongIndianmerchants
devoteesofLakshmi,theHindugoddessofwealthandpatroness
ofmerchants.LikeMamiWatadevotees,Gujeratis
placetheiraccountbooksor
as objectsofveneration.
And,as AlanBabb told
ledgerson theirshrines
terracottastatuesofLakshmiunderwaterat the
me,theyalso submerge
closeofannualfestivals-apractice
similarto thosethatoccur
strikingly
duringsomeMamiWatafestivals
(1985).
One youngIgbo womanat Lagosspokeofherfearandfascination
for
thegodsthattheHindufamilysheworkedforkeptin theirhouse.She
in detailtheprayers
described
whileseatedwiththeirlegs
theyconducted
on theirforeheads;
theirhandgestures;
their
crossed;the"points"(bindu)
shrines
coveredwithpictures,
andbooks;thesmellofincense;
and
statues,
thebluelightof a candlethatburnedcontinuously.
She also witnessed
Hinduritesin whichgiftsof fruits
andflowers
werethrown
intothesea
thereasons
alongwiththehairofa child.Whensheaskedheremployers
fortheiractions,she was told,"thethingsthatcomefromgod mustbe
to god." She tookthisto meanthatIndianscomefromthesea.
returned
TheYorubaprintsellerdescribed
howhe"befriended"
anIndianmanin
Ghana:
He lovedmeverywell,so he gavemesomeofhissecrets
aboutthe
He was tellingmeaboutthenatureofeveryindividual,
pictures.
aboutLordShiva,LordKomara,LordKrishna,
thesevenworlds
undertheearth.Everyindividual
hasa picture
inhisroom.They
kindsof
worshipwithincense,candle,andallsortsofdifferent
he
things.Beforea Hinduleavestheroomearlyinthemorning,
mustfacethepicture,
makemeditation,
for
pray,seethepicture
himself
beforegoingout.ThesearecalledMantra,thecallingofthe
namesofthepictures
to them.
particular
These observations
and othershave resultedin specificritualpractices
In NigeriaandTogo, devoteeslightcanamongMamiWataworshipers.
dlesandburnincenseduringconsultations
withthespiritcalled"meditations."One Mina Mami Watapriestdisplaysa photograph
of himself
takenduringhisinitiation
inwhichheis seatedon a Muslimprayer
matin
lotuspositionwearinga turbanandsigninga mudra
(plate14).
are also imagedin Mami Watarites.In AtakEuropeanconventions
danceto
pame,Togo, MamiWatadevoteeshavedeviseda European-style
attract
theirspirit.It is knownas Gran'bal,a gentleballroom-style
dance
oftenperformed
on Friday
by couples,whichtakesplace,appropriately,
and Saturday
MamiWata'spreference
for
nights.Followersalso describe
slow "blues" tunes,highlife,
and especiallyguitarmusic,a themethat
extendsto Nigeriaas evidenced
in a songbythepopularbandleader
and
composerVictorUwaifo:
IfyouseeMamiWata,oh,
never,neverrunaway
MamiWatalovesmusic,oh,
guitarboy,
never,never,runaway.
Amongthe Mina of Togo, Europeanelementsarejuxtaposedwith
HinduandAfrican
ones.Intheprocess,
allthreearetransformed
tocreatea
MamiWataWorship177
novelritual.On thedayofLa Table Sainte(theSanctified
Table),Mami
Watawas honoredfirstwithritesbasedon indigenous
thena
practices,
andfinally
witha
dressing
sequencewithHinduandEuropeanelements,
andsongs
European-style
banquet.Thedaybeganwithprayers,
blessings,
forMamiWataandherretinue
ofwaterspirits
andotherdeities
performed
installed
atthe"HouseoftheHolyTrinity."
waterwasmixed
Meanwhile,
in a glasswithtalcumpowderand pouredon theground.Someof the
infusion
was thensharedamongtheworshipers.
Duringa secondprayer,
thepriestpouredgingerale on theground,sharedit around,and then
tossedcowrieshellsto learnthespirit'sresponse.He brokeaparta hardboiledegg and spreadthepieceson thealtar,whichwas loadedwith
bottles,talcumpowder,eggs,and waterfromthewellin the
perfume
andsweetness
thescene.
whiteness,
compound.Cleanliness,
permeated
thesacrifice
of a whitegoatand chickens.
Their
Songsaccompanied
bloodwas pouredintoa bowl.Morechicken
sacrifices
butthis
followed,
timethepriestslittheirnecksand tossedthemon theground,intently
theirdeaththroesto interpret
themessagesfromMamiWata.
watching
thatthesignswereauspicious,
Satisfied
heproceeded
withthefinalchicken
whosebloodwaspouredintoa concreted
holeinthegroundthat
offering,
constituted
thealtarof Sapata,deityof contagious
disease,particularly
variousMamiWatafollowers
went
smallpox.Duringtheseproceedings,
intopossessiontranceandbeganto dance.
ofa
portrait
14. Formal
MamiWatadevotee
signing
a Hindumudraas hesitsin
ona Muslim
a lotus
position
mat.Togo,Mina,1975.
unknown)
(Photographer
178 Henry
JohnDrewal
images
15. Synthesizing
a
a variety
ofsources,
from
theappearcreates
devotee
anceofMamiWatabyusing
a blackwig;a Western-style
with
dress
fabric
ofimported
sashovertheleft
a sari-like
onherupshoulder;
jewelry
andankles;
wrists,
perarms,
of
symbolic
longnecklaces
thecelestial
Dan;
serpent
Hindubinduonherforesnake
headandfeet;a brass
inherright
hand;anda triSheisseated
dentinherleft.
stool
sacred
ona traditional
on
thathasbeen
placed a
Muslim
rug.Togo,
prayer
Mina,1975.(Photoby
Drewal)
HenryJ.
wasbuta
trance
ofprayer,
The morning
sacrifice,
song,andpossession
of the
Mami
Wata-the
of
in
honor
rite
climactic
to
the
Day
prelude
thespiritandmake
Tablebanquet.Whatbetterwayto attract
Sanctified
As
anelaborate
herfeelathomethantoprepare
banquettableinherhonor?
table
atthedinner
conclude
thatherfestival
heraltarsaretables,itis fitting
withan elegantly
eveningmeal.
arranged
occasiontookmostoftheafterforsuchan elaborate
The preparations
toilet.
an elaborate
as wellas old, underwent
newinitiates
noon.Priests,
on perfume,
cologne,andtalcumpowderpainted
Theybeganbyputting
inlinesovertheuppertorso,arms,andlegs.Facemakeupwascompleted
of theHindubindu.9The
in imitation
witha "point"on theforehead
dressesofimported
or sari-style
also donned:(I) bright
Europeanpriests
blackhairwhich
withfloralor striped
fabric
(2) wigsofstraight,
patterns;
16. Dressed
ina sari-style
a statue
garment,
ofNanayo
inlotus
at
position
presides
theheadofthebanquet
table.A cobra
headisspread
outoverherright
shoulder
andherarmuplifted
ina
mudra-like
gesture.
Togo,
Mina,1975.(Photoby
Margaret
Thompson
Drewal)
theyeitherwrappedin a whiteheadtieor bedeckedwithcostume
jewelry
and strings
of beads;and,(3) muchjewelry-earrings,
anklets,
armlets,
necklaces
bracelets,
associated
withDan, the
rings,andlong,multicolored
rainbowserpent
deitywhois MamiWata'sconstant
companion
(plate15)Likethegarments
intheIndianprints,
thoseoftheseMamiWata
depicted
devoteesaredrapedovertheleftshoulder.Priorto thebanquet,thedevoteessaton a sacredstoolforformalportraits,
ofthe
holdingemblems
waterspirits-abronzesnakeanda trident
whosethreeprongsaresaidto
thepath,and themoon.The trident,
it maybe
symbolizetheserpent,
is featured
in the"Densu" print.
recalled,
prominently
Thedressing
thepriest
ledhisinitiates
outofthecourtyard
to
complete,
findtheirplacesat thesanctified
table-a longbanquettablecoveredin
whitelinenandplacesettings
ofsilverware,
dishes,andglasses.A statueof
MamiWataspiritoftheHouseoftheHolyTrinity,
Nanayo,theguardian
at theheadofthetable(plate16).The sculpture,
donebyanEwe
presided
a Hinduritualgesture
artist,
thefigure
seated
captures
(mudra)anddepicts
in thelotusposition.The posture,forehead
mark,andpiledhairdo,toall suggestthecarver
getherwiththehoodedcobraabovetheshoulder,
was influenced
by Hinduprintssimilarto one knownas BholeShankar.
echoesthesarisshownin theprints
andthose
Nanayo'sflowery
garment
wornby thedevotees.
The participants
dancedcounterclockwise
aroundthetablebeforethey
satdown(plate17). The mealbeganwitha benediction
followedby the
first
courseoffresh
tried
greensalad.Whilemanyofthedevotees
valiantly
I80 HenryJohnDrewal
downtoa
17. Beforesitting
Frenchformal,
five-course
stylemealin Mami Wata's
dance
honor,worshipers
aroundherbanquettable.At
theheadofthetableis a
carvedimageoftheMami
Wataspirit,Nanayo. Togo,
Mina, 1975.(Photoby
MargaretThompson
Drewal)
to adoptthepalateandtablemanners
oftheirexoticspirit,
somefoundit
whichtheyconsider"bushthatonly
impossibleto eat raw vegetables,
animalsconsume."As unobtrusively
as possible,one elderly
womanremovedherplateand quicklyrakedthesaladontothegroundunderthe
table.Otherspokedat theirsawkwardly
withknivesor spoonsuntilserversclearedthefirst
courseandbrought
thenext.Sweetcarbonated
drinks
wereservedwhiletheinitiates
withtheirutensils
toeattheseries
struggled
ofEuropeandishesthatconstituted
MamiWata'sbanquet.Conversation
seemedstilted
andsubduedin theformal
yet,whentheritual
atmosphere,
cameto an end,mostseemedpleasedwiththeirefforts
atrerepastfinally
andsharing
a "proper"mealwiththeirspirit.
creating
ofMamiWatabeliefs
anddiversity
andperforDespitethecomplexity
transcultural
mances,certainwidespread,
patterns
emerge.Mami Wata
devoteesobjectify
theOtherthrough
Their
analysesandinterpretations.
dataare basedon directobservation
of theattitudes
and actionsof the
bothsecularand religiousactivities.
Forexample,one
Other,including
Ewe devoteeobserved
thatMamiWataspirits
flocktotheHotelTropicana
inTogo eachyearinordertolieoutinthesunortositstaring
outatthesea
forhourson end. He was referring
to Frenchand Germantourists
on
packaged
holidays
organized
bythehotel.WhenI askedhowheknewthey
wereMamiWataspirits,
hesimplytoldmethatifI wentthereI wouldsee
formyself.
withnewmeanings
Otheractionsinvested
includethepersonal
toilet(theuse offacialpowder,cologne,andperfume);
reading,
writing,
and eatinghabits;tablemanners;and such devotionalritesas lighting
mantras.
The muncandles,ringing
bells,singinghymns,and chanting
daneactionsofsomebecomehighlysymbolic
andmeaningful
to others.
offoreign
suchas prints,
Likewise,theproducts
cultures,
books,sales
MamiWataWorshipI8I
andtradeitemsareviewed,read,analyzed,
films,
catalogs,pamphlets,
and
inordertobe incorporated
intoalready
frameworks.
reinterpreted
existing
In theend,thesyntheses
andconcerns
oftheinterpretexpresstheidentity
Withthiskindofknowledge,
ers,notthoseoftheproducers.
oftenprocessedin dreamsand trances,
Mami Wataadherents
createsacredplaces
andperform
ritualsto praiseandappealto theirspirit.
Certainparaphernalia
are widespread,
mirrors,
combs,and
especially
inmermaid
loreandimagery
as well
jewelry.Becauseoftheirprominence
as theirreflective,
waterlike
mirrors
havebecomeritualinstrusurface,
mentsforattracting
and controlling
a vain and unpredictable
spiritwhetherin Togo, Nigeria,or Zaire. They therefore
becomeessential
shrinefurniture
too. Candles,flowers,
incense,perfumes,
powders,and
othersweetandfragrant
suchas fruits,
softdrinks,
andcandiesalso
things
crucialforritual
persistwidelyin Mami Watacirclesand areconsidered
Addedto theseareotherMamiWataitems:snakes,fish,
performances.
and otherwater-related
shells,waterfowl,
objectslikepaddles,nets,and
canoes.
Reading and writingmessages and the use of books, notepads, and
sheetsof paperdenotean adaptationof foreigncommunicationmodes. An
Africansattachedto writingin theirfirst
earlyindicationof thesignificance
encounterswith Europeans was recordedin JohnAtkins'sjournal of his
1721 voyage. Near the SierraLeonean coast, he describedhow "making
Paperspeak(as theycall it) is a miracle"(Atkins197o:64). In Zaire, paintcoveredwithtextsdescribing
ingsof themermaidby Samba are frequently
the artist'sconversationswith the spirit (see Hollburg and Sievernich
1979:129)and, in Nigeriaand Togo, Mami Wata worshiperswritenotesto
theirspiritand receivemessages in the same form.Writinghas thusbecome a ritualact, partof Mami Wata performance.Other meansof communicationare drawn fromnewer Westerntechnology-the telephone,
airplane,and motorcarhelp to connectthe greatdistancesbetweenMami
Wata's abodes in the oceans and on Africansoil.
Dreams and visionsalso play a crucialrole in shapingritualactionsfrom
Liberiato Zaire and perhapsbeyond. They are primarysourcesforcommunicationbetween spiritand follower.The early morning"witching
hour" whenhumansencountertheenticingmambamuntu
ofZaire (thetime
is shown in popularpaintingon a wristwatchworn by a mermaid)marks
dreamtimeforcountlessMami Wata devoteesacrossWestAfrica.Certain
themesin dreamsrecuralmost everywhereand appear to derivefroma
shared mermaid mythology:water voyages and the beautifulyet cold
Europeansirenenticinghumans,holdingout thepromiseof sexualgratificationand/orenormousriches.
Mami Wata worshipersperformtheirconstructions
of the Otherin the
ways they create sacred spaces and ritualaction. In possession performances,Mami Wata mediumsswim with theirarms and speak in quasipidgintonguesas theyrelatetheirlongjourneysby boat, canoe, or car to
come fromdistantwaterssuch as theIndianOcean. Devotees writenotes,
speak withMami Wata on thephone, dancein a Europeanballroomstyle,
play theguitar,singhymns,and preparelavishbanquetsin herhonor.All
of theseacts are bridgesto Mami Wata, bringingherethosintotheworld
of herfollowers.Not thattheseworshipersemulateEuropeansor Indians
in theirdailylives,but rathertheyritualizecertainbehaviorin orderto get
in touch with theirwaterspiritof foreignorigins.
While some themes can be found everywhere,othersare specificto
certainareas for culturalor historicalreasons (see Drewal 1988). Mami
Wata is linkedto the rainbowdeitycomplex among theMina, Ewe, Aja,
JohnDrewal
182 Henry
Fon, Yoruba,and Igbo in WestAfrica.The rainbowis regardedas a
celestialserpent
theRoyalPython.As a spirit,the
or, morespecifically,
rainbowcontrols
thewatersoftheskyandunitesthemwiththewaterson
theseas and otherbodiesof water.
earth,whileMami Watadominates
Mami Watafollowers
therefore
considertheman inseparable
pair.The
oftheEuropeansnakecharmer
reflected
iconography
print
perfectly
indigenousbeliefsin thisareaaboutrainbows,
watersnakes,andwaterspirits.
In theprint,
a multicolored
is shownarching
liketherainbowover
python
theheadofthesnakecharmer.
talcumpowdercontainers
Thus,imported
withrainbowmotifsare favorite
decorations
forMami Wata shrines,
a sweet-smelling
uniting
foreign
productandanindigenous
symbolofthe
Theprint,
to
then,contributed
RoyalPython(plate13,rightfront
corner).
therainbowcomplexandextending
ittoincludea foreign
reshaping
spirit.
As Mami Wata followersshapetheirpractice,theyselectfragments
fromforeign
cultures
andinvestthemwithnewmeanings
to createsacred
thatwillappealto theirvainand potentially
symbolsand performances
troublesome
is reshaped,resymbolized,
and re-prespirit.Everything
sentedin orderto controland exploita forcethatholdsout thehopeof
wealthand well-being
in an Africathat,as Africans
is still
understand,
controlled
to a largedegreeby externalsocial,economic,and political
forces.
snakecharmers,
and Hindudeitiesas well as
Inspiredby mermaids,
ideasconcerning
waterspirits,
Africans
fromSenegalto Tanindigenous
zaniaareevolvinga vitalanddynamic
faith.Thistranscultural
phenomenonsuggests
thatmanyAfrican
beliefsystems
havethecapacity
torespond
new elementsin buildingon existing
to, to shape,and to incorporate
andincorporative
rather
conceptsand practices.
Theyareopen,flexible,
thanclosed,rigid,andconservative.
It is perhapsthedivination
process,a
in manyAfrican
as it is in MamiWata,that
pervasivefeature
religions,
Divinationopensup religious
mayaccountin partforthisdynamism.
to theoretically
countless
systems
(seeDrewal1984).A spirit
possibilities
suchas Mami Wata,whoselack of socialtiessanctions
alternatives
to
inherited
statusandwealth,provides
moreoptions.Anddreamsoffer
still
further
datafromthesediversesources,Mami
possibilities.
Assimilating
Watadevoteesconstruct
rites.As theYorubaprintsellerremeaningful
readtheirbooks,andmove
marked,"We beganto studytheirpictures,
nearthemto learntheirsecrets."The processhe describes
is oneofactive
Indeed,
interpretation,
adaptation,and re-creation-notreproduction.
whenMamiWataworshipers
"mirror"
theirspirit,
theyarereallyinventthattransforms
beliefand practiceand
ing her. It is thisinventiveness
forgesnewideologies,whichshapetheworldofMamiWatadevotees.
Postscript
Invention
seemsto havefewlimits,as evidenced
inthisnewsitemfrom
Abidjan,IvoryCoast.RuthStonesentitto mefromSaudiArabia,where
itlaterappearedin TheSaudiGazette(I June1985):
"MERMAID" JAILEDFOR FRAUD
A deformed
whoposedas a legendary
African
mermaid
teenager
withthepowerto multiply
banknotes
hasbeenjailedhereforfraud.
FatouSidibe,whoisjust82 cmstall,hasno legsandherwithered
armslookrather
likeflippers.
Sheworkedwitha gangofcrooks
MamiWataWorship183
as thegodfromherhomecountry,
Mali,andwas knownvariously
dessofthewaters,thesirenofthelagoonand"Mammiwata."
Heraccomplices
totheedgeofa lagoonat
luredgulliblecustomers
andmadethemwaitforhoursuntilthemermaid
nightfall
putinan
hair
a
dress
and
with
her
fluorescent
flowlong
appearance,
wearing
ingroundhershoulders.
Shewouldtaketheirmoneyandtellthemto comebackthenext
day.
Notes
financial
forresearch
generous
amongthe
support
I. I am pleasedto acknowledge
and1982 provided
Ewe, Mina,Aja,Yoruba,andIgboin 1975,1977/78,
byThe
NationalEndowment
fortheHumanities
(grant#sF77-42andRO-200oo72-81as wellas institutional
fromthe
2184) andClevelandStateUniversity,
support
andtheUniversity
ofIbadan
Museum,ObafemiAwolowoUniversity,
Nigerian
whichprovided
research
affiliations.
Archival
workinEuropeinthesummers
of
fromClevelandStateUniversity.
1980and 1984was funded
by grants
2. Talbot(1967:3o9) citesan originmythformaskeddancesin honorof water
spiritsamongtheKalabariIjo whichlinksthemwithEuropeans.AndJones
fromthewater.For
(1937:79)notestheIgbo beliefthatEuropeansoriginated
moreon MamiWataartandbeliefsamongtheIgboseeDrewal(1988).
loreholdsthatifa manis luckyenoughto
3. In Zaire,mermaid(mamba
muntu)
whilesheis resting
onthe
acquireoneofhertokens(a lockofhairorhermirror)
forherbelongings,
a
shore,he willsee hersoonafterin a dream.In exchange
vow ofsilence,andcomplete
he willbecomefabulously
rich(Fabian
devotion,
(Wintrob
1970).
I978:319).MamiWatabeliefsin Liberiaseemto be identical
callsitselftheHarrietVocalMermaid
4. One MamiWatagroupin Igbo country
of MamiWatathrough
hervoiceseemsrelatedto
Society.The manifestation
withherbymeansofforeign
communication
theteletechnology-specifically
in Nigeriaand Zaire,
areasas Ibibioland
phone.Fromsuchwidelyseparated
in interactions
withthespirit.In theformer,
a
telephones
figureprominently
ofMamiWataona poleextends
totheworshiper's
longthinropefroma carving
house."This is calleda MammyWata telephone,
forit is claimedthatthe
is warnedbythismeansofanystranger
as
priestess
comingintothecompound,
wellas thepurposeoftheirvisit"(Salmons1977:II). In Zaire,paintings
ofthe
mermaid
showhertelephone
on a rockwiththecordgoingdownintoa
perched
potandthenintothewater(Eckhardt
1979:129).
a number
ofsignsor"marks"identify
someonetouched
5. Traditionally,
byMami
Wata-forexample,
erratic
dreamsofwater,whites,
andwealth;
behavior;
jouron one's back. Mami Wataalso puts
neysto bodiesof water;and pressure
markson herfollowers'
bodies.
physical
6. Theedition
illustrated
wasprinted
inBombay,India,bytheShreeRamCalendar
version
sentto thembya trader
inKumasi,
Companyin 1955to copyan earlier
Ghana.During1955/56,
and
I2,ooocopies(Io" x 14") weresentto thistrader
in Kumasi"without
another
a lineevenfromtheoriginal"(Manager,
changing
ShreeRam CalendarCompany,letterdated17JuneI977). Whiletheinventiveness
ofAfrican
artists
sometimes
makesitdifficult
tobe certain,
I discern
the
in at least14 countries
and41 cultures.
print'sinfluence
thefirst
timehe saw theprintduringhisyouthin
7. One Yorubaman,recalling
Lagos (1921), admittedthathe nearly"peed in his pants" when he beheld the
strikingbeauty,the long flowinghair,and the snakesof Mami Wata.
8. Evenwhereelaborate
rituals
forMamiWatahavenotevolved,as in Zaire,the
ofthemermaid
is regarded
thatwillaid
picture
byitsownersas a talisman/charm
in the attainmentof wealth (Jules-Rosette1977:I26).
9. ThebeliefthatMamiWataputsmarkson herchosenmayhavebeeninspired
in
ofHinduimagesshowingbindu
on people'sforeheads.
partbytheproliferation
In an Ewe sculpture
ofDensubasedon theHinduprintillustrated
in plateII,
even the threedogs have "points" on theirheads.
I84
HenryJohn Drewal
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Performing the Other: Mami Wata Worship in Africa - source url

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