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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Geography ...................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 5
Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features ....................................................................... 5
Climate ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Bodies of Water .......................................................................................................................... 7
Amu Darya .............................................................................................................................. 7
Syr Darya ................................................................................................................................ 7
Zarafshan................................................................................................................................. 8
Aral Sea ................................................................................................................................... 8
Major Cities ................................................................................................................................ 8
Tashkent .................................................................................................................................. 8
Samarkand............................................................................................................................... 9
Bukhara ................................................................................................................................... 9
Shakhrisabz ............................................................................................................................. 9
Environmental Issues ................................................................................................................ 10
Chapter 1 Assessment ................................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 2 History .......................................................................................................................... 13
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 13
Early History ............................................................................................................................. 13
Genghis Khan............................................................................................................................ 14
Tamerlane ................................................................................................................................. 15
Uzbeks....................................................................................................................................... 16
Russian Conquest ...................................................................................................................... 16
The Soviet Empire .................................................................................................................... 17
Independence ............................................................................................................................ 18
Recent Events............................................................................................................................ 18
Andijan Massacre.................................................................................................................. 18
Elections, Violence, and Human Rights ............................................................................... 20
Chapter 3 Economy....................................................................................................................... 22
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 22
Agriculture ................................................................................................................................ 22
Human Labor ........................................................................................................................ 23
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Natural Resources and Industry ................................................................................................ 25
Energy ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Trade and Tourism .................................................................................................................... 26
Banking ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Standard of Living .................................................................................................................... 28
Employment Trends .................................................................................................................. 29
Outlook ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 4 Society .......................................................................................................................... 32
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 32
Ethnic Groups and Languages .................................................................................................. 32
Uzbeks................................................................................................................................... 32
Kazakhs ................................................................................................................................. 33
Kyrgyz................................................................................................................................... 33
Tajiks..................................................................................................................................... 33
Religion ..................................................................................................................................... 33
Islamist Terrorism ................................................................................................................. 34
Cuisine ...................................................................................................................................... 35
Dress ......................................................................................................................................... 36
Gender Issues ............................................................................................................................ 36
The Arts .................................................................................................................................... 37
Dance .................................................................................................................................... 37
Literature ............................................................................................................................... 37
Sports ........................................................................................................................................ 38
Chapter 5 Security......................................................................................................................... 40
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 40
U.S.–Uzbekistani Relations ...................................................................................................... 40
Foreign Relations with Neighboring Countries ........................................................................ 42
Kyrgyzstan ............................................................................................................................ 42
Tajikistan............................................................................................................................... 43
Turkmenistan ........................................................................................................................ 43
Afghanistan ........................................................................................................................... 44
China ..................................................................................................................................... 45
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Russia .................................................................................................................................... 45
Military and Police .................................................................................................................... 46
Army ..................................................................................................................................... 46
Air Force ............................................................................................................................... 47
Internal Security .................................................................................................................... 48
Border Guards ....................................................................................................................... 48
Intelligence Services ............................................................................................................. 48
Issues Affecting Security .......................................................................................................... 49
Terrorism............................................................................................................................... 49
Crime and Drug Trafficking ................................................................................................. 50
Poverty .................................................................................................................................. 50
Water Security ...................................................................................................................... 51
Looking to the Future................................................................................................................ 51
Final Assessment .......................................................................................................................... 54
Further Reading ............................................................................................................................ 56
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Chapter 1 Geography
Introduction
The dissolution of the Communist Bloc in 1991, in which
former Soviet republics were recognized as sovereign
states, created an independent Uzbekistan. All
Uzbekistan’s Central Asian neighbors, with the exception
of Afghanistan, were born as a result of the end of the
Soviet era. Uzbekistan, roughly the size of California,
shares borders with Afghanistan for 137 km (85 mi),
Kazakhstan for 2,203 km (1,369 mi), Kyrgyzstan for
1,099 km (683 mi), Tajikistan for 1,161 km (721 mi), and
Turkmenistan for 1,621 km (1,007 mi).1, 2
Except for Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and its neighbors are landlocked. They
share transportation linkages that were established by Moscow to meet the needs of the former
USSR.3 These countries are mutually dependent in important areas, such as sharing scarce water
resources. The prospect of conflict in Central Asia is heightened not only by disputes over
natural resources (including hydrocarbons), but the ambitions of powers such as Russia, Iran,
Turkey, and China.4
Geographic Divisions and Topographic
Features
Uzbekistan is a doubly landlocked country, meaning that
its neighbors are also landlocked. It is one of only two
such countries in the world.5 The nation features a
diverse topographical landscape that includes high
mountains and glaciers. At lower elevations, dry steppes
and deserts predominate.6 Nearly 80% of Uzbekistan is
covered with desert. The largest is the Qizilqum Desert in
1
Central Intelligence Agency, “Uzbekistan: Geography,” in The World Factbook, 21 July 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uz.html
2
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: The Gorbachev Era,” 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/614785/Union-of-Soviet-Socialist-Republics
3
Zainiddin Karaev, “Border Disputes and Regional Integration in Central Asia,” Harvard Asia Quarterly (3
February 2006), http://asiaquarterly.com/2006/02/03/ii-130/
4
Vladimir Milov and Martha Brill Olcott, “The Great Uncertainty: Russian-Central Asian Energy Relations”
(lecture discussion, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington, DC, 13 June 2007),
http://www.carnegieendowment.org/events/index.cfm?fa=eventDetail&id=1013&prog=zru
5
6
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Uzbekistan: Relief,” 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/621059/Uzbekistan
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the north central region. The mountain areas of the far southeast and far northeast have
elevations as high as 4,500 m (14,763 ft).7 Arable land is estimated to be less than 11% of the
total land area.8 Though the Central Asia region is abundantly endowed with water resources,
they are unequally distributed. More than 90% is concentrated in the mountains of Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan, but Uzbekistan, located downstream, is the largest user.9, 10 Most of the Uzbek
population lives in the Ferghana Valley, which was divided among Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and
Uzbekistan in the 1920s by Russian administrators in Moscow.11, 12, 13 The western part of the
country is dominated by lowlands, including the southern half of the Aral Sea.14
Climate
Uzbekistan has a harsh continental climate marked by
four distinct seasons, and it experiences extremes of
temperature.15 During the summer, temperatures may rise
as high as 45°C (113°F) in southern Uzbekistan; the
average temperature in July ranges from 18°C (64°F) to
35°C (95°F).16, 17 Winter temperatures in the north may
drop as low as –35°C (–31°F), and daily average
temperatures throughout the country in January range
from –5°C (23°F) to 4°C (39°F).18, 19 Humidity is low
7
Nancy Lubin, “Country Profile: Uzbekistan (updated 2007),” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E. Curtis
(Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1997), 3,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Uzbekistan.pdf
8
Australian Centre for Agricultural Research, “Plant Genetic Resources in Central Asia and Caucasus,” 2003,
http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/uzb/uzb_geography.htm
9
Zainiddin Karaev, “Water Diplomacy in Central Asia,” The Middle East Review of International Affairs 9, no. 1
(March 2005), http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2005/issue1/jv9no1a5.html
10
William B. Hartman, “Central Asia’s Raging Waters: The Prospects of Water Conflict in Central Asia,” (master’s
thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, March 2007), 33,
http://www.nps.edu/programs/ccs/docs/pubs/hartman_thesis.pdf
11
Best Country Reports, “Population Density Map of Uzbekistan,” 2007,
http://www.atozmapsdata.com/zoomify.asp?name=Country/Modern/Z_Uzbeki_Pop
12
Francesc Serra Massansalvador, “The Process of Nation Building in Central Asia and Its Relationship to Russia’s
Regional Influence” (paper, Jean Monnet/Robert Schuman Paper Series 10, no. 5, June 2010), 3–5,
http://www6.miami.edu/eucenter/publications/SerraNationbldgCentAsiaLongJune10.pdf
13
Zainiddin Karaev, “Border Disputes and Regional Integration in Central Asia,” Harvard Asia Quarterly (3
February 2006), http://asiaquarterly.com/2006/02/03/ii-130/
14
15
Mukhiddin Makhmudovich, “Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: Uzbekistan; Climate and AgroEcological Zones,” Food and Agriculture Organization, 2001,
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/uzbekistan.htm
16
Climate Temp, “Uzbekistan Climate Guide to the Average Weather and Temperatures with Graphs Elucidating
Sunshine and Rainfall Data and Information about Wind Speeds and Humidity,” 2011,
http://www.climatetemp.info/uzbekistan/
17
Bioversity International, “Uzbekistan: Climate,” n.d., http://centralasia.bioversity.asia/uzbekistan.html
18
Climate Temp, “Uzbekistan Climate Guide to the Average Weather and Temperatures with Graphs Elucidating
Sunshine and Rainfall Data and Information about Wind Speeds and Humidity,” 2011,
http://www.climatetemp.info/uzbekistan/
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and precipitation is mainly confined to the winter and spring months. The plains receive the least
amount of precipitation, 100–200 mm (3.9–7.9 in) per year. To the east and south, the amount
rises to 900 mm (35.4 in) annually.20
Bodies of Water
Uzbekistan does not possess substantial river systems. The three
main rivers in the nation, the Amu Darya, the Syr Darya, and the
Zarafshan, flow across a small part of Uzbekistan from other
countries.21
Amu Darya
Although one of the longest rivers in Central Asia, only about
8.5% of the flow of the Amu Darya is in Uzbekistan.22, 23
Originating in the Hindu Kush, it flows to the Pamir Mountains
in Afghanistan. From there it cuts west and marks the 137 km (85 mi) border between
Uzbekistan and Afghanistan before emptying into the southern shore of the Aral Sea in
Uzbekistan after a 2,540 km (1,578 mi) journey.24 Its high silt level is the result of overuse for
irrigation, which has prevented this river from replenishing the shrinking Aral Sea.25
Syr Darya
The Syr Darya, which travels 2,137 km (1,328 mi), originates in a remote part of Kyrgyzstan
before descending from the Tien Shan range into the Ferghana Valley.26 Skirting Tashkent, it
flows through southern Kazakhstan before reaching the Aral Sea. It is the primary source for
irrigation in the areas it passes through.27 Because of the overuse of the river, the flow into the
Upper Aral Sea has been greatly reduced.28
19
World Bank, “Uzbekistan: Climate Change and Agriculture Country Note,” September 2010, 5,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ECAEXT/Resources/258598-1277305872360/71901521303416376314/uzbekistancountrynote.pdf
20
Embassy of the Republic of Uzbekistan to the United Arab Emirates, “Nature and Climate,” 2011,
http://www.uzbekembassy.net/ProfileofUzbekistan/NatureClimate/tabid/243/Default.aspx
21
22
Valery Votrin, “Transboundary Water Disputes in Central Asia: Using Indicators of Water Conflict in Identifying
Water Conflict Potential,” (master’s thesis, Vrije Universiteit, Brussels, Belgium, 2002–2003),
http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/related_research/votrin/votrin_thesis.html
23
Central Asia Water Info, “Amudarya River Basin Morphology,” n.d., http://www.cawaterinfo.net/amudarya/geo_e.htm
24
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Amu Darya,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/21934/AmuDarya
25
The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed., “Amu Darya,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1AmuDarya.html
26
Central Asia Water Info, “Physical-Geographic Characteristics of the Region: Republic of Uzbekistan,” n.d.,
http://www.cawater-info.net/bk/water_land_resources_use/english/docs/fiziko_geog_kharack_uzbekistan.html
27
Yale Center for Earth Observation, “Syr-Darya River/Chu Watershed,” n.d., http://www.yale.edu/emcwa/SyrDarya/syrdarya__chu_watershed2.htm
28
O. S. Savoskul, ed., “Water, Climate, Food, and Environment in the Syr Darya Basin,” July 2003,
http://www.weap21.org/downloads/AdaptSyrDarya.pdf
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Zarafshan
The Zarafshan is the third-largest river of Uzbekistan. Upstream in Tajikistan, it is called the
Mostchokh Darya. It enters Uzbekistan through the Zarafshan Valley, in the Samarkand region.29
It provides water for some of the most important oases in the country.30
Aral Sea
The Aral Sea, half of which is in Uzbekistan, is situated in a large, flat desert basin. In 1960, it
was the fourth-largest lake in the world. By 2000, the sea had shrunk to three separate lakes (less
than 50% of its area) and its level was no higher than 36 m (125 ft) above sea level. The water
volume had dropped nearly 75%.31 By 2010, the sea had only two lakes of any size.32 If the Aral
declines at its current rate, it will disappear by 2020.33, 34, 35 Wetlands disappeared because of the
lack of water, while the falling water tables caused oases to dry up. Average temperatures are
becoming colder and summers hotter without the moderating effects of the sea. The quality of
drinking water has been adversely affected, especially in Uzbekistan’s western Karakalpakstan
Republic. Vozrozhdeniye Island is now connected to the shore, and contains the remains of a
Soviet anthrax weapons-testing laboratory.36 The salinity
of the lake has diminished the fish population and left the
surrounding land hostile to plants and people.37, 38
Major Cities
Tashkent
The capital city’s name means “stone village,” and its
origins are in the first century C.E. By the eighth century,
29
Zh. U. Urchinov, “Fisheries in the Zarafshan River Basin (Uzbekistan),” in Inland Fisheries Under the Impact of
Irrigated Agriculture: Central Asia, ed. T. Petr (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
1995),
http://www.fao.org/docrep/V9529E/v9529E06.htm
30
Calum MacLeod and Bradley Mayhew, Uzbekistan: The Golden Road to Samarkand, 2nd ed. (Lincolnwood, IL:
Passport Books, 1997).
31
Visualizing Earth, “The Aral Sea,” n.d., http://visearth.ucsd.edu/VisE_Int/aralsea/index.html
32
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “The Incredible Shrinking Aral Sea,” 19 April 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/blogs/2011/04/incredible-shrinking-aral-sea/
33
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Aral Sea,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31983/Aral-Sea
34
Salif Diop et al., “The Disappearance of the Aral Sea,” in Vital Water Graphics: An Overview of the State of the
World’s Fresh and Marine Waters, 2nd ed. (Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme, 2008),
http://www.unep.org/dewa/vitalwater/article115.html
35
36
(Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1997),
37
Paul Welsh, “The Aral Sea Tragedy,” BBC News, 16 March 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asiapacific/678898.stm
38
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Aral Sea,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31983/Aral-Sea
38
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it had become a Muslim city.39, 40 The city became part of the Mongol empire in 1220 and the
Russian empire in 1865. A Trans-Caspian rail link through Tashkent in 1889 facilitated
transportation and brought it more closely into the Russian orbit. Today, little remains of historic
buildings because of a 1966 earthquake and the subsequent rebuilding under Soviet rule of
Stalinist-inspired architecture.41 The population numbers approximately 2.2 million.42
Samarkand
The city of Samarkand, situated on an oasis, is home to approximately 366,000 people.43 It
developed as an urban center from the 10th century B.C.E. because it lay on the Silk Road. Thus
it is also known as the “Crossroads of Cultures.”44 It was successively conquered by the troops of
Alexander the Great, the Arab Abbasid Caliphate, and Genghis Khan, whose army burned the
town to the ground in 1220.45 Samarkand, with its distinctive blue-roofed buildings, was added
to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 2001.46
Bukhara
Bukhara is known as the historical city of Uzbekistan. When Genghis Khan’s forces burned
down the city in 1220, the city’s most famous landmark, the Kalyan Minaret, remained standing.
Lore has it that Genghis Khan, impressed by the structure’s beauty, ordered it not to be
touched.47 For a time it was the tallest building in Central Asia. Subsequent urban development
has witnessed the population rise to 250,000.48 Bukhara’s edifices have earned the distinction of
being the most representative of medieval architecture in Central Asia.49
Shakhrisabz
In the foothills of the Pamir Mountains, Shakhrisabz is home to almost 75,000 people.50 It is the
birthplace of the famed nomadic warrior Tamerlane (1336–1405), who conquered more territory
39
Peter Roudik, The History of the Central Asian Republics (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007), 60.
Calum MacLeod and Bradley Mayhew, Uzbekistan: The Golden Road to Samarkand, 6th ed. (Hong Kong:
Odyssey, 2008), 195.
41
BBC News, “Timeline: Uzbekistan,” 31 March 2011, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asiapacific/country_profiles/1295881.stm
42
Central Intelligence Agency, “Uzbekistan: People,” in The World Factbook, 21 July 2011,
43
MongaBay, “2005 Population Estimates for Cities in Uzbekistan,” 2005,
http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/2005_world_city_populations/Uzbekistan.html
44
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Earth Observation Research Center, “Samarkand, Uzbekistan: ‘The Blue
City’/ ‘The Gem of The East’ Once-flourishing on the Silk Road,” 15 August 2007,
http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/en/imgdata/topics/2007/tp070815.html
45
Center for Global Change and Earth Observations, Michigan State University, “Uzbekistan and the Ancient Cities
on the Silk Road,” 1–5 October 2007,
http://www.globalchange.msu.edu/nato/uzbekistan.htm
46
“Silk Road City Marks 2,750 Years,” BBC News, 26 August 2007,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6965037.stm
47
Tashkent City of Uzbekistan, “Bukhara: The Religion City,” 1998, http://www.tashkent.org/uzland/bukhara.html
48
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Bukhara,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/83938/Bukhara
49
UNESCO, World Heritage Convention, “Historic Centre of Bukhara,” 4 December 2007,
http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=602
50
Bradley Mayhew et al., Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, 5th ed.
(London: Lonely Planet, 2010), 251.
40
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in a lifetime than anyone other than Alexander the Great.51 Originally known as Kesh, its current
name means “Green City,” after its verdant gardens.52
Environmental Issues
Despite its low comparative advantage, Uzbekistan became one of the
largest cotton producers in the world.53 This was achieved through
massive increases in irrigation. In 1913, there were 1.2 million ha
(2,965,265 a) of irrigated land. By 1950, the extent had increase ed to
2.3 million ha (5,683,424 a), and further expanded to 4.2 million ha
(10,378,426 a) by 1990, the year before the USSR was disbanded.54 But
in the process, an ecological disaster was created.
Decades of intensive cotton cultivation have altered the water table,
resulting in salinization.55 In areas that were once covered by the Aral
Sea, salt blankets the ground like snow.56 In addition to killing the fish,
salinization has rendered the water unsuitable for irrigation, forcing
Uzbek cotton farmers to rely on the dwindling supply brought by the
two rivers. Although cotton (or white gold, as it is referred to locally)
continues to be a mainstay of the Uzbek economy, production has
largely declined as a result of environmentally-induced constraints.57
The change in the Aral Sea is considered one of the world’s biggest environmental disasters of
the 20th century. As the water has receded, more than 40,000 sq km (15,444 sq mi) of former
seabed have been left bare.58 It is covered by a thick layer of chemical fertilizer residue, in
addition to the salt. This debris is ultimately deposited elsewhere by strong winds, thus affecting
51
Silkroad Foundation, “Tamerlane (1336–1405): The Last Great Nomad Power,” 2000,
http://www.silk-road.com/artl/timur.shtml
52
E. Bretschneider, Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the
Geography and History of Central and Western Asia From the 13th to the 17th Century, Vol. II (London: Trubner
and Co., 1888), 273, http://www.archive.org/stream/medievalresearc00bretgoog#page/n10/mode/2up
53
Comparative advantage refers to a country’s superior conditions for producing a particular good, which is then
traded for another good, with a country that has an advantage in producing that good. Dwight R. Lee, “Comparative
Advantage Part 1/2,” Foundation for Economic Education. 1999,
http://www.commonsenseeconomics.com/Readings/Comparative%20Advantage.CSE.pdf
54
David Tarr and Eskender Trushin, “Did the Desire for Cotton Self-Sufficiency Lead to the Aral Sea and
Environmental Disaster? A Case Study on Trade and the Environment” (working paper, World Bank, 2004),
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETTRADE/Resources/Topics/Accession/CaseStudyOnTrade&Envir_En
g.doc
55
In arid areas, strong sunlight brings salt in the soil to the surface. When salt accumulates in the top layer of soil,
land ceases to be arable. In Uzbekistan, water that accumulates in the surface soil layer is flushed out with winter
rainfall, which has intensified the depletion of water in the Aral Sea. Kazuhito Yamashita, “Agriculture and
Environmental Problems in Uzbekistan” (policy paper, Research Institute of Economy, Trade & Industry, 14
December 2005), http://www.rieti.go.jp/en/special/policy-update/025.html
56
Paul Welsh, “The Tragedy of the Aral Sea,” BBC News, 16 March 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asiapacific/678898.stm
57
John Baffles, “Cotton-Dependent Countries in the Global Context,” in Cotton Sector in Central Asia: Economic
Policy and Development Challenges, ed. Deniz Kandiyoti (proceedings of conference, School of Oriental and
African Studies, University of London, 3–4 November 2005), 45–46,
http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/pdf/20080605a.pdf
58
World Future Society, “Reviving the Aral Sea,” 2010, http://www.wfs.org/node/1163
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crop quality and yields, natural ground cover, air quality, and the life expectancy of livestock and
humans.59 Most cleanup projects have been underwritten by the international community.60 Each
aid agency typically works on its own and rarely coordinates its efforts with other agencies,
while an ecological disaster of this magnitude requires large-scale assistance.61
In addition to problems with the Aral Sea, Uzbekistan’s lakes and rivers have been severely
polluted by industrial wastes and the heavy use of fertilizers. The contaminated drinking water is
causing numerous health issues for the population. The soil is also seriously contaminated with
the synthetic pesticide DDT, an agent known to cause birth defects and other health problems in
humans and animals.62
59
Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations, Fertilizer Use by Crop in Uzbekistan (Rome: Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2003), ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/fertuseuzbekistan.pdf
60
Philippe Rekacewicz et al., “Environmental Disaster in Eastern Europe,” Le Monde Diplomatique, July 2000,
http://mondediplo.com/2000/07/19envidisaster
61
Alexander Cooley and James Ron, “The NGO Scramble: Organizational Insecurity and the Political Economy of
Transnational Action,” International Security 27, no. 1 (Summer 2002): 5–39.
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/international_security/v027/27.1cooley.html
62
Annie Leonard, The Story of Stuff: How Our Obsession with Stuff is Trashing the Planet, Our Communities, and
Our Health—and Our Vision for Change (New York: Free Press, 2010), 46–47.
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Chapter 1 Assessment
1. The majority of the Uzbek population lives in the Turanian Plain.
False
Most Uzbeks live in the Ferghana Valley, which was divided among Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan in the 1920s by Russian administrators.
2. The north central part of Uzbekistan is dominated by the Qizilqum Desert.
True
The north central part of Uzbekistan is dominated by the Qizilqum Desert, and is
surrounded by vast plains to the west, south, and east.
3. The Syr Darya is not a significant source of water for irrigation in the areas through
which it passes.
False
The Syr Darya is the primary source for irrigation in the areas that it passes through.
Because of the overuse of the river, the flow into the Upper Aral Sea has been greatly
reduced.
4. The Amu Darya flows into Uzbekistan from the north.
False
The Amu Darya flows in from the south. The Syr Darya flows into the northern portion
of the Aral Sea.
5. The growth of cotton in Uzbekistan led to what is considered one of the greatest
environmental disasters of the 20th century.
True
A consequence of intensive irrigation for cotton production, the disappearing Aral Sea is
considered one of the world’s biggest environmental disasters of the 20th century. More
than 40,000 sq km (15,444 sq mi) of former seabed have been left bare and covered by a
thick layer of chemical fertilizer residue and salt.
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Chapter 2 History
Introduction
Over the centuries, waves of conquest poured through
Central Asia. From the west came Alexander the Great,
from the east Genghis Khan and the Mongols, and from
the north Russian czarists and Soviets.63 Under Soviet
rule, Uzbekistan became a vast cotton plantation. It was
then the most populous Soviet republic behind Russia
and the Ukraine.64, 65 Expectations that independence
would open a path to political pluralism have been
dashed as the government reverted to Soviet-style rule, in
which dissent is not tolerated.
Early History
During the first millennium B.C.E., Indo-Iranian nomads
arrived in present-day Uzbekistan; they established small
settlements in which the group leader controlled access to
water. They constructed irrigation systems along the
rivers of Central Asia and built settlements in Samarkand
and Bukhara. These towns became stopping points on the
Silk Road, which commercially linked Europe and Asia,
and the towns became extremely wealthy.66
By the fourth century B.C.E., after the campaigns of
Alexander the Great, the area had assumed a prominent role as a trading center. Cultural mixing
intensified, reflected in the number of religions that claimed adherents.67 In the sixth century
C.E., western Turks migrated into the area. They became attached to the land and gave up their
nomadic way of life.68
63
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of
Congress, 1996, http://countrystudies.us/uzbekistan/1.htm
64
Dina Rome Spechler and Martin C. Spechler, “Uzbekistan among the Great Powers,” Communist and PostCommunist Studies 42, no. 3 (September 2009), 353–373,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6VGF-4WY5BFH-11&_cdi=6037&_user=3326500&_pii=S0967067X0900035X&_origin=&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2009&_sk=999
579996&view=c&wchp=dGLzVlz-zSkWW&md5=46ffa762b33a9cb462dfd99de51669c2&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2009.07.006
65
Heather Griffis, “Mental Health in Post-Socialist Turmoil: The Epidemiology of Depression in Uzbekistan”
(paper, European Population Conference, Princeton University, 1–4 September 2010).
66
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: Early History,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
Division, Library of Congress, 1996, http://countrystudies.us/uzbekistan/1.htm
67
Global Security, “Military History,” 2000–2011, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/uzbekhistory.htm
68
Rasul Yasin, The Rebirth of Uzbekistan: Politics, Economy, and Society in the Post-Soviet Era, (Lebanon: Garnet
Publishing Limited, 2002), 26-27.
© D L I F L C | 13
In the seventh century C.E., expanded trade and commerce were dominated by Arabs who
introduced Islam to the region. It replaced Buddhism as the dominant faith.69 By the 10th century,
present-day Uzbekistan had become an important part of the Muslim world. The region, renamed
Mawarannahr by the Arabs, continued to thrive under Arab, then Persian, and finally Turkish
rule.70
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan’s Mongolian army waged a war in central Asia from
1219 to 1225. This conquest changed the people of Mawarannahr and
hastened the Turkification of the region.71 Although Genghis Khan was
a Mongol, his army was primarily made up of Turks who had been
conscripted as he moved southward.72 In the process, cities were burned
to the ground and irrigation systems destroyed. In addition, the Mongol
armies intermixed with the population, resulting in a minority Iranian
population in Mawarannahr.73
Genghis Khan’s ability to conquer and hold territory, even though the
Mongols lacked a written language and any sophisticated appreciation
of science and agriculture, has been much noted by historians.74
Following his death, his empire was divided between his three sons, and
orderly succession prevailed for the next few generations. But by the
early 14th century, the empire broke up because princes of various tribal
groups began to compete for influence.75
69
Monica Whitlock, “Uzbekistan’s Best Kept Secret,” BBC News, 18 April 2004,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/3630167.stm
70
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: The Early Islamic Period,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal
Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996, http://countrystudies.us/uzbekistan/2.htm
71
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: Mawarannahr,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
72
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: The Mongol Period,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
73
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: The Mongol Period,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
74
Dane Kennedy, “Question: Why Does Mongol Imperialism Seem to be Such an Anomaly to Standard
Interpretations of Imperialism?” 2001, http://www.alamo.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/scholar3.html
75
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: Timur,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
Library of Congress, 1996, http://countrystudies.us/uzbekistan/5.htm
© D L I F L C | 14
Tamerlane
One tribal chieftain, Tamerlane, fought his way to the top
in the 1380s and became the unchallenged ruler of
Mawarannahr Province. From there he proceeded to
conquer all of western Central Asia, Iran, Asia Minor, the
southern steppe region north of the Aral Sea, and
Russia.76 Tamerlane, whose Turkish name Timur means
“iron,” established the second-largest empire in history
(after Alexander the Great), and made Samarkand, his
birthplace, the capital.77, 78
As Tamerlane conquered new lands, he sent the best architects and artisans back to his capital,
because he valued cultural preservation and scientific inquiry. Though his empire did not remain
intact for long after his death in 1405, it left a rich architectural history, much of which survives
intact in Samarkand.79, 80 After post-Soviet independence in 1991, his legacy was promoted as
part of an effort to create an indigenous, non-Russian historical narrative.81 Once considered a
brutal nomad, many now praise him as a wise and compassionate leader.82 Statues of him have
been erected around the country.83
Babur, another Turkic-Mongol warrior revered in Uzbekistan, was the father of the Mogul
dynasty of India. His memoirs, which were written in a variant of Turkish rather than Persian or
Arabic, hold an acclaimed place in Uzbek and Indian literature. In 1519, Babur began his
conquest of India when he marched his army through Afghanistan into India, where he
established an empire that was still in place when the British colonialists arrived in the early 17th
century.84, 85
76
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: Timur,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
77
Collaborative International Dictionary of English, “timur-leng,” 2011,
http://onlinedictionary.datasegment.com/word/timur-leng
78
Andrew Forbes, “Timur’s Legacy: The Architecture of Samarkand,” CPA Media (website), 2001,
http://www.cpamedia.com/history/architecture_of_samarkand/
79
World Heritage Center, “Samarkand—Crossroads of Cultures,” 2011, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603
80
Andrew Forbes, “Timur’s Legacy: The Architecture of Samarkand,” CPA Media (website), 2001,
http://www.cpamedia.com/history/architecture_of_samarkand/
81
Lewis Macleod, “Uzbekistan Restores Timurid Legacy,” BBC News, 6 October 2000,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/948757.stm
82
Muzaffar Sulaymanov, “Central Asia: A Question of Identity,” Peace & Conflict Monitor, 19 October 2004,
http://www.monitor.upeace.org/archive.cfm?id_article=209
83
Ron Sela, The Legendary Biographies of Tamerlane: Islam and Heroic Apocrypha in Central Asia (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2011), 9.
84
James Critchlow, Nationalism in Uzbekistan: A Soviet Republic’s Road to Sovereignty (Boulder, CO: Westview
Press, 1991), 6.
85
Beck, “Mughal Empire 1526-1707,” 2004, http://san.beck.org/2-9-MughalEmpire1526-1707.html
© D L I F L C | 15
Uzbeks
By the 15th century, the Uzbeks, who migrated into the area as Turkish
nomads, had established several states. Of these, the khanate of Bukhara
was the most powerful. The khanate controlled the Ferghana Valley, the
most fertile region in Central Asia. But the declining fortunes of the
region affected the Uzbeks. New routes and modes of transportation,
including freight shipped around the Cape of Good Hope, meant less
commerce traveled the Silk Road, condemning the region to economic
stagnation. It made it more difficult to maintain the standing armies
necessary for indigenous leaders to hold their influence and expand their
empires.86
The Sunni Uzbeks’ uneasy relations with Shi’ite Iran isolated them from
the Muslim world.87 In the late 16th century, invasions from Iran, as
well as incursions by the nomad tribes in the North, further weakened
the khanate. Russians also appeared on the scene in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries, in part to protect their lands from possible conquest by the British who were
developing colonial interests in the region.88 Caught between these two powers, Central Asians
continued to fight among themselves.
Russian Conquest
By the 19th century, Russian interest in Central Asia had
increased greatly. This was partly driven by concern that
the British might acquire control over the region. Shortly
after the Russians began asserting control over Central
Asia in the mid-19th century, the United States’ Civil
War broke out. Because Europeans had relied on cotton
grown in the American South to manufacture textiles,
they needed to find an alternative source. The czarist
rulers of Russia saw Uzbekistan and surrounding regions
as a suitable replacement site to grow cotton.89
By 1876, the area of present-day Uzbekistan had fallen under Russian control. This change had
little effect on the daily lives of most Uzbeks. Farmers grew more cotton, but Russians did not
mingle with the locals. Although transportation links were established, the light textile industry
was slow to develop because the cotton was sent to Russia for processing. As the crop balance
shifted from food to cotton, the czarist government laid the groundwork for its successor, the
USSR, to embark on a program of self-sufficiency in cotton after it came to power in 1917.90
86
Mehwish Hassan Sara, “Resurgence of Islam in Central Asia: A Case Study of Uzbekistan,” 2008–2011,
http://www.issi.org.pk/old-site/ss_Detail.php?dataId=394
87
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: The Uzbek Period,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
88
Matthew Rank, “Uzbekistan: A New State Project,” 2006, http://www.helium.com/tm/118202/uzbekistanrelatively-player-international
89
Joseph J. Hobbs, World Regional Geography, 6th ed. (Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 2009), 203.
90
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 1: History: The Russian Conquest,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal
© D L I F L C | 16
The Soviet Empire
When Central Asia was put under Russian rule, the
conquerors needed to create an administrative structure
to govern their empire.91 After the Soviet Union was
established, the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was
created in 1924. The southeastern part was separated into
the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic, 5 years later.92
These borders were established and adjusted with three
goals: 1) to prevent a resurgence in loyalty to the
traditional khanate boundaries that would challenge
Soviet authority; 2) to distribute ethnic groups across political boundaries, in order to avoid
domination by one group and to impede the formation of a unified opposition; 3) to ensure
dependence on Moscow for political power and, to that end, to establish Russian as the common
language.93
Imposing an administrative structure was not difficult; changing longstanding cultural norms was
another matter. Pre-existing ties simply adapted to the new empire. The Soviet practice was to
install local elites in top administrative positions served by Russian deputies. Since the local
elites had no prospect of appointment to a position outside Uzbekistan, those in national
positions had every incentive to build up local patronage networks.94
In the mid-1980s, Uzbekistan was the first target of the anti-corruption campaign of newly
appointed President Mikhail Gorbachev. Over 2,000 functionaries were dismissed. The death of
First Secretary Sharof Rashidov, the leader of Uzbekistan’s Communist Party, exempted him
from the purge. Moscow viewed him as corrupt, whereas Uzbeks lauded him for diverting
resources that benefited the republic.95
91
Resul Yalcin, Rebirth of Uzbekistan: Politics, Economy and Society in the Post-Soviet Era (New York: Cornell
University Press, 2002), 79.
92
Freedom House, “Freedom in the World—Uzbekistan (2007),” 16 April 2007, http://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=printdoc&docid=473c5607c
93
Chris Seiple, “Uzbekistan: Civil Society in the Heartland,” Orbis 49, no. 2 (Spring 2005): 249–250,
http://www.fpri.org/orbis/4902/seiple.uzbekistancivilsociety.pdf
94
95
Richard Pomfret, “Agrarian Reform in Uzbekistan: Why Has the Chinese Model Failed to Deliver?” (working
paper, School of Economics, Adelaide University, Australia, 1998),
http://www.economics.adelaide.edu.au/research/papers/doc/wp1998-16.pdf
© D L I F L C | 17
Independence
The prospect of independence presented opportunities
and challenges. In April 1991, Uzbekistan and eight other
republics agreed to extend the union treaty. The August
coup attempt against Gorbachev led to a court decision
disbanding the USSR.96 Though independence offered
autonomy, it meant the loss of Soviet subsidies.
Since gaining independence, Uzbekistan has been led by
Islom Karimov, who had been appointed leader in March
1990. In the December 1991 election, which most
observers considered neither free nor fair, Karimov was declared president. In 1995, his
presidency was extended by a plebiscite (a referendum determined by direct vote). In 2000,
Parliament ruled the extension to be part of his first term, which allowed Karimov to run for a
second term in 2000.97 He won with 92.5% of the vote.98 This subsequent election was judged
unfair because of the Karimov government’s pre-election machinations.99
In Uzbekistan, as well as its Central Asian neighbors, governments have been cognizant of how
an Islamic revival could provide “an alternative means of mobilization and expression,” as one
scholar observed in 2000.100 In February 1999, a series of bombings shook Tashkent and led to
an immediate crackdown on those perceived to be Islamic fundamentalists (Wahabists in local
vernacular) that in reality extended to a broad range of regime opponents.101
Recent Events
Andijan Massacre
In early May 2005, several dozen armed men, believed to be Islamist extremists, stormed a
prison where some 20 businessmen were being held while on trial for allegedly being members
of Akramiya, an organization thought to have ties to the Islamist terrorist group Islamic
Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU).102 The prisoners were freed, along with hundreds of others who
96
Neil J. Melvin, Uzbekistan: Transition to Authoritarianism on the Silk Road (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic
Publishers, 2000), 28.
97
U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Department of State Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2001—
Uzbekistan,” 4 March 2002, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3c84d9941c.html
98
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices 2000: Uzbekistan,” 23 February 2001, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/eur/858.htm
99
Paula R. Newberg, “Uzbekistan’s Democratic Smoke Screen,” Yale Global Online, 20 December 2004,
http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/uzbekistans-democratic-smoke-screen
100
Martha Brill Olcott, “Radical Islamic Mobilization in Central Asia,” 14 November 2000,
http://www.carnegieendowment.org/events/index.cfm?fa=eventDetail&id=234
101
UZNews (website), “Tashkent Remembers 1999 Blasts,” 17 February 2009,
http://www.uznews.net/news_single.php?lng=en&sub=top&cid=30&nid=8842
102
For information on this Central Asian terrorist organization, which is active in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan as well,
see Jane’s Defence, “Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU),” Jane’s World Insurgency and Terrorism, 10 August
2010.
© D L I F L C | 18
had been incarcerated for various offenses. The commandos took several guards hostage and set
off in a convoy. As the army followed, guerrilla warfare filled the streets of Andijan.103
Feelings of anger toward the government for repressing individuals such
as these businessmen led to a peaceful gathering of civilians in the
streets of Andijan. Men, women, and children protested the deteriorating
economic and social conditions, in what witnesses say was a public
discussion about the people’s grievances against the government.
Security forces were called in and opened fire, killing unarmed citizens.
The incident is now known as the Andijan Massacre. The government
claimed its reaction was appropriate to provocation by armed Islamist
groups. Most outside observers agree that possibly hundreds of victims
who had turned out to demonstrate were mostly unarmed civilians,
including minors.104 It was the climax to 6 months of widespread
economic dissatisfaction.105 People (such as foreign journalists) who
contradicted the official version of events faced difficulties remaining in
the country. The visas of many nongovernmental organization staff and
those in other organizations, such as Peace Corps volunteers, were not
renewed. The government’s refusal to convene an outside commission to review the incidents
infuriated Western governments, who imposed sanctions or took other measures to register their
disapproval.106, 107 In response, the Karimov administration ordered American forces to leave
Karshi-Khanabad air base, which was integral to the U.S. mission in Afghanistan.108
103
Jane’s Defence, “Security, Uzbekistan,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 23 June 2010.
Fiona Hill, “Uzbek Fury,” The Brookings Institution, 20 May 2005,
http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2005/0520russia_hill.aspx
105
International Crisis Group, “Update Briefing: Uzbekistan: The Andijon Uprising,” Crisis Group Asia Briefing no.
38, 25 May 2005, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/centralasia/uzbekistan/b038_uzbekistan___the_andijon_uprising_.pdf
106
Nathan Hamm, “It’s Official: Peace Corps Quits Uzbekistan,” Registan.net (blog), 6 June 2005,
http://www.registan.net/index.php/2005/06/06/its-official-peace-corps-quits-uzbekistan/
107
Dilip Hiro, “Chapter 2—Uzbekistan the Complex Hub of Central Asia,” in Inside Central Asia: A Political and
Cultural History of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Iran (New York:
Overlook Duckworth, 2009).
108
Geraint Hughes, The Military’s Role in Counterterrorism: Examples and Implications for Liberal Democracies
(Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, 2011), 61–62.
104
© D L I F L C | 19
Elections, Violence, and Human Rights
Islom Karimov was reelected president in 2007 with over
88% of the vote.109 He maintains a highly repressive
regime and continues severe oppression against the
majority Muslim community.110
In early February 2009, violence linked to al-Qaeda
broke out in the country. Attacks against the police,
including bombings, suicide bombings, and a standoff,
sparked a stronger crackdown on Muslims in general.
The government closed all border crossings and a
number of suspected militants were arrested. Fear spread that there would be even wider
crackdowns on any dissent in the country.111, 112 Additional attacks along the Kyrgyz-Uzbek
border near Khanabad, bombings in Andijan, and a shooting in Tashkent were all alleged to be
linked to the IMU.113
The country continues on its path of serious human rights violations.114 Despite Uzbekistan’s
designation as a “country of particular concern,” the U.S. government retains a waiver on
sanctions and continues to use routes through Uzbekistan to supply troops in Afghanistan.115
109
Central Intelligence Agency, “Uzbekistan: Government,” in The World Factbook, 21 July 2011,
110
U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, “USCIRF Annual Report 2011—Countries of Particular
Concern: Uzbekistan,” 28 April 2011, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4dbe90bd4b.html
111
Associated Press, “Al Qaeda Blamed for Uzbek Violence,” CBS News, 11 February 2009,
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/03/29/world/main609153.shtml
112
Jim Nichol, “Uzbekistan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests,” Congressional Research Service, 12 August
2010), 6, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21238.pdf
113
114
Amnesty International, “Annual Report: Uzbekistan 2011,” 28 May 2011,
http://www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports/annual-report-uzbekistan-2011?page=4
115
Human Rights Watch, “World Report 2011: Uzbekistan,” 2011, http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report2011/uzbekistan
© D L I F L C | 20
1. Samarkand and Bukhara became wealthy towns because they were stopping points on the
Silk Road.
True
Samarkand and Bukhara became stopping points on the Silk Road, which commercially
linked Europe and Asia. As a result, residents of these cities became extremely wealthy.
2. Although statues of him dot the country, most Uzbeks still view Tamerlane as a brutal
conqueror.
False
Once considered a brutal conqueror, Tamerlane is now praised as wise and
compassionate by most Uzbeks.
3. Historically, Uzbeks and Iranians related well to each other because both groups were
Muslim.
False
The Sunni Uzbeks’ uneasy relations with Shi’ite Iran isolated them from the Muslim
world.
4. The area of Uzbekistan became a republic under Soviet rule in 1924.
True
After the Soviet Union was established, the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was created
in 1924.
5. The Andijan Massacre occurred when government security forces opened fire on
unarmed protestors.
True
Although the government claims it was engaging militants who had attacked security
personnel, raided an arsenal, and freed inmates, the victims of the massacre were
unarmed protestors.
© D L I F L C | 21
Chapter 3 Economy
Introduction
After the demise of the Soviet Union, Uzbekistan’s
economy began to improve. Although in 2003
Uzbekistan announced a commitment to full currency
convertibility, the government effectively hamstrung the
reform by shutting its borders, instituting high tariffs, and
curtailing the circulation of money. These severe
measures led to an upswing in crime and corruption, and
resulted in consumer shortages. The government retains
firm control over all exports.116
Today, the main contributors to the economy are petroleum, natural gas, gold, and cotton. A
significant portion of Uzbekistan’s finances derives from remittances from workers outside the
country, especially in Russia.117 Uzbekistan has had some success as it strives for a more
diversified economy. According to some economic forecasts, Uzbekistan will have one of the
fastest growing economies in the world in 2011. Official reports state that the economy expanded
by more than 8% in 2010.118 Growth was fueled mainly by the industrial and service sectors.
Half of industrial growth was accounted for by chemical machinery, light industry, and foods
that all benefitted from government investment. Service sector growth reflected increased
spending on rural healthcare.119
Agriculture
During the years of Soviet rule, the Uzbek agricultural
system was characterized by large collectives of stateowned farms. Following independence, the state-owned
farms were dismantled but not put into private ownership.
The state continued ownership while farmers were given
land use rights. State control and regulation of
agricultural activities continued.120
116
2010, 10, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21238.pdf
117
eStandards Forum, Financial Standards Foundation, “Country Brief: Uzbekistan: Executive Summary,” 31 March
2010, 1, 5–6, http://www.estandardsforum.org/system/briefs/328/original/brief-Uzbekistan.pdf?1272310838
118
Central Asia Newswire, “Uzbekistan Will Be Among World’s Fastest Growing Economies in 2011, Says Report,”
5 January 2011, http://centralasianewswire.com/International/Uzbekistan-will-be-among-world39s-fastest-growingeconomies-in-2011-says-report/viewstory.aspx?id=2844
119
Iskandar Gulamov, “Uzbekistan,” in Asian Development Outlook 2011: South–South Economic Links
(Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2011), 114–116,
http://www.adb.org/documents/books/ado/2011/ado2011-uzb.pdf
120
World Food Programme, “Poverty and Food Insecurity in Uzbekistan,” April 2008, 2–3,
http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp179011.pdf
© D L I F L C | 22
Shirkats are the new version of the old Soviet collectives. Most are devoted primarily to the
growth of cotton and food grains, such as wheat. Workers are paid minimal wages and
sometimes receive goods rather than money.
A relatively small number of privately owned family farms constitute about one-third of the
cultivated land in Uzbekistan. These are generally required to raise a specified amount of cotton
and wheat or rice, and to sell their produce to the state at regulated prices. Unlike the shirkats,
these family farms are marginally profitable, partly because of their ability to grow products
other than cotton and wheat.121
Under Soviet rule, dekhan farms, or household plots, were allocated to all rural and a few urban
households for the purpose of constructing residences. The land could be used to supplement
food sources. Since independence, dekhan farms have increased dramatically in number and
have become one of the most significant economic features of the agricultural sector. Although
small, dekhan farms play a large role in providing food for Uzbek households. They are vital for
the survival of farm workers as well as the poor and unemployed. More than 25% of food for
rural homes and nearly 7% of urban household food consumption are provided by these farms.122
Today, agriculture accounts for 21% of Uzbekistan’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).123, 124
Cotton is the major agricultural product: today, Uzbekistan is the fifth-largest cotton producer
and the second-largest cotton exporter, after the United States.125, 126
Human Labor
Instead of harvesting machines, human labor is employed to pick the cotton crop.127 During the
harvest season, schools are shut down and everyone helps with the crops. The blatant use of child
labor has become a corporate social responsibility issue. There have been calls to boycott Uzbek
cotton (which is made into clothing primarily in Bangladesh).128, 129, 130 Those who grow and
121
122
123
GDP: The total market value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given year.
124
Central Intelligence Agency, “Uzbekistan: Economy,” in The World Factbook, 21 July 2011,
125
126
The five countries that dominate the world cotton market are the United States, Uzbekistan, China, India, and
Pakistan. Toby Webb, “Uzbekistan Cotton—A Thread of Hope in the Retail Fabric,” Ethical Corporation (website),
4 October 2007, http://www.ethicalcorp.com/content.asp?ContentID=5409
127
Catherine A. Fitzpatrick, “Adults Suffer Forced Labor, Beatings in Uzbek Cotton Campaign: Human Rights
Groups,” Choihona (blog), 22 October 2010, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/62219
128
Amanda Klowe, “Victory! Gymboree Bans Use of Uzbek Cotton,” 25 May 2011,
http://news.change.org/stories/victory-gymboree-bans-use-of-uzbek-cotton
129
European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights (ECCHR), “Child Labour in Uzbek Cotton Production
and the Responsibility of European Corporations,” 2011, 8–11,
http://www.ecchr.eu/uzbekistan.html?file=tl_files/Dokumente/Publikationen/ECCHR_UZBEKISTAN_EN.pdf
130
Gulnoza Saidazimova, “Uzbekistan: Call for Boycott over Uzbek Child Labor,” Radio Free Europe, 21
November 2007, http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/11/f0656fad-48b9-4aa9-858c-8ed789dc1c7b.html
© D L I F L C | 23
harvest the cotton receive little of the revenues from sales, which are estimated to be over USD 1
billion. The government maintains control of the hard currency earnings.131
131
European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights (ECCHR), “Child Labour in Uzbek Cotton Production
and the Responsibility of European Corporations,” 2011, 6,
http://www.ecchr.eu/uzbekistan.html?file=tl_files/Dokumente/Publikationen/ECCHR_UZBEKISTAN_EN.pdf
© D L I F L C | 24
Natural Resources and Industry
Other than cotton, a considerable portion of Uzbekistan’s
international exports consist of extracted natural
resources, particularly gold. Uzbekistan lays claim to the
largest open-pit gold mine in the world.132, 133 The
country’s reliance on commodity exports causes its
earnings to be greatly affected by international price
fluctuations.134
In the years since independence, the government of
Uzbekistan has pursued a gradual transition to a freemarket economy. Nevertheless, most large businesses are still under state ownership or
control.135 The industrial sector accounts for about 32% of GDP.136 The most developed of
Uzbekistan’s industrial sectors is textiles. Between 2004–2009, textile output grew 50%.
Meanwhile, clothing manufacturing doubled.137
Major exports include gold, uranium, and strategic minerals. Manufacturing, especially of cars
exported to Russia, has become increasingly important to the economy.138
132
Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Uzbekistan,” 20 June
2011, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2924.htm
133
Frank Lasch, Leo Paul Dana, and Jens Mueller, “Diversity in Central Asia: Culture, Transition &
Entrepreneurship,” Journal of Asia Entrepreneurship and Stability 5, no. 1 (June 2009): 44–56,
http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/3536/1/Mueller Diversity in Central Asia.pdf
134
David Zweig, “‘Developmental Communities’ on China’s Coast: The Impact of Trade, Investment, and
Transnational Alliances,” in Comparative Politics 27, no. 3 (April 1995): 253–274,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/422058.pdf?acceptTC=true
135
136
137
Office of the Senior Economist, United Nations Development Programme, “Uzbekistan’s Textile Industry: How
Can its Development Potential be Captured?” March 2011, 7,
http://europeandcis.undp.org/senioreconomist/show/AFF37525-F203-1EE9-B0C2B2ED09435EDE
138
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Energy
With its significant reserves of energy sources,
Uzbekistan is self-sufficient in energy resources and one
of the major energy exporters in Central Asia.139 Once a
major oil producer, its oil output has been declining.
Estimates are that Uzbekistan has less than three decades
of proven reserves remaining.140 Natural gas is now the
most important exchange earner in the nation, which
ranks 8th in natural gas production.141, 142 Uzbekistan is
the largest energy power in Central Asia, with 35% of its
output coming from thermal power stations.143
Russia is the largest importer of Uzbekistani gas.144 Uzbekistan and China signed a deal worth
more than USD 5 billion to expand natural gas supplies and to construct the Uzbekistani spur of
the Central Asia-China pipeline. Uzbekistan is expected to supply an extra 25 billion cubic m
(883 billion cu ft) to China each year.145 As a means to pressure Tajikistan over ethnic tensions
and its overdue payments, Uzbekistan has disrupted its flow of gas to its neighbor. Afghanistan
also is a recipient of some Uzbek petroleum products and electricity.146
Trade and Tourism
Uzbekistan holds the dubious distinction of being in the
top 15% of most-restrictive trade regimes. Its trade
arrangements are the most restrictive in the European and
Central Asian regions. Trade measures designed to
suppress national and international trade are in place.
Imports are further limited by Uzbekistan’s low access to
139
International Exhibition Group, “Energy Resources of Uzbekistan,” 2011,
http://www.ieguzexpo.com/page/exhibition/clean_energy/energy_expo_eng/energy_resources_eng
140
eStandards Forum, Financial Standards Forum, “Country Brief: Uzbekistan,” 31 March 2010, 7,
http://www.estandardsforum.org/system/briefs/328/original/brief-Uzbekistan.pdf?1272310838
141
142
143
International Exhibition Group, “Energy Resources of Uzbekistan,” 2011,
http://www.ieguzexpo.com/page/exhibition/clean_energy/energy_expo_eng/energy_resources_eng
144
145
Reuters, “Uzbekistan Says Signs China Deals Worth $5 Bln,” 21 April 2011,
http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/04/21/uzbekistan-china-idUKLDE73K18H20110421
146
© D L I F L C | 26
foreign exchange.147 Despite these challenges, exports were projected to grow by about 14% in
2011.148
After gaining its independence, Uzbekistan set about structuring and organizing a tourism
industry. The early years saw annual tourism growth of as much as 25%, but in recent years that
number has decreased significantly. Though tourism contributed just under USD 5 per USD
1,000 of GDP in 2004, it has the potential for substantial growth, because many see the tourism
sector as underdeveloped.149, 150
About 90% of tourists in Uzbekistan are middle-aged or older. Visits are largely confined to
known cultural and historical attractions.151 Numerous obstacles must be overcome to improve
tourism. These include making it easier to obtain visas, extend visas, and reduce their cost.
Border crossings and formalities are cumbersome and need to be simplified. Tourist services,
such as accommodations, and infrastructure need to be developed.152
Banking
Uzbekistan has a two-tiered banking system dominated
by the state-owned banks.153 The sector is headed by the
Central Bank of Uzbekistan, which is chartered by and
accountable to the Parliament (Majlis).154, 155 The Central
Bank is responsible for standard central bank functions
such as controlling the movement and transfer of
currency. Beneath the central bank are various
specialized state-owned institutions, which are
responsible for lending in particular sectors. In
November 2007, the government issued a decree that
147
World Bank, “Uzbekistan Trade Brief,” October 2009,
http://info.worldbank.org/etools/wti/docs/Uzbekistan_brief.pdf
148
Uzbekistan Daily, “ADB Forecasts Economic Growth in Uzbekistan,” 6 April 2011,
http://www.uzdaily.com/articles-id-13696.htm
149
United Nations Development Programme, “Uzbekistan’s Tourism Sector—An Unrealized Potential,” 2
November 2007, 1–2, http://www.undp.uz/en/download/?type=publication&id=74&parent=1849&doc=7979
150
NationMaster, “Economy Statistics: International Tourism, Receipts; Current US$ (per GDP)”, 2011,
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_int_tou_rec_cur_us_pergdp-receipts-current-us-per-gdp
151
November 2007, 3, http://www.undp.uz/en/download/?type=publication&id=74&parent=1849&doc=7979
152
November 2007, 5–9, http://www.undp.uz/en/download/?type=publication&id=74&parent=1849&doc=7979
153
Embassy of the Republic of Uzbekistan to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, “Financial
System of Uzbekistan,” 2011, http://www.uzbekembassy.org/e/financial_system_of_uzbekistan/
154
Erkin Ahmadov, “Development and Liberalization of Banking System in Uzbekistan,” Central Asia-Caucasus
Analyst, 28 November 2007, http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/4749
155
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outlines the liberalization of the financial sector as well as a program to increase competition and
expand services. One requirement for new financial institutions is that, from 2008, they maintain
their nominal capital in euros, not in U.S. dollars as before.156
The second tier comprises about 32 licensed commercial banks, the largest of which is the
National Bank for Foreign Economic Activity of Uzbekistan. Companies have difficulties getting
credit and this has severely constrained the development of private-sector enterprises. Companies
can only make cash withdrawals to pay wages and travel expenses. Companies that do not
deposit cash receipts in the banks are penalized.157
Standard of Living
Uzbekistan has the third-highest rate of poverty in
Central Asia, with a per capita income of USD 1,336 in
2010; nearly 77% of the population live on less than
USD 2 per day.158, 159, 160 Nearly 28% live below the
national poverty line and 20% of children under age 5 are
malnourished.161, 162 The highest rates of poverty are in
the Ferghana Valley.163
Despite a reduction in government expenditures in
healthcare, Uzbekistan has managed to decrease the
infant mortality rate, immunize most children against major childhood diseases, and control
major communicable diseases. Nevertheless, out-of-pocket expenses have increased for the
average citizen, thus preventing access for the poor.164 Official data proclaim an increase in life
expectancy from 69 to 72 years, but other estimates contradict these claims and show that life
expectancy has decreased in recent years from 69 to 66.4 years. The World Health Organization
shows an even lower life expectancy of 66 years, and the gap between life expectancy in
156
Erkin Ahmadov, “Development and Liberalization of Banking System in Uzbekistan,” Central Asia-Caucasus
Analyst, 28 November 2007, http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/4749
157
158
World Food Programme, “Poverty and Food Insecurity in Uzbekistan,” April 2008, 26,
159
160
161
162
World Food Programme, “Poverty and Food Insecurity in Uzbekistan,” April 2008, 45,
163
164
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Uzbekistan and Europe continues to widen.165 Although infant mortality rates are lower, they are
still relatively high at about 22 deaths per 1,000 live births.166
The scarcity of agricultural employment options has led to an exodus from rural areas of young
men. After Ukrainians, Uzbek males from their late teens to their early 30s constitute the secondlargest migrant nationality in Russia, where they seek jobs in the construction industry. The
wages are high enough to enable them to support their families at home.167
Employment Trends
Uzbekistan showed strong economic growth in 2010.
Growth trends are strong in chemical, machinery, food
production, and light industries. Construction is a
growing industry as additional jobs are likely if various
planned infrastructure projects come to fruition.168
Expansion in social services, especially healthcare,
appears strong. The government intends to raise public
sector wages and social payments.
Official estimates of unemployment stand at 1.1%, with
an additional 20% of the population underemployed.169 Unofficial unemployment estimates
range from 8% to 25%. The agricultural sector has particularly high levels of underemployment,
which is significant because approximately 62% of the population is rural.170 Forecasts by some
agencies suggest that there will be no significant changes in the unemployment rates in
Uzbekistan for the next several years.171
165
166
167
Farangis Najibullah, “Uzbekistan: Poll Says Youth ‘Satisfied’ Despite Scarce Jobs,” Radio Free Europe, 26
November 2007, http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/11/611688F2-FD03-4D16-AC76-D328C1DDC148.html
168
169
170
171
Economy Watch, “Unemployment Rate (% of Labour Force) Data for Year 2012, All Countries,”
http://www.economywatch.com/economic-statistics/economicindicators/Unemployment_Rate_Percentage_of_Labour_Force/2012/
© D L I F L C | 29
Outlook
Although estimates vary, there is agreement that the
agricultural sector has had modest growth. Most of the
observed growth comes from the dekhan farms, despite
their limited share of cultivated land. The collective
shirkat farms have had diminished output over the years,
accounting for only about 23% of output despite having
52% of the cultivated land. The new private farms show
signs of low productivity, accounting for a mere 14% of
output. These data suggest that the only dynamic
segment of Uzbek agriculture lies with the dekhan farms, which have shown rapid and strong
gains in productivity since independence and are responsible for approximately 75% of food
(aside from wheat) produced in the country. A majority of food consumption is now provided by
domestic food production.172
The government has announced a plan to implement investments equal to USD 50 billion
between 2011 and 2015 in an attempt to increase economic output by at least 60%. Much of that
investment will be aimed at modernizing and re-equipping industry.173 One of the priority sectors
is the chemical industry.174
Although Uzbekistan managed to avoid serious injury in the global economic crisis, the country
remains poor, with more than 46% of the population living on USD 1.25 daily. Poor
infrastructure, high unemployment, and weak health and education systems stifle development in
the private sector. The small elite have maintained control of the country’s wealth.175
There are several external risks that may stall or slow Uzbekistan recovery. These include
uncertainty in global financial markets, increasing food prices, and inflation.176
172
World Food Programme, “Poverty and Food Insecurity in Uzbekistan,” April 2008, 4–6, 11–12,
173
Central Asian International Textile Machinery Exhibition, “Uzbekistan to Implement 500 Projects for US$50bn
in 2011–2015,” 24 January 2011, http://www.iteuzbekistan.uz/vis/caitme/eng/press/news.php?ELEMENT_ID=3992
174
ITE Gulf FZ LLC (firm), “Chemie Uzbekistan,” 16–18 November 2011, http://www.itegulf.com/index.php?part=events&event_id=302
175
176
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1. Uzbekistan is the largest cotton producer in the world.
False
Uzbekistan is the fifth-largest cotton producer and the second-largest exporter, behind the
United States.
2. Uzbek schools are closed during the harvest season.
True
Instead of harvesting machines, humans harvest the cotton crops. Schools are shut down
and everyone helps with the harvest.
3. Young Uzbek males have no trouble finding jobs in rural areas.
False
Lack of employment has led to an exodus from rural areas of young men. Young Uzbek
males constitute the second-largest migrant group in Russia.
4. Shirkat farms are household plots available to all rural households.
False
Shirkat farms are collective, government-owned plots. Dekhan farms are household plots
allocated to all rural and some urban households for the purpose of constructing
residences.
5. High tariffs on imports have led to an increase in crime and corruption.
True
Because of the tight government control on imports, a flourishing black market has led to
increased crime and corruption throughout the nation.
© D L I F L C | 31
Chapter 4 Society
Introduction
Uzbekistan, as delineated by the Soviets, was an
artificially created administrative entity that encompasses
ethnic groups other than Uzbeks. At its creation in 1924,
some Uzbeks were partitioned off in neighboring Central
Asian countries. Before independence, Russians were the
largest minority, making up 8% of the population.177
After the Soviet Union disbanded, all long-term residents
were offered Uzbek citizenship. Most non-ethnic Uzbeks
chose to not accept the offer even though some had lived
there for generations.178 Emigration to countries where
their ethnicity constituted the majority became an alternative, particularly for Russians, few of
whom were fluent in Uzbek. Reflecting the same phenomenon, ethnic Uzbeks in neighboring
states returned to their cultural homeland. Thus, the population of Uzbekistan has become more
homogeneous since it became an independent state in 1991.179, 180
Ethnic Groups and Languages
Uzbeks
The Uzbeks, who account for 80% of the population, are primarily of Turkish origin with some
Mongolian and Persian ancestry.181 Their language is related to Turkish. Their Turkish-derived
language is one of the most widely spoken in Central Asia.182 Uzbeks are generally followers of
Sunni Islam.183, 184, 185 The household division of labor follows traditional conventions, with
women being primarily responsible for taking care of the home and children. Despite these
obligations, about 58% of women work outside the home.186
177
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 3: Population: Ethnic Composition,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal
178
Immigration and Naturalization Service, U.S. Department of Justice, “Profile Series Uzbekistan: Political
Conditions in the Post-Soviet Era,” September 1994, https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=22570
179
180
Anita Sengupta, Heartlands of Eurasia: The Geopolitics of Political Space (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books,
2009), 18.
181
Central Intelligence Agency, “Uzbekistan: Population,” in The World Factbook, 21 July 2011,
182
UCLA Language Materials Project, “Kazakh,” n.d.,
http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=60&menu=004
183
The views of Islam practiced in Uzbekistan have evolved since the 1920s. Views and teachings are more in line
with the Salafi school but there are heavy influences of the Hanafi school. For a fuller discussion, see Martha Brill
Olcott, “The Roots of Radical Islam in Central Asia,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, n.d.,
http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/olcottroots.pdf
184
Mark Dickens, “The Uzbeks,” 1990, Oxus Communications (website), http://www.oxuscom.com/Uzbeks.pdf
185
İhsan Yilmaz, “Predicaments and Prospects in Uzbek Islamism: A Critical Comparison with the Turkish Case,”
Journal of Central Asian and Caucasian Studies 3, no. 6 (2008): 23–57,
http://www.usak.org.tr/dosyalar/dergi/iD8GB1oSa2oSqJ8rDHSCfKdoLOnSx7.pdf
186
UN Data, “Uzbekistan: Economic Indicators,” World Statistics Pocketbook, 2008,
http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=UZBEKISTAN
© D L I F L C | 32
Kazakhs
Kazakhs are descendants of nomadic livestock herders.187
They are found in the northern border region of
Uzbekistan, constitute 3% of the population, and are the
fourth-largest ethnic group in the country.188
Kyrgyz
The small Kyrgyz minority inhabits the Ferghana Valley,
a fertile area that the Soviets split into separate administrative entities. The Kyrgyz are mainly
Sunni Muslims. This group was primarily nomadic until the 1930s, when the Soviets introduced
collectivization. Men still herd flocks in the mountains, while the women stay in the valleys to
work the farms.189 The Kyrgyz language is derived from Turkish.190
Tajiks
The Tajiks are an Indo-European people who speak a Persian dialect similar to Farsi.191 They
officially make up 5% of the population of Uzbekistan.192 But most experts agree that this is an
undercount. After independence in 1991, civil war engulfed Tajikistan, making it unlikely that
many Tajiks could return to their ancestral homeland.193 Islom Karimov, president of Uzbekistan
since its independence in 1991, is of Tajik descent. He is reputed to speak better Russian and
Tajik than he does Uzbek.194
Religion
Most Uzbeks are Sunni Muslim, and nearly a quarter are considered Sufis. Approximately 9% of
the population belongs to the Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity, a remnant of the Soviet
occupation. The other 3% of the country adhere to a variety of faiths including Judaism, Baptists,
Jehovah’s Witnesses, Korean Protestants, and Seventh Day Adventists.195, 196
187
Maps of World, “Ethnic Groups in Uzbekistan,” 2009, http://www.mapsofworld.com/uzbekistan/people/ethnicgroups.html
188
189
David J. Phillips, Peoples on the Move: Introducing the Nomads of the World (Pasadena, CA: Piquant, 2001),
304.
190
Dilmurat Tursun, Turdi Tohti, and Askar Hamdulla, “Research in Multilingual Indexing and Query Processing in
Uyghur, Kazak, and Kyrgyz Multilingual Information Retrieval System,” in Computer and Information Science
2009, eds. Roger Lee, Gongzu Hu, and Huaikou Miao (NY: Springer, 2009), 264.
191
Maps of World, “Ethnic Groups in Uzbekistan,” 2009, http://www.mapsofworld.com/uzbekistan/people/ethnicgroups.html
192
193
MaryLee Knowlton, Uzbekistan, (New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2006).
194
Chan Van Horn, “Speaks Easy: An Examination of Turkic Literacy in Post-Soviet Central Asia” (paper, George
Mason University, n.d.), http://mason.gmu.edu/~calvord/Speaks_Easy.html
195
https://www.cia.gov/ligencybrary/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uz.html
196
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In Uzbekistan, Islam is not monolithic: there are followers of several
schools, including the Hanafi and the Shafi’i legal schools, along with the
Sufi organizations.197 Uzbek Muslims have traditionally practiced a more
tolerant form of the religion, although more radical forms are emerging.198
The modern history of Islam in Uzbekistan includes strong anti-Islamic
campaigns by the Soviets, and even purges in the 1920s and 1930s. During
their 70 years of rule, the Soviets attempted to purge Islam from the
region.199 Between 1950 and 1970, the more moderate Hanafi legal school
began to lose influence to the more conservative Salafi-Wahabi schools.
These more fundamentalist groups began to operate more openly in the
1980s, resulting in a greater politicization of Islam.200
The repression of religion by the state extends to all religious groups.
Muslims continue to be arrested, and individuals, groups, and mosques
that do not subscribe to government-approved practices are repressed. This
has led to the imprisonment of thousands. While there is some validity to
the government’s concerns about extremist groups, many of the targets
pose no credible threat to national security.201
Islamist Terrorism
The fundamentalist form of Islam became strongest in the Ferghana
Valley with the formation of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU)
in 1992. Established by Juma Namangani, a former Soviet paratrooper,
and Tahir Yuldashev, a radical Islamist cleric, the movement represents
the merger of four radical Islamist groups. The organization’s original
purpose was to overthrow President Karimov and establish an Islamic
state.202, 203 This threat led to a violently repressive response from the
government, which has declared all opposition groups illegal and views
197
198
Martha Brill Olcott, “The Roots of Radical Islam in Central Asia,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,
n.d., 3, http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/olcottroots.pdf
199
200
Journal of Central Asian and Caucasian Studies 3, no. 6 (2008): 29,
201
United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, “USCIRF Annual Report 2011 Countries of
Particular Concern: Uzbekistan,” 28 April 2011, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4dbe90bd4b.html
202
n.d., 52–64, http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/olcottroots.pdf
203
IHS Jane’s, “Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU),” Jane’s World Insurgency and Terrorism, 10 August 2011.
© D L I F L C | 34
Islamic organizations with great suspicion.204, 205, 206, 207 IMU was driven out of Uzbekistan and
has since been active throughout much of Central Asia, including operations in Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and Tajikistan. American forces in the area killed both Namangani and Yuldashev in
ongoing operations in the Afghanistan theater. Usmon Odil has emerged as the group’s current
leader.208
Cuisine
In contrast to their nomadic neighbors, the forebears of
present-day Uzbeks were settled farmers who grew grain
centuries ago. Rice was successfully cultivated in the
lower reaches of the Ferghana Valley, irrigated by water
from the three major rivers.209 As a result, Uzbekistan
can claim a long culinary heritage. Plov has the status as
the national dish, although the specific ingredients are
regional. It is typically rich in meat, sweetened by diced
onion and shredded carrot, and spiced. Cooked in a castiron pot, it is served over rice. The recipe was passed
from merchant to merchant on the Silk Road. Variants are consumed from Azerbaijan to
Xinjiang in northwestern China.210, 211
In addition, a staple of the daily diet is fruit. Grapes and apricots are dried to extend their life
beyond summer. Melons can be found seasonally.212
Uzbek food is flavorful but not particularly hot or spicy. Common spices include cumin, pepper,
barberries, coriander, sesame seeds, cilantro, dill, parsley, and basil. Fermented milk products are
common. Katyk, a yogurt made from sour milk, and suzma, strained clotted milk, are eaten plain,
included in salads, or added to soups and main dishes. 213
204
205
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S Department of State, “Uzbekistan: International Religious
Freedom Report 2010,” 17 November 2010, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148810.htm
206
United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, “Uzbekistan: USCIRF Calls for Freedom for
Thousands of Religious Prisoners after Poet Released,” 26 May 2011, http://www.uscirf.gov/news-room/pressreleases/3632-5262011-uzbekistan-uscirf-calls-for-freedom-for-thousands-of-religious-prisoners-after-poetreleased.html
207
United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, “USCIRF Annual Report 2011 Countries of
Particular Concern: Uzbekistan,” 28 April 2011, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4dbe90bd4b.html
208
IHS Jane’s, “Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU),” Jane’s World Insurgency and Terrorism, 10 August 2011.
209
Travel Centre, “Uzbek Plov,” Passport Travel (website), n.d.,
http://www.travelcentre.com.au/FoodWineBeer/uzbek_food.htm
210
Abdukakhor Saidov, Abdulkhamid Anarbaev, and Valentina Goriyacheva, “The Ferghana Valley: The PreColonial Legacy,” in Ferghana Valley: The Heart of Central Asia, ed. S. Frederick Starr (New York: M.E. Sharpe,
2011), 3–28.
211
iExplore (firm), “Uzbekistan Food and Dining,” 2010, http://www.iexplore.com/dmap/Uzbekistan/Dining
212
Oriental Express Central Asia (firm), “Cuisine of Uzbekistan,” 2011, http://orexca.com/cuisine.shtml
213
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Bread is a staple for most of the population. Non, or flatbread, is commonly served at every meal.
Some non are made with onions or meat stuffed in the dough, and sesame seeds may be used as a
topping.214
Tea is an important national drink. Green tea is predominant and is the “drink of hospitality,”
while black tea is more commonly seen in Tashkent. There is an entire portion of the food
culture of Uzbekistan that is devoted to drinking tea, including an elaborate tea ceremony.215, 216
Dress
European-style clothing is common among modern,
urban Uzbeks.217 Islamic culture normally dictates
modesty in dress, and clothing should not show much
flesh. Trousers and long-sleeved shirts are appropriate
wear for men. Similarly, long-sleeved blouses and long
skirts are a good choice for women. Uzbek women often
wear headscarves, and occasionally the fuller covering
for the head and face is seen.218
Gender Issues
After independence, Uzbekistan was one of the first Central Asian Republics to codify equal
rights for men and women. In 1995, the government ratified the Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.219 The reality is somewhat different, however,
and reflects a strong tradition of patriarchy. Women disproportionately lost their jobs as the
economy contracted.220 Unemployment leaves them with no independent claim on housing,
rendering them more vulnerable to domestic abuse.221
Women are often victims of domestic violence. Although prohibited by law, domestic violence is
often widely accepted and rarely results in conviction against the offender. The trafficking of
women for prostitution abroad is a serious problem.222
214
216
Oriental Express Central Asia (firm), “Uzbek Custom,” 2011, http://orexca.com/customs.shtml
217
Uzintour (firm), “Uzbeks,” 2011, http://www.uzintour.com/en/about_uzbekistan/uzbeks/
218
Marianne Ruth Kamp and Audrey C. Shalinsky, “Uzbeks,” in Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women
in the World’s Cultures, Volume 2: Cultures L–Z, eds. Carol R. Ember and Melvin Ember (NY: Springer, 2006),
944.
219
Hande A. Birkalan-Gedik, Dinara Alimdjanova, and Farideh Farhi, “Women’s Studies Programs in Muslim
Countries,” in Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures, ed. Suad Joseph, Brill Online (website), 2006,
http://www.brillonline.nl/public/womens-studies.html
220
University of Minnesota, Human Rights Library, “Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women, Concluding Observations (2001),” n.d., http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/cedaw/uzbekistan2001.html
221
Jeanne Koopman, “Gender Issues in Farm Restructuring in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan: Implications for the
BASIS Research Program,” June 1998, 11–12, http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/crosscutting_programs/wid/pubs/uzbekistan_0698.pdf
222
Freedom House, “Uzbekistan 2011,” 2011,
http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2011&country=8161
215
© D L I F L C | 36
Women face additional discrimination in the form of forced marriage, early marriage, and
polygamy. Although the minimum age for legal marriage is 17 for women and 18 for men, the
United Nations reports that 13% of girls between 15 and 19 are married, widowed, or divorced.
Polygamy is illegal under the current penal code but appears to be on the rise, although no
official statistics are available. Men are regarded as the undisputed leader of the household and
make most of the important economic decisions.223
Traditional gender roles are being reinforced and strengthened partly because of the resurgence
of the nationalist movement in Uzbekistan.224 To date, the economic and educational prospects
for women in the nation are limited because of prevailing cultural and religious practices as well
as a weakened economy.225
The Arts
Dance
Uzbekistan has a long dance tradition. Facial gestures
and arm and finger movements characterize it. The
costumes are too tight-fitting to allow for leaping and
large steps, though performers get down on their knees.
The dancers are typically women and girls, always
performing solo, usually accompanied by music.226
Historically, dancers were men who played female parts,
but after incorporation into the Soviet Union, which
outlawed female veiling, public dances were performed
by females. Since the end of Soviet rule, dances
celebrating Navruz, the Persian spring solstice holiday, have made a comeback. Dance
companies compete for prizes awarded for the best Navruz festival program.227
Literature
Uzbekistan is known for its developed literary tradition. But artists of all types, including writers,
suffered greatly because of the Stalinist purges of the 1930s. They faced the prospect of being
named an “enemy of the people,” making them eligible for the death penalty. As a result,
Uzbekistan’s flourishing literary scene declined under Soviet rule. In order to earn a living,
223
Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), “Gender Equality and Social Institutions in Uzbekistan,” n.d.,
http://genderindex.org/country/uzbekistan
224
Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), “Gender Equality and Social Institutions in Uzbekistan,” n.d.,
http://genderindex.org/country/uzbekistan
225
Freedom House, “Uzbekistan 2011,” 2011,
226
ZOOM Central Asia Magazine (website), “The Dance Traditions in Uzbekistan,” 2010,
http://discoveruzbekistan.com/july2004/6.shtml
227
ZOOM Central Asia Magazine (website), “The Dance Traditions in Uzbekistan,” 2010,
http://discoveruzbekistan.com/july2004/6.shtml
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writers were forced to create socialist realist prose that depicted communism in a positive
light.228
After the introduction of perestroika and glasnost in the 1980s, writers began to produce works
that were mildly critical of their society and its leaders.229 After the USSR was disbanded,
restoring the Uzbek language became their mission. The use of Russian lexicon was intentionally
minimized. Then 1992 constitution declared Uzbek to be the official language of the newly
independent state.230
Yet censorship under President Karimov persists, and works of fiction that have won
international prizes have been banned at home.231 In order to survive, many prominent Uzbek
writers have had to praise the president and write patriotic works.232
Sports
A game known as kok boru (goat grabbing) is
Uzbekistan’s national pastime. Traditionally played on
Friday afternoons, players on horseback compete to grab
a headless goat and drag it around a pole. Regional
tournaments can include teams from Afghanistan, China,
Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan. It is said
to have been introduced throughout the Central Asian
region by Genghis Khan.233, 234
Kurash, a traditional style of wrestling, originated in
Uzbekistan more than 3,500 years ago. It is one of the most ancient martial arts forms. President
Karimov has worked to develop this native form of wrestling as a way to restore national values
and traditions long suppressed by the Soviets. These efforts have met with much success, and
Kurash is gaining popularity all over the world.235 Other important sports include football
(soccer), boxing, and rugby.236
228
Marshall Cavendish, World and Its Peoples: Arabian Peninsula, (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish,
2006),702.
229
Perestroika and glasnost signaled official openness to constructive criticism for the purpose of improving the
system.
230
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Population,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of
Congress, 1996, http://countrystudies.us/uzbekistan/18.htm
231
Ferghana Information Agency, “Day of Uzbek Literature at the Edinburgh Book Fair,” 23 August 2006,
http://enews.ferghana.ru/article.php?id=1563
232
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, “Uzbek Literature: Independence and Beyond,” 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/621057/Uzbek-literature
233
Peter James La Verne, “The Great Game,” The Great Game (blog), 1 March 2005,
http://buzkashi.wordpress.com/
234
AFP, “Feature: Kyrgyzstan’s Bloody Sport the Pride of the Country,” Taipei Times, 22 April 2007,
http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/04/22/2003357717
235
Kurash Confederation of Asia, “Brief History of Kurash,” 2007, http://www.kurashkca.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=54&Itemid=67
236
Maps of World, “Uzbekistan Sports,” 2009, http://www.mapsofworld.com/uzbekistan/sports/
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1. Today, the population of Uzbekistan is mostly Uzbek.
True
Uzbeks account for about 80% of the population.
2. The small Kyrgyz minority inhabits the Qizilqum Desert.
False
The small Kyrgyz minority inhabits the Ferghana Valley, a fertile area that the Soviets
split into separate administrative entities.
3. Ancestors of present-day Uzbeks were nomads who learned from their settled neighbors
how to grow rice.
False
In contrast to their nomadic neighbors, the forebears of present-day Uzbeks were settled
farmers who grew grain centuries ago.
4. The Tajiks mostly speak a dialect of Russian.
False
The Tajiks are an Indo-European people who speak a Persian dialect similar to Farsi.
5. Uzbekistan remains a strongly patriarchal culture.
True
Uzbekistan is a conservative country with a mostly patriarchal culture. Traditional gender
roles are reinforced and strengthened by a resurging nationalist movement.
© D L I F L C | 39
Chapter 5 Security
Introduction
A former Soviet Republic, Uzbekistan gained
independence in 1991 after the breakup of the Soviet
Union. The country shares borders with Afghanistan,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and
Turkmenistan.237 Its strategic location makes this
predominantly Muslim nation of approximately 28
million people the center of geopolitics and trade in the
region.238, 239
The government is an authoritarian republic with limited
power outside the executive branch. It is one of the most repressive states in the world and
remains a “Country of Concern” with respect to human rights abuses.240, 241
Perceived threats of Islamic fundamentalism among Uzbekistan’s neighbors, particularly
Afghanistan and Tajikistan, have laid the foundation for its foreign policy. Relations with
neighboring countries have been strained, and the areas that border Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan
have landmines.
Relations with Europe and the United States weakened after the Andijan massacre in 2005. But
Uzbekistan has supported nonmilitary supply actions for NATO operations in Afghanistan,
which has largely eased relations with the European Union and the United States.242
U.S.–Uzbekistani Relations
The abrupt demise of the Soviet Union (USSR)
necessitated a change in U.S. foreign policy, which had
been driven during the Cold War by the need to contain
communism.243 New concepts of Uzbekistan and the rest
of Central Asia as independent nations, rather than as
part of the Soviet Union, did not come easily to the U.S.
237
238
Chris Seiple, “Uzbekistan: Civil Society in the Heartland,” Orbis 49, no. 2 (Spring 2005): 247,
239
240
Freedom House, “Worst of the Worst 2011: The World’s Most Repressive Societies,” 2011, 26,
http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/special_report/101.pdf
241
Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, “Human Rights and Democracy: The 2010 Foreign &
Commonwealth Office Report,” March 2011, 322-331, http://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/htcdn/Human-Rightsand-Democracy-The-2010-Foreign-Commonwealth-Report.pdf
242
Freedom House, “Freedom in the World 2011—Uzbekistan,” 16 May 2011,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4dd21a3f8.html
243
Harry Kreisler, “Conversations with History: American Foreign Policy from the End of the Cold War to 9/11,”
podcast, University of California Television, 1 December 2008, http://podcast.uctv.tv/mp3/15411.mp3
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government. Regarded almost as an afterthought by the George H. W. Bush and Clinton
administrations, these newly independent nations were categorized as “former Soviet Union.”
Only the Department of Defense reviewed their thinking and placed Uzbekistan (and Central
Asia) under Central Command’s (CENTCOM) area of responsibility. Uzbekistan was effectively
marginalized in U.S. thinking until the 9/11 attacks.244
Following the attacks of 9/11, Uzbekistan became a key strategic ally of the United States.245, 246
Tashkent became a partner in counterterrorism because both governments shared a desire to
avoid a “Talibanization” of Central Asia.247 In March 2002, a Declaration on the Strategic
Partnership and Cooperation Framework was signed during Uzbek President Islom Karimov’s
official visit to the United States.248 Joint counterterrorism-training exercises were initiated, and
Washington nearly tripled its economic aid package to approximately USD 300 million.249
Relations cooled after the Andijan uprising in 2005, in
which the Uzbek government was accused of killing
unarmed civilians.250 President Karimov rebuffed U.S.
and European demands for an international investigation
into the uprising. American usage rights to the KarshiKhanabad air base were rescinded; Uzbekistan signed a
security treaty with Russia and rejoined a regional
collective security group.251 It also moved into the
Russian and Chinese economic orbit.252 In mid-2007,
issues of mutual concern facilitated increased
cooperation between the two countries. Uzbekistan is viewed as highly important to ensuring
stability and security in that part of the world.253
Uzbekistan is emerging as a major transit hub for NATO supplies to troops in Afghanistan. The
strategic importance to the U.S. could enable the Uzbek government to wield even more
244
245
EurasiaNet, “New Study Assesses US Security Assistance to Uzbekistan, Afghanistan,” 3 January 2007,
http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav010407.shtml
246
Freedom House, “Freedom in the World—Uzbekistan (2007),” 16 April 2007,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/473c5607c.html
247
Fiona Hill, “The United States and Russia in Central Asia: Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
Iran,” Brookings Institution, 15 August 2002, http://www.brookings.edu/speeches/2002/0815russia_hill.aspx?p=1
248
Freedom House, “Freedom in the World—Uzbekistan (2007),” 16 April 2007,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/473c5607c.html
249
Lionel Beehner, “Severing of U.S.-Uzbek Ties over Counterterrorism” (background paper, Council on Foreign
Relations, Washington, DC, 30 September 2005), http://www.cfr.org/publication/8940/
250
Vladimir Socor, “Uzbekistan Accedes to Collective Security Treaty Organization,” Eurasia Daily Monitor 3, no.
124 (27 June 2006), http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=31820
251
Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). Members include Russia, Belarus, Armenia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.
252
Timur Abdullaev, “Uzbekistan Maneuvers,” in Perspective XIV, no. 4 (June–July 2004),
http://www.bu.edu/iscip/vol14/Abdullaev.html
253
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influence and to resist efforts by the U.S. and others to increase democratization and human
rights.254
Foreign Relations with Neighboring Countries
Kyrgyzstan
Uzbekistan’s relations with Kyrgyzstan have been
problematic. One border issue concerns a strip of land
over which Uzbekistan gained usage rights under Soviet
rule and has not been restored to Kyrgyz sovereignty.255
The bombings in Tashkent in 1999 were blamed on
Islamic fundamentalists who entered the country from
Kyrgyzstan. This led Uzbekistan to implement more
restrictive border-crossing measures and to plant
antipersonnel land mines in border regions.256 Another
source of tension was Kyrgyzstan’s refusal to repatriate
hundreds of Uzbeks who had fled across the border after the Andijan Massacre in 2005.257 These
Uzbeks were instead granted refugee status, and the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) has since arranged for their resettlement in third countries.258
A coup in Kyrgyzstan in April 2010 prompted Uzbekistan to tighten border controls.
Relationships became more tense as conflict flared between ethnic Uzbeks and ethnic Kyrgyz in
southern Kyrgyzstan in June 2010. As many as 100,000 ethnic Uzbeks fled to refugee camps in
Uzbekistan.259
254
Muhammad Tahir, “Central Asia Stands to Gain as NATO Shifts Supply Lines Away from Pakistan,” Radio Free
Europe, Radio Liberty, 22 March 2011,
http://www.rferl.org/content/central_asia_supply_lines_afghanistan/2345994.html
255
Nick Megoran, “Bad Neighbors, Bad Fences,” Asia Times, 15 March 2000, http://www.atimes.com/casia/BC15Ag01.html
256
International Crisis Group, “Central Asia: Border Disputes and Conflict Potential” (report, International Crisis
Group, Brussels, Belgium, 4 April 2002), 14, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/centralasia/Central%20Asia%20Border%20Disputes%20and%20Conflict%20Potential.pdf
257
Olga Oliker, “Why America Shouldn’t Sever Ties with Uzbekistan” (paper, RAND Corporation, Arlington, VA,
6 September 2005), http://www.rand.org/commentary/090605BS.html
22
Nikola Krastev, “Kyrgyzstan: UN Seeking to Relocate Uzbek Asylum Seekers to Third Countries,” Radio Free
Europe, 28 June 2005, http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/06/08ebf3a5-1765-4426-bcc3-241a90365ea0.html
259
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Tajikistan
Uzbekistan’s relationship with its small neighbor has
been unstable.260 Tashkent’s decision to mine parts of the
border to prevent passage by fundamentalists is a source
of tension. The mines were haphazardly placed, resulting
in casualties among residents of border communities.
Tajikistan lost territory to Uzbekistan when the Soviets
drew borders for the republics. In the words of one
American historian, “The Tajik situation in some ways
resembles that of post-colonial Africa. Tajiks have been
given an impossible piece of territory with a disparate
population and have been forced to make a nation out of it.”261 Poor, remote, and engulfed in
civil war after independence, Tajikistan has one resource: control of water in a landlocked, desert
region. Glaciers inside its territorial borders supply 55% of Central Asia’s water.262 In the past, it
has withheld irrigation water from Uzbekistan.
Uzbekistan began restricting rail and road transport to and from Tajikistan in February 2010. The
likely motive for this action was to pressure Tajikistan to abandon plans for a dam limiting water
flow to Uzbekistan. In addition, the government raised tariffs twice in 2010 on trucks crossing
into Tajikistan.263
Recently, the two nations have met to discuss issues of mutual concern. Among these are how to
deal with drug and weapons trafficking from Afghanistan, and plans for a transportationcommunication corridor through the two countries. A third point of discussion was the natural
gas pipeline linking Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan with China.264
Turkmenistan
Relations between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan have
been strained. Both the Uzbek minority in Turkmenistan
and the Turkmen minority in Uzbekistan have
experienced discrimination in the context of economic
decline. Residents of villages on one side of the border
must pay for visas to visit their ancestral graves on the
other. In addition, charges of Uzbek complicity in a 2002
assassination attempt on Turkmenistan’s president
260
Bruce Pannier, “Central Asia: Are Uzbek-Tajik Relations at a New Low?” Radio Free Europe, 19 June 2006,
http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/06/f4ddbab6-7966-48be-9a3e-30bbd79780b3.html
261
Igor Torbakov, “Tajik-Uzbek Relations: Divergent National Historiographies Threaten to Aggravate Tensions,”
12 June 2001, http://eurasianet.org/departments/culture/articles/eav061201.shtml
262
Konstantin Parshin, “Tajikistan Calls for More Cooperation in Water Management,” Transitions Online, 9
September 2003, http://www.ciaonet.org/pbei/tol/tol_2003/sep2-8/sep2-8_j.html
263
Jim Nichol, “Uzbekistan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests,” Congressional Research Service, August
2011, 4–12, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21238.pdf
264
Central Asia Newswire, “Turkmen, Uzbek Leaders Holds Talks in Tashkent,” 5 May 2011,
http://centralasianewswire.com/Turkmenistan/Turkmen-Uzbek-leaders-hold-talks-inTashkent/viewstory.aspx?id=3985
© D L I F L C | 43
temporarily heightened tensions.265 Since 2004, relations between the two countries have
improved marginally. The President of Turkmenistan visited Uzbekistan in 2004. In October
2007, President Karimov paid a state visit to Turkmenistan, which was under new leadership,
sparking hopes for an improved bilateral relationship.266 In 2010, the governments met to extend
cooperation in areas of mutual concern.267
Afghanistan
The government of Islom Karimov felt that the Taliban
and their fundamentalist Islamist vision of the future
threatened Uzbekistan’s survival. As a result, Uzbekistan
backed coalition efforts to topple the Taliban. Unless the
Afghan government is stabilized and in control of
Afghanistan, Tashkent will continue to view Afghanistan
with some alarm.
Despite its fears and concerns, Uzbekistan attempts to
help development efforts in Afghanistan. Uzbekistan
believes that good relations with Afghanistan are central to stability in the region and the country.
The Uzbek government built 11 bridges between the cities of Mazar-e Sharif and Kabul to ensure
communication links essential to economic development of Afghanistan. Uzbekistan also exports
electricity to Afghanistan, with future plans to increase the supply.268
In July 2011, a railway line was opened between the Uzbek border and the Mazar-e Sharif airport.
This line offers the potential for trade growth between the two neighbors.269 In 2000, trade was
nonexistent, while in 2010 it had increased to USD 1 billion.270
The Uzbekistan government views Afghanistan as a significant member of the Central Asian
community; it admits that peace and stability in the region cannot be accomplished without a
resolution to Afghanistan’s political problems. To that end, Uzbekistan is taking a guardedly
optimistic approach to improved relations between the two nations.271
265
Hooman Peimani, “Turkmenistan Reconsiders Relations with Uzbekistan,” Analyst (Central Asia-Caucasus
Institute), 4 June 2003, http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/1204/print
266
Bruce Pannier, “Uzbekistan: President Makes Landmark Visit to Turkmenistan,” Radio Free Europe, 18 October
2007, http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1078981.html
267
Press Service of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, “Uzbekistan-Turkmenistan: A New Phase of
Cooperation,” 21 October 2010, http://www.press-service.uz/en/news/show/main/novyiye_etap_sotrudnichestva/
268
Shoislam Akmalov, “Uzbekistan’s Role in Stability and Development of Afghanistan,” in Policy Perspectives 6,
no. 1 (January–June 2009), http://www.ips.org.pk/pakistan-and-its-neighbours/1048-uzbekistans-role-in-stabilityand-development-of-afghanistan.html
269
Maksim Yeniseyev, “Uzbek-Afghan Railway to Start Running in July,” Central Asia Online (website), 29 June
2011, http://centralasiaonline.com/cocoon/caii/xhtml/en_GB/features/caii/features/business/2011/06/29/feature-01
270
Sodiq Safaev, “Uzbekistan’s View on Providing Security and Stability in Afghanistan: 10/14/10,” Event Media
Video, Eurasia Discussion Series hosted by the Atlantic Council, 14 October 2010,
http://www.acus.org/event/providing-security-and-stability-afghanistan-uzbekistan%E2%80%99s-view
271
Sodiq Safaev, “Uzbekistan’s View on Providing Security and Stability in Afghanistan: 10/14/10,” Event Media
Video, Eurasia Discussion Series hosted by the Atlantic Council, 14 October 2010,
http://www.acus.org/event/providing-security-and-stability-afghanistan-uzbekistan%E2%80%99s-view
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China
China has a strong interest in Uzbekistan, particularly in
the supply of energy. In the spring of 2007, the Chinese
and the Uzbekistani governments signed an agreement to
build a pipeline to supply Uzbekistani natural gas to
China. In 2011, the Chinese agreed to provide more than
USD 5 billion to Uzbekistan to improve investment
projects. The two countries also agreed to construct a
spur to the Central Asia-China natural gas pipeline to
increase the amount of natural gas from Uzbekistan to
China.272
In 2011, the Chinese defense minister announced that China would strengthen its collaboration
with Uzbekistan in the areas of defense and security. Military cooperation and relations are
expected to reach higher levels.273 On a similar note, China and Uzbekistan are increasing their
trade and economic cooperation. China currently ranks first in investments and second in trade
with Uzbekistan. One major new initiative is China’s exploration for oil in the Aral Sea.274
Continuing talks portend expanded cooperation between the two nations on many fronts.275
Russia
China and Uzbekistan’s proposed oil pipeline poses a challenge to Russia, whose reluctance to
ratify the Energy Charter Treaty and Transit Protocol complicates efforts by third parties to
access Central Asian natural resources.276 Using this mechanism, Russia can block Central
Asia’s access to alternative markets, particularly Europe. Moscow’s objective is to maintain
monopoly control on the transport of hydrocarbons out of Central Asia. The understandable
interest of Central Asians, including Uzbeks, to gain greater control over the sales rights of their
natural resources has created tensions. The Chinese, by signing a deal with Uzbekistan (among
other Central Asian states) to buy natural gas, may cause problems in this regard. In January
2006, Uzbekistan became a member of the Russian-led Eurasian Economic Community.277 In
2011, relations between the two countries warmed, as shown by a state visit to Moscow by
President Karimov. During that visit, the two leaders agreed to implement activities related to
272
Reuters, “Uzbekistan Says Signs China Deals Worth $5 bln,” 21 April 2011,
http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/04/21/uzbekistan-china-idUKLDE73K18H20110421
273
Xinhua News Agency, “Chinese, Uzbek Defense Ministers Discuss Cooperation,” Ministry of National Defense,
People’s Republic of China (website), 18 March, 2011, http://eng.mod.gov.cn/DefenseNews/201103/19/content_4232506.htm
274
The Government Portal of the Republic of Uzbekistan, “Uzbekistan and China Expanding Cooperation,” 18 April
2011, http://www.gov.uz/en/press/politics/8915
275
Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Uzbekistan, “President of Uzbekistan Completes State Visit to China,” 22
April 2011, http://www.mf.uz/en/component/content/article/301-id-175.html
276
Vladimir Milov and Martha Brill Olcott, “The Great Uncertainty: Russian-Central Asian Energy Relations,”
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 13 June 2007, http://www.carnegieendowment.org/2007/06/13/greatuncertainty-russian-central-asian-energy-relations/lgp
277
In addition to Russia, the Eurasian Economic Community includes Belarus, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Radio Free Europe, “Uzbekistan Joins Eurasian Economic Community,” 25 January
2006, http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1065067.html
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military-technical cooperation for 2010–2012. Talks also hinted at expanding bilateral trade.278
But tensions persist over Russia’s desire to build military bases in neighboring Kyrgyzstan.
Russia is negotiating a deal to rent a military base with a 49-year lease.279, 280
Military and Police
With approximately 67,000 personnel in its army and air force,
Uzbekistan commands the largest military in Central Asia. An
additional 19,000 internal security forces and 1,000 National
Guard personnel assist in security.281 Uzbekistan’s defense
establishment extends from divisions of the Ministry of Defense
and combat units in the Ministry of the Interior, plus the Ministry
of Emergencies and the Customs Service. In 1995, Uzbekistan
elaborated its first national security declaration as an independent
country. Tashkent vowed not to develop or acquire weapons of mass destruction (WMD),
renounced territorial claims on its neighbors, and stated it would only intervene in regional
conflicts if its internal stability were threatened. Defensive in orientation, it called for combatready troops to defend its territorial integrity. The civil war that engulfed newly independent
Tajikistan and the rise of Islamist fundamentalism in Afghanistan after the Soviet troop
withdrawal certainly raised these types of concerns.
Uzbekistan’s armed forces are spread across four military. Because it is landlocked, Uzbekistan
has no naval forces. The length of service for conscripts is 12 months, although those with higher
education serve only 9-month tours. One intent of these shortened tours is to reduce corruption in
the national army.282, 283
Army
Estimated to have 50,000 troops, the Uzbekistani Army comprises 15 infantry brigades (11
motorized rifle brigades, 1 light mountain brigade, 1 air assault brigade, 1 airborne brigade, and
1 special forces unit), 1 tank brigade, and 7 artillery brigades (including 1 multiple rocket
launcher (MRL) brigade). Bases are located in Tashkent, Termez, and Ferghana, and garrisons
are situated in Bukhara, Ferghana, Samarkand, Tashkent, Termez, and Urgench.284, 285, 286
278
Erkin Akhmadov, “Karimov Visits Moscow—A Warming in Uzbek-Russian Relations?” Analyst (Central AsiaCaucasus Institute), 28 April 2010, http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/5318/print
279
BBC News, “Uzbekistan Country Profile,” 31 March 2011, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asiapacific/country_profiles/1238242.stm
280
“Russian Negotiates Terms for Military Base in Kyrgyzstan,” RT.com (website), 15 February 2011,
http://rt.com/politics/kyrgyzstan-russia-base-rent/
281
282
Roger N. McDermott, “The Changing Face of the Uzbek Armed Forces,” Analyst (Central Asia-Caucasus
Institute), 12 February 2003, http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/900
283
Global Security, “Uzbekistan: Army,” 9 July 2011,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/uzbek-army.htm
284
Rustam Burnashev and Irina Chernykh, “Changes in Uzbekistan’s Military Policy after the Andijan
Events,” China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly 5, no. 1 (2007): 67–73,
http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/CEF/Quarterly/February_2007/Burnashev_Chernykh.pdf
285
NationMaster, “Uzbekistan: Military,” 2011, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/uz-uzbekistan/mil-military
© D L I F L C | 46
The army relies upon Soviet-made battle tanks, infantry
fighting vehicles (IFV), reconnaissance vehicles, and
armored personnel carriers (APC). Airborne and special
forces units are issued NATO-standard gear and
weaponry.287
Uzbekistan is considering creating a more professional
army. Emphasis is being placed on mobile, skilled forces
capable of combating terrorism and defending against
threats to internal security as well as regional stability. A
gradual decrease in the size of the army is underway. One new initiative involves enhanced
opportunities for language training in English and French.288
Air Force
With a strength of 13,700 personnel, the Uzbekistan Air Force comprises 6 fighter aviation units,
1 bomber aviation unit, 2 fighter-bomber aviation unit, 5 helicopter units, and 9 independent,
mixed-aviation unites. Bases are situated at Andizhan, Chirchik, Ferghana, Kagan South,
Kakaydy, Karshi-Khanabad, Navoi, Pakhtakor, Tashkent, and Termez. All aircraft are of Soviet
and Czech manufacture, including some high-end attack helicopters and jet fighters.289, 290
The Uzbekistan Air Force allegedly attacked Tajik rebels during the early years of Tajikistan’s
civil war, which seemed to illustrate Karimov’s desire and willingness to project Uzbekistan’s
strength in the region.291 The air force has played an active role in the government’s ongoing
operations against the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), a terrorist organization bent on
the creation of a unified Islamic state in Central Asia. Combat and assault helicopters play a
significant role in such engagements, especially in remote regions.292
286
Jane’s Defence, “Army, Uzbekistan,” Jane’s Sentinel Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 22 December 2010.
Jane’s Defence, “Army, Uzbekistan,” Jane’s Sentinel Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 22 December 2010.
288
Global Security, “Uzbekistan: Army,” 9 July 2011,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/uzbek-army.htm
289
Jane’s Defence, “Air Force, Uzbekistan,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 08 February
2011.
290
Global Security, “Uzbekistan: Air Force,” 09 July 2011,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/uzbek-airforce.htm
291
Bess A. Brown, “Security Concerns of the Central Asian States,” in After Empire: The Emerging Geopolitics of
Central Asia, ed. Jed C. Snyder (Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2002), 79.
292
Jane’s Defence, “Air Force, Uzbekistan,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the CIS, 08 February
2011.
287
© D L I F L C | 47
Internal Security
The Ministry of the Interior oversees the work of the
police as well as some paramilitary units. Their alleged
involvement of both in human rights abuses, including
the Andijan massacre, has complicated U.S. efforts to
provide training assistance.293 Under the Ministry’s direct
command is the National Security Service (NSS), which
is responsible for eliminating dissent and suppressing all
Islamic-inspired activity that falls outside narrowly
defined state parameters.294 But the NSS receives no
effective oversight, making it one of the most powerful
internal security forces in Central Asia.295, 296 Police units are equipped with predominantly
Soviet-made weapons, including pistols, assault rifles, machine guns, and sniper rifles.297
Border Guards
Charged with protecting the borders from infiltration by
neighboring countries’ Islamist terrorists, the Uzbekistani
Border Guards rely heavily upon highly mobile
paramilitary units to engage in such counterterrorism
operations. At the turn of the century, U.S. military
advisors assisted in training units. But with fewer than
1,000 personnel and inadequate equipment, the force is
thinly spread over the lengthy borders, and frequently
must coordinate with the armed forces when dealing with
armed terrorists.298
Intelligence Services
Charged with quelling political dissent and quashing Islamist terrorism, the National Security
Service (SNB) is Uzbekistan’s primary intelligence service. Built on the model of the Soviet-era
293
Seth Jones et al., “Securing Tyrants or Fostering Reform: U.S. Internal Security Assistance to Repressive and
Transitioning Regimes” (paper, prepared for the Open Society Institute, New York, 2006), 86,
http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2006/RAND_MG550.pdf
294
Under Soviet rule, the Muslim Board of Central Asia and Kazakhstan regulated Islamic worship and education.
Its responsibilities included the registration of mosques, appointing imams to lead local congregations, as well as
dictating the content of sermons and approving specific practices. After independence in 1991, the agency was
renamed the Muslim Board of Uzbekistan but retained its original mandate. Human Rights Watch, “Memorandum to
the U.S. Government Regarding Religious Persecution in Uzbekistan,” 10 August 2001,
http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/uzbek-aug/islam.htm
295
Glenn E. Curtis, ed., “Chapter 9: Government,” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
296
Nancy Lubin, “Country Profile: Uzbekistan (updated 2007),” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E.
Curtis (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1997), 18,
297
Jane’s Defence, “Security and Foreign Forces, Uzbekistan,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the
CIS, 16 June 2010.
298
Jane’s Defence, “Security and Foreign Forces, Uzbekistan,” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and the
CIS, 16 June 2010.
© D L I F L C | 48
KGB and incorporating former personnel of the same, the SNB is alleged by international
observers to be a Karimov regime tool to eliminate political opposition.299, 300
Issues Affecting Security
Terrorism
The principal terrorist organization is the Islamic
Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), which has known ties
to al-Qaeda. Adherents fought alongside the Taliban in
Afghanistan, where they suffered serious losses, and
against coalition forces in Iraq.301 Initially aimed at
overthrowing the government of President Islom
Karimov, its goal shifted to creating an Islamic state in
all of Central Asia and in Muslim-dominated Xinjiang,
China. It engages in guerrilla warfare and, after it attacks,
its combatants retreat to villages where they can blend in
with the local population.302
The IMU is based in the Ferghana Valley, a contiguous community that was divided among three
countries: Kyrgyzstan, containing half the valley’s population; Tajikistan with one third; and
Uzbekistan. Although the Ferghana Valley makes up only 4% of Uzbekistan’s territory, it is
home to 27% of the Uzbek population.303 A precise delineation of the area into national states, or
even ethnic groups, is fraught with difficulty for several reasons. Patterns of human settlement
and a regional economy supported by transportation links predate modern administrative
governance. The IMU takes advantage of the difficulty this poses to national law enforcement
agencies.
After the death of Osama bin Laden in 2011, Uzbekistan placed all law enforcement agencies,
the National Security Council, and the Internal Affairs Ministry on high alert. The government
had received information of possible terrorist attacks. The terror threat is high and the
government is taking precautions to thwart any terrorist activity.304
The roots of political Islam in Uzbekistan developed during the waning years of the USSR, when
harsh political controls were relaxed. The revival of religion proved appealing in the absence of
alternative outlets of expression. After the collapse of the former Soviet system, outsiders took
299
Jane’s Defence, “Uzbekistan: Special Forces (Government),” Jane’s Amphibious and Special Forces, 17 May
2010.
300
Jeffrey Donovan, “Former Uzbek Spy Accuses Government of Massacres, Seeks Asylum,” Radio Free Europe,
01 September 2008, http://www.rferl.org/content/Former_Uzbek_Spy_Seeks_Asylum/1195372.html
301
U.S. Department of State, “Redesignation of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization,” 25 September 2002, http://merln.ndu.edu/archivepdf/centasia/State/13708.pdf
302
Monterey Institute of International Studies, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, “Islamic
Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU),” 2007, http://cns.miis.edu/archive/wtc01/imu.htm
303
Fatimakhon Ahmedova and Keith Leitich, “Ethnic and Religious Conflict in the Ferghana Valley,” Journal of
Central Asian Studies 6, no. 1 (2001): 33–43.
304
Shakar Saadi, “Uzbekistan Tightens Security,” Central Asia Online (website), 24 May 2011,
http://centralasiaonline.com/cocoon/caii/xhtml/en_GB/features/caii/features/main/2011/05/24/feature-01
© D L I F L C | 49
advantage of the lack of authority to radicalize the indigenous Islamic community. In an
environment in which dissent is not tolerated, political violence and the potential for a
radicalization of Islamists threaten to emerge in the place of political pluralism. This has led to
speculation that there could be a major upheaval, especially in the Ferghana Valley.305, 306, 307
Crime and Drug Trafficking
The traditionally low rate of violent crime is increasing. In the northern part of the country, along
the border with Afghanistan, narcotics trafficking is on the increase, stimulating domestic sales
and drug addiction. These effects have been accompanied by forms of criminal behavior. Law
enforcement officials have allegedly been involved in the trafficking. Afghanistan supplies 93%
of the global opiate market. Routes traditionally used for smuggling narcotics serve the added
purpose of smuggling terrorists, posing an additional threat to Uzbek security.308
Poverty
Rural poverty is severe, even in places like Namangan
Province in the Ferghana Valley, which has fertile
agricultural conditions.309 One cause of poverty is that
cotton, the main crop, is procured under conditions close
to slavery.310 Because the government collects most of
the revenues, there is little incentive to marketize the
rural economy and privatize land ownership. Thus, the
rural poor have little prospect of an improvement in their
standard of living. As a result, Islamic militancy may
prove attractive. Without any legitimate outlets to vent
their grievances, the only avenue for protest is extremist groups. All protest channeled through
non-Islamist outlets is invariably labeled by the government as dissident Islamist activity. This
provides a pretext for harsher repression.311, 312
305
n.d., 12–31, http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/olcottroots.pdf
306
307
Nancy Lubin, “Country Profile: Uzbekistan (updated 2007),” in Uzbekistan: A Country Study, ed. Glenn E.
Curtis (Washington DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1997), 20,
308
Togzhan Kassenova, “Central Asia: Regional Security and WMD Proliferation Threats” (paper for the United
Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, Geneva, 2007), 14, http://www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art2684.pdf
309
International Crisis Group, “Incubators of Conflict: Central Asia’s Localised Poverty and Social Unrest:
Executive Summary” (report, International Crisis Group, Brussels, 8 June 2001),
http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/centralasia/Incubators%20of%20Conflict%20Central%20Asias%20Localised%20Poverty%20and%20Social%20Unrest.pd
f
310
International Crisis Group, “The Curse of Cotton: Central Asia’s Destructive Monoculture” (report, International
Crisis Group, Brussels, 28 February 2005), http://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/000221.doc
311
Dina Rome Spechler and Martin C. Spechler, “Uzbekistan among the Great Powers,” Communist and PostCommunist Studies 42, no. 3 (September 2009), 353–373,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6VGF-4WY5BFH-1-
© D L I F L C | 50
Water Security
According to the Water Security Risk Index, Uzbekistan
ranks sixth in the world regarding water security risk.
The nation is already experiencing internal and
international tensions partly because of a scarcity of
water in the region.313 Neighboring Turkmenistan ranked
ninth on the same list, raising the risk of tensions
between the countries. Uzbekistan also faces ongoing
water disputes with Kyrgyzstan.314 Part of the problem is
that Uzbekistan ceased its participation in the Central
Asia energy grid, effectively preventing Tajikistan from
importing and exporting electricity. Tajikistan will have to run its hydroelectric plants at full
capacity in the winter to compensate for the loss; such an action will deplete the reservoirs for
the summer. Uzbekistan needs reservoir water to sustain the agricultural sector, which makes up
25% to 30% of the economy.315 This loss of water seriously threatens stability in the region and
increases the chances for conflict.316
Looking to the Future
Uzbekistan remains a central player in stability and security in Central Asia. The repressive
tactics of the Karimov government and the socioeconomic problems affecting a broad spectrum
of the population create an increased risk for domestic unrest. Yet the lack of an organized
opposition suggests that, in the short run, the regime is likely to remain unchallenged.317
The Ferghana Valley is often considered the area most likely to experience unrest. Competition
for land, water, and resources provide fertile ground for large-scale disturbances. The area
around Kyrgyzstan, which previously was the site of violence, remains a threat. This is fueled by
ethnic tensions, particularly along the border areas.318
1&_cdi=6037&_user=3326500&_pii=S0967067X0900035X&_origin=&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2009&_sk=999
579996&view=c&wchp=dGLzVzz-zSkzV&md5=46ffa762b33a9cb462dfd99de51669c2&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
312
Lawrence P. Markowitz, “How Master Frames Mislead: The Division and Eclipse of Nationalist Movements in
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 32, no. 4 (2009): 716–738.
313
Maplecroft (firm), “New Maplecroft Index Rates Pakistan and Egypt Among Nations Facing ‘Extreme’ Water
Security Risks,” 24 June 2010, http://maplecroft.com/about/news/water-security.html
314
Central Asia Newswire, “Water Shortages Create Instability Risk in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,” 15 July 2010,
http://centralasianewswire.com/Water-shortages-create-instability-risk-in-UzbekistanTurkmenistan/viewstory.aspx?id=1112
315
Circle of Blue, “Water Becomes a Pawn in Central Asia Energy Dispute,” Water News, 3 December 2009,
http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2009/world/news-water-becomes-a-pawn-in-central-asian-energy-dispute/
316
Circle of Blue, “African, Asian Nations Top Latest Water Security Risk Index,” Water News, 6 July 2010,
http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2010/world/african-asian-nations-top-latest-water-security-risk-index/
317
IHS Jane’s: Defence & Security Intelligence and Analysis, “Uzbekistan: Security,” 23 June 2010,
http://search.janes.com/Search/documentView.do?docId=/content1/janesdata/sent/cissu/cisa010.htm@current&page
Selected=allJanes&keyword=Uzbekistan&backPath=http://search.janes.com/Search&Prod_Name=CISS&
318
© D L I F L C | 51
Although Uzbekistan currently enjoys relatively cordial relations with the United States because
of its assistance to NATO efforts in Afghanistan, relations with the West in general are
weakening. This had led to a strengthening of ties with Russia and China, thus extending their
influence in the area.319
319
© D L I F L C | 52
1. There is no strategic partnership agreement in place between the United States and
Uzbekistan.
False
A U.S.-Uzbek strategic partnership agreement was signed in March 2002. Washington
nearly tripled its economic aid package to Uzbekistan.
2. Uzbekistan and China have strengthened their defense and security collaboration.
True
In 2011, China announced it would strengthen its collaboration with Uzbekistan in
defense and security. The cooperation is expected to reach new levels.
3. The United States continues to use the airbase at Karshi-Khanabad for operations in
Afghanistan.
False
Following the Andijan Massacre and subsequent American condemnation of the action,
American usage rights to the air base at Karshi-Khanabad were rescinded.
4. Uzbekistan is home to the largest armed force in Central Asia.
True
Uzbekistan’s armed forces are the largest in Central Asia with a substantial army and air
force equipped with later-model, Soviet-era equipment.
5. Uzbek relations with neighbors Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan
are cordial.
False
Relations with each country—Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan—
are tense.
© D L I F L C | 53
Final Assessment
1. Arable land in Uzbekistan constitutes less than 11% of the total land area.
True / False
2. Uzbekistan’s location ensures its commercial importance in Central Asia.
True / False
3. The Amu Darya marks the border between Uzbekistan and Afghanistan.
True / False
4. Cotton production is a small, but growing, industry in Uzbekistan.
True / False
5. Independent Uzbekistan was formed in 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved.
True / False
6. Nearly 80% of Uzbekistan’s topography consists of steppes and sandy deserts.
True / False
7. Tamerlane’s legacy was promoted by the Soviets.
True / False
8. The area that makes up present-day Uzbekistan had fallen under Russian control by 1500
C.E.
True / False
9. The Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was created in 1953.
True / False
10. Islom Karimov was appointed leader of Uzbekistan in March 1990.
True / False
11. Agriculture accounts for about 75% of Uzbekistan’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
True / False
12. Energy exploitation in Uzbekistan has been highly successful.
True / False
13. Young Uzbek men often work in the Russian construction industry.
True / False
14. Uzbekistan is the eighth-largest producer of natural gas in the world.
True / False
© D L I F L C | 54
15. Uzbekistan was one of the first Central Asian Republics to codify equal rights for men
and women.
True / False
16. The Soviet Union outlawed female veiling.
True / False
17. Uzbek was declared the official language of Uzbekistan in 1992.
True / False
18. The border regions between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan are mined.
True / False
19. The government of Islom Karimov did not back coalition efforts to topple the Taliban in
Afghanistan.
True / False
20. Except for the Aral Sea, Uzbek lakes and rivers remain relatively unpolluted.
True / False
21. The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) has been active in recent violent outbreaks
in Uzbekistan.
True / False
22. Despite low levels of unemployment in the country, most Uzbeks live below the poverty
line.
True / False
23. Despite a gradual transition to a free-market economy, most businesses are still stateowned.
True / False
24. It is against the law to marry under the age of 17 for women and 18 for men.
True / False
25. Kok Boru is the national food of Uzbekistan.
True / False
© D L I F L C | 55
Further Reading
Adams, Laura L. The Spectacular State: Culture and National Identity in Uzbekistan. Durham:
Duke University Press, 2010.
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Uzbekistan: Country Specific
Information.” 8 March 2011. http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1057.html
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. “2010 Human
Rights Report: Uzbekistan.” 8 April 2011.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/sca/154489.htm
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “2011 Investment
Climate Statement— Uzbekistan.” March 2011.
http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2010/138166.htm
Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note:
Uzbekistan.” 19 August 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2924.htm
Central Intelligence Agency. “Uzbekistan.” The World Factbook. 6 April 2011.
Freedom House. “Country Report: Uzbekistan (2010).” 2010.
Hiro, Dilip. Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Iran. New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2009.
Human Rights Watch, World Report 2011. “Uzbekistan: Events of 2010.” 2011.
http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/uzbekistan
Jane’s Defence. “Armed Forces, Uzbekistan.” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Russia and
the CIS. 22 December 2010.
Jane’s Defence. “CIS Regional Security Body Creates Cyber-Defence Plan.” Country Risk Daily
Report. 18 August 2011.
Jane’s Defence. “Executive Summary, Uzbekistan.” Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—
Russia and the CIS. 23 June 2010.
Jones, Bruce. “CSTO Leaders Plan Crackdown on Social Media to Protect Regimes.” Jane’s
Defence Weekly. 17 August 2011.
Kesler, Michael G. Shards of War: Fleeing to & from Uzbekistan. Durham, CT: Strategic Book
Group, 2010.
© D L I F L C | 56
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State. “Trafficking in
Persons Report 2010: Country Narratives: Countries N Through Z.” 2010.
http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142761.htm
UCLA Language Materials Project. “Uzbek.” No date.
http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=70&menu=004
UN Data. “Country Profile: Uzbekistan.” No date.
http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Uzbekistan
UNESCO World Heritage Convention. “Uzbekistan.” No date.
http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/uz
University Libraries, University of Colorado. “Uzbekistan.” No date.
http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/uzbekistan.htm
U.S. Energy Information Administration. “Uzbekistan Country Profile.” 14 July 2010.
http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=UZ
World Trade Organization. “Country Profile: “Uzbekistan.” March 2011.
http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=UZ
© D L I F L C | 57

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