2012 proceedings - South Dakota Academy of Science

Transcription

Proceedings
of the
South Dakota Academy of Science
Volume 91
2012
Published by the South Dakota Academy of Science
Academy Founded 22 November, 1915
Academy Website: http://sdaos.org
Editor
Robert Tatina
Associate Editors
Michael Barnes, SD Game, Fish and Parks, Fisheries
Dave Bergmann, Black Hills State University, Microbiology
Steve Chipps, South Dakota State University, Wildlife
Andy Detwiler, SD School of Mines and Technology, Atmospheric Science
Andy Farke, Raymond M. Alf Museum, Paleontology
Tom Gray, Mount Marty College, Chemistry
Donna Hazelwood, Dakota State University, Botany
Tim Mullican, Dakota Wesleyan University, Zoology
Jeffrey Palmer, Dakota State University, Mathematics
Fedora Sutton, South Dakota State University, Molecular Biology
Graphic Designer
Tom Holmlund
Minuteman Press
Sioux Falls, SD
Copies of articles are available at EBSCO host and at http://sdaos.org
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Combined Minutes of the 97th Annual Meeting of the South Dakota
Academy of Science................................................................................................ 1
Presidential Address: Education on the Edge. Presented by Gary Larson...................... 17
Complete Senior Research and Symposium Papers
Presented at the 97th Annual Meeting of the
An Andean Domesticate Adapts to Climate Change. Matthew Sayre........................... 25
Using South Dakota Duck Eggs As a Means of Time-Travel Research
Into the Past 150 Years of Climate History. Julie R. Dejong
and Kenneth F. Higgins........................................................................................ 33
Results of Paleoflood Investigations for Spring, Rapid, Boxelder, and Elk
Creeks, Black Hills, Western South Dakota. Daniel G. Driscoll,
Jim E. O’Connor, and Tessa M. Harden............................................................... 49
Permeability and Ground-Water Recharge in Black Hills Metamorphic
Rocks. Perry H. Rahn........................................................................................... 69
Monitoring Standing Herbage on Sandy Ecological Site on Nebraska and
South Dakota Sand Hills. Daniel W. Uresk.......................................................... 79
Ecological Model for Seral Stage Classification and Monitoring for
Sands-Choppy Sands Ecological Type in Nebraska and South Dakota.
Daniel W. Uresk, Daryl E. Mergen, and Jody Javersak.......................................... 87
Performance of Commercial Starter Diets During First-Feeding of
Landlocked Fall Chinook Salmon. Jeremy Kientz, Michael E. Barnes,
and Dan J. Durben............................................................................................. 101
Evaluation of Three Spawning Techniques for Yellow Perch.
Matthew J. Ward, T. R. St. Sauver, D. O. Lucchesi, B. Johnson,
K. Hoffman, and J. Stahl.................................................................................... 107
Inferring Introduction History and Spread of Falcaria vulgaris Bernh.
(Apiaceae) in the United States Based on Herbarium Records.
Sarbottam Piya, Madhav P. Nepal, Achal Neupane, Gary E. Larson
and Jack L. Butler............................................................................................... 113
Effect of Safe-Guard® Free-Choice Protein Blocks on Trichostrongyle
Nematodes in Pastured Cattle from Eastern South Dakota.
S. J. Smith, A. A. Eljaki, J. Acharya, R. F. Daly and M. B. Hildreth................... 131
Expression of Two Nitrosomonas Europaea Proteins, Hydroxylamine
Oxidoreductase and Ne0961, in Escherichia coli. Pankaj V. Mehrotra,
Kelli Brunson, Alan Hooper, and David Bergmann............................................ 145
Developing a <0.1 Ppb Trace Gas Impurity Sensor for Noble LiquidBased Direct Dark Matter Detectors. Brianna J. Mount,
Greg L. Serfling, Yongchen Sun, Jared D. Thompson,
Dan Durben, Kara J. Keeter............................................................................... 159
Public School Science Curriculum in Context: The Impact of Standard
Reforms During the Last Two Hundred Years. Cathy Ezrailson.......................... 167
Observations of the Enigmatic Fossil Insectivore, Plesiosorex (Mammalia)
in North America. James E. Martin.................................................................... 179
Abstracts of Senior Research and Symposium Papers and Posters
Presented at the 97th Annual Meeting of the
Photovoltaic Devices and Systems. David W. Galipeau.............................................. 193
The South Dakota Catalysis Group. James D. Hoefelmeyer,
Rajesh Shende, Alevtina Smirnova, Jan Puszynski, Hao Fong,
Phil Ahrenkiel, Ranjit Koodali, Grigoriy Sereda, Dmitri Kilin,
Haoran Sun, Rick Wang, and Hongshan He...................................................... 194
The Majorana Demonstrator: a Search for Neutrinoless Double-Beta
Decay. G. Perumpilly for the Majorana Collaboration........................................ 195
Impact of Atmosphere on Hpge Crystal Growth. Guojian Wang,
Gang Yang, Yongchen Sun, Wenchang Xiang, Jayesh R. Govani,
Muhammad Khizar, Yutong Guan, and Dongming Mei..................................... 196
XRD Analysis of High-Purity Germanium Single Crystals Grown by the
Czochralsk Method. Gang Yang, Goujian Wang, Wenchang Xiang,
Muhamud Khizar, Yutong Guan, Yohgchen Sun, Dongming Mei,
Jiang Chaoyang, and Bruce Gray........................................................................ 197
Germanium Detector Response to Nuclear Recoils in Searching for Dark
Matter. D. Barker and Dongming Mei............................................................... 198
Significance of Simulation and Modeling of Growth System Geometry
on the Augmentation of High Purity Germanium (Hpge) Crystals
Growth Rate. Jayesh Govani, Dongming Mei, Guojian Wang,
and Gang Yang................................................................................................... 199
A Study of a Radon Gas Scrubber. Xiaoyi Yang, V. E. Guiseppe,
and Dongming Mei............................................................................................ 200
Optical and Electronic Considerations for the BHSU Cavity Ring-Down
Spectroscopy System. G. L. Serfling, B. J. Mount, Y. Sun,
J. D. Thompson, and K. J. Keeter....................................................................... 201
Enhancement of NIR-To-Visible Upconversion by Silver-Nanowire Thin
Films. Quoc Anh N Luu, Cuikun Lin, and P. Stanley May................................ 202
Photo-Uncaging of Coumarin from Cinnamate Coated Cdse Quantum
Dots. Aravind Baride, David Hawkinson, Daniel Engebretson,
and Stanley May................................................................................................. 203
South Dakota Wind Energy: Physics, Logistics and Challenges. Jeff Rud.................. 204
Review of Annual Trends of Atmospheric Thermal Inversions in South
Dakota Utilizing NWS Radiosonde and WRAN Data.
Patrick R. Ealy.................................................................................................... 205
The Flexural Response of an 80 Ft Wind Turbine Subjected to Wind
Loads. S. Herrod and D. Fick............................................................................. 206
Wind Velocity Investigation at Oglala Lakota College. Phase I:
Instrumentation and Data Acquisition Assessment.
L. Richards and D. Fick...................................................................................... 207
Integrated Photocatalytic and Microbial Degradation of Kraft Lignin to
Form Value Added Chemicals. A. Shende, D. Harder-Heinz,
and R. Shende.................................................................................................... 208
Synergistic Hydrogen Production From Water-Splitting and Aqueous
Phase Biomass Reforming. V. Buddineni, A. Shende, E. Sellers,
and R. Shende.................................................................................................... 209
Synthesis of 1-Butyl-3-Methylimizadolium Derivatives. Austin R. Letcher,
Mathew E. Amundson, Duane E. Weisshaar, and Gary W. Earl......................... 210
HPLC Method to Monitor Methylcarbonate/Acid Reaction Progress.
Erika E. Arens, Sarah J. M. Jamison, Duane E. Weisshaar,
and Gary W. Earl............................................................................................... 211
Use of Coupled Rate Equations to Model NIR-To Visible Upconversion
Kinetics in Er3+, Yb3+: NAYF4 Nanocrystals. Ge Yao,
Robert B. Anderson, Quocanh N. Luu, Steve Smith, Mary T. Berry,
and P. Stanley May.............................................................................................. 212
Subcritical Aqueous Phase Catalytic Liquefaction of Pine Wood for the
Production of Gaseous and Liquid Fuels. R. Tungal, A. Finley,
and R. V. Shende................................................................................................ 213
Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Dopamine Recognition.
Alexander Goffeney and George Mwangi............................................................ 214
Solar Thermochemical H2 Production Via Water-Splitting Reaction.
R. R. Bhosale, S. S. Yelakanti, X. Pasala, J. A. Puszynski,
and R. V. Shende................................................................................................ 215
Analysis of Essential and Heavy Metals in Honey by Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy. Daniel Kohler and George Mwangi.............................................. 216
Exploration of Fructose 1, 6-Bisphosphate Adolase as a Potential Drug
Target for Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection.
Emily Girard, Nichole Haag and Chun Wu........................................................ 217
Cloning, Purification and Characterization of Acetate Kinase from
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Mu50 Strain.
Tyler Mccune and Chun Wu.............................................................................. 218
Plasma Metabolites Suggest Similar Stopover Habitat Quality for Riparian
Corridor Woodlands and Anthropogenic Woodlots in the Northern
Prairie Region. Ming Liu and David Swanson.................................................... 219
Short-Term Captivity Effects on Maximal Cold-Induced Metabolic Rates
and Their Repeatability in American Goldfinches (Carduelis tristis).
D. L. Swanson and M. O. King.......................................................................... 220
Activation of the Immune Systems Incurs Energetic Costs But No
Thermogenic Tradeoffs in House Sparrows (Passer domesticus)
Undergoing Cold Stress. Marisa O. King and David L. Swanson....................... 221
Metabolic Rates in Swallows: Do Energetically Expensive Lifestyles Affect
Metabolic Capacities in Birds? Yufeng Zhang and David Swanson..................... 222
Venom Proteomics of the Prairie Rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis.
Mallory Ageton, Brian Smith, Eduardo Callegari, Stephen Mackessy,
and Jason Nies.................................................................................................... 223
Evaluation of Cyanoacrylate as an Alternate to Skin Sutures in Dogs.
N. Thakur and V .P. Chandrapuria..................................................................... 224
Stress-Induced Increases in Extracellular Serotonin in the Ventral
Hippocampus is Atenuated in Rats During Amphetamine
Withdrawal. H. Li, J. Hassell, J. L. Barr, J. L. Scholl, M. Watt,
G. L Forster and K. J. Renner............................................................................. 225
Reclassification of Light Harvesting Antennae Proteins Through
Computational Analyses: Illuminating the Mechanism for Spectral
Tuning. Joshua J. Walsh...................................................................................... 226
Adaptive Epigenetic Effects on Drought Tolerance and Epigenetic
Accommodation: Consequences for Range Expansion in Plants.
Jacob Alsdurf, Tayler Ripley, Dayna Boesen, and David Siemens........................ 227
Stoichiometry and Homeostasis of Terrestrial Fungal Isolates Acquired
Near Irvine, California, and Comparison with the Redfield Ratio and
Global Soil Microbial Biomass. Nicholas Kelley, Allison Moreno,
Anthony Amend, Adam Martiny, and Donna Hazelwood.................................. 228
An Inventory of Native Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) of the Black Hills
of South Dakota and Wyoming. David J. Drons and Paul J. Johnson................ 229
Preliminary Plague Assay Results of Fleas from Five National Parks.
Erica L. Mize and Hugh B. Britten..................................................................... 230
Assessing the Effects of Grassland Management Practices on Ant
Functional Groups (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Laura B. Winkler,
Diane M. Debinski, Raymond A. Moranz, James R. Miller,
David M. Engle, Devan A. Mcgranahan, and James C. Trager............................ 231
Contributions of Seed Bank and Vegetative Propagules to Vegetation
Composition on Prairie Dog Colonies in Western South Dakota.
Emily R. Helms, Lan Xu, Jack L. Butler............................................................. 232
Comparing Ramp and Pitfall Traps for Capturing Wandering Spiders.
L. Brian Patrick................................................................................................... 233
Application of P-Speciation Across Land Use Gradient as an Index for
Evaluating the Restoration of Soil Biogeochemical Functions During
Wetland Restoration. P. V. Sundareshwar, L. Smith, B. Beas,
R. Gleason, and Kurt Chowanski....................................................................... 234
Population Genetic Structure of Prairie Dogs on the Lower Brule
Reservation. Jordana R. Lamb, Erica L. Mize, and Hugh B. Britten................... 236
Conservation Genetics of the Hine’s Emerald Dragonfly.
Emy M. Monroe and Hugh B. Britten............................................................... 237
Monitoring Livestock Forage Use in the Black Hills. Thomas M. Juntti.................... 238
Development of a Comprehensive Vascular Plant Database for the
Missouri Plateau. Grace Kostel, Curtis Card and Mark Gabel............................ 239
Botanical Resources: Genetic Diversity of Orchidaceae in South Dakota’s
Black Hills. R. Sprague and B. Van Ee................................................................ 240
Biogeography of the South American Major River Basins: a Preliminary
Approach U. A. Buitrago-Suarez......................................................................... 241
Possible Interactions of Kentucky Bluegrass and Western Wheatgrass
Monocultures and Mixed Populations with Fertilization and
Clipping. E. M. Kanaan and J. L. Butler............................................................ 242
Seedling Root Development of Six Alfalfa Populations.
Brianna J. Gaughan, Lan Xu, Roger N. Gates, Arvid Boe,
Patricia S. Johnson, and Yajun Wu...................................................................... 243
Morphology of Smooth Bromegrass and Implications Related to
Management and Potential Control. Arvid Boe and Lan Xu............................... 244
The Impact of Blastobasis repartella (Dietz) (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae)
on Switchgrass. Veronica Calles Torrez, Paul J. Johnson, and Arvid Boe............. 245
Screening Artemesia Extracts for Anti-Malarial Activity.................................................. .
C.W. White, J. Nies, G. Geffre, and J. Dixson................................................... 246
In Vitro and in Vivo Anthelmintic Activity of Ericameria nausoesa and
Rhus aromatica from the United States Northern Great Plains with
Quantification of Condensed Tannins for Both Plants. J. Acharya,
M .B. Hildreth, L. D. Holler, S. Holler, A. A. Eljaki, G. Nandakafle
and R. N. Reese.................................................................................................. 247
Life Cycle Assessment Modeling as a Sustainability Metric: A Case Study
Investigating Antimicrobial Use Within South Dakota Swine
Production. J. J. Stone........................................................................................ 248
Fecal Egg Count Reduction Test to Evaluate the Effectiveness of
Doramectin Against Trichostrongyle Nematodes in Bison from
Eastern South Dakota. A. A. Eljaki, D. D. Grosz, and M. B. Hildreth............... 249
Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) Replication in Monocyte-Derived
Dendritic Cells and Significance of Breed Difference in Its Generation.
M. K. S. Rajput, L. J. Braun, J. F. Ridpath, W. Mwangi, A. J. Young,
M. W. Darweesh, and C. C. L. Chase................................................................. 250
Sandbar Formation Caused by The 2011 Flood on the Missouri River
Near Vermillion, South Dakota. Malia Volke, W. Carter Johnson,
and Bruce Millett................................................................................................ 251
The Diversity of Undergraduate Sustainability Curricula: A Rapidly
Expanding Major in Higher Education. Brennan T. Jordan................................ 252
The Issue of Uncertainty for Hydrologic Events in the Missouri River
Watershed and the Properties of the Coordinate System in Use.
Boris A. Shmagin ............................................................................................... 253
Uncertainty of Hydrologic Events Under South Dakota’s Changing
Conditions: A Research Agenda. Matthew Biesecker, Ralph Erion,
Chris H. Hay, Geoffrey M. Henebry, Carol A. Johnston,
Jeppe H. Kjaersgaard, Boris A. Shmagin, Evert Van Der Sluis,
William Capehart, Andrei P. Kirilenko, Nir Y. Krakauer,
Mark Sweeney, and Alexey A. Voinov................................................................. 257
Titles Only of Senior Research Papers and Symposium Papers and
Posters Presented at the 97th Annual Meeting of the South Dakota
Academy of Science.................................................................................................. 261
Instructions for Authors............................................................................................. 267
Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, Vol. 91 (2012)
1
COMBINED MINUTES EXECUTIVE COUNCIL
MEETING AND BUSINESS MEETINGS
97TH ANNUAL MEETING OF SOUTH DAKOTA
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
FRIDAY AND SATURDAY 13 AND 14 APRIL 2012
HOSTED BY UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH DAKOTA
MUENSTER UNIVERSITY CENTER, USD
VERMILLION, SD
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING
President Krisma DeWitt opened the meeting 11:30 am Friday 13 April 2012,
welcomed members of the Executive Council to the 97th South Dakota Academy
of Science Annual Meeting at the Munster University Center hosted by University of South Dakota and noted that a quorum was present.
Reports
The Secretary’s Report, Treasurer’s Report and Proceedings Editors Report were
given by Donna Hazelwood, Jeff Palmer, and Bob Tatina, respectively. Members
moved and seconded acceptance of the respective reports.
Old Business
Fellows
2011 SDAS Fellows: Four SDAS Fellows elected in 2010 and were honored as
2011 Fellows at the banquet; Maureen Diggins, HL Hutcheson, Gary Earl, and
Waldimar “Wally” Klawiter Jr.
Science Fairs
Jeff Palmer provided an update on the Science Fairs and the current status of
the checks awarded on behalf of the Academy. In response to requests from the
regional science fairs at DWU, NSU and SDSU, Jeff provided to each location,
separately, eight $25.00 checks to be distributed on behalf of the Academy.
SDAS web page
The SDSU Website is no longer hosted by SDSU. Following up on a request by
the executive council at the September 2011 Executive Council meeting, SDAS
Web Master Uriel Buitrago Suarez, has provided the Council with a draft proposal from the owner of Miner Solutions, Shane Miner. The Executive Council
voted to accept the proposal and authorize payment of approximately six hundred dollars ($600.00) from the Proceedings account.
2
New Business
2012 Fellows
Fellows Elected to the South Dakota Academy of Science for 2012 and to
be honored are Nels Grandholm, SDSU, the late Audrey Gabel, BHSU, Mark
Gabel, BHSU, and Robert (Bob) Tatina, DWU.
SDAS webpage
Following up on a recommendation made at the September 2011 Executive
Council meeting, SDAS Web Master Uriel Buitrago-Suarez circulated a proposal
from Miner Solutions owner Shane Miner for the SDAS website. Miles Koppang
moved and George Mwangi seconded a motion to proceed, and to authorize
Uriel to contact Shane Miner with the approval.
Report on the 98th Annual Meeting by Steve Matzner
The meeting will be 12 and 13 April 2012 and hosted by Augustana College
at Augustana.
Call for Papers
Bob Tatina will contact the appropriate individuals late Dec. or early Jan. about
the first Call for Papers.
Elections for the 2012-2013 Executive Council
Offices open for election are Second-Vice President and one Member-at-Large
2012-2013, and four Members-at Large for 2012-2014 terms.
Committee positions
The Nominating Committee will be Miles Koppang, and Dave Bergman.
Members of the Resolution Committee are Gary Larson and Bob Stoner. The
AAAS Undergraduate Poster Judges will be Jetty Duffy-Matzner, George Mwangi
and Vicki Geiser.
The 100th SDAS Annual Meeting
The first meeting of the SDAS was hosted by DWU at DWU. To celebrate the
100th Anniversary of the SDAS, the meeting will be hosted by the SDAS Executive Council 10-11 April 2015 at Cedar Shore Resort, Oacoma SD.
To commemorate 100th Anniversary issue of the Proceedings, Bob Tatina suggested that the Proceedings contain the history of the Academy, officers, members, and history of the various disciplines. Individual sections will be authored
by various authors as appropriate, and will include a history of the Academy.
Bob moved and Tom seconded adjourning the meeting at 1:00 pm.
BUSINESS MEETING SATURDAY 14 APRIL 2012.
President Krisma DeWitt opened the 7:45 am business meeting and thanked
the USD local arrangements committee Miles Koppang, Chair, Chemistry, Dave
Swanson, Biology, Tina Keller, Physics Yuhlong Lio, Mathematics, Stan May,
3
Chemistry, and Dong Zhang, Sanford School of Medicine, Basic Biomedical
Sciences, USD, and the organizers of the symposia.
The Secretary’s report, Treasurer’s report, Auditor’s Report, and Proceedings
Editor’s Report were given by Donna Hazelwood, Jeff Palmer, Tina Keller and
Bob Stoner, and Bob Tatina, respectively
Old Business
The SDAS 2011 Fellows were honored at the banquet; Maureen Diggins, HL
Hutcheson, Gary Earl, and Waldimar “Wally” Klawiter Jr. A call for new Fellows
was announced at the business meeting. Nominations will be accepted from the
floor and until the end of May for a vote by the Executive Council to occur at
the September meeting.
New Business
SDAS 2012 Fellows
The SDAS 2012 Fellows were honored at the banquet were Nels Grandholm,
SDSU, the late Audrey Gabel, BHSU, Mark Gabel, BHSU, and Robert (Bob)
Tatina, DWU. Nominations will be accepted from the floor and until the end
of May for a vote by the Executive Council to occur at the September meeting.
Passing of the Gavel
The gavel was passed from outgoing President Krisma DeWitt from Mount
Marty College passed the gavel to incoming President Gary Larson from SDSU.
Resolutions
The Resolution Committee consisting of Gary Larson and Bob Stoner. They
thanked the USD organizing and local arrangements committee, USD local arrangements committee Miles Koppang, Chair, Chemistry, Dave Swanson, Biology, Tina Keller, Physics Yuhlong Lio, Mathematics, Stan May, Chemistry, and
Dong Zhang, Sanford School of Medicine, Basic Biomedical Sciences, USD, the
organizers of Symposium Committee on Sustainability I. Science, Jacob Kerby,
Biology, Shane Nordyke, Political Science, Jordan Brennan, Earth Science, James
Hoefelmeyer, Chemistry, and the Symposium Committee on Sustainability II.
Science Education. Krisma DeWitt, Mount Marty College, Science Division,
and Matt Miller, South Dakota State University, Chemistry Department. .They
also thanked Jeff Rud for the Plenary Lecture “South Dakota Wind Energy:
Physics, Logistics, and Challenges” by Jeff Rud and Science Writer and Author
Sam Kean for the Keynote address “The Disappearing Spoon”. They presented
special recognition for services to the Academy to Krisma DeWitt for generously
volunteering to fill the unexpected vacancy for the office of President.
Elections
The Nominating Committee provided the following slate of nominations for
the open positions for 2012-2013.
4
For the position of Second Vice President
George Mwangi.
For the position of Member-at-Large 2012-2013
Matt Miller SDSU
For the positions of Members-at-Large 2012-2014
Jack Butler USDA Forest Service
Mark Gabel BHSU
Vicki Geiser MMC
Brian Patrick DWU
The slate of officers as presented was elected.
Call for Nominations for Fellows
Krisma initiated a call for nominations for Fellows of the SDAS. Criteria are
Service to SDAS and to science by research, teaching, service to science, and/or
extension.
The Undergraduate Poster Judges Jetty Duffy-Matzner, Uriel Buitrago, and
Vicki Geiser announced the AAAS Undergraduate Poster Winners:
Female Undergraduate
Venom Proteomics of the Prairie Rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis. Mallory Ageton,
Brian Smith, Eduardo Callegari, Stephen Mackessy, and Jason Nies. Black Hills
State University.
Male undergraduate
Molecular Imprinted Polymers for Dopamine Recognition. Alexamnder Goffeney and George Mwangi. University of Sioux Falls.
Incoming President Gary Larson gave a timely, well-researched and wellreceived Presidential Address on “Education on the Edge”.
Announcements
98th Annual Meeting hosted by Augustana College 12 and 13 April 2013
99th Annual Meeting hosted by SDSM&T 2014
100th Annual Meeting hosted by SDAS Executive Council, at Cedar Shore,
10 and 11 April 2015
101th Annual Meeting hosted by University of Sioux Falls 2016
102th Annual Meeting hosted by Dakota Wesleyan University 2017
Fall Executive Board Meeting Saturday 8 September 2012 Al’s Oasis Chamberlain, SD
Recap of the meeting
Thirty-five contributed papers were presented Saturday and 58 posters were
shown at the poster presentations. A total of 176 individuals registered for the
97th SDAS Annual Meeting.
Respectfully submitted,
Donna Hazelwood
Secretary SDAS
5
TREASURER'S REPORT
01-Apr-11
Checking Account Balance
Certificate of Deposit
Petty Cash
Total Assets
$9,116.36
$8,136.67
$0.00
$17,253.03
Income
SDSU Science Fair 2010
Preregistrations for Spring Meeting
New Cash Box for Meeting
Cash for Cashbox at Meeting
Plaques awarded at Spring Meeting
Cash from Spring Meeting
Deposit from Spring Meeting
Meeting Expenses
Assistance at Spring Meeting
Physics Symposium
Physics Symposium
Physics Symposium
Physics Symposium
Higgins Endowment - Honorarium
Biology Symposium
Biology Symposium
Meeting Expenses
Meeting Expenses
Deposit from Spring Meeting
Nonprofit Filing Fee
Fall Business Meeting and Lunch
Payment for Editor's Expenses
Eastern SD Science & Engineering Fair
South Central Science & Engineering Fair
NSU Science Fair
TOTALS
31-Mar-12
Expense
25.00
2440.00
21.19
200.00
211.95
65.30
1505.00
3236.00
35.27
100.00
268.47
173.90
55.00
184.57
250.00
250.00
250.00
148.90
4,275.40
250.00
10.00
75.45
195.77
500.00
240.00
200.00
200.00
7431.00
Checking Account Balance
Certificate of Deposit
Petty Cash
Total Assets
$7,936.17
$8611.19
$8,315.67
$0.00
$16,926.86
Respectfully submitted,
Jeffrey S. Palmer
6
PROCEEDINGS EDITOR’S REPORT
Report for the year from April 1, 2011 to March 31, 2012.
1. The following libraries were mailed a complimentary paper copy:
AC, BHSU, DSU, DWU, MMC, NSU, OLC, SGC, SDSMT, SDSU,
UND, USD, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., U of WA and the Booth Fish Hatchery
(Spearfish)
2. The following indexing/ abstracting services and institutions were mailed
complimentary paper copies:
AcadSci, Inc.
Baywood Publishing (Anthropology)
Cambridge Scientific Abstracts
NCIS
Chemical Abstract Services
GeoRef Library
Thompson Scientific (Biosis)
3.The following non-member institution purchased paper copies:
Linda
Hall
Library
(Kansas
City,
MO)--1
copy
Curran and Assoc . (Fordhook, NY)--1 copy
4. PDFs of individual articles and abstracts were sent to EBSCOhost to fulfill
our contract.
5. The UPS store in Mitchell has been contracted to convert the paper copies
of the Proceedings to PDFs at $40.00 per volume. So far the following years
have been converted: 1992-1956. There are 34 volumes remaining.
6. For the 2011 Proceedings, v.90:
a. No. of paper copies printed = 40 (Minuteman Press, Sioux Falls)
b. No. of CDs burned = 25 (Earsay, Sioux Falls)
c. No. of pages = 215
d. No. of full papers published = 13
e. No. of abstracts published = 52
f. No. of titles only published = 3
g. No. paper copies distributed to libraries, abstracting services, individuals,
etc.= 27
h. Electronic files were provided to EBSCOhost to fulfill our contract with
them.
7. First call for papers was sent out in late January; the second call was sent out
1 March.
8. With the help of Miles Koppang, the 2012 Schedule of Events was produced
and 200 copies were printed by Minuteman Press and shipped to USD; electronic copies were distributed by email to all members, past and present.
9. Last year the Academy instituted an experimental plan to distribute CDs
of the Proceedings to each 2010 member attending the annual meeting.
Members on the roster from 2010 who did not get one were emailed a pdf
of the Proceedings unless they requested a CD. This year I emailed a copy of
the 2011 Proceedings to each member and asked them to email me if they
wanted a CD. To date there have been six such requests. Because of this I
recommend that the Academy discontinue producing and distributing CDs
of the Proceedings.
7
10. Costs to produce 2011 Proceedings
Formatting & printing
2235.87
CD label and burning
169.60
Postage
99.30
Supplies, misc..
73.59
Total expenses
2578.36
Page Charges Invoiced
3930.00
Payments Received (2011)
3390.00
Profit/(loss)
811.64
Proportion Paid
53/57
11. Total Income/Expenses (4/1/2011 to 3/31/2012)
Balance (4/1/2011)
10843.76
Formatting
1382.00
Printing
(2009 & 2010 Proc)1023.47
Digitizing
2247.20
Supplies
124.44
Postage
111.39
Meeting Expenses 274.13
Total Expenses
4442.33
Total Income
3390.00
Balance (3/31/2012)
9791.43
Submitted by
Robert Tatina, Editor
SOUTH DAKOTA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE MEMBERSHIP LISTS
2007
Anderson, Joanne Puetz
SDSU
Anderson, Matt
SDSU
Armstrong Stephen Sanford Research/USD
Bakker, Kristel
DSU
Barnes, Michael
SDGFP
Beaster-Jones, Laura
AC
Beraldi, Rosana
Epigenetics and Devel.
Bergmann, David
BHSU
Bleich, Bethany
MMC
Boe, Arvid
SDSU
Bowers, James R.
MMC
Brown, Casey
DSU
Brown, Colin
SDSU
Burkhardt, Aaron
AC
Burrows, Rhoda
SDSU
Carpenter, Russ E.
USD
Carter, Catherine
SDSU
Chase, Chris
SDSU
Chen, Din
SDSU
Chiller, Emily
BHSU
Chipps, Steve
SDSU
Davidson, A.J.
AC
Davis, Elizabeth
AC
Davis, Rebecca Ann
MMC
Day, Dan
AC
DeWitt, Krisma
MMC
Diggins-Hutchinson, Maureen
AC
Dixon, Laura
SDSU
Dominiack, Eric
SDSU
Dozark, Kristopher
SDSU
Dunham, Katrina
Sanford Research/USD
Earl, Gary
AC
Egland, Paul
AC
Ekenstedt, James
SDSU
8
Ellis, Kevin
Eslinger, Allison
Estee, Charles
Fry, Christopher J.
Gabel, Audrey
Gabel, Mark
Gibbons, Joy
Gibson, Susan
Grajczyk, Ashley
Guo, Xueshui
Hajek, Ryan
Harmon, Aaron
Hazelwood, Donna
Heinemann, Kim
Henriksen, Cody
Hesler, Louis
Hildreth, Michael
Hill, Kendra
Hoff, Rachel
Hubbard, Daniel
Huebner, David
Hughes, Joshua
Hurlburt, Abby
Hutcheson, HL
Ibrahim, Amir
Jaggi, Meena
Johnson, Gary D.
Johnston, Carol
Jones, Brooke
Karki, David
Kattelman, Leslie
Kaushik, Radhey
Kelly, Kyle
Kiesow, Alyssa
Kim, Ki-In
Kinicki, Daniel
Klein, Nick
Knudsen, ave
Kobbermann, tracy
Kopp, Andrew
Korth, Andrew
Kostel, Grace
Kunopasek, Cindy
Larsen, Roxanne
Larson, Gary E.
Larson, Kelly
OLC
AC
USD
AC
BHSU
BHSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
DSU
AC
AC
USDA-ARS
SDSU
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
AC
USD
SDSU
SDSU
SMU
SDSU
AC
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
AC
USD
SDSU
SDSU
AC
SDSU
BHSU
SDSU
SDSU
BHSU
MMC
SDSU
SDSU
AC
Larson, Mark
AC
Lehnert, Kelly
SDSU
Leuking, Amy
AC
Liu, Yunkai
USD
List, Mark
AC
McKenzie, Mitch
SDSU
Magee, Christina
MMC
Malecki, Marek
SDSU
Miller, Jake
BHSU
Moore, Brian
AC
Moorkanat, Gopakumar
SDSU
Mullican, Tim
DWU
Nelson, Benjamin
AC
Ness, Jacob Michael
SDSU
Oh, YeJin
SDSU
Ortmeier, Steven B. Edison Middle School
Parris, David C.
NJ State Museum
Partridge, Jessica
BHSU
Pedersen, Scott
SDSU
Rahn, Perry H.
SDSM&T
Ranek, Mark USD
Rasmussen, Eric
SDSU
Reese, Neil
SDSU
Reicks, Greg
SDSU
Richards, Nathan
SDGF&P
Ryu, Younchul
USD
St. Aubin, Melissa
AC
Sandoval, Deig
OLC
Satyshur, Colleen
USD
Schnable, Steven
SDSM&T
Seidel, Erin
AC
Shmagin, Boris
SDSU
Snyder, Emily
SDSU
Sorenson, James
MMC
Stetler, Larry D.
SDSM&T
Stoner, M. Robert
USD
Storlie, Eric
AC
Su, Huabo
USD
Sutton, Fedora
SDSU
Tatina, Robert
DWU
Thomas, Ian
AC
Troelstrup, Jr., Nels
SDSU
Vander Vorste, Ross
SDSU
Viste, Arlen
AC
Wang, Xiuqing
SDSU
Wang, XJ
USD
Wang, Zhongde
Wanous, Michael
Weisshaar, Duane
West, Thomas P.
Willgohs, JoAnn
Werkmeister, Carrie
Weyrich, Laura S.
Williams, Zachary
Wu, Chun
Xu, Lan
Yen, Yang
Zheng, Oog Wen
Ziegenbein, Shane
2008
Ahlers, Kate
Anderson, Cynthia
Ashton, Joan
Backsen, Chad
Bakker, Kristel
Barker, william T.
Barnes, Michael
Beaster-Jones, Laura
Bergmann, David
Beraldi, Rosanna
Berry, Chuck
Blecker, Nicholas
Boe, Arvid
Brozel, Volker
Bowers, James
Chase, Chris
Chen, Din
Cole, Anthony Cypher, Luke
Davis, Elizabeth
Deng, Qiji
Detwiler, Andrew
DeWitt, Krisma
Dopheide, Amanda
Dozark, Kristopher
Draayer, Paul
Diggin, Maureen
Edwards, Angie
Eggleston, heath
Ellis, Kevin
Hematech Inc.
AC
AC
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
SDSU
USD
BHSU
AC
BHSU
SDSU
AC
AC
DSU
NDSU
SDGF&P
AC
BHSU
Hematech
SDSU
AC
SDSU
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
SDSU
DWU
USF
AC
SDSU
SDSM&T
MMC
SDSM&T
SDSU
AC
AC
Hematech
DWU
OLC
Estee, Charles R.
Foreman, Cory
Gabel, Audrey
Gabel, Mark
Gardner. Dawn
Geraets, Ryan
Gibson, Susan A,
Gnawali, Keshav R.
Gonda, Michael
Greenway, Mandi
Gray, Thomas
Gu, Xing-You
Hall, Polly
Haugen, Riston
Hayer, Cari-Ann
Hazelwood, Donna
Higgins, Kenneth F.
Hildreth, Michael
Holleman, Trevor
Hopf, Amy
Hutcheson, HL
Ihry, Robert
Jensen, Ben
Johnson, Bart
Johnson, Gary D.
Johnson, Katie
Johnson, Paul J.
Jordahl, Megan
Kenner, Scott J.
Kramer, Laura A.
Kellars, Brett
Kelly, Kyle
Kopp, Andrew
Kostel, Grace
Krause, Dave
Larson, Gary E.
Li, Feng
Li, Shik Ki
Lou, Jieqjiong
Love, Jason
Lu, Wuxun
Lynch, Tom
McClusky, Braedon
McRoy, Will
May, Stanley
Maxon, Mark
9
USD
RESPEC
BHSU
BHSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSM&T
SDSU
AC
MMC
SDSU
BHSU
BHSU
SDSU
DSU
SDSU
SDSU
USF
SDSU
SDSU
AC
AC
AC
SMU
AC
SDSU
DSU
SDSM&T
BHSU
SDSU
AC
SDSU
BHSU
USF
SDSU
SDSU
AC
SDSU
RESPEC
SDSU
AC
AC
MMC
USD
USD
10
Merchen, Aron
Mickalowski, Kyle, L.
Miller, Jake
Miller, Matthew
Moore, Brian
Montoya, Thomas P.
Moser, Jess
Mousseaux, Reinique
Murphy, Brie
Mynam, Suresh Ku
Mullican, Yim
Nelson, Benjamin
Ogle, Chris
Palmer, Jeffrey S.
Parr, Mary
Parris, David C.
Patel, Neil
Petersen, Derek
Qvarnemark, Linda
Rasmussen, Eric
Reese, Neil
Rietsema, Kristen
Ronan, Patrick
Sauer, Marie-Laura
Schafer, Matt
Severson, Kayie
Shmagin, Boris
Sorenson, Jim
Sorenson, Timothy
Speirs, Hayley
Staples, Melissa
Stetler, Larry
Stoner, M. Robert
Sutton, Fedora
Sykes, Andy
Syman, Allison
Tatina, Robert
Te Slaa, Kimberly
Thooft, Megan
Thum, Daniel
Thum, Joe
Tille, Patricia
Troelstrup, Nels
Vander Vorste, Ross
Viste, Arlen
Wang, Dan
AC
AC
BHSU
SDSM&T
AC
SDSM&T
BHSU
OLC
SDSU
SDSM&T
DWU
AC
DWU
DSU
SDSU
NJ State Museum
AC
SDSU
DWU
SDSU
SDSU
SDS U
USDSM
SDSU
AC
AC
SDSU
MMC
AC
SDSU
SDSU
SDSM&T
USD
SDSU
USD
SDGF&P
DWU
AC
AC
SDSU
USF
USF
SDSU
SDSU
AC
SDSU
Wang, Zhongde
Wanous, Michael
Weisshaar, Duane E.
Welsh, Ed.
Weng, Yuejin
Williamson, Joyce E.
, Nicholas
Wittry, Matt
Wu, Chun
Xiang, Xiaoxiao
Xu, Lan
Zamy, R. Martine
Zhao, Xiaobing
2009
Hematech
AC
AC
SDSM&T
SDSU
USGS
SDSM&T
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
Ahlers, Katelin
AC
Alomar, Mohammad S.
SDSM&T
Anderson, Gary A.
SDSU
SDSU
Anderson-Daniels, Jordan
AC
Auger, Donald
SDSU
Awwad, Shady
SDSM&T
Baker, Nathan
SDSU
Barnes, Michael
SDGF&P
Barth, Mackenzie
SDSM&T
Bastian, Amy
SDSU
Benzon, Ted.A.
SDBOR
Berry, Chuck
SDSU
Bergmann, David
BHSU
Bhosale, Rahul R.
SDSM&T
Boe, Arvid
SDSU
Boueas, James R.
MMC
Bowser, Michael W.
NSU
Boyda, Eric
SDSU
Buboltz, Mark
AC
Carl, Kirsten
Clark, Jordan
AC
Corley, Calvin J.
Crotwell, Patricia
Sanford Clinic/USD
Davis, Gareth
BHSU
Day, Daniel
AC
Detwiler, Andrew
SDSM&T
Dewitt, Krisma D.
MMC
Diggins, Maureen
AC
Dittmer, Adam
AC
Docken, Nick
SDSU
Earl, Gary
AC
Erickson, Jeremy
AC
Ezrailson, Cathy
USD
Feige, Kelsey
SDSM&T
Fick, Robert
AC
Forred, B. J.
NSU
Graber, Kayla
AC
Greer, Mitch
SDSU
Haag, Nicole
MMC
Haas, Jordan
SDSU
Hall, Polly
BHSU
Hansen, Doug
Hansen, Stephanie
SDSU
Hanson, Ashley
AC
Haugen, Riston
BHSU
Hazelwood, Donna
DSU
Hildreth, Michael
SDSU
Holt, Janne
NSU
Hurley, Rachel
AC
Hutchinson, HL
SDSU
Jacobs, Jay
BHSU
Jensen, Ben
AC
Johnson, Gary D.
SMU
Kern, Marissa
AC
Kiesow, Alyssa
NSU
Koppang, Miles
USD
Korman, Brian
SDSU
Kramer, Laura
BHSU
Lamberson, Connor
AC
Landon-Arnold, Susan
NSU
Larson, Gary E.
SDSU
Liknes, Eric
NSU
Mandler, Laura
AC
LibbyBHSU
McCluskey, Braeden
AC
McRoy, Will
MMC
Mergen, Daryl E. Mergen Ecological Delineation
Meza, Alma
SDSU
Micijevic, Ana
SDSU
Misar, Christopher G.
SDSU
Montoya, Thomas
SDSM&T
Moore, Brian
SDSU
Mullican, Tim
DWU
Narem, Diana
SDSU
Norris, Margaret
BHSU
Ode, David J.
SDGF&P
Opoku, Michael
Ortbahn, Dustin
Pomplun, William
Ransom, Eric
Ransom, Mrs.
Roemich, Aurora
Ronning, Natalie
Schaefer, Anne
Schmoll, Seth
Senst, Heidi
Shende, Rajesh V.
Shmagin, Boris
Sieh, Hailee
Sorenson, James C.
Stoner, M. Robert
Storlie, Eric
Tatina, Robert
Thooft, Megan
Tille, Patricia
Tilmon, Kelley
Troelstrup, Nels
Tungal, Richa
Ueff, Andrew
Uresk, Daniel W.
Vahyola, Ibrahim Emanuel
Vogelaar, Jessica
Wanous, Michael
Weisshaar, Duane
Wey, Christy
Wipf, Matt
Wittry, Matt
Wu, Chun
Xu, Lan
Zamy, R. Martime
Zogg, Bethany
2010
Abderson, Jo Puetz
Acharya, Jyotsma
Alomar, Mohammed
Anderson, Cynthia
Anderson, Gary
Arunachalam, Shivaram P.
Awwad, Shady
Barnes, Mike
Barth, Mac
11
SDSM&T
SDSU
SDSU
AC
SDSU
AC
SDSU
DSU
AC
SDSM&T
SDSU
SDSU
MMC
USD
AC
DWU
AC
USF
SDSU
SDSU
SDSM&Y
SDSU
USDA-FS
SDSU
AC
AC
AC
SDSU
BHSU
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
SDSU
AC
SDSU
SDSU
SDSM&T
BHSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSM&T
SDGFP
SDSM&T
12
Bergh, Ferdinand
SDSU
Bergmann, David
BHSU
Bhasale, Rahul
SDSM&T
Bolin, Brian
DSU
Boyda, Eric
SDSU
Brandt, Danielle
SDSU
Brown, Rachel
SDSM&T
Bucking, Heike
SDSU
Buitrago, Uriel
MMC
Burrows, Rhoda
SDSU
Carpenter, Rachel
DSU
Carr, Jason
SDSM&T
Clarke, Laura J
SDSM&T
Corley, Carin J. Mergen Ecological Delineations
Corwin, Edward
SDSM&T
Daugaard, Darwin
Dell Rapids H.S.
DeWitt, Krisma
MMC
Dierks, Nick
SDSM&T
Diwan, Milind
Brookhaven National Lab
Dixon, John
BHSU
Drons, David
SDSU
Emanuel, Rose
Lead/Deadwood HS
Ezrailson, Cathy
USD
Fayer, Liz
USD
Gabel, Audrey
BHSU
Gabel, Mark
BHSU
Gates, Roger
SDSU
Geffre, Cody
BHSU
Geuke, Lynn
DWU
Hall, Polly
BHSU
Hansen II, James
DWU
Haugen, Riston
BHSU
Hazelwood, Donna
DSU
Hess, Gene
Higgins, Kenneth
SDSU
Hildreth, Mike
SDSU
Holmes, Steve
SDSM&T
Inofer, Tasha
DSU
Jacobs, Jay
BHSU
Janes, Michael
SDSM&T
Jensen, Rachael
DSU
Johnson, Andy
BHSU
Johnson, Gary
SDBOR
Johnson, Gary D
SMU
Johnson, Mary
DSU
Johnson, Paul J
SDSU
Johnston, Carol A
SDSU
Kandel, Yuba
SDSU
Kern, Marrisa AC
Koppang, Miles
USD
Korf, Jason
SDSM&T
Kramer, Laura
BHSU
Kuhlman, Paul
Avon H.S.
Larson, Gary E. SDSU
Lewis, Amy R.
AC
Liepold, Elliot
SDSU
Lilyquist, Jenna
DSU
Logar, Antonette
SDSM&T
Martin, James E
SDSM&T
Mergen, Daryl E. Mergen Ecological Delineations
Mergen, Zach
Meyer, Justin
SDSM&T
Meza, Alma
SDSU
Micijeic, Ana
SDSU
Miller, Kayla
SDSU
Miller, Matthew
SDSM&T
Minkler, Heidi
SDSM&T
Misar, Christopher
SDSU
Montoya, Thomas P
SDSM&T
Moses, Randy
SDSM&T
Mott, Henry
SDSM&T
Mullican, Tim
DWU
Mwangi, George
USF
Nandkatle, Aitanjali
SDSU
Nichols, Christopher
SDSM&T
Opoku, Miehgel
SDSM&T
Osborne, Lawrence
SDSU
Pagnoc, Darrin
SDSM&T
Palmer, Jeffrey
DSU
Paris,David
NJ State Museum
Patrick, Brian
DWU
Poelaert, Brittany
SDSU
Rauber, Joel
SDSU
Redlin, Stephanie
DSU
Reese, Neil
SDSU
Roggenthen, Bill
SDSM&T
Rohila, Jai S
SDSU
Roy, Ansuman
SDSU
Sathe, Jacob
DWU
Saxton, Samantha
SDSM&T
Schmoll, Seth
SDSU
Schmuck, Jessica
SDSU
Senst, Heidi Sheltar, Sully
Shirke, Manali Manohar
Sorenson, Jim
Soundy, Jared Sreenivasan, Chithra
Stetler, Larry
Stoner, M. Robert
Swett, Suzanne
Szczerbinska, Barbara
Tatina, Robert Testin, Jason
Thompson, Wayne
Tille, Patricia
Traxinger, Bobbie
Uresk, Daniel
VanBeek, Jason
Wake, Carol
Wanous, Mike Weedon, Ronald R.
Weisshaar, Duane
Welsch, Ed
Werner, Jordan
Wipf, Matt
Wu, Chun
Xu, Lan
Ye, Heng
Younes, Hammad Ali
2011
Anderson, Cynthia M.
Anderson, Gary A.
Bakker, Kristel
Barnes, Mike
Bergmann, David J.
Boe, Arvid
Buitrago-Suarez, Uriel A.
Chase, Chris
DeWitt, Krisma
Diggins, Maureen
Dixon, John
Droge, Dale
Gabel, Audrey
Gabel, Mark
Geiser, Vicki
Gibson, Susan A.
AC
SDSM&T
SDSU
MMC
AC
SDSU
SDSM&T
USD
DSU
DSU
DWU
SDSM&T
SDSM&T
SDSU
Douglas H.S.
USDA-FS
SDSM&T
SDSU
AC
CSC
AC
SDSM&T
DWU
BHSU
MMC
SDSU
SDSU
SDSM&T
BHSU
SDSU
DSU
SDGF&P
BHSU
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
MMC
AC
BHSU
DSU
BHSU
BHSU
MMC
SDSU
Guiseppe, Vincente
Hazelwood, Donna
Higgins, Kenneth F.
Hildreth, Mike
Hutcheson, H. L.
Jensen, Kent C.
Johnson, Carter
Johnson, Gary
Johnson, Gary D
Johnson, Paul J.
Kandel, Yuba R.
Kiesow, Alyssa
Koppang, Miles
Larson, Gary E. Larson, Mark
Martin, James E
Mergen, Daryl E.
Montoya, Thomas P
Mullican, Tim
Mwangi, George K.
Palmer, Jeffrey
Parris,David C.
Rahn, Perry
Rauber, Joel
Reese, Neil
Rohila, Jai S.
Roy, Ansuman
Simolien, Martine
Sorenson, Jim
Stoner, M. Robert
Swanson, David L.
Szczerbinska, Barbara
Tatina, Robert Troelstrup Jr., Nels H.
Wanous, Mike
Ward, Matthew
Weisshaar, Duane
Wilson, Robert J.
Wu, Chun
Xu, Lan
Bai, Xinhua
Grau, Nathan
Mei, Dongmang
Wussow, Matt
Acharya, Jyotsma
Bergeleen, Harlan
13
USD
DSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDBOR
Retired
SDSU
SDSU
NSU
USD
SDSU
AC
SDSM&T
MED
SDSM&T
DWU
USF
DSU
NJ
SDSM&T
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
MMC
USD
USD
DSU
DWU
SDSU
AC
SDGF&P
AC
CSU
MMC
SDSU
SDSM&T
AC
USD
AC
SDSU
SDSU
14
Blake, Kyle
Brandt, Danielle
Byram, Dana
Calles Torrez, Veronica
Clemetson, LeRoy
DeJong Julie
Drons, David
Ellis, Kevin
Geffre, Cody
Geffre, Gina
Gross, Kylie
Grosz, Drew
Herr, Jeffrey
Inofer, Tosha
Jacobs, Jay
Jambani, Parvathi
Johnson, Emily
Joseph, Jocelin
Karki, Amrit
Kasmarik, Tara
Kerkman, Martina
Kuehl, Lyntawha
Ludvik, Jessica
Mensah, Jerry A.
Mergen, Zach
Miller, Kayla
Moran, Christopher
Nandkafle, Gitanjali
Neth, Cassie
Poelaert, Brittany
Premo, Ambra
Puetz, Joanne
Rabara, Roel C.
Redlin, Stephanie
Rigge, Matthew
Sabel, Shaina
Sreenivasan, Chithra
Thiele, Jason
Thiesse, Philip
Tripathi, Prateek
Van Asma, Nicholas
Vande Kamp, Kendall
Velk, Kimberly
Volke, Malia
Walter, Ashton
Waughtel, Shauna
NSU
SDSU
USD
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
BHSU
BHSU
BHSU
MMC
SDSU
BHSU
DSU
BHSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
NSU
MMC
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
BHSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
NSU
SDSU
SDSU
DSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
SDSU
BHSU
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
MMC
SDSU
Williams, Holli
Williams, Zach
Xu, Bing
Djira, Gemechis
DSU
DSU
SDSU
SDSU
2012
Acharya, Joytsna
Adrian, Seth
Ageton, Mallory
Alsdorf, Jake
Amundson, Matthew
Anderson, Cynthia
Anderson, Gary
Anderson, Joanne
Anderson, Tasha
Ankireddy, Krishnamraju
Arens, Erica
Bahnson, Anna
Baird, Nancy
Baride, Aravind
Barker, Diann
Barnes, Michael E. Barnett, Michael
Bergmann, David j.
Berry, Mary
Bestul, Claire
Blumenstock, Derek
Boe, Arvid
Bogue, Rebecka
Britten, Hugh
Bubak, Andrew
Buddineni, Venu
Buitrago-Suarez, Uriel A.
Butler, Jack L.
Calles-Torrez, Veronica
Chen, Jiangchao
Conley, Adrienne
Dahl, Erika
DeWitt, Krisma
Dixon, Mark
Driscoll, Daniel
Drons, David
Duffy-Matzner, Jetty
Ealy, Patrick
Edgington, Michael
SDSN
AC
BHSU
BHSU
AC
BHSU
SDSU
SDSU
USD
SDSM&T
AC
AC
USD
USD
SDGF&P
SDSU
BHSU
USD
AC
MMC
SDSU
AC
USD
USD
SDSMT
MMC
USFS
SDSU
USD
AC
AC
MMC
USD
USGS
SDSU
AC
SDSM&T
AC
Eljaki, Abdelhakim
SDSU
Ensz, Nicole
AC
Erickson, Lee
SDSU
Ezrailson, Cathy
USD
Fick, Damon
SDSM&T
Gabel, Mark
BHSU
Gaughan, Brianna
SDSU
Gautam, Sushil
SDSMT
Gaylor, Michael
DSU
Geiser, Vicki
MMC
Gibson, Susan
SDSU
Goffeney, Alexander
USF
Gong, Yajuan
USD
Goodman, Barb
USD
Goon, Tuck
USD
Govani, Jayesh
USD
GrayDSU
Gribb, Molly
SDSM&T
Hall, Carrie
AC
Hamblin, Courtney
DSU
Han, Yulun
USD
Hassel, James
USD
Hazelwood, Donna
DSU
Helms, Emily
SDSU
Herrod, Shane
SDSM&T
Higgins, Kenneth F.
SDSU
Hildreth, Mike
SDSU
Hjelmen, Carl
AC
Hoefelmeyer, James
USD
Horn, Alissa
USD
Howard, Daniel
AC
Hrabe, Ashley
SDSU
Jackson, Bailey
AC
Jamison, Sarah
AC
Jaswal, Rajneesh
SDSM&T
Jiang, Chaoyang
USD
Joerger, Rebecca
AC
Johnson, Christina
AC
Johnson, Gary D.
SMU
Jordan, Brennan
USD
Jorde, Elisabeth
AC
Juntti, Tom
Sierra Club
Kanaan, Emma
SDSU
Keeter, Kara
BHSU
Keller, Christina
USD
Kelley, Nick
DSU
15
Keppen, Joseph
AC
King, Marisa
USD
Koehler, Emily
DeSmet HS
Kohler, Daniel
USF
Kolli, Pordha
USD
Koppang, Miles
USD
Kuhlman, Paul
Avon HS
Lamb, Jordana
USD
Larson, Gary
SDSU
Lensing, Cody
AC
Letcher, Austin
AC
Li, Hao
USD
Lindsey, Nicole
AC
Liu, Ming
USD
Luepke, Kristen
AC
Luu, Quoc Anh
USD
Mahoney, Luther
USD
Matzner, Steven
AC
May, Stanley
USD
Mazzer, Paula
DWU
McComas, Leah
AC
Mei, Dongming
USD
Meng, Quigguo
USD
Mergen, Daryl E. Mergen Ecological Delineations
Mergen, Zach
BHSU
Meruga, Jeevan
SDSM&T
Miles, Jackie
AC
Miller, Matthew L.
SDSU
Mize, Erica
USD
Monroe, Emy
USD
Moore, Courtney
AC
Mount, Brianna J.
BHSU
Mullican, Tim
DWU
Mwangi, George
USF
Nepal, Madhav
SDSU
Palmer, Jeffrey
DSU
Paran, P. Krishna
USD
Pasala, Xaviu
SDSM&T
Patrick, L. Brian
DWU
Perumpilly, Gopakumar
USD
Piya, Sarbottam
SDSU
Prussing, Kara
AC
Putta, Anjaneyulu
USD
Rahn, Perry H.
SDSM&T
Rajput, Mrigendra K.
SDSU
Renner, Kenneth
USD
16
Richards, Lester
Ripley, Tayler J.
Roggenthen, William
Sayer, Matthew P.
Schenkel, Dillon
Schieffer, Rebecca
Schmidt, Ashley
Schmidt, Kelsey
Sefling, Greg
Sellers, Evan
Sharma, Sangita
Shende, Anaradha
Shende, Rajesh
Shmagin, Boris
Smith, Brian
Smith, Stephanie
Soluk, Daniel
Sorenson, Jim
Sprague, Rylan
Stone, Jim
Stoner, Robert
Sundareshwar, P.V.
Swanson, David
Sykes, Andrew
Tatina, Robert
Thakur, Neely
Tungal, Richa
SDSMT
BHSU
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SDSU
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Uresk, Daniel W.
Vastenhout, Kayla
Volke, Malia
Vrblca-Olson, Marcia
Vunnam, Swathi
Walsh, Joshua
Wang, Guojian
Ward, Matthew
Wassom, James
Weber, Ashley
Wei, Wenzhao
Weier, Lisa
Weisshaar, Duane E.
White, Chris
Winkler, Laura
Woelber, Brooke
Wong, Kelly
Wu, Chun
Xu, Lan
Yang, Gang
Yang, Xiaoyi
Yao, Ge
Yelakarh, Sowmya
Zhang, Chao
Zhang, Yufeng
Zokaites, Sarah
USDA-FS
AC
SDSU
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USD
Brookings School
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BHSU
SDSU
AC
AC
MMC
SDSU
USD
USD
USD
SDSM&T
USD
USD
AC
17
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS:
EDUCATION ON THE EDGE
Address to the South Dakota Academy of Science
University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD
April 14, 2012
Presented by Gary Larson
South Dakota State University
Brookings, SD 57007
As incoming president of SDAS, I elected to speak on a topic that stands to
impact the health and future of science education and research in South Dakota.
You might think that the recent session of the South Dakota Legislature made
my choice of topics obvious and I would agree. No one in South Dakota could
ignore this year’s debate over public education funding, and given the outcome
of the legislative session and with the help of some research on my part, I have
concluded that the K-12 system is truly jeopardized by inadequate state support.
Of course, public higher education has taken serious blows recently, too, but I
believe the situation in K-12 education is most dire because a continued policy
of chronically underfunding public education in this state threatens the integrity
of the K-12 system. Those of us in the business of postsecondary education have
every reason to worry about students coming to us inadequately prepared for college. We all want students who are ready to succeed in college, with the knowledge, skills, and aptitude that enable their success. However, as long as education
funding is treated as discretionary spending by our state politicians, the outlook
for universal quality education in South Dakota gets bleaker year by year.
Education is a tremendously complicated and controversial issue with many
interrelated aspects, but I want to focus here and now on funding of the K-12
system in our state. Gov. Daugaard introduced HB 1234 this year to “reform”
education in South Dakota, contending in his January 10, 2012 “State of the
State” address that the state had spent a lot of money on K-12 education but had
realized unsatisfactory results. He noted that since 1971, enrollment in South
Dakota public schools has fallen by nearly 50,000 pupils (a 28.5% decline).
Over the same period, more than 850 teachers (up 10%) and over 3,500 staff
(up 65%) have been added due to requirements of Individuals with Disabilities
Act, Title IX, and increased graduation requirements. Consequently, per student
funding rose from about $4,000 per student to about $9,000 in that 40-year
period. Not mentioned by the governor are the increased cost to school districts
of educators’ health plans, new curricula, and the higher cost of heating and
cooling buildings and running buses. Certainly those factors weigh into the perpupil cost calculation, too.
The governor cited the ACT and NAEP scores of South Dakota students as
evidence of a poor return on the increased investment in education. For example,
ACT scores of South Dakota high school students were noted to be consistently
18
above average in the country, but they had remained steady for many years,
varying between 21 and 22. NAEP scores for 4th and 8th graders in reading and
math were noted to slip relative to other states in recent years, although less so
for 8th graders than 4th graders. Apparently these results indicated to the governor a need to “reform” education in South Dakota, and since additional money
over the years had made no difference, it was time to try a new approach. Citing no evidence, Gov. Daugaard asserted that the single most important factor
in student learning success is a good teacher -- class size, physical facilities, and
access to technology are less important. Thus was born the governor’s “Investing
in Teaching” initiative wherein it is proposed that $5,000 merit pay be awarded
to the top 20% of teachers and $2,500 bonuses be given for those teaching in
critical needs areas, e.g., science and math. For $15 million to be appropriated in
the future, state government could thereby do its part in a very economical way
to improve educational outcomes for South Dakota students.
Is it possible, however, that HB 1234, as it was amended, modified in minor
ways to improve palatability among lawmakers, and then passed by just one vote
in the Legislature, served to obscure the real problem faced by public school
systems in South Dakota? Are there issues that make teaching in South Dakota
a more challenging job than elsewhere? Consider first of all how South Dakota
really invests in its teachers. The state ranks 50th among the states in average
teacher salary and has for many years. Now, we are more ensconced in 50th
place than ever. After last year’s 8.6% cut in state aid to schools, South Dakota
saw a 9.3% drop in average teacher pay from the 2009-2010 school year (NEA
Rankings & Estimates, Dec. 2010, Summary Table G, p. 92). Why such a big
drop relative to the cut? Because many veteran teachers threw in the towel, either
retiring or quitting to go elsewhere. Some left the profession for new opportunities. South Dakota’s average teacher pay of $35,201 is now just 63% of the
national average (http://madvilletimes.com/2011/06/south-dakota-teacher-paylast-again-63-of-national-average/). For a long time, North Dakota has ranked
49th in teacher pay. It still does. But with an average teacher pay of $44,266, the
difference between the Dakotas is now over $9,000 per year. All of this readily
accessible information is a black eye on public education in South Dakota. How
can this state expect to attract dedicated, highly qualified and effective teachers
given these statistics?
Recall that HB 1234 would provide $2,500 bonuses for critical needs teachers.
Originally the bill specified math and science teachers but was changed to allow
flexibility for districts to apply the bonuses to other difficult-to-fill positions.
The list of teacher shortages posted on the South Dakota Department of Education’s web site shows why that change was made. That list has doubled since
2007-2008, with virtually all subject areas (13) listed as having teacher shortages
(Teacher Shortage Areas Nationwide Listing 1990-1991 through 2012-2013.
April 2012. U.S. Department of Education Office of Postsecondary Education).
Surely a $2,500 bonus will fix the problem! (See average teacher pay comparisons
above.)
Again, teacher pay in South Dakota is the poorest by far among the 50 states.
It has been repeatedly asserted by some in the legislature that school districts
set teacher wages, not the state. So, surely state aid to the districts is enough to
19
support competitive salaries. Let’s see how South Dakota invests in education.
Districts receive money principally from two sources: property taxes and the state
general fund. Recall that in South Dakota we spend around $9,000 per pupil. Of
this, the state’s share dropped from $4,805 in 2010-11 (and 2009-10) to $4,390
in 2011-12 (-8.6%). With the 2.3% inflationary increase for 2012-13, the state’s
share will rise to $4,491. South Dakota reports the state’s share of education
spending went from 56.1% to 52.6% between 2009-10 and 2010-11, and then
will go back upward to 53.8% with the 2.3% increase in 2011-12 (State Aid to
K-12 General Education Funding Formula, Revised March, 2012. S.D. Dept.
of Education.)
Another way to view the state’s share of education spending is as reported by
the National Education Association. They show a local (and others) share of
education spending of 49.9% for 2009-10 and for 2010-11 (estimated). The
remainder of spending is reported as 30.3% state and 19.7% federal in 200910 and 30.2% state/19.9% federal (estimated) in 2010-11 (NEA Rankings &
Estimates, December 2010, Summary Tables H and I, pp. 93-94). In other
words, much of the funding the state claims to spend on education, nearly 20%
of the total, is federal money. At the 2010-2011 level of state spending on K-12
education, South Dakota ranks 49th in the percent of cost covered by state
government (Op. cit. Table F-10, p. 42). Only Illinois provides a lower percent
coverage by the state.
The question arises “How much aid should the state provide to school districts
for them to sustain a quality program?” Dr. Roger DeGroot, Superintendent of
Brookings Schools answered that question in response to a query from a legislator. Given some time to research an answer, he responded, “The magic number
is about $6,270 per student – about $1,600 more than Gov. Dennis Daugaard
has proposed for the 2012-2013 school year.” (Brookings Register, ‘How Much
Do Schools Need?’ Jan. 20, 2012). Of course, this estimate is only from one
district, and estimates would be expected to vary among districts. One thing is
obvious. An additional $15 million in state aid wouldn’t come close to covering
an increase on that order statewide. Clearly, state government is abdicating its
fiduciary responsibility to provide for the education of children in South Dakota.
Can South Dakota afford to pay more for education? In FY 2010, South Dakota ranked 46th in per capita tax collection among the 50 states, and it ranked
47th in percentage of per capita income (4.2%) going to state taxes (Federation
of Tax Administrators, http://www.taxadmin.org/). This amounts to $1,607 per
person, one of the very lowest state tax burdens in the nation. South Dakota
politicians have long described the state as one of the poorest in the country, one
that could ill afford higher taxes, and especially an income tax of any kind. In
2010, South Dakota per capita income rose to 22nd in the nation, amounting to
$39,593. Simultaneously median household income dropped from $51,600 in
2008 to $45,669 in 2010 (“South Dakota’s per capita Income in 2010 22nd in
Nation”, Rapid City Journal, Oct. 7, 2011). This means that the income increase
was highly focused and not shared generally by the state’s population.
According to the online publication ‘Who Pays?’ (Institute on Taxation and
Economic Policy, http://www.itepnet.org) South Dakota has the third most
regressive tax system among the 50 states. The lowest 20% income bracket pays
20
around 11% of their income in state and local taxes. In contrast, the upper 1%
bracket pays around 2% of their income in state and local taxes. With no income
tax, the state relies principally on a 4% sales tax, a contractors excise tax, a bank
franchise tax, proceeds from the state lottery, and lesser sources. A concentrated
increase in income, especially in upper brackets, thus has no impact on state
revenues unless and until some of that income is used to make purchases, build,
start a bank, or gamble. As long as South Dakota’s tax structure remains as is, the
state’s efforts to fund education and other state-sponsored enterprises will diminish. Federal spending in the state is destined to decline due to the need to address
the federal deficit, and South Dakota’s obligation to programs like Medicaid will
climb because it is indexed to per capita income. Perhaps revenues needed to
operate state government should also be linked at least partly to income. That
would make South Dakota’s tax system more equitable and more stable. Whatever the source, state revenues designated for education in South Dakota must
increase or a decline in the quality of education is inevitable.
My research into the facts, the statistics, and (unavoidably) the politics of K-12
education funding in South Dakota has led me to some uncomfortable conclusions about this issue. First, South Dakota cannot hide a poor environment for
teachers. The state’s record of education funding and how teachers are treated in
South Dakota is online for all to discover and leads me to conclude that unless
and until teachers and school administrators are valued as professionals, we will
lose top educators to other states. South Dakota must compete for good educators rather than penalize the good ones it has. Rewarding just 20% of teachers
with merit pay is tantamount to telling the other 80% they are not doing a good
job – a demoralizing proposition at best. Secondly, the state is demanding increased control over education while simultaneously cutting its own investment
in education. Part of HB 1234 establishes panels to oversee teacher evaluation
statewide and thereby adds another layer of bureaucracy that promises to further dilute the amount of state aid getting to the local level. This is yet another
modern example of how greater effort to assess an enterprise (teaching students)
without additional funding simply dilutes the resources needed for actually doing the job (again, teaching students). It has also led to the self-defeating mantra
of “Do more with less” that is so pervasive in state government. Logic demands
that an insistence for increased control over school districts needs to be matched
by greater, not less, state-level investment.
One encouraging outcome of this year’s discussion of education funding has
been increased public awareness and action on the issue. Enough signatures were
gathered on petitions to refer HB 1234 to a public vote in the November 2012
election. Additionally, an initiated referendum to impose a 1% sales tax increase
with the proceeds designated for K-12 education and Medicaid will also be on
the 2012 ballot. For the sake of education in South Dakota, we can hope that
these efforts succeed and that voters do not allow politicians to subvert their intentions. The latter can’t happen if education is viewed and promoted as it should
be, with a sense of pride and altruism. As a society we need to take ownership
of our public school systems and not let them fall prey to budget cutting in the
name of frugality in state government. We frequently hear about how much our
nation’s future depends on a sound system of education, yet apathy has gotten
21
us to where we are with underfunding education in this state. South Dakotans
need to understand that good quality education requires more robust financial
underpinnings and not simply a “carrot and stick” approach toward the teaching
profession. I hope you will join in urging our politicians to increase the statebased funding for K-12 education in South Dakota. In countless ways all of our
futures depend on it.
Complete Senior Research
and Symposium Papers
presented at the
The 97th Annual Meeting
of the
25
AN ANDEAN DOMESTICATE
ADAPTS TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Matthew Sayre
Department of Anthropology
University of South Dakota
Vermillion, SD 57069
Corresponding author email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum) is one of the staples of international
agriculture. This paper presents two approaches to analyze changing cultivation
practices of the potato over time. The first is a paleoethnobotanical analysis of
past plant use at the pre-Inka site of Chavín de Huántar in Peru. The second
is a survey of changing planting and cultivation techniques in the Parque de la
Papa (Potato Park), an area of indigenous bio-cultural patrimony, located above
the Peruvian town of Pisac in the Sacred Valley of the Inka. The initial survey
of planting practices at the Potato Park revealed that potatoes were grown primarily in the upslope areas of the park not on the valley bottoms, which were
primarily planted with maize. The changing climate is forcing farmers to plant
further upslope in areas that were not previously cultivated. As farmers search for
colder environments for their distinct varieties of potatoes they are running into
the limits of cultivatable land. The successful adaptations of farmers in the preHispanic past demonstrated the resilience of traditional agricultural practices,
but modern farmers are facing unique new challenges. Places like the Potato
Park that seek to preserve cultural and ecological diversity are of tremendous
importance to a rapidly changing world.
Keywords
Potato, Climate Change, Peru, Archaeology
INTRODUCTION
The cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum) is one of the staples of international agriculture. This plant, which is commonly associated with Ireland and
other European countries, originated in the Andean region of South America.
Recent research places its likely center of domestication in southern Peru (Smith
1998; Spooner et al. 2005). However, the likely high altitude origins of the potato have not limited its success in a wide range of environments across the globe
(FAO 2008). While, the center of origin of potato exhibits a wide varietal diversity, much of the world only grows a limited number of varieties (FAO 2008).
26
This paper presents two approaches to analyze changing cultivation practices
of the potato over time. The first is a paleoethnobotanical analysis of past plant
use at the site of Chavín de Huántar in Peru. The second source of analysis is a
survey of changing planting and cultivation techniques in the Parque de la Papa
(Potato Park) located above the Peruvian town of Pisac in the Sacred Valley of the
Inka, an area of indigenous bio-cultural patrimony. This region of the world is a
biodiversity hotspot whose preservation would greatly enhance global conservation planning (Myers et al. 2000).
Chavín de Huántar is a ceremonial site in the Central Andean highlands,
that functioned as a center from roughly 1200 BCE – 500 BCE (Sayre 2010: 4650; Rick et al. 2011). The steep ecology of the land surrounding the site, which is
located on a valley bottom at 3100 masl, means that different climate regimes are
present within a short horizontal distance (Piperno and Pearsall 1998). The surrounding mountains of the Cordillera Blanca often reach 6000 m of elevation,
thus fields from 2000-4000 masl could have been cultivated by past residents of
the areas surrounding the temple.
The Potato Park is a unique project in the Sacred Valley of the Inka. The park
attempts to preserve not only the land and its related biodiversity but also the
cultural diversity of human practices observed in the region. This park is a center
of potato landrace diversity and its inhabitants preserve hundreds of varieties
of potatoes (FAO 2008) as well as diverse methods of preserving and consuming this resilient crop (Figure 1). One method in particular, the production of
freeze-dried potatoes locally known as ch’uñu or chuño, is a source of particular
pride. This preservation technique was used by the Inka to maintain a five year
supply of surplus food for the inhabitants of their empire (D’Altroy 2002). It is a
process that relies on freezing nighttime temperatures to remove excess moisture
from the potato, which makes it particularly dependent upon climatic stability.
Finally, the park is one of the few sites in the world in which an indigenous
community, composed of members of the villages of Sacaca, Chawaytire, Pampallaqta, Paru Paru and Amaru, have sent seed samples to the International Seed
Bank to preserve their bio-cultural knowledge for perpetuity. The community is
making an explicit connection between their customs and traditional knowledge
and the scientific attempts to preserve and document genetic variety.
METHODS
This research was focused on both past and present practices. The past cultivation practices of potato farmers are visible in the archaeological record through
paleoethnobotanical analysis, which focuses on the preserved and carbonized
remains of past plant material that is gathered through the flotation process
(Pearsall 2010; and see Sayre 2010: 110-115 for precise details). Parenchyma,
or storage cells of tubers, is preserved carbonized starch that is indicative of past
consumption practices. While tubers other than potatoes were consumed in the
Andes in the past these other tubers rarely dominated archaeological finds at
mid-elevation sites.
their bio-cultural knowledge for perpetuity. The community is making an exp
connection between their customs and traditional knowledge and the scientifi
Proceedings
thedocument
South Dakota
Academy
of Science, Vol. 91 (2012)
27
to
preserveofand
genetic
variety.
Figure 1. Diversity of native potato varieties at the Potato Park, Peru. Photo by author.
Changes to traditional practices were particularly visible at the Potato Park.
In this location it was possible to geographically confirm evolving agricultural
patterns. Site visits were initially employed to determine current planting practices. Photographic documentation was combined with remote sensing data to
determine changing cultivation patterns over time.
RESULTS
Paleoethnobotanical research at the site of Chavín de Huántar, Peru revealed
uneven distribution of quantities and densities of carbonized plant materials at
the site. The samples come from post-temple occupations in the East Atrium
sector and the La Banda sector (c.1000- 600 BCE). The data below illustrate
how remains from the East Atrium sector (Figure 2) differ in terms of differ in
terms of quantities and diversities of species represented from the La Banda data
(Figure 3).
A number of salient points are discernable from Figures 2 and 3. First, the
samples from the Atrium have a greater diversity of preserved remains. This is to
be expected as they date to a more recent time and as such have been less exposed
to the natural elements and sediment diagenesis. The parenchyma, or remains
from tubers, are large components of both sectors’ remains and are part of larger
diet patterns. The continued importance of tubers across time can be taken as
300
200
250
150
200
100
Count
Count
Figure 2: East Atrium macrobotanical plant remains
without wood, N=57
28
Proceedings
the South
Dakota Academyplant
of Science,
Vol. 91 (2012)
Figure 2: Eastof
Atrium
macrobotanical
remains
300
without wood, N=57
250
150
50
100
0
50
0
Identified specimen
Identified specimen
Figure 2. East Atrium macrobotanical plant remains without wood, N=57.
20
18
16
14
20
12
18
10
816
614
412
210
08
6
4
2
0
Figure 3: La Banda macrobotanical plant remains without
wood, N=106
Count
Count
Figure 3: La Banda macrobotanical plant remains without
wood, N=106
Indentified
specimens
Figure 3. La Banda macrobotanical plant remains without wood, N=106 .
A number of salient points areIndentified
discernable from Figures 2 and 3. First, the
samples from the Atrium have a greater
diversity of preserved remains. This is to be
specimens
expected
as they
date to a more
recent
and asdid
such
less exposed
to the
evidence
that inhabitants
of the
site time
of Chavín
nothave
havebeen
to radically
shift their
natural
elements
and
sediment
diagenesis.
The
parenchyma,
or
remains
from
tubers,
planting
practicesofover
timepoints
due toare
either
changing from
climate
or increased
availabilA number
salient
discernable
Figures
2 and 3.
First, theare
large
components
of
both
sectors’
remains
and
are
part
of
larger
diet
patterns.
The
ity of plants,
suchAtrium
as maize
(Zeaa mays),
thrive on
bottoms.
This relative
samples
from the
have
greaterthat
diversity
of valley
preserved
remains.
This
is to be
continued
importance
of
tubers
across
time
can
be
taken
as
evidence
that
inhabitants
stabilityas
in they
ancient
canrecent
be broadly
somebeen
moreless
recent
data. toofthe
expected
datepractices
to a more
time contrasted
and as suchtohave
exposed
the site
of Chavín
not Potato
have to radically
shiftkey
their
planting
practices over
time
due to
The
surveydid
of the
revealed
points
demonstrable
fromfrom
aerialtubers,
natural
elements
and
sediment Park
diagenesis.
The parenchyma,
or remains
are
images. The valley sides and bottoms have clear terraces that date back to Inka
large components of both sectors’ remains and are part of larger diet patterns. The
times, if not earlier (Figure 4). There are no clear examples of these ancient agcontinued
across
can be
takenregions
as evidence
of
riculturalimportance
terraces on of
thetubers
upslope
areas.time
In these
upper
llamas that
and inhabitants
other
thegrazing
site ofanimals
Chavín were
did not
have
to
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shift
their
planting
practices
over
time
due
to
traditionally kept. In modern times rising temperatures
traditionally kept. In modern times rising temperatures have prompted local farmers to
begin planting cold tolerant varieties of potato in the northern upslope area (Figure 4). If
these
varietiesofofthe
potatoes
not planted
in these
areas
may not thrive and
Proceedings
SouthareDakota
Academy
of highland
Science, Vol.
91they
(2012)
29
could disappear from the local pool of diversity.
Figure 4. Potato Park with close-up of Lake Kinsaqocha showing ancient terraced fields below the
high slopes
with recent
fields planted
the lake.
Figure
4. Potato
Park informal
with close-up
of Lakearound
Kinsaqocha
showing ancient terraced fields
below the high slopes with recent informal fields planted around the lake.
Figure 5. Lake Kinsaqocha with recently planted potato fields visible on the opposite shore of
the lake. Photo by author.
Figure 5. Lake Kinsaqocha with recently planted potato fields visible on the opposite
shore of the lake. Photo by author.
30
have prompted local farmers to begin planting cold tolerant varieties of potato in
the northern upslope area (Figure 4). If these varieties of potatoes are not planted
in these highland areas they may not thrive and could disappear from the local
pool of diversity.
DISCUSSION
This initial research into past and present uses of potatoes revealed two
distinct findings. First, potatoes were consumed at valley bottom sites in the
pre-Conquest Andes for thousands of years. Chavín de Huántar’s relatively low
elevation, 3100 masl, likely demonstrates that in the past tubers were easily
grown and moved from local fields down to the valley bottom. This was not
solely a plant suitable for mountain top and altiplano cultivation. Rather, it was
likely interspersed with maize and beans (Phaseolus sp.). The current conception
that tubers are more suitable for higher elevations may have been an agricultural
concept that developed over time as greater numbers of lowland plants were
introduced to the valleys of the Andean mountains (Ugent et al. 1982). This
evidence of slowly changing agricultural practices demonstrates that past farmers
conservatively preserved traditions but at the same time they were able to change
planting patterns over time.
This conclusion has a direct corollary to the second aspect of this project.
The initial survey of planting practices at the Potato Park revealed that potatoes
were grown primarily in the upslope areas of the park, not on the valley bottoms
which were primarily planted with maize. The longstanding practice of planting
on higher ground has occurred for at least six hundred years as is visible from
the Inka terraces that surround the archaeological site of Pisac. Yet, the changing
climate is forcing the farmers to plant further upslope, in areas that have not
been cultivated previously. As Figure 5 illustrates there are no visible terraces in
this highland region. Rather the vegetation is predominately composed of native bunch grasses, ichu (Stipa sp.), and there are no indications of past terracing
in this area. The lack of terracing and the local accounts of changing practices
due to climate change revealed that farmers are entering a new agricultural reality, one shared by farmers and ecologists across the world (Lenoir et al. 2008).
If they hope to preserve their frost tolerant adaptive varieties they will have to
continue to move their crops upslope. Yet, this is a limited space and there are
no suitable soils in the true alpine zone; the continued desire to preserve native
diversity may be running out of space. Continued survey in the region will be
necessary to document how quickly these changes are occurring, and outreach
efforts will need to be made to communities at higher elevations to see if they
can become caretakers of this crop diversity of the Andes. As recent research has
demonstrated, subsistence farmers with more stable finances were better able to
adapt their farming practices to the changing planet (Kristjanson et al. 2012).
Places like the Potato Park that seek to preserve cultural and ecological diversity
are of tremendous importance to a world undergoing rapid change and homogenization.
31
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks- Centro International de la Papa, Global Heritage Fund- Conservation Fellow Program, the Parque de la Papa, and the South Dakota Academy of
Science.
LITERATURE CITED
D’Altroy, T. 2002. The Incas. Blackwell Publishers. Malden, MA.
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations). 2008. International Year of the Potato: New light on a hidden treasure. Rome, Italy.
Patti Kristjanson, H. Neufeldt, A. Gassner, J. Mango, F. B. Kyazze, S. Desta, G.
Sayula, B. Thiede, W. Förch, P. K. Thornton, and R. Coe. 2012 Are food
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33
USING SOUTH DAKOTA DUCK EGGS AS A
MEANS OF TIME-TRAVEL RESEARCH INTO
THE PAST 150 YEARS OF CLIMATE HISTORY
Julie R. DeJong* and Kenneth F. Higgins
Department of Natural Resource Management
Brookings, SD 57007
*Corresponding author email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
We collected maximum length and width (± 0.1 mm) of 4,257 duck eggs,
which represent 12 different duck species nesting in South Dakota. These results
were part of a larger on-going project which is analyzing the possible effects of
climate changes on the size of North American duck eggs (DeJong and Higgins
2011). Hundreds of waterfowl specimens and waterfowl eggs that were collected
from South Dakota during the last 150 years are currently archived in museums
throughout North America. The early collection efforts of various oologists plus
the foresight of others to preserve the eggs in some of North America’s private
and public museums have enabled us to conduct a type of time travel research
on duck eggs that were collected and preserved as early as 1859. Egg size metrics were taken from museum egg collections of duck eggs which were collected
from 1877-1922 (N = 371) and from 3,886 eggs measured during recent (20092010) duck nesting studies in eastern South Dakota. All of the eggs collected
or measured for this research originated in 14 eastern South Dakota counties,
emphasizing the scarcity of duck egg collection and duck nesting research in
western South Dakota. Egg volumes from five species of ducks in South Dakota
indicated a statistically significant (P < 0.05) relationship to climate conditions
(Palmer Drought Severity Indices). Duck egg volume of nine species varied between years when collected and/or measured.
Keywords
ducks, eggs, climate, South Dakota, museum
INTRODUCTION
Climate is not a stable condition. It changes due to large scale factors such as
the periodic changes of the earth’s orbit and also due to finer scale factors such
as the amount of cloud cover blocking incoming sunlight. North America has
experienced many changes in climate throughout history. During the last 150
years, several droughts have occurred across the United States. One of North
America’s most memorable droughts, often referred to as The Dust Bowl, oc-
34
curred throughout the Great Plains during the 1930s. However, climate data
also show time periods with above normal precipitation events. During the last
50 years, high annual precipitation conditions were occurring in some North
American regions (Gutowski et al. 2008), while other regions were experiencing
drought conditions. North American duck species often migrate long distances
during the spring on their way to northern breeding locations, and may pass
through both wet and dry climate extremes. Climates across North America are
predicted to become more extreme (Gutowski et al. 2008). How have ducks
responded to extensive periods of drought or flooding encountered during migration and nesting, and what may be their response to future climate change?
Numerous types of data have been or are being used to track climate change,
including studies of tree-ring growth patterns (Fritts 1991), core samples from
glacial ice (Alley 2000), and temperature and precipitation measurements across
years and geographic locations (Jones and Mann 2004). Collateral studies of
climate change effects have also been conducted on several kinds of animals, including polar bears (Derocher et al. 2004; Schliebe 2010), butterflies (Parmesan
et al. 1999), and penguins (Barbraud and Weimerskirch 2001; Cunningham
and Moors 1994). Researchers have found that the timing of seasonal activities
of plants and animals have changed with climate changes (Brown et al. 1999;
Menzel and Estrella 2001; Walther et al. 2002). Some birds are nesting earlier
than in documented history (Brown et al. 1999; Crick and Sparks 1999), while
others are laying eggs which are larger than in the past (Jarvinen 1994) due to
warmer spring temperatures. Scientists predict future variation in the distribution of vegetation due to climate changes (US Environmental Protection Agency
2011, U.S. Forest Service 2010). Additionally, climate change will have an effect
on abiotic factors such as the presence and depth of lakes and ponds, and the
intensity and frequency of weather events. These factors are extremely important
when considering smaller, temporary wetlands like those found in the Prairie
Pothole Region of South Dakota. However, except for some recent habitat effects modeling (Burkett and Kusler 2007; Johnson et al. 2005), a comparison
of duck abundance variability due to agriculture and precipitation (Bethke and
Nudds 1995), and reproductive performance and body condition studies of
marine birds (Sydeman et al. 2001), very little other information exists relative
to direct or indirect effects of climate change on ducks or their eggs relative to
the past 150 years.
Drought conditions cause prairie pothole wetlands to diminish in size or to dry
out completely. This in turn reduces the habitat and food resources available for
hens during the nesting season. Hens rely heavily on food resources to provide
them with the extra energy needed to produce eggs. If there is less food available, hens may lay fewer and possibly smaller eggs. Eldridge and Krapu (1988)
found that mallard hens with enhanced nutrition produced larger eggs than hens
that were fed a natural diet. Our research utilized duck egg measurements from
museum collections eggs and recent field studies to determine if past climate
changes, such as drought, have had any effect on the size of duck eggs during
the last 150 years.
Hundreds of waterfowl specimens and waterfowl eggs from South Dakota are
currently archived in museum collections throughout North America (Table 1;
35
ORNIS 2011). These specimens are stored in climate-controlled, insect-free storage facilities (Figure 1). Egg shells do not change in size or shape through time
unless they become physically damaged. Egg collectors have adopted a standardized system of preserving and marking the eggs that they collect. The contents of
an egg are removed through a small hole drilled in the side of the egg. Each egg is
then labeled with the bird species name and/or American Ornithologists Union
(AOU) code, the date of collection from the nest, and the number of eggs that
were in that clutch (Figure 2). Additionally, each egg/clutch is accompanied by a
nest card. The nest card contains the same information listed above, but may also
contain more details about the eggs, the collector, and descriptions and locations
of the nest (Figure 3). Occasionally the hen and nest would also be collected.
Through time, the eggs from most private collections have been transferred to
repositories in museums across North America. A few museums, such as the
Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology in California, contain over a million
bird and egg specimens.
Even though the practices of some commercial collectors severely affected
some bird populations, egg collecting did serve a very important long-term
purpose. Generally, an average egg collector was also a naturalist, recording information about the time of nesting and the type of nest or habitat used during
nesting. This information has enabled scientists to understand more about each
bird species. Early harvests by naturalists such as John James Audubon led to
the first published bird identification guides. William Over and Craig Thoms
Figure 1. Duck eggs in storage at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Eggs
are stored in dark, dry, and cool conditions to inhibit fading, dust collection, and fungus growth.
36
Figure 2. Egg collectors used a standardized labeling system. Each egg would have the American
Ornithologist’s Union unique identification code for each species above the drill hole. In this case
the number 135 signifies that this egg was from a Gadwall. The number of sets of eggs of that
species which were collected that day is denoted by the top number over the dividing line. The
number of eggs in the clutch was written under the dividing line. The date the egg was collected
was also written on the egg.
published the first comprehensive bird guide for South Dakota (The Birds of
South Dakota) in 1920. Museum collections have also been used for determining the past geographic distribution of certain species (McNair and Dean 2003),
the timing of nesting (Tryjanowski 2002) and other natural history information.
One of the most important and well-known uses for museum egg collections
was the detection of the pesticide DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) in
egg shell fragments. DDT caused egg shells to become brittle and weak, resulting in the parents crushing or breaking the eggs when they settled their weight
upon them during incubation. Museum egg collections represent thousands of
bird species and provide specimens from a wide range of geographic locations
and time periods which are impossible to reproduce with current field studies.
METHODS
We used digital calipers to obtained maximum width (W) and length (L)
measurements (± 0.1mm) of 69,960 duck eggs (DeJong and Higgins 2011)
from museums and field research. Eggs in museum collections were originally
collected from across North America from 1859-1979. Some eggs were missing
location data (2,109 eggs), and other eggs were originally collected from Iceland
or Greenland (314 eggs), so were removed from analysis as were eggs that were
cracked or broken. Additionally, duck eggs were measured during past and pres-
37
Figure 3. Each clutch of eggs in a museum collection is accompanied by a nest card or catalog
card. The nest card contains information about when and where the clutch was found, the certainty of identification, the collector, the number of eggs in the clutch, the stage of incubation,
and other details about the nest site.
ent field research (1980-2010). Approximately 6% of all eggs in this database
were collected or measured in South Dakota; 371 eggs were collected during
the time period 1877-1922 (Table 2), and the other 3,886 eggs were measured
at the nest and immediately replaced in the nest during duck nesting field studies conducted in 2009 and 2010. Overall, the eggs of 12 species of ducks were
measured from 14 counties in eastern South Dakota. Volume (cm3) for each egg
was calculated using the equation 0.51*LW2 (Hoyt 1979). In order to examine
past climate over a large geographical area and longer time scale, we used Palmer
Drought Severity Indices (PDSI) which are reconstructed from tree-ring data
(Cook et al. 1999, 2004). PDSI values are calculated using the past and current
precipitation and temperature of a particular area, and are an indicator of longterm drought or extremely wet conditions. The index values are as follows: 1) Extreme drought (-4.0 and below), 2) Severe drought (-3.00 to -3.99), 3) Moderate
drought (-2.00 to -2.99), 4) Mid-range (-1.99 to +1.99), 5) Moderately moist
(+2.00 to +2.99), 6) Very moist (+3.00 to +3.99), and Extremely moist (+4.00
and above). PDSI values were acquired for the year and nearest location for the
original nest location. We then conducted linear regression modeling to examine
the relationships between egg volume (cm3) and PDSI value for the eggs of 12
duck species found in South Dakota using R Statistical Software Version 2.13.2
(R Development Core Team 2008).
38
RESULTS
Blue-winged teal (Anas discors), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and gadwall (Anas
strepera) were the most commonly found duck eggs during field research in
2009 and 2010 in South Dakota. Eggs from certain species, such as ruddy duck
(Oxyura jamaicensis), canvasback (Aythya valisineria) and green-winged teal (Anas
crecca) were measured only from early museum collections (Table 2), while certain others, such as the wood duck (Aix sponsa) and lesser scaup (Aythya affinis),
were found only during field research in 2009 and 2010.
Eggs collected in South Dakota from blue-winged teal, mallard, gadwall, and
canvasback (Table 3) were smaller than the previously published average size
(Bellrose 1980; Baicich and Harrison1997). American wigeon (Anas americana)
eggs were larger than previously published. Egg volumes from five species of
ducks in South Dakota indicated a statistically significant (P < 0.05) relationship to climate conditions (Table 4). PDSI values were not significantly different between 2009 and 2010, but varied substantially in the years 1877-2010.
Blue-winged teal and green-winged teal egg volumes were larger during periods
of moderately moist conditions (+ 1.0 to + 3.49 PDSI), and were smaller during years that were either extremely drier or wetter (Table 5). Northern shoveler
(Anas clypeata) eggs (N = 380) were larger during years with severe or extreme
drought conditions than they were in years with moist conditions. Northern
pintail (Anas acuta) egg volume was greater during mid-range conditions (- 1.24
to + 0.99 PDSI) than during extremely moist conditions (> +3.5 PDSI). Eggs of
the American wigeon had the strongest response to PDSI variability (P < 0.05,
R2 = 0.82), but unfortunately the number of specimens from this species was low
(N = 20), and constituted only three clutches. The egg volume of nine species of
ducks also varied significantly between years of collection or measurement (Table
4). Additional statistical analysis of the entire duck egg dataset is currently underway, and will provide more information concerning the effects of past climates
on duck egg sizes across North America.
DISCUSSION
Climate during the duck breeding season in South Dakota periodically alternates between drought and flooding and affects the occurrence and availability of wetlands. Eastern South Dakota experienced above normal precipitation
during the summers of both 2009 and 2010, but is experiencing mid-range to
moderate drought conditions in 2012. Our results indicate that ducks may be
compensating physiologically for the fluctuation in nutritional and habitat resources during dynamic hydrological periods by modifying the size of their eggs.
Larger eggs produce ducklings which are more capable of fending off starvation
(Rhymer 1988), surviving cold temperatures, and feeding at a greater rate than
ducklings from smaller eggs (Anderson and Alisauskas 2001). The lack of suitable breeding and feeding habitats, as are predicted under future warmer climate
change scenarios, could lead to a large-scale decline in overall duck recruitment
and production, and hence a decline in duck populations (Johnson et al. 2005).
39
Surprisingly, the response of “dabbling” feeders, those which rely on shallow
wetlands during the breeding season, varied among species. There is likely an
ideal climate under which each species is able to be the most productive. Small,
temporary wetlands are the first to disappear during drought conditions, forcing
ducks into larger wetlands for feeding. Certain species, such as the blue-winged
teal, specifically target seasonal and temporary wetlands during the breeding
season. Other species, such as mallards, are more adaptable in their wetland selection. Therefore, the loss of seasonal and temporary wetlands due to drainage
and long-term drought conditions would likely have a larger effect on habitatconstrained species such as the blue-winged teal than on more adaptable species.
Other factors which may play a role in the annual variation in the size of eggs
are the age of the hen, nutrition limitations or additional stressors during spring
migration, and difficult wintering conditions, to name just a few. Variation in
interspecific and intraspecific egg sizes has been documented in previous studies
(Krapu 1979; Ankney 1980; Birkhead 1985; Rohwer 1986; Hepp et al. 1987);
however, the factors which play a role in those variations are not known. Regional variation in egg size of individual species may also exist, due to changes
in food resources and genetics. The eggs measured for certain species were often
smaller in South Dakota than the average size previously published (Bellrose
1980; Baicich and Harrison 1997).
The greatest hurdles for this research project were the gaps in data both temporally and spatially. Long-term data (eggs and climate) in specific locations were
not available. For example, our sample size of eggs from South Dakota was low
- only 6% of the total eggs measured for this project. It is unfortunate that so
few duck eggs were historically collected for preservation from South Dakota. As
part of the Prairie Pothole Region, South Dakota contains some of the most productive habitats for duck populations in the United States. The remoteness and
low human population of South Dakota are likely the prevailing factors limiting
the number of eggs collected in this state. European settlement of South Dakota
officially began in 1851, and was later augmented by the installation of the first
railroad tracks in 1877 (Hufstetler and Bedeau 1998). In 1870, only 11,776
people resided in southern Dakota Territory (Hufstetler and Bedeau 1998), the
majority of which lived in what is now eastern South Dakota. The railroad line
was completed as far as Sioux City, Iowa in 1868, which could help account for
the earliest eggs (blue-winged teal, mallard, redhead (Aythya americana), and
northern shoveler) which were collected nearby in Clay and Lincoln Counties
in 1877.
The earliest information about duck eggs acquired in South Dakota was likely
not gathered by university-trained scientists, but instead by farmers, ranchers,
hunters, doctors, and clergymen. These citizens had a genuine interest in the
environment, and spent many hours trudging through prairies and wetlands or
climbing trees to acquire eggs and bird specimens. Egg hunting was a very popular hobby for the nation’s young men during the late 1800s through the early
1900s. Eggs, nests and birds that were collected either were kept in home display
cabinets or were sold commercially. A large percentage of bird and egg collections
occurred before binoculars were commonly available, so to get a good look at a
bird and identify it, meant you had to shoot it first. Birds were often collected
40
with a “naturalist shotgun” as they flew from the nest (Henderson 2007). As a
hobby, egg collecting could be an arduous affair. The collector’s mode of travel
was often limited to walking, riding horseback or the use of a horse drawn buggy.
If they were lucky and could afford the luxury, collectors could take a train or riverboat on long journeys, and then hire a horse drawn buggy for the remainder of
the expedition (Raine 1892). Some collectors hired native peoples to collect eggs
for them (Raine 1892). Collection activity dropped off in the 1930s, presumably
due to the economic depression and the Dust Bowl droughts.
Few eggs have been collected since the implementation of the Migratory Bird
Treaty Act, enacted in 1918 with the goal of protecting migratory birds such as
ducks and geese from the extreme overharvests which were occurring throughout
North America. Collectors are now required to go through a permitting process
with state and federal wildlife agencies before they can collect eggs. Technological
advances such as automobiles, digital cameras, global positioning systems (GPS),
binoculars, spotting scopes, and detailed guide books not only enable more
people to enjoy birding, but they also enable identification of the bird without
having to collect the birds or their eggs. Currently, few bird or egg specimens are
purposely taken for collections. Most are acquired through accidental deaths due
to collisions with vehicles or windows, natural deaths due to disease, or predation by domestic pets. Researchers from The Western Foundation of Vertebrate
Zoology are still collecting eggs, but at a much reduced number than in the past.
Many museums are struggling to maintain funding for preserving and housing the eggs that they already have (Suarez and Tsutsui 2004). Additional egg
collections would require more storage space, labor and increased funding. On
the other hand, the lack of further collecting of eggs will result in data gaps for
future research. We believe that eggs should continue to be collected to provide
future generations with a continuous data and reference source. Federal and State
guidelines and permits are in place to limit the excessive or illegal overharvest of
birds and eggs, not to totally limit the scientific collection and storage of future
specimens. None of our research on climate change effects on duck egg size metrics or the earlier efforts on the effects of DDT on egg shell thinning could have
been possible without eggs because the samples and metrics needed for these
projects could not have been obtained from photo images alone. Considerable
effort is still being focused on waterfowl nesting studies in South Dakota as well
as in other states and Canadian Provinces. With the advent of new technology,
a well-planned coordinated effort by various public and private agencies and
educational institutions could assure and sustain a continuous waterfowl egg
database that would be available for many types of future research efforts.
We hope our duck egg research stimulates thought about other possible uses
of egg collections and of other kinds of specimen collections in museums around
the world. By making use of these collections, we pay tribute to those early
naturalists for their hard work, perseverance and love of nature. The early collection efforts of various oologists plus the foresight of others to preserve the eggs
in some of North America’s private and public museums enabled us to conduct
a type of time travel research on duck eggs that were collected and preserved as
early as 1859.
41
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the assistance of fellow researchers from the
South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks (SDGF&P), the University
of Minnesota, South Dakota State University (SDSU), and the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (FWS) Madison Wetland Management District who generously
measured eggs for us in South Dakota during their own duck nesting research
activities. We would also like to thank the following museums for their hospitality and access to historic South Dakota duck egg collections: The Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology, The American Museum of Natural History, The
Field Museum, The Bell Natural History Museum, The Smithsonian National
Museum of Natural History, and the Michigan State University Natural History
Museum. Dr. Robert W. Klaver and Dr. Kent C. Jensen provided earlier review
of this manuscript. Financial and/or administrative and equipment support were
provided by the Natural Resources Management Department at SDSU, the
FWS Region 3 Office in Minneapolis, Minnesota; by Dr . Rex Johnson, HAPET
Office, Fergus Falls, Minnesota, and by the S.D. Cooperative Fish and Wildlife
Research Unit at SDSU with SDSU, the FWS, the SDGF&P, and the Wildlife
Management Institute cooperating. We thank all involved for helping make this
project possible.
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Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 48(2): 101-106.
U. S. Forest Service. 2010. Climate change may impact maple syrup production.
USDA Forest Service News Release No. 1022. Washington, D. C.
44
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. Climate change - Health and
Environmental Effects. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available
at http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/forests.html. [Cited February
2012].
Walther, G.-R., E. Post, P. Convey, A. Menzel, C. Parmesan, T.J.C. Beebee,
J.-M. Fromentin, , O. Hoegh-Guldberg, and F. Bairlein. 2002. Ecological
responses to recent climate change. Nature 416:389-395.
Table 1. Waterfowl specimens (Family Anatidae) from South Dakota can be located in museums
across the United States.The storage locations and information below are from the Ornithological Networked Information System (ORNIS 2011) and may not include all possible storage locations. Some records do not specify the number of eggs in the clutch, and are then signified in the
table by the term: Eggs/clutch. If the exact number of specimens could be acquired from ORNIS,
that number is listed behind the specimen type in parentheses.
SPECIMEN TYPE
(NUMBER)
NAME OF MUSEUM
LOCATION OF MUSEUM
Smithsonian National Museum
of Natural History
Washington, D.C.
Eggs (91), Skins (52),
Skeletons (11)
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
Eggs (9), Skeletons(2)
Bell Museum
University of Minnesota
Eggs (11), Skins and /or
Skeletons
Field Museum
Chicago, Illinois
Eggs (64), Skins and/or
Skeletons
Western Foundation of
Vertebrate Zoology
Camarillo, California
Eggs (110), Skins and/or
Skeletons
American Museum of
Natural History
New York, New York
Eggs (86), Skins (2)
UCLA Dickey Collection
University of California
Los Angeles, California
Skin (1)
Humboldt State University
Arcata, California
Skins (7)
Burke Museum of Natural
History and Culture
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
Skeletons (3)
Sam Noble Oklahoma
Museum of Natural History
University of Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma
Egg/clutch (1), Skin (1)
Santa Barbara Museum of
Natural History
Santa Barbara, California
Skins (2)
Museum of Comparative
Zoology at Harvard University
Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Egg/clutch (1), Skins (34)
University of Kansas
Natural History Museum
University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas
Skins (23), Skeletons (4)
University of Michigan
Museum of Zoology
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Skins (45), Skeletons (2)
Delaware Museum of
Natural History
Wilmington, Delaware
Skins (7)
Florida Museum of
Natural History
Gainesville, Florida
Egg/clutch (3)
45
Table 2. Duck species and locations of eggs collected from 1877-1922 in South Dakota. Museums
are identified by the following acronyms: Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology (WFVZ),
American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), Field Museum of Natural History (Field), Bell
Museum of Natural History (Bell), Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (NMNH)
and Michigan State University (MSU).
COMMON NAME
COUNTY
Charles Mix
Clay
MUSEUM (NUMBER OF EGGS): YEAR
COLLECTED
Moody
Sanborn
WFVZ (5):1910
AMNH (14):1877; Field (1):1879;
WFVZ (12):1884 Field (12):Unknown date
Field (2):1893
Bell (6):1891; AMNH (11):1891;
NMNH (12):1892; WFVZ(11):1913
AMNH (2):1882
WFVZ(12):1922
Mallard
Clay
Douglas
Miner
AMNH (12):1877
Field (2):1893
Field (1):1893
Green-winged Teal
Clay
Kingsbury
AMNH (9):1880
WFVZ (4): 1922
Northern Pintail
Bon Homme
Miner
NMNH (7):1893
NMNH (9): 1891
Gadwall
Clay
Kingsbury
Miner
AMNH (7):1888
NMNH (11):1894
WFVZ (9):1922
Charles Mix
Lincoln
Miner
Minnehaha
WFVZ (6):1911
WFVZ (6):1877; AMNH (8):1877
NMNH (10):1891: NMNH (9):1892;
MSU (9):1893; AMNH (9):1893
Field (11):1896
American Wigeon
Kingsbury
Miner
WFVZ (5):1922
NMNH (9): unknown date
Canvasback
Douglas
Hamlin
Miner
WFVZ (2):1893
NMNH (5):1901
WFVZ (8):1888; Bell (5):1890
Ruddy Duck
Kingsbury
Moody
Union
Miner
Field (12):1922
AMNH (13):1882
Field (3):1891
NMNH (10):1892
Redhead
Beadle
Brown
Kingsbury
Lincoln
Sanborn
WFVZ (7):1885
WFVZ (12):1914
WFVZ (11):1922; Field (16):1922
AMNH (9):1877
Field (4):1892
Blue-winged Teal
Northern Shoveler
Douglas
Miner
46
Table 3. Measurements of eggs from museum collections and field surveys in South Dakota.
Published egg sizes (Bellrose 1980; Baicich and Harrison 1997) for comparison are in the last
two columns.
BAICICH
AND
HARRISON
Length x
Width (mm)
BELLROSE
Length x
Width (mm)
NUMBER
OF
EGGS
VOLUME
(cm3) Mean
(Min.-Max.)
LENGTH
(mm) Mean
(Min.-Max.)
WIDTH
(mm) Mean
(Min.-Max.)
Wood duck
121
36.34
(33.50-53.71)
51.15
(47.5-57.9)
38.80
(36.8-43.8)
52 x 40
51.1 x 38.8
Blue-winged Teal
1536
26.22
(19.63-46.5)
46.27
(36.1-56.4)
33.31
(30.4-44.0)
47 x 33
47.1 x 33.9
Mallard
1076
46.87
(29.76-66.91)
55.87
(46.8-65.5)
40.51
(32.5-45.1)
58 x 41
57.8 x 41.6
Northern Pintail
186
38.83
(26.67-45.22)
53.37
(35.1-58.3)
37.74
(34.6-40.9)
54 x 37
53.6 x 38.2
Gadwall
602
41.11
(30.21-51.16)
53.26
(47.9-59.0)
38.88
(34.4-42.3)
54 x 39
55.3 x 39.7
Northern Shoveler
380
37.04
(28.69-67.43)
52.44
(47-60.28)
37.15
(34-47.1)
52 x 37
52.2 x 37
American Wigeon
20
44.78
(37.23-59.55)
55.14
(51.22-62.4)
39.74
(37.75-43.5)
54 x 38
53.9 x 38.3
Redhead
113
58.4
(47.95-68.78)
60.27
(55.85-69.9)
43.55
(40.4-45.39)
61 x 43
60.2 x 43.4
Lesser Scaup
152
45.41
(39.74-53.47)
57.11
(51.3-61)
39.46
(37.3-42.5)
58 x 40
57.1 x 39.7
Canvasback
20
56.67
(50.44-67.35)
59.68
(54.78-62.9)
43.12
(41.39-45.82)
63 x 45
63.7 x 44.6
Ruddy Duck
38
67.26
(54.52-77.65)
62.5
(59.21-66.19)
45.91
(42.49-48.28)
64 x 42
62.3 x 45.6
Green-winged Teal
13
26.65
(23.55-29.84)
46.33
(42.93-49.19)
33.56
(32.39-35.1)
46 x 32
45.8 x 34.2
COMMON
NAME
47
Table 4. Results from linear regressions of duck egg volume against PDSI values and year of egg
collection or measurement. A dash (-) indicates a species with non-significant relationship between egg volume and the independent variable (PDSI Index or Year).
EGG VOLUME~PDSI INDEX
Northern Pintail
EGG VOLUME~YEAR
Estimate
P-value
R2
Estimate
P-value
R2
-0.37
0.003
0.05
-0.02
0.024
0.027
Northern Shoveler
-0.34
3.08e-05
0.05
-0.01
0.027
0.013
American Wigeon
-3.25
0.0001
0.82
0.01
0.001
0.463
Green-winged Teal
1.55
0.016
0.43
0.07
0.016
0.43
Gadwall
-
-
-
-0.01
0.064
0.006
Canvasback
-
-
-
0.39
0.029
0.238
Ruddy Duck
-
-
-
0.12
0.005
0.198
Mallard
-
-
-
-0.04
0.0001
0.014
2.96e-04
0.0004
0.01
-0.01
0.038
0.003
Blue-winged Teal
Table 5. Average egg volumes for each duck species according to PDSI category. A dash (-) indicates the lack of egg metrics data for that PDSI category.
AVERAGE EGG VOLUME (cm3) IN EACH PDSI CATEGORY
< -2.75
-2.00 to
-2.74
-1.25 to
-1.99
-1.24 to
0.99
1.0 to
2.49
2.5 to
3.49
>3.5
Northern Pintail
--
--
--
40.62
--
--
38.83
Northern Shoveler
--
55.44
38.00
52.72
52.49
--
52.28
American Wigeon
--
--
--
--
56.34
--
43.66
Green-winged Teal
Gadwall
Canvasback
--
--
--
25.73
28.73
--
--
39.13
--
--
--
44.84
--
41.04
--
--
56.92
54.47
56.91
--
--
65.68
Ruddy Duck
--
--
--
66.17
70.16
Mallard
--
--
50.73
59.75
50.00
-46.83
Blue-winged Teal
--
--
--
45.47
47.13
47.36
46.25
Redhead
--
--
--
57.73
59.22
59.35
57.90
Lesser scaup
--
--
--
--
--
--
45.41
Wood duck
--
--
--
---
--
--
36.34
49
RESULTS OF PALEOFLOOD INVESTIGATIONS FOR
SPRING, RAPID, BOXELDER, AND ELK CREEKS,
BLACK HILLS, WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA
Daniel G. Driscoll1*, Jim E. O’Connor2, and Tessa M. Harden3
1
U.S. Geological Survey
1608 Mt. View Road, Rapid City, SD 57702
2
U.S. Geological Survey
2130 SW Fifth Avenue, Portland, OR 97201
3
Bureau of Reclamation
Denver Federal Center, Building 67, Denver, CO 80225
ABSTRACT
Flood-frequency analyses for the Black Hills area are especially important because of severe flooding of June 9–10, 1972, that was caused by a large mesoscale
convective system and resulted in at least 238 deaths. This paper summarizes
results of paleoflood investigations for six study reaches in the central Black Hills.
Stratigraphic records and resulting long-term flood chronologies, locally extending more than 2,000 years, were combined with observed and historical flood
information to derive flood-frequency estimates. Results indicate that floods as
large as and even substantially larger than 1972 have affected most of the study
reaches. Results of the paleoflood investigations provide better physically based
information on low-probability floods than has been previously available, substantially improving estimates of the magnitude and frequency of large floods in
the central Black Hills and reducing associated uncertainties. Collectively, the
results provide insights regarding regional flood-generation processes and their
spatial controls, enable approaches for extrapolation of results for hazard assessment beyond specific study reaches, and provide a millennial-scale perspective
on the 1972 flooding.
Keywords
Paleoflood, slack-water deposits, stratigraphic records, flood-frequency analyses
INTRODUCTION
Flood-frequency analyses for the Black Hills of western South Dakota are
especially important and technically challenging (Sando et al. 2008) because of
severe flooding of June 9–10, 1972, along the eastern flanks of the Black Hills
(Schwarz et al. 1975). Flooding was caused by a large mesoscale convective system and resulted in at least 238 deaths (Carter et al. 2002). Many 1972 peak
50
flows are high outliers (by factors of 10 or more) in records that date back to the
early 1900s for some streamgages.
In appropriate environments, an efficient means of reducing uncertainties regarding probabilities of flood recurrence is to augment observed records by using
paleohydrologic techniques (Stedinger and Baker 1987)—typically using stratigraphic and paleobotanical evidence to determine ages and magnitudes of previous large floods predating observed records (paleofloods). This paper provides a
condensation of a much lengthier report by Harden et al. (2011) on paleoflood
investigations for the Black Hills area that included analyses of stratigraphic
evidence, timing, and magnitudes for large floods on Spring Creek, Rapid Creek
(two reaches), Boxelder Creek (two subreaches), and Elk Creek. Driscoll et al.
(2011) also provided additional information regarding implementation of this
study, for which the primary objective was to improve flood-frequency characterization of especially large (low-probability) floods for the six study reaches
through paleoflood investigations. Agencies cooperating with the U.S. Geological Survey included the South Dakota Department of Transportation, Federal
Emergency Management Agency, city of Rapid City, and West Dakota Water
Development District. An abbreviated overview of results of paleoflood investigations for the Black Hills area was provided by Driscoll et al. (2012).
STUDY AREA AND METHODS
The study area (Figure 1) included the Spring Creek, Rapid Creek (two reaches), Boxelder Creek (two subreaches), and Elk Creek drainage basins within the
central Black Hills. Long-term frequency analyses were developed from paleoflood investigations within the six study reaches and were based on multiple sites
of stratigraphic analysis within each reach in conjunction with geochronology
and hydraulic modeling.
The primary evidence for past large floods consists of stratigraphic records
formed of fine-grained sediment deposits preserved in slack-water environments.
These deposits accumulate and can record multiple floods where (1) velocities are
relatively low, which can allow deposition of suspended sediment and (2) conditions are suitable for preservation. Numerous locations in canyons along the
eastern flanks of the Black Hills provide excellent environments for (1) deposition and preservation of stratigraphic sequences of late-Holocene flood deposits,
primarily in overhanging ledges, alcoves, and small caves flanking the streams,
and (2) hydraulic analyses for determination of associated flow magnitudes.
The formation and identification of slack-water deposits is enhanced by igneous and metamorphic rocks of Precambrian and Tertiary age within the headwaters of all study basins (Figure 1). These rocks weather to produce micaceous
sand fine enough to be readily entrained during large floods, and thereby creating
large suspended-sediment loads, but sufficiently coarse to settle rapidly in slackwater environments producing depositional sequences. Five of the study reaches
(all except the reach upstream from Pactola Reservoir along Rapid Creek) are in
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks (Ordovician- and Cambrian-age Deadwood Formation through the Permian-age lower Spearfish Formation). Here the distinctly
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51
CUSTER
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Fairburn
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PARK
Hydrogeologic units modified from Strobel and others, 1999
EXPLANATION
Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,
1977–85, 1:100,000
Rapid City, Office of City Engineer map, 1996, 1:18,000
Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 13
0
2
4
6
8
Study reach or subreach
Reach of detailed paleoflood
site investigations and
hydraulic analysis
10 MILES
Boundary of study basin
0 2 4 6 8 10 KILOMETERS
X
SOUTH
BLACK HILLS
06425500
Study area
DAKOTA
06408500
Location of detailed paleoflood
site investigation
Streamgage and identification
number
Stratigraphic
Hydrogeologic units units
Unconsolidated units
White River aquifer
Tertiary intrusive units
Tui
Cretaceous-sequence
confining unit
Kps
Inyan Kara aquifer
Kik
Jurassic-sequence
semiconfining unit
Spearfish confining unit
Ju
Minnekahta aquifer
Opeche confining unit
Minnelusa aquifer
Map units
QTac Alluvium and colluvium,
undifferentiated
Tw White River Group
Undifferentiated intrusive
igneous rocks
Pierre Shale to Skull Creek Shale,
undifferentiated
Inyan Kara Group
Morrison Formation to Sundance
Formation, undifferentiated
Ps Spearfish Formation
Pmk Minnekahta Limestone
Po
Opeche Shale
PPm Minnelusa Formation
Madison aquifer MDme Madison (Pahasapa) Limestone
and Englewood Formation
Ou Whitewood Formation and
Winnipeg Formation
OCd Deadwood Formation
Ordovician-sequence
semiconfining unit
Deadwood aquifer
Precambrian igneous and
metamorphic units
pCu Undifferentiated igneous
and metamorphic rocks
Figure 1. Distribution of hydrogeologic units within the Black Hills area, locations of detailed
paleoflood site investigations, and locations of selected streamgages.
Figure 1. Distribution of hydrogeologic units within the Black Hills area, locations of detailed
paleoflood site investigations, and locations of selected streamgages.
micaceous sands derived from the headwater areas are unambiguously distinguishable from deposits of local tributaries, slopewash, or sediment spalling from
cave and alcove ceilings and walls, none of which contain mica. Another key
aspect is the long-term stability of the channel and valley geometry, providing
persistent sites of slack-water deposition and increasing confidence in hydraulic
52
computations of past floods from modern channel geometry. All study reaches
are in narrow valleys laterally constrained by steep bedrock slopes where flood
stages change markedly with flow, thus improving reliability of flow estimates
derived from elevations of flood deposits. Additionally, bedrock formations are
exposed locally in channel thalwegs for all study reaches, indicating that streams
are flowing on relatively thin alluvial deposits with limited potential for channel
scour. An estimated long-term regional erosion rate of 0.08 feet per thousand
years (Harden et al. 2011) is consistent with the premise of overall channel stability for the last several thousand years.
The overall approach consisted of (1) interpreting individual chronologies of
flood stages from stratigraphic analysis and age dating of slack-water deposits for
multiple sites within a study reach; (2) estimating peak-flow magnitudes associated with elevations of flood evidence; (3) interpreting an overall paleoflood chronology for each study reach; and (4) conducting quantitative flood-frequency
analyses incorporating all relevant peak-flow information that included the paleoflood information, observed peak-flow records, and historical flood accounts.
Paleoflood chronologies were derived primarily from stratigraphic analysis and
age dating of flood slack-water deposits, which are methods now widely used for
quantifying unrecorded floods (Baker 1987; Kochel and Baker 1988). In many
locations, searches for appropriate sites were guided by visible flood evidence
from 1972, which commonly could be distinguished from older evidence based
on knowledge of the 1972 flow rate, deposit flotsam (particularly beverage
containers, milled wood, and plastic debris), and the degree of weathering of
flood deposits or entrained organic material. Stratigraphy was exposed in small
pits that typically were excavated through slack-water deposits to either bedrock
or large and immovable rockfall. At some sites, several pits were excavated in
search for the most complete record. Where possible, stratigraphic sequences
were examined at multiple elevations at individual sites, as well as at multiple
sites within reaches, in order to more precisely define the history of deposition
at different stages.
The stratigraphy provided information on the number of floods and their relative ages, with more recent flood deposits on top of, or inset against, older deposits. Ages of individual flood deposits and the total length of record preserved
in the stratigraphy were obtained by standard geochronologic techniques. The
primary technique was radiocarbon analysis using carbon-14 (Stuiver and Polach
1977) of organic detritus, including charcoal, wood fragments, bark, pine cones
and needles, and rodent fecal pellets that were deposited within and between
individual flood deposits. Optically stimulated luminescence (Bradley 1999;
Walker 2005) and cesium-137 analyses (Holmes 1998) were used occasionally
for dating deposits less than about 300 years old, which cannot be precisely
dated by radiocarbon analyses, and for dating deposits with insufficient organic
material for radiocarbon dating. For the six study reaches, the stratigraphy and
geochronology from analyzed sites were distilled into an interpreted chronology
of the number, magnitude, and timing of large floods for each reach.
For computation of long-term flood-frequency analyses, the paleoflood chronologies derived from the stratigraphy and geochronology were combined with
observed annual peak-flow records (U.S. Geological Survey 2010) for selected
53
streamgages (Figure 1). These records were compiled and adjusted relative to
drainage area to be directly comparable to the paleoflood chronologies determined for each study reach and are referred to as gaged records within this paper.
Historical flood accounts pre-dating gaged records also were incorporated in
analyses for Rapid Creek and Elk Creek.
A key aspect of any paleoflood record is estimation of flow magnitudes for
floods preserved in stratigraphic records. The elevation of a slack-water deposit
represents a minimum value for the peak stage of the emplacing flood (Baker
1987; Kochel and Baker 1988). For purposes of hydraulic calculations, stage
evidence is related to modern channel and valley geometry, which introduces an
additional assumption that changes in geometry have been sufficiently small for
the time represented by the stratigraphic record so as to not substantially affect
calculations of flow rate. This assumption likely is satisfied in the rock-bound
study reaches, where the common presence of bedrock in channels and along
valley margins is indicative of overall stability, especially with respect to hydraulic
controls on stages of large floods.
The primary method for estimating peak-flow magnitudes was application
of the one-dimensional, steady-flow River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) model
developed by the Hydrologic Engineering Center of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2008a, 2008b). Simulations using the HEC-RAS model, in conjunction
with detailed topographic data, were used to estimate flows for the study reaches
along Spring Creek, Boxelder Creek, and the “lower” reach of Rapid Creek,
which is just west of Rapid City and downstream from Pactola Reservoir (Figure1 1). The HEC-RAS model and the required reach-scale topographic datasets
were not justified for Elk Creek and the “upper” reach of Rapid Creek (upstream
from Pactola Reservoir), where paleoflood evidence was sparser than for other
study reaches. Instead, flow estimates were derived by applying the Manning
equation (Benson and Dalrymple 1967) or critical-flow equation (Grant 1997)
for cross sections at sites of stratigraphic analysis.
Two analytical models with capabilities for incorporating paleoflood data in
flood-frequency estimation were applied: (1) the FLDFRQ3 model (O’Connell
1999; O’Connell et al. 2002) and (2) the PeakfqSA model (Cohn et al. 1997,
2001; Griffis et al. 2004). For both models and all reaches, flood-frequency
analyses were computed assuming log-Pearson Type III frequency distributions
and were performed for two primary flood-record scenarios: (1) analysis of
gaged records only; and (2) analysis of all available data, which may include the
gaged records, historical flood accounts and associated “perception” thresholds,
and paleofloods and thresholds. Analysis for scenario 1 (gaged records only)
was conducted as a baseline analysis and provided a basis for comparison of
incremental effects when including all available data. Analyses resulting from
scenario 2, which include all available data and associated perception thresholds,
were considered by Harden et al. (2011) as the best estimates of flood recurrence
(flood-frequency estimates) for low-probability floods. Flood-frequency estimates were determined only for recurrence intervals of 25 years or larger (annual
exceedance probabilities of 0.04 or smaller, which means a flow with a 4-percent chance of being exceeded in any given year). Results were not reported for
smaller recurrence intervals because several study reaches are within “loss-zone
54
settings” described by Sando et al. (2008), and accurate characterization would
have required additional analyses beyond the study scope.
An advantage of the PeakfqSA model (relative to the FLDFRQ3 model) is
that it maintains the overall structure and moments-based approach of procedures recommended in Bulletin 17B “Guidelines for Determining Flood Flow
Frequency” (Interagency Advisory Council on Water Data 1982). Because the
PeakfqSA model is most consistent with procedures adopted by most Federal
agencies for flood-frequency analysis, results from the PeakfqSA analyses were
used as the primary basis for summarizing results and for comparing results
among the six study reaches.
CENTRAL BLACK HILLS FLOOD FREQUENCY:
RESULTS, SYNOPSIS, IMPLICATIONS, AND APPLICATION
Example Results. An example long-term flood chronology for the lower reach
of Rapid Creek (Figure 2) includes 86 years of non-continuous gaged peak-flow
records spanning 1905–2009, four historical floods (1878, 1883, 1907, and
1920), and seven paleofloods. Figure 2 also shows (1) estimated uncertainty
ranges for large flow values that are considered within the analytical models used
for flood-frequency analyses, and (2) date ranges for four perception thresholds
associated with selected historical and paleoflood events. The largest gaged flow
of 31,200 cubic feet per second (ft3/s) in 1972 has been substantially exceeded by
two especially large paleofloods of at least 128,000 and 64,000 ft3/s that occurred
about 440 and 1,000 years ago, respectively.
Flood-frequency analyses for the lower reach of Rapid Creek (Figure 3) were
performed for the two scenarios using the FLDFRQ3 and PeakfqSA flood-frequency models. Inclusion of the historical and paleoflood information (scenario
2, Figure 3B) markedly improves estimates of low-probability floods—most
clearly indicated by substantial narrowing (relative to results for the gaged records only, scenario 1, Figure 3A) of the range of the 95-percent confidence
limits, especially for the largest recurrence intervals.
The analysis using the PeakfqSA model for scenario 2 (accounting for all available information) is most consistent with procedures adopted by most Federal
agencies. The PeakfqSA model results for the lower Rapid Creek reach and all
other study reaches are summarized in Table 1, which provides a comparison
between the short-term analyses (scenario 1, gaged records only) and long-term
analyses (scenario 2, all available data). For the lower Rapid Creek reach, the
100-year quantile estimate for the long-term analysis is 14,000 ft3/s (Table 1),
with 95-percent confidence limits of 8,350 and 24,600 ft3/s (Figure 3). By contrast, the short-term analysis yields a smaller 100-year quantile estimate of 8,720
ft3/s, but with a much larger 95-percent confidence interval of 4,070–104,000
ft3/s. Thus, inclusion of all available data increases the 100-year quantile estimate
by about 61 percent and reduces the 95-percent confidence interval by about 84
percent. Similarly, consideration of all available data increases the magnitude of
the 500-year quantile estimate by about 73 percent and reduces the 95-percent
confidence interval by about 90 percent.
55
260,000
P6
240,000
140,000
P7
FLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
120,000
100,000
80,000
PT4
PT3
60,000
1972
20,000
Gaged record
40,000
0
2010
P1 P2
P3
P4 P5
H2
H1 H3
PT1
H4
1900
PT2
1600
1300
1000
700
400
CALENDAR YEARS (A.D.)
EXPLANATION
H4 Uncertainty ranges for the 1972 flood, four historical floods
(H1–H4), and seven paleofloods (P1–P7)
PT1
Date ranges for four perception thresholds (PT1–PT4)
Gaged record (excluding 1972) includes 85 peak-flow values
(1905–2009) of 2,600 cubic feet per second and smaller
Figure 2. Long-term flood chronology for lower Rapid Creek reach.
Figure 2. Long-term flood chronology for lower Rapid Creek reach.
56
1,000,000
A
100,000
1972
10,000
1,000
100
10
1,000,000
B
P6
P7
100,000
H4 H1
10,000
P1
H2
H3
1972
P4
P3
P2
P5
1,000
100
10
1.01
(0.99)
2
(0.5)
5
(0.2)
10
(0.1)
20
(0.05)
50
(0.02)
100
(0.01)
200
(0.005)
500 1,000 2,000
(0.002) (0.001) (0.0005)
RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS
(ANNUAL EXCEEDANCE PROBABILITY)
EXPLANATION
Flood-frequency analyses using PeakfqSA model
95-percent confidence limits from PeakfqSA model
Estimated 95-percent confidence limits from
PeakfqSA model
Flood-frequency analyses using FLDFRQ3 model
95-percent confidence limits from FLDFRQ3 model
Gaged value
Large gaged value with uncertainty range
Historical value with uncertainty range
Paleoflood value with uncertainty range
Note: All data plotted using Weibull (1939)
plotting positions
Figure 3. Flood-frequency analyses for lower Rapid Creek reach for A, gaged
Figure
3. Flood-frequency
analyses
for lower
Creek reach the
for A,
gaged records
and B,
records
only, and B, all
available
data Rapid
that incorporate
long-term
floodonly,
chronology
all available data that incorporate the long-term flood chronology from figure 2.
from figure 2.
57
Harden et al. (2011) provided numerous additional details regarding reach
and site conditions; stratigraphic, age-dating, and hydraulic analyses; interpretations of overall paleoflood chronologies; and results of flood-frequency analyses
for all of the six study reaches. The paleoflood investigations for the example
lower reach of Rapid Creek are of particular importance because of proximity to
Table 1. Summary of flood-frequency analyses and large flows for paleoflood study reaches. [All
analyses from PeakfqSA model. Short-term analyses are for gaged records only. Long-term analyses incorporate all available information. ft3/s, cubic feet per second; % reduction, percent reduction in 95-percent confidence interval for analysis with all available data, relative to analysis for
gaged records only; --, no data]
PEAK-FLOW ESTIMATE, IN FT3/S
FOR ASSOCIATED RECURRENCE
INTERVAL (ANNUAL
EXCEEDANCE PROBABILITY)
DATA
DESCRIPTION
25
years
(0.04)
50
years
(0.02)
100
years
(0.01)
200
years
(0.005)
500
years
(0.002)
FLOW (FT3/S)
FOR SELECTED
PALEOFLOODS
Largest
LARGEST
GAGED
FLOW
Second
(FT3/S)
largest
Spring Creek (drainage area = 171 square miles)
Short-term
2,010
3,620
6,290
10,700
20,800
--
--
21,800
Long-term
2,480
4,530
7,960
13,600
26,900
56,400
18,200
--
% reduction
72.9
85.4
89.6
92.4
94.9
--
--
--
Lower reach of Rapid Creek (actual drainage area = 81 square miles;
adjusted drainage area between streamgages 06410500 and 06412500 = 375 square miles)
Short-term
2,990
5,160
8,720
14,500
27,900
--
--
31,200
Long-term
4,410
7,950
14,000
24,100
48,300
128,000
64,000
--
66.7
79.0
83.8
87.1
90.5
--
--
--
% reduction
Upstream reach of Rapid Creek (drainage area = 294 square miles)
Short-term
1,500
2,200
3,160
4,450
6,850
--
--
2,460
Long-term
1,590
2,350
3,390
4,770
7,340
12,900
12,000
--
% reduction
57.3
69.7
78.3
83.1
86.6
--
--
--
Upstream subreach of Boxelder Creek (drainage area = 98 square miles)
Short-term
4,680
9,980
20,600
41,700
103,000
--
--
30,800
Long-term
3,350
6,120
10,800
18,500
36,500
40,500
39,000
--
95.5
98.3
99.3
99.7
99.9
--
--
--
% reduction
Downstream subreach of Boxelder Creek (drainage area = 112 square miles)
Short-term
5,750
12,800 27,900
59,300
157,000
--
--
50,500
Long-term
3,200
5,920
10,600
18,500
37,400
61,300
52,500
--
% reduction
97.8
99.3
99.7
99.9
100
--
--
--
Elk Creek (drainage area = 40 square miles)
Short-term
1,650
2,980
5,340
9,480
20,000
--
--
10,400
Long-term
3,510
6,670
12,400
22,500
48,300
83,000
80,000
--
% reduction
79.3
91.3
96.2
98.4
99.4
--
--
--
58
urban populations. However, the available paleoflood chronology for this reach
pre-dates construction of Pactola Dam, which regulates most of the contributing
drainage area for this reach (Figure 1). Thus, paleoflood investigations also were
conducted in an upper reach of Rapid Creek (upstream from Pactola Reservoir).
The paleoflood chronologies for lower and upper Rapid Creek are distinctively
different, with an especially rich history of very large floods for lower Rapid
Creek and a much sparser record with much smaller flows for upper Rapid
Creek. The distinctive differences in chronologies and resulting flood-frequency
analyses raise questions regarding (1) regional peak-flow characteristics relative to
climate, geology, and physiography; and (2) the more pragmatic issue of how to
apply results of flood-frequency analyses downstream from Pactola Dam. Some
of the differences in chronologies may owe to less than optimum conditions
along upper Rapid Creek for accumulation and preservation of slack-water sediments (few alcoves and caves flank this reach), thereby resulting in incomplete
records. More plausible, however, is that the physiography and climate of the
upper part of Rapid Creek result in small peak flows, relative to downstream
reaches, as further described within the remainder of this paper.
Synopsis and Regional Assessment. Results of the paleoflood investigations
provide improved flood-frequency estimates for each of the six study reaches
and facilitate comparisons among and within individual drainage basins. For
simplification, only the flood-frequency analyses from the PeakfqSA model are
considered herein. The overarching result of incorporating the paleoflood information is substantially narrowed confidence intervals, relative to those for the
short-term flood-frequency analyses (Table 1). In all cases, 95-percent confidence
intervals about the low-probability quantile estimates (100-, 200-, and 500-year
recurrence-intervals) are reduced by at least 78 percent relative to similar analyses
of the gaged records only. In some cases, 95-percent uncertainty limits have been
reduced by 99 percent or more. This result is the logical outcome of including
the much longer records of the large paleofloods provided by the stratigraphic
records.
For all study reaches except the two Boxelder Creek subreaches, quantile
estimates for the long-term flood-frequency analyses are larger than for the
short-term analyses (Table 1), which results from incorporation of paleofloods
substantially larger than the largest gaged flows. The largest differences are for
lower Rapid Creek and Elk Creek. For lower Rapid Creek, the 100-year quantile
estimate increased by 61 percent (from 8,720 to 14,000 ft3/s), and the 500-year
quantile estimate increased by 73 percent (from 27,900 to 48,300 ft3/s). For Elk
Creek, the 100- and 500-year quantile estimates increased by about 130 and 140
percent, respectively.
For both subreaches of Boxelder Creek, the long-term quantile estimates are
substantially smaller than the short-term quantile estimates (Table 1) and largely
reflect effects on the short-term analyses of the largest gaged flows (1972) and
another relatively large flood in 1907 (Driscoll et al. 2010). The short-term
quantile estimates for both subreaches are substantially larger than for the other
study reaches. The long-term quantile estimates for the two subreaches are very
similar and reflect paleoflood chronologies that were independently determined.
Although the stratigraphic records cannot be precisely correlated between the
59
two subreaches, the general similarities between results help affirm the overall
study approaches.
The two largest paleofloods for each study reach (Table 1) and the largest gaged
flow (all of which are from 1972, with the exception of upper Rapid Creek) are
shown in Figure 4 relative to the low-probability quantile estimates from the
long-term flood-frequency analyses and a regional envelope curve from Crippen
and Bue (1977) for “region 11” that includes the Black Hills area. Two datasets
are plotted for lower Rapid Creek—one based on the whole drainage area and
one based on an “adjusted” area of 81 m2, which is the intervening drainage area
between representative streamgages 06410500 and 06412500 at the two Rapid
Creek study reaches. A key issue for this study was flood-frequency characteriza-
1,000,000
Rapid(actual
Creek (actual
area)
Lower RapidLower
Creek
area)
Lower Lower
Rapid
Creek
Rapid
Creek
(adjusted area)
(adjusted
area)
100,000
10,000
Elk Elk
Creek
Creek
Upper Boxelder
Creek
Upper Boxelder
Creek
Lower Boxelder Creek
Lower Boxelder Creek
Spring
Creek
Spring
Creek
Upper Rapid
Creek
Upper Rapid
Creek
1,000
100
0.1
1.0
10
100
1,000
10,000
DRAINAGE AREA, IN SQUARE MILES
EXPLANATION
Regional envelope curve (Crippen and Bue, 1977)
Data point considered by Crippen and Bue (1977)
for regional envelope curve
Peak-flow estimates and large flow values for
paleoflood study reaches
500-year peak-flow estimate
Largest paleoflood
Second largest paleoflood
Largest gaged flow
Figure 4. Results of peak-flow frequency analyses for selected stream reaches, relative to regional
envelope curve.
Figure 4. Results of peak-flow frequency analyses for selected stream reaches,
relative to regional envelope curve.
60
tion for modern (regulated) conditions for lower Rapid Creek, and this adjusted
area was postulated as the primary contributing area for low-probability floods
during pre-regulation conditions. The largest paleofloods and quantile estimates
for upper Rapid Creek are about an order of magnitude smaller than for lower
Rapid Creek and strongly support the hypothesis of distinctly different regimes
for large-flood generation for the two reaches.
The area-adjusted quantile estimates for lower Rapid Creek (Figure 4) plot
close to those for the two subreaches of Boxelder Creek, which are nearly identical, and magnitudes for all of these quantile estimates are similar to those for
Elk Creek, for which the drainage area is less than one-half of that for all of the
other study reaches (Table 1). The 500-year quantile estimate for Elk Creek plots
slightly above the regional envelope curve and is exceeded by the two largest
paleofloods by a factor of almost two.
Implications for Flood Generation. Driscoll et al. (2010) postulated that potential for heavy rain-producing thunderstorms (storm potential) and associated
flooding are smallest on the relatively flat top of the Limestone Plateau (located
along the Wyoming/South Dakota border, Figure 1), with storm and flood potential increasing in an easterly direction. The eastern Black Hills are susceptible
to the most intense orographic lifting associated with convective storm systems
and also have high relief, thin soils, and narrow and steep canyons—factors
favoring generation of exceptionally heavy rain-producing thunderstorms and
promoting runoff and rapid concentration of flow into stream channels. In
contrast, storm potential in and near the Limestone Plateau area is much lower
than for the steeper flanks of the Black Hills. Storm runoff is further reduced
by relatively gentle topography, substantial infiltration into the limestone, and
extensive flood-plain storage.
The gradient in flood-generation processes is reflected in results of this study,
for which some of the most compelling evidence is the disparity between results
of the paleoflood investigations for the two Rapid Creek study reaches (Figure
1). Large parts of the upper Rapid Creek drainage basin are within the Limestone
Plateau and other high-elevation areas where reduced flood potential is postulated (Driscoll et al. 2010; Sando et al. 2008). The upper reach composes about 78
percent of the drainage area of the lower reach (294 versus 375 mi2, respectively;
Table 1). Stratigraphic records for the upper reach indicate two paleofloods during the last 1,000 to 2,000 years of at least 12,000 and 12,900 ft3/s, which substantially exceed the largest gaged flow of 2,460 ft3/s (Table1). These floods are
small, however, compared to the contributing drainage area and plot much lower
than paleofloods recognized from stratigraphic deposits within all of the other
study reaches (Figure 4). Moreover, the largest paleoflood of at least 128,000 ft3/s
for lower Rapid Creek is larger by a factor of about 10, despite having a drainage
area that is less than 30 percent larger than that for the upper reach.
Perhaps the most compelling evidence of enhanced flood generation in the
eastern Black Hills is provided by Elk Creek, which has had two paleofloods of
at least 80,000 ft3/s (Table 1) in the last 2,000 years from a drainage area of only
40 mi2. The headwaters of Elk Creek are northeast of the contiguous geologic
outcrops that compose the Limestone Plateau (Figure 1), and the entire upper
watershed drains the steep northeastern flanks of the Black Hills. In contrast to
61
the three other (and larger) study basins, there is no ambiguity regarding the area
contributing to the large Elk Creek flows, demonstrating that exceptional floods
can be generated entirely within the eastern Black Hills.
Application for Hazard Assessment. The paleoflood investigations provide
substantially improved knowledge of low-probability flood recurrence for use
in flood-hazard assessments. Results are directly applicable, however, only to
the specific study reaches and in the case of Rapid Creek, only to pre-regulation
conditions. Thus, extrapolation is required for applications beyond the study
reaches.
The flood-frequency estimates are most applicable near the study reaches,
which primarily are within the eastern margin of the central Black Hills (Figure
1), where flood generation and runoff processes may be different than for upstream and downstream reaches. Areas west of the eastern flank of Black Hills,
particularly in and near the Limestone Plateau area, likely are outside the area
of most intense rainfall and peak-flow generation. Downstream from the Minnekahta Limestone, which is the easternmost canyon-confining Paleozoic rock
unit (Figure 1), flood plains widen substantially for all four study basins. Thus,
Table 2. Summary of normalized values for peak-flow estimates and selected large flows for
paleoflood study reaches.
NORMALIZED2 LONG-TERM
PEAK-FLOW ESTIMATE (FROM
TABLE 1) FOR ASSOCIATED
RECURRENCE INTERVAL (ANNUAL
PALEOFLOOD
STUDY
REACH
1
2
EXP.
AREA1
25
50
100
years years years
(0.04) (0.02) (0.01)
200
years
(0.005)
NORMALIZED2
PALEOFLOOD AND
GAGED FLOW VALUES
(FROM TABLE 1)
500
Largest
years
paleo(0.002) flood
Second
largest Largest
paleo- gaged
flood
flow
Spring Creek
21.9
113
207
364
622
1,230
2,580
832
997
Lower reach of
Rapid Creek
(actual area)
35.0
126
227
400
688
1,380
3,650
1,830
890
Lower reach of
Rapid Creek
(adjusted area)
14.0
316
569
1,000
1,730
3,460
9,160
4,580
2,230
Upper Rapid
Creek
30.3
53
78
112
158
242
426
396
81
Upstream subreach of Boxelder Creek
15.7
214
391
690
1,180
2,330
2,590
2,490
1,970
Downstream
subreach of
Boxelder Creek
17.0
189
349
625
1,090
2,200
3,610
3,390
2,980
Elk Creek
9.15
384
729
1,360
2,460
5,280
9,070
8,750
1,150
Exp. area is the drainage area for the study reach (from table 1, in square miles) raised to the 0.6 power.
Normalized values were computed by dividing flow (in cubic feet per second) by Exp. area.
62
flood peaks derived from convective storm systems affecting the Black Hills typically attenuate markedly once they pass into the plains east of the Black Hills
(Driscoll et al. 2010).
Although the regional envelope curve (Figure 4) provides a visual approach
for comparing results among study reaches, more rigorous “normalizing” with
respect to drainage area allows specific comparisons among basins and provides
a basis for extrapolating results beyond the specific study reaches. Table 2 shows
long-term quantile estimates and large flow values from Table 1 that have been
normalized by dividing by drainage area raised to the 0.6 power. This follows
analyses of Sando et al. (2008), who normalized large flows in developing a
“Black Hills regional mixed-population” approach to address the complexities of
flood-frequency estimation for the area. Table 2 includes the actual drainage area
for the lower Rapid Creek study reach as well as an “adjusted” area that represents
the intervening area of 81 mi2 downstream from the upper Rapid Creek reach.
The normalized values (Table 2) further illustrate the distinct flood regime of
upper Rapid Creek, for which the largest normalized paleoflood value is only
17 percent of the next smallest values (Spring Creek and the upstream subreach
of Boxelder Creek) and only about 5 percent of that for Elk Creek. Similarly,
normalized quantile estimates for all other study reaches are much larger than for
upper Rapid Creek—approaching or exceeding by a factor of 10 for most cases.
Normalized quantile estimates for Elk Creek, the two subreaches of Boxelder
Creek, and the area-adjusted reach of lower Rapid Creek are relatively similar,
varying by less than a factor of 2.5. The largest normalized gaged-flow value is
for the downstream subreach of Boxelder Creek, which exceeds those for the
upstream subreach and the area-adjusted reach of lower Rapid Creek by a factor
of about 0.5.
The normalized quantile estimates allow for extrapolating low-probability
flood recurrence to appropriate locations near the paleoflood study reaches. An
appropriate approach is to use the normalized quantile estimates from Table 2
as index values that can be “scaled” to other locations of interest by multiplying
by drainage area raised to the 0.6 power (same exponent as used for normalizing). Examples are provided in Table 3, which shows scaled quantile estimates
for selected streamgages (Figure 1) and comparisons with estimates from Sando
et al. (2008), who defined a regional “high-outlier” probability distribution that
was combined (using joint-probability theory) with site-specific probability distributions for individual streamgages. This approach resulted in divergence from
the site-specific (“ordinary peaks”) distributions to increasingly larger peak-flow
estimates for recurrence intervals larger than about 50 to 100 years. Except for
the upper Rapid Creek reach, the quantile estimates derived from the paleoflood
studies and scaled to the streamgage areas are larger than those from Sando et
al. (2008).
Extrapolation of results to streamgage locations also allows broader evaluation
of recurrence intervals for the 1972 flooding and other large measured flows. For
example, the 1972 flow for the Spring Creek study reach was 21,800 ft3/s (largest
gaged flow; table 1), which corresponds with a recurrence interval approaching
400 years. The area for upstream streamgage 06407500 (163 mi2) is very similar to that for the paleoflood study reach (171 mi2). Thus, the scaled quantile
63
Table 3. Flood-frequency analyses scaled to drainage areas for selected streamgages. [Scaled
(area), peak-flow estimates, in cubic feet per second (ft3/s), for location of streamgage derived
by scaling from peak-flow estimates and drainage areas, in square miles (mi2), for appropriate
paleoflood study reaches from table 2, based on exponential (0.6 power) drainage-area adjustment; --, no data]
SOURCE OF PEAK-FLOW
ESTIMATES
DRAINAGE
AREA
(M2)
PEAK-FLOW ESTIMATE, FT3/S,
FOR ASSOCIATED RECURRENCE
INTERVAL (ANNUAL
25
50
years years
(0.04) (0.02)
100
years
(0.01)
200
years
(0.005)
1972
PEAKFLOW
500
(HARDEN
years
ET AL.,
(0.002)
2011)
Station 06407500, Spring Creek near Keystone, S. Dak.
2
Scaled (171 mi )
163
2,400
4,400
7,730
13,200
26,100
20,000
From Sando and others (2008)
163
1,270
1,920
3,170
6,150
23,600
20,000
Station 06408500, Spring Creek near Hermosa, S. Dak.
2
Scaled (171 mi )
206
2,760
5,060
8,900
15,200
30,100
13,400
206
935
1,180
1,670
4,800
27,000
13,400
Station 06412500, Rapid Creek above Canyon Lake near Rapid City, S. Dak.
Scaled (81 mi )
154
3,460
6,230
11,000
18,900
37,900
31,200
154
1,020
1,450
2,150
3,750
11,800
31,200
1
2
Station 06414000, Rapid Creek at Rapid City, S. Dak.
Scaled1 (81 mi2)
193
4,790
8,630
15,200
26,300
52,500
50,000
193
2,400
3,380
4,760
7,240
17,900
50,000
Station 06410500, Rapid Creek above Pactola Reservoir at Silver City, S. Dak.
Scaled2 (201.6 mi2)
294
1,280
1,880
2,700
3,810
5,840
252
294
1,640
2,540
4,260
7,950
27,100
252
Station 06422500, Boxelder Creek near Nemo, S. Dak.
Scaled (98 mi2)
94.4
3,280
5,990
10,600
18,100
35,700
30,100
94.4
1,440
2,100
3,120
5,660
17,200
30,100
Station 06423010, Boxelder Creek near Rapid City, S. Dak.
Scaled (112 mi2)
127
3,460
6,380
11,400
19,900
40,200
--
127
1,250
1,990
2,990
5,680
20,400
--
Station 06424000, Elk Creek near Roubaix, S. Dak.
Scaled (40 mi2)
21.6
2,430
4,610
8,590
15,500
33,400
--
21.6
530
696
967
1,870
6,980
--
Scaled using unregulated area downstream from Pactola Dam, relative to an “adjusted” area of 81 mi2 for
the paleoflood study reach.
2
Scaled using unregulated area downstream from Deerfield Dam.
1
64
estimates (Table 3) are nearly identical to the long-term estimates for the study
reach (Table 1), and to an estimated 1972 flow of 20,000 ft3/s that similarly has
a recurrence interval approaching 400 years. The 1972 flood peak along Spring
Creek attenuated to about 13,400 ft3/s for downstream streamgage 06408500
(table 3), where another large flow of 6,910 ft3/s occurred in 1996 (U.S. Geological Survey 2010). Recurrence intervals for these 1972 and 1996 flows are slightly
less than 200 and 100 years, respectively, based on the scaled quantile estimates
(Table 3); whereas, recurrence intervals from Sando et al. (2008) are much larger
(substantially exceeding the 200-year quantile estimate) and seemingly are less
reliable. Because streamgage 06408500 is located about 8 miles downstream
from the outcrop of the Minnekahta Limestone (Figure 1), extrapolation within
this domain may be considered questionable. However, this example illustrates
the utility of considering information from multiple sources in evaluating lowprobability flood recurrence.
Scaled quantile estimates for streamgages 06412500 and 06414000 along lower Rapid Creek (Table 3) are larger than those from Sando et al. (2008) by factors
ranging from about two to five. Quantile estimates for both streamgages were
scaled relative to the adjusted area of 81 mi2, which approximates the intervening
drainage area between the two Rapid Creek paleoflood study reaches. Recurrence intervals for the 1972 peak flows of 31,200 and 50,000 ft3/s are about 500
years, relative to scaled quantile estimates for these two streamgages. In contrast,
recurrence intervals for the 1972 peak flows largely exceed 500 years relative to
the quantile estimates by Sando et al. (2008). The importance and challenges
of estimating flood recurrence are exemplified by Rapid Creek, where many of
the 238 known deaths from the 1972 flooding occurred. The appropriateness of
the drainage-area adjustment for resolving pre- and post-regulation conditions
could not be explicitly evaluated. However, the scaled values for streamgages
06412500 and 06414000 (Table 3), with unregulated drainage areas of 54 and
93 mi2 (Harden et al. 2011), are similar to long-term quantile estimates for the
Elk Creek study reach (Table 1), for which the drainage area of 40 mi2 is not
affected by regulation.
Scaling for streamgage 06410500 along upper Rapid Creek (Figure 1) was performed relative to an unregulated area of 201.6 mi2 downstream from Deerfield
Reservoir (Table 3), which is consistent with a drainage-area adjustment used by
Sando et al. (2008). The scaled quantile estimates reflect the absence of evidence
for large paleofloods in this study reach and are substantially smaller than those
from Sando et al. (2008), who stated that the mixed-population analysis “probably results in overestimation of peak flows for large recurrence intervals for stations where drainage areas are primarily within the limestone-headwater setting.”
The largest gaged flow for streamgage 06410500 is 2,460 ft3/s (Table 1) and has
a recurrence interval of about 100 years.
Scaled quantile estimates for the upstream and downstream streamgages
(06422500 and 06423010) along Boxelder Creek (table 3) are very similar
and were scaled relative to results for the upstream and downstream subreaches
(Table 2). The largest differential is for the 500-year recurrence interval, for
which values differ by about 10 percent. For the upstream streamgage, recurrence intervals for the large 1907 and 1972 flows (16,400 ft3/s, U.S. Geological
65
Survey 2010; and 30,800 ft3/s, Table 1, respectively) are slightly less than 200
and 500 years, respectively, based on the scaled quantile estimates (Table 3). Flow
estimates for 1907 and 1972 are not available for the downstream streamgage
(06423010); however, the 1972 flow of 50,500 ft3/s for the downstream paleoflood study subreach (Table 1) exceeds the 500-year quantile estimate (37,400
ft3/s) by about 35 percent.
Scaled quantile estimates for streamgage 06424000 along Elk Creek (Table 3)
are about 5 to 10 times larger than those from Sando et al. (2008). However, the
scaled estimates probably are more reliable than estimates by Sando et al. (2008),
which were based on a short period of record (1992–2001) that did not include
the large floods of 1907 and 1972. Recurrence intervals are slightly less than
100 years for large 1972 and 1907 flows for the study reach (Table 1) that were
estimated by Harden et al. (2011) as 10,400 ft3/s for both years.
Summarized estimates of recurrence intervals for 1972 flooding show that the
recurrence interval of nearly 100 years for the Elk Creek study reach is small relative to other study reaches along the eastern margin of the Black Hills and to the
two large paleofloods (80,000–83,000 ft3/s) recorded by stratigraphic deposits
along Elk Creek. The 1972 flow for the Spring Creek study reach was 21,800
ft3/s, which has a recurrence interval of about 400 years. Recurrence intervals
are about 500 years for the floods of 1972 along the lower Rapid Creek reach
and for the upstream subreach of Boxelder Creek. For the downstream subreach
of Boxelder Creek, the large 1972 flood magnitude (50,500 ft3/s) exceeds the
500-year quantile estimate by about 35 percent.
LITERATURE CITED
Baker, V.R. 1987. Paleoflood hydrology and extraordinary flood events. Journal
of Hydrology 96:79–99.
Benson, M.A., and T. Dalrymple. 1967. General field and office procedures
for indirect discharge measurements. U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of
Water-Resources Investigations, book 3, chap. A1.
Bradley, R.S. 1999. Paleoclimatology—Reconstructing climates of the Quaternary (2d ed.). Harcourt Academic Press, Burlington, MA.
Carter, J.M., J.E. Williamson, and R.W. Teller. 2002. The 1972 Black Hills-Rapid City flood revisited. U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS–037–02, 6 p.
Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-037-02/. [Cited December 16, 2011].
Cohn, T.A., W.L. Lane, and W.G. Baier. 1997. An algorithm for computing
moments-based quantile estimates when historical flood information is
available. Water Resources Research 33(9):2089–2096.
Cohn, T.A., W.L. Lane, and J.R. Stedinger. 2001. Confidence intervals for
expected moments algorithm flood quantile estimates. Water Resources
Research 37(6):1695–1706.
Crippen, J.R., and C.D. Bue. 1977. Maximum flood flows in the conterminous
United States. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1887.
66
Driscoll, D.G., J.E. O’Connor, and T.M. Harden. 2011. Application of paleoflood surveys techniques in the Black Hills of South Dakota. South Dakota
Department of Transportation Completion Report SD2008-01. Available at
http://www.sddot.com/business/research/projects/docs/SD2008-01-F_Final_Report_07-16-12.pdf. [Cited July 16, 2012]
Driscoll, D.G., Huft, D.L., and O’Connor, J.E., 2012, Extreme floods in the
Black Hills area—New insights from recent research: Pierre, S. Dak., South
Dakota Department of Transportation, 4 p. Available at http://www.sddot.
com/business/research/projects/docs/SD2008-01_Fact_Sheet_06-11-12.pdf
[Cited June 11, 2012]
Driscoll, D.G., M.J. Bunkers, J.M. Carter, J.F. Stamm, and J.E. Williamson.
2010. Thunderstorms and flooding of August 17, 2007, with a context provided by a history of other large storm and flood events in the Black Hills
area of South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5187. Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5187/. [Cited
December 16, 2011].
Grant, G.E. 1997. Critical flow constrains flow hydraulics in mobile-bed
streams—A new hypothesis. Water Resources Research 33:349–358.
Griffis, V.W., J.R. Stedinger, and T.A. Cohn. 2004. Log Pearson type 3 quantile estimators with regional skew information and low outlier adjustments. Water Resources Research 40(10), 17 p., citation number W07503,
doi:10.1029/2003WR002697. Available at http://www.agu.org/pubs/
crossref/2004/2003WR002697.shtml. [Cited July 25, 2011].
Harden, T.M., J.E. O’Connor, D.G. Driscoll, and J.F. Stamm. 2011. Flood-frequency analyses from paleoflood investigations for Spring, Rapid, Boxelder,
and Elk Creeks, Black Hills, western South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey
Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5131. Available at http://pubs.usgs.
gov/sir/2011/5131/. [Cited December 16, 2011].
Holmes, C.W. 1998. Short lived isotopic chronometers—A means of measuring decadal sedimentary dynamics. U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet
FS–073–98.
Interagency Advisory Council on Water Data. 1982. Guidelines for determining
flood flow frequency. Hydrology Subcommittee, Bulletin 17B, appendixes
1–14.
Kochel, R.C., and V.R. Baker. 1988. Paleoflood analysis using slackwater deposits. Pages 357–376 in V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel, and P.C. Patton, editors.
Flood geomorphology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.
O’Connell, D.R.H. 1999. FLDFRQ3 user’s guide, release 1.1. U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation.
O’Connell, D.R.H., D.A. Ostenaa, D.R. Levish, and Klinger, R.E. 2002. Bayesian flood frequency analysis with paleohydrologic bound data. Water Resources Research 35(5), doi:10.1029/2000WR000028. Available at http://
www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2002/2000WR000028.shtml. [Cited July 25,
2011].
67
Sando, S.K., D.G. Driscoll, and C. Parrett. 2008. Peak-flow frequency estimates
based on data through water year 2001 for selected streamflow-gaging stations in South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008–5104. Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5104/. [Cited
December 16, 2011].
Schwarz, F.K., L.A. Hughes, E.M. Hansen, M.S. Petersen, and D.B. Kelly. 1975.
The Black Hills-Rapid City Flood of June 9–10, 1972—A description of the
storm and flood. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 877.
Stedinger, J.R., and V.R. Baker. 1987. Surface water hydrology—Historical and
paleoflood information. Review of Geophysics 25(2):119–124.
Strobel, M.L., G.J. Jarrell, J.F. Sawyer, J.R. Schleicher, and M.D. Fahrenbach.
1999. Distribution of hydrogeologic units in the Black Hills area, South
Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA–743, 3
sheets, scale 1:100,000. Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha743/. [Cited
December 16, 2011].
Stuiver, Minze, and H.A. Polach. 1977. Discussion—Reporting of 14C data.
Radiocarbon 19(3):355–363.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2008a. HEC-RAS River Analysis System user’s
manual, version 4.0. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2008b. HEC-RAS River Analysis System hydraulic reference manual, version 4.0. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
U.S. Geological Survey. 2010. National Water Information System (NWISWeb)—
Peak streamflow for South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey database. Available at http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/sd/nwis/peak. [Cited December 16,
2011].
Walker, M. 2005 Quaternary dating methods. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.,
Chichester, England.
Weibull, W. 1939. A statistical theory of the strength of materials. Handlingar,
Ingeniors Ventenskaps Akademian 151–3:45–55.
69
PERMEABILITY AND GROUND-WATER RECHARGE
IN BLACK HILLS METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Perry H. Rahn
Department of Geology & Geological Engineering
South Dakota School of Mines & Technology
Rapid City, SD 57701
ABSTRACT
Daily precipitation data were collected from April to October, 2011, in an
area underlain by Precambrian metamorphic rocks near Hill City, South Dakota.
Ground water discharged from a nearby abandoned mine adit from May 20 to
June 9 following two days of intense rain. The maximum discharge was 0.437 cfs
(0.0124 m3/s), and the total volume of water that discharged during the 21-day
interval was 425,000 ft3 (12,040 m3). The onset of discharge lagged about 12
hours following 2.15 inches (5.46 cm) of rain on May 20.
The recharge area serving the mine adit is approximately 26.4 acres (10.7 ha).
The precipitation during the 21-day interval affecting the mine discharge was
5.07 inches (12.9 cm). This is equivalent to a volume of water falling on the
recharge area of 486,000 ft3 (13,760 m3), slightly more than the volume of water
discharged from the mine adit during this period. Because nearly all the rain recharged the ground water, and because precipitation infiltrated the metamorphic
rocks and recharged the water table within 12 hours, the metamorphic rocks
demonstrate considerable permeability at shallow depths. This conclusion is
supported by hydrogeologic studies of metamorphic rocks at other places in the
Black Hills, such as a shallow ground-water contaminant plume at Nemo. The
abundant base flow in streams draining metamorphic rocks also indicates shallow
metamorphic rocks can store meteoric water for subsequent release to streams.
Data from this study site, supplemented by published permeability data, indicate the hydraulic conductivity of metamorphic rocks varies from approximately
1 m/d near the surface to 10-4 m/d at 1 km depth. A general formula relating
this exponential decrease in hydraulic conductivity with depth was determined.
The permeable nature of the near-surface metamorphic rocks has practical
ramifications. For instance, a water well that is open over the upper 100 ft (30.5
m) of saturated near-surface metamorphic rocks would probably have a greater
specific capacity than if the well were drilled much deeper. The permeable nature
of near-surface metamorphic rocks also helps explain the rapid transport of bacteria from onsite wastewater systems.
Keywords
Black Hills, ground water, permeability, recharge
70
INTRODUCTION
The water table in the Precambrian terrain in the Black Hills is generally shallow, rarely more than 100 ft (30.5 m) depth. Typically the water table is connected to perennial streams, and slopes gently upward under the surrounding hills.
The permeability of the Precambrian metamorphic rocks is low compared to
aquifers in the sedimentary rocks such as the Madison Limestone, the Minnelusa
Formation, and the Inyan Kara Group. [Note: while the permeability of metamorphic rocks depends to some degree on the rock type, for simplification this
paper considers the metamorphic rocks a single unit.] Well yields in Precambrian
rocks for 561 wells were found to have a median yield of 10 gpm (37.9 l/min)
(Carter et al. 2002), much lower than median values for major aquifers. Assuming a 100 ft saturated thickness for these wells, I estimate that the median specific
capacity would be at least 0.1 gpm/ft (1.82 m3/d per m). From a conversion table
(from USBR, 1995) the median transmissivity would be approximately 30 ft2/
day (2.8 m2/d), and the hydraulic conductivity would be approximately 0.3 ft/d
(0.091 m/d).
Few values of the hydraulic conductivity of metamorphic rocks in the Black
Hills have been published. A pumping test of a 423 ft (129 m) well in slate
northwest of Hill City yielded a specific capacity of 0.0086 gpm/ft (0.154 m3/d
per m) (Rahn 1994). The USBR (1995) conversion table yields a transmissivity
of 2.5 ft2/day (0.25 m2/d) and a hydraulic conductivity of 0.025 ft/day (0.008
m/d). The specific capacity data for ten shallow water wells in metamorphic rocks
were studied near Silver City (Aurand, pers. comm. 2011). She found an average
transmissivity of 75 ft2/day (7.0 m2/d). With an aquifer thickness of 50 ft (15.2
m), the hydraulic conductivity would be approximately 1.5 ft/day (0.45 m/d).
The permeability of metamorphic rocks generally decreases with depth (Davis
and DeWeist 1966). Murdoch et al. (2011) studied the permeability of Black
Hills metamorphic rocks in the former Homestake Mine area. Here the Precambrian rocks are predominantly phyllite and schist. Homestake Mine is considered
a “dry” mine, and the overall low permeability of the rocks is demonstrated by
Whitewood Creek, which crosses over the mine workings yet loses very little water despite the fact that the mine was dewatered to approximately 2.4 km depth
during years 1980 to the present, although some mine flooding occurred when
the dewatering pumps were turned off from years 2003 to 2008. The overall
hydraulic conductivity is low, and is largely dependent on fractures. The rocks
are increasingly less permeable with depth due to increasing lithostatic stress.
The hydraulic conductivity values utilized by Murdoch et al. (2011) range from
approximately 10-7 m/sec (8.6 X 10-3 m/d) near the surface, decreasing to 10-8
m/sec (8.6 X 10-4 m/d) at 100 m depth, further decreasing to 1.8 X 10-9 m/sec
(1.6 X 10-4 m/d) at 1 km depth, and ultimately decreasing to 1.5 X 10-9 m/sec
(1.3 X 10-4 m/d) at 2 km depth.
Rahn and Gries (1973) noted that major streams such as Spring Creek and
Boxelder Creek are perennial in the low permeability Precambrian core of the
Black Hills but normally lose all their flow upon encountering the permeable
sedimentary rocks surrounding the Precambrian core. Interestingly, despite the
overall low permeability of the Precambrian rocks, large streams draining this
71
terrain typically have a fairly high base flow. For example, Carter and Driscoll
(2001, Table 2) reported the base flow for streams in crystalline core basins, including Boxelder, Elk, and Bear Butte creeks, averages approximately 0.339 cfs
per square mile (0.0037 m3/s per km2), equivalent to an annual runoff from base
flow of 4.59 inches (11.7 cm) over the entire basin. To some degree, surficial
deposits in these basins undoubtedly contribute to this base flow; for example,
a large spring supplying Mt. Rushmore National Memorial occurs where surficial deposits (talus) and weathered schist overlie granite (Rahn 1990). The high
discharge of base flow in the crystalline core basins indicates that abundant
ground-water recharge occurs in the metamorphic rocks despite their overall low
permeability.
Precambrian metamorphic rocks at Nemo were found to readily transmit contaminants (Rahn and Johnson 2002). A surface disposal pit containing ethylene
dibromide at Nemo generated a contaminant plume that migrated along the
foliation approximately 1 km during 20 years. A major transmissivity tensor was
found to be 0.73 m2/d; therefore, if the saturated thickness is 10 m, the hydraulic
conductivity would be 0.073 m/d.
From the above discussion, there seems to be conflicting data concerning the
permeability of metamorphic rocks. They have very low permeability at depths.
Yet they have high permeability at shallow depths, and hence they are able to
transmit contaminants and supply abundant base flow to streams.
HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING
At this study area, there is an opportunity to determine the permeability of
near-surface metamorphic rocks by examining the precipitation, infiltration,
ground-water recharge, and the response time of ground water discharging from
an abandoned gold mine adit. Despite many abandoned mine adits throughout
the Precambrian terrain, most are dry and the hydrogeology of those that occasionally discharge water have rarely been studied.
The study area is 7 miles (11 km) northwest of Hill City, on land owned by
the author. Figure 1 shows part of Section 32, T 1 N, R 4 E. The bedrock in
Section 32 is primarily phyllite, interpreted as a metamorphosed tuff (Redden
and DeWitt 2008).
Figure 1 shows that the topography above the mine adit is a gently sloping hill,
with approximately 200 ft (61 m) local relief. The mine adit probably does not
extend more than 100 ft (30.5 m). No water wells are within this part of Section
32; nevertheless, the water table is presumably close to the mine adit entrance
and slopes gently under the hill to the southwest. The surrounding hills are forest
covered, with about 10% of the area consisting of outcrops and 90% of the area
covered by colluvium, duff, and pine needles.
Precipitation at Mt. Rushmore is assumed to be typical of the study area.
The data (www.wrcc.dri.edu) indicate the average annual precipitation is 21.68
inches (55.07 cm). The years 2001 through 2008 were below normal, and the
years 2009 through 2011 were above normal. No discharge from the mine adit
was observed from 2001 through 2008, but discharge occurred in years 2009
through 2011.
72
Figure 1. Part of the USGS Rochford 7.5 minute topographic quadrangle map showing mine adit
location and approximate recharge area. Contour interval 40 ft.
PRECIPITATION AND MINE DISCHARGE DATA
Precipitation was measured from April through October, 2011, at a location
about 0.5 miles (0.8 km) north of the mine adit. Figure 2 is a histogram of the
daily precipitation during the time when discharge occurred at the mine adit.
Figure 1 shows the recharge area believed to supply water to the mine. Typically there is no water discharging from the mine. In fact, no discharge was observed from the mine or in any of the adjacent gullies within 0.5 miles (0.8 km)
of the mine adit during 7 years of below normal precipitation (2003-2007).
73
In early May, 2011, a 90-degree V-notch weir was constructed at the mine
adit. The discharge was determined from the depth of water in the weir (Figure
3). Water discharged from the mine adit from May 20 to June 9 following two
days of intense rain. The onset of discharge lagged only about 12 hours following
2.15 inches (5.46 cm) of rain on May 20. This is a remarkably short response
time. The maximum discharge (11 days later) was 0.437 cfs (0.0124 m3/s), and
the total volume of water that discharged during the 21-day interval was 425,000
ft3 (12,040 m3).
The recharge area serving the mine adit is approximately 26.4 acres (10.7 ha).
The total precipitation during the 21-day interval when there was mine discharge
was 5.07 inches (12.88 cm). This is equivalent to a volume of water falling on the
recharge area of approximately 486,000 ft3(13,760 m3), slightly above the total
volume of mine adit discharge during this period.
Figure 4 is a conceptual model showing infiltration and ground water recharge
at the study area. From Figure 2, the short response time between the heavy rain
event on May 20 and the onset of discharge from the mine is apparent. It is possible that the water discharging from the mine adit is the same water that had
just fallen as rain. But more likely the infiltrating rain increased the elevation of
the water table in the recharge area and the resulting increased hydrostatic pressure forced the (normally near-stagnant) ground water within the rock fractures
into the mine adit. This study shows that rain infiltrates from the land surface to
the water table in approximately 12 hours, although some infiltrating rain may
traverse the entire zone of aeration and continue to the mine adit discharge point
in approximately 12 hours.
Figure 2. Histogram showing daily precipitation from May 13 to June 16 and mine adit discharge
(circles) from May 20 to June 9, 2011.
74
Figure 3. Photograph of weir used to measure mine adit discharge.The discharge at this time (June
2, 2011) was 0.37 cfs (0.0105 m3/s).
75
Figure 4. Conceptual model showing response of mine adit discharge to precipitation:
A = Zone of aeration (“vadose zone”). Infiltration of heavy precipitation causes increased water
in the vadose zone, resulting in a rise of the water table under the recharge area.
B = Zone of seasonal water table fluctuation.
C = Zone of saturation (“phreatic zone”). Recharge to ground water increases the elevation of
the water table, resulting in increased pressure within the phreatic zone.
D = Ground water conditions during low water table showing nearly stagnant pool of ground
water in back end of mine adit.
E = Discharge from mine adit occurs during high water table conditions.
PERMEABILITY FORMULA
An estimate of the hydraulic conductivity at this study site can be made from
the travel time (12 hours) that it takes the infiltrating rain water to reach the
water table at approximately 50 m depth. The velocity of water moving downward in the vadose zone is 100 m/d. The Darcy velocity, aka “specific discharge”
(Freeze and Cherry 1979), is the true water velocity multiplied by the effective
porosity, here estimated at 1%. The hydraulic conductivity (K) is the Darcy velocity divided by the hydraulic gradient (in this case, 50 m head loss over 50 m
travel distance). Thus the hydraulic conductivity is approximately 1 m/d.
From the earlier discussion in this paper, the hydraulic conductivity of Black
Hills metamorphic rocks decreases with depth over approximately four orders of
magnitude. Data from the study site and the references described above (Rahn
1994; Aurand 2012; Murdoch et al. 2011, Rahn and Johnson 2002) yield the
following general formula for hydraulic conductivity (K, meters per day) as related to depth (D, meters):
K = 500 D-2.3.
76
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Hydrogeologic information learned in this study is useful in other practical
considerations. For example, water wells drilled in the metamorphic terrain
produce most water from cracks. If saturated rock is encountered and the well
can only produce a marginal yield for a domestic supply, well drillers, once set
up for drilling, tend to continue drilling deeper hoping to hit a very productive
crack. Due to the exponential decrease in permeability with depth, however, if a
driller encounters only a marginal yield of ground water (~1 gpm (5.45 m3/d))
in the first 100 ft (30.5 m) of the phreatic zone, it would be wiser to move to
a different location and drill another 100 ft (30.5 m) well rather than continue
drilling where initially set up.
Another practical consideration involves onsite wastewater systems. The drain
field for a septic tank, located within a few feet of the surface, relies on gravity to
disperse the wastewater. In the metamorphic terrain, bedrock would most likely
exist just below the drain field. The rapid infiltration and recharge in near-surface
metamorphic rocks as shown in this study helps explain the rapid movement
of wastewater and why sickness from onsite wastewater systems has been documented only in the metamorphic terrain in the Black Hills (Rahn 2011).
CONCLUSION
This study shows that there is a rapid infiltration of rain and flow of water
through the unsaturated zone down to the water table, resulting in abundant
discharge from the mine adit. Practically all the precipitation from May 20 to
June 9 recharged ground water.
This rapid transmission of water seems to contradict the overall low hydraulic
conductivity of metamorphic rocks. A most likely explanation for this apparent
contradiction is because of the weathered nature of the metamorphic rocks near
the surface. This area was never glaciated, and the residual soils and outcrops of
weathered phyllite have abundant open fractures that easily accept all the precipitation, even in a moderate downpour. The water moves quickly through the
zone of aeration, and, once the infiltrating water reaches the phreatic zone, the
water table rises dramatically. The additional hydrostatic pressure in this phreatic
zone then forces ground water through the weathered rocks.
The high permeability near the surface explains the rapid movement of contaminants in near-surface metamorphic rocks, and why streams in the metamorphic terrain have a relatively high base flow.
At depths greater than approximately 100 m, the metamorphic rocks are practically unweathered. Any fracture would be nearly squeezed shut due to the great
lithostatic stress, and therefore metamorphic rocks below this depth would barely
transmit ground water at all.
77
LITERATURE CITED
Carter, J. M., and D.G. Driscoll. 2001. Hydrologic conditions and budgets for
the Black Hills of South Dakota, through water year 1998. U.S. Geological
Survey, Water Resources Investigations. Report 01-4226.
Carter, J.M., D.G. Driscoll, J.E. Williamson, and V.A. Lindquist. 2002. Atlas
of water resources of the Black Hills area, South Dakota. U.S. Geological
Survey. Atlas HA-747.
Davis, S.N., and R.G.M. DeWeist. 1966. Hydrogeology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 463 pp.
Freeze, R.A., and J.A. Cherry, 1979, Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 604 pp.
Murdoch, L.C., L.N. Germanovich, H. Wang, T.C. Onstott, D. Elsworth, L.
Stetler, and D. Boutt. 2011. Hydrogeology of the vicinity of Homestake
mine, South Dakota, USA. Hydrogeology Journal, published online. 11
October, 2011. 17 pp.
Rahn, P.H. 1990. Ground-water recharge at Mount Rushmore. Proceedings,
South Dakota Academy of Science. 69:129-138.
Rahn, P.H. 1994. Hydraulic fracturing of a water well in the Precambrian rocks
of the Black Hills. Proceedings, South Dakota Academy of Science. 73:205210.
Rahn, P.H. 2011. Sickness caused by septic disposal systems in the Black Hills.
Proceedings, South Dakota Academy of Science. 90:3-70.
Rahn. P.H., and J.P. Gries. 1973. Large springs in the Black Hills, South Dakota
and Wyoming. South Dakota Geological Survey. Report of Invest. No. 107.
46 pp.
Rahn, P.H., and C.S. Johnson. 2002. Effects of anisotropic transmissivity on a
contaminant plume at Nemo, South Dakota. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience. VIII(1):11-18.
79
MONITORING STANDING HERBAGE ON
SANDY ECOLOGICAL SITE ON NEBRASKA
AND SOUTH DAKOTA SAND HILLS
Daniel W. Uresk
USDA Forest Service
Rapid City, SD. 57701
ABSTRACT
Resource categories for monitoring standing herbage by visual obstruction
readings (VOR) with management guidelines were developed for the sands ecological site in the Nebraska Sand Hills on the Samuel R. McKelvie National Forest. Clipped vegetation ranged from 122 kg•ha-1 to 2968 kg•ha-1. VOR ranged
from 0 to 5.6 bands (band = 2.54 cm). Cluster analyses (ISODATA) identified 3
distinct resource categories for management. Resource categories for mean VOR
band and standing herbage (kg•ha-1) are short (band 1, 585 kg•ha-1), intermediate (band 2, 1130 kg•ha-1), and tall (band 3.6, 2003 kg•ha-1). Band 2 represents
residual standing herbage at 40% utilization and is the recommended guideline
to maintain or improve the resources. Three transects are required for monitoring areas of 259 ha or less. The guidelines developed provide resource managers
a tool for VOR data collection that is simple to use, cost effective, accurate and
reliable for monitoring standing herbage for livestock use and wildlife habitat.
Keywords
Visual obstruction reading (VOR), livestock, wildlife, Sand Hills, vegetation,
Robel pole
INTRODUCTION
Monitoring vegetation for livestock use and wildlife habitat values with the
Robel pole on rangelands is simple, fast and economical compared to clipping
and processing the material (Benkobi et al. 2000; Volesky et al. 1999; Vermeire
and Gillen 2000; Uresk and Benzon 2007; Uresk and Juntti 2008). Benkobi et
al. (2000) modified the pole for this study in the Nebraska Sand Hills by using
2.54 cm bands instead of the decimeter bands originally developed by Robel et
al. (1970). Other indirect methods, such as visual or ocular estimates, are commonly used for monitoring rangelands but have major drawbacks, yielding estimates for monitoring grasslands that are highly variable among observers when
lacking calibration and adequate sample size (Schultz e al. 1961; Kershaw 1973;
Block et al. 1987; Irving et al. 1995).
80
Information for the Sand Hills rangeland and wildlife habitat has been well
documented (Frolik and Keim 1933; Gilbert et al. 1979; Potvin and Harrison
1984; Stubbendieck and Reece 1992; Volesky et al. 1999; Reece et al. 2001;
Volesky et al. 2005; Volesky et al. 2007). Bleed and Flowerday (1990) and Stubbendieck et al. (1989) present overviews and literature reviews of the area. The
calibration of the Robel pole for this study (visual obstruction with standing
herbage (kg•ha-1)) was completed by Benkobi et al. (2000) on sandy lowlands
(Sands Ecological site); however resource guidelines for monitoring were not
provided. Objectives of this study were to 1) develop guidelines for monitoring
herbage, and 2) provide management guidelines for livestock grazing and wildlife
habitat.
STUDY AREA
The study was conducted on the Samuel R. McKelvie National Forest located
southwest of Valentine, Nebraska, and is approximately 47,301 ha (Benkobi et
al. 2000) within the sandy ecological type (Bleed and Flowerday 1990; USDA
NRCS 2001). The sandy ecological site in the past has been described as the valleys or lowland range site (Burslaff 1962, Barnes et al. 1984). Common plants
include sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii Hack.), little bluestem (Schizachyrium
scoparium (Michx.) Nash), prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.)
Scribn., and needle-and-thread (Stipa comata Trin. & Rupr.). Plant nomenclature follows Great Plains Flora Association (1986). Elevation ranges from 1,219
to 1,310 m above sea level. Precipitation recorded at Halsey, NE, (87-year average) is 541 mm, with most precipitation occurring as rain from April through
August (High Plains Regional Climate Center 2011). Snow is commonly present
from November through March. Average maximum and minimum temperatures
are 16.9 oC and 1.4 oC, respectively. The frost-free period is 150 days.
METHODS
Data used for these analyses are from Benkobi et al. (2000) collected with a
modified Robel pole and clipped vegetation. The pole had alternating white and
grey bands (2.54 cm bands) with the bottom band numbered with 1and placed
at the soil surface. If the first band was visible, the reading was 0, and a reading of
1 meant the first band was totally obscured. When bands were totally obscured,
the lowest non-visible VOR band was recorded. Transects were 200 m in length
with 20 stations spaced 10 m apart. Four VOR’s were recorded in the cardinal
directions at a distance of 4 m from each station with the reader’s eye at a height
of 1m. At stations (50, 100, 150, and 200 m), all herbaceous vegetation was
clipped at ground level within a 0.25 m2 hoop, bagged and oven dried.
Cluster analysis with ISODATA (Ball and Hall 1967; del Morel 1975) was
used to develop resource categories with visual obstruction readings (VOR) and
standing herbage (kg•ha-1) (Benkobi et al. 2000) for 173 transects. VOR (2.54
cm bands) and kg•ha-1 were standardized (individual data subtracted from the
81
sample mean/standard deviation) to give equal weight for analyses. Data were
also analyzed by SPSS (2003) for descriptives, means analyses, regression and
other exploratory analyses. All data were collected in the fall after first frost
(Benkobi et al. 2000).
RESULTS
Visual obstruction readings (VOR) of standing herbage for 173 transects
ranged on grazed and ungrazed pastures from 0 to 5.6 bands (2.54 cm) with a
mean of 1.9 bands. Clipped vegetation varied from 122 to 2968 kg•ha-1, a mean
of 1055 kg•ha-1. Cluster analysis (ISODATA) based on bands (VOR) and kg•ha-1
resulted in 3 distinct resource categories (Table 1). Resource categories are short
(0-1.5 bands), intermediate (1.6-2.7 bands) and tall (2.8-3.9+ bands). We calculate that 40% use by herbivores based on 2003 kg•ha-1 is 1202 kg•ha-1 at band
2.1. The estimated number of transects is 3 per 259 ha to be within 20% of the
mean with an 80% confidence (Benkobi et al. 2000).
Table 1. Resource categories for short, intermediate, and tall vegetation by band number (2.54
cm, 1-inch) on a Robel pole (VOR) with corresponding standing herbage (kg•ha-1) value. Categories were defined by cluster analysis for 173 transects.
CATEGORY
Short (n = 73)†
Intermediate (n = 72)
Tall (n = 28)
ATTRIBUTE
MINIMUM
MEAN
MAXIMUM
Band number‡
0
1.0
1.5
Standing herbage§
39
595
858
Band number
1.6
2.0
2.7
Standing herbage
912
1130
1512
Band number
Standing herbage
2.8
3.6
3.9+
1567
2003
2167
†Number of transects.
‡Visual obstruction reading (VOR).
§Based on the corrected misprint band-weight equation in Benkobi et al. (2000); corrected misprint is: SCDW (kg•ha-1) = 39.10 + 214.81 VOR (cm); [kg•ha-1 = 39.1 + 545.6*Band (2.54 cm)].
DISCUSSION
The Robel pole is an excellent tool for monitoring rangelands with VOR and
standing herbage. Resource categories define the range from short to tall vegetation based on data from Benkobi et al. (2000). The short category would be
considered heavily grazed; intermediate category, moderately grazed; and the tall
category lightly grazed or ungrazed. These categories may be useful with various
grazing systems and provide the heterogeneity and diversity required by wildlife
(Stubbendieck and Reece 1992; Holechek et al. 1998; Vodehnal et al. 2009). On
the sandy ecological site, USDA-NRCS (2001) estimated average high potential
vegetation over four communities at 2380 kg•ha-1. At 2003 kg•ha-1, data from
82
the current study are in close agreement with this, justifying its use as representative of the average potential vegetative production in calculating a band guideline
based on 40% utilization of herbage. Although the vegetation was sampled after
frost for standing herbage, the utilization standard still applies based on oven
dry weights. This corresponds to approximately band 2 with 1202 kg•ha-1 of
residual standing herbage remaining. Approximately 40% use is considered light
grazing in the area by Stubbendieck and Reese (1992). Monitoring livestock
use throughout the growing season based on the model developed after frost is
feasible (Uresk 2012). When management objectives are for a specific band to
remove livestock, such as band 2, then a 1-sided t-test is appropriate to test for
differences using the variance of the 3 transects (Steel and Torrie 1980; Uresk
and Juintti 2008; Uresk et al. 2010). Resource managers can use a VOR-based
monitoring protocol to prevent residual vegetation from being reduced by over
grazing where resource values are being lost or damaged. Retaining adequate
residual vegetation and structure reduces soil erosion by both wind and water,
soil surface temperature, loss of soil moisture and increases soil organic matter
(Blackburn 1983; Stubbendieck et al. 1989; Stubbendieck and Reese 1992; Reese et al. 2001; Linse et al. 2001). Adequate residual vegetation provides benefits
not only for plants and soils, but also structural diversity for wildlife.
Utilization of herbage is often estimated using subjective ocular methods
without correction factors for current residual vegetation or adequate sample
size, producing utilization estimates that are highly variable among observers
(Schultz et al. 1961; Kershaw 1973; Block et al. 1987; Irving et al. 1995). Our
protocol developed for use with the Robel pole provides accurate, precise and
cost effective information. Moreover, measuring residual standing herbage rather
than utilization results in more consistent management (Uresk and Juntti 2008;
Uresk et al. 2010).
A mosaic of resource categories based on VOR and standing herbage provides
a full range of plant structure that would maximize plant and animal diversity
(Holecheck et al. 1998; Vodehnal et al. 2009; Benkobi et al. 2007; Fritcher
et al. 2004). For general resource management, Kershaw (1973) and MuellerDombnois and Ellenberg (1974) recommend approximately 10-15% standing
herbage in both tall and short resource categories and 70% in the intermediate
category. However, management of wildlife based on VOR and standing herbage
will vary by animal species. For sharp-tailed grouse, an important upland game
species, nesting success generally requires light or ungrazed areas. Thus it would
be prudent to manage at approximately VOR band 4 with fall measurements
for spring nesting (> 8.6 cm of residual herbage; Prose et al. 2002) and up to
band 5 (13 cm) for nest site selection. For prairie grouse Vodehnal et al. (2009)
recommend a diversity of resource categories and plant species composition over
the landscape
For monitoring vegetation, the Robel pole with 2.54 cm bands as modified
by Benkobi et al.(2000) is less precise and accurate than poles with 1.27 cm
bands (Uresk and Benzon 2007; Uresk and Juntti 2008; Uresk et al. 2010). My
recommendation, therefore, is to use 1.27 cm bands for future monitoring and
estimation of standing herbage.
83
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are extended to Nebraska National Forest for providing partial funding for the original research (Benkobi et al. 2000) under cooperative agreement
number 28-A3-746.
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87
ECOLOGICAL MODEL FOR SERAL STAGE
CLASSIFICATION AND MONITORING FOR
SANDS-CHOPPY SANDS ECOLOGICAL TYPE
IN NEBRASKA AND SOUTH DAKOTA
Daniel W. Uresk1*, Daryl E. Mergen2, and Jody Javersak3
1
USDA-Forest Service
2
Colorado Springs, CO 80905
3
Sitka, AK 99835
ABSTRACT
A multivariate statistical model related to plant succession was developed to
classify seral stages and to monitor succession for sands-choppy sands ecological
type in the Sand Hills region of Nebraska and South Dakota. This model can
be used by range and wildlife managers to evaluate management alternatives by
evaluating changes in plant species cover and frequency of occurrence within
and between seral stages. Four seral stages (early to late plant succession) were
quantitatively identified with an estimated 91% level of accuracy. Three plant
species provide the information to assign seral stages and monitor trends based
on index values (canopy cover (%) x frequency of occurrence (%)) for sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii Hack.), hairy grama (Bouteloua hisuta Lag.), and little
bluestem (Schizachrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash). Measurement of these three
plant species is all that is required for the model.
Keywords
Succession, seral stages, key species, management, model, Sand Hills
INTRODUCTION
Rangeland ecological status undergoes change over time following natural
and anthropogenic induced disturbances. This process of plant succession has
been used in classification studies for western forests and rangelands for many
years (Sampson 1919; Daubenmire 1952; Daubenmire 1968; Dyksterhuis 1949;
Westoby et al. 1989). However, subjective interpretations often made it difficult
to obtain consistent measurements of vegetation trend. These changes can be
quantified using multivariate statistical models of plant succession (MacCracken
et al. 1983; Uresk 1990; Benkobi et al. 2007; Uresk et al. 2010a; Uresk et al.
2010b). Multivariate quantitative models of plant succession allow resource
managers to easily obtain quantitative measurements and relate current range
88
status to management effects at one point in time and trends over a long-term
period on a repeatable basis.
Over the last few decades, rangeland classification concepts have provided
resource managers a framework for evaluating vegetation changes in response
to natural events and to management activities (USDA-SCS 1976; Westoby et
al. 1989; Holechek et al. 1989). Other multivariate and ordination techniques
(Kershaw 1973; Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg 1974; del Moral 1975) refined
vegetation classification, but generally lacked practical tools such as quantitative
models for range managers to quantify succession. Our quantitative model can
be used by managers to determine seral stage classification and to determine succession and retrogression trends within and among seral stages.
State and transition models for plant succession have received much attention
in recent years, primarily as an approach in ecological processes for plants (Friedel 1991; Samuel and Hart 1994; Bestelmyer et al. 2003; Briske et al. 2005).
State and transition models are conceptual models that can include vegetation
changes as a result of fire, grazing, climate, and management activities. The
multivariate model we have developed is similar in concept but quantitatively
defines discrete categories for community phases within a state and transition
model of plant succession (Uresk 1990; Benkobi et al. 2007; Uresk et al. 2010a;
Uresk et al. 2010b). These models are not linear and do not require a linear progression of plant succession from early to late by going through all seral stages.
Plant succession may go from early to late bypassing middle seral stages. The
current study provides discrete categories based upon a few fundamental ecological processes and relationships of key plant indicators for transition or plant
succession (Stringham, et al. 2003; Bestelmyer et al. 2003). The objectives of
the present study were to (1) develop a model for monitoring the sands-choppy
sands ecological type, (2) define seral stages, and (3) provide a sampling and
monitoring protocol. Common grasses that define sands-choppy sands ecological
type include sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii Hack.), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash), prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.)
Scribn., needle-and-thread grass (Heterostipa comata Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth),
hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta Lag.), and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis (Kunth)
Lag. ex Griffiths).
STUDY AREA
The study was conducted on the Nebraska National Forest in the Sand Hills of
central Nebraska. The Sand Hills in Nebraska include sand dune hills to sandy
basins and valleys. This study focused on vegetation in the sands and choppy
sands ecological sites. A map and detailed site descriptions of both ecological
sites are presented in USDA-NRCS (2000, 2001). The Sand Hill region covers
approximately 5 million hectares (19,300 mi2) in southern South Dakota and
Central Nebraska (Bleed and Flowerday 1990). The specific study site is located
in the north-central part of Nebraska, on the Samuel R. McKelvie District, and
encompasses about 46,280 hectares (115,700 acres). The Bessey District has an
additional 36,183 hectares (90,456 acres).
89
The climate is described as semi-arid (Burzlaf 1962) with a mean annual
precipitation average of 53 cm (21 in) from three weather stations at Valentine,
Halsey, and Nenzel from 1903-2006 (HPRCC 2007). Annual precipitation is 41
cm (16 inches) in the western Sand Hills to near 61 cm (24 inches) in the southeast part of the area. Seventy to 85% percent of the precipitation falls during
the growing season (April-September) as short duration, intense thunderstorms.
Average monthly temperature ranges from a low of -13 °C (9 °F) in the winter
to a high of 32 °C (89 °F) during the summer.
Vegetation—Sand Hills flora has been described numerous times over the last
century. An overall review of the ecology for plants and animals, soils, livestock
grazing, climate, geology, hydrology, streams and lakes in the Sand Hills is presented by Bleed and Flowerday (1990). Stubbendieck et al. (1989) provided an
additional review of the literature. Burzlaff (1962) divided into range sites the
vegetation ground cover as a measure of forage production. Three range sites (dry
valley, rolling sands, and choppy sands) describe much of the vegetation complex
within the Sandhills uplands.
This study focused on vegetation in the sands and choppy sands ecological
sites (USDA-NRCS 2000, 2001). Dominant plants include sand bluestem, little
bluestem prairie sandreed, needle-and-thread grass, hairy grama, blue grama and
sedge (Carex spp). Common forbs are green sagewort (Artemisia spp.), lemon
scurfpea (Psoraidium lanceolata (Pursh) Rydb.) and cuman ragweed (Ambrosia
psilostachya DC.). Plant nomenclature follows USDA-NRCS (2012).
METHODS
Data collection for canopy cover and frequency of occurrence followed
Daubenmire (1959), and statistical analyses followed procedures developed by
Uresk (1990). Data were collected on 61 macroplots (sites) during the summer
of 1990. About half the plots were collected throughout the sands and the other
half collected throughout the choppy sands ecological sites on Nebraska National Forest lands. Each macroplot was randomly selected within one of three
perceived strata of early, mid, or late seral stages (Cochran 1977; Thompson et al
1998; Levy and Lemeshow 1999). At each macroplot, two parallel transects 30
m (99 ft.) long were spaced 20 m (66 ft.) apart. Canopy cover and frequency of
occurrence were obtained for individual plant species and other variables (total
cover, bare ground, and litter) sampled at 1-m intervals along each 30 m transect.
All macroplot data for canopy cover and frequency of occurrence were averaged
by site. An index was created based on the product of the mean site cover and the
mean site frequency. Index = ((transect 1 cover + transect 2 cover)/2) * (transect
1 frequency + transect 2 frequency )/2)) (Uresk 1990). Data were analyzed with
SPSS (1992) and SPSS (2003).
Chi-square analysis was applied to plant index data and evaluated for differences between sands and choppy sands ecological types. Because reduction of
variables is useful when applying clustering techniques, we used stepwise discriminant analyses to reduce the number of variables derived from the perceived
three seral satges (Uresk 1990). This procedure was used to obtain the number
90
of variables relevant to classification and not as an evaluation of the three perceived seral stages. Principal component analysis is useful for data reduction and
does not require the need for perceived seral stages; however, meaningful results
are obtained only with far fewer variables. Data with reduced variables were
subjected to a nonhierarchical cluster analysis using ISODATA which grouped
the variables into seral stages (Ball and Hall 1967; del Morel 1975). The 61 sites
(macroplots) were grouped into 4 distinct seral stages. Discriminant analyses
(SPSS 1992, 2003) identified key variables for seral stage classification and provided a quantitative model to be used for future classification and monitoring
(P < 0.05). Misclassification error rates were estimated with cross validation procedures (SAS 1988, SPSS 2003). Field-testing of the model was applied during
the second year (1991). Most common and abundant (> 1%) plant species and
other variables are reported in Table 4 and 5.
RESULTS
Seral Stages—Chi-square analysis showed no significant differences in plant
cover-frequency index (P < 0.05) between sands and choppy sands sites. Therefore, sands and choppy sands ecological sites were combined into the sandschoppy sands ecological type for this study.
Table 1. Canopy cover, frequency of occurrence means (%) with standard errors (in parentheses)
and index for key plant species by seral stages used in model development for Sands-Choppy
Sands ecological type.
SERAL STAGE
N
SAND BLUESTEM HAIRY GRAMA LITTLE BLUESTEM
Canopy Cover
Late
5
8.4(1.6)
24.2(2.0)
14.1(4.6)
Late intermediate
12
30.9(6.4)
5.0(1.5)
15.6(2.9)
Early intermediate
14
5.0(1.1)
2.7(0.9)
36.1(2.2)
Early
30
7.9(1.1)
2.1(0.6)
4.8(1.2)
Late
5
57.7(7.6)
88.7(3.2)
48.3(13.4)
Late intermediate
12
80.8(3.3)
35.0(9.2)
50.0(8.7)
Early intermediate
14
38.6(6.9)
20.8(6.1)
85.2(2.7)
Early
30
40.5(4.9)
13.7(3.6)
17.1(3.6)
Late
5
507
2184
955
Late intermediate
12
2698
327
1031
Early intermediate
14
278
164
3121
Early
30
470
101
215
Frequency
Index
n= sample size
91
Table 2. Fisher’s classification discriminant function coefficients used for classification of seral
stages in Sands-Choppy Sands ecological type.
LATE
LATE
INTERMEDIATE
EARLY
INTERMEDIATE
EARLY
Sand bluestem
0.0024730
0.0034449
0.0018747
0.0006470
Hairy grama
0.0278607
0.0067453
0.0046673
0.0017406
Little bluestem
0.0046142
0.0042618
0.0083963
0.0008727
Constant
-34.65368
-9.335991
-15.09219
-1.719941
SPECIES
Table 3. An example of assigning seral stages by using Sands-Choppy Sands Fisher’s discriminant
coefficients with new index data (Index = Site cover mean x Site frequency mean) for sand bluestem, hairy grama, and little bluestem.
SAND BLUESTEM HAIRY GRAMA LITTLE BLUESTEM
SERAL
Coeff1
Index
Coeff
Index
Coeff
Index
CONST
Late
(0.0024730 * 2150 + 0.0278607 * 500 + 0.0046142 * 950) - 34.65368 = -11.02
Late Int.
(0.0034449 * 2150 + 0.0067453 * 500 + 0.0042618 * 950) - 9.335991 = 5.48
SCORE
Early Int. (0.0018747 * 2150 + 0.0046673 * 500 + 0.0083963 * 950) - 15.09219 = -0.75
Early
(0.0006470 * 2150 + 0.0017406 * 500 + 0.0008727 * 950) - 1.719941 = 1.37
Coeff = Fisher's discriminant classification coefficient, Const = Constant values from Fisher's
discriminant model, Int. - Intermediate.
1
Seral stages were distinguished from one another by the distribution and
abundance of key plant species that characterized the ecological type. The sandschoppy sands ecological type was classified into four seral stages that ranged from
early to late plant succession (P < 0.05). Discriminant analysis allowed us to
select sand bluestem, hairy grama, and little bluestem as the best prediction variables in the model for classification and monitoring by seral stages. Index values
of these 3 key plant species illustrate the dynamics of these species in this ecological type (Figure 1, Table 1). Hairy grama was dominant in the late seral stage,
sand bluestem in the late intermediate stage, and little bluestem dominates in the
early intermediate stage. Lesser amounts of all three plant species described the
early seral stage. Distributions of mean canopy cover, frequency of occurrence,
and indices for the three key variables by seral stage are presented in Table 1.
Fisher’s classification discriminant function coefficients define seral stages and
provide model coefficients for predicting plant dynamics within the ecological
system (Table 2). Key plant variables with the greatest indices by seral stage present the biotic potential for predicting plant species dynamics within the ecological system. An example of seral stage assignment for new data collected in the
field with Fisher classification coefficients is presented in Table 3. To determine
a seral stage score, multiply the mean site index values for sand bluestem, hairy
grama, and little bluestem by the Fisher coefficients for each seral stage (row)
and then sum the products for a score. The greatest score identifies assignment
of seral stage. When the products summed are negative, the least negative score
92
Key Plant Species by Seral Stages
Sand bluestem
Hairy grama
Little bluestem
3500
Index
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Late
Late Int.
Early Int.
Early
Figure 1. Key plant species with index values (canopy cover (%) x frequency of occurrence (%))
displayed throughout four seral stages in the Sands-Choppy Sands ecological type in Nebraska and
South Dakota. Graph provides a guide for an approximate mixture of species at each seral stage.
is used for assignment of seral stage. An example from new index data collected
Figure in
1. the
Keyfield
plantare
species
index values
(canopy
frequency
of bluestem
sandwith
bluestem
= 2150,
hairy cover
grama(%)
= x500,
and little
occurrence
(%))
displayed
throughout
four
seral
stages
in
the
Sands-Choppy
Sands
= 950. In this example, the greatest score is 5.48, which assigns this site to late
ecological
type in Nebraska
and South
Graph
provides
guide
forstage
an assignment
intermediate
stage. The
overallDakota.
accuracy
of the
modelafor
seral
approximate
mixture
of
species
at
each
seral
stage.
based on cross validation is 91 %. Additional details on seral classification, suc-
cessional trends, data collection, plot establishment, and programs for PDAs or
other computers may be obtained from USDA-Forest Service web site at http://
www.fs.fed.us/rangelands/ecology/ecologicalclassification/index.shtml. Benkobi
et al. (2007) provide additional information on plot establishment, data collection, and interpretation.
Late seral stage—Plant species richness of the late seral stage consisted of
48 forbs, 20 graminoids, and 4 shrubs, representing 24 plant families (Figure
2). Approximately 76% of the plants were perennial species with only 14%
annual species (10% biennial or other combination). The late seral stage was
dominated by hairy grama, and little bluestem with 24% and 14% canopy cover
and 89% and 48% frequency values, respectively (Table 1). Sand bluestem had
lesser amounts of cover and lower frequency. Sun sedge and prairie sandreed
had canopy cover values of 8% and 5% and a greater frequency (Table 4 and 5).
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), rough dropseed (Sporobolus compositus (Poir.)
), and sand lovegrass (Eragrostis trichodes (Nutt.) Alph. Wood) ranged in cover
values between 2-4%, with frequency of occurrence ranging between 10-30%
(Table 5). Total forb cover of approximately 10% in the late seral stage was the
lowest amount recorded among the 4 seral stages, while frequency of occurrence
was approximately 100%. Cuman ragweed was the most common forb species
with canopy cover and frequency of occurrence at approximately 3% and 48%,
respectively.
93
Table 4. Canopy cover means (%) and standard errors (in parentheses) of common plant species
and other variables by seral stages in Sands-Choppy Sands ecological type.
LATE
LATE
INTERMEDIATE
EARLY
INTERMEDIATE
EARLY
Sun sedge
Carex inops
8.1(1.4)
5.0(1.8)
5.2(1.5)
7.0(1.9)
Prairie sandreed
Calamovilfa longifolia
5.0(0.9)
6.3(2.0)
3.6(0.6)
5.3(1.0)
Switchgrass
Panicum virgatum
3.8(1.3)
4.6(1.5)
3.2(0.8)
5.6(2.7)
Rough dropseed
Sporobolus compositus
var. compositus (S. asper)
3.1(0.9)
1.9(0.5)
1.2(0.3)
2.9(0.6)
Sand lovegrass
Eragrostis trichodes
2.1(1.8)
3.6(0.9)
6.8(1.7)
6.2(1.7)
Prairie Junegrass
Koeleria macrantha
1.9(0.9)
1.5(0.7)
1.2(0.4)
1.0(0.5)
Heller’s rosette grass
Dicanthelium oligosanthes
0.4(0.4)
2.3(0.8)
2.6(0.9)
2.1(0.9)
Needle-and-thread grass
Hesperostipa comata
ssp. comata (Stipa comata)
0.5(0.40)
2.0(1.6)
2.8(1.3)
3.9(1.1)
Cuman ragweed
Ambosia psilostachya
2.9(1.0)
4.4(0.9)
5.1(1.0)
7.3(1.4)
Prairie rose
Rosa arkansana
3.1(2.2)
3.6(1.6)
3.7(0.9)
3.3(0.7)
Total Graminoids
67.1(4.2)
76.1(2.9)
72.7(2.5)
59.9(4.1)
Total Forbs
9.5(1.0)
12.3(1.8)
14.5(2.3)
16.1(1.8)
Total Shrubs
5.6(2.2)
6.4(1.5)
10.3(2.3)
8.3(1.6)
Total Litter
52.5(6.3)
70.(4.5)
73.2(4.0)
53.9(5.6)
Bare ground
47.8(6.4)
27.6(4.3)
26.5(4.2)
45.0(5.6)
SPECIES OR VARIABLE
Late Intermediate seral stage—Plant species richness consisted of 60 forbs,
28 graminoids, and 5 shrubs (Figure 2) in 23 plant families. One tree was reported within this seral stage. Approximately 69% of the plants were perennial, 17%
annual and the remaining 14% biennial or a combination of annual, biennial,
or perennial. The composition of vegetation in this seral stage was dominated
by sand bluestem (Table 1). Little bluestem (16% canopy cover) was followed
by sun sedge, hairy grama, prairie sandreed, switchgrass, and sand lovegrass
with values between 3-5%, although frequency of occurrence ranged between
18-43% for these species (Tables 4 and 5). Total forb cover of 12% was slightly
greater than was present in the late seral stage. The dominant species was cuman
ragweed with 4% cover and a frequency of 52%.
Early Intermediate seral stage—Plant species richness included 64 forbs, 27
graminoids, and 7 shrubs (Figure 2), in 25 plant families. About 67% of the
94
Table 5. Frequency of occurrence means (%) and standard errors (in parentheses) of common
plant species and other variables by seral stages in Sands-Choppy Sands ecological type1.
LATE
LATE
INTERMEDIATE
EARLY
INTERMEDIATE
EARLY
Sun Sedge
Carex inops
74.7(9.2)
42.9(13.9)
44.6(11.7)
40.2(7.6)
Prairie sandreed
Calamovilfa longifolia
52.3(9.6)
39.6(7.3)
40.7(5.2)
39.4(5.4)
Switchgrass
Panicum virgatum
21.3(6.7)
24.6(7.7)
18.6(5.0)
16.6(4.8)
Rough dropseed
Sporobolus compositus
var. compositus (S. asper)
37.33(6.0)
20.7(4.8)
17.0(3.5)
26.9(4.3)
Sand lovegrass
Eragrostis trichodes
10.0(6.7)
18.1(3.8)
34.4(7.3)
22.8(5.3)
Prairie Junegrass
Koeleria macrantha
22.33(11.7)
13.47(5.5)
16.49(5.2)
7.61(2.8)
Heller’s rosette grass
Dicanthelium oligosanthes
3.6(3.7)
19.0(5.7)
30.6(8.1)
14.6(4.4)
Needle-and-thread grass
Hesperostipa comata
ssp. comata (Stipa comata)
7.3(6.5)
11.4(6.9)
19.1(6.7)
21.1(5.2)
Cuman ragweed
Ambosia psilostachya
47.7(12.5)
52.2(8.2)
54.5(8.0)
53.2(6.0)
Prairie rose
Rosa arkansana
15.7(9.2)
20.1(8.7)
27.3(6.0)
20.4(4.3)
SPECIES OR VARIABLE
Frequency of Occurrence for Graminoids, Forbs, Shrubs, Litter and Bare ground was 100%.
1
plants were perennial and 16-17% were either annuals or biennials. Little bluestem was the most common grass species in early intermediate seral stage with 36
% cover and 85% frequency of occurrence (Table 1). Sand bluestem and hairy
grama, both key species, had cover values of 5% and 3% and frequency of occurrence value of 39% and 21%, respectively. Sand lovegrass and sun sedge cover
was between 5-6% with a frequency of 34-45%. Prairie sandreed, switchgrass,
Heller’s rosette grass (Dichanthelium oligosanthes (Schult.) Gould) and needle
and thread ranged between 2-4%, whereas frequency ranged between 19-41%
(Tables 4 and 5). The most common forb was cuman ragweed with over 5%
canopy cover and 55% frequency. Total forb cover was 15%.
Early seral stage—Plant species richness was represented by 78 forbs, 35
graminoids, and 7 shrubs in 33 plant families(Figure 2). In this seral stage only
about 65% of the plant species were perennials with 23% annuals and 12% biennials. Plant species diversity was greatest for this seral stage. Within this seral
stage, sand bluestem, little bluestem, and hairy grama exhibited canopy cover
values of 8%, 5%, and 2% with frequencies of 41%, 14%, and 17%, respectively (Table 1). Graminoids with cover between 5-6% included sun sedge, sand
lovegrass, prairie sandreed, and swtichgrass (Table 4). Frequency of occurrence
95
Number of plant species by life form
Number of Species
Forbs
Graminoids
Shrubs
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Late
Late Int.
Early Int.
Early
Seral Stages
Figure 2. Number of plant species by life form category throughout seral stages in Sands-Choppy
Sands, Nebraska.
Figure 2. Number of plant species by life form category throughout seral stages in
Sands-Choppy
Sands,species
Nebraska.
for these
ranged between 23-40% (Table 5). Needle-and-thread and
rough dropseed were common with 3-4% canopy cover and frequency between
21-26%. Cuman ragweed accounted for 7% of the forb cover which for all forbs
totaled 16%.
DISCUSSION
Canopy cover of prairie sandreed, hairy grama, and little bluestem has been
reported to be similar between the rolling sands and choppy sands range sites
(Burslaff 1962; Barnes et al. 1984). Soil characteristics and vegetation communities represent a continuum across the Sand Hills landscape, but are more similar
between the rolling sands and choppy sands and often significantly different
when comparing these two sites to the dry valley range type (Burslaff 1962;
Barnes et al. 1984). Barnes and Harrison (1982) found similar soil moisture between rolling sands and choppy sands and much greater soil moisture, especially
as depth increased, in the dry valleys. Plant species for both sands and choppy
sands were not different and were combined for these analyses. Similar soils and
soil moisture for sands and choppy sands support combining the two ranges now
defined as sands-choppy sands ecological type.
Management based on plant seral stages provides a powerful tool to achieve,
evaluate, and monitor desired resource conditions or status of vegetation (Uresk
1990; Stubbendieck and Reece 1992; Benkobi and Uresk 1996; Benkobi et al
2007; Uresk et al. 2010a; Uresk et al. 2010b). Our model describes quantitative
interrelationships of plant species occurring throughout the four seral stages from
early to late. Thus, our model can be used to determine seral stages regardless of
hypothetical past or future climax vegetation.
96
Managing for all four seral stages can be viewed as a management alternative.
Inclusion of multiple seral stages is known to increase plant and animal diversity
over the landscape (Rumble and Gobeille 1995; Benkobi et al. 2007; Fritcher et
al. 2004). Because one seral stage is not practical for multiple-use management,
the entire range of seral stages (from early to late) is desirable to accommodate
the greatest plant species diversity, wildlife habitat and diversity, livestock production, and recreation. In the sands-choppy sands ecological type, late and
intermediate stages of succession may be best for livestock production due to the
greater availability of forage species. The early seral stage may be more important
for specific wildlife species and rare plant species such as blowout penstemon
(Penstemon haydenii S.Watson) (Stubbendieck et al. 1989).
Wildlife managers have recognized that wildlife densities, diversity, and plant
succession are related and important for wildlife management. In addition,
management of sands-choppy sands rangelands with seral stages provides a management tool that can be used across the landscape. The landscape scale could
be the best level for managers to determine their management objectives. Approximately 10-15% of the landscape is recommended to be maintained in the
early and late stages with the remainder of the area in the intermediate categories
(Kershaw 1973; Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg 1974). This would provide
a mixture of habitats on the landscape to maintain plant and animal diversity
(Uresk 1990; Benkobi et al. 2007; Fritcher et al. 2004; Rumble and Gobeille
1995; Vodehnal et al. 2009).
Bird species diversity was significantly greater in early seral stage compared to
late-intermediate seral stage on Ft. Pierre National Grasslands in South Dakota
(Fritcher et al. 2004). Birds with tall vegetation or residual vegetation (litter)
habitat requirements were more abundant in later seral stages while birds that
required sparse vegetation cover were common in the early seral stage. Therefore,
all seral stages are necessary to maximize grassland bird species diversity and
abundance across the landscape (Fritcher et al. 2004).
Perennial plants are generally considered more stable and fluctuate less on an
annual basis compared to annuals and biennials. Land managers may consider
management for later seral stages on soils more susceptible to wind erosion.
Management for rare species that require specific seral stages, such as blowout
penstemon which requires severe wind erosion areas (early seral), may require
special management to create more habitat near known population centers to
increase species abundance and viability.
Livestock grazing can be a tool to regulate changes in seral condition or status.
Adjustments in timing, density, and rate of livestock grazing might result in a
change to the preferred management alternative (desired seral stage) (Stubbendieck and Reese 1992). However, when early seral communities are the desired
objective, additional management strategies or problems such as soil erosion
must also be considered (Mergen et al. 2001). Although greater perennial plant
cover is generally accepted as an effective method for reducing soil erosion, effective management practices for controlling erosion have not been established.
The classification and monitoring model developed in this paper can be used
to quantify the relationship between various grazing intensities and plant succession to determine grazing levels necessary to maintain or restore a desired succes-
97
sional status (management objectives) of the vegetation. In addition, information
about rare plant species and wildlife activities, soil erosion and their relationships
to seral stages in plant communities need to be included in a management plan
(Rumble and Gobeille 1995; Fritcher et al. 2004; Vodehnal et al. 2009).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was completed with cooperation and partial support of the Nebraska National Forest System and Colorado State University, Department of Forest,
Rangeland and Watershed Stewardship (28-CR3-752 and 03-JV-1221609-272).
Daryl Mergen was research associate, Colorado State University, working under
these agreements and was located in Colorado Springs, CO. Rudy King, Rocky
Mountain Research Station statistician (retired), provided invaluable advice
throughout the study. Thanks are extended to Tony Hoag for help with data
collection and analyses.
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100
101
PERFORMANCE OF COMMERCIAL STARTER
DIETS DURING FIRST-FEEDING OF
LANDLOCKED FALL CHINOOK SALMON
Jeremy Kientz1, Michael E. Barnes2*, and Dan J. Durben1
1
Black Hills State University
Spearfish, SD 57799
2
McNenny State Fish Hatchery
2
South Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and Parks
Spearfish, SD 57783
*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Changes in the availability of starter diets traditionally used during landlocked
fall Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha rearing necessitated the testing of
potential alternatives. Three diets, Silvercup® salmon starter, Silvercup 0.7 mm
extruded micro-pellet, and BioVita® #0 starter, were compared during a 28-day
trial. Weight gain was significantly greater in the tanks of salmon receiving Biovita compared to 0.7 mm Silvercup. Feed conversion ratio was also improved
with the feeding of Biovita versus 0.7 mm Silvercup, with Silvercup starter
producing results not significantly different from the other two diets. Mortality
was 50% lower in Biovita and 37% lower in 0.7 mm Silvercup in comparison to
Silvercup starter, although none of these three means were significantly different.
Individual fish weights and lengths were significantly lower in the fish fed the 0.7
mm Silvercup in comparison to the other two diets. Based on these results, Biovita #0 is recommended for initial feeding of landlocked fall Chinook salmon fry.
Key Words
Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, starter diet, Silvercup, Biovita,
INTRODUCTION
Landlocked fall Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha in Lake Oahe are
an important fisheries resource in South Dakota. This population is sustained
entirely by artificial propagation, with no natural reproduction ever documented
and extremely unlikely (Marrone and Stout 1997). During hatchery rearing,
Lake Oahe Chinook salmon typically experience considerable mortality prior
to hatch and present a number of rearing challenges (Barnes et al. 2000). Substantial mortality has also been observed during initial feeding, possibly due to
dietary issues (Barnes et al. 2002).
There have been few evaluations of commercially-available Chinook salmon
starter diets. Fletcher and Barnes (2008) compared the performance of BioVita
102
#0 starter and Silvercup soft-moist. They determined that either diet was acceptable for use, but recommended the use of Biovita to maximize survival. Twibell
et al. (2009) used BioVita, Silvercup soft-moist, EWOS Micro, Rangen Starter,
and Rangen soft-moist with Chinook salmon and observed the highest growth
rates in fish fed Biovita #0 starter.
Two diets that were historically used during the initial feeding of Lake Oahe
salmon are no longer available, with Silvercup soft-moist only recently removed
from the market. With the loss of these traditional starter feeds and the availability of novel diets with new formulations, research evaluations are needed.
Thus, the objective of this study was to compare the performance of three
commercially available starter diets during the initial rearing of landlocked fall
Chinook salmon.
METHODS
The trial was conducted at McNenny State Fish Hatchery, Spearfish, South
Dakota. Well water at a constant temperature of 11°C (total hardness as CaCO3,
360 mg/L; alkalinity as CaCO3, 210 mg/L; pH, 7.6; total dissolved solids, 390
mg/L) was used throughout rearing. Eggs were obtained from spawning a feral
stock of landlocked fall Chinook salmon from Lake Oahe, South Dakota, incubated in jars, and placed in 1.8-m diameter circular tanks after hatching.
After the observance of free-swimming salmon fry suspended in the water
column on December 23, 2011, 20 fish were weighed to the nearest 0.01 g and
total length measured to the nearest 0.1 mm. Based on mean (SE) weights of
0.26 (0.01) and lengths of 31.9 (0.22), approximately 500 Chinook salmon (130
g total weight) from the same 1.8-m circular tank were placed into each of nine
100-L cylindrical tanks (4,500 fish total). Flows in each tank were set at 21 L/
min. Just before moving the fish from the 1.8-m diameter tank to the experimental tanks, we weighed 20 fish to the nearest mg and measured them to the
nearest mm. Feeding commenced on December 27, 2011 and daily feed rations
were dispensed hourly from 08:00 to 12:00, due to faulty programming, using
automatic feeders (Sweeney Enterprises, Inc., Boerne, TX). The faulty programming was corrected on January 8, 2011 and daily feed rations were dispensed
hourly from 08:00 to 16:00. Tanks were cleaned as needed to eliminate excess
food and fish waste, and mortalities were removed and recorded daily.
Constant water temperature allowed the use of the hatchery constant (HC)
method to determine feeding levels for the tanks, with a planned feed conversion
of 1.1 (Buterbaugh and Willoughby 1967). We held HC at 3.3 for the first five
days of feeding to prevent the buildup of wasted feed in the tanks while the fish
were learning to eat. HC was then increased to 5.28 for four days, 6.6 for five
days and maintained at 7.92 for the remainder of the experiment. Feed amounts
were weighed to the nearest g.
The nine tanks were assigned one of three diets: Silvercup salmon starter (Nelson and Sons, Inc., Murray, UT), Silvercup 0.7 mm extruded micro-pellets, and
BioVita #0 starter (Bio-Oregon, Inc., Longview, WA). Three tanks received Silvercup starter, three tanks received Silvercup micro-pellet, while the other three
103
Table 1. Proximate composition and particle size from manufacturers specifications of BioVita #0
Starter, Silvercup 0.7mm Extruded Micro-pellet, and Silvercup Salmon Starter.
BIOVITA
SILVERCUP
MICRO-PELLET
SILVERCUP
STARTER
Protein (%)
53
54
52
Fat (%)
17
18
16
Fiber (%)
1
3
1
Ash (%)
9
12
12
0.44-0.59
0.7
0.6
Particle size (mm)
Table 2. Manufacturer’s ingredients list for various starter diets fed to fall Chinook salmon fry.
Ingredients are listed in the order that they appear on the manufacturers feed tag.
BIOVITA
Fish Meal
Fish Oil
Wheat Gluten
Wheat Flour
Krill Meal
Whey Powder
Lecithin
Gelatin
Vitamin/Mineral premix1
Brewer’s Yeast
Astaxanthin
Ethoxyquin
SILVERCUP
MICRO-PELLET
SILVERCUP
STARTER
Fish Meal
Stabilized Fish Oil
Wheat Flour
Krill
Wheat Gluten
Poultry By-Product Meal
Hydrolized Feather Meal
Corn Gluten Meal
Yeast
Astaxanthin
Vitamins2
Minerals3
Ethoxyquin
Fish Meal
Wheat Flour
Feather Meal
Fish Oil
Poultry Meal
Krill Meal
Wheat Gluten
Dried Whey
Vitamin/Mineral premix4
Brewer’s Yeast
Astaxanthin
Ethoxyquin
Choline Chloride
1
Vitamin A Acetate, Vitamin D3, Ascorbyl Polyphosphate (C), Vitamin E, Inositol, Zinc Sulfate,
Nicotinic Acid, Calcium Pantothenate, Manganese Sulfate, Riboflavin, Pyridoxine Hydrochloride
(B6), Thiamine Mononitrate, Vitamin K, Copper Sulfate, Folic Acid, Calcium Iodate, D-Biotin,
Sodium Selenite, and Vitamin B12.
2
Vitamin A Acetate, D-Activated Animal Sterol (D3), Vitamin B12 Supplement, Riboflavin
Supplement, Niacin, Folic Acid, Menadione Sodium Bisulphite Complex, Calcium Pantothenate,
Pyridoxine Hydrochloride, Thiamine, Biotin, DL Alphatocopherol (E), Ascorbic Acid, Choline
Chloride.
Zinc Sulfate, Copper Sulphate, Ferrous Sulphate, Managenous Sulphate, Ethylenediamine Dihydroiodide.
3
4
Vitamin A Acetate, Vitamin D3, Ascorbyl Polyphosphate (C), Vitamin E, Inositol, Zinc Sulfate,
Nicotinic Acid, Calcium Pantothenate, Manganese Sulfate, Riboflavin, Pyridoxine Hydrochloride
(B6), Thiamine Mononitrate, Vitamin K, Copper Sulfate, Folic Acid, Calcium Iodate, D-Biotin,
Sodium Selenite, Vitamin B12.
104
tanks received BioVita starter. Proximate analysis of these diets provided by the
manufacturer is listed in Table 1. At the end of four weeks, five fish per tank were
weighed to the nearest 0.01 g and total length measured to the nearest 0.1 mm.
Total tank weights were obtained by removing all of the fish from each tank and
weighing them en masse to the nearest g.
Data were analyzed using one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s
mean comparison procedure with the SPSS (9.0) statistical analysis program
(SPSS 1999). Significance was predetermined at P < 0.05. All percentage data
were arcsine transformed to stabilize the variances (Kuehl 2000). Individual fish
data were analyzed as per sacrificial pseudoreplication (Hurlbert 1984).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Weight gain was significantly less and feed conversion ratio significantly greater
in the tanks receiving 0.7 mm Silvercup micro-pellet compared to Biovita starter
(Table 3). Results from the Silvercup starter diet were intermediate and not
significantly different than either of the other two diets. Individual fish weights
and lengths were also significantly lower in the fish fed the 0.7 mm Silvercup in
comparison to the other two diets (Table 4). Mortality was not significantly different among the three diets, even though it was 50% lower in Biovita and 37%
lower in 0.7 mm Silvercup compared to Silvercup starter.
Similar to this study, Fletcher and Barnes (2008) found that fish fed BioVita
experienced 28% less mortality than those fed Silvercup soft-moist. In contrast,
Twibell et al. (2009) found that fish fed BioVita experienced the lowest survival
(96.5%) of the five diets used in their research while Silvercup soft-moist had
97.9% survival. The results of Fletcher and Barnes (2008) indicated that fish
fed Silvercup soft-moist were significantly greater in length and weight than fish
fed Biovita, but this may be explained by the differences in mortality observed
between the diet coupled with feeding rates that were not changed based on mortality. However, Twibell et al. (2009) found that fish fed Biovita had significantly
greater weight gain than fish fed Silvercup soft-moist.
Table 3. Mean (± SE) rearing data, including Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) from tanks of Chinook
salmon fry fed one of three starter diets for 28 days. Means with different letters in a row are
significantly different (P < 0.05; N = 3).
BIOVITA
SILVERCUP
MICRO-PELLET
SILVERCUP
STARTER
Start Weight (g)
130
130
130
End Weight (g)
422 ± 15a
369 ± 10b
394 ± 7ab
Gain (g)
292 ± 15a
239 ± 10b
264 ± 7ab
279
279
279
0.96 ± 0.05a
1.17 ± 0.05b
1.06 ± 0.03ab
1.5 ± 0.1
1.9 ± 0.4
3.0 ±0.8
Food Fed (g)
FCR
Mortality (%)
105
Table 4. Mean (± SE) ending lengths (mm) and weights (g) from individual Chinook salmon fry
fed one of three starter diets for 28 days. Means with different letters in a row are significantly
different (P < 0.05; N = 15).
Length (mm)
Weight (g)
BIOVITA
SILVERCUP
MICRO-PELLET
SILVERCUP
STARTER
47.9 ± 0.5 b
45.4 ± 0.7 a
47.6 ± 0.7 b
0.84 ± 0.03 ab
0.74 ± 0.03 a
0.87 ± 0.04 b
Because these diets are all closed formulas, it is difficult to determine the
reason for the differences observed in landlocked fall Chinook salmon rearing
performance. Protein and lipid levels are very similar, but at 3.0 %, the 0.7 mm
Silvercup micro-pellets diet had three times the fiber present in the other two
diets. This diet also had the largest particle size, although it was only 0.1 mm
greater that either Biovita or Silvercup starter. Biovita differed from the other two
diets by not having any poultry or feather meal, and was unique by incorporating lecithin. In an eight week study of the effects of four dietary lipids used in
Pacific salmon diets, Feng and Qin (2006) found that fish fed a diet containing
lecithin showed significantly higher specific growth rates than fish fed the other
three dietary lipids (Feng and Qin 2006). The use of lecithin in salmonid diets
was also found to increase food consumption in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus
mykiss (Iwashita et al. 2008). It is possible that the presence of lecithin in Biovita
was a factor in this diet producing the lowest mortality rates and best growth in
this study.
The use of any of these diets would likely be acceptable if fry are abundant and
rapid growth is not a major concern. However, during times of low egg availability when maximum survival is vital, the use of either Biovita starter or Silvercup
0.7 mm extruded micro-pellet would be advisable. If growth is the most important factor, then either Biovita or Silvercup starter would be the best options.
For the best all-around rearing performance, low feed conversion ratios, and low
mortality, Biovita #0 starter is recommended for the first 28 days of landlocked
fall Chinook salmon feeding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Patrick Nero, Keith Wintersteen, and Eric Krebs for their culture
assistance, and Matt Wipf and Matt Ward for their review of this manuscript.
LITERATURE CITED
Barnes, M.E., R.P. Hanten, R.J. Cordes, W.A. Sayler, and J. Carreiro. 2000.
Reproductive performance of inland fall Chinook salmon. North American
Journal of Aquaculture 62:203-211.
106
Barnes, M.E., W.A. Sayler, R.J. Cordes. 2002. Initiation of feeding during
hatchery rearing of Landlocked Fall Chinook Salmon fry. Proceedings of the
South Dakota Academy of Science 81:137-141.
Buterbaugh, G.L., and H. Willoughby. 1967. A feeding guide for brook, brown
and rainbow trout. Progressive Fish-Culturist 29:210-215.
Feng, J. and Z. Qin. 2006. Effects of four dietary lipids on the performance of
growth and body composition in Pacific salmon, Onchorhynchus. Acta Hydrobiologica Sinica 30:256-261.
Fletcher, B. and M.E. Barnes. 2008. Performance of two starter diets during
landlocked fall Chinook salmon initial feeding. Proceedings of the South
Dakota Academy of Science 87:179-184.
Hurlbert, S.H. 1984. Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments. Ecological Monographs 54:187-211.
Iwashita, Y., N. Suzuki, T. Yamamoto, J. Shibata, A.H. Soon, Y. Ikehata, H.
Furuita, T. Sugita, and T. Goto. 2008. Supplemental effect of cholyltaurine
and soybean lecithin to a soybean meal-based fish meal-free diet on hepatic
and intestinal morphology of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Fisheries
Science 74:1083-1095.
Kuehl, R.O. 2000. Design of Experiments: Statistical Principles of Research Design and Analysis, 2nd edition. Brookes/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA.
Marrone, G.M., and D.A. Stout. 1997. 1997 Whitlocks Bay Spawning Station
Annual Report. South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks Annual
Report Number 97-19. Pierre, SD.
Twibell, R.G., A.L. Gannam, S.L. Ostrand, John S.A. Holmes, and J.B. Poole.
2009. Evaluation of commercial diets for first-feeding spring Chinook
salmon. North American Journal of Aquaculture 71: 116-121.
107
EVALUATION OF THREE SPAWNING
TECHNIQUES FOR YELLOW PERCH
Matthew J. Ward1*, T. R. St. Sauver2, D. O. Lucchesi2,
B. Johnson2, K. Hoffman2, J. Stahl2
1
South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks
44437 139A Street
Waubay, South Dakota 57273, USA
2
South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks
4500 South Oxbow Avenue
Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57106, USA
ABSTRACT
Yellow perch Perca flavescens stocking requests have increased in South Dakota,
necessitating increased hatchery production. This study compared the effect of
three different spawning methods – hand (manual spawning), cage (naturallydeposited and fertilized in cages), net (naturally-deposited and fertilized in
modified fyke nets) – on embryo survival to the eyed-egg stage. Egg survival was
significantly different among each of the three techniques, with hand spawning
yielding the highest median egg survival (69%), followed by cage (50%) and
net (29%) spawning. Based on these results, we recommend hand spawning
to maximize survival of yellow perch eggs. Cage spawning produced eggs with
moderate survival making this a viable spawning method when low numbers of
ripe females are available for hand spawning. Collecting eggs via net spawning
should be done only if time, manpower, and incubation constraints do not exist.
Keywords
spawning, yellow perch, egg procurement
INTRODUCTION
Yellow perch Perca flavescens can be a highly targeted sportfish in South Dakota during both winter and summer months (Blackwell et al. 2007; Lucchesi
2010). High angler preference and inconsistent natural recruitment of yellow
perch in many eastern South Dakota lakes have initiated efforts to increase their
abundance through supplemental stocking efforts (Brown and St. Sauver 2002).
Developing propagation techniques are necessary to consistently meet these
stocking demands.
Yellow perch have a unique reproductive strategy in which females expel their
eggs in a protective matrix (1.2 to 2.4 m long) upon submergent structure, such
as vegetation, woody debris, or gravel (Carlander 1997). Following spawning,
108
parental care is not provided by either gender. As the incubation interval progresses (multiple days later), the connective tissue of the matrix will deteriorate.
Because yellow perch eggs are initially connected, multiple methods of procurement are available. For example, eggs can be collected by allowing broodstock
to spawn naturally in impoundments (Jansen et al. 2009) or in net pens stocked
with prespawn males and females (Hart et al. 2006). In other instances, adults
can be spawned in tanks under appropriate water temperatures (Kayes and Calbert 1979). All of these strategies require male yellow perch to naturally fertilize
the eggs. Hand spawning is an alternative strategy. Dabrowski et al. (1994) synchronized ovulation in perch through hormone injection. This has implications
for collecting a large number of eggs from a captive broodstock during a short
timeframe. These eggs could be manually stripped into a dry pan and then semen
could be added directly from a male or by using semen that had been preserved
(Ciereszko et al. 1993). Addition of water and stirring with a feather will result in
fertilization within 30 seconds (Hart et al. 2006). Although there is documentation on how to collect yellow perch eggs using a variety of methods, no studies
have compared egg survival among these techniques. Therefore, the objective of
this study was to evaluate the effects of different spawning techniques on yellow
perch egg survival to the eyed-stage of development.
METHODS
Yellow perch eggs were collected daily from April 21 through May 1, 2009
from Lake Madison (surface area = 1,070 ha), Lake County, South Dakota when
water temperatures were between 8.8 and 16.1 ºC. A total of 30 modified-fyke
nets (0.95- or 1.9-cm bar mesh) were used to collect adult yellow perch. Each
net fished for an approximate 24-h period before being emptied and reset during
morning hours. Eggs were collected using three techniques, and the sequence of
egg collection was the same each day.
Net Spawning—Upon arriving at a modified-fyke net, we collected egg masses
which had been deposited in the pocket of or on the outside of the modified-fyke
net and placed them in buckets that contained lake water.
Cage Spawning—After the egg masses had been removed from the fyke net
(net spawning), all yellow perch were also removed and the females were examined. Females that were determined to be unripe (green) and some males were
transferred to holding cages (cage dimensions: 1.83 m high x 1.22 m wide x 1.22
m long) within Lake Madison. A total of eight cages were used. Male to female
ratio in the cages varied from 2 to 3 males per 1 female. The overall density of
yellow perch per cage was approximately150 fish/m3. Egg masses that had been
deposited were removed daily and then placed into buckets filled with lake water. Following egg collection from the cages, we examined all yellow perch from
each cage, and perch that exhibited obvious signs of stress (e.g., abrasions) were
released. Spent females were also released while green females were returned to
that cage. No record was kept of the number of days green females were returned
to the cages. New males and unripe females that had been collected from the
overnight modified-fyke net sets were added daily to replace adult perch that had
109
been released, but overall density and male to female ratio were maintained as
previously described.
Hand Spawning—Females that were determined to be ripe both from the
cages and from the modified fyke-nets were placed in separate tanks until hand
stripping and fertilization using the dry method commenced. Thus, eggs were
stripped from females that had been collected that day in nets and from females
that had ripened over time in the cages. Individual females were stripped, and
one egg mass was spread out in a pan. A minimum of 5 mL of semen was added
from two males. Lake water was added, and the pan was gently agitated for approximately 2 min. The skein was rinsed and place in a bucket with lake water.
Methods in Common—Eggs were kept separated by technique, transferred
into bags filled with lake water within 1-hr of being collected and then placed
in insulated styrofoam boxes. The ratio of egg weight to volume of water in
buckets or transport bags never exceeded 120 g/L. The boxes were transported
and arrived at Blue Dog Hatchery (rural Waubay) within 5 h of being collected.
This evaluation included eggs that were collected only between April 23 and 28,
2009, as April 23 was the first day eggs were collected by all three techniques and
April 28 was the last day eggs were collected by all three techniques.
At the hatchery, the eggs were weighed to the nearest gram, placed into McDonald Jars and incubated separately by date and collection technique. Overall
mean (± SD) egg weight (g) per jar was 975 (± 150) for hand spawn, 1,029 (±
203) for cage spawn, and 984 (± 168) for net spawn To estimate the number of
eggs/g, all the eggs in four, 1-g subsamples were counted, and an average value
of 234 eggs/g (SD = 52) was calculated, which was very similar to the estimate
of 230 used during 2008 (Broughton et al. 2009). Therefore, 230 eggs/g was
applied to the total known weight of eggs in each jar. The average number of
eggs/g was multiplied by the weight (g) of the eggs in each jar to determine the
total number. Water flows varied but were maintained at a minimum of 2.4 L/
min for each jar. All eggs were subjected to a daily flow-through prophylactic
treatment of formalin (1,667 mg/L for 15 m) to prevent egg mortality due to
fungal infestation (e.g., Saprolegnia spp.). Following ten days of incubation in
9.4 ºC filtered well water, there was a considerable difference in the color of eyed
eggs (grey) compared to dead eggs (yellow). To estimate the percent of eyed eggs
within a jar, we used a transparent grid wrapped around each McDonald Jar.
The grid contained 12 squares with each square being 100-cm2. The percent of
eyed eggs (grey color) in each square was visually estimated to the nearest 10%.
The percent survival for each jar was then determined by calculating an average
from those 12 values.
Experimental Design and Statistics—A McDonald Jar was considered an
experimental unit and the sample size (n) represents the number of jars containing one of the collection techniques. Replication was highest for cage (n = 51),
moderate for net (n = 47) and lowest for hand spawning (n = 21). Plots of mean
egg survival were examined daily to determine if techniques performed similarly
over the egg collection interval. The pattern in egg survival was the same each
day, so pooling data across days for each technique was considered appropriate.
Percent egg survival among the three techniques was compared using a nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test, as the assumption of homogeneity of variance
110
was not satisfied (Levenes Test Stat = 4.78, P = 0.01). Games-Howell test for
unequal variance was used to compare egg survival between techniques (post
hoc pairwise comparisons). Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05. Egg survival values for each technique were depicted with box plots where first quartile,
median, and third quartile values are presented. Whisker bars represent the 10th
and 90th percentiles.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Egg survival to the eyed stage was significantly different among (Kruskal-Wallis
Test Stat = 67.458, df = 2, P < 0.001) and between collection techniques (all post
hoc pairwise comparisons P < 0.001). Median egg survival was significantly highest for hand (69%), moderate for cage (50%), and lowest for net (29%) spawning (Figure 1). Hand spawning provided significantly higher survival to the eyed
stage than cage and net spawning, presumably due to an increase in fertilization
rates via manual fertilization. Hart et al. (2006) describes collecting yellow perch
eggs through hand spawning and also through harvesting fertilized eggs from
ponds. Harvesting eggs from the wild may result in eggs that are incompletely
fertilized. They suggest hand spawned eggs provide higher and more consistent
100
a
80
Survival (%)
b
60
c
40
20
0
Hand
Cage
Net
Technique
Figure 1. Box plots (first quartile, median, and third quartile values) of yellow perch egg survival
gure 1. Box
(firstforquartile,
median,
and third
quartileonvalues)
of yellow
to theplots
eyed stage
hand, cage,
and net spawning
techniques
Lake Madison,
South perch
Dakota,egg
during
2009.
Whisker
bars
represent
the
10th
and
90th
percentiles.
Techniques
with
different
letrvival to the eyed stage for hand, cage, and net spawning techniques on Lake Madison,
th
th
ters
are
significantly
different
(P
<
0.05).
outh Dakota, during 2009. Whisker bars represent the 10 and 90 percentiles.
echniques with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
111
fertilization rates. The results of this study support the recommendations of Hart
et al. (2006). Eggs collected via cage spawning provided significantly greater survival than net spawning. The exact cause for this is unknown, but is likely a result
of higher fertilization rates for eggs collected in the cage spawning technique.
In instances when incubation space is limited, emphasis should be placed on
collecting eggs using hand spawning as this technique will yield more fry for
a given number of eggs compared to the other two techniques. The number
of eggs collected via hand spawning is going to be directly dependent on the
number of ripe females that can be collected. Perhaps an additional number of
hand spawned eggs could be collected by maintaining a yellow perch broodstock
in a hatchery pond. This may serve as a consistent source of females to be hand
spawned provided overwinter temperatures are suitable in the pond to allow for
normal sexual maturation (Hokanson 1977).
Although the survival of the cage spawn eggs was lower than that of hand
spawned eggs, the cage spawn technique produced reasonable egg survival. Thus,
this technique may prove to be necessary when limited numbers of ripe females
can be obtained for hand spawning. Future studies should attempt to manipulate
male to female ratios and overall density of prespawn perch in the cages. Hart
et al. (2006) suggest maintaining adult prespawn yellow perch at low densities
in cages (< 10 perch /m3). The density used in the cages of this study was over
10X greater than that suggested by Hart et al. (2006). Perhaps egg survival may
be increased in cages that are stocked with different overall densities or increased
numbers of male yellow perch. Eggs collected via net spawning yielded the lowest
survival and should be given the least priority. However, if incubation space is
available, this technique will produce a low number of fry relative to the number
of eggs collected.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Jerry Broughton, Randy Smidt, Ryan Rasmus, and Eugene
Holm who provided the necessary effort for egg incubation during this study.
LITERATURE CITED
Blackwell, B.G., R.J. Braun, S.J. Kennedy, T.M. Kaufman, and M.J. Ermer.
2007. Waubay Lake, South Dakota Angler Use and Harvest Surveys December 2004- December 2006. South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and
Parks, Progress Report,Job Number 2109, Pierre, SD.
Broughton, J., R. Smidt, M. Ward, E. Holm, and R. Rasmus. 2009. 2008 Blue
Dog Lake Fish Hatchery Annual Production Report. South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Annual Report 09-08, Pierre, SD.
Brown, M.L., and T.R. St. Sauver. 2002. An assessment of yellow perch, Perca
flavescens, stocking contributions in eastern South Dakota lakes. Fisheries
Management and Ecology 9:225-234.
112
Carlander, K.D. 1997. Yellow perch. Pages 125-179 in Handbook of Freshwater
Fishery Biology, Volume 3, Life History Data on Ichthyopercid and Percid
Fishes of the United States and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
IA.
Ciereszko, A., L. Ramseyer, and K. Dabrowski. 1993. Cryopreservation of yellow
perch semen. The Progressive Fish Culturist 55:261-264.
Dabrowski, K., A. Ciereszko, L. Ramseyer, D. Culver, and P. Kestemont. 1994.
Effects of hormonal treatment on induced spermiation and ovulation in the
yellow perch (Perca flavescens). Aquaculture 120:171-180.
Hart, S.D., D.L. Garling, and J.A. Malison, editors. 2006. Yellow perch culture
guide. NCRAC Culture Series 103. North Central Regional Aquaculture
Center Publications Office, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.
Hokanson, K.E.F. 1977. Temperature requirements of some percids and adaptations to the seasonal temperature cycle. Journal of the Fisheries Research
Board of Canada 34: 1524-1550.
Jansen, A. C., B.D.S. Graeb, and D.W. Willis. 2009. Effects of a simulated
cold-front on hatching success of yellow perch eggs. Journal of Freshwater
Ecology 24:651-655.
Kayes, T.B., and H.E. Calbert. 1979. Effects of photoperiod and temperature
on the spawning of yellow perch (Perca flavescens), Proceedings of the World
Mariculture Society 10:306-316.
Lucchesi, D.O. 2010. Angler Use and Harvest Surveys on Brant Lake, Lake
County, South Dakota May 1998-August 2008. South Dakota Department
of Game, Fish and Parks, Completion Report Number 11-12, Pierre, SD.
113
INFERRING INTRODUCTION HISTORY
AND SPREAD OF FALCARIA VULGARIS BERNH.
(APIACEAE) IN THE UNITED STATES BASED
ON HERBARIUM RECORDS
Sarbottam Piya1, Madhav P. Nepal1*, Achal Neupane1,
Gary E. Larson2 and Jack L. Butler3
1
Department of Biology and Microbiology
Brookings, South Dakota, 57007
2
Brookings, South Dakota, 57007
3
Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service
ABSTRACT
Herbarium records were studied to infer the introduction history and spread
of the exotic Eurasian sickleweed (Falcaria vulgaris Bernh.) in the United States.
The spread of the plant was reconstructed using the location of early collections
as the possible sites of primary introduction, and the location of subsequent
collections as potential pathways along which this species spread. Herbarium
records indicate that sickleweed was first introduced no later than 1922, and
independent introduction of this plant took place in the East Coast and in the
Midwest of the United States. The species has spread to 37 counties of 15 states
of the United States. No recent sickleweed record has been reported for the last
17 years in the U.S. except Iowa, Nebraska and South Dakota. The plant has
been characterized as an aggressive weed by experts in the latter two states, where
it is already well established and has infested the Fort Pierre National Grassland
and Buffalo Gap National Grassland in South Dakota, and is reported from several sites along Nebraska roadsides. It is essential to verify the existence of sickleweed in the areas from where the herbarium specimens were previously collected
to help identify the areas at risk. Control strategies need to be implemented and
policy should be developed to establish the participation of public lands managers, transportation departments and private land-owners to control and manage
this species before it becomes a more widespread invader. Keywords
Falcaria vulgaris, herbarium specimen, introduced plant, sickleweed.
114
INTRODUCTION
A tremendous exchange of biotas has occurred since the exploration age began
in the early 15th century (Mooney and Cleland 2001). Some introduced plant
species were advertently introduced for their medicinal, ornamental and forage
values and some were introduced for the production of fiber, timber and fuel
wood (Cox 2004). In many cases, exotic plants were accidentally introduced as
crop seed contaminants or animal fodder, with domesticated animals and ship
ballast, and as hitchhikers with military movements (Mack 1991; Sakai et al.
2001; Cox 2004; Chauvel et al. 2006). Theoretically, very few introduced plants
become invasive; however, recently the number of introduced invasive plant
species has reached more than 1000 in the United States alone (Mooney and
Cleland 2001; USDA, ARS 2012). With the increase in the number of invasive
plant species and their range expansion, the urgency to study the biological process of plant introduction, establishment, spread and invasion in novel habitats
is being realized (Pimentel et al. 2000).
Herbarium records are the most reliable primary source of information to
reconstruct introduction and colonization history of a species when detailed historic data are not available (Strother and Smith 1970; Mack 1991; Barney 2006).
Herbarium specimen labels provide valuable information that can be used to
document the time of introduction of non-native plants (Wester 1992; Woods et
al. 2005; Valliant et al. 2007), the number of independent introductions (Barney
2006), the early invasion pathways in the introduced range (Lavoie et al. 2007;
Stuckey 1980) and distributional changes of plants over time as in Ambrosia
artemisiifolia (Chauvel et al. 2006; Lavoie et al. 2007), Bouteloua curtipendula
(Laughlin 2003), Bromus tectorum (Novak and Mack 2001; Valliant et al. 2007),
Cortaderia selloana and C. jubata (Lambrinos 2001), Oenothera spp.(Mihulka
and Pysek 2001), Solidago spp. (Weber 1998), Vincetoxicum spp.(Sheeley and
Raynal 1996) and many other species (Woods et al. 2005). However, herbarium
specimen based information can sometimes be misleading because of errors associated with incorrect identification and geographic and temporal biases (Delisle
et al. 2003; Chauvel et al. 2006; Crawford and Hoagland 2009). In addition,
results tend to be spurious if a long history of specimen collections is not considered (Pysek and Prach 1993). Therefore, herbarium data need knowledgeable
and cautious interpretation.
Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (Syn. F. rivini, F. sioides; family Apiaceae; 2n = 22 [Goralski et al. 2009]), commonly known as sickleweed, is native to the European
part of the former Soviet Union, the Caucasus, Western Siberia and Central Asia.
It is also distributed in the central and southern parts of Western Europe, the
Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and Iran. It is an introduced species in Africa, and
North and South America (Larina 2008). It has been reported in sixteen states
in the United States (USDA, NRCS 2011) and exhibits disjunct distribution in
the Midwestern and Eastern USA. In the Midwest, its range includes the states of
Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, South Dakota,
Wisconsin and Wyoming; and in the East Coast, it includes Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and West Virginia. In South Dakota,
it occurs in the Fort Pierre National Grassland (FPNG; ca. 3200 ha infested in
115
2005), Buffalo Gap National Grassland (BGNG; ca. 40 ha), and locally on the
campus of South Dakota State University (Korman 2011). Several large populations of sickleweed occur in six counties in Nebraska (our field observation; R.
Kaul and K. Decker, University of Nebraska) where this species has been labeled
a Category II invasive plant (invasive species whose eradication is still feasible;
NISC 2011). No literature suggests invasiveness of this plant in any states other
than South Dakota and Nebraska.
The sickleweed plant body is usually 30-60 cm tall with upright solid stems
and a fleshy tap root; leaves are pinnately divided into 3-5 leaflets that are linear
or linear-lanceolate and often curved to give the leaflets a sickle shape; leaflet
margins have denticles. The inflorescence is a compound umbel with white
flowers (Larina 2008). The flowers are andromonoecious and protandrous (See
Knuth and Muller 1908). Phenotypic plasticity of its growth habit [annual or
biennial (Clapham et al. 1989) or even perennial (Bojnansky and Fargasova
2007; Korman 2011)] and reproductive system [monoecism (See Knuth and
Muller 1908) and vegetative propagation through rootstocks (Gress 1923; Larina
2008; Korman 2011)] help make this plant aggressive. Korman (2011) showed
that this plant is negatively impacting species diversity and forage production of
native grassland at FPNG.
Information on the introduction and distribution of sickleweed in the United
States is fragmented and scant. Gress (1923) first reported this species in the
United States (Pennsylvania). There are also short notes on the detection of this
species in other states (Gates 1940, Kansas; Fernald 1942, Missouri; Thomas and
Raymond 1987 Louisiana). Additionally, this species has been included in the
annotated checklists of some state floras, e.g., Steyermark 1963, Missouri; Eilers
and Roosa 1994, Iowa; Woods et al. 2005, Kansas; MacRoberts and MacRoberts 2006, Louisiana; Magee and Ahles 2007, Massachusetts; Rhoads and Block
2007, Pennsylvania. Except for these reports of this species at the regional level,
there is no in-depth study on its introduction and distribution at the national
level. Information for species introduction and spread in a new habitat can help
predict the invasiveness of introduced species and may also be useful for control
(Ricciardi et al. 2000; Kolar and Lodge 2001; Lambrinos 2001; Lavoie et al.
2003; Dybas 2004; Lerdau and Wickham 2011). In addition, this information can give clues on probable sites of invasion (Weber 1998). We are using
herbarium records and relevant literature to study the introduction history and
spread of sickleweed and to determine current distribution in the USA. The
objectives of this study are to assess and infer 1) when and where this species
was introduced, 2) current temporal spread of the species and 3) the number of
independent introductions.
METHODS
Specimens from herbaria in the sixteen states, where the USDA Plants Database has reported the occurrence of sickleweed, were examined. The list of the
herbaria (Appendix 1) was obtained from Index Herbariorum (http://sciweb.
nybg.org/science2/IndexHerbariorum .asp), a directory of public herbaria of the
116
world. Herbarium curators/collection managers of these herbaria were contacted
for information on their holdings of sickleweed. The information requested for
each specimen included voucher/accession number, date collected, collector(s)
and collection locality. As the collections of many introduced species can be unmounted or unprocessed in herbaria, we requested information on unmounted
sickelweed specimens (if any) as well. The small number of specimens and the
monotypic nature of the genus led to fast communication of data from herbaria
and experts. Information was also obtained from online specimen databases
(BKL, HUH, ISM, KANU, KSC, LSU, Oklahoma Vascular Plant Database,
RM, TROPICOS). Abbreviations for these herbaria follow those of Holmgren
et al. (1990). Most sickleweed specimens were housed in the major agricultural
herbaria in the Midwest (ISC, NEB, SDC); these were visited to examine the
sickleweed specimens. Vouchers that had been collected by the same collector
from the same locality on the same date (duplicates) were regarded as one specimen following Chauvel et al. (2006). Specimens collected from countries other
than the United States were not included in this study. The sites of earliest collections of herbarium specimens were considered to be the possible sites of early
introduction, whereas the sites of subsequent collections were interpreted to be
the possible pathways along which this species spread. Following Barney (2006),
we assumed that the species is always present once it was collected from a county.
Based on this assumption, a temporal distribution map of the species (at county
level) was constructed using ArcGIS 9.3 (ESRI 2008).
RESULTS
Falcaria vulgaris specimens in herbaria—Among the 178 herbaria contacted, we received responses from 76 herbaria. Among these, 42 herbaria (BALT,
BDWR, BTJW, BUPL, CAMU, CORT, DEK, DWC, DWU, ECH, EMNH,
FWVA, ILL, ISU, KEN, KNOX, KSTC, LAF, LSUS, LYN, MCN, MOAR,
MOR, MVSC, MWI, NWOSU, NYS, ORU, PHIL, PLAT, RMS, RUHV,
SDU, SEMO, SMS, TAWES, URV, VAS, WARM, WILLI, WVW and YELLO)
had no sickleweed specimens. At the remaining 34 herbaria (BH, BHSC, BKL,
CM, CSCN, DUR, F, FARM, GH, ISC, ISM, KANU, KSC, LSU, MASS,
MO, NEB, NEBC, NLU, NO, ODU, OKL, OKLA, OMA, PA, PH, RM,
SDC, UMO, UWM, UWSP, VPI, WIS and WVA), we found 195 sickleweed
specimens collected from the United States. After excluding the duplicate specimens, we examined a total of 143 sickleweed specimens. These specimens were
collected from 1922 to 2011 from 32 counties of 15 states. We noted 5 more
counties where sickleweed has been reported (J. T. Kartesz, Biota of North
America) but for which we found no specimen evidence. Among the 16 states
from which USDA Plants Database reported the occurrence of sickleweed, we
were unable to locate sickleweed specimens from Maryland in any of the herbaria
we contacted. To our knowledge, sickleweed has been reported from 37 counties
in 15 states in the United States. The majority of specimens examined were from
Iowa, Nebraska, and South Dakota, and there were no collections from any other
state made during the last 17 years (Table 1). GH houses the highest number of
Kansas
Unknown, s.n., SDC
Harril and Wise, 31616, VPI
1 Aug 1923
30 July 1957
2 Sept 1922
9 June 1961
27 June 1974
5 Aug 1954
29 July 1981
9 Sept 1995
New York
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania
South Dakota
Virginia
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Dorn, 600764, RM
Thompson, 0013345, WIS
Hicks and Bartley, 32, WVA
Gress, s.n., GH
Engleman, 105664, OKL
Holtzoff, 289002, BKL
Kinch, s.n., GH
Miller, 35958, UMO
19 July 1941
16 Sept 1946
Nebraska
Sorrie and Weatherbee, 4884, GH; NEBC; MASS
Thomas and Raymond, 88299, NLU
Anthony, s.n., KANU
Harmon, s.n., GH; ISC
Rexroat, 49125, ISM
VOUCHER
INFORMATION
Missouri
28 Apr 1984
29 May 1932
Iowa
25 Aug 1989
1 Oct 1930
Illinois
Massachusetts
28 June 1955
STATE
Louisiana
OLDEST
HERBARIUM
RECORD
9 Sept 1995
11 Aug 1991
5 Aug 1954
16 Aug 1980
20 May 2009
29 July 1962
1 July 1974
30 May 1928
20 Aug 2011
10 Sept1991
25 Aug 1989
15 May 1984
28 June 1951
20 Aug 2011
11 July 1957
MOST RECENT
HERBARIUM
RECORD
Table 1. Earliest and the most recent specimen records of Falcaria vulgaris in the United States
Dorn, 600764, RM
Thompson, 0013345, WIS
Hicks and Bartley, 32, WVA
Wieboldt, 71984, VPI
Korman, 470, SDC
PH
Hamman, s.n., DUR
Holtzoff, 289003, BKL
Nepal, Neupane and Piya, 101, SDC
Ellis, s.n., MO
Sorrie and Weatherbee, 4884, GH; NEBC; MASS
Thomas and Taylor, 88740, NLU
Blocker, 26719, KSC
Nepal, Neupane and Piya, 101, SDC
Martens, s.n., SOTO
VOUCHER
INFORMATION
117
118
specimens collected from different states, including the oldest collections from
Iowa, Oklahoma, Massachusetts, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. SDC
houses the highest number of recently collected specimens.
Information from Herbarium Records
Collection history of Falcaria vulgaris—Sickleweed was first reported by
Gress (1923) as a new species to the United States. He was the collector of the
oldest specimen of sickleweed, which was collected from the agricultural field at
Mercersberg, Franklin County, Pennsylvania, on September 2, 1922 (Figure 1).
This specimen is housed at Gray Herbarium (Gress, s.n., GH) with a duplicate
at Carnegie Museum of Natural History (Gress, s.n., CM). Sickleweed was subsequently reported in New York (August 1923; Holtzoff, 289002, BKL), West
Virginia (August 1954; Hicks and Bartley, 32, WVA), Virginia (June 1974; Harril and Wise, 31616, VPI), and Massachusetts (August 1989; Sorrie and Weatherbee, 4884, GH; NEBC; MASS). The specimen collected from Massachusetts
in August 1989 (Sorrie and Weatherbee, 4884, GH; NEBC; MASS) represents
the most recent collection from the East Coast.
The oldest specimen from the Midwest is from Sioux County, Iowa, collected
on October 1, 1930 (Harmon, s.n., GH, ISC). The next report was from Atchison County, Kansas, in 1932. The species was then reported from Missouri (July
1941; Miller, 35958, UMO), Nebraska (September 1946; Kinch, s.n., GH),
Illinois (June 1955; Rexroat, 49125, ISM), Oklahoma (July 1957; Engleman,
105664, OKL), South Dakota (June 1961; Unknown, s.n., SDC), Wisconsin
(July 1981; Thompson, 0013345, WIS), Louisiana (April 1984; Thomas and
Raymond, 88299, NLU) and Wyoming (September 1995; Dorn, 600764, RM).
After 1995, specimens were collected only from the states of Iowa, Nebraska and
South Dakota. The oldest and latest herbarium specimens collected from different states in the United States are presented in Table 1.
Collection site—The first herbarium specimens from the East Coast (Pennsylvania) and the Midwest (Iowa) were both collected from agricultural fields.
In Pennsylvania, the first sickleweed specimen was collected from a field where
clover (Trifolium spp.) and timothy grass (Phleum pratense) were being cultivated.
Similarly, the oldest herbarium specimen from South Dakota was collected
from an agricultural field, but most of the recent specimens are from grasslands
(FPNG and BGNG, South Dakota). In Nebraska, most specimens were collected from the roadsides with the specific locality not provided. Table 2 shows
the number of sickleweed specimens collected from different habitats at different
time periods.
Introduction, spread and naturalization—On most of the sickleweed herbarium labels, the species is noted to be introduced and native to Europe and
Asia, but without a mention of the actual country of origin of the accession. The
status of the plant was given as “naturalized”, “adventive” or “common” in most
of the counties at the time of collection, but in few cases the plant was described
as “rare”. There is no information on how this species was introduced to the
United States. There exists, however, some literature about collector’s observation
of the species in the field that provides some valuable clues. Gress (1923) report-
119
Figure 1. Earliest record of F. vulgaris from Pennsylvania- collector Gress. (Image Source: Emily
Wood, GH).
120
Table 2. Number of sickleweed specimens collected from different habitats during different time
periods.
YEAR
1920-1940
AGRICULTURAL RAILROAD/
LAND
ROADWAY GRASSLAND UNKNOWN TOTAL
5
2
9
2
3
6
11
1
1
2
5
1981-2000
10
3
2
15
2001-2011
5
150
1941-1960
1961-1980
1
2
155
ed this species as new to the United States, whereas Cratty (1930), Gates (1940),
Thomas and Raymond (1987) mentioned this species as new to Iowa, Kansas
and Louisiana, respectively. Collectors have also mentioned that the species was
new to the state on some of the herbarium labels. In most cases, the species was
detected long after introduction and by the time it had become established as a
relatively large population (Fernald 1942; Thomas and Raymond1987). A century long collection of sickleweed specimens in the USA shows that the spread
of the species is concentrated mainly in the Midwest (Figure 2a-d).
DISCUSSION
Sickleweed herbarium records in the introduced range—In the United
States, sickleweed has been collected since 1922, but the number of sickleweed
collections is relatively small (Table 2). There is no record of collection from the
East Coast and some states in the Midwest (except Iowa, Nebraska and South
Dakota) for the last 17 years. Usually, adventive species are repeatedly collected
if they persist and are abundant (Wester 1992). In some cases, the lower genetic
diversity of introduced plants results in inbreeding depression thereby causing
the species to disappear (Ellstrand and Elam 1993). In the Czech Republic,
Pergl et al. (2012) reported the disappearance of Heracleum mantegazzianum
from 76% of the sites where the species had once colonized. In United States,
sickleweed may likewise have disappeared from several sites where it had once
colonized. Mitchell and Tucker (2000) and Weldy and Werier (2012) reported
that sickleweed has disappeared from New York. However, it is not possible to
ensure the extinction of a species from a specific locality merely on the basis of
herbarium data. Sometimes collectors show no interest in collecting a species
once it is represented in the herbarium from a particular locality (Stuckey 1980;
Chauvel et al. 2006). This is true for many exotic plant species. Although no
sickleweed specimen has been collected recently in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania, the plant has been listed in a recent publication as an adventive species
for Massachusetts and Pennsylvania (Magee and Ahles 2007; Rhoads and Block
2007; The Pennsylvania Flora Project) recognizing that the plant may still occur
in these states. To reconstruct the spread of the plant, we assumed that the species was potentially present in each of the counties where it was once collected.
Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy
of Science, Vol. 91 (2012)
Figure 2 (a)
A
121
B
16
Figure 2 (c)
Figure 2 (b)
Figure 2 (a)
C
D
Figure 2. Spatial distributions of sickleweed records in the United States counties up to (a) 1950
(b) 1975 (c) 2000 and (d) 2012.The arrows in Figure 2(a) indicate the counties of primary introductions.The distribution maps were created
using
our data, information from herbarium records
Figure
2 (d)
Figure 2 (c)
and geo reference data from BONAP (Biota of North America Program).
Figure 2
Introduction and spread of sickleweed—Sickleweed was introduced in the
first quarter of the twentieth century in the United States. According to Gress
(1923), the farmer whose field in Pennsylvania was the source of the earliest
USA collection had detected the plant about five years before the collection
date. In the Midwest, sickleweed was first collected in 1930 from a farm field in
Iowa. A letter sent by the county agent of Sioux County to the curator of ISC,
R. I. Cratty (Figure 3), mentions that the species was previously misidentified
as Cicuta maculata. Also, Cratty (1930) mentions that the farmer of the field
where the specimen was collected had detected this weed about 15 years before
the collection date of the specimen. It is not unusual that introduced plants are
noticed only after they are well established and cover a large area (Wester 1992).
It appears that sickleweed was detected approximately at the same time in the
early 20th century in the East Coast and in the Midwest of the United States.
Figure 2 (d)
Cox (2004) reported that several ruderal plants have been introduced accidenFigure
2 to the USA from Europe as contaminants in crop seed and animal fodder
tally
(Cox 2004). Since sickleweed was first reported as weed from agricultural fields
Figure 2 (b)
122
Figure 3. Letter sent by county agent Rex B. Conn to R. I. Cratty (ISC curator) informing about
the occurrence of sickleweed in Sioux County, Iowa.
Figure 3
17
123
in both the East Coast and the Midwest states, we assume that this species was
introduced accidentally, and perhaps as a seed contaminant.
If introduced species have commercial value, then they could have been
purposely introduced; otherwise they could be assumed to be accidentally introduced (Wester 1992). In some parts of its native range, sickleweed has been
traditionally used as a medicinal herb to treat skin ulcers, stomach disorders, liver
diseases, and kidney and bladder stones, and has also been eaten as a vegetable
(See Khazaei and Salehi 2006). Fernald (1942) reported the occurrence of a
sickleweed population in Missouri near a community with a large number of
German immigrants, suggesting the population could have been intentionally
introduced from central Europe.
Based on the distribution map constructed using herbarium specimens (Figure
2), we see two disjunct distributions with earliest detections on both the East
Coast and in the Midwest being nearly simultaneous. We therefore propose two
primary introductions of sickleweed in the United States. The sickleweed population in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, is possibly the source population for the
East Coast and the population in Sioux County, Iowa for the Midwest. Propagules then may have been dispersed from these primary sites to the other sites
(Figure 2a) through various mechanisms. Transportation of plant propagules
occur through the attachment of seeds to muddy vehicles or tires used for human and freight transportation (Kowarik and von der Lippe 2007). Additionally,
the cutting and transporting of hay that included sickleweed with mature seed
could account for the spread. Furthermore, when the sickleweed plant senesces,
it breaks at the nodes, and plant segments tumble in the wind to disperse the
seed (See Limpert et al. 2004; Korman 2011). Also, the seeds might have been
transported from the primary sites by mammals and birds. For example, there
is some evidence of sickleweed seeds being transported from the plant’s native
range to other countries within Europe by ducks and other water birds (Brochet
et al. 2009). If molecular data derived from analysis of herbarium specimens and
extant populations were combined with the herbarium data, which is a commonly used approach (see Novak and Mack 2001; Valliant et al. 2007), better
insight into the entry and spread of sickleweed in the USA could be had.
Current control effort and future prospects—Attempts to control sickleweed
at FPNG in South Dakota have shown how difficult this weed can be once it
becomes established. It was first detected at FPNG in 1992, and at that time
this species had infested only 65 hectares of land. But attempts to manage the
outbreak began only after a decade had passed and the plant was spreading aggressively and overtaking the grassland vegetation. An attempt to control the
species spread by using prescribed fire proved ineffective. Herbicide treatment
with Dupont Telar XP® has been practiced since 2004 to control spread of the
weed and has proven effective with repeat applications, although not all of the
area infested has been treated and new patches are being found outside of treated
areas (Korman 2011) with current infestation now an estimated 6,000 acres. This
example illustrates the need to eradicate exotic plant infestations as soon as they
are detected. Eradication of invasive species can be easy when a few plants are
found early by appropriate survey, or the population size is small and confined to
124
a small area (Wester 1992), but when the area of infestation increases, the cost of
control and management increases exponentially (Rejmanek and Pitcairn 2002).
In Nebraska, we observed the occurrence of several large populations of sickleweed along roadsides. According to Pysek and Prach (1993), if invasive species
occur along roadsides or railroad tracks, these sites not only harbor the plant, but
also serve as corridors for their spread. Plants growing along roadsides are more
likely to be transported by vehicles and may also spread to nearby pastures and
hay fields by means of wind or other agents. In Nebraska, sickleweed is listed as
a Category II invasive plant by the Nebraska Invasive Species Council (2011).
Thus far, no major program has been launched for its control and management
(K. Decker, University of Nebraska - Lincoln), but recently the large population in Lancaster County, Nebraska, has been herbicided and all plants appear
to be dead (R Kaul, University of Nebraska- Lincoln). Infestations at FPNG
and BGNG in South Dakota and along roadsides in Nebraska that represent
diverse habitats make it necessary that control strategies involve cooperation
among public land managers, transportation departments, and private landowners to hope for effective long term control and management. This study on the
distribution and spread of sickleweed is pursued for purposes of realizing better
control strategies and management practices in the region. In this paper, we
present information compiled to interpret the status of recent sickleweed populations relative to those of the past. The absence of recent sickleweed records from
states other than Iowa, Nebraska, and South Dakota suggests that this species is
growing undetected or not currently present in those states. However, should it
become established over a period of time, it may become invasive elsewhere when
a sufficient number of propagules are transported to congenial environments as
discussed by Kolar and Lodge (2001). In this study we used herbarium data to
reconstruct the introduction history of sickleweed and its subsequent dispersal in
the United States. Additionally, knowing the environmental limits of this plant
along with the dispersal pathways will help us predict the areas that are vulnerable to future invasion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the curators/collection managers/university personnel of the herbaria cited in this paper for providing information about their
sickleweed holdings. We thank Emily Wood from Harvard University Herbarium (GH) and Dr. Deborah Lewis from Iowa State University Herbarium
(ISC) for granting permission to use images of the oldest USA specimen and
a descriptive note by one collector, respectively. Dr. Robert Kaul (NEB), Karie
Decker from the University of Nebraska Lincoln (UNL) and Misako Nishino
(Biota of North America Program) are gratefully acknowledged for providing
us information on sickleweed distribution records. We would also like to thank
Drs. Robert Kaul (NEB), Robert Tatina (Dakota Wesleyan University), Dave
Ode (South Dakota Game Fish and Parks) and Grace Kostel (Black Hill State
University) for reviewing the manuscript. This project was partly supported by
startup fund to Dr. M. Nepal through Department of Biology and Microbiology,
125
South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station and partly by Rocky Mountain
Research Station (USDA Forest Service).
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129
Appendix 1. List of Herbaria contacted
STATE
ACRONYMS OF THE HERBARIA
Illinois
CACS, EIU, CHIC, F, ILLS,ISM, ISU, KNOX, MOR, NRRL, DEK,
SIU,CEL, WARK
Iowa
MOVC, GRI, ILH, ISC, GRI, LCDI, BDI, SICH, ISTC, WET
Kansas
KSTC, FHKSC, KSC, SAL, KANU, WASH
Louisiana
LSU, LSUS, LTU, MCN, THIB, NATC, SELU, NO, USLH, NLU, NOLS
Maryland
BALT, MARY, SUHC, TAWES, US
Massachusetts
AC, CUW, WMGC, GH, NASC, NMMA, NEBC, HNUB, PM, SCHN,
SPR, HDSM, MASS, WELC
Missouri
MCJ, MODNR, MO, MWSJ, NEMO, NMSU, SEMO, SMS, SOTO,
UMO, WARM, WJC
Nebraska
CSCN, HNWU, NEBK, OMA, NEB,
New York
BKL, GRCH, BH, ECH, HHH, DH, SOUT, HPH, NY, NYS, ROCH,
SBU, CORT, SYRF, BING, PLAT, SUCO, SIM, SYR, VAS
Oklahoma
ECSC, NOSU, NWOSU, OKLA, ORU, DUR, WHO, CSU, OKL,
OCLA, TULS
Pennsylvania
ANSP, BUPL, CM, IUP, KEN, MVSC, MOAR, MCA, FMC, PAM, PACMA, RPM, LAT, SLRO, SWC, ABFM, PHIL, DWC
South Dakota
DWU, AUG, BHSC, SDC, SDU
Virginia
CVCW, HAVI, EHCV, GMUF, JMUH, FARM, LFCC, LYN, MWCF,
ODU, RUHV, SARC, WILLI, URV, VA, VCU, VDAC, VIL, VPI, VSUH,
ROAN, WYCO
West Virginia
DEWV, FWVA, MUHW, MVC, WVA, WVW
Wisconsin
CART, MIL, SNC, UWW, FDLW, UWEC, UWJ, UWL, UWM, WIS,
OSH, UWGB, USWP, SUWS
Wyoming
BTJW, CWC, RMS, RM, YELLO
131
EFFECT OF SAFE-GUARD® FREE-CHOICE
PROTEIN BLOCKS ON TRICHOSTRONGYLE
NEMATODES IN PASTURED CATTLE
FROM EASTERN SOUTH DAKOTA
S. J. Smith1, A. A. Eljaki2, J. Acharya2, R. F. Daly1 and M. B. Hildreth1,2*
Departments of Veterinary Sciences1 and Biology & Microbiology2
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
Parasitic nematodes have significant detrimental effects on the profitability
of beef production in South Dakota. Administering anthelmintics can be inconvenient and expensive when treating cattle on pasture. Free-choice anthelmintics were developed to improve the ability of beef producers to effectively
deworm cattle without passing them through a cattle chute. The convenience of
free-choice anthelmintics outweighs those of traditional deworming practices;
however, the efficacy of the free-choice anthelmintics has not been tested under
pasture conditions in the United States Northern Great Plains. The purpose of
this study was to determine the efficacy of Safe-Guard® (fenbendazole) Freechoice Protein Blocks in pastures from eastern South Dakota. Two adjacent cattle
herds were used for this study. A group of 42 heifers (treatment) were given one
free-choice SafeGuard® Protein block for four days. A similar group of 22 steers
(controls) were given similar, but non-medicated protein blocks. Both groups
were parasitized with trichostrongyle nematodes; PCR results indicated the presence of Haemonchus spp., Cooperia spp., Ostertagia spp. and Trichostrongylus spp.
in the heifer herd. Prior to treatment, the arithmetic mean trichostrongyle egg
output was numerically higher in the untreated steers (35.82 eggs/gram) than the
treated heifers (22.63 eggs/gram), but not statistically different. After treatment
with the Safe-Guard® blocks, egg output dropped significantly to 1.50 eggs/gram
(greater than 93% reduction) in the treatment group, but increased significantly
in the untreated group to an average of 69.03 eggs/gram (greater than 92% increase). Based upon the calculated consumption rate of the SafeGuard® Protein
Block by the treatment group, the average dosage consumed was lower than that
recommended by the manufacturer. In spite of the lower intake, access to the
medicated blocks significantly decreased trichostrongyle nematode loads in the
treated cattle during the study period.
Keywords
bovine, trichostrongyle, anthelmintic, fenbendazole, free-choice
132
INTRODUCTION
Trichostrongyle nematodes have a detrimental impact on the profitability of
cattle production even in herds from the United States Northern Plains (Mertz
et al. 2005). Administration of anthelmintics for controlling these internal
nematodes in cattle has changed over the last several decades from the use of
oral liquids and pastes to the more convenient injectables, pour-ons, sustainedreleased-boluses and free-choice ingestibles. Free-choice anthelmintics have been
developed to minimize the costs and problems associated with handling individual animals. At the present time in the United States, morantel tartrate and
fenbendazole (FBZ) are the only anthelmintic active ingredients that are available in any free-choice formulation. Fenbendazole (brand name Safe-Guard®) is
available in several free-choice (i.e. non-handling) formulations including: flaked
meal and minipellets (Safe-Guard® Mini-pellets, and Safe-Guard® Flakes), 0.5%
alfalfa-based pellets/crumbles (Safe-Guard® Pellets ), mineral/salt (Safe-Guard®
20% or 35% Free-choice Mineral), a molasses-based block (Safe-Guard® EnPro-AL® Molasses Block) and a 20% protein-based block (Safe-Guard® Protein
Block).
Safe-Guard® free-choice formulations were first marketed in the late 1980s,
and yet, surprisingly few studies have been conducted on the efficacy of these
products in North America. Most of the available studies have been performed
in southern (Blagburn et al. 1986; 1987; Bransby et al. 1992; Miller et al. 1992;
Williams et al. 1995) and western states (Kvasnicka et al. 1996; Smith et al. 2000;
Taylor et al. 2000), or in central Canada (Garossino et al. 2001; Garossino et
al. 2005), but no published studies have come from the United States Northern
Great Plains. The vast majority of fenbendazole free-choice studies utilized the
mineral-based formulation (Williams et al. 1995; Kvasnicka et al. 1996; Smith et
al. 2000; Taylor et al. 2000; Garossino et al. 2001; Garossino et al. 2005). Two
studies utilized a free-grade premix and/or pellet formulation (Blagburn et al.
1986; Keith 1992), and two other studies utilized a block formulation (Blagburn
et al. 1987; Bransby et al. 1992; Miller et al. 1992).
Fenbedazole is in the benzimidazole class of anthelmintic drugs which binds
to helminth β-tubulin, further inhibiting the polymerization and formation of
microtubules necessary for cell division, nutrient absorption and intracellular
transport (Lubega and Prichard 1990, 1991; Prichard et al. 2003; Robinson et
al. 2004). It is a broad spectrum anthelmintic that has shown a high capability
of removing both immature and adult internal parasites in cattle (Keith 1992).
First released as a 10% oral suspension, administration at 5 mg/kg FBZ controls
immature nematodes located in the gastrointestinal tract of cattle, while administration at 10 mg/kg will also control adult tapeworms (Crowley et al. 1977;
Blagburn et al. 1987; Keith 1992).
The benefits of free-choice anthelmintics include: 1) a reduced amount of time
handling cattle for oral deworming; 2) reduced handling which results in less
stress on livestock; and 3) ability to administer the anthelmintic at strategic times
to disrupt the parasitic life cycle and minimize pasture contamination (Garossino
et al. 2001). In addition to demonstrating a decrease in the average number of
nematodes present in a herd, studies have found an association between cattle
133
strategically dewormed with FBZ and increased calf weaning weights and cow
pregnancy rates (Myers 1988; Keith 1992). Deworming with FBZ free-choice
mineral in steers on pasture or in feedlots correlates with increased daily gain,
improved feed/gain ratio, increased carcass quality resulting in decreased feed
costs and increased profitability (Smith et al. 2000; Taylor et al. 2000).
A major disadvantage to free-choice anthelmintics is the inability to control
consumption (dosage) rates, particularly when given to a large herd on pasture
(Garossino et al. 2001). This inability to guarantee adequate drug consumption
is the major disadvantage of using free-choice anthelmintics. Another downside
to free-choice anthelmintics, in particular the mineral salt block by Safe-Guard®,
is the higher treatment cost per head, although some of these increased costs are
offset by lower labor costs when using free-choice anthelmintics because cattle do
not have to be processed through a handling system. An additional cost with the
free-choice system is that cattle must be acclimated to a mineral block before the
medicated protein block is administered (Blagburn et al. 1987). Thus, the cost
per animal is increased while the assurance of an adequate anthelmintic dosage is
diminished with this approach to treating cattle. Providing a subtherapeutic dosage through the use of free-choice anthelmintics can accelerate the development
of anthelmintic resistance in the cattle parasites (Lanusse 2010).
The present trial was implemented to study this Safe-Guard® product in a typical stocker beef production setting on a pasture in eastern South Dakota. The
outcomes from this study should provide cattle producers in this region needed
information about the efficacy of this free-choice option under normal production conditions. This study was designed to compare the fecal egg counts (FECs)
in a treated herd before and after treatment in a manner similar to a standard
fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT).
METHODS
Pastures and Stocking Density—This anthelmintic trial took place from September 7th through October 13th 2011, and the treatment group was comprised
of 42 crossbred yearling heifers (approx. 800 lb, 363 kg) located on a 51.6 acre
pasture comprised primarily of cool season grasses, generally Kentucky blue grass
and green needle grass. Stocking rate for this treated group was 1.229 acres/hd,
and the heifers were supplemented with cornstalks and grass hay bales. Due to
the extended length of the study, an adjacent untreated herd was used to serve as
a temporal control to ensure that any observed decreases in egg production in the
post-treated herd were not the result of natural FEC decreases. Twenty-two crossbred yearling steers (approx. 850 lb, 386 kg) were used for this temporal control
group; this group was grazed on a 30.3 acre separate but similar non-adjoining
pasture. Stocking rate for this control group was 1.375 acres/hd, but they were
not supplemented with cornstalks or hay. These two pastures are located in eastcentral South Dakota, roughly latitude 44.26 - longitude -96.50.
Treatment—All cattle were on salt and mineral blocks free choice prior to
starting the trial. The treatment group (heifers) was given a nonmedicated 20%
protein block for seven days prior to treatment for adaptation to the medicated
134
block (salt and mineral blocks were removed during the study). All mineral,
protein and medicated blocks were placed on the ground in the same location,
which was toward the center of the pasture. The control group (steers) had
continuous access to salt and mineral blocks throughout the entire trial. One
Safe-Guard® Protein Block (FBZ 11.34 kg 20% protein block) was given to the
treatment group on September 19, 2011 (day 0) and was completely consumed
by day 4. This would provide an average dosage of 446 mg FBZ/hd when completely consumed over the four days. This is 25% of the dosage recommended
by the manufacturer. Three additional FBZ blocks were placed in the treatment
group pasture on day 9 (September 28) to ensure that adequate consumption
of FBZ eventually occurred in the study. These blocks were removed on day 14
(October 3) and weighed. The total consumption for these last 3 blocks was 26.4
kg, resulting in an average consumed dose of 1,039 mg/hd; this is 57% of the
recommended dosage. One heifer from treatment group became injured during
the trial but was not removed. It is possible that she did not access the medicated
blocks. Temperatures during the trial averaged 14.8 °C with a high of 30.6 °C
and low of -2.2 °C.
Sample Collection and Analysis—For each collection day, attempts were
made to collect 20 samples from each herd because this sample size was found
to be representative of herd parasite loads (Gasbarre et al. 1996), but because it
was not possible to collect paired samples before and after treatment, samples
from multiple days were collected before and after treatment in order to improve the statistical power of the study. Fecal samples were collected on days
-12, -7, -6, -5, -3, 0, 7, 16, 18, 22, and 24 from both groups. The number of
fecal samples collected each day is reported in Figure 2, and attempts were made
to collect samples from the freshest fecal pats found in each pasture during the
sampling time. Three-gram samples were analyzed using the Modified Wisconsin
Sugar Flotation Technique to establish trichostrongyle egg counts (Cox and Todd
1962). Results are reported as eggs/g (EPG) of feces, and summarized as arithmetic means and geometric means. Statistical comparisons were made using the
Kruskal-Wallis (Nonparametric ANOVA) Test in Graphpad InStat® (version 3.05
for Windows 95/NT, GraphPad Software, San Diego California USA, www.
graphpad.com). FECs were analyzed as raw data. Comparisons with P-values
greater than 0.05 were not considered statistically different.
A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was performed on DNA isolated
from trichostrongyle eggs from 16 heifer fecal samples (containing the highest
number of trichostrongyle eggs) prior to treatment to determine which trichostrongyle species were present. The method for isolating DNA was as described
by Harmon et al. (2006, 2009). The PCR assay was a simplex assay based upon a
multiplex assay first described by Zarlenga et al. (2001), and refined by Harmon
et. al. (2009). This gel-based assay was able to identify the following trichostrongyle genera: Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Trichostrongylus, and Cooperia. Two separate
primer pairs were used for detecting Haemonchus eggs. The ITS2 (2nd internal
transcribed spacer) primers were as listed by Harmon et al. (2006); the ETS (external transcribed spacer) primers were as listed by Zarlenga et al. (2001). The
intensity of each PCR product band was visually scored from 1 to 3.
135
RESULTS
PCR results confirmed the presence of Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Cooperia and
Trichostrongylus in the pre-treatment heifer samples (Table 1). Haemonchus was
the most commonly identified genus (both by ITS2 and ETS primers), being
found in 75% or more of the samples. Trichostrongylus was found in only two
samples. More than half of the samples contained Ostertagia and Cooperia species.
Throughout the study, at least 90% of the daily fecal samples from the untreated steers contained at least one trichostrongyle egg in a 3-gram sample (Figure 1).
The mean daily trichostrongyle fecal egg counts (MDFECs) from the untreated
steers ranged from 15.6 to 81.6 EPG over the length of the trial (Figure 2). The
individual FECs during each of the sampling days in the untreated steers varied
considerably, as indicated by the large standard errors for each time period. This
high variance exists because most of the cattle had low numbers of worms (shedding few eggs), while most of the worms were aggregated into a few animals
(shedding many eggs). For example, in the collection days prior to treatment of
the heifers (days -12 through day 0), 59.41% of the 101 samples collected from
the steers contained fewer than 26 EPG, but four steer samples contained more
than 140 EPG (Figure 3). Eight samples contained fewer than 1 EPG. Because
samples were randomly collected, some days were under-represented by samples
with high egg numbers (Figure 2, untreated day -6 to day 0 and day +16). As
shown in Table 2, the arithmetic mean FEC from the 90 untreated steer samples
Figure 1. Prevalence of trichostrongyles infecting treated (heifers) and untreated (steers) cattle
before and after treatment of the heifers.
136
collected after treatment of the heifers (days +7 to +24) was 92.71% higher than
before heifer treatment (days -12 to 0); the geometric mean was 87.62% higher
(P < 0.05).
Prior to treatment, the prevalence of trichostrongyle eggs (in 3-gram samples)
was 100% except for day 0 when it dropped to 90% (Figure 1). Before treatment, the lowest MDFEC in the heifers (15.4) was similar to that of the steers,
but the highest heifer MDFEC (28.6) was much lower than the highest value
in the steers (Figure 2). Only two heifer fecal samples contained more than 100
EPG (101.33 and 102.33 EPG), and 14 samples contained less than one EPG.
More than half (55.37%) of the samples contained 2-40 EPG, demonstrating
less aggregation in the pre-treatment heifer samples (Figure 3). The arithmetic
and geometric means of the 121 heifer samples prior to treatment were numerically higher than those of the steers during this time, but these values were not
statistically different (Table 2).
Trichostrongyle prevalence in the heifer samples dropped to between 15% and
35% after treatment with the Safe-Guard® Block. The MDFECs in the heifer
(treatment) group decreased by 90.25% from the day of treatment (day 0) to the
seventh day after treatment (day +7). In the 6 collection periods prior to treatment (day -12 to 0), the overall arithmetic mean FEC of the heifers was 22.63
EPG; this decreased to 1.50 EPG (93.39% decrease) during the 5 collection days
after treatment (P < 0.001). After treatment, only 26 of the 100 three-gram samples contained eggs, accounting for a total of 450 eggs (in the 300 g of sample)
Figure 2. Mean fecal egg counts (in eggs/gram of feces) of treated (heifers) and untreated (steers)
cattle before and after treatment of the heifers. Error bars represent the mean plus and minus
the standard error . The number in parentheses next to each data point is the sample size for
that data point.
137
Figure 3. Aggregation of all the trichostrongyle egg counts in fecal samples from treated (heifers)
and untreated (steers) cattle before and after treatment of the heifers.
collected during the five sampling days (Table 3). More than 80% of those eggs
were in eight samples, suggesting that these heifers did not receive a sufficient
dose of FBZ. Five of the 26 infected samples came from collections prior to the
second treatment; heifers excreting these samples would have received (on average) only 25% of the dosage recommended by the manufacturer. For each day,
there were three to seven samples that contained eggs. It is possible that these
infected samples were from the same few heifers that consumed significantly less
FBZ than the other heifers.
DISCUSSION
The herd of yearling heifers used in this study contained trichostrongyle worm
loads (i.e. 22.63 EPG) that were representative of other South Dakota beef herds
recently studied. Untreated yearling stockers used to evaluate the economic
impact of cattle nematodes on nine herds in South Dakota were excreting an
average of 14.4 EPG during the fall grazing season when samples were collected
(Mertz et al. 2005). Two of these herds were excreting more than 20 EPG,
which was very similar to the pre-treatment FEC average in the heifers used in
the present study. Cows tend to shed fewer eggs than yearlings, and FECs from
951 cows in 98 different Northern Plains (i.e. South Dakota, North Dakota and
Minnesota) herds contained an average of 5.4 trichostrongyle EPG in this age
class of cattle (Hildreth et al. 2007). Spring-born calves tend to shed more trichostrongyle eggs than yearling cattle by the end of the grazing season, as illustrated
138
in the results from 483 calves from the same 98 Northern Plains herds; these
calves were shedding an average of 33.79 EPG by September through November
(Hildreth et al. 2007).
The genera of trichostrongyles identified in the heifers from this present study
were similar to those identified in calves from 13 cow-calf herds in eastern South
Dakota (Harmon et al. 2009). In the present study, Haemonchus was the genus
most commonly identified (75% of all samples) in the heifer herd; whereas,
only 26.8% of the calves from the 13 herds were infected with Haemonchus.
The steer herd (in a pasture very close to the heifer pasture) was simply used as
temporal control to ensure that any observed decreases in egg production in the
post-treated herd were not the result of natural FEC decreases. Stromberg and
Corwin (1993) have shown that FECs in cattle will eventually begin to decrease
during the fall season, especially during October and November. The MDFECs
within the control steer herd actually increased during the experimental time period, suggesting that no natural decreases would be expected within the adjacent
heifer herd.
At the initial treatment period (day 0), the treatment (heifer) group was inadvertently under-dosed and received only one-fourth the recommended dosage
of Safe-Guard® block material, and yet, the MDFECs in this group showed a
90.25% decrease 7 days after treatment. Many of the eggs still being shed after
the first treatment were likely in heifers that did not receive an adequate dose of
FBZ. After 3 additional Safeguard® blocks were given to the treatment herd at
day +9, only 3 out of the 20 heifer samples were shedding eggs during the next
collection period (day +16) even though the combined FBZ consumption level
was only slightly over half the recommended dosage. By the end of the study,
the number of fecal samples with eggs had increased slightly to 7 out of the 20
samples, but after the second treatment, the MDFEC stayed below 2 EPG. Incorporating all of the pre- and post-treatment data from the multiple collection
days into the FECRT evaluation clearly showed that the addition of Safeguard®
blocks to the heifer pasture very significantly decreased both the prevalence (by
more than 65%) and the trichostrongyle FECs intensity (by more than 93%) in
the treated herd. Utilization of the recommended dosage may have slightly improved the outcome of this study, but only by a small amount. The low number
of infected fecal samples suggests that the vast majority of heifers consumed a
sufficient quantity of FBZ. Results from this South Dakota study are consistent
with findings involving Safe-Guard® Blocks in post-weanling calves from Alabama and Louisiana (Blagburn et al. 1987; Miller et al. 1992). The 50 calves
from the Alabama study were first grazed on a contaminated pasture and then
housed individually in dirt pens during the evaluation period. Block consumption rates were monitored and adjusted to enable each calf in the treatment
groups to consume a total of 5 mg/kg FBZ. Under these conditions adult and
immature trichostrongyles numbers decreased by more than 99%, and the FEC
dropped from a mean of 1,620 EPG in the untreated controls down to 0 in the
treated groups (Blagburn et al. 1987). Calves were kept on pasture throughout
the Louisiana study, and the effectiveness of the block treatment in this study was
significantly less than in the Alabama study (Miller et al. 1992). The 93% FEC
reduction measured in the present South Dakota study was slightly less effective
139
than in the Alabama study. This may be due to the fact that this study was conducted under pasture conditions, but it is more likely that this lower deworming
efficacy was due to the suboptimal dosing with FBZ in the South Dakota study.
Cost is a very important factor for cattle producers when considering anthelmintic approaches for use in their herd. A simple comparison of web-based prices
for various anthelmintic products demonstrates that free-choice anthelmintics
are generally not the least expensive approach; however, these products don’t
require the labor costs needed for working cattle in the chutes during the treatment process. Working pastured cattle through a chute also adds stress to these
animals which can also risk injuries and negatively impact production factors.
Therefore, with free-choice anthelmintics it is possible to treat cattle multiple
times when necessary. Free-choice anthelmintics could be particularly useful in
bison production.
In summary, this study has found that there are both benefits and challenges to
using free-choice anthelmintics. The Safe-Guard® Mineral Block showed significant reduction in fecal egg count numbers; however egg reduction was not seen
in the entire herd, indicating that there may be consumption issues in providing
a proper dosage for each animal. When inadequate dosages of anthelmintics
are used, there is a risk for increased anthelmintic resistance. Use of free-choice
anthelmintics not only decreases labor costs, but also reduces the amount of
stress put on animals at times of processing. Future studies should monitor the
development of anthelmintic resistance in a herd treated with free-choice anthelmintics during extended time periods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported in part by the South Dakota State University Agricultural Experiment Station. Special thanks to Alex Hegerfeld for technical
support. This project also utilized the South Dakota State University Functional
Genomics Core Facility supported in part by the National Science Foundation/
EPSCoR Grant No. 0091948 and by the State of South Dakota.
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142
Table 1. Genera identified from egg DNA isolated from heifers prior to treatment; values associated with each genera represent intensity scores (1-3) for resultant PCR gel bands
SAMPLE
NO.
EPG
HAEMONCHUS
ITS2
HAEMONCHUS ETS
OSTERTAGIA COOPERIA
TRICHOSTRONGYLUS
1
102.3
3
2
0
1
0
2
101.3
1
0
0
0
0
3
89.7
0
1
0
1
0
4
87.0
1
3
1
1
0
5
80.7
2
3
0
1
0
6
78.3
2
1
1
0
0
7
72.7
3
3
3
1
0
8
71.0
2
3
2
1
1
9
66.7
3
3
3
1
0
10
65.0
1
2
1
0
1
11
55.3
0
0
0
0
0
12
52.7
1
0
0
2
0
13
46.3
2
0
1
3
0
14
44.0
2
3
1
0
0
15
42.7
0
1
1
0
0
16
41.3
2
3
1
0
0
Positive
Samples
13
12
10
9
2
Prevalence
81%
75%
63%
56%
13%
Table 2. Fecal egg counts in the treated heifers and untreated steers before and after treatment
of the heifers. Mean values presented in eggs/g. Values with different superscripted letters were
statistically different.
Sample Number
Arithmetic Mean
(Standard Deviation)
TREATED
HEIFERS
BEFORE
TREATED
HEIFERS
AFTER
UNTREATED
STEERS
BEFORE
UNTREATED
STEERS
AFTER
121
100
101
90
22.63
1.50
35.82
69.03
93.39%
decrease
Arithmetic Mean Change
Geometric Mean (EPG)
Geometric Mean Change
10.64
0.43
95.92%
decrease
92.71%
increase
18.43
34.58
87.62
143
Table 3. Individual Trichostrongyle Egg Counts (eggs/g) from the randomly collected fecal samples
from the heifer pasture days after treatment with the Safeguard blocks
SAMPLE
NO.
DAY 7
DAY 16
DAY 18
DAY 22
DAY 24
1
38.0
14.3
15.0
12.67
14.3
2
4.0
1.0
2.0
11.66
11
3
0.67
0.33
1.0
4.0
7.3
4
0.33
0
0.33
1.67
2.0
5
0.33
0
0
0.67
1.3
6
0
0
0
0.33
1.0
7
0
0
0
0.33
0.33
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
11
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
0
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
14
0
0
0
0
0
15
0
0
0
0
0
16
0
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
0
0
0
18
0
0
0
0
0
19
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
145
EXPRESSION OF TWO NITROSOMONAS EUROPAEA
PROTEINS, HYDROXYLAMINE OXIDOREDUCTASE
AND NE0961, IN ESCHERICHIA COLI
Pankaj V. Mehrotra1, Kelli Brunson2, Alan Hooper3, and David Bergmann2*
1
University of Aberdeen
Aberdeen, UK
2
Spearfish, SD 57699, USA
3
University of Minnesota
St. Paul, MN 55104 USA
*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
We describe the heterologous expression of the Nitrosomonas europaea genes
for hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (HAO) and a membrane protein, NE0961,
in Escherichia coli strain BL21(de3), which also constitutively expressed the E.
coli ccmA-H genes for c-cytochrome maturation and transport. Both HAO and
NE0961 were expressed only in the membrane fraction of cells; only slight insertion of heme into HAO was observed. Co-expression of the genes for HAO and
NE0961 was not sufficient for HAO transport to the periplasm or for complete
heme insertion.
INTRODUCTION
Nitrosomonas europea is a well-studied, obligatory, chemoautotrophic, ammonia oxidizing bacterium (AOB) (Wood 1986). Because of the presence of
such enzymes as ammonia monooxygenase (AMO), it has been proposed for
use in bioremediation of a variety of halogenated organic compounds, such as
trichloroethylene (Arciero et al. 1989). N. europaea and other AOB play a vital role in the nitrogen cycle by oxidizing ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (HNO2),
through which they obtain energy for growth and survival. However, in some
aerobic environments, chemoautotrophic, ammonia-oxidizing Archaea are the
predominant organisms oxidizing ammonia to nitrite (Francis et al. 2007). AOB
are found in two phylogenetic lineages of the Proteobacteria: the closely related
genera Nitrosomonas and Nitrosospira within the Betaproteobacteria and several
strains in the gammaproteobacterial genus Nitrosococcus, including Nitrosococcus
oceani (Head et al. 1993; Teske et al. 1994; Purkhold et al. 2000).
Ammonia oxidation to nitrite by AOB occurs in two enzyme-catalyzed steps.
Ammonia is first oxidized to hydroxylamine (NH2OH) by a membrane bound,
hetero-trimeric copper enzyme, ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) (Arp et al.
2002; Norton et al. 2002; Hooper et al. 2005). The resulting hydroxylamine is
146
further oxidized to nitrite by a periplasmic enzyme, hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (HAO) (Hooper et al. 1978; Whittaker et al. 2000). HAO contains seven
c-type hemes and an active-site heme, known as heme P460, which contains
a novel, covalent link between the heme and Tyr 467 (Arciero et al. 1993). A
periplasmic, monoheme enzyme, cytochrome P460, may oxidize some of the
hydroxylamine not oxidized by HAO, and has a unique active site c-heme which
is connected covalently to a lysine side-chain (Erickson et al. 1972; Numata et
al. 1990). The four electrons produced by hydroxylamine oxidation are accepted
by a periplasmic, tetraheme, protein, cytochrome c554, in two-electron steps.
These electrons are thought to be transferred to a membrane-associated, tetraheme protein, cytochrome cm552, before the electrons are accepted by membrane
ubiquinone (Hooper et al. 2005; Hooper et al. 1978). Two electrons are used
in the AMO reaction and the other two are designated for an oxidative electron
transfer chain and the cytochrome aa3 terminal oxidase (DiSpirito et al. 1986).
The gene encoding HAO (hao) is part of a cluster of three or four genes present in three copies in N. europaea genome: the gene cluster hao- ORF2- cycAcycB, present in two identical copies, and the cluster hao-ORF2-cycA, present in
a single copy (Bergmann et al. 1994; Sayavedra-Soto et al. 1994; Chain et al.
2003). The genes cycA and cycB gene code for cytochrome c554 and cytochrome
cm552, respectively, which transfer electrons from HAO into the electron transport
chain. ORF2 of the hao gene cluster encodes a putative integral membrane
protein (NE2338 or NE0961) (Bergmann et al. 2005). NE0961 of N. europaea
has sequence homology with no other proteins, except for those in the hao gene
cluster of other Bacteria and Archaea.
Apart from AOB, a number of other Bacteria and some Archaea are known
to have genes encoding HAO in their genome (Bergmann et al. 2005). In all
cases, the gene encoding HAO was present as a tandem with the gene encoding
NE0961. This suggests possible roles for NE0961, either as an HAO export/
processing protein, or perhaps mediating interactions between HAO and the
cytoplasmic membrane.
In most gram-negative bacteria, the polypeptides for periplasmic c-cytochromes
are transported from the cytoplasm through the cytoplasmic membrane into the
periplasm via the SecYEG export system, and hemes are covalently inserted onto
cysteine side-chains of the polypeptide through the action of the CcmA-H gene
products (Thoeny-Meyer 2002). Despite the modification of its c-heme with an
additional heme-polypeptide crosslink, cytochrome P460 of N. europaea does
not require any unique heme processing system, and can be readily expressed in
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Bergmann et al. 2003) and in an E. coli strain which
constitutively expressed the ccmA-H genes (Elmore et al. 2006). While it is likely
that the SecYEG export system and the CcmA-H heme insertion system are involved in HAO export and heme insertion, it is not known if additional proteins
are required for this process.
In this study we attempted the co-expression of the genes for HAO and
NE0961, alone and together, in the Escherichia coli strain BL21(de3). We demonstrate that the NE0961 polypeptide can be expressed in the membrane fraction of E. coli, although at low levels. HAO apoprotein can be produced at high
levels in the membrane (insoluble) fraction of E. coli cells expressing the HAO
147
gene and constitutively expressing the ccmA-H cytochrome processing genes;
however, little heme insertion and no transport to the periplasm was observed,
even if the gene for NE0961 is co-expressed. This indicates that the transport and
processing of HAO may require proteins in addition to the SecYEG transporter,
the Ccm heme processing system, and NE0961.
METHODS
Source of N. europaea DNA, DNA purification, and DNA modifying
enzyme—Genomic DNA from Nitrosomonas europaea (Schmidt strain) was
prepared as described by McTavish et al. (1993) and was provided by Dr. Alan
B. Hooper at University of Minnesota. Restriction endonuclease digestions and
ligation with T4 DNA ligase were performed as recommended by the manufacturer (Promega). Purification of plasmid DNA from E. coli cells, restriction
fragments from agarose gels, and PCR products were performed using Qiaprep
Spin Miniprep, Qiaquick Gel Extraction, and Qiaquick PCR Cleanup kits, respectively, as recommended by the manufacturer (Qiagen).
Construction of E. coli Expression Host Strain—Expression studies were
conducted in E. coli strain BL21(de3) (Novagen, Inc.). Plasmid pEC86 (Arslan
et al. 1998), a gift of Dr. Linda Thoeny-Meyer, constitutively expresses the E.
coli ccm genes for cytochrome processing. pEC86 was transformed to E. coli
BL21(de3) competent cells by heat-shock as recommended by the manufacturer
(Novagen), and the transformed colonies were grown on LB agar with 30mg/mL
chloroamphenicol. Additional plasmids containing the hao and/or ORF2 genes
were also introduced by heat-shock transformation and the transformants were
cultured on LB agar with the appropriate antibiotics (30mg/mL chloroamphenicol with 50 mg/mL ampicillin or 30mg/mL chloroamphenicol with 50 mg/mL
ampicillin and 30 mg/mL kanamycin).
Cloning of hao and ORF2 into an IPTG-Inducible, Dual-Promoter Plasmid Vector—The gene hao was amplified by PCR from the genomic DNA by
using forward primer HAOFA (5’-GCT-AAC-ATA-TGA-GAA-TAG-GGGAGT-GGA-3’) and reverse primer HAOR1 (5’-CAA-CAA-CTC-GAG-TCAAGC-TCG-GGT-CTG-CTT-3’. The gene (ORF2) for NE0961 was amplified
by PCR using forward primer ORF2F1 (5’-GAA-GAA-CCA-TGG-CCGCAC-TGA-CAA-CCG-ACC-GG-3’) and reverse primer ORF2R1 (5’-CAACAA-GTC-GAC-TCA-TTG-TAC-CTG-ATC-GAC-C-3’). The total volumes
of the PCR reactions were 50mL and used the Phusion High-Fidelity PCR Kit
(Finnzymes, Inc., MA, USA) containing 500 nmoles of primer, 2 ng of template, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 5X Phusion HF buffer, and 1.5 mM MgCl2. The PCR
program used an initial denaturation at 9 oC for 30s; 30 cycles of denaturation
at 98 oC for 10 s, annealing at 58.1 oC for (for hao) or 59.1 oC (for ORF2) for
30 s, and extension at 72 oC for 60 s; and a final extension at 72 oC for 10 min.
The purified PCR products of the HAO gene and ORF2 gene and also the expression vector pETDuet-1(Novagen®, Madison, WA, USA) were digested with
restriction enzymes NdeI/Xho1 and NcoI/SalI overnight at 35 oC. The NcoI/
SalI digested ORF2 PCR product and NcoI/SalI digested pETDuet-1 vector
148
were ligated to produce the plasmid pETORF2 (Table 1). NdeI/Xho1 digested
hao PCR product was ligated to NdeI/XhoI digested pETDuet-1 to produce the
plasmid pHAO . pHAO-ORF2 was made by ligation of the NcoI/SalI digested
hao PCR product into NcoI/SalI digested pORF2. Refer to Table 1 for a summary of the plasmids used in this study. Transformation of the pHAO, pORF2,
pHAO-ORF2 and pETDuet-1 vector into E. coli BL21(DE3) competent cells
was performed by heat-shock as recommended by the manufacturer (Novagen
Inc). The transformed colonies were plated on solid LB agar with 50 mg/mL
ampicillin and incubated overnight at 37 o C. Characterization of recombinant
plasmids was confirmed by restriction digestion of the recombinant plasmid
with the appropriate restriction enzymes, and by dideoxy-chain-termination sequencing using ABI Big Dye version 3.0 (Applied Biosystems) at the Center for
Conservation of Genetic Resources at Black Hills State University, Spearfish, SD
USA. E. coli BL21 cells previously transformed with the plasmid pEC86 were
also transformed with plasmid pETDuet-1, pHAO, pETORF2 and pHAOORF2. The transformed colonies were grown on solid LB (agar 1.5%) with 30
mg/mL chloroamphinecol and 50 mg/mL ampicillin for the screening of the
single colonies with two plasmids (pEC86 and pHAO, pEC86 and pORF2, and
pEC86 and pHAO-ORF2).
Cloning of hao into an arabinose-inducible expression plasmid and ORF2
into a separate IPTG inducible plasmid—The gene hao was amplified using
2.0 mM primers HAOFA and HAOR3 (5’- GTC-TCT-AGA-CAT-TGC-CAGTGG-TTA-CCT-GT-3’), 60 mM Tris-SO4 (pH 8.9), 18 mM (NH4)2SO4, 4 mM
MgSO4, 20 ng template DNA, 0.2 mM dNTPs, and 5 Units of Platinum Taq
Polymerase (Life Technologies) in a volume of 50 mL. PCR was performed with a
GeneAmp 2400 thermal cycler (Perkin-Elmer) using a standard program: initial
denaturation for 5 min at 94 °C and 25 cycles consisting of 30 s denaturation at
94 °C, 30 s annealing at 45 °C, and 60 s extension at 68 °C, followed by a final
7 min extension step at 7 °C. The PCR product was digested with NdeI and XbaI
and ligated into the plasmid pUCPNDE (Cronin and McIntyre 1999) (a gift of
Ciaran Cronin) which had been digested with NdeI and XbaI. The recombinant
plasmid (pUHAOF2) was transformed into E. coli strain DH5aFIQ (Life Technologies) as described by Chung et al. (1989), and transformants grown on LB
media with 100 mg/mL ampicillin. pUHAOF2 plasmid DNA was purified and
digested with NdeI and XbaI, and the approximately 2 kBP restriction fragment
containing HAO was purified by preparative agarose gel electrophoresis and ligated into the plasmid pISC2 (Thoeny-Meyer et al. 1998) (which had also been
digested with NdeI and XbaI) to produce the plasmid pIHAO, which has hao
downstream of the arabinose-inducible ara promoter. The purified ORF2 PCR
product, digested with NcoI and SalI (see above), was ligated into the plasmid
vector pRSF1b (Novagen) after it had been digested with the same restriction
endonucleases to produce the recombinant plasmid pRSF-ORF2, which had
ORF2 cloned downstream of the IPTG inducible promoter on the vector.
The plasmids pEC86 and pIHAO and/or pRSF-ORF2 were transformed
into competent E. coli BL21(de3) cells (Novagen) by heat-shock and grown on
LB media with the appropriate antibiotics (50 mg/mL for pEC86, 30 mg/mL
Kananycin for pRSF-ORF2, and 50 mg/mL ampicillin for pIHAO.
149
Table 1. Plasmids used in this study.The source of the plasmid, antibiotic resistance genes present,
substance used to induce transcription from the promoter(s) upstream from the cloning site, and
N. europaea genes expressed (if any) are given. Abbreviations used: cm = chloroamphenicol, amp
= ampicillin, IPTG = isopropyl b-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside, and kan = kanamycin.
NAME OF
PLASMID
SOURCE
ANTIBIOTIC
RESISTANCE
INDUCTION
OF PROMOTER
GENES
EXPRESSED
Linda Thoeny-Meyer
cm
constitutive
E. coli ccmA-H
pETDuet-1
Novagen
amp
IPTG
-
pHAO
this study
amp
IPTG
N. europaea hao
pORF2
this study
amp
IPTG
N. europaea ORF2
pHAO-ORF2
this study
amp
IPTG
N. europaea hao
and ORF2
pEC86
pISC2
Linda Thoeny-Meyer
amp
arabinose
-
pIHAO
this study
amp
arabinose
N. europaea hao
pRSF1b
Novagen
kan
IPTG
-
pRSFORF2
this study
kan
IPTG
N. europaea ORF2
Production of HAO and NE0961 in E. coli cells containing recombinant
plasmids—The resulting cells containing recombinant plasmids (Table 1) were
grown in 3 mL and 15 mL cultures of LB media with the appropriate antibiotics at 30 oC until an OD600 of 0.6-0.7 was attained, and the inducer (IPTG or
l-arabinose) was added to induce transcription from genes cloned in expression plasmids. After 3-6 h, membrane (insoluble), whole cell and periplasm
extracts were prepared using a commercial periplasting kit as directed by the
manufacturer (Epicentre, Inc). Proteins in the cell fractions were separated by
SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) (Garfin 1990). Proteins in
SDS-PAGE gels were visualized by Coomassie Blue or 0.3 M CuCl2 staining and
the c-cytochromes by heme-staining (Goodhew et al. 1986). The protein concentration of cell extracts was determined using the method of Bradford (1976).
Trypsin digestion of selected protein bands on SDS-PAGE gels, Nano-LC-EST
mass spectrometry, and searches of peptide databases using Mascot (Matrix Science, Inc., Boston, MA) were performed at the Proteomics Core Facility at the
University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD.
RESULTS
Expression of hao and ORF2 from Dual T7 IPTG-Inducible Promoter
Plasmid—E. coli BL21(de2) cells, all containing the plasmid pEC86, also
containing a dual T7-promoter plasmid (either pETDuet-1, pHAO, pORF2,
or pHAO-ORF2) were grown in 3 mL LB cultures, either with or without
induction with 1 mM IPTG. Cytoplasmic and periplasmic fractions of cells
with all of the different plasmids, with or without IPTG induction, appeared
identical in the sizes of and relative abundance of polypeptides noted in SDS-
150
PAGE gels stained with Coomassie Blue (not shown) nor were c-cytochromes
detected from heme staining of SDS-PAGE gels of cytoplasmic and periplasmic
fractions of these cells (not shown). Membrane extracts of cells with pHAO and
pHAO-ORF2 showed large amounts of an apparently 60 kDa polypeptide when
induced with 1 mM IPTG, and cells with pORF2 and pHAO-ORF2 showed
production of small amounts of a 39 kDa polypeptide when induced by IPTG
(Figure 1). In-gel trypsin digestion and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry of the
60 kDa polypeptide yielded thirteen peptides (with masses of 916.57, 983.52,
plasmid
200
120
pHAO
IPTG +
pORF2
-
+
-
pETDuet1 pHAOORF2
+
-
+
A.
84
60
HAO
39
NE0961
OmpF
28
200
120
B.
84
60
HAO
39
28
Figure 1. 12% acrylamide 0.8% bisacrylamide SDS-PAGE gel of membrane extracts from E. coli
BL21(de3) cells containing the plasmid pEC86 and different pETDuet-1 derived plasmids (pETDuet-1, pHAO, pORF2, or pHAO-ORF2), grown with or without induction with 1 mM IPTG. The
first lane contains molecular mass markers. (A) Gel stained with Coomassie Blue to detect total
proteins. (B). Gel stained for heme to detect c-type cytochromes. The positions of the HAO,
NE0961, and OmpF polypeptides are indicated with lines.
151
1131.61, 1145.65, 1230.69, 1299.76, 1357.71, 1388.83, 1753.02, 1890.95,
2016.03, 2522.33, and 3348.73 Da) which were identified as fragments of
HAO. The 39 kDa polypeptide yielded nine tryptic fragments (with masses of
870.52, 1025.57, 1258.67, 1309.71, 1469.78, 1815.91, 1826.90, 1920.93, and
2422.05 Da) and was identified as NE0961. IPTG-induced cells with pHAO
and pHAO-ORF2 also overproduced an apparently 36 kDa polypeptide; mass
spectrometry of tryptic digests of this polypeptide yielded 21 peptides (with
masses of 2593.60, 2437.48, 2851.70, 1107.57, 1020.57, 1762.75, 1764.77,
3692.64, 1248.57, 2202.22, 1368.76, 1497.85, 1130.64, 1002.55, 1846.89,
1085.57, 2772.53, 2925.48, 2132.04, 2148.03, and 1738.95 Da) identified
as the E. coli outer membrane porin 1a (OmpF, NP_415449). The sizes of the
HAO, NE0961, and OmpF polypeptides predicted by SDS-PAGE (60, 39,
and 36 kDa, respectively) are somewhat smaller than their sizes predicted from
gene sequences (62.52, 41.84, and 39.31 kDa). Westerhuis et al. (2000) noted
that SDS-PAGE tends to underestimate the size of integral membrane proteins,
which may bind excessive amounts of SDS. The Heme-staining of SDS-PAGE
gels of membrane proteins indicated that a small portion of membrane-bound
HAO had heme attached (Figure 1).
Expression of hao on an ara Promoter Arabinose Indicible Promoter Plasmid and ORF2 on a T7 IPTG-Inducible Promoter Plasmid—To independently regulate the amount of HAO and NE0961 produced, hao and ORF2
were cloned into separate expression vector plasmids, inducible by arabinose
(hao) and IPTG (ORF2) and then transformed into cells of E. coli BL21(de3)
along with the plasmid pEC86. E. coli BL21(de3) cells with pEC86 and either
pISC2 and pRSFORF2 (negative control), pRSFORF2, pIHAO, or pIHAO and
pRSF-ORF2 together were grown in 3 ml cultures and left uninduced, induced
with 0.05% arabinose, induced with 1 mM IPTG, or induced with 0.05%
arabinose and 1 mM IPTG at mid-log phase. Coomassie Blue stained SDSPAGE gels of the cytoplasmic and periplasmic fractions of cells with all plasmids,
induced and uninduced, showed an identical distribution of polypeptides (data
not shown). Also, heme staining indicated no c-cytochromes were present in
the cytoplasmic or periplasmic fractions of these cells (not shown). SDS-PAGE
gels of the membrane fraction of cells (Figure 2) indicated that cells with the
pRSF-ORF2 plasmid produced a 36 kDa polypeptide when induced with 1 mM
IPTG, while those with the pIHAO plasmid produced a 63 kDa polypeptide
when induced with 0.05% arabinose. In-gel trypsin digestion and MALDITOF mass spectrometry confirmed that the 63 kDa polypeptide was HAO and
the 36 kDa polypeptide was NE0961. Heme-staining of the SDS-PAGE gel of
membrane proteins indicated that a small amount of the HAO polypeptide had
attached heme (Figure 2). Membrane (insoluble) extracts of these cells with the
three plasmids pEC86, pRSF-ORF2, and pIHAO, induced with both arabinose
and IPTG, contained 3.7 mg protein per ml. Twenty microliters of the membrane extracts, containing 74 mg of protein, was loaded on an SDS-PAGE gel
along with dilutions of known quantities of horse-heart cytochrome c, and the
gel stained to detect heme (not shown). The intensity of heme-staining of HAO
in the membrane extracts was equivalent to 5.0 x 10-12 moles of heme c. If one
assumes that approximately half of the protein in the membrane extracts was
152
Plasmids
pISC2+pRSF1b
Arabinose IPTG
200
120
+
+
-
pIHAO+pRSFORF2
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
A.
84
60
39
HAO
NE0961
28
200
120
B.
84
60
HAO
39
28
Figure 2. 12% acrylamide 0.8% bisacrylamide SDS-PAGE gel of membrane extracts from E. coli
BL21(de3) cells containing the plasmid pEC86 and a pISC2 derived plasmid (pISC2 or pIHAO)
and a pRSF1b derived plasmid (pRSF1b or pRSF-ORF2) under three different growth conditions
(uninduced, induced with 1 mM IPTG, induced with 0.02% arabinose, or induced with 1 mM
IPTG and 0.02% arabinose). The first lane contains molecular mass markers. (A) Gel stained with
Coomassie Blue. (B) Gel stained for heme. The positions of the HAO and NE0961 polypeptides
are indicated.
HAO, then this would indicate that only about 0.1% of the possible hemes had
been inserted into HAO.
An experiment with E. coli BL21(de3) cells with pEC86, pIHAO, and pRSFORF2 was performed by adding varying amounts of IPTG to mid-log phase cells
in order to determine the optimal concentration of IPTG required to produce
NE0961. NE0961 was detected in the membrane fraction of cells induced with
153
50 mM IPTG, and higher, but still limited, amounts of NE0961 were produced
in cells induced with 100-1000 mM IPTG (Figure 3).
Cells of E. coli BL21(de3) with plasmids pIHAO and pRSF-ORF2 were
then induced with 100 mM IPTG and varying amounts of arabinose to regulate
the amount of HAO produced relative to NE0961. A small amount of HAO
polypeptide was visible in the membrane fraction of cells induced with 0.0005%
arabinose, and larger amounts in cells induced with 0.001%-0.05% arabinose
(Figure 4). A small quantity of the membrane-bound HAO polypeptide had attached heme (Figure 4). However, Coomassie Blue staining of SDS-PAGE gels
of periplasmic extracts indicated that none of the cells had polypeptides the size
of HAO monomers or homotrimers in the periplasm and heme-staining of these
gels indicated no c-cytochromes were present in the periplasm (not shown).
IPTG
200
0
10
50
100
500
Arabinose 0
0
0
0
0
1000 (µM)
0.2%
A.
120
84
60
HAO
39
NE0961
28
B.
NE0961
Figure 3. A. 12% acrylamide 0.8% bisacrylamide SDS-PAGE gel of membrane extracts from E.
coli BL21(de3) cells containing the plasmids pEC86, pIHAO, and pRSFORF2, induced with varying amounts of IPTG (0-1000 mM) and Arabinose (0.0% or 0.5%. The gel was negatively stained
with 0.3 M CuCl2. The first lane contains molecular mass markers. The positions of the HAO
and NE0961 polypeptides are indicated. B. A portion of the SDS-PAGE gel image containing the
NE0961 polypeptide, vertically expanded for clarity.
154
IPTG
100 100 100 100
Arabinose 0 .0001 .0005 .001
100
.005
100
.01
100
.05
100 (µM)
0.1 (%)
200
A.
120
84
60
HAO
39
NE0961
28
200
B.
120
84
60
HAO
39
Figure 4. 12% acrylamide 0.8% bisacrylamide SDS-PAGE gel of cell extracts from E. coli BL21(de3)
cells containing the plasmids pEC86, pIHAO, and pRSFORF2, induced with 100 mM IPTG and
varying amounts (0-0.1%) of arabinose. The first lane contains molecular mass markers. (A) Gel
stained with Coomassie Blue. (B) Gel stained for heme. The positions of the HAO and NE0961
polypeptides are indicated.
DISCUSSION
In an attempt to examine the production of the HAO enzyme of N. europaea,
which has a unique active site heme, we established two plasmid expression systems in which the HAO polypeptide of N. europaea could be over-expressed in
the host E. coli, either alone or together with another N. europaea polypeptide,
the integral membrane protein NE0961 (which we hypothesized might be involved in the processing of HAO). When both the genes for HAO and NE0961
155
were expressed from the T7 promoter, production of HAO was much greater
than that of NE0961. HAO was found entirely in the insoluble (membrane)
fraction of cells, not in the periplasmic fraction where the correctly exported
HAO holoenzyme should be located. It appears that the HAO polypeptide,
rather than being correctly exported through the SecYEG export system into
the periplasm, instead accumulated as insoluble cytoplasmic inclusion bodies.
Although they are usually found in the cytoplasm of bacteria, inclusion bodies,
which consist of overproduced, miss-folded polypeptides, are not soluble, and
often contain membrane proteins, such as OmpA and OmpF, as well as the elongation factor protein EF-Tu (Hart et al. 1990). OmpF was especially abundant
in the insoluble fraction of cells expressing HAO. Because heme is inserted into
the polypeptides of gram-negative bacteria during export of cytochromes into
the periplasm, it is not surprising that little heme insertion into HAO occurred.
Expression of NE0961along with HAO did not result in periplasmic export
of HAO, even when expression of HAO relative to NE0961 was varied to make
the amounts of HAO and NE0961 produced closer to equivalence. If NE0961
is involved in the processing and/or transport of the HAO polypeptide, it, along
with the usual systems for periplasmic export and heme insertion in gramnegative bacteria, is not sufficient for production of the HAO holoenzyme in
the periplasm. Other gene products, specific to microbes producing HAO, may
also be required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Dr. Eduardo Calligeri at the University of South
Dakota Proteomics Facility for his help with mass spectrometry. We also thank
Carolyn Ferrell at the Western South Dakota DNA Core Facility (WestCore)
for DNA sequencing, and Dr. Chun Wu and Michael Zehfus for reviewing
this manuscript. This publication was made possible by NIH Grant Number 2
P20 RR016479 from the INBRE Program of the National Center for Research
Resources. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and does not
necessarily represent the initial views of NIH.
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159
DEVELOPING A <0.1 PPB TRACE GAS
IMPURITY SENSOR FOR NOBLE LIQUID-BASED
DIRECT DARK MATTER DETECTORS
Brianna J. Mount1*, Greg L. Serfling1, Yongchen Sun2,
Jared D. Thompson1, Dan Durben1, Kara J. Keeter1
1
School of Natural Sciences
Spearfish, SD 57799
2
Department of Physics
ABSTRACT
The Black Hills State University (BHSU) particle astrophysics group is involved in several ultra-low background neutrino and dark matter experiments at
the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF) in Lead, SD. Collaborations
such as DARKSIDE are designing dark matter detectors based on liquid argon
and xenon time projection chambers. These detectors are extremely sensitive
to impurities of O2, N2, and H2O. To detect the extremely elusive dark matter
signal, we must monitor and control impurities. Currently, there are no commercially available sensors which can reach the required sensitivity. BHSU is
building a custom Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy (CRDS) system which is
projected to detect less than 0.1 ppb of these impurities in noble gases. The
CRDS is currently being tested and is expected to be operational by the beginning of 2013.
Keywords
Laser, Spectroscopy, Sensor, Water, Cavity
INTRODUCTION
Large-scale liquid noble gas scintillation detectors are the basis for many
current and proposed particle astrophysics experiments including dark matter
searches, neutrinoless double beta decay experiments, and long baseline neutrino
experiments (Lopes 2003; Aprile 2010). One such project is the DARKSIDE
(Depleted Argon Cryogenic Scintillation and Ionization Detector) experiment.
DARKSIDE is a program of progressively larger-volume liquid argon-based
two-phase (liquid and gas) time projection chambers which will search for
dark matter in the form of WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles). The
DARKSIDE-10 prototype detector (incorporating 10 kg of Ar) is currently op-
160
erating underground at Gran Sasso National Laboratory in Italy (Akimov 2012)
to test the shielding, the data acquisition system, and other system parameters.
The next generation DARKSIDE-50 prototype detector (50 kg of Ar) will be
commissioned in the fall of 2012 (Akimov 2012). Future detectors capable of
detecting dark matter are expected to be scaled up to ton-level.
When an ionizing particle interacts with a detector filled with liquid argon, free
electrons form an ionization signal and excited molecular argon (Ar2*) is formed
which then radiatively de-excites through scintillation light at 128 nm (Acciarri
2010a,b; Mavrokoridis 2011). Singlet and triplet states of the excited molecular
argon are formed, each with a different lifetime. These ionization signals and
scintillation photons can be independently detected and spatially resolved in the
detector to identify a WIMP event and distinguish it from background events.
If impurities are present, a non-radiative de-excitation of Ar2* can occur, reducing the number of excited argon molecules and effectively quenching the
scintillation light. In the DARKSIDE-10 prototype detector, Akimov (2012)
observed a measurable increase in the light yield when purifying the argon to
sub-ppb levels. Impurities not only reduce the overall light yield, they effectively
reduce the lifetime of the long-lived (triplet) scintillation light without affecting
the short-lived (singlet) component, thus changing the pulse shape of the scintillation signal that is used to reject background events.
In the case of electro-negative molecules like O2, impurities disrupt the ionization signal from the WIMP-Ar collision. The ionization signal is used to
determine the position of the interaction and is crucial for background rejection
of neutron events (which would mimic a WIMP signal). Neutron background
events due to radioactivity in surrounding material are rejected by selecting a
fiducial region in the detector which excludes the outer regions where neutron
events are most likely to occur. However, the pathlength of the free electrons is
strongly dependent on the concentration of the electro-negative O2. A decrease
in pathlength due to impurities effectively limits the size of the detector and
the performance that can be achieved. Detectors with pathlengths on the scale
of meters will require argon purified to sub ppb ranges (Mavrokoridis 2011).
In fact, the large ICARUS detector already requires <0.1 ppb [O2] equivalent
(Amerio 2004).
To test the impurity levels in these liquid noble gases, we are developing at
Black Hills State University (BHSU) a Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy (CRDS)
system that will be an order of magnitude more sensitive than commercially
available products is being developed. This paper will present development work
accomplished in 2011-2012.
CAVITY RING-DOWN SPECTROSCOPY (CRDS)
The CRDS technique for laser spectroscopy has grown rapidly in the past
decade. As there is much in the literature on this subject (Berden 2009; Busch
1999), only a brief introduction will be given here. CRDS is an absorption
spectroscopy technique for determining trace amounts of impurities. Laser light
enters the absorption cell (or cavity) and reflects back and forth multiple times
161
1. Simulated ring-down
signal
for aa0.4m
cavitycavity
comprisedcomprised
of mirrors of 0.997 of
reflectivity.
SimulatedFigure
ring-down
signal
for
0.4m
mirrors of
y.
between two highly reflective mirrors (often referred to as “super-mirrors”)
leading to an effective absorption pathlength through the sample of up to 100
e ring-down
time decreases
if there
molecules
within
thecavity,
cavity
kilometers.
When a sufficient
powerare
threshold
is reached
within the
the that ab
incidentRing-down
laser light is diverted
cavity. The
lightthe
intensity
the cavity
of light used.
times from
are the
recorded
with
laserintuned
to the pe
then decreases exponentially due to the small amount of transmission through
frequencytheofmirrors
the contaminant
be measured
and with
laser tuned off
on each successiveto
reflection.
The exponential
decay, the
or “ring-down”,
of the
light
intensity thatthese
is transmitted
through the second
mirror
frequency.
By
comparing
two ring-down
times,
weand
candetected
derive the a
with
a
photodetector
is
recorded
(see
Figure
1).
The
time
for
the
transmitted
nt. An advantage
of this technique of switching the laser to on- and off-re
light to decrease by a factor of 1/e is defined as the ring-down time.
hs and comparing
the ring-down
that
it provides
a direct
measure
The ring-down
time decreasestimes
if thereisare
molecules
within the
cavity that
the frequency
light
used. Ring-down
are recorded
withon
thealaser
ion of theabsorb
contaminant
inofthe
sample
withouttimes
having
to rely
set of sta
tuned to the peak of an absorption frequency of the contaminant to be measured
tion of theand
system.
with the laser tuned off the absorption frequency. By comparing these two
ring-down times,reflectivity
we can derive the
amount
of contaminant.
An advantage
of out o
nce the super-mirrors’
is very
high,
measurable
light leaks
this technique of switching the laser to on- and off-resonance wavelengths and
r certain conditions
in which a cavity mode is excited (Siegman 1986). Fo
comparing the ring-down times is that it provides a direct measure of the conis excited,
which
avity, onlycentration
the lowest
T00,without
of the transverse
contaminant inmode,
the sample
having to
rely oncorresponds
a set of
standards
or
on
the
calibration
of
the
system.
de the cavity. Light is transmitted through the cavity when the length of th
Since the super-mirrors’ reflectivity is very high, measurable light leaks out
an integerofnumber
orinalternatively
in terms
of freque
the cavity of
onlyhalf-wavelengths,
under certain conditions
which a cavity mode
is excited
1986). For
a mode-matched
cavity,ofonly
the lowest
mode,
), where n(Siegman
is an integer
and
c is the speed
light.
Thetransverse
frequency
differen
T00, is excited, which corresponds to a standing wave inside the cavity. Light is
s is called transmitted
the free spectral
and is
bythe∆νcavity,
FSR=c/(2L).
through therange
cavity when
thegiven
length of
L, is equal The
to an finesse
he free spectral
the cavity divided
by theinlinewidth
of the ν,
cavity re
integer range
number of
of half-wavelengths,
or alternatively
terms of frequency
when
ν
=
nc/(2L),
where
n
is
an
integer
and
c
is
the
speed
of
light.
The
frequency
nction of the reflectivity of the super-mirrors. When we scan either the w
r the length of the cavity, the transmission through the second mirror of th
162
Figure 2. Simulated cavity transmission for a mode-matched cavity with finesse of 100.
difference between two modes is called the free spectral range and is given by
∆νFSR=c/(2L). The finesse of the cavity is the free spectral range of the cavity
divided by the linewidth of the cavity resonances and is a function of the reflectivity of the super-mirrors. When we scan either the wavelength of the laser
or the length of the cavity, the transmission through the second mirror of the
mode-matched cavity (before the laser is diverted) will be a series of resonance
peaks separated by the free spectral range. The higher the finesse of the cavity, the
sharper will be the linewidth of the peaks (see Figure 2).
THE BHSU CRDS SYSTEM
A schematic diagram of the BHSU CRDS system is shown in Figure 3. A
distributed feedback laser of wavelength 1392 nm is coupled into a cavity comprised of two super-mirrors of reflectivity 0.999983 for light at 1392 nm. The
light transmitted through the second super-mirror is detected using a Hamamatsu G10899-003K InGaAs detector. A wave-function generator ramps the
piezo-electric transducer (PZT) voltage which stretches the length of the stainless
steel cavity, until the signal from the detector reaches a preset threshold. Once
this threshold is reached, a Stanford Research Systems DG645 pulse generator
shuts off the power to the AOM driver, which then diverts the beam from the
cavity. The pulse generator also signals the Data Acquisition (DAQ) card to start
taking data for a ring-down.
The optics, electronics and vacuum systems are currently in place. Additionally, computer controls of various components such as the pulse generator and
laser driver have been written in LabVIEW and are functional. Data in the form
of analog voltage levels at specified time intervals are sampled by LabVIEW
through the DAQ unit and stored as an array. Once a data array from a ringdown is stored in LabVIEW, the program creates a least-square fit to the exponential decay and calculates the ring-down time from the fit. Several ring-downs
will be averaged, and goodness-of-fit tests carried out. Ring-down signals from
the detector have been simulated and a LabVIEW program has been written to
stainless steel cavity, until the signal from the detector reaches a preset threshold. Once this
threshold is reached, a Stanford Research Systems DG645 pulse generator shuts off the power to
of the
Dakota
Academy
Science,
91 pulse
(2012)
163 signals
the AOMProceedings
driver, which
thenSouth
diverts
the beam
fromofthe
cavity.Vol.The
generator also
the Data Acquisition (DAQ) card to start taking data for a ring-down.
3. Schematic
diagramofofthe
the BHSU
BHSU CRDS
system.
C = Computer;
DAQ =DAQ
Data =Acquisition
Figure 3.Figure
Schematic
diagram
CRDS
system.
C= Computer;
Data Acquisition
= Laser
Driver;
I/C = Isolator/Collimator;
AOM = Acousto-Optic
Modulator;
=
Unit; LD =Unit;
LaserLD
Driver;
I/C=
Isolator/Collimator;
AOM = Acousto-Optic
Modulator;
AOMD= AOMD
Acousto-Optic
Acousto-Optic Modulator Driver; MML = Mode Matching Lenses; M = Super-mirrors; PZT =
Modulator Driver; MML = Mode Matching Lenses; M = Super-mirrors; PZT = Piezo-electric Transducers; PZTC =
Piezo-electric Transducers; PZTC = PZT Controller; D = Photodetector; DE = Detector Electronics;
PZT Controller; D = Photodetector; DE = Detector Electronics; PG/T = Pulse Generator; PG = Pressure Gauge;
PG/T = Pulse Generator; PG = Pressure Gauge; RG=Ramp Generator;TP = Turbo-molecular Pump;
RG=Ramp Generator; TP = Turbo-molecular Pump; RP = Rough Pump; MFC = Mass Flow Controller.
RP = Rough Pump; MFC = Mass Flow Controller.
The
electronics
and vacuum decays
systemsand
arereturn
currently
in place.
Additionally,
fit optics,
and average
these exponential
a value
for the
ring-down
computertime.
controls of various components such as the pulse generator and laser driver have been
The BHSU CRDS system will make several improvements over commercially
available systems, bringing the available sensitivity to water vapor and oxygen
down to the 0.01 ppb range (from 0.1 ppb (Tiger, 2012)). A factor of four in
sensitivity is expected from increasing the length of the cavity from 0.5 m to 2 m,
as sensitivity increases linearly with pathlength. To increase the sample rate (and
thus lower statistical error), we will use an acousto-optic modulator to divert the
beam from the cavity instead of turning off the current to the laser. Additionally,
two lasers will be used to sample the ring-downs on- and off-resonance with the
absorption line of the contaminant.
DISCUSSION
A small scale prototype cavity 0.4 m long has been developed to test a variety
of design challenges. This prototype cavity will eventually be replaced by one
two meters in length, to reach the sensitivity goal of the system. The extreme
reflectivity of the mirrors used in the BHSU system produces a cavity finesse of
approximately 180,000. Thus, the cavity modes produced are expected to have a
very small linewidth (400 Hz) for the 2 m cavity. This leads to the challenge of
being able to detect these sharp modes.
One method of scanning across the cavity modes is by changing the wavelength
of the laser. This is accomplished by linearly varying the temperature of the laser
164
diode. However, we found that this technique would not scan in fine enough
steps to detect the sharp modes. An alternative method of scanning across the
cavity modes is to change the length of the cavity. The commercial method of
changing cavity length is based on PZTs attached to one of the cavity’s supermirrors that adjust the location of the mirror relative to the stainless steel cell.
However, in a recently published novel method, the PZTs are used to stretch
the stainless steel cavity cell itself (Tang 2012). Since the scan only needs to
change the length of the cavity by ∆L=λ/2, (where λ is the wavelength of the
laser) and the cavity cell is relatively thinly walled, this can be accomplished using PZTs.
The BHSU small scale prototype cavity cell with mounted PZTs is shown in
Figure 4. Each PZT is encased within a stainless steel casing that is manufactured with a female thread on its base and a male thread on its translating end. A
stainless steel bolt runs through the conflat flanges containing the super-mirror
on one end of the cavity and into the threaded base of the PZT. At the cavity
end that is opposite the PZT, a stainless steel bolt runs through the super-mirror
conflat flanges and fixes the adjustable rod assembly in place. We have successfully observed modes with this new scanning technique.
Another issue being addressed is optimizing the entry of the 1392 nm infrared
(IR) laser light into the cavity. Because of the very high finesse (F = 185,000)
of the system when using 1392 nm light through the super-mirrors, initial detection of the very sharp modes during alignment procedures is quite difficult.
Alignment procedures are being tested on the 0.4 m prototype cavity. Alignment of the laser through the optics of the system was attempted using a visible
Helium-Neon laser (HeNe) sent through a beam splitter so that the HeNe beam
traveled along the same path through the optics system as the 1392 nm IR diode
laser beam. The super-mirrors are not highly reflective at the HeNe wavelength,
leading to a low finesse (F~1) and broad linewidth cavity modes. While these
broad HeNe modes could be detected, the HeNe proved to be not very effective
for assisting with alignment of the 1392 nm IR diode laser. This could be due to
several reasons including the lasers having differing beam profiles as well as the
increased refraction of the HeNe beam through the optics.
In the short term, plans include the procurement of a 1550 nm IR laser. At this
wavelength our current super-mirrors have a reflectivity of 0.997. (Our supermirrors are highly reflective only for wavelength around 1392 nm). This would
6
Figure 4. BHSU CRDS 0.4 m prototype cavity with novel PZT technique to stretch the cavity.
Figure 4. BHSU CRDS 0.4 m prototype cavity with novel PZT technique to stretch the
cavity.
165
provide a cavity finesse of about 1,000 which while lower than the final cavity
(F~185,000), would be of a much higher finesse than the cavity with the HeNe
(F~1). This laser would be used to aid in the alignment of the current laser.
Long term plans include the development of in-house custom electronics
systems. These systems would replace the current bulky electronics such as the
laser driver and pulse generator. Once the BHSU CRDS is operational for the
detection of water, the system will be optimized for oxygen. This would be a
straightforward project involving adding a laser to the system which is tuned
to an absorption band of oxygen. All electronics and data acquisition/analysis
systems would remain in place.
While high precision CRDS sensors for H2O and O2 exist, a sensor for N2
does not. The detection of nitrogen would require a novel system possibly using a
plasma to reach an excited state with an infrared transition. At the same time the
nitrogen system is being designed and tested, water and oxygen CRDS sensors
may be built for use in other liquid noble gas based detectors in neutrino and
dark matter experiments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Kevin Lehmann for his many useful comments and discussions. This work was funded in part by the South Dakota 2010
Center for Ultra-low Background Experiments at DUSEL (CUBED) and the
National Science Foundation NSF grant 0903335, NSF MRI grant 0923557.
LITERATURE CITED
Acciarri,R., et al. [WARP Collaboration]. 2010a. Oxygen Contamination in
Liquid Argon: Combined Effect on Ionization Electron Charge and Scintillation Light. Journal of Instrumentation 5:P05003.
Acciarri, R., et al. [WARP Collaboration]. 2010b. Effects of Nitrogen Contamination in Liquid Argon. Journal of Instrumentation 5:P06003.
Akimov, D., et al. [DARKSIDE Collaboration]. 2012. Arxiv:1204.6218v1.
Amerio, S., et al. [ICARUS Collaboration]. 2004. Nuclear Instruments and
Methods in Physics Research A 527:329.
Aprile, E., and T. Doke. 2010. Liquid Xenon Detectors for Particle Physics and
Astrophysics. Review of Modern Physics 82:2053.
Berden, G., and R. Engeln. 2009. Cavity Ring-down Spectroscopy: Techniques
and Applications. Wiley. Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom. 344 pp.
Busch, K.W., and M.A. Busch. 1999. Cavity Ring-down Spectroscopy. Oxford
University Press. Danvers, MA. 288 pp.
Lopes, M.I, and V. Chepel. 2003. Liquid Rare Gas Detectors: Recent Developments and Applications. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation 10:994.
Mavrokoridis, K., et al. 2011. Argon Purification Studies and a Novel Liquid
Argon Re-circulation System. Journal of Instrumentation 6:P08003.
166
Siegmanm A.E. 1986. Lasers. University Science Books. Sausalito, CA.
Tang, Y., S.L. Yang, and K.K. Lehmann. 2012. A Rigid, Monolithic but Still
Scannable Cavity Ring-down Spectroscopy Cell. Review of Scientific Instruments 83:043115.
Tiger Optics Webstite: tigeroptics.com. [Cited: October 8, 2012].
167
PUBLIC SCHOOL SCIENCE CURRICULUM IN
CONTEXT: THE IMPACT OF STANDARD REFORMS
DURING THE LAST TWO HUNDRED YEARS
Cathy Ezrailson
Division of Curriculum and Instruction
ABSTRACT
The structure of public education has impacted science curriculum both
nationally and in South Dakota public schools from the establishment of the
first permanent schoolhouse in Vermillion in 1864 to the present day standardsbased models. This paper compares the national social context, structural and
educational reforms of the early common school era with the current standardsdriven initiatives 200 years later. Among the issues explored are societal changes,
school settings, educational resources, and teacher preparation. In the late 1800s,
progress reforms inserted science into the basic literacy and numeracy subjects,
common to most public schools at that time, broadening the school curriculum.
From an early “practical curriculum” first taught in the typical one-room rural
schoolhouse to the 2010 adoption of the Common Core and the current Next
Generation Science Standards, the important issues facing public education have
radically changed. Or have they? In the last few years, in response to No Child
Left Behind and other national directives, standards review committees were
formed in most states. These committees were composed of stakeholders from
public and higher education, business, informal education entities and government. The newly released draft science standards include a surprising number of
ideas, the seeds of which were already contained in earlier reports and commissions of the 1800 and 1900s. This paper draws examples and quotations from
primary historical documents in order to highlight the parallels between these
ideas, so widely spaced in time.
Keywords
Public school science curriculum, school curriculum reform, history of science
in public schools, science education in South Dakota, Science subjects in schools,
INTRODUCTION
The basic aims of public schooling have been surprisingly consistent from the
1800’s through the present day. Progressive thinkers among public school educational reformers have long expounded a common message – that subjects taught
168
also must be presented from a concrete and applied point of view rather than
only from an abstract or general position. Further, school curricula must be connected to other learning and the experiences of students. The purpose of this paper is to explore and compare the context into which science education appeared
in schools in the United States, rooted in the Common School Era—refined and
“reformed” over time. Specifically this paper will trace the curricula, including
the science curricula, in American public schools over the last two hundred years.
HISTORY OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
The European Model of Education had emphasized history, classical languages,
philosophy, classical mathematics and science. Early American models changed
this model in order to include more practical subjects for educating the masses
like reading, bible study, and character education. Early curriculum tended to be
infused with religious doctrine with rote learning methods such as oral recitation
and repetition.
In early nineteenth century America, public schools were supported by towns
in the northern British colonies. School was held for approximately ten to twelve
weeks per year and enrolled more boys than girls. Often organized by town councils, these schools also charged parents a fee. Prior to this period, families had
assumed most of the responsibility for educating children in partnership with
churches. At that time, schooling was not free, not governmental, and not secular. This meant that family wealth, race, and student gender had an enormous
impact on how much formal education was received (Kaestle 1983).
In 1837, social reformer, Horace Mann and others established a Massachusetts
state board of education. Mann saw public schools as a way to improve the lives
of common people by equalizing educational opportunities. The main purpose
of early public education was to create a literate society in which reading, writing, and arithmetic were typically considered the most important topics. And,
although science was known and incorporated into reading and mathematics examples, the emphasis was on practical applications of knowledge so that citizens
could provide for their families. Science in the school curriculum appeared later
and generally in the high school, where students were prepared for the professions and for college experiences.
At this time, institutes for teachers were established along with an increase in
the length of the school year to six months. Taxes were raised to establish school
furnishings, books, and supplies. Not all children, however, could attend public
schools with Native Americans sent to special government schools and African
Americans forced to create their own separate schools (Levin et al. 2000).
Another societal factor that impacted the distribution of the U.S. student
population before and after the Civil War was the immigration to America that
reached an all-time high. Due to harsh working conditions and hardship in the
big cities of the northeast, many children were abandoned or orphaned with
few resources. Between 1854 and 1929, upwards of 250,000 children were sent
by train from cities in the East to towns in the Midwest (Katz 1987). Families
interested in the orphans arrived at local train stations to look them over upon
169
their arrival. Many orphans ended up on farms as laborers. The fortunate few
were adopted by humane families who treated them kindly (Cremin 1980). The
influx of these children into the center of the country influenced the need for
more schools and support of schools in communities already stressed financially.
At the same time, the first versions of public schools similar to the schools we
have today were loosely organized in cities and rural communities alike. These
schools were known as “common schools,” and were the first to be funded by
local property taxes, charging no tuition.
Common schools were open to all white children, run by local school boards
and began to be subject to some state regulation, an early precursor to state intervention in local school operations and curriculum standards. First found in
the Northeast and Midwest states in the twenty years prior to the Civil War, the
common school movement spread to both the South and the West by the beginning of the 20th century (Levin et al. 2000).
In the U.S. and Canada, the boarding school era began in the late 1800s and
continued through the 1920s. Separated from their families, many Indian children, some as young as three years old, were “Americanized” in schools where
“affection was rare” and “punishment often severe.” Indian dress, language and
beliefs were forbidden. Many children were abused, and tried to run away; unknown numbers died (Elliot and Dirr 1998).
CURRICULUM AND TEACHER PREPARATION
BEFORE THE 20TH CENTURY
The common school curriculum in the mid-1800s consisted mainly of the
basics—reading, penmanship, arithmetic, and “good manners.” A typical oneroom schoolhouse housed students of all ages and abilities with learning methods
that included oral recitation, drilling, and quizzes. Supplies included a slate,
chalk, and a few books. Schools were sparsely supplied as families’ resources were
focused on the farm and issues of survival. In sparsely populated areas of the U.S,
school might be open only for a few weeks or months in a year, when students
were not needed to work on the farm. In 1913, educational progressive, George
H. Betts suggested several reform measures for the rural school curriculum that
have parallels in the newly emerging national standards and which still have
relevance today. Betts ideas included:
“If the rural school is to meet its problem[s], it must extend the scope
of its curriculum. It was formerly thought by many that education, except in its simplest elements, was only for those planning to enter the
“learned professions.” But this idea has given way before the onward
sweep of the spirit of democracy, and we now conceive education as the
right and duty of all. Nor by education do we mean the simple ability
to read, write, and number.” (Betts 1913)
Common schools had meager resources and inadequate or non-existent
teacher training. They had rejected the “European-style” curriculum as it was
170
considered impractical for preparing students for skills suited to rural life. In
the mid to late 1800s, teachers began to receive more training and took tests for
certification. In more populated areas, Normal Schools emerged to offer courses
of preparation, ranging from a summer school course to a 2-year program and
later a 4-year program. These efforts at preparing teachers had some deficiencies,
however. Some teaching academies and colleges did not admit women. Often,
when a woman married (and certainly when she became pregnant), she could
no longer teach in a public school (Eliot 1898). Men were generally paid twice
as much than a woman teaching in the same environment.
THE COMMON SCHOOL IN SOUTH DAKOTA
As an example, on the South Dakota plains farmers usually built the schoolhouse out of sod (due to harsh winter conditions and the lack of trees). Parents
supplied fuelTHE
for the
stove andSCHOOL
feed for the
that
students sometimes rode
COMMON
IN horses
SOUTH
DAKOTA
to school. Teachers were housed with farm families, rotating households periodically (Levin et al., 2000). The first public school house was built in Vermillion,
As an example, on the South Dakota plains farmers usually built the schoolhouse
SD in 1864. Amos Shaw, its first public school teacher taught approximately 30
out of sod
(duereceiving
to harsh compensation
winter conditions
the lack
of trees).
Parents
pupils,
fromand
parents
of $2.50
per pupil
per supplied
year. He fuel
was
for the stove
and
feed
for
the
horses
that
students
sometimes
rode
to
school.
Teachers
replaced by a Miss Baker who received the same rate of pay—highly unusual
for
were housed
withThe
farmcurriculum
families, rotating
periodically
(LevinSecond
et al., Reader
2000).
this time.
includedhouseholds
the McGuffey
Readers—the
The firstused
public
schoolfrom
house
was built
in Vermillion,
SD in Other
1864. subjects
Amos Shaw,
first
excerpts
Pilgrim’s
Progress
and The Bible.
in theits
curpublic school
teacher
taught
approximately
30
pupils,
receiving
compensation
from
riculum were: arithmetic, which enabled men to survey and measure precisely
parents for
of $2.50
per construction
pupil per year.
was replaced
by the
a Miss
Baker
who received
the
building
andHeprovided
women
ability
to measure
proper
same rate
of pay --and
highly
unusual
forpreserve
this time.
The
the McGuffey
quantities
to prepare
and
food
forcurriculum
the winter included
(Lias 2011).
Readers --Inthe
Reader
usedFair
excerpts
from Pilgrim’s
Progress
and schools
The Bible.
theSecond
Chicago
World’s
(Columbian
Exposition)
of 1893,
from
Other subjects
in the curriculum
were: arithmetic,
which
enabled men
surveyschool
and
across America
were highlighted
in their state’s
exhibition
hall. to
. Public
measureteachers
precisely
forprincipals
building construction
and provided
womenexcellent
the ability
to measure
and
had been requested
to provide
examples
of
proper quantities and to prepare and preserve food for the winter (Lias 2011).
Figure 1.On the left, the first permanent schoolhouse in The Dakota Territory,
Figure 1.On the left, the first permanent schoolhouse in The Dakota Territory, constructed in
constructed
Vermillion
inof1864.
This photo
of the
structure
ina typical
Vermillion in
in 1864.
This photo
the structure
was taken
in 1880.
On thewas
right taken
is shown
1880.
the ofright
is shown
typical2008)
rural school of the early 1900s. (Thaden
ruralOn
school
the early
1900s.a(Thaden
2008)
4
171
scholarship. During a lecture at the Fair, Fredrick Jackson Turner announced that
“the United States’ Western Frontier had been tamed.” Although South Dakota
had become a state only four years previously, its exhibitions sought to show a
prosperous state with resources to attract industry and investment. They extolled
the “efficiency of the state’s educational system, quality of work produced by its
mining industry, and magnitude of the crops yielded by its farmers on display at
the Fair” (The World’s Columbian Exhibition 1893).
RESULTS OF BROADENING THE CURRICULUM
With the advent of textbooks, the teacher could teach more easily in a classroom in which students were at different levels (Klopfer and Cooley 1963). The
first school textbook recorded was the New England Primer, used between 1760
and 1843. The McGuffy Readers, first used in 1836, were based on examples of
world literature. They were the basis for teaching reading and basic values such
as honesty and charity.
During the late 19th century several national educational reform initiatives
emerged. With the establishment of the National Educational Association
(NEA) in 1857, a systematic study of schooling in America was undertaken.
Interestingly enough, women were not allowed to join until 1866, even though
the majority of the Nation’s teachers were women (Cremin 1980). According to
the NEA in 1893, only about one-third of the pupils who entered the first year
of the elementary school reached a four-year high school, and only about one in
nine graduated. To address that problem, a commission instituted by the NEA
met and defined a new curriculum called the Cardinal Principles of Secondary
Education which included: “1) Health, 2) Command of fundamental processes,
3) Worthy home-membership, 4) Vocation, 5) Citizenship, 6) Worthy use of leisure, and 7) Ethical character.” Changes were also made to the structure of postelementary education dividing the 6 secondary years into three junior and three
senior segments and to broadening and deepening the curriculum. Students were
divided into groups by ability, marking the beginning of what was later called
“tracking.” Public schools had begun to change in response to the identified
curricular deficiencies. A new concept of curriculum structure was emerging. By
definition the term “curriculum” was used by the NEA commission:
…to designate a systematic arrangement of subjects, and courses in
those subjects, both required and elective, extending through two or
more years and designed for a group of pupils whose common aims and
probable careers may properly differentiate a considerable part of their
work from that of other groups in the school (NEA 1918).
DISCUSSION: SCIENCE IN THE CURRICULUM
In the U.S., science education originated as a scatter of disparate subjects prior
to its standardization in the 1890s. In the early 1900s, formal science subjects be-
172
gan to be included in the curriculum in junior and senior high schools, not only
for the intrinsic nature of the subject matter, but also to extend knowledge of
science to the farm and home. Attention was also given to the way science should
be taught, not only as a listing of facts and processes but as a coherent whole. As
evident today, these were not only progressive for the time but anticipated the
current reform movement’s integration of subject matter with applications (Del
Giorno 1969). The context of science in public schools had begun to illuminate
the problem, and, according to George Betts science began to function as a
“candle in the dark:”
Material science should constitute an important section of the rural
highhowever,
school curriculum.
Not only
its study from
affordthe
one
of the and
best
the science taught
mustdoes
be presented
concrete
means
of
mental
development,
but
the
subject-matter
of
science
has
applied point of view rather than from the abstract and general. Thisadoes
verynot
direct
bearing
on the life and
of theshall
farm.
achieve
the
mean
that a hodge-podge
ofindustries
unrelated facts
beTo
taught
in the
bestplace
results,
however,
the
science
taught
must
be
presented
from
the
of science; indeed, such a method would defeat the whole purpose
concrete
and
applied
point
of
view
rather
than
from
the
abstract
and
of the course. It means, however, that the general laws and principles of
general.
This
does
mean
a hodge-podge
of unrelated
facts shallof
science
shall
benot
carried
outthat
to their
practical bearing
on the problems
be taught
in
the
place
of
science;
indeed,
such
a
method
would
defeat
the home and the farm, and not be left just as general laws or abstract
the principles
whole purpose
of
the
course.
It
means,
however,
that
the
general
unapplied (Betts 1913).
laws and principles of science shall be carried out to their practical bearto problems
this time, school
published
connections
ing Prior
on the
of the textbooks
home andwere
the farm,
and with
not be
left just asto
practical
applications
of curriculum
in the
real world.
High
School was
general
laws or abstract
principles
unapplied
(Betts
1913).
perceived as an option for only a few students whose parents could afford the
supplies
Students
who attended
high school
were
thought “bound
for
Prior toand
thisbooks.
time, school
textbooks
were published
with
connections
to practithe applications
professions” of
such
as medicine,
lawreal
and world.
politicsHigh
with aspirations
college as
cal
curriculum
in the
School wasfor
perceived
matriculation.
Figure
2 shows
an example
of a common
textbook.
an
option for only
a few
students
whose parents
could public
afford school
the supplies
and
Highlighted are the “relative variations among the subjects of thought.”
Figure 2. A secondary science textbook of the late 1880s is shown (Levin 2000).
Figure 2. A secondary science textbook of the late 1880s is shown (Levin 2000).
John Dewey and other school reformers began to change teaching and learning in
America. In Dewey’s The School and Society (1900), he maintained that learning
173
books. Students who attended high school were thought “bound for the professions” such as medicine, law and politics with aspirations for college matriculation. Figure 2 shows an example of a common public school textbook. Highlighted are the “relative variations among the subjects of thought.”
John Dewey and other school reformers began to change teaching and learning in America. In Dewey’s The School and Society (1900), he maintained that
learning should be grounded in experience. As an alternative to the drill-andrecitation methods of the nineteenth century, in Experience and Education
(Dewey 1938), he posited that education should be based on the child’s psychological and physical development, as well as the world outside the schoolroom
(Levin et al. 2000). Experiences in the classroom at all levels (now referred to as
“hands-on” or experiential learning) have always been very suited as a method
for teaching science.
Daniel Alexander Payne, Past President of Wilberforce University in Ohio and
the first African-American college president in the United States born to free
parents, opened his own school at the age of 19. He wrote about educating himself and his students in his autobiography the Recollections of Seventy Years. The
following 1830’s excerpt reveals the societal context in which “black schools” operated at that time and something about how the curriculum sometimes evolved
in those schools (Payne 1888).
My first school consisted of three children, for each of whom I was
paid fifty cents a month. I also taught three adult slaves at night, thus
making my monthly income from teaching only three dollars...The next
thing which arrested my attention was botany… Descriptive chemistry,
natural philosophy, and descriptive astronomy followed in rapid succession... My researches in botany gave me a relish for zoology; but as I
could never get hold of any work on this science I had to make books
for myself. This I did by killing such insects, toads, snakes, young alligators, fishes, and young sharks as I could catch. I then cleaned and stuffed
those that I could, and hung them upon the walls of my school-room.
Laboratories were first introduced into the science courses in public high
schools during the late 1800s. High school science laboratories have been defined
as laboratory experiences that allow for students to interact directly with the
material world (or with data drawn from the material world), using the necessary tools, data collection techniques, models, and theories of science (Singer et
al. 2005).
Today, high school science education includes some appreciation of the nature of science in order to provide scientific literacy for all. As part of a liberal
education and to prepare students for further study, work, and citizenship, the
scientific methods of observing, investigating and discerning fact from myth has
earned science a much needed place in the American public school curriculum.
There is agreement that hands-on study of science is imperative.
Science and its methods of applying critical thinking, questioning, and organization of ideas from observation, deriving meaning from evidence, applying
these to explanation, argumentation and prediction all stand solidly on the
174
ground of a well-articulated subject. These are the underpinnings of any longlasting and deep learning. New standards have begun to be set for public school
curriculum. The process continues today.
DISCUSSION: EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS: THEN AND NOW
The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education prescribed changes to the
structure and direction public education needed to take in the future. These
and subsequent implemented reforms have led public schools to the current
standard-based reform movement. Further, the NEA charged the Commission
on the Reorganization of Secondary Education with the task of modifying secondary education so that it became more in line with the character of society,
students and educational theory (NEA 1918).
A similar call for reform seventy-five years later and published in 1989 by the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Project 2061’s
Science for All Americans was a clarion call response to the urgent need for standards-based reform in the sciences. The purpose of the report was to re-clarify
the goals of science education so that educators could begin to make scientific
literacy attainable by all students (DeBoer 1991).
Since 2001, schools have operated under No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and
a separate set of state and local statutes (in an atmosphere of ‘high stakes testing)
citing new assessment-based curricula. The impact of the NCLB movement on
funding has been enormous. School districts have been swamped with additional
reporting measures designed to close loopholes for the non-reporting of student
test scores (Jorgenson and Hoffman 2003). The result has been a giant “leap
backward” for curriculum reform and student-centered instructional measures.
Following the NCLB Act and in response to the need for a more balanced view
of a curriculum based on expert recommendations, the Common Core State
Standards Initiative was spawned. Additionally, in 2010, the Science Frameworks
were released followed in 2012 by a draft of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (based on the Frameworks). The NGSS (and Frameworks) were
developed collaboratively by 20 states by representatives from science, science
education, higher education and industry. These Frameworks (and the NGSS
constructed from them) will seek to integrate concepts, skills and ideas while describing inquiry-based settings in which science learning is most effective (BOSE
2011. The new Science Frameworks consist of a limited number of elements in
three dimensions:
(1) Scientific and engineering practices,
(2) Crosscutting concepts, and
(3) Disciplinary core ideas in science.
They describe how these should be developed (progress) across grades
K-12. It is designed so that students continually build on and revise
their science knowledge and abilities throughout their school years.
175
To support this learning, all three dimensions are to be integrated into
standards, curricula, instruction, and assessment (Singer et al. 2005).
In South Dakota, Secretary of Education Melody Schopp along with Science
Education Specialist and Primary Point of Contact Sam Shaw are directing a
large statewide group of standards reviewers. These new science standards are
slated for release in early 2013 (Shaw 2012).
FUTURE IMPLICATIONS
In the previous sections of this paper, the evolution of American public schools
was discussed including the inclusion of science subjects and reforms which
remarkably contain several common elements. Although, U.S. public education
eventually broadened to include all citizens, it didn’t begin that way. In the common school, prevalent in the Midwest including South Dakota, school curricula
were designed based on physical necessity and financial expediency.
Over the last two centuries, the social context has changed in rural schools, the
“small city” schools in urban and suburban areas. Since change is always inevitable, the context in which students learn and teachers teach has had to adapt to
the swinging pendulum of social evolution and educational reform.
Students should be better educated in schools by teachers who receive appropriate, practical and more diverse educational preparation. All teachers should be
supported with methods and curricula that tap a well-defined body of knowledge
and framed in decades of educational research in order to effectively prepare
them for the classroom. Further, science education should be the adding of rich
new threads integrated into the “whole cloth” of any student’s rudimentary science knowledge base and not added as a “peripheral fringe” around its edges.
CONCLUSION
At a hearing early in 2007, Senator Edward Kennedy suggested that the way
forward in science education lies in our knowledge of the past. He reminded us
of events that have been forgotten in the present push for standards reform, “We
did it after the Sputnik launch, [in 1957] when we trained a new generation of
Americans in math and science. And we inspired millions more to greater and
greater innovation when President Kennedy challenged us to send a man to the
moon” (Abramson 2007). In 1958, Congress had passed the National Defense
Education Act that gave a new science curriculum an infusion of more than a
billion dollars when it passed.
The work is not complete, however. As long as society changes (and it must)
and curriculum standards are again refined; as long as students must be educated and teachers must be prepared to teach, reforms will by their very nature
continue. If the roots of today’s initiatives are framed in an historical context,
with a deeper understanding and appreciation of how knowledge of past reforms
can inform the present, future reformers may be able to instill a fuller and more
responsive science education design in American public schools.
176
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Press, Washington, D.C. 386 pp.
Betts, G. H. 1913. New ideals in rural schools. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 127
pp.
Cremin, L. 1980. American education: The national experience. Harper Collins,
New York.
DeBoer, G. 1991. A history of ideas in science education: Implications for practice. Teachers College Press, NewYork. 271 pp.
Del Giorno, B.J. 1969. The impact of changing scientific knowledge on science
education in the United States since 1850. Science Education 53: 191-195.
Dewey, J. 1900. The school and society. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
129 pp..
Dewey, J. 1938. Experience and Education. Kappa Delta Pi, Indianapolis. 181
pp.
Eliot, C. 1898. Educational reform. Century, New York. 418 pp.
Elliot, M., and M. Dirr. 1998. Schools in South Dakota: An educational development. South Dakota State Historic Preservation Office, Pierre. 41 pp.
Jorgenson, M.A., and J. Hoffman. 2003. History of the No Child Left Behind
Act of 2001 (NCLB). Pearson, San Antonio. 7 pp.
Kaestle, Carl. 1983. Pillars of the republic: Common schools and American
society, 1780-1860. Hill and Wang, New York.
Katz, Michael. 1987. Reconstructing American education. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge. Pp. 24-57.
Klopfer, L. E., and W.W. Cooley. 1963. History of science cases for high schools.
Report on the HOSG Journal of Research in Science Teaching 1: 33-47.
Levin, C., S. Harris, D. Neiman, M. Pinto, S. McCarthy, A. Moore, and C.
Scott. 2000: Only a teacher. Public Broadcasting Service eBook. Available at
http://www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/. [Cited 3/3/2012]
Lias, D. 2011. . Early settlers in Vermillion construct Dakota Territory’s first
permanent school. October 28, 2011 Available from www.plaintalk.net.
[Cited 3/6/12]
NEA (National Education Association). 1918. Cardinal principles of secondary
education: A report of the commission on the reorganization of secondary
education. Bulletin No.35. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Available at http://www.archive.org/stream/cardinalprincipl00natiuoft/cardinalprincipl00natiuoft_djvu.txt. [Cited 5/30/2012]
Payne, D. 1888 .Recollections of seventy years. Ayer, New York (reprint 1991),
pp. 27–28.
Shaw, S. 2012. July 9. Personal communication.
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Singer, S.R., M.L. Hilton, and H. Schweingruber. 2005. America’s lab report:
Investigations in high school science. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.
Thaden, T. R. 2008. From the river valleys to the rising bluff, a pictorial history
of Vermillion, South Dakota 1859-2009. Clay County Historical Society.
Donning Company Publishers,Virginia Beach.
The World’s Columbian Exhibition: South Dakota Educational Exposition.
1893. (uncataloged) Richardson Collection, Archives and Special Collections. The University of South Dakota, [Accessed April 3, 2012 and May
25, 2012].
179
OBSERVATIONS OF THE ENIGMATIC
FOSSIL INSECTIVORE, PLESIOSOREX
(MAMMALIA) IN NORTH AMERICA
James E. Martin
J.E. Martin Geoscientific Consultation
21051 Doral Court
Sturgis, SD 57785
ABSTRACT
In North America, Plesiosorex existed during the Neogene, appearing in the
early Hemingfordian North American Land Mammal Age (NALMA) and persisting to the late Hemphillian NALMA. Records from older rocks in Europe
indicate that Plesiosorex dispersed to North America as part of a major paleofaunal interchange in the early Miocene that included other insectivores, rodents,
carnivores, and ungulates. Based on known specimens, Plesiosorex is widely
distributed during the Hemingfordian NALMA from the East Coast to Idaho,
is relatively abundant from the Great Plains to the Great Basin during the Barstovian and Clarendonian NALMAs, but appears restricted to the Great Plains
(Nebraska) during the Hemphillian NALMA. The persistence of Plesiosorex
for approximately 15 million years in both the New and Old World suggests a
well-adapted insectivore whose upper incisors are unusual compared to those of
most insectivores, resembling more closely those of some rodents, but the upper
incisors wear to a point and the cheek teeth are typically insectivoran; therefore,
the specialized incisors must have been utilized in prey procurement. Insights
supporting this hypothesis are provided by newly described crania and dentaries.
Keywords
Plesiosorex, Insectivore, Fossil, Neogene, Specialization
INTRODUCTION
The relatively large, enigmatic fossil insectivore, Plesiosorex, appeared in North
America during the early Miocene Hemingfordian North American Land Mammal Age (NALMA) and persisted into the late Hemphillian NALMA. R.W. Wilson (1960) first recognized the immigrant, originally described from Europe, in
North America and named Plesiosorex coloradensis from specimens derived from
the Martin Canyon, Quarry A Local Fauna in northeastern Colorado. Later, J.E.
Martin (1976) recognized the species from the equivalent Batesland Formation
in southwestern South Dakota: the Flint Hill North Locality (SDSM locality
V811) and the Black Bear Quarry I (SDSM V672). In 1998, Tedrow and Martin
180
referred a poorly preserved dentary with dentition to the species. The specimen
was recovered from near the base of a vitric tuff interbedded within the Imnaha
Basalt in western Idaho whose radiometric dates range from 17.5 ± 0.3Ma to
16.2 ± 1.0Ma (Reidel et al. 1989). Also in 1998, Emry and Eshelman noted the
taxon in the Pollack Farm Locality in the early Hemingfordian Calvert Formation of Delaware. The latest reference to P. coloradensis is that of Bailey (2004),
who recorded its occurrence in the Bx-22 Local Fauna (Marsland Quarry; see
Yatkola 1978) in the Runningwater Formation in Dawes County, Nebraska.
Bailey (2004) considered this local fauna to have been accumulated during the
late early Hemingfordian NALMA.
A second North American species of Plesiosorex, P. donroosai, was described
from the early Barstovian Springer Local Fauna, collected from the Feyereisen
Gap Locality (SDSM V733) in Tripp County, South Dakota (Green 1977). The
holotype, SDSM 8537, is a nearly complete lower jaw with dentition that is significantly larger than that of P. coloradensis. In 1984, I collected a well-preserved
cranium of Plesiosorex from Feyereisen Gap (Martin 1987). Within this well
preserved cranium, the left P3-M2 and right P3 were preserved, as well as four
anterior alveoli for antemolars posterior to the large alveolus for the incisor. This
alveolus is unusual in being laterally compressed, strongly curved, and long, extending back into the rostrum to terminate dorsal to the anterior moiety of P4.
Based on the shape of the alveolus and morphology of the lower incisor, Martin
(1987) postulated a long, narrow, sharply pointed incisor with a long wear facet.
Plesiosorex donroosai has also been recognized in Barstovian deposits principally
in Nebraska (e.g. Voorhies 1990; Voorhies et al. 1987), with other occurrences
in Oregon (Shotwell 1968), originally termed Meterix.
The third North American species of Plesiosorex, P. latidens, originally termed
Meterix latidens (Hall 1929) and recovered from the Clarendonian Esmeralda
Formation of Nevada, was considered a species of Plesiosorex by Green (1977).
UCMP 29603, a cotype of the species (Hall 1929), represents cranial material
including an M2, which is significantly smaller than that of P. donroosai (See
Martin 1987) from Barstovian deposits. Other Clarendonian occurrences of
Plesiosorex (=Meterix) have been noted in Oregon (Shotwell 1970) and Nebraska
(Voorhies 1969).
Additional specimens of Plesiosorex (=Meterix) occur in Hemphillian deposits
but have not yet been assigned to a species. Most specimens are relatively fragmentary, and all have been found in Nebraska (e.g. Voorhies 1990). None have
yet been found in the relatively rich Hemphillian micro-assemblages of the Great
Basin or Columbia Plateau.
While studying the vertebrate fossil collections of the American Museum of
Natural History, I encountered an undescribed cranium of Plesiosorex (=Meterix)
from the Hemingfordian Observation Quarry in Dawes County, NE, as well as
a cranium and associated lower jaws of Plesiosorex from the Barstovian Runlofson Quarry, Brown County, NE (See Skinner and Johnson 1984, for additional
stratigraphic information). The latter skull retains the elongated incisor, and
description of these exceptional specimens is the impetus for this contribution.
Abbreviations: AP=anteroposterior measurement; Tr=transverse measurement;
F:AM=Frick Collection, American Museum of Natural History; KU=University
181
of Kansas Museum of Natural History; SDSM, Museum of Geology, SD School
of Mines; UCMP=University of California, Museum of Paleontology. Tooth
abbreviations follow normal terminology, except antemolar is utilized when premolar designation is uncertain.
LIPOTYPHLA Haeckel, 1866
PLESIOSORICIDAE Winge, 1917
Plesiosorex Pomel, 1848
Plesiosorex coloradensis Wilson, 1960
Holotype: KU 9989, left dentary with p4-m1, right dentary with i2, p4 from
Martin Canyon Local Fauna, Quarry A, CO.
Referred Comparative Specimens: KU 9990, cranium with right P4-M1, left
P3-P4 from Martin Canyon, Quarry A. SDSM 5794, left dentary with p3-m2
from Flint Hill North, V511. F:AM 74903, cranium with left and right P3-P4
from the Observation Quarry, Dawes County, NE.
Description: The cranium of F:AM 74903 is relatively well preserved (Figure 1A-C), but is broken away posteriorly to the alveoli for M1 and anterior
to P3. The rostrum is dorsoventrally deep, and complexly folded turbinals can
be observed anteriorly (Figure 1B). Posteriorly, the right anterior margin of the
braincase flares greatly laterally over the temporal opening, restricting its size
dorsoventrally and restricting the size of the orbit. Also from the posterior, the
cribiform plate may be observed at the anterior end of the cranial opening and
the separation of the braincase from the hard palate at the posterior end. An
exceedingly large infraorbital canal lies above the P4 (Figure 1C) and is closed
posteriorly by a high, thin bar similar to that described for KU 9990 (Wilson,
1960) but thinner than that of P. donroosai (SDSM 13666, Martin 1987). A
foramen lies dorsomedially above the round anterior canal opening (Figure 1C)
on F:AM 74903 and KU 9990; another lies within the canal. Unfortunately,
the anterior root of the zygomatic is broken away, so it cannot be determined if
it was abbreviated like that of P. donroosai (Martin 1987). The palate is dorsally
curved, and numerous holes occur where molar roots may have perforated the
palate and been enlarged by postmortem deterioration (Figure 1A). Damage also
occurs between the P4s, so the palatine foramina noted by Wilson (1960) for KU
9990 cannot be observed, but the lateral margins of the palate do appear pitted.
The preserved dentition of F:AM 74903 (Figure 1D-E) is very similar to that
of KU 9990. The P3 is a diminutive version of P4 (Table 1). Both have a very
high, pointed paracone, but the metastyle of the P4 is much larger, forming a
conspicuous paracone-metastyle blade. Both premolars have small parastyles and
large protocones, as well as a broad shelf sloping posteriorly. However, the P4
exhibits a hypocone posterior to the protocone, whereas the posterior shelf slopes
directly from the protocone on P3.
Discussion: The orbital area of F:AM 74903 can be observed on the left side
for the first time. The lateral expansion of the braincase coupled with the thin bar
over the infraorbital canal greatly restricts the size of the orbit. Therefore, sight
does not appear to have been a major sense for Plesiosorex coloradensis. Alterna-
182
Figure 1. F:AM 74903, Plesiosorex coloradensis: A) Cranium, Ventral view; B) Cranium, Anterior
view; C) Cranium, Lateral view, anterior to left; arrow indicates infraorbital canal; D) Left P3-P4;
E) Right P3-P4. F:AM 74929, Plesiosorex donroosai: F) Right P2; G) Cranium, Ventral view; H)
Right upper incisor, Lateral view; I) Upper incisors, Occlusal view.
183
tively, the very large nasal passages with complex turbinals and the extremely
large infraorbital canals indicate smell and tactile sensation at the end of the
rostrum were more dominant senses, probably being utilized principally in the
detection of prey.
Plesiosorex donroosai Green, 1977
Holotype: SDSM 8537 left dentary with i2, p4-m2 from SDSM locality V733.
Referred Comparative Specimens: SDSM 13666, partial anterior cranium
with left P3-M2 and right P3 from SDSM locality V733; F:AM 74929, skull
with right and left I, P4-M1, right dentary with p4-m2, left dentary with i1-i2,
p1, p4-m2, and isolated right P2 and M3 from eight miles north of Lone Pine,
Runlofson Quarry, Brown County, NE.
Description: SDSM 8537 and 13666 have been described by Green (1977)
and Martin (1987), respectively. Therefore, this descriptive/comparative section
concerns F:AM 74929, whose cranium is poorly preserved (Figure 1G), resulting
from dorsoventral crushing, but the upper incisors and dentaries survived well.
The palatal area of the cranium is best preserved, and the palate is dorsally concave similar to that of P. coloradensis, although crushing and the museum number
painted on the palate obscures salient features. Laterally, the excavation above the
P4 indicates the large anterior end of the infraorbital canal like that of SDSM
13666 (Martin 1987). Above and opposite the M2, the dorsoventrally deep but
thin anterior root of the zygomatic arch flares distinctly laterally but ends in a
rounded projection first noted on SDSM 13666 (Martin 1987).
The dentition includes the first known upper incisors of North American Plesiosorex. These incisors (Figure 1H-I) are strongly curved, laterally compressed,
and have a long wear facet similar to those of some rodents. However, they
are thinner and more pointed than are those of most rodents, and are not of
constant thickness, being slightly thicker medially and thinning to a sharp crest
ventrally and dorsally. The right incisor is complete and measures 17.7 mm along
the outside curvature and 12.5 mm in diameter from the anterior tip directly
to the posterior termination but is only 1.4 mm wide transversely. Anteriorly,
both incisors are closely appressed, and, owing to their wear facets (4 mm long),
form a sharp point. The facets are formed by wear on the ventral crest and the
medially thickened area. Posteriorly, they flare laterally and are housed in the
laterally compressed, curved alveoli described for SDSM 13666 (Martin 1987,
Figure 1B,C).
The isolated P2 (Figure 1F) is broken and too small to be a P3 (Table 1), representing the only known second upper premolar of North American Plesiosorex.
The premolar is dominated by a high paracone with a short anterior parastyle
at its base. The metastyle is a subdued blade that descends posteriorly from the
paracone. Lingually, a small protocone lies internal to the parastyle, and a narrow cingulum slopes posteriorly from the protocone and ends in a long rounded
posterior process.
The P4 of F:AM 74929 (Figure 2A) and SDSM 13666 are very similar, with
the latter being slightly less worn. As a result, the tips of the cusps of SDSM
13666 are very high and pointed, and even considering wear, are higher and
184
more delicate than those of the Nebraska specimen. The high conical paracone is
the dominant cusp with a ridge down its anterior face that ends in a small parastyle at its base. The minute parastyle is connected by a curved anterior cingulum
to a small protocone anterolingually. The base of the protocone is anterior to that
of the parastyle. A large rounded hypocone dominates the lingual portion of the
tooth and lies posterolingual to the protocone. A wide shelf descends posteriorly
to form a rounded posterolingual margin separated by a notch from the metastyle. The metastyle forms a long, robust blade with the paracone, although the
metastylar blade is much lower than the paracone. These two cusps are much
higher than the others, and form a carnassial notch that is best viewed internally.
The large M1 of F:AM 74929 (Figure 2A; Table 1) is comprised of four principal cusps as well as a metaconule and styles. Of the principal cusps, the hypocone
is well separated from the three cusps of the trigon. The buccal portion of the
transversely long molar is higher than the lingual moiety. A wide stylar shelf occurs along the buccal margin of M1 that exhibits a split mesostylar area with distinct cuspules at the end of the prominent arms of the paracone and metacone.
At the end of the anterior arm of the paracone is a large parastyle from which a
crest-like anterior cingulum swings anterolingually and rejoins the body of the
tooth at the base of the paracone. The posterior arm of the metacone is robust,
bearing a principal wear facet. Just anterior to the buccal termination of the wing
is a small stylar cuspule that is worn away on SDSM 13666, P. donroosai, but is
obvious on the M1 of KU 9990, P. coloradensis. The wide stylar shelf populated
with numerous stylar cusps (Figure 2A) is reminiscent of less derived members
of the Marsupialia. The highly elevated paracone and metacone are worn to a
V-shape that likewise is similar to the W-shaped ectoloph of some marsupials
and insectivores. Both conules are present; the protoconule is smaller than the
metaconule and more closely appressed to the base of the high paracone. The
metaconule is well separated from the base of the metacone. The protocone is
very robust and V-shaped, dominating the anterolingual portion of the molar.
The hypocone is lower, conical, and has a rounded outline compared to the
protocone. A distinct posterior cingulum extends from the base of the hypocone
buccally and ends below the metaconule. Overall, the M1 of F:AM 74929 is
very similar to that of SDSM 13666 and KU 9990, although the latter is much
smaller and more delicately constructed.
The right M3 is very poorly preserved and found isolated from the cranium.
The molar is small (Table 1), too small to be an M2, with a triangular trigon and
cuspate hypocone attached on the posterior tooth margin between the metacone
and protocone. The distance between the paracone and metacone is greater than
that between the metacone and protocone resulting in a distorted triangular
outline. No distinct stylar shelf exists, although the cingulum anterior to the
paracone as observed on M1 is preserved. The metacone is reduced and forms a
rounded posterobuccal margin of the tooth as typical of the last tooth in the row.
The paracone and metacone are well separated, mirroring the split mesostylar area of the M1. The conules and posterior cingulum are obscured. The root below
the protocone is the largest and faint tri-radiating ridges connect the three roots.
Both dentaries of F:AM 74929 are preserved and the left is nearly complete
(Figure 2B-C), exhibiting characters previously unknown from North American
185
Plesiosorex. For instance, both lower incisors are preserved (Figure 2D), and i1 is
not preserved in other North American specimens. The i1 lies below and parallels
i2 for three-fourths of its length, essentially buttressing the larger i2 that occludes
against the large, curved upper incisors. Also, a single-rooted antemolar fills the
second alveolus of the left dentary, previously unknown but suspected by Green
(1977).
The left and right dentaries of F:AM 74929 are overall smaller than SDSM
8537, a left dentary (Figure 2B), but the cranium, SDSM 13666 from the same
locality and level, is of the same approximate size as that of F:AM 74929. The
dentaries are anteroposteriorly long (30.08 mm from anterior alveolus to angular
process) but shallow dorsoventrally (5.8 mm below anterior end of m1). The
symphysis is long, confined to the ventral half of the dentary, and extends to
below the anterior end of m1. The mental foramina are covered by paint, but
appear to be in the same position as those of SDSM 8537. The coronoid process
rises steeply from the plane of the ramus and even projects slightly anteriorly.
Even though the coronoid process is very large, the temporal fossa is small, shallow, and confined to the ventral half of the coronoid (Figure 2G). Internally, a
facet covers the entire coronoid process all the way down to the tooth row (Figure
2F). Here, a shelf is formed that extends from the tooth row, across the bottom of
the facet, and merges with the articular process that lies medial to the coronoid
process and horizontally trends transversely. A horizontal groove parallels the
articular condyle on the dorsal side. Interestingly, the left dentary exhibits two
dental foramina entering the shelf (Figure 2F) whereas the right dentary has only
one foramen, similar to that of SDSM 8537, P. donroosai, and SDSM 5794, P.
coloradensis. Interestingly, the angular process on all available Plesiosorex dentaries
extends far distally and is distinctly inflected, forming a bowl-shaped pterygoid
fossa. The entire ascending ramus is offset laterally from the anteroposterior
trend of the tooth row.
The lower incisors of F:AM 74929 are closely appressed, long anteroposteriorly, pointed, and somewhat rectangular in cross-section. The i2 is the largest
incisor, possesses a medial enamel crest that trends most of the crown length,
and exhibits a dorsal wear facet extending the entire crown length. The i1 curves
along the ventral margin of the i2 (Figure 2D) providing strength and support.
At the base of the i1 crown is a small cuspid that fits against the i2 just below the
distal end of the medial enamel crest. Therefore, the i1 is interlocked and closely
appressed to the i2.
The holotype of P. donroosai has four alveoli between the p4 and i2. On F:AM
74929, a single- rooted imbricating antemolar (?p1) lies in the second alveolus
(Figure 2B-E). The tooth is characterized by an anteriorly positioned principal
cusp followed by a small posterior cuspid situated on a wide posterior cingulum.
The anterior cusp is shaped to overlie the posterior margin of the preceding
tooth.
The double-rooted p4 is preserved on both dentaries of F:AM 74929 (Figure
2E,H), is composed of a high principal cusp, with a minute posterolingual cuspid in the metaconid position that is appressed half the height of the principal
cusp (Figure 2F). Anteriorly, a small cuspid occurs in the paraconid/parastylid
186
Figure 2. F:AM 74929, Plesiosorex donroosai: A) Right P4-M1; B) Left dentaries, Lateral views,
upper specimen, holotype, Plesiosorex donroosai, SDSM 8537, lower specimen, F:AM 74929; C)
F:AM 74929, Left dentary, External view, D) Left i1-i2, p1, Internal view; E) Left p1, p4-m2, Internal
view, F) Left ascending ramus, Internal view; if=internal facet; G) Left ascending ramus, External
view; tf=temporal fossa; H) Left p1, p4-m2, Occlusal view.
187
position; posteriorly, a wide posterior cingulum lies well below the principal cusp
and exhibits a small cuspid medially.
Except for posteriorly decreasing size, the m1 and m2 (Figure 2E,H) are very
similar with a high trigonid and lower talonid that is transversely wider. The
principal differences include the lack of a buccal cingulum below the paraconidprotoconid blade on m1; a prominent cingulum occurs on m2, the paraconid
may be more reduced on the m2, and a small distinct cuspid occurs at the base
of the trigonid lingual valley on m2. Both molars exhibit a high triangular protoconid that is connected to the paraconid and metaconid by ridges with distinct
carnassial notches, particularly the paraconid-protoconid ridge. The triangularly
worn hypoconid dominates the posterobuccal corner of the tooth and is connected via the anterior arm of the hypoconid (cristid obliqua) that angles lingually to the anterior base of the protoconid. A small mesoconid lies between the
protoconid and entoconid and a distinct hypoconulid is posteriorly located on
both molars. Also, the entoconid is high, relatively conical, and forms a squared
posterolingual tooth corner.
Table 1. Dental Measurements of Plesiosorex in mm.
Plesiosorex coloradensis: F:AM 74903
AP
Tr
Right P3
2.2
1.78
Left P3
2.0
1.9
Right P4
4.08
3.3
Left P4
4.1
3.35
Plesiosorex donroosai: F:AM 74929
AP
Tr
Right P2
2.64
2.0
Right P4
5.1
5.6
Left P4
5.0
5.45
Right M1
4.6
5.55
Left M1
4.8
5.4
Right M3
2.25
2.56
Left p1
1.81
1.4
Right p4
2.35
2.1
Left p4
2.35
2.1
Right m1
4.56
3.35
Left m1
4.69
3.3
Right m2
3.65
3.2
Left m2
3.75
3.2
188
DISCUSSION
The two Nebraska specimens described herein add to our knowledge of
North American species of Plesiosorex. First, some question has concerned the
tooth count of the lower dentition (Green 1977). Wilson (1960) indicated that
an i3 existed in Plesiosorex, whereas Green (1977) indicated a dental formula
of 2,1,4,3. The holotype of Plesiosorex donroosai possesses a double-rooted p4
with four anterior alveoli. The dentary of SDSM 5794 of P. coloradensis has a
double-rooted p4 and p3 (Martin 1976), with four alveoli anteriorly, indicating
specific difference. The p3 does have an imbricating antemolar morphology.
F:AM 74929, P. donroosai, has a single-rooted antemolar in the second alveolus.
Because P. donroosai has one less alveolus than P. coloradensis, a likely interpretation is that the p3 is single rooted in the former species and all four alveoli possess single-rooted antemolars. Therefore, p1-p3 are single-rooted in P. donroosai,
and the tooth in the second alveolus would be p1. Another single-rooted alveolus
lies anteriorly which would correspond to Green’s canine or Wilson’s i3.
The cranium from the Hemingfordian of Nebraska, F:AM 74903, indicates
an expanded braincase, with consequent reduction in orbit size and temporal
opening. Therefore, visual acuity was not great (a character coupled with abbreviated zygomatic arches may indicate a fossorial habit, but postcranial elements
must be secured for substantiation) and compensation came through other more
developed senses. The greatly enlarged infraorbital foramen that is as large as the
orbit indicates great tactile sense of the snout. Moreover, the deep, large nasal
opening with complex turbinals indicates an enhanced sense of smell. Therefore,
olfactory and tactile senses appear to dominate the optic senses. The expanded
braincase also impacts the temporal musculature, which is reflected in the small,
shallow temporal fossa on the coronoid process. Alternatively, the facet on the
medial coronoid face and angular fossa for pterygoid musculature are greatly
expanded, indicating pterygoid compensation for temporal musculature. The
angular process of the dentary is strongly inflected, distinct upper molar styles,
and posteriorly placed hypconulids on lower molars are similar to features found
among insectivorous Marsupialia.
F:AM 74929 possesses upper incisors that are laterally compressed, long,
strongly curved, and pointed, owing to long occlusal wear facets. These incisors
were predicted for P. donroosai by Martin (1987). Moreover, the lower jaw with
i1 and i2 indicate that the large i2 was braced ventrally by the i1. The large i2 also
exhibits a long wear facet. Moreover, the dentary symphysis is large and extends
far posteriorly. Therefore, a great amount of force was exerted between the upper
and lower incisors. The long facets resemble those of rodents, and many, particularly those with expanded braincases, exhibit enhanced pterygoid musculature.
The result of incisor occlusion suggests that the pointed incisors must have been
essential for prey acquisition.
189
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I sincerely thank the American Museum of Natural History personnel for allowing me to study Nebraska specimens of Plesiosorex; in particular, Ms. Ruth
O’Leary kindly provided important contextual information. Drs. R.W. Wilson
and Morton Green guided me in earlier studies of the taxon. Dr. Brian Lock,
University of Louisiana, Lafayette, kindly allowed use of his equipment for
figure preparation. Mr. Matt Weiler, University of North Dakota, undertook
preliminary descriptions of the specimens as part of a special studies project.
The contribution was greatly enhanced by the reviews of Dr. Allen Kihm, Minot
State University, ND, Dr. Gary Johnson, Dallas, TX, and David C. Parris, New
Jersey State Museum, and by the critique of Dr. Robert Tatina, editor of these
proceedings.
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Delaware. Delaware Geol. Surv. Spec. Publ. 21:153-173.
Green, M. 1977. A new species of Plesiosorex (Mammalia, Insectivora) from
South Dakota. N. Jb. Geol. Palaont. Mh., H.4:189-198.
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the Miocene Imnaha Basalts of western Idaho: IN Akersten, W.A., et al.
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36:21-24.
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1: Geologic setting, faunal lists, lower vertebrates. Contr. Geol., Univ. Wyoming 25:55-69.
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Abstracts of
Senior Research and Symposium
Papers and Posters
presented at
of the
193
PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES AND SYSTEMS
David W. Galipeau
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
This presentation includes a description of solar energy basics, photovoltaic
devices and systems, the economics of photovoltaic systems, and a discussion
of current research directions. Current research is focused on the development
of broadband organic-inorganic solar cells that include novel polymer materials
and organic dyes, and nanostructured inorganic thin films fabricated with novel
plasma processing.
194
THE SOUTH DAKOTA CATALYSIS GROUP
James D. Hoefelmeyer1*, Rajesh Shende2, Alevtina Smirnova2,
Jan Puszynski2, Hao Fong2, Phil Ahrenkiel2, Ranjit Koodali1,
Grigoriy Sereda1, Dmitri Kilin1, Haoran Sun1, Rick Wang2, and Hongshan He3
1
Department of Chemistry
2
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology
3
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
The South Dakota Catalysis Group (SDCG) is a collaboration among scientists at South Dakota universities, in partnership with the Department of Energy,
to conduct research on advanced catalytic materials for solar energy utilization,
specifically, hydrogen production and hydrogen fuel cells. The long-term vision
of this project is to enable solar energy utilization on large scales in a process that
is economically attractive. Requisite to this goal are photocatalyst materials for
high-efficiency solar-to-chemical energy conversion, materials for robust fuel cell
catalysis, and industrial engineering that produces devices through hierarchical
assembly of nanostructures in a rapid and low-cost process. The principle foci of
the current SDCG efforts are: 1) the development, through the application of
nanotechnology, of a reactor in which a photocatalyst uses sunlight to split water
to hydrogen and oxygen, and 2) development of improved supports and catalysts
for fuel cells. The two foci represent complimentary approaches to solar energy
utilization. The end products of the two research thrusts, photocatalyst and fuel
cell, when used in conjunction, allow production of electricity from sunlight,
storage of solar energy as chemical fuel, and zero net consumption of resources
or production of atmospheric emissions.
195
THE MAJORANA DEMONSTRATOR: A SEARCH FOR
NEUTRINOLESS DOUBLE-BETA DECAY
G. Perumpilly for the Majorana Collaboration
ABSTRACT
The MAJORANA Collaboration is constructing an ultra-low background experiment to search for neutrinoless double-beta decay, located deep underground
at the Sanford Underground Research Facility in Lead, SD. This DEMONSTRATOR is array of germanium detectors intended to perform research and
development towards a tonne-scale germanium-based experiment. The observation of neutrinoless double-beta decay would determine whether the neutrino is
a Majorana particle and provide information on the absolute scale of neutrino
mass. The DEMONSTRATOR can also perform a competitive direct dark matter search for light WIMPs. This talk will review its motivation, the principle
and status.
196
IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERE ON
HPGE CRYSTAL GROWTH
Guojian Wang*, Gang Yang, Yongchen Sun, Wenchang Xiang,
Jayesh R. Govani, Muhammad Khizar, Yutong Guan, and Dongming Mei
Vermillion, SD, 57069
Abstract
The growth of high-purity germanium crystals for radiation detectors is being
developed at the University of South Dakota. High-purity germanium crystals
were grown in argon and in hydrogen atmospheres. The growth parameters were
compared and analyzed. The relationship between thermal field and crystal quality was discussed. Based on the thermal properties of argon and hydrogen gases,
we designed different thermal fields to grow high-purity germanium crystals of
lower dislocation density.
This work is supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-10ER46709 and the state
of South Dakota.
197
XRD ANALYSIS OF HIGH-PURITY
GERMANIUM SINGLE CRYSTALS GROWN
BY THE CZOCHRALSK METHOD
Gang Yang1, Goujian Wang1, Wenchang Xiang1,
Muhamud Khizar1, Yutong Guan1, Yohgchen Sun1,
Dongming Mei1, Jiang Chaoyang2, and Bruce Gray2
1
2
Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A high purity germanium (HPGe) crystal was grown in a hydrogen atmosphere by the Czochralsk method. XRD 2θ scanning was used to determine
the orientation of the grown crystal. XRD 2θ scanning results show that an
extremely strong (400) peak at 2θ of 66.15o was observed in three samples cut
from the grown crystal, indicating that the crystals had <100> orientation. However, there is a very weak (200) peak at 2θ of 31.56o for the sample cut from
the middle part of the crystal. According to the reflection and extinction law of
germanium crystals with face-centered cubic lattice, the reflection of 200 should
be forbidden. The presence of (200) peak at 31.56o could have resulted from
XRD multiple-beam scattering. Additionally, the ω-scanning technique was
used to obtain the rocking curves at the fixed 2θ of 66.15o, which have shown
the quality of the crystal.
This work is supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-10ER46709 and the state
of South Dakota.
198
GERMANIUM DETECTOR RESPONSE TO NUCLEAR
RECOILS IN SEARCHING FOR DARK MATTER
D. Barker and Dongming Mei*
The University of South Dakota
Vermillion SD, 57069
ABSTRACT
The discrepancies in claims from the experiments that are searching for weakly
interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter necessitate a model for ionization efficiency at energies below 10 keV. The focus of this work is on the construction of a model for the ionization efficiency in germanium by analyzing the
components of stopping power, specifically that of nuclear stopping power, at
low energies. To determine the validity of the proposed model, we will compare
it to previous measurements of ionization efficiency in germanium as well as to
those of other theoretical models. The thresholds of both CDMS and CoGeNT
will be analyzed and compared in terms of the nuclear recoil energy.
199
SIGNIFICANCE OF SIMULATION AND
MODELING OF GROWTH SYSTEM GEOMETRY
ON THE AUGMENTATION OF HIGH PURITY
GERMANIUM (HPGe) CRYSTALS GROWTH RATE
Jayesh Govani*, Dongming Mei, Guojian Wang, and Gang Yang
Physics Department
Vermillion, SD 57069 U.S.A
*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
High-purity germanium (HPGe) single crystals are required for the fabrication
of radiation detectors. HPGe crystals growth rate and crystal quality depend
largely on the control of the thermal field. The control parameters of the thermal
field can be regulated only outwardly through the growth system geometry, hydrogen and argon gas pressure, flow rate, pulling rate, and power and frequency
of an RF heater. Computer modeling and simulation of Czochralski growth
processes play a vital role in the development of pioneering pulling procedures
and augmentation of Ge crystal quality because quantitative determination of
the control parameters is extremely challenging and expensive. We performed a
detailed modeling and simulation study for diverse crystal positions and various
growth system geometries. We also virtually studied the consequences of targeted
growth rate on temperature gradient and induction heating. A comparative
analysis of simulated and available experimental results is also presented. In the
present study we have successfully demonstrated that the simulation and modeling help in reducing considerably the number of growth experiments for the
enhancement of crystal quality and targeted growth rate.
This work is supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-10ER46709 and the State
of South Dakota.
200
A STUDY OF A RADON GAS SCRUBBER
Xiaoyi Yang*and V. E. Guiseppe, and Dongming Mei
ABSTRACT
Radon gas and its progeny are critical sources of background for low background experimental devices. The required reduction of radon levels in the air
of an experimental area can typically be achieved with a radon scrubbing system.
For testing purposes, a single column system has been built at USD to study the
radon-adsorption properties of activated charcoal under different conditions. In
this paper, we will demonstrate the working principle and test results.
This program is supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-10ER46709, NSF PHYS
0919261, and NSF PHYS-0758120
201
OPTICAL AND ELECTRONIC
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE BHSU
CAVITY RING-DOWN SPECTROSCOPY SYSTEM
G. L. Serfling*, B. J. Mount, Y. Sun, J. D. Thompson, and K. J. Keeter
Spearfish, SD 57799
ABSTRACT
The DARKSIDE and MAX collaborations are developing instruments that use
noble liquids (such as liquid argon and xenon) to detect dark matter particles.
Impurities in these noble liquids will decrease the detector’s sensitivity. The
BHSU physics group is building a system based on Cavity Ring-down Spectroscopy (CRDS), which will be used at the Sanford Underground Research Facility
(SURF) to measure the amount of impurities in the liquids in the DARKSIDE/
MAX detectors. Light from an infrared laser is directed into a cavity that is comprised of two “super-mirrors” (reflectivity is approximately 99.9983%). The light
builds up to a preset intensity level and then is diverted and a detection circuit
on the far side of the cavity records the amount of time it takes for the light to
decay within the cavity. The topics discussed on the poster will include optical
properties of the system, design considerations of the cavity, and acquiring and
analyzing the optical signal.
This work was funded in part by the South Dakota 2010 Center for Ultra-low
Background Experiments at DUSEL (CUBED) and the National Science Foundation NSF grant 0903335 and NSF MRI grant 0923557.
202
ENHANCEMENT OF
NIR-TO-VISIBLE UPCONVERSION
BY SILVER-NANOWIRE THIN FILMS
Quoc Anh N Luu, Cuikun Lin, and P. Stanley May*
ABSTRACT
NIR-to-visible upconversion luminescence from lanthanide doped nanoparticles has many potential applications in the field of security, biological labels,
and solar concentrators. Thus, enhancing the luminescence of upconversion
nanoparticles (UCNP) will allow UCNPs to be more efficient and also extend
its adoption to other applications, such as display technology. Noble metal nanostructures are well known to enhance the luminescent intensity of fluorophores
(i.e., luminescent materials) through the coupling of the fluorophore with the
surface plasmon polaritons of the metal nanostructure and through the modification of the electric field. Understanding the mechanism of upconversion luminescence enhancement from metal nanostructures is an important step toward
optimal design and utilization of UCNPs.
NIR-to-visible upconversion luminescence of NaYF4:17% Yb3+, 3% Er3+ upconversion nanoparticles in a poly(methyl methylacrylate) (PMMA) film was
enhanced by an underlying silver-nanowire thin film. Silver-nanowires of 70 nm
diameter and 4 µm length were synthesized by a solvothermal method and then
spin-coated onto glass slides. A 110 nm thin film of the upconversion matrix
was spin-coated onto the silver-nanowire thin film. The resulting samples were
characterized by TEM, steady state and time-resolved luminescence. Under 980
nm excitation, the UCNP PMMA/Ag-enhanced film showed much stronger
upconversion luminescence than a simple UCNP PMMA film, with a factor of
2-4 times enhancement. The photoluminescence kinetics of the UCNP PMMA/
Ag-enhanced and UCNP PMMA films confirm the surface plasmon effects of
silver-nanowire thin films on the enhancement of upconversion emission of
NaYF4:17% Yb3+, 3% Er3+
203
PHOTO-UNCAGING OF COUMARIN FROM
CINNAMATE COATED CdSe QUANTUM DOTS
Aravind Baride1, David Hawkinson1,
|Daniel Engebretson2, and Stanley May1*
1
2
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Vermillion, SD-57069
ABSTRACT
A photodynamic drug delivery model was built that consists of CdSe quantum
dots (QD) functionalized with cinnamate ligands. The cinnamate, upon UV
light exposure, undergoes E-Z isomerization followed by ring closure to form
coumarin. Similar uncaging of coumarin was demonstrated by photo excitation of cinnamate coated CdSe QDs at energy much lower than the absorbance
window of cinnamate (> 440 nm). The single photon visible light (532 nm) or
two-photon NIR light (1064 nm) excitation of QDs resulted in charge transfer
from the QDs to the cinnamate and thereby facilitates the radical ion induced
E-Z isomerization and uncaging of coumarin. The release of coumarin was characterized by absorbance and luminescence spectroscopy. Luminescent coumarin
showed an increase in the emission intensity during photo exposure. The electron
transfer mechanism was confirmed using the cinnamate functionalized core-shell
CdSe QDs. The shell present on QDs blocked the charge-transfer process. Our
experimental model helps to understand the photo-uncaging process using quantum dots and to design near infrared light induced drug delivery models for a
targeted drug delivery system.
204
SOUTH DAKOTA WIND ENERGY:
PHYSICS, LOGISTICS AND CHALLENGES
Jeff Rud
East River Power Electric Cooperative, Inc.
Madison, SD 57042
ABSTRACT
This presentation will provide an overview of South Dakota’s wind industry
and how South Dakota ranks nationally in wind energy. It will highlight some
of the physics involved in converting wind to electrical energy and also review
how the wind industry technology is evolving. A number of challenges facing
wind energy will be identified, including the underlying economics of wind as
compared to other generation resources, as well as the need for transmission
expansion. Finally, the presentation will provide photos of a recent major wind
project in South Dakota and demonstrate some of the logistics involved in building wind turbines that are almost 400 feet high and weigh hundreds of tons.
205
REVIEW OF ANNUAL TRENDS OF ATMOSPHERIC
THERMAL INVERSIONS IN SOUTH DAKOTA
UTILIZING NWS RADIOSONDE AND WRAN DATA
Patrick R. Ealy
Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences
ABSTRACT
Utilizing a combination of National Weather Service (NWS) radiosonde measurements and data collected through the Wind Research Assessment Network
(WRAN), I present a review of atmospheric thermal inversions in Rapid City
and Aberdeen, SD, between August 1, 2011 and March 31, 2012. Inversions
were quantified by frequency (number of days with inversions), height (altitude
above ground level of the maximum temperature layer) and intensity (rate of
temperature change with height). At both locations, inversion intensity and
frequency are greatest in those winter months characterized by longer nights and
steeper gradients between the ground surface temperature and the temperature
at the top of the boundary layer. However, inversion heights are generally highest
in summer and fall months.
The present work is focused on understanding the differences in data interpretation from NWS soundings verses WRAN data. Discrepancies between the
intensity of inversions reported by the WRAN and the NWS radiosondes suggest a greater amount of error than has been previously assessed when evaluating
the ability of radiosondes to accurately represent inversion properties. Analyzing
WRAN data suggests that the occurrence and intensity of the inversions happening in Rapid City and Aberdeen, SD, is much higher than previously thought
based on NWS radiosonde analysis alone.
206
THE FLEXURAL RESPONSE OF AN 80 FT WIND
TURBINE SUBJECTED TO WIND LOADS
S. Herrod and D. Fick*
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research was to examine the flexural response of an 80 foot
wind turbine, located at the Renewable Energy Research Facility on the campus
of South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (SDSMT). Five strain gauges
were installed at the same height around the base of the turbine tower. The
gauges were located in a criss-cross pattern to allow for maximum strain measurements when winds are from the northwest, northeast, southwest and southeast
directions. Strain data were collected during 30 mph wind speed events and were
used to determine the bending stresses at the base of the turbine tower. These
bending stresses were used to calculate the magnitudes of forces acting on the
wind turbine components. Design approaches for applying loads to wind turbine
structures were investigated to determine a simplified procedure for obtaining
bending stresses at the base of the tower. Results have shown that for a wind
speed of 30 mph, a 5 psf distributed load applied over 75% of the wind turbine
cross-sectional area closely approximates the measured bending strains. A comparison of the effective area percentage for other wind speeds is also presented.
207
WIND VELOCITY INVESTIGATION AT OGLALA
LAKOTA COLLEGE.PHASE I: INSTRUMENTATION
AND DATA ACQUISITION ASSESSMENT
L. Richards1 and D. Fick2*
Math and Science Department
Oglala Lakota College
Kyle, SD 57752
2
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
South Dakota School of Mines
1
Abstract
A 50 meter meteorological tower was installed at Oglala Lakota College campus in 2004 for a 13 month wind energy assessment. Data were collected during
the 13 months and used to price out a 225 kW turbine. The tower was unused
and has received no maintenance to the present day.
Phase I of this research project included assessing the condition and functionality of all instruments and how they contribute to collecting accurate wind
energy data. An anemometer was used for wind speed data, wind vanes collected
wind direction, a barometer collected air pressure, and pyranometer collected
solar radiation data. Sample data were collected using a Nomad 2 data logger.
Data collected from 2004 – 2007 show that average wind speeds were largest in
March and November and smallest in January, May, and July.
Phase II of this research project will include replacing the 3 anemometers that
were found to be inoperative in Phase I. This will bring the tower back to working conditions and will allow us to continue gathering wind data at shorter time
intervals than in the previous study. These shorter time intervals will provide
information on daily wind fluctuations and will include assessing different wind
turbine structures that are compatible with future green housing projects and
technology.
208
INTEGRATED PHOTOCATALYTIC AND
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF KRAFT LIGNIN
TO FORM VALUE ADDED CHEMICALS
A. Shende*, D. Harder-Heinz, and R. Shende
Chemical and Biological Engineering
Rapid City, South Dakota 57701
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Kraft lignin (KL), a waste product of paper and pulp industry, is recalcitrant
to chemical and biochemical degradation. However, its complex polyphenolic
substructure could serve as a renewable source of valuable aromatic compounds
and their derivatives. In our attempt to overcome KL recalcitrance, we coupled
photoreforming of KL with microbial degradation. It was observed that titania
mediated photocatalytic pretreatment of KL induces depolymerization of the KL
chains and cleavage of aromatic rings to form products amenable to microbial
degradation. Soil collected from underneath decaying wooden logs lying dormant at 4950 feet level was inoculated into minimal media containing either
photocatalytically treated or untreated KL as the sole source of carbon. A KL
degrading, Gram negative anaerobic diplococcus was isolated from the enrichment culture. The growth curve and biochemical characteristics of this bacterial
species were studied in detail. Kraft lignin degradation products were analyzed
by gas chromatography. Results on characterization of the KL degrading microbe
and the KL degradation products will be presented.
209
SYNERGISTIC HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
FROM WATER-SPLITTING AND AQUEOUS
PHASE BIOMASS REFORMING
V. Buddineni, A. Shende, E. Sellers, and R. Shende*
Chemical and Biological Engineering
Rapid City, South Dakota 57701
ABSTRACT
Nanoparticles and nanotube arrays of photocatalytic materials are of great
interest to investigators of hydrogen generation from water-splitting reaction. In
this approach, however, the recombination reactions that occur between excitons
often limit the hydrogen yield. To minimize the recombination reactions and to
achieve synergistic hydrogen production from water and a sacrificial agent such
as some biomass, we present a unique approach in which a nanostructured photocatalytic material was contacted with an aqueous sugar solution in the presence
of potassium iodide. Catalytic materials such as TiO2, NiFe2O4 and combinations
of TiO2/NiFe2O4 nanoparticles were synthesized by sol-gel approach and sputter
coated with platinum. In addition, 1D TiO2 nanotube arrays were prepared using
an electrochemical anodization method and platinized. These catalytic materials
were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning and transmission electron microscopy and BET surface area analyzer. About 6.0 ml aqueous biomass solutions
containing different sugars such as glucose, arabinose, sucrose, mannose and
galactose and potassium iodide were placed in a quartz reactor in contact with
a photocatalyst. The solution was irradiated with 100 mW/cm2 light intensity
from a solar simulator fitted with AM1.5G. The photoreactor head space gas was
sampled and analyzed for H2 and CO2 using gas chromatography. In a separate
set of experiments, synthesized photocatalytic materials were also utilized to investigate H2 and hydrocarbon generation from the aqueous slurry obtained from
thermochemical processing of cellulose. The results obtained from the synthesis
of photocatalytic materials and the effectiveness of nanoparticles and nanotube
arrays on synergistic H2 generation from water-splitting and biomass reforming
will be presented.
210
SYNTHESIS OF
1-BUTYL-3-METHYLIMIZADOLIUM
DERIVATIVES
Austin R. Letcher, Mathew E. Amundson,
Duane E. Weisshaar*, and Gary W. Earl
Augustana College
Sioux Falls, SD 57197
ABSTRACT
Prompted by a request from a colleague, we sought to develop a reliable
method of quaternizing butylimidazole using dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and
converting the resulting methylcarbonate salt to the citrate. Butylimidazole was
reacted with DMC at 130 oC in a pressure reactor for 20 hours. The reaction
mixture was slowly added to enough citric acid to produce an equal mixture
of the bis and tris product. The new mixture was maintained at 40 °C for 2
hours with continuous N2 sparging to remove CO2. The product was isolated
by roto-evaporation at 100 °C. NMR and cation HPLC showed quaternization
produced a mixture of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium methylcarbonate and the
2- or 4-carboxylate zwitterions. The citric acid reaction converted all products
to the desired 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium citrate. Integration of proton NMR
spectra indicated the product was essentially the bis-citrate.
211
HPLC METHOD TO MONITOR
METHYLCARBONATE/ACID REACTION PROGRESS
Erika E. Arens, Sarah J. M. Jamison,
Duane E. Weisshaar*, and Gary W. Earl
Augustana College
Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57197
*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Methylcarbonate quaternary ammonium compounds are produced by a
green reaction and that anion is cleanly exchanged by reacting methylcarbonate
with an acid. In aqueous solution, methylcarbonate is converted to bicarbonate
which reacts similarly with acids. An anion-exchange HPLC method employing
indirect detection was developed to separate methylcarbonate/bicarbonate from
exchanged anions to follow the exchange reaction. Two unidentified interfering
peaks were observed when 0.5 mM sodium naphthalene disulfonate (NDS) in
20% methanol/water was used as the mobile phase. The pH of the mobile phase
was increased to avoid the interference, but the pH was difficult to reproduce
and did not circumvent the interference. The interfering peaks disappeared when
the NDS concentration was lowered to 0.25 mM. Samples dissolved in methanol
produced a split peak for bicarbonate. A bicarbonate calibration curve was linear
for 25 to 750 µM.
212
USE OF COUPLED RATE EQUATIONS TO MODEL
NIR-TO VISIBLE UPCONVERSION KINETICS IN
ER3+, YB3+: NAYF4 NANOCRYSTALS
Ge Yao*1, Robert B. Anderson2, QuocAnh N. Luu1,
Steve Smith2, Mary T. Berry1, and P. Stanley May1
1
2
Nanoscience and Nanoengineering Program
ABSTRACT
Previously, our laboratory had been successful in the syntheses of Er3+,
Yb :NaYF4, nanocrystals. Currently we are focusing on using coupled rate equations to model NIR-to-visible upconversion (UC) kinetics in Er3+, Yb3+: NaYF4
nanocrystals. The results of this model were compared with the experimental
results. Spectroscopic characterization done by our research group provides the
data with which to study the kinetics of UC processes. The data include the time
evolution of green, red, 1.0 μm, and 1.5 μm emission following pulsed excitation, and the relative intensity ratios of green, red, 1.0 μm, and 1.5 μm emission
as a function of excitation power. The curve-fitting routine of the simulative
model was optimized using a Nelder-Meade simplex search method, in which
the parameters were chosen to minimize the sum of the squares of the differences between measured intensity values (normalized) and the population values
predicted by the model.
3+
213
SUBCRITICAL AQUEOUS PHASE CATALYTIC
LIQUEFACTION OF PINE WOOD FOR THE
PRODUCTION OF GASEOUS AND LIQUID FUELS
R. Tungal, A. Finley, and R. V. Shende*
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
South Dakota School of Mines & Technology
ABSTRACT
Subcritical water for the liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass is receiving
greater attention for the production of H2 and hydrocarbon fuels. In this study
subcritical aqueous phase liquefaction of pine wood was investigated in the presence of homogeneous catalysts such as Ni and Cu salt. During liquefaction the
gases produced were collected and analyzed. In addition, the catalytic materials,
such as metal supported mesoporous metal oxide/zeolite, were synthesized using wet-impregnation, solid state and sol-gel synthesis approaches. The product
slurry obtained after liquefaction of pine wood was treated with these metal
supported metal oxide/zeolite catalytic materials for biodiesel production. In the
case of the sol-gel approach, Ni-salt was dispersed in an ethanol/water solution
containing surfactants such as Brij-76/pluronic 123, and gelation was achieved
using propylene oxide. This material was aged, dried, calcined at 400-600oC
and immobilized with Ni by a wet-incipient method followed by reduction in
an H2 environment. The zeolite powder was impregnated with Ni/Cu salt solution and reduced with H2 to form the metal supported zeolite catalyst. A solid
state synthesis was also undertaken to prepare NiO nanoparticles. The catalytic
materials were characterized using X-ray diffraction, FTIR, SEM, and TEM. The
processed slurry obtained was analyzed by TOC analyzer, GC-MS and HPLC.
The results obtained on subcritical aqueous phase liquefaction of pine wood and
production of gaseous and liquid fuels will be presented.
214
MOLECULARLY IMPRINTED POLYMERS
FOR DOPAMINE RECOGNITION
Alexander Goffeney and George Mwangi*
University of Sioux Falls
ABSTRACT
Molecularly imprinted polymers designed for selective binding and specific
recognition of dopamine were prepared by dispersion polymerization. The binding properties of dopamine for imprinted polymers were evaluated through
equilibrium binding studies. Out of the monomers tested, methacrylic acid
demonstrated the highest level of rebinding, with a ratio of 3.0 mmol of functional monomer to 7.0 mmol of cross-linker, to 1.0 mmol of the template. This
was nearly three times more dopamine being extracted from the system, when
compared to itaconic acid. Analog studies were performed with dopamine imprinted polymers that were synthesized with itaconic acid functional monomer
and TRIM cross-linker. Isoproterenol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine showed
less rebinding than the template molecule in all the tests. Norepinephrine did
not appear to have a binding affinity with itaconic polymers.
215
SOLAR THERMOCHEMICAL H2 PRODUCTION
VIA WATER-SPLITTING REACTION
R. R. Bhosale, S. S. Yelakanti, X. Pasala, J. A. Puszynski, and R. V. Shende*
Chemical and Biological Engineering Department
ABSTRACT
H2 has emerged as an attractive cleaner and sustainable fuel and considered
as the most promising future energy carrier. Harnessing solar radiation and its effective conversion to an H2 energy carrier from an abundant source such as water
will be extremely beneficial. One of the green ways of producing H2 is by a thermochemical water-splitting reaction, which utilizes redox materials (e.g. ferrites)
for the H2 generation. This process constitutes a two-step approach. In the first
step the ferrite material reacts with water and produces H2 at lower temperatures
(exothermic reaction) and in the second step the reacted ferrite material is regenerated at higher temperatures (endothermic reaction). This investigation reports
the synthesis of several ferrite materials with nanoparticle porous morphology
using a sol-gel technique and their characterization using powdered x-ray diffraction, BET specific surface area analyzer, and scanning and transmission electron
microscopy. The H2 generation ability of these synthesized ferrites was examined
by performing multiple thermochemical cycles using a high temperature thermochemical water-splitting tubular reactor set-up at various experimental conditions. The synthesis of ferrites using the sol-gel method, characterization of the
sol-gel derived ferrites, and the transient H2 generation profiles obtained during
multiple thermochemical cycles will be presented in detail.
216
ANALYSIS OF ESSENTIAL AND HEAVY METALS IN
HONEY BY ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY
Daniel Kohler and George Mwangi*
University of Sioux Falls
ABSTRACT
Honey is one of the most important human foods. It has medicinal, nutritive
and disease preventive capabilities due to its chemical composition. It is therefore
desirable to perform the analysis of honey to ensure that it is free of pollutants
such as heavy metals. In this study the trace metals in honey samples collected
from Kenyan markets were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy after
acid digestion. The contents of trace metals in honey samples were found to be
in the range of 1.0~2.14 μg/g, 0.25~2.37 μg/g, 0 ~0.06 μg/g, and 0 ~1.2 μg/kg
for Fe, Cu, Pb and Cd, respectively.
217
EXPLORATION OF FRUCTOSE 1,
6-BISPHOSPHATE ADOLASE AS A POTENTIAL
DRUG TARGET FOR METHICILLIN RESISTANT
STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION
Emily Girard, Nichole Haag and Chun Wu*
Mount Marty College
Yankton, SD 57078
ABSTRACT
Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are antibiotic resistant
strains of bacteria which cause life-threatening infections in immunocompromised patients. Through our previously reported in silico approach, a class of
potential drug targets essential to the survival of MRSA and absent in the human
genome were identified, among which putative fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate aldolase (FBPA) was investigated. The gene encoding FBPA was cloned into plasmid
pRSET A. The recombinant plasmid was transformed into competent E. coli.
DH5α then expressed in E. coli BL21(DE3)pLysS. Western blot confirmed the
presence of his-tagged FPBA in IPTG induced whole cells and cell lysate, which
is contradictory to the incompetence of 6×His/Ni-NTA system to purify the
protein. Conventional ionic exchange chromatography and size exclusion chromatography were employed consecutively. MS analysis revealed that the purified
protein was glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PD) from E. coli, as
opposed to MRSA FBPA, which may be imputed to the preferential interaction
between FBPA and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in a mixture of
cytosolic proteins. Future work includes MS detection of MRSA FBPA in cell
lysates and development of an alternative purification system to separate FBPA
from the FBPA-G3PD mixture.
218
CLONING, PURIFICATION AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF ACETATE KINASE
FROM METHICILLIN RESISTANT
STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS Mu50 STRAIN
Tyler McCune and Chun Wu*
Mount Marty College
Yankton, SD 57078
ABSTRACT
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) refers to the various
strains of the gram-positive, coccal bacteria that are resistant to one or multiple
antibiotics. Our previous study revealed that the development of a new class of
antibiotics targeting bacterial central metabolism to combat MRSA and its everincreasing list of resistances is promising. MRSA acetate kinase was one of such
targets due to its involvement in central metabolism, its in silico essentiality to
the survival of MRSA, and its absence in humans. In this study, the gene encoding MRSA acetate kinase (sav1711) was PCR amplified, ligated into pRSET
plasmid A and transformed into E. coli Dh5α; DNA sequencing confirmed 100
% fidelity. The recombinant plasmid was transformed into E. coli BL21(DE3)
pLysS for IPTG induced overexpression. The protein was purified by Ni-NTA
system (Qiagen). MALDI-MS analysis and kinetic assay confirmed its acetate kinase nature. Future work includes validation of the essentiality of MRSA acetate
kinase, crystal structure development of both the apo acetate kinase and acetate
kinase-adenosine 5-[γ-thio]triphosphate complex, and the rational inhibitor
design.
219
PLASMA METABOLITES SUGGEST
SIMILAR STOPOVER HABITAT QUALITY
FOR RIPARIAN CORRIDOR WOODLANDS
AND ANTHROPOGENIC WOODLOTS IN
THE NORTHERN PRAIRIE REGION
Ming Liu* and David Swanson
Department of Biology
Vermillion SD 57069
ABSTRACT
Riparian corridor woodlands (hereafter corridors) are the principal historical
woodland habitat in the Northern Prairie region, but have been greatly reduced
and degraded since Euro-American settlement. Simultaneously, anthropogenic
woodlots (hereafter woodlots) have appeared. Landbird migrants use both types
of habitats for stopover, but the relative quality of these two types of stopover
habitat for migrating landbirds is unknown. We assessed relative habitat quality
by comparing plasma triglycerides, ß-hydroxybutyrate, and glycerol in migrating
birds. We compared plasma metabolites for individual species and for foraging
guilds with sample sizes >12 individuals in each habitat type and hypothesized
that higher levels of triglycerides and lower levels of ß-hydroxybutyrate and glycerol would occur in migrants from high quality stopover sites. We used ANOVA
to compare body masses (Mb) and ANCOVA (controlling for year, date, time
of day, and body size) to test for differences in plasma metabolite levels between
habitat types. The only significant difference between habitats for Mb occurred
for fall Yellow-rumped Warblers (Setophaga coronata), where Mb was greater in
corridors than in woodlots (P < 0.001). For plasma metabolites, the only significant between-habitat differences occurred for plasma triglycerides of fall warblers
(higher in corridors; P = 0.04), and for plasma glycerol of fall vireos (lower in
corridor; P = 0.048) and Nashville Warblers (Oreothlypis ruficapilla) (lower in
corridor; P = 0.02). The few significant differences and absence of a consistent
direction of variation in Mb and plasma metabolites between corridors and
woodlots suggest similar stopover habitat quality in these two woodland habitat
types. Thus anthropogenic woodlots can, at least partially, substitute as stopover
habitat for lost and degraded native riparian habitats for landbird migrants during migration through the Northern Prairie Region.
220
SHORT-TERM CAPTIVITY EFFECTS ON
MAXIMAL COLD-INDUCED METABOLIC
RATES AND THEIR REPEATABILITY IN
AMERICAN GOLDFINCHES (CARDUELIS TRISTIS)
D. L. Swanson* and M. O. King
ABSTRACT
Studies of metabolic variation in birds have involved both wild and captive
individuals, but few studies have investigated whether captivity directly influences metabolic rates, despite such variation potentially confounding conclusions regarding how metabolic rates respond to the conditions under study.
Metabolic rates in birds are generally considered to have genetic underpinnings
and, therefore, are thought to confer fitness consequences that are subject to
natural selection, but again, few studies have addressed whether metabolic rates
are repeatable traits among individual birds, which is a necessary requirement
for the action of natural selection. The few bird studies conducted to date suggest that basal (BMR) and maximal cold-induced (summit metabolism, Msum)
metabolic rates are generally repeatable over the short-term (days to weeks), but
longer-term repeatability (months to years) is lower. In this study, we measured
Msum in summer acclimatized American goldfinches (Spinus tristis) directly after
capture from wild populations and after two weeks of indoor captivity at 23 °C
and a photoperiod of 12L:12D. Msum at capture averaged (± SD) 4.179 ± 0.463
ml O2 min-1 (n = 22), which is similar to previous values for summer-acclimatized
goldfinches. After two weeks of captivity, Msum increased significantly (16.9%;
P < 0.001) in the same individuals to 4.886 ± 0.530 ml O2 min-1 (n = 22). Body
mass also increased significantly (9.2%; P < 0.001) during captivity, suggesting that muscle growth and/or remodeling of body composition produced the
observed metabolic variation. Mass-independent residuals from log Msum vs. log
mass regressions at capture and after captivity were not correlated, indicating that
individuals with high metabolic rates at capture were not necessarily the same
individuals with high metabolic rates after the captive period. These data suggest
that metabolic repeatability may disappear after acclimation to conditions promoting phenotypically flexible metabolic responses. These results bring up the
interesting possibility that the capacity for phenotypic flexibility varies among
individual birds, and such variation could also have fitness consequences.
221
ACTIVATION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEMS INCURS
ENERGETIC COSTS BUT NO THERMOGENIC
TRADEOFFS IN HOUSE SPARROWS (PASSER
DOMESTICUS) UNDERGOING COLD STRESS
Marisa O. King* and David L. Swanson
ABSTRACT
Trade-offs between the immune system and other condition dependent lifehistory traits (reproduction, predator avoidance, and somatic growth) have been
well documented in both avian and mammalian studies. However, to best of
our knowledge, no work has been done examining trade-offs between immune
activation and thermoregulation during cold exposure. Because of their high
surface area-to-volume ratios, small birds incur high energetic costs associated
with thermoregulation during cold exposure. Consequently, we predicted that
the immune system and the thermoregulatory system would compete for energetic resources. To test this, we immunologically challenged adult House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) with 5 mg/kg of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce an
acute phase response (APR) and measured both the basal metabolic rate (BMR
= Minimum metabolic rate required for maintenance; measured as the metabolic rate at thermoneutrality in resting, postabsorptive, nongrowing birds in
the resting phase of the daily cycle) and summit metabolic rate (MSUM = maximal
metabolic rate achieved during cold exposure). We found that birds injected
with LPS had significantly higher BMR and MSUM rates than birds injected with
phosphate buffered saline (PBS), indicating that LPS treated birds were able to
support both the cost of immune activation and that of thermoregulation. These
results suggest that, in the absence of a pathogen, birds that experience shortterm activation of the immune system have higher energetic costs during cold
exposure, but they do not experience trade-offs between immune activation and
cold tolerance performance.
222
METABOLIC RATES IN SWALLOWS:
DO ENERGETICALLY EXPENSIVE LIFESTYLES
AFFECT METABOLIC CAPACITIES IN BIRDS?
Yufeng Zhang and David Swanson*
ABSTRACT
Because both summit (Msum = maximum thermoregulatory metabolic rate)
and maximum (MMR = maximum exercise metabolic rate) metabolic rates are
functions of skeletal muscle metabolism, correlations between these measures of
maximal metabolic output could occur, but this has been little studied in birds.
Moreover, because energetically expensive lifestyles are often correlated with high
metabolic rates, cross-training effects of a high-energy lifestyle (i.e., high exercise) on thermogenesis, and vice versa, may exist. We tested this cross-training
hypothesis with swallows, a family with an energetically expensive aerial insectivore lifestyle. We measured basal and summit metabolic rates in three species
of temperate-zone breeding swallows and combined these data with literature
data to address the hypothesis that swallows have higher BMR and Msum than
non-aerial insectivore birds. BMR for temperate-zone swallows was higher than
for tropical swallows, similar to results for other bird taxa. In addition, our preliminary data suggest that BMR in swallows shows a tendency to be higher than
BMR for other birds. In contrast, Msum values in the six species of swallows that
we measured were consistent with Msum values for other swallow species, including tropical species, and the Msum-body mass regression for swallows was almost
coincident with the Msum-body mass regression for other birds. These data tentatively suggest that swallow Msum is similar to that for other birds, so cross-training
effects of an energetically expensive lifestyle on thermogenesis are not apparent.
223
VENOM PROTEOMICS OF THE PRAIRIE
RATTLESNAKE, CROTALUS VIRIDIS
Mallory Ageton1, Brian Smith1*, Eduardo Callegari2,
Stephen Mackessy3, and Jason Nies4
1
Biology Department
Spearfish, SD 57799
2
SD BRIN Proteomics Core Facility
3
School of Biological Sciences
University of Northern Colorado
Greely, CO 80639
4
Chemistry Department
Spearfish, SD 57799
ABSTRACT
Crotalus viridis, the prairie rattlesnake, is the most widely-ranging
rattlesnake in North America. It ranges from Alberta, Canada, to northern Mexico along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, extending
out onto the western half of the Great Plains. Throughout this range, the
habitat and the community of small mammals that make up the majority
of the diet of the species vary considerably. The prairie rattlesnake also has
a broader diet than most other rattlesnakes, and eats birds, bird eggs, and
reptiles, these prey varying geographically as well. Variation in diet may
exist due to the wide geographic range of the snake, and this has possibly
led to variation in venom components. Rattlesnake venoms are mixtures
of proteins, metals, enzymes, and other components designed to immobilize, kill, and digest prey. Presently, all crotalid envenomations in North
America are treated with one specific antivenin, but this treatment comes
with risks. Studying snake venoms is important to biomedical research because through their neurotoxic, hemmorhagic, and proteolytic activities,
specific antivenins can be designed. In this study, we examined variation
in venom proteins among two populations in the Black Hills region. One
population came from the plains of western South Dakota and another
from the interior of the Black Hills. Prairie populations came from prairie
grasslands with an elevation of about 900–950 m; “highland” snakes came
from ponderosa pine habitats exceeding 1524 m. The aim of this study is
to understand variation in venom components, which can ultimately lead
to improved management of rattlesnake bites through consideration of
the geographic location of the bites.
224
EVALUATION OF CYANOACRYLATE AS AN
ALTERNATE TO SKIN SUTURES IN DOGS
N. Thakur* and V .P. Chandrapuria
Department of Veterinary Surgery & Radiology
College of Veterinary Science & A.H.
M.P.P.C.V.V.
Jabalpur, (MP) India
ABSTRACT
Wound closing and healing depends upon sutures and suture materials. Generally sutures cause discomfort to an animal and leave scar formation. Tissue
adhesive has been used as an alternate to traditional sutures in lab animals. The
current study was done to evaluate the efficacy of n- butyl cyanoacrylate tissue
adhesive as an alternate to silk sutures in skin wound closing.
Twenty-four male and female dogs were used in this study. Six of each gender
were treated with silk sutures or cyanoacrylate tissue adhesive to close a ventral
midline laparotomy incision in females and a prescrotal incision in males. Animals treated with silk sutures showed mild signs of inflammation (e.g., redness,
pain, swelling) while none of the animals treated with n- butyl cyanoacrylate
tissue adhesive showed any sign of inflammation during the course of study.
Wounds treated with tissue adhesive had higher amounts of collagen and elastin
fibers when examined histologically on the 14th postoperative day as compared
to the wounds treated with silk sutures. This indicated that the tissue adhesive
caused less scar formation at the site of surgery. Thus we conclude that n- butyl
cyanoacrylate tissue adhesive provides better healing and is economical and less
time consuming than conventional silk sutures.
225
STRESS-INDUCED INCREASES IN
EXTRACELLULAR SEROTONIN IN THE
VENTRAL HIPPOCAMPUS IS ATENUATED IN
RATS DURING AMPHETAMINE WITHDRAWAL
H. Li, J. Hassell, J. L. Barr, J. L. Scholl,
M. Watt, G. L Forster and K. J. Renner*
Department of Biology,
Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences and Neuroscience Group
Sanford School of Medicine
ABSTRACT
Amphetamine withdrawal is characterized by heightened anxiety states, and
serotonin (5-HT) in the ventral hippocampus (vH) is associated reduced anxiety.
Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that rats subjected to amphetamine withdrawal would exhibit attenuated stress-induced 5-HT overflow in the vH using
in vivo microdialysis. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with 2.5 mg/kg
amphetamine or saline for 14 consecutive days. Within two weeks of the last
amphetamine treatment, a microdialysis probe was inserted into the vH and
perfused with artificial cerebral spinal fluid overnight. The following day, a 5-HT
baseline was established and the rats were subjected to 20 min of restraint stress.
Preliminary results suggest that the stress-induced release of 5HT in the amphetamine-treated group was attenuated in response to the stressor. This result is
consistent with our earlier studies in anesthetized rats which showed that chronic
amphetamine (2.5 mg/kg; 14 days) decreased KCl- and corticosterone-induced
5-HT increases in vH. Interestingly, the blockade of the corticosterone-sensitive
organic cation transporter 3 using intra-vH decynium-22 dose-dependently
increased extracellular 5-HT in saline pretreated rats but had no effect in rats
chronically pretreated with amphetamine. Furthermore, western immunoblot
analysis indicated that OCT3 expression in the vH increased in rats treated with
chronic amphetamine. These results suggest that chronic amphetamine alters
both the release of 5-HT in response to stress and decreases the availability of
extracellular 5-HT in the vH through increased OCT3-mediated 5-HT clearance. The persistence of attenuated serotonergic responses to stress in the vH
during amphetamine withdrawal may contribute to drug relapse. Supported by
NIH RO2 DA019921 (GLF) and NSF 0921874 (KJR).
226
RECLASSIFICATION OF LIGHT HARVESTING
ANTENNAE PROTEINS THROUGH
COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSES: ILLUMINATING
THE MECHANISM FOR SPECTRAL TUNING
Joshua J. Walsh
College of Arts and Sciences
Dakota State University
Madison, SD 57042
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Light harvesting is a critical component of photosynthesis, the process by which
plants synthesize complex organic materials from carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic salts, using chlorophyll and carotenoids to harvest sunlight as an energy
source. The photosynthetic antennas are made of a family of light harvesting
complex proteins (LHCs), and are responsible for both light harvesting and
photo-quenching from high intensity light via spectral tuning. The structure
and pigment binding sites of LHCs are well defined. LHCs physically reshape
themselves to best complement the light provided by the environment, although
the exact mechanism and evolution of this process in diverse photosynthetic
lineages remains unclear. The structure of LHCs, including minor antennae proteins (CP24, CP26, and CP29) and the major antennae proteins (LHC-I and
LHC-II), from Arabidopsis thaliana, Cyanidoschyzon merloae, and Thalassiosira
pseudonona were determined using comparative homology modeling, based on
the known crystal structure of Spinach LHC. Upon interrogating the models of
each protein, I have extrapolated a table of similar and divergent LHC structures
including conserved pigment binding sites and amino acid residues critical for
quenching of excess energy. Characterizing conserved and divergent functional
sites in LHC antenna from diverse algae will enhance current research efforts in
a variety of industries such as bioengineering for hydrogen gas production and
nanoscaled photovoltaics.
227
ADAPTIVE EPIGENETIC EFFECTS ON
DROUGHT TOLERANCE AND EPIGENETIC
ACCOMMODATION: CONSEQUENCES FOR
RANGE EXPANSION IN PLANTS
Jacob Alsdurf*, Tayler Ripley, Dayna Boesen, and David Siemens
Biology Department
Spearfish, SD 57799
ABSTRACT
Areas outside species range boundaries are often stressful, but even with ample
genetic variation within and among marginal populations, adaptation across
range limits often does not occur. Adaptive epigenetics may allow organisms to
circumvent these problems for range expansion, at least temporarily. Epigenetic
effects are environmental effects on the phenotype that are inherited with no
changes to DNA sequence. To test this hypothesis, we drought stressed a parental
generation of Boechera stricta (Graham) Al-Shehbaz, a perennial wild relative of
arabidopsis, representing genetic variation among and within several range margin populations. We then measured offspring performance and defense across
a drought stress gradient in two growth chamber experiments. Boechera stricta
is restricted to higher, moister elevations in temperate regions where generalist
herbivores are often less common. The drought stress in the parental generation
resulted in smaller plant size, delayed flowering time, lower reproduction and
a genetic tradeoff between glucosinolate (GS) toxin allocation and stress tolerance, but no differences in seed provisioning. These adaptive, drought-induced,
epigenetic effects were characterized by increased shoot and root growth, higher
root:shoot ratio, and higher water use efficiency as measured by lower water content per dry mass. Both drought and drought-induced epigenetic effects lowered
GS levels. Some of these characteristics were also expressed under controlled
watering conditions, indicating epigenetic canalization. The adaptive, droughtinduced, epigenetic effects on drought tolerance should allow plants to begin
range expansion into drier environments, the maladaptive effects on defense and
the genetic tradeoff would otherwise impede range expansion.
228
STOICHIOMETRY AND HOMEOSTASIS
OF TERRESTRIAL FUNGAL ISOLATES
ACQUIRED NEAR IRVINE, CALIFORNIA,
AND COMPARISON WITH THE REDFIELD RATIO
AND GLOBAL SOIL MICROBIAL BIOMASS
Nicholas Kelley1, Allison Moreno2, Anthony Amend3,
Adam Martiny3,4*, and Donna Hazelwood1
1
College of Art and Sciences
Dakota State University
Madison, SD 57042
2
California State University – Monterey Bay
Seaside, CA 93955
3
Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
4Department of Earth Systems Science
University of California – Irvine
Irvine, CA 92697
Corresponding author e-mail; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus (C:N:P) ratios of 42 terrestrial fungal
isolates acquired near Irvine, California, were analyzed and compared to the
Redfield ratio (106:16:1) and global soil microbial biomass (60:7:1). To evaluate
level of homeostasis or plasticity (non-homeostasis), we grew three of the isolates
(Davidiella, Mucor flavus, Helotiales) in liquid malt-yeast extract treatments with
modified nutrient ratios. Carbon and nitrogen levels were measured using combustion analysis. Soluble organic phosphorus was extracted using heated HCl
and analyzed with a molybdenum reagent indicator using a photospectrometer.
The average C:N:P of the 42 fungal strains was 153:31:1. The three isolates
grown in nutrient-modified liquid media exhibited weak homeostasis with
respect to C:N, weak plasticity with respect to N:P, and strong plasticity with
respect to C:P. These results suggest that these local terrestrial fungi around Irvine
are controlled by environmental conditions, and their growth is both nitrogenand phosphorus-limited. Possible future research includes continued gathering
of nutrient ratios and homeostasis data for terrestrial heterotrophs, and comparing data between agricultural and non-agricultural soils.
229
AN INVENTORY OF NATIVE BEES
(HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA) OF THE
BLACK HILLS OF SOUTH DAKOTA AND WYOMING
David J. Drons* and Paul J. Johnson
Plant Science Department
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
Bees are an extremely important component of virtually every ecosystem but
have been poorly studied in most of the United States including South Dakota.
This is the first biodiversity inventory of native bees in the Black Hills, with
objectives of providing occurrence records, new state species records, accurate
identification of all native bees, and of documenting floral visitation. Sampling
sites were representative of ecological communities with a focus on flower-rich
meadows and habitat diversity over elevation gradients. In 2010 and 2011 approximately 22,000 bees were collected from over 120 sites by a combination
of pan trap (105,600 trap-hours), hand netting and volunteer collecting. Thirty
pan-traps per site were placed approximately every five meters on each transect
and left for 24 hours to passively collect bees. Hand netting took place for one
hour per site with a focus on flowers in bloom to provide host plant data. To
date 176 species representing 36 genera have been identified with expected final
species numbers to be near 250. Based on a species list compiled from published
records and available databases, this inventory has already provided over 40 new
species occurrence records for South Dakota, and numerous new county species
occurrence records. Analyses will be conducted to calculate and compare total
and between-site species richness, species diversity as well as to determine correlation of species with habitat conditions. Results will support implementation
of a monitoring protocol for native pollinators using this inventory as a baseline
data set.
230
PRELIMINARY PLAGUE ASSAY RESULTS
OF FLEAS FROM FIVE NATIONAL PARKS
Erica L. Mize* and Hugh B. Britten
ABSTRACT
Sylvatic plague, the wildlife form of bubonic plague, is enzootic in blacktailed prairie dog colonies across the western Northern Plains and has become
prevalent in South Dakota colonies in the last three years. The loss of prairie
dog colonies due to plague can drive the loss of other species that have close
ecological ties to the colonies, including the federally endangered black-footed
ferret. Fleas were collected from burrows on prairie dog colonies across national
parks in the Northern Plains region during the summers of 2009 - 2011. Whole
genomic DNA was extracted from fleas after they were identified to species. Flea
DNA was tested using a highly sensitive nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
protocol to detect the pla gene in the plague-causing bacterium, Yersinia pestis.
An active outbreak of plague began on one of the colonies at Badlands National
Park concurrently with our flea collections there and Y. pestis – positive fleas were
detected from these samples for the first time in Badlands National Park. These
findings may trigger management actions including ferret immunization against
plague and dusting of prairie dog colonies with deltamethrine.
231
ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF GRASSLAND
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON ANT FUNCTIONAL
GROUPS (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE)
Laura B. Winkler*, Diane M. Debinski,
Raymond A. Moranz, James R. Miller, David M. Engle,
Devan A. McGranahan, and James C. Trager
Insect Research Collection,
Brookings, SD, 57007
ABSTRACT
As habitat loss and degradation increase across native grasslands, much of the
local flora and fauna associated with this ecosystem are becoming rare or are in
decline. Insects play an important role in ecological systems across the globe, and
ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in particular play essential roles in moving soil,
dispersing seeds, and decomposition. Here, we report a test of insect responses to
three grassland management treatments, focusing on ants. These treatments are:
(1) patch-burn and graze (burning of spatially distinct patches and free access by
cattle), (2) graze and burn (burning of entire tract with free access by cattle), and
(3) burn only. We predicted that land-use legacies would affect insect abundance
and diversity, effects of time since fire, grazing history, remnant history (remnant
or reconstructed grassland) and pre-treatment vegetation characteristics, so each
were evaluated. Butterflies (Lepidoptera), ants, and leaf beetles (Coleoptera:
Chrysomelidae) were surveyed for three years to compare their responses to each
treatment as measured by abundance, richness and species diversity. Approximately 5,794 ants were captured and identified; 14 species were determined.
Ant species richness was positively associated with pre-treatment time since fire
and vegetation height, and negatively associated with pre-treatment proportion
of native plant cover. Our results indicate that land-use legacy can exert greater
influence on grassland insect community composition than current management, but the particular aspects of land-use legacy type vary across insect taxa.
The next step is to compare the effects of other management treatments used on
the abundance of ant functional groups.
232
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SEED BANK AND
VEGETATIVE PROPAGULES TO VEGETATION
COMPOSITION ON PRAIRIE DOG COLONIES
IN WESTERN SOUTH DAKOTA
Emily R. Helms1, Lan Xu1*, Jack L. Butler2
Brookings, SD 57007
2
U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station
1
ABSTRACT
Characterizing the contributions of the seed bank and vegetative propagules
will enhance our understanding of community resiliency associated with prairie dog disturbances. Our objective was to determine the effects of ecological
condition (EC) and distance from burrows on the soil seed bank and vegetative
propagules. Two active burrows were randomly selected on each of 2 prairie dog
colonies (Low EC vs High EC). Two soil cores were taken at 0.5 m, 1.0 m, and
1.5 m distances from the center of each burrow on 3 transects. Cores used to
evaluate the seed bank were sifted and spread within standard seed flats, while
cores used to determine vegetative propagules were placed intact into plastic
pots. Both were maintained in a greenhouse for daily monitoring. A total 446
seedlings representing 16 species emerged from the Low EC seed flats, while 549
seedlings comprising 26 species emerged from the High EC seed flats. Sixtythree percent of the Low EC and 58% of the High EC species emerged from
the seed flats were annuals. On the Low EC colony, 43 plants/tillers were generated from vegetative propagules representing 7 species, three of which were also
found in the seed flats. On the High EC colony, 431 plants/tillers sprouted from
vegetative propagules representing 5 species that were not present in the seed
flats. Four of the 5 species that emerged from vegetative propagules on High EC
were perennial native grasses, and only one of the 7 species that emerged from
vegetative propagules on the Low EC was a perennial native grass. Distance from
burrows had no impact on species richness within each EC. Both colonies demonstrated considerable revegetation potential but differed with respect to relative
contributions from the soil seed bank and vegetative propagules.
233
COMPARING RAMP AND PITFALL TRAPS
FOR CAPTURING WANDERING SPIDERS
L. Brian Patrick
Department of Biological Sciences
Dakota Wesleyan University
Mitchell, SD 57301
ABSTRACT
Pitfall traps are a common sampling method used to collect wandering spiders
in a variety of habitats, and these traps require soil disturbance to properly set
the trap with the top of the trap at the level of the soil surface. However, not
all sampling locations are amenable to soil disturbance, either because there is
no soil in which to dig (e.g., rock surfaces), or because soil disturbance is not
allowed or it is very difficult to obtain permits for soil disturbance (e.g., US national parks). I tested the efficacy of a new trap design (ramp traps), developed
by researchers in Canada, against traditional pitfall traps. In two fields of the
Fort Pierre National Grasslands, SD, I ran parallel transects of pitfall and ramp
traps for three sampling periods of two weeks each, then counted the number
of species and the number of individuals of each species in each trap. Ramp
traps captured approximately twice as many individuals, and, on average, 1.1
additional species per trap. However, the species composition caught in ramp
and pitfall traps varied, with a small number of species captured only in pitfall
traps, and a small number of species captured only in ramp traps. Despite these
subtle differences, ramp traps generally outperformed pitfall traps and may be
easily moved to different locations with little or no soil disturbance. My results
indicate that ramp traps would be a viable trapping method, particularly in areas
where soil disturbance is not allowed.
234
APPLICATION OF P-SPECIATION ACROSS LAND
USE GRADIENT AS AN INDEX FOR EVALUATING
THE RESTORATION OF SOIL BIOGEOCHEMICAL
FUNCTIONS DURING WETLAND RESTORATION
P. V. Sundareshwar1*, L. Smith2, B. Beas2,
R. Gleason3, and Kurt Chowanski1
1
Department of Atmospheric Sciences
2
Department of Zoology
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK
3
USGS
Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center
Jamestown, ND
ABSTRACT
Land-use change has altered the ability of wetlands to provide vital services
such as nutrient retention. While compensatory practices attempt to restore
degraded wetlands and their functions, it is difficult to evaluate the recovery of
soil biogeochemical functions that are critical for restoration of ecosystem services. 31P Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy provides an excellent tool
to evaluate the changes in soil biogeochemical functions as a result of management actions. By examining the chemical forms of phosphorus (P) in soils from
wetlands located across a land-use gradient, we found that in prairie potholes and
Carolina Bay wetlands the soil P diversity, a functional attribute, declined upon
conversion to agriculture, but recovered following restoration. We further evaluated the application of this method to examine the changes in soil biogeochemical functions across a land use gradient in a network of rainwater basin and playa
wetlands. For Rainwater Basin (RWB) wetlands we sampled replicate wetlands
under agriculture, restoration, and reference conditions. For Playa wetlands,
the land use categories were agriculture, CRP, and reference conditions. Since
environmental conditions can vary across a wetland, multiple locations in each
of these wetlands were also sampled to evaluate the effect of sample position on
P-speciation. Our results indicate that P-species diversity and soil total P differed
significantly in the reference wetlands among the two wetland types. Within each
wetland type, P-species diversity differed as a function of land use in Playa wetlands, but not in Rainwater Basin. Soil moisture also differed significantly among
sample position and wetland type. For Playa wetlands there were significant differences between AG and CRP with AG being the wettest and CRP being the
driest. There was also a significant difference between edge and middle positions. For RWB wetlands there was a significant difference in location but not among
235
land uses. Given that similar land use managements have different connotations
among different wetland types (e.g. the prairie pothole, the Carolina Bay, the
Rainwater Basin, and the Playas), our results caution against direct comparison
of P-speciation across wetland types (for the purpose of evaluating the impact
of land use activities) even though they may be subject to similar land use. We
emphasize the application of reference conditions within each class of wetland
for evaluating the efficacy of restoration efforts while using P-species diversity as
an index of soil biogeochemical function restoration.
236
POPULATION GENETIC STRUCTURE OF PRAIRIE
DOGS ON THE LOWER BRULE RESERVATION
Jordana R. Lamb*, Erica L. Mize, and Hugh B. Britten
ABSTRACT
The World Health Organization reports plague to be a bacterial infection
which is serious and occasionally lethal. One form of plague which is commonly seen, bubonic, affects the lymph nodes. Bubonic plague is a zoonotic
disease, meaning it can be passed between humans and other animals. In wildlife
bubonic plague is called sylvatic plague. Since plague can overtake the lives of
humans and animals alike, it is of utmost importance that further research into
this topic be conducted. Sylvatic plague, as well as all other plague forms, is
caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and is transmitted by infected fleas biting
their hosts, including black-tailed prairie dogs, Cynomys ludovicianus. Sylvatic
plague is becoming increasingly important in South Dakota; in 2004, the first
outbreak of sylvatic plague occurred in black-tailed prairie dogs at the Pine Ridge
Oglala Sioux Reservation. The objective of my research was to examine variation
in 4 microsatellites, small repeated sequences in DNA, in 120 black-tailed prairie
dog samples taken from 2 separate colonies in the Fort Hale Bottom Prairie Dog
Complex on the Lower Brule Sioux Reservation in central South Dakota. Microsatellite data were used to estimate gene flow which helped determine the
movement of prairie dogs across the landscape and ultimately, determined how
sylvatic plague might have moved between colonies. I found an Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) value of 99% within the 2 colonies studied. Also, the
number of black-tailed prairie dog migrants between the colonies per generation
(Nm) was calculated to be 13. These two values illustrate that black-tailed prairie
dogs are moving between these colonies, and for all practical purposes should be
considered one, large population. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, Vol. 91 (2012)
237
CONSERVATION GENETICS OF THE
HINE’S EMERALD DRAGONFLY
Emy M. Monroe and Hugh B. Britten*
ABSTRACT
We investigated population genetic structure and estimated genetic variability
in the federally endangered Hine’s emerald dragonfly (Somatochlora hineana) using 10 variable microsatellite markers. The goal of the study was to determine
levels of genetic connectivity among dragonflies occupying remnant fen habitats
in Illinois and to use this information to inform management of the dragonfly’s
habitat and potential re-introduction efforts. Larval and adult Hine’s emerald
dragonflies were nondestructively sampled from habitat patches along the heavily
urbanized Des Plaines River near Chicago, IL, and from more pristine areas on
the Door Peninsula, WI, and other locations in Wisconsin. Hine’s emerald dragonfly is apparently in decline in the Des Plaines River valley but is functioning
as a single genetic population in the remaining occupied habitats. The dragonfly
shows a similar genetic structure on the Door Peninsula Valley with fairly high
levels of gene flow among occupied habitat patches. Dragonfly populations in
Illinois have unique genetic diversity compared to those in Wisconsin, suggestive
of post-Pleistocene dispersal events. Overall, Hine’s emerald dragonfly has less
genetic variability than other dragonfly species.
238
MONITORING LIVESTOCK FORAGE
USE IN THE BLACK HILLS
Thomas M. Juntti
Black Hills Group—Sierra Club
ABSTRACT
The land management plan for the Black Hills National Forest provides
an annual use guideline for forage consumption by livestock of approximately 50%. The US Forest Service is required to monitor forage use for
compliance with the plan. The monitoring method employed by the Forest Service, known as “ocular by plot,” is subjective and claims of overgrazing have, in the past, been lodged by both citizen and government groups.
In 2010, we measured residual vegetation following grazing using a
modified Robel pole on a random sample of 24 pastures on the Northern
Hills Ranger District. Comparing these measurements with those taken
on four ungrazed pastures, we found all the grazed pastures were grazed in
excess of the guideline. The Forest Service’s own measurements indicated
all pastures were in compliance with guidelines.
The Forest Service disputed these findings, claiming that the Robel pole
could not be used to measure utilization. Therefore, in 2011 on a subsample of the original 24 pastures, we clipped vegetation along our Robel
pole transects both before and after grazing. By direct measurement, four
of seven of the pastures were significantly overgrazed and the group differed significantly from the forest plan guideline (P < 0.05). Twenty-two
of the 24 pastures had been grazed. Of these, seven met a Robel pole
guideline 10 half-inch bands based on 60% of the long-term productivity
of the area.
We conclude overgrazing is widespread on the Northern Hills Ranger
District of the Black Hills National Forest and that the method employed
by the Forest Service to monitor annual use of forage by livestock vastly
underestimates consumption.
239
DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPREHENSIVE
VASCULAR PLANT DATABASE FOR
THE MISSOURI PLATEAU
Grace Kostel1, Curtis Card2 and Mark Gabel1*
1
Herbarium, Department of Biology
2
College of Liberal Arts
Spearfish, SD 57799
ASTRACT
The land area of the Missouri Plateau includes most of the Dakotas, the
majority of Montana, eastern Wyoming and northern Nebraska. The purpose of our study is to record and make available label data of all vascular
plant specimens collected from this region. Data are being collated from
26 herbaria. Approximately 200,000 plant specimens will be included
in the database, which will result in the first comprehensive flora of this
region. Data are being “cleaned” and georeferenced, allowing most specimens to be mapped. Eighteen fields in the database include data about
plant names, localities, habitat, collector and holding herbarium. The software currently being used is Specify 6.4. The database is currently running
in a virtual environment using multiple Vmware ESX hosts connected
to SAN storage. The database will be made available online to the public
and many combinations of data fields, including date of collection and
locality of collection, will be accessible for research. We anticipate being
able to use the database to learn about the arrival and spread of invasive
species as well as the presence and distribution of rare plant species. Given
the rapid expansion of energy resource extraction currently developing in
this area, we anticipate the database will become a significant resource for
information.
240
BOTANICAL RESOURCES:
GENETIC DIVERSITY OF ORCHIDACEAE
IN SOUTH DAKOTA’S BLACK HILLS
R. Sprague*and B. van Ee
Spearfish, SD 57783
ABSTRACT
In an effort to determine the genetic diversity of orchid (Orchidaceae) populations in the Black Hills, we have made collections of twelve orchid species from
multiple locations in the Black Hills for DNA extraction and genotyping. The
nearest orchid populations outside of the Black Hills are in the Rocky Mountains
300 miles to the west, and deciduous forest localities 300 miles to the east. The
results of this study (yet to be determined) should indicate from which population (west or east) the orchids of the Black Hills were derived. Study results will
also be useful for Black Hills National Forest management practices by determining the levels of diversity within the Black Hills orchid populations. An assessment of the genetic diversity among different populations of the same species of
orchids in the Black Hills will determine the effects of disturbance on the population. Results are also expected to resolve some taxonomic questions concerning
Orchidaceae in the Black Hills, including identification of species varieties.
241
BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN
MAJOR RIVER BASINS: A PRELIMINARY APPROACH
U. A. Buitrago-Suarez
Mount Marty College
Yankton, SD 57078
ABSTRACT
The history of South American rivers was influenced by changes in direction of
the proto-Amazon basin. During the Campanian to middle Maastrichtian (late
Mesozoic), the proto-Amazon started flowing westward to the Pacific Ocean.
The western and eastern Amazonia were in separate drainage systems, a situation
that extended until the late Miocene (~8 Ma). These changes have shaped not
only the present river basins but also their fish fauna. In the past some authors
have searched for common biogeographic patterns in South America by combining different individual area cladograms. Four phylogenetically disparate taxa,
such as the callichthyid genus Hoplosternum, the characiform genus Boulengerella
and the genera Gilbertolus and Rosetes, have been used in the past to explain
the evolution of river basins in South America. The result of this analysis was a
pattern demonstrated by the relationship ((Atrato River + Magdalena River)(cisAndean Rivers)). The cis-Andean Rivers’ branch includes a high diversity of river
basins, such as the Amazon, Orinoco, Parana and Sao Francisco, and rivers from
the Guyana region. Biogeographic relationships of these rivers were unresolved
in a previous analysis.
Using standard geographic methods such as Component and PAE (Parsimony
Analysis of Endemisms) in a more comprehensive study, I included several individual area cladograms intending to resolved known patterns for the cis-Andean
River Basins’ branch.
242
POSSIBLE INTERACTIONS OF KENTUCKY
BLUEGRASS AND WESTERN WHEATGRASS
MONOCULTURES AND MIXED POPULATIONS
WITH FERTILIZATION AND CLIPPING
E. M. Kanaan* and J. L. Butler
Northern Plains Biostress Laboratory (SNP)
Brookings, SD 57007
US Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station
Forest & Grassland Research Laboratory
ABSTRACT
Potential interactions were examined between western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum
smithii), a dominant native species, and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), a
dominant introduced species, in response to fertilization and clipping. Seedlings
of both species were transplanted into pots as monocultures and mixed species (50/50 mix) and placed in a growth chamber. Pots were watered regularly
with one-half of the pots receiving Miracle-Gro®. Individual plant heights were
measured weekly. After 4 weeks, plants were clipped and allowed to re-grow
for another 3 weeks. All clipped biomass was oven dried and weighed. Prior to
clipping, relative increases in height of western wheatgrass in fertilized pots were
similar between monoculture and mixed species pots. In non-fertilized pots,
relative increases in height for western wheatgrass were higher in monoculture
pots compared to mixed species pots for the first 12 days. After day 25, patterns
of growth in height for western wheatgrass in fertilized and unfertilized pots
were similar. Relative increases in height for Kentucky bluegrass were higher in
monoculture pots (fertilized and unfertilized) compared to mixed species pots.
Following clipping, patterns of increases in height were similar for both species under all treatments. Total biomass was similar between the two species in
fertilized, monoculture pots. In mixed species pots, total biomass of Kentucky
bluegrass was 9X greater than western wheatgrass in unfertilized pots and 1.4X
greater in fertilized pots. These findings suggest that Kentucky bluegrass can
supplant a dominant native species of similar growth form during early stages of
establishment under a variety of conditions.
243
SEEDLING ROOT DEVELOPMENT
OF SIX ALFALFA POPULATIONS
Brianna J. Gaughan1, Lan Xu1*, Roger N. Gates1,
Arvid Boe2, Patricia S. Johnson1, and Yajun Wu3
1
Department of Natural Resources Management
2
Department of Plant Sciences
3
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
Seedling root development plays a crucial role in seedling survival and stand
establishment. Naturalized yellow-flowered alfalfa (YFA) (Medicago sativa subsp.
falcata) has demonstrated adaptation to semiarid conditions of the Northern
Great Plains and tolerance to grazing. Seedling stage root development is poorly
defined. Our objective was to compare morphological traits of seedling roots
for six alfalfa populations. Six entries were evaluated: one M. sativa population
as control, two M. falcata entries with reported have “spreading characteristics”
and three naturalized YFA populations. Uniform seeds of each entry were scarified with 320 grade sand paper and inoculated with Rhizobium before planting.
A V-shaped Plexiglas rootview growth box (48 cm X 27 cm X 40 cm deep) was
divided into six compartments, each filled with Miracle-Gro potting soil. Ten
seeds per population were planted (1.5 cm deep) at 1.5 cm intervals against the
Plexiglas wall. The rootview box was maintained in a growth chamber (24 ± 3
°C; 16h light/8h dark). Soil moisture was maintained with daily misting for 26
days. M. sativa and YFA populations had faster primary root emergence (2-3 d)
than M. falcata (8 d). Primary root elongation rate was greater for M. sativa (3-4
cm/d) than M. falcata and YFA populations (1.8-2.6 cm/d) for the first 7 days.
The first lateral root emerged when primary root length reached 10-14 cm for all
populations. The first lateral root emerged 2-3 cm below the root-stem junction
with the exception of one of the M. falcata populations (5 cm).
244
MORPHOLOGY OF SMOOTH BROMEGRASS
AND IMPLICATIONS RELATED TO
MANAGEMENT AND POTENTIAL CONTROL
Arvid Boe* and Lan Xu
Departments of Plant Science and Natural Resource Management
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
Smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis Leyss.) is a sod-forming cool-season grass
native to Europe and Asia. It was introduced to North America in the 1880s and
occurs in all 50 contiguous states other than Florida and Alabama and all provinces of Canada. It is widely used for forage, conservation, and erosion control
in temperate climates worldwide. Although its value as a forage crop is undisputable, it also may be invasive in native grasslands in the northern Great Plains.
The objective of this study was to describe the proaxis of smooth bromegrass
in terms of tiller origins from axillary buds at proaxial nodes, number of buds
per proaxis, and frequency of buds that produce intravaginal and extravaginal
tillers and compare these traits with the same in meadow bromegrass (Bromus
riparius), a bunchgrass that is receiving considerable attention as a forage crop in
the northern Great Plains. Post-anthesis reproductive tillers of each species were
collected from replicated plots at Brookings, SD, during August and September.
Proaxes of both species contained from <5 to >10 nodes per proaxis. In general,
the frequency of proaxial buds that produced tillers was between 25 and 50%
for both species. Harvesting the two species seven times over a period of 5 years
resulted in a reduction in vigor for both species, but tiller density and biomass
more negatively impacted for smooth bromegrass compared with meadow
bromegrass.
245
THE IMPACT OF BLASTOBASIS REPARTELLA
(DIETZ) (LEPIDOPTERA: COLEOPHORIDAE)
ON SWITCHGRASS
Veronica Calles Torrez*, Paul J. Johnson, and Arvid Boe
Insect Biodiversity Laboratory
Department of Plant Science
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is a potential biomass production crop and
is important as a model for biofuel synthesis. A potential pest, the Switchgrass
moth (Blastobasis repartella (Dietz)) larva feeds in the rhizome, proaxis, and basal
internodes of the tillers, causing premature tiller death which directly affects
biomass accumulation. The focus of this study was to determine among cultivars
the frequency of tiller infestation, the differences in biomass production, and
biomass loss. Two experimental areas established in 2004 and 2008 in Brookings
County, South Dakota, were used in 2011. Sampling plots were arranged in a
Randomized Complete Block design with six replications and six cultivars. A
frame of 1 ft2 was placed in the plot and all tillers within were cut at ground
level. Tillers were categorized as infested and uninfested tillers, counted, dried
at room temperature, weight, and recorded. Analysis of variance for differences
was used and the least significant difference to compare means. Statistical output
showed no significant difference among cultivars in frequency of infestation in
both areas. There was a significant difference in production and loss of biomass
in the newer area as well as for biomass production in the older area, but not for
biomass loss. Infestation rate was statistically identical in all of the cultivars. Subsequently, we found that early instar larvae feed on new tiller buds on subterranean rhizomes from late summer through winter, indicating a potentially greater
impact on biomass production than that measured by the tiller assessment.
246
SCREENING ARTEMESIA EXTRACTS
FOR ANTI-MALARIAL ACTIVITY
C.W. White*, J. Nies, G. Geffre, and J. Dixson
Spearfish, SD 57783
ABSTRACT
An estimated 300-500 million new cases of malaria are reported annually,
resulting in up to 2.7 million deaths each year. As a result of the development
of resistance to traditional anti-malaria compounds, such as artemisinin and
chloroquine, by the malaria-causing parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, a worldwide effort in the search for a new novel anti-malarial compound is under way.
Working with Dr. Dixson’s group, we explored the anti-malarial properties of
four different species of plants belonging to the genus Artemisia. These plants
are not only sisters to the plant that artemisinin was derived from, but are also
found in western South Dakota. Anti-malarial activity was confirmed in six out
of 12 crude extracts in a morphological assay. Because this assay was tedious,
time consuming, and subjective, we have recently transitioned to a 96 well
micro-titer plate-based biochemical assay. The findings from the morphological
assay were confirmed in the biochemical assay, with complete inhibition at lower
than therapeutic doses in two extracts. These results indicate that the extracts potentially contain compounds that differ from artemisinin and perhaps are more
potent. Future work will focus on the purification and structural determination
of active compounds.
247
IN VITRO AND IN VIVO ANTHELMINTIC
ACTIVITY OF ERICAMERIA NAUSOESA
AND RHUS AROMATICA FROM THE
UNITED STATES NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS
WITH QUANTIFICATION OF CONDENSED
TANNINS FOR BOTH PLANTS
J. Acharya1, M .B. Hildreth1,2*, L. D. Holler2,
S. Holler2, A. A. Eljaki1, G. NandaKafle1 and R. N. Reese1
1
Department of Biology & Microbiology
2
Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
The anthelmintic activities of methanol extracts from Ericameria nauseosa and
Rhus aromatica were evaluated using an in vitro larval development assay involving juveniles of the sheep gastrointestinal nematode, Haemonchus contortus. Both
extracts showed complete inhibition of larval development at 3.12 mg/ml and
dose-dependent effects were observed when screened at different concentrations.
The effective dosages (ED50) for E. nauseosa and R. aromatica extracts were 1.05
mg/ml and 0.92 mg/ml against the first and the second stage juveniles (L1, L2)
respectively. Condensed tannins were purified from the crude phenolic extract
of each plant using Sephadex LH-20. Spectrometric analysis detected condensed
tannins only in R. aromatica. In vivo anthelmintic activity was also evaluated only
for R. aromatica using sheep and a fecal egg count reduction test. Egg counts
from the treated ewes were numerically lower than from the control animals,
but this decrease was not statistically significant during the 5 days of this trial.
Feeding fresh leaves of R. aromatica had no obvious adverse effect in any ewes
throughout the experimental period. When polyvinyl polypyrrolidone (PVPP),
an inhibitor of tannin, was used to verify the anthelmintic activity of tannin,
the activity was not removed. This indicates that tannins might not be the only
source of anthelmintic activity in this plant. Further studies are needed that
evaluated higher amounts of plant material (increased daily dosage or longer dosage periods) or the effectiveness of crude alcoholic extracts given to the animals.
248
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT MODELING AS
A SUSTAINABILITY METRIC: A CASE STUDY
INVESTIGATING ANTIMICROBIAL USE WITHIN
SOUTH DAKOTA SWINE PRODUCTION
J. J. Stone
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
ABSTRACT
A life cycle assessment (LCA) model was developed to estimate the environmental effects associated with tylosin and chlortetracycline (CTC) antimicrobial
sub-therapeutic use within South Dakota swine production facilities. Environmental LCA-associated impacts were modeled using SimaPro and assessed using
EcoIndicator 99 for antimicrobial manufacturing, feed blending and transport,
metabolic and manure emissions, and facility operations for starter, grower, and
finishing swine operations. LCA results suggest current high energy demands
associated with manufacturing, fermentation processes and large transport distances to producers of CTC and tylosin impact climate change compared to
no antimicrobial use. Feeding CTC resulted in several local positive changes
including increased feed utilization and reduced manure greenhouse gas emissions. However, these positive changes in the local environment did not offset
negative global impacts associated with material manufacturing and transport.
Using renewable energy sources for production and transport would result in net
environmental enhancement.
249
FECAL EGG COUNT REDUCTION TEST TO
EVALUATE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DORAMECTIN
AGAINST TRICHOSTRONGYLE NEMATODES IN
BISON FROM EASTERN SOUTH DAKOTA
A. A. Eljaki1, D. D. Grosz2, and M. B. Hildreth1,2*
1
2
Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
During the 2010 summer, a commercial bison herd in eastern South Dakota
was selected for this study because some of its members showed signs of clinical parasitism, and needed to be dewormed. Freshly excreted fecal samples were
collected from bison cows, yearlings and calves. These samples were evaluated
for the presence of nematode eggs. On August 12th, mean trichostrongyle egg
output for 33 cow samples was 10.5 eggs/gram (epg), for yearlings (N = 21) it
was124.7 epg, and for calves (N = 15) it was186.1 epg. Some samples were further assessed with PCR analysis (involving the ITS2 region of rDNA) to identify
genera/species of trichostronglye nematodes present. Five trichostrongyles were
identified within the bison (Haemonchus contortus 29%, H. placei 26%, Cooperia
spp. 26%, Ostertagia spp. 17%, Trichostrongylus spp. 2%). Very little is known
about the effectiveness of cattle anthelmintics for controlling trichostrongyle
nematodes in bison. The purpose of this study was to measure the effectiveness
of doramectin (Dectomax® injectable at the recommended dosage for cattle) for
eliminating adult trichostrongyles from bison. Yearlings were treated on September 2, and there was a 100% elimination of egg shedding when 34 samples were
evaluated again on October 1. Just prior to treatment in October, egg output in
the calves was 70.5 epg, but dropped to 0.056 epg (99.9% reduction) after treatment. Dectomax® treatment of cows during the fall of 2011 decreased trichostrongyle egg output from 6.28 epg to 0.017 epg. These results demonstrate the
effectiveness of doramectin as a treatment for adult trichostrongyles in bison.
250
BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHEA VIRUS (BVDV)
REPLICATION IN MONOCYTE-DERIVED
DENDRITIC CELLS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
BREED DIFFERENCE IN ITS GENERATION
M. K. S. Rajput1, L. J. Braun1, J. F. Ridpath2, W. Mwangi3,
A. J. Young1, M. W. Darweesh1, and C. C. L. Chase1*
1
Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences
Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
2
Ruminant Diseases and Immunology Research Unit
National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service
United States Department of Agriculture
Ames, IA, 50010, USA
3
Department of Veterinary Pathobiology
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX, 77843, USA
ABSTRACT
The dendritic cell (DC) is an important antigen presenting cell. DCs are the
most potent naive T cell activator and immune regulator. Viruses that infect DC
can have a devastating impact on the immune system. In this study we evaluated
breed differences in generation of bovine MDDCs (monocyte derived dendritic
cells) and the ability of BVDV to replicate in bovine MDDCs.
Monocytes were isolated from Holstein Friesians (H.F.) and Brown Swiss (B.
Swiss) calves that were 8 months to 1 year of age. Monocytes were differentiated
into MDDCs using bovine recombinant IL-4 and GMCSF and confirmed morphologically and phenotypically to be MDDC. The MDDCs had long dendrites
and were 5-7 times larger size then monocytes. The cell surface phenotype was
CD14-, CD21-, MHCI+, MHCII+, CD86+,DEC205+. We found that100% of
the B. Swiss calves produced MDDCs while only 5.5% of the H.F. were able to
generate MDDCs.
For MDDCs infection, 4 strains of BVDV were used including the most
virulent (1373), least virulent (28508), and a virus pair, cytopathic TGAC and
noncytopathic TGAN recovered from an animal that died of mucosal disease.
MDDCs remained viable 72 hrs post-infection against all viruses. No infectious
virus production by MDDCs occurred. Interestingly, viral RNA increased in
MDDCs through 144 hr after infection. The kinetics of viral RNA production along with the amount of viral RNA was significantly different between
viral stains. The study revealed that BVDV replicates in MDDCs but does not
produce infectious particles. Accumulation of viral RNA may have significant effects on immune response mounted by MDDCs. Future studies will be done to
evaluate the effect of viral RNA accumulation in MDDCs on immune response
mounted by MDDC.
251
SANDBAR FORMATION CAUSED BY
THE 2011 FLOOD ON THE MISSOURI RIVER
NEAR VERMILLION, SOUTH DAKOTA
Malia Volke*1, W. Carter Johnson1, and Bruce Millett2
1
Department of Natural Resources Management
2
Department of Geography
Brookings, SD 57007
ABSTRACT
Missouri River flows have been highly regulated by dams since the 1950s,
resulting in reduced peak flows, increased minimum flows, and disruption of
sediment supply and transport regimes. Consequently, dams have greatly limited
the formation of sandbar surfaces necessary for native cottonwood recruitment
along the Missouri River. During the summer of 2011, record precipitation
in the upper Missouri River basin resulted in unprecedented dam releases and
prolonged high summer flows throughout the Missouri River system, creating
favorable conditions for erosion and sandbar formation. The effects of the 2011
flood on sandbar formation were assessed for an approximately 28-kilometer
reach of the Missouri River downstream of Gavins Point Dam near Vermillion,
South Dakota. Landsat images of the study reach from 2010 and 2011 were classified using “heads-up” digitizing in ArcGIS 10 to calculate changes in the aerial
extent of water, sand, and vegetation following the flood. An 1892 Missouri
River Commission map of the study reach was similarly classified to provide
a predam point of comparison. Sandbar area increased by nearly 500 percent
between 2010 and 2011. Overlays of the digitized channel images indicated that
channel movement was minimal between 2010 and 2011. Total sandbar area
following the 2011 flood (1168 hectares) was similar to the amount of sandbar
area in 1892 (1668 hectares), although there were major differences in the location and size distribution of sandbars between the two periods. The long-term
benefits of the 2011 flood to cottonwood recruitment cannot be known without
field studies in 2012 and beyond.
252
THE DIVERSITY OF UNDERGRADUATE
SUSTAINABILITY CURRICULA: A RAPIDLY
EXPANDING MAJOR IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Brennan T. Jordan
Department of Earth Sciences
ABSTRACT
The term “sustainability” means different things to different people. On college
campuses it is increasingly the title, or part the title, of an undergraduate major
or minor, or graduate degree. The first school to offer a degree in sustainability
was Arizona State University, which began graduate programs in 2007 and first
offered an undergraduate degree in 2008. In the next two years the degree was
developed at an eclectic set of mostly small colleges ranging from liberal arts colleges like Baldwin-Wallace College (Ohio) to small state institutions like Lyndon
State University (Vermont). The last two years have seen many more programs
come on line (some even online), including many at major state institutions
(e.g., University of Oklahoma, University of Illinois, and San Diego State University). The University of South Dakota will begin offering a B.A., B.S., and
minor in Sustainability beginning in fall 2012.
The curricula for undergraduate majors in sustainability vary significantly.
Arizona State University has a School of Sustainability, and because of this
investment they were able to develop a major that relies heavily on sustainability-specific courses. Other institutions have typically created the degree relying
largely or entirely on courses already taught at the schools in support of other
majors. The University of South Dakota took a balanced approach to developing
its major, developing new courses under a sustainability course prefix (SUST)
and adding new relevant courses in some fields (e.g., anthropology and Earth
sciences), but relying heavily on existing courses and faculty expertise to deliver
the major.
253
THE ISSUE OF UNCERTAINTY FOR
HYDROLOGIC EVENTS IN THE MISSOURI
RIVER WATERSHED AND THE PROPERTIES
OF THE COORDINATE SYSTEM IN USE
Boris A. Shmagin*
Water Resources Institute
Brookings, SD 57007-3510, USA
ABSTRACT
To study, describe, assess and communicate the risk associated with hydrologic events (HE) such as flooding or drought, one must clarify the concept of
uncertainty. The uncertainty in hydrological and environmental modeling has
been considered for some time (Beven 1993; 2002; Walker et al. 2003; Brown
2004; 2010) and the need for a general theory of uncertainty was introduced by
Lofty Zadeh (2005). To move from uncertainty as a property for informational
exchange in engineering (Zadeh 2005), decision support systems (Walker et al.
2003) and mathematical theories (Dubois and Prade 2010) to the uncertainty
for HE, one must consider that uncertainty has to be part of scientific knowledge
and communication. Keith Beven lifted the consideration from errors in data
and model generalization (Beven 1993) to a learning process (Beven 2007); I
agree with him and see this learning as part of a more general process of communication. To consider learning in a wider approach, I define the system that operates with and communicates information in hydrology as: researcher – models
maker – stakeholder (scholar). To understand the system’s functions, I trace the
change of our knowledge through every interaction of that system. (See Table 1).
The Upper Missouri River basin (UMRB) has become the subject for examining uncertainty when applied to HE in a river watershed. The time-spatial variability of river runoff for UMRB was completed within the central contiguous
U. S. (CCUS). The statistical learning (SL) approach was used to analyze the
empirical data (Vapnik 1998) of stream runoff for both CCUS and UMRB. SL
produces quantitative results in the broader context of artificial intelligence. For
UMRB, the SL, based on mathematical models (e.g., empirical principal components, linear multi-regressions, simplified Fourier, shifts) and applied to a 46
time-series, allows the following: (1) the multidimensional time-spatial UMRB
river discharge structure reflecting 30% - 78% of the variability in empirical data,
(2) this structure is a “recovered” regional and seasonal discharge in the UMRB,
(3) the variability of time-spatial structure defined by interannual and seasonal
structures of a typical time-series for the units of regionalization, (4) the typical
time series of river discharge presented as a three- of four-dimensional seasonal
structures which reflects (explains) 79% - 83% of the variability in empirical
data, and (5) oscillations extracted in the same time series which allow better
254
characterization and forecasting of time variability. The time-spatial hydrological
structure obtained for UMRB fits fairly well within a similar structure for the
larger area of CCUS (a 103 time-series). This fit allows one to use a 100-year
time series of river discharge (USGS gauging station #06591500) to study seasonal and interannual variability as typical for matching units of regionalization
between both UMRB and CCUS. The time series has three seasons containing
unequal numbers of months (winter: October – March; spring: April – May, and
summer: June – September), and reflecting 38%, 12% and 34% of the annual
variability respectively for the interval of analysis. The interannual variability for
every season differs in trends and shifts; only the summer season (June – September correlated well with annual discharge (r = 92%). Two different analyses
(simplified Fourier and Wavelets), when applied to the annual values of this time
series, showed good agreement with oscillations, having periods of 14, 17 and
24-25 years. Although the oscillations reflect a very small part of the variability
in the time series, the composition of those oscillations in the model characterize
the main shifts in the time series.
The variability of regional river runoff at two different scales for two areas
(UMRB is included as a part of CCUS) has been studied and presented in two
matching time-spatial hydrological structures (fuzzy structures). The results of
the analysis for both regions and time series must be considered in the SL approach as partial knowledge of system behavior. The knowledge of structures is
incomplete because of variability, even though the variability is captured by different mathematical models and time spatial scales. The ability of mathematical
models to demonstrate the variability in empirical observations is considered to
be the extraction of knowledge from a natural system, the watershed in this case.
The conceptual model plays a primary role in communication as pre-knowledge
for formulating the research tasks and choosing the analytical tools. The properties of this model are strictly formal (mathematical), however, to quantify the
model, we must use SL with partial explanation of variability.
Uncertainty in this case is the un-reflected by the model part of variability
contained in the initial matrix of empirical data for the watershed. Uncertainty
is the property of our interaction with natural systems (watershed) and the communication of the obtained results. The definition of uncertainty will extend
the views of David Bohm (1982) on the reality and properties of the universe
(hidden dimensions, consciousness, and wholeness) to objects of study (watershed) in scales of 104-109 m. The properties of the human mind to reflect reality
[hologram of Bohm (1982) and cognitive fuzzy structures of Tenenbaum et. al.
(2011)] are the basis for knowledge and communication. To deal with the uncertainty of HE in a given river watershed, one must consider the definition and
properties of the systems of coordinate being used. (See Figure 1).
LITERATURE CITED
Beven, K.J. 1993. Prophecy, reality and uncertainty in distributed hydrological
modeling. Advances in Water Resources 16:41-51.
255
Beven, K. 2007. Towards integrated environmental models of everywhere: uncertainty, data and modeling as a learning process. Hydrology and Earth
System Sciences 11:460-467.
Bohm, D. 1982. Wholeness and the implicate order. Routledge and Kegan Paul,
Boston, MA. 224 p.
Brown, J.D. 2004. Knowledge, uncertainty and physical geography: towards the
development of methodologies for questioning belief. Transactions of the
Institute of British Geographers. 29:367-381.
Brown, J.D. 2010. Prospects for the open treatment of uncertainty in environmental research. Progress in Physical Geography 34:75-100.
Dubois, D., and H. Prade. 2010. Formal representations of uncertainty. Chapter
3, in Decision-making Process: Concepts and Methods (Eds Denis Bouyssou, Didier Dubois, Marc Pirlot, and Henri Prade), p. 85-156. Wiley.
Hoboken, NJ.
Tenenbaum, J. B., Kemp, C., Griffiths, T. L. and N.D. Goodman. 2011. How to
grow a mind: statistics, structure and abstraction. Science 331(6022):12791285.
Vapnik, V. 1998. Statistical Learning Theory. Wiley. New York, NY. 736 p.
Walker, W.E., P. Harremoës, J. Rotmans, J.P. van der Sluijs, M.B.A. van Asselt,
P. Janssen and M.P. Krayer von Krauss. 2003. Defining uncertainty: A conceptual basis for uncertainty management in model-based decision support.
Integrated Assessment 4(1):5-17.
Zadeh, L. A. 2005. Toward a generalized theory of uncertainty (GTU) –– an
outline. Information Sciences 172(1-2): 1–40.
Table1. The researcher – mathematical modeler – stakeholder, system of communication from
uncertainty to knowledge.
RESEARCHER
STAKEHOLDER
Data:
Empirical
Analysis:
Statistical
Learning
Results:
Scientist &/
Time-spatial
or engineer
structure
Conceptual model for watershed in landscape’s diversity
All
existing
PC & Factor, regression, timeseries
Maps, vectors of dimensions & symmetry of timespace, scalars & equations
Research goal & tasks
Sampling
to reflect
the variability
Reflection
of the multidimensionality & -scales
Fuzzy structures with
boundaries for regionalization, characteristics of data
variability reflected in vectors & equations
CONTENT
Hydrologist
KNOWLEDGE
UNCERTAINTY
MATHEMATICAL MODELER
Object:
River
watershed
Mathematical objects that have real meaning and the driving does not matter; “C”)
Technological objects which have measurement and/or production errors; “D”) Natural objects
having fuzzy boundaries
andofnonstationary
axes; “E”)
Natural objects
having
256
Proceedings
the South Dakota
Academy
of Science,
Vol.additional
91 (2012)
coordinates and perhaps classified as multidimensional
Figure 1. The coordinate systems used in mathematics, technology and environmental sciences.
“A”) Mathematical objects with axes that are abstractions (i.e., lack errors and uncertainty);
“B”) Mathematical objects that have real meaning and the driving does not matter; “C”) Technological objects which have measurement and/or production errors; “D”) Natural objects having
fuzzy boundaries and nonstationary axes; “E”) Natural objects having additional coordinates and
perhaps classified as multidimensional
257
UNCERTAINTY OF HYDROLOGIC EVENTS
UNDER SOUTH DAKOTA’S CHANGING
CONDITIONS: A RESEARCH AGENDA
Matthew Biesecker1, Ralph Erion2, Chris H. Hay3,
Geoffrey M. Henebry4, Carol A. Johnston5, Jeppe H. Kjaersgaard6,
Boris A. Shmagin6*, Evert Van Der Sluis7, William Capehart8,
Andrei P. Kirilenko9, Nir Y. Krakauer10, Mark Sweeney11, and Alexey A. Voinov12
1
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
2
Department of Teaching, Learning and Leadership
3
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
4
Geographic Information Science Center of Excellence
5
6
Water Resources Institute
7
Department of Economics
Brookings, SD 57007-3510
8
Department of Atmospheric Sciences
University of North Dakota
9
Department of Earth Systems Science and Policy
University of North Dakota
Grand Forks, ND 58202-90111
10
Department of Civil Engineering
City College of New York
New York, NY 10031
11
Department of Earth Sciences
Vermilion, SD 57069
12
Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation
University of Twente
P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede
The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Widespread flooding across South Dakota in 2011 has spurred a new look
at the institutional, regulatory, and mathematical models used to manage the
Upper Missouri River Basin as it affects all aspects of life in South Dakota. An
SD EPSCoR planning grant was awarded to a team of local, national and international researchers, who produced a strategy to create a research infrastructure
with the goal of developing conceptual and mathematical models to understand
and describe the uncertainty of hydrological events (HE) across South Dakota.
258
The strategy involves two main tasks: 1) planning for study of the uncertainty of
HE in the Upper Missouri Basin (Shmagin, B. 2011. Missouri River watershed:
the object for hydrological study and uncertainty of models. Available from Nature Precedings at <http://precedings.nature.com/documents/6537/version/1>.
[Accessed Oct 3, 2012].)
and 2) developing concepts for communicating uncertainty of HE for wider
use outside the professional community. The plan brings together a variety of
disciplines, and outlines the development of an artificial intelligence approach
to analyzing the interaction of HE, engineering installations and social systems
in South Dakota.
The focus of study is the system hydrological researcher – mathematical modeler – stakeholder, and the process considered is the interaction of knowledge
with uncertainty in application to HE. Uncertainty in HE will be defined using
concepts broader than hydrology (such as statistical learning) and linked to the
concerns of all social, cultural and economic sectors in South Dakota.
Considering this system of interacting participants allows focusing on the
principal stages in tackling uncertainty, from developing the research task and
obtaining the hydrological results to communication between researcher and
stakeholder. Mathematical models are the universal language in scientific research and will be adapted to bring the results to stakeholders. Three mathematical approaches to modeling HE and impacts to South Dakota will be considered:
1) distributed system interactions, 2) statistical learning and 3) cellular automata.
Specific concepts of uncertainty for modeling watersheds and describing the
time-space variability of water cycles and budget for regional hydrologic study were
developed. These concepts include remotely sensed data use, scale and influence
of drainage and irrigation on the groundwater regime and hydrology of wetlands
and lakes in the Missouri River Valley and Prairie Pothole Region. Additional
necessary concepts concern risk assessment and HE interaction with the sociology
and economy (e.g., types and scales of regionalization of the physical and human
environment), and the design of interactive simulation models (e.g., cartographic
presentation and simplified educational modeling after A. Voinov [Voinov, A.
2008. Systems Science and Modeling for Ecological Economics. Academic Press,
NY. 432 pages.]) of HE in the natural landscapes and industrial/changed conditions in South Dakota.
South Dakota’s economy and the wellbeing of its citizens depends greatly on
natural conditions and events, thus South Dakota will benefit from a program
working for improved evaluation and visualization of the risk associated with HE
and improved reliability of information pertaining to irrigation and drainage,
water management, and crop insurance. The first results obtained in dealing with
uncertainty for HE via the planned research infrastructure will be expanded to
fully include socio-economic research.
Given the developed regional, sub-regional and site specific information and
specification, we propose that South Dakota create a research infrastructure integrating the intellectual potential dispersed in the state’s academic institutions: 1)
to seek out and apply new developments from federal agencies and from international bodies, adopting these methods to natural and socio-economic conditions
and industries specific for the state; 2) to trace the effect of HE on the history
259
of socio-economic relations and changes and present the scale of those changes;
and 3) to develop new media to visualize HE and their associated dangers and
then to bring those developments to communities, K12 educational institutions
and USDA Extension Service to explain the effect of HE and the concept of risk
in dealing with them.
Titles Only of
Senior Research Papers and
Symposium Papers and Posters
presented at
of the
263
A Framework for Sustainability in Science Education. Matthew L. Miller.
Service Learning to Support Sustainability. Panelists – Paul Fokken, Mary
Moeller, Brooke Sydow, and Elizabeth Tolman. South Dakota State University
Sustaining Success – Setting up Students to Succeed in College. Krisma D.
DeWitt and Paul Kuhlman. Mount Marty College and Avon High School
Photofragmentation Pathway of Tris(trimethylsilyl)amide Lanthanide Precursors during the Laser-assisted MOCVD Process. Qingguo Meng,
Jiangchao Chen, Andrew M. Hochstatter, P. Stanley May, Mary T. Berry.
University of South Dakota. Latest News on Neutrino Properties. J. TM. Goon et al. University of South
Dakota
Geant4 Applications in Experimental Physics. Wenzhao Wei. University of
South Dakota.
Security Printing Using Upconverting Nanoparticle Inks. Jeevan Manikyarao
Meruga, William Cross, P. Stanley May, QuocAnh Luu, Tyler Blumenthal,
and Jon J. Kellar. South Dakota School of Mines & Technology and University
of South Dakota.
Synthesis and Thermal Characterization of Carboxylic Acid Encapsulated
Silver Nanoparticles for Direct Write Technology Applications. Krishnamraju Ankireddy, Swathi Vunnam, Jon Kellar, and William Cross. South
Dakota School of Mines and Technology.
Surface Chemistry in Nanoparticulate Ink Direct Write Systems. Swathi Vunnam, Krishnamraju Ankireddy, Jon Kellar, and William Cross. South Dakota
School of Mines and Technology.
Sensitization of Eu3+ Luminescence in 5% Eu:YPO4 Nanocrystals. Jiangchao
Chen, Qingguo Meng, P. Stanley May, Mary T. Berry, and Cuikun Lin.
University of South Dakota.
Does Sound Matter? The Influence of Stridulation in Competition for Carrion Resources in Burying Beetles. A.L. Conley, C.L. Hall, D.R. Howard,
and A.C. Mason. Augustana College.
The Effect of Wind Turbine-induced Vibration on the Reproductive
Behavior of the Endangered American Burying Beetle (Nicrophorus
americanus). Christina H. Johnson, Courtney L. Moore, Carrie L. Hall,
and Daniel R. Howard. Augustana College.
Reproductive Trade-Offs in the Burying Beetle Nicrophorus marginatus:
Does Parental Competitive Environment Influence Offspring Sex
Ratio or Brood Size Dynamics? Brooke K. Woelber, Anna B. Bahnson,
Carrie L. Hall, and Daniel R. Howard. Augustana College.
Vibrational Signaling in the Cook Strait Giant Weta (Deinacrida rugosa).
Courtney L. Moore, Rebecca K. Schieffer, Ashley P. Schmidt, Claire E.
Bestul, Andrew C. Mason, Carrie L. Hall, and Daniel R. Howard. Augustana
College.
Male Acoustic Advertisement Patterns and Female Mate Choice in the Lekmating Prairie Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa major Saussure). Ashley P.
Schmidt, Clair E. Bestul, Courtney L. Moore, Brooke K. Woelber, Carrie L.
Hall, and Daniel R. Howard. Augustana College.
264
The Interactive Effects of Climatic Variation and Land Use Change on Increased Streamflow and Channel Adjustment within an Agricultural
Watershed. Matthew J. Ley and Mark D. Dixon. University of South Dakota.
Projecting Long-term Landscape Change along the Missouri River:
Implications for Cottonwood Forests and Bird Populations. C. L.
Merkord, M. D. Dixon, D. L. Swanson, W. C. Johnson, and A. Benson.
University of South Dakota.
Ephrin B1 in Immune Stimulation. Kara Prussing, Paola Vermeer and John
Lee. Augustana College.
Investigating Epigenetic Regulation of Water-use Related Genes in Tomato.
Kelly Wong, Steven Matzner, Eric Richards and Jed Sparks. Augustana College.
Histological Examination of NMDAR NR3 Subtypes in the Rat Kidney.
Sarah Zokaites, and Karen A. Munger. Augustana College.
Whole Brain Monoamine Detection and Manipulation in a Stalk-eyed Fly.
Andrew Bubak, John Swallow, and Kenneth Renner. University of South
Dakota.
Size Matters, but so Does Shape: Quantifying Complex Shape Changes in a
Sexually Selected Trait in Stalk-eyed Flies. Amy M. Worthington, Chelsea
M. Berns, and John G. Swallow. University of South Dakota.
Role of Drp1 and Mitochondrial Fission in Mediating Sensitivity of
Cancer Cells to Metformin-induced Cell Death. Rebecka Bogue, Allie
Haugrud, and Keith Miskimins. Augustana College.
Sulforaphane Regulation of Cellular Redox and Growth. Cody J. Lensing,
and Peter F. Vitiello. Augustana College.
Molecular Characterization of the Interactions of Galectin-1 and SUSD2
in Breast Cancer. Ashley Weber, Allison Watson, and Kristi A. Egland.
Augustana College.
Nuclear Localization of the a1B-Adrenergic Receptor Subtype is Required
for Hypertrophic Signaling in Cardiac Myocytes. Erika Dahl, Steven C.
Wu, Andrew L. Cypher, Chastity L. Healy, Casey D. Wright, Yuan Huang,
and Timothy D. O’Connell. Augustana College.
Exogenous Modification of Platelet Membranes with the Omega-3 Fatty
Acids DHA and EPA Impairs Thrombogenesis. Nicole M. Ensz, Carl E.
Hjelmen, Leah S. McComas, Garth W. Tormoen, Ishan A. Patel, Owen J.T.
McCarty, and Mark K. Larson. Augustana College.
Multispecies Oral Bacterial Communities: Defining the Mechanism
of Communication Between Streptococcus gordonii and Veillonella
atypica. Wadie Mahauad Fernandez, Rebecca Joerger, Michael Edgington,
and Paul Egland. Augustana College.
Characterization of Immunomodulatory Effects Between SUSD2 and
Galectin-1 Protein Expression in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer. Jackie
Miles, Emily Johnson , Sam Evenson, Ashley Weber, Allison Watson, Kristi
Egland, and Jennifer A. A. Gubbels. Augustana College.
Mapping Quantitative Trait Loci for Plant Height in a Maize Population.
James Wassom. Unaffiliated.
265
Synthesis of 3-Pyridylmethyl Glucosinolate from 3-Pyridylacetonitrile.
Joseph W. Keppen, Jordan J. Clark, and Jared R. Mays. Augustana College.
Core-Shell Quantum Dots Utilized in the Detection of Proteins. Seth
Adrian, Kristen Luepke, and Barrett Eichler. Augustana College.
Synthesis and RP-HPLC Monitored Hydrolysis of Non-natural Glucosinolates. Kayla Vastenhout and Jared R. Mays. Augustana College.
Sprectroscopic Study of the Ionic Liquid 1-Butyl-3-Methylimidazolium
Chloride (BMICl). Yulun Han, Aravind Baride, Cuikun Lin, P. Stanley
May, and Mary T. Berry. University of South Dakota.
Soluble Luminescent 2,3,4,5-Tetraarylsiloles: Synthesis and Characterization for use in OLED Devices. B. J. Jackson and B. E. Eichler. Augustana
College.
Cottonwood Forests along the Missouri River: Historical Changes and Current Status. Mark D. Dixon, Michael L. Scott, W. Carter Johnson, Daniel
Bowen, and Lisa A. Rabbe. University of South Dakota.
Development of Silver Nanoparticle Based Conductive Ink for Direct-Write
Process Using M3D. Ravi Shankar, A. Amert, Jon J. Kellar, and Keith W.
Whites. South Dakota School of Mines and Technology
Avian Response to a Landscape Undergoing Restoration in Eastern South
Dakota. L. M. Erickson, K.C. Jensen, and W.C. Johnson. South Dakota
State University.
Thermochemical Water-splitting for H2 Generation Using Sol-gel Synthesized Mn-doped Ferrites. R. R. Bhosale, X. Pasala, S. S. Yelakanti, J. A.
Puszynski, and R. V. Shende. South Dakota School of Mines and Technology.
The Effects of Different Habitat Types on Raptor Electrocutions and Collisions with Power Lines in the Black Hills. Ashley A. Hrabe and Kent C.
Jensen. South Dakota State University.
Habitat Selection of Four Owl Species in Eastern South Dakota. Brianna
Graff and Kent C. Jensen. South Dakota State University.
The Effect of Wind Turbine-induced Vibration on the Reproductive Behavior of the Endangered American Burying Beetle (Nicrophorus americanus). Christina H. Johnson, Courtney L. Moore, Carrie L. Hall, and Daniel
R. Howard. Augustana College.
Affinity of Functionalized Nanoparticles for Human Tooth Enamel. A. Horn
and G. Sereda. University of South Dakota.
Thin Film Deposition and Photodissociation Mechanisms for Lanthanide Oxide
Production from Tris(2,2,6,6,-Tetramethyl-3,5-Heptanedionato) Ln(III) in
Laser-Assistant MOCVD. Yajuan Gong*and Mary T. Berry. University of South
Dakota.
Fast Marching Algorithm for Reaction Dynamics: A New Perspective for Monte
Carlo Sampling and Reaction Paths. Nathan Truex and Bijoy Dey. Augustana
College.
267
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS
Editorial Policy: The South Dakota Academy of Science is a forum for the promotion of scientific teaching, research, and service in the state of
South Dakota. The South Dakota Academy of Science meets each spring for the purpose of annual business, awards, and the interchange of ideas,
information, and results from scientists and students of science. The minutes of the annual meeting and the abstracts of presentations are published
annually in the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. In many cases, authors choose to submit a full manuscript of their presentation, which is published in lieu of the abstract. Deadlines for submission of full manuscripts are July 15 each year; to submit manuscripts, please
adhere to the Submission Procedures listed below. Authors have the option of purchasing additional reprints; information on page and reprint
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Authorship Policy: The following is the policy on authorship of abstracts and manuscripts to be published in the Proceedings:
1) All papers published in the Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science will include all authors that were shown on originally submitted abstracts or manuscripts.
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All manuscripts should include a title page that includes the author name(s), affiliation(s), and current mailing address(es). Here are the components
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268
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Margin: Left = 0, Right = 6, Paragraph Indent = 4
Title: All Caps, Bold, Centered, Font Size =14
Authors: See example:
Alfred Jones1*, William Smith1 and Lawrence Porter2
1
Biology Department
Cognation University
South Chicago, IN 44230
2
Chemistry Department
Intuition College
Newell, SD 57330
ABSTRACT
Include a brief but informative abstract. The abstract should be a single paragraph of 200-300 words that concisely summarizes the results and
conclusions of the study. The abstract should be followed by a short list of keywords (< 5). For authors submitting only an abstract, you may include
a few literature citations, but please use sparingly, and enclose them in parentheses within the text of the abstract.
INTRODUCTION
The introduction should include sufficient detail to establish the purpose and importance of the work being summarized. It should include pertinent
literature related to the study question and end with a statement of the objectives/hypotheses being examined.
METHODS
The methods should include sufficient information for the reader to evaluate the data or repeat the study. It is better to be inclusive (i.e., overly
explicit) when describing the methods used, but keep in mind that clarity and conciseness are important.
RESULTS
Results follow the methods section and should include a concise summary of your findings. Be careful not to ‘discuss’ implications of results; reserve
these points for the Discussion section. Results that are presented in tables or figures should not be exhaustively discussed in the text. When statistics
are presented they should be explicit (e.g. t = 34.07, df = 48, P = 0.003).
DISCUSSION
The common trait among good scientific papers is a well-written discussion section. The discussion section is where you synthesize what has been
learned from the study and provide direction or generalities for future studies. The discussion section should not be merely a summary of relevant
literature linked to restatements of your results. Rather, it should be an informative essay that advances what is known about the subject area. Be
careful, however, not to extend the discussion beyond what can be supported by the data reported in the results.
LITERATURE CITED. All references cited in the text should be listed at the end of the manuscript under the Literature Cited heading. References
should be in alphabetical order by the last name of the author(s). If different works by the same author(s) are referenced, references should be in
chronological order. Authors cited in the text of abstracts or papers should be indicated in parentheses by last name and year of publication (e.g.,
Wade 1967; Bremer 1977). When a citation has more than two authors, the last name of the first author followed by et al. should be used (e.g.,
Seabloom et al. 1978). Where two or more papers by the same author(s) have appeared in one year, the style should be (Stewart 1967a, 1967b).
Citations included in abstract only submissions should be complete and included within the text of the abstract.
Examples of Literature Cited
Bremer, P.E. 1977. Pelican kill. Loon 49:240-241.
Gipson, P.S., I.K. Gipson, and J.A. Sealander. 1975. Reproductive biology of the bobcat (Lynx rufus). Journal of Mammalogy 56:605-612.
Green, J.C., and R.B. Janssen. 1975. Minnesota birds: where, when, and how many. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN.
Stewart, A.V., A. Joachimiak and N. Ellison. 2009. Genomic and geographic origins of timothy (Phleum sp.) based upon ITS and chloroplast
sequences. Pages71-81in T. Yamada and G. Spangenberg, editors. Molecular breeding of forage and turf. Springer, New York, NY.
Svihovec, L.K. 1967. A comparison study of the ecological distribution of small mammals in southwestern North Dakota. Thesis. University of
North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND.
(For Internet citations, include as much information as possible so that readers could access the material cited. Also include “Available at” and then
include the URL in italics. Finally, add in square brackets the date you accessed the URL [Cited 6 June 2010].
Tables, Figures, Illustrations and Photographs. Tables should be double spaced throughout, without vertical lines, and with page numbers in the
upper right-hand corner. If tables are more than one page in length, put “Table x. continued” on all subsequent pages. Each table should begin with
a Table number (e.g., Table 1, Table 2, etc…) followed by a descriptive caption which is separated from the table headings and data by a horizontal
line. Tables must be referenced in the text.
Figures should be done with black ink on firm quality paper or if computer generated, they should be of camera-ready quality (laser printer) with
sharp lines suitable for reproduction. Photographs should be 5x7-inch, sharp, black and white glossy prints. When appropriate, a legend of symbols,
etc., scale and a cardinal direction (e.g. North) should be indicated on figures of maps. On the back side, identify each figure or photograph lightly
in pencil with the figure’s number, author(s) name(s), and an indication of the top of the figure. Figure captions should be numbered (e.g., Figure
x.) and typed on a separate sheet of paper at the end of the manuscript. Letters, symbols, and legends should be large and clear enough on all figures
and photographs to be legible after copy reduction. Figures must be referenced in the text.
A note on deadlines: If you cannot meet the July 15th deadline for full papers, you must send the editor a note requesting an extension. You must
also request a new due date.

2012 proceedings - South Dakota Academy of Science

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