1 - Monash University Research Repository

Transcription

MONASH UNIVERSITY
THESIS ACCEPTED IN SATISFACTION OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
ON
13 May 2003
Research Graduate School Committee
Under (he copyright Act 1968, this thesis must be used only under the
normal conditions of scholarly fair dealing for the purposes of
research, criticism or review. In particular no results or conclusions
should be extracted from it, nor should it be copied or closely
paraphrased in whole or in part without the written consent of the
author. Proper written acknowledgement should be made for any
assistance obtained from this thesis.
ADDENDUM
p 10: line 3 add "(aired NBC, September 29)" after "on the city" .
p 53: Add at the end of para 3 "(figures released by The League of American
Theatres and Producers)".
p 95: Footnote 1 replace "Someday My Prince Will Come" with "I'm Wishing".
p 143: Add para 2, line 3 after "website for Lib & Stitch"
"(disney.go.com/disneypictures/liloandstitch)".
p 205: Add at the end of para 2 "(Nelson 82)".
p 225: para 2, line 7 after "Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Heart's Club Band" add
"(1967)"; after Iinel4
""Ruby Tuesday", "No Milk Today", "Judy's Turn To Cry", even "Do Wah Diddy
Diddy"" add "(Jagger/ Jones, Gouldman, Ross/Lewis, Barry/Greenwich
respectively)".
p 226: Para 1, line 7 after "Sugar, Sugar" add (Barry/Kim); para 2 line 3 after "All
By Myself add "(Carmen)".
p 241: Para 2, line 2 add after "You Don't Own Me" "(MadaraAVhite)"; linelO
after "Material Girl" "(Brown/Rans)".
p 276: Para 2, line 3 add after "Into the Woods" "(1987)"; add note para 3, line 6 re
Starlight Express "Details taken from 1984 Apollo Victoria production."
P 283: Para 2 line 4 add after "Vienna" "(1995)"; line 8 after "a rose" "(for
example, Kurier, August 18, 1995, np)"; line 14 after "Filipino Belle" "(1997)";
line 18 add after "Miss Saigon" "(1994)".
p 289: Footnote 7 add end "(The Lion King reviews, Theatre Record)
p352: Add at bottom of page "Sweeney Todd written by Stephen Sondheim."
p 363: Add under 3rd entry " "The Lion King" reviews (1999), Theatre Record,
October 8-21."
p 365: Add at bottom of page "Das Phantom der Oper (programme) (1997),
'Raimund Theater, Vienna, December."
DISNEY ANIMATED AND THEATRICAL
MUSICALS:
5?
INTERPRETING THE MAGIC FROM
THE LITTLE MERMAID TO THE LITTLE MERMAID
Rebecca-Anne Charlotte Do Rozario
Bachelor of Business (Communications)
Master of Letters
Master of Arts
Centre for Drama and Theatre Studies
Monash University
Submitted: 2003
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si
}?
DISNEY ANIMATED AND THEATRICAL MUSICALS
This dissertation contains no material that has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma in any university or other institution and contains no
material to my knowledge previously pubhshed or written by a person other than
myself, except where due reference is made within the text of the thesis.
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ABSTRACT
In an increasingly globalised and commercialised world, the international
entertainment conglomerate of Disney is a considerable subject for criticism. The
field of Disney Studies has evolved to analyse, deconstruct, and define the
phenomenon of Disney's social and cultural presence. Yet, Disney Studies
increasingly recognises an impasse whereby largely negative critical analysis
contradicts the positive Disney image. Disney Studies has tended to identify Disney
itself as the author of this contradiction. The aim of this dissertation is to challenge
this perception, and to argue that Disney represents a much more complex social and
cultural entity than typically acknowledged; one that offers often surprising
consequences for current academic debates.
Rather than dispute Disney's claims as 'the magic kingdom', the argument of this
dissertation opens with the concept of magic, suggesting that through an
understanding of how Disney creates and defines its magic, the nature of Disney can
itself be more accurately determined. The dissertation argues that central to Disney's
magic is the musical genre. The magic kingdom is notable for animated features like
Beauty and the Beast, features which although frequently subject to analysis, are
rarely examined as musical. Yet Disney at the turn of the century is arguably the
most significant and prolific musical producer, with the current Disney 'era' marked
by an expansion into theatrical interests.
The dissertation examines the context in which Disney musicals have evolved, what
'Disney' itself means, particularly in terms of authorship, the body of scholarly
criticism on which the research is based, and analyses the forms and significance of
the musicals themselves, seeking to establish terms for the registration of generic
difference and the implications of the process for the representation and
transformation of the body.
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CONTENTS
Introduction
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Part One
Part of Your World: Disney in Context
Chapter One
Towards Defining Disney Musicals
16
Chapter Two
What They Say About Disney Musicals
57
Part Two
Magic Formulas
Chapter Three
Disney's Court of Love
91
Chapter Four
The Moral: Archetypes on a Journey
133
Chapter Five
Commercialism: The Sale of Magic
179
Part Three
Transpositions
Chapter Six
Synchronisation 1: Finding a Sound
213
Chapter Seven
Synchronisation 2: Animating Performances
243
Chapter Eight
Broadway Sleeps Tonight 1: It's For the Beasts
269
Chapter Nine
Broadway Sleeps Tonight 2: They're Only Human 300
Appendix
Disney Musicals: Synopses and Selected Credits
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329
Discography
348
Filmography
350
Bibliography
353
';'&
In respect to the form of referencing used in this dissertation, on occasion material
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has been accessed through on-line sources, including library databases, journal, and
>|
newspaper websites. Page numbers from some of these sources are not designated
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within the text of the article, although given in the reference. As a result, there are no
page numbers given for quoted material from these sources in the dissertation's text,
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but the sources are identified as on-line in the bibliography and page numbers are
provided if available from the particular reference source.
In regard to citation of material obtained on-line, full, specific on-line addresses are
not provided. In the majority of cases, the articles in question are obtained through
archival searches and do not have individual, reliable addresses. In many cases,
addresses themselves have become obsolete as sites move or close down. To
maintain consistency of citation, the journal, newspaper, or website name and/or
main address if appropriate is included and the citation consequently follows the
model used for journals.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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Take my word
I have heard
>|
All that I needed
4
Was to have heeded
Hakuna Matata!
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The Lion King
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First, I must thank Peter Fitzpatrick, my supervisor, for his unfailing sense of
humour as I pursued some of my crazier theories to fruition, and his unstinting good
nature in reading through the many, many pages of draft material, always able to
realise what I was trying to say. I also appreciate Sue Twegg's encouragement and
advice in the last, hectic stages, and thank everyone at Monash University who has
s
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supported and encouraged me.
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I also thank those who have taken the time to tell me about their experiences of
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Disney, including Dave Pruiksma and Tim Rice, and the reviewers and fellow
conference delegates who have given me new perspectives on my work along the
way.
On a personal note, I thank my friends and family who took the journey with me,
with special thanks to Jose Rischard, who helped me keep one foot in Europe and
one hand on the French and German lexicons in order to track down all manner of
'beasts'.
But most of all, my thanks to Mum and Papa for helping me 'go the distance'. And
to 'the lion king' who has watched over me from his place among the stars.
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Introduction
You're the top!... You're Mickey Mouse!
Cole Porter
Auf Donald und auf Ronald,
auf Lee Harvey,Oswald,
Goofy for President! La Vie Boheme!
Rent (German translation)
Well, Ali Baba had them forty thieves
Scheherazad-ie had a thousand tales
But master you in luck 'cause up your sleeves
You got a brand of magic never fails
Aladdin
FACING THE MAGIC: THE DISNEY MUSICAL
Throughout Disney, magic occurs. Beasts turn into princes, lion cubs break into
song, fantasies of wealth and success are realised, and ancient Egyptian princesses
stage pop fashion parades. Magical transformations and translations of dreams and
fantasies are realised. Yet Janet Wasko asks:
How is it possible to understand the significance and meaning of this
phenomenon?... It cannot simply be magic, as portrayed in Disney
stories, or as the company would like us to believe. (Understanding,
1)
Wasko, I would argue, misses the point. Magic is central to the significance and
meaning of Disney, popularly known as the Magic Kingdom, and being clear about
what it means and how it is created is fundamental to understanding the Disney
phenomenon. As the Global Disney Audiences Project in which Wasko took part
showed, in a survey of 1252 university students representing 53 countries, magic
was the fifth highest term identified with Disney (88.7%) (Wasko et al 44).
Moreover, those terms that rated even higher than magic, being fun, fantasy,
Mickey had been interpreted in a such a variety of historically
happiness, and good over evil, all have magical associations in the Disney context.
specific ways in a host of politically diverse nations that his identity
lacked any of the cogency required for a coherent ideologically
Disney Studies, the academic field that has emerged from critique of the
charged interpretation that could sustain itself beyond the context
phenomenon, has been dominated by approaches that seem at odds with the nature
within which it occurred. This is not to deny Mickey, or any other
of magic, or pixie dust as it is often referred to in Disney literature. As Wasko
Disney character or film, political significance or importance, but to
observes: "Analysis has featured rhetorical, literary, feminist, and psychoanalytic
suggest that the Disney aesthetic readily challenges any apparently
critiques, stressing social issues, such as race and gender representation"
self-evident
{Understanding 4). In general, these approaches have not dealt in-depth with the
(Animation and America 106-07)
'meaning' bestowed upon it by cultural critics.
forms in which Disney is produced1, but with perceived corporate and ideological
formulas read literally in the pixie dust. In From Mouse to Mermaid, for example,
Wells argues that the Disney aesthetic itself challenges such readings: that, in effect,
editors Elizabeth Bell, Lynda Haas, and Laura Sells write, quoting the title of Jack
Disney not only delivers ideology, but simultaneously conceals it, shifting the
Zipes' essay: ""Breaking the Disney Spell" is a methodological entree that allows
irregularity of a simultaneous existence of the ideological and the ideologically
critics to develop vocabularies for the political in the seemingly apolitical world of
resistant from the field of Disney Studies to Disney itself. Locating the inconsistency
Disney; to intervene in Disney's construction of gender, identity, and culture in the
in Disney has perpetuated a belief that such inconsistency is not consequential of the
seemingly ahistorical world of Disney; and to enable oppositional readings -
critical models applied, but proof of Disney's subtle, but conscious, ideological
readings from the margins of the Disney text" (2-3). Critiques such as those in From
project2.
Mouse to Mermaid offer valuable analysis of Disney, but while they claim to break
the spell, such analysis often actually 'breaks' the texts, usually into smaller,
Yet because of the tendency of Disney Studies to embrace a model of opposition,
coherent examples of ideology or corporate practice, enabling the political
critical work on Disney has remained at an impasse. Wells, for example, determines
vocabulary to be imposed in spite of the constructions that are present. The
"an ambivalent cultural bind" where Disney animation is "at one level capable of
development of deliberate oppositional reading blurs the distinction between
deconstruction and denial of the 'spell', or Disney magic.
2
Eleanor Byrne and Martin McQuillan, for instance, argue: "The fact that a Disney text is so open to
the charge of ideological conservatism (as any child can see) allows it to exercise those very
Paul Wells writing on animation uses the example of the Disney icon, Mickey
conservative values in the face of an imagined external 'leftist' critical agenda. The blatantness of
Mouse, in describing this process of breaking down the Disney texts and its
Disney is what makes it so resistant to the challenge of ideological exposure" (3). There is a
presumption that Disney consciously responds to the ideological 'left' in obtrusively maintaining its
inevitable outcome:
conservative position, yet this argument assumes explicit, purposive ideological negotiation. It is a
troubling assumption, as it fails to establish whether Disney is creating or reflecting the ideological
negotiation occurring in popular culture itself and whether constructions of conservative and leftist
1
The exceptions include critiques of Disney's
concerned with the physical forms of Disney.
-.erne parks and architectural projects, which are
values are necessarily exclusive and clearly defined, much less intentionally determined on the part of
Disney.
complex and substantive representation and the articulation of 'states of
(179). In many cases, the example Disney presents is treated as 'bad', juxtaposed
consciousness'" and "at another, a fixed model of narrativisation, innocuousness and
against heterogeneous qualities ascribed to localised, non-commercial cultures. Once
cliche" (Animation and America 107). Wells attempts to overcome the impasse by
again, critical thinking on Disney is bound up in binary opposition.
suggesting Disney works on these two levels, yet the two levels likewise perpetuate
the division between an audience that apparently relates emotionally and
A substantial critical interest of scholars in Disney Studies, particularly in feminist
simplistically to a pleasurable aesthetic, one that does not "contextualise itself within
theory, has been initially with the treatment of gender roles and the issues arising
modes of assimilation that would hold it to account for its representational and
will be dealt with in the following chapters, notably chapters two and three. Critical
ideological imperatives" (Animation and America 108), and the ideological readings
attention on cultural imperialism and appropriation issues has, however, become
based on representation and text favoured by critics3.
increasingly conspicuous, particularly through academic work including The Global
Disney Audiences Project and as Disney itself has moved into theatrical production
Contributing to this impasse, the two versions of Disney are generally treated within
and thus come under the scrutiny of theatrical criticism, where such issues of
a binary opposition of 'good' and 'bad'. The 'good over evil' terminology of the
intercultural transfer are pursued. Craig Latrell, in writing about the implications of
Global Disney Audiences Project categorises the field of Disney Studies itself,
cultural appropriation in an age of globalisation, argues:
except that 'evil' is prevailing. After all, cultural analysis has largely been shaped by
Marxist criticism and what could be more contrary, it appears, to Marxism than
We tend to think of "intercultural transfer" or "artistic borrowing"
Disney? Complicating the ideological reading of Disney are current positions within
primarily as a one-way phenomenon, something done "by" the West
globalisation debates concerning hegemony and homogeneity. Disney is an
"to" other cultures. Much of the critical rhetoric surrounding this
international conglomerate and Disney 'magic' is produced globally through a
phenomenon has (at least in theatre criticism) an accusatory tone,
commercial posture of dominance. This tends to consolidate a reading of structures
with Western popular culture pictured as a sort of juggernaut, rolling
of power in which Disney represents a model of Western cultural, social, and
over helpless local cultures, taking what it wants and in the process
economic appropriation. Richard Finkelstein, for example, writes: "Because of its
ruining fragile indigenous art forms and homogenizing all culture,
penetration into several converging media markets, Walt Disney Corporation is now
turning the world into a lowbrow combination of Baywatch and
used to exemplify theories, originating with the Frankfurt School, about the
Disney. (44)
increasing power of commercial culture and subsequent impoverishment of citizens"
Even the writers, like Latrell, who argue for a more complex model of intercultural
Jane Feuer, writing on film musical, offers an alternative in dealing with the issue of pleasure and
transfer, position Disney as the negative example. Commenting on Latrell's article,
ideology, arguing: "This most seemingly anti-intellectual of genres thus carries its own 'ideological
Richard Schechner writes in response to his own assertion of a normal "cultural
project'. Musicals not only gave the most intense (because the least intellectualized) pleasure to their
promiscuity" underlying the issue: "Those who will want to attack me will say that I
audience but also supplied a justification for that pleasure" (x). An ideological reading of Disney as
musical might thus focus on the construction of a pleasure-justifying ideology, but this reading still
am indifferent to McDisney and the unfettered operation of the "free market"... I am
runs perilously near to perpetuating the binary opposition of intellectuals and audience, and Disney's
not indifferent to these excesses and distortions" ("Performance" 7). But where
position as ideological manipulator.
Schechner, citing the examples of Western artists of non-Western heritage, asks "Is
Suzan Lori-Parks absolved from restrictions binding Brook?" ("Performance" 6) in
cultural appropriation. Therefore, how better to challenge the existing positions than
offering further complication of the West versus East model, and Latrell himself
through the 'worst case' example, Disney?
writes of the possibility of "something far more interestingly dialogic": "Just as
Western artists, such as directors Peter Sellars, Peter Brook4, Ping Chong, Ariane
David Buckingham's coverage of the United Kingdom in the Global Disney
Mnouchkine, Julie Taymor, and many others take formal and/or narrative elements
Audiences Project located the impasse in choices: "Ultimately, it tends to come
of foreign art forms and recontextualise them in their words, so too non-Western
down to a series of either/or choices: between ideology and pleasure; between reason
artists knowingly and self-consciously reinvent Western influences..." (46); both
and emotion; between powerful media and powerful audiences. Both theoretically
writers actually reference artists, Parks and Taymor, both involved in Disney
and pragmatically, such choices are much too simplistic" (Wasko et al 292). In
productions. This in itself suggests that although Disney is routinely relegated in
referring to the ambivalent response of his own postgraduate students to Disney in
debate as a bad example, it is itself a critical site of the debate, its collaborations
the survey, he writes: "I do wonder whether this is the subject position my teaching
suggesting the kind of complexity in intercultural transfers being argued.
implicitly seeks to produce: equivocal, self-aware, sophisticated - but ultimately
paralyzed" (Wasko et al 293). Paralysis may, I argue, be overcome by rejecting the
By situating Disney on the extremes as homogenised and 'excessive', the examples
binaries presented and recovering an understanding of the complexity in the
it offers of a 'more interestingly dialogic' heterogeneousness have been isolated and
examples Disney presents, seeing, as I will argue, all of Disney's aspects, including
unrecognised. But the presence of these examples in Disney suggests too the need
ideology, as being essentially irrational, non-literal, and in motion. Rather than be
to re-conceive the debate beyond the binary positions that have been perpetuated as
caught in the bind of equivocation, unable to choose between the choices so far
global versus local, West versus East, even corporate versus cultural. The impasse
offered, this analysis concentrates on what informs Disney magic and how these
represented in Disney Studies is a reflection in microcosm of the larger impasse
genres and forms themselves dictate the analytical approach.
currently being challenged in relation to accepted notions of globalisation and
Philip Brophy notes in his discussion of Disney animation: "Typical of Disney's
penchant for the magical, the full narrative effects of the cartoons are only disclosed
4
Brook's production of the Indian epic, Mahabharata, is a classic example in the debate about
by fairly detailed and often lateral analytical approaches which conventional critical
appropriation. Schechner himself has commented on Brook's Mahabharata: "Brook wants to elide
methods ignore" (Cholodenko 74-75). This dissertation takes just such a lateral
difference; he is looking for what unites, universalizes, makes the same. The conflicts in his Euro-
analytical approach in going to the chief source of Disney's magic, to the central
Indic epic are philosophical, personal, familial, and religious - not intercultural. Brook assumes - as
the English who own Shakespeare do - that certain works operate at the "human" rather than cultural
generic form that has propelled Disney to global success and acted as a conduit of its
level" {The Future 17-18). Coincidenlally, director Julie Taymor suggests of Disney's The Lion King:
magic. In accomplishing this aim, it offers a view of magic that deals explicitly with
"It's like the Mahabharata for our culture. These kids have it memorized. And they love it"
its forms of unreality and illusion, without immediately seeking an ideological or
(Schechner, "Julie" 51). The Lion King presents a distinctive, even obvious, case study for the debates
moral rationale, and locates its languages of transformation and translation. The
concerning appropriation and intercultural transfer, yet, by virtue of its Disney authorship, it has been
largely excluded. It is also notable that where Schechner writes of universals and eliding of difference
in a positive vein, in Disney Studies, this orientation and practice is frequently implicated with the
negative connotations of homogeneity.
dissertation thus presents a deconstruction of Disney magic that does not originate in
a denial of its existence and value.
For more than sixty years Disney has been one of the largest, yet least recognised,
Wells distinguishes between animation and musical on the basis of musical being
producers of musicals. Indeed, the musicals have largely remained unrecognised as
'performance', maintaining: "Even Disney features like Beauty and the Beast"
musicals. They are everywhere in the Disney kingdom as cartoons, animated
simply "echo the conventions of a typical musical" and "do so in a spirit of the
features5, stage productions, ice shows, parades, cruise shows, and even theme park
relationship between the sound and the image, rather than in merely the act of
rides. Yet, in the Global Disney Audiences Project, neither 'music' nor 'song' 6 were
recording what is essentially a theatrical performance in live-action cinema"
among those terms rated, while terms such as 'patriotism' and 'physical beauty'
(Animation: Genre 61). I would argue that musical and animation simultaneously
were. The critical literature bears out the analytical 'invisibility' of song and music.
explore the relationship between sound and image through their conventions; the
relationship is equally intrinsic to both genres. The definition of performance as
In his study of screen adaptation, Wells considers the diversity of definitions
orientated towards live mediums discounts its own relationship to animation,
possible for the genre: "Fundamentally, to make an animated film, it is necessary to
particularly through the animated musical.
create the illusion of movement frame-by-frame through a variety of technical
applications" (Animation: Genre 5). He acknowledges in relation to animation that
The adaptation of Disney's animated features to a variety of other mediums argues
uses song: "The place of the 'song' and 'dance' is inherent in the very construction
that the musical form is the transferable, identifying characteristic: it is the musical
of animation" (Animation: Genre 61). Yet in recognising the basic relationship, he
form that carries from animated feature to theme park to ice show to theatrical
argues:
production. The musical ne: <:r occurs in isolation: it is always realised in
conjunction with another genre, whether film, animation, theatre, or figure skating.
In order that some perspective can be maintained, and some model of
In Disney animated features, the musical form is not over-determining, but coexists
differentiation can prevail, it is important that the role of music and
interdependently with animation as the dominant aesthetic. In fact, the musical
choreography, as it is def ned within 'the musical', is not viewed in
contributes to elevating animation from 'cartoon', differentiating an animated
an over-determining way in relation to animation, because it is clear
feature like Beauty and the Beast from a Saturday morning cartoon of Mickey
that it is the integrative nature of song and dance within the aesthetic
Mouse, although this differentiation is problematic in contemporary studies with the
of the animated form which is its dominant credential, and not its
terminology of 'animation' and 'cartoon' still in critical flux.
intrinsic relationship to performance. Once more, the principles of the
animation become privileged over the generic codes and conventions
The subject of this dissertation is the recent 'golden age' of the Disney musical,
it relates to, or engages with. (Animation: Genre 62)
which is especially significant for the transition from animated to stage musical. The
parameters of the study concentrate on this transition beginning with the
revitalisation of Disney animation upon Howard Ashman's employment on The
Little Mermaid and ending with the proposed Matthew Bourne stage adaptation of
s
'Animated feature' is chosen over 'animated film' in the terminology. The use o f feature' indicates
both the difference from live-action film and from other categories of animated film.
6
'Music' is acknowledged, though not pursued, in discussion of the values selected: "Color and
music were often mentioned in relation to Disney" (Phillips in Wasko et al 47).
8
The Little Mermaid1. In 2001, The Little Mermaid was twelve years in release, but
Table 1.1 outlines the musicals and the appendix contains major credits and brief
the first episode of the New York television institution, Saturday Night Live,
synopses. It can be noted from the table that there are only two years within the final
screened post the September 11 terrorist attacks on the city, included a racy parody
decade of the tv/entieth century in which Disney did not release a musical and four
of The Little Mermaid, the musical retaining its topicality even at a key time in
years in which both animated feature and theatrical musicals were released. The
American history8.
volume of production together with Disney's popular appeal point to Disney as the
most prominent, global producer of musicals at the end of the twentieth century.
i able 1.1: The Disney Musicals
Animated Feature Musicals
1989
Theatrical Musicals*
The Little Mermaid
1989
1990
musical. Previous studies of Disney have concentrated on the musicals as animation,
1990
1991
Beauty and the Beast
1991
1992
Aladdin
1992
1993
This dissertation is primarily a recognition of the role and import of the Disney
film, fairy tale, or commodity, only occasionally and briefly acknowledging that
there are songs and dancing, yet I will argue that the singing and dancing has helped
shape Disney success and give form to Disney magic. The Magic Kingdom in fact
1993
1994
The Lion King
1994
1995
Pocahontas
1995
1996
The Hunchback ofNotreDame
1996
1997
Hercules
1997
1998
Mulan
1998
1999
Tarzan
1999
Der Glockner von Notre Dame
2000
The Emperor's New Groove
2000
Aida
hums. Critiques of the musical genre to date have tended to separate the live action
film and stage musical, and barely note the animated, but the medium of the musical
has always been marked by its multidisciplinary approach, making it difficult to
The Lion King
maintain specific definitions.
Rick Altman, on film musicals, writes: "The musical, according to the industry, is a
film with music, that is, with music that emanates from what I will call the diegesis,
* The years quoted for theatrical musicals reference the Broadway premieres,
the fictional world created by the film (as opposed to Hollywood's typical
except in the case of Der Glockner von Notre Dame {The Hunchback
background music, which comes instead out of nowhere)" (The American 12).
ofNotre-
Dame), which has to date been performed exclusively in Berlin.
Altman points out that "there still remains a fundamental poverty in terms of the
criteria listed" (The American 13). Altman ultimately argues a dual-focus narrative,
7
The parameters terminate at 2000 with the animated feature, The Emperor's New Groove, and the
rejecting linear models and basing the genre on the romantic and social juxtaposition
theatrical musical, Aida. After The Emperor's New Groove, the next Disney animated feature
of male and female story lines in which outcomes are obvious, emphasising their
released was Atlantis, which was definitively not a musical. However, throughout the dissertation,
performance rather than content. Altman's n ode! has been challenged, Jane Feuer
reference is made to the 2002 release of Lilo & Stitch and to Disney/Pixar releases including Toy
for example acknowledging Altman's The American Film Musical as "the definitive
Story. Although the latter are not included in the parameters of the study, their musical nature
work on the subject" (xi), but expressing dissatisfaction with "a theory of genre
provides additional contextualisation where appropriate.
8
Disney's own significance as an American icon was illustrated on that September 11, when in the
wake of terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, Disneyland and Disney World were both
evacuated and closed due to the threat to major symbolic sites.
10
based on a classical period framed on either side by experimentation and
deconstruction'1 (xii). Feuer herself argues: "Musicals not only showed you singing
and dancing; they were about singing and dancing, about the nature and importance
11
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of that experience" (x); providing a generic definition that is, in Feuer's terms,
romantic/rogue imagination and its daily battle with a restraining, 'realistic', social
"Hollywood writ large" (ix). In the theatre discipline, Richard Kislan argues the
order" (Altman, Genre 191), intimating a similar process of 'smuggling' whereby
primacy of the nonliteral in reaching a definition: "Musical theatre is total theatre,
the established order of reality is challenged or subverted by alternative states. In
an artistic system that not only encourages the use of techniques beyond the spoken
Disney, the alternative is embedded in its representation of magic, suggesting that in
word for projecting dramatic ideas but makes nonliteral dramatic revelation a
Disney's representation of magic it is possible to recover the less conventional
priority in the creative and interpretative process. Musical theatre is the most
ideological impulses, those that are camouflaged by the more literal ideological
collaborative form in all the arts" (4). Kislan's comments consequently infer the
order presented in the musicals and deconstructed by most critics.
need for a similarly nonliterai criticism, as envisaged by Brophy in his remarks
quoted earlier. Mark Steyn, in a more popular critical vein, but one which finds
The approach to Disney in the following chapters, therefore, does not focus upon the
sympathy with Feuer's show business conclusion, quotes Oscar Levant on the
pursuit of ideological implications that have tended to dominate Disney Studies, but
musical tradition: "a series of catastrophes ending in a floor show" {Broadway 3-4).
upon the genres, and the performative qualities of the works themselves in order to
Contrasting the musical to other theatres, Steyn also notes: "The serious play sets out
establish a deconstruction of magic as form, revealing the basis of a more complex
to address the world's affairs; the popular musical is a haphazard soundtrack to
understanding of the ideological implications they represent. In Altman's work on
them" {Broadway 149). These definitions do not describe a determinative set of
defining the musical genre, he argues:
criteria, but instead acknowledge the inclusive nature of the genre, setting out
criteria based on show, juxtaposition, collaboration, and, to a certain extent, chaos,
If we use a previous definition or delimitation of genre we are not, as
in which song and dance feature.
we might think, reiterating a truth well known to all, a truth good for
all ages, we are choosing a particular paradigm associated with that
The major hypothesis of this dissertation is that through recognising the generic
genre definition. Inasmuch as this activity is a choice, it deserves to
implications of the Disney musicals and their relationship to the concept of magic, it
be analyzed as fully and as self-consciously as any other critical
is possible to overcome the critical impasse that currently dominates Disney Studies,
activity. {The American 9)
recovering complexity. While ostensibly Disney may appear conservatively
homogeneous, the genres that inform Disney musicals themselves perpetuate a
The choice made in this dissertation is not to remain bound to any single genre, but
tradition of subversion. Wells notes animation's legitimisation of "what might be
to actively seek out the points of correlation between genres in the Disney musical,
characterised by what former Monty Python animator Terry Gilliam has called
choosing no one critical paradigm. Many of the theoretical areas dealt with,
'wonderful acts of smuggling' in regard to representing or expressing different
including those of animation, musical, and popular music, are as yet in the early
viewpoints, ideas and emotional states" {Animation and America 5). Gilliam's
stages of developing an established framework of criteria and terminology and, in
description of 'smuggling' strikes a chord with Marina Warner's description of
combining these theoretical areas in a discussion of Disney, it is necessary to work
fairy-tale's "seductive images that are themselves a form of camouflage, making it
with and exploit, rather than disguise, the existing slippage between definitions and
possible to utter harsh truths, to say what you dare" {From the Beast xvii). The
methodologies. This is particularly true of dealing with what are considered popular
musical, moreover, is defined by Sutton as "a genre that concerns itself with the
art forms, where the generic criteria are based less on stylistic indicators than on
12
13
changeable definitions of popularity. The shifts in methodology in the following
The key to the methodological approach is to work from the basis of Disney's own
chapters seek to correspond to the shifting nature of their subject.
diverse generic influences and to use this diversity to understand the wider
complexities represented, thus overcoming the impasse up till now largely directing
The dissertation is divided into three parts. Part One, "Part of Your World: Disney in
Disney Studies, and engaging the actual representations that inform 'Disney magic'
Context", first defines Disney authorship and the global Disney audience,
and realise its language of transformation.
introducing the basis of an analytical approach that recognises the culturally diverse
and complex nature of Disney musicals. Disney is also set in a historical context
through its participation in the development of genres including musical and
animation in order to adjust the focus of criticism from the corporate network to the
generic environment. In progressing this analytical adjustment, the section also
includes an engagement with key areas of debate in Disney Studies and argues the
tension between constructions of Disney's innocence and its childhood orientation.
Part Two, "Magic Formulas", investigates a correlation of methodological
approaches in understanding the narrative structure of Disney musicals. In particular,
the courtship narrative's significance to Disney musical is argued in light of
Altman's dual-focus model of the musical genre, extending the focus from courtship
to a duality of the hero's journey, based largely on Joseph Campbell's work that has
been, through Christopher Vogler, significant to Disney story development. From
narrative 'formulas', the section moves into an examination of the commercial issues
that have dominated Disney Studies, revising the very concept of performance itself
in light of contemporary global trends to examine how commerce has become part
of performance and its implications for criticism. Part Three, "Transpositions",
develops these issues through an examination of how song and dance are performed
and represented in Disney musicals. The development of pop music languages in
animation and their impact on the construction of character are carried through
Disney's significant transition from animation to theatre, where the principles of
animation can be read in Disney's theatrical approach to its material, particularly in
the registration of the actor's body. The theatrical activities of Disney have
consolidated a concern with experimentation and cultural diversity as intimated in
the first chapter, concluding the argument.
14
15
PART ONE:
PART OF YOUR WORLD: DISNEY IN
CONTEXT
CHAPTER ONE:
TOWARDS DEFINING DISNEY MUSICALS
I've got gadgets and gizmos aplenty
I've got whozits and whatzits galore...
But who cares?
No big deal
1 want more
The Little Mermaid
THE STORYTELLER:
THE DISNEY AUTHORSHIP QUESTION
Many of the critiques falling into Disney Studies fail to ask the basic question: who
or what is indicated by * Disney'? The use of the designator, Disney, is a routine, but
little explored, practice and it brings with it cultural baggage. Wasko writes that
"there seems to be an almost universally accepted awareness of what "Disney"
means" ("Challenging" 253), but is she speaking of Walt Disney, the Disney
conglomerate and its affiliates, Classic Disney, Disney the icon, Disney the
Broadway producer, Disney the theme park operator, Disney which makes cartoons
or any of the other many 'kinds' of Disney that exist? There is a generalised,
universal understanding of Disney based on key words like those cited in the Global
16
Disney Audiences Project1, but that understanding is itself in conflict. Mark Phillips
refers specifically to conflicted responses to Disney as corporation and Disney as
Disney as a whole can probably be best understood in terms of its familiar title: the
author: "clearly, although the respondents do not like the business of Disney, this
Magic Kingdom. For it is a kingdom and like any kingdom, it has its traditions and
does not stop them from liking the products produced by the company" (Wasko et al
within its borders are many kinds of buildings;, industries, and peoples. One might
48). While critics, including Wasko, call for greater integration of analytical
even argue that the kingdom has its own god-king. Angela Carter wrote of fairy
methods, 1 believe this conflict argues strongly for at least a partial separation of
tales, just as Disney was entering its resurgence with The Little Mermaid:
corporate Disney and Disney as author. Initially both corporate and creative Disney
were embodied in Walt Disney, which fostered a perception that the two existed as
Ours is a highly individualized culture, with a great faith in the work
one. As Disney has grown, that relationship has become more complex and there is
of art as a unique one-off, and the artist as an original, a godlike and
clear justification for defining a Disney author existing at least partly distinct from
inspired creator of unique one-offs. But fairy tales are not like that,
the general corporation and not only because the accountants and lawyers didn't
nor are their makers. Who first invented meatballs? In what country?
draw singing teapots and Hula dancing meerkats.
Is there a definitive recipe for potato soup? Think in terms of ths
domestic arts. 'This is how I make potato soup.' (Warner, From the
Further confusing the issue is that Disney as a corporation is no longer simply
Beast An)
'Disney'. Disney is the ABC Network, Miramax, Hollywood Records, Buena Vista
and a range of other subsidiaries and partnerships. Many of the more vitriolic
Taking this analogy further, Disney is a restaurant in which many cooks come
critiques of Bisney have pointed to questionable material produced under these
together to create their own unique dishes, dishes that are recognisably Disney, but
labels: material considered unsuitable to Disney's primary status as an entertainer of
which nevertheless evolve from the input of combinations of cooks and kitchen
children. Disney's expanded interests are separately labelled. They come within the
staff, from the sous chef to the dish washer.
scope of the conglomerate, not the specific Disney author2.
But as Carter suggests, our culture is highly individualised and so although Walt
Disney is many years dead, the image that he fostered himself - his signature
" Fun; fantasy; happiness; good over evil; magic; love/romance; imagination; family; bravery;
optimism; physical beauty; technological progress; respect for difference; patriotism; individualism;
continuing to be inscribed on the corporate ramparts as though by his own ghostly
hand - still holds: the image of the 'original, godlike creator'. Wasko argues that "it
work ethic; patriarchy; thriftiness; racism (Wasko et al, 44).
Of particular relevance to this dissertation, Disney is now increasingly striving to separate its
is a mistake to focus attention only on Walt as the creative genius behind the Disney
theatrical productions by placing them under the Hyperion Theatricals label. The Disney name is
phenomenon" {Understanding 120), alluding to the teamwork implicit in Disney
conspicuously absent from Aida: rather than "Disney presents," it is "Hyperion Theatricals present."
authorship, but the focus has persisted. Indeed, Wasko only mentions another
Although the production is not based on a previous Disney animated feature, it is still closely
Disney, Roy, in continuing her discussion of 'the auteur'. While there is
associated with the pjiimation division: Hyperion Theatricals at the time was run by Thomas
Schumacher and Peter Schneider, who were simultaneously running the animation division, and Elton
John and Tim Rice are well-known as the composers of The Lion King. The production itself is
independence from the Disney corporation and author and is, as yet, closely associated with Disney
featured on official Disney websites. Hyperion Theatricals is still in the process of establishing its
animation through the musical.
17
18
acknowledgement that Walt Disney is dead, he often persists in critiques as the
watched with increasing concern and consternation as the artists of the studio were
godlike creator. Those who recognise Team Disney, the management following the
ever increasingly left out of the creative process to the point where their contribution
immediate post-Walt period, as run by network executive, Michael Eisner, identify
was reduced to little more than numbers on a ledger." The changing culture itself
authorship with Eisner, thus retaining the image of the 'original and godlike',
relates to the changing approach to the creative process under the departmental
whether Kansas entrepreneur or network CEO born and raised in New York3. There
heads Thomas Schumacher and Peter Schneider. Schneider says:
is little effort to account for authorship beyond 'the boss'. Disney has been
individualised: it is 'the mouse' rather than 'the mice', although the seven dwarves
When you look at animation, you can break it down into the exact
holding up the portico of one of the animation buildings probably come closest to an
same thing as theater... There's a set department, there's a costume
accurate analogy.
department... it's very much in the mind-set of running a resident
theater company, which Tom and I are very associated with. You
Disney authorship is complex. Many are involved in the process of authorship,
have the resident actors - the animators... and the development
including executives, animators, writers, technicians, and performers. In Michael
process of workshopping and rewriting with in-house writers is very
Eisner's autobiography, he writes:
much like the theater. (Freudenheim)
The creative process itself evolved in a remarkably democratic way.
"Cultural Darwinism" was the phrase Tom Schumacher came up with
The approach compartmentalises the process and not always with each compartment
a
holding equal power. The interpretation of animators as actors suggests the declining
to define it. By that he meant that "good ideas are welcomed, no
influence of the animators. Where once the animators 'defined' the animated feature,
matter who they came from," including the most junior people in the
the theatrical point of view suggests a more collaborative process, and it is not
department. Ideas that didn't measure up soon died on the vine, even
coincidental that the directors and composers of the latter period have received more
if they had been championed by executives at the highest levels,
attention than their forebears.
including me. (180)
The designation of 'Cultural Darwinism' does, however, indicate the intent and the
This is, of course, the corporate line. Not all employees would agree with the
'organic' nature of the process. The musicals are not created by a corporation, but by
description of the creative process as democratic. Former Disney animator Dave
flesh and blood people, evolution taking on average five years for animated features
Pruiksma, who animated a range of major characters including Mrs Potts, published
and two for their theatrical adaptation. There is no linear progression from initial
his farewell letter to the organisation en his personal website, saying: "I have
inspiration to final product. Initial animation for a character can be altered to
incorporate the vocal actor's physical gestures and expressions. Songs are frequently
composed around the time of storyboarding, but then the initial outlines can be
3
The change in identity of the individual metonym for Disney is likewise intriguing in its significant
shift from mid-west, self-made American to New Yorker, from the simple family morality of Walt
Disney to the more worldly morality of Michael Eisner, from the animation studios of California to
Broadway,
19
20
worked on by story analysts indicating areas requiring change4. The back and forth
of this process could become chaotic. Disney's reliance on strong story principles
Maltby's definition of 'inflection' likewise directs attention to the performances
and arcs is partly an outcome of the discipline required to make such 'Darwinism'
which inflect the 'controlling intelligence' of Disney. The performances are
work.
inflected by a multifarious collaboration. The most popular of all Disney musicals,
The Lion King, was authored by a team including among many others a German
The diversity embedded in Disney authorship has never been critically explored.
animator, a gay English pop star, an American children's author, a cricket-mad
One of the few writers to identify Disney features by their directors5 is Marc Miller.
English lyricist, and a South African musician who fled apartheid. Many people
In most cases, indeed, in this dissertation, the features are identified as 'Disney'.
have offered unique contributions to the Disney canon: Robin Williams' frenetic
Unlike live-action features, animated features are customarily identified by the
performance as the Genie in Aladdin, Linda Woolverton's efforts as a female writer
studio rather than the individuals involved in their production. In Richard Maltby's
to offer a more rounded heroine in Beauty and the Beast, directing duo Musker and
work on Hollywood film, he notes "the anomaly within auteurist criticism by which
Clements' riotous style distinguishing features like Aladdin and Hercules from
'classic' Disney, as a few examples. People who have written scores for Disney
the men who in practice had most influence over the films made in Hollywood - the
iva
studio heads - have hardly been examined as critical entities" (9). In arguing his
include Tim Rice, Elton John, Sting, Stephen Schwartz, Lebo M, Hans Zimmer.
case for privileging the producer/studio6, Maltby writes that "it would be more
People who have voiced characters include Angela Lansbury, Eartha Kitt, John
accurate to propose that the controlling intelligence behind the film was its
Goodman, Demi Moore, Mel Gibson, Sir Nigel Hawthorne, Brian Blessed. People
producer's, inflected by the performances of writer, director... The notion of
who have sung the songs include Phil Collins, Boyzone, Shania Twain, Nathan
inflection provides a less rigid means of establishing the relative weighting of
Lane, Tom Jones, Ricky Martin, and Christina Aguilera. Julie Taymor and Robert
authority for both thematic and visual motifs within the production system" (9).
Falls are two respected theatre professionals who have directed Disney's Broadway
Conversely, in animation, criticism has most often weighted authority with the
musicals. Animators half a world apart in Paris and Anaheim have worked
studio, almost all work on animated feature identifying the key studios, including the
simultaneously on a feature, while theatrical productions of Beauty and the Beast
dominate studios of Disney, Warner Bros., Dreamworks, and Pixar, thus enabling
have been produced in countries as diverse as Japan and Spain.
the assumption of a coherent Disney aesthetic rather than, for example, a Musker
This all suggests a protean authorship, occurring simultaneously in different
and Clements aesthetic, wherein features are identified by their directors.
disciplines and geographies. There is movement and metamorphosis as the material
This process is particularly graphic in the evolution of The Emperor's New Groove from The
passes between authors, creating permutations in the creative process. The process
Empire of the Sun. Among changes that occurred during the animation process, significant were the
behind Hercules, for example, is described by Rebello and Healey as "a chaotic,
cuts to song. Sting's original score for the feature, including a love duet for the, by the time of
truly bizarre, three-ring circus" (24). Such permutations encourage a lateral
release, absent romantic subplot, were consequently released on CD.
approach. Perhaps the best example for the value of lateral thinking in Disney
4
5
Further complicating Disney authorship is that whereas it is more usual in film and even in theatre
analysis is that of Sebastian the red, singing crab in The Little Mermaid. Sebastian is
production to find single directors, in animation, there are often multiple directors.
6
The two terms are used interchangeably, although there are, of course, differences; but in the main
we are dealing with producers who represent the studios in human form.
21
15
I
U
voiced by Samuel E. Wright, a black actor who would go on to originate the role of
Mufasa on stage. Scholars like Eleanor Byrne and Martin McQuillan interpret
22
Sebastian's redness as "the classic Disney formula for racial representations",
THE GLOBAL VILLAGE:
namely "definitely tiny" and "light relief (104-105). In this vein, they perceive the
THE GLOBAL DISNEY AUDIENCES PROJECT &
'single' Disney author at work and interpret the text in terms of what that author is
OTHER AUDIENCE RECEPTION ANALYSIS
perceived to have 'always' produced. Sebastian, however, was originated a^; an
English crab called Cecil, coloured green in some early artwork, and it was Ashman
as lyricist who suggested he become Trinidadian so the composers could play with
If Disney authorship is diverse, the audience is even more so. Disney operates
I
virtually on a global scale, although this must be qualified by the awareness of
Calypso rhythms (Kurtti 171). His subsequent ethnicity led to the casting of Samuel
globalisation as a largely Western phenomenon, with many countries having little
E. Wright, although he himself is not Trinidadian: "Two of my college roommates
were from Trinidad, and I knew the accent because we used to sit around pretending
like we were all from the islands" (Sanz, "Those"). The animators, furthermore,
exposure to Disney texts and products. Nevertheless, if the storytellers of old told
1
3
worked many of the actor's expressions into Sebastian's appearance, leading to
Wright's comment: "They didn't tell me he was going to look like me, too!" (Sanz,
The term 'audience' is not always favoured in Disney Studies. Wasko writes:
'1
"Those"). Sebastian signifies the black heritage of the pop score. As for the colour
While the term "audience" will be used in this discussion, it is
coding, Byrne and McQuillan reading his redness as an attempt to make his
probably more appropriate to refer to "consumers." It is almost
blackness invisible (105), he in fact matches the colour of white mermaid Ariel's
always the case that individuals experience Disney via the
hair, in effect signifying her musical 'roots'. In fact, what emerges from analysis of
Sebastian is a commentary on popular music's black rhythms, which inform his
consumption process, whether they are being bought and sold as
t
audiences for advertising, or purchasing Disney products/services.
animation. Sebastian is black not because he is tiny or light relief: he is black
because of the style of music written by Ashman and Menken.
their tales in the village, Disney tells its tales in the global village.
(Understanding \ 85)
1
In analysing certain aspects of the Disney audience, there are grounds for the label
Addressing authorship also points to the ways in which Disney musicals come
of 'consumer', but this designation becomes unnecessarily problematic in any
together and to the multiplicity of approaches that have bearing on the final
performance. The authorship of Disney contains many divergent ideologies and
ethnic and gender identities. How these ultimately combine in the musicals may not
be as straight forward as the designator 'Disney' traditionally suggests.
;1
N
i
discussion of the audience of musicals, for what circumstances make seeing a
Disney animated feature or stage musical different to seeing any other film or stage
production produced? Indeed, Elam identifies the act of purchasing a ticket as part of
the semiotics of theatre and drama itself (95-96), suggesting that commercial
exchange, at least, need not destabilise the definition of audience. The choice of
In this dissertation, the designator 'Disney' will be used, but it will be employed as
an indicator of the diverse authorship it covers. The dissertation will, I hope, offer a
unique perspective on the kinds of creative contribution that combine to perpetuate
'Disney'.
terminology in application to Disney productions prompts the possibility of
prejudicial prioritising of creative and commercial decisions in the Disney Studios,
and culpably different emphases in Disney in comparison with other production
houses.
23
24
Within this dissertation, there is no attempt to undertake a comprehensive approach
The failure of these students to understand media messages through
to audience reception. The results could only be limited and uncertain. The two most
the more complex language of the ritual paradigm by no means
recently published attempts at audience reception analysis, Naomi Rockier's and that
reflects a lack of intelligence or creativity on their part. Although
of the Global Disney Audiences Project, both published in 2001, evince the
many of the students found the questions about gender, class, and
impracticality and biases that ciin emerge from a limited approach, and these two
race in The Lion King strange, they put a good deal of thought and
works follow others mainly in media and communications, including the studies of
insight into their answers. The problem is not with tiie students. It is
Michael Real (1977) and Jill May (1981), reflecting similar limitations: namely, the
with the education system. These U.S. college students lacked the
studies ail primarily involve university students. Other attempts utilise groups so
sophisticated skills needed to analyze the ideological, ritualistic role
small as to be negligible, for instance, the forty women interviewed by Kay Stone
the media play within a culture. (20)
(1975)7.
Yet Rockier does not question the editorial's stance: are the students simply
Rockler's article, "Messages between the Lions: The Dominance of the
rejecting Newberger's particular analysis of the ideological and ritual implications of
Transmission Paradigm in Student Interpretations of The Lion King", is based on a
The Lion King? It is possible that the students do not accept Newberger's assertion
study in which fifty-eight students at an American university in the mid-West were
that U.S. welfare cuts are represented, not, as Rockier argues, because they do "not
shown the animated feature followed by an editorial by psychologist Carolyn
literally exist in The Lion King" (14), but because they do not agree with the
Newberger, who argued, in particular, the ostracism of the hyenas on the basis of
outcomes of Newberger's analysis. More interesting implications deriving from
race and gender as a symbol of America's hostility to the poor and different. The
ideological and ritual analysis in the students' comments were not explored, but will
students were then placed in focus groups of three to seven to discuss the editorial
be referenced later in this dissertation.
and fill out a questionnaire. The intent w.::s "to investigate how students would react
when asked critical questions about a popular culture text... the purpose of this
The limitation of the sample to university students is acknowledged and is
study was not to generalize the result to a larger population" (9). Although the
perpetuated in the Global Disney Audiences Project. The research is based on the
analysis is geared towards communications inquiry rather than being specifically a
sampling frame consisting of undergraduate university students, although further
critique of Disney, it does privilege an analysis that finds Disney representations
work carried out engaged other groups. The project allows that "this frame does not
negative.
lend itself to any claims of statistical representativeness, nor will it be possible to
generalize the results to the populace at large" (Phillips in Wasko et al 39).
Rockler's conclusion, based on the way in which most students disagreed with
Undergraduate students were chosen both for practical considerations in that the
Newberger's position, was:
sample group was the most readily available, and because: "University students are
uniquely situated to understand and comment on Disney, having come of age during
7
These studies are referenced in Wasko et al, Dazzled by Disney? (14-15), as background to the
the greatest global expansion in the company's history" (Phillips in Wasko et al 39).
Yet, Phillips acknowledges a potential drawback in the sample: "18- to 22-year-olds
Global Disney Audiences Project.
25
26
may try and distance themselves from images and products associated with
The limitations of the approach are marked, yet, having acknowledged the
childhood" (Wasko et al 47). The consequent proposition that "these expressions are
limitations of the study, the findings nevertheless offer a guide to some of the key
belied by both respondents' ratings of their liking of Disney and other terms that
complications in the Disney debate, for they do reinforce and evaluate the debate's
they simultaneously apply to Disney" (Phillips in Wasko et al 47) is assumptive,
ambiguity and reflect the source of the equivocalism that has dominated Disney
lacking immediate analysis of the implications of the students' particular
Studies.
appreciation of Disney overcoming the desire to maintain distance from childhood
associations.
IT'S A SMALL WORLD:
STORYTELLING IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE
Ambiguity is invested in the questionnaire itself. The section frequently referenced
is a compiled list of 'values': "For each term respondents were asked to indicate
Instead of attempting to deal with an unwieldy concept of audience and a task that
whether they thought Disney promoted that concept, discouraged it, or whether they
would overwhelm the analytical intent, this dissertation will reverse the mirror.
felt the item did not apply to Disney" (Phillips in Wasko et al 34). The list includes
Rather than analyse the audience, my approach is to analyse how Disney performs to
'bravery', 'capitalism', 'fantasy', 'good over evil', 'magic', terms which are
its audience. Disney has a sophisticated apparatus by which it studies its global
regularly associated with Disney, but which are capable of diverse interpretation and
audience. Disney does not share this information, but Disney's response to that
in many cases are initially associated with the genres and institutions in which
information is discernible and can be approximated. Maltby argues:
Disney is produced, complicating the identification of such associations. The
question, "Is Disney uniquely American", also creates ambiguity. Phillips, for
The development of Hollywood's fictional conventions was a gradual
example, notes the negative view of Disney as American, derived from a negative
process, conducted progressively in film after film, and took the form
view of America, held by a Mexican respondent who said Disney "promotes North
of an economic dialogue between filmmakers and audience at the
American culture with all the consumerism, individualism and racism that they can",
box-office. Innovations in form or content were negotiated by their
but who also "rated his current feeling toward Disney as 'strongly like' (a 1 on the
financial success or lack of it; a crude mechanism of consultation, no
seven-point scale)" (Wasko et al 51). The final chapter acknowledges the ambiguity,
A
"Dazzled by Disney? Ambiguity in Ubiquity", yet reinforces the critical stance that
ii
doubt, but a mechanism nevertheless. (25)
such ambiguity is fostered by Disney itself, with Disney's pervasiveness
Maltby himself acknowledges that he is "making certain assumptions about the
contradicting any resistance: "one might argue that submersion in Disney's symbolic
legitimacy of capitalist procedures that many Marxist critics would dispute" (25).
universe as a child, and incorporation of that symbolic universe into many people's
ri
Yet, if we accept Disney as commercial and as part of Hollywood's structure, we
life cycle, effectively teaches people what Disney ought to mean, regardless of
must likewise accept its vulnerability at the box office and its negotiation of
people's acceptance of or resistance to Disney's message" (Wasko and Meehan in
innovation by success with the paying audience.
Wasko et al 334).
27
28
The audience is itself global, which adds to the complications of analysing Disney.
E. Winn reference this particularly in response to the debate on Aladdin's
Kirsten Drotner's work with the Global Disney Audiences Project reached a
representation of Islam: "The factors affecting Aladdin's distribution and exhibition
conclusion that in part noted:
in the nations of Southeast Asia, and particularly in Malaysia, form an intricate and
interesting web. Although Islam is a very powerful force in this part of the world, it
Scholars of cultural imperialism and globalization, speaking in terms
has close rivals in the love of money and the love of Disney animation (two loves
of discursive dichotomies (global versus national or local), often infer
the Muslim world shares with the Christian, Buddhist and atheist worlds)." In the
distinctions of reception from differences of production: transnational
case of Malaysia, in particular, they note: "in most respects it is an animated version
or global forms of production are seen as unified forces enhancing
of the typical Malay movie." The feature's story and style actually reflect Malaysian
homogeneous forms of reception, while national or local forms of
film tastes.
production are seen as more heterogeneous in nature and hence
advancing more diverse forms of reception. Inferences such as these
Table 1.1: National Sources of Disney Musicals
are based on tacit assumptions, and little empirical evidence, of the
The Little Mermaid
Danish
audiences as duped; assumptions whose juvenile cousin is the
French - Disney predominantly utilised
the French versions of the tale
innocent and defenseless child. (115)
Aladdin
Arabian - it is also possible that the tale
is a hybrid, added by later English
It may be that Disney's actual response to its global audience, who may not
translators of The Thousand and One
necessarily be 'duped'
Nights
into accepting homogeneity, implies the evolving
heterogeneous Disney musicals.
The Lion King
Original - set in Africa
Pocahontas
Native American/American
The Hunchback ofNotre-Dame
French
Hercules
Greek
Mulan
Chinese
Haas, and Sells refer to as Disney's metonymic relationship to America: "If Disney
Tarzan
English
film as metonym for America troubles both pleasure and critique, then a converse
Original - set in South America
construction is equally troublesome: Disney as monolith. A monolithic Disney - a
Aida
Egyptian
The vast majority of critiques in Disney Studies are based on American releases of
features and theatrical productions and, thus, not surprisingly, privilege what Bell,
master trope for all the symbolic meanings of late-capitalist society - loads Disney
with the dominant cultural myths of U.S. ideology" (4-5). Yet, if this is indeed the
In writing the Danish segment of the Global Disney Audiences Project, Drotner
case, the metonymic - or monolithic - relationship is complicated, for how else does
comments: "As regards culture, our analyses support the acknowledgement that
one account for the performance of Disney songs alongside Arab nationalistic songs
there exists no neat dichotomy between national and international or global culture:
at a charity concert in Jordan in 2002, "In the name of music - voices sing for
at least parts of Disney lore are very much incorporated as aspects of the national
Palestine" (Elias)? While not denying the metonymic relationship, it is also possible
to argue that there is a greater, global complexity at work. Timothy R. White and J.
f
I
media culture" (Wasko et al 114). Although Disney is American, it is likewise
global, and the lines between Disnsy as American and global are blurred and further
•J
29
ti
30
complicated by the reception of Disney within non-American cultures. This is
American accents tend to dominate in English language releases- Pictorially,
particularly true of the musicals, which themselves reflect a variety of national
however, Beauty and the Beast, for example, is influenced by German expressionism
sources, as shown in Table 1.1.
(Allan 254). While the feature was in development, furthermore, Don Hahn took
artists "to the Loire valley to soak up the atmosphere of French countrysides and
Indigenous and other sources are inflected through the musicals: Hercules, while
chateaux. They returned with videotape, still photographs, sketches, and warm
maintaining an aesthetic strongly influenced by ancient Grecian pottery and
memories of elegant vintage wines" (Thomas ...Beauty and the Beast 144). The
architecture, also has an African-American girl group as the Muses and makes
visual 'look' was inspired largely by Europe. The English language releases
references to American marketing practices. Reception of such productions becomes
nevertheless feature American voices representing American 'equivalents' of the
problematic as Sophia Kaitatzi-Whitlock and George Terzis note of the release of
European regions: New England for England, for example. In most English language
Hercules at the time of their work on the Global Disney Audiences Project in
releases of the features, characters have American accents: French Esmeralda has
Greece: "none of the respondents said that they would go to see the Disney version
American actress, Demi Moore's voice, Chinese Mulan has American actress Ming-
of Hercules, because it would be 'a boring distortion of the Greek mythology.'
Na Wen's voice8. It has really only been in Tarzan that English characters have been
However, they did not mind, and even appreciated, the 'distortion' of French,
voiced by English actors9.
Danish, and English literature" (Wasko et al 153). Distortions effected by the
transfers between national and international performances are themselves complex
In foreign language releases, the voices are local and reflect the peculiarities of the
beyond the metonymic relationship to America, hence Greek audiences can
language being dubbed. In particular, there is emphasis on finding a generic accent,
appreciate Danish literature disseminated through an American author, while
such as the American accent most often employed in English language releases: the
rejecting Greek myth disseminated through the same author.
accent familiar from American film and television as disseminated through English
language channels. In providing the singing voice of Shang for the French release of
In the Danish analysis, Drotner notes: "Disney products are what may be termed
Mulan, Patrick Fiori, for example, explains his inability to perform the spoken
'textually unmarked' by their origins: Disney comics are translated like other
dialogue: "Doubler le personnage du capitaine Shang, un chinois avec un accent
imported print media, and Disney cartoons are dubbed, unlike most other visual
meridional, ca ne collait pas vraimenf ("Dubbing the character of Captain Shang, a
products... Translation and dubbing serve to enhance the 'naturalization' of Disney
Chinese with a Southern [French] accent, that wasn't really working") (Moreau). In
products" (Wasko et al 115). Translation and dubbing are necessary, particularly in
foreign language versions of the musicals, the broader accents are avoided as they
children's media where subtitling is impractical. Wiih the American aural indicators
are in English language versions, lessening both distraction from the character's
removed, it is often the case that in visual terms, the features do not necessarily
origins - Meg's streetwise demeanour explains her New York accent, but rarely do
'look' American. Robin Allan has written extensively on the European influence on
Disney's graphic style, particularly in the animated features, which combined with
8
subject matter, visually points the features away from America.
9
Ming-Na Wen was born on Macau and moved to America when she was four.
In The Lion King, there is another conspicuous use of English accents, but in this case, the
characters are not defined as English, although the Shakespearean overtones of the narrative perhaps
have influenced the casting and implications of colonialism are present.
31
32
broad regional accents suit characters ostensibly originating from foreign lands -
Wells gives the example of the 'racist' representations of characters like Baloo and
and problems with communicability across regions. Critical attention has tended to
King Louie in The Jungle Book, characters voiced by white actors (Animation and
argue that the American accents of heroes and heroines contribute to Disney's
America 116). Yet, as Disney increasingly uses well-known voices11, the voice
perpetuation and promulgation of American values10, but in non-English language
necessarily becomes more meaningful to audiences. As Elam writes: "A well-known
countries, the characters do not, in fact, have American accents.
actor will bring to his performance... an 'intertextual' history... not infrequently the
'4
primary 'meaning' of a given representation for its audience is the very presence of a
There are also further implications particularly in terms of Disney's representation
favourite performer" (86-87). The presence of stars like Demi Moore and Matthew
of white American values. Wells writes: "The value and importance of 'sound' and
Broderick has enabled these 'primary meanings' to be read not only by the audience,
'voice' in animation cannot be underestimated, and in recent years have been highly
but by critics; however there should be caution in analysing their significance,
significant in the ideological readings of Disney films" (Animation and America
116). He notes the case, especially, of The Lion King, where Whoopi Goldberg's
a
'whiteness' than his intertextual history of playing mischievous, but nice,
performance of one of the hyenas transferred her ethnicity into a character that has
A
no human ethnic codes (Animation and America 116). In fact, Vogler, one of the
til
story consultants on the feature, notes that the depiction of certain ethnic groups in
particularly in terms of ethnicity. In the case of Broderick, for example, it is less his
•ii
v,'
adolescents that informs his performance of Simba.
As Rockler's study indicates, the meanings derived are not always straight forward.
animating a human "may prevent audience members with different features from
Rockier did not follow-up one of the more interesting points raised in student
fully identifying with the character. Much of this limitation is swept away with the
responses to The Lion King and the editorial, for while the hyenas Newberger
use of animals, where human concerns about race and genetics are less relevant"
identifies as representing America's urban black population are recognisably voiced
(267). In the absence of visual clues to ethnicity, there should be caution in re-
by non-white actors, so too is Mufasa, the lion king, as voiced by James Earl Jones.
asserting the relevance of race through then relying on aural clues, as Wells argues:
1-*
I
One respondent, Yolanda, "expressed frustration with the stereotype that African
Americans who sound educated, like James Earl Jones, sound "White"" (14). Babak
to overdetermine the meaning of a character through vocal casting is
Elahi in fact argues this: "since it is only Jones's voice, one noted for its deep bass
to both ignore the primacy of the animation, and interprets the
and impeccably articulated pronunciation, and not his face that is part of the film,
character through the 'known' performance persona of the 'stars'
and since the voice of the heir is rendered by Matthew Broderick, it is clear that
who may be cast in those roles. This immediately neglects those not
some kind of racial ideology is at work here" (129), inferring that Jones's articulate
taken into account... (Animation and America 116)
pronunciation marks him as non-black. Most of Rockler's respondents in fact readily
recognised James Earl Jones' ethnicity: the implication is perhaps not that he is read
as 'white', but that analysis is generally not giving equal weight to Mufasa's
11
For example, Erin Addison argues that Aladdin "and Jasmine are the only human beings with
The first 'star' to perform a voice role in Disney was Robin Williams as Genie. His performance
American accents" (9), but her conclusion that the pair represent America, albeit based on further
was in considerable part ad-libbed and his casting deliberately relied on his comic talent and
indicators, would differ substantially if drawn from a Danish or Greek dubbed version of the feature.
reputation. The animation of Genie was thus largely coordinated to Williams' performance.
10
33
34
blackness as to the hyenas', as his was positive and the hyenas' negative.
The balance between popular taste and democratic representation
Furthermore, although critics like Elahi likewise read the "bright golden - blond -
poses one of the most urgent questions facing all the narrative arts,
color" of the lions as racial (129), the lion species does have brown-yellow coats
performance and broadcasting as well as literature, for adults and
with blonde, brown or black manes, as depicted in the animation. Wright, who
children alike, but it seems a simple admission of defeat to weep and
originated Mufasa on stage, says: "I was proud of the fact that this animal, which
gnash one's teeth at the thought of EuroDisney... (From the Beast
usually is portrayed as someone blonde because of the mane and that whole thing,
414)
was conceived as something very, very African" (Bennett Kinnon 122j. In Rockler's
study, a white African student further noted that she associated the lions with black
Rather than allow the perception of Disney as a homogenising force to effectively
Africans and, in fact, the hyenas with white, as in Africa, the white population is in
homogenise criticism, it seems more constructive to embrace the ambiguities present
the minority (18-19). The alternative reading of racial representation is very viable,
as descriptive of potentially heterogeneous interaction within the global village.
based on a more positive view of articulate African American cultural signifiers.
THE UTOPIAN INFLUENCE ON THE DISNEY MUSICAL:
Ethnic representation is even more complex than national in understanding Disney's
THE UNREAL PURSUIT OF A HAPPY ENDING
global implications. The South African segment of the Global Disney Audiences
Project illustrates this particularly well, Simon Burton writing: "Colored and White
It is too simple to assume that all creative choices in Disney are determined solely
students are strongly in agreement with the idea that Disney is uniquely American
by audience and commercial factors. Where critics cite 'fantasy' and 'innocence',
(78 percent and 72 percent respectively), whereas only 35 percent of Africans and 38
they cite values that have always been associated with the generic influences on
percent of Indians agree" (Wasko et al 263). The differing positions argue that there
Disney's musicals. It is not only that Disney perpetuates, markets, or identifies itself
is less homogenisation in Disney's representation of America, at least as perceived
with these values, but that these values are fundamental to Disney's chosen art form.
by the global audience and particularly in relation to ethnicity, than critics have
The generic influences on Disney musicals are likewise marked by a Utopian spirit,
acknowledged.
which explains the positivism fostered by Disney authorship, a positivism that is
often misread as superficial, but which is actually fundamental.
It is important in approaching Disney to take into account that it is partly rooted in
fairy tale and also reflects the transnational nature of that genre. Marina Warner
Two of Disney's major generic aspects are musical and animation, both being areas
writes of fairy tale: "But there are few really compelling ones that do not turn out to
of comparatively recent scholarship, but already a proposition emerges from
be wearing seven-league boots. The possibility of holding a storehouse of narrative
academic discussion of the genres: the governing principle that the v/orlds described
in common could act to enhance our reciprocal relations, to communicate across
in these genres are not real. Terms like magic, artifice, plasticity, hyper-reality,
spaces and barricades of national self-interest and pride" (From the Beast 414). Her
presentationalism, and illusion inform descriptions. Scholars at work defining the
argument extends even to Disney:
genres are yet working with an evolving critical language, the key terms and
definitions determined ad hoc as individuals from various disciplines write. Implicit
35
36
in this critical language as it is formulated is the need to ascertain the traffic between
Animation likewise is associated with unreality and ambiguity. By the very nature of
the real and the unreal. In essence, the question is not about a form, but about the
being drawn, animation can not be real, so even in its attempts to be realistic, it can
manifestation of form. The catch in the scholarly assessment of the genres is that
only create illusion. Wells attempts to use "the relativity of 'realism' within the
writers are dealing with genres which move into and through the unreal, forms
context of animation" {Understanding 25) as an analytical tool, but although Disney
unconstrained and universal in nature.
m
musicals retain an interest in realism, their concern is primarily in realisation, in
making the images believable, rather than real. In discussing Tarzan, for example,
The musicai has always been associated with unreality: the genre is foremost
lead animator Glen Keane talks of the difficulty of maintaining the realism of
juxtaposed against the perception that people don't break into song in everyday life.
Tarzan's human musculature and the careful study of human anatomy that went into
The technical and mechanical foundation of the musical works towards the
producing it, but likewise discusses how only animation could achieve the
believability of a magical reflex to sing and dance. Altman speaks to the paradox of
realisation of Tarzan, because no human could realistically move like him (Cercel).
the musicai: "namely that a highly artificial, technically and artistically controlled
Wells, in establishing the relativity of realism, refers to the realism of Disney as
decor and machinery can be the manifestation of wholly spontaneous, intimate
'hyperreality', quoting Umberto Eco's use of the term, but Eco is speaking of
movements, or the visualization of submerged, hardly conscious aspirations" {Genre
Disneyland and says "Disneyland makes it clear that within its magic enclosure it is
16-17). Musicals work between the dimensions of artifice and the unconscious: two
fantasy that is absolutely reproduced" (43). Disney is less about realism than
elements of the everyday unreal working to overcome the tensions of representations
realisation of fantasy. That which seems realistic more often than not is clear in
and constructions of everyday reality. Richard Kislan says: "Artifice, no doubt, but
realising what is not real.
splendid artifice, capable of accumulating a power of performance characteristically
grand, enveloping, and total" (4). Since artifice is intrinsically unreal, it is capable of
Animation theory has appropriated philosophy to explain the interaction of real and
carrying the universal and unconscious codes unable to be carried in the corporeal.
unreal in animation: the 'meaning of life' applied to 'the illusion of life'. 'The
Artifice enables a believable alternative to everyday reality. In reference specifically
illusion of life' was a phrase coined by Walt Disney himself to describe animation
to Minnelli film musicals, Altman describes: "just beneath the surface of the plots, is
and has common currency in animation literature. Alan Cholodenko proposes "that
the working of energy itself, as the ever-changing, fascinating movement of a basic
animation film, film animation and the animatic apparatus offer us this animating
impulse in its encounter with, or victory over, a given reality" {Genre 15). The
gift of the illusion of life" (21), and builds on the philosophic nature of this proposal:
movement of this impulse is central to much criticism of the musical in general.
"that animation film, film animation and the animatic apparatus may be thought to
Martin Sutton likewise defines the patterns of meaning in the musical to come to the
have reanimated the world in/ as simulation and that the thinking of animation
conclusion that within the musical there is a battle between conflicting impulses:
necessitates therefore the thinking at the same time of not only representation but
"This battle grows out of a tension between realistic plot and spectacle/fantasy
simulation, not only production but seduction (Jean Baudrillard), not only the
number" (Altman, Genre 191). The engagement between what is real and unreal is
subject and its strategies but the object and its strategies (Baudrillard), not only
ambiguous. Even the fantasy number is real at some level, for example insofar as it
presence but differance (Derrida), not only 'beginnings' but 'endings'" (21).
is a 'real' expression of the unconscious or insofar as it is a 'real' performance.
Cholodenko's book is a collection of essays on animation and the scholars involved
"instead of taking the idea of animation as a given... endeavour to think what it
37
38
might be, including how the author and genre might be thought in relation to
other genres including fables (stories composed to teach a lesson usually through
animation and not only in the classic mode of the author as animator miming the
animal characters) and folk tales (stories composed and told among a common
Great Animator - God - but through complex models of the animatic, the mobile,
people), these genres of storytelling all share a common interest in examining the
metamorphosis, metaphor, metastasis, etc., the very thinking of thought itself - its
real world through an alternative, magical universe or world. Italo Calvino said:
movement, its life - caught up in the animatic process/apparatus" (24). Conversely,
this leads to the conclusion that the movement into and through the unreal acts
I am accustomed to consider literature a search for knowledge. In
according to life itself: life's patterns, rhythms and motions caught up in realisation
order to move onto existential ground, I have to think of literature as
of the unreal.
extended to anthropology and ethnology and mythology. Faced with
the precarious existence of tribal life - drought, sickness, evil
Other critical approaches can likewise yield a response that leans toward the divine
influences - the shaman responded by ridding his body of weight and
awareness of life. Wells introduces Art & Animation, arguing:
flying to another world, another level of perception, where he could
find the strength to change the face of reality. (Warner, From the
Beast 413-414)
Animation effortlessly collapses old certainties and assumptions. As
Terry Gilliam suggests in this issue, ' y ° u g e t to be an impish god'.
That sense of power and control allied with the utterly mischievous
Existentially, is the Disney musical another breed of vision quest? The theme of
seems to inform even the most earnest of animated subjects. The re-
questing is essential to much fairy tale and myth. Campbell argues: "It is the
invention of the world is no small project but it is the one embarked
business of mythology proper, and of the fairy tale, to reveal the specific dangers
upon by all animators. (3)
and techniques of the dark interior way from tragedy to comedy. Hence the incidents
are fantastic and "unreal": they represent psychological, not physical, triumphs"
This idea of 'playing god' accounts in part for the signified omnipresence of Walt
(29). Naomi Conn Liebler also argues a congress between tragedy and comedy
Disney, even beyond the man's death: his immortality is a consequence of the terms
within drama, but with the alternate tragic end addressing psychological 'horrors':
of animation itself.
"Comic ripple intensifies to a tragic rupture whose resolution, unlike comedy's,
moves beyond the bounds of human redress and becomes an irrational and
Myth and fairy tale, which inform much of the Disney musical narrative have
sometimes apocalyptic "promis'd end/ Or image of that horror (King Lear V.iii)""
languages which rely on a magical inflection of life. Joseph Campbell writes: "It
(7). Cholodenko's perspective on animation further harmonises with these areas of
would not be too much to say that myth is the secret opening through which the
thought, drawing on the life cycle and the psychological implications of movement,
inexhaustible energies of the cosmos pour into human cultural manifestation" (3).
or journey, through time:
J.R.R. Tolkien describes faiiy tale as being "about the overtures [sic] of men in the
Perilous Realm or upon its shadowy marches" (9-10). Although definitive
animation cannot be thought without thinking loss, disappearance and
distinctions exist between myth (as a story describing a facet of the nature of the
death, that one cannot think the endowing with life without thinking
world and humanity), fairy tale (as a story that involves magical transformation), and
the other side of the life cycle - the transformation from the animate
39
40
i
into the inanimate - at the same time, cannot think endowing with
Disney musicals themselves have always been identified as having a moral code. Its
motion without thinking the other side of the cycle of movement - of
moral nature, however, is already to be found in musicals, animation, and fairy tale
metastasis, deceleration, inertia, suspended animation, etc. - at the
through the ability to change form in a life-affirming momentum. Kislan, in fact,
same time, and cannot think the life cycle without thinking the
says: "Musical theater is moral art in that it is life-affirming in content and process"
movement cycle at the same time. (21)
(5). By becoming z/wreal, Disney musicals actually shake off the restrictions of
reality to explore Utopian visions - and the counterpoint apocalyptic visions - and
Part of the language of the Disney musical incorporates as inherent the idea of
thus it is these visions, not the representations of reality, that inform them.
journeying, of cyclic motion, of questing, and of death. The illusion of life
necessarily works in cyclic balance to the illusion of death. "It's the circle of life and
it moves us all through despair and hope" as The Lion King's shaman, Rafiki,
TWENTIETH-CENTURY HISTORIES:
NEW FORMS
confirms.
On a practical, technical level, Disney has exploited the confluence of these genres,
Throughout these genres, the languages are essentially instilled with life-affirming,
virtually Utopian, ethics, leading us closer to an inherent morality of the Disney
musical's language. Wells quotes Sergei Eisenstein12, speaking specifically on
Disney animation, "The freedom of expression sustained in animation was
essentially a Utopian language, appealing because of the 'rejection of once-andforever allotted form, freedom from ossification, the ability to dynamically assume
any form'" (Understanding 21). Eisenstein identifies the very lack of form in
animation as the key to its language, as indeed, is true of the other genres discussed.
taking advantage of the new forms that emerged at the beginning of Disney history,
when Walt Disney first began to make an impact in the 1920s, and that have been
evolving ever since. The 1920s, particularly in America, were significant artistically.
From the era emerged many of the recognisable forms of animation, film, popular
music and the musical that came to dominate the century. Disney took the old art
forms and merged them with these new forms. Walt Disney has frequently been
recognised for his ability to instigate the use of new technologies and mechanics and
these were necessary to his participation in the evolution of the new genres.
The 'happy ever after' of fairy tale, for instance, re-affirms life, while the form of
the fairy tale is itself free from ossification as it moves across times and cultures,
Warner confirming, "shape-shifting is one of fairy tale's dominant and characteristic
wonders" {From the Beast xv). The ideas of shape-shifting, transformation, and
metamorphosis are constantly evolving through the languages employed by the
Stefan Kanfer writes: "The flood tide of the twenties occurred in 1927. Anyone who
doubted that the United States was the center of the universe could read about it in
the new magazines..." (62) The significance of this year on the Disney musical
should not be underestimated, both for developing its American identification and its
Disney musicals.
musical forms. In 1927 when Mickey Mouse was still silent and the first two Mickey
Mouse cartoons received no distribution offers, The Jazz Singer was released and it
12
In the animated Beauty and the Beast, during the battle for the castle a baby carriage is shown
rolling down the stairs, in fact a well-used film 'quote' from Eisenstein's 1925 Battleship Potemkin.
41
42
is largely recognised as the first sound film13. As Altman notes: "When film first
Willie was not singing original tunes, but his blackness and the Mississippi setting
learned to speak, it sang instead" (The American 131). Altman continues:
was also complemented by folk tunes like "Turkey in the Straw", traditional music
"According to a persistent legend, speech owes its very presence in the first feature-
that in turn influences songs like "01' Man River." Ethnicity was at a crossroads in
length synchronized-sound narrative film to song. "Wait a minute. You ain't heard
popular music in the 1920s and 30s. The rhythms of black music were beginning to
nothin' yet!" Al Jolson is reported to have said apropros of the songs he recorded for
inform white music and vice versa. Louis Armstrong and Bing Crosby were sharing
The Jazz Singer" (The American 132). The spoken word that introduced the cinema
musical ideas and performances, and their appearance in the film musical, High
we know today was actually a song cue. While The Jazz Singer is in a sense the first
Society, marks a unique acknowledgement of their collaboration. The musical, in
film musical, Show Boat is often credited as the first musical; it premiered on the
fact, served as one of the original negotiators of ethnic and musical collaboration.
Broadway stage in the same year, 1927. The theatrical musical emerged, much like
And this is where Disney began to build its kingdom.
the film musical, from a combination of operetta, vaudeville and revue. The
breakthrough of Show Boat was based on a number of factors underlining the
THEY DON'T ANIMATE MUSICALS LIKE THEY USED T O :
multiplicity of sources; as Robert Lawson-Peebles argues: "Firstly, it handles an
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DISNEY ANIMATED MUSICAL
array of contemporary social concerns such as miscegenation, gambling, alcoholism
and failed marriages. Second, it deploys a range of popular song to answer the
demands of a structured, if convoluted, plot" (2). Popular song is itself a shifting and
eclectic element, defined as it is not by its inherent musical qualities, but by the style
that meets the particular criteria of popularity at a given time. The popular songs of
Musicals and animation have gone together in the twentieth century, but in the
twenty-first seem poised to be disassociated. The relationship of the theatrical
musical tradition and the animation industry has been problematic and complex and,
some would argue, has become stale over the last decade of the twentieth century.
Show Boat have little in common, stylistically, with the popular songs of later
decades.
Disney has always been at the forefront of the marriage of genres, not least because
Disney originated the animated feature, which happened to be a musical, Snow
Steamboat Willie emerged in the following year, carrying into animation what film
White. Why the first major animated feature is a musical is a subject largely
and stage musical had just achieved, not only in form, but in ethnicity. The Jazz
unbroached, although Russell Merritt and J. B. Kaufman argue that even Disney's
Singer stars Al Jolson as a black minstrel, one of the performers who made a career
earliest, silent cartoons "amount to silent musicals, extended comic concerts and
out of impersonating black men. The general look of Mickey Mouse actually shares
song-and-dance routines prompted by the flimsiest of introductions" (20). In the year
much with the 'black face' of a minstrel. Show Boat shocked the community by
The Jazz Singer changed the nature of film by introducing sound, Walt Disney was
having both black and white performers on stage at once and included such songs as
still peddling cartoons to theatres, but the following year he released Steamboat
"OP Man River", a standard for black popular singers. Mickey Mouse in Steamboat
Willie. The cartoon is significant not only for establishing the ubiquitous icon,
13
There are some questions about this, Kanfer for instance stating, "It was nothing of the kind... the
Fleischers had produced several cartoons with a roughly synchronised sound track" (62). However,
The Jazz Singer is by far most often credited with marking the innovation.
43
44
Mickey Mouse14, but also for introducing sound cartoons as we know them today.
the music and songs to justify their presence in the narrative, and because the nature
While the essential innovation of The Jazz Singer, a prototype film musical, was to
of animating to the rhythms likewise compelled a functional connection between
put sound to the service of the feature film (Barrios 37), the innovation of Steamboat
music and action.
Willie was to put - specifically - music to the service of animation. Or, equally, to
put animation to the service of music. On Steamboat Willie, the animation was laid
down to rhythm using a metronome. Carl Stalling, a theatre organist with the
The golden age of the American theatrical musical would not start till Rodgers and
'a
musical The Wizard ofOz]S did not come out until 1939. Snow White preceded them
experience of performing music to screen action, composed a score to fit the beats
Disney's collaborator, Ub Iwerks, had established in the animation, originating the
tightly meshed creative process that would develop through the Silly Symphonies
series into the first animated feature. Carl Stalling himself went on to work on
Hammerstein teamed up for Oklahoma! in the 1940s, and the revolutionary film
i
in 1937, with an ingenue as star and a chorus of singing and dancing dwarfs. Disney
®
himself is quoted: "We should set a new pattern, a new way to use music... Weave it
1
into the story so somebody doesn't just burst into song" (Thomas ...Beauty and the
Beast 76), articulating one of the key principles of the musical genre. So Snow
Warner Bros. Studio's Loony Tunes.
White innocently daydreams "Some Day My Prince Will Come" and the dwarves
The influence of 'tunes' and 'symphonies' on animation is pivotal, but music alone
head off to the mines, leaving her alone and vulnerable, with the cheerful Protestant
does not constitute a musical. The Silly Symphonies, particularly with 'symphonies'
work ethic of "Heigh Ho." The song and dance direction is, moreover, implicit even
like The Three Little Pigs and its signature jingle "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad
in the mechanics of animation. Working from 'live action' was established in the
Wolf?", were definitely moving in the direction of musical, however, and it was
feature production, animators using photographs and footage of live people
through the Silly Symphonies, rather than other Disney shorts and cartoons, that the
performing the story boarded action to assist in making drawings more lifelike.
Disney team developed the skills necessary to attempt Snow White as a full-length
Significantly, it was a dancer, Marjorie Belcher, who provided the live action for
feature. One of these skills was the use of song to move forward the action. "Who's
Snow White, not an actor. Dancing, not acting, was central to character movement.
Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?", for instance, is not simply a novelty number. It
establishes character, both of the Big Bad Wolf and of the feckless pigs who sing the
The successful interdependence of musical and animation is evident by its survival.
cavalier refrain, and dramatic context with the cheerful, childish banter j uxtaposed
Although the animated features have not always brought box office success, the
against looming danger. At the time, Show Boat had just established the musical
musical form continued to be used through Pinocchio, Sleeping Beauty, and The
proper, songs serving the narrative action, but in theatres, Tin Pan Alley tunes and
Jungle Book, right up to the second golden age of animation, heralded by The Little
witty Porter and Gershwin songs, which were largely interchangeable show to show,
Mermaid'in 1989. Michael Eisner defines the "most important creative decision" on
still dominated. It is significant that Disney's Silly Symphonies were influenced more
by the Show Boat model, possibly because brevity of the 'symphonies' itself forced
15
MGM was inspired by the success of Snow White to go ahead with The Wizard ofOz and, in many
ways, the cheerful "Heigh Ho" of the dwarfs is similar to the jaunty "Ding Dong the Witch is Dead!"
and "Follow the Yellow Brick Road" sung by the similarly diminutive Munchkins, while physically
It was this third outing, after Plane Crazy and Gailopin' Gaucho, that truly established the
Snow White and Judy Garland, with round cheeks and pert noses, resemble each other and their
character. The possible significance of music in founding his popularity offers an interesting
solos, "Some Day My Prince Will Come" and "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" share the same
speculation.
wistful quality in music and lyrics.
45
46
The Little Mermaid as the decision to work with musical writers Howard Ashman
and Alan Menken (183). In many ways, the second golden age of animation was the
The Little Mermaid took advantage of the teen musical conventions and the
result of a fresh musical drive. The score was being written in the office next to
subsequent musicals also absorbed outside influences. Beauty and the Beast takes a
where storyboards were being created and the musical score in some respects shaped
more classical turn, a little The Sound of Music, but with the contemporary
the feature. Ashman suggested character changes to suit the evolving score and the
psychology of the likes of Into the Woods too. Aladdin has a dash of Las Vegas
animation was influenced by Busby Berkeley choreography of 1930s film musicals
showmanship, one of the great comic actors, Robin Williams, as the Genie, and Tim
including, aptly, Tne Million Dollar Mermaid.
Rice, whose work on Jesus Christ Superstar and Evita has established the
contemporary pop musical, while The Lion King combines contemporary pop and
At heart, The Little Mermaid is a teen musical. Two years before its release, another
world music in an African fable timed to Nelson Mandela's presidency, which
teen musical had achieved box office success: Dirty Dancing. Both musicals are
brought South Africa to the centre of the world stage. The Lion King is the peak of
about a sixteen year old girl, are open, if not actually explicit, sexually, and feature a
the renaissance, but while the film was becoming an 'all-time hit' at the box office,
nostalgic, 1950s style of music. Jane Feuer notes that Dirty Dancing represented a
Disney was adapting Beauty and the Beast for the Broadway stage. The Disney
"fusion into a new set of conventions more palatable to the teen audience than those
musical was finally going theatrical.
of the classical musical" (131) just as Susan Wloszczyna's USA Today review notes
that The Little Mermaid "didn't break the mold as much as reshape it for a
The animated features post-The Lion King continued to be musicals, but the musical
generation weaned on rapid-fire, MTV-style editing and Nick at Nite nostalgia"
influence tailored off gradually. Pocahontas, The Hunchback of Notre-Dame,
("Muscle"). Both films, as off-shoots of the 1970s Grease and earlier Elvis Presley
arguably Disney's most theatrical score, Hercules, and Mulan did not achieve the
and Cliff Richard film musicals, use music and dance to celebrate rebellion and
box office of The Lion King. Two critical periods followed, the first in 1993-94, the
awakening sexual maturity. They are the teen subgenre of musical genre.
second in 1997-98. Both these periods featured directional change, under the
influence both of theatrical interests and Jeffrey Katzenberg, and evince the
The scores, influenced by the 1950s, celebrate the birth of youth culture itself. The
increasing pressure on the mix of musical and animation.
sexual danger of the first rock 'n' roll was, by the 80s and 90s, rendered safe, but
was still implicit in its music and dance. While time had depressed the danger - what
In 1993, Katzenberg, one of the key executives in animation, was talking of leaving
were gyrating hips and hair gel to the paraphernalia of rap or hip hop? - making it
Disney. The following year, when Beauty and the Beast opened on Broadway and
acceptable for the teen and pre-teen audiences of the 80s and 90s, the codes
future Broadway projects including The Lion King and Aida were in discussion,
nevertheless remained to be read: the tight black trousers on Eric and Johnny, the
Katzenberg did leave to form rival studio, Dreamworks, with Steven Spielberg PM
bare midriffs of Ariel and Baby, predecessors of teen pop singer Britney Spears, the
David Geffen. The departure was acrimonious. Thomas Schumacher and Peter
"what would I do to see you smiling at me" sentiments in The Little Mermaid to
Schneider, who were both from theatrical backgrounds, took over Katzenberg's role
Dirty Dancing's "you're the one thing I can't get enough of." Both films handled the
in animation, but both were likewise becoming heavily involved with the new
teen dilemma of the good, Daddy's girl who falls for the bad boy and then has to
theatrical division and their interests in the theatrical musical would, over time,
bridge social chasms and face an angry father to prove that love will win the day.
cause friction in the animation division. At Dreamworks, Katzenberg planned to
47
compete with Disney animation. His ambition to rival the studio he once worked for
Meanwhile, Disney Theatricals was now opening a stage adaptation of The
was no secret.
Hunchback of Notre-Dame in Berlin while the following year, 1999, Dreamworks
released The Road to El Dorado, re-uniting the team of Elton John, Tim Rice, and
In 1997-98, Disney Theatricals produced both the eventually Tony-winning The
Hans Zimmer, the team behind The Lion King. The Road to El Dorado mirrored the
Lion King and Aida, the latter in workshop during that period, while in feature
direction of Tarzan. John sang all but one of the songs he wrote for the feature,
animation, both Dreamworks and 20th Century Fox released features, Prince of
producing a soundtrack, rather than traditional musical. The film still failed to be the
Egypt and Anastasia, both musicals, marking a period of the strongest competition
success Dreamworks was hoping for.
yet to face Disney animation. Although neither feature was resoundingly successful,
Disney's own record in the genre was diminishing while its theatrical endeavours
In the same year, Salon.com reported on Disney: "For future animated efforts, the
were by contrast strengthening. Mulan was released in 1998 and while the feature
studio's latest mantra is: "And it's not a musical." At least, that's what animation
was more successful than the previous three outings, it still did not come near The
head Thomas Schumacher kept repeating at a recent dog-and-pony show for
Lion King at the box office.
exhibitors of Disney's current works-in-progress. Having reworked the same
musical format once too often, the studio no longer has a song in its heart" (Kilday).
During this crucial period, the feature still in production was Tarzan. While Disney
The fate of Kingdom of the Sun was a profound confirmation. Released in 2000 as
was now receiving critical praise for its theatrical musicals and while rival studios
The Emperor's New Groove, USA Today reported: "But somewhere between the
were using the traditional animated musical formula, Tarzaris composition shifted
predictable "search for your dream" ditty and the Oscar-bait love ballad, the studio
significantly. Darker and more dramatic, Tarzan wasn't a musical in the traditional
wisely canned that high-minded junk and changed its 'toon to something far loonier"
sense. Chris Buck, co-director, stated: "One thing we... didn't want from day one
(Wloszczyna "Groove"). The feature, in contrast to its predecessors, had a low-key
was to have Tarzan sing. There had to be no Tarzan singing" (Cercel). In the
release. There were no toys, major fast food tie-ins or clothing deals. The credits
completed feature, Tarzan did not sing. Phil Collins, who wrote the songs sang them
boasted few well-known Disney names and the cast, rather than being drawn from
himself. The score became a soundtrack, Collins' vocals charting Tarzan's
theatre and film, was pulled principally from sitcoms. Songs were largely missing.
emotional journey where, in the structure of a conventional musical, Tarzan would
The title alone had connotations of a new musical direction. Kuzco, the Emperor, is
sing. The one song that is the exception is a scat number, "Trashin' the Camp", sung
introduced by his 'theme song guy', a round little guy with big hair, a white Elvis
by Tarzan's gorilla pal, Terk, and her friends. Rosie O'Donnell, who provided the
Presley style lounge suit, and Tom Jones' voice. This is the theme of Kuzco's
voice of Terk, insisted she be able to sing in the feature: "I love the Disney musical
'groove': "The rhythm in which he lives his life! His pattern of behaviour!" It was
legacy and I really wanted to be a part of it" (Green 109). The legacy, however, was
the new rhythm of Disney animation. A reference to theme music occurs again when
already in doubt and O'Donnell's song has no real words.
Kuzco narrates the Kronk's attempts to sneak through the city: "Oh, he's doing his
own theme music? Big, dumb, and tone-deaf." The musical, as suggested by Tarzan,
While Tarzan was being released, work was already underway for the next feature,
had been superseded by soundtrack and theme song. The Emperor's New Groove
the first to be approved since Katzenbsrg's departure. The feature was going to be an
had the postmodern touch of the characters producing their own theme music,
epic called Kingdom of the Sun, with a romantic subplot and a score by Sting.
almost like Mickey Mouse whistling his own animated beat long ago in Steamboat
49
50
Willie. The traditional musical elements did survive on the soundtrack CD, including
register, the blue bird explodes. The Princess is later seen frying eggs17. However,
the love song for a long ago cut romantic plot and Yzma's evil vamp.
for all Shrek's parody of the musical, the Donkey does, at the end, get to sing "I'm a
Believer", his microphone act recalling Kuzco's Theme Song Guy.
A few months later, Dreamworks had its first major success with Shrek, but some of
the loudest praise for the feature was in response to its attack on Disney. Critics cited
Whether or not Shrek is entirely original in parodying Disney and the musical
the Disneyland-esque castle with turnstiles and cheesy music, the jokes at- the
legacy, it was nevertheless another volley against the latter. At the same time, the
expense of fairy tale characters like Snow White and Pinocchio, who are likewise
animation media and critics, often quoting Disney animators, were applauding the
core Disney characters16, and what is widely accepted in the media as a parody of
movement away from musical18. The following Disney feature, Atlantis, released a
Michael Eisner himself in the evil Lord Farquaad. The irony is that the parody's
few months after Shrek, was definitely not musical.
punchline is Farquaad's short stature. If the character is parody, they've represented
Eisner, over six feet tall, as the 'midget' he infamously called Katzenberg in aii
There is another studio in animation th?* has begun to rival Disney's prominence.
internal memo.
Disney in fact financed Pixar, a company at the forefront of computer animation, for
its first five features, but at the time of writing Pixar is coming to the end of its
Parody of Disney itself was not new, however, especially as evinced by Disney's
arrangement with Disney and considering the commercial success of features like
own Hercules. The Art ofHercules: The Chaos of Creation lists "Number of Disney-
Toy Story and Monsters Inc, which have been released during the partnership,
related parodies appearing in Hercules 7" (Rebello & Healey 192), one of which was
overshadowing latter Disney animated features, once Pixar is independent, it will
on Disneyland. Meg sees a chipmunk and a bunny in the wood and comments:
challenge Disney's position in the animated field. The head of the creative division,
"aw... how cute. A couple of rodents looking for a theme park." Shrek, as well as
John Lasseter, previously worked for Disney and "has been hailed as 'the new
parodying the turnstiles and canned music of Disneyland, also parodied the musical
Disney'" according to a Telegraph interview (Leith). While Pixar includes songs in
tradition. Donkey continually wants to break into song, but Shrek will only allow
its features, the features are a quite different form of musical. In Monsters Inc, the
him to occasionally hum. The Princess does a balletic twirl in the woods, mimicking
one-eyed Mike tap dances and announces "it's a musical!", but the ratio of song to
Disney's Snow White and Briar Rose, and sees a blue bird. She begins to sing with
the blue bird, as Disney heroines have, but upon reaching the higher levels of her
17
Coincidentally, Norman Klein cites Walt Disney's 1937 "Tips to Remember When Submitting
Gags": "The eggs of any bird should not be broken unless for hatching purposes" (49). There is no
evidence that the writers of Shrek were aware either of Disney's tips, or of the Disney injunction
against breaking eggs.
16
Although, how much was specific to Disney can not be judged as long as the writers remain silent.
18
The animation media was particular virulent against the theatrical interests of Schumacher and
After all, Cole Porter's Aladdin featured lyrics that likewise parodied Snow White: "If you want to
Schneider, "Animation Blast News," for example, writing on Schneider's departure: "Maybe now, his
buy a kite, or a pup to keep you up at night, or a dwarf who used to know Snow White." Disney's use
overblown theatrical approach will take its rightful place in the theatres of Broadway, and stay far
of familiar fairy tale characters who are consistent and yet changeable as new authors turn to them
away from Disney's animated features"; while The New York Observer wrote: "When Disney
makes certain identification of specific parodies of Disney characters difficult, relying, as it does, on
animation chief Tom Schumacher and Mr. Schneider "got the Tony for The Lion King" said one
assumptions of the author's intent.
animator, "a lot of animators said they'd never be seen in Toon Town again"" (Traister).
51
52
dialogue is very low, with song treated often as a separate, rather than integral,
closure of 'blockbuster' productions like Miss Saigon attributed to "The Lion King
aspect. For instance, in Toy Story II, a cowgirl doll called Jessie re ponds to a
effect", the Disney production signifying a new direction in the genre.
question about her past owner by singing a song. The song is performed like a video
clip, with edited flashbacks and Jessie strategically posed to look Jiadly out of a
The first animated feature to be adapted was Beauty and the Beast. Ashman, the
window. There is a much sharper analogy to MTV in Pixar's use of musical
lyricist, died six months before the premiere of the animated feature. In adapting the
techniques.
feature to the stage, another lyricist was engaged, Tim Rice, who had also continued
Ashman's work on the animated Aladdin. Rice already had a reputation through
In essence, by 2000 certainly, the resurgence of Disney animation had slowed, with
Jesus Christ Superstar and Evita, written with Andrew Lloyd Webber, one of the
Pixar and DreamWorks the top nominees for the Academy Awards' first best
prominent composers of the blockbuster musical. In his autobiography, Rice notes:
animated feature award. The award went to DreamWorks' Shrek, but it was
"Andrew and I effected an important and lasting change in British musical history,
presented by the voice of The Lion King's Timon, Nathan Lane, acknowledging the
and even in world musical history, as writers. After Evita, the producer has been
tradition of Disney that had finally resulted in a separate category for best animated
king and the only major change has been in the audiences. These have vastly
feature. Lane in fact quipped: "I know Walt Disney would be smiling right now if he
increased... because of the huge growth in air travel and communications
wasn't frozen solid."
technology" (422). These two factors are pivotal to Disney expansion into theatrical
production. Disney the corporation acts as producer to the Disney author, a ready
THEY NOW STAGE MUSICALS:
made global operator with the merchandising and marketing capabilities of rivalling
A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISNEY THEATRICAL MUSICALS
the Cameron Mackintoshes and Really Useful Companies that have produced
franchise productions of musicals globally, as well as the capability of utilising
Kanfer writes: "Of America's three most original art forms - jazz, the Broadway
Disney's existing international audience.
musical, and the animated film - only the last has been able to widen its audience as
it experimented and grew" (231). Kanfer dismisses, perhaps
incorrectly,
Disney's major initiation into the theatre was its participation in the redevelopment
developments both in jazz and in the Broadway musical, but it is notable that
of Times Square and 42nd street, the physical birthplace of the musical. They not
America's foremost producer of animated film is, at the turn of the century, also one
only entered into the theatre, they actively transformed it, materially as well as
of Broadway's most successful producers. In July 2001, Disney's The Lion King,
artistically. At the centre of the project was Disney's refurbishment of The New
Aida, and Beauty and the Beast reported 98% or more capacity at the box office19.
Amsterdam Theatre, which would later house The Lion King, the lobby connected to
the Disney Store established beside it. John Bell wrote:
Disney theatrical musicals followed a period in the genre dominated by the
Disney's development of the New Amsterdam Theatre will put that
'blockbuster' musicals, including Les Miserables and Cats. In the late 1990s, these
historic Times Square playhouse and its theatre productions squarely
productions were in decline. The Lion King came to stand for this decline, the
19
53
In fact, The Lion King has regularly reported over 100% capacity.
54
DISNEY ANIMATED AND THEATRICAL MUSJCALS
into the middle of the Disney corporate network of consumer
Disney's span as a theatrical producer has been comparatively short in respect to the
performance. In that network live theatre will serve, like theme-park
Magic Kingdom's other activities, but further variegates the understanding of what
performance, as a place where Disney consumers can participate in
Disney is, what Disney produces, and what constitutes Disney's audience. While
(consume) a Disney event with other Disney customers, helping to
critics like John Bell argue that Disney's movement into other generic interests
establish in person a temporary Disney consumer community.
maintains a homogenising corporate Disney, this chapter has sought to adjust that
("Disney's" 27)
perception against an analysis of Disney that introduces the potential for
heterogeneous readings of the musicals within their generic context. Chapter Two
The critical position is one that locates Disney productions, whatever their respective
will further examine the critical construction of Disney with its tension between
genre, in a Disney 'consumer community', effectively merging the genres into one
modes of analysis and the subjective influence of'Disney childhood'.
'Disney genre' and analysing Disney theatrical production not as 'theatre', but as
'Disney'. The position creates a contrived, insular corpus wherein productions exist
only within the Disney paradigm, obscuring tike coinciding integration of Disney
into Broadway and the Broadway influence on Disney that will be argued in
Chapters Eight and Nine.
Disney theatrical production is, in fact, contributing to and expanding Broadway.
Disney introduced Julie Taymor to the commercial audience, Disney renovated the
New Amsterdam Theatre with attention to period detail, Disney contributed to the
renewal of 42nd Street, making it accessible to families, and Disney promoted black
performers like Trinidadian Heather Headley, who says of her work in The Lion
King: "It's a wonderful thing... You think about the last time that we had a
successful musical on Broadway, where we weren't prostitutes or in demeaning
positions" (Bennett Kinnon 124). In originating regal roles in both The Lion King
anc lida, Headley is the Broadway equivalent of the Disney princess. The Lion King
is particularly notable as the only Broadway show to feature an almost exclusively
non-white cast, a black king, and South African music written by a black South
African composer. Disney has also absorbed the creativity of Broadway: Beauty and
the Beast is not dissociated from Phantom of the Opera, Aida is not dissociated from
Rent.
55
PART ONE:
PART OF YOUR WORLD: DISNEY IN
CONTEXT
CHAPTER Two:
WHAT THEY SAY ABOUT DISNEY MUSICALS
What can you expect
From filthy little heathens?...
They're vermin, as I said
And worse
They're savages! Savages!
Pocahontas
SCHOLARSHIP AND DISNEY
The dominant and persistent issues in Disney scholarship are frequently elucidated
through either a homogeneous model, privileging the reading of Disney as
monolithic, or a heterogeneous model, privileging the readings of transition and
movement within and without Disney. This chapter compares the leading ideas and
positions in Disney Studies and other pertinent scholarship, contesting the
perceptions of Disney that have been perpetuated in scholarship and their
implications for contemporary academic attitudes.
The dissertation is in part a response to what Wasko refers to as "a boom in "Disney
studies", as numerous scholars have directed attention to the phenomenon and joined
in "the fashionable sport of Disney bashing"" {Understanding 4). Much of the
57
DISNEY ANIMATED AND THEATRJCAL MUSICALS
critical writing on Disney is either explicitly or implicitly negative and this has
created the impasse for Disney Studies that was noted earlier in this study, but can
In Disney Studies there has been notably little analysis from a generic perspective,
Disney Studies move beyond the negative to render a theory of Disney's appeal that
although such analysis is being developed within genre-based criticism. As the field
is not based on a model of corporate and cultural manipulation?
of animation studies grows, there are attempts to define Disney's significance within
the genre. Wells notes that "it may be argued that such a dominant model for
The negativity is often ensured in the perspectives from which critics view the work.
U
animation has ghettoised the form in itself by overshadowing its early history and
Cynthia Chris suggests: "For many cultural critics, myself included, it is difficult to
creating an orthodox style. Animation, in some ways, has become synonymous with
approach Disney's subject matter with an open and objective mind. We bring to such
Disney" (Understanding 3). Likewise, Shale writes of Steamboat Willie and Disney:
investigations a lifetime of preconceptions that may be rooted in childhood
"Had Mickey not become the success that he was, the history of animated films
memories, both positive and negative, as easily as they may be based on a litmus test
likely would have been quite different... they gave him the resources and leverage to
of political correctness." The need to filter criticism of Disney through personal
try innovations which would later be copied by the entire industry" (4). The
reflection and predisposition is acknowledged in Disney Studies, with many authors
implication for animation studies has been that the dominance of Disney has created
reacting to their own 'Disney childhoods' and the pervasive, avuncular presence of
a critical tension where other forms of animation are read against Disney
Walt Disney, positioning their own experience against the perceived influence of
'orthodoxy' and, sometimes, Disney is itself rejected in order to forward alternative
Disney's marketing and cultural acceptability, and thus actively introducing the
forms.
individual academic's disposition into the analytical position. Wasko writes of the
work on audience reception: "most of the analyses of Disney texts merely reinforce
In fairy tale scholarship, the prominence of the ' Disneyfied' model has provoked a
the subjective nature of these readings" {Understanding 152), underscoring the
similar reaction. Zipes writes: 'To a certain degree, Disney identified so closely with
strain between subjective and objective positions in the critical literature..
the fairy tales he appropriated that it is no wonder his name virtually became
synonymous with the genre of the fairy tale itself (Bell et al 28). There are two
The literature is primarily based in cultural studies where Disney's dominance on the
elements to Zipes' conclusion that bear review: firstly, Disney is again defined as
cultural landscape becomes itself a problematic issue, advancing discussions of the
Walt Disney, assuming that this man's personal identification informs the synthesis
moral and political implications of homogeneity. Russell Reising's review of From
of his name with fairy tale; secondly, Zipes chooses the verb 'appropriate' to
Mouse to Mermaid (Bell et at) asks: "at what point are the phenomena read here
describe Disney's telling of fairy tales, although there is no original author,
attributable to Disney Studios, and at what point are they just as likely to be
sometimes no original culture, of individual fairy tales from which to appropriate.
constituents of mid- and late-twentieth-century trends in the United States? Are
Disney's dominance in the fairy tale genre has, as in animation, led to a certain
Disney versions constitutive or reflective of the various social, cultural, racial, and
analytical antagonism, yet dominance does not alone indicate 'bad art' or distortion
gendered issues they articulate?" (857). This dissertation cannot answer this question
of generic tradition. Warner, for example, mediates: "it is simpiy unthinking and
in full, but in providing a context for Disney musicals, the argument outlines the
lazy to denounce all the works of Disney and his legacy. Theme parks and popular
complexity of the phenomena in relation to the culture in which it is produced and
entertainment quarry the tradition of fairy tale" (From the Beast 414). Disney has
questions the assumption of homogeneity that has been generally accepted.
just been very successful - and conspicuous - in its quarrying of the tradition.
58
59
and degree of its cultural influence. The mouse endangers children (Peter and
In the available literature on musicals, by contrast, Disney rates only an occasional
Rochelle Schweizer), the rodent is devouring the world (Carl Hiassen), the mouse
mention, although the scholars who do mention Disney call attention to its
ends innocence (Henry Giroux), books which all, on some level, inspire a fear of
significance. Barrios' review of film musical mentions Disney in the epilogue:
Disney, a fear echoed through the critical field.
"there were the occasional moments of glory - Disney's first animated features"
(435). Altman recognises the dual-focus narrative in Disney animated musicals, but
It was enough to make Karal Ann Marling ask "are Disney movies really the Devil's
argues that they are better consigned to another generic discussion (The American
work?": "I suppose it's only natural to be suspicious. Big companies scare people -
104-105). Richard Eyre and Nicholas Wright, writing on a century of British theatre,
and Disney is very big indeed" (26). Deity or demon, corporate Disney frequently
note Disney in the negative as "not heartening evidence of the popular theatre of the
contextualises criticism of the musicals as primarily economic commodities
future" (346), but the musicals themselves are not discussed in detail. Since the
produced in a monopoly situation. When Disney entered the Broadway community,
musical is as pronounced an aspect of Disney as animation or fairy tale, Disney's
near absence in the critical literature of the musical genre reveals a significant
I
M
John Bell concluded that the "theatre of a corporate image network like Disney's can
express only the sentiments and ideas of that body and its owners" ("Disney's" 32),
deficiency in the development of a comprehensive understanding of the Disney
as Maurya Wickstrom later argued that "the theatrical embodiment of cartoon
phenomenon.
characters allows Disney and other corporations in the entertainment industry to
transform what have become traditional capitalist strategies for attracting
THE CURIOUS CASE OF THE SANITISED RODENT:
SOME DOMINANT THEMES IN DISNEY STUDIES
consumers" (285). More generally, Claudine Michel says: "Any critical survey of
the output of the multi-media Disney empire would reveal many more similarly
loaded silences and messages", meaning "class oppression, poverty, sexism, racism,
In a review of Pocahontas, Leslie Felperin describes: "the voracious rodent which is
the Walt Disney Company proper" ("Pocahontas" 58). The comment reflects a
curious contradiction at the heart of the Disney identity: Disney can represent the
values of innocence, clean fun, and goodness, yet also be identified as a 'rodent'.
Adolf Hitler in fact detested Disney because of the mouse, David Kunzle noting:
"Nazi propaganda considered all kinds of mice, even Disney's, to be dirty creatures"
(Dorfman
& Mattelart 19). Walt Disney proposed, either ingenuously or
strategically, that Hitler himself would be nicer if only he got to know Disney better.
and war" (9). Ronald E. Ostman surmises that "it is the "new" Walt Disney
Company to which critics object" (83). This is the company Pamela Colby O'Brien
has characterised: "Through careful control of textual and contextual information,
Disney has created a mythic image of all Disney productions as wholesome, family
entertainment for "children of all ages"" (155). Apart from the evidence that current
criticism would suggest a failure of that control, such analysis presents the musicals
as driven wholly by economics, reading them as attempts to commodity culture
itself. In other words, this style of analysis displaces the Disney author into the
Disney corporation and the politics of the contemporary multinational.
Bonnie J. Dow's review of Disney literature in 1996 concluded: "These books make
David Forgacs, however, acknowledging the ambiguity of personal experience of
us face the possibility that, no matter how nice it feels, we are still working for the
Rat" (265). As though labouring under a magical curse itself, Disney has been
Disney and Disney's commercial nature, writes:
animalised as its own creation, Mickey Mouse, in the course of defining the nature
60
61
I dislike Disney's corporate wealth and power because it allows its
There are automagic antibodies in Disney. They tend to neutralize
products to monopolize and crowd out markets that might otherwise
criticism because they are the same values already instilled into
be occupied by others' products, but I have derived a lot of pleasure
people, in the tastes, reflexes and attitudes which inform everyday
from Disney products, and in particular from the animated films. The
experience at all levels... The potential assailer is thus condemned in
Walt Disney Company would certainly like people to grow into
advance by what is known as "public opinion," that is, the thinking of
Disney adults and have Disney babies of their own. (361-362)
people who have already been conditioned by the Disney message
and have based their social and family life upon it. (29)
He argues: "The secret of Disney's current success lies largely in its skilful handling
of... relays between past and present, adult, adolescent and child" (362). Forgacs
Bell, Haas and Sells likewise write that "criticizing Disney is a kind of secular
seeks to account for what many critics fail to address: the continuing popularity and
sacrilege" (3): "With no conventional system or vocabulary for approaching Disney
kudos of Disney. Forgacs' argument rests on how Disney relates to its audiences.
film, film theory ultimately protects and preserves the inviolability of the Disney
Much of the critical literature downplays the audience as passively homogeneous in
canon and its status as American metonym" (3) where "popular critics and mass
its readiness to be commercially exploited and culturally conditioned. This is the
audiences valorize Disney as safe for children and a good investment for parents...
criticism David Buckingham makes in his 1997 review of recent Disney
above reproach" (4). Kunzle also suggests that Disney presents itself as "an
publications: "there is virtually nothing here on reception, or on the ways in which
"innocent" supposedly universal, beyond place, beyond time - and beyond
Disney enters into children's (and indeed parents') lived cultures" (287). Yet these
criticism" (Dorfman & Mattelart 11). Yet, Disney Studies itself has proven that
processes are fundamental to Disney's cultural and generic dominance.
Disney is far from 'beyond criticism'. The literature has most often sought to reject
that which it regards as 'automagic antibodies' in order to facilitate analysis. By
The argument that the accepted meanings of Disney are entirely constructed and
rejecting the popular image to forward criticism, the popular image in fact remains
disseminated by Disney continues to inform Disney Studies, Dow remarking on
beyond the bounds of criticism.
Disney meanings in her 1996 review:
'Innocence', for example, is read in this discourse as the act of 'sanitising'. The
introduction of From Mouse to Mermaid makes the issue of sanitization central:
The difficulty in pursuing such issues in relation to Disney is that the
company has so carefully tended its image as the purveyor of "good,
Disney's trademarked innocence operates on a systematic sanitization
clean fun". To suggest that alternative meanings or agendas exist is to
of violence, sexuality, and political struggle concomitant with an
risk accusations of heresy. (253)
erasure or repression of difference. This collection, then, is organized
into three sections: Sanitizations/Disney Film as Cultural Pedagogy;
Her message reflects that of one of the earliest books of what has become Disney
Studies, Ariel Dorfman and Armand Mettelart's 1971 How To Read Donald Duck in
which the authors argue:
Contestations/Disney
i
i
Film
as
I
Construction;
Erasures/Disney Film as Identity Politics. (Bell et al 7)
1
1
62
Gender
63
and
The metaphor of sanitisation sits oddly with the rodent constructed by the literature.
Liking a Disney film doesn't come easily; admitting to enjoying a
In fact, comparing the claims of From Mouse to Mermaid to the results of the Global
fairy-tale cartoon from the same studio that made Snow White and
Disney Audiences Project, sanitisation is not definitive. Difference, for example., is
Cinderella, that held up simpering, gutless, niminy-piminy idiots as
not erased, for almost half of respondents (47.6%) felt that a key value of Disney
paragons and introduced children everywhere to expect malignancy
was 'respect for difference' (Wasko et al 44). Likewise, the sanitization of violence
from older women goes against the grain, like accepting all of a
is answered by the 76.8% of respondents who felt Disney promoted bravery (Wasko
sudden that John Major has developed dress sense, or the Pope
et al 44), bravery itself being largely dependent on threatened or actual violence,
become a feminist. ("Beauty" 11)
whether the Queen's threat to keep Snow White's heart in a jewelled casket, or
Clayton's act of caging and killing gorillas in Tarzan. Of course, tK responses of
Once again, analysis is framed by a predisposition, in this case, the common
this audience sample may simply reflect susceptibility to Disney's own promoted
assumption that women represented in Disney are represented negatively.
trademarks, but it might also be argued that it is not Disney, as much as Disney
Studies, that has sanitised the musicals. In reading erasure, often the critics
effectively perform their own erasures.
I
The main difficulty with feminist - or, indeed, gender-based - criticism of Disney is
that it frequently perpetuates patriarchal meanings, with the affirmative qualities in a
female protagonist unacknowledged to any significant extent and successful
heterosexual relationships treated as patriarchal arrangements. According to many
Feminist Criticism
critics, the moral of every Disney animated musical is that heroines willingly resign
Feminist criticism has been particularly opposed to positive readings in Disney. This
their independence to submit to men. O'Brien, for instance, argues: "Cinderella and
is not to suggest unanimity in what is a diverse theoretical field, but it is apparent
The Little Mermaid represent a continuation of the practice in animated feature films
that much textual analysis from this perspective logically concentrates its attention
of creating characters that enact female oppression and embrace patriarchal values"
on specific themes in the musicals, notably, the male and female romantic couplings,
(179). Henry A. Giroux says of the recent Disney animated features: "All of the
and frequently frames analysis in terms of resistance to a patriarchal construction of
female characters in these films are ultimately subordinate to males and define their
Disney. Laura Sells, for instance, suggests that Ariel's eventual retrieval of her voice
power and desire almost exclusively in terms of dominant male narratives" (98-99).
in The Little Mermaid
is "hopeful" (Bell et al 185). Yet Sells simultaneously
June Cummins suggests: "Disney's Beauty and the Beast, while initially presenting a
questions her conclusion: "Perhaps I'm guilty of Tania Modleski's charge that
more interesting and better developed heroine than those we find in other Disney
feminist critics often label a text feminist simply because we enjoyed it" (Bell et al
animated features, undermines the gains it makes by focusing narrative attention on
186). Dow reads Sells' qualification as an acknowledgement that her argument: is
. courtship as plot advancement and marriage as denouement" (22). Criticism itself
self-defeating: "Although her analysis does not redeem the film for me (and she does
renders courtship and marriage in strictly patriarchal terms, denying the potential for
not expect it to), it gives it additional texture" (260). Largely, although certainly not
positive female role models to co-exist with romantic desire.
exclusively, feminism maintains Disney as its stereotypical patriarchal Other.
Peter and Rochelle Schweizer, conversely, criticise Disney for being 'too' feminist,
Warner, for example, notes:
citing a line of father-defying, weapon-wielding heroines who are never wrong, their
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65
only problems being those caused by men (145-47), and thus represent in reverse the
Thus Forgacs interprets the romantic narratives in terms of loss of childhood and,
critical polarisation of key terms in analysis of the narratives in reductive
like Downey, concentrates on the potential ways in which audiences relate to Disney
preconceptions. There are writers who do address the balance between feminist and
features. While Downey interprets gendered messages, Forgacs reads generational
patriarchal points of view. Sharon D. Downey does so for Beauty and the Beast by
messages. Rather than seeing romance primarily in terms of gender and sexual
setting out two readings, two narratives. She answers predominantly feminist
politics, Chris Richards for instance noting from watching his young daughter that
criticism of the features, arguing that "categorically dismissing them as subversive
"the romantic elements... are often rejected ('Oh, I hate her when she does this, I
of females or the feminine is problematic for two reasons. The first relates to the
hate it!')" (148-49), Forgacs locates its significance in maturity. Richards also deals
filmic presentation of the fairy tale; the second to the popular reception of Disney
with childhood and the messages about growing up by discussing the role of play in
films" (186). Downey does not absolve Disney from questionable stereotypes, but
The Little Mermaid, concluding: "The enjoyment of dancing, both as a mode of
she does respond to the question of why, if Disney is either aggressively patriarchal
fantasy in which a more sexual self is explored and as a means to occupy domestic
or aggressively feminist, audiences nevertheless relate to the features. Rather than
space, suggests the power of children to shape everyday domestic life on terms
treat the audience as passive, Downey suggests how women and men read Beauty
which are not entirely governed by the adults with whom they live" (149). In
and the Beast: "This analysis of BB suggests that one key to the popularity of the
examining how children use the film in their play, Richards, like Forgacs, finds a
fairy tale formula may be its articulation of dual gender voices and the subsequent
correlation to family mtvuaction. Writers like Richards, Forgacs, and Downey offer a
development of the interdependence intrinsic to a dialectical perspective of power"
more complex analysis of Disney's presentation of heroines and romance, one which
(209). Her conclusion leaves open the possibility of moving beyond binary gender
goes beyond the patriarchal reading to interrogate rather than reflect patterns of
readings.
ideological positioning.
Forgacs shifts his analytical focus from the courtship's romantic significance: "It is
Queer Readings and Gender Signifiers
important to try to be accurate in defining Disney's role in relation to the
development of childhood and family entertainment" (374). Rather than seeing the
Sexual politics in Disney musicals are not limited to heterosexuality and patriarchy.
romantic conclusions of the film in terms of sexual politics, Forgacs argues:
The literature on Disney frequently alludes to incidents of homosexuality, creating a
sometimes curious juxtaposition to the conservative ideology usually attributed to
Each of these stories ends with the child, male or female, reaching a
Disney. For instance, in the Schweizers' book, Disney is criticised for many ultra-
point of maturation and/or separation from parent and buddies,
conservative positions, moral and corporate, but in the chapter "Mr. Minnie Mouse",
usually - though not always - by pairing with a young adult of the
they conclude: "The fact, however, that Disney keeps trying to make gay projects
other sex. The danger which opens up in the middle of the story in the
succeed may be evidence of Disney's changing identity" (244). There is little
form of an actual or threatened separation from the natural parent is
constructive analysis of why gay projects, in particular, stand out from what they
neutralized at the end. (374)
and others berate as Disney's clean-cut, fiercely heterosexual, family image,
particularly when such projects attract the ire of some conservative Americans.
Although tnere is reference to the existence and influence of gay employees, there is
66
67
little real follow-through to the consequences, particularly on authorship: notably,
discussing queer readings and, particularly, cross-dressing1 in animated cartoons of
that gay employees do have an influence on the nature and direction of Disney
Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck, Wells argues that the characters:
productions.
are merely involved in momentary performances which demonstrate
There is an increasing volume of writing on gay characters in Disney animated
that the definition and recognition of gender representation is in flux.
features. Eleanor Byrne and Martin McQuillan write a chapter on "Queering
Consequently, both the physical and ideological boundaries of the
Disney" where they relate the 'queering' of characters to politics, thus, the "lesbian
anthropomorphised body as it exists in the cartoon are perpetually in
chic" (143) of Mulan "is paradigmatic of Disney's own negotiation of seemingly
a state of transition, refusing a consistent identity. (Understanding
impenetrable borders and mutually exclusive territories of gender, sexuality,
206)
economics and political sovereignty" (144). While Mulan's outing is a response to
pacifying Chinese audiences, "in hock to China, Disney finds itself in Queer Street"
Even the humanised body can deny a predictable identity, as queer and gendered
(143), Quasimodo's, denoted in part by his singing "Out There", is linked to the
readings of Gaston and Ursula attest.
Bosnian-Serbian war (134). Linking and analysing the interaction of political and
gender ideologies, they conclude: "Democracy as friendship for Disney is always
Susan Jeffords describes Gaston in capitals as "a Male Chauvenist Pig" (Bell et al
structured as male, even when it is female, and as a homovirile virtue excludes the
170). That is how Katzenberg described him during production: "Gaston's a pig"
possibility of a homosexual relation" (150). In effect, they outline a queer reading at
(Thomas ...Beauty and the Beast 178). To feminism, and certainly to Belle, Gaston
the service of a larger political paradigm, thus delimiting the import of implications
is an archetype of what is wrong about masculinity and, to some extent, masculine
for sexual politics.
society. Gaston is a hunter who uses "antlers in all of my decorating", identifying
him, in part, with the hunters who killed Bambi's mother in the 1942 Disney feature.
Among the characters generally 'outed' by scholars and critics are Ursula, Belle,
As David Payne notes of Bambi: "The politics of "Nature vs. Man" in the film are
Gaston, Jafar, the Genie, Timon, Pumbaa, Quasimodo, and Mulan. Yet, no character
such that the anti-hunting sentiment in America came to be called, perhaps fairly,
is definitively represented as homosexual, which problematises such criticism.
"The Bambi Syndrome"" (Bell et al 140). The anti-hunting sentiment complements
Readings of homosexuality rely on signifiers that are frequently either contradicted
a background of anthropomorphism, Warner arguing, particularly in relation to
in the narrative, or unsustained. Belle, Gaston, Quasimodo, and Mulan, for example,
1
all have explicit interest in a heterosexual relationship, while the sexuality of Timon,
Pumbaa, Jafar, the Genie, Ursula, and Scar is undefined in the absence of any
Cross-dressing is common in animation and particularly prevalent in Warner Bros, animation. In
Disney animated features, cross-dressing is primarily humorous: Timon dresses in a hula skirt to
distract the hyenas, Kerchak looks like Carmen Miranda when Tarzan accidentally skewers a pile of
explicit romantic or sexual interest. Same-sex friendships such as Timon and
fruit above his head, Kuzco dresses as Pacha's wife to enter a restaurant that bans llamas. In these
Pumbaa's, the sexual signifiers brought to the characters by voice actors like Nathan
cases, cross-dressing is momentary, comic, and motivated by non-sexual narrative action. Cross-
Lane, and the double entendres conveyed through one-liners like the Genie's quip
dressing does, however, become particularly significant in Mulan, where Mulan dresses as male (one
after hugging Aladdin, "oh Al, I'm getting rather fond of you, kid... not that I want
of few animated females to do so) and her comrades dress as females. In Mulan, cross-dressing is
to pick out curtains or anything", present the potential for queer readings. Yet, in
68
absorbed into the musical's gendered dichotomy, enabling rigid gender identities to be transgresseJ
through visual signifiers like dress.
69
teddy bears: "The distinction between humans and beasts is yearningly cancelled...
definitively identifying him as homosexual: "The gay villain of Beauty and the Beast
By giving a toy in the shape of a wild animal, the giver encourages the goodness of
is... hypermasculine... He is only truly interested in male gazes" (19). The Beast in
the wild in human nature, male and female" (From the Beast 307). As animals are
this analysis is a man suffering "sexual dysfunction" and he "finally breaks the curse
increasingly anthropomorphised, particularly in the Disney canon, the hunters are
- defeating Gaston and restoring his realm to "normal" - by embracing a prosaic
correspondingly vilified.
heterosexuality with Belle" (19). Roth concludes that the feature "is a men's
movement response to feminist nagging. It is engorged with anxiety that masculinity
In Tarzan, Clayton nearly resembles Gaston, sharing the large jaw, slicked black
might be a mask for homosexuality; or that natural male narcissism might forever
hair, heavy musculature, and even the influence of 'violent' colours, red and yellow,
alienate the women that feminism has made so intolerant" (19). The alternative
in his costume. As Gaston is introduced having killed, "you didn't miss a shot,
reading of Gaston has ramifications not only for how his own representation of
Gaston", Tarzan equates Clayton with the sound of his gun firing. Gaston and
sexual politics is interpreted, but for how both Beast and Belle's are. For here, Beast
Clayton, hunters and signifiers of extreme masculinity, are represented as destructive
is not a signifier of nature, but of dysfunction, and Belle is not a figure of feminine
forces of 'man'. In contrast, Beast and Tarzan are men made 'natural': Beast
erotic desire, but of 'prosaic normality'. Jeffords, however, offers yet another
changed into actual beastly form, Tarzan in human form with beastly behaviour. The
reading, in which Gaston is "the external social version of the prince's flaw. At large
dichotomy represented in the male pair climaxes in a battle in which Gaston and
in the world, Gaston seeks to gratify only his own interests and epitomizes the
Clayton attempt to kill their masculine 'others'. Clayton taunts Tarzan: "Go ahead,
quality of selfishness" (Bell et al 169). The prince/Beast is educated and transformed
shoot me. Be a man." Tarzan replies: "Not a man like you!" Like Beast, Tarzan
from his selfish state, Jeffords arguing: "And why should audiences care at all about
rejects killing and Clayton, like Gaston, engineers his own death: Gaston falls from
this transformation? Because... audiences are to believe that they too are implicated
the roof when attempting to stab Beast in the back, while Clayton, caught in the
in this burden of hyper-masculinity, captured, like it, in a false and confining
vines, strikes out with his knife, but hangs himself. 'Man's self-destruction in effect
objectification... no one can be free until men are released from the curse of living
expedites the union of the heroine with 'Nature'. For the heroine desires the 'beast',
under the burdens of traditional masculinities" (Bell et al 171). With both Gaston
Warner noting that the archetype Beauty in particular 'tends to personify female
and Beast representing hypermasculinity, Jeffords writes that "Belle is consistently
erotic pleasures in matching and mastering a man who is dark and hairy, rough and
cast as the Beast's teacher" (Bell et al 168), placing the blame of Beast's
wild" (From the Beast 318). In Tarzan, Jane's erotic pleasure in Tarzan is teased by
hypermasculinity on his lack of instruction rather than an innate character flaw (Bell
her father when she becomes transfixed by her drawing of "a flying wild man in a
et al 169). Again, the love triangle is re-constructed around an analysis of gender
loincloth": "Oh, shall I leave you and the blackboard alone for a moment?" The
signifiers that displaces the weight of femininity and masculinity to form an
masculinity of the hunter is rejected by the heroine. The female seeks out the
alternative conclusion. In considering the animated body, in particular, all these
eroticism of 'nature', not 'man', while 'man' is itself self-destructive, its constructs
representations are present in the one transitory representation: as Wells suggests,
rejected by the female and thus, effectively, 'bred out' of society.
there is no consistent identity.
Simultaneously, Gaston's extreme masculinity offers a queer reading. Matt Roth
Likewise, in The Little Mermaid, Roberta Trites describes the villain, Ursula, as a
interprets Gaston in terms of complications within the paradigm of masculinity,
stereotyped, overweight, ugly woman: "Evil comes in the form of a woman who
70
71
covets the power of the male phallus" (150). Like Gaston, Ursula is drawn as an
opposed to racism, particularly since 38.6% of respondents said Disney discouraged
extreme, in this case reflecting extreme femininity. She has large breasts emphasised
rr.cism (Wasko et al 359), with 42.6% of respondents giving no response to the
in a low-cut, figure hugging black dress, wears bright red lipstick, scarlet nail polish,
racism question. The latter lack of response could conceivably be read as
thick blue eye shadow, and long lashes. She even has a beauty spot. In "Poor
dissociation with the value: it is simply a non-issue to nearly half of the respondents.
Unfortunate Thing", she mimics Marilyn Monroe-esque gestures: the swaying hips,
s
the over the shoulder look. The power she coverts is centred in Triton's magical
As Table 2.1 shows, although there is often an assumption that Disney is primarily
trident, which has power over the oceans. Although Trites suggests that "her
'white', the range of ethnicity portrayed in Disney musicals is actually quite wide.
tentacles could be interpreted as eight phalluses", she simultaneously asserts: "h:. r
Notably, in the musicals listed only in Pocahontas are there explicitly American
penis envy is stereotypical" (150). According to Roth, however, her phalluses are
characters, and those characters are Native American2. In the majority of the
"flaccid" (19) and he interprets Ursula as a drag queen and a "threat to heterosexual
musicals, non-white characters play a significant role. The way in which characters,
pair-bonding" (19). Extreme portrayals of gender are often interpreted through queer
particularly non-white characters, have been represented has become a contentious
readings in Disney, but villains are likewise frequently drawn 'over-the-top', thus
issue in Disney Studies, but the messages inherent in these representations are
pre-disposing the bodies to such interpretations. Nevertheless, the bodies remain in a
mixed.
state of constant transition: Ursula herself changes into a brunette human and back
5
again, then inflates to gigantic proportions in the finale, her signification altering
i
Lion King and Pocahontas. The controversy over Aladdin is particularly of its time.
with her animated transitions. Generally, any gendered reading of a Disney body
The setting of Disney's musical coincided with the site of the first major post-Cold
must accept its transitory nature, the codes and signifiers which attach and detach
according to the needs of the animation and narrative.
This is particularly evident in the literature on three of the features: Aladdin, The
h
War conflict, released in the wake of the Gulf War and indelibly linked to the
political implications of its timing and the contemporary
American-Arab
relationship. Byrne and McQuillan, with their political analysis of the Disney films,
Reading Ethnicity
are at their best in examining the political implications of Aladdin: "the film
Chris's analysis of Disney Studies confirms the transitory nature of identification
distinguishes between Jafar as a threat to regional stability and Aladdin as an
and, through constructed identities, of ideology: "ideological consistency is not
American interest (rather than a friend)" (76). In referring to the feature's video
necessarily among Disney's strong points - in fact, Disney films are a rich site of
success, they conclude: "Aladdin as both Arab and Israel is indeed all: everything
mixed messages aimed at children." Some of these mixed messages are related to
ethnicity.
Beyond gender, ethnicity and its counterpoint, racism, form the other contested
ideological site. In the Global Disney Audiences Project, 'respect for difference' was
at 47.6?-^.. although racism was rated at 18.8% (Wasko et al 44). The implication
suggests that racist representations are counterbalanced with an ethical position
72
[
The settlers will, of course, become Americans, but in the film are still British.
73
which is distinct and heterogeneous in the region can be reduced to the banal and
Table 2.1: Ethnicity Portrayed in Disney Musicals
The Little Mermaid
While Keane describes Ariel as "very white
homogenising Aladdin. This would represent the ultimate victory of the VCR" (79).
bread" (Rebello ...Pocahontas 93) and most
The homogenised Aladdin seems belied by the non-uniform readings of the
3
of the humans are white , Sebastian is
ostensibly Trinidadian (his accent is a
deliberate ethnic signifier).
character. Roth identifies Aladdin, not with the Arab world, but with the American
president: "Aladdin is everything Clinton was supposed to have been" (20), although
The characters are European, identified as
Addison defines him, instead, as a "thinly disguised American entrepreneur" (6).
predominantly French (the villagers sing
The tension between readings is reflected in the wider political tensions engendered.
"fifty Frenchmen can't be wrong"). In the
Jack Shaheen calls the film "a painful reminder that unconscious racism ; s still alive
theatrical version, Asian and black actors
and well in Hollywood... Aladdin... crosses the racist line in no uncertain terms"
have
undertaken
many
of the roles,
particularly Belle.
(49). Addison offers one such explanation of this racism, saying the original story is
"updated to reflect the socius of twentieth-century American coupling, to disparage
Aladdin
The characters are Arabian.
The Lion King
In the animated version, the characters are
and dismantle Islamic culture" (5), arguing that the Arab Jasmine is effectively
animals and therefore have no 'natural'
romanced into American culture embodied in Aladdin. Shaheen, conversely, asks
ethnicity. On stage, the majority of the cast
why Aladdin and Jasmine both "look and speak so differently than other Arabs"
is black.
Pocahontas
(49), inferring that like Aladdin, Jasmine represents America.
The musical depicts the Powhatan and the
British.
Hercules
The majority of characters are French or
Sharman summarises the ethnic and political implications that have been read from
gypsy.
Jafar:
The characters are Greek (although there are
deliberate
signifiers
to
suggest
representation of Americans), but the Muses
are portrayed as African Americans.
And what are we to make of the film's villain, Jafar, whose anorexic
shape is said to be modelled in part on Nancy Reagan and who quotes
Mulan
The characters are Chinese.
two phrases of George Bush... Given that the film was in production
Tarzan
The characters are either animal or English.
during the Gulf War, is Jafar to be read as part of a hidden liberal
The characters are South American.
subtext that implicitly criticises America's use of power, or is he just
Aida
The cast is ethnically diverse.
another stereotypical example of the myth of the devious,
manipulative Arab statesman, who like Saddam Hussein steals a
kingdom. (14)
3
In assigning ethnicity to animated characters, there are acknowledged difficulties. As discussed in
Sharman interprets the feature against earlier films using the Arabian Nights
Chapter One, the accent of the voice actor need not be an indicator of the character's ethnicity, and in
narratives and finds that Disney's feature "adapts its heritage to produce a more self-
the case of animals, mythic creatures, or fairy tale kingdoms, ethnic indicators need not be clear or
critical reading of western imperialism" (15). Aesthetically, in fact, the values of
definitive.
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75
DISNEY ANIMATED AND THEATRICAL. MUSICALS
Aladdin relate not entirely to Arab culture, but in part relate to Hollywood's past
about a poor man who steals a loaf of bread, only to be pursued his entire life by a
depictions of Orientalism, thus indirectly inflecting messages about western
policeman, and, like Aladdin, Valjean takes a false identity to attempt to overcome
imperialism. The story was suggested by the lyricist, Howard Ashman, whose lyrics,
society's intolerance of his ambition to overcome his poverty. The musicals call for
"where they cut off your ears if they don't like your face", were central to the
specific judgements of the societies depicted, but whether those judgements can or
controversy over argued racist representations. Ashman's original concept for the
indeed should be carried over as direct allusions to the contemporary, real-life
film was in fact much more stereotypical, parodying previous Hollywood 'Arabias'.
societies themselves is open to debate. The societies depicted are as chameleon as
The final Aladdin depicts a Hollywood/Las Vegas Arabia, further based on a style of
Aladdin and Valjean themselves.
animation influenced by New York caricaturist Al Hirschfield, with references
drawn to Hollywood and American pop culture, particularly through the Genie's
In fact, most Disney musicals at some point highlight the unjust application of laws
impersonations of performers like Johnny Carson and Jack Nicholson. This is not
in the society in which their stories takes place, whether that be France, China,
Arabia itself, but the invented, American Arabia, as conjured as the Genie himself
England, Africa, or even America itself. The lack of justice in the world and the
Sharman further argues ofAladdin's musical aesthetic: "the makers of Aladdin have
'hideousness' of the villains is key to the portrayal of the central characters. Aladdin
discovered that one of the best ways to offend is to trivialise serious issues with
is an orphan and as Roni Natov writes: "The orphan archetype embodies the
musical comedy, an offence Aladdin has further compounded by being animated,
childhood task of learning to deal with an unfair world" (311). It is the unfairness of
and therefore trivial prima facie" (13). Aesthetically, the feature compounds tensions
the world, the injustice, that provides the ethical terrain for Disney musicals.
in its ethnic representations, mixing messages with Hollywood entertainment codes
Irrespective of its ethnicity, society is 'wrong' and must be corrected. The orphan,
and thus problematising the ethnic identity of the characters.
sundered from an inherited social position and representing difference, must find a
way to make his or her dreams come true on his or her own moral terms.
Specific instances cited as racist in the feature reveal the tautology of the praxis of
racist representation and respect for difference. Sharman argues the difficulty of
The Lion King, in contrast to Aladdin, constructed no ethnic bodies. The characters
specifying racist allusions: "Some may feel that it caricatures Arabian people as
are all animal. Yet, signifiers have been identified. Roth argues: "The hyenas speak
violent and slavishly obedient to barbaric laws, as when a street trader threatens to
in "street voices" provided by Whoopi Goldberg and Cheech Marin and clearly
cut off Jasmine's hand when she offers an apple to a street urchin without paying for
represent poor blacks and Hispanics. They are also stereotypical gang members,
it. But which is the distortion, the trader's unjust retribution or Jasmine's
. inherently criminal" (18). Michel comments upon such criticism: "The Lion King'
generosity?" (14). The scene itself mirrors Aladdin's earlier theft of bread, which he
has attracted public criticism for the way in which the Black characters are primarily
then distributes to starving orphans. The dnal responses of Jasmine and Aladdin to
confined to the parts of the villainous animals such as the hyenas" (12). Heather
the hunger they see around them is significant in terms of narrative structure:
Neff, referencing the white actor cast as Simba's speaking voice, notes: "Ironically,
aligning their common moral outlook, and the social response to it, despite the overt
the creators of The Lion King were guilty of raising its subtle racism to yet another
disparity of their individual fortunes. Shaheen criticises Disney: "How will children
level by employing an African-American to sing Simba's youthful arias" (58). In the
judge a society in which hideous guards chase a homeless Aladdin because he stole
absence of visual racial signifiers, the aural signifiers became the primary locus for
bread" (49). Victor Hugo's Les Miserables, which was also adapted as a musical, is
criticism.
76
77
King, they contend that "it is striking that The Lion King offers monarchy and the
In Rockler's study of student interpretations of The Lion King, she asked students to
discuss Newberger's claims that the hyenas "represented urban Blacks" (14).
Rockier notes of the students who disagreed: "Perhaps surprisingly, much of this
criticism came from the two groups of women of colour... These women did not
understand that Newberger's analogy between the hyenas and African Americans
was not based primarily on the voices of the characters; the analogy was based on
what Newberger felt the hyenas represented" (14). Rockier, it could equally be
argued, fails to explore the possibility that the women reject Newberger's claims
because of her representation of urban blacks as uneducated and ostracised. The
women read another representation of black ethnicity in the figures of royalty,
Mufasa and his queen, denying the assumption that only hyenas represent urban
blacks. While critics tend to interpret racist messages in The Lion King, there is
evidence that some black audiences do not interpret the musical in this way. Lebo
M, for example, who contributed to the score, saw the feature as an analogy for the
end of apartheid, equating Nelson Mandela with Mufasa and himself with Simba
tribe as a figure for African government while the film's own commercial work
undoes the very possibility of such a model" (88). Although perhaps a too-literal
reading of the kingly signification of the lion, it is notable that Byrne and McQuillan
do not entirely discount the royal figures as ethnically African. They describe Simba,
the heir, as "the voice of American youth Matthew Brodenr.k" (88). Although the
casting of a white actor as Simba has been criticised, Broderick, star of the cult
classic Ferris Bueller 's Day Off, brings to the character the intertextual cinematic
history of American youth. His voice is less an ethnic signifier than a 'stage of life'
signifier, also inflecting America, though, once again, the identity is mixed, for he is
nevertheless performing the son of a father voiced by James Earl Jones, who brings
his own intertextual history to the role of Mufasa, having playing African royalty in
Coming to America, and a nephew of a lion voiced by Jeremy Irons, who brings his
intertextual history of aristocratic British performances in Brideshead Revisited and
other films. Within the ruling family of The Lion King are a myriad signifiers, both
ethnic and cultural.
(Taymor 157). Certainly, the language of the hyenas suggests the gang-lands of
American cities, but the assumption that this automatically confers ethnic
signification in the absence of any physical signification is questionable, particularly
since the hyenas are also seen in "Be Prepared" to adopt the symbols and gestures of
Nazism, including the goose step, signifying a political stance at odds with an
Pocahontas has generated more academic criticism than either The Lion King or
Aladdin. Although Pocahontas herself has been heavily mythologised, her factual
existence introduces issues of historical accuracy into readings. Moreover, she was a
Native American at the time of colonisation, thereby touching on issues close to
Disney's American base. Eric Goldberg, the director, said of the feature's reception:
African American identity.
"We've gone from being accused of being too white bread to being accused of
Byrne and McQuillan, like Lebo M, recognise the feature in the context of the
politics of South Africa, the feature's release coinciding with that country's first
democratic elections: "the ANC would be domesticated, South African politics... had
to be Disneyfied" (84). In juxtaposing politics with the Hamlet reading4 of The Lion
racism in 'Aladdin' to being accused of being too politically correct in
'Pocahontas'" (Kilpatrick, Celluloid 150). The Schweizers describe her as "The PC
Princess" (151): "the story of the Indian princess was no ordinary Disney animated
feature... what it ended up creating tells us a lot about the new Disney" (152). The
focus, as described by the Schweizers, indicates a spiritual, rather than historical
4
The Hamlet reading of The Lion King is referred to by Byrne and McQuillan, Ward, and Finkelstein,
theme, concluding that the feature "became an anthem about spiritualism, ecology,
for example. Finkelstein writes: "As journalist critics have noted, The Lion King takes its plot and
and racism" (161). Byrne and McQuillan concur with the Schweizers that the feature
characters from Hamlet" (181). The character and plot parallels rest chiefly on the death of
attempts to 'pay a debt' to the native Americans, but they do not view it as an
Mufasa/Hamlet at the hands of a brother.
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79
anthem. Instead, they argue that Pocahontas1 use of American English "demonstrates
the impracticalities of any such attempt to agree about difference" (109): "This
linguistic slip of the tongue mirrors the numerous other incorporations of Native
Americans into a readable familiar context" (109), such as the high school
vernacular sometimes used by Pocahontas and her best friend3. Thus, rather than the
feature paying a debt, it actually re-inscribes native American history in a
revisionist, white, New Age ideology. They read in the exchanges of the feature the
spectre of tobacco and its symbolic native American role in gift and counter-gift, and
they also read the feature in its historical and social context "as Disney's first Clinton
movie" (117), with Clinton, like Pocahontas, participating in ceremonies wherein he
facilitates the gift of peace. Thus, they interpret Pocahontas as being removed from
Sardar's argument relies on the "explicit dichotomy" (22) between John Smith and
John Ratcliffe. Ratcliffe, who holds the Union Jack, "expresses colonialism in all its
unremitting, naked greed and exploitation" (23), while "Smith is clearly weary of the
old world... it is through his eyes and experience that the wonder of this new world
of America is revealed to the audience. It is John Smith who appreciates the true and
enduring significance of the kind of life and society that can be built in America"
(23). He concludes: "The subtext of the characterisation of Smith and Ratcliffe is
the confirmation of the Tightness of the Pax Americana" (26), representing the desire
of all Others, as represented by Pocahontas, for the contemporary United States.
Thus, Pocahontas is less representative of Native Americans than a statement of the
desirability of America6.
its actual history and placed in a revisionist history constructed around the Clinton
These arguments have tended towards the assertion that the feature, rather than
political and moral environment.
concentrating on a positive portrayal of Native Americans, is an effort to 'make
The theme of revisionism is taken up by Ziauddin Sardar: "Disney's new history is a
subtle selection, highly significant in how it chooses to paraphrase, collapse and
good' the colonialisation of the country by white Americans. This argument is
referenced in Derek T. Buescherand Kent A. Ono's article:
conflate the details from the contemporary sources and repertoire of historic
We contend in this paper that Pocahontas rewrites the quincentennial
interpretation of the legend that goes before them and constitutes western
civilisation's colonial/colonising history" (17). Sardar's 'appropriation of the Other'
story of Columbus and the other colonizers' conquering of the
argument reflects the revisionist criticism offered by Byrne and McQuillan, but,
Americas, and in its place tells the tale of a relatively peaceful,
instead of reading in the character of Pocahontas the representation of Clinton, he
romantic encounter between colonizers and Native Americans. In this
way, Disney helps audiences unlearn the infamous history of mass
argues:
slaughter by replacing it with a cute, cuddly one... (128)
But what voice does Disney's new history give to white America?
The explicit purpose of Disney's new postmodern history is to wrest
the US from the calumny of European origin. The character it uses
for this ideological purpose is John Smith... (22)
The title character is once more read as a revisionist, contemporary American
creation: "Pocahontas can "discover" true romance only outside Native American
culture and in Western patterns of thought, which further justifies the colonial
narrative" (148). The romance itself holds further meaning.
6
>
The linguistic slip has practical implications. The use of 'foreign' languages in a feature for young
audiences is problematic, since young audiences can not read subtitles and will not necessarily have
the attention required to sit through dialogue in a language they do not comprehend.
80
However, in the film it is significant that it is to Pocahontas that the song, "Colours of the Wind" is
given, describing the desirability of the American landscape, situating Smith, her silent, attentive
audience, as the 'Other' who has no understanding of the landscape and its inhabitants.
81
racism and colonialism by not denouncing their terms or their cultural and historical
The romance at the heart of the musical provides a focus for the opposition of good
roots explicitly, but by engaging with the system through a universal discourse.
and evil, in which evil emerges in the form of racism. Disney in a sense evens the
ethnic score through the bi-racial couple and the two peoples they represent,
Jacquelin Kilpatrick quotes Russell Means supporting Disney's depiction of the
showing the couple in conflict with the injustices of both societies, rather than the
motivations of greed behind colonialism: "This is the truth that Disney is entrusting
injustice and exploitation of one society towards another. As the central conflict
with children while the rest of Hollywood won't trust that truth with adults."
comes to its climax, "Savages" is performed. Preparing for war, both the English and
("Disney's" 36). Means, who provides Powhatan's voice, has played a leading role
Native Americans refer to the other as 'savages1, language paralleled in both camps.
in indigenous activism, giving his support additional weight. Kilpatrick, however,
Ratcliffe sings "here's what you get when races are diverse, their skin's a hellish
argues that the feature establishes another stereotype of Native Americans, taking "a
red," echoed by Powhatan, "the paleface is a demon." The song reaches its climax
step backwards" ("Disney's" 36). The negotiation of character between constructs of
with both camps singing "Savages! Savages! Barely even human!" Each racist
authenticity and stereotype is complex, particularly in the changeable bodies of
discourse questions the humanity of the other on the basis of colour. The term
animation. Gary Edgerton and Kathy Merlock Jackson write:
'savages' is itself racist, long a derisory term for Native Americans. Disney uses the
term as one representing racial hatred on either side. Pauline Turner Strong asks: "Is
Native American advisors were hired to secure a more positive, even
"savage" more acceptable because it is here used reciprocally?" (418). Earlier, she
hagiographic, portrayal of Native American characters within an
argues: "Its ideological work, in the end, is to level the English and the Powhatan
earnestly sympathetic narrative. Studio executives were, therefore,
people to the same state of ethnocentric brutishness, portraying ignoble savagism as
banking on the likelihood that a post-modern restyling of Pocahontas
natural and universal rather than having particular cultural and historical roots"
and her legend would also be an immensely popular and profitable
(418). It is indicative of Disney morality that it does tend to overwrite a social and
version for audiences in the mid-1990s. (93)
historical context: the particular use of the heroes and heroines simultaneously
personalising and universalising the story and its moral values.
They acknowledge the commercial motives behind her ethnic construction and its
simultaneous restyling, combining both authenticity and fictional modification,
Earlier in the feature, Smith refers to Pocahontas and her people as 'savages', the
leading to an ultimately mixed ethnic message drawn from various intentions.
hero actually portrayed holding racist notions. Pocahontas turns the word around in
Edgerton and Jackson further indicate that the Pocahontas story has always been
the first verse of "Colours of the Winds": "You think I'm an ignorant savage and
mythologised: "Fact and fiction were blended at the outset" (93). There is little
you've been so many places, I guess it must be so. But still I cannot see if the savage
historical documentation available on the life of Pocahontas that has not come from
one is me. How can there be so much that you don't know?" The song implies that
mediated sources, including Smith's account of his encounter with the Powhatan
the designation of 'savage' arises from ignorance, something present in any time or
princess. The legend of Pocahontas has also been adopted by descendants of original
culture, and that colonisation itself, while covering 'so many places', has never
Virginian families descended from her marriage to colonial John Rolfe, the legend
understood those places. Pocahontas questions the meaning behind the term, rather
merging with Virginia's white establishment.
than denounces the term itself, just as the feature as a whole questions systems of
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83
Although Edgerton and Jackson say that in Pocahontas "race is a dramatic or
of the audience. The trouble was, the audience rarely hewed to the
stylistic device" (95), whereby important questions are raised but not addressed, they
critical line. (233)
do indicate that in spite of the contradictory critical reaction to the film,
"Pocahontas's widespread popularity has produced a corresponding upsurge in
Critical deconstruction of identities rarely acknowledges the dialogic of popular
interest in the historical Pocahontas and in Native Americans" (97). The popularity
success, which itself develops the characters beyond their appearance in the musicals
of the feature itself contributes to the mixed messages contained in the feature.
and defines which messages within a character's construction ultimately become
Strong's analysis takes into account the wider popularity at issue: "This is not the
dominant and most meaningful in the world of Disney.
Pocahontas we never knew we knew, but the Pocahontas we knew all along, the
Pocahontas whose story is "universal"", and so "Disney has created a New Age
THE RODENT AND THE RUGRATS:
Pocahontas to embody our millennial dreams for wholeness and harmony, while
IT'S A CHILDREN'S UTOPIA AFTER ALL
banishing our nightmares of savagery without and emptiness within" (416). As
Edgerton and Jackson suggest. Strong also agrees that although the film raises issues
of race and colonialism, these could have been handled better, but she also reflects
that in the feature's popularity lies the possibility for children to be exposed to
positive images and messages of the Native Americans.
Disney as children's entertainment, and its metonymic relationship to childhood
itself, complicates the debates surrounding the musicals. Even when adapting
classics, Disney's impetus is traced to a children's story, as it is with The Hunchback
of Notre-Dame and Aida, where adaptations of the classics for children's books
brought the attention of the studio to these works. Much of the critical writing on the
Kanfer observes from a range of criticisms of a similar nature to those quoted here,
musicals occurs from an adult position, however, which privileges those parts of the
"These critiques occurred with dependable regularity almost every time Disney
narrative addressing adult concerns and issues, such as sexual attraction and
attempted a breakthrough or adapted a book" (233). Kanfer points out that the
economic order, while downplaying those parts addressing issues around growing
vitriolic attack against The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, for exariple, was
up,
conspicuously weakened by the fact that Hyperion, Disney's publishing arm,
incomprehensibility of much of the world. Yet it is the latter concerns that Disney
returned good sales figures for the original Hugo novel, reinforcing that, as with
explicitly relates.
learning
right
from
wrong,
self-identification,
and
the
chaotic
Pocahontas, audiences were inspired to seek the source material (233). While such
success does not 'excuse' problematic meanings occurring in Disney, it can not be
Dorfman and Mattelart argue extensively the detrimental effect Disney has on
denied. Kanfer concludes:
children. The subject of their analysis is chiefly the Disney comic. They argue:
"adults create for themselves a childhood embodying their own angelical aspirations,
cartoons had always provided a large and tempting target; they
which offer consolation, hope and a guarantee of a "better," but unchanging future.
always would. They could be portrayed as too dark and frightening
This "new reality," this autonomous realm of magic, is artfully isolated form the
for the your.ig, or as too superficial and prettified to be taken
reality of the every day" (30). This description segues into the Utopian language of
seriously. Either way, the reviewers could enjoy a field day, and
Disney, but where the Utopian language discussed in the previous chapter leads to
congratulate themselves on their role as moral and aesthetic guardians
change and realisation, Dorfman and Mattelart argue here that the Utopia concerned
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85
is the adults', the following being in their own italics: "the imagination of the child
below 50% (Wasko et al 44)7. In general Disney is perceived as presenting the
is conceived as the past andfuture Utopia of the adult" (31).
symbols of childhood, while to a lesser extent, more adult values are usually imbued
through the construction of Walt Disney's identity as an entrepreneur and family
But this adult Utopia is further interpreted so as to suggest an anti-utopia:
man.
Beneath all the charm of the sweet little creatures of Disney, on the
In the late nineteenth and twentieth century, childhood began to be seen as
other hand, lurks the law of the jungle: envy, ruthlessness, cruelty,
influential on personal and social levels. The attention focussed on Freudian theory,
terror, blackmail, exploitation of the weak. Lacking vehicles for their
increasing specialisation in child health and welfare, widening systems of education,
natural affection, children learn through Disney fear and hatred. It is
the establishment of child rights, and, particularly in the latter twentieth century, the
not Disney's critics, but Disney himself... who is the worst enemy of
growth of a child market for entertainment and goods, have given childhood a
family harmony. (Dorfman & Mattelart 35)
prominence it has possibly not seen at any previous time in history. Adam Phillips
suggests that "our sense of the sacred has returned in the kind of significance we
Wasko's argument that Disney fails to explore "defeat, failure, or injustice"
give to childhood. For us - or rather, for the non-religious - it is the only source that
{Understanding 119) is directly countered in this earlier analysis. Yet in approaching
makes sense" (Aries 5). The importance placed upon childhood, particularly in
the issues of Disney from the perspective of childhood, it is necessary to understand
Western cultures that are the concern of Phillips, inevitably has significance for how
what is meant by childhood and how the meaning is itself in a state of constant
Disney's musicals are read.
transition.
Aries writes in 1960 in France, where a few decades later EuroDisney would be
Peter Coveney writes: "Until the last decades of the eighteenth century the child did
founded:
not exist as an important and continuous theme in English literature" (29). Indeed,
childhood itself is a relatively modern concept according to Philippe Aries, not
Nowadays our society depends, and knows that it depends, on the
really emerging until the seventeenth century when infant mortality began to fall. In
success of its educational system. It has a system of education, a
the Victorian era, childhood came to represent one side of a dichotomy, described by
concept of education, an awareness of its importance. New sciences
Coveney: "Industrialism, utilitarian 'facts', Puritan morality, and the institution of
such
the Victorian family > were the engines of restraint; Nature, Imagination, Wonder,
themselves to the problems of childhood and their findings are
and Feeling were the symbols of the child's emancipation" (291). These latter
transmitted to parents by way of a mass of popular literature. Our
as
psycho-analysis,
pediatrics
and
psychology
devote
symbols are not coincidentally evident in the construction of the Disney identity. It
is equally true that Coveney's 'engines of restraint' are present. In reviewing the
Global Disney Audiences Project, the symbols Coveney describes as relating to
child's emancipation correspond to values identified in the project, all of which rated
above 80% (Wasko et al 44), while those relating to the 'engines of restraint', rated
86
7
In many cases, the relation is loose and can be argued against. However, in general the relationships
do conform to the sense of the dichotomy Coveney presents: Industrialism = technological progress
49.9%, utilitarian 'facts' = thriftiness, for example, 24.6%, Puritan morality = work ethic 39.2%,
Nature = not implied by values, Imagination = imagination 86.2%, Wonder = fantasy 93.9%/ magic
88.7%, Feeling = happiness 88.8%/ love/romance 85.1% (Wasko et al 44).
87
world is obsessed by the physical, moral and sexual problems of
musicals are: themselves identified as childlike: short fathers8 tinkering with toys,
childhood. (395)
tiny guardians throwing temper tantrums, old women uninhibitedly goggling young
men like teenagers. The musicals actually represent much of the social behaviour
The obsession with the problems of childhood and with education extends to
they exploit and perpetuate.
entertainment and, thus, to Disney's musicals. Issues about whether Pocahontas
'teaches' a true version of Native American history, the physical dimensions of
Disney musicals simultaneously reflect a nostalgia for a 'medieval' society, perhaps
heroines, the morality presented in TJie Hunchback ofNotre-Dame, and the sex lives
itself a response to this cross-generation fixation on childhood. Phillips talks of
of a meerkat and vvarthog all originate in the wider social climate that has become
Aries' "nostalgia... for a kind of multi-generational hurly-burly society; for a world
'obsessed' with childhood.
before the mass retreat into institutions and families; for a world of freer association,
which modern theorists refer to as carnival" (Aries 7). Disney musicals present a
The obsession influences adulthood too. The musicals of Disney's original 'golden
carnivalesqiiie world in which children verging on adulthood challenge the
era' and increasingly the second 'golden era' are symbols of nostalgia for childhoods
institutions and families confining them9, as do Pocahontas or Belle, or are left
past, while the musicals likewise appeal to different generations who, as Forgacs
argues, are catered for in the relays between child and adult in the musicals. Phillips
describes the relationship between adulthood and childhood:
shiftless to freely associate in the social hurly-burly like Aladdin or Esmeralda. The
emphasis on childhood ultimately creates a topsy-turvy society in which children,
not adults, hold both the answer to society's woes and the power to improve and
rule.
in Aries's powerfully documented account we see that curious
reversal taking place in which children continually aspire to become
Disney musicals frequently refer back to the Middle Ages. The fairy tale influences
adults, but adults begin to aspire to become like children; to be in
on the musicals automatically suggest medieval associations: magic spells, castles
touch with the fresh language and sexuality of the child; to acquire
and wild animals in the wood. It is also arguable that as the twenty-first century
the child's visionary frankness. (Aries 6)
progresses, technology and consumerism are reinstating the multi-generational
society10 in which children participate side by side with adults in mastering new
This describes precisely the import of the relays between generations utilised by
Disney. Forgacs argues the features "seem capable of mobilizing powerful fantasies
technologies, particularly computer technologies, and in the marketplace as
consumers with their own credit cards and mobile phones. It may not be coincidental
about infancy and the pain of leaving childhood" (374), thus illustrating the
aspirations to grow up, while also relying "on its family audiences' desire to have
these fantasies brought into play" (374), thus appealing to the adults' aspirations to
Belle, Jasmine, and Jane's fathers are ail shorter than their daughters.
re-live childhood. These relays are not simply deliberate Disney constructions, in
9
fact, but representations of a social condition. Furthermore, many adults in the
Aries talks of the confinement of contemporary childhood in systems of education and family,
isolating children from the adult world until they have received full training for it.
10
The medieval multi-generational society was based on work, children apprenticed early to the adult
world of trade and labour, facing the same responsibilities and conditions.
88
89
that the first two heroines of the animation renaissance, Ariel and Belle, are well
PART TWO:
11
versed in expressing consumer wants and adept at working unfamiliar technology .
MAGIC FORMULAS
In fact the transitory nature of childhood itself, in both construction and temporality,
underlies the Disney musical and sets the foundation of tensions between restraint
and emancipation, subjectivity and objectivity, negativity and positivism that inform
CHAPTER THREE:
debate. A substantial percentage of the critical opinion represented in this chapter,
covering Disney's treatment of cultural values, gender and sexuality, ethnic
DISNEY'S COURT OF LOVE
'difference', and childhood, has been a transaction between two kinds of
homogeneity: the homogeneity of the critical stance in Disney Studies and the
perceived homogeneity of the Disney canon. Yet the emergence of ideas such as
This scene won't play
I won't say I'm in love
Hercules
transition, relay, dialogic, and complication in the literature of Disney Studies
suggests that there is an alternative model that both exploits the tensions of the
Every story, new or ancient
Bagatelle or work of art
All are tales of human failing
AH are tales of love at heart
Aida
debate through shifting critical positions and uses those same shifting positions in
order to disclose the largely concealed heterogeneous aspects of Disney. The
following chapter is largely a specific response to feminist criticism of Disney,
relating romance to the musical structure and revealing the concealed patterns of the
courtship narrative.
WHAT'S LOVE GOT TO DO WITH IT?
I
In an episode of the television drama series, Ally McBeal, two single, female lawyers
are discussing their love lives. Renee comments. "'Snow White. Cinderella. All about
getting a guy. Being saved by the guy. Today it's Little Mermaid, Aladdin,
Pocahontas. All about getting' a guy." Ally responds, "So, basically we're screwed
up because of..." "Disney," finishes Renee (Kelly).
This fictional exchange is characteristic of a key perception of Disney's fictions.
Indeed, in the Global Disney Audiences Project, love/romance followed just behind
" Both Ariel and Belle sing "I want" far more often than "I wish" and aspire to obtain material goods.
magic with 85.1% (Wasko et al 44). Wasko writes: "Leading characters most often
The technological angle is denoted by, for example, Ariel's easy transition to legs as a new form of
'transport' and Belle's natural acceptance of talking, serving household objects in contrast to her
fall in love at first sight, and stories revolve around their quest for love. While
Disney is not alone in stressing romantic aspects of life, the films often concentrate
father's bafflement at how they 'work'.
90
91
on them to the extreme" {Understanding 118). Yet, the question of why romance has
figured so centrally in Disney fictions has been largely unanswered.
Warner argues that: "Fairy tales are of course only one form of narrative that has
tackled the all-absorbing issue of sexual attraction, but they have constantly cast and
recast the question of the love spell, and looked again and again at the beloved, and
how she survives" (From the Beast 408). Disney's generic roots are evident here.
The fictions continue to recast the love speli - or love song, as in the case of
musical. The heroine sings of an ideal mate and — 'presto' — he arrives as if
Disney musicals to be included in his generic framework, with its implications for
the reading of the musical as a dual-focus model.
This chapter first challenges common 'myths' about Disney romance, reconstructing
an understanding of the earlier features under Walt Disney and the heroine's role in
particular, and following the evolution of the first romances between female and
male leads into the complex musical relationships, reflecting the dual-focus model,
that have developed under Team Disney.
magically conjured. Yet, the matter is not as simple as that seems, for Disney's
beloveds inhabit a narrative complicated by inherited and contemporary concerns
and by the imperatives of the musical medium. The survival of the romance and the
LOVE MYTHS:
THE FIRST DISNEY HEROINES T O FALL IN LOVE
love spell is partly explained by its mergence with musical.
In Wasko's article, "Challenging Disney Myths", she describes "myths that surround
Altman's model of the musical .'.elies on a dual-focus narrative, which "clearly
the company, its products, and its creator, Walt Disney" (237). Wasko argues that
applies most fully to films built around a romantic couple whose coupling takes
the group of five chosen "based on .widespread assumptions about the company and
place within a recognizably human society" {The American 103). Altaian recognises
its founder seems to protect Disney from critical scrutiny by the general public, as
too that 44the musical has long been associated with children, both as character and as
well as by scholars who have studied the company's cultural products"
audience. How do we reconcile the notion of a genre built around a romantic couple
("Challenging" 237). Wasko's choice reflects the positive myths, that "everyone
with the numerous films built around child stars and addressed to a juvenile
adores Disney" ("Challenging" 237) for example. Yet, there are also myths about
audience?" {The American 103-104). Altman links these musicals to the concerns of
Disney that are negative and that are perpetuated through critical analysis. In order
fairy tale, "which addresses alternately the problems of childhood and those of
to address the widespread assumptions, it is equally important to challenge and
adolescence" (The American 104), and determines that they can be reasonably
correct these negative assumptions.
excluded from his methodology "on the grounds that they fit music into an entirely
different framework" (The American 104). Yet, Altman likewise finds that "by far
Oiiii cf ihe more pervasive myths about Disney is the romantic one that heroines fall
the majority of so-called "children's" films re-order their priorities along courtship
in love at first sight, fulfilled only by marrying their princes. The origins of the myth
lines" (The American 104). This prevalence of the courtship does not cause Altman
are readily cited. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Cinderella, and Sleeping
to argue for the films' inclusion in his methodology, but the recent golden age of
Beauty all embody the myth of prince charming in song: the archetype "Someday
Disney musicals has borrcwed heavily from the film musical tradition, which is the
My Prince Will Come", sung in a forest setting or accompanied by small, cute
subject of Altman's methodology. 1 believe that this strengthens the case for these
animals. However, while the heroines sing about their dream prince, their love
interest actually takes second place in the narrative.
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93
these forces were "witches" (Bell et al 37), he fails to address that these witches are
The driving force of the narrative in these features is the taking of the heroine's
likewise female1.
status, whether by evil stepmother, jealous queen, or fairy godmothers (namely, the
fairy godmothers who conceal Princess Aurora under the alias, Briar Rose), all
incidentally being female, and her eventual re-instalment as princess. The prince's
kiss serves as a ceremony through which she regains her legitimate status: the kiss
that brings her back to iife' as a princess. It is always, ostensibly unknown to the
princess, a prince wandering through the forest or into the ballroom who discovers
her and with whom she falls in love at first sight: never the dwarves, a passing
woodcutter, or bandit. Rival studio Dreamwork's Shrek parodied this narrative
pattern. After the princess's archetypal song in the forest, she attacks a bandit who
tries to misappropriate her rescue and the kiss. The feature's story line is riveted to
her insistence that her rescuer be a 'prince'. Only a prince's kiss could bring a
princess back to 'life', or, in this case, undo the spell by which she is an ogress by
night and a princess by day. Thus at the end of Shrek, when the princess is not kissed
by a prince, but by an ogre, she becomes an ogress.
i
Zipes affirms a connection between the patriarchal reading and the constructed Walt
Disney identity: "the prince can be interpreted as Disney, who directed the love story
from the beginning. If we recall, ii is the prince who frames the narrative" (Bell et al
38). The reading is not borne out by the narrative. After the introduction of the
Queen and Snow White, the prince enters the narrative in response to the latter's
song and the film concludes with Snow White sitting on his horse. Cinderella's
Prince makes his appearance comparatively late. The film is opened by a female
narrator and initial animation and narrative focuses on Cinderella's song, "A Dream
is a Wish." Sleeping Beauty's prince is introduced at her christening and the film
concludes with their waltz in her father's ballroom. In both Sleeping Beauty and
Snow White, initial narrative interest lies with the fairy godmothers and Queen
respectively. Women frame the narrative. Zipes speaks of the Prince being
"glorified" (Bell et al 38), but the kingdom's fate is intertwined with that of the
princess, not the prince, omniscient choruses glorifying her. In Sleeping Beauty, for
The Disney prince is nevertheless a cipher, the body of the story and animation
example, when the curse falls upon Aurora and she sleeps, her entire kingdom is put
focusing on the battles between female forces: the evil mother-figures, the kind,
to sleep to await her awakening, the chorus singing of "Sleeping Beauty fair." Only
plump fairy godmothers (although, Snow White does feature seven rotund
Aurora's prince, Phillip, is named2. The prince's main, sometimes sole, narrative
bachelors), and the princesses. What makes the female focus of early Disney
identity is as the princess's lover.
features particularly notable is that in Walt Disney's era particularly, the musicals
have been argued as 'patriarchal', absorbing the signification of Walt Disney's
avuncular identity. Zipes writes: "It may seem strange to argue that Disney
perpetuated a male myth through his fairy-tale films when, with the exception of
1
Pinocchio (1940), they all featured young women as "heroines"... However, despite
(Bell et al 37), but it is arguable that the Queen's memorable "magic, mirror on the wall" scene, Snow
their beauty and charm, these figures are pale and pathetic compared to the more
Zipes argues that Snovj White "does not really become lively until the dwarves enter the narrative"
White's rendition of the quintessential "Someday My Prince Will Come", the Queen's plot to have
Snow White killed and her heart put in a casket, Snow White's flight through a terrifying wood, and
active and demonic characters in the film" (Bell et al 37). While acknowledging that
the cheerful cleaning of the dwarves cottage aided by forest animals, all provide 'lively' action based
around women that precedes the entrance of the dwarves into the narrative.
2
The absence in fairy tale generally of a prince's name is remarked, for example, by Maria M. Tatar,
who writes: "Lacking the colorful descriptive sobriquets that accord their female counterparts a
distinctive identity, these figures are presented as types" (Bottingheimer 95).
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There are many arguments about the stereotyping and domestication of women in
The early features indicate the success of domestication, but domestication doesn't
these features, but very little argument about why the features, said to be patriarchal,
necessarily conclude with the broom and dishcloth, which, after all, were imposed
focus not on warlike, dominating princes and kings, but on little elderly fairies who
upon heroines by villains: it might not be altogether unfeasible to argue that the
convince fathers to let them protect their daughters and superbly villainous beauties
features are about the liberation of women from household chores. Domestication in
who poison apples to get rid of the competition. For all the readings of Disney's
Disney features more closely concerns the restoration of order in family life. The
efforts to demean, desex, and domesticate women, in the end, men take second place
features describe domestic disturbances when the heroine is mistreated and only her
in the squabbles, rivalries, loves, heroism and outright violence of women. Elizabeth
restoration to her former status can restore harmony. The heroines who cheerfully
Bell argues: "Through animation, Disney artists have constructed a powerful critique
mopped, dusted and scrubbed while dreaming of a better life did find that better life.
of patriarchal discourses: the inefficacy of divine right of kings is both drawn and
They put away their aprons to become consorts and paved the way for later heroines
storied in contrast to the potency of women's evil and their dangerous and
who didn't even tie on aprons in the first place. Belle does wear an apron, but she
carnivorous threats to order" (Bell et al 117). The construction of feminine identity
never performs housework. She reads books instead and when she gets to Beast's
thus reveals the instability of patriarchal positions, but the constructed identity is not
castle, so far from worrying about its decay and cobwebs, she has the staff wait on
static either, for the generations of women portrayed continuously reveal progressive
her. After Belle, not another heroine tied the strings of an apron or concentrated
femininity, little girls growing into young women, wives into the rulers of
upon a household chore3.
households and kingdoms, women maturing into nurturers and helpers.
A GIRL WHO WANTS:
Bell extends her discussion to encompass the good magic of the grandmother figures
THE IMPLICATIONS OF ROMANCE ON INTERPRETATIONS
and the youthful figure of the heroine, arguing: "the constructed bodies of women
OF HEROINES IN ARIEL'S WAKE
are somatic, cinematic and cultural codes that attempt to align audience sympathies
and allegiance with the beginning and end of the feminine life cycle, marking the
The romantic aspect of Disney musicals is particularly problematic in gender terms,
middle as a dangerous, consumptive, and transgressive realm" (Bell et al 109). This
since the many analyses of romance tend to render heroines passive. Should the
reading does not negate that of O'Brien, for example, who writes of Cinderella: "By
heroine be successful in building a relationship with a man, she is often read in terms
having the stepmother replace the father entirely, the Disney film fosters the
of patriarchal submissiveness. Downey notes: "These recurrent patterns in critical
patriarchal view that strong women are evil and detrimental to the proper upbringing
responses suggest that Disney animated film ventures retain the same conditions of
of children" (162). However, as Warner writes of the same film: "Authentic power
patriarchal oppression permeating the original folktales" (186), but points out the
lies with the bad women" (From the Beast 207). The animated construction of the
reading is problematic. The conditions are not conclusively patriarchal, as Warner
feminine identity, in a sense, empowers the bad women, creating a compound
has argued, noting: "Fairy tales offered gratifications that were already, at the age of
identity that is both negative in the view that strong women are evil, but positive in
that transgressive women are strong.
3
Mulan is introduced performing her household chores, but she is distracted by her preparations to
meet the Match Maker - shown busily writing notes on her wrists to consult during the 'test' - and
ingeniously co-opts her dog, the male Little Brother, into performing most of the chores for her.
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eleven, considered feminine: dreams of love as well as the sweets of quick and
capital revenge; they became part of the same private world of growing up female as
the patriarchal demarcation of sea and land through the romantic narrative. The Little
Mermaid is likewise a re-ordering of Andersen's tale into a secular, musical form.
the treasure drawer in which I hoarded special pictures and tokens or the diary which
came with a key" (From the Beast xiv). The conditions have potential to be read as
feminine, if only love and sweet revenge are freed from patriarchal restrictions.
In Disney's tale, desire has an air of 'consumerism', a capitalist parable of salvaged
goods - Ariel's cave of "oosits and whatsits galore" - and contractual obligations.
Ursula's precarious triumph is celebrated in commercial jargon: "The contract's
The Little Mermaid is often read as a conspicuously patriarchal feature. It
significantly differs from Hans Christian Andersen's version, which is itself a
descendent of tales of sirens and harpies, tales dominated by representations of
feminine desire. Andersen's version is a nineteenth century Christian parable for
virginal, future wives and there has been much academic debate on Disney's
'distortions' of the tale. Disney erases the pain the little mermaid endures to have
legs, erases her self-sacrificing suicide for the sake of the prince and his bride, and
thus deletes her consequent loss of physical self for the next three hundred years or
so, dependent on the good or bad behaviour of children, before she can go to
legal, binding and completely unbreakable, even for you. Of course, I always was a
girl with an eye for a bargain. The daughter of the great sea king is a very precious
commodity. But I might be willing to make an exchange for someone even better."
In many ways, Uisula is a reflection of the suspicion of ruthless, sensual
businesswomen in the 1980s, illustrated in such films as Working Girl and television
dramas such as LA Law. The commercialism that dominated the 1980s 'greed is
good'4 era is palpable in Disney's 1989 feature.
Warner writes of Disney's feature:
Heaven. The Ingerwersens argue:
The issue of female desire dominates the film, and may account for
Disney's neat folktale ending is satisfying; but its change in emphasis
its tremendous popularity among little girls: the verb 'want' falls
from the strength of good to the strength of evil in female power is
from the lips of Ariel, the Little Mermaid, more often than any other -
troubling, even though the substitution of mortal love, eros, for
until her tongue is cut out. The Sea Witch, much the most successful
spiritual love, agape, is familiar from profane ideas of happiness,
creation of the film in graphic terms, expresses the shadow side of
both ancient and modern. The public seems to prefer loveis to saints
this desiring, rampant lust... (From the Beast 403)
- and Disney assumes it prefers a definite patriarchy to the
ambiguities of a matriarchy. (415)
Ariel's tongue is not literally cut out: it remains, thus while the ability to speak is
taken by magic, the physical faculty is never lost. Ariel can speak just as soon as she
Disney's Ariel is not a martyr to love and she longs for humanity and physical
can recapture her voice: she is never maimed. It is significant that where m
sensation, rather than a soul as Andersen's mermaid does. She is, in many respects, a
Andersen's tale, the Sea Witch, who is not evil, never uses Ariel's voice, Ursula
secular and sensual mermaid. The portrait of feminine evil embodied in Ursula,
does, knowing its power. In taking Ariel's voice, Ursula's song "Poor Unfortunate
furthermore, is a disruption of Triton's patriarchy and disruption is achieved through
Thing" makes clear that she's taking what actually makes Ariel desirable: when the
the feminine aspect of his rule: Ariel. Triton only has daughters as heirs, the
youngest of whom tests his patriarchal rules and regulations. Ariel, in fact, re-orders
The phrase gained currency after its use in Wall Street (1987).
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Ursula's advice, however, is placed firmly in the context of bad advice and it is
villain says "you'll never even miss it", you can be reasonably ce'tain you will. It is
Ariel attempting to kiss Eric, while it is he, ignorant of the impetus to true love, who
with Ariel's voice that Ursula can foil Ariel's near, but silent, success with Eric.
is reluctant to kiss such a silent girl. When Sebastian attempts to fill in Ariel's voice
When Ariel regains her voice, her first sentence includes the 'want' verb: "Eric, I
with his own song - he even whispers her name into Eric's ear on her behalf- he
wanted to tell you." From being the instrument of want, Ariel's voice becomes what
attempts to overcome Eric's qualms by articulating her silence and its silenced
she wants. Warner concludes:
desire: "Possible she wants you too, there is one way to ask her, and it don't take a
word... She don't say a word, and she won't say a word, until you kiss the girl." Yet
It is voice, in the last analysis, that is more powerful than beauty - or
for all his attempts to articulate 'the mood' and Ariel's obliging puckering, it takes
even goodness. Only when the shell shatters and the Little Mermaid's
some time to get the message across to Eric and even then they are defeated by
voice is spirited back into her throat does she prevail and win - in this
Ursula's henchmen. When Eric is consequently encouraged by Grimsby to look at
version - human shape and the love of the prince... the altered
the "flesh and blood", but silent, girl before him, rather than "any dream girl" who
structure of the tale... offers an illuminating angle of vision on current
does have a voice, he only sighs and throws away his flute. The flute has been
attitudes to" gender. The seductiveness of women's tongues still seems
significant as a symbol of Eric's sea-longing and his musical connection to the song
a paramount issue in the exercise of their sexuality... (Fro?n the Beast
404)
of his mermaid. In throwing it away, it suggests that it is Eric, not Ariel, who is at
this moment sacrificing his autonomy and dreams for the role of traditional spouse.
When Ariel's voice returns to her, Eric rushes to be with her.
She inflects back to her argument about the place of voice in fairy tale and its
significance in how fairy tale deals with femininity and feminine desire: "The
Sells finds "hope" in the "freeing of Ariel's voice" (Bell et al 185), but she is still
muteness of fairy tale protagonists exists in relation to the circumstances in which
bound in the notion that "Disney transforms Ariel's desire for autonomy and access
they are told; there is always a meaning, a lesson" (From the Beast 405). Rather than
Ariel's muteness being a 'bad' thing, it serves as a lesson that her voice is more
valuable than her body. Sells writes: "Even more disheartening, she purchases this
physical transformation with her voice" (Bell et al 179), yet the purchase itself
into desire for a husband" and "the destined alliance with patriarchy is fulfilled"
(Bell et al 185). Must marriage only result in patriarchal fulfilment, or can the
duality of Ariel and Eric, the mermaid and the human, resolve in harmony of female
and male?
consecrates the value of her voice. Ariel's marriage is consequently based on a
recognition of self-determination: it is based on a girl learning to value her ability to
speak up over the physical attributes she might possess or desire to possess.
Warner responds to the marriage of Disney's The Little Mermaid by acknowledging
the role of resolution:
Many nevertheless interpret Ariel's muteness as an isolated ideological statement.
Romance constitutes the ultimate redemption, and romantic love,
Giroux says: "Ariel becomes a metaphor for the traditional housewife in the making.
personified by the prince, the justification of desire. The Little
When Ursula tells Ariel that taking away her voice is not so bad because men don't
Mermaid, in the film, defies her father the God of the Sea to follow
like women who talk, the message is dramatized when the prince attempts to bestow
the dictates of her heart... the modem mermaid, like Madonna in the
the kiss of true love on Ariel even though she has never spoken to him" (99).
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song 'Pappa, don't preach', teaches her father to listen to her desire:
often criticised for self-sacrifice, although there is a like undercurrent in her
to love her man. This is the contemporary audience desire
constructions of 'want/desire' that is less analysed. Murphy argues, however, that
encapsulated; the message the circle of listeners wanted to hear. Like
she abandons the worldliness she actually wants:
Belle, the Disney Little Mermaid Ariel is a fairytale heroine of our
time. {From the Beast 404)
The abandonment of that wider world in exchange for princesshood
reinscribes the validity of androcentric promotion of escapism as the
On the other hand, Sells interprets the ending not as resolution of desire, but as
answer to the contemporary cultural debate about the nature of gender
supplantation, where Ariel's narrative becomes subservient to Eric's:
relationships - the smart woman gets the prince not by dint of her
intellect but by means of her self-sacrificing devotion and selfless
As Ariel passes from her father's hands to her husband's hands, the
love. While the Beast-Prince undergoes significant change, it remains
autonomy and willfulness that she enacted early in the film becomes
the means-to-an-end within the context of the curse. The curse
subsumed by her father's "permission" to marry Eric. In other words,
requires that someone love him, not that he love someone else (Bell
the marriage plot... prevails as her interest in the role of citizen
et al 133-34)
becomes supplanted by her interest in the role of wife. (Bell et al 180)
The curse actually requires both forms of love:
Earlier in the feature, Triton discovers Ariel's love for Eric. When he confronts her,
she responds: "Daddy, I love him!" Triton replies: "No... have you lost your senses
Mrs. Potts: After all this time, he's finally learned to love.
completely? He's a human, you're a mermaid!" Triton effectively reinforces the
Lumiere:
insanity of the opposites coming together. It is after their love wins out - Triton
Mrs. Potts: But it's not enough. She has to love him in return.
That's it, then. That should break the spell.
acknowledges "she really does love him" - that Triton resolves the opposition
between the two: he gives Ariel legs, thus fulfilling her original desire. The final
The terms of the curse/spell do not specify selfless love and it is actually Belle who
lyrics, "now we can stay in the sun, just you and me, and I can be part of your
resists love. She deserts Beast not once, but twice, first when he frightens her,
world", suggest the coming together of 'you' and 'me' in resolution as 'we'. True,
secondly when he releases her from her promise to stay so as to go to her sick father,
Ariel does become more a part of Eric's world than he of her's, but it has been her
the second instance encapsulating Beast's sacrifice for love. By letting her go, Beast
desire to be human that has led her to achieve her place, and which mimics the
sacrifices his only chance to break the spell before the deadline and the answer he
child's desire to have physical and moral independence - to stand on their own two
gives when Cogsworth questions him is: "Because, I love her." It is actually Beast
feet - and there is no explicit suggestion in the feature that she will surrender her
who exhibits self-sacrificing devotion and selfless love towards Belle5.
earned vocality simply through the act of marriage.
Disney's first two musicals of its 'new age' were fairy tales, both conceived within
the decade of greed embodied by films like Wall Street (1987). Like Ariel, Belle is
5
m
Belle sacrifices herself for her father by taking his place in Beast's dungeon, it is true, but when
Gaston is locking her father up in a lunatic asylum and offers her the alternative of marrying him in
order to save her father, she flatly refuses: "Never!" She draws the line of sacrifice at marriage.
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Warner argues that "uncovering the context of the tales, their relation to society and
history, can yield more of a happy resolution than the story itself delivers with its
The fairy tales Belle reads are not solely escapism: they are tools of change and
challenge to fate: 'They lived happily ever after' consoles us, but gives scant help
understanding. They are certainly not all andro-centric: fairy tales are feminine and
compared to 'Listen, this is how it was before, but things could change - and they
inscribe the feminine voice, which has significant power to effect and influence
might'" (From the Beast xvii). Belle's reading, which so strongly delineates her as
change through love, not violence. By properly placing Beauty and the Beast within
intellectual among Disney heroines, is a persistent self-reflexive note in the musical.
its fairy tale context, rather than within the patriarchal stereotype of Disney and
In "Belle", she is seen reading a book and telling the sheep: "Here's where she meets
romance, the fiction becomes more subtle than at first appearance. The fiction
prince charming, but she won't discover that it's him till chapter three." Soon she
inscribes real power not with strength or beauty, but with empathy and love.
meets her prince charming, but in "Something There" she reflects: "True, he's no
prince charming, but there's something in him I simply didn't see", heralding a
Belle's wants are not, in this process, sacrificed. Warner writes, comparing Belle's
future discovery that he is, despite appearances, a prince. The fairy tale she reads has
geographic journey with the romance narrative: "Her passage from repugnance to
already offered the possibility that princes may not be obvious from first impressions
attraction also follows a movement from village hall to castle gate, in the
and that in Beast's castle 'things might change'.
conventional upwardly mobile style of the twentieth-century fairy tale" (From the
Beast 314) and notes that Belle chooses Beast, with all his worldly wealth, over the
Her interest in Beast's library becomes a tool through which they can understand
provincial Gaston (From the Beast 317). Like Ariel, Belle has clear wants. She
each other. In the film version, the book she reads him is anonymous, but in the
"wants more than this provincial life", she wants books, she wants dinner, she wants
stage adaptation, she reads to him from a book on King Arthur, a tale which
a partner who "understands" her wants. In civilising Beast, Belle both moulds her
concerns a young man whose inner, kingly qualities can only be revealed by
desire and overcomes her fear of the 'monster' who threatens to deprive her of
Excalibur. In one reading, Belle acts as Beast's 'Excalibur', identifying his inner
everything: father, freedom, dreams. Beast is already showing signs of becoming
princely qualities and delivering to him the possibility of 'Camelot'. Significantly,
civilised under the attention of his servants, but Belle's own victory over her fear6 is
the end of Arthur's tale is tragic: Arthur, torn with jealousy, will kill his wife,
a major turning point. Beast reflects "she didn't shudder at my paw": she has
Guenevere, and battle his rival, the great and handsome Lancelot, for her affections,
overcome physical repulsion. They negotiate to achieve resolution in their separate
but he ultimately loses everything including his kingdom. Beast will face a battle
behaviours: when Beast has trouble eating porridge with a spoon, Belle puts down
with Gaston over Belle, Gaston's good looks and 'greatness' touted in "Me" and
"Gaston", and Beast's reactions are significant in light of the romance Belle has read
him. Initially he does not fight back against Gaston, only engaging with him when
I
6
She overcomes the fear that a man will deny her wants: reacting against both Gaston and initially
Beast, she is reacting against their denials of her dreams. When Gaston proposes, he denies her
dreams of adventure and understanding by insisting she's dreaming of marriage to him:' Belle
Belle arrives and Gaston gloats that she "is mine." Yet, Beast is merciful, sparing
deliberately scorns him with "what do you know of my dreams, Gaston?" to which Gaston replies,
Gaston's life, and instead clambers up to join Belle who has called for him. The
"plenty", putting his feet on her book, which actually does inscribe her dreams, and picturing instead
castle is finally transformed through his actions into his own Camelot, Beast having
a rustic cottage, her massaging his feet. When Beast first imprisons her, she responds, "But I've lost
learnt an intertextual lesson from the story read to him, as Belle has herself been
my father, my dreams, everything." It is only by learning that Beast will not deny, but will respond to
her wants, that Belle 'comes round'. In fact, Beast's sacrifice is a clear response to Belle's desire to
guided by her reading.
be with her father.
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her spoon and sips from the plate, which he is more comfortable with. The need to
Through analysis of both Belle's and Beast's stories, she argues that "the appeal of a
relate to each other continues to inform the resolution between hero and heroine: as
preferred reading is encoded in the story's progression toward a selected end:
Belle recognises that Beast is "kind and gentle" and not a threat, Beast begins to love
romantic fulfilment, and happiness forever after between a woman and a man. In this
selflessly. In the finale, as Beast lay dying, Belle cries: "We're together now.
sense, the impulse to evaluate BB at least as an occasionally ambivalent text that
Everything's going to be fine." Once united, everything is: the spell is broken and
functions hegemonically to support the patriarchal social order is tempting" (207).
Beast survives to become a prince, resolving their last, speciesist differences.
However, in an argument that recalls Altman's dual-focus narrative, she writes that
through "replacing a potential double binding paradox with a gendered dialectic
There is a re-occurring reading of Belle as inferior to Beast. Even Warner says the
enabling the transcendence of conflict as long as males shape up and subsequent
weight of interest is with Beast: "But next to the Beast, this Belle is a lacklustre
relational interdependence between female and male is maintained" (208). The
creature. He held the animators' full attention" {From the Beast 315). Giroux argues:
conclusion reinforces the narrative's reliance on the parallel male and female stories
"less obviously, Beauty and the Beast also can be read as a rejection of
achieving resolution through each other, rather than through the particular and
hypermasculinity and a struggle between the sensibilities of Gaston and the
constant dominance of one over the other.
reformed sexist, the Beast" (100-101). He concludes: "In the end, Belle simply
becomes another woman whose life is valued for solving a man's problems" (101).
The characters of Gaston and Beast are strong and encapsulate the main focus of
animation in the film, but I argue that the significance of this is not that the film
The heroine's assertiveness in narrative has, however, also come under criticism. In
a review of Mulan in The Sunday Times, Tom Shone identifies the heroine's selfdetermination in patriarchal society as a Disney trope:
presents 'male desire incarnate' or Belle 'solving a man's problems', although these
points certainly do chime through the process of resolution. The pivotal point is that
it is Belle's choice that directs the musical's narrative towards resolution, the males
seen through Belle's eyes.
First impressions of the heroine weren't much better: Chinese peasant
girl, bit of a tomboy, trapped in a repressive patriarchy, but
determined to heed the promptings of her heart and do her own thing,
which is to say she does exactly the same thing as every Disney
Downey brings attention to the Disney musical's ability to develop the ""female
heroine since Belle in Beauty and the Beast... A production line of
glance" because they articulate female as well as male experiences" (192). In the
freethinkers is surely a contradiction in terms, and it must be said that
case of Beauty and the Beast, she proposes a duality in which the feature:
these early scenes feel a little wan and watery with good intentions.
juxtaposes interdependent but competing male and female stories: the
Shone is particularly acrid about Midori's "Reflections": "When Mulan started
narrative follows the trials and tribulations of a central male character
twirling around her pastel-hued garden, singing about her determination to find out
whose problems can be corrected only through a woman's help; a
woman's emergent needs can be satisfied only through a man's
internal transformation. (193)
what she looked like inside, I found myself gripped by an equally bold determination
to picket any future encounter between a Disney animator and a blossom tree." Yet
by comparing Mulan and Belle's responses to marriage, diverse social meanings of
marriage represented in the narratives are revealed through the heroines' self-
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determinative stance in song. "Reflections" occurs after Mulan makes a disastrous
Mulan's final triumph in a society in which women are expected to make good
impression at the matchmaker's, as in Beauty and the Beast, Belle's reflection on
marriages. Yet, Mulan doesn't ask for immediate romance nor does she leap up onto
marriage occurs after the village brands her as "rather odd" and she dismisses
his white charger: in fact, the only horse in the feature has been Mulan's own. She
Gaston's proposal. Neither girl is able to fit into the social system, but their
asks if Shang would like to stay to dinner. It is a feature in which the marital
responses, delivered in song, are quite different.
responsibility of daughters is ever present, yet in which a heroine has taken the most
dramatic steps from the patriarchal stereotype of bride, while simultaneously
Belle rejeci the male chauvinistic Gaston with sarcasm: "Madame Gaston! Can't
incorporating a sense of tradition and family responsibility that guides her towards
you just see it?" and reflects: "I want much more than this provincial life. I want
bridal and a socially 'perfect' mate.
adventure in the great wide somewhere. I want it more than I can tell! And for once
it might be grand to have someone understand I want so much more than they've got
In USA Today, Wloszczyna wrote: "What about love, you ask? Fuggedaboudit. At
planned." Belle is looking for something more, which she consequently finds in
least until this Gloria Steinem of Toon-town finishes saving her homeland"
rejecting the village stud and marrying a man who understands her intellectual and
("Mulan"). In The Mouse TJwt Roared, however, while Giroux writes that Mulan "is
cultural needs - a prince. Belle does not feel herself to be inferior to her social peers,
presented as a bold female warrior who challenges traditional stereotypes of young
but as someone different and even superior, the creme de la creme as her father sings
women" (102), he contends: "Disney reminds us at the conclusion of the film that
in the theatrical song, "No Matter What", so seeks something beyond the patriarchal
Mulan is still just a girl in search of a man, and as. in so many other Disney animated
village society she has been born into. Her rejection of Gaston is a sign of her
films, Mulan becomes an exoticized version of the All-American girl who manages
rejection of all he stands for. By comparison, Mulan is self-reflecting and suffers
to catch the most handsome boy on the block, square jaw and all" (103). Yet, is it
regret about not fitting in: "Look at me. 1 will never pass for a perfect bride or a
enough to say that because at the resolution of the feature, Mulan asks Shang to stay
perfect daughter... Now I see that if I were truly to be myself, I would break my
for dinner, that she has become both Americanised and solely interested in a
family's heart." Where Belle is a freethinker seeking to break away from her social
handsome man? Mulan is based on an authentic Chinese legend about a girl who
circumstances, Mulan is a freethinker struggling to find a way to fit in and not
cross-dresses to go to war. She has been Americanised, certainly, in much the way
disappoint her family's social aspirations while still being the girl she is "inside."
the actor supplying her voice is Chinese American. The identification of Mulan with
Belle is identified with self-assertion and individuality, interested in change and
both Gloria Steinman and the All-American girl indicates her own unconventional
breaking social mores. Mulan is much more about honouring tradition and yet being
gendering. She embodies both traditional and untraditional behaviour: she honours
true to yourself. Hence, Mulan does find resolution with someone who stands for
her family and culture while simultaneously questioning and challenging her place
everything her society values.
within family and culture. The resolution of her unconventionality is not ostracism,
but unity: she is paired with Shang, who represents the epitome of convention. Just
Failing as a prospective bride, Mulan finds success as a soldier. When she returns
as Shang does not consequently become unconventional, Mulan does not become
with a prize sword, her grandmother notes: "Huh. She brings home a sword. If you
conventional. The unification achieved through their coupling gives her victory a
ask me, she should've brought home a man." Grandmother Fa is dumbfounded when
dual edge: she has both successfully challenged and upheld tradition.
in the next moment, the handsome army captain arrives, asking for Mulan. Shang is
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Two Disney heroines, Jane and Meg, are rarely mentioned in the scholarly literature,
yet provide further evidence of a heterogeneous approach to the representation of
As heroines, they in many ways fulfil the 'damsel in distress' archetype, continually
women in love. Published academic analysis of Jane is still somewhat premature,
requiring the heroes to rescue them. Tarzan rescues Jane first from the horde of
Tarzan's release being comparatively recent. Meg from Hercules is not as recent,
monkeys and later from Clayton and his ruthless hoods; Hercules rescues Meg from
but while, for instance, Giroux comments on the merchandising metaphors in
death itself. Yet, their continual need of rescue does not indicate a lack of self-
Hercules (160-62), Meg is conspicuously the only heroine not cited in his argument
confidence. Both heroines are bold and self-possessed on meeting the heroes, even
on the representation of gender, particularly as it relates to the romance narrative.
using the same flirtatious gestures. Meg, leaning over and wringing out her hair,
Meg and Jane are both animated by supervising animator Ken Duncan.
looks Hercules up and down and comments, "So, did they give you a name, along
with all those rippling pectorals?" Jane tries to maintain her distance from Tarzan,
Their significance is reflected in Duncan's style of animation. His noses are just a
but when he puts her hand to his heart, responds, "That's a lovely heartbeat. It's very
little sharper, his chins pointier, and his expressions just that more shrewd on Jane
nice." Tarzan echoes her words and Jane, trying to fix her hair, answers, "Oh, thank
and Meg and, most importantly, both Jane and Meg are constructed through the
you. I can't do a thing with it in this humidity though.'" While other heroines are still
tropes of screwball comedy. On Hercules, Duncan was inspired by the screwball
negotiating the terms of their own femininity and of gender relationships in general,
comedies of the 30s and 40s: "They were very independent women with their own
Jane and Meg are already mature and the constructions of their identity reasonably
quick-witted minds" (Thomas ...Hercules 211). Wloszczyna in her review of the
settled. Their screwball humour and sexual awareness appears to make them
musical
likewise
immune to patriarchal insinuations. Their very difference from other heroines, most
descriptive of screwball heroines. Duncan was finishing Meg when he was
of who are only just coming of age and contemplating romance for the first time,
approached to oversee Jane's animation and although the two heroines are quite
disturbs the homogeneous form of feminine identity argued as presented in Disney
different in some aspects, when Minnie Driver provided Jane's voice, Jane's
heroines.
called Meg a "lip-smackable
wisecracker" ("Winning"),
screwball qualities came to the fore: "Minnie's expressions are very broad... We
took all these elements and exaggerated them. We made her less dainty and played
Meg is much the antithesis of the classic Disney heroine. She is mature, sassy, and
up her over-the-top attitude" (Duncan in Green 84). Wloszczyna's reception of Jane
cynical. She is in the employ of the villain. She has had a previous relationship with
is similarly energetic: "a game Victorian gal with a pert nose, fetching overbite and a
a man, having sold her soul to Hades for his life, only for him to leave her for
mind that is... inquisitive" ("Terrific"). Both Meg and Jane are pert, quick, and draw
another woman. She is blunt about Hercules' sexual attractiveness and unconcerned
on traits of screwball comedy, but are also sophisticated and very feminine, Meg
whether he has wealth and good manners. She doesn't want empathy, nor does she
animated with 'sassy' swaying hips, Jane with petticoats and frills. They are also
want to find her place in society. She accepts who she is, sarcastically responding to
:I
women who have pasts and seek to find neither 'themselves' nor a husband. Jane is a
Hercules' question, "aren't you a damsel in distress": "I am a damsel, I am in
knowledgeable companion to her father, the professor, and they undertake the
distress. I can handle this. Have a nice day," Her solo is appropriately titled "I Won't
expedition to find gorillas together. Meg has been betrayed by one man and her soul
Say (I'm In Love)." The song is significant for playing on the cliche that 'someday
is owned by Hades. Both heroines have been out in the world and are not 'seeking',
my prince will come': "no man is worth the aggravation. That's ancient history,
yet the critical literature remains largely silent regarding their representation.
been there done that!" Just as many academics insist that any heroine who falls in
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love is necessarily implicated in a patriarchal relationship, the muses tell Meg,
"Baby, we're not buying... Girl, don't be proud, it's okay you're in love." The song
Table 3.1: Love At First Sight?
The
Little
Mermaid
draws on the tropes of doo wop and other popular music styles usually associated
Ariel: "I've never seen a human this close before. Oh, he's very
handsome, isn't he?" - love at first sight coincides with 'human at first
sight'. Note that her companion thinks it's the dog she finds handsome:
with female singers and groups in the 1960s, tropes that draw on tensions between
"I dunno. He looks kind of hairy and slobbery to me." The dialogue
feminine sexuality and traditional, even patriarchal, mores in regard to the regulation
between Ariel and Scuttle plays on the idea of love at first sight with the
of gender relationships7. Meg, who is described by Hades as "what a dish, what a
confusion regarding the species actually seen.
doll", yet who dismisses Hercules with "I'm a big, tough girl, I tie my own sandals
Eric: taking into account that he is delirious at the time, he falls in love
on first hearing and seeing her.
and everything", is constructed on just such tensions, which complicate the romantic
narrative.
Beauty and the
Belle: at first, she is horrified at Beast's appearance, then angry with
Beast
him. It is only in the last minutes of the film that she says "I love you."
Beast: he is quite willing to put her in a dungeon, then finds her
progressively more and more irritating. It is only towards the middle of
LOVE AT FIRST SIGHT
the film that he realises he loves her.
Aladdin
Jasmine: she is curious about Aladdin at first and grateful for his help,
Critics, including Wasko and Giroux, read contemporary Disney musicals again in
but there are no explicit signs that she has fallen in love with him yet.
terms of patriarchal romance. The myth of love at first sight - Wasko writes that
Aladdin: "wow" - it could be love or simply infatuation.
"leading characters most often fall in love at first sight" (Understanding 118) — has
The Lion King
weird."
evolved around Disney musicals and tends to focus on the heroine falling in love
first. Table 3.1 describes what does happen when the romantic leads of the recent
animated canon8 first 'sight' each other.
Nala: greets news of a future marriage to her friend with "It'd be too
Simba: greets news of their future marriage with "Yuck!"
Pocahontas
Pocahontas: she is curious about Smith, but there is nothing to indicate
love; in fact, she accuses him of being a savage.
John Smith: he exhibits interest, certainly - enough to at least not shoot
her - but love is not immediately or explicitly indicated for his desire is
to 'tame'.
The
The fiction is based on a love triangle (or a love square if you include
Hunchback of
Frollo, who, however, as villain operates as aggressor rather than lover)
Notre Dame
and as such represents a tri-focus model. Since Esmeralda and Phoebus
are coupled at the conclusion, their romance in this part of the analysis
takes precedence, but Quasimodo is the hero of the title and is also
referenced.
Esmeralda: she is kind to Quasimodo when he falls into her tent. She
looks perplexed about Phoebus, but when he first meets her face to face,
7
Songs like Carole King and Gerry Goffin's "Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow?" performed by the
she throws him onto his back and threatens him with his own sword.
Shirelles and Ronnie Shannon's '"I Never Loved A Man" performed by Aretha Franklin were among
Quasimodo: Quasimodo is relieved when Esmeralda treats him not with
those that exploited the troubled realisation of sexuality in traditional feminine representations.
horror, but kindness.
s
The Emperor's New Groove is absent from this part of the discussion as there is no major romantic
pairing.
Phoebus: "What a woman!" - undeniably attracted to her at first sight.
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Hercules
Meg: "Is wonderboy here for real?" - she is initially sceptical about
Hercules.
Heroines in these musicals are conspicuous for, rather than wishing for love,
Hercules: falls at first sight for a pair of "goo-goo eyes."
Mulan
Tarzan
Mulan: she is too busy trying to get out of trouble to fall in love at first
spurning it. Several are introduced in the act of rejecting suitors10. Belle, Jasmine,
sight with Shang.
Pocahontas, and Meg all reject men before meeting the hero. In original storyboards
Shang: besides thinking she is a boy, he thinks she is an idiot.
Nala was to reject the suit of Scar before rediscovering Simba in the jungle, but this
Jane: "Oh, I'm in a tree with a man who talks to monkeys!" - more
scene was deposed, consequently restored in the theatrical version. Esmeralda toys
anxious than in love.
suggestively with Frollo while dancing in The Hunchback of Notre Dame, but
Tarzan: curious about Jane, but because she is the first human he has
seen.
shortly thereafter accuses him of mistreatment of Quasimodo. The rejection scenes
act as a forerunner to the meeting with the hero, establishing that the heroine is
In each case, the musical is quite short at just over an hour. Romance has only so
much time to develop among the more engrossing aspects of the story. Yet in
significantly few cases does the narrative explicitly have the hero and heroine fall n
love at first sight, which would seem expedient.
willing and able to reject men. When she consequently falls in love with the hero, it
is at least not from lack of choice or from masculine intimidation. Jeffords argues in
the example of Beauty and the Beast: "Once the character of the dignified and
worldly Beast was abandoned in favor of Disney's spoiled brat, Belle's choice to
love the Beast could only be made reasonable and effective by visualizing a worse
Where these later musicals significantly differ from the early features is that initial
attraction is not necessarily identified as 'love at first sight'. It has been noted that
Walt Disney had trouble with portraying male characters in love and, as a result,
they were kept off the screen as much as possible9. Consequently the heroine fell in
love at first sight, since the prince would only appear briefly. In the recent musicals,
man she could have chosen" (Bell et al 170). Disney's recent male leads are flawed,
rather than perfect 'prince charmings', and the alternative choices are constructed as
'worse', yet while this does to some extent authenticate her choice of a hero who
might be brattish, her response to the less reasonable offer focuses the narrative on
the heroine's process of choosing a lover.
the romantic male leads have much larger portions of screen time and although
characters like Aladdin, Hercules, and Phoebus are immediately attracted to the
heroines, they are also on screen longer and a relationship between the two is shown
developing. There is, consequently, no necessity to inscribe 'attraction at first sight'
with 'true love'. After The Little Mermaid there is a marked movement towards
distinguishing superficial attraction, signalled by the use of cartoonish expressions
like 'goo-goo eyes' and 'wow', from the relationship that develops.
This is particularly pertinent in the cases of Belle, Jasmine, Pocahontas, and Meg,
who reject domineering men. Gaston is the village stud and is so confident of Belle's
willingness to be his bride that he has the wedding guests assemble before he
10
In counterpoint, in the opening "Perfect World" sequence of The Emperor's New Groove, Kuzco,
approaching his eighteenth birthday, is shown a parade of eligible brides: "It is time for you to choose
your bride!" Kuzco dances down the line: "Allrighty! Trot out the ladies! Let's take a look-see. Hate
your hair, not likely, yikes, yikes,yikes, and let me guess, you have a great personality. Is this really
the best you could do?" The situation is unresolved and never again brought up, displacing it entirely
For example, animator Zack Schwartz says of Disney: "What I found most troubling, though, was
the reaction of the male characters to the female characters... a boy who was in love showed his
affection by scuffing his toe in the dirt. It was plain embarrassment" (Wells, Art 5) and that "Snow
White is saved by the fact that the Prince makes a very short appearance" (Wells, Art 6).
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from the narrative. Likewise, Team Disney's first musical hero, Eric, was also shown rejecting
women on his birthday, saying to Grimsby: "Look, you're not still sore because I didn't fall for the
princess of Glauerhaven, are you?" Although the focus is usually on the heroine rejecting alternative
suitors, the heroes also have a record of rejecting perspective wives.
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proposes. Belle kicks him out of the door and fumes: "Me? The wife of that boorish,
you sing!" Jealous witches, fairies, and stepmothers commit multiple evil acts, but
brainless...?" Jasmine's father brings a selection of princes before her, including the
they do not break the happy disposition and grace of the princess and in the end, that
self-obsessed Prince Achmed, insisting that according to the law, she has to marry in
indefatigable optimism as it occurs in song is fulfilled in a happy ever after with
three days time. Jasmine has her pet tiger take a piece out of Achmed's pants and
prince charming: the perfect fairy tale ending. She wishes, she gets: literally, for the
informs her father that the law is wrong. Pocahontas' father tells her that something
"Someday My Prince Will Come" songs are in the case of Snow White and Sleeping
exciting is about to happen to her: the warrior-hero, Kocoum, wants to marry her.
Beauty 'summoning songs'. The female lead begins to sing of true love and her true
Pocahontas' expression of dismay gives vent to the conclusion, reached while white
love overhears, seeks her out, and joins in by the song's end. Does the prince
water rafting, that she would rather take an unsteady future over a husband "who
appropriate her song and fulfil it? In a sense, he does, but it is always the princess's
builds handsome sturdy walls." Meg has been sent by Hades to seduce the River
song that calls him to her.
Guardian over to his side and Meg "gave it my best shot, but he made me an offer I
had to refuse." The resistance of the female lead to male offers, both verbally and
The "Someday My Prince Will Come" number is never simply evoked in recent
often physically, provides a context for her consequent acceptance of the hero: if she
Disney musicals. Romantic desire is a declining theme, the 'I wish' song becoming
accepts him, she is doing so through the exercise of her choice and not because she
less circumscribed by the romantic narrative. In The Little Mermaid, Ariel's
fell in love with the first eligible man she has seen.
romantic wish for Eric is simply a refrain of her original solo, "Part of Your World",
about her desire for the human world. Table 3.2 outlines the heroines' 'I wish'
ROMANTIC FULFILMENT?:
THE PRINCE I WANT
The myth of the heroine's fulfilment only through marriage is likewise traced in the
songs.
Table 3.2: i Wish' Songs of the Heroines
Heroine
'I Wish' Song
Anatomy of Desire
Ariel
"Part of Your
The first time the song is used in the feature, Ariel is singing of her
World"
love for the human world and her desire to become a physical part of
first three features, again through the archetype "Someday My Prince Will Come"
it: although she collects the artefacts of this world, her desire is for the
song. The songs themselves are virtually interchangeable between the tliree, all
physical sensations such as walking, discovering why a fire burns. The
expressing the same desire to find love, the archetype becoming a specific category
song is reprised in the feature, now directed to the male lead, Eric,
of the 'I wish' song. The fulfilment of this desire at the end through her union with
incidentally a human. "Part of that world" becomes "part of your
the prince in question apparently confirms the myth, because the female lead does
world" and "I" becomes "we," but the original orientation of the song
not express any further desire as overtly as she expresses the romantic desire in
to a desire for humanity remains.
song. Early princesses are more or less passive in the narrative, not a hair is ruffled
as their rival's jealousy and evil storms around them. In a sense, what is remarkable
Belle
"Belle"
Belle is introduced with an 'I wish' song, though the wish is not
expressed until the reprise, after she declines Gaston's proposal: "1
want adventure in the great wide somewhere!... And for once it might
about the. early princesses is how stalwart and determinedly cheerful they are in the
be grand to have someone understand I want so much more than
face of evil. They recognise evil, but they resist fearing it. Snow White even remarks
they've got planned..." While 'someone' is indicated, the desire is
on the "fuss" she made when frightened in her escape from a murderous stepmother
explicitly not to become someone's "little wife", as she would if she
and overcomes her fear by singing: "What do you do when things go wrong? Oh,
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possess", but Esmeralda asks for help for her people.
became "Madam Gaston", but to find a sympathetic equal. The
original wish is supplemented by "Something There" in which Belle
Nala
"I Won't Say"
The entire doo-wop number is a denial of Meg's romantic desire:
realises Beast can be sympathetic: "who'd have ever thought that this
"ancient history, been there, done that." Signitlcant in this number is
could be, true that he's no Prince Charming, but there's something in
that Meg's romantic desire has been fulfilled and disappointed before:
him that I simply didn't see." This is not the romantic idealism of "one
the song is therefore not about romantic desire inasmuch as her
love thrilling me through" that is found in Snow White and Prince
wariness of its pitfalls.
Cbarming's song, but the discovery of empathy, recognising that Beast
Jasmine
Meg
Mulan
"Reflections"
"Look at me, I will never pass for a perfect bride... can it be I'm not
is no Prince Charming.
meant to play this part?" Mulan desires to discover a way to be herself:
"A Whole New
Notably, romantic desire is all with Aladdin in the lyrics. Jasmine's
romance is not part of the picture.
World"
words describe what is currently being experienced on the magic
Jane
-
-
carpet ride: "Unbelievable sights, indescribable feelings, soaring,
Aida
"Enchantment
There are a few candidates for Aida's 'I wish' number, but
tumbling, freewheeling... A hundred thousand things to see."
Passing
"Enchantment Passing Through" is the strongest candidate as it occurs
Can't
Although Simba carries the weight of the song, Nala's desire is in
Through"
in act one and explicitly relates desire. The song is shared with
be
unambiguous sympathy on the key points: "no one saying do this, no
Radames, her romantic interest, but while they question why they
one saying be there, no one saying stop that." Nala may not be in line
share their wish with each other, the wish itself is to "be sailing to
for kingship herself, but what kingship symbolises in the way of
corners of my land where there would be sweet southern winds of
autonomy expresses her own wishes. The initial 'I wish' is then
liberty prevailing."
"I
Just
Wait
to
King"
supplemented in her adulthood in "Can You Feel the Love Tonight?"
Again a duet with Simba, her wish is now for Simba to be "the king I
The desires expressed in these songs are less singular than the romantic desire to
know he is." Romance is implied, but not expounded by either lover.
Timon begins the song by speaking the romantic desire "and they
Pocahontas
"Just
Around
the Riverbend"
find a prince that is expressed in earlier musicals and consequently, the fulfilment of
don't have a clue."
those desires is more complex than the simple union of male and female lead. Often
Where once a princess wished for prince charming to come,
the heroine is responding directly to the hero in framing her desire: asking that he
Pocahontas, while white water rafting, sings: "Should I marry
see, experience, and understand her world, or at least her point of view. Often she is
Kocoum? Is all my dreaming at an end? Or do you still wait for me,
singing about feelings already felt; those she is seeking to understand rather than
Dream Giver, just around the river bend?" Kocoum is the princely
catch of her tribe, but her dream is to go beyond the "smoothest
course" to explore what alternatives her future may offer. Many have
those she is yet to discover. Often, too, she is singing about desires that go beyond
romance: desires to run and dance, discover her true self, help her people, explore.
argued that her future offers John Smith, but in the feature itself, it is
the English ship and contact with an alien people that comes into her
The significance of the hero's romantic desire and his 'I wish' song, has received
life. In the follow-up to "Just Around the River Bend", "Colours of the
less critical attention. In the early musicals he expresses no other desire than to be
Wind", Pocahontas responds to John Smith not as a future lover, nor
as the 'Dream Giver'. She refutes Smith's offer of 'proper houses and
Esmeralda
"A
Prayer"
Gypsy's
loved by the princess: "one song... of one love only for you", "but if I know you, I
streets', her desire remaining to "paint with all the colours of the
know what you'll do, you'll love me at once", for example.
wind."
musicals, he is often the main character, and even when secondary to the heroine, his
Esmeralda's desire is not for herself, "I can get by", but for those "less
song is often marked by the wish for freedom, glory, and exploration. Romance is
lucky than I." Other worshippers in the cathedral ask for "love I can
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In contemporary
nonetheless implicit in the hero's song and it frequently parallels the heroine's.
Hercules
"Go
the
song, the 'I wish' song "Go the Distance" is not about love, but parallels
Distance"
Table 3.3 identifies the hero's i wish' song.
Although one of Disney's most patently besotted heroes, Hercules' only
Simba's wish: "I have often dreamed of a far off place... where the
crowds will cheer when they see my face," augmented by "I would go
Table 3.3: 1 Wish' Songs of the Heroes
Hero
'I
Wish'
most anywhere to find where I belong." Simba 'belongs'; Hercules is
Anatomy of Desire
searching for a way in which to be celebrated and in the spotlight, rather
Song
than be the outsider he is.
Eric
Beast
Eric doesn't sing, although he can play the flute, obliquely referencing his
"I'll Make A
Shang's 'I wish' song is a homage to the masculine ideal he embodies:
'sea-longing' which is fulfilled, in a sense, by Ariel.
Man Out Of
"We must be swift as the coursing river with all the force of a great
"How Long
Beast never sings his desire in the animated feature. In fact, he never sings
You"
typhoon."
Must
at all. In the theatrical version, he does have two solos, which both reflect
This
Go On?"
Aladdin
"One
Jump
Ahead"
Shang
Tarznn
the same sentiment: "How long must this go on? This cruel trick of fate."
"Son
of
Man"
Although Tarzan himself never sings - the songs of the feature are
performed by Phil Collins - "Son of Man" represents his 'I wish' song:
He desires the redemptive quality of love.
"Son of Man, a man in time you'll be." Raised by gorillas, Tarzan's wish
As in "Belle", it is the reprise of the song that holds the kernel of
is not explicitly for manhood, but maturity.
Aladdin's wish: "If only they'd look closer, would they see a poor boy?
"Fortune
Radames' first song approximates the 'I wish' song shared with Aida:
No, Siree, they'd find out there's so much more to me." Aladdin's
Favours the
"We touched the stars, we mocked the grave, we moved into uncharted
ambition to be seen as more than a street rat becomes linked to his wish to
Brave"
lands." Radames' wish is to explore new lands, free from the restrictions
be allowed to love the princess, Jasmine, as in "A Whole New World":
Radames
of his social role.
"No one to tell us no... or say we're only dreaming." Society's denials
inform his desire to be free of social stigma.
Simba
John Smith
Simba's wish is to fulfil his destiny as king and he "just can't wait." The
Wait to Be
wish for kingship is related to a narcissistic streak- "Everywhere you look
of the 'I wish' inflection, each character's song building upon and intertwining with
King"
I'm standing in the spotlight."
the others in articulating the wish. It is Aida who articulates Amneris' wish to be
"Mine,
John Smith's wish is a counterpoise to the wish of the villain, Ratcliffe,
.more than "cute": "No, you must believe, that one day you're bound to find a
Mine, Mine"
who desires only gold from the new world in "Mine, Mine, Mine."
stronger suit." Radames' wish to "sail away to half-discovered places" is finished by
Smith's wish, which concludes the song, is for "a land I can tame, the
greatest adventure is mine!" In the wishes of both Smith and Pocahontas,
the land figures prominently, complementing the romantic narrative with
Quasimodo/
Phoebus
In Aida, the triangle between Radames, Amneris, and Aida becomes an interweaving
"I Just Can't
"Out There"
Aida in duet: "A journey we can only dream of." The three voices come together at
the end of act one in "A Step Too Far", singing in counterpoint, questioning their
Pocahontas herself coming to embody the spirit of her land.
own wishes. In a tenable reading, the entire musical is based on a romantic
Phoebus, who becomes Esmeralda's partner, does not sing, but
tripartition of the fundamental 'I wish' song, in which their wishes are suggested,
Quasimodo does. Quasimodo's 'I wish' number, "Out There", describes
developed, questioned, fulfilled, and denied.
his wish to be out among the people: "What I'd give, what I'd dare, just to
live one day out there!" The sentiment is inflected through the feature's
one true romantic ballad, "Heaven's Light." After never believing that he
Driving the 'I wish' songs and the romantic couplings is conflict. In the early
would be like the lovers he sees from his tower: "I dare to dream that she
narratives, the conflict was between the heroine and an evil female. In Sleeping
might even care for me."
Beauty, the conflict between Aurora and Malificent might keep Aurora and Phillip
apart, but there was no conflict between Aurora and Phillip themselves, both, like
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Snow White and Cinderella and their princes,, were eligible for a royal marriage11.
no more than a veneer, a thin layer of classical narrativity which we must learn to
However, Sleeping Beauty did hint at the future to come, for briefly Aurora and
look beyond" (Genre 199). The linear model unquestionably exists, but as Altman
Phillip have been led to believe they have fallen in love with peasants when they are
suggests, it is only a veneer. Altman argues: "the American film musical has a dual-
obliged to marry royalty. As the musicals enlarged the role of the hero, the conflict
focus, built around parallel stars of opposite sex and radically divergent values"
began to move towards the romance itself. Now couples are kept apart because of
(Genre 200). As the hero's role and character have been developed, Disney features
issues between themselves: a mermaid and a human, a beauty and a beast, a
have in consequence become increasingly dual-focussed and, significantly, the
zoologist and an ape-man.
female and male leads do represent different values or class/ethnic groups, as Table
3.4 outlines.
The primary audience of Disney features is the under six age group. Disney works
hard to maintain its 'G' rating even while appealing simultaneously to older
audiences. The under six group is, presumably, uninterested in romance itself: "that
would be too weird," to quote Nala, one of Disney's own under sixes. The romance
must logically be based on a scenario that holds interest to a younger audience: the
traditional battle between good and evil, family dilemmas, feeling out of place,
death, and growing up, for example. The romance, therefore, has an underlying, nonromantic signification. The hero and heroine may live happily ever after, but it is
what happens before that provides the substance of the narrative.
In presenting the romance in terms of conflict, recent Disney features absorb two
generic influences: musical and romantic comedy. Sutton notes: "In Don Juan,
Byron points out how as a general rule 'All tragedies are finished by death, all
comedies ended by a marriage.' Musical comedy is certainly no exception to the
general rule, though the word 'marriage' will have to be taken in a wider sense to
include the 'wedding' of culturally accepted oppositions" (Altman, Genre 194).
Altaian further argues of the American film musical that it "looks as if it can be
properly defined by a linear, psychological model, but this impression is created by
" Cinderella is not a princess, but she is the daughter of a nobleman, as suggested by the chateau that
is her home, and her appearance resembles such Hollywood stars of the era as Grace Kelly, who
although not a star at the time of the feature's release, became a princess herself six years after the
release. Belle, on the other hand, is the daughter of an inventor who lives in a rustic cottage. She is
not eligible, reflecting the contemporary turn.
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Table 3.4: Values and Groups Represented by Female and Male Leads
Ariel: merpeople
Eric: humans
Barber describes the process as "through release to clarification" (6). Liebler takes
Belle: poor/educated/beauty
Beast: wealthy/uneducated/beast
Barber's theory further in developing her own theory for 'festive tragedy', again in
Jasmine: royal
Aladdin: street rat
reference to Shakespearean drama, where: "What is clarified is not, as Barber
Nala: responsibility
Simba: irresponsibility
thought, the "relation between man and nature" but that between human beings and
Pocahontas: native spiritualist
Smith: western adventurer
Esmeralda: gypsy/ social charity
Phoebus: officer/ law & order
Meg: city/ scepticism
Hercules: country/ idealism
Mulan: feminine/ unconventional
Shang: masculine/ conventional
festivity, embracing the romantic couplings of the comedies as a release of emotions,
Jane: civilisation/ zoologist
Tarzan: nature/ ape man
but likewise, and increasingly, of the values that structure their lives. The 'wooing
Aida: Nubia/ slave
Radames: Egypt/ conqueror
games' of the dual-focus thus incorporate the nature of man and woman and of
their own creations, the values that inform and sustain a civilization" (8). In a sense,
the dual-focus model, particularly as utilised by Disney, incorporates both forms of
society. They bring, to quote Barber, "into focus, as part of the play, the significance
Airman argues: "This dual-focus structure requires the viewer to be sensitive not so
of the saturnalian form itself as a paradoxical human need, problem and resource"
much to chronology and progression - for the outcome of the male/female match is
(15), while in tragedy, to quote Liebler, representing "the consequences of
entirely conventional and thus quite predictable - but to simultaneity and
perverting, inverting, or neglecting the ordering, containing of civic and social
comparison" (Genre 200). The dual-focus also bears some comparison with the
rituals" (9). The festive action is perhaps best exemplified by The Hunchback of
couplings of Shakespearean romantic comedy, particularly in the festive comic
Notre Dame, itself enacting Medieval rituals of topsy-turvy.
interpretation offered by C. L. Barber. Barber analyses Shakespearean comedy in
respect to festive ritual and notes: "We know how the conflict will come out before
Festive motifs and traditions dominate the Disney musical, as they do the Hugo
it starts. But story interest is not the point: Shakespeare is presenting a series of
novel that is its source. The musical further exploits these in its dramaturgic
wooing games, not a story" (89). While Barber's interpretation stresses the ritual
approach, opening with the saturnalian performance of Clopin, putting a puppet
aspect of the comedy over story, the proposition that the romantic resolution - the
show on for children that describes Frollo's obsession with destroying the gypsies
happy ending - is the predictable outcome of a series of games, or parallels to
and how he comes to be Quasimodo's master, riddling: "Who is the monster and
compare it to the dual-focus terminology, in which the true action of the drama takes
who is the man?" The riddles and puppet show begin "topsy turvy day", the Feast of
place, supports the argument that the resolution's significance lies not in itself, but in
Fools, during which the lead characters meet while riddling, dressing up, and
its act of resolving the games and conflicts played out in the drama, thereby
dancing. Underneath the festivity, both the perversion of civic justice is revealed and
clarifying the relationship between male and female. In a play like As You Like It,
emotional needs and desires gain release. Quasimodo finds friendship and justice;
the resolution is predictable: we know that Rosalind and Orlando will become a
Esmeralda challenges Frollo for being "cruel to those most in need of your help";
couple. The play is in how their relationship is clarified. Drawing a comparison
and Phoebus finds erotic release in Esmeralda's seductive dance. Throughout the
between games and parallels to support the link between analytical thought is not
feature, the gamesmanship employed by the characters works towards clarification
untenable, I would argue, because the parallels themselves act as the framework for
of the initial, posed riddle: Frollo is revealed to all Paris as the monster, while
the games played between the two leads.
Quasimodo loses his monstrosity and is accepted by society. Esmeralda and Phoebus
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also become a couple: a comic conclusion contrary to the original tragic conclusion
place. But now, I see that the only thing dark and cruel about it is people like you!"
of the novel in which Esmeralda dies and Phoebus callously contributes to her
After saving his friends, he silently puts Esmeralda and Phoebus' hands together,
12
death . Their coupling in Disney's version allows the 'romantic' clarification to
putting aside his own feelings to bless their love.
occur after a series of games in which they debate, spar, play hide and seek
(Esmeralda hides, Phoebus seeks), and elude the authorities with trickery.
The dual-focus model in Disney features has been particularly notable in the
narratives dealing primarily with growing up. The separate male and female
Clarification isn't romantic in the strict terms of romance between lovers, but is,
experiences of undertaking personal responsibility and independence from the
suggests Barber, "a recognition of the seasons', of nature's part in man" (9). In a
family can be simultaneously shown. The romance itself signifies these experiences
sense, in musicals like The Hunchback of Notre Dame, it is about the part love plays
in terms of adolescence and those rites of passage common to the leaving behind of
in growing up. While Esmeralda and Phoebus become lovers, Quasimodo also
childhood dreams for experience in the real world, experiences like dating and
grows up through involvement in the romantic narrative. He also falls in love with
taking personal responsibility. Table 3.5 illustrates the rites in The Little Mermaid.
Esmeralda and, after spending his life believing that he will never find someone to
love, he sings: "but suddenly an angel has smiled at me and kissed my cheek without
Table 3.5: Growing Up In The Little Mermaid
a trace of fright." The gargoyles make up a festive song to coax Quasimodo into
Ariel
Eric
believing that she "just might be burning for" him, perverting a range of romantic
Exploring wrecks: dreaming of the human
Sailor's shanties: dreaming of the mer-
(sailors') world
world
Concert debut: rite of passage
Birthday celebration: rite of passage
Discovers the opposite sex: Eric
Discovers the opposite sex: Ariel
gotta love a guy like you." Quasimodo, however, grows to accept that she loves
Pines for Eric/ Father scorns her love
Pines for Ariel/ Grimsby scorns his love
Phoebus and his ability to put her, and likewise the fate of the gypsies, above his
interest
interest
personal disappointment is the main point of clarification/growing up. When
First date
First date
Esmeralda is about to be burnt at the stake and Phoebus is in chains, Quasimodo is
Deceived by Ursula
Deceived by Ursula
Kingdom threatened by Ursula
Kingdom threatened by Ursula
Admits responsibility for damage
Seeks to undo damage
Marriage
Marriage
cliches: "We all have gaped at some Adonis, but then we crave a meal more
nourishing to chew, and since you're shaped like a croissant is, no question of she's
himself chained at the top of Notre Dame, but the gargoyles insist he could break
free to save his friends: "These chains aren't what's holding you back, Quasi."
Quasimodo does break his 'mental chains', chains imposed by his childhood under
Frollo. Earlier, when he is reluctant to follow Phoebus to warn the gypsies that
There has been criticism of Ariel's final role in Ursula's downfall. She appears to be
Frollo has discovered them, he says, "She already has her knight in shining armour,
entirely passive, but she is in fact facing one of the greatest trials of growing up:
and it's not. me. Frollo was right. Frollo was right about everything." In the finale,
'facing the music'. It may not be as spectacular as Eric's heroic slaying of Ursula,
he turns on Frollo's teaching, putting aside the darkness that has characterised his
but it is no less important and Eric's rescue of Ariel in the finale, when she becomes
childhood: "No, you listen! All my life you have told me the world is a dark, cruel
passive, simply reciprocates her earlier rescue of him: if Ariel hadn't rescued Eric
from Ursula's whirlpool. Eric wouldn't be able to rescue her, and the reciprocation
12
The stage production, however, reverts in part to the original tragic resolution: Esmeralda dies.
126
confirms the dual experiences, in the end, the desires of the male and female to grow
127
up and be independent are answered in their marriage: they have proven they can act
like adults and make an independent commitment.
From about the point of Pocahontas, the couples become perceptively less
conventional. Ariel and Beast are changed physically in order to marry the more
The dual-focus model does not entirely define the Disney feature. The dual-focus
'normal' counterpart, but the couplings of Pocahontas and Smith, and Esmeralda and
establishes a binary opposition that is central to the romance, but it does not fully
Phoebus are conspicuously interracial, for a start, and there is no ceremonial
answer in terms of the central narrative conflict. Significantly, the outcomes of the
sanctioning of their unions. The next three films likewise stop short of officially
romances have become progressively less and less conventional or predictable,
sanctioning the unions, perhaps further suggesting that the couples are living out of
moving away from a strict dual-focus model, as Table 3.6 sets out.
bounds of the normal rites and laws. Belle and Aladdin 'trade up' in marrying
royalty: the traditionally upwardly mobile path of fairy tale, which itself mirrors
'growing up'. Hercules, however, surrenders divinity to remain a mortal with Meg
Table 3.6: Romantic Outcomes
Ariel & Eric
She is made human and they marry
and Tarzan, in contrast to some other versions of the Burroughs story, rejects
Belle & Beast
Beast becomes prince: implied marriage
returning to his own kind and his own English peerage, joined by Jane and her
Jasmine & Aladdin
Sultan changes law so they can marry
father, who likewise forego England for life with the gorillas. Mulan has completely
Nala & Simba
Many and have a cub
Pocahontas & Smith
Interracial relationship ending when he goes back to
England to heal his wounds and she stays to keep the
muddled traditional power structures in the romance by constantly out-fighting
Shang: he never really gets the chance to 'rescue' her, it is always her riding into the
peace between her tribe and the settlers
fray on her charger, and consequently he appears at her house at the end looking
Esmeralda, Phoebus &
She doesn't fall in love with the hero, Quasimodo.
quite sheepish, presenting her with a war helmet instead of flowers. These couples
Quasimodo
Esmeralda and Phoebus are symbolically confirmed
do not improve their social position, but their moral position. The conclusions
as a couple, but remain opposites in ethnicity, class,
and religion
Meg & Hercules
Mulan & Shang
He gives up divinity and his family, which has been
Hercules his divinity, Shang his pride, and Jane her civilisation. There is a price to
stay with her
pay for marrying/growing up.
She outshines him as a soldier then invites him to
Instead of going back to England with her and
returning to his biological society, he stays with his
Aida, Amneris & Radames
fulfilment, one or the other has to give up something so they can be together:
his object the whole feature through, to be mortal and
stay for dinner
Jane & Tarzan
feature not a string of happy marriages, but a string of final sacrifices. Rather than
The traditional kiss of true love has likewise been transformed by these
circumstances. In Snow White, Cinderella, and Sleeping Beauty, the kiss was always
ape family and at the last minute, she decides to stay
bestowed by a prince two out of three times upon a prone, unconscious princess13.
too
This status quo began to change with Ariel. She has to kiss Eric to remain human
Radames and Aida betray Egypt and Amneris
and puckers obligingly. It is Eric who seems unwilling to initiate the kiss. After The
sentences them to be buried alive together in a tomb,
Lion King, the female leads grow more assertive in kissing. In both Pocahontas and
then at the very end of the show, Aida and Radames
meet again in reincarnated form, under the watchful
eye of the mummy of Amneris
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13
She has always shown herself amenable to the kiss earlier in the narrative.
129
The Hunchback of Notre Dame, it is the heroes who lie prone. Whereas Aurora's
with the words "we all must serve our Emperor who guards us from the Huns, a man
Prince Phillip sustains no injury despite riding through huge thorns and a dragon's
by bearing arms, a girl by bearing sons." Mulan is unorthodox and her ineptitude in
fire to save his princess, Smith and Phoebus are both wounded in standing up for the
the traditional female role is comically described in her meeting with the
ideals of the heroines and are consequently laid low. It is in this position that the
matchmaker. She then becomes a cross-dresser to fulfil the family's conscription
heroine kisses him, reversing the traditional order of the kiss. Meg and Jane kiss men
obligations in place of her infirm father. In fact, her cross-dressing is culturally
much taller and pull them down to their own level, practically pulling them off their
layered. Before visiting the matchmaker, Mulan is dressed in baggy shorts and her
feet, in fact. The kiss that had traditionally consecrated true love and reinstated the
features, while female, do not exaggerate her femininity. To appear the 'perfect
princess has become the heroine's to give and with it, she identifies her choice,
bride', lipstick makes her lips red and full, foundation provides her with a pale
effectively 'pulling him off his pedestal' too. This is not prince charming, but she'll
complexion, kohl accents the almond shape of her eyes and lashes, her hair is
have him anyway. The kiss itself has become indicative of the power shift to the
dressed, and her body contorted into restrictive clothing to create a traditional
female.
feminine shape. Afterwards, she deliberately wipes off half the make-up, illustrating
the difference between her appearance as 'bride' and as 'Mulan'. Effectively, she is
Of romantic comedy, film director Billy Wilder asked: "What keeps them apart?"
as much cross-dressing as a bride as she will consequently cross-dress as a soldier,
The real axis of romantic comedies lies not with the fulfilment of romance, but with
swaggering, spitting, and punching14. Mulan's cross-dressing is dual-edged,
what keeps the male and female leads apart: the obstacles to their union. The
reflecting the established male and female constructions in her society.
differences listed in Table 3.4 are likewise those that keep them apart, going beyond
the simultaneity of the dual-focus and the gamesmanship suggested by festivity to
Shang, alternatively, went to the best military schools and is the son of a general. He
reveal conflict within a depicted social context. In early features, society itself was
epitomises the conventional Chinese male of the society depicted. As the musical
barely present. We didn't see who the dwarves mined gems for or whether there
unfolds, Mulan becomes increasingly unconventional in order to defeat the forces of
were any differences between Aurora and Phillip's kingdoms. In The Little
the Hun. She even dresses her comrades in drag in order to re-take the Emperor's
Mermaid, the audience is not shown a great deal of the different kingdoms, but there
Palace, but, significantly, Shang remains in uniform and continues to fight in the
is a clearly defined set of principles upon which each kingdom exists, a sense of
accepted military manner. Neither Mulan nor Shang change: she remains
developed societies beyond and including the main characters. From The Little
unconventional, he remains conventional. It is their ability to reconcile their
Mermaid, society has become increasingly important in providing a context for the
differences within the conventions of their society that becomes central to the
main characters so that they no longer, as Briar Rose does, grow up in isolation. The
fiction.
woods have been replaced by villages, castles, and cities.
For example, in Mulan the society is patriarchal and there are cities, villages,
14
officials, messengers, and armies. There are even foreign enemies from beyond the
national boundaries. Women are expected to marry and bear sons and men are
expected to go to war: this is set out in the first musical number, "Honor to Us AH",
130
i
When Mulan enters the military camp, Mushu says: "Beautiful, isn't it?" The men are depicted
trimming toe-nails and picking their noses. This scene can be ironically juxtaposed against the earlier
scene of Mulan's grooming in order to look 'beautiful', further qualifying the conflict in gender
constructions depicted.
131
The characters do not transform as once they did. In the first four films, there is a
PART TWO:
notable transformation of one of the main characters. In the latter five films,
MAGIC FORMULAS
however, there is much more emphasis on the decision of one or more of the main
characters to remain as they are. Table 3.7 outlines these outcomes.
Table 3.7: Outcomes for the Main Characters
CHAPTER FOUR:
Ariel becomes human
Beast becomes human
THE MORAL:
Aladdin becomes 'worthy'
Simba becomes responsible
ARCHETYPES ON A JOURNEY
Pocahontas remains her people's spiritual guide, Smith returns to his
homeland
Esmeralda remains a gypsy, Quasimodo remains the bell ringer,
Phoebus remains a soldier
It's the circle of life
And it moves us all
Through despair and hope
Through faith and love
Till we find our place
On the path unwinding
In the circle
The circle of life
The Lion King
Hercules remains mortal
Mulan remains unconventional
•i
Tarzan remains with his gorilla family
Aida remains loyal to her country, Amneris remains a princess,
Radames remains Amneris' bridegroom
i
In a sense, the characters who once would change in order to consummate a
relationship, go through many trials to remain in the same social position. To borrow
Joseph Campbell's phraseology, which will be elaborated upon in the next chapter,
THE MORAL OF THE ROMANCE:
1
GOOD VERSUS EVIL
'the elixir of life' these characters seek is 'to be themselves': thus a clarification of
self occurs. Romance becomes not an illustration of submission to marital
constraints, but release towards clarification of individuality.
As the chapter on romance formulas suggests, each romance is constructed around
the negotiation of difference. In this chapter, the moral implications of those
negotiations and the choices entailed are studied in more depth, primarily through
This particular journey is described in the next chapter, for where by examining
romance, the dual-focus model has become particularly distinct, it can not answer
fully for the underlying forms presented by Disney. Chapter Four analyses
archetypal characters, looking at how the heritage of fairy tale, myth, and
analysing the archetypes of the Disney family of characters and through negotiating
various aspects and readings of life's journey as represented in narrative. The
chapter thus describes diverse paths by which to read morality as presented in
Disney musicals.
psychoanalysis informs Disney's own archetypes and, to quote The Lion King, "the
circle of life."
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133
DISNEY ANIMATED AND THEAI"RICAL MUSICALS
Attempting to read any fiction explicitly in terms of morality is at the very least
Disney promotion is simply emblematic of the larger complexity of the relationship
contentious. Helen Vendler argues that "treating fictions as moral pep-pills or moral
between audience and Disney, when, as the Global Disney Audiences Project
emetics is repugnant to anyone who realizes the complex psychological and moral
reports, people can claim to dislike Disney and its commercialism and be uninvolved
motives of a work of art" (Posner 1). Originally Disney morality was interpreted
with Disney products, while owning or wearing Disney merchandise (Wasko et al).
interchangeably with the morals of Walt Disney himself. Those morals, to an extent,
To quote Hades when he sees Pain wearing 'Hercules' sandals: "I've got 24 hours to
still define the Disney image. Yet, a* the company has grown and as Walt has been
get rid of this bozo, or the entire scheme I've been setting up for 18 years goes up in
dead for some generations, it has become a less viable precis. Disney, furthermore,
smoke and you are wearing his merchandise!!!" The pervasiveness of the
is not homogeneous and authorship increases the 'complexity' of moral motives.
merchandise seems to undo even the sceptics.
Corporate ethics also increasingly influence the way in which morality is read.
Globalisation., marketing, profit-motive, and commercialism are issues exerting
In the debate on ethical criticism in literature, Richard A. Posner argues: "The
increasing pvessure on Disney morality. Often corporate ethics are brought to bear
proper criteria for evaluating literature are aesthetic rather than ethical... authors'
directly on the moral motives of the fictions themselves. Disney has on occasion
moral qualities or opinions should not affect our valuations of their works" (2). The
synthesised the two, as it does in Hercules, with its 'AirHercs' and 'Pecs and Flex
same might also be said fcr Disney. The aesthetic criticism of Disney has remained
Girt Shop'. The moral Hercul.es draws from the merchandising opportunities of his
concerned primarily with the technical aspects of animation, only rarely dealing with
commercial status is indicated by the exchange with his father, Zeus. "I'm... I'm the
story, while moral judgements of Disney itself and of American morality perceived
most famous person in all of Greece! I'm... I'm an action figure!" Hercules
as represented by Disney has dominated narrative criticism.
exclaims, brandishing said action figure. Zeus responds, "I'm afraid being famous is
not the same as being a true hero." Hercules realises that the fame and
Morality is possibly best exemplified by the good versus evil themes that mark
merchandising opportunities "aren't getting me anywhere"1.
Disney musical performance. The Global Disney Audiences Project identified "good
over evil" in its terms and it rated 88.7%, fourth on the list over love/romance, but
Kow can this be read against the fact that in the, real world the character is an action
only just, reinforcing the suggested connection between them proposed in this
figure, the musical itself heavily merchandised? Is the moral of the musical that
dissertation (Wasko et al 44). In Wasko's analysis of Disney she again identifies
fame and merchandise are not true indicators of success, but that heroism is non-
"good triumphing over evil" as a major theme of classic Disney {Understanding
miterial, undone by corporate activities that precisely mirror those portrayed in the
119). Here she writes: "The moralism is clear and overt. Good is rewarded, evil is
musical? The Disney Store and The Here Store, after all, are mirrors of each other.
punished" and that "there is strong and effective reinforcement of this package
But perhaps the problematic moral and ethical relationship between the musical and
through the successful synergistic activities of the company" (Understanding 119).
Her argument illustrates again the frequent synthesis of the moral inflections of the
One could argue that the moral in the musical is a response to criticism or even an attempt to prove
that promotion is meaningless and therefore not harmful, thus 'permitting' Disney to keep
musicals with their commercial promotion. This chapter and the following, which
specifically deals with Disney commercial activity, investigates the twin aspects.
commercialising its fictions. However, such arguments rely on identifying moral and ethical motives
within the organisation, dependent on moral as well as productive synergy between departments
including animation and marketing, and these are virtually impossible to verify.
134
135
Ultimately, the decision to moralise or not is the ethical quandary of analysing
with life's challenges. The hero's journey as portrayed by Disney is orientated
Disney. The association of morality with Disney, as discussed so far, suggests that it
particularly towards the challenges of growing up in society and the tensions
is a valid and necessary component of reaching a full understanding of the Disney
between family and society. Successful romantic conclusions frequently signify
musical, particularly since the moral lessons are one of the main transforming
claiming of 'the magical elixir': maturity and independence embodied in 'being
processes of the fictions. Yet, rather than make further moral judgements of the
oneself.
narratives, it is more constructive to analyse the processes of morality represented,
The hero's journey is marked by a number of archetypes who inform that 'Disney
thus building a framework to understand the dynamics of morality embodied in
character types rather than deconstruct specific morals.
il
formula' so frequently alluded to by Disney critics, but rarely examined. These
archetypes have a long history that has, in effect, only recently been tapped by the
Disney authors.
The framework is founded on the archetypes of Disney musicals and their 'moral'
development through the hero's journey. Vogler argues:
THE NATURE OF DISNEY FORMULA:
As soon as you enter the world of fairy tales and myths, you become
WHERE THE UNIVERSALS ARE
aware of recurring character types and relationships... In describing
these common character types, symbols, and relationships the Swiss
Wasko identifies Disney narrative with the model proposed by Bordwell, Staiger,
psychologist Carl G. Jung employed the term archetypes, meaning
and Thompson of "Classic Hollywood Cinema", arguing:
ancient patterns of personality that are the shared heritage of the
human race. (29)
It is interesting that the Disney formula has adhered so closely to this
model, especially in that animation provided the potential for
This chapter will develop its own definitions of the Disney archetypes as present in
illimitable innovative and creative possibilities. While other
the musicals. While influenced by established traditions, the archetypes argued will
animators were known for anarchistic and inventive styles, Disney
be largely unique to the musicals. Considering the extent of the Disney audience, it
played
is not untenable to claim a shared heritage represented in these archetypes, though
(Understanding 114-115)
it safe and followed
the traditional narrative style.
the definition of archetype as presented is more specific and not intended to be
i
applied beyond Disney musicals.
Once again, there is divergence. Disney animation itself is innovative and employed
creatively: Disney is well recognised as a leading force in the development of new
In a sense, the musical's dual-focus model is simply a dual-focus hero's journey,
and traditional animation techniques. Yet, these innovative techniques are applied to
with both hero and heroine reflecting parallel, alternating sides of the journey. The
hero's journey discussion derives largely from the work of Campbell, The Hero With
A Thousand Faces, on the heroic cycle he identifies in myth and partly through
psychological analysis. Campbell links the adventures of archetypal heroes in myth
136
137
what ostensibly appears a formulaic narrative style, at least as far as a consistency in
Sometimes these surprises were not even cases of "absolute"
narrative is perceived within the Disney oeuvre2.
originality as such, but familiar elements juxtaposed at an unexpected
moment. (129)
Christopher Vogler, who consulted for the Disney Studios as a story advisor, reflects
on his experience there: "I saw the application of simple story principles, such as
Disney plays to convention, it is true, but they do so in order to maintain their
making the main character a "fish out of water," that became tests of a story's power
audience without alienating them. For example, musically, Sebastian in The Little
to appeal to a mass audience" (xiv). He actively illustrates the intent behind Disney
Mermaid 'surprises' audiences with his Trinidadian accent and reggae. He behaves
authorship: the mass audience dictates the universality sought by Disney. The
according to audience expectations of a stuffy conductor, but his accent and musical
narrative itself breaks down simply: simple principles that can be readily interpreted
style make him original. The narratives also exhibit the familiar juxtaposed
by the widest possible audience. The narrative maintains its simplicity and
unexpectedly: the handsome Gaston turning into a villain is a classic example, or the
universality - its 'safety' - while its medium is innovative. The two work
Muses breaking into a classical narrator's voiceover with a Mowtown riff. There
simultaneously to create what is uniquely identifiable as 'Disney\ managing to be
remains an essential balance between convention and innovation.
understood by an audience including the eighty year old Japanese man and the three
year old Norwegian girl, though the animation itself is constantly inventive, finding
The presence of a conventional or basic form is nevertheless apparent and there has
new ways to present and re-tell the basic narrative model.
been a significant body of work on such forms in folktale and mythology with
Vladimir Propp's morphology of the Russian wonder tale and Campbell's theory of
Henry W. Sullivan writing about the music of the Beatles in comparison to
the hero's journey being notable. Propp's work identifies a set of dramatis personae
experimental modern music, notes:
and functions. Propp's structural analysis proposes seven main dramatis personae,
villain, donor, helper, princess and her father, dispatcher, hero, and false hero, within
Surprise can only function, or operate its effect, from the context of
whose 'spheres of action' are distributed functions that "logically join together"
the familiar, from grounding in convention and the fully expected.
(79). The functions themselves are actions that occur consistently in the tales in
Now this, in my opinion, is where the Beatles truly showed their
specific order, but although Propp's morphology with its analysis of character and
superiority. They played minutely on their listeners' sense of the
function is relevant, his morphology is based upon Russian wonder tale and cannot
expected, and thwarted it felicitously at will in order to keep the cards
be unreservedly applied to Disney musical.
of expectation firmly in their hands. They did not, therefore, indulge
in surprise for its own sake, but only to keep the listener guessing.
Campbell likewise identifies key characters and events in 'the hero's journey',
drawing on sciences such as anthropology and, especially, psychoanalysis.
Feuer argues of the musical genre, also: "Formally bold, it is culturally the most conservative of
Campbell's analysis focuses on events, rather than actions: "The standard path of the
genres" (x). Her definitions of form and cultural conservatism are at variance with the terminology
mythological adventure of the hero is a magnification of the formula represented in
and direction of this argument, but evince the same basic principal of contrast, indicating that
the rites of passage: separation - initiation - return: which might be named the
2
Disney's tendency to perpetuate such contrast is partly reflective of its generic heritage in the
musical.
138
nuclear unit of the monomyth" (30). Campbell's influence on Vogler informs the
139
memo, "Practical Guide", originated in Disney when Vogler was a story consultant
are usually provided for the main characters" (Understanding 115). While this is
and which "has been required reading for Disney development executives" (Vogler
certainly the convention, Disney's construction of specific characters is varied along
6). It is further significant that the monomyth Campbell identifies can be paralleled
the lines of convention. Classic Disney musicals like Snow White and Sleeping
with Forgac's theory about child-parent relays, suggesting the empirical relevance of
Beauty feature not ugly villains, but beautiful, mature women who were neither too
Campbell's work to Disney. Campbell's approach to mythology also has import for
fat nor too thin. Gaston, the villain of Beauty and the Beast is a handsome man. The
the analytical approach to Disney: "For when scrutinized in terms not of what it is
wealth and attractiveness of heroes and heroines also varies: Quasimodo's beauty
but of how it functions, of how it has served mankind in the past, of how it may
really is in the eye of the beholder, Aladdin has to steal to eat, Belle's father is a
serve today, mythology shows itself to be as amenable as life itself to the obsessions
poor eccentric. No two characters can be defined by even the same prototype of
and requirements of the individual, the race, the age" (382). Campbell's definition
beauty, although all represent beauty in some form, even Quasimodo. There is a
thus shifts from the functions defined within the tales to how those actions function
notable difference between the sassy, swaying hips of Greek Meg, who could have
in terms of their audience.
been born in contemporary Brooklyn, and the 1920s cookie tin prettiness of Snow
White, for instance, while Ariel's bright red hair and teenage features markedly
The fact that key characters keep emerging and performing similar actions takes
differ from the stately geometry of blonde Aurora, and clunky, skinny, sharp nosed
nothing from the diversity of folktale or mythology: it simply enables a deeper
Jane bears no resemblance to her predecessor, Esmeralda, with her shapely gypsy
understanding of the structure and development - the aesthetics - of its variations.
figure, square jaw, and sensuality. The sidekicks themselves vary in nature, form,
Wasko argues: "Classic Disney includes characters who are usually quite
and personality: some are animal, some are object, some are human, some are
predictable. The Disney animators followed careful formulas in creating characters
mythological.
and stories" {Understanding 115). She thus concludes: "Identifying the Disney
formula for stock characters in its animated features is not just an academic exercise
Wasko cites an article from Entertainment Weekly, written by Jason Cochran, as
— these characteristics can be perceived without any deep readings or semiotic
support for her argument, and Cochran's article likewise illustrates the complexity of
analyses" {Understanding 115). Yet, although thorough analysis is not required to
character readings. The initial categories appear elementary, the hero and heroine
perceive such characteristics as they ostensibly exist, it is necessary in order to
who "embody nascent all-American sex appeal, mope around, sing at scenic
perceive how such formulas are applied.
viewpoints, heed call of duty, leave home" (Cochran 64), for example. The
consequent description of Belle, who receives the highest rating, bears only partial
The basic Disney form is, in actuality, relatively easy to discern. The work of Propp
resemblance to this description, and, in fact, expands the initial, stock description:
and Campbell identifies such archetypes, but likewise acknowledges the variety of
"Winsome BELLE is brainy, gutsy, and puts others first. Best of all, she doesn't
approaches to these archetypes through centuries of storytelling. Wasko argues that
need a guy - the guys need her" (Cochran 64). Cochran's ratings system is
the Disney stories "typically revolved around heroes or heroines who are strikingly
essentially a satirical description of Disney animated features. The analysis is
handsome/beautiful, with an upper-class or aristocratic background. There is always
amusing in the context of Entertainment Weekly, but after quoting Cochran, Wasko
a villain, who is typically the opposite of the hero/heroine, often ugly, extremely fat
states: "These predictable characters also say quite a bit about the Disney world
or extremely thin, with exaggerated facial features. In addition, humorous sidekicks
view, which seems to have changed little over the years" (Understanding 116). A
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closer analysis of the features reveals that within the context of general
Disney features the heroes and heroines were in happy, contented, prosperous
predictability, diversity exists in the way Disney organises and reorganises its family
families, safe from any dysfunction, there basically wouldn't be a story. Disney
of characters.
deals with the problems facing families, not their perfection. In 'sanctifying'
families, Disney creates a multitude of diverse families, few being traditional, each
THE DISNEY FAMILY :
FAMILY VALUES/ FAMILY DISCORD
In the Global Disney Audiences Project, family rated 84.3% (Wiisko et al 44).
Waskc notes: "While 'the sanctity of the family" is said to be a dominant theme in
Disney features, ironically, few complete families are represenced" {Understanding
116). The theme is dominant precisely due to the absence of a classic, nuclear
family. With the release of Lilo & Stitch in 2002, People magazine noted: "Not to be
downplayed is the picture's worthy message: Families stick together through good
times and bad, even when the definition of family (two sisters and an alien) falls
outside our traditional notions." The heroine, Lilo, is a young girl being raised by
her older sister after the death of their parents in a car crash. To cheer up Lilo, Nani
takes her to the animal shelter to pick a pet: Stitch, the alien masquerading as a dog.
one dealing with circumstances and unhappiness in their own unique ways. Thus a
wise-cracking, but vulnerable meerkat and an ostracised warthog can raise an
unhappy, guilt-ridden lion cub through adolescence3.
The Disney 'family' is a concocted confederacy of archetypal characters and, as in
all families, natural or constructed through social necessity, it has its share of good
and bad. The Disney website for Lilo & Stitch is a good example of Disney's
representation of its 'family'. Stitch sits in the middle of the screen while around
him the cast of Disney characters, from Pinocchio to Raflki, look on with
expressions ranging from horror to annoyance, with the caption over Stitch's head:
"There's one in every family." The characters in the musicals are explicitly linked to
a notion of 'Disney family' in which aliens, beasts, genies, baboons, girls, and boys
are all related.
The theme of family that pervades this feature about a very unconventional family
was reinforced when on a research trip to Hawaii, the creative team came across
'ohana, a concept of family not limited to relationships between near relatives. The
families represented in Disney have, in fact, always sympathised with the spirit of
'ohana and have consequently illustrated a great diversity of relationships. There are
fathers and motherless daughters, orphans who grow up with a variety of foster
parents, including the memorable team of Timon and Pumbaa, and others who forge
Table 4.1 outlines the Disney family morphology. Other definitions are possible, but
the archetypes presented are based on an analysis of the main characters of the
Disney musicals discussed in this dissertation and their functions. While Propp and
Campbell, for example, identify a hero, the musicals, organised on the dual-focus
model, suggest dual heroic roles, both male and female. The Disney villain is readily
identifiable, Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas, two of the "Nine Old Men", the
principal animators who worked with Walt Disney, having written a book The
close bonds with family retainers.
Disney Villain, quoting Peter Schneider: "The villain is the key to your movie and
The sanctity of family in Disney does not, in fact, rest within the narrow tradition,
but within the ties of affection, loyalty, support, and teaching that bind people
3
This conjunction is also relevant in considering critical assertions that Disney only represents
heterosexual couplings. Although the leads support heterosexual coupling, there are frequent
together. The musicals do not construct traditional families, but construct families
alternative groupings among the lesser characters, some of which, as with Timon and Pumbaa, have
from unique circumstances. As Tolstoy began Anna Karenina: "All happy families
been read as homosexual. Single parenthood is also common: the majority of Disney characters have
resemble one another, but each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." If in
only one parent.
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you have to have everyone else rise to the same level... there must be a worthy
Table 4.1: The Disney Musical Morphology
auversary or you have no picture" (21)4. With the exception of The Emperor's New
Hero
Heroine
Villain
Father
Teacher
Groove, the Father is a consistent presence who has a well defined role in the drama.
The father is mentioned in Propp and the analogy between Propp's father and
Disney's will be discussed later. The father is also noted by Campbell: "When the
The
Little
Eric
Ariel
Ursula
Triton
Sebastian
Beauty
the Beast
specialized adult action, it passes, spiritually, into the sphere of the father - who
Aladdin
and
Beast
Belle
Gaston
Maurice
Mrs
Potts,
Aladdfn
Jasmine
Jafar
Sultan
concerns of the narratives.
Flotsam,
Lumiere,
Lefou
Genie
Abu,
lago
Carpet,
Rajar
The Lion King
Simba
Nala
Scar
Mufasa
Rafiki
Zazu
Hyenas
Timon & Pum naa
Pocahontas
guides, thus the morphology presented here combines the characteristics to define
will be discussed later, have a particular role to play in addressing the moral
Flounder
Magic
of Vogler's Mentor, whom Vogler attributes the key function of teaching (48). Such
Heroine being 'good', the companions of the Villain being 'bad'. The Sidekicks, as
(bad)
Cogsworth
husband" (136). The Teacher inherits many of the characteristics of Propp's donor,
Teachers. The Sidekicks are particular to Disney: the companions of the Hero and/or
(good)
Jetsam
becomes, for his son, the sign of the future task, and for his daughter, of the future
characters in Disney frequently and explicitly teach values and behaviour and act as
Sidekick
Mermaid
child outgrows the popular idyl of the mother breast and turns to face the world of
who often provides magic, and helper, who assists the hero in given tasks (79), and
Sidekick
John
Pocaficrtas
Ratcliffe
Powhatan
Smith
The
Hunchback of
Esmoalda
Frollo
Frollo
Phoebus
Grandmother
Flit,
Willow
Meeko
Victor,
Djali,
Hugo,
Achilles
Percy
Laverne
Notre Dame
Hercules
Hercules
Meg
Hades
Zeus
Phil
Pegasus
Pain, Panic
Mulan
Shang
Mulan
Shan-Yu
Fa Zhou,
Mushu,
Crickee,
Chi
General
Grandmother
Ling,
Falcon
Fa
Yao,
Fu,
ChienPo, Khan
Tarzan
The
Tarzan
Jane
Kuzco
Clayton,
Kerchak,
Sabor
Porter
Yzma
Kala
Terk,
Tantor
Pacha
Kronk
Emperor's
New Groove
Aida
Radames
Aida,
Zoser
Zoser
Amneris
4
Johnston and Thomas also identify the hero and heroine as 'victims' (15). The perspective from
which the musicals are read necessarily impacts upon the definitions. By reading the musicals with
the Villain as primary character, the hero and heroine's status is read against the Villain's: that is,
they are his/her victim.
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145
Aida
Mereb
Henchmen
Dominant characteristics
Dominant Functions
HERO: Physically strong and active, adventurous, not particularly bright5
HERO: to find out who he really is; to redeem himself or his 'kind'; to prove himself
HEROINE: Physically confident1', adventurous, bright, challenging (obstinate)
HEROINE: to find out what else there is in the world; to change society; to prove
VILLAIN: Smarmy, duplicitous, manipulative, erudite, greedy7
herself
FATHER: Socially powerful, leader:,8
VILLAIN: to obtain power or wealth; to conquer
TEACHER: Humorous, good-natured, sentimental
FATHER: to lead; to guide; to bestow
SIDEKICK (GOOD): Good-natured, humorous, fallible, small in stature9, loyal
TEACHER: to teach; to protect
SIDEKICK (BAD): Humorous, fallible, small in stature, loyal10
SIDEKICK (GOOD): to assist; to err; to offer friendship
SIDEKICK (BAD): to assist; to enOne of the notable aspects of this table is the absence of 'mother' and presence of
'father'. There are mothers and mother-figures in Disney. They tend not to be as
dominant as the fathers, although in Tarzan, the figure of Kala is noteworthy and her
screen time exceeds that of the corresponding father figure, Kerchak. From the table,
it becomes apparent that most mothers and mother figures fall into the 'Teacher'
archetype: Mrs Potts, Grandmother Willow, Laverne, and Kala. Guidance,
particularly emotional guidance, is embodied by these characters. Nonetheless, the
mother figure, noting that of the characters cited here not one is a natural mother to
5
The most obvious exception is Kuzco, who is neither strong nor active and is adventurous against
his will.
6
the hero or heroine11, is arguably not so prevalent as to suggest a mother archetype.
The absence of mothers, and thus a corresponding archetype, in fairy tale is
Heroines are also strong and active, but 'confident' covers their use of body language too, thus
axiomatic and in Disney is often remarked. Linda Haas's essay, "Eighty-six the
accounting for unathletic, but physically ajsertivc heroines like Meg and Amneris.
Mother", specifically addresses the absence of the Disney mother: "mothers are
7
The exceptions are Sabor and Shan Yu, villains who use aggression, brute force and few words.
8
The exceptions are Maurice and Professor Porter, who are characterised as intellectual - if absent-
either sentimentalized or disdained; in either case, their identity and their work are
minded - individuals, more interested in new discoveries than in maintaining the established status
simultaneously erased, naturalized, and devalued" (Bell et al 196). Warner notes of
quo.
9
fairy tale in general that the "absence of the mother from the tale is often declared at
There are, of course, exceptions in Tantor, Rajah and the horses. They use their size to aid the hero
or heroine,
10
Most of these sidekicks are also good-natured, if against their baser instincts, but the exceptions are
the start, without explanation, as if none were requiroJ' {From the Beast 210),
devoting a chapter to "Absent Mothers." The absence or neglect of the primary
Flotsam, Jetsam and the Falcon who act exclusively as messengers for the villain, exhibiting no real
independence of character. In regard to stature, Kronk is one of the most obvious exceptions, Yzma
calling him "a really, really big, stupid monkey." He is also one of the best-natured of the 'bad'
" Mrs Potts is a mother to Chip, but her motherhood is somewhat curious, Mrs Potts being a grey-
sidekicks, more interested in his spinach puffs than in evil deeds.
haired grandmotherly figure with a small son not older than ten.
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147
familial tie may, however, relate to the requisite destabilisation of the family unit.
Mulan rails against the 'unfairness': "You shouldn't have to go!" She undertakes the
By sundering mother from child, the traditional concept of family is instantly
role of son in response to what she sees as a social injustice, for why should her
excised, enabling the story to consequently configure its own family relationships.
father have to fight in another war simply because he has no son? Returning to her
father with the tokens of her military success, her father embraces her: "The greatest
While the absence of the mother is often noted and critiqued in comparison to the
gift in honour is having you for a daughter." Like all Disney fathers, he does not
presence of a father, unremarked is the absence of brothers and sisters. In fact,
comment on or regret the absence of a son: he celebrates his daughter.
sibling relationships are virtually non-existent. From the table, the only hero or
heroine to have known siblings is Ariel, who has older sisters, although Lilo & Stitch
The relationship of father and daughter is in part a legacy of the relationship Propp
has since presented Disney's first significant relationship between sisters, with Nani
identifies: the princess and her father. Notably, in Propp's morphology the father is
doubling as mother. The vast majority of Disney heroes and heroines, though, are
identified not as king, but as father of the princess. The princess, according to Propp,
only children. From a practical standpoint, the absence of siblings enables the focus
is "a sought-for person" (79). Her sphere of action concerns the exercise of
of the feature to remain with the only child: audiences are not distracted by sibling
prerogative: "the assignment of difficult tasks" and "recognition" of the hero's
rivalry and superfluous characters. In The Little Mermaid, Ariel's sisters make only
success (79). Propp notes that she "and her father cannot be exactly delineated from
two appearances. The first time, they appear to introduce their sister. The second
each other according tc Junctions" (79-80) and the two act as one family unit. Yet,
time, they appear to comment on how her daily behaviour is unusual. In both
within their unity, there is sometimes discord and reversal and it is this that informs
instances, their function is solely to impart information about Ariel. The absence of
most Disney relationships between fathers and daughters. The generation gap,
siblings also places the only child in a position of singular responsibility and as the
indeed, is often exaggerated between them to emphasise the disparity. Most Disney
only child, they are the sole inheritors. The latter is particularly pertinent when
fathers have white hair and several are in ill health, further suggesting a decline in
considering the relationships of fathers and daughters.
their authority.
The father often holds high social status with accompanying social power. The
Finkelstein, calling on Shakespearean theory, notes that "the use of Shakespearean
Disney kingdom, like fairy tale in general, is often taken to support the natural
comic structure in Disney's The Little Mermaid allows the film to circumscribe
privilege of patriarchy and patriarchy relies on the handing of power from male to
female desire - for independence, possessions, and sexuality - under the guise of
male, father to son. Should Disney represent a true patriarchy, presumably where a
celebrating the triumph of young people over the old" (186). The daughter's desire is
princess is concerned, she would always have a brother or other male relative poised
simultaneously represented through a generational dynamic. Finkelstein argues that
to succeed her father. But she doesn't. Yet it is as often the fathers of daughters who
youth and patriarchy are reconciled through Ariel's marriage after the death of
hold kingship as the fathers of sons. In Mulan, in which the father is a respected
Ursula: "Not until Ursula's body, and the female sexual energies it signifies, are
army veteran and 'king' of his family, the absence of a brother is articulated in
gone can Ariel successfully join Eric's class-inflected patriarchy" (187). Yet
'Little Brother', Mulan's dog who substitutes for the missing male sibling. The
Finkelstein earlier argues that "Ariel's desire is defined by difference from her
absence of a real brother is the motivation for Mulan's cross-dressing. In the absence
father, and integration into a brave new world of knowledge and relationships"
of a son, her father, elderly and infirm, must take his place in the army conscription.
(186). It is unneosssarily reductive to contradict this more exciting definition of
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149
Ariel's desire by immediately reading Eric's youth, and the new relationship offered,,
predicament, as well as supplying Beauty herself with all the determination to make
.0
in terms of patriarchy equivalent to Triton's, representative as it is of the 'old'. It is
Ariel's desire to be different to her father that is significant in determining Ariel's
orientation to Eric, not her desire to reproduce the patriarchal relationship existing
her mistress of her own fate" ("Beauty" 11). Belle's father, Maurice, is an eccentric
inventor who has had little commercial success. Small of stature and rotund, he is
largely ineffectual in protecting his daughter and when Belle says she can find no
one to talk to in the village, suggests, completely ignorant of his daughter's feelings:
with her father.
"What about that Gaston? He's a handsome fellow!" Maurice leaves for the fair with
Daughters frequently stand up to their fathers and their values. For example, when
his latest invention, but becomes lost and is pursued by wolves. His arrival in
Pocahontas' father comments that the river is steady, using it as a metaphor for life,
Beast's castle leads to a 'beastly' temper tantrum and Belle, having taken
Pocahontas contradicts him: "The water's always changing, always flowing." She
responsibility for finding her father, also takes responsibility for his trespass,
disobeys his injunction to stay away from the English and ultimately directly
agreeing to stay in the castle in his place. Maurice ineffectually seeks village support
challenges him as he is about to kill Smith, laying herself across Smith's body to
to go to her rescue, only to further complicate matters for his daughter. Gaston uses
take his blow: "This is where the path of hatred has brought us. This is the path I
Maurice's story about "a horrible, monstrous beast" locking Belle in a dungeon to
choose. Which will you choose?" Her father acknowledges her "wisdom" and her
have him declared insane and then uses Maurice's description of Beast to encourage
position as guide of their tribe. Pocahontas, Jasmine, and Ariel, all daughters of
the villagers to storm Beast's castle. It is Belle who must save not only herself and
kings, exhibit the same characteristic: the exercise of choice. Their choice is usually
Beast, but her father. As Warner suggests: "A few years on, the Disney studio,
contrary to that of the king and will eventually lead their kingdoms into a new style
sensitive to the rise of children's rights, has replaced the father with the daughter as
of government. The association of her choice with a man need not be a singular
the enterprising authority figure in the family" ("Beauty" 11).
patriarchal inflection. The romance narrative is built on the dual-focus model and
accordingly, Smith, Aladdin, and Eric represent a threat to the kingdom and the
The relationship between sons and fathers is less documented in Propp, but
father in particular. They stand for everything the society of the princess does not:
Campbell's analysis identifies the role of the father in initiating the tasks of the son
they are the 'bad boys'. That the princess chooses a consort contrary to the norm
(136). It is in the relationship between sons and fathers that you find Disney's 'bad
indicates her inclination to change those norms and to open the kingdom up to
fathers', Frollo and Zoser. Frollo is a surrogate father to Quasimodo. The fate of
'foreign' influences considered troubling, as denoted in the 'bad boys'.
Quasimodo's real father is unclear, though the feature opens with the death of his
mother, indirectly at the hands of Frollo, who has pursued her to her death on the
Even in situations where the father is not the king, the daughter's relationship to her
steps of Notre-Dame12. As Frollo is about to drop the infant Quasimodo down a
father becomes significant. Warner notes the Bettelheim reading of Beauty (Belle):
well, the priest of Notre-Dame commands him to care for the child as his own as
"Beauty learns to relinquish her Oedipal attachment to her father and discovers her
penance. Frollo is never referred to as 'Father' by Quasimodo, but as 'Master',
own sexuality with the Beast; furthermore, she should be grateful to her father for
symbolising the relationship. The penance upon Frollo grows warped and the judge
making the discovery possible" ("Beauty" 11); but complicates this reading by
continuing: "Linda Woolverton's script sensibly sets such patriarchal analysis aside,
and instead provides subplots to explain away the father's part in Beauty's
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12
Thers are many narrative deviations from Hugo's novel. Frollo in the novel has no part in the death
of Quasimodo's mother, for example, and no familial relationship to Quasimodo himself.
151
raises Quasimodo to believe he is a monster who must remain in the cathedral,
This configuration of the relationship between hero and father is one of the most
repeating his catechism, "A? Abomination. B? Blasphemy." Esmeralda on meeting
popular in recent popular culture, not so much in its prevalence, perhaps, but through
Quasimodo remarks, "How could such a cruel man have raised someone like you?"
its impact. It is central to three of the key phenomena of recent decades: Star Wars,
Quasimodo's journey involves overturning what he was raised to believe by his
The Lion King, to date the highest grossing of Disney animated features, and Harry
father. Rather than 'father knows best', the narrative proposes that the son is not
Potter. Each exhibits a father and son relationship in which the son finds his father,
necessarily a product of his upbringing and does not have fulfil those tasks that his
who has been killed in the son's youth, reflected in his own image13. They also
father initiates.
feature shaman-like guides: Yoda, Rafiki and Dumbledore. The guides are eccentric
and childlike14, yet they help the sons to see their fathers in themselves and guide
In a similar vein, Radames reacts against the tasks his father assigns him. Zoser
them towards accepting their destiny in a battle between good and evil.
organises Radames' career and his marriage to Pharoah's daughter, so that he can
Concentrating on the two most recent phenomena, there is a striking realisation of
use Radames' position to exploit Egypt's wealth for himself. In "Like Father, Like
the rite of passage between father and son embodied in symbolic transformation.
Son", Zoser vocalises, "Don't come on so cocksure boy, you can't escape your
genes. No point in feeling pure boy, your background intervenes... You'll wind up
In The Lion King, Simba's father, Mufasa, is the lion king. He is killed by his
doing just what I'd have done, like father li'.:e son." Radames refutes this, answering,
duplicitous brother, Scar, who encourages Simba s belief in his own responsibility
"Don't assume your vices get handed dov A the line, that a parent's blood suffices to
for the death and instructs the grieving cub to "run away and never return." Simba
condemn the child's design... I wouldn't wish those words on anyone: like father
grows up in a carefree exile in the jungle, but it takes the elderly, wise mandrill to
like son." In alternate verses, the two argue back and forth, as Radames exists in
show Simba that his father 'lives' within him, giving him the strength to face his
counterpoint to his father as hero to villain. As with The Hunchback of Notre Dame,
responsibility. Simba tells Rafiki that his father is dead, but Rafiki replies, "Nope!
the essential battle between good and evil, between hero and villain, is personified in
Wrong again! Your father is alive and I'll show him to you!" He leads Simba
the battle between son and father, where the son breaks from his upbringing and the
through the jungle till he reaches a pool of water. "Look down there," instructs
infamous task initiated by the father to bring about change.
Rafiki. Simba is startled by his reflection, but says, "That's not my father. That's ju?<:
my reflection." "Nooo, look harder," Rafiki insists. The reflection is altered slightly
Tim Rice and Elton John wrote "Like Father, Like Son", and for the theatrical
by the ripples and becomes Mufasa. Both son and father share the same colouring
production of The Lion King, the score of which is co-wvitien by Rice and John,
Mark Mancina, Jay Rifkin, and Lebo M wrote "He Lives in You", taking the
13
opposing view of father and son relationships. The song is led by Rafiki, the shaman
not known and when Luke sees his own face revealed from Darth Vader's mask in a mystic
baboon who has known both Mufasa and Simba. Mufasa has died and Simba is
True, Luke Skywalker's father turns out not to have died, but till the end of the second film, this is
experience in a cave, the scene strongly resembles Simba's experience in the jungle, foreshadowing
the knowledge that he is his father. Likewise, Darth Vader has, metaphorically, 'killed' Anakin
grappling with accepting his position as king as inherited from his father. Rafiki tells
Simba, "In your reflection, he lives in you." The message is: like son, like father.
Skywalker, as Obi-Wan Kenobi points out.
14
Yoda is tiny and is introduced as a childish thief. Rafiki sings nonsense rhymes like "asante sana
squash banana." Dumbledore has a penchant for sweets and when he gives a speech, says: "I would
like to say a few words. And here they are: Notwit! Blubber! Oddment! Tweak!" (Rowling
... Philosopher's Stone 92).
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153
and features. "You see?" Rafiki explains. "He lives in you." In J. K. Rowlings'
world, seemingly without support, unwittingly involved in a battle between good
Harry Potter, Harry is an orphan boy wizard who at one point sees an image of his
and evil that was begun when they were helpless children. Discovering their fathers
father from across a lake. In a narrative sequence in which time is repeated, he learns
within not only enables the sons to successful negotiate maturity - Harry's turning
that the image was actually himself. Professor Dumbledore, much like Rafiki,
thirteen, Simba assuming the responsibilities of kingship - but to understand how
comments: "You think the dead we have loved ever truly leave us?... Your father is
their fathers died, an event that echoes the loss of the idealised image of a parent in
alive in you, Harry... So you did see your father last night, Harry... you found him
childhood. Through the transfiguring reflection, the boys recover the Most' idealised
inside yourself (Rowling ...Prisoner ofAzkaban3\2).
self: it is transferred from father to son. The son finds within him the ability to
become that idealised self.
Wendy Doniger notes: "it is, after all, the only real kind of time travel there is. Each
of us becomes, in adulthood, someone who lived some thirty years before us,
There is an inflection of the same transformation in three of Disney'1; heroines. In
someone who must save our own life." Within both narratives, there is also an image
the theatrical version of Beauty and the Beast, additional dialogue between Belle
of Narcissus: Simba explicitly looking into a pool of water, Harry looking across a
and her father includes Maurice's observation: "you are your mother's daughter,
lake. It varies Campbell's thoughts on meditation: "What is the core of us? What is
therefore you are class."15 Pocahontas's Powhatan observes of Pocahontas: "she has
the basic character of our being?" (385). Campbell describes the act of mediation in
her mother's spirit" and acknowledges that his daughter has succeeded her mother as
myth: "he is driven to his own profundity and breaks through, at last, to
a guide to their tribe. In Tarzan, Professor Porter notes of his daughter, Jane, "she
unfathomable realisations'" (386). Campbell places this act in the hero's journey:
takes after her mother, you know." It is not a rite of passage, but an accepted fact of
"This is the stage of Narcissus looking into the pool... but it is not the ultimate goal;
life: the daughters do not become, but are the lost ideal of their mothers. This
it is a requisite step, but not the end. The aim is not to see, but to realize what one is"
indicates where in part the 'disappeared' mother archetype has gone. Only,
(386). In The Lion King and Harry Potter, however, the heroes are not
daughters do not have to search: their fathers verbally acknowledge 'like mother,
contemplating themselves - beguiled by their own reflections - but the duality of
iike daughter'.
themselves and their fathers, symbolised by the double reflection. This meditation is
the end of an exile: it is the rite of passage whereby the son realises what his father
Augmenting these fundamental family relationships in Disney are the archetypes of
was within who he is.
Villain, Teacher, and the Sidekicks, whether good or bad. There is some overlap
between categories and such characters exists largely as 'extended family'. For
Simba and Harry each idolise their fathers. Mufasa and James are, in turn, strong
example, in Beauty and the Beast, although the Prince is only a boy at the beginning,
and wise, respected and beloved in society, yet not above fun. Mufasa playfully
before becoming Beast, there are no parents. In their stead, he has a staff of retainers
wrestles with his son and teases his 'secretary', the pompous hornbill. Harry
who cajole and attend him. In Disney, family is not solely z. matter of blood-
discovers that James was a practical joker who, among other things, wrote a magical
relations, but of friendship and even enmity. Scar, the villain, is the hero's uncle, and
map that tells Harry's detested Potions teacher he "is an ugly git" (Rowling
...Prisoner of Azkaban 211) when he confiscates it. In short, they're depicted as
ideal fathers. Yet, these fathers have been murdered and their sons are adrift in the
154
15
The lyric actually infers that Belle's mother had a higher social position than those in the village,
but this is unsubstantiated elsewhere.
155
so is Hades, for example. Naturally, some of the characters outlined, including Shan-
the two sharing a lust for power and implication in the death of the king. Simba,
Yu and Sabor, can not be considered 'family' within narrative context, though they
however, will pass through the Shadow to become a hero.
belong to the Disney family of characters.
MORAL FORMULAS:
By acknowledging the changes that characters undergo by recognising archetypes
WHEN DISNEY HEROES GO BAD
and forms, but seeing these not as static, the dissertation poses these archetypes as
transforming. As Vogler notes:
With the release of Lilo & Sitch, Dean Deblois commented: "That meant we could
venture down a path that wasn't about an angst-ridden teenager that was looking to
When I first began working with these ideas I thought of an archetype
prove him or herself. This is a redemption story. This movie starts where most of our
as a fixed role which a character would play exclusively throughout a
films end: "THE VILLAIN HAS BEEN CAPTURED."" In fact, the feature is in
story. Once 1 identified a character as a mentor, I expected her to
many ways a culmination of a trend with 'angst-ridden teenagers'. Warner notes:
remain a mentor and only a mentor. However, as I worked with fairy
"It's noticeable that child heroes or heroines are very rarely goody-goodies: they're
tale motifs as a story consultant for Disney Animation, I encountered
almost always marginalised, delinquent, off centre or misunderstood in some way"
another way of looking at the archetypes - not as rigid character roles
(Petrie 44). This is true for Disney's range of heroes and heroines in the Team
but as functions performed temporarily by characters to achieve
Disney era. Table 4.2 outlines the sequences introducing Disney title characters and
certain effects in a story. This observation comes from the work of
from the beginning the bad behaviour of these characters is overt.
the Russian fairy tale expert Vladimir Propp... (30)
Table 4.2: Behaviour In Introductory Sequences
Characters here have been labelled with only one or two archetypes at this point,
Ariel
namely, the archetype that is dominant, but in seeing the ability of these archetypes
to be put on and off, the moral positions of the characters are similarly encountered
Breaks king/father's law
Forgets commitments
Beast
Breaks the law of hospitality
False imprisonment
as temporary performances through which ethical positions are negotiated.
Aladdin
Steals
Evades capture
For example, Vogler offers the archetype of the Shadow, whose negative qualities
Simba
Breaks king/father's law
are often associated with Disney villains, noting that the "Disney animated cartoons
Lies to mother
are memorable for their villains... They are even more deliciously sinister because
Reckless endangerment of others
of their dashing, powerful, beautiful, or elegant qualities" (73). The Shadow,
Pocahontas
Undutirul to father
however, can also express the Hero: "Villains who fight bravely for their cause or
experience a change of heart may even be redeemed and become heroes themselves,
Quasimodo
Disobeys guardian's prohibition
Hercules
Disobeys guardian's injunction
like the Beast in Beauty and the Beast" (73). The Shadow archetype thus invokes a
negative function and villains in Disney can be, for instance, Scar as well as Simba,
156
Neglects commitments
Property damage
Mulan
Cheats
157
Has others do her work
They should be more aware of Warner's caution about fairy tales: "they can also act
Lateness
as fifth columnists, burrowing from within, in the very act of circulating the lessons
Clumsiness
of the status quo" {From the Beast 411). For although the features offer what
Tarzan
Reckless endangerment
Kuzco
Unjust dismissal
Misappropriation of property
Aida
appears to be compliance with the status quo, their real moral nature is more
complicated. The initial moral disobedience is never excised from the narrative and
Disobeys father's advice
the act of 'saving' is ultimately more a case of saving society from its own moral
Endangers others
quandary than of saving society by reinforcing its moral standards. Roni Natov, in
reference to Cinderella and Harry Potter, notes "the hero's paradoxical struggle to
In every case, the title character16 acts contrary to accepted moral behaviour: they, in
maintain tradition and to subvert it for evolution to occur" (316). This is also at the
short, misbehave. Yet by the end of the feature, the behaviour of the title characters
very centre of the Disney musical. Using Hercules as an example, three key
has led to heroic achievements, as presented in Table 4.3.
incidents reveal a morality that maintains and subverts the conventional and socially
sanctioned, as laid out in Table 4.4.
Table 4.3: Heroic Achievements
Ariel
Land and sea kingdoms saved
Hercules comes to understand moral codes beyond those of social standards and
Beast
Curse removed and castle saved
expectations. His disobedience to his foster father reveals the stronger desire to help
Aladdin
Kingdom saved
Simba
Kingdom saved
Pocahontas
Tribe and settlement saved
Quasimodo
Unjust government overthrown, city saved
becomes aware that they are not enough. Finally, Hercules significantly sacrifices
Hercules
World saved
his reward for 'true heroism'. The feature does not take the route of simply making
Mulan
China saved
Meg divine, enabling the just and good to receive their reward and fulfilling the
Tarzan
Gorilla population saved
simple romantic subplot. Instead, Hercules places his commitment to Meg17 above
Kuzco
Village saved, just rule of kingdom installed
Aida
Saves the king and therefore her kingdom
others, .albeit, still tainted by the motive of self-fulfilment. His struggle to be a 'true
hero', however, reveals that while he can now match social expectations, he also
social endorsement. In the beginning, Hercules risked punishment for the chance to
help others; in the end, Hercules forgoes reward to keep his commitment to another.
Does this indicate that each character learns acceptable moral behaviour, the moral
of the story, in fact, as demonstrated by his or her ability to in the end 'save' society
from threat? Many critics concentrate on the moral standards seemingly embraced at
17
the conclusions: the imminent marriages, the assumption of socially-ascribed roles.
This isn't a standard 'sacrifice for love' narrative. It has already been established ihat Meg has been
previously hurt by a man who left her. Significantly, Hercules is in the position to hurt her once more.
Nevertheless, she sacrifices her life for him and he could leave her too by accepting his divinity. He
In the case of Beauty and the Beast, Beast is introduced first and is, notably, the one conforming to
could also as a divinity continue to love her (Zeus in the mythology found no problem with retaining
the pattern, although it is possible that Belle was neglecting her shopping by going to the bookstore
his divinity while loving mortal women). Hercules, however, emphasises moral commitment in love
and then stopping to read a book.
by giving up his divinity as a matter of personal principle: "I finally know where I belong."
16
158
I
159
Table 4.4: Moral Incidents In Hercules
Narrative incident
Hercules'
behaviour
and
its
analysis of character comedy in animation. Wells argues that "it is clear that the
Moral significance of incident
predominant tone of the Disney output is locked into the machinations of the
outcome
Hercules' foster father tells
Hercules leaves the cart to help a
Hercules' disobedience" is a result
(American) super-ego" (Understanding 155). Where he relates Warner Bros,
him to "stay by the cart,"
man with his pots and then to return
of both his self-fulfilling desire to
animation to the Id, informing the anarchy of their cartoons, Disney is associated
knowing that Hercules tends
a disk other youths have been
participate in market life and his
with the much more 'moralistic' superego: "Disney films are full of conscience
to break things.
playing with, hoping to join the
selfless wish to help others. The
game. In returning the disk, he hits
destruction that results is due to
a column holding up the market
his
arena and the market is destroyed.
strength, the primary motivation
Sebastian is a snitch, Lumiere is a rake, Abu steals, Timon and Pumbaa are
for his foster-father's injunction
irresponsible, Meeko is greedy, the gargoyles are full of vices from goat-fetishes to
to not move away from the cart.
pomposity, Phil is a bad-tempered peeping torn, Mushu is a fraud and Terk sulks,
prompting the fastidious Tantor to quip, "That's it! I've had it with you and your
control
social
Hercules
is
tells him that to return to his
expectations of 'true heroism'. The
although
he is famed for his
divine
feature
of
heroism, he is sf.ill not reunited
contemporary society's celebration
with his family. Zeus tells him
of the sports icon: good looking,
being famous is not the same as
and cons of their course of action. The Emperor's New Groove parodied the function
muscular athlete with sponsorship
being a 'true hero', suggesting the
of the superego with Kronk's shoulder angel and devil, who argue over his course of
deals, merchandising, celebrity, and
limitations
action, but when the angel agrees with the devil simply because he can do a
a ready audience for his heroic
definitions of heroism.
must
become a 'true hero'.
uses
the
metaphor
of
frustrated
155). Yet, most of the conscience figures themselves are less than morally upright.
his
Hercules
he
the
to
Hercules' real father, Zeus,
family,
fulfils
inability
figures making characters feel terrible about what they have done" (Understanding
strictly
that
emotional constipation." They are not themselves representative of the superego.
They do awake the superego in the main characters by helping to illustrate the pros
social
handstand, Kronk justifiably responds, "Listen, you guys, you're sort of confusing
feats.
me, so be gone, or, you know, however I get rid of you guys." The shoulder angels
Hercules' gives up his mortal
Hercules
not once, but twice,
Hercules' 'true heroism' is based
life to bring Meg back from
proves that real heroism is in
not on his actions - his saving the
death, achieving divinity by
principles, not strength, or, as Zeus
world - but on his principled
becoming the 'true hero', and
says
sentimental
behaviour. Hercules is willing to
then turns down divinity to
version, "a true hero isn't measured
sacrifice his life to save Meg's,
Table 4.5: Freudian Concepts
stay with her.
by the size of his strength, but by
but since he survives this, the
ID
the strength of his heart."
feature
Instinctive sexual and aggressive impulses
in
Disney's
actually
reiterates
Hercules' principled stance by
having him 'go the distance' of
sacrificing his divinity to stay
with Meg, the girl from the wrong
side of the tracks who loves him.
are endemic of Disney's sometimes irrational construction of the superego.
Self-gratification
EGO
Resolves tensions between personal desire and social reality
SUPEREGO
Awareness of right and wrong - conscience
In psychological terms, Freud describes the mind and the relationship of its parts to
moral developed, as outlined briefly in Table 4.5. Wells uses Freud's model in his
160
161
to break away from the 'safety' of society's moral order. Pocahontas is willing to break
Disney does not embody the superego so much as it performs the development of a
her father's order that there be no contact with the 'paleface', because her own
superego and the performance is collective. The heroes and heroines do not tackle a
principles dictate she learn more about them. Pocahontas is willing to risk her life and
problem individually: the problem and its solution are negotiated socially. One of
defy her father's pronouncement of death upon John Smith, because her sense of justice
insists that the sentence is wrong. Yet, she is also willing to sacrifice the chance to go
the primary functions of the sidekick is to 'kick around' the moral options. They
with John Smith to the new world, because she recognises that she must remain to keep
don't even have to speak in order to do so. On Pocahontas, the supervising
peace between her tribe and the settlers. 'The riverbend' is absolutely necessary to
animators Dave Pruiksma and Nik Ranieri worked on Pocahontas' two sidekicks,
'saving' society, for, in order to save society, the hero or heroine and their friends must
Flit and Meeko respectively. Ranieri says: "I see Meeko and Flit, the hummingbird,
go beyond the inhibiting rules of 'they' to effect change: to save, they must do what
as two little consciences, with Meeko being the more fun-loving, grab-the-gusto type
and Flit more practical, serious" (Rebello
...Pocahontas
118). Pruiksma's
description mirrors Ranieri's: "Flit and Meeko share a role that was played by the
isn't safe. 'The riverbend' is likewise threatening, since its individual nature suggests
the potential for anarchy. Heroes and heroines, consequently, retain aspects of 'they'.
Thus Pocahontas takes up her socially ascribed role and honours her tribe's spiritual
beliefs. 'The riverbend' rarely exists without some temperance by 'they'.
mice in Cinderella or Jiminy Cricket in Pinocchio... Flit epitomizes what Pocahontas
should feel, as if he's telling her, 'You should marry Kocoum, that's the path you
Table 4.6 outlines an alternative model of morality specific to Disney. Cross-species
should take,' where Meeko seems to say, 'Go on, follow your heart'" (Rebello
transformations often facilitate passage between these modes and serve as an
...Pocahontas 119). Meeko's willingness to engage with the settlers, at first
example of the model's action. In Beauty and the Beast, the prince is "spoiled,
motivated by the food offered, foreshadows Pocahontas' own decision.
selfish and unkind." An enchantress, representing the values of'they', turns him into
a beast when he refuses her shelter, in effect giving his Id form. His transfiguration
Table 4.6: Moral Levels In Disney Musicals
Me!
'Me!' is a Gaston quote. Like Gaston, all those in the 'me!* category are driven
primarily by self-gratification. Not all are villains. For instance, Aladdin's Sultan is a
'me!'. He is never unloving to his daughter, but he'd much rather she marry and spare
They
behaves as one, significantly lacking a human name. Even Belle calls him 'Beast'. In
the process of the film, Belle manages to tame his form by her insistence that he
him trouble and he's much more interested in his toys than in the concerns of his
become a gentle man. He puts on breeches and coat, reigning in his wild fur and
kingdom. Heroes and Heroines can also indulge in 'me!' behaviour: in fact, it informs
shirt-splitting, pectoral flexing, and he controls his pouncing and growling with
the traditional 'I wish' number. Frequently, as in the case of Mulan, initially immoral
restrained gestures suited to the etiquette of the table and ballroom. By the end of the
behaviour stems at least in part from 'me!' behaviour.
film, he is a tamed beast. Gaston, the hunter Id, finds small victory in bringing down
Almost every Hero or Heroine at some point cries out, like Aladdin does, "If only they'd
look closer... they'd find out, there's so much more to me." 'They' are the ones who
call him a street rat because he steals; 'they' are the moral society in which the Hero or
The Riverbend
is less 'animal' than 'animalistic'. He not only has the appearance of a beast, but
Beast: "What's the matter, Beast? Too kind and gentle to fight back?" Notably the
turning point in his relationship with Belle is when his masculinity is unleashed in
Heroine lives; 'they' are the rules that are set.
saving her from the real beasts - wolves. This is when they first begin to negotiate
Pocahontas longs for something beyond the moral order of her tribe, where "to be safe,
'the riverbend'. He literally puts himself in her hands as she tends his wounds and
we lose our chance of ever knowing what's around the riverbend." It could just as easily
thereafter, he appears only in well-kept clothing, usually seen on two legs, rather
be Hercules' "Go the Distance." 'The riverbend' is the stage all heroes and heroines
than four. He is now willing to put aside all he has learnt to foliow Belle's lead.
reach in seeking to go beyond the moral dictates of their society. 'The riverbend'
signifies individual principle and sense of justice, and the willingness to make sacrifices
163
162
The Emperor's New Groove features an accidental transfiguration, nevertheless
as human imitating animal. The malleability is central to representing Tarzan's
directed at countering a strong 'me!' personality. Kuzco is a teenage emperor. The
internal, moral journey. Kevin Lima, the producer, describes the intent behind
film opens on a llama, whimpering on a rock in the rain. Kuzco, in over voice,
Tarzan's animation:
explains that this is himself: "Will you take a look at that. Pretty pathetic, huh? That
guy was an emperor. A rich, powerful ball of charisma. Oh yeah! This is his story.
We're able to get right to Burroughs' descriptions of how Tarzan
Well, actually, my story. That's right, I'm that llama." Despite being a llama, Kuzco
moved through the jungle and how he related to that family. It was
controls the telling of his story. After all, he had a 'theme song guy' who put his Id
something that I don't think any live action actor has been able to do.
to music: "No one has ever been this cool in a thousand years of aristocracy... the
I think he would have to break some bones in order to get there.
quintessence of perfection that is he." The obnoxious teenager decides to fire his
Contort in a way that a human really can't do... we could explore his
advisor, Yzma, "living proof that dinosaurs once roamed the earth", paralleling
relationship with the apes in a way that was never done before. We
Beast's dismissal of the old woman. Yzma is not an enchantress, but she has a
could actually get into that relationship and see how that dynamic
cupboard of potions and orders her right hand man, Kronk, to lace Kuzco's drink
plays out - how he relates to his mother, who is an ape, how he
with poison. Kronk mixes up the bottles and instead, Kuzco drinks and turns into a
relates to his father, wanting his acceptance. Those were issues that
llama. Without a spell to break, Kuzco must nevertheless learn to acknowledge
we thought we could explore in a way that Johnny Weismuller
'they' to get help to turn back into a man, but, unlike Beast, Kuzco never loses his
couldn't. (Cercel)
humanity by becoming a llama. When the peasant, Pacha, finds the talking llama, he
screams, perhaps not entirely incorrectly, "demon llama", but after a few of Kuzco's
Tarzan's 'me!' is gradually rendered tractable as he absorbs the characteristics of the
choice remarks, is able to recognise him for the emperor. At first, Kuzco does not act
animals around him, transfiguring himself to better survive through adopting the
like a llama: he disguises himself as Pacha's wife so he can order potato salad and a
physicality and survival tactics of 'they'. The animation didn't simply transfigure
meat pie in a fast food restaurant that bans llamas. But when deserted by Pacha and
Tarzan, but also his environment, necessitating the invention of Deep Canvas, a
facing a future as a llama, he attempts to join a llama herd. His attempts are rebuffed
form of computer-generated animation that extends the possibilities of traditional
and he can not even successfully graze. Pacha comments to the other llamas, "he's a
hand-drawn animation. Eric Daniels says: "We tended to use it at times where we
lousy llama... I mean, a really lousy llama." Learning the value of friendship at the
were trying to drive home the point that Tarzan is really in touch with his
'riverbend', Kuzco works with Pacha, the emperor putting aside his royalty to
environment. When you go along for the ride with him, when you become part of his
become equal with the peasant, and is eventually turned back into a human, now
environment as well, you get a different sense of the jungle than you do when it's
willing to acknowledge 'they'.
flat" (Doyle). The space in which Tarzan moves becomes as animated as Tarzan
himself.
Tarzan features a peculiar transfiguration. Tarzan retains human form, but that form
is in reality a ductile line, allowing the physique of Tarzan the malleability to take on
Traditionally, backgrounds tended to be static, characters moving across rather than
the attributes of the animals in his jungle environment and eventually the attributes
through them. The ballroom scene in Beauty and the Beast marked the first
of human society also. He attains a dual existence: believable as human, believable
164
innovative use of computer technology, enabling the animation to capture the scene
165
of the couple waltzing within the space of a three dimensional room and likewise
BATTLE-SCARS AND THE HERO'S JOURNEY:
enabling the equivalent of the top shots and pans of live action film. In Tarzan, Deep
A THOUSAND FACES TRANSPOSED
Canvas is able to enhance Tarzan's malleability, his movement a part of the moving
landscape. He is not constructed moving against a static background, but the
Where the moralist would be filled with indignation and the tragic
environment itself informs his movement.
poet with pity and terror, mythology breaks the whole of life into a
vast, horrendous Divine Comedy. (Campbell 45)
Tarzan breaks Kerchak's prohibition on mingling with humans to learn more about
his own people, but after a brief attempt to transfigure himself into a human, putting
The above quote from The Hero With a Thousand Faces is one of the ways in which
on his father's clothes and thus attempting to fit himself into his father's persona,
Campbell describes the hero's journey. He adds, "the tales are both pitiless and
'the riverbend' sees him return to the loincloth and his gorilla family to save them
terrorless - suffused with the joy of a transcendent anonymity regarding itself in all
from men like Clayton. In fact, Jane herself is transfigured, losing the long petticoats
of the self-centred, battling egos that are born and die in time" (46). This
and dressed hair, and swinging off vines with Tarzan and her father, realising the
transcendent anonymity informs the distinctive Disney formula, as narratives
value of Tarzan and his family.
themselves become classic and timeless.
In a sense, the conflicts presented in the features are a conscious extemaiisation of
Campbell outlines the hero's journey as described in Table 4.7 (ix-x), which uses
personal, moral growth and transformation as characters move between and inflect
Lion King as the case study.
the stages of development. If childhood is where there is, as Coveney argues, " the
fundamental conflict between the conscious and unconscious, and, to the Freudian,
Table 4.7 Campbell's Hero's Journey Applied to The Lion King
they are few who emerge into adult consciousness without fairly distinguishable
The Hero's Journey
battle-scars" (294), Disney features, with their grounding in childhood, are animated
DEPARTURE
manifestations of the conflict.
"The Call to Adventure"
Simba learns he will one day be king
"Refusal of the Call"
Simba refuses to take his position seriously and
endangers Nala
"Supernatural Aid"
Mufasa teaches him that the stars are former kings
who can guide him
"The Crossing of the First Threshold"
Simba is tricked into baiting the trap for his father
"The Belly of the Whale"
Simba's father is killed and Scar tells him it is his
fault
INITIATION
Simba sets off alone and lives a carefree life with
"The Road of Trials"
Timon and Pumbaa
166
"The Meeting with the Goddess"
Nala finds Simba
"Woman as the Temptress"
Nala tempts Simba away from his friends
167
"Atonement with the Father"
"Apotheosis"
"The Ultimate Boon"
Simba sees his father in his own reflection, through
Table 4.8: Vogler's Hero's Journey Applied to The Lion King
thehelpofRafiki
"'Heroes are introduced to the ORDINARY WORLD,
Mufasa shows Simba the kingdom of the Pride
Simba learns that he can put his past behind him and
where"
Lands
re-connect with the glory of his father's rule
"They receive the CALL TO ADVENTURE"
Simba learns he will be king
Simba sees his father in the sky and accepts his
"They are RELUCTANT at first or REFUSE THE
Simba foolishly risks his and Nala's life in the
destiny as king
CALL, but"
Elephant Graveyard
RETURN
by refusing
to accept
responsibility
Simba hesitates in challenging Scar, fearful of what
"Refusal of the Return"
"Are encouraged by a MENTOR to"
Mufasa tells Simba the stars are former kings
his mother will think of his guilty act
who will guide him
"The Magic Flight"
The pride accept Simba
"CROSS THE FIRST THRESHOLD and enter the
"Rescue from the Without"
Scar tells Simba the truth about his father's death
Special World where"
"The Crossing of the Return Threshold"
Simba tries to save Scar regardless
"They encounter TESTS, ALLIES, AND ENEMIES"
Simba accepts his guilt and flees into exile
"Master of the Two Worlds"
Simba takes his place as king
"They APPROACH THE INMOST CAVE, crossing a
Nala finds Simba and forces him to face his guilt
"Freedom to Live"
Simba's child is born.
second threshold"
THE KEYS (quoted terms ix-x)
Vogler, however, offers a slightly simplified vision of the journey, the table again
using The Lion King model as an illustration. Voglefs breakdown of the journey for
"Where they endure the ORDEAL"
Simba attempts to avoid the past
"They take possession of their REWARD and"
Simba discovers his father lives in him
"Are pursued on THE ROAD BACK to the Ordinary
Simba returns to the Pride Lands and faces his
World"
guilt when Scar accuses him of Mufasa's death
"They
The Lion King actually appears as an epilogue in his book, but the breakdown he
Scar tricks Simba and Mufasa is killed
cross
the third
RESURRECTION,
threshold,
experience a
and are transformed
by the
In the battle, Scar tells the truth about Mufasa's
death and Simba is transformed
discusses is based on the earlier, storyboarded narrative and he points out areas of
experience"
disagreement with the final story, such as the placement of Simba's ordeal in the
"They RETURN WITH THE ELIXIR, a boon or
Siniba takes his place as king with his father's
Elephant Graveyard, which Vogler argues would make a more persuasive 'inmost
treasure to benefit the Ordinary World" (quoted terms 26)
blessing
cave' (272). Table 4.8 applies Vogler's principals to the final story, with some
Vogler actually applied his model to The Lion King when working at the Disney
sections thus not equating with Vogler's own analysis (26).
studios and his own analysis of the feature is included in the epilogue of The
Writer's Journey (267-275):
The challenge of growing up and claiming your rightful place in the
world is a classic Hero's Journey motif that naturally struck
something deep in many people. The familiar rhythms of the Journey
were not the only principles guiding The Lion King - in fact, at times,
they were outweighed by other concerns like low comedy and sheer
fun - but I can say that this is one case where they were applied
i
168
169
consciously to make the work more accessible to a broad audience
be faced and it consequently isn't surprising that at the approach, most romantic
and more dramatically satisfying. (275)
songs are found, as Table 4.9 indicates.
Once again, the key to Disney's use of such story principles is accessibility, but
Table 4.9: The Approach and Ordeal of the Hero's Journey in Disney Musicals
APPROACH
ORDEAL
"Kiss the Girl": in dating Eric for the day, Ariel
Ursula calls in her contract and
comes very close to her goal of experiencing the
takes the trident.
within that accessibility is also the capitalisation on familiarity with the growing up
process: facing responsibility, finding out who you are. becoming a mature adult, the
The Little Mermaid
circle of life in short. In terms of personal development, Vogler draws a character
wonders of humanity and love, but also the
arc in parallel to the hero's journey, in which characters gradually evolve through a
terrors of losing everything. The couple form a
series of responses to change from a "limited awareness of a problem" to the "final
bond which expedites their ability to work
mastery of the problem" (212). Likewise, they evolve from 'me!' to 'the riverbend'
together to face the ordeal.
through the course of the journey. Simba, for example, is only vaguely aware of the
Beauty
and
Beast
the
"Beauty and the Beast": Belle comes very near
Gaston and the mob invade
breaking the spell during the romantic waltz. It
Beast's
responsibilities of being a king: he has limited knowledge of its problems and is
is at this point that Beast falls in love with her
attempts to kill Beast.
primarily interested in self-gratification, as the lyrics of "I Just Can't Wait to be
and his willingness to release her causes her
King" suggest. During the course of the journey, he goes through many periods of
wonder and strengthens the bond they share, so
change, some changes he resists, others he prepares for. This is the period in which
that she will, during the ordeal, come to the
and
Gaston
rescue of Beast. In the stage version, the
'they' influence him and force him to balance his desires against society: Zazu's
approach is reprised with "If I Can't Love Her",
reprimands, Timon and Pumbaa's philosophies, Nala's sense of responsibility to the
in which Beast declares that without her, he
pride, Rafiki's life lessons. Finally, he masters the 'problem' of being king when he
doesn't want to live, indicating the terror of
returns to the Pride Lands and takes up his responsibilities, facing Scar and chasing
unrequited love.
away the hyenas: he makes a critical moral decision that goes beyond the established
castle
Aladdin
social order, for he will not kill Scar outright, as is his right, but tempers his rule
"A Whole New World": Aladdin, after making
Jafar 'unmasks' Aladdin as a
a disastrous first impression upon Jasmine as
fraud and takes power.
'Prince AH', redeems himself by taking her on a
with mercy, accepting his own part in his father's death.
magic carpet ride and revealing many of the
wonders in the world. Aladdin, even so,
The most pertinent stage of the hero's journey in respect to the musical medium is
maintains the lie that he is a prince, placing the
that of the approach to the inmost cave. This is, to quote Vogler, "where soon they
bond they have forged in jeopardy.
will encounter supreme wonder and terror" (145). Perhaps appropriately, it is also
where the characters encounter the wonder of the romantic number. Vogler suggests
The Lion King
"Can You Feel the Love Tonight?": Nala finds
Simba faces his past and battles
Simba again in exile and the two obviously
Scar.
have feelings for each other. They try to
that the approach can "be an arena for elaborate courtship rituals. A romance may
articulate those feelings, but although the words
develop here, bonding hero and beloved before they encounter the main ordeal"
suggest "the world, for once, in perfect
(146). The role of courtship is thus explicitly linked to preparation for the ordeal to
harmony",
there
is
a
fundamental
misunderstanding between Simba and Nala:
170
171
Simba must find a way to tell her the truth about
his guilt, but the prospect terrifies him.
Pocahontas
"Colours of the Wind"; Pocahontas explains her
After
killed,
The romantic numbers when they occur in the Approach affirm the bond between
world to Smith and the two fall in love and
Powhatan plans to execute Smith
the hero and heroine, ready to face the ordeal. In a sense, this is where the two
attempt to bring their people together.
for the crime and the English and
parallel stories of the dual-focus come into synch before facing the Ordeal, which
Kocoum
is
the Powhatan ready for war.
epitomises the conflict created by their differences. Yet, while the bond they form
The Hunchback of
"She's Got To Love a Guy Like You": the
Frollo uses Quasimodo's love for
Notre-Dame
gargoyles try tc convince Quasimodo he has a
Esmeralda
the
motivates them through the Ordeal, the Ordeal itself is an ironic twist on their
chance with Esmeralda, but although she
gypsies and chains Quasimodo up
romance, as the values and affection they declare to each other are frequently used
doesn't love him, his love for her leads him to
while he sets about burning
against them and the Ordeal becomes a battle to hold on to the romance itself.
help Phoebus and warn the gypsies of Frollo's
Esmeralda as a witch.
to
round
up
plans.
Hercules
"I Won't Say": After a date with Hercules, Meg
Hades uses Hercules' love for
realises she loves him, but the prospect dismays
Meg to disable the hero while he
her. Hercules is enthused and joyful about their
releases
date. Phil distrusts Meg and fights with
Olympus.
the
Titans
to
take
THE CIRCLE OF LIFE
The opening number of The Lion King is "Circle of Life" and it effectively describes
the cyclic nature of hero's journey from birth to death:
Hercules about her, eventually leaving Hercules
in disgust.
Mulan
"A Girl Worth Fighting For": The soldiers sing
The Hun invade, but after saving
of the kinds of girls they dream of. The song
China, Mulan faces the additional
dies when they reach the village and see the
ordeal of being revealed as a girl,
terrible destruction of the Imperial Army.
an ironic twist on "A Girl Worth
Mulan attempts to offer consolation to Shang
Fighting For."
From the day we arrive on the planet
And blinking, step into the sun '
There's more to see than can ever be seen
More to do than can ever be done
There's far too much to take in here
More to find than can ever be found
and the two work together to battle the Hun.
Tarzan
The
Emperor's
New Groove
"Strangers Like Me": Jane teaches Tarzan about
Clayton, using Tarzan's affection
the marvels of the human world and he
for
introduces her to the beauty of the jungle world.
Porter, Jane and Tarzan and
The two form such a bond that Tarzan doesn't
attempts to kill and cage the
want to leave Jane.
gorillas.
The romantic approach is replaced by the
Kuzco and Pacha make a last
bonding experience Kuzco and Pacha have at
attempt to thwart Yzma.
Jane,
captures
Professor
But the sun rolling high
Through the sapphire sky
Keeps great and small on the endless round
And it moves us all
the 'truck stop', Pacha anxious that Yzma will
discover and kill Kuzco.
Aida
\
"Elaborate Lives": Aida and Radames confess
Aida
must
their love for each other, despite the trials they
Radames and saving her father
know they must face.
and Radames must choose Aida
or Egypt.
choose
between
In the circle
The circle of life
172
173
And it moves us all
Figure 4.1: Vogler's Hero's Journey (xxi)
Beginning and Ending
(climax of Act Three
and of entire story)
In the circle
The circle of life.
Campbell notes "the traditional importance of the mathematical problem of the
quadrature of the circle: it contains the secret of the transformation of heavenly into
Ist Threshold
The Road Back
(climax of Act
(climax of Act Two,
One)
Part Two)
earthy forms" (42). He links the concept to the World Navel: "since it is the source
Ordeal
of all existence, it yields the world's plentitude of both good and evil" (44). Within
(climax of Act Two, Part One)
the song, the World Navel and through the World Navel, the rhythms of life's
journey, are invoked, underscored by the ritual baptism of Simba, who will one day
begin a new reign in the Pride Lands after facing both good and evil. In the animated
feature, the song is performed by a disembodied voice, suggesting an omnipresence
The journey, however, as illustrated in the previous chapter, is not only
consistent with the omnipresence indicative of its mythic theme. The animation also
representative of one character, but of two. and, moreover, 'they' are a prominent
takes an omnipresent point of view, mimicking aerial photography of the Pride
presence in Disney musicals as the isolation of Snow White and Aurora, who grew
Lands as the animals gather at Pride Rock. The aerial perspective created by
up in the woods or in castles detached from village life, has been replaced with well
animation likewise incorporates a sense of circling down towards Pride Rock,
developed cities and towns and villages that provide a social context for the actions
reinforcing the symbolic pattern of the song. In the stage production, Rafiki, the
of the characters. These facts suggest that the journey in Disney musicals can be
shaman mundrill, undertakes the song. Rafiki's spiritual role maintains the
better illustrated with three circles. Moreover, the narrative style of Disney suggests
omnipresence. The animals enter the stage from all angles of the theatre, including
alternative titles for the key stages of the journey that make it distinctive to the
the stalls, so that while the aerial perspective can not be effectively recreated, the
Disney framework. Figure 4.2 offers an alternative reading of the hero's journey in
dancers' movements, incorporating twisting and turning, through the theatre echo
respect to Disney musicals.
the sense of convergence into a central position. The choreography, whether
animated or theatrical, catches the musical and mythic rhythms invoked by the song,
thus ritualising the journey in performance. Vogler himself illustrates the journey
with a circle (xxi), as given in Figure 4.1.
174
175
Peter Pan always leaves Wendy before she makes a man of him. John Smith having
Figure 4.2 The Disney Journey
returned alone to England, the Pocahontas sequel begins with Pocahontas playing in
Beginning/Ending
the snow like a child, refusing the responsibilities of womanhood undertaken by her
Centre
friend, who has found a husband and joins the other women collecting food.
Unity
Marriage becomes a social seal of maturity and those who exist outside a
relationship tend to exhibit immature, untamed qualities.
The two circles operate within and against the social circle of 'they'. This circle
Wisdom:
Agitation:
symbolises the community and its development. Constructed, the community is
Proactive
"I want"
'The
"I wish
Right
Stuff
capable of reconstruction as the journeys of the hero and heroine renegotiate the
regulations and rules of 'they'. Yet the hero and heroine must nevertheless operate in
the context of society.
Choices:
Discovery
The circles all exhibit similar milestones. The beginning/ending is always presented
Trial
as a unified, centred position. There is no turmoil at this point: everything is as it
should be. It is, ironically, this that prompts the hero and heroine to agitate for
The three circles represent the heroine's journey, the hero's, and that of 'they', or the
social circle itself. The hero and heroine's circles often operate as parallel circles
that overlap as their paths cross in the narratives. The circles also tend to balance
each other in Disney features, suggesting a further role for the parallel stories. If the
same model were applied to Warner Bros., where male characters often lack a
female counterpart, the absence of a complementary circle could suggest why the
one journey becomes more zany, illogical, violent, noisy, and aggressive. In The
Emperor's New Groove, the Disney feature closest to Warner Bros.' narrative style,
Kuzco has no heroine to counterbalance him and acts most like a Warner Bros.
character. On the other hand, Pacha, who has a wife, retains the Disney tradition.
Likewise, in The Lion King during Simba's exile from the Pride Lands, and
effectively from Nala, he once again acts most like a Warner Bros, character. The
balance of male and female in the journey seems to be indicative of the moral
growth of the characters from childhood to maturity, at least as perceived in Disney.
Without the other, there is no inducement to 'grow up' and join the adult world.
176
change and likewise prompts the perennial 'I wish' song. In The Lion King, for
example, Simba and Nala are living in a well-run kingdom with their loving parents.
Simba, however, "just can't wait to be king, no one saying do this, no one saying be
there, no one saying stop that." Nala joins in his song. He wants the freedom to do as
he pleases and Nala agrees with him. Simultaneously, there is agitation within the
social circle itself, as Scar agitates the hyenas to invade the Pride Lands. Such
agitation comes with choices, through which Simba must make discoveries about
himself and face trials, such as the death of his father and the decision to remain in
exile and live his life by the motto 'Hakuna Matata', while Nala chooses to remain
with her pride, although in the theatrical version, she likewise makes the decision to
go into exile when Scar plans to marry her. The society itself is facing its own trials
as the hyenas ravage the land and create famine. When Nala finds Simba again, she
has the wisdom to see "he's holding back, he's hiding... Why won't he be the king I
know he is, the king I see inside?" She is one step ahead of Simba in "Can You Feel
the Love Tonight?" for Simba's verse reveals that he still isn't able to deal with his
177
past: "she'd turn away from me." However, when Rafiki finds him, he knocks some
PART TWO:
sense into him - literally. Rafiki hits him on the head with his staff. Simba responds,
MAGIC FORMULAS
"Owww, geez, what was that for?" Rafiki responds wisely, "It doesn't matter. It's in
the past!" Through this meeting with Rafiki, in which Simba learns that his father
lives in him, he becomes proactive: he finds "the right stuff." He leaves to face Scar,
Nala right behind him, and the truth about Scar is revealed to the kingdom. The
CHAPTER FIVE:
Pride Lands, Simba, and Nala have come full circle and the feature finishes with the
baptismal ritual of their cub, just as the feature had begun with Simba's.
COMMERCIALISM: THE SALE OF MAGIC
The aim in this chapter has not been to moralise over Disney or to try to interpret the
moral of their stories. These are essentially generic moral values, readily identified.
When he smiled
The girls went wild with
Oohs and aahs
And they slapped his face
On ev'ry vase
Hercules
In Beauty and the Beast, for example, the moral, "don't judge a book by its cover",
is well-known. Yet, such simple morals are insufficient to explain the mechanics of
how Disney imparts values and mords through its fictions. By removing the
emphasis from fixed moral pronouncements and character types, the aim of this
chapter has been to indicate the volatility of the moral journey from beginning to
ending, and the key possibilities by which it can be described. In Chapter Five, I
SELLING MAGIC
move from this examination of Disney's moral heritage into the contemporary and
Disney's engagement with commercialism and the possibilities of a broader
The process of selling Disney 'magic' is covered in the many books and articles
definition of performance in global culture.
available about Disney corporate practice, ethics, and market position. The 'value'
of Disney features and shows is often measured economically in production costs,
box office grosses, and sometimes also in 'spin-offs' such as merchandise and
corporate mergers. The promotion of a Disney musical seems inseparable from the
musical itself. Certainly, the promotion of a musical is significant. This chapter
specifically examines the potential for seeing commercialism in performance terms.
The object is not to argue that commercialism is good or bad, positive or negative, in
itself or as practised by Disney. What is of more immediate consequence to the
present discussion is the proposition that commerce is itself a part of performance.
Is Disney commercial? Of course it is. Disney is a business engaged in commerce,
which
178
is
the
basic
definition
of
commercialism,
179
although
increasingly
commercialism is interpreted by its extreme. Does Disney exploit its audience and is
wearing a Goofy hat. Such appearances are usually identified as in-house jokes,
Disney commercially avaricious? The Global Disney Audiences Project found that
along with the appearance of Belle in the square in front of Notre Dame and
24.6% of the respondents agreed that Disney promotes 'thriftiness', but 24.4%
Hercules modelling a lion skin that is conspicuously Scar. Whether the in-house
agreed it discourages 'thriftiness' (Wasko et al 359). This illustrates a contradiction
jokes have a commercial motivation is arguable. Lilo & Stitch includes two direct
at the heart of Disney: while Disney encourages its audience to spend money on its
Mulan references: a Mulan poster on Lilo's wall and the name of a locai cafe. If
products and services and the narratives often feature great wealth, it also promotes
these references are commercial, their object is in doubt. Disney Stores at th; time of
values of thriftiness. In Hercules, after all, the only main characters who purchase
the feature's release did not carry any significant Mulan merchandise that could
Hercules merchandise are Hades' sidekicks: the bad guys.
foreseeably be promoted by such 'product placement'. The artistic motivation is the
more certain conclusion on existing evidence.
Overall, the musicals rarely show heroes or heroines engaged in market activity. It is
conspicuously the case that the majority of heroes and heroines do not make
Terms like merchandise, promotion, and multimedia dominate the discussion of
purchases: Jasmine can't pay for the apple she gives to hungry orphans in the
Disney commercialism. Disney produces multimedia products: CDs, PlayStation
market; the bookseller gives Belle the book she keeps borrowing from his store;
games, and DVDs for example. Multimedia is most commonly used to describe this
Pocahontas freely offers corn as 'gold' without any request for payment; Quasimodo
type of communication media, but can also be applied to other forms of media
decorates his bell tower with bits of glass and wood he finds and crafts himself.
including soft toys, clothing, and other articles. Multimedia is frequently part of a
Greed, furthermore, is always depicted negatively and leads either to terrible
promotional campaign. Even in the 1950s and 60s, multimedia was produced to
consequences or to the learning of values of sharing. Ratcliffe, for instance, in his
promote television shows and pop groups, becoming collectable merchandise. In
greed for gold is ultimately trussed up and put on a ship back to England. Abu,
Disney/Pixar's Toy Story, the characters of Woody and Buzz are dolls created to
whose greed leads him to steal a large ruby from the enchanted cave, nearly kills
promote television shows and both the feature and its sequel explore how the
himself and Aladdin. Meeko, who is always greedy for food, learns to share his
'merchandise' create their own sense of identity separate to the show which created
spoils with Percy and Smith. If Disney the corporation is 'devouring the world' as
them: fables for the child's search for his/her own identity. Both toys discover that
Hiaasen suggests, its fictions promote a different commercial message. It could be a
their identity is determined not by the show they promote, but by the child who plays
motivated attempt to neutralise the public's perceptions of Disney corporate greed,
with them. The sequel has a particular resonance in the scene in which Buzz is in a
but the extent to which story lines are influenced by Disney public relations is
toy store and is faced by an entire aisle of Buzz Lightyears2. Caught off guard and
undefinable1.
2
Buzz is 'new' merchandise, based on a show still in production. The sequel to Toy Story actually
Disney merchandise itself makes cameo appearances in the musicals. \n Aladdin, for
follows the adventures of Woody as he discovers that he is merchandise from a 1950s, black and
instance, the Sultan has a toy figure of Beast and Genie leaves on his holiday
white television programme, long since cancelled. Woody has become valuable as the final addition
to a collection of merchandise relating to Woody's Roundup, but faced with remaining part of the
'collection' promoting the show or returning to Andy's room to be Andy's toy, Woody eventually
1
This is a contentious area in the debate, but there is now no certain critical means of understanding
how far Disney corporate practice influences authorship.
180
opts for the latter, bringing other members of the collection such as Jessie with him to undertake new
roles unrelated to Woody's Roundup.
181
re-packaged, Buzz, despite being materially identical to all the other toys, remains
'Buzz', Andy's toy, as signified by the child's writing ci his name on Buzz's sole3.
The toys, although produced identically to promote a prototype character, all
develop their own personalities as dictated by the role of child's toy, in particular,
the role of a particular child's toy - Andy's. Andy himself only has minor
appearances in the features and the toys are never self-animated when he is present;
you escaping from our wiles... we've a franchise worth exploiting and we will...
when you get up in the morning, till you crash at night, you'll have to live your life
with bishop, rook and knight... you could even buy a set and learn to play, we don't
mind, we'll sell you something anyway." Simultaneous with the satire present in
their content, each musical has been regarded as part of the heavily marketed trend
through the 1970s and into the twenty-first century.
nevertheless, Andy re-defines their identities as they join his family. Although critics
often interpret merchandise in static terms, inseparable from the prototype and its
During the 1980s and into the current decade, most films and shows are marketed
initial promotional/commercial intent, merchandise has other purposes: toys, become
through multimedia avenues: soundtracks, toys, games, for example. Promotion and
the playthings of children, CDs become music to sing and dance to, games become
multimedia exist simultaneously: Star Wars and Harry Potter figures and
something to play. Merchandise has a primary function of promoting features, but
PlayStations sold simultaneously with the release of new films in the oeuvres; When
once purchased, the merchandise also fulfils additional functions.
Harry Met Sally and 77te Big Chill soundtracks promoted with the films; Cats Tshirts and cast recordings selling in the theatre foyers, even Sondheim, notoriously
The marketing and promotion of a musical and its multimedia are intimately linked.
Although the trend can be traced further back and to other sources, including The
Merry Widow, Mark Steyn suggests that in Jesus Christ Superstar: "metaphorically
speaking, that's what Lloyd Webber was laying the foundations of 25 years ago: a
24 hour, global, one-stop shop for all your entertainment needs — shows, albums, Tshirts, perfumes, vacation packages, massive purpose-built theatres" ("Caught"). The
lyrics, written by Tim Rice, who would later write for Disney, actually satirise
commercialism, particularly in the Temple scene in which the market sellers sing
"roll on up for my price is down... come and buy it's all going fast... hurry now
while stocks still last", and in "Superstar", where Judas sings such lines as "Could
Mohammed move a mountain or was that just P.R.?" Rice's other pre-Disney work
also evinces instances of the same satire of commercialism. In Evita, the First
Lady's ruthless self-promotion is captured in such lyrics as "I'm their product, it's
vital you sell me." Chess includes a number in which merchandisers themselves take
the stage during a chess tournament: "We are here to sell you chess, not a chance of
the most uncommercial of musical writers, on T-shirts and mugs. The promotion of
a film or show by merchandising a range of multimedia is not solely economic, but
can also be read in terms of performance itself. Jon McKenzie, for instance, argues a
larger definition of performance: "one that links the performances of artists and
activists with those of workers and executives, as well as computers and missile
systems" (3). Disney blends cultural, economic and technological performance.
Through this model, Disney takes advantage of all levels of performance in its
authorship. Yet there remains a critical resistance to reading technology and
economics in terms of performance; culture and economics, in particular, are read as
conflicted binaries. McKenzie, however, argues: "With three, rather than two,
performance paradigms on our unstable table, we can perhaps avoid building a
reading machine out of binary oppositions while unfolding performance in other
ways as well" (12). It should, therefore, be possible to read the commercial and
cultural aspects of Disney without using a model of opposition. Yet, often this is
what occurs, Giroux for example arguing: "A contradiction emerges between
Disney's cut throat commercial ethos and the Disney culture, which presents itself as
3
There is a temptation to see as an act of god the writing on the toy's 'soul', but the toys are always
conscious that Andy is a boy who will eventually grow up and put them away and they are
a paragon of virtue and childlike innocence" (25). Giroux's comment at first glance
reflects the contradiction described in the previous chapter: Hercules rejecting the
significantly inanimate while Andy is about. Andy does not give them Mife', but purpose.
182
183
value of action figures, yet action figures of the characters being on sale in Disney
spent the rest of the decade extracting the riches. With newfound confidence,
Stores. Contradiction may be a misleading term, though. Anthony Haden-Guest
newfangled computer animation, and a record-crashing $35 million budget, Disney
writes: 'The scrupulous inter-reaction of art and technology, life and merchandising,
put six hundred people to work on Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise's Beauty and the
has produced the phenomenon of total control which has always typified Disney in
Beast" (48). Technology and finance combined with artistic performance to maintain
both their creative and their business works" (225). In effect, Disney commercialism
Disney's success with the animated musical.
and culture react upon each other, creating what is a recognisable Disney
performance.
As McKenzie stresses, performance has become marked by diversity:
That phenomenon of total control described by Haden-Guest in 1972 has since the
The geopolitical, economic, and technological
creation of Team Disney become centred on the chief executive officer, Michael
associated with the performance stratum gives us insight into the
Eisner. Eisner's economic performance, for example, has been defined as rapacious,
formation of its fractal subjects. The desire produced by performative
particularly in citations of his salary. While refraining from arguing the primarily
power and knowledge is not modeled on repression. Performative
financial implications, and the implications of CEO salaries in general, in
desire is not molded by distinct disciplinary mechanisms. It is not a
performance terms his salary signifies his Disney 'billing' and it is no coincidence
repressive desire; it is instead "excessive," intermittently modulated
that on his autobiography he is pictured in a theatre with Mickey Mouse sitting
and pushed across the thresholds of various limits by overlapping and
beside him, just as Walt Disney was regularly pictured with Mickey Mouse. The
sometimes competing systems. Further, diversity is not simply
CEO is as much a Disney performer as the animated character, his performance
integrated, for integration is itself becoming diversified. Similarly,
explicitly linked to that of 'the mouse'. As McKenzie argues: "Today, as we
deviation is not simply normalized, for norms operate and transform
navigate the crack of millennia, work, play, sex, and even resistance - it's all
themselves through their own transgression and deviation. (19)
transformations
performance to us" (3). The application of the term 'performance' to multiple
aspects of culture and society increases the potential to bridge, rather than
Disney is adept at diversification and, moreover, apparently at operating
distinguish, commercial from creative culture.
normalisation through transgression and deviation, each deviation of classic
narratives and of the Disney formula itself becoming 'the norm' as it is integrated
Marc Miller locates the change The Little Mermaid wrought on Disney performance
into the construction of the Disney identity, which is itself diverse. Disney is a study
in terms that link artistic and financial success: "The Little Mermaid won two
of the transformative powers of performance: transforming animated features into
Oscars, earned $84 million in its initial domestic theatrical release, and laid the
toys, CDs and Happy Meals, transforming deviations into 'classics'4. Disney is still
foundation for a marketing franchise that turned Disney from a profitable but
read largely as a repressive mechanism, but its limits can not be tested until it is read
moldering old-guard corporation into an unstoppable entertainment phenomenon"
through its 'excess'. The 'excessive desire' that represents Disney performance
(48). The major money, as Miller notes, was made in the merchandising
opportunities and the performance of The Little Mermaid had an impact on how
future performance was constructed: "Disney had stumbled on a gold mine, and it
184
4
Those musicals like The Little Mermaid and Hercules are transformed also through deviations in the
classical narratives into Disney classics.
185
relates not only to audiences and consumers who 'desire' Disney, but to the
Nightingale continues: "The volume, variety and professionalism of readily
networks of knowledge and power that formulate how we read Disney.
available Disney merchandising are designed to pre-empt copying and divert the
energy of cultural engagement into commercially exploitable re-enactments"
Overlapping disciplinary approaches, for example, converge on the interpretation of
(Wasko et al 73). Nightingale's definition of totemism, however, explicitly argues
merchandise as totemism, diverting the original religious and cultural traditions into
against a ritual reading towards an economic one, simplifying the idea of availability
contemporary commercial traditions. Warner argues that in The Hunchback of Notre
to suggest that both culture and commerce are mutually exclusive, the opportunity to
Dame, Quasimodo is "a cuddly and lucky mojo" (No Go 299), a theme carried on in
'commercially
merchandise: "Quasimodo was issued as a figurine; many other squat trolls with
performance or cultural engagement. Yet, although Disney may pre-empt through
pudgy faces and big heads teem on the shelves of toy shops, are collected as lucky
the production of Disney merchandise, the use of its merchandise can not be
totems by individual children or adopted as mascots by American football teams"
materially controlled beyond the store5 and Nightingale herself acknowledges "the
(No Go 299). In the case of Quasimodo, the nature of his totemism draws upon a
different possibilities" Disney characters "offer for identification" (72). The ability
fairy tale tradition of the gryllus and their magical properties. More generally,
to use these characters to challenge social mores is not masked but characteristic of
Vogler argues in reference to the merchandise of the film, Titanic: "We live in a
the global performance. In fact, the merchandise itself often incorporates disruptive
collecting society, where the ancient urge to own little pieces of a story can be
codes. A bubble bath container shaped like Jafar, for example, presents the Disney
indulged on a fantastic scale. In the same impulse that caused Neolithic people to
villain as a vehicle for 'fun' and 'cleanliness', transforming the character's musical
carve bone models of their favorite goddess or totem animal, the contemporary
performance into the performance of cleansing.
exploit'
and
'copyright'
necessarily
expunging
ritualistic
movie audience wanted to own a piece of the Titanic experience" (242). The use of
Disney characters as totems exists within a wider context of totemism through
Disney characters do have a substantiated influence on how the audience relates to
contemporary performance, descriptive of the kind of excess McKenzie argues.
the world. Deer are frequently referred to as 'Bambis' and children observing
meerkats are known to identify the species as 'Timon' 6 , while children voted in a
The same reference to totemism exists in Nightingale's essay on Disney in Australia:
contest to name the Seattle Aquarium's octopus 'Ursula' shortly after the release of
The Little Mermaid (Johnston & Thomas 190). To some extent, as yet immeasurable
...people everywhere disrupt and challenge the world around them in
and fully open to debate, people have come to relate to and understand the world in
a sort of pseudo-totemic engagement with Disney merchandising
'Disney terms', just as once they used mythology. It is not altogether surprising,
which uses the playfulness of childhood and the traces of animal
then, that you find representations of Disney characters proliferating through our
nature left in Disney characters to mask their resistance to oppressive
culture in the form of merchandise. There is a distinct analogy in Hercules when the
domestic and work regimes. This is a much more ephemeral type of
cultural production than that which results in new entertainment
production. It does not linger to disrupt the cozy comfort of Disney
copyright legislation. (Wasko et al 72)
5
through ideology and cultural learning, but the point here is that they cannot physically enforce
control beyond the store, introducing the possibility of alternative, even ideologically resistant, use in
the priv^i sphere.
6
186
There is certainly a case to be made that Disney can control its merchandise beyond the store
Personal observation at Melbourne's Werribee Zoo.
187
Muses remark that they "slapped" Hercules' image on "every vase." Just as images
Unlike those from theatrical productions or films, the specific characters are readily
of Hercules proliferated through ancient Greece, images of Disney's Hercules
available to merchandise. Belle can be drawn and redrawn in a variety of new ways,
proliferate through contemporary nations .
yet remain recognisably 'Belle', in contrast to human actors whose images become
dated and cannot, in the norm, be redrawn. The animated character exists outside
nature, however, and just as the animated features can be endlessly recycled, so too
ANIMATED FEATURES IN THE DISNEY STORE:
can the characters be endlessly and freely redrawn. In the early 2000s, Disney Stores
GOING AROUND IN TEMPORAL CIRCLES
have promoted the 'Disney Princesses'. The princesses included range from Snow
White (1937) to Mulan (1998) and are represented in a variety of ways, but treated
Disney's synergistic business practice often leads criticism to reduce rather than
complicate the relationship
between
musicals and
merchandise.
Disney's
as contemporaries, although their original releases occur over a period of six
decades.
merchandising activities, particularly the tie-ins with McDonalds, which includes
Disney toys in its meals, are cited in a wide range of literature, but less attention is
paid to how these merchandising activities reflect the features themselves or the
Disney identity.
There are pink plastic tea sets bearing their faces, but there are also key rings and
coffee mugs with pop art representations of the princesses. The thought bubbles
illustrated contain parodies on the traditions of each princess: Snow White's "Who's
the fairest of them all... oops, me again!"; Cinderella's "A princess shouldn't have
Forgacs argues that Disney is "targeted at the family unit" (362):
to work this hard"; Sleeping Beauty's "All this beauty and I just woke up!"; Belle's
"Why am I always attracted to such beasts?" The remarks all evince a post-feminist
It is likely that the success of character licensing and merchandising,
which took off almost immediately after the film debut of Mickey
Mouse in 1928, played a part in shifting Disney animation towards
both cuteness and a more 'family'-oriented product because it
demonstrated the potential of the toys and gadgets market as a source
of additional revenue. (366)
twist. Snow White is still recognisable as the missish 1930s Snow White and Belle
as the wilful, independent 1990s Belle, but they are absorbed into the same retro 60s
pop art / turn of the century, post-feminist projection. Likewise, Snow White is
reconceived on the cover of the first DVD release (2001) of the animated feature.
Instead of the cookie-tin, watercolour artwork of the original posters, Snow White
posing coyly among the cast of characters, the purple cover features a framed
portrait of an airbrushed princess about to bite into the bright red, sparkling apple, a
Disney's cultural and economic viability has relied on its ability to maintain its
family orientation and as this section will show, this has involved the development
of specific temporal strategies incorporating commerce and art.
seductive, contemporary rendering in which Snow White is recognisable, but the
artistic treatment is quite different to the sixty-three year old original. Within the
Disney Store, the continuity of time is suspended, enabling the Disney cast of
animated characters to be constantly cross-promoted and updated as multimedia
7
3
Of course, the two representations are quite different, as ancient Greek society is quite different to
the contemporary societies in which Disney's Hercules is produced.
188
This is a case of Disney merchandise re-inflecting pop art's use of the themes of mass culture and
comic strips.
189
evolves. DVD did not exist and was not even imagined when Snow White was first
entertaining for their children" (369). Yet, the relays themselves, implying the
released, but Snow White joins Mulan, Belle, and other contemporary princesses on
simultaneous appeal to different generations, genders, and cultural backgrounds,
the DVD racks in the early twenty-first century, as freshly drawn as they, unlike her
indicates a temporal heterogeneity underlying what is often perceived as ageless and
live action contemporaries.
homogenised.
Forgacs, in fact, argues: "It i? remarkable that in this process of recycling and global
As evinced in the previous chapter, the same sort of temporal activity takes place
rereleasing the animated features do not seem to age... In reality this magic of
within the narrative cycles, which in part Forgacs notes as the features'
eternal youth has a lot to do with the way the films are promoted and publicised"
preoccupation with 'growing up' (374). Increasingly, the cycles of growing up are
(368). By defining the characters as 'classics', Disney is able to defy time on their
being extended in what might be referenced as Disney's capitalisation on the success
behalf. Many of the characters identified as 'classic' have had a very short lifetime
of its animated features: the video and DVD sequels. Straight-to-video sequels of
within the Disney oeuvre, Wasko noting that Hercules, despite the feature's
Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast, and Pocahontas feature main characters still in the
comparatively low box office, quickly proliferated through the Disney empire as a
process of maturity, replaying adolescence. Pocahontas, for example, is introduced
'classic' character {Understanding 81). The 'classic' label is derived from
playing a practical joke on her friend. While Nakoma has become a woman,
animation, rather than time and acclaim, invoking the suggested immortality
Pocahontas is still constructed as an adolescent playing in the snow. Her first solo is
inherent in the animation medium itself. Marling, however, notes that the animation
titled "Where Do I Go From Here?" and describes her indecision: "Now it feels it's
"isn't .classic at all. It's a fluid proposition, never the same twice in physical
time to start a new life on my own." She is yet to achieve maturity and
appearance or in meaning' (28). She asks: "How will audiences respond to the
independence. Simba's Pride, The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea, The
Genie in 2020, when Williams is only an electronic memory? For that matter, what
Hunchback of Notre Dame II, however, represent an arc in which original characters
do three-year-olds who missed Mork and Mindy see when they watch Aladdin and
now have children of their own. A sequel planned for Mulan likewise features the
laugh themselves silly?" (28). While Genie does look and behave like Williams
original couple with a child. The sequels play on the cyclic nature of the original
himself, animation nevertheless displaces his mortality within a constructed identity
narratives, with child - or adolescent - now parent to a starring child.
that is constantly re-inscribed and re-interpreted by discrete audiences as they are
born and mature in an evolving culture. Thus, animation is not timeless, but appears
In Simba 's Pride, the original narrative comes full circle. The sequel opens with the
so.
baptismal ritual for Simba's cub, which featured at the end of the original feature,
only, rather than a son, Simba's heir is a daughter, Kiara. Simba's attempts to protect
Simultaneously with the creation of 'ageless' characters, Disney orchestrates the
his daughter parallel those of Mufasa in the original feature. Those lions who
maturity of its audience: the circle of life of child and parent and even grandparent.
supported Scar are in exile in the Outlands, where Kiara is forbidden to visit. Like
Forgacs argues: "This effect of temporal homogenization or dehistoricization of the
the youthful Simba, she finds herself in danger by disregarding her father's rules and
animated films is part of the same relay of past and present which is central to the
meets Scar's heir, Kovu. The sequel simultaneously re-instates and redeems Scar
success of the Disney product. When adults see these films again they want them to
through Kovu, who, just as Simba saw Mufasa in himself, sees Scar in himself when
be as they remember them... and at the same time they want them to be fresh and
Simba cuts his eye and Kovu sees his Scar-like reflection in a pool. Unlike Simba's
190
191
experience, Kovu learns he can change rather than fulfil his destiny as Scar's heir.
who is contemporaneous with Mickey, but is the creation of author A. A. Milne.
His journey parallels Kiara's plaintive question during "We Are One", in which
Winnie-the-Pooh is only latterly adopted by Disney, who had never had a significant
Simba recounts the lesson he learnt in the original feature: "Can I still just be me, the
bear or teddy berj in its family of characters. Warner has noted: "Though Walt
way that I am? Can I trust in my own heart? Or am I just one part of some big plan?"
Disney never originated a bear character, his squashy, irrepressible gallery of furry
The pride is reunified through the love of Kiara and Kovu, who maintain difference
beasts, who are, like Mickey Mouse, much larger than life, continue the Aesopian
within oneness. The sequel thus serves to both inflect the original cycle and to
tradition of speaking through animals of human dreams" {From the Beast 307).
question the original lessons of the cycle. In other sequels, Ariel learns not to forsake
Warner argues the teddy bear itself is "a kind of totem" {From the Beast 306), and
her mermaid heritage for life on land and Quasimodo learns not to judge someone by
discusses the toys in the context of 'Beauty and the Beast' narratives and the
their bad behaviour. The moral lessons are undone and re-constituted as children
feminine attraction to domestication of'wild' characters. Although Winnie-the-Pooh
become parents with their own children. The cycle is thus not in stasis, but
was originally identified as a boy's bear, the bear has largely been appropriated by
constantly changing as it progresses.
the 'beauties', who civilise him by incorporating him into their lived cultures, and
has become a prominent Disney icon to the Beauty and the Beast 'generations'10.
The cycles likewise involve gender through audience relays and in merchandise
generally, Disney is re-inscribed as feminine. Disney Stores themselves are largely
Disney has Disneyfied the Milne bear, giving him a voice and a new appearance
pink, traditionally a feminine colour, and although merchandise features neutral and
only loosely based on the original Shepard sketches - Disney's Winnie-the-Pooh is
specifically masculine items, the overall impression of the merchandise tends to the
more solid, brighter, and wears a red T-shirt - but simultaneously releases bears and
feminine and most stores have a staff ratio weighted towards women. There is no
other Milne characters in recognisably Milne and Shepard form. The 'traditional'
concrete evidence available that Disney merchandise is especially aimed at girls and
and 'Disney' Pooh bears sit side by side on ihe shelves, illustrating that
women, but the ranges of toys and children and adult clothes and accessories
Disneyfication doesn't always erase the original. The Disney Pooh is prolifically
certainly seem to suggest that the female market for Disney merchandise is
available as a beanie toy, in which form he is adorned in any number of costumes,
strongest. The feminisation of the stores is largely linked to the female heroines of
from those representing Chinese astrology and sports to all types of animals and
the animated musicals and to Winnie-the-Pooh and privileges the relays of daughter-
fruit: a beanie bear for everyone. He is a rhameleon construct, readily adapted to
mother.
various multimedia themes and outlets. The Disney Pooh also exists outside the
stores, invoked on everything from underwear to car accessories to cookies: wear
The range of adult merchandise, particularly for women, is curiously dominated by a
him, sit on him, eat him. The simultaneous existence of the two Poohs has economic
character originated outside of Disney. Now the stores are dominated not by Mickey
significance, according to Paula Connolly: "the original creatures of the Enchanted
Mouse9, the ubiquitous symbol of Disney, but by Winnie-the-Pooh, an English bear
Forest drawn by Shepard still represent a protected, more affluent world; hence these
representing European, not American, designs, and targeted at customers with a rather higher income
9
Donaldson, a Belgian pret-a-porter brand, does feature Mickey Mouse on the majority of its clothing
and accessories. Donaldson has stores across Europe and although a licensee of Disney, the range
stocked by the stores and the stores themselves are strongly differentiated from Disney Stores,
192
range.
10
Disney acquired rights to Winnie-the-Pooh in the 1960s, but the proliferation of merchandise has
been particularly evident since the release Beauty and the Beast.
193
products reify the intersection of Romantic childhood with issues of class... The less
earring-adorned goat." The latter actually does feature in the Hugo novel, with, in
romantic and more overtly sentimentalized Winnie-the-Pooh, now Americanized
fact, a chapter titled "The Danger of Entrusting Your Secret to a Goat"11. There were
and not as insightful as his earlier counterpart becomes the icon for the less affluent,
no talking gargoyles, however. In the feature, the gargoyles only come alive for the
those who shop at Wal-Mart and not, as Leonhardt points out, Nordstrom and
lonely Quasimodo and Frollo castigates him on referring to them as friends: "And
Bloomingdale's" (202-03). The split economically would seem to indicate that
what are your friends made of, Quasimodo?" "Stone." "Can stone talk?" "No, it
Disney's Winnie-the-Pooh has become the Wwnie-the-Pooh of the masses, capable
can't." "That's right. You're a smart lad." Talking gargoyles are inconsistent with
of any number of forms, transforming the elitist Winnie-the-Pooh while
Hugo's novel, but they make sense in the context of the particular musical
simultaneously retaining him.
adaptation: only to Quasimodo are they able to talk, illustrating his internal
dilemmas as no other character could. Whether the cynics are correct or not, the
Connolly proposes that "the proliferation of revisions and appropriations of Pooh, as
presence of talking gargoyles is not simply gratuitous.
well as the financial success of such merchandising (both today and in the 1930s),
reveals quintessential ironies about the contrast of Milne's visions of childhood and
While toys and games are released simultaneously with the features, one of the core
the readers'/viewers'/marketers' sentimentalization and commodification of that
merchandising tools is the soundtrack. The soundtrack is especially significant since
vision" (188). In a ssnse, she identities the same irony that exists with most Disney
these are musicals. Billboard, a music industry magazine, noted: "Since the release
musicals - and Disney's Winnie-the-Pooh features include songs - adding later:
of 1989's "The Little Mermaid," Disney has had a run of hit soundtracks that is
"Yet while Pooh's only real materialism is a constant concern for honey, the
nearly as impressive as its films' box office and home video successes" (Rosen 11).
simplicity of his world has provided fodder for big business enterprises that have
Disney soundtracks include at least one extra track with one of the songs performed
lasted over half a century" (203). The economic proliferation of the original non-
by a pop artist, often an artist on the cusp of international success. Pop music is itself
commercial narrative creates tension, yet, simultaneously, that proliferation is
defined largely by its commercialism, rather than its inherent musical characteristics,
indicative of the form itself: the ability of Winnie-the-Pooh to become many kinds
thus it actually encompasses a wide range of performance styles. Ricky Martin and
of Winnie-the Pooh, transforming to meet the diversity of his audience, albeit for a
Boyzone have both performed "Go the Distance" from Hercules, Vanessa Williams
price.
"Colours of the Wind" from Pocahontas, Christina Aguilera "Reflections" from
Muian, Celine Dion "Beauty and the Beast" from Beauty and the Beast, to name a
All Disney animated features are promoted and marketed, although some more than
few. The choice of artists has been diverse, both musically and from the perspective
others. It has been suggested that Hercules marked an apex and part of the reason for
of its representation of cultural and ethnic milieus, and represents established
the feature's mediocre success had been its particularly heavy promotion prior to the
recording artists and the new and upcoming. Ricky Martin's performance of "Go the
feature (Wasko, Understanding 80). Critical response to the features often reflects
Distance" in Portuguese and Spanish, for example, preceded his international
the promotional activity taking place simultaneously. On the release of The
success and in fact appears on the solo album, Vuelve, which launched his
Hunchback of Notre Dame, John Hiscock reports on "Disney's new marketing
hunch": "a dark tale of sexual obsession and genocide interspersed - for
" Hugo's novel also describes the affection of Gringoire for Djali the goat: "Oh, she's a pretty
merchandise marketing opportunities, say cynics - with talking gargoyles and a cute,
194
creature... as ingenious, subtle and literate as a grammarian" (454).
195
international career with the 1998 World Cup theme "La Copa de la Vida." Such
Elvis Presley songs in Lilo & Stitch, coinciding with the 25th anniversary of
choices reflect a level of pop music astuteness on the part of Disney, catering for the
Presley's death12.
adolescent and adult audience through the pop idiom. These tracks exist separate to
the musical, often used over credits and for Academy Award ceremonies, taking the
The promotion of the soundtracks becomes absorbed in the music and video culture
respective song itself beyond its initial narrative role to a separately packaged, pop
of young children, further exploiting non-traditional outlets for popular music such
music functionality. As the Ricky Martin example indicates, there are also multiple
as grocery stores cited by Billboard. Feuer posits that "if the 'folk' of the pre-World
soundtracks for each feature in non-English languages on which local performers
War II era produced their music around the family piano, arguably dancing or
feature. The main exception is Tarzan, for which Phil Collins recorded in several
singing along or combing one's hair to pre-recorded music captures the daily
languages, although The Lion King soundtracks for the overseas market also feature
experience of the walkman generation" (131). She refers to Altaian's category of the
an English language Elton John track. In both instances, the performers were also
folk musical, arguing that films such as Dirty Dancing reflect the relationship of turn
the composers and their unique pop styles came to describe the music itself.
of the century youth to the musical form. A consequence of this identification is that
the soundtrack and video clip become much more intrinsic to the audience's
As part of the promotion of a Disney feature, the soundtracks have become a core
relationship to the musical, and thus to the animated feature. Richards argues:
element. Billboard noted of The Lion King that: "The product tie-ins, designed to
and related releases
for young girls, the dance repertoire cuts across a range of television
through rebate offers, giving the album exposure in such nontraditional music outlets
and video material... Madonna, Michael Jackson and 2 Unlimited
as grocery and drug stores and fast food outlets" (Rosen 11). The Lion King
mingle, in this repertoire, with the nostalgic choreography of Beauty
soundtrack marked a significant change in the way in which Disney approached its
and the Beast or the exuberant 'Under the Sea' from The Little
soundtracks. With the death of Howard Ashman in 1991, Tim Rice became the
Mermaid. (142)
drive retail business, will promote the soundtrack album
primary Disney lyricist. Rice had always had a close association with the music
industry, from his first job at EMI to his work with Benny Andersson and Bjorn
The sort of activity Richards describes, wherein young girls use dance to create a
Ulvaeus, of the pop group ABBA, on Chess, and it was Rice who, after working
sense of bodily and domestic autonomy through the music clip, in fact occurs in
with Menken, suggested Elton John for The Lion King. Disney had featured
Disney animation itself: Lilo plays Elvis Presley songs to dance the hula, creating
recording artists on its soundtracks, but the writers were themselves from film and
for herself an outlet for her own desires for autonomy.
Broadway, not specifically from the recording industry. The Lion King was a
departure in that, while it did become a Broadway show, it is recognised as the work
Such use of merchandise is indicative of its simultaneous economic and creative
of a pop artist, taking its place as contemporary pop in its own right. It paved the
existence. While merchandise has an economic purpose and subsidises the financial
way for the later Tarzan soundtrack, written and performed by Phil Collins, the
viability of making animated features, it likewise comes to have a cultural value of
Emperor's New Groove, written and in part performed by Sting, and even the use of
12
Lilo & Stitch video clips using Presley songs were played along with the then current number one
hit, "Conversation", a remastered Presley song.
196
197
its own. Whether a soundtrack or a Winnie-the-Pooh beanie dressed as a Medieval
overwhelmingly as media and commerce13, perpetuating the practice of re-casting
knight, Disney merchandise and marketing involves more than an economically
the musical as media in order to differentiate it from non-technical, non-commercial
exploitative agenda.
definitions of theatre.
Pavis argues that situating theatre in media:
COMMODIFYING THE SHOW:
COMMERCIALISM AND THE THEATRICAL MUSICAL
is too difficult a task, so I will only show the opposing tendencies of
theatre
Any discussion of the commercialism of Disney's theatrical musicals occurs within
and
media.
Theatre
tends
towards
simplification,
minimalization, fundamental reduction to a direct exchange between
the context of an on-going debate about commercialism and media in the theatre.
actor and spectator. Media, on the other hand, tend towards
The musical exhibits slippage between the theatre, cinema, and the recording
complication
industry, complicating its theatrical status by its resistance to dramatic specificity.
and
sophistication,
thanks
to
technological
development; they are by nature open to maximal multiplication.
Patrice Pavis, for example, writes:
(Theatre 101)
Inscribing theatre within a theory of media presupposes - rather
hastily - that theatre can be compared with artistic and technological
practices like film, television, radio or video. That involves
comparing theatre with what is usually opposed to it: (mass) media,
technical arts, the techniques of the culture industry. We would do
theatre a disservice by measuring it against media grounded in a
The defined opposition places the musical, with its cast recordings, T-shirts, multiple
productions, and advertising, in media. The musical in general moves towards the
kind of global performance McKenzie describes, one that incorporates technology
and commerce. The theatrical musical does not erase the relationship between actor
and spectator, but presents a more complicated relationship negotiated through a
tripartial, global performance model14.
technological infrastructure that it has done without; we would also
endanger its specificity. On the other hand, however, theatre practice
happily moves into other areas... There is no point in defining theatre
as 'pure art,' or in outlining a theatre theory that does not take into
account media practices that border on and often
Keir Elam argues through semiotics a means of studying the more complicated
performance:
penetrate
The spectator's semiotic initiative is not limited to his role in de- or
contemporary work on stage. But can we go so far as to integrate
re-codifying the text. In an important sense it is the spectator who
theatre in a theory of media and so compare it to technical arts and
initiates the theatrical communication process through a series of
practices? {Theatre 99)
13
If there is one theatrical form that suggests the possibility of an integration of theory,
it is the musical. Yet in theatre criticism of Disney, the musicals are treated
See John Bell, Wickstrom, and Eyre, for example, all of whom explicitly link the theatrical
productions with the process of commercialism.
14
This is not to deny that other forms of theatrical performance likewise exhibit this relationship,
however, few forms do so to the extent of the musical genre.
198
199
actions at once practical and symbolic, of which the first is the simple
The musical does seem most adept at capturing young audiences: "The average age
act of buying a ticket. (95-96)
of the audience at plays, 49 years old, was eleven years older than the typical
theatregoer at musicals (38 years old)" (Lefkin 9). The report further delineates the
Elam thus moves the parameters of the definition of performance to embrace an
marked preference of the audience under thirty for musicals: "Audience members
initial act of consumption: purchasing the ticket. He interprets this act as "the
under 18 years old almost exclusively attended musicals, representing 12.8% of the
symbolic value of a 'commission'. In sponsoring the performance, the audience
audience at musicals and 1.1% at plays; for audiences 25 years of age the figures are
issues, as it were, a collective 'directive' to the performers, instructing them to
scarcely more encouraging with 25.2% attending musicals and only 6.4% attending
provide in return a bona fide product (or production) of a certain kind" (96). Further
plays" (Lefkin i). The choice of language is pertinent, implying musical attendance
acts of consumption, including the purchase of programmes and other merchandise,
is inferior to play attendance, a position that often emerges presumptively. In fact,
can offer further symbolic values, delineating the more complicated relationship
there is no evidence to suggest that musical attendance is less valuable than play
inscribed in the theatrical musical and its audience. Advertisements, for example, of
attendance,15 or that the marked preference of younger audiences is inauspicious for
The Lion King soundtrack played to people purchasing tickets via the box office
phone line increase the interaction between spectator and actor: the advertisement
primarily functions as inducement to purchase the soundtrack, but likewise invites
I
the future of theatre. The key to the musical's relationship with the younger audience
and, in fact, the audience in general, is in part its ability to undertake global
performance, that is, to integrate culture, commerce, and technology.
the potential audience member to educate themselves on the performance they are
'commissioning', to semiotically engage with the media of the musical prior to
The inter-reaction of commercial and musical performance, in particular, is played
performance.
out in the statistics offered by the report and again references the younger audience
and its interaction with media and immersion in commercial culture. The report
The ability to incorporate acts of consumption into the terms of analysis, without
notes: "For example, attendees at Broadway musicals mentioned a number of
necessarily interpreting them as 'anti-theatrical', opens up the debate on the
advertising sources far more than the audience at plays, who gave greater weight to
musical's, and Disney's, theatrical status, for the musical has unquestionably
reviews" (Lefkin iii). The statistics bear out that 34% of the audience for Broadway
become a dominant theatrical form. The Audience for New York Theatre report,
plays learn about shows from reviews, while for musicals the figure is the lower
compiled from the 1997 season, just as The Lion King was first being performed,
22.7% (Lefkin 21). The report shows that the 18-24 age group is more likely to have
notes: "It is important to keep in mind that in 1991, 72% of the audience was
learned about a show from a television commercial (22.3%) or from the internet
attending musicals; the figure in 1997 was up to 82%. Since musicals typically
attract a younger audience, a different mix of offerings each season will affect the
profile of the overall audience" (Lefkin 18). By 1997, Disney, noted for its family
15
In so saying, the point here is that a distinction is made between the musical and play that suggests
it is discouraging that audiences are larger for musicals, presuming that it is preferable for audiences
audience, was becoming one of the most prominent Broadway musical producers
to attend plays - but why? Both the musical and the play are theatrical, yet the presumption remains
and the alteration in the Broadway profile can be speculatively attributed, at the least
uncontested that the musical is in some way inferior. Much critical writing on the musical relies on
in part, to the child-parent relays inherent in Disney.
assumptions that exacerbate, rather than clarify, the presumption of the musical's less worthy
theatrical status and it is frequently deficient in attention to the dramatic particulars of individual
musicals.
200
201
(7.5%) (Lefkin 21). Disney's media networks provide automatic advertising outlets
musicals seem incapable of obtaining, but often at the cost of box office returns.
for their productions, allowing them to exploit the 22.3%. In the Spectator, for
This, conversely, has led to jokes, as noted by Mark Steyn, about Sondheim
example, Sheridan Morley wrote of Beauty and the Beast: "On Broadway the
"wearing his commercial unviability as a badge of pride" {Broadway 136). In
musical has made several powerful enemies, largely because rival musical producers
general, the criteria of a musical's success have a close relationship to its financial
have neither the Disneyland cash nor the access to their own television networks for
costs and returns. When the West End production of The Lion King was announced,
the purposes of free advertising and cross-promotion." The musical as a whole
for example, Sarah Shannon in The Evening Standard noted: "Whatever its artistic
exhibits a greater diversity of advertisement than for plays: television commercials
merits, and critics adore the Broadway version, one thing the show will change for
(20.7% vs 2.7%), outdoor signs (15.8% vs 5.1%), radio commercials (9.5% vs
ever is the perception of how much money needs to be spent in securing a theatrical
2.5%), and bus posters (7.3% vs 1.4%) (Lefkin 21). Disney's network simply
success." Like many critics, she related the success of the musical directly and
positioned the producer advantageously in terms of the musical's • standard
explicitly to its expense, rather than its art.
advertising practice.
By the late 1990s, Disney had replaced the previously dominant producers, Andrew
John Lahr says: "The drama of the musical is still, in part, its financial investment"
Lloyd-Webber and Cameron Mackintosh, as the epitome of financial power in the
(123). These words were written in the late 60s and have, if anything, gathered
theatre. A review of the musical Lautrec in April 2000 by Charles Spencer says:
credence. During the late 1990s and early 2000s when new musicals were reviewed
"nine out often new musicals in the West End are destined to lose their investors a
scathingly and audiences, bearing in mind the 22.7% reading reviews for
bundle", suggesting that without a proven writing team "or without the mighty dollar
information, were decreasing, critics pursued the balance sheets, reiterating the
of Disney behind them" new musicals are destined for "the slaughter" ("Lautrec").
economic drama. For instance, The Sunday Times' Sally Kinnes speculated on the
The production's consequent failure supported Spencer's argument that finance,
West End's musical flops for 2000: "Musicals play for enormous stakes, which is
particularly Disney's, is a primary measure of feasibility. Even the proven record of
one reason there are so many. At a cost of up to £4m, you could shoot a film for less,
Alain Boublil and Claude-Michel Schonberg, known for the 'blockbusters' Les
but the rewards can be huge... Failure, however, can be just as expensive." The
Miserables and Miss Saigon, did not guarantee their fourth show, Martin Guerre, the
previous decade had been marked by the rise of the 'blockbuster musical', placing
success of their previous productions. The show was produced in the wake ofBeauty
the medium in the province of Hollywood terminology and its codes of returns and
and the Beast. In a Playbill on-line chat in 1997, Schonberg said the genesis of
international markets. In contrast to often cash-poor plays, musicals appear
Martin Guerre was in an "intimate" show playing to smaller, 800-seat theatres: "We
synonymous with finance.
want to stop these mega-budget extravaganzas" (Ly-Cuong). Schonberg's discourse
reflects the problems and conflicts that were beginning to show in the medium in the
Musicals have huge sets, large casts, significant backstage crews, lists of investors
late 1990s.
and a roll-call of creators, all contributing to cost, and at the opposite end of the
economic equation, high ticket prices. With multiple and lengthy productions
The blockbusters' dominance over the genre meant the criteria by which musicals
possible, expectations for financial return are high. There is one particular exception
were judged became problematic, weighted as they were to big, international, and
to this trend, however. Sondheim musicals achieve the cultural acclaim other
long running shows. Forbidden Broadway, the Broadway satire show, parodied Rent
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on the question: "How do you measure the worth of a show... in hype." Yet Rent is
be viable characteristics of the theatre, indeed, can provide ideal initiation for
one of the hiusicals that comes near achieving artistic status with Tony awards and a
audiences, particularly, one might argue, young audiences.
Pulitzer Prize. The criteria were not altogether incorrect in absorbing commercial
terminology, but perpetuated a reading of commerce that contradicts the creative
Steve Nelson argues: "Despite prevailing attitudes to the contrary, Disney did not
aspects of theatre.
bring technical or P.R. overkill to town any more than Andrew Lloyd Webber or Hal
Prince did in decades past" (72). However, Disney is, after all, Disney- Lloyd
When Disney brought Beauty and the Beast, a musical that exemplifies the money-
Webber doesn't have 'Webberland' and Prince doesn't have a 'Hal Store' in every
making extravagance of the genre, to the West End in the same year that saw Martin
city: Disney does, stores which appeal not only to adults, but to children too. There
Guerre fail16, more than half the reviews contained the £10 million budget in the
is slippage between Disney's corporate identity and multimedia activities, and its
first two paragraphs, if not in the first line. Disney's entrance polarised the musical
theatrical enterprise on a cognitive level. The slippage likewise is evident in
genre's association with money and commercialism. A month later, Lloyd-Webber's
professional terms, where financial success and artistic success are in practice
Really Useful Group ironically expected a £10 million loss, increasing media
juxtaposed: Stephen Sondheim won the 1994 Tony Award for Passion, but the next
speculation on the potential collapse of the genre. Mackintosh was prompted to go to
day it was Disney who broke box office records with Beauty and the Beast.
The Times to report that his production company's profits were up 22%: an attempt
to dispel the belief that musicals were financially rather than artistically failing.
Yet Sondheim and Disney aren't as artistically distant as, perhaps, they would
Mackintosh, having invested in smaller musicals, said the critics "say 'give us more
appear. Disney's one Tony for Beauty and the Beast is for Costume, won by Ann
intelligent new musicals', yet what do they rave about? Beauty and the Beastl You
Hould-Ward, who also has Tony nominations for costume on Sondheim's Into the
do despair" (Morrison).
Woods and Sunday in the Park with C^ -ge. Sondheirr and Disney still inhabit the
same theatrical milieu, after all. Disne>'_. occupation of the New Amsterdam theatre
Spencer's review in The Telegraph obliquely indicates, howevur, that such
likewise drew upon the theatre's earlier association with the Ziegfeld Follies, the
commercial theatre as Beauty and the Beast retains theatrical value: "No one could
bold and brash and, indeed, extravagant entertainment revue and Ziegfeld himself
accuse this show of being great art, or art at all, come to that," but adds "it is hard to
produced musical comedy. The Follies in part inform Beauty and the Beast's big
imagine a more enjoyably over-the-top introduction to the theatre than this"
production number, "Be Our Guest", with can-cans, chorus lines, champagne, and
("Beauty"). The Daily Marts Michael Coveney expanded on the issue: "touted as the
frilly, sparkling costumes.
most expensive musical ever seen in the West E ad, as if that were any guarantee of
its quality. But genuine extravagance can be beguiling and pertinent to good
While Beauty and the Beast may be an artistic inflection of the Follies and inhabits
storytelling." In these reviews, the intimation is that expense and commercialism can
the traditional Broadway setting, it is still largely perceived as an 'outside'
commercial production - more Disney than Broadway, more merchandising than
theatre. Michael Coveney in The Daily Mail says of the Broadway opening: 'The
theatre had been turned into a tourist trap where the show itself was just one more
16
The failure is relative. The show played for over a year at the Prince Edward Theatre, but went
souvenir among the T-shirts, videos, CDs and cuddly toys." When the show went to
through two major re-writes and finally closed after an indifferent run.
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the West End in 1997, Brian Logan in Time Out noted: "On the emotional and
sophisticated, adult Broadway market. Even the show logo transformed. In Houston,
psychological levels, of course, this telling of the 'tale as old as time' sports the
it was a silhouette of the ballroom scene and the title calligraphy borrowed from the
sophistication of a quarterpounder with cheese. By a happy coincidence, McDonalds
feature's, with its contrast of the script of 'Beauty' to the capitals of 'Beast'. On
is promoting the show." Tie-ins, souvenirs, merchandise, and other examples of
Broadway, the flowing calligraphy was replaced with plainer, distinctive lettering
consumerism became synonymous with Disney's ventures in theatre, almost as if
and the logo was minimalised to a sharp, stylish engraving of the Beast's profile with
they had never previously been evident in the theatre.
the rose, somewhat echoing the successful Phantom of the Opera logo. The
promotional aspect marked the shift to a theatrical, rather than Disney animation,
Prior to Disney's theatrical productions, Forbidden Broadway satirised Lloyd-
audience.
Webber and Cameron Mackintosh, concentrating on the issue of commercialism. In
a parody of Mackintosh sung to "My Favourite Things", the musical producer lists
Tho change in logo is particularly significant, for between film and stage the most
the kinds of merchandise he can sell: "it's my marketing of souvenirs that's more of
notable development was of Beast's leading role. That evolution had everything to
a success, sweatshirts and t-shirts and blankets and mittens... when the gross drops...
do with artistic considerations and Disney's will to create a tragic romantic hero not
I market and merchandise souvenir things and grosses don't seem so low... it costs
out of place in the theatre. The director of the stage production explained: "for a live
$100 to come see the show and $100 more to leave." A parody of Les Miserables,
performance, we needed more chemistry between Belle and the Beast. I wanted the
produced by Mackintosh, includes the line "rich folks pay twenty bucks a shirt, that
Beast to show his chest and have long hair, to create an animalistic magnetism on
has a starving pauper on it." In the Phantom of the Opera parody of Lloyd-Webber's
stage" (Frantz 92). The change in the musical's promotion was motivated not simply
success, his 'mask' is removed and his wife cries "how hideous, how insidious, I've
by the move to Broadway, but also by the musical's theatrical performance:
married Mickey Mouse!" with Lloyd-Webber suddenly squeaking in outrage at the
promotion and theatre are necessarily interactive.
exposure. As denotative of Broadway attitudes, Forbidden Broadway indicates there
was a perception that the Disney ethos was influencing Broadway even before
Disney's next venture with The Lion King exemplified the interactive relationship.
Disney itself became a Broadway producer.
Expectations of The Lion King generally placed the theatrical production in the same
performance category as Beauty and the Beast. The Guardian's Lyn Gardner noted:
Yet, taking Disney merchandise as the key example, Disney did not retain
unequivocally its non-theatrical strategies and aesthetic, but produced merchandise
When the 1994 animated film The Lion King was in production, the
in keeping with theatrical norms. From the Houston Beauty and the Beast premiere,
directors and their team would often joke that this was one Disney
a leaflet advertising merchandise shows a range that was still very near the aesthetics
movie guaranteed not to make the transition from screen to stag/.
of the animated feature. The T-shirts were in bright lilacs and pinks, co-ordinated
Having actors dress up as tea-pots and tea-cups for the stage version
with the refulgent pastel hues of the Disney Store, and the watches and magic
of Beauty and the Beast was one thing; putting them into cute furry
mirrors sold were toy-store replications of the animation. By the show's arrival on
lion costumes to sing Elton John numbers would be quite another.
Broadway, the range had transformed. The T-shirts were black and silver, baseball
caps were sold reading 'Beauty' and 'Beast' with ties and key rings for a more
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The production, however, created an aura of theatrical simplicity with stark avant
Critics nevertheless have located commercialism in The Lion King, not directly
garde images refuting expectations of the reliance on greater technological
through its theatre, but through its Disney identity. Maurya Wickstrom argues
gimmickry. Beauty and the Beast made theatre out of commercial extravagance: The
Taymor's:
Lion King produced art in commercial theatre. Of The Lion King's West End
reviews, only two mention its actual cost in figures, even though, at a reported $15
claim that the show's artistry and depth distinguish it from the run-of-
million, it is the most expensive production to its time, surpassing Beauty and the
the-mill Disney production and, indeed, the critical reiteration of this
Beast. The 'special effects' produced in The Lion King, however, rely largely on
claim become an advertisement for a new Disney-with-depth, even as
simple technologies that are revealed: the wires that suspend actors in the air, for
conventional structures of both Disney's film product and the
example, are visible, while the rollers that create the wildebeest stampede are
Broadway show are reproduced. The rhetoric of complexity and
incorporated, rather than concealed, in the effect's design. In Beauty and the Beast
artistry as the special attributes of the theatre become a kind of alibi
the technology is largely concealed: how the Beast transforms into a Prince is not
for the commodified Disney context in which the production takes
clearly visible, while the wires that make Lumiere's hands burn are concealed.
place, all the while facilitating the circulation of objects and images
Perversely, by openly revealing the technology, The Lion King supported its status
from the play as commodities. This circulation is both abstract - on
as art.
the level of general commodity formation - and quite literal, as
consumers and objects for purchase move from the theatre to the
The original production of Martin Guerre indicates how the theatrical musical
store next door. (293)
during that period was evolving towards a new level of interaction with technology.
Like Taymor, Martin Guerre's original director, Declan Donnellan has a well
Wickstrom's argument reflects many of those in Disney Studies, which create a
established experimental reputation. The set was made of simple, wooden
fundamental opposition between artistry and commercialism, thus describing The
scaffolding, lighting provided the chief visual effects of leafy greenery and fire.
Lion King's artistry in terms of 'alibi' for commerce, shifting the production from its
Even the logos of Martin Guerre and The Lion King share the appearance of wood-
theatrical context to the Disney corporate context. The shifts in argument effectively
cut printing. Yet reviews of Martin Guerre carry a persistent suspicion of expensive
reconfigure aspects of the musical genre to enable oppositional readings to be
gimmickry; Robert Hewison in the Sunday Times, for instance, writing: "Covertly,
maintained and the musical to be read through a media, rather than theatrical,
of course, the technology is still there... but the electronics are hidden behind honest-
paradigm. While not entirely unjustified, such shifts nevertheless posit the relations
looking wood." Conversely, Lyn Gardner in The Guardian notes of The Lion King:
between elements in confrontational rather than interactive terms.
"While many West End and Broadway directors spend a fortune trying to conceal
the mechanisms used to create a stunning stage image, Taymor has spent millions...
When Wickstrom begins her article on "retail theatre for the 1990s", she cites The
in revealing all." The revelation of mechanics informs theatrical validity: technology
Lion King playbill and a particular advertisement within it for American Express.
is accepted as a theatrical tendency when overtly incorporated into the performance.
The ad text reads: "Enjoy your audience with the King. And remember, even in the
jungic, American Express helps you do more" (285). Wickstrom uses this ad as the
springboard for her argument: "I argue that the theatrical embodiment of cartoon
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characters allows Disney and other corporations in the entertainment industry to
The commodification of performance is actually common, particularly in the
transform
what have become traditional capitalist strategies for attracting
musical genre. The example of the American Express ad in The Lion King
consumers... It is not enough to encourage consumers to have commodities; they
programme isn't exceptional in the genre. With productions that run longer than
must be compelled to become them" (285). Henry Giroux argues that such strategies
most plays or operas, advertisers have the inducement to tailor their ads to the
are particularly 'insidious':
performance context: since the ad will be running for months, even years,
customised advertising is not economically prohibitive. Hence in an Australian Rent
Disney's view of children as consumers has little to do with
programme, the sponsor, the Commonwealth Bank, has a page: "At last, an 80 year
innocence and a great deal to do with corporate greed and the
old who understands today's youth", with an earring hanging jauntily on the 'y' as a
realisation that behind the vocabulary of family fun and wholesome
metonym of a Rent character. An Australian Chicago programme features an ad with
entertainment is the opportunity for teaching children that critical
a production still of two performers miming holding mobile phones, a speech bubble
thinking and civic action in society are far less important to them than
proclaiming: "I'd be happy to make that call for you on my stylish Motorola StarTac
the role of passive consumers. (158)
X phone." Another ad for the Heritage Hotel in the programme reads: "After a night
of murder, betrayal and illicit sex, perhaps you'd like a stiff drink." Canadian
Such criticism offers a bleak view of Disney's, and other corporate, roles in musical
Airlines as sponsor to the Canadian Phantom of the Opera asks "ever wonder how
theatre. Yet the American Express ad might, equally, be read as no more than a
the Phantom got to the opera?" The Austrian programme for Phantom of the Opera
commercial utilisation of the narrative context in which the ad is read, namely,
features Union Gas's claim that they light the Phantom's lake. Many programme ads
within the theatrical experience of The Lion King. Suggesting a corporate intent to
'participate' in the narrative, using that participation to engage potential customers
turn the audience into commodities or to teach them to be passive consumers
in the audience. The ads take advantage of being in the theatrical medium to sell
proposes an extreme reading of commercial practice.
their products and services, but also offer the potential for analysis that interprets
this activity in terms of performance.
The active participation of commerce in the theatre can, as Elam suggests, be
another stream of semiotic value, or it can be indicative of the theatre's role in
In much the same way, Disney's merchandise, as discussed earlier, is not unique on
capitalist society: rather than denying commerce, theatre is more reflective of society
Broadway or in other theatres. Rent even sells condoms with the show logo,
itself in how it engages with commerce. As commerce enters into the theatre, it also
exploiting the show's AIDS message. In Vienna, where smoking is still prevalent,
enters into the performance, extending that performance in advertisements, on T-
they sell cigarette lighters with the show's logo, something that does not occur in a
shirts and watches, and in souvenir programmes, which signify the performance in
country like Australia where smoking is socially discouraged. On Broadway, the
material form. Performance becomes commodified, but not to the exclusion of
first Beauty and the Beast programmes direct the audience not to a Disney Store for
traditional performance values. The simple kite puppets used in The Lion King, for
merchandise, but to the famous New York landmark, Bloomingdale's: "we had to
example, are sold at the merchandise stand, but their commodification does not.
have a Disney's "Beauty and the Beast" new Broadway musical collection for our
negate or mitigate their theatrical signification: it extends the theatrical signification.
very own, with signature items, as well as a collection of "inspired" clothes and
accessories" (Beauty and the Beast Playbill). Musicals sell everything from logo'd
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beach towels to chocolates, denim jackets to alcohol. Show merchandise always
adapts to the culture and geographic location of the audience and, importantly,
reflects the show's narrative. Musical theatre has arguably been the most successful
PART THREE:
TRANSPOSITIONS
theatrical medium to use and absorb commercialism in performance.
In dealing with such concepts
as commercialism, promotion, multimedia,
commodification, and merchandising, there has been a marked inclination to view
CHAPTER SIX:
the concepts in terms of finance and corporate manipulation. Yet, as Mckenzie
argues, in the global environment, performance is no longer limited to those aspects
SYNCHRONISATION 1:
considered traditional, but does draw upon economics and technology as, together
with culture, representing a tripartite model. In order to understand Disney better in
FINDING A SOUND
its global environment, it is necessary to move away from reductive readings of its
economic and technological practice to recognise and redefine this 'excess' as
performance. The next and final section, "Transpositions", examines Disney's own
particular performance of the musical, both in animation and theatre. Chapter Six,
"Synchronisation: Finding a Sound" analyses how song informs the animation and
Have you ever heard the wolf cry to the blue corn moon?
Or asked the grinning bobcat why he grinned?
Can you sing with all the voices of the mountain?
Pocahontas
the influence of popular song, in particular, on finding a 'sound' for the animated
DEAD FISH CAN'T DANCE
musicals.
The designated renaissance of Disney animation is less a renaissance of animation
than of animated musical. The features of the immediate past had used song, but
arguably without capturing the synthesis of song and animation that had marked
Disney's success in its heyday. Curiously, song itself is absent from many critiques
of Disney features, despite the propensity of songs like "Whistle While You Work"
and "Hakuna Matata" to merge with the popular vernacular. Yet the use of song in
animated feature is one of Disney's trademarks.
Music is one of the common elements of film and animation since the earliest days
when, in lieu of pre-recorded soundtracks, live musicians would accompany silent
films. One of these musicians, Carl Stalling, was instrumental in Disney's first
experiments with sound cartoons. The presence of music does not identify a film as
a musical. All film genres use music soundtracks, music included in the basic
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DISNEV ANIMATED AND THEATRICAL MUSICALS
language of film. In the musical, however, music has a heightened role that is
visually manifest. As Altman notes: 'Ihe special status achieved by music in the
musical has gone nearly unnoticed... Far more than diegetic music, it is the tendency
to transform diegetic music into supra-diegetic music - with a consequent reversal of
The musical genre is a logical outlet for animation, since it, itself, exploits the
relationship between the human and the rhythmic world. This is particularly evident
in the dance musicals of Astaire and Kelly where routines evolve from very simple
movements that produce sound; Kelly, for instance, would slide on a piece of
the traditional image/sound hierarchy - that distinguishes the musical as a genre"
newspaper, which would present a rhythm to which he consequently danced.
(TIw American 71). While Altman uses the term 'music', it is song that is actually
Michael Wood describes their film musicals as "hints that music is everywhere,
specific to this transformation: the synergy of word and note with the image.
scattered all about us if we will only look and listen. Astaire and Kelly are the agents
of hidden truths rather than pure fantasies, they are our own voices and our own feet,
While animation is itself largely a visual medium, the animated feature is both visual
dancing and singing through those times when we really feel that way about our
and aural. Animation lacks an automatic sound: drawn images make no noise and
lives" (148). Wood's description of the segue from "ordinary life to music" (147),
there is often no natural precedent for the kinds of sound specific drawn images
where music is realised through newspapers and umbrellas or even the beat of an
might make - a crab driving a seahorse-drawn carriage through the ocean, or the
ordinary walk, is taken up by Feuer with the term bricolage (3). This style of
voice of a baby elephant speaking English, for example. The sound for animation is
performance implicitly relies on an organic process whereby the music potentially
entirely and deliberately constructed. Thus sound is as mechanised as image. This
underlying ordinary life is realised on screen through the materials of ordinary life.
makes music and song particularly effective for animation, since music and song is a
Animation has, in a sense, created a world where music does underlie its ordinary
deliberate manipulation of sound. Brophy outlines an animatic apparatus that does
life, using its materials - the moving drawing - to realise the music.
not rely exclusively on the visual definition of animation. He proposes a link
between the rhythms that inform time in animation and the drawn movement that
defines space: "The animatic apparatus is thus one that keys us into the mobilization
of dynamics: where space and time are in essence rhythmic reinforcements of each
other" (Cholodenko 73). One of the first innovations introduced by Walt Disney was
the use of the metronome to synchronise animation to sound: movement to time.
Disney chose to use song and music to produce time: the cartoons really did move to
musical rhythms. According to Brophy, "fusion is the exact way to describe the
marriage of sound and image tracks in Disney's animation because both are worked
upon so as to distil each other, to effect a symbiotic relationship" (Cholodenko 74).
In effect, as Brophy argues in relation to the Silly Symphonies: "Man's relation to the
animated world was rhythmic, syncopative and percussive" (Cholodenko 77). Our
relation to the world presented by animation is, in a strong sense, musical.
When considering the relationship between the sound and image tracks in Disney's
animation, the presence of choreography is pivotal. Animation can dance. Dance
invokes life through movement and time and has been particularly instrumental in
the animation of lead characters. Live action footage is often shot for reference in
the production of animated features and the women and men who have been
consistently employed to perform the characters have not been actors, but dancers.
Elizabeth Bell argues of characters such as Snow White, Cinderella, and Aurora:
"The markers of class... are covertly embodied in the metaphors of classical dance.
Royal lineage and bearing are personified in the erect, ceremonial carriage of ballet
and manifested not only in the dance sequences, but in the heroines' graceful
solitude and poised interactions with others" (Bell et al 110-11). The princes' ability
to hold and conduct the princesses is also linked to dance, Bell noting: "Dressed in
tights and tunics, Disney princes fulfill the gendered expectations taught in
partnering class" (Bell et al 112). The Walt Disney animated musicals incorporated
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DISNEY ANIMATED AND THEATRICAL MUS ICALS
many of the tropes of classical ballet and employed classical dancers, but the
musicals of Team Disney moved away from the class and classical implications of
The change in choreography complements the development of musical styles in the
scores, which draw from a history of musical. These later musicals, in fact, became
the princess.
increasingly 'conscious' of being musicals. Michael Eisner refers to the presence of
Sherri Stoner, a contemporary dancer, worked as the live action model for Ariel and
Belle. Bell argues a movement to "the conventions of burlesque" (Bell et al 114)
that "recall and reenact the elaborate filmed fantasies of Busby Berkley" (Bell et al
114). The girls at least in part move into spectacle, offering titillation through
'cheesecake'. They represent a more earthy, sexually aware choreography familiar
from the repertoire of the musical, rather than from ballet. They no longer seem to
Ashman and Menken on The Little Mermaid: "The artistic hothouse was animation's
relocated home, a bland, unmarked building in Glendale that became our very own
suburban Tin Pan Alley" (183). From this point, the animated feature broke, at least
in part, from identification with Walt Disney and the primacy of animation itself to
emphasise the musical form. The score became the integral means through which
story was told and animation drawn.
move en pointe. and the heroines, in particular, incorporate the styles of a range of
film musical stars, including Debbie Reynolds and Ginger Rogers. The animation of
Belle, for example, incorporates the 'look' of Leslie Caron, her 'twirl' on a mountain
top is strongly reminiscent of Julie Andrews' performance in The Sound of Music,
and her absent minded stroll through the village, at one point automatically using her
hand to re-direct water flowing from a pipe, suggests a Gene Kelly influenced
choreography1. As the film repertoire has extended, the repertoire of choreography
utilised by Disney characters has duly increased".
The film was originally proposed by Ron Clements in 1985, although the idea had
been proposed before World War II. The process of re-telling the story, says Eisner,
"was entirely collaborative, but if any single person made a critical difference, it was
Ashman" (184). Ashman, also co-producer, influences the way in which the score
drives both story and character. It was Ashman's idea that Ursula, the film's villain,
should be larger than life, thus creating a diva role. Her big solo, "Poor Unfortunate
Thing", utilises her big blues voice, her enormous octopus shape filling out the lush
choreography, in turn based around the heavy bass notes in the music. Ashman's
' In a Sight and Sound review, Jonathan Romney refers to the scene in which Belle "Keaton-like,
waltzes unscathed through a succession of perils" (46), identifying the scene with comedian Keaton,
idea to make Sebastian Trinidadian so that he could sing Calypso has already been
referenced.
but he likewise draws the Julie Andrews' parallel: "given the Andrews resemblance, [the
townspeople] could be asking, "How do you solve a problem like Belle?"" (47). Like Andrews'
character, Maria in The Sound of Music, Belle is a village girt representing a paradox of'girlhood':
Maria is a "riddle", Belle is a "puzzle." In both musicals, her riddle/puzzle is solved through marriage
to an aristocratic male, whose authority she undermines. It is notable that both Maria and Belle
The score's prominence is highlighted by the role of song in the narrative itself.
Andersen's written fairy tale cannot really evoke the song of the little mermaid: ths
medium itself cut out her tongue. The musical medium, however, is tailor-made for
openly argue with the Captain and Beast, both identified by role rather than personal name, over their
the mermaid's voice. Warner notes: "The names of the sirens in different traditions
orders and behaviour. While linear analysis suggests that the riddle/puzzle of the heroine is solved
are often connected to speech in some way - this is the era before writing was
through her re-definition as wife, the dual-focus model highlights the inherent tension of an
common practice" (From the Beast 399). The sirens, in fact half woman, half bird,
unorthodox, village girl's romance with a strict, aristocratic man, resolved through his relaxation of
authority and her developing sense of responsibility.
2
There is less information available about live action models for recent heroes and heroines, although
there is strong evidence that athleticism is to an extent replacing dance: Tarzan's movements were
have merged with the iconography of the mermaid, half woman, half fish, Warner
explaining "the fusion was made possible by both creatures' command of voice, by
their siren song" (From the Beast 406). Andersen's mermaid is a literary mermaid,
developed from Glen Keane's observations of extreme sports, for example.
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217
nameless, but the musical gives her a name to be sung3. Ironically, Ariel is
is used again when he takes over from the discordant bawling of Scuttle, who
introduced through the absence of her voice, foreshadowing the narrative concern
attempts to set a romantic mood for Eric and Ariel with song. Sebastian, with a
with its disappearances and rediscoveries. Her sisters introduce her vocal debut at a
baton improvised from a reed, re-animates the lagoon as a night club with bandstand
concert, establishing her virtuosity: "her voice is like a bell." As her name, "she's
and dancing for "Kiss the Girl." In both numbers, Sebastian conspicuously brings
our sister, Ari..." fades, incomplete, Ariel is herself discovered absent. The feature
order and discipline to the score.
cuts to Ariel exploring a shipwreck, having forgotten the concert. She does not
actually sing until "Part of Your World", the 'I wish' song, but her voice whether
In "Kiss the Girl", he begins to create song with the words: "Jeez, man, I'm
heard or not is a constant presence. Indeed her voice, particularly her singing voice,
surrounded by amateurs! You want something done, you've got to do it yourself.
becomes the praxis of desire and negotiation. In Andersen's tale, when the little
First we got to create the mood. Percussion... Strings... Winds... Words." As he
mermaid rescues the prince, she is silent and concealed. In Disney's version, she
refers to each, the lagoon's ecology is transformed: ducks play the stomachs of
spends a brief time singing on shore to him, so that when he wakes, his rescue and
obliging turtles as bongos, crickets rub their string legs, wind blows through
her singing are synonymous in the 'close-up' of her face he sees and in his first
bending, hollow reeds, and Sebastian himself grabs a microphone shaped reed into
words, "A girl rescued me... she was singing... she had the most beautiful voice."
which to croon. The latter especially illustrates the form of signification taking
When she trades that voice for legs, it is significant that it is not words, but pure
place: the 'improvised' microphone is only for visual show as, unlike the other
song that is the vehicle of transferral: Ursula orders her not to speak, but to sing and
transpositions, it cannot in reality simulate the aural role of the microphone. The
it is song that takes on a separate, animated 'substance' - light - as it is transferred,
pulled from Ariel's throat. Her song is not anatomical, but animated. The siren song
1
stretch and flow of the animation executes the music's tempo and articulation, while
the crescendo of the song is matched with frogs riding on the oars Eric pulls, their
that Ursula takes is not the physical ability to speak, which the cutting out of the
"sha-la-la-la" synchronised with the rise and fall of the oar, and the fish swirl in the
tongue in Andersen's version signified.
water to create a corresponding "sha-la-la-la" chorus, while other fish leap to
punctuate the "yeah-yeah-yeah." With additional circling fireflies, fish spurting
In counterpoint to Arid's reckless treatment of her voice, Sebastian, as a musician
fountains of water, and frogs making kissing noises, the song is continuing to build
and choral master, strives to regulate the feature's score. He uses "Under the Sea" to
to its syncopated end when the boat capsizes and the song is abandoned, for the
exert some control over the wayward teenager, visually orchestrating the ocean
creatures have been scared away, flapping, leaping, and swimming from the boat
creatures as music, even rhyming musically while articulating their transformation
with their 'natural' voices.
from creatures to musicians: "The newt play the flute, the carp play the harp, the
plaice play the bass, and they soundin' sharp, the bass play the brass, the chub play
This style of animation dramatically differs from "Les Poissons" in which the chef,
the tub, the fluke is the duke of soul." The same transposition of creature to musician
Louis, attempts to put together a seafood dinner including Sebastian. Louis sings the
number, but he also effectively 'kills' it. The fish don't dance: they are already dead,
3
The name 'Ariel' is most readily identified with the Shakespearean spirit in The Tempest, a play
being chopped, gutted and staffed by the eager chef. The chefs song, hitting its apex
with the requisite father-daughter relationship and shipwrecks. There is, however, little resemblance
in a culinary pas de deux with Sebastian, breaks into a can-can orchestration that
between Ariel and her Shakespearean counterpart, Ariel being a true to life teenager rather than a
slips back into diegetic music: the music is timed to the action, but is not visualised
sprite, and there is no corroborative evidence that The Tempest materially influences the musical.
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219
itself. Louis's number is cartoon-style, the music providing the aural 'kapows' and
is better under the sea, Eric will kiss Ariel. At the very moment of his success,
'thwacks' of Louis's inelegant culinary dance, parodying the spirit with which he
however, something always causes the pattern to scatter just as the music grinds to a
"loves les poissons, love to chop and to serve little fish, cut off their heads." The
halt: Ariel has disappeared, Flotsam and Jetsom have capsized the boat. Once again,
music is still synchronised to the animation, but unlike "Under the Sea" in which the
the spectator is left in doubt as to what will happen next.
terrors of such a fate are sung and danced by the fish - "guess who's gon' be on the
plate" - who animate the music itself, the fish here are already dead and inanimate4.
The Little Mermaid's use of Busby Berkeley techniques bridges the gap between the
Even Sebastian, the orchestrator of much of the score, is 'playing dead'.
heyday of the film musical and the renaissance of Disney animation, but The Little
Mermaid also inherits the musical developments that took place over the decades
"Les Poissons" is a comic interlude. The main numbers remain rooted in a Busby
that few associate with the genre, namely, the decades of rock 'n' roll's ascendancy
Berkeley style where animation 'improvises' the music. Rick Altaian describes the
in popular music.
climax of Busby Berkeley film musicals: "we have entirely abandoned the
representational mode. Everything - even the image - is now subordinated to the
music tracl? {The American 71). Here is Sebastian's ultimate triumph: through the
character, visual animation is subordinated, drawn to illustrate the song itself.
Furthermore, Berkeley's trademark shifts in point of view from eye-level to top shot
serve an additional narrative purpose intrinsic to the musical's structure. Airman
suggests that "the spectator's alternation is always between eye-level shot (the world
as whirling chaos) and top shot (the world as pattern). Berkeley's style is the perfect
stylistic correlative of the musical's particular brand of ritual suspense, wherein we
alternate between foreknowledge and a conventional willingness to ignore that
knowledge" (The American 73). Sebastian's songs always begin at a point of
narrative uncertainty or turmoil with eye-level animation, through which Sebastian
gradually constructs order. The finale is always seen from a top shot, in which
Sebastian has successfully created a pattern that makes sense: Ariel will see that life
POP MUSIC IN FILM AND ANIMATION:
THE IMMEDIATE BACKGROUND FOR DISNEY ANIMATED MUSICAL
In Chapter One, the lull in film musical production in the 1960s has been noied.
Musicals had not ceased to be produced, but they were fewer and in retrospect the
genre was undergoing a period of transition. Marc Miller argues, pertinently in the
case of the time span of this dissertation: "To understand the precarious state of the
movie musical in 1998, one has to travel back to 1964-65" (45). Miller cites three
successful musicals released in 1964: Mary Poppins, My Fair Lady, and The Sound
of Music. Notably of the three, two were Broadway adaptations. Mary Poppins was
released by Disney and while predominantly live action, also incorporated
animation. The films which sought to capitalise on the success of these three failed
at the box office for a variety of reasons and there were only rare successes in the
next decades, such as Fiddler on the Roof and Grease. Miller argues that the film
musical "entered the '90s as a relic of an America that looked hopelessly naive and
4
The underlying violence of the musical is not against Ariel, but against her 'world': the threat and
deluded to baby boomers, "Gen Xers," and the MTV crowd" (45). Yet, it could
fact of human violence against sea creatures. Triton, for example, says: "Do you think I want to see
equally be true that the genre was undergoing change that paralleled the radical
my youngest daughter snared by some fish-eater's hook?" The potential violence to Ariel within
developments in popular music in the 1960s. Although the musical is often defined
Eric's seafood-loving kingdom is displaced into the 'pas de deux' between Sebastian and Louis. It is
significant that Ariel 'saves' Sebastian by hiding him on her plate: she does not reject the meal and
thus oppose the violence of Eric's kingdom. The violence is always present, but is never resolved,
from theatrical or cinematic perspectives, the constant that defines the genre is its
link to popular music.
only displaced.
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221
Much of the early musical's repertoire was created as a vehicle for popular song and
incorporate music to which they owned the sheet music rights3. That people bought
sheet music sales, discernible through the interchangeable nature of many of the
sheet music to perform themselves, moreover, does not automatically mean that
songs from show to show and their limited narrative specificity. Ethan Mordden
people bought sheet music primarily to perform it. Before recorded music was
names such writers as Berlin, Kern, Gershwin, Porter, Hart, Rodgers, and
readily available, performing music yourself and attending concerts and recitals
Hammerstein: "These men invented the very sound of American pop. Invented it.
provided the chief options for listening to music. Technology eventually enabled
Some of their songs had become standards, but their shows were always vanishing"
people to listen to music whenever and wherever they wanted, thus changing the
{Beautiful 41). As popular song absorbed influences ranging from jazz to folk, there
essential dynamic of the relationship, empowering the audience over the
was a movement away from stage and film. In the 1950s, popular song chiefly
performance. The audience does not necessarily become more passive in this
merged into rock 'n' roll. The popular songs of the day were no longer being written
equation. The audience has greater choice in choosing performances to listen to and
in Tin Pan Alley and were performed in studios and produced as records rather than
the act of listening itself enables the audience to relate to the music in various
on the stage and around the family piano. It seemed that the age of the musical had
situations: driving, exercising, dancing, for example. The empowerment of the
passed with the old popular standards.
audience shifted the musical's focus from performance.
With some of the suspicion of consumerism that has marked Disney criticism,
Eyre and Wright argue this empowerment in class terms: "With the rise of the
Airman writes of the latter twentieth century:
cheap(ish) portable record players, with amplified sound, with the proliferation of
radio stations, with increased prosperity among blue-collar workers, recorded music
Today, a quarter of a century after the decline of the Hollywood
became the music of the masses" (174). Altman argues that, in contrast, the musical
musical, it is difficult for us to imagine the extent to which the
decreasingly served the mass audience: "the musical's audience changes radically in
musical once engendered active modes of entertainment, of re-
the late fifties. From family entertainment, the musical rapidly becomes the fief of
creation. Sheet music releases were awaited with the same urgency as
the youth crowd" (The American 359), coming to the conclusion: "As long as every
new music video releases are today... The only difference is that one
musical spoke to us of our own capacity for and joy in the production of music and
purchase leads to music production, while the other feeds only our
dance, then the musical was serving a social function which, alas, it no longer serves
appetite for consumption. (The American 359)
for the society as a whole" (The American 359). In the late fifties, rock music was
the popular music of youth and rock music eventually led to albums, video clips, and
However, one could also argue that the situation is a reflection of technological
rock concert spectaculars, with their own modes of engagement and 'joy' in music.
advances that change the dynamic of performance and audience. The appetite for
Rock music itself developed from popular, blues, and country music and was and to
sheet music was also orientated towards consumption, with most studios pushing the
an extent remains, thematically orientated towards adolescence. This era was
sales of their publishing divisions and many in fact obliging directors and writers to
different to the one that preceded it, in which the earlier musicals had evolved into
5
Warner Bros., for example, encouraged the animators of 'Looney Tunes' to use music the studio
held the rights to.
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223
what many regard as the 'golden era' of book musicals, but it would also come to
television, often going back to the roots of the musical in silent film inspired comic
influence the ways in which song is used in Disney animated musicals. Moreover,
skits accompanied by song, and also acted as one of the precedents for MTV. Wells
since the 1950s, rock has ceased to be only for youth, since the original listeners
suggests that the early Warner Bros. Cartoon "may be viewed as progenitors of the
have matured and been joined by subsequent generations to build a multi-
music video" (Animation: Genre 62) also. In 1969, the Monkees themselves
generational audience. Hence, in 2002, Elvis Presley had a number one hit with the
produced a musical, Head, which although unsuccessful at the time has since won
MTV audience and eight of his songs are used in Disney's Lilo & Stitch, with its
recognition for its contribution to leftist cinema and included, as did much of their
primary child audience, even though Presley died a quarter of a century earlier and it
material, songs written by writers from the Brill Building.
was half a century since his first records were released.
Eyre and Wright argue: "The new Tin Pan Alley songs - rock and roll - couldn't be
In 1956, among film musicals released were Rodgers and Hammerstein's The King
assimilated in a dramatic structure. The form couldn't carry narrative and character.
and I and Carousel, Porter's High Society and Love Me Tender, Elvis Presley's first
The songs couldn't progress the story and if songs just stand still in a musical then
film. Through the 1960s, Elvis Presley and also Cliff Richard starred in a series of
the musical dies. And the musical died" (174). In the very decade the musical is
film musicals. So, too, did the Beatles. Timothy Scheurer argues that the latter group
meant to have died for a lack of suitable song, pop and rock and roll produced an
were themselves strongly influenced by the writers of the Brill Building, who in turn
explosion of lyric-rich song forms. The concept album originated during this period,
were influenced by Tin Pan Alley, outlining the craft of Tin Pan Alley that survived:
notably with the Beatles' Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Heart's Club Band. While not
"The willingness to experiment with harmony, to place a premium on the singable,
truly musicals, the use of theme and sometimes narrative to link songs on a concept
catchy melody, to retain the beloved AABA form and to explore thematic ideas with
album is sympathetic to the aims of musical; concept albums for musicals are
intelligence and, occasionally, wit have been with us now since Aldon Music was
themselves common and Tim Rice shows, in particular, tend to take the form of
able to exert its influence through teen idols and girl groups in the early 1960s".
concept albums before being staged (Jesus Christ Superstar, Evita, Chess, and Aida,
Since Tin Pan Alley underpins the musical and therefore Disney musical, it is
the latter for Disney, for example). Further, the songs themselves told stories and
notable that the same features underpin the work of one of the pivotal pop bands of
elucidated characters: "Ruby Tuesday", "No Milk Today", "Judy's Turn To Cry",
all time. In fact, the Beatles starred in their own animated musical, Yellow
even "Do Wah Diddy Diddy." As the century progressed, songs even became mini
Submarine, and were featured in cartoon form in a television series featuring their
rock-operas, with Queen and Jim Steinman, for example, writing longer songs that
songs. Wells notes that these cartoons were "deliberately seeking to find the
experimented with narrative arcs and themes. The problem wasn't so much a lack of
adult/child crossover audience already aware of, and participating in, the cultural
music, but, for the theatre, how to stage it. For this was music that was produced by
success of the 'Fab Four'" (Animation and America 79), paralleling an aspect of the
guitar and drum, often in studios, with lead singers. Most people writing on the
parent-child relays Disney orchestrates in its animated musicals, which likewise
musical identify the problems experienced in the 1960s and 70s with song: the
draw upon the crossover audience of other types of pop music. The Beatles' 1964
problem is actually with staging. Disney is among the new producers and authors
film, A Hard Day's Night, inspired producers to create a series about a rock group,
who are beginning to determine new ways to stage pop and rock music.
which became The Monkees. The group, fictional as it was, went on to chart success
while the series' mix of comedy and music in a sense developed the musical for
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225
In terms of film, this period is often overlooked, possibly because the musical ceased
shaping of pop music into a kind of film music (as underscore)... as a key to
to appear as musical on screens. The films produced by popular artists have already
understanding what a character may be feeling at a particular moment; and as a type
been mentioned, but the new rock and roll also went multimedia, as it did with the
of 'guide', suggesting what the viewer should be feeling in relation to a particular
Monkees. From the late 1960s and into the early 70s, television shows and cartoons
moment" (283). Garwood further argues "whilst the bona fide film musical may
featured their own pop bands, including The Partridge Family and The Flintstones.
have fallen out of favour, the songs associated with its golden era have remained a
In 1969, the animated band, The Archies, had a number one hit with "Sugar,
consistent presence in contemporary Hollywood, particularly in the romantic
Sugar"6, suggesting that live performers were no longer a necessary requirement to
comedy genre" (283). Since the film musicals mentioned were rooted in romantic
the performance of pop. In the 1970s and 1980s, there were musicals recognisable
comedy, the continuity of generic purpose for the songs is a reasonable consequence.
from a traditional definition, although including a more marked use of contemporary
Recent films have capitalised on and experimented with the synchronisation between
pop song, including The Blues Brothers, Grease, and Xanadu, but there were also
soundtrack and film that was established in films like When Harry Met Sally, which
films which relied on the soundtrack's 'performance', including Saturday Night
used 'pop standards' of the 30s and 40s for a contemporary romantic comedy. Films
Fever, Flashdance, and Dirty Dancing. All of these soundtracks became hits
including Moulin Rouge and A Knight's Tale use a range of romantic and non-
themselves on the popular music charts. According to Altman's definition, the
romantic contemporary pop songs anachronistically and the songs are themselves
nature of the soundtrack precludes such films as belonging to the musical genre, but
visually manifest, the crowd at a joust in A Knight's Tale, for example, beating the
as Feuer argues in relation to Dirty Dancing: "Everything is done to link the pre-
rhythm and singing Queen's "We Will Rock You." Disney animated musicals dating
recorded songs to the diegesis. In most of the numbers, the non-diegetic music is at
from The Little Mermaid were able to fully utilise the soundtrack and the other
least thematized, or it is rendered diegetic by being played on a phonograph within
multimedia forms of the genre to produce 'compound' performances of its songs.
the scene" (131). Characters also, with varying levels of consciousness, choreograph
their actions to the music. The opening sequences of Saturday Night Fever, for
example, feature the main character combing his hair, dressing, walking down the
COMPOUND PERFORMANCES:
TRANSLATIONS AND COVERS
street, all in synchrony to the rhythm of the soundtrack.
The soundtrack as a physical entity in music stores is either combined with or
This type of synchronisation has even overlapped into mainstream film. The opening
titles of Bridget Jones's Diary, for example, show the title character's drunken
response to a song, "All By Myself, playing both on Bridget's stereo and on the
film's soundtrack. She mimes the words, she mimes playing the drums, she
'performs' the song without actually producing the music. Ganvood notes "the
6
positioned next to cast recordings of theatrical musicals, reinforcing the close
relationship between the two. Disney soundtracks include both the 'cast' recording the songs as they sound on the feature - and pop covers. As mentioned in the
previous chapter, the pop covers are by a range of singers, both established and
rising, and have been known to enter the music charts in their own right. The pop
covers usually play during the final credits of the features and are not animated,
though video clip versions are often produced that incorporate animated scenes
"Sugar, Sugar" was originally intended for The Monkees, who refused it. The Monkees, themselves
considered the first manufactured band, were thus usurped by perhaps the ultimate manufactured
band: the animated Archies. Animation was a useful tool for the manipulation of image that began to
alongside footage of the performer. The songs thus expand through 'compound
performance': each song is no single set of lyrics or arrangements, much less a
be exploited in pop.
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227
single animated or live-action performance, but a cluster of performances in which
presence of a Spanish track on a German soundtrack of an originally English feature
the various elements are transposed according to purpose.
argues that the performer himself is the rationale for inclusion: Martin's popularity
in Europe at this time argues that this is likely. The last non-German track is "Zero
The German soundtrack of Hercules, for example, begins with seven alternatives to
to Hero" covered by Sounds of Blackness, which has the distinctive Sounds of
songs from the animated feature, none of which are in the German language. The
Blackness vocal and musical arrangement and likewise draws on the parallel
first, "Shooting Star", is performed by Boyzone, but does not appear in the feature
between the black Muses and the performers of Sounds of Blackness.
nor on English-language soundtracks. The song's lyrics corroborate those for "Go
the Distance" and "A Star is Born": "No one seems to think much of me here... I'm
The alteration of lyrics in the covers suggests perhaps the most readily readable
completely out of place... And I see a shooting star, set apart from all the rest, while
ramifications for the compounding of performance. In some cases, there are no
the other stars are standing still, he's on a quest... he knows he doesn't quite fit in
changes or minimal changes, as in Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle's cover of "A
and he's longing to know why." The theme of alienation from "Go the Distance"
Whole New World." Elton John's versions of "Circle of Life", "I Just Can't Wait to
and the star metaphor from "A Star is Born" are combined in this set of David
be King", and "Can You Feel the Love Tonight", however, are quite different to the
Zippel lyrics to an Alan Menken tune. Michael Bolton's cover of "Go the Distance"
versions used in the feature. The two versions of "Can You Feel the Love Tonight",
follows. This is the standard English cover of the song, appearing on English
the feature's being on the left, are included in Table 6.1 for comparison.
soundtracks also. The lyrics vary the feature's, adopting some of the tropes of the
love song that are originally absent from Hercules' 'I wish' song: "I will search the
world, I will face its harms, till I find my hero's welcome, waiting in your arms."
The lyrics also elaborate on the central theme of the musical: "But to look beyond
the glory is the hardest, part, for a hero's strength is measured by his heart." The
latter lyrics reflect the knowledge Hercules obtains in the feature; the cover of the 'I
Table 6.1: Feature and Cover Versions of "Can You Feel The Love Tonight"
Timon:
There's a calm surrender
I can see what's happ'ning
To the rush of day
And they don't have a clue
When the heat of the rolling world
They'll fall in love and here's the bottom line
Can be turned away
Our trio's down to two
An enchanted moment
wish' song extended to incorporate the 'elixir', to borrow Campbell's term. "The
Gospel Truth" and "A Star is Born" are then performed in English by Jocelyn
Brown, followed by a Belinda Carlisle cover of "I Won't Say (I'm in Love)", which
And it sees me through
The sweet caress of twilight
It's enough for this restless warrior
There's magic everywhere
Just to be with you
And with all this romantic atmosphere
maintains the "I/You" perspective from the feature's version, performed by Meg and
Disaster's in the air
And can you feel the love tonight?
the Muses, creating a certain ambiguity in the cover's mode of address. The musical
It is where we are
arrangement, however, is quite different to the feature version, so that although the
Chorus:
It's enough for this wide-eyed wanderer
lyrics are il logically retained in their original form, the music is in the style of
Can you feel the love tonight?
That we got this far
Carlisle's own work and so shifts substantially from the doo-wop harmonies of the
The peace the evening brings
And can you feel the love tonight
The world, for once, in perfect harmony
How it's laid to rest?
With all its living things
It's enough to make kings and vagabonds
original arrangement to the synthesisers of 1980s pop. Perhaps most distinctive of
this collection of covers, the next track is Ricky Martin's Spanish cover, "No
Importa La Distancia", that likewise appears on Spanish language soundtracks. The
228
Believe the very best
Simba:
229
So many things to tell her
There's time for everyone
writes: "Looking back on his own rowdy adolescent years, the singer sees the past as
But how to make her see
If they only learn
redeemed by the symbolic proximity of the former profligates with the great of the
The truth about my past? Impossible!
That the twisting kaleidoscope
She'd turn away from me
Moves us all in turn
There's a rhyme and reason
worlds. A moment of conversion and triumph for the repentant revelers." Perrot
reads the song as a praxis between the feature's representation of monarchy, namely
Nala:
To the wild outdoors
in the 'vagabond' Simba's penitent return to kingly status, and the history of the
He's holding back, he's hiding
When the heart of this star-crossed voyager
performer himself, particularly through his early acknowledged profligate lifestyle
But what, I can't decide
Beats in time with yours
and his latter association with British royalty; although since the lyrics are written by
Why won't he be the king I know he is
Tim Rice, not John, any association of their meaning with the profile of the
It's enough to make kings and vagabonds
The king I see inside?
Believe the very best
performer is mediated. The cover lyrics likewise re-invoke the "Circle of Life" that
Chorus:
begins and ends the feature animation: "the twisting kaleidoscope." In this case, the
grand scope of the circlf of life becomes more personal/romantic: "it's enough for
The peace the evening brings
this restless warrior just to be with you." In a sense, the cover version fuses the
The world, for once, in perfect harmony
feature version of "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" with "Circle of Life",
With all its living things
answering the questions of the former with a new version that draws fully on the
musical's theme as embodied in "Circle of Life." Of its placement behind the feature
You needn't look too far
credits, Perrot notes: "The Lion King ends with a hymn of love, both caressing and
Stealing through the night's uncertainties
mystical, the appeal of which is heightened by the modulations of the treble
Love is where they are
playback voices of traditional English choirs." In this sense, the feature rounds out
with a monarchical blessing, invoked in a ceremonial, spiritual arrangement, that
Tirnon:
unites "kings and vagabonds."
And if he falls in love tonight
It can be assumed
His carefree days with us are history
John's cover lyrics of "Circle of Life" are closer to the feature's version, but again
In short, our pal is doomed
incorporate much more narrative material, including a verse that mentions "the
stampede", referencing Mufasa's death with a caveat, "you should never take more
Even taking into account that the feature's version is performed by several singers,
accounting for a juxtaposition of verses that makes less sense sung by a solo
performer, there are significant changes in the tone of the song. Jean Perrot refers to
this cover version in her analysis of the myth of monarchy in two Elton John songs,
7
than you give", and a verse that references Simba's exile, "and some of us sail
through our troubles, and some have to live with the scars." The additional lyrics of
the "I Just Can't Wait to be King" cover maintain the comic tone of the feature
version, with slightly more sophisticated references such as the Lewis Carroll
the other being "Candle in the Wind" . Of "Can You Feel the Love Tonight", she
7
Perrot's analysis shifts the song's authority from Disney to Elton John, thus accentuating the
slippage that can occur: the monarchical constructions in The Lion King are read against those of
230
other Elton John work, rather than of other Disney work, creating further slippage between English
and American constructions of monarchy.
231
allusion in the line, ctthe time has come as someone said to talk of many things",
'Go the Distance"
"Reflection"
"Reflexion" - Reflection
"I'll Make a Man Out of
You"
"Comme Un Homme" "Like a Man"
"One Last Hope"
"Bleibt
nur
eine "A Girl Worth Fighting
Hoffhung" - A little bit For"
of hope (remains)
"Une Belle Fille A
Aimer" - A Beautiful
Girl to Love
"Zero to Hero"
"In
Sekunden
auf
hundert"
Within
seconds to one hundred/
Within
seconds of blowing
your top
"I Won't Say (I'm in
Love)"
"Ich will keinen Mann"
- I don't want a
man/husband
"A Star is Bom"
"Ein Stern geht auf - A
star is bom
which are not strictly accommodated in the song's feature context8. Unlike the other
two covers, "I Just Can't Wait to be King" nevertheless maintains a tighter relevance
to its narrative purpose. The other two covers break slightly from the narrative
purpose: rather than present a fragment of the narrative, they are rounded off as
stand-alone, self-contained narratives. This is part of the essential transposition
covers undergo to be performed as pop songs.
Song in the features serves to carry the narrative through a scene: it is not a
beginning or end in itself. The arrangements and lyrics pick up and leave off as
characters continue to move through the story. When the performances of the songs
are compounded, the songs increasingly become self-contained, whether by
"Ich
werd's
noch
beweisen!" - I will
prove it! / I will show
you!
'borrowing' themes or by altering arrangements, with the verses tending to be more
sustained and regular as song form imposes itself more strikingly upon narrative
form. For example, Timon and Pumbaa's half sung, half spoken step into "Can You
Like cover versions, foreign language translations compound the performances,
Feel the Love Tonight" is removed, replaced by a soft rock intro, and the cover
chiefly through lyrics as arrangements tend to be standard in recordings. Literal
finishes with a verse repeat, instrumental trill and fade, rather than Timon and
translations of song lyrics are not always possible or advisable. To fit melodies,
Pumbaa's final lament, after which they burst into tears signalling the 'cut' to the
lyrics must often be varied since literal translations cannot always be synchronised
following scene. The version in the feature is thus 'topped and tailed' by the
to the original arrangements. In Table 6.2, while the entire songs are not compared, a
perspective of characters in the story, giving the ballad context. The cover version
brief comparison of foreign language to English song titles serves to illustrate the
operates within the context of a pop song, requiring musical intros and fade outs.
point.
The translations are in some instances virtually identical, though in some cases there
Table 6.2: A Comparison of Selected Foreign and English Language Song Titles
English Hercules
"The
Gospel
Truth
i,ii,nr
German Hercules
"Jedes Wort is wahr" Every word is true
English Mulan
"Honour to Us All"
French Mulan
"Honneur a Tous"
Honour To All
are subtle shifts of meaning that produce a different emphasis to the song's theme. In
-
analysing Disney as a global phenomenon, it is valid to take into consideration such
variations of message, since they indicate that not only is the message not
consistently phrased in English, but that the very act of translation necessitated by
8
The Lewis Carroll allusion, in particular, argues an English cultural perspective, natural to the
Disney's global market leads to further complications of Disney's meaning. The
English writers, Rice and John, but not so to the same degree when considering the American nature
message interpreted in English is not necessarily the same message interpreted in
of the cubs who perform the song in the feature. The Lion King does contain a variety of English
allusions, particularly Shakespearean, but such references tend to be restricted to Scar and Zazu, who
are performed by English actors and evince English cultural inflections.
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233
Spanish, German or Korean9. The French translation of "A Girl Worth Fighting
Table 6.3: Comparison of German and English Lyrics of "I Won't Say"
For", for example, focuses upon a girl's beauty and the desire to love, rather than the
English language version
German language version
desire for a girl for whom to fight. "Go the Distance", as another example, is an
(English translation)
English expression, indicating perseverance in a particular task. The German title
emphasises not perseverance, but Hercules' desire to prove himself. That desire is
Meg:
Meg:
If there's a prize for rotten judgement
If there was a price for stupidity
also implicit in the English lyrics, but is privileged in the German. The German
I guess I've already won that
I'd surely receive it
version of "I Won't Say", translated into English, significantly 'compounds' the
No man is worth the aggravation
The gentlemen are getting on my nerves
original English song, particularly in respect to the implications discussed earlier in
That's ancient history
But that's over and done with - men are crazy
Been there, done that!
The Muses:
The Muses:
What do you mean to hide?
Who'd'ya think you're kiddin'
You are mad about the guy
He's the Earth and Heaven to you
Do you want to frighten us?
Try to keep it hidden
And send him packing?
Honey, we can see right through you
Change your mind
Girl, ya can't conceal it
Or you'll be alone ari he's gone
We know how ya feel and
Meg:
Who you're thinking of
Oh no, never, never in my life, not like this...
Meg:
The Muses:
No chance, no way
Admit it, you have your head in the clouds, oh, oh!
I won't say it, no, no
Meg:
The Muses:
No love affairs, no, I don't want a husband10
You swoon, you sigh
I simply want to forget about men
Why deny it, uh-oh!
Or I'll regret it bitterly
Meg:
The whole business is over and done with for me!
It's too cliche
Or I'll be crying my eyes out for nights on end!
The Muses:
I thought my heart had learned its lesson
Crying her eyes out for nights on end!
It feels so good when you start out
What's the point of all the whining?
My head is screaming get a grip, girl
You reject it all
Unless you're dying to cry your heart out
That's just outrageous!
Oh
For you there is just this only one
The Muses:
Act like a grown up
language recordings. On Mandarin and Cantonese Mulan soundtracks, the popular Asian actor and
You keep on denying
Don't act stupid,
singer, Jackie Chan, performs Shang, giving the role a much different significance to English versions
Who you are and how you're feeling
Girl, say...
Chapter Three, as set out in Table 6.3.
9
This can be even further complicated when you consider performers who appear on foreign
in which the actor who provides Shang's speaking voice is B.D. Wong and the actor who provides his
singing voice is Donny Osmond. Each voice brings its own significance to the role.
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10
The German 'Mann' can be translated as 'man' or 'husband'
235
Baby, we're not buying
Say...
which she 'will say' she loves, to a specific chailenge to romance. The latter
Hon, we saw ya hit the ceiling
Just say yes!
challenge is tempting to read in terms of response to the "Some Day My Prince Will
Face it like a grown-up
Meg:
When ya gonna own up
Oh no, never, never in my life, not like this..
That ya got, got, got it bad
The Muses:
abrasive - asserting what can be considered a patriarchal point of view - in the
Meg:
You'll see!
German version: she's crazy not to want a man. Meg is correspondingly more
No chance, no way
Calliope:
emphatic: she wants to forget about men. The English speaking Meg finally tempers
I won't say it, no, no
Say 'hello' to love!
her resolution: she is in love, but she still won't say it out loud. The German
The Muses:
Meg:
Give up, give in
It merely hurts, no, I don't want a husband
Check the grin you're in love
The Muses:
Meg:
Shut up, you're crazy, you want a husband
This scene won't play
Meg:
This is how it should be, I don't want one
The Muses:
The Muses:
You're doin' flips
She wants one
Read our lips
Meg:
love, often elaborating doubts about romantic ideals. The style is used in the earlier
You're in love
Leave me alone, I don't want one
"Kiss the Girl" and both share the 'sha-la-la-la' chorus typical of the song style. The
Meg:
The Muses:
animation of both songs likewise utilises blue colour saturation. Blue can signify, in
You're way offbase
Just admit it,
these romantic situations, both extreme decency, as a cool, non-sensual colour, and
I won't say it
You'll get your man
Get off my case
Meg:
I won't say it
So, okay, maybe
sexual invitation that has to be balanced with the general 'goodness' of the hero and
The Muses:
No other but him
heroine. In "Kiss the Girl", as the boat Eric is rowing moves into a lagoon curtained
Come" style of 'I wish' songs sung by her antecedents. The Muses are more
speaking Meg curiously mitigates her decision: she will 'get' her man, but only if it
is Hercules. The two 'I wish' outcomes are quite different in the original and the
translation.
The denial plays ironically on the doo-wop delivery. Doo-wop is a catchy melodic
style that began in the 1950s, chiefly through girl bands who sang about being in
indecency, as a word used to describe the risque. Its ambiguousness covers the
Girl, don't be proud
by willow trees, Sebastian encourages Eric to kiss Ariel: "Now's your moment,
It's O.K. you're in love
floating in a blue lagoon, boy you better do it soon, no time will be better." The
Meg:
'blue lagoon' invokes a sense of sexual license that is likewise illustrated in the
Oh
At least out loud
scenery of "I Won't Say", which includes statues of cupids and embracing couples
and invites Meg, through the Muses, to "give up, give in, check the grin you're in
love." Compare these numbers to Frollo's "Hellfire" in The Hunchback of Notre
Dame, which uses red, explicitly signifying sexual passion: "This burning desire is
The German title emphasises not Meg's denial of love, or at least, her refusal to
turning me to sin." Frollo's villainy in a sense warrants the full effect of sexual
speak of it, but her denial of desire for a man. Taking into consideration the dual
invitation in the red colouring of the scene: Esmeralda's body is pictured in yellow
meaning of the German 'Mann', she is also denying her desire for a husband. Meg's
and red flame at the other end of the spectrum from the blues and mauves in which
lyrics shift from challenging the tropes of the Disney heroine's romantic number in
Ariel and Meg appear. Frollo's dramatic, theatrical, almost liturgical performance
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likewise contrasts with the perkiness of melodies in "Kiss the Girl" and "I Won't
a teen pop princess who performs solo. Her song, "Part of Your World" is
Say", the musical quality of the latter in part neutralising its emotional and sexual
essentially pop, and her animation when singing relies on close-ups and poses: a pop
intensity.
princess in her own MTV ocean. When Ariel sings, she alone performs, framed by
her cave and even by her hair. During "Part of Your World", Sebastian is present,
MERMAIDS CAN MTV
but disapproving of the song, and thus he is rendered clumsy, comically trapping and
entangling himself in Ariel's treasures. Usually so much in control of the score, he is
The presence of doo-wop in the musicals illustrates the influence of pop on the genre
effectively bound for the duration of Ariel's pop number.
as it develops in the latter half of the twentieth century. As the musical itself began
to reabsorb popular song, song styles that had previously been largely ignored by the
Richards argues "that, for young girls, the dance repertoire cuts across a range of
traditional musical were now exploited for their storytelling potential, as shown in
television and video material, some of it addressed to very young children but much
the myriad ways song is employed in the Disney animated musicals, from the Dirty
also engaging an older audience of adolescents and beyond. There is no strictly
Dancing influence on The Little Mermaid to the concept album soundtracks of
circumscribed corpus here, no delimited body of texts precisely aligned with safely
Tarzan and The Emperor's New Groove. Although many justifiably read in the
demarcated age phases" (142). In discussing The Little Mermaid and A-riel in
musicals a return to the golden era of film musical, through the utilisation of Busby
particular, Richards draws a parallel to Madonna: "Dancing to Madonna is about
Berkeley techniques, production numbers, and narrative influences, the musicals are
projecting the self into, taking the form of, her body. To achieve this seems to
simultaneously a continuation of the evolution visible in the 1960s and 70s. The
depend upon reorganising the child's body to mark out the place of breasts and the
musicals don't only look back, they also look forward.
nakedness of the belly: really, to select and display the key elements of the
Madonna-Ariel mermaid iconography" (147). Warner describes the body in musical
In The Little Mermaid, Sebastian, court-appointed composer, represents the Busby
terms: "The body offers as it were an alphabet, or an eight-note scale, and the
Berkeley-influence, but this 'influence' is also visible in the 1960s film musicals
patterns of arrangement, though almost infinite, cluster in recognizable groups and
produced around The Beatles and The Monkees, which likewise employed top-shots
figures, like chords" (From the Beast 408). The mermaid herself cannot dance: she
and visual patterns. There were many Berkeley imitators after Berkeley's own
doesn't have legs. But her song does in a sense construct her body in 'musical'
heyday in the 1930s, but most relied on lavish sets and huge choruses to produce the
terms: it lays emphasis on the area around the diaphragm, from which the voice is
same effects. Sebastian's impulse to bring order to the situation reflects Berkeley's
produced. Warner actually places Ariel in the Madonna construction too, this time as
own discipline in stressing the structural elements of choreography11. Ariel herself is
a construct of desire: "the modern mermaid, like Madonna in the song 'Pappa, don't
preach', teaches her father to listen to her desire: to love her man" {From the Beast
404). Madonna's initial success in the mid-80s is contemporary with the production
11
Barrios argues: "The clones never matched the original, for Berkeley's imitators erroneously
believed that sheer lavish clutter - instead of structurally ordered processions of images - was the key
to his touch" (387). The groups like the Beatles and Monkees relied on highly structured images: they
frequently appeared in the same 'costumes' with the same haircuts. The use of Berkeley techniques in
avoiding the clutter of earlier Berkeley imitators, and affected a reversal of Berkeley's exploitation of
their film musicals also relied on the simplicity of patterns created from the bodies of the quartets,
the female form, by exploiting the form of the male 'teen idols' instead.
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239
of The Little Mermaid, favouring the resonance in the construction of identity
unable to do while still negotiating what Richards refers to as "the risky passage
offered through the two singers.
from an amniotic sea" (145). Baby had earlier been unable to perform the lift when
Johnny and she were in the river practising, just as Ariel's initial steps on land when
Richards likewise acknowledges the parallel to Dirty Dancing. Ariel and Baby have
she leaves the sea are extremely shaky and she falls into 'Eric. Now Ariel and Baby
virtually identical physiques. Both bare their midriffs and in both features, the bra
are able to exhibit self-control physically and vocally. There is a framework of
becomes iconological: Ariel's sea shells, Baby's bra which is revealed when twice
fathers and lovers, but the heroines exhibit self-control :in 'a man's world' without
she changes her dancing dress. Ariel wears suffragette colours of lavender and
negating the values of either respected father or 'bad boy'. The original codes of
green, Baby is going to join the Peace Corps. Both are younger, unaffected sisters:
Ariel and Baby - suffragette, Peace Corps - are not negated either. Union and
Ariel's older sisters dress up in pearls and hair clips, Baby's older sister is fashion
detente are represented in the conclusions.
conscious and wears make-up and jewellery. They trespass and spy on the male,
who is a 'prince' among his kind and a dancer. Ariel and Baby both long to dance
Dirty Dancing uses a blend of 50s nostalgic music, including the ideologically
and willingly transgress social barriers - Ariel going to the shore from the ocean,
loaded "You Don't Own Me", and contemporary pop. The Little Mermaid includes a
Baby crossing the stream to the 'staff only' section of the holiday camp - to follow
similar mix. Although all the songs are contemporary, Sebastian's songs are in the
Eric and Johnny to a place where they can dance. Richards suggests: "Perhaps,
style of the 50s. The mix of songs is particularly significant for the detente achieved:
despite the patriarchal structure in which dancing is located, be it in The Little
the patriarchal 50s, just preceding major movements in feminism and the rise of the
Mermaid or, more substantially, in Dirty Dancing, for girls there is a visible proof of
teenager, and the developments in feminism and teen culture occurring in the 80s.
bodily autonomy and self-control implicit in being seen to dance, to present a body
By performing the 80s songs, Ariel and Baby break from the 50s perception of
enacting intention" (147). As Ariel and Baby become bodily autonomous, however,
femininity, so aptly typified in their elder sisters, enacting self-control and bodily
they are both silenced: Ariel by her deal with Ursula, Baby by the secrets she must
autonomy, albeit in an ambiguous discourse. In much the same way, Madonna's
1980s performance of "Material Girl" parodies Marilyn Monroe's 1950s
keep.
performance in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes: the patriarchal construction of femininity
It is not until they break their silence, Ariel winning her voice back and Baby
is not refuted, but is revised in contemporary feminist terms.
revealing her affair, that they begin the process of full maturity. In facing the
consequences of their actions now that they have been unsilenced, both accept at
Leslie C. Dunn and Nancy A. Jones argue the production in Western literature and
first the injunctions of their fathers: Ariel remains in the sea, Baby remains at her
music of "a series of cultural icons that figure the mythic relationship between
father's table during the final concert. It is at this point that the fathers realise their
gender and vocality: Echo and Philomela, the sybil and the hysteric, the diva and the
daughters' love is real and rationally given and they sanction their choices. At this
blues queen. Such narratives testify to the persistent desire of male artists to control
point, both Ariel and Baby are shown as physically confident young women: Ariel
through representation the anxieties aroused by the female voice, even while they
rising from the water with firm steps, wearing a sparkling, clinging gown, to
license the display, and the enjoyment, of its powers" (3). It is notable that in The
embrace Eric, Babyrisingfromthe table to perform the lift that she had been unable
Little Mermaid, Ariel is missing from her concert debut: the display that is 'licensed'
to perform earlier. In each case, they are able to perform a physical feat they were
by her father, the king. Moreover, when Sebastian puts on a show to entice her into
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241
accepting her underwater life, she does dance a little - one brief shimmy - but by the
PART THREE:
number's climax, she has again disappeared. When she does sing, she sings where
her voice and, indeed, her presence are not sanctioned by her father: in her secret
TRANSPOSITIONS
treasure cave and on shore. Eric does 'enjoy' her singing, but he is likewise unable
to command it or control it, particularly when it is in the toils of Ursula, who uses it
to bewitch him. Ariel's voice repeatedly slips beyond the bounds of male control.
CHAPTER SEVEN:
Like Ariel's voice, the use of song in Disney animation repeatedly slips out of neatly
ordered categories. Song is a site of re-negotiation of our relationship to the musical
world, through choreography, pop music phases and icons, constructions of gender
and desire, and even cultural specificity. As this chapter begins and ends with
SYNCHRONISATION 2:
ANIMATING PERFORMANCES
analysis of The Little Mermaid, it has itself negotiated the bridge between the
traditional film musical and the musical as it exists in multimedia at the turn of the
century, via changes in technology and the global reproduction of pop stars and
music styles. Rather than interpret song as a vehicle for animation and narrative, and
No one is gloomy or complaining
When the flatware's entertaining
through narrative, ideology, the chapter has argued that song is itself primary and
that to understand Disney animated musical, it is necessary to acknowledge and
How MUSICALS SING
explore the primacy of song itself. Chapter Seven takes this argument further to
analyse the diegesis of Disney animated musical.
The primacy of song regulates the animated narrative, according significance to the
singers and constructing coherent vehicles for thematic and fantastic discourses.
Klein writes: "Sound enhanced the broken narrative within the cartoon. The
characters could be stopped in mid-crisis by a shift between voice and music: a sort
of Tin Pan Alley alienation device. The false note was more important than the true"
(10-11). The animated feature extends and explores the shift, elaborating on the
'false note' as itself a key instrument of animation and its diegesis.
As discussed, the dual-focus model gives equal narrative focus to the male and
female leads, but this is not always reflected in the solos and duets. In Table 7.1, the
features are broken down according to four categories, divided along gender lines.
The female voice in general prevails over the male in respect to the lead characters.
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243
Further, the male voice is itself in several features largely absent: Beast and Eric
some little hitch, some little tone that made her unique. There was, I think, a little bit
never sing, John Smith only has snatches of lyric and while Quasimodo is featured
of Judy Garland" (Thomas ...Beauty and the Beast 161). Belle's musical voice is
thrice, Phoebus never sings'. The musical silence of these men shifts power, when
complemented by the Maurice Chevalier voice of Jerry Orbach as Lumiere, a choice
accounting for the primacy of song, to the female.
made by Ashman himself, and Angela Lansbury as Mrs Potts, who sings the title
song not as a balladeer, but as a musical actress, "borrowing", Lansbury says, in part
Table 7.1: Song Performance According to Gender - includes solos, duets, and
from Sweeny Todays Mrs Lovett (Thomas ...Beauty and the Beast 165). These two
ensemble numbers in which each category perform, noting that in some cases
characters in particular lend their support to the voice of Belle as ingenue: rather as
participation is minimal.
Chevalier and Hermione Gingold, as Gaston's uncle and Gigi's grandmother, do in
Female Lead
Male Lead
Other
Other
Male/s
Female/s
Gigi, with the not inconsequential parallel to Belle in brunette Gigi's development
from school girl pinafores and "I don't understand Parisians" (a sentiment also
The Little Mermaid
1 + reprise
4
2
2 + reprise
5
6
Aladdin
1
2 + reprise
5
2
"remember it well": they were once young/human and now to re-ignite their own
The Lion King
2
3
4
1
previous joie de vivre, they must take in hand the romance of the younger couple.
Pocahontas
3
1 + reprise
4
3
G/g/'s Gaston2 sings, but Beast is alienated, losing even the crooner's part. Without
The Hunchback of Notre Dame
1
3
4
Hercules
1
1
1
Mulan
4
1
4
2
15+ 2 reprises
11+2 reprises
a musical voice, his character must be elaborated in the animation. In a sense, the
4
form of Beast might swell to gigantic proportions, but he is filled with silent air. It is
1
Tarzan
Totals
present in "Belle") to sophisticated evening gowns. The mature characters
35
Belle who has the voice that can move the feature along, her voice even rebuking
Beast's roar: "you should learn to control your temper!"
17
The male lead's smaller proportion of song is counterbalanced by the weight of the
Warner notes of Belle in Beauty and the Beast that "compared to the Beast, she's
whole performance towards the male voice, particularly since this category includes
dull. He has the artists' full attention; the pneumatic signature style of Disney
the villains and sidekicks who are frequently male, with Sebastian and Genie, in
animation suits the Beast's character as male desire incarnate" ("Beauty" 10). The
particular, being the dominant singers in The Little Mermaid and Aladdin, shifting
signature style of Disney musical, however, does suit Belle. Belle gets the 'I wish'
the focus from the romantic leads to their 'chorus'. This extends the musical range
song and Belle participates in more numbers than the Beast. Even though she is
of the scores, but, unlike the earlier musicals of Walt Disney where chorus songs
silent in "Be Our Guest", for example, the number is performed for her as audience,
were performed by ethereal choirs on the soundtrack, the chorus numbers in Team
privileging her, and during "Beauty and the Beast", it is Belle who initiates the waltz
Disney musicals are significant animation.
danced to the song. Belle's voice, provided by Paige O'Hara, has the score's
attention and director Kirk Wise alludes to the musical note that she hits: "She had
2
Gigi's male lead actually shares the name of Beauty and the Beast's villain, but where Gigi's Gaston
sings of the female lead, "Gigi", Beauty and the Beast's Gaston sings of himself, "Gaston". The
orientations of the songs illustrate the difference between Gaston the romantic hero and Gaston the
1
Tarzan and Kuzco do not sing, either, but in these features, neither does the female lead.
244
egotistic villain.
245
manifest in thefloatingleaves, which appears to work a powerful aural magic over
For example, in Pocahontas it is the juxtaposition of English and Native American
the two choruses who begin to smile and lower their weapons. Ratcliffe attempts to
choruses that creates the tension of "Savages", the dialogue of racism performed
renew hostilities, but not only will his chorus refuse to fire on Powhatan, they refuse
through song. The two sides ready themselves for battle in song, the images invoked
to sing to the "Savages" melody that has begun again to play under Ratcliffe's
in the lyrics created in the imagery of the animation itself. The English beat their
speech, and once they overcome Ratcliffe, Thomas significantly suggests they "gag
drums and are filmed in choral blocks, while the Native Americans dance around a
him as well", gagging once and for all the threatening melody. At the very end, the
fire and put on war-paint (grease-paint), turning to face the camera on cue to chant:
animation follows the triumphant resurgence of Pocahontas' "Colours of the Wind"
"I wonder if they even bleed." With noticeable irony, the imagery plays on the
as she runs to the top of a cliff. As the animation fades into a still 'sketch' of
lyrics: Ratcliffe's face becomes red in the glow of the fire as he solos "their skin's a
Pocahontas watching Smith's ship leave, the wind itself almost gains a singing
hellish red", while Powhatan, standing before a red fire backdrop, is coloured blue as
voice: a human choral effect concludes the music, suggesting, but not quite singing
he solos "the paleface is a demon." As the number develops, the sophistication of the
the actual words, "colours of the wind."
animation likewise develops to picture and distinguish the separate choral parts,
shadows and smoke becoming tangible as 'waves' of menace as the individual shots
Mordden writes: "An important difference between musical comedy and the musical
are choreographed to match the song's musical intensification of the peril.
play is that, in the fciner, characters aren't really "singing". The musical itself is
singing. In the musical play, the characters are singing. They have to - or the
Pocahontas, as the single female voice, acts in counterpoint to the two male choruses
audience won't know how they feel" (Beautiful 88). Musical comedies are most
and the greatness of her voice is matched by the transformation of her shadow: on
closely associated with popular song: the emphasis is on the song, rather than the
"eagle help my feet to fly" her shadow expands into the image of an eagle which
character singing the song. By this definition, Disney animated musicals tend
overtakes the screen as she runs to join the converging choruses. The animation
towards musical comedy. Although characters do sing to tell the audience how they
exploits the convergence using superimposed images and backdrops. At one
feel, this is countered, and often overwhelmed, by the singing of the musical itself3.
instance, the English march like a chorus line against a backdrop of their faces in
In the example of The Little Mermaid, although the heroine's voice is of primary
close-up as the two choruses finally collide, both visually and aurally, to the "drums
narrative importance, she has just one solo with a reprise and participates vocally in
of war." Pocahontas's voice - "is the death of all I love carried in the drumming of
no other number. Sebastian's songs dominate and his songs are those in which it is
war?" - carries over the dual chorus with her superimposed image until she stops
possible to hear the musical sing: "Under the Sea" and "Kiss the Girl" do not
both war and song with a shout: "No!"
describe Sebastian's feelings, but 'animate' the musical itself. In Beauty and the
Beast, the title song is performed by Mrs Potts, the teapot, as the fairytale carolling
War itself is song and only when Pocahontas uses her voice to stop the song, can
itself: "tale as old astime,song as old as rhyme, beauty and the beast."
war be averted. Once the warlike rhythm is checked, the characters rapidly resolve
their differences in speech. The power of song, loosed through the animation, has
carried them to a precipitous climax, but once the song is brought to a standstill, the
3
feature's conflict quickly resolves itself in the music of "Colours of the Wind",
voice, the of sr a singing voice, demarcating the character from the musical's singing. Although this
Moreover, often characters are performed by two performers, one of whom provides a speaking
is not always th^ case, it is notable that it is more often a lead character who has 'two voices'.
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247
Since animation utilises song as its aurality, it is in a very real sense the animation
especially important in determining the narrative premises upon which the story is to
that is singing. The features are often, though not always, animated by song from the
unfold, not least because there are significant shifts in the mode of narration from
outset, as described in Table 7.2. With the exception of Mulan, all the features open,
the delivery of the story-teller through to the execution of a song" (Understanding
or nearly open, with song preceding or arriving with the animation and that song
102). The feature begins with a voice-over narration, delivered as oratory.
always tells a story, namely the story of the musical itself: the musicals begin by
Significantly, the images on screen are not animated. A series of dissolves are used
'singing' their own story.
depicting illustrations of the action as stained glass images. Wells indicates these
"signify the archaic fairytale context as well as a moral and spiritual dimension
Table 7.2: Opening Scenes of Disney Animated Musicals
The Little Mermaid
Feature opens with the sailors singing "I'll tell you
against the principles of animation, based as they are on movement, and it is not
the tale...", describing the myth of mermaids
until the bird song of "Belle" introduces song that the feature 'becomes' animated.
Feature opens with a narrator telling the tale of
Wells dissociates the bird song with the song: "Sound, in this sequence, essentially
Beast's transformation, followed by "Belle"
Aladdin
The Lion King
Pocahontas
Feature opens with "Arabian Nights" describing the
Belle breaks into song, which effectively disrupts the realist mode, imposing the
Feature opens with "Circle of Life" describing the
conditions of the musical" (Understanding 103). The realist mode is here related to
underpinning myth
hyper-realism, where animation is used to create a realistic effect akin to live action
Feature opens with the English boarding a ship,
film.
the New World and segues over the title credit into
"Steady as the Beating Drum"
Hercules
reinforces Disney's usual hyper-realist context, using diegetic authentication, before
mythical land of Arabia
"The Virginia Company", while telling tales about
underpinning the tale" (Understanding 103). The stasis of these images argues
However, bird song is song and itself introduces the classical strains of
"Belle": a shift from nature's music to the town's music as Belle leaves her cottage
garden to enter the town. Wells describes a "tension between the realist mode and
Feature opens with "The Bells of Notre-Dame"
the performance mode, where the musical presupposes the translation of speech into
telling the story of Quasimodo
song, walking into dancing, objects into props, and any environment into a version
Feature opens with a narration that breaks into "The
of a stage" (Understanding 103). The voice-over, however, is a heightened, formal
Gospel Truth" as the Muses tell the story of
mode - its disembodied voice, the oratory, the still illustrations not being 'realist' -
Hercules' birth
and contextualises what follows as 'life-like' - animated - and therefore 'realer'.
Mulan
Feature opens with the Hun crossing the wall
Tarzan
Feature opens with "Two Worlds", showing the
"Belle" uses bird song to introduce song as the musical's mode: the musical sings
shipwreck and consequent death of Tarzan's parents
and does not thence recognise the tension between the realist and performance mode
Feature opens with Kuzco's description of his story,
since it maintains performance as the reality of the particular diegesis, thus
immediately followed by "Perfect World"
subverting the tension within the musical's translative action and suggesting that the
performance mode itself is multifaceted, depending on the levels of the diegesis
Beauty and the Beast was not originally a musical, but after the success of The Little
presented in the musical, and so not solely indicative of translative action as defined
Mermaid, Ashman and Menken were brought to work on the script. Wells writes:
by Wells. As "Belle" continues, Belle's single voice moves through a range of
"The role of sound in the opening sequence of Disney's Beauty and the Beast is
choruses, including the salesmen and their customers and the silly girls who swoon
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over Gaston, and also through song and speech. "Belle" is not fully sung, but
"you have to believe these voices would come out of these mouths" (Thomas
translates readily between realist and performed scenes: Belle enters the bookshop
...Hercules 219). The Muses are among the first animated African Americans and
on a high note, slips into normal speech and movement, leaves as a chorus of men
became so because of the way the musical 'sings'.
sing about her, and half dances as she walks away. Only at the end of "Belle" is the
continuity between realist and performance modes questioned: the population
The moment when a Disney animated musical is most apparent in its 'singing' is
gathers behind Belle as she leaves the town, singing "she really is a ninny girl! That
during the fantasy sequence. The fantasy sequence is equivalent to the dream
Belle!" at which point Belle suddenly appears to become aware of the chorus that
sequences of the musical plays. Altman, discussing the dream ballet of such
has been following her and turns, but Gaston steps up and says in speaking voice,
sequences in the folk musical, argues: "The titles of the new dances read like the
"Hello Belle", while the population scatters into a more 'normal' distribution and
chapter headings of a book on American popular mythology; each dance recreates a
Belle dismisses the 'peculiarity'.
myth, but a myth close enough for the spectator to feel a sense of participation" (The
American 284). The fantasy sequences of Disney musicals frequently draw upon
In Hercules, the chorus takes more emphatic control. Like Beauty and the Beast, the
American popular mythology, as Table 7.3 illustrates. The fantasy sequences can
musical begins with a voice-over. The tone is again oratory and in English versions
double as 'I wish' or romantic songs, but held in common is the 'fantastic' nature of
is delivered by Charleton Heston, carrying the intertextual signification of his
their animation, drawing upon magical transformations of self or surroundings, and
biblical roles including Moses. Animation is likewise absent: the film pans along a
the resonance with a particular myth.
row of Greek vases painted with scenes of Hercules' life. Then the illustration of the
Muses on one of the vases animates itself, the Muses themselves slipping into song,
Menken explains: "Music is of tremendous importance in animation... not only in
playing off the biblical connotations of Heston's voice-overs musically and lyrically
sustaining the film as a musical, but also supporting the fantasy, which is the very
with "The Gospel Truth." The Muses act as a girl group narrator, performing like the
essence of these films" (Thomas ...Beauty and the Beast 167). In Aladdin, Menken
Supremes with Calliope the front singer, able to animate themselves from any
and Ashman under the direction of Musker and Clements, composed two huge
available illustration: they later animate from a frieze on a fountain. In Hercules,
production numbers, "Friend Like Me" and "Prince Ali". "Friend Like Me" sets the
there is no natural segue into song. The Muses simply steal the scene: "We'll take it
tone for "Prince Ali", so is the example used. In the number, meticulous drawing
from here, darling." They keep the story rolling through their song and while there is
and colouring co-ordinate with the vocals and music to create a spontaneous burst of
a more pronounced break between the realist and performance mode, their initial
illumination with Las Vegas flare. A big blue puff of smoke - the Genie - is able to
disturbance makes clear that the story is in performance mode. No matter how realist
become anything it sings about: an organic form capable of any kind of magic
the action may later seem, the muses remain obviously two-dimensional and
directed towards one thing: visualising the aspirations of a poor street rat in Agraba
represent the underlying musical style, which is chiefly influenced by Motown. The
through song.
idea of Motown Muses as a Greek chorus illustrates the lateral thinking that occurs
in the Disney creative process, particularly apparent in the features of directors
Table 7.3: Fantasy Sequences
Musker and Clements. There was a decision to give the Greek chorus spirituals to
The Little Mermaid
sing, so the supervising animator, Mike Show, drew them as African American:
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"Under the Sea"
The Caribbean myth: "Since life is sweet here,
we got the beat here." The myth in part draws
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upon ethnic stereotypes, particularly evident in
Mulan
"A Girl Worth Fighting The myth that men fight for a girl 'back home':
For"
Sebastian's use of 'boss' to characterise humans
Beauty
and
the
"Be Our Guest"
Aladdin
as distinct from sea creatures: "They in for a
think of instead a girl worth fighting for." The
worser fate, one day when the boss get hungry,
characters dream of idealised girls who would
guess who's gon' be on the plate."
cook for them and admire them, the girls for
The myth of entertainment itself: "What an
whom they go to battle.
entertaining meal, how could anyone be gloomy
Beast
'Friend Like Me1"
"Our aching feet aren't easy to ignore. Hey,
Tarzan
"Son of Man"
The myth of the original man: "Son of Man, look
or depressed?" Entertainment is suggested as the
to the sky, lift your spirit, set it free." There is
healer
entertainers
religious signification in the 'Son of Man'
themselves are "obsessed" with entertaining:
phrase, as he seeks to become successful in his
"Life is so unnerving for a servant who's not
'primal' environment.
of all
woes
and the
serving" is more accurately described as service
The
Emperor's
to entertainment than to housework.
New Groove
"Perfect World"
The myth of absolute rule: "He's the hippest cat
in creation, he's the alpha, the omega, a to z."
The myth of the American dream: "Say what you
The number presents Kuzco as not only all-
wish, it's your's! True dish." Anything is
powerful, but 'cool' in his personal, perfect
possible, although luck rather than hard work is
world.
central to this inflection of the myth. This is the
Las Vegas American dream.
The Lion King
"Friend Like Me" illustrates a Utopian ideal dreamed by the dreamer, Aladdin. Feuer
"I Just Can't Wait to Be
The myth of childhood freedom: "No one saying
King"
stop that." In dreaming of becoming king, Simba
dreams the dream of total freedom in a child's
Pocahontas
"Colours of the Wind"
argues of film musical: "To hear them described, there is a striking similarity
between the function of multiple diegesis in musicals and the 'dream work' in
terms.
Freudian dream interpretation" (73). Since Freudian theory can in part inform
The myth of nature: "And we are all connected
character development, as discussed in Chapter Four, Feuer's reference to Freud is
to each other in a circle, in a hoop that never
pertinent. Feuer argues that the simplified version of Freudian theory, the bringing
ends." Eco-philosophy is invoked wherein nature
into coordination the subconscious dreaming and conscious thinking, "is a pretty
itself is full of life and wonder.
The Hunchback of
"A Guy Like You"
Notre-Dame
The myth of romance: "Paris the city of lovers is
good explanation of the synthesis between levels in musicals" (73). "Friend Like
gloving this evening." While the song is a
Me" coordinates Aladdin's thought, embodied in his wish, through Genie as a dream
satirical spin on the myths of romance, the
sequence, a character capable of moving between the multiple diegesis. Through his
symbols
characterisation as Genie, his animation transforms the diegesis itself.
of
the
myth
themselves
are
recognisable, including candlelight, piano music,
feather boas and, most of all, allusions to Paris.
Hercules
"Hero to Zero"
The myth of superstardom: "Honey, the crowds
Feuer, though, notes: "Unlike Freud, musicals suggest that this dream work acts as a
were going bonkers, he showed the moxie,
kind of exorcism, leading to the actual fulfillment of desires. In the dream sequences
brains and spunk." The cash, the crowds, the
the parallel between the dream in the film and the dream that is the film is rendered
merchandising possibilities and all the other
most explicit" (73). In Aladdin, it is the parallel between the dream in animation and
trappings of fame in America are depicted.
the dream that is animation: Genie's form, capable of any transformation, and his
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challenge to gravity and space, creates the dream, but also makes explicit that the
dream is animation. Genie is one of Disney's ultimate explorations in the
free. All his illusions are simply a response to Aladdin's wishes and desires:
aspiration aspirated in song.
transformative possibilities of animation, allowing him to create Aladdin's dream as
extreme animation itself. The multifaceted interaction of animation and song
The ability to conjure a vision of excess is not restricted to Aladdin. In Beauty and
becomes particularly strong in the fantasy sequence, drawing on a tradition that
the Beast, Lumiere conjures a dinner show before Belle's eyes in "Be Our Guest."
Klein locates in the animation of Ub Iwerks, the key animator of early Disney work
The meal itself is animated through the song: "the flatware's entertaining" in a
including Steamboat Willie: "One can see how sound assists in the squashing and
kaleidoscope of Berkeley choreography. The performance is an elaborate act of
stretching of Iwerek's silly protoplasm. Linear movement, with an essentially
hospitality that is in part a response to the original breaches of hospitality: the
sketched background, is replaced by a multimorphic style, which dominates the
Prince's denial of shelter to the beggar woman, compounded when as Beast, he
cartoon world for two generations" (11). Song, as specific sound, assists the creation
throws the lost Maurice into a dungeon, then orders that Belle is to have no dinner
of the 'multimorphic style', the animation style that further heightens the movement
unless she dines with him. If Beast is failing to fulfil his hospitable obligations, the
between levels in the musical, of Genie, himself the quintessential animation of
enchanted objects are willing to be extravagant in their fulfilment. Cogswoun
'silly protoplasm'. He changes from rocket to maftre-d to tornado, irrespective of
attempts to confine the performance of dinner: "glass of water, crust of bread."
form or substance. In nibbing the lamp, Aladdin has released a singing force that can
Lumiere insists: "But what is dinner without a little music?" Cogsvvorth is removed
change the interior of a small cave into a boxing ring, a dance hall, a room of gold
by the hooked end of a cane in vaudeville tradition and suffers various indignities as
and dancing elephants: "Can your friends go, poof! Well, looky here. Can your
he attempts to end the show, including landing head first in a jelly. The performance
friends go, Abracadabra, let'er rip and then make the sucker disappear?" The free
simply overwhelms any attempt to restrict it.
association of images and lyrics exist in the performance of Genie as the visual
animation of Robin Williams' vocal performance. The lateral creative process
Gaye Poole writes: "Food is a polysemous signifier that articulates in concrete terms
mentioned in relation to Musker and Clements' direction is at its most obvious here:
what is very often internal, vague, abstract. Food provides a matrix, a language that
an Arabian Genie who caricatures Jack Nicholson, Scotsmen and French waiters.
allows us a way to get at the uncertainty and the ineffable qualities of life" (2). The
The fantasy evokes the myth of the American dream as manifest in Las Vegas
meal in "Be Our Guest" becomes the matrix for Belle's uncertainty in a new
excess: Aladdin hits the jackpot.
environment and the objects' concern that she will leave, making it impossible to
break the spell that was placed upon them through Beast's breach of hospitality:
The motivation of this Utopian language or vision devolves into two words: "I wish."
"Friend Like Me" is the performance of Genie's offer of three wishes and is one of
the more colourful and explicit illuminations of the wish, illuminating Aladdin's
aspirations and desires for wealth and glory. However, only the act of wishing can
make it all real. Genie himself is all powerful and can assume any form, but the one
power he lacks is the power to wish - thus he is ultimately restricted within a solid,
immutable, little lamp at Aladdin's bidding, and only Aladdin can ever wish him
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"Ten years, we've been rusting... Most days, we just lay around the castle, flabby,
fat and lazy, you walked in and ups-a-daisy!" Belle's presence as an audience/guest
has literally animated the objects, giving them life and hope and likewise offering
Belle an opportunity: "Let us help you, we'll keep going." The dining experience
becomes a choreographed performance of aspiration. As Poole notes: "Dining is
inherently theatrical too" (3). At the end of the number, Belle insists that she can't
go to bed now: "It's my first time %in an enchanted castle." Cogsvvorth responds in
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horror: "Enchanted? Who told you it was enchanted?" He accuses Lumiere, the
orchestrator of the fantasy sequence that has just taken place, but Belle speaks over
Table 7.4: The Villain's Fantasy Sequences
The Little Mermaid
"Poor
Unfortunate
Thing" - Ursula
them: "I figured it out for myself." Empowered by the fantasy, she begins to explore
Ursula's concern for Ariel is literally 'a show1: it hides her
true intentions. Pat Carroll, who provided her voice, said:
"They wanted me to make it as gravelly and dirty as 1
possibilities beyond the scope of the provincial town, possibilities that reveal the
could" (Sanz "Those"). She performs as a 'bloated' blues
musical's moral: you can't judge a book - or an enchanted castle - by its cover.
diva in a tight black dress and scarlet lipstick. The malice of
her song builds: she sings an aside to her henchman, "the
boss is on a roll." Her song literally steals Ariel's song. She
In The Hunchback ofNotre-Dame's "A Guy Like You", the gargoyles put on a show
to prove to Quasimodo that "she wants" him. The tropes of performance and
romance are played on, Laverne at one point pictured in a red feather boa, lying
sings the words of the spell that appropriates Ariel's voice.
Beauty
and
the
Beast
"Gaston" -
Lefou
and Gaston
of masculinity that assures the villain of his acclaim: "My
across a piano, the candelabra placed on top, with Victor in bow-tie playing as
Laverne sings: "call me a hopeless romantic, but Quasi, I feel it." The gargoyles,
what a guy! Gaston!"
The Lion King
''Be
Prepared"
-
Scar
inanimate stone that they are, create a surreal fantasy of romantic images with
Scar's dictatorial plans unfold in the elephant graveyard
through a multifaceted distribution of signification: the 'be
prepared' motto of the boy scouts played against Nazi
croissants, bells, and decks of cards. The fantasy always recognises its innate
goose-stepping hyenas, and a communist crescent moon.
improbabilities and ironies: it begins with Hugo toasting a sausage in the flames of
the burning city, singing, "Paris, the city of lovers is glowing this evening, true,
Lefou cheers Gaston up in a rustic, tankard clanking, dance
"Yes my teeth and ambitions are bared, be prepared!"
Pocahontas
that's because it's on fire, but still there's 1'amour." "A Guy Like You" shows that
"Mine, Mine, Mine"
The song uses the double meaning of 'mine'. Ratcliffe
- Ratcliffe
instructs his men to mine for gold, but his vision reveals
"it's mine, boys!" The animation switches to his 'dream' in
the fantasy number can parody itself: it can reveal the irony of the dreamer's dream
which he descends a great staircase dressed entirely in gold
and need not always, as Feuer suggests of musicals, lead to realisation. "A Guy Like
with a gold cape swinging: "My rivals back home, it's not
You" ends as Esmeralda arrives to ask Quasimodo to hide Phoebus, the man she
that I'm bitter, but think how they'll squirm, when they see
loves instead of Quasimodo.
how I glitter!"
The Hunchback of
The antithesis of the fantasy number occurs as the villain's song. In Walt Disney
animated features, the villains never sing. Song is associated exclusively with
Notre Dame
"Hellfire" - Frollo
Frollo's fantasy is a nightmare. The flames of the fire
signify his sexual desire for Esmeralda: "Don't let her fire
sear my flesh and bone." The outline of Esmeralda "dances'
in the flames of his fireplace as the room takes on the flame
goodness, becoming a tool through which to transform: Snow White transforms her
in the rows of red, cloaked figures that accuse him. The fire
fear by singing, the Fairy Godmother transforms Cinderella by singing, and Aurora's
itself becomes his nightmare. The following day, when
fairy godmother, Fauna, transforms Aurora by giving her the gift of song. In Team
Phoebus asks if he's feeling all right, he responds: "I had a
Disney animated features, however, villains also have the power of song, to
little trouble with the fire place."
transform or to simply deceive. Fantasy informs their animation, revealing fantastic
visions and plans for self-glorification that these villains aspire to, or their
Other villains never sing, or sing only rare snatches. Jafar, for example, sings a
nightmares.
malicious reprise of "Prince Ali": "So his prospects take a terminal dip, his assets
frozen, the venue chosen is the ends of the earth - whoopee! So long, ex-Prince Ali."
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The villain takes Aladdin's fantasy and turns the song against him. In Hercules,
introduced staging a colourful and vulgar puppet show in which he offers to tell a
Mulan, and Tarzan, the lack of song from the villain informs their particular
puppet the tale of "the mysterious bell ringer." Clopin draws back a curtain and the
menace: these are characters incapable of a song and dance. Hades wisecracks, but
Cathedral itself appears behind the painted backdrop of the Cathedral in Clopin's
he is the orchestrator of performance, never a performer himself. Shan Fu is too grim
booth. The animation shifts between modes, between the tale of Quasimodo's
to ever consider singing a song. Clayton is too closed to ever reveal himself in song.
confinement in the bell tower and Clopin's telling of the tale, superimposing Clopin
These villains are secretive and will not reveal their inner aspirations to anyone,
upon the Archbishop, for example, through a flash of thunder, so that the story and
even the audience.
storyteller interchange and merge. The number, "The Bells of Notre Dame", thus
creates a performance of Quasimodo's history. Clopin's continuing presence, the
A PLAY ON WORDS AND MODES OF PRESENTATION:
THE HUNCHBACK OF NOTRE DAME
coming to life of the gargoyles, Quasimodo's model of the Parisian square in which
he reproduces the characters he sees, and Esmeralda's dancing all combine to
produce multiple levels of diegesis, complicating further the tension between the
One of Disney's most complicated adaptations is that of The Hunchback of Notre
Dame. The original novel by Victor Hugo is adult fare. The literary classic seems an
unlikely choice for Disney, yet the original inspiration came from Creative Affairs
Vice President, David Stainton, who had read the story as a child in comic book
form. The initial inspiration thus came from exposure to a pictorial rendition of the
story for children. The adaptation itself suggests the festive structure described by
Barber: "The saturnalian pattern appears in many variations, all of which involve
inversion, statement and counterstatement, and a basic movement which can be
realist and the performance modes of the musical, and thus complicating the riddle
posed by Clopin at the start: "Who is the monster, who is the man?" Clopin's riddle
encapsulates the tension between modes as internalised in the animation of
Quasimodo and Frollo, their performances and their appearances. As Feuer argues
that the musical is able "to show the process of a transformation from one mode of
presentation to another" (52), The Hunchback of Notre Dame is, of Disney's
musicals, particularly open about this process, continually exposing it to effect
clarification and release.
summarized in the formula, through release to clarification" (4). The musical
adaptation uses the festive themes in the novel, those pertaining directly to festival
and ritual, and realises them in festive structure.
The object of desire that motivates both Quasimodo and Frollo is herself a
performance. Hugo's Esmeralda is an ethereal dancer, naive and idealistic. There is
nothing ethereal about Disney's Esmeralda's dancing. Many critics use her twirl
Director Gary Trousdale noted: "Hugo's novel is a brooding and dramatic tale... and
that's the very thing that drew us to it" (Rebello ...Notre Dame 44). 'Brooding' is a
contradiction of the happiness that is usually associated with Disney musicals4 and
contradiction itself informs the 'saturnalian' musical adaptation. The Hunchback of
Notre Dame begins with sombre Gregorian chants and cathedral bells. Clopin is then
around a pole and suggestive proximity to Frollo to describe her as 'pole-dancing'
and 'lap-dancing'. In 1995, a year earlier, a film with production numbers and a rock
soundtrack had been released and may be indirectly responsible for the way in which
Esmeralda is interpreted. The Schweizers, for example, write: "The heroine
Esmeralda sings a sexy and frothy song while doing a pole-dance that could have
come out of Showgirls" (145), although Esmeralda does not both sing and dance in a
single number, the 'pole-dance' number being "Topsy-Turvy Day", sung by Clopin,
4
88.8% agreed that happiness was promoted by Disney, according to the Global Disney Audiences
and referring to the festival itself. Further reinforcing the connection between
Project (Wasko et al 44).
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Esmeralda and the striptease, Demi Moore, the voice of Esmeralda, starred in
Striptease, released the following year, 1996. Moore plays a single mother5 and
The 'display' herself engages in topsy-turvy when it is she, not the judge, who
stripper who becomes involved with a congressman. Esmeralda's interaction with
speaks of justice for Quasimodo's plight as the crowd torments him. In the festive
judge Frollo, her dance at the Feast of Fools, and the representation of her dancing
construction of Esmeralda there is performance, display, and gamesmanship. She is
in theflamesof Frollo's fireplace, suggest the possible synergistic reading.
particularly good with words and when she meets Phoebus face to face, their duel is
dual: verbal and physical. He and she battle with sword and candlestick while
What makes Esmeralda's dance particularly provocative is that she dances
talking. Their talk - "You fight almost as well as a man", "Funny, I was going to say
exclusively for the spectator. She is a conscious performer and her performance
the same thing about you" - is the repartee described by Barber: "each keeps
elaborates on codes suggesting unlawful, forbidden behaviour. When she is first
jumping the other's words to take them away and make them his own, finding a
seen, she is dancing for money in the street and a mother is warning her son about
meaning in them which was not intended" (100)6. In keeping with the festive themes
the 'dangers' of gypsies: "They'll steal us blind." The sensuality of her dance is
of the feature, Barber also notes that word games disclose "an experience of festive
recognised in the expression Phoebus assumes when he sees her. The guards,
liberty" (95). Esmeralda's physical display is determined by others. When she is
however, do not respond to her sensuality, but accuse her of theft: "Gypsies don't
portrayed in the flames of Frollo's fireplace, for instance, her image is ostensibly a
earn money." Her dance is not considered lawful employment as it draws on
figment of Frollo's imagination, and at the Feast of Fools, it is the response of the
tensions between sexuality and commerce that are embodied more fully in
different parties to her dance that constructs it as 'disgusting' or 'sensuous'. Her
prostitution. Her next performance at the Feast of Fools takes place as the climax to
words, however, are expressions of liberty. She speaks of justice. She challenges
the song "Topsy-Turvy Day", in which the crowd sings "join the bums and thieves
Phoebus' assumptions about her sexual availability. She challenges Frollo's
and strumpets streaming in from Chartres to Calais." The song emphasises the
interpretation of Quasimodo as 'monster'.
particular topsy-turvy nature of the festival in which what is unlawful and forbidden
is celebrated: that Esmeralda's dance is a highlight of this festival is significant.
Esmeralda's solo is not the standard 'I wish' song or romantic ballad, but a song
Clopin, dressed as a jester, hops on the stage to introduce Esmeralda: "see the
asking "God help the outcasts." Her wish is not for herself, but for her people and
mystery and romance... see the finest girl in France make an entrance to entrance."
those less fortunate. This is in contradiction to the chorus of worshipping Parisians:
Esmeralda's entrance is both deliberate and provocative: a true play on the word.
"I ask for wealth, I ask for fame, I ask for glory to shine on my name, I ask for love I
Frollo says to Phoebus: "Look at that disgusting display." The choice of the word
can possess, I ask for God and his angels to bless me!" Such desires are customarily
'display' further accentuates the performance element: Esmeralda is a display.
explicit in the 'I wish' songs of Disney's other male and female leads. Esmeralda,
Phoebus, in keeping with topsy-turvy, responds with an enthusiastic "yes sir!" for
however, walks alone in the opposite direction to the congregation, stopping in the
the same display.
'spotlight' of the Rose Window: "I ask for nothing." Byrne and McQuillan write:
5
6
Phoebus' comment on being 'bucked' by Djali, "I didn't know you had a kid", plays on an idea of
Esmeralda as single mother. Although it is a play on words, and no further reference to 'kids' is
made, it contributes to Esmeralda's construction as a world-wise woman with a past, rather than the
This tendency is also in evidence elsewhere in the feature. When Frollo arrests Phoebus, for
example, he says, "The sentence for insubordination is death. Such a pity — you threw away a
promising career." Phoebus turns Frollo's insinuation around, replying, "Consider it my highest
honour, sir."
traditional ingenue.
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261
voice, yet it still has the kind of power and depth you'd expect from Quasimodo"
the tune bears a striking family resemblance to the homogenous
(Rebello ...Notre Dame 62). The vocal quality is significant, for Quasimodo carries
Disney lover's ballad of its later films. As the audience is offered a
the male romantic theme in song. It is Quasimodo who has the romantic ballad,
head-and-shoulder shot of Esmeralda walking through the candles we
"Heaven's Light", with the gargoyles presenting the romantic parody, "A Guy Like
are reminded of the numerous pop videos for sound-alike ballads
You" for his benefit. In "Heaven's Light", Quasimodo's tenor is able to scale the
which invoke the same waxy conceit. Esmeralda is recognisable as
range of the ballad, the higher notes invoking the themes presented in the lyrics: "I
Janet Jackson and/or Celine Dion (a neat trick, given the racial
dare to dream that she might even care for me and as I ring these bells tonight, my
implications of such ambiguity). The set-piece operates through the
cold dark tower seems so bright, I swear it must be Heaven's light!" His animation
conventions of pop video (in which a young contemporary audience
in the earlier "Out There" also utilises conscious performing gestures and poses,
would be high literate) rather than the choreographed routines of
such as swinging from columns and dancing down roofs and corridors, recalling
previous Disney vaudeville. (9)
Gene Kelly's choreographic use of landscape and architecture. Phoebus, like Beast
for example, does not have a voice for romantic song. Hugo's Phoebus was vain,
These conventions do appear earlier7. Pocahontas's sprint through the forest during
self-serving and callous, but the Disney animators broke his nose and the writers
"Colours of the Wind", ending in an 'aerial' view of her and Smith lying on the
gave him words that spoof the heroic image: "I'm Phoebus. It means 'sun god'."
grass, for example, offers a very similar convention in which the female lead's song
Phoebus is voiced by Kevin Kline, bringing the intertextuality of a Hollywood
becomes the focus point. The use of pop video convention underscores that it is her
leading man to the character, juxtaposing this construction against Quasimodo's
performance: framing her as the star.
musicality. Phoebus' lack of performance constructs him in contrast to the
performers of Esmeralda and Quasimodo, leaving him in the realist mode.
Quasimodo is the main character, but tension is created between himself and
Phoebus as they share romantic and heroic functions. Robert Louis Stevenson wrote
The realist and performance modes are merged in the romantic conclusion of
of Notre-Dame de Paris: "What is Quasimodo but an animated gargoyle?" (11). In
Esmeralda and Phoebus, but it is in Quasimodo and Frollo that the festive pattern
Disney's musical adaptation, Quasimodo is not an animated gargoyle, although he
concludes. Quasimodo has always created performance from the materials around
has the company of animated gargoyles. Quasimodo in Hugo's novel is barely gifted
him in a form of, to use Feuer's term, bricolage. Bits of wood and stained glass are
with speech and is quite deaf. Disney's Quasimodo has the voice of a male lead,
turned into chimes and a model of Paris. The gargoyles who adorn his home are
provided by Tom Hulce, who was Oscar nominated for his role as Mozart in
transformed into friends who can sing and dance. Frollo ostensibly denies such
Amadeus. Co-producer Roy Conli describes "this wonderful, innocent quality to his
transformation, as he denies Quasimodo transformation: "How can I protect you boy
unless you always stay in here? Away in here. You are deformed and you are ugly."
Byrne and McQuillan's reference to the racial implications is problematic, since other female pop
The performance mode encapsulates the torment of Frollo through his imagination,
singers can be cited as recognisable influences on Esmeralda's number. Jackson, as African
but he takes these images of Esmeralda in the flame and, in the realist mode, sets fire
American, does imply Esmeralda's possible - though not fully realised - blackness. She is Disney's
to Paris and plans to burn Esmeralda at the stake. Frollo falls, with poetic justice, to
7
darkest heroine, with thick black hair, but green eyes. Dion's French-Canadian background can also
his death clutching a gargoyle that has come to life in flame, his own monstrousness
be drawn in parallel to Esmeraida's 'not-quite-French' cultural identity.
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revealed, the performance mode vanquishing him. The revelation releases
Quasimodo from 'he walls of Notre Dame: he leaves the model of the square to enter
the square itself, recognised as a man, not a monster, able to join the realist mode.
enchanted objects to bring light, musical relief to Beast's castle, Collins uses the
'substance' of objects to bring comic, musical relief to the jungle through bricolage.
Another scene retaining the traditional use of song in the musical is the brief lullaby,
ANIMATING THE POP PERFORMERS
"You'll Be in My Heart", sung by Glenn Close as the voice of Kala9. Kala soothes
the baby Tarzan: "I will be here, don't you cry." Within a brief musical beat, the
Under Team Disney, performance has moved increasingly from the animated
characters and their voices to pop performers singing in their own right. The Lion
King soundtrack, featuring Elton John pop versions of his and Rice's songs, is a
commercial success, as discussed in Chapter Five. In the year of The Lion King's
release, Rice and John had already moved from feature animation to theatrical
production, beginning work on Aida and Rice with Menken on King David?. The
next animated musicals were already in production and since the scores are initiated
early in the animation process, it is probable that capitalisation on The Lion King's
utilisation of pop could not yet occur. Tarzan eventually utilised that potential: Phil
Collins composing and also performing most of his songs for the feature soundtrack.
lullaby is re-appropriated by Collins on the soundtrack. As with the other Collins'
numbers, Collins' voice exists as an omnipresence, an aural animation of Collins
himself as composer/performer that directly addresses Tarzan in the visual
animation: "This bond between us can't be broken, I will be here." In the context of
the feature itself, in which Tarzan is raised as the sole human in a jungle of animals,
this aural animation serves as 'human' spokesperson, providing the point of view of
humanity where in the animation, Tarzan is the sole human presence. This is
particularly evident in "Son of Man." The sequence animation shows Tarzan
maturing into adulthood, learning to adapt to his environment by mimicking the
animals around him. The song, however, keeps his humanity present by directly
addressing it: "Son of Man, a man in time you'll be." The sequence finishes on a
"Trashin' the Camp" retains the traditional concept of musical where the characters
appear to perform their own song. Terk, Tantor, and other gorillas put on a scat
dramatic close up of Tarzan filling the screer. crouched and staring: "Son of Man's
a man for all to see."
performance using the objects of the humans' camp. The number begins with the
animals stumbling upon the camp. Tantor exclaims: "Oh, the horror! It's gruesome!
Hide me!" The animation, following Tantor's point of view, flashes across
inanimate objects, including a teapot and chipped cup that very closely resemble
Mrs Potts and Chip. Terk reassures Tantor: "Pull yourself together. You're
embarrassing me. These things aren't alive." Terk anc the others discover that music
can be made from the inanimate objects: dings, whizzes, crashes etc produced from
the forms of the objects, sound giving the objects the materiality they lack in twodimensional animation. Where in Beauty and the Beast, Ashman introduced the
8
King DccAd is not included in the dissertation. Although a cast recording was released, the musical
has only to date been performed in concert version.
Garwood writes of the film soundtracks such as those of Sleepless in Seattle: "the
music acts as a type of counsel for the characters whose romantic adventures it
soundtracks: the happy resolution of these intrigues relies on the leads gaining the
sense of self-belief that has been discernible all along in the songs that have
accompanied their faltering progress" (284). Phil Collins' work on Tarzan provided
just this kind of soundtrack: one that counsels the characters. Collins' score,
moreover, is so distinctive of the performer himself, that his composing and musical
voices become inseparable. In a first for Disney, Collins performs multi-language
9
Close, a theatrical musical performer also, said: "Some of my friends have pointed out that as
Norma Desmond in the stage production of Sunset Boulevard, I had a scene in which I sang to an ape.
Now I fee? that I've come full circle because I'm an ape singing to a human" (Green 101).
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versions of the songs for selected foreign soundtracks too, reinforcing the
accurately in his image, but the bouffant hair and white jump suit signify the pop
inseparability through global pop music markets and asserting the singing as the
history from which Tom Jones emerges as Kuzco's Theme Song Guy. Tom Jones'
performance provides Kuzco's "groove": "The rhythm in which he lives his life! His
animation of Collins' own counsel/voice.
pattern of behaviour!" Through a series of misadventures, Kuzco does lose his
On the German soundtrack, the German lyrics instead of being attributed to a
character are attributed to "Phil", who translates across foreign features as the drawn
animation previously has, but as song has not. Disney has also produced coffee table
books on the majority of their animated features, which .focus on the animation
process and include extensive illustrations taken from finished and development
'groove' and is turned into a llama, in which form he spends most of the feature. It is
when Kuzco returns to human form that his Theme Song Guy finds him again and
takes up "Perfect World" once more. Kuzco's royal demeanour is thus synchronised
to the rhythms provided by his Theme Song Guy, much as Collins' song guides the
animated Tarzan.
artwork on the features. While the scoring of the features is always referenced in
these books, it is in The Tarzan Chronicles that the score frames the book itself:
In Lib & Stitch, experimentation with the pop performer continues, with Stitch in
Collins provides the introduction and the book chapters are arranged according to
one scene performing as an Elvis impersonator on the beach, complete with bouffant
the songs from the feature (Green). Although Tarzan is not a traditional musical in
wig and white jump suit. Lilo's relationship with Elvis is almost spiritual and when
all its aspects, the dominant presence of the songs argues a new relationship between
she introduces the alien, Stitch, to her interest in Elvis, the picture she shows him is
soundtrack and animated feature developing. Tarzan director Chris Buck said of the
photographic, rather than animated, just as the score uses real Elvis Presley
decision on song use in Tarzan: "They were looking for something different, too.
'Toy Story" had songs in it but the characters didn't sing. They worked under the
recordings. As the Disney musical has developed, the pop performer has become an
increasingly material presence on both score and animation.
action, so we thought, if they can do it we can do it" (Cercel). Tarzan thus
'borrowed' from Pixar and its use of the soundtrack to modify Disney's own musical
The pop performer, in effect, becomes more 'real', the vocal performance denoting
tradition.
the performer's own material and recognised existence. The 'false note' of the
musical thus becomes the 'true note', song becoming autonomous within the
The Emperor's New Groove, which followed Tarzan, took this new relationship
between soundtrack and animated feature and revised it again. The Emperor's New
Groove takes the pop performer and actually animates him, placing him in the
animation as Theme Song Guy. The score by Sting, a renowned pop performer
himself, is largely absent from the finished feature, but the soundtrack released at the
diegesis. This marks a new understanding of the musical genre and its abiding
relationship with popular music. Yet, as the animated musical increasingly breaks
with the established tradition of the translative action of the musical, Disney adapts
its own musicals to the theatrical stage. Chapter Eight argues how Disney not only
adapts its musicals, but adapts its animation for theatrical production.
time of the feature's release does include the songs such as "One Day She'll Love
Me", performed by Sting himself with Shawn Colvin, and "Snuff Out the Light",
performed by Eartha Kitt, the voice of Yzma, that would have at one time been
included as animated sequences. "Perfect World" performed by Tom Jones,
however, survives in the finished animated feature. Tom Jones is not animated
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PART THREE:
TRANSPOSITIONS
CHAPTER EIGHT:
BROADWAY SLEEPS TONIGHT 1:
IT'S FOR THE BEASTS
Near the village, the peaceful village
The lion sleeps tonight
Near the village, the peaceful village
The lion sleeps tonight
Igonyama ilele
The Lion King
RE-ANIMATING THE ANIMATED
Disney's synergistic approach has been referenced through Disney Studies, but has
rarely been examined in its implications for performance. This chapter offers an
analysis of the synergy between animation and theatre maintained through Disney
musical and its consequences for how the actor's body is perceived, concluding with
a key complication offered by the theatrical adaptation of The Lion King. Disney's
realisation of the fabulist animation as theatre borrowing materially from South
African culture and performers makes this a key production in re-aligning Disney's
significance for current debates about cultural appropriation. From Disney's
extravagantly designed candlesticks and clocks in Beauty and the Beast to Disney's
South African choruses in The Lion King, the first two productions involve
processes that might be defined as 're-animation', posing new challenges in relation
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to specific choices of staging and for concepts of the transformation of the
The first feature to be adapted for Broadway was Beauty and the Beast. The score
performing body.
for the animated feature had won wide acclaim for its theatrical quality. In Eisner's
autobiography, he quotes the influential review of Frank Rich, the famously vitriolic
In understanding Disney as a conglomerate engaged primarily in exploiting new
New York Times critic, which dubbed the animated Beauty and the Beast "the best
avenues of profit, its theatrical motivation is often read as primarily profit-driven,
new musical score of the season" (254). In TheaterWeek, the producer, Robert W.
simply an expansion of Disney business. Eyre and Wright write: "Disney is
McTyre, says: "While few people in Hollywood actually pay attention to what the
unaccustomed to failure and is impelled by the remorseless exigencies of business to
critics have to say, we did... It threw a few needed embers on the fire" (Kahn 18).
expand its activities into every territory and every area of entertainment. In which
There was a growing body of Broadway experience employed by Disney in
spirit the Mighty Mouse has decided to invade the theatre" (346). Steyn responds in
producing the scores for Disney animated musicals. Writers like Ashman, Menken,
a similar vein, but with a pertinent qualification: "In a world of wall-to-wall Walt,
Rice, and Schwartz all had Broadway or off-Broadway experience and the agitation
we shouldn't be surprised that most of the "corporate synergy" articles on Disney
to expand into Broadway was in part lead by such writers (Kahn 18). This agitation
don't bother to mention the company's foray into Broadway theatre. But it's an
was further supported by the theatrical interests of Disney executives like Jeffrey
unusual move, if only because Broadway's audience is not Disney's" ("Beast"). The
Katzenberg, Peter Schneider, and Thomas Schumacher, all of whom were involved
Broadway audience, however, had already responded to shows like Cats and Into the
in the animated musicals.
Woods, shows with which Disney's musicals share common traits even beyond their
anthropomorphism and fairy tale genesis. In fact, while Disney's business sense was
Where the move into theatrical production has a profound impact on the character of
at first averse to theatrical expansion after two recent, unprofitable theatrical
Broadway itself is in the artistic and geographic focus on the family audience. The
projects1, considering it too great a financial risk (Kahn 18), it was artistic success
Economist notes:
with the musical score that eventually brought Disney musical from the animation
studios to Broadway and theatres around the world2.
For some, Disney's success reflects a wider change on Broadway
itself. The shift, from musical melodramas like "The Phantom of the
Opera" and "Jekyll & Hyde" to lavish spectacles that resemble
pantomimes for children of all ages, coincided with a shift in the
1
One did produce a profit, but Eisner rejected its profitability in terms of overall corporate
investment (253).
2
character of Times Square and 42nd Street. Con artists and muggers,
the pornographic cinemas and bookshops have all had to relocate.
This is effectively the reverse of the usual direction of adaptation, which had consistently been from
the stage to the screen. However, film musicals like Saturday Night Fever and Footloose have also
been taking this route in recent years and film musical adaptations of original stage musicals have
The article views this as the encroachment of "infantilism" on Broadway. Steve
also influenced consequent stage productions. For example, Rodgers and Hammerstein's The Sound
Nelson picks up this idea: "More than the mere "cute-rification" of theatre and
of Music originated on the stage, but't is the score as produced for the successful film adaptation that
renovation of storefronts, Disney and the politicians seem to feel that the entire
has most often provided the basis for subsequent stage productions. As film musicals become
character of the neighborhood could be transformed, as if by a wave of the fairy
consistently the better recognised by audiences, they wield a greater influence on consequent stage
productions of the same material.
270
godmother's wand" (74). The replacement of the businesses of X-rated
271
entertainment with those of primarily G-rated entertainment is often interpreted in
recreated the historical Broadway, which was itself based on spectacle and relied on
terms of 'regression', re-orientating the area through Disney's child-parent relays.
a flow of tourists3. The major difference from the spectacle of earlier Broadway,
However, Taymor in speaking of The Lion King, argues the theatrical validity of
musical spectacles like the Zeigfeld Follies, not incidentally the attraction of the
such a movement towards family:
New Amsterdam Theatre in its previous prime, and Garrick Gaieties and Porter,
Gershwin, Rodgers, and Hart shows, is that the new spectacles are orientated not
It's really theatre operating in its original sense, which is about family
exclusively towards the adult audience, but to a wider audience ranging from
and society. It's doing exactly what theatre was born for - to reaffirm
children to adults. In Beauty and the Beast, for example, Disney incorporates
where we are as human beings in our environment. It's precisely to
previous spectacle tradition, through the can-can girls as enchanted serviettes and
reestablish your connection with your family, to know what your
dinner plates, and brings sexual innuendo into Lumiere and Babette's flirtations, but
hierarchy is. And to watch families come and go through that with
at the same time produces a fairy tale with magic and song suitable for child
their children is a very moving experience for me. (Schechner,
audiences. Although many read Disney's transformation of the Manhattan district by
"Julie" 51)
its orientation towards childhood and popularism, most also acknowledge that the
New Amsterdam Theatre has been faithfully restored and the area in general has
Disney's ability to exploit the child-parent relay as both subject ard audience is
been revitalised. Disney's actions have to some extent been twofold in merging its
essential to how it conceives its theatre and, as Taymor suggests, is i ot alien in itself
own family basis into the ambiguous and conflicted nature of popular theatre itself.
to the original definitions of theatre.
The initial response of the theatrical community was sceptical, for although the
Taymor's emphasis on the 'family' circumvents the tension inherent in Disney as
writers had theatrical experience, they were working for 'the mouse'. As Robert
representative of popular theatre. Eyre and Wright note that 'popular theatre' in
Falls, Aida\ director, says: "They say when you come into the company that you're
Britain is a term used "proscriptively" by its claimants, "producers of musicals in the
going to be wearing a big target on your chest. I was just amazed at the negativity
West End of London or community shows in the Highlands of Scotland" (322). Eyre
surrounding the experience from the press; the attitude of 'Disneyfication'"
and Wright argue a "mutual contempt: the theatre 'of the people' - meaning political
(Freudenheim). Reflecting the mood of the theatrical community, Forbidden
theatre, meaning socialist theatre - being regarded by the one as wnpopular and
Broadway parodied Beauty and the Beast's showstopper "Be Our Guest": "be
inept, the theatre of 'pure entertainment' being regarded by the other much as r>
depressed, be depressed... now what turns the great white way on is a drama drawn
Michelin chef looks at a Big Mac" (322). The theatrical definition of 'popular' is
in crayon... Broadway now you're fated to be animated, you're so stressed."
thus troubled by the polarity of thought on what constitutes popularity. Nelson
articulates Disn/y's popularised approach in terms of the unwieldy category of
popular culture itself: "Theatre has been mostly outside the realm of popular culture
for many years... Disney's approach is to exploit theatre as another option on the
tourist agenda, expanding on a fact that Broadway producers have known for years locals don't go, tourists do" (74-75). Nelson acknowledges that, in effect, Disney has
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3
The Audience for New York Theatre report identified that just over half, 50.8% (Lefkin 1), of the
Broadway audience originated from outside the New York region. 'Tourists' are a significant
contributor to the box offices of Broadway and although incorporating theatre into travel, there is no
proven evidence that this audience differs from local audiences in any other aspect.
273
The animation of Broadway has been less elementary than the crayons would
actors and technological gadgetry and, through directing the shows, Roth developed
suggest. Having actors recreate animation requires innovative responses to physical
experience in adapting animated characters to live performance. This first stage
problems. The mechanics of animation being designed to heighten and extend the
production would remain the most closely associated with Disney, yet it also reflects
possibilities of physicality, rather than to simply represent them, creates challenges
the character of some of Broadway's most acclaimed and some of Broadway's most
for the obvious physical limitations of actors. As a medium, the performances
popular shows.
elicited by animation are humanly 'unrealistic', to quote Wells: "the principles of
movement themselves are necessarily over-enunciated in the animated vocabulary"
In his Sight and Sound review of the animated Beauty and the Beast, Romney
(Understanding 27). Over-enunciating the movement of live actors creates specific
writes: "The music... is the film's most consistent feature, showing that writers
theatrical demands on those actors.
Howard Ashman and Alan Menken... have been studying their Sondheim. The
brisk, acidic style of Into the Woods dominates the film's first half, which has more
A concept that offers a way of comprehending how that movement can be translated
of the resonance of the cynical Broadway musical than of the traditional Disney
from animation on the screen to physical performance in the theatre is that of
ditty" (47). The relationship between Broadway, Sondheim, and Disney is actually
plasmaticness. It was first suggested by the film theorist, Sergei Eisenstein, himself a
confluent. In analyses of Sondheim's Into the Woods, the resonance is reciprocated.
great fan of Disney animation in the 1930s and 1940s. The term describes living
Banfield writes that Into the Woods has some of "Disney's musical pertness" (382)
matter capable of being anything: an essential life force. In terms of animation,
and Flatow describes: "Various moments in the show are reinforced and commented
plasmaticness describes the resilience of the drawn form: its essential dynamic force.
upon with brief musical passages in the manner of a Disney movie, and the catchy,
Ian Christie, commenting on Eisenstein, writes of the appeal of plasmaticness: "the
recurring title song is a gloss on countless Disney numbers" (4). These musical
infinite flexibility offigures,their interchangeability with natural objects and ability
similarities are echoed by the moral concerns.
to collapse and re-animate at will" (Christie & Taylor 24). The theatrical adaptations
of Disney animated musicals are, in essence, re-animations, whereby the original
Banfield writes of Into the Woods, in which the giant's wife seeks revenge for her
dynamism of the figures is re-animated through live actors and mise en scene.
husband's death at Jack's hands: "not only does choosing matter, but making the
right choice. The dynamics of choice are not self-sustaining... but lead to fruitful or
ONCE UPON A BEASTLY STAGE
damaging consequences for the whole community. Self-interest is a liability, and
once wronged, the giant returns and must be appeased or destroyed" (388-389).
Robert Jess Roth, in the employ of Disney at the time, was chosen to direct the first
Disney stage production. In part, the decision was led by the interests of exclusive
creative control and the use of Disney's own talent (Eisner 254). Menken, according
to Eisner, was initially "skeptical about working with a team recruited from
Disneyland" (255). Roth had been directing theme park shows including rock
musicals based on Disney's cast of animated characters, and brought with him
collaborators like choreographer Matt West. These theme park shows use both live
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Beauty and the Beast's 'giant' is the six foot four tall Gaston who, wronged by
Belle, must be appeased or destroyed by Beast, his rival. The central dynamic of
choice centres on Belle: she chooses not to marry Gaston, she chooses to take her
father's place and stay in the castle, she chooses to go to her father, she chooses to
reveal Beast's existence to the village, she chooses to return to the castle even while
it is under attack, she chooses to love Beast. Each choice carries social ramifications,
particularly in her choice of lover, for that choice will set the castle inhabitants free
275
or doom them to life in the form of household objects. Through the process of
covered in rivets, for example. A Cinderella story about trains, Starlight Express
choosing, she and Beast learn that only by rejecting the self-interest that has doomed
strikes a particularly resonant note with Beauty and the Beast with 'the brothers in
them to loneliness can they have their happy ending.
Id', Greaseball, the diesel train, and Gaston. "Pumping Iron", in which Greaseball
reflects upon his undisputed strength, good looks, and attractiveness to women,
The two musicals begin with narrators reciting "Once upon a time." The traditional
parallels "Gaston": "As a specimen, yes, I'm intimidating!" The two wear big, black
fairy tale opening lines likewise invoke the more recent literary tradition of the
pompadours and Elvis quiffs, with yellow and red prominent in their costuming.
genre. Both original sets of Beauty and the Beast and Into the Woods resemble the
Their love interests both wear blue dresses with white aprons, and although Dinah,
pages of a fairy tale pop-up book. Beauty and the Beast's theatrical narration,
the dining car, sings country and western and chooses to stand by her man, while
however, differs, for the narrator, unlike Into the Woods' grey-suited narrator, is a
Belle is a classic ingenue and rejects that man, their 'blue' notation designates them
disembodied voice, omniscient rather than present, and thus can not be dragged into
as the 'cool' partner, countering the 'inflamed' Id of the male. It is a curiosity of
events as Into the Woods' hapless narraior is. As the prologue is recited in the
contemporary fairy tale telling in the musical that the masculine Id has become a
animated feature, a series of stained glass representations of the story fade into each
major character, eventually cowered by a female.
other, creating the sense of an archaic tale4. On the stage, the prologue is performed
by actors who are made larger than life, moving with the stilted, over-enunciated
In developing the processes of re-animation, Disney's reputation for technological
gestures of giant puppets. The unlifelikeness of these characters creates a heightened
innovation in animation became quickly apparent in its approach to theatre. Beauty
dramatic style that acts, as the stained glass of the animation, to make the
and the Beast is a technological wonder, utilising prosthetics, hydraulics, and cutting
performances more 'real' in appearance, even though the consequent performances
edge pyrotechnics. Of the latter, two of the devices, the Enchantress's throwable fire
are still notably unreal.
ball and Lumiere's flame 'hands', hold US patents. The magic tricks in the
production, including Beast's on-stage transformation into a prince were created by
These consequent performances incorporate anthropomorphism and objectification:
Jim Steinmeyer, a consultant for Walt Disney Imagineering who had worked for
humans in decidedly unnatural conditions. Actors play wolves and beasts and
magicians including David Copperfield and Tylor Wymer. Of the particulars of the
household objects too. In animation, this is readily achieved; on the stage, the
latter transformation, Terence Mann, the original Beast, has refused to speak: "As
process is less straightforward. Live action in theatre, however, was already
far as I'm concerned, it's magic - Disney magic" (Hahn 13). Disney 'magic'
exploring the transformation of actors into animals and objects, notably through two
employed in animation has always been acclaimed: the development of new
Andrew Lloyd-Webber musicals: Cats and Starlight Express. In Starlight Express,
technologies that produce new effects has maintained Disney's profile in the field of
the actors are transformed into trains with roller skates that enable 'rolling stock'
animation. Disney's multimedia character is somewhat at odds with the nature of
movement and costumes that symbolise the various types of carriage and engine
theatre, yet as technology improves, it is perhaps inevitable that it will also influence
they represent: Rusty, the steam engine, has smut on his nose and his costume is
theatre. Nelson comments: "With virtual reality almost at the mass-market level, and
high-tech theme park rides and special-effects loaded films constantly before the
The stained glass itself suggests this part of the story has already been set: set in glass, in fact, if not
public, performance-driven entertainments find themselves utilizing the technologies
in stone. As the animated feature's conclusion likewise returns to the fixity of stained glass with the
that once separated live from canned and now meld the two in an increasingly
4
song lyrics "tale as old as time", the musical is successfully enclosed in this convention.
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complex fashion" (79). This involves not only the ability to implement technology in
In animation, Beast is an imaginary beast created from a miscellany of animals
the theatre, but to create a matching aesthetic. This aesthetic has been in the process
including the buffalo, gorilla, boar, lion, bear, and wolf. As Marina Warner describes
of development since cinema began, Brecht, for example, utilising projections in his
the Disney beast in her analysis of the fairy tale, exemplifying sexual energy, he
productions. Pavis relates the influence of cinema on theatre in such aesthetic terms,
"swells, he towers, he inflates, he tumesces. Everything about him is big, and apt to
in fact quoting Eisenstein's description of "mwe en scene in theatre as a process of
grow bigger: his castle looms, its furnishings dwarfed by its Valhalla-like
montage" (Theatre 130). New technologies create new possibilities for this process
dimensions" (From the Beast 315). His proportions are inhumanly large on the
of montage in live performance. The sliding of sets in Beauty and the Beast allows
screen, absolutely fantastic and removed from the semblance of a man except for his
changes between scenes to flow like an edited film and the later Aida shows an
eyes, the only recognisable feature in the prince he becomes at film's end. He prowls
especial concern with montage that adapts the filmic sensibility.
and pounces, his enormous paws dwarf Belle's hands when she touches him. He
surges upwards with an expansive torso, enabling him to fight a pack of wolves
Beauty and the Beast is largely dependent on a material translation of plasmaticness
single-handedly.
from animation to stage. Fireballs are not suggested, they are material, integrating
special effects with theatre to create greater possibilities for re-animating 'the
When performed on stage, however, his castle resembles a pop-up picture book and
illusion of life' in live performance. This illusion of life is unlike that with which the
Beast is no longer the expansive sex symbol. He's just very hairy. In animation, line
theatre is traditionally concerned, reaching further into pantomime and a past history
emphasises the beastly silhouette. On stage, the texture of hairiness connotes his
of spectacle and at the same time, into theme park and concert entertainment. The
bestiality. Instead of expanding, his hairiness emanates from his breeches and open
technologies employed are not in themselves 'new' in terms of concept, although
shirt, and in a curling mass of beard and locks5. The emphasis shifts from the
specific patents are innovative, but they are 'new' in the context of such a theatrical
animation of a prince transformed into a fantastic shape to the performance of a
enterprise as Beauty and the Beast. This may be why many theatre critics began their
prince cursed with a growth of hair hiding his humanity, rather than altering it. The
reviews by placing Beauty and the Beast 'outside' theatre. The New York Times
sexuality of his expansion in animation is thus transformed into the coarse virility,
review, for example, begins: "As Broadway musicals go, "Beauty and the Beast"
and its attendant shame, that is suggested by extreme hairiness. He also becomes kin
belongs right up there with the Empire State Building, F.A.O. Schwarz and the
to fairy tale characters like Donkeyskin, whose hairiness denotes shame, suffering,
Circle Line boat tours... it'll probably be a whale of a tourist attraction" (Richards).
and injustice. In this state, he is furthermore caught in a picture book, made dark and
Across the Atlantic, The Guardian began its review of the West End production:
looming, and longs for release. It is significantly a reader of books who can release
"Christmas has come a little early this year. For, in spite of its origins... Beauty and
him.
the Beast is essentially a pantomime" (Billington). Wherever Beauty and the Beast
may be located in terms of its genre, the production through the innovative interplay
of technology and the more usual greasepaint of the theatre makes possible a
specific set of apparatus that enable the physicality of the actors to become dynamic
5
Terence Mann colourfully compared performing in this state of hairiness to "taking 12 Angora cats
and Velcro-ing them to your face... then putting on your two heaviest coats and running around the
and transformable.
block for two hours" (Sanz "Mann"). The process of making up as Beast takes approximately an hour
with three assistants required.
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279
The theatrical performance shifts to his tragic predicament. Menken says: "In the
movie, Belle was the heroine: she wanted 'adventure in the great wide
Menken and Rice also produced an additional song for Belle, "Home", which
somewhere,'... Here, the Beast is clearly the protagonist, and his needs come to the
concerns her confinement in vhe castle walls, emphasising the necessary parallel
forefront'' (Kahn 19). In the animated musical, the focus of Belle took the feature
experience of the hero and heroine: "Shut away from the world until who knows
into that 'great wide somewhere'. She twirled on mountain tops, played outside in
when." Shut inside the 'paper' waHs, no more substantial than the illustrations in her
the snow with Beast. The stage environment is by nature restrictive. Even the little
fairy tale books, she realises that h?r quest is now to "try to find something good in
town is a row of 'cardboard' shop fronts, a waterless well, and a backdrop that has
this tragic place." Like any theatrical ingenue, costume changes carry Belle from
painted on it the mountains and houses that are beyond the physical dimensions of
provincial girl in an apron and sensible shoes, caught in a tragic situation, to princess
the stage. The scenery articulates its representations in a pictorial style that
in a glittering yellow ball gown. Thf, costuming, like the scenery, is itself pictorial.
illustrates rather than invokes the substance of its representations and, as in a fairy
The animated feature depicted plain clothes in solid colours, largely colour-coding
tale book, the scenery unfolds and pops up. These restrictions of space in themselves
the action through the changes in wardrobe. In the feature, for example, Belle's
re-adjust the narrative focus to the nature of confinement.
costume changes are synchronised both to environment and mood; Art Director
Brian McEntee observed:
Menken and Rice added two new solos for Beast to the original Ashman and
Menken feature score. In the animated feature, Beast's lack of song means his
... we start off with warm colors in the background and Belle in blue.
predicament is 'acted out' in bad behaviour, in growls and roars foregrounding his
She's the only one in blue in the whole sequence. For two reasons:
emotional immaturity. The animated Beast never articulates his perspective as fully
for legibility, and because she is different from the others in the
as Belle does in song. The new solos give him a voice for his suffering. The numbers
village. It says something about her character, that's she's blue, she
'How long must this go on?" and "If I can't love her" are vignettes that shift the
doesn't fit. Then she gets to the castle. It's dark and scary somehow,
score itself to his emotional pain. The very nature of the solos advances his private
not a happy moment. She's in blue, and everything's blue. After she's
shame and hurt. On stage, he is alone at these moments, performing solely for the
been in the castle for a while, she has a change, and she's in a warm
audience as no other character truly does, thus privileging him6. As Menken says:
costume. The castle is still very coolish, and gradually she warms it
"In the show, he turns to the audience and pours out his heart" (Kahn 19). Beast
bursts onto a balcony that is almost too small to bear him and his song swells in
up... It's spring again, with a full release of color. (Thomas... Beauty
and the Beast\68,\7Q)
brief, but emotive verses: "No comfort, no escape." It is here that he recaptures the
sense of the surging movement that so defined his animated self, but it is recaptured
In the theatrical version, the key colours of the costumes are largely retained, but
through the mechanics of singing, aided by the restrictive environment of the mise
rather than present plain colour statements, the costumes are highly embellished,
en scene from which he perceivably 'bursts'.
even peasants and servants wearing brocades, laces and satins, all with additional
embroidery, ribbons and gold thread. The costuming continues the pictorial style,
elaborating to heighten the fantasy.
6
Belle solos "Home" on a practically empty stage, but her song is heard and noted by the castle
occupants as Beast's solos are not.
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Belle herself began the animated feature in a plain blue dress, white blouse, and
woman - woman, not girl" (Frantz 85). The original Belle, Susan Egan, is firmly in
white apron. The ensemble's simplicity recalls heroines like Alice (in Wonderland)
her twenties. Her original Beast, Terence Mann, is notably her senior. In the
and Maria (The Sound of Music), signifying her modest innocence in contrast to, for
animated version, the prince is about to turn twenty-one, and is only a little older,
example, the Silly Girls who show off their womanhood in their puffed sleeves,
presumably, than Belle. The opening narration of the theatrical version includes a
flounces, and low bodices. Belle's theatrical costume largely retains the same plain
pertinent revision of the animated version:
colours as the animated costume, but the fabrics are richer, more textured, and there
is embroidery on her apron. However, the villagers against whom she contrasts not
Animated Feature:
Theatrical Production:
only wear earthier tones, the fabrics are themselves colourfully patterned, often mis-
The Rose she had offered
The Rose she had offered
matched, thus replicating the contrast in the animation; it is only Gaston who
Was truly an enchanted rose
Was truly an enchanted rose
likewise wears plain clothing, allowing him to stand out also, although his reds and
Which would bloom until his twenty-first year
Which would bloom for many years
yellows tone into the warm colours of the village. Once in the castle, Belle's colours
warm as they do in the animated version. She wears pinks and reds of velvet and
The theatrical version allows for an older prince to be revealed in the finale, leading
satin, while still retaining largely plain, solid colour in her wardrobe. Perhaps Belle's
to a variety of combinations of Belle and Beast. In some West End and Australian
most remarkable costume changes are into the two yellow ball gowns she wears, one
productions, for example, Beast has been played by an actor in his twenties or early
during the first performance of "Beauty and the Beast" when she waltzes with Beast,
thirties, but in Vienna, Beast has been played by actors in their late thirties and
one during the reprise, when Beast has become a prince once more. Costume
forties. This creates a very different romantic conjunction, further supported by the
designer, Ann Hould-Ward, who also worked on Sondheim's Into the Woods, says:
Viennese newspapers at the time, which printed photographs of the actors, Caroline
"Belle's elaborate gowns are a gift of how 1 wish my daughter's life could be and I
Vasicek and Ethan Freeman, in romantic poses such as Freeman kneeling and
don't think any woman's life really is today. They represent a romantic fantasy, and
offering Vasicek a rose. Their disparate ages, not noticed through the bulk of the
while that fantasy is not reality, it can be a wonderful place to go to for an hour or
performance since Beast is concealed by his hairiness and his actions and petulance
two in the theater" (Frantz 89-90). The govvns are both full, crinoline concoctions of
are deliberately immature, informs an epilogue where the youthful Belle has fallen
lace, ribbon, and roses, drawing on illustrations of historical princesses such as
for a much older prince, recasting the romance in terms of the young woman's
Victoria (Great Britain) and Elisabeth (Austria). The song itself contextualises Belle
seduction by an older, more experienced man. Casting can also present ethnic
within the romantic fantasy: "Ever just the same, ever a surprise, ever as before, ever
implications. The Stuttgart production, for example, has featured both German and
just as sure as the sun will rise... Beauty and the Beast." As the song suggests, Belle
American Beasts with a Filipino Belle. Leah delos Santos had come to Germany to
is caught in the perpetual tale itself, captured in its 'splendour' and reflecting that
play Kim, the virginal bar girl, in Miss Saigon, and her integration into the German
back through her yellow gowns.
theatrical community led to her consequent work there. Uwe Kroger, one of the most
recognised German speaking musical actors, had likewise played Chris, the
Although the animated Belle and Beast are fixed in their physicality, the romantic
American G.I., to her Kim in Miss Saigon before playing Beast to her Belle,
pairing is open to reconfiguration in theatrical versions. While Belle must always
providing a unique intertextual musical history for their particular romantic pairing
look relatively youthful, she is, says scriptwriter Linda Woolverton, "an intelligent
that draws on the East-West dialogic, with the vulnerability and purity of the Eastern
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woman carried through Kim into Belle. The role of casting in constructing the
Figure 8.1: Four Gaston Actors From the Stuttgart Beauty and the Beast (courtesy of
romantic pair offers a continuous potential for diverse readings of the romance.
Stella AG, www.stella.de)
Beast's rival in love is the village heart throb, the burly Gaston. Gaston is played
consistently across the mediums of animation and the theatre. He is an exaggerated
man, nevertheless. In animation, Andreas Deja wrestled with creating a realisticlooking character with a heroic appearance, but one revealed as a villain. In
designing him, Deja says: "I thought, 'God, I know such people; Los Angeles is full
of them.' You know, the guys who just adore themselves" (Thomas ...Beauty and
the Beast 178). Gaston's self adoration, taking its cue from real human behaviour,
Translation: 4 Gastons lift 45 tons per day
consequently exaggerates every animated aspect of him: Narcissus with a
They should be good looking, but they also have to be very strong. For the 4
magnifying mirror. He has an exaggerated chin, exaggerated biceps, exaggerated
chest, exaggerated swagger, exaggerated facial expressions. Nothing is subtle in
4 Gastons stemmen pro Tag 45 Tonnen
Iknid Olivr r, Ktvia Tartc. Mart Dallo uiul ItadigeT tnchkr (v L). ilii- im
IVcWI Ml 6ct Mime when. htVSt in: nglkti n»r Sunk inlmsin-c Tratmoe-pntr-imm im (iouudheiU' tind FtaxSctob Bntfr 6 Snil dm Sl-Cmtmmv
lbs bvdciiHi .Vjnvnurixii: Dir \xr sumrocn Oijicti in-jyu.nt <is Tixinnt'
Gaston's animation. When he proposes to Belle, he announces that "this is the day
your dreams come true" while outside he has already assembled the wedding guests.
He can lift not just one girl off her feet, but three at once, including the bench they
happen to be sitting on. Gaston is hyper-masculinity, the qualities of manliness
stretched to their limits in animated form.
actors who alternate as Gaston, David Oliver, Kevin Tarte, Marc Dalio and
RUdiger Reschke (from left), it means a daily one hour intensive fitness
program at the SI Centre's Health and Fitness Club Body and Soul. It really is
touch work: daily the four together lift 45 tons!
The German co-producers, Stella, displayed a brief news item on their web site at
the time of the German production of Beauty and the Beast concerning the actors
then playing the role of Gaston. The article draws on the synergy between Gaston's
brawn and good looks, and the responsibility of the actors themselves to embody and
maintain it. The actor then has to utilise his physicality to produce the exaggerated
While the other characters in Beauty and the Beast are realised on stage through
prosthetics, padding, and even pyrotechnics, Gaston requires a specific physicality.
The actors must themselves embody the bulk of Gaston's brawn. A "swell cleft" can
be added to his chin with make-up, the immaculate pompadour can be drawn on as a
wig, but the height, "six foot four", the "biceps to spare", and "perfect pair" of
thighs, must all be the actor's.
gestures of the animated character being adapted: to produce a kind of 'plasmatic'
performance. Big grins, flexing neck muscles, a booming baritone, and larger-thanlife poses are the tools of his trade. The original Gaston, Burke Moses, is perhaps the
epitome of actors in the role. Moses says: "The animated character moves very
dynamically, like a superhero in a comic book... so I tried to make my movements
equally dynamic. I see Gaston as part peacock and part hunter. At times I point my
toe in an almost feminine balletic movement and at other times I stalk, like a
predator, across the stage" (Frantz 107). Although Belle and Beast dance, their
actual movements tend to be much more natural, where Gaston's are cartoonish animated.
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DISNEY ANIMATED AND THEATRICAL .. . _ •. \LS
The actor is assisted by the way in which Gaston is inserted into the performance as
I feel there's an element called 'Disneyite' that these characters are
a cartoon figure. The score enhances the thwacks and thuds with percussion as
actually made of. So Cogsworth may be made out of inert materials,
Gaston gleefully punches and kicks whoever happens to be handy, adding the
but he has all the elasticity of flesh and blood built into him. If you
caitoonish sound quality that ruptures the musical score with the exaggeration of
could touch him he would feel like wood, glass, and brass or
Gaston's violent force. The choreography tends to move around him, promoting the
whatever, but it would have a dimension of a living thing as well.
perception of his physical presence. During "Me!", the proposal song, the actor
(Thomas ...Beauty and the Beast 187)
playing Belle becomes physically pliable in contrast to his overpowering figure in
the 'caveman waltz', all but dragged by the hair as Gaston swings, pulls, and drops
The 'Disneyite' could be readily translated as plasmaticness giving inorganic matter
her in his hold. Unlike Beast's solos, Gaston's numbers are performed surrounded
a sense of life.
by an audience, always situating him as the centre of attention on stage and on stage.
His solos retain the plasmatic flair of animation: clinking tankards, outrageous
Rather than produce plasmaticness from the animation of inorganic matter, the
lyrics, 'super' choreography, corny music. In "Gaston", Lefou sings the sing-song,
theatrical production produces it from flesh and blood actors performing inorganic
braggart melody, "then goes tromping around wearing boots like Gaston", with
matter. The production makes this feasible by a modification in that transformation.
Gaston upstage in full strut, timed to the booming bass. The undiluted yellows and
In the animated feature, the people had been, like Beast, totally changed into
reds of his costumes further support the strong, primary impact of his appearance: he
something else. Thus the flesh and blood butler becomes the wood and metal clock.
is both bolder and brighter than other characters in the village. His costume likewise
In the stage production, though, they're being turned into objects, slowly subsumed
accentuates the pectorals, biceps, and thigh muscles. The actor himself becomes
by the form of these objects as they are subsumed by their costumes.
animated within the performance.
As the show progresses, their movement is increasingly restricted by additions to
The real challenge for the production was the performance of household objects:
their costumes: lapels, stiffer headpieces, and pedestals. Their movements are thus
cheesegraters, dishes, mats, candlesticks, and so forth. In the animated feature, the
increasingly out of their control, hence Cogsworth's alarm when he discovers he
spell upon Beast includes the occupants of the castle, who have been turned into
now sports a key to wind him up. He is losing his human identity as he loses his
objects associated with their human service. The housekeeper Mrs Potts is turned
human form. Consequently the stage production re-inserts Howard Ashman and
into a teapot, the butler Cogsworth into a clock, for instance. The animation
Alan Menken's "Human Again", a number removed from the first cinema and video
transforms their material existence into a plasmatic flexibility, thus Mrs Potts
releases of Beauty and the Beast, though recently restored in iMax and DVD
becomes malleable to allow her to move convincingly without, in effect, shattering:
releases. The song describes the longing to recapture human form: "We'll be
her porcelain 'weight' incorporates a small degree of stretching that suggests
whirling around with such ease when we're human again ... stepping, striding as
porcelain without replicating its fixity. Will Finn describes his animation of
fine as you please like a real human does". In the meantime, the characters find
Cogsworth: "The subtle part is trying to keep him from looking like just a man in a
themselves subsumed by the form of objects: objectified.
clock costume", continuing:
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Steyn parodies acting theory in his assessment of Mrs Potts on stage: "I thought the
puppetry and ritualized theater, has her own distinctive vision, one
singing teapot was pretty good... Who knows what Stanislavskian crises such a role
that is miles away from standard Disney fare. (Brantley)
provokes? "Yes, but what's my motivation for waggling my spout and cavorting
across the stpge with the dancing alarm clock?" The Method has little to say on the
Yet, too, exists the perception that The Lion King does not 'fit' within the confines
subject of teapot acting..." (Beast). The style of acting required by Beauty and the
of the theatre. The New York Times notes: "even the exquisitely restored New
Beast doesn't lend itself to Stanislavski or The Method: it is directed towards the
Amsterdam Theatre, a former Ziegfeld palace, disappears before the spectacle within
physical, in sense of appearance and song and movement. Creating the plasmatic on
it" (Brantley), while The Spectator review states: "it remains in my view deeply
stage involves performance of matter. Heath Lamberts, the original Cogsworth,
untheatrical" (Morley). Other reviews nonetheless identify The Lion King as
reflected on learning to use the increased restrictions to show how a human turning
theatrical 'magic'7. Complicating the interpretation of The Lion King is the
into a clock might adapt: "Cogsworth's little waddle comes out of the onefreedomI
interpretation of the place and nature of spectacle within the theatre. Taymor says:
had - which was to move sideways" (Frantz 111). This transformation, the
"Some critics don't understand that spectacle is storytelling. They think theatre
adaptation to a material form, as acted on stage becomes central to the characters'
communicates only through language" (Gold, "The Possession" 25).
dilemma as they lose their humanity. Cogsworth isn't just a man in a clock costume,
he's an actor being subsumed by a clock costume.
Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King form a critical paradigm in which the role
of spectacle - of 'magic' - is still being debated. On The Lion King, the review in
Beauty and the Beast's translation of plasmaticness necessitates a close relationship
The Independent notes:
between actor and the materialism of costume and sets, which in turn has adapted
the nature of metamorphosis in the musical. The extravagance of its approach
Where the Disney stage show of Beauty and the Beast was a literal-
simultaneously evokes the extravagance of its shape-shifting and the extravagance of
minded 3D clone of the cartoon, this version of The Lion King
its theatre.
genuinely reinvents the piece in theatrical terms. One problem with
cartoons is that, because anything can happen in them, nothing is
truly wondrous. By contrast, what is uplifting in director Julie
TAMING TAYMOR
Taymor's vision of this show is the poetic simplicity and frankness of
the way it surmounts the limitations of the medium. (Taylor)
Where Beauty and the Beast seems to epitomise the Disney aesthetic, the second
adaptation, The Lion King, takes an alternative direction, one that has not often been
identified with Disney, as exemplified by The New York Times'1 review:
The original medium of the musicals, animation, is somewhat restrictively read:
although anything can happen in animation, that is its language of wonder. Beauty
it is immediately clear that this production... is not going to follow
and the Beast achieved a fully-developed material adaptation of this* language. The
the path pursued by Disney's first Broadway venture... Ms. Taymor,
a maverick artist known for her bold multicultural experiments with
7
The Daily Mail, Mail on Sunday, Herald, Sunday Times and Time Out, for example, use this
identification for the West End production.
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Lion King focuses theatrical attention on the way in which adaptation is achieved:
Thomas Schumacher suggested the avant-garde director, Taymor8, for the project.
the process of creating spectacle, rather than the created spectacle. Taymor describes
Schumacher was familiar with Taymor's work, having wanted to work previously
the magical language of The Lion King:
with her. Any familiarity with Taymor's work makes apparent the particular
aesthetic within which she works, drawing heavily on ritual and traditional theatre
Because when you get rid of the masking, then even though the
techniques. Just prior to The Lion King, Taymor had staged Juan Darien at the
mechanics are apparent, the whole effect is more magical. And this is
Lincoln Centre, described as a "carnival Mass" (Zoglin 85) with life-size puppets
where theatre has a power over film and television. This is absolutely
and oversized masks. It was a prelude to the style of The Lion King, described in the
where its magic works. It's not because it's an illusion and we don't
Observer as a "gorgeous carnival of hybrid creatures - part-beast, part-human"
know how it's done. It's because we know exactly how it's done.
(Clapp).
(Schechner, "Julie" 42)
Disney's intentions with The Lion King were to initiate experimental work, just as it
In referring back to plasmaticness, it is in the process of seeing plasmaticness
did, though less recognised, in Beauty and the Beast. The experiment with The Lion
transform that The Lion King 'magic' is constructed in the theatre.
King would, however, receive greater recognition, for the Disney name itself
judiciously made way for Taymor's. Taymor herself was, even in theatrical terms,
When the idea of adapting The Lion King was first proposed within the Disney
comparatively little known in terms of the broader popular audience, though she had
organisation, Thomas Schumacher, then head of the animation division, said
an established critical following. The New York Times review noted: "There has
"impossible" (Taymor
14) and "that's the worst idea I've ever heard"
been much jokey speculation about the artistic marriage of the corporate giant and
(Freudenheim). Beauty and the Beast had been able to utilise the magic tricks and
the bohemian iconoclast" (Brantley). Although most read the move rather perversely
pantomime traditional to its fairy tale genre: creating a material repertoire by which
in terms of Disney's capitalisation on Taymor's theatrical reputation, there is a more
adaptation could be achieved. The Lion King's animation is largely naturalistic with
interesting implication: that Disney recognised that Taymor could provide the show
the entire cast of characters drawn from the animal world. Fables commonly deal
with the aesthetic they knew it required. Taymor herself said, "But they asked me
with human issues through the natural world, where fairy tale deals with the same
for a reason. They want what I do" (Zoglin 85). Disney set boundaries in regard to
concerns through wonder. In the latter, humans become transformed, in the former,
plot and song9, but Taymor realised the process of transforming actor into animal.
human morality is revealed in the stories of animals and other non-human life. The
different generic origin of the two musicals is inflected in their approach to theatrical
adaptation: Beauty and the Beast focuses on material transformation/enchantment of
Taymor specifies "the "double event" of The Lion King. It's not just the story that's
being told. It's how it's being told" (Schechner, "Julie" 43) The actors are visible as
humans, The Lion King on revealing the human in the animals as they are
8
performed.
It is for The Lion King that Taymor won a Tony Award for best director; the first woman to do so.
The irony that the first recognition of a female director occurs through Disney has received little
comment considering the patriarchal attitudes associated with the name.
9
Although there have been suggestions that this insistence represents Disney's exertion of creative
control, in general, the narrative and songs of any show are regarded as reasonably 'fixed'.
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the plasmatic force of the puppets, costumes, and masks, in turn elasticised by them,
However, where in animation the human hand that animates the lines and colours is
over enunciated, and rendered more flexible. Taymor creates, in her words, a
invisible once on screen, on stage the plasmatic force of the human body is
mimesis, an "ironic duality of the human and the animal" (Taymor 30). Inspired by
constantly in view. The manipulation of the animal is thereby constantly and clearly
theatrical traditions like bunraku, she extends the actors, enabling them to animate as
visible: the actors are seen to animate the inanimate. Moreover, actors animate,
the creatures they represent. Mufasa, the lion king, retains the figure of a man in
collapse, and re-animate: grass in bundles worn on heads, entwining vines on a high
majestic tribal costume, the mask of a lion worn upon his head as a crown, but when
wire, blooming flowers from silk costumes, flocks of birds in flight from puppets.
he leans forward in confrontation, he leonises. The mask extends forward in
The human actor, like the line from an animator's pen, is made capable of
challenge, his posture suggests elongation and tautness, the moment before the
dynamically assuming any form.
pounce. It reveals his natural movement as the mask reveals his emotions: to quote
Taymor, "the essential kernel of the subject without the distracting details. A haiku"
The opening number, "Circle of Life", introduces the audience to the process of
(Taymor 140).
animation for the stage. The wide vistas and aerial views of the feature are
impracticable within the traditional theatre environment offered by such theatres as
In animation, an animal's physique is conveyed through essentials: the spirit, rather
The New Amsterdam. Instead, Taymor utilises the auditorium as part of the mise en
than detail of an animal's natural movement. In a similar sense, this is what Taymor
scene, introducing the animals through the aisles, transforming them into paths
creates by adding elasticity to the actor through masks and puppets. "Well, what is
through the Pride Lands. The plasmaticness of the actors is proximate to the
animation?" Taymor asked in an interview, "It's that you can really put life into
audience, the process of mimesis undertaken not behind the fourth wall, but on level
inanimate objects. And that's the magic of puppetry" (Schechner, "Julie" 37). This
with the spectators. In black and white striped leotards, actors prance, manipulating
view is reciprocated in the critical literature. Wells, for example, writes: "'Acting' in
as they move the zebra puppets slung across their shoulders. Flocks of gazelles leap
the animated film is an intriguing concept in the sense that it properly represents the
from the arms and heads of other actors, while an actor on two sets of stilts moves
relationship between the animator and the figure, object or environment he/she is
across the stage, head elongated into the head of a giraffe. By moving through the
animating", elaborating that the animator uses "the techniques employed by the actor
audience, this menagerie transforms the space of the audience into the spectacle of
to project the specificities of character through the mechanistic process of the
the baptismal ritual invoked in "Circle of Life."
animation itself {Understanding 104). Taymor uses masks and puppets in the
theatrical version of the mechanistic process, Schechner referring to "one of the
The "sun rolling high" thus becomes not only the sun of the stage's mise en scene,
absolutely extraordinary things about The Lion King... the dialogue that takes place
but merges the audience into the "endless round." Taymor recounts disagreeing with
between the mask carrier and the mask itself ("Julie" 36)10. The dialogue is, in
Richard Hudson, the scenic designer, over his suggestion of using projected light to
essence, the very process of animation that is translated.
create the opening sunrise: "Then you might as well use a movie because a film clip
can do it even realler... I've gotta establish the rules of the game at the beginning"
(Schechner, "Julie" 52). Taymor created a silk circle in hot orange, hanging as a
James Earl Jones, Mufasa's animated voice, coincidentally says, "For the voice-actor in an
backdrop. The use of materials is itself 'rawer' than that in Beauty and the Beast,
animated film, the animated character is the "mask"" (Finch 18), further corroborating this segue
where materials are highly illustrative and pictorial. Materials in The Lion King act
10
between animated and theatrical performance.
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293
as suggestions. The wildebeest stampede is a series of puppet rows, from small
puppets on rollers to gradually larger puppets to, finally, actors at the front in shaggy
'suits', carrying shields with the stylised images of wildebeest heads painted and
carved on them, which are moved up and down to maintain the rolling momentum of
the stampede, the puppets merging with actors in the motion. In "One by One",
which opens act two, actors in colourful tribal costumes appear, dancing and singing
in Zulu and English, others wielding long poles from which 'fly' brief kites of
colourful silk to signify birds. Taymor notes that the song "actually has no
relationship to anything in the story, yet it seemed to belong to the piece in spirit"
(Taymor 26). In fact, the performers themselves have no place in the story, for there
are no humans in the story. The song's sentiments, largely sung in Zulu, reflect the
spirit of the story as it enters the second act in which Simba ai 1 Nala must free the
Pride Lands from the dictatorship of Scar: "Hold on tight my people, don't get
weary, don't lose your strength... the colour of my skin, that is dark, I'm proud of
by additional chants in the Zulu dialect and rhythms written by Lebo M, a South
African who had fled his country during Apartheid. At the time of The Lion King's
release, Nelson Mandela was made president of South Africa, a pivotal time in that
country's history and Lebo M remarks: "The Lion King project came to me at a
crucial and critical time in my life and in my country's history, when serious
changes were taking place. Most of the characters in the movie become human
beings to me, because I associated Mufasa with Mandela, and I associated Simba
with myself. I was in exile" (Taymor 157). Although rarely has much been made of
the coalescence of Mufasa, voiced by James Earl Jones", and Mandela's ascension
to the presidency, it has been an underlying factor in the popular appeal of The Lion
King. Critics like Byrne and McQuillan argue The Lion King as 'domestication' of
the West's uncomfortable relationship with the ANC (84), but as Lebo M suggests,
the film coincides as a celebration of Mandela's rise to power and its almost
mythological status12.
it."
Lebo M's music is critical to this celebration and its roots in the South African
The score of the theatrical version has an ethnic resonance, which has steadily been
experience of apartheid:
developed within Disney. The score is principally composed by Elton John and Tim
most of the music I wrote, and the lyrics and arrangements, are very
Rice. The songs co-written carry the story forward narratively through Western pop
much inspired by my life story and my background as a South
idioms. The original feature score consistently exhibits the middle range of pop, but
African artist. As South Africans, singing and vocalization is very
the additions to the theatrical score include the comic couplets of "The Morning
much an intricate part of our lives... Songs came from that era, when
Report", "crocodiles are snapping up fresh offers from the bank, showed interest in
the South African apartheid system forced people to live in a way that
my nest egg but I quickly said "no thanks!"", the rock 'n' roll of "Chow Down",
dehumanised them. (Taymor 157)
"my stomach's on a growl, son, chow down!", and the melodramatic, schizophrenic
feats of "The Madness of King Scar", "I'm revered, I am reviled... I'm keeping
calm, I'm going wild!" The songs, all in English, move the story along while
simultaneously moving through popular music idioms.
Working collaboratively with the popular idioms are African musical themes. The
original music score was composed by Hans Zimmer, who had also scored such
films as The Power Of One with African themes. These themes are complemented
The music of The Lion King continued to 'evolve' after the feature's release. A CD,
Rhythm of the Pride Lands, followed featuring Lebo M's songs, an extra song by
" In an interview, Taymor suggests that only adults would recognise that the voice belongs to a black
actor, but, conversely, she also criticised the choice of a white actor as the voice of Simba, although,
presumably, the same principles of recognition would apply (Schechner, "Julie" 54).
12
Mandela's story also reflects Simba's: the exile returning to rule the land and bring back justice.
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295
Tim Rice and Elton John and also their revised version of "Hakuna Matata",
that [insult] I would not want to be associated with" (Bennet Kinnon 122). These
building on the South African themes and incorporating African dialects: "Hem
performers have also taken aspects of the story as their own, as Lebo M does in
hollol iyo Hakuna Matata! Hem may'babo, when I was a cool young man I worked
understanding The Lion King in terms of his exile and return within the wider story
in the colony paying my dues." This CD and the score to the animated sequel,
of apartheid. The production is, essentially, at once 'authentic' and 'inauthentic',
Simba's Pride, would inform the development of the theatrical score. That Lebo M's
juggling these twin aspects.
contributions to the score took on a greater significance as the music of The Lion
King evolved compounds the ethnic complexity presented. Lebo M acknowledges
The question of the authenticity of the African aspects of the production is not
that he is influenced by jazz and R&B, two hybrids of African and American
isolated, since the show 'borrows' many other cultural traditions, including English
popular music. Roger Horrocks argues: "Rather than saying simply that white music
pop music and the vaudeville-esque costuming inspiring Zazu, and Asian puppet
borrowed shamelessly from black music, it can be said that black music has come to
theatre. In the Japanese production, in fact, the puppet of Timon, inspired by the
dominate popular music in the twentieth century" (127). The interaction between
Japanese bunraku tradition, returns to its indigenous land via the Disney corporation.
Lebo M's and John and Rice's influence on the score is both musical and linguistic,
Latrell argues:
for where Rice works in English, Lebo M, in keeping with the nature of his music,
works in African dialects, particularly Zulu.
Describing intercultural transfer as appropriation, pillage, or plunder,
or seeing it only as an exercise in neocolonialism, has the effect of
The complexity of the language issue, where the majority of audiences will not
making all such interactions seem the same, confirming what we
understand what is sung, is developed by Rafiki. The role of the shaman was
already think we know about the relative power of Western and non-
originated by the South African, Tsidii Le Loka, who composed her own chants
Western societies... It is both more interesting and more respectful to
largely based on Sesotha and Swahili dialects. In one scene, after reciting a chant
try and perceive the complex ways in which non-Western forms
she directly challenges the audience as to whether they understand her. American,
reinvent themselves in the face of global culture than to try to make
English, Canadian, Japanese, and German audiences in all probability have no
these reinventions conform to a simplistic and possibly outdated
knowledge of the dialects she speaks: can they truly distinguish between a babble of
narrative. (54)
language that merely sounds shamanistic and authentic language itself? The question
of authenticity is complex when dealing with incidences like these and the
In the case of The Lion King, non-Western forms are reinvented within the very apex
production pointedly acknowledges that fact. In another scene, a curtain comes
of what is regarded as a globalising, Western culture monolith. Their reinvention is
down and Zazu remarks on its resemblance to a product from IKEA, a Swedish
both authentic and inspired, creating not coherence - there is no single African
homewares multinational, emphasising the generic 'African' markings. Yet, in the
dialect used and even the most apparent 'African' music is written by a South
same production, South Africans like Lebo M and Tsidii Le Loka have not only
African influenced by American music, while music written by the English
participated in the performance, but have actively contributed to that performance.
composers is in turn influenced by African - but a protean intercultural mix.
Le Loka says: "I'm such a proud person and I come from such an experience of so
much insult to our culture in so many ways that anything that remotely resembles
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The integrity of the intercultural mix is maintained by animating the African chorus
minority, but in Rockler's study of the animated feature, she does note the response
and the music itself: they physically authenticate their ethnicity. As The Lion King
of Samantha, a white American who grew up in Zimbabwe, who recognised herself
animates form, it likewise animates sound. On the animated musical, the music of
as a minority in Africa; "I guess as an African American, a. White African American
Lebo M is disembodied, produced not by any character, the chants coming from the
looking at that, for me the lions then would be Black. There's no question in my
ambience of the soundtrack itself. On stage, the aural ambience is animated by
mind" (18). The theatrical production takes up this alternate orientation, which is
bringing the chorus 'to life' in the theatrical environment. It is a true chorus, where
pertinent in an environment where on Broadway African American audiences are
possible, of South African singers who know how to articulate the guttural, earthy
small, The Audience for New York Theatre: 1997 Season survey reporting only 3.7%
chants, both vocally and physically. In the Playbill, Lebo M comments: "There's a
cf the audience as African-American (Lefkin 17). Taymor comments: "The
rawness to African song that is totally unique... We were very fortunate that Disney
production is very interesting when you think about race in America. For white
supported us in making sure that we have at least seven South Africans in the cast"
people, The Lion King has nothing to do with race. It's beyond race. It transcends
(Friedlander 78). The South Africans help authenticate the performances of the rest
race. For black people, it's the opposite. It's all about race" (Schechner, "Julie"
of the chorus, both in their nationality and in their ability to convey the particular
54)15. The ethnic implications do not arise solely from the theatrical production, but
culture of song. In bright primary colours, the chorus appears in the auditorium and
have been steadily evolving from the animated feature, suggesting that there is
on the stage, animating the choral music through the act of singing it, bending,
represented in The Lion King Disney's evolving - increasingly positive -
moving, swaying to create the sound itself. Just as, while there's a traditional pit
relationship with an African American audience and, indeed, performers and artists.
orchestra concealed below the stage, the traditional African instruments are played
in full sight by appropriately costumed musicians. The animation of the African
Re-animation offers a profound, yet largely unexplored in the critical literature,
music exists side by side with the narrative, apart from the characters, but performed
impact on readings of the actor's body and, indeed, ethnicity in Disney productions.
simultaneously with them, as it is in "One By One". The 'spirit' is thus united with
From pop-up book castles to orange silk suns, Disney has drawn from a diversity of
the 'narrative'.
theatrical traditions not only to adapt animated musicals, but to adapt how animation
is the musical: how the animation of characters and landscapes embodies the themes
13
Productions have largely maintained casts with a black majority , with only the
and issues at the heart of the musicals. The following chapter follows Disney's role
roles of Scar, Zazu, Timon, and Pumbaa played consistently by white actors. Scar's
as producer into Europe and the further exploration of the possibilities that
Shakespearean overtones, derived from the feature, favour Shakespearean actors14
plasmaticness offers to theatre.
who are white. Zazu's pinstripes and stuffy attitude suggest an English actor, further
signifying the Colonial overtones of the British civil servant in a foreign land. Timon
and Pumbaa, existing ostensibly outside the Pride Land's environment, also
represent the 'alternate' minority presence. It is rare to think of white characters as a
13
15
The exception is the Japanese cast, which nevertheless introduces farther complexity when dealing
illustrative: "The little Black children in the front row stared with wide-eyed, slack-jawed amazement
with the ethnicity of casts.
14
Taymor refers to the response of the black media and the reaction of Ebony is particularly
To date, most Scars have been played by actors with Shakespearean experience.
298
- the King, the King, the King, was... Black? Was this Broadway?" (Bennett Kinnon 121).
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PART THREE:
TRANSPOSITIONS
CHAPTER NINE:
BROADWAY SLEEPS TONIGHT 2:
THEY'RE ONLY HUMAN
In the sway of sombre music I shall never understand
Let me slip into the sweeter chorus of that other land
Aida
GLOCKNERS IN BERLIN
Disney's first two theatrical productions offered a direct response to the inherent
challenges of realising animated musicals theatrically. Each imposed demands on
the live medium to enable enchanted objects and animals to speak and sing. The
emphasis had been on exploiting the plasmaticness of actors to animate them in nonhuman character forms. Disney's next two theatrical productions turned to more
human challenges and to the ephemeral qualities of light and movement. Moreover,
the two productions encapsulate the growing complexity of musical production, as
the genre is itself diverted from its English-language, Broadway demarcation.
In 1999, Der Glockner von Notre Dame premiered in Berlin, a Stella/Disney coproduction that closed in 2002 as the longest running musical to play in Berlin. That
the production not only premiered outside the United States in a non-English
language, but that there are as yet no further productions confirmed, signals a level
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of disassociation from the common presupposition of a metonymic relationship
an occasional phrase, such as "Bali Ha'i"1 or through their imprecise 'English
between Disney and America. Disney's latter two productions, in fact, have not
translations', such as the King's use of 'scientific'2, and their musical idioms
followed the genre's established Broadway - West End routes. Aida, opening on
suggested in orchestrations rather than the score itself. The Sound ofMusic, Rodgers
Broadway shortly after Der Glockner von Notre Dame, has to date only one other
and Hammerstein's last show, is solely about Austrians. Its language remains
non-US production in the Netherlands. As with the former, Disney is working in
recognisably American with some Austrian inflections towards edelweiss and lonely
conjunction with a local producer, Joop van den Ende. This follows Disney's
goatherds, but the musical shows a genuine tendency towards Eyre and Wright's
collaboration with Stella in Germany and the Shiki Theatre Company in Japan,
universal language, though on American terms, where English becomes the conduit
currently staging The Lion King. Disney retains creative control, but theatrically
for a variety of non-English language cultures. The issues this process itself raises
Disney is no longer as distinctly American as is assumed, and this reflects a change
are best dealt with outside the terms of this dissertation, as they deal with linguistics
in the theatrical musical genre. The musical beyond the West End and Broadway is
and the problems inherent in portraying cultures in a language other than their own3.
largely overlooked by critics and commentators, since traditionally the two are
regarded as the centres of musical theatre. The musical has, moreover, been largely
The success of English and American musicals in other countries has since
synonymous with 'the American musical', privileging Broadway. Yet the
developed continental and Japanese audiences and, particularly in Europe, further
dominance of the English-language musical is currently diminishing, particularly in
encouraged local writers and producers. It was in the 1990s that the musical form
the wake of the international blockbuster musicals.
showed significant development on the continent with local productions and
translations of Broadway and West End shows. Local productions often achieve the
The global success of the 'blockbusters' has been criticised for its lack of cultural
measures of success associated with Broadway and the West End: long runs,
specificity, Eyre and Wright, for example, writing: "Andrew Lloyd Webber's
significant box office receipts, multiple and touring productions. To date, these
musicals have had a global success precisely because their 'voice' can't be identified
productions have rarely had English-language translations on Broadway or the West
as British: it's universal, an Esperanto spoken by cats in Cats, trains in Starlight
End. While there is a ready audience in Europe for originally English-language
Express, Argentinians in Evita, French people in Phantom of the Opera, film-folk
productions, reciprocal productions are still a minority4, potentially explaining
in Sunset Boulevard" (341). Eyre and Wright argue the status of the musical in
Disney's productions of originally English-language musicals in continental
terms of British theatre, but the equation of 'voice' with language is pertinent, for
theatres, but the lack of an English-language translation of German production Der
although musicals have been dominated by English, their voice has been negotiated
through an international cultural vocabulary. Rodgers and Hammerstein, for
example, developed such a determined vocabulary in their body of English language
1
"Hakuna Matata" is used in a similar vein in The Lion King: a concise, musical phrase used
metonymically to stand for the whole language in an otherwise English language libretto.
2
In contrast, Disney's characters, whatever their origin, speak fluent English. Their foreign status is
musicals. Carousel adapted the Hungarian play, Liliom, set in Budapest, by resetting
not linguistically distinguished by reducing or distorting their English proficiency. There are the
it in New England with reference to the regional dialect. South Pacific and The King
occasional exceptions, including Sebastian's Trinidadian English in "Under the Sea."
and I in the immediate post-war period introduce non-American/English cultures:
the Tonkinese and Siamese. These cultures are juxtaposed with a recognisable
3
English languages in Pocahontas.
4
Western culture that provides the show's language, their own languages inflected in
Some such problems have already been raised in this dissertation, such as the use of Powhatan and
A production of the French Romeo et Juliette premiered on the West End in 2002 in the same year
the Austrian Tanz der Vampire premiered on Broadway, but both productions failed.
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302
Gldckner von Notre Dame at this time. The dominance of Broadway, and thus the
musicals including Starlight Express and Elisabeth. According to Disney president,
English language, in the musical genre remains, but Disney's production of a
Peter Schneider, Stella "approached us... and said, 'Would you do something that's
German language musical in Berlin is part of a shift away from the American
unique to the opening of Potsdamer Plaza in Berlin?'" (Wolf 81). Potsdamer Plaza is
determination of the universal language of the musical.
a redevelopment of the area that had been affected by the Berlin Wall. Stella CEO,
Hemjo Klein, emphasising the symbolic value of the redevelopment and Disney's
Work in musical theatre in continental Europe is further challenging patterns of
involvement, said: "Our goal is to make 'Hunchback' not just a show; it's part of the
globalisation. Over the last two to three decades, the musical has usually been
new Berlin... a show about unification, about a classless society" (Wolf 81). The
produced through 'franchise productions', alike in score and design, whether
choice of a Disney production appears awry in light of critical positions on Disney's
performed in Tokyo or Madrid. This is, in part, a response to producers opening
representation of capitalist and American ideologies. Berlin, though, has occupied a
musicals at multiple venues around the world rather than in single venues,
unique place in terms of ideological positions, having been divided between East
productions taken 'whole', complete with original direction. The musical has tended
and West, capitalist and communist. In 1963, John F. Kennedy made his famous
towards becoming a fixed totality, where not only the text, but design elements and
Berlin speech: "All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and,
original direction, are regarded as standard. The musical, which relies on a tighter
therefore, as a free man, 1 take pride in the words "Ich bin ein Berliner"" (I am a
integration of theatrical elements, argues a more egalitarian treatment of its
Berliner)7. With the fall of the wall, Disney becomes 'ein Berliner', at least to the
elements. Disney has maintained this approach, although some local practices,
extent in which converse representations of globalisation have created a context
including the Shiki Theatre Company's custom of employing mr'*'ple casts, are
where German does not become American, but American becomes German in the
upheld. Michael Kunze5 and Sylvester Levay's musical Elisabeth, however, has
process of cultural and ideological exchange. Disney thus offers itself as
been produced across Europe and in Japan, but not as a franchise. Each production
representing, specifically, freedom, unity, and classless society, the latter particularly
features a song written solely for that production, a new mise en scene, even a new
accenting a refractory reading to the general tendency of scholars to read Disney in
logo. Disney's production of Der Glockner von Notre-Dame is unofficially6 reported
terms of Marxist values.
to be considered for Broadway or a US tour through such a non-franchise process,
suggesting a potential reversal of the trend so far identified as homogenised global
Such processes of cultural exchange are appropriate to the complicated heritage of
musical theatre.
the musical. The source of the show is French and the animated feature was the first
major collaboration between the American and French Disney studios. The cast of
Der Glockner von Notre Dame is an outcome of Disney's collaboration with the
the stage musical is assembled from countries as diverse as Australia, the
German theatrical producer, Stella, through which German productions of Beauty
Philippines, USA, Hungary, and Russia. The 'new Berlin' that Der Gldckner Von
and the Beast and The Lion King were co-produced. Stella was the dominant
Notre Dame signifies is international, represented in the use of German and French
German musical producer, operating a number of theatres and producing a range of
7
Kennedy's statement is actually a mistranslation and should have been "Ich bin Berliner."
Hugo advocated a 'United States of Europe', although not in Notre-Dame de Paris, which is now in
5
Kunze has written the German libretto for many musicals including Der Gldckner von Notre Dame.
8
6
See for example such websites as http://www.alphalink.com.au/~paga/hunchback/.
part signified in the Berlin musical adaptation of his novel.
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304
that of Notre Dame, the adaptation in part returns to the original orientation of the
in the musical's title, one that reflects the gist of Kennedy's own speech. The show
novel, which also opens with the bells.
is not simply Berliner, but international Berliner.
The production was originally workshopped in New York in English and the key
The aesthetics of Disney animation further develop the book's ideas. Art Director,
writers are themselves American. The original Alan Menken and Stephen Schwartz
David Goetz, describes the effort to create '"the symbolic landscape,' or a 'visual
feature score is extended significantly, while incorporating the majority of songs
subtext' because we tried to catch the feeling in the lights and darks and in the
from the original feature9. Unlike previous theatrical adaptations, the script was
architecture, of what is going on, symbolically, in the narrative" (Rebello ...Notre
significantly re-written by James Lapine10, returning to a closer reading of Hugo's
Dame 131). The aim is reflective of what Sturrock refers to as the "taste for
chiaroscuro which Hugo indulges in" (Hugo 21). Colour has always been strategic in
narrative. Before discussing Lapine's adaptation of the Disney animated feature, it is
Disney animation. Colour in The Hunchback of Notre Dame is defined by a use of
worth returning to Disney's original adaptation of the novel and how the idea of
diffused light and strong shadow, emphasising the illumination of colour and line.
chiaroscuro influenced the approach to animation, leading to re-alignment of the
Moving the emphasis from the drawn animation to the sense of light infusing it
dramatic structure.
alters the nature of the animation, shifting the sense of its movement partly into the
ephemeral: those immaterial feelings and ideas that underpin the narrative itself. The
Disney uses the common English translation of the French title, Notre-Dame de
characters who move through light and shade move through Hugo's 'taste for
Paris {Our Lady of Paris), switching attention from the cathedral itself to The
chiaroscuro'. This taste is also inflected through the colour contrasts of the score.
Hunchback of Notre-Dame. John Sturrock's introduction to the'Penguin translation
The score itself moves between heavy, symphonic tones, such as "Hellfire", and
notes: "The switch of attention from the cathedral to its weird inhabitant was
lighter, pop tones, such as "Out There." Hugo's taste for such contrasts extends to
understandable but unfortunate, since it also meant a switch of attention from the
the architecture of the cathedral itself, juxtaposing its beauty against its grotesquerie.
book's strengths to its weaknesses, from its ideas to its plot" (Hugo 11). Disney's
Disney reproduces this juxtaposition in the rich detail of the Rose Window and the
title perpetuates this redirection, ostensibly focussing on Quasimodo, as billing and
parades of saints that look down from the cathedral, with the grotesquerie of the
original promotional material supports. Yet the cathedral, and some of the novel's
gargoyles themselves, who are realised in what amounts to a contemporary vulgar
primary ideas, are advanced in the ways in which the feature is animated, and
style, complete with grotesque personalities". The novel suggests the 'living'
through song. The opening number, "The Bells of Notre Dame", includes a short
cathedral, tacitly facilitating the giving of life to Victor, Hugo, and Laverne, the
prelude of Notre Dame's own music of Latin chants and ringing bells, Gringoire
cathedral's stone appendages, through the animation process.
specifying that the bells sing the musical's central riddle: "Now here is a riddle to
guess if you can, sing the bells of Notre Dame." By framing the story as musically
9
" Victor, in particular, is ridiculous and unnatural. For example, there is a running gag about his
"Court of Miracles" was eventually cut from the theatrical adaptation.
James Lapine has been one of Stephen SondheinV s most significant collaborators {Sunday in the
affections for Djali. Such 'grotesque' desires do underlie Disney animation. In The Little Mermaid,
Park with George, Into the Woods, Passions). This again indicates Disney's growing integration into
for example, Shuttle at first thinks Ariel finds Max, Eric's dog, "handsome" and in Hercules, Phil, a
the theatrical establishment itself.
centaur, is introdujed as a leering peeping torn, spying on the nymphs as they bathe.
10
306
305
1
Quasimodo himself fits Hugo's physical description: "from his knock knees to his
from her source Esmeralda is not self-sacrificing, she is suspicious of Phoebus
humped back, from his humped back to his one eye" (367), although Disney's
initially, she sings with a low voice, she fights rather than pouts, she is a true gypsy,
Quasimodo does have both eyes, the brow swollen over one to increase his
and she is self-reliant. In opposition to 'cute' Quasimodo, Esmeralda is
misshapen appearance. Hugo fought for the inclusion and popularisation of
representative of the dark and corporeal. Her corporeality becomes particularly
gargoyles and other ugly motifs as "a blow against the elitism of classical styles"
significant in the theatrical adaptation, concentrating the chiaroscuro of the
(Sturrock in Hugo 18). The compatibility of Disney's adaptation with the ideas of
production between the immaterial mise en scene and the material actors in the dual
the novelist is striking, for Quasimodo's grotesque appearance is animated to appeal
representations of femaleness: Notre Dame and Esmeralda.
to the popular audience. The Schweizers write: "cute Quasimodo the Hunchback is
clearly a character designed for the enjoyment of kids" (141). Yet, as Warner argues:
The German theatrical production again alters the title: Der Glockner von Notre
"The twentieth-century approach to medieval drollery generally cutifies and
Dame, 'der Glockner' referencing Quasimodo not as a hunchback, but as a bell
infantilizes it" (No Go 299). Disney as signifier is itself read in these terms of 'cute'
ringer, identifying him with the bells of Notre Dame themselves, collapsing the
and 'infantile', particularly noting the reference to Disney's Broadway presence in
orientations of the original French and English translations into each other. The bells
Chapter Eight. By rendering Quasimodo, himself inserted into the narrative in part
cue the show with "Die Glocken Notre Dames", in which an elderly Clopin
as a medieval drollery, in these terms, Disney draws on an inclusive approach to
'remembers' the tale of the famous bell ringer, mimicking to a lesser extent the
such drollery in popular culture. Disney does direct 'a blow', one that is, in effect,
historical point of view in the novel. Most notably, in terms of the production's
chiefly directed at those who would hold Hugo's own work in elitist terms, denying
closer reading of the source, Frollo remains a priest, allowing the stage production to
popular relationships to grotesquerie.
focus upon the site of Notre Dame and its inhabitants, where in animation, Frollo is
depicted as a judge and the Palace of Justice is set in juxtaposition to Notre Dame,
Hugo's gypsy, conversely, holds closer to expectations of the Disney heroine than
the Disney heroine herself. Disney's 'cute' reconstruction of Quasimodo necessitates
the reconstruction of Esmeralda to maintain the chiaroscurist pattern. Hugo's
Esmeralda is self-sacrificing, loves at first sight, is pretty, pouts, and remains a
victim of circumstance throughout, unable to save herself. Hugo's gypsy is not even
a true gypsy: she was stolen by gypsies as an infant. Set apart from the 'truants', she
fiercely guards her virginity. Hugo gave her a soprano singing voice. Disney chose
Demi Moore for Esmeralda's voice, the actor's husky tones deliberately incongruous
with Hugo's description. Director Gary Trousdale says: "Her voice also has a
tremendous warmth to it. There are intimate moments with Quasimodo when you
feel on hearing the voice that this is a character with a past, this is someone who's
seen a lot" (Rebello ...Notre Dame 71). Disney overturned in the process the
thereby externalising a conflict between justice and mercy, and Esmeralda's fate is
that of the novel, dying as she does not in animation. The original 'happy ending' of
the animated feature was facilitated through a 'false death', corresponding to
Vogler's identification of "a taste of death" in the ordeal stage of the hero's journey:
"Adventure films and stories are always popular because they offer a less risky way
to experience death and rebirth, through heroes we can identify with" (164). That it
is Esmeralda, not Quasimodo (who also dies in the original novel), who experiences
'death' and is then reborn is significant, for it emphasises the shift of Disney's tale
towards Esmeralda as heroine. Again, in the theatrical adaptation, Quasimodo does
not die, reiterating the feature's inscription of Quasimodo's social acceptance, rather
than continued exclusion and death, into the conclusion. The replaced Esmeralda
death scene focuses on transfiguration of the 'mortal' gypsy - in variation of Hugo's
perceived traditional tropes of the Disney heroine by thus distinguishing Esmeralda
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308
original focus on the tragic, mortal consequences - metaphorically stripping her of
stolen into the sanctuary of Notre Dame, deliberately displaced by the masculine
her corporeality.
establishment represented by Frollo and his soldiers, and seeks refuge. Yet, while
her voice doubles that of Notre Dame, physically she introduces contradiction by her
Esmeralda was originated by Judy Weiss on the Berlin stage. Like Moore, Weiss's
presence within the cathedral named for the Virgin Mary. For Esmeralda signifies
voice is deeper than is traditional to the heroines of a musical, which tend to be
the other Mary, the Magdalene12, and her particular connotations of sexuality and
soprano. Her deeper voice harks back to the Rodgers and Hammerstein 'belters',
marginalisation.
who characteristically performed the role of earthy, usually comic, friend of the
heroine. In "Hilf den Verstoss'nen" ("God Help the Outcasts" in the original feature)
As such Esmeralda threatens the sanctity of Notre Dame's priest, Frollo. In "Das
Esmeralda's deep voice is provided with the counterpoint of Quasimodo's higher
Feuer der Holle", Frollo also prays to the virginal 'Maria', pleading: "Beata Maria
tenor. In the original version, the song is a solo, with a chorus (the petitioning
du weisst, ich war noch nie so schlecht, nie so gemein und geil wie jedermann...
congregation), but on stage the song utilises the juxtaposition between Esmeralda's
warum dann, Maria, tanzt sie vor mir unsichtbar?... ein Feuer der Holle..." (Beata
darkness and Quasimodo's lightness, allowing the two voices to work in
Maria you know, I've never been as bad, as vulgar and lascivious as everyone...
counterpoint, Quasimodo's tenor echoing Esmeralda's prayer, and they unite as
why then, Maria does she dance before me invisible?... a fire of hell...). When
"Kinder von Gott" (children of God), dark and light both. Drew Sarich's tenor acts
Frollo subsequently sets fire to Paris in pursuit of Esmeralda, his act signifies the
as counterpoint to the deeper voices of the actors playing Esmeralda, Frollo, and
'hellish' aspect of his sexual desire for the gypsy, but it is the vulgar gargoyle
Phoebus, emphasising the bellringer as the embodiment of the narrative's ethereal
Antoine13 who best, and ironically, conceptualises the fire as a symbol of love and
qualities. Esmeralda merges with the deeper reverberations of the bells of Notre
desire: "Schau, ganz Paris ist voll liebe! Es leuchtet und funkelt. Logisch, das
Dame.
kommt von dem feuer doch auch von 1'amour" (Look, all Paris is full of love! It
shines and sparkles! Logically, that's because of the fire, but also of love!). It is
Esmeralda signifies the conscience, 'heart', of the narrative, doubling the voice of
significant that Esn>eralda does not die on the scaffold, as she does in Hugo's novel,
Notre Dame: Clopin sings "das pochende Herz dieser Stadt ist aus Erz wie der
but in Frollo's attempt to burn her at the stake before Notre Dame. Disney's
Klang der Glocken Notre Dames" (the beating heart of the city is made of the same
Esmeralda is not a creature of air, as was Hugo's, but of flame. Her 'light' is
ore as the bells of Notre Dame). Esmeralda's voice sings as the city's conscience.
signified by corporeal/carnal fire.
She prays for the city's outcasts, although she is ostracised herself, calling on the
divine mercy embodied in Notre Dame: "ob auch ein Zigeunermadchen zu dir beten
By her death, she is transformed, merging with the spiritual construction of Notre
kann. Ja, ich weiss, dass ich verfemt bin, die Welt verachtet mich doch ich seh dich
Dame that has been doubled in her voice. In the novel, Clopin asserts the
an und fuhle: einst warst du verfemt wie ich. Hilf den Verstoss'nen du siehst in ihr
symbolism: "If your church is sacred, so is our sister; if our sister is not sacred, then
Herz. Niemand sonst ftihlt und versteht ihren Schmerz" (Can a gypsy girl also pray
neither is your church" (Hugo 408). In the stage adaptation, Esmeralda is
to you? Yes, I know that I am outlawed. The world despises me. Nevertheless I look
12
at you and feel: once you were outlawed like me. Help the outcasts. You see in their
Esmeralda's darkness also suggests the Black Madonnas, particularly prevalent in France, which
are controversially equated with the Magdelene.
hearts. Nobody else feels and understands their pain). Esmeralda has 'wrongfully'
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13
The names of the gargoyles in the theatrical version are Loni, Antoine, and Charles.
310
transfigured by death, her voice spiritually sustained. In the concluding number,
"Artistically I was trying to create an ephemeral world in which the story could be
"Finale Ultimo", performed after her death, she offers Quasimodo a sung
told visually... I wanted the imagery to flow as it tells the story" (Lampert-Greaux
benediction: "Bei dir sicher hoch iiber der Welt, sehe ich alles mit anderen Augen,
46). Gothic elements, particularly architectural, are projected onto the metal. The
schon ist nicht, was die Welt dafur halt, du stehst hoch iiber der Welt" (Safe with
projections defy the constraints of space and gravity to provide a sense of both the
you, above the world, 1 see things differently, beautiful isn't what the world
immensity of Notre Dame and to animate movement, such as falling without the
considers as such, you stand high above the world).
actors themselves falling. The projections 'trick' the eye, just as drawn animation
does, to allow the material an immateriality: freeing form from what Eisenstein calls
While the actor who plays Esmeralda represents the corporeal until her final
'ossification1.
transformation into the spiritual, Notre Dame herself is represented on stage as a
creation of light, animated by projection on to a metal skeleton, presenting in its
substantive form il lamination signifying spirituality. The use of projection in the
stage production is not inconsistent with the use of light in the feature animation.
Der Glockner von Notre Dame marks Disney's move towards a more cinematic
approach to theatre by incorporating film itself into Mve performance, not as 'film',
but as the projection of light, replacing set pieces. This allows the set pieces
The feature's animation is, as director Kirk Wise describes: "cyberGothic, as
themselves to become more tractable and 'animated'. Although the actors remain
opposed to the manicured country club look that the medieval era has in Sleeping
corporeal, the set achieves theflexibilityof animation around them, embedding them
Beauty" (Rebello ...Notre Dame 105). The animation techniques freed not the
in a malleable universe. Hugo writes of Quasimodo: "His brain was a peculiar
Cathedral itself to move, but the perspective through which the Cathedral is drawn.
medium: the ideas that passed through it emerged all twisted. The reflections which
The aerial and sweeping 'shots' of Notre Dame give her a sense of life and in the
resulted from this refraction were necessarily warped and divergent. Hence the
final confrontation between the characters, Notre Dame herself is animated to erupt,
countless optical illusions, the countless aberrations of judgement, the countless
bringing her stone to life through plasmatic flame. To re-animate the scope of the
byways down which his now uncontrolled, now idiot mind strayed" (165). The stage
immense cathedral and her light and flame on a theatrical stage, the theatrical team
production is responsive to this idea of refraction in the novel, but not just through
also leant towards the 'cyberGothic', utilising computerised technology to recreate
Quasimodo's mind; and, after all, Quasimodo's mind has been clarified in Disney's
Gothic structures.
adaptation although, as hero, his perspective remains a dominant 'medium'. The
illumination created from the projections reflects the actions and emotions of the
Alan Cholodenko, writing on animation, describes an attraction "with the mysterious
characters on stage, as well as creating for Notre Dame itself a signified spiritual
imbrication and reanimation of life and motion by means of an apparatus" (18). Der
existence. The projections are, indeed, optical illusions into which Hugo's characters
Glockner von Notre Dame uses a specifically designed theatrical apparatus to
are themselves physically projected.
reanimate the life of Notre Dame. The designers, including Jerome Sirlin and Heidi
Ettinger, created moving platforms, cubes, and projections that, operated in synch,
'conjure' Notre Dame on the stage. The stage is itself a series of mechanical cubes
that animate to create the narrative's spaces. The metal grating on the cubes provides
a textured surface for the projections. Jerome Sirlin describes hiu projections:
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The interplay of voice, physicality, and projection thus expound the themes of
Hugo's novel, evolving a treatment that reflects Hugo's own sense of chiaroscuro
and populism. This is not to argue that the theatrical production is 'authentic', in the
strict terms of being absolutely faithful to the original source, rather it is a
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translation, a refraction of Hugo's novel through twenty-first century musical.
Aida's youth combination of pop and MTV sex appeal. Disney is, from the evidence,
Furthermore, in juxtaposing the actor with a malleable mise en scene, the production
offering productions that utilise the spectrum of the family audience through
creates a theatrical fluidity that is further explored in the production of Aida.
intensifying relays between child-youth-adult The youth orientation within the relay
was in part hinted in The Little Mermaid, which Clements said "became a date
How DISNEY MADE A MUSICAL
movie" (Wloszczyna, "Muscle"). Aida further develops Disney's youth market, not
OF ELTON JOHN'S WARDROBE
being directed exclusively at the age group, but capitalising on the link it affords
between child and adult in furthering its relays.
Like Der Glockner von Notre Dame, Aida's Disney genesis is negotiated through
multiple texts and cultures. In 1871, Aida was first performed in Cairo. The score
Aida is more strongly identified with Tim Rice and Elton John, who also wrote the
was by Giuseppe Verdi, written for a story provided by Auguste Mariette by the
score of The Lion King. But where The Lion King is most often identified as Julie
request of the khedive of Egypt for an opera to be commissioned as part of the
Taymor's 27*e Lion King, Aida is usually advertised as Elton John and Tim Rice's
celebrations of the opening of the Suez Canal and the Cairo opera house. In 2000,
Aida. The shift in emphasis highlights the importance of the score to this musical
Aida premiered on Broadway. The score is by Elton John and Tim Rice with a book
and Disney's own increasing reticence to claim authorship, at least above the show's
written by Linda Woolverton, Robert Falls, and David Henry Hwang by the request
title. In fact, Disney's name is virtually absent from Broadway credits, the theatrical
of Disney executives for their third Broadway venture. As to Aidd's origin, no one
division becoming independent by appellation as Hyperion Theatricals15. Although
knows for certain if the initial story has any actual basis in Egyptian lore and history
Aida still operates within Disney's audience relays, the individualistic branding
or whether it was an invention of Mariette himself. The central juxtaposition
distinguishes the production from usual Disney fare, allowing a degree of
between Ethiopian (Nubian in Disney's adaptation) and Egyptian is reflective of the
permissiveness with content that could not occur under the Disney signature and re-
wider cultural conjunctions embodied in the story's history.
affirming authorship under the composer's name rather than that signature.
The story came to Disney as Aida's story written for children by opera singer,
One of the musical's earliest forms is the concept recording released in 1999.
Leontyne Price, but the consequent stage production has been 'matured', aimed
Workshops of the production were already in progress, but the concept recording is
ostensibly at the younger, 18-34 years, Broadway audience14. Falls, the director,
differentiated from standard cast recordings and its arrangements and release argue
says: "Aida is a very mature, serious, erotic, and political love story — in the classic
the autonomy of the score itself in the production process of Aida. Rice writes in the
sense of Tristan and Isolde or Romeo and Juliet" (Lassell 47). In reviewing Disney's
CD insert: "This recording is simply a selection of songs from a forthcoming show,
Broadway projects up to Aida there is a gradient of maturation, from the fairy tale
interpreted by an extremely distinguished array of performers, each of whom was
pantomime of Beauty and the Beast to the coming of age tale of The Lion King to
given absolute artistic freedom in the studio". The songs on the recording are treated
as distinct entities in themselves: they can exist independently of the show. They do
14
This audience is identified from The Audience for New York Theatre: 1997 Season report, where
the 18-34 year groups accounted for 31.2% of the Broadway audience and attended primarily
musicals (Lefkin 9).
15
The naming of Disney's theatrical division as one of the Titans is consistent with how many
theatrical critics have viewed the relative size of Disney within the theatrical community.
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314
not appear in narrative order, with theatrical orchestrations, nor are they performed
collaborator of Rice's, took much the same route: diverse, established singers taking
according to character, or even gender, assignation. For instance, "Like Father, Like
individual songs and recording them with their own arrangements. While neither
Son", sung by Radames and his father, is performed as a solo by Lenny Kravitz,
recording achieved notable commercial success, they do reveal a changing
with his own distinctive arrangements, while "I Know the Truth", sung by Amneris,
relationship between the music industry and theatrical musical, the musical
is performed as a duet by Janet Jackson and Elton John himself. The recording
accommodating the diversity of the contemporary music industry through
breaks away from narrative to fully explore the pop potential of each song.
multimedia and asserting the primacy of the score in stage production.
This can have a strong impact on the sense of narrative that remains embedded,
The first workshops of Aida occurred in 1996. Originally called Elaborate Lives,
nevertheless, in individual songs. "My Strongest Suit" retains much of its narrative
distinguishing it from the Verdi opera, it began its production process with the
definition performed by the Spice Girls. The girl band, with their iconic pop and
Beauty and the Beast team of Robert Jess Roth, Matt West, Stanley A. Meyer, Ann
fashion status, are accommodated by the lyrical content: "Now I believe in looking
Hould-Ward, and Linda Woolverton. The show's aesthetic was a hybrid of period
like my time on earth is cooking whether polka dotted, striped or even checked."
and high-tech. The central set piece was a pyramid involving lasers and hydraulics.
The 'girl band' vocals are likewise as apt to the number as Amneris's delivery
The costumes were period-influenced with the heavy use of gold gilding that is
surrounded by her handmaidens. On the other hand, "Another Pyramid" performed
familiar from Beauty and the Beast. In fact, the approach was largely synonymous
by Sting is very different from the way it occurs in the show; sung by Zoser, it is
with that of Beauty and the Beast, but in dealing with human characters was
sardonic with a progressive rock beat. Zoser's performance stresses the lyrics
ponderous in over-enunciating their historical context. In Beauty and the Beast, the
themselves and the stand of the Prime Minister on the imminent death of his
themes of physical transformation and the fairy tale devices of magic spells and
Pharaoh. Sting's performance is located in his own lyrical style, giving lyrics like
curses made sense of the technical illusions and the extension of actors through their
"with each wheeze the nation's humming, Egypt shakes with every cough" a
costumes. Aida, however, in dealing with human characters in a non-magical,
16
17
romantic quality at odds with the song's narrative purpose . The singers chosen to
dramatic situation, was unnecessarily encumbered. This became evident when the
appear on the album are recognisable names in the music industry, such as LeAnn
pyramid itself broke down during a performance. Schumacher said: "What was so
Rimes, Lulu, and James Taylor, but their musical styles are diverse. The
reassuring was that it worked so well as a sung piece of material we didn't need the
arrangements of the songs thus reflect an assortment of pop music idioms, including
pyramid" (Tynan). In fact, Aida is a score-driven show: the actors needed to be
country, rap, and folk. Around the same time as Aida, the concept recording of
animated on stage as performers. Disney, acting as producer, changed most of the
Whistle Down the Wind, whose composer, Andrew Lloyd Webber, is a previous
creative team. Where the original team was largely drawn from Disney itself, the
new team mirrors the direction Disney took with The Lion King: turning to
16
Sting is in part identified with a romantic movement in pop music in the late 1980s, where songs
work.
increasingly evinced lyricism.
17
established theatrical practitioners who have backgrounds in critically successful
The song itself went through a period of transition. The lyrics on this recording are pert, "holy
leaders at the least should see him happy to his shroud", but the lyrics of the Broadway version have
honed the sardonic tone, "but our architects are cheerful and each dog must have its day". Zoser's
own ambitions to rule through his son become more explicit in this latter re-write.
315
Robert Falls, artistic director of the Goodman Theatre in Chicago was chosen as the
director to replace Roth. Falls' public response to working with Disney in many
316
ways reflects Taymor's: "It was just about work that people were passionate about.
originated the lead of Roger in Rent. Both actors have rock voices, both are blonde
They brought this piece to me, I liked it, they gave me absolute artistic control over
Americans. The Egyptians of Aida are not the Egyptians of history, but
the project, and then they were really passionate producers all the way down the
contemporary pop performers. They are dressed accordingly. Amneris' style draws
line" (Freudenheim). Bob Crowley and David Henry Hwang also joined the
extensively on the Hollywood glamour of the 1940s: a retro Valley girl19 rather than
production, the latter best known for M. Butterfly.
an ancient Egyptian princess. Radames' style is described by Lassell as "vaguely
Asian rock-and-roll loungevvear" (74): a rock star rather than an ancient Egyptian
The production reflects a new breed of pop musical in specific ways following the
soldier. Crowley notes of his designs: "As a designer, I've got to respond to the
Pulitzer Prize winning Rent. Rent, likewise based on an opera (La Boheme), is not
music as well as the story, and it isn't Egyptian revival music. It's Elton John pop
truly innovative for its music, narrative, or set, but for its performance, especially in
music. So let's not get too antique about it all, let's acknowledge that it's rock and
terms of musical casting. Through the 1980s and 90s, musical theatre had developed
roll" (Lassell 74). In fact, in designing "My Strongest Suit", Crowley confirms that
its own pool of talent, actors who sang dramatically18. Bernard Telsey, casting the
he was, in effect, staging Elton John's wardrobe, John being famous for his fashion
original production, went to Manhattan's East Village and Soho, to the clubs and
extravagance, and Crovyley's designs partly suggest John's favourite designer,
bars, to find actors for Rent. In most cases, the actors in Rent do not come from
Versace.
theatrical, but musical backgrounds. The balance is towards the performance of
song, rather than story. That Aida and Rent both originate in an operatic source is
The starring role of Aida was originated by Heather Headley, who had previously
indicative of their performance shift from book to score. The opera scores, popular
originated the role of Nala in The Lion King. Originally from Trinidad, she has, in
music of their own time, are replaced with pop scores indicative of contemporary
effect, become the Broadway face of the Disney princess. Indeed, Aida continues the
popular music. The narratives themselves had already been proven adaptable to
strong African American presence in Disney's Broadway ventures. Aida, a princess
productions in which the score takes precedence.
of Nubia, is herself the star of the show and her songs incorporate African inspired
strains of gospel and soul. "The Gods Love Nubia", sung by Aida, is more reflective
Steyn says of Rent: "In April, it transferred to Broadway and the Nederlander
of American music idioms, but remains reminiscent of The Lion King's South
Theatre, a tatty house that has been further tattied to give it a convincingly bohemian
African "Shadowland", sung by Nala.
air: an East Village theme-park to counter Disney's Beauty and the Beast themepark up the road at the Palace" {Broadway 210). It is ironic that Disney was to
produce its own Rent, a pop musical not based in the East Village and Soho, but in
the glamour of Los Angeles and MTV. Aida stars two of Rent's original cast in its
own original cast. Sherie Rene Scott had been in the role of Amneris since the first
workshops and Adam Pascal joined the cast as Radames after Atlanta and had
18
By which I mean that the musical theatre voice is not instantaneously recognisable as, for example,
a soul or pop voice. The voice serves the drama first, singing second, providing a smooth transition
19
The reference is to a district of Los Angeles identified with a certain fashion-conscious social group
of teenage girls.
between speech and song.
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318
Table 9.1: Comparison of selected lyrics from "Shadowland" and "The Gods Love Nubia"
"Shadowland"
"The Gods Love Nubia"
The river's dry
The pain of Nubia is only of the moment
The ground has broken
The desolate, the suffering, the plundered, the
So I must go
oppressed
Africa, drawing on African American themes within its metonymic relationship to
America.
In Aida, this mythic Africa is juxtaposed against the contemporary MTV age. Falls
and Crowley have, in fact, bookended the musical in the twenty-first century. The
musical begins and ends in the Egyptian collection of a museum, based on the
Now I must go
The gods love Nubia
Metropolitan Museum. Crowley notes: "There was a purity about the Met's
And where the journey may lead me
We have to keep believing
collection that has informed the show ever since" (Lassell 60). The museum scenes
Let your prayers be my guide
Though scattered and divided
I cannot stay here, my family
We are still its heart
But I'll remember my pride...
The fall of Nubia ephemeral and fleeting
the lovers, Aida and Radames, reborn in the new era. Amneris herself is depicted as
The spirit always burning
a mummy in a faded costume that hints at the intense shade of orange that colours
Though the flesh is torn apart...
the predominant design. The neutrality lends resonance to the storytelling, making
I have no choice
I will find my way
are visualised in neutrals, with the modern-day visitors in white and beige, including
the 'once upon a time' a more vibrant and exotic time and place in contrast to the
Lea halalela
Take me in dreams recurring
Take this prayer
One more longing backward glance
time of the audience as signified by the museum exhibit.
What lies out there
Amneris the mummy animates as the chorus, introducing the story of the lovers and
Lea halalela
reflecting on the nature of love story itself: "Every story, tale or memoir, every saga
Both songs develop a common theme of loss and exile, bound in a prayer of love for
or romance, whether true or fabricated, whether planned or happenstance, whether
a ruined land. That land is a culturally constructed Africa and the two productions
sweeping through the ages, casting centuries aside, or a hurried brief recital, just a
share a common motif of the orange African sun, Crowley's a more technical
thirty minute ride... all are tales of human failing, all are tales of love at heart". Her
variation on Taymor's sun in that the fabric is elaborated with light and smoke to
lyrical melody then abruptly shifts into a rock tempo as the neutrality of the museum
create an illusion of a self-animated, hotter, and more violent sun. The princesses
scene opens into the intense colour of Nubia: "This is the story of a love that
who sing of this 'Africa' are both exiled leaders and their estrangement casts the
flourished in a time of hate". The intense colours that follow not only inflect the
lands in mythic, rather than authentic, terms. Aida and Nala are the locus of a
ancient Egyptian attitude to colour and the desert itself, but the intensity of passion
symbolic Africa, an imprecise memory or dream. To fully understand the
that the narrative strives to produce. The colour acts as the conduit of the 'time of
positioning of Disney's particular mythology of Africa would necessitate a much
hate'.
wider argument embracing the tensions between the history of the African continent,
particularly its contested status as the birthplace of the human race and civilisation,
Ben Brantley's New York Times review stated: "'Aida', the new Disney cartoon
through discourses of slavery and colonialism, and contemporary Africa, regarded as
pretending to be a Broadway musical" (Brantley 2000). In fact, Aida's use of
a Third World nation in the global political and economic environment. Yet, it is
theatrical technique is very close to film and animation, particularly in its visual
evident that theatrically, Disney is constructing such a mythology in response to
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320
sensibility. In part, this is suggested by its score, correlating the production with
and narrative theme from designs: to understand the 'haiku's' created. Crowley's
MTV rather than the theatre. Pavis writes:
designs rely on the imagination to capture the sequencing: actual movement. He
refers to an almost cinematic sensibility: "I love the fluidity that the camera gives
Pop video sets up a narrative based on image sequences, which place
the singer or illustrate the lyrics with shots that have a vague thematic
connection with the words or musical atmosphere. The dramaturgy of
these videos is based on a spatio-temporal anchoring of the song and
on the attempt to link enunciator (singer) and utterance (song), so as
to make the image alternately a visual commentary on the words and
an anticipation of what the following words will say. (Theatre 109)
you in film. I'm constantly trying to do that in the theater" (Lassell 68-69). The
progression of the scenes across the stage - the temporal aspect - is complemented
by the spatial inflections. The flat, vertical representation of the Nile and the images
imprinted and superimposed upon it create a mimesis with the two dimensional
sense of image created in animation, distorting typical theatrical perceptions of space
so that the stage is used almost like a screen where the images imprinted are freed
from three dimensional allusions: freed from gravity. The suspension of
gravitational reality is illustrated, in particular, by Aida's spa scene. The swimming
Falls and Crowley worked on re-creating this dramaturgy on the stage, using
theatrical techniques, rather than the kinds of mechanical apparatus that Beauty and
the Beast and Der Glockner von Notre Dame utilise. Likewise, although closer to the
pool is a flat, vertical backdrop on which is imprinted the moving figures of women
swimming, altering perspective from the horizontal to the vertical. The actors are
actually moving up and down on wires, miming the swimming strokes.
kind of aesthetic produced by Taymor, Falls and Crowley re-realise traditional
methods in MTV style, often using technology to create the necessary movement
The production relies strongly on the use of fabric to create animation. The Nile
without allowing technology itself to become the visible aesthetic. As in the case of
itself is invoked by a sheath of blue dyed fabric. Taymor uses fabric in a similar
the African sun that introduces the Nubian landscape, it is the fabric that is visible,
sense in The Lion King, to suggest both the draught, the blue fabric drawing into the
animated by smoke, light, and wind, ethereal qualities not in themselves visually
centre of the stage to eventually disappear, and the river Simba and Timon cross,
manifest, but capable of creating the necessary motion: the 'illusion of life' or, in
which is a strip of printed fabric rhythmically 'waved' to suggest movement. The
fact, the 'illusion of MTV. The images thus create the commentary for the songs
fabric, however, remains fixed to each individual symbolic role. In Aida, fabric itself
and their singers, creating the kind of separate space and time continuum, in that the
becomes a fluid proposition. The women who are washing in the Nile rhythmically
production makes its own time and space, that has informed animation. The visual
wave like pieces of blue fabric, creating the impression of the undulations of the
aesthetic for Amneris, for example, in "My Strongest Suit" draws on a Versace
Nile river itself. The Nile is then collapsed and re-animated as a bazaar, collapsed
fashion show, linking the singer to her lyrics, "not to strut yourself outrageously's a
again and re-animated as Radames' tent. The form of the colour appears and
crime", rather than to the narrative situation, providing a visual exposition of song
reappears in different mutations: the fabric acting as the facilitator of colour instead
that inflects story indirectly via song.
of the painted animation eel, capable of the kind of transformation associated with
the drawn line.
Yet like Taymor's designs, Crowley's rely on the imagination: "It's just that
contemporary culture keeps stripping it away by making things too 'real' all the
Even the fabric of the costumes can be used to create animation. In "Another
time" (Lassell 68). Taymor's designs rely on the imagination to construct character
Pyramid", the Prime Minister and Radames' father, Zoser, plans the building of a
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new pyramid with his henchmen. Choreographer Wayne Cilento describes the
adaptation of the 1940 Disney animated feature, it is influenced by Collodi's original
scenes as "the MTV video kh:;i of approach, because a number like that should help
1880 story and Robert Coover's post-structuralist fiction Pinocchio in Venice,
give the show a contemporary edge" (Lassell 92). The scene takes place on an empty
Coover incidentally working on the development of the musical's book. The Little
stage, removing it from spatial or geographic indicators. The men wear red lines
Mermaid is being adapted by Matthew Bourne and his company, New Adventures.
down the front of their long, black jackets. The choreography by Wayne Cilento
Bourne is a choreographer and director perhaps best known for his all-male Swan
exploits these lines to create patterns: the abstract collapsing and re-assembling as it
Lake, but also for his work on fairy tales and musicals, including Cinderella and My
is danced. Cilento himself explains: "Because the dream is to have that movement
Fair Lady. In development also is Hoopz, a musical about the Harlem Globetrotters
with those men and have it be strong, to have the flow and the physicality of it match
with book by Suzan-Lori Parks, who is currently heading a theatre project at
what Bob Crowley's jackets are doing and Natasha's lighting is doing" (Lassell 97).
CalArts, the training ground for many Disney animators, and who became the first
Natasha Kate uses harsh red light on the empty stage to pick up the red lines
African American woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for drama for her play
animated by the dancers and the black shapes of the dancers themselves as moving
Topdog/Underdog in 2002. Parks rejects defining Hoopz as a bio-musical: "Bio-
silhouettes. Light actually saturates the stage, intensifying to an almost material,
musical - sounds like a fungus. What we're trying to do isfinda way to integrate the
three dimensional colour. In effect, the creative team create the MTV visuals
present into the past" (Phillips). The integration reflects the trend exhibited in Der
through animation, re-creating the sense of film with more traditional theatrical
Glockner von Notre Dame and Aida; history contextualised in contemporary idioms.
techniques, and giving the status quo of Egypt a harder contemporary edge equating
Other projects, including a theatrical version of Tarzan in further collaboration with
with commercial pop.
Phil Collins, are periodically named in the media.
Aida's greatest significance in theatrical terms is perhaps in its approach to the pop
Without speculating on which projects will reach fruition and what techniques will
score. Rather than attempt to adapt popular music to the stage, the production adapts
be employed, the projects nonetheless illustrate a diversity of approaches to the
the stage to popular music, finding ways to match and exploit its visual aesthetic
adaptation and initiation of original material through their collaborators that
without an obvious introduction of the mechanics of that aesthetic. Despite the
consolidates Disney's theatrical practice as one that does not represent a
complexity of Aida's visual language, the production foregrounds essentially simple
standardised, corporate approach to theatre. Two aspects of diversity are particularly
theatrical devices that are employed in a cinematic way.
evident: the visibility of black collaborators and performers and the collaboration
with innovators in the theatrical field. The visibility of black collaborators and
CONCLUSION:
BACK TO THE MERMAID
performers in Disney's theatre is significant. It could be easily dismissed as a token
effort towards multiculturalism on the part of Disney, but this does not answer why
it has occurred in the theatrical musicals, where the previous chapter has noted that
Disney's next theatrical projects take a variety of forms. Taymor is again working
with Disney on a stage production of Pinocchio, seeking as she describes, "a
African-American audiences are negligible20. Hoopz apparently confirms the trend.
As I have argued, Disney is not only telling stories that involve black actors, but
whacked-out, commedia delFarte style, funky, hand-made, nasty-edged theatre, with
a rambunctious, wild, edgy quality" (Spencer "Disney's"). Not planned as a direct
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20
Such visibility is not evident to this extent in any other area of Disney either.
324
black writers and composers like Parks and Lebo M are actively contributing to the
collaboration with Taymor and makes Disney's association with two of the theatre's
ways in which these stories are told and performers like Heather Headley are cast in
most innovative and prominent women conspicuous for its repudiation of the
regal roles while others, like Tsidii Le Loka, determine key aspects of their
patriarchal persona inherited from Walt Disney. Such a clear tendency in Disney as
character, including language. Disney's integration of black language is essential to
theatrical producer is not equalled elsewhere in Disney, with animation, in
The Lion King, with its untranslated African dialects, and Hoopz already evinces the
particular, still dominated to a large extent by men: Disney's theatrical division is
incorporation of a particular black language; Parks, for example, works in what her
breaking many of the traditional tropes of Disney authorship by active collaboration
"Hoopz" collaborator, director Marion McClinton, refers to as "old black English
beyond the limits of its accepted status quo.
juxtaposed against modern language, so that it has both an old blues feel and an
avant-garde jazz feel to it" (Phillips). There is something more dialogic, as
Each production launched by Disney has developed a different approach to theatrical
exemplified in the incorporation of language, in evidence between Disney and black
practice, developing a unique dramaturgy particular to a production while
cultures in the theatrical musicals and it would be misleading to assume that the
maintaining the registration of plasmaticness. Where the animated musicals have
Disney that produces The Lion King and Hoopz is the same Disney that produced
tended towards popularism, relying on Disney's own animators and writers and
Song of the South (1946) or even Aladdin (1992)21.
collaborating with a range of popular actors and singers, Disney theatrical musicals
have evinced increased collaboration with the experimental end of theatre, rejecting,
The second facet that has become apparent is Disney's disposition towards
rather than consolidating, an in-house approach. In the engagement of new
employing innovative theatrical artists including Parks, Taymor, and Bourne, some
collaborators, Disney is working less towards a Disney-defined theatrical vocabulary
of whom have had commercial success, others of whom have received critical, but
for its 'magic', than one that extends and re-writes the vocabulary inherited from the
little mainstream, attention. Disney's association with Parks in particular echoes the
animated musicals, in the process revising standards of mainstream theatre.
21
In effect, in recovering the theatrical tradition of the musical in the animated
Animation has always been problematic in terms of representing race, Wells noting: "Cartooning
has always been informed by the tradition of caricature, that both operates as a satirical mechanism
musical, Disney is now reclaiming innovative theatrical directions for the stage
which makes comment through its exaggeration of certain physical traits, and as a design strategy,
musical. Bourne has spoken about the theatrical adaptation process for The Little
which concentrates on redefining and exaggerating aspects of the body or environment, for purely
Mermaid, the animated musical that marked the Disney renaissance, with its
aesthetic purposes", animation being "unique in its address of the body and, as such, in its creation of
problematic underwater setting and the anthropomorphisation of mermaids, crabs,
the codes and conditions by which... questions concerning race may be advanced" (Understanding
and other sea life, comparing it to his Swan Lake: "Whenever I get down about it, I
188). Disney's depiction of black characters in animation becomes a metaphorical minefield of codes
and conditions. However, in the live medium of theatre, Disney appears to have overcome its
remind myself there is a type oi magic that can happen. We asked people to believe
'reluctance' in registering black characters and stories. Through active collaboration, the visibility of
that these guys were swans and, really, they didn't look anything like swans. You tell
black characters becomes encoded through the work of black writers, composers, and performers,
an audience "this is a swan" and that's it for the rest of the evening. Same with
shifting from appropriation to a dialogic model that is visible, rather than concealed, as Byrne and
mermaids" (Benedict). It is necessary to develop a dramaturgy capable of facilitating
McQuillan have argued, on the "threshold" of the cartoon, where the black man's "tantalising and
the magic, to develop a means of achieving the transformations into mermaid or crab
frightening actuality can be experienced simultaneously with the confirmation of his domestication"
(95).
325
through the registration of the actor's body, whether through pyrotechnics, puppets,
326
projections, fabric, or dance. The essential realisation of the magic and its
22). He suggests that "the success and durability of a musical are in inverse
deconstruction has been largely overlooked in the theoretical discussion of wider
proportion to the amount of water in it" {Broadway 23), noting that Show Boat's
cultural tensions, such as Disney's choice of collaborators, which ostensibly
durability is in how the score suggests the river, where Jerome Kern's "banjo-plunk
facilitates marriage between commercial entertainment and experimental art. Yet the
theme for the boat - lCot-ton-Blos-som', — is simply inverted to represent the
choice of Bourne, well-known for his cinematic and theatrical choreography, is apt
Mississippi, 'OF-Man-Riv-er'. With four notes, he ties together the contrasting faces
for The Little Mermaid, which in turn drew upon the director/choreographer Busby
of the story... The lessons of Kern and Hammerstein's Broadway epic course
Berkeley's cinematic style, one that extended to the registration of the underwater
through the history of the musical, but those four notes in particular symbolize the
body and the realisation of choreographed transitions from the ordinary to the
concise discreet ingenuity of the genre at its best" {Broadway 23). Steyn's point is to
pictorial.
illustrate the difference between literal spectacle, whereby a stage might be flooded
to produce water effects, and the musical where song is the transforming element,
Bourne's involvement with Disney reflects the tension apparent in his own work,
wherein the genre's development is located. Disney maintains a tradition of
which itself encompasses the experimental and the commercial. Bourne's cinematic
spectacle and yet it has likewise advanced the use of song in the tradition of Show
inclinations are indicated in the name of his previous company, Adventures in
Boat, even at the very beginning with Steamboat Willie. Disney holds an ambiguous
Motion Pictures, which was dissolved due to conflict in the partnership between the
position in the tradition of the musical genre, but that is the key to its magic.
business and his own artistic interests as its productions became increasingly
commercially successful. Bourne has, conversely, faced criticism for 'selling out' to
exploit this commercialism, but, as David Benedict suggests, "The most
controversial thing about Bourne is his unusual, highly developed regard for his
audience." The controversy raises the question of whether concerns about
commercialism actually obscure the 'regard' for audiences tliat can be located in a
By reading the magic, it is possible to overcome the current critical impasse and
recover a more complex understanding of Disney. At the end of Aladdin, just as the
credits are about to roll, Genie 'lifts' the film to peer out at the audience: "Made ya
look!" It has been the aim of this dissertation to lift the literality of analysis to
achieve just such an effect.
commercial, popular work. Bourne's alliance with Disney crystallises such issues as
they have been argued in this dissertation. As Bourne argues of his own work, "it's
about more than literal meaning. People get excited about things like Swan Lake
because they generate a personal involvement. If you set up the story properly,
audiences respond to the ambiguity" (Benedict). It is the ambiguity that has often
confounded Disney Studies that is in fact the key to understanding how audiences
respond to such work.
In concluding on The Little Mermaid and its undersea transformations, it is
appropriate that Steyn proposes: "There are many ways of examining the evolution
of musical theatre, but the easiest and most instructive is water capacity" {Broadway
327
328
APPENDIX
DISNEY MUSICALS:
SYNOPSES AND SELECTED* CREDITS
The Little Mermaid
Ariel, the little mermaid, the youngest daughter of King Triton, is fascinated by the
human world and collects "whoozits and whatsits galore" from shipwrecks. After her
father forbids her from ever going to the surface again, Ariel is attracted by fireworks
and, defying her father, goes to explore. The fireworks, launched from a passing ship, are
in honour of Prince Eric's birthday. Ariel sees Eric and falls in love with him and when
the ship is caught in a storm, she rescues Eric from drowning and carries him to shore.
Eric's only memory of his rescuer is her voice, but he is determined to find her again.
Meanwhile, Triton discovers that Ariel has fallen in love with a human and after a terrible
fight between father and daughter, Ariel goes to the sea witch, Ursula, who promises her
aid. Ursula wants to usurp Triton and sees her opportunity in Ariel. In return for Ariel's
voice, Ursula will give her legs so that she can join Eric on land, but Eric must kiss her
with the kiss of true love by the end of the third day for Ariel to remain human, otherwise
she will revert to a mermaid and belong to Ursula. Ariel signs the contract and,
accompanied by Sebastian, a conductor-crab, and Flounder, her friend, heads towards the
shore. She is discovered by Eric, who almost recognises her, but for her silence. Eric
takes her to his castle. Grimsby, Eric's advisor, suggests he stop dreaming of the girl who
rescued him and marry Ariel. Eric takes Ariel to visit the city and almost kisses her when
* Credits listed in this appendix are not comprehensive. Those credits provided are for the first release of
animated features and the premiere productions of theatrical shows.
329
they go boating, but Ursula's henchmen overturn the boat before he can. Ursula takes
matters into her own hands and transforms into a human herself, bewitching Eric to
A spoiled prince refuses to give shelter to a beggar woman in return for a rose. The
marry her instead. With the help of Sebastian and Flounder, Ariel is able to unmask
woman turns into an enchantress who places a spell on him and all who live in the castle.
Ursula, but not before time runs out and Ariel becomes a mermaid again. To save Ariel,
The prince is turned into a beast and his servants into household items and unless he
Triton takes her place and is turned into a sea anemone by Ursula, who takes the trident
loves and is loved in return by the time the last petal falls from the rose, he will remain a
and control over the sea. Ariel and Eric join forces to defeat her, but it is Eric who in the
beast forever. In the village, Belle, a beautiful bookworm, rejects village heartthrob
end impales Ursula on the end of a shipwreck. Triton realises Ariel really does love Eric
Gaston's marriage proposal. When she learns that her father, Maurice, an eccentric
and transforms her into a human himself, attending her marriage to the prince.
inventor, has been lost and possibly hurt in the woods, she goes to find him and comes to
Beast's castle, where Maurice is being held in a dungeon. Seeing that Maurice is very ill,
Directed by
Pat Carroll: Ursula
Susan Edelman
she offers to take his place. Beast agrees and sends Maurice home. Belle is befriended by
Ron Clements
Jason Marin: Flounder
Production Design by
Lumiere, Cogsworth, and Mrs Potts, who see her as a potential means of breaking the
John Musker
Samuel
Maureen Donley
spell. When Belle enters the forbidden West Wing, Beast grows furious with her, and she
Writing credits
Sebastian
Donald Towns
flees,frightened.In the woods, she is soon overtaken by wolves and Beast comes to her
Roger Allers (story)
Kenneth Mars- f riton
Art Direction by
rescue. They begin to grow fond of each other as Beast attempts to become more
Hans
Buddy Hackf it: Scuttle
Michael Peraza Jr.
civilised. Back in the village, Maurice tries to get help to free Belle, but Gaston uses his
Rene
David Towns
wild stories of a 'beast' to have him declared insane. When Belle, having discovered that
Andersen
Christian
(fairy
tale
E.
Wright:
Auberjonois:
source)
Louis
Supervising Animators
her father is sick and searching for her, is released by Beast to go to him, Gaston tells her
Howard Ashman (lyrics)
Ben Wright: Grimsby
Ruben
that if she married him, he won't have her father declared insane. To convince everyone
Ron Clements
Produced by
Ursula
that Maurice is sane, Belle verifies the existence of Beast. Gaston suggests to the
Alan Menken (music)
Howard Ashman
Glen Keane: Ariel
villagers that Beast is dangerous and must be killed and, locking Maurice and Belle in the
Robby Merkin (music)
Maureen Donley
Duncan
cellar, the villagers set off to take the castle. Chip, Mrs Pott's son, has stowed away,
John Musker
John Musker
Sebastian
however, and manages to free Maurice and Belle. Belle arrives just as Gaston is about to
Cast
Film Editing by
Andreas Deja: Triton
kill Beast. Her presence encourages Beast to defend himself, but when Gaston stabs him
Jodi Benson: Ariel
Mark A. Hester
in the back, Gaston loses his balance himself and falls to his death. Belle admits her love
Christopher
Casting by
as Beast dies and the spell is broken. Beast turns back into a prince.
Daniel
Barnes: Prince Eric
A.
Aquino:
Marjoribanks:
Mary V. Buck
330
Animated Feature
Writing credits
Linda Woolverton
Directed by
Cast
Gary Trousdale
Paige O'Hara: Belle
Kirk Wise
Alan Menken (music)
331
Robby
Benson:
Ruben
A.
Aquino:
Eleanor
Glockner:
Beast/Prince
Maurice
Madame de la Grande
Richard White: Gaston
James Baxter: Belle
Bouche
Jerry Orbach: Lumiere,
Andreas Deja: Gaston
Kenny Raskin: Lefou
the candelabra
Will Finn: Cogsworth
Scenic design by
Stiers:
Mark Henn: Belle
Stan Meyer
the
Glen Keane: Beast
Lighting design by
clock/Narrator
Nik Ranieri: Lumiere
Natasha Katz
Angela Lansbury: Mrs.
Chris Wahl: Lefou
Costume design by
Potts, the tea pot
Theatrical Production
Ann Hould-Ward
Bradley Pierce: Chip,
Directed by
Illusions by
the teacup
Robert Jess Roth
Jim Steinmeyer
Rex Everhart: Maurice,
Written by
John Gaughhan
father of Belle
Alan Menken (music)
Prosthetics
Jesse Corti: LeFou
John Dods
Jo
Linda
Dance arrangements by
David
Ogden
Cogsworth,
Anne
Worley:
Woolverton
by
Susan Egan: Belle
Jeremiah J. Harries
Featherduster
Beast: Terence Mann
Casting by
Produced by
Tom Bosley: Maurice
Jay Binder
Howard Ashman
Burke Moses: Gaston
Orchestrations by
DonHahn
Heath
Danny Troob
Sarah McArthur
Cogsworth
Choreography by
Film Editing by
Gary Beach: Lumiere
Matt West
John Camochan
Beth Fowler: Mrs Potts
Musical supervision and
Art Direction by
Brian Press: Chip
vocal arrangements by
Brian McEntee
Stacey Logan: Babette
David Friedman
Kimmy
Robertson:
Lamberts:
332
Michael Kosarin
Aladdu.
Aladdin is a poor boy who lives in Agrabah with his pet monkey, Abu. He must steal
and in three days time, she must marry, but she rejects all her suitors. One night she
rescues her. The palace guards find them and take Jasmine back to the palace, throwing
Aladdin into jail. Jafar, the Sultan's advisor, is scheming to obtain the magic lamp from
into the cave, warning him not to try to take anything but the lamp. Aladdin gets the
lamp, but Abu tries to steal a ruby, bringing the whole cave down upon them. A magic
cave. Abu, however, had stolen the lamp back from Jafar and Aladdin rubs it, releasing
Original Cast
D'Arque
music
carpet saves them, but Jafar double-crosses them and leaves Aladdin and Abu sealed in a
Production
Monsieur
arrangements by
the Cave of Wonders, and decides to use Aladdin to achieve his aims. He sends Aladdin
Tim Rice (lyrics)
Jay:
incidental
and
escapes the palace, but runs into trouble with a stall owner in the market and Aladdin
Glen Kelly
Tony
direction
bread to eat, but he dreams of a better life. Princess Jasmine is the daughter of the Sultan
(book)
Wardrobe
Music
Genie, who grants Aladdin three wishes. Aladdin's first wish is to be a prince, in which
guise he seeks to woo Jasmine, but Jafar reveals his true identity and takes the lamp and
supervision
power. Aladdin is only able to defeat Jafar when Jafar wishes to be a Genie and is thus
trapped in a bottle. Aladdin, with the lamp again, has the chance to become a prince once
more and marry Jasmine, but he decides to fulfil his promise to Genie and wishes Genie
free. The Sultan decides to change the law so that Aladdin and Jasmine can indeed marry.
Directed by
Alan Menken (music)
Linda Larkin: Princess
Ron Clements
John Musker
Jasmine
John Musker
Tim Rice (lyrics)
Jonathan
Writing credits
Terry Rossio
Grand Vizier Jafar
Cast
Frank Welker: Abu the
Scott Weinger : Aladdin
Monkey
Ron Clements
'Al'/Prince Ali Ababwa
Gilbert Gottfried: Iago
Ted Elliott
Robin Williams: Genie
the Parrot
333
Freeman:
the Pride Lands to confront Scar and take his place. He and Scar battle and Scar reveals
Douglas Seale : The
Ron Clements
Sultan of Agrabah
Donald W. Ernst
Randy
Bruce Adler: Merchant,
John Musker
Magic Carpet
Narrator
Amy Pell
Andreas Deja: Jafar
Cartwright:
Kans:
Aladdin
Film Editing by
Will Finn: Iago
Ali
Ababwa
H. Lee Peterson
Eric Goldberg: Genie
(singing voice)
Mark Henn: Jasmine
Lea Salonga : Princess
Richard Vander Wende
Glen Keane: Aladdin
Jasmine (singing voice)
Art Direction by
Duncan
Produced by
Bill Perkins
Abu
Brad
/Prince
Maijoribanks:
The Lion King
Simba is a lion and the heir of the Pride Lands. His father, Mufasa, is teaching him how
to become king with the help of Zazu, a hornbill. Simba's uncle, Scar, resents his position
and encourages the young cub to disobey his father's rules and explore the Elephant
Graveyard. With his best friend, Nala, Simba sets off to the Elephant Graveyard after
shaking off Zazu, but once they get there, they are surrounded by hyenas. Mufasa comes
to their rescue and teaches Simba about real bravery. It transpires that Scar is leading the
hyenas. He plans to kill Mufasa and Simba. He tricks Simba into being caught in a
wildebeest stampede and in trying to rescue his son, Mufasa is killed. Scar encourages
Simba's belief that it is his fault and tells the cub to flee and never return. Lost in the
desert, Simba is found by a vvarthog and meerkat, Pumbaa and Timon, who take him into
the jungle where he grows up with the motto of 'hakuna matata' (no worries). Years later,
Nala comes into the jungle looking for food. The Pride Lands are practically destroyed.
There is no food. She is overjoyed to discover that Simba is alive and wants him to return
to take his place as king, but Simba, still believing in his guilt refuses. Rafiki, the shaman
mandrill, also discovers Simba is alive and he seeks Simba out and shows him that he can
put his past behind him, for his father 'lives in him'. Simba, with new resolve, returns to
334
the truth about Mufasa's death. Scar falls to his death and Simba and Nala take their
place as king and queen, with their new cub.
Animated Feature
Jeremy Irons: Scar
Casting by
Directed by
James Earl Jones: King
Brian Chavanne
Roger Allers
Mufasa
Rob Minkoff
Moira Kelly: Adult Nala
Chris Sanders
Writing credits
Nathan Lane: Timon
Art Direction by
Irene Mecchi
Cheech Marin: Banzai
Andy Gaskill
Jonathan Roberts
Ernie Sabella: Pumbaa
Linda Woolverton
Madge Sinclair: Queen
Ruben A. Aquino: Adult
Jorgen Klubien
Sarabi
Simba
Tim Rice (lyrics)
Jonathan
Elton John (music)
Thomas: Young Simba
Tony Fucile: Mufasa
Hans Zimmer (music)
Sally Dworsky: Adult
Mark
Lebo M (music)
Nala (singing voice)
Simba
Cast
Jason Weaver: Young
T.
Rowan Atkinson: Zazu
Simba (singing voice)
Young Simba
Matthew
Joseph Williams: Adult
Michael Surrey: Timon
Adult Simba
Simba (singing voice)
Ellen Woodbury: Zazu
Niketa Calame: Young
Laura Williams: Young
Anthony de Rosa: Adult
Nala
Nala (singing voice)
Nala
Ed,
Produced by
Gopher, Additional Scar
Alice Devvey
Directed by
Singing Voice
Don Hahn
Julie Taymor
Sarah McArthur
Written by
Thomas Schumacher
Elton John (music)
Film Editing by
Tim Rice (lyrics)
Jim
Broderick:
Cummings:
Whoopi
Goldberg:
Shenzi
Robert
Rafiki
Guillaume:
Taylor
Tom Finan
335
Tony Bancroft: Pumbaa
Henn:
Daniel
Young
Hofstedt:
relations between the English and Powhatan tribe are deteriorating. Powhatan forbids his
Lebo M (music and
Jason Raize: Simba
Tony Meola
lyrics)
Heather Headley: Nala
Hair
Mark Mancina (music)
Max Casella: Timon
design by
following her, sees Smith kiss her and attacks Smith. Thomas, sent by Ratcliffe to spy on
Jay Rifkin (music and
Tom Robbins: Pumbaa
Michael Ward
Smith, mistakes the situation and kills Kocoum. Smith tells Thomas to flee, but is himself
lyrics)
Scott
Casting by
imprisoned and sentenced to death by Powhatan. Pocahontas seeks Grandmother
Julie Taymor (lyrics)
young Simba
Jay Binder
Willow's advice and as the English and Powhatan ready to make war, she takes Smith in
Hans Zimmer (music)
Kajuana Shuford: young
Technical direction by
her arms and tells her father that if he is going to kill Smith, he will have to kill her too.
Roger Allers (book)
Nala
David Benken
Both sides begin to see the possibility of peace, but in saving Powhatan when Ratcliffe
Irene Mecchi (book)
Scenic design by
Production
Jonathan
Richard Hudson
management by
Costume design by
Jeff Lee
Julie Taymor
Music direction by
Directed by
Linda
(adaptation)
Lighting design by
Joseph Church
Mike Gabriel
Grandmother Willow
Film Editing by
Original Cast
Donald Holder
Orchestrations by
Eric Goldberg
John Kassir: Meeko
H. Lee Peterson
Mask and puppet design
Robert Elhai
Writing credits
Frank Welker: Flit
Casting by
Mufasa
by
David Metzger
Carl Binder
David
Ruth Lambert
John Vickery: Scar
Julie Taymor
Bruce Fowler
Andrew Chapman
Governor
Art Direction by
Tsidii Le Loka: Rafiki
Michael Curry
Music coordinator
Susannah Grant
Ratcliffe/Wiggins
Michael Giaimo
Zazu: Geoff Hoy le
Sound design by
Michael Keller
Philip LaZebnik
Christian Bale: Thomas
Alan Menken (music)
James Apaumut Fall:
Ken Duncan: Thomas
Pocahontas
Stephen
Kocoum
Glen Keane: Pocahontas
A ship of English adventurers sets sail for America. They are led by Ratcliffe and John
(lyrics)
Billy Connolly: Ben
John
Cast
Danny Mann: Percy
Smith
Russell
Duncan
Roberts
(adaptation)
Linda
Samuel
Woolverton
E.
Wright:
Irby-Ranniar:
and
make-up
stage
Smith. In America, the Powhatan return from a tribal war and their chief looks for his
daughter from having contact with the English, but Pocahontas disobeys. Kocoum,
tries to shoot him, Smith is injured and must return to England. Pocahontas chooses to
remain with her people.
Schwartz
Ogden
Stiers:
James Pentecost
daughter, Pocahontas. He informs her that Kocoum, the most respected warrior, wants to
Irene
marry her. Pocahontas, however, wants more than a stable life, revealing her desire to the
Pocahontas
Powhatan
enchanted Grandmother Willow. Grandmother Willow's advice is to listen to the wind
Judy Kuhn: Pocahontas
Michelle
(singing voice)
Nakoma
Meeko
Mel Gibson: John Smith
Produced by
Dave
and Pocahontas hears of 'strange clouds'. The clouds are the sails of the ship. When they
land, Ratcliffe sets the men to digging for gold, all of which he plans to keep for himself,
while John Smith goes scouting. Smith comes upon Pocahontas and after initial
Bedard:
Hunt:
Means:
John
Marjoribanks:
Governor Ratcliffe
St.
Baker Bloodworm
trepidation, they begin to communicate. Pocahontas reveals that there is no gold, but
336
Pomeroy:
337
John:
Will Finn:
Pruiksma:
Flit
Clopin introduces the tale of Quasimodo, the bell ringer of the cathedral. Quasimodo's
cathedral, but he is defeated by Quasimodo and Phoebus and falls from the tower as he
tries to kill them.
The Hunchback ofNotre Dame
parents were gypsies who were caught trying to enter Paris illegally by Frollo. Frollo
chased Quasimodo's mother to the steps of the cathedral where she fell and died. Finding
Animated Feature
David Ogden Stiers: The
David Pruiksma: Victor
Quasimodo in her arms, Frollo was so repulsed by his appearance he prepared to drop
Directed by
Archdeacon
and Hugo
him down a well unt?' stopped by the archdeacon. To make up for his wrongs, the
Gary Trousdale
Heidi
Michael Surrey: Clopin
archdeacon tells Frollo to raise Quasimodo as his own. Frollo agrees, providing
Kirk Wise
Esmeralda
Quasimodo is raised in the cathedral. Quasimodo grows up within the cathedral, longing
Writing credits
Produced by
Directed by
to join the Parisians "out there". His only friends are the gargoyles, Victor, Laverne, and
Victor
Roy Conli
James Lapine
Hugo, who come to life only for him. It is the Feast of Fools. A captain, Phoebus, has
Notre-Dame de Paris)
DonHahn
Written by
returned from the wars to take up his post under Frollo. He helps a gypsy, Esmeralda, as
Irene Mecchi
Philip Lofaro
Alan Menken (music)
she flees from the soldiers and discovers that Frollo seeks to destroy all the gypsies.
Tab Murphy
Original Music by
Stephen
Quasimodo makes up his mind to visit the festival and Esmeralda unwittingly pulls him
Jonathan Roberts
Alan Menken
(lyrics)
up on stage to be judged for the crowning of the ugliest person as the King of Fools.
Bob Tzudiker
Stephen Schwartz (I)
James Lapine (book)
Quasimodo is crowned, but the crowd turns on him. Esmeralda defends him, demanding
Noni White
Film Editing by
Michael Kunze (German
that Frollo do something, but Frollo refuses and orders Esmeralda arrested. She escapes
Alan Menkefl (music)
Ellen Keneshea
translator)
into the cathedral where Phoebus finds her. When the soldiers find them, Phoebus claims
Stephen
Casting by
Original Cast
asylum on her behalf and Esmeralda is trapped in the cathedral. She finds Quasimodo,
(lyrics)
Ruth Lambert
Drew
however, and, becomingfriends,Quasimodo helps her escape. Frollo is obsessed with the
Cast
Art Direction by
Quasimodo
gypsy and after having nightmares about his desire for her, he begins to imprison gypsies
Tom Hulce: Quasimodo
David Goetz
Norbert Lamia: Frollo
everywhere and arrest anyone helping them. When he orders Phoebus to burn down a
Demi Moore: Esmeralda
Judy Weiss: Esmeralda
house with the family still inside on suspicion of helping the gypsies, Phoebus disobeys
Tony Jay: Judge Claude
James
Jens Janke: Clopin
the order. Frollo sets fire to the house and Phoebus saves the family, but is shot while
Frollo
Quasimodo
escaping and falls into the river. Esmeralda pulls him out of the water and takes him to
Kevin Kline: Captain
Dave
Quasimodo, asking him to protect him. While Phoebus is hidden there, Quasimodo hears
Phoebus
Archdeacon
Valentin Zahn: Charles
Frollo's plan to raid the gypsies' Court of Miracles in the morning and Phoebus
Paul Kandel: Clopin
Russ Edmonds: Phoebus
Yvonne Ritz Andersen:
encourages Quasimodo to join him and warn the gypsies. Only, it is a trap, and Frollo
Jason Alexander: Hugo
Will Finn: Laverne
Loni
follows them with his soldiers. The gypsies and Phoebus are arrested and chained,
Charles
Tony Fucile: Esmeralda
Stage
Quasimodo is chained in the tower, and Esmeralda is about to be burnt as a witch. The
Victor
Ron Husband: Djaii
projections by
gargoyles convince Quasimodo to save Esmeralda and, as he does, Frollo assaults the
Mary Wickes: Laverne
338
Hugo
(novel
Schwartz
Kimbrough:
Mollenhauer:
Baxter:
Schwartz
Sarich:
Fredrik Lycke: Phoebus
Burgess:
Tamas Ferkay: Antoine
design
Heidi Ettinger
339
and
Costume design by
Tony Meola
Glen Kelly
take Meg's place if only he can rescue her. In his willingness to sacrifice himself, he
Sue Blane
Musical supervisor and
Technical direction by
proves himself a true hero and becomes immortal, but rather than join his father in
Lighting design by
arrangements by
UlfMaschek
Olympus, he chooses to remain a mortal with Meg.
Rick Fisher
Michael Kosarin
Musical staging by
Orchestrations by
Lar Lubovitch
Projections
and stage
Directed by
Barbara
Barrie:
Ron Clements
design by
Michael Starobin
Ron Clements
Alcmene
Jerome Sirlin
Choreography by
John Musker
Hal
Writing credits
Amphitryon
John Musker
Hercules
Ron Clements
Paul Shaffer: Hermes
Film Editing by
When Hercules is born to the God Zeus and Goddess Hera, Hades learns from the Fates
Barry Johnson (story)
Amanda Plummer: The
Tom Finan
that he stands between him and the success of his plan to overthrow Olympus. Hades has
Don McEnery
Fates
Robert W. Hedland
his henchman, Pain and Panic, kidnap Hercules. They feed him a potion to turn him
Irene Mecchi
Carole
mortal, but before they can kill him, he is discovered by a childless couple who adopt
John Musker
Fates
him. Since he didn't drink the whole potion, he retains his immortal strength. As a youth
Bob Shaw
Paddi
he has difficulty controlling his strength and does not fit in. His adopted parents reveal
David Zippel (lyricist)
Fates
that he is not their natural son and Hercules sets off to discover where he really belongs.
Alan Menken (music)
Charlton
Visiting the temple, the statue of Zeus comes to life and reveals his history, telling
Cast
Nanaior
Andy Gaskill
Hercules that if he becomes a true hero, he can return and take his place in Olympus.
Tate Donovan: Hercules
Lillias White: Calliope
Hercules seeks out Philocretes, the trainer of heroes, and convinces him to help him.
Joshua Keaton: Young
the Muse of Epics and
Andreas Deja: Hercules
After training, Phil and Hercules set off to Thebes to prove his heroism and along the
Hercules
the Lead Muse
Ken Duncan: Megara
way, Hercules rescues Meg. Meg, however, is in debt to Hades. In order to save the man
Roger
Vaneese
Brian Ferguson: Pain
she loved, she gave her soul to Hades, but her boyfriend left her. Hades orders her to trick
Hercules
Hercules into battling the Hydra, planning for Hercules to be defeated. Hercules,
Danny
however, destroys the Hydra and earns a reputation as a hero, but, as Zeus tells him, the
Bart:
Young
Alice Dewey
Holbrook:
Shelley:
The
Kendra Halland
Casting by
Ruth Lambert
Edwards:
The
Gerald Scarfe
Heston:
Y. Thomas:
Art Direction by
Clio the Muse of History
Eric Goldberg: Phil
Cheryl
Freeman:
James Lopez: Panic
Philoctetes
Melpomene the Muse of
Nik Ranieri: Hades
fame and glory aren't enough to make him a true hero. Hades orders Meg to discover
James Woods: Hades
Tragedy
Ellen
Hercules' weakness, but then Hades realises that Meg is Hercules' weakness: Hercules is
Susan Egan: Megara
La Chanze: Terpsichore
Pegasus
in love with her. To free Meg and keep her safe, Hercules agrees to give up his strength
Bob Goldthwait: Pain
the Muse of Dance
for a day. Hades then releases the Titans to take over Olympus, but in the process, Meg is
Matt Frewer: Panic
Roz Ryan: Thalia the
seriously injured. Hercules regains his strength, since Meg was not supposed to be hurt,
Rip Torn: Zeus
Muse of Comedy
and defeats the Titans. Meg dies in his arms and Hercules goes to Hades and agrees to
Samantha Eggar: Hera
Produced by
340
DeVito:
341
Woodbury:
Mulan
Dean DeBlois
Miriam Margolyes: The
Art Direction by
The Hun are invading China. In a village, Mulan is seeing the Match Maker, but rather
Matthew Wilder (music)
Matchmaker
Ric Sluiter
than make a good impression, she has a series of accidents after which the Match Maker
David Zippel (lyrics)
Jerry Tondo: Chien-Po
declares she will never bring honour to her family. Mulan's father is consoling her when
Cast
George
Ruben
the messenger arrives, calling for a man from each family to go to war against the Hun.
Ming-Na: Fa Mulan/Fa
Ancestor
Shang
Without a son, Mulan's father is obliged to go to war, but he has already fought in battle
Ping
Frank Welker: Khan the
Tom Bancroft: Mushu
and is infirm. Mulan takes his armour and sword and runs away to take his place. Aware
B.D. Wong: Captain Li
Horse, Little Brother the
Aaron
that she faces great danger, the family ancestors have a meeting and agree to send the
Shang
Dog, Cri-Kee the
Ancestors
great stone dragon to help her, but Mushu, the 'demoted' one, breaks the stone dragon, so
Soon-TekOh:FaZhou
Cricket (voice)
Joe Haidar: Fa Zhou and
sets off in his place with the lucky cricket. Mushu helps Mulan behave like a man when
Eddie Murphy: Mushu
Donny Osmond: Captain
Fa Li
she enters the training camp. Shang has just been promoted to captain to train the raw
the Demoted One
Li Shang (singing voice)
Mark Henn: Mulan
recruits while the army goes to face the Hun. Mulan and her peers aren't ideal recruits,
Harvey Fierstein: Yao
Marni
T. Daniel Hofstedt: The
but when Shang orders Mulan to return home, to prove her worth, she succeeds where no
Gedde Watanabe: Ling
Grandmother
one else has in Shang's test of strength and skill. Mulan stays with the recruits, they
Miguel Ferrer: Shan-Yu
(singing voice)
Broose Johnson: Ling
improve, and are ready to join the army. When they arrive at the site of battle, they find
James Hong: Chi-Fu
Matthew Wilder: Ling
and Chien Po
the village bumt-out and the army defeated. Shang's father has been killed. The small
Pat
(singing voice)
Alex
band of recruits face the hordes alone and Mulan brings an avalanche down upon the
Emperor
Produced by
Khan
Hun, rescuing Shang as they flee. Mulan is injured and, in being treated, her true gender
June
Pam Coats
Pres Romanillos: Shan-
is revealed and she is disgraced. Shang and the recruits travel to the capital to receive a
Grandmother Fa
Robert S. Garber
Yu
hero's welcome, but Mulan discovers that some of the Hun survived and are on their way
James Shigeta: General
Kendra Halland
Barry Temple: Emperor
to the capital themselves. No one will listen to her warnings, not even Shang, but when
Li
Film Editing by
and Cri-Kee
the Hun kidnap the Emperor and take the palace, Mulan and the recruits pretend to be
Lea
Michael Kelly
Jeffrey
concubines and infiltrate the enemy's ranks. Mulan, facing the Hun general, defeats him
Mulan/Fa Ping (singing
Casting by
Granny Fa
with just her fan and a rocket, earning the Emperor's gratitude. She returns home with the
voice)
Ruth Lambert
spoils of her victory and Shang, advised by the Emperor, follows.
Freda Foh Shen: Fa Li
Morita:
The
Foray:
Salonga:
Fa
Takei:
Nixon:
Hans Bacher
Directed by
Robert D. San Souci
Philip LaZebnik
Tony Bancroft
(story)
Raymond Singer
Barry Cook
Rita Hsiao
Eugenia
Writing credits
Chris Sanders
Singer
342
First
Bostwick-
343
Fa
A.
Aquino:
Blaise:
Yao,
Emperor
Kupershmidt:
James Varab:
Tarzan
Brian Blessed: Hunter
Produced by
Jay
An English couple are shipwrecked off the African coast with their small baby. They
Clayton
Bonnie Arnold
Family
build a tree house and learn to survive, but are killed by a leopard. A gorilla who has just
Nigel
Hawthorne:
Christopher Chase
Glen Keane: Tarzan
lost her own baby to the leopard, rescues their baby, Tarzan, and raises him as her own.
Professor
Archimedes
Film Editing by
Dominique
Tarzan adapis to the jungle by mimicking the other animals. When he reaches maturity,
Q. Porter
Gregory Perler
Sabor
Professor Porter, his daughter Jane, and companion, Clayton, arrive. The Porters want to
Lance
Casting by
Sergio Pablos: Tantor
find and study gorillas, but Clayton, unknown to them, intends to trap and cage the
Kerchak
Mary Hidalgo
John Ripa: Young &
gorillas for money. When Jane's notebook is stolen by a monkey and she takes it back,
Wayne Knight: Adult
Ruth Lambert
Baby Tarzan
she is set upon by the monkey's entire clan, fleeing through the jungle, only to be rescued
Tantor
Art Direction by
Bruce
by Tarzan. Tarzan is amazed by the sight of another human. He returns to Jane's camp
Alex D. Linz: Young
Dan St. Pierre
Kerchak
and learns more about the human world, while Clayton tries to obtain information from
Tarzan
him about the gorillas. The ship, however, arrives and the Porters must leave. Clayton
Rosie O'Donnell: Young
Ken Duncan: Jane
tricks Tarzan into revealing where the gorillas are so that Jane will stay longer. Kala
Terk/Adult Terk
Russ Edmonds: Kala
reveals Tarzan's history to him and Tarzan, dressing in his father's clothes, prepares to
Taylor Dempsey: Young
T.
leave with Jane, but they are tricked by Clayton and imprisoned, while Clayton returns to
Tantor
Captain & Thugs
Henriksen:
Daniel
Jackson:
W.
Gorilla
Monfery:
Smith:
Hofstedt:
capture the gorillas. Tantor and Terk, Tarzan's animal friends, free them from the ship
and they save the gorillas, all but Kerchak, Tarzan's adopted father, who is shot by
Clayton. Kerchak leaves the clan in Tarzan's care. Tarzan and Clayton fight and Clayton,
Kuzco is an egotistical, teenage emperor. He fires his advisor, Yzma, who, with her
caught in vines, lashes out with his knife and inadvertently, despite Tarzan's warnings,
henchman, Kronk, decides to take revenge by poisoning the obnoxious Kuzco. Kronk,
hangs himself. Tarzan resolves to remain with the gorillas as the Porters depart for the
however, mixes up the potions and turns Kuzco into a llama instead. Kuzco the llama
ship, but at the last moment, Professor Porter tells Jane she should stay. As he watches
falls into the hands of Pacha, the peasant whose home he has ordered destroyed to make
her swim away, he decides he will too. They start a new life of swinging in the vines.
way for 'Kuzcotopia'. Kuzco strikes a deal that if Pacha will take him back to the palace,
he will let him keep his home. The two learn to work together and eventually become
Directed by
Tab Murphy
Cast
friends, but Yzma is also pursuing them, planning to finish the job of killing Kuzco.
Chris Buck
Bob Tzudiker
Tony Goldwyn: Adult
When Pacha and Kuzco reach the palace, Yzma is there before them. She mixes up all the
Kevin Lima
Noni White
Tarzan
vials so that Kuzco can't find the one that will turn him human, but in the process, Yzma
Writing credits
Jeffrey
Edgar Rice Burroughs
(story)
Porter
(novel Tarzan of the
Phil Collins (music &
Glenn Close: Kala
Apes)
lyrics)
Stepakoff
Minnie
Driver:
Jane
herself is turned into a kitten. Eventually Kuzco manages to get the right vial and returns
to his human shape. He now builds a holiday shack next to Pacha's home.
Directed by
344
Mark Dindal
345
Writing credits
Chris Williams
Bob Bergen: Bucky the
Paul A. Felix
Mark Dindal
Squirrel
Art Direction by
David Reynolds
Tom Jones: Theme Song
Thomas Cardone
Guy
Colin Stimpson
Matthew Jacobs (story)
Patti Deutsch: Waitress
John Debney (music)
John Fiedler: Old Man
Dale Baer: Yzma
David Hartley (music)
Produced by
Tony Bancroft: Kronk
Sting (music & lyrics)
Randy Fullmer
Sandro Cleuzo: Theme
Cast (in credits order)
Don Hahn
Song Guy/Waitress/Old
David Spade: Kuzco
Patricia Hicks
Man/Official/Maidens
Eartha Kitt: Yzma
Film Editing by
Doug Frankel: Chicha
John Goodman: Pacha
Tom Finan
Nik
Patrick
Pam Ziegenhagen
Kronk
Casting by
Wendie Malick: ChiCha
Eli
Amneris and Radames goes ahead, providing the cover for the Nubian king's escape, but
Amneris learns of the love between her friend and husband and is heart broken. Zoser
learns of the escape and although the king gets away, Aida and Radames are captured and
sentenced to death. Amneris, respecting their love, orders that they are entombed alive
together. As the story ends, the scene reverts to the museum. The couple meeting are
Radames and Aida in another life.
Directed by
John Hickok: Zoser
Steve Margoshes
Robert Falls
Daniel Oreskes: Pharoah
Guy Babylon
Written by
Scenic
Paul Bogaev
Elton John (music)
design by
Music coordination by
Tim Rice (lyrics)
Bob Crowley
Michael Keller
Kuzco/Kuzco Llama
Linda
Lighting design by
Association producer
Bruce W. Smith: Pacha
(book)
Natasha Katz
Marshall B. Purdy
Matthew Jon Beck
Robert Falls (book)
Sound design by
Production
Mary Hidalgo
David
Steve C. Kennedy
manager
Tipo.
Ruth Lambert
(book)
Music
Kellyann Kelso: Chaca
Original Cast
musical direction by
Choreography by
Paul Bogaev
Wayne
Russell
Warburton:
Linnetz:
Ranieri:
Sherie
Woolverton
Henry
Rene
Hwang
Scott:
and
costume
produced
and
Aida
Amneris
Music arrangements by
A mummy comes to life in a museum display as a man and a woman approach each
Adam Pascal: Radames
Guy Babylon
other. The mummy begins to tell her tale. The scene switches to ancient times. Egyptian
Heather Headley: Aida
Paul Bogaev
soldiers, led by Radames, are falling upon the Nubians. A Nubian princess, Aida, and a
Damian Perkins: Mereb
Orchestrations bv
group of women with her are captured and the women conceal Aida's identity from the
soldiers. Radames, taking pity on Aida, makes her one of the handmaidens of his
betrothed, the princess of Egypt, Amneris. Radames' father, Zoser, the Prime Minister,
expects to gain power through his son's rise to Pharoah and plans to assassinate the
Pharoah. Aida grows to like the Egyptian princess, who seems shallow and selfish at first,
but Aida and Radames also fall in love. Aida's father is captured and Aida must act to
help her father and her people, even if that means renouncing Radames. The wedding of
346
347
stage
Clifford Schwartz
Ci lento
DISCOGRAPHY
This is not a complete discography of musical recordings from the period covered,
but includes recordings cited or used as research for this dissertation.
Aida (English) (1999) Rocket, Mercury Records.
Aida: Original Broadway Cast Recording (English) (2000) Buena Vista Records.
Aladdin (English) (1992) Walt Disney Records.
Beauty and the Beast: The Broadway Musical: Original Australian Cast Recording
(English) (1994) Walt Disney Records.
Chess (Original West End Cast Recording) (English) (1996) Polydor.
The Emperor's New Groove (English) (2000) Walt Disney Records.
Evita: The Complete Motion Picture Music Soundtrack (English) (1996) Warner
Bros. Records.
Forbidden Broadway Strikes Back (English) (1997) DRG Records.
Forbidden Broadway Volume 2 (English) (1991) DRG Records.
Der Glocbier von Notre Dame (German) (1999) Stella Music.
Hercules (English) (1997) Walt Disney Records.
348
FILMOGRAPHY
Hercules: Film Soundtrack - Deutsche Original Version (German) (1997) Walt
Disney Records.
Aladdin (1992) Dir. Ron Clements, John Musker.
Jesus Christ Superstar (West End revival production) (English) (1996) Polydor.
Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996) Dir. Tad Stones.
Alice in Wonderland (1951) Dir. Clyde Geronimi etal.
Tne Lion King: Original Broadway Cast Recording (English) (1998) Walt Disney
Anastasia (1997) Dir. Don Bluth, Gary Goldman.
Records.
Atlantis: The Lost Empire (2001) Dir. Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise.
Beauty and the Beast (1991) Dir. Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise.
Tlie Lion King: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (English) (1994) Walt Disney
Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997) Dir. Andy Knight.
Records.
The Big Chill (1983) Dir. Lawrence Kasdan.
The Blues Brothers (1980) Dir. John Landis.
The Lion King II: Return to Pride Rock (English) (1998) Walt Disney Records.
Brideshead Revisited (1981) Dir. Michael Lindsay-Hogg, Charles Sturridge.
Bridget Jones's Diary (2001) Dir. Sharon Maguire.
Mitlcrn (English) (1998) Walt Disney Records.
Carousel (1956) Dir. Henry King.
Cinderella (1950) Dir. Clyde Geronimi etal.
Mulan: Bande Originale Francaise du Film (French) (1998,2002) Walt Disney
Coming to America (1988) Dir. John Landis.
Records.
Dirty Dancing (1987) Dir. Emile Ardolino.
The Emperor's New Groove (2000) Dir. Mark Dindal.
Pocahontas (English) (1995) Walt Disney Records.
Ferris Bueller's Day O#"(1986) Dir. John Hughes.
Fiddler on the Roof (191 \) Dir. Norman Jewison.
El Rey Leon: Musica Original de la Pelicula (Spanish) (1994) Walt Disney Records.
Flashdance (1983) Dir. Adrian Lyne.
Footloose (1984) Dir. Herbert Ross.
Rhythm of the Pride Lands (English) (1995) Walt Disney Records.
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) Dir. Howard Hawkes.
Gigi (1958) Dir. Vincent Minnelli, Charles Walters.
Tarzan (English) (1999) Walt Disney Records.
Grease (1978) Dir. Randal Kleiser.
A Hard Day's Night (1964) Dir. Richard Lester.
Tarzan: Film Soundtrack — Deutsche Originalversion (German) (1999) Walt Disney
Records.
Head (1968) Dir. Bob Rafelson.
Hercules (1997) Dir. Ron Clements, John Musker.
High Society (1956) Dir. Charles Walters.
(Songs From) Whistle Down the Wind (English) (1999) Really Useful Group.
350
349
DISNEY AI :IMATED AND THEATRICAL MUSICALS
The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996) Dir. Gary Trousdale, Kirk Wise.
The Hunchback of Notre Dame II (2002) Dir. Bradley Raymond.
Into the Woods (1991) Dir. James Lapine.
The Sound of Music (1965) Dir. Robert Wise.
The Jazz Singer (1927) Dir. Alan Crosland.
Snow Wliite and the Seven Dwarves (1937) Dir. Walt Disney et al.
The Jungle Book (1967) Dir. Wolfgang Reitherman.
Star Wars (1977) Dir. George Lucas.
The King and I (1956) Dir. Walter Lang.
Steamboat Willie (1928) Dir. Walt Disney, Ub Ivverks.
A Knight's Tale (2001) Dir. Brian Helgeland.
Tarzan (1999) Dir. Chris Buck, Kevin Lima.
Lilo & Stitch (2002) Dir. Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders.
Titanic (1997) Dir. James Cameron.
The Lion King (1994) Dir. Roger Allers, Rob Minkoff.
Toy Story (1995) Dir. John Lasseter.
The Little Mermaid (1989) Dir. Ron Clements, John Musker.
Toy Story2 (1999) Dir. Ash Brannon et al.
The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea (2000) Dir. Jim Kammerud, Brian Smith.
Wall Street (1987) Dir. Oliver Stone.
Love Me Tender (1956) Dir. Robert D. Webb.
Mary Poppins (1964) Dir. Robert Stevenson.
The Million Dollar Mermaid (1952) Dir. Mervyn LeRoy.
Monsters Inc (2001) Dir. Peter Docter et al.
When Harry Met Sally (1989) Dir. Rob Reiner.
The Wizard of Oz (1939) Dir. Victor Fleming et al.
Working Girl (1988) Dir. Mike Nichols.
Xanadu (1980) Dir. Robert Greenvvald.
The Yellow Submarine (1968) Dir. George Dunning.
Moulin Rouge! (2001) Dir. Baz Luhrmann.
Mulan (1998) Dir. Tony Bancroft, Barry Cook.
Miscellaneous Theatre Productions (does not include Disney productions)
My Fair Lady (1964) Dir. George Cukor.
Carousel, The King and I, Oklahoma!, The Sound of Music, South Pacific, written by
Pinocchio (1940) Dir. Hamilton Luske, Ben Sharpsteen.
Pocahontas (1995) Dir. Mike Gabriel, Eric Goldberg.
Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998) Dir. Tom EUery, Bradley Raymond.
The Power of One (1992) Dir. John G. Avildsen.
Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II.
Cats, written by Andrew Lloyd Webber, T.S. Eliot, Trevor Nunn.
Chess, written by Benny Andersson, Bjorn Ulvaeus, Tim Rice.
Elisabeth, written by Michael Kunze, Sylvestor Levay.
Prince of Egypt (1998) Dir. Brenda Chapman et al.
Into the Woods, Sunday in the Park with George, written by Stephen Sondheim, James Lapine.
The Road to El Dorado (2000) Dir. Bibo Bergeron et al
Jesus Christ Superstar, Evita written by Andrew Lloyd Webber, Tim Rice.
Saturday Night Fever (1977) Dir. John Badham.
Martin Guerre, Miss Saigon written by Alain Boublil, Claude-Michel Schonberg.
Shrek (2001) Dir. Andrew Adamson et al.
Les Miserables, written by Alain Boublil, Claude-Michel Schonberg, Herbert Kretzmer.
Simba's Pride (1998) Dir. Rob LaDuca, Darrell Rooney.
The Phantom of the Opera, written by Andrew Lloyd Webber, Charles Hart, Richard
Sleeping Beauty (1959) Dir. Walt Disney et al
Stilgoe.
Sleepless in Seattle (1993) Dir. Nora Ephron.
Rent, written by Jonathan Larson.
Show Boat, written by Jerome Kern, Oscar Hammertsein II.
Starlight Express, written by Andrew Lloyd-Webber, Richard Stilgoe.
351
352
.
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Reception of Disney's Aladdin in Southeast Asia", Kinema (on-line journal), Spring.
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swooning act", USA Today (on-line edition), June 18.
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Wloszczyna, Susan (2000), "'Groove' is Disney's looniest 'tune", USA Today (online edition), December 14.
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375,6:81.
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370
371
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Literature", Callaloo 25, 1: 288-308.
Tolkein, J.R.R. (2001), "On Fairy-Stories" in Tree and Leaf: Including the poem
Mythopoeia: The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son, London:
HarperCollinsPwW/.sfter.s.
Traister, Rebecca (2001), "Disney Animators Cite Cheapness as Big Cause of
Sinking Atlantis", The New York Observer (on-line edition), February 7.
Trites, Roberta (1991), "Disney's Sub/Version of Andersen's The Little Mermaid",
Journal of Popular Film and Television 18,4: 145-152.
Turner, Victor (1974), Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human
Society, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
Tynan, William (2000), "Can You Feel a Hit Tonight? It was a long haul up the
pyramid, but Disney's Aida is set to wow Broadway", Time (on-line), 155, 2, March
27: 90+.
Veltman, Cloe (2001), "Fun Factory," www.telegraph.co.uk (on-line edition), 31
December.
Vogler, Christopher (1999), The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure for Storytellers
and Screenwriters (2nd revised and expanded edition), London: Pan Books.
Waller, Marguerite R. & Jennifer Rycenga (eds) (2000), Frontline Feminisms:
Women, War, and Resistance, New York and London: Garland Publishing Inc.
Ward, Annalee R. (1996), "The Lion King's Mythic Narrative", Journal of Popular
Film & Television 23,4: 171-78.
Warner, Marina (1992), "Beauty and the Beasts", Sight and Sound 2, 6: 6-11.
Warner, Marina (1995), From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their
Tellers, London: Vintage.
Warner, Marina (1998), No Go the Bogeyman: Scaring, Lulling and Making Mock,
London: Chatto & Windus.
Wasko, Janet (2001), "Challenging Disney Myths", Journal of Communication
Inquiry 25, 3: 237-57.
Wasko, Janet (2001), Understanding Disney: The Manufacture of Fantasy,
Cambridge: Polity.
Wasko, Janet, Mark Phillips & Eileen R. Meehan (eds) (2001), Dazzled by Disney?:
The Global Disney Audiences Project, London and New York: Leicester University
Press.
Wells, Paul (ed.) (1997), Art & Animation, Art & Design Magazine: Academy
Highlights, London: Academy Group Ltd.
Wells, Paul (1998), Understanding Animation, London and New York: Routledge.
Wells, Paul (2002), Animation and America, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.
Wells, Paul (2002), Animation: Genre and Authorship, London and New York:
Wallflower.
White, Susan (1993), "Split Skins: Female Agency and Bodily Mutiliation in The
Little Mermaid", in Film Theory Goes to the Movies edited by Jim Collins, Hilary
Radner and Ava Preacher Collins, New York: Routledge.
White, Timothy R. & J. E. Winn (1995), "Islam, Animation and Money: the
Reception of Disney's Aladdin in Southeast Asia", Kinema (on-line journal), Spring.
Wickstrom, Maurya (1999), "Commodities, Mimesis, and The Lion King: Retail
Theatre for the 1990s", Theatre Journal 51,3: 285-298.
Wloszczyna, Susan (1997), "Muscle behind 'Hercules' Disney duo Musker,
Clements do it again", USA Today (on-line edition), June 18.
Wloszczyna, Susan (1997), "Winning 'Hercules' flexes comic muscle", USA Today
(on-line edition), June 13.
Wloszczyna, Susan (1998), "'Mulan' breaks the mold: New 'toon heroine ditches the
swooning act", USA Today (on-line edition), June 18.
Wloszczyna, Susan (1999), "Terrific 'Tarzan' a thrilla of a gorilla", USA Today (online edition), December 17.
Wloszczyna, Susan (2000), '"Groove' is Disney's looniest 'tune", USA Today (online edition), December 14.
Wolf, Matt (1999), "Disney 'Hunchback' rings Berlin's Bells", Variety (on-line)
375,6:81.
Wood, Michael (1975), America in the Movies or "Santa Maria, It Had Slipped My
Mind", New York: Dell Publishing Co.
370
371
Wood, Naomi (1996), "Domesticating Dreams in Walt Disney's Cinderella", The
Lion and the Unicorn 20, 1: 35-49.
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1 - Monash University Research Repository

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