Final report of ESONET CA - ESONET, a Network of Excellence

Transcription

European SeaFloor Observatory Network
EVK3-CT-2002-80008
FINAL REPORT
(Version 3.0)
Edited by
Professor I.G (Monty) Priede & Dr Martin Solan
University of Aberdeen
Oceanlab
Newburgh
Aberdeen
AB41 6AA
Scotland UK
This page is intentionally left blank for duplex printing
ESONET Final Report
Abstract ESONET is a proposed sub sea component of the European GMES (Global
Monitoring for Environment and Security) to provide strategic long term monitoring
capability in geophysics, geotechnics, chemistry, biochemistry, oceanography,
biology and fisheries. To provide representative sampling around Europe 10 regional
networks are proposed in contrasting oceanographic regions:
1-Arctic – Arctic Ocean
2-Norwegian margin - Atlantic Ocean
3-Nordic Seas – Atlantic Ocean
4-Porcupine/Celtic –Atlantic Ocean
5-Azores – Atlantic Ocean
6-Iberian Margin – Atlantic Ocean
7-Ligurian – Mediterranean Sea
8-East Sicily – Mediterranean Sea
9-Hellenic – Mediterranean Sea
10-Black Sea –
In addition, a mobile response observatory will be available for rapid deployment in
areas of anthropogenic or natural disasters to provide data for environment
management and government agencies.
Total system will comprise approximately 5000km of fibre optic sub sea cables
linking observatories to the land via junction box terminations on the sea floor. The
cables will provide power to observatory instruments and two-way real-time data
telemetry capability using IP protocols. A phased development is proposed from use
of conventional autonomous or satellite telemetry observatories on the key sites to
intergration of a fully cabled system. Each network will be commissioned and
managed by a regional legal person (RLP) who will be members of the ESONET
federation. Users will be able to deploy observatories around Europe linked to the
junction boxes. The ESONET federation will oversee standards, data management
and co-ordinate observatory deployment. Data will be interfaced to national and
international data centres.
The likely cost of the subsea network infrastructure is 130-220 M€.
3
ESONET Final Report
Contents
1. List of partners …………………………………………………Page 5
2. Other Contributors………………………………………………Page 7
3. Introduction……………………………………………………..Page 8
4. Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements……………….Page 11
5. Review of European Capacity in Ocean Observatories………...Page 69
6. The European Ocean Margin and
Proposed ESONET site locations………………………………Page 129
7. Future Observatory Designs…………………………………….Page 173
8. Data Management, Dissemination and Archiving………………Page 299
9. Conclusions: Future Implementation……………………………Page 317
Annexes
Annex 1.
Annex 2.
Annex 3.
Annex 4.
Annex 5.
4
User Requirements
Application Of Industrial Offshore Standard Norsok
Example of environmental tests for each subsystem in the Assem project
Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems
Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore
ESONET Final Report
SECTION 1.
List of Partners
Partner 1. UNIABN
Professor Imants G. Priede
University of Aberdeen
Oceanlab
Newburgh
Aberdeen
AB41 6AA
United Kingdom
Phone +44 1224 274408
Fax +44 1224 274402
Email [email protected]
Partner 2 UIT
Prof. Dr. Juergen Mienert
University of Tromsø
Department of Geology
Dramsveien 201
N-9037 Tromsø
Norway
Phone +47 77 64 44 46
Fax +47 77 64 56 00
E-mail: [email protected]
Partner 3 IFREMER
Roland Person
IFREMER
Direction de la Technologie Marine et des
Systèmes d'Information.
Directeur du Département
Technologie des Systèmes Instrumentaux
BP70
29280 Plouzane
France
Phone +33 298 22 4108
Fax +33 298 22 4135
email [email protected]
Partner 4 NIOZ
Dr.Tjeerd C.E.van Weering
Royal NIOZ
P.O.Box 59,
1790 AB Den Burg,
Texel,
The Netherlands
Phone +31 222 369395 (300, operator)
Fax +31 222 319674
email: [email protected] [email protected]
Partner 5 GEOMAR
Dr Olaf Pfannkuche
IFM-GEOMAR.
Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften
Wischhofstrasse. 1-3
24148 Kiel, Germany
Phone:+49-(0)431-600 2113
Fax: +49- (0)431-600 2911
Email: [email protected]
Partner 6 CSA
Nick O'Neill
CSA GROUP LIMITED
6 and 7 Dundrum Business Park,
Windy Arbour,
Dundrum,
Dublin 14
Tel: +353-1-296 4667
Fax: +353-1-296 4676
e- mail: [email protected]
Partner 7 IMBC
Dr. Anastasios (Tassos) Tselepides
Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR)
Institute of Marine Biology and Genetics
(IMBG)
Gournes, Pediados
POBox 2214, Heraklion 71003, Crete, Greece
Tel:+30-2810-337850 / 337801
Fax:+30-2810-337822
E-mail: [email protected]
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ESONET Final Report
Partner 8 IUB
Prof. Laurenz Thomsen
International University Bremen
School of Engineering and Science
Campusring 1
D-28759 Bremen
Phone++49 (421) 200 3254
Fax ++49 (421) 200 4333
Email [email protected]
Partner 9 INGV
Paolo Favali
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e
Vulcanologia
Via di Vigna Murata, 605
00143 Roma
Italy
phone +39-06-51860341
fax: 338
e-mail: [email protected]
Partner 10 TEC
Francesco Gasparoni
Tecnomare S.p.A.
San Marco 3584
30124 Venice
Italy
Phone +39-041-796714;
Fax: +39-041-796800
Partner 11 CNR
Nevio Zitellini
Istituto Per La Geologia Marina CNR
Area Ricerca CNR di Bologna
Via Gobetti 101
40129 Bologna
Italy
Phone +39-051-6398889;
Fax: +39-051-6398940
6
Partner 12 LOB
Claude MILLOT
Laboratoire de Océanographie et de
Biogeochimie CNRS
Antenne LOB-COM-CNRS
c/o IFREMER
BP 330
F-83507 La Seyne/mer
Phone 0033494304884
Fax 0033494879347
[email protected]
Partner 13- TFH
Hans W. Gerber- Prof. Dr.-Ing.
TFH Berlin -University of Applied Sciences
Dept. VIII
Luxemberger Strasse 10
D-13353 Berlin
Phone: ++4930-45042219 or -314 25483
Fax: ++4930 45042008 or -314 22885
[email protected]
Partner 14 FFCUL
Jorge Miguel Alberto de Miranda
Centro de Geofísica da Universidade de
Lisboa
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de
Lisboa
Campo Grande, Edifício C5,
1749-016 Lisboa
Phone +351 21 750 00 00
Fax: +351 21 750 01 69
[email protected]
Section 2.
Additional Contributors
Michael Klages & Thomas Soltwedel
Alfred Wegener Institute for
Polar and Marine Research (AWI),
Am Handelshafen 12
27570 Bremerhaven
Germany
Gary Waterworth
Alcatel Optical Networks Division
Greenwich
SE 10 0AG
[email protected]
Tel +49 471 4831 1302
Fax +49 471 4831 1776
[email protected]
[email protected]
Jean-François Rolin
Gilbert Maudire,
Catherine Maillard,
Christian Bonnet,
Michèle Fichaut
Jerome Blandin
J. Marvaldi
J.F. Drogou
Annick Vangriesheim
Jean-Pierre Leveque
IFREMER
BP70
29280 Plouzane
France
Christoph Waldmann
MARUM
University of Bremen
FB GEO/MARUM
P.O.BOX 330440
28334 Bremen
Germany
Tel + 49 421 218 7722
Fax + 49 421 218 3116
[email protected]
Peter Sigray,
Stockholms Universitet
MISU,
106 91 Stockholm,
Sweden.
Tel. + 46 8 709 27 73 24
Fax. + 46 8 15 71 85
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Nazeeh Shaheen
Nautronix Maripro
Goleta
CA 93117
USA
[email protected]
3. Introduction
Section 3
Introduction
The European GMES programme for Global Monitoring for Environment and Security has
identified a need for a subsea component of a proposed surveillance system. This will be
directed to monitor the solid earth beneath the sea, processes at the interface between the solid
earth and sea and processes in the water column.
ESONET was set up as a concerted action (EVK3-CT-2002-80008) sponsored by the European
commission to consider the feasibility of such a system. ESONET is directed to monitoring the
submarine terrain around Europe from the continental shelves to the abyss, an area of ca. 3
million km2. This is comparable in size with the total landmass of Europe and is increasingly
important for resources, such as minerals, hydrocarbons and fisheries. Only a small fraction of
this realm has been explored and new features, and communities of animals (e.g. cold water
corals and mud volcanoes) are discovered every year. The biodiversity probably exceeds that of
the European land mass. There are natural hazards such as submarine slides and earthquakes
with associated tsunamis. Human impacts on this zone are poorly understood. A prerequisite for
management, conservation and protection from hazards of this zone is the establishment of a
long- term monitoring capability. ESONET through a co-ordinated approach will provide data
to users on time scales from instantaneous real-time hazard warning to long term archiving of
data for tracking of global change around Europe.
Remote sensing from aircraft and spacecraft has limited capacity for penetrating through sea
water; optical sensors only providing data on the surface layer of the ocean. Monitoring of
events on the sea floor or in the water column require in situ sensors, power supplies and a data
storage or telemetry system. The science of oceanography has developed through the use of
instruments such as current meters deployed on moorings or platforms with electrical energy
stored in batteries and data archived on various media such as photographic films, hard discs or
solid state memory. Data are only available when the system is recovered, there is no real-time
capability and the system is limited by the battery life and storage capacity of the data store.
Real-time telemetry of data can be achieved either via acoustics through the water, or via radio
links to shore or satellite from a surface buoy. These systems are never-the-less limited by the
energy available in the observatory and energy costs of data transmission imposes a further
energy drain. In contrast to space craft opportunities for use of solar energy are limited to
special cases where a sufficiently large array can be mounted on a surface buoy or other
structure.
ESONET is complementary to proposed cabled observatory systems being developed in North
America (NEPTUNE) and Japan (ARENA) but will use various technologies including noncabled instruments.
The project and this report are structured in the following way:
4. Stakeholders1 and Review of Data Requirements2.
The first requirement for ESONET was to identify potential stakeholders in Europe and
elsewhere with interests in the proposed system. An internet based questionnaire was
widely distributed in the marine science and environmental science, technology and
management domains. A review was then compiled of data requirements collated
under three broad headings - global change, biodiversity/ecosystem function and geohazards. An end-user data requirement template was drawn up, based on a standard
1
2
WP 1 ESONET list of potential partners and associates
WP 3 Review of Data Requirements
8
3. Introduction
GMES template3. The ESONET project partners and other interested parties were
invited to contribute. This represents a relatively comprehensive overview of what
ESONET will need to achieve to be successful.
5. Review of European Capacity in Ocean Observatories4
Ocean observatories are not new. Europe already has significant capacity in this area
although cabled systems are only represented by a few prototypes.
There is
considerable experience in various research institutions of deploying autonomous
systems, and it is envisaged that technology will progress in Europe from this baseline.
This section presents the state of the art in Europe. Data from existing observatories is
presented as an example of the kind of outputs that can be achieved with the ESONET
system5
6.
The European Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations67
In this section we define the geographical scope and area of operation of ESONET.
Key factors influencing position and specification of different elements of the
observatory system are defined. Locations around Europe, representative of different,
oceanographic, biological, tectonic and sedimentary regimes are identified and
proposals for observatory networks are developed.
7. Future Observatory Designs8.
To meet the requirements identified in the previous sections new engineering solutions
will be necessary in sensors, observatory architecture, cable systems and operations.
Design studies have been undertaken and the state of the art around the world is
considered. Key elements of a future ESONET implementation are presented.
8. Data Management, Dissemination and Archiving9.
There is currently rapid progress in concepts of data management in networked
systems. ESONET will feed data in real-time and in delayed mode through to various
national and international networks for dissemination and archiving. Problems in
quality control, integration and management are reviewed
9. Conclusions: Future Implementation.
The issues in practical implementation of a system are reviewed.
3
Review of GMES User Requirements: Operational Procedures, Wyatt, B.K. et al,
April 2003
4
(WP2 Review of Observatory Capacity)
5
(WP5 Model Observatory Data/Information Products)
6
(WP 4 Atlas of European Ocean Margin Assets & Hazards)
7
(WP 6 ESONET Site Locations and Specifications)
8
(WP 7 Future Observatory Designs)
9
(WP8 Data management, networks, archives and distribution)
9
4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements
Section 4
Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements
The aim of this section of the report is to define the organisations and individuals that would play a
role in development and use of the ESONET system and data requirements of end users.
4.1 The ESONET Directory.
A directory has been assembled using an online database accessible via the internet. Individuals were
made aware of ESONET by numerous email broadcasts compiled from the attendee lists of several
major ocean margin conferences, both within and outwith the EU. Directory entries have been
classified according to:
Country of residence
Europe
Non-Europe
Europe was defined as 25 countries: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta,
Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, UK
These were subclassified as:
Agency
Stakeholder,
Supplier
Academic research
Conservation
Technological
A 295 entries are analysed below:
Figure 1 ESONET Directory, Origin of Entry
European
Non-European
11
Figure 2 European Entries
Belgium
Denmark
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
UK
Figure 3 Non-European Entries
Algeria
Australia
Canada
China
Croatia
Columbia
Faroe Islands
Fiji Islands
Georgia
Israel
Japan
Morocco
Norway
New Zealand
Poland
Russia
USA
31% of entries are from outside Europe indicating considerable international interest in ESONET.
Within Europe 45% of entries are from UK a number which is artificially inflated by the UK origin of
the ESONET website. Other European countries are in rank order are, Germany, France, Ireland, Italy,
Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden and Greece. This generally reflects size of the country and their littoral
location with Ireland ranked high through the developing strategic importance of the seas around a
small island nation.
Outside Europe the dominant interest is from the USA and Canada reflecting the activity in
development of the NEPTUNE system there and many potential routes for collaboration in future
between NEPTUNE and ESONET on both technical and scientific matters. Norway and Israel are well
respresented as important neighbours of Europe.
12
Figure 4. ESONET - Directory summary (all entries)
Agency
Conservation
Research
Stakeholder
Supplier
Technological
Figure 5. ESONET - Directory summary (European)
Agency
Conservation
Research
Stakeholder
Supplier
Technological
13
Figure 6. ESONET - Directory summary (Non-European)
Agency
Conservation
Research
Stakeholder
Supplier
Technological
The categories of entries, world wide and within Europe are remarkably consistent. As is to be
expected in a pre-operational system, research is dominant with approximately half of entries. Next
most important is technology, reflecting the nature of the work. Suppliers of equipment and services at
17% reflects a healthy domain for development of a system with companies interested in tendering for
various aspects of the work. Agencies, conservation and stakeholders can be regarded as ultimate endusers of data. These combined are about 12% but probably half of researchers are also data end users.
We conclude there is a healthy balance between the different domains indicating that there is a
community present able to implement and use the ESONET system.
The full database includes the title, name, affiliation, postal address, telephone, fax and email for each
individual in addition to their country of origin and specified stakeholder interest and will form the
basis for developing future consortia for ESONET implementation.
14
4.2 Review of Data Requirements
This subsection section forms part of the analysis of problems and issues to be addressed by a future
ESONET project. The overall objective was to undertake an assessment of requirements for data,
information and knowledge by different agencies and stakeholders with specification of formats and
timeliness.
ESONET is recognised as the marine component of Global Monitoring for Environment and Security
(GMES) and will integrate, where possible, with GMES protocols, data management and data sharing
arrangements. It is apparent from the review of historical EU-funded R&D in the marine sector
throughout Europe that ESONET will build on significant seafloor monitoring that has occurred over
the last 20 years. ESONET provides the solution that meets the monitoring objectives of all the
previous EU-funded projects, such as ABEL, ALIPOR, ASSEM, BENGAL, DESIBEL, GEOSTAR,
GEOSTAR-2, HERMES, OMEX, ORION-GEOSTAR-3, etc.
Specific attention was paid to GMES guidelines for user requirements – operational procedures in
designing end user forms and data categorisation.
4.2.1. Identified Concerns/Policy Issues
A range of policy issues and concerns of relevance to EU coastal states was identified through input
from ESONET partners at various project workshops, specifically at the first project workshop in Kiel,
also through direct contact with the individual partners and through internet and literature research on
marine issues highlighted by particular countries. Input received covered the full geographic spread of
the ESONET project from the North Atlantic/Arctic Ocean interface to the Black Sea.
The issues highlighted cover areas of both global and more specific local interest. The chief global
issues of concern identified relating to the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea are listed in Table 1
below. In support of GMES goals, mitigation of hazards associated with both natural and
anthropogenic impacts are of specific interest to particular states likely to be affected by such impacts,
such as seismicity in Portugal, Italy and Greece, shipping accidents on major maritime routes etc.
The Black Sea represents an almost landlocked basin and the largest anoxic water mass on earth. As
such, it has its own particular features and issues of concern to coastal states on its boundary, which are
listed below:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Eutrophication
Pollution
Habitat destruction
Unsustainable fishing
Degredation of biofiltering and oxygen-producing communities
High intensity gas seeps, gas hydrates & mud volcanoes
Seismicity
Impact of intense marine traffic
Exploration for, and exploitation of, hydrocarbon resources
Population/tourism impact
15
Table 1 – Concerns/policy issues of relevance to Atlantic and Mediterranean coastal states
Topic
Global climate change
mitigation of impacts)
Issue
(prediction
and
Ocean dynamics
Changes in marine ecosystem
Changes in ocean circulation systems
Marine carbon cycle - CO2 sequestration
Biodiversity
Biota preservation
Sustainable exploitation of fishery resources
Sustainable management of marine
resources
Exploration of marine gene pool
Sustainable exploitation of marine gene pool
(marine biotechnology)
Conservation of coral mounds
Anthropogenic impacts
Impact of maritime transport
Impact of tourism and population growth
Coastal/marine pollution
Pollution related to shipping accidents
Resource identification and exploitation
Oil and gas resources – exploitation potential
and risks
Gas hydrates – exploitation potential and
risks
Seabed mineral resource – exploitation
potential and risks
Ocean energy – wind/wave/tidal/current
Geo-hazards
Seafloor seismicity
Seafloor vulcanicity
Tsunami risk
Slope stability (marine slides etc.)
4.2.2. Data parameters and monitoring requirements
ESONET the project partners considered the main topics and issues of relevance, the processes
involved, the monitoring parameters to be measured, the tools required to measure those parameters
and whether those tools were currently available or remained to be developed.
The input was collated and tabulated under three broad headings biodiversity/ecosystem function and geo-hazards and is presented in Table 2 below:
16
global
change,
Table 2 – Data parameters and monitoring requirements
1. Global Change
Subject
Process
Parameter
Tools
Global Change
Productivity & Particle
Flux
Export production
Sedimentation rate
Sediment traps, particle
camera, radio tracers (insitu mass spectrometers),
satellite imagery
Transmissiometer, optical
/acoustic backscatter,
particle camera,
CTD, ADCP, chemical
sensors, current meters
Resuspension
Turbity
Bottom water velocity
Shear stress
Changes in bottom
C/T
water hydrography
Oxygen
CO2
CH4
Currents
Hydrostatic pressure
Biomarkers
Stable isotopes
Remineralisation, early Nutrients
diagenesis & solute
Oxygen
fluxes
H2S
CO2
CH4
pH
C/N
Microbial activity
Nitrification
Denitrification
Anaeroboic/aerobic
methane
Oxidation
Sulphate reduction
Fluid flux, dissociation Aqueous/gaseous flow
of gas hydrates
Stable isotopes
Radio tracers
Changes in benthic
Biodiversity indices
communities
Available
now?
Yes
Yes
Partially
Microsensors, in-situ
analysers, peepers,
optodes, flux chambers
Partially
Microbial microsensors,
camera system, planar
optodes
Partially
Flux chambers, flare
imaging, CH4-sensors,
water sampling
Repeated sampling, timelapse cameras
Partially
Yes
17
2. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function
Subject
Process
Parameter
Tools
Biodiversity
Benthic Biodiversity
Species
Size
Abundance
%cover
Functional groups
Activity
Metabolism
Bioturbation
Imaging
Bio activity
Genetic diversity
Gene Flow
Growth
Recruitment
Pelagic Biodiversity
Bioluminesnce
Genetic fingerprint
Particle Dynamics.
Organic & Inorganic
Species/size
Mammal species
Particle number
Particle size
Particle Composition
Current
Turbidity
Fishery
Resources
Recruitment
Migrations
Fluid extrusion
Seeping & venting
Pigments
Egg deposition
Larval development
Time/abundance
Time/abundance
Fluid flow
Fluid composition and
properties
18
Partially
Yes
Yes
Partially
Yes
No
No
Size
Composition
Larval release
Larval settlement
Biomass
Activity (migration)
Particle
Transport
Electrodes
Imaging
SPI
Planar Optodes
ISIT/photomultiplier
Molecular Probes
Sampling
Available
now?
Yes
Sampling
Imaging/sampling
Imaging/Colonisation
plates
Imaging
Passive baited
Acoustic backscatter
Bioacoustics
Bioacoustics
Imagery, laser
Imagery, laser
Partially
Partially
Partially
Sediment Traps
Current meter
Transmissometer. Optical
backscatter
Fluorometer
Imaging/sampling
Imaging/sampling
Bioacoustics
Flow
meter/acoustics/imagery
Sampler/in situ analyser,
pH,T°,CH4, NOx , SOx ,
sensors
Yes
Yes
Partially
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Partially
Partially
Partially
Partially
Partially
Partially
Yes
Partially
Partially
2. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function (Continued)
Subject
Process
Parameter
Tools
Anthropogenic
Impacts
Hydrocarbon pollution
Concentration
Waste dumping
Eutrophication
Area, volume, depth
Nitrates,Ammonia, OM,
PO4 .
Area & depth disturbed
Turbidity
Hydrocarbon sensors,
sampling, fluorometer
Imaging
Imagery, SPI
Sensors, samples, in situ.
Autoanalyser
Imaging
Transmissometer
Hydrophones
Sensor
Physical disturbance &
Structures
Noise pollution
Nuclear Energy/
discharge
Chemical Pollution
Persistent Organic
Pollutants
Nucleides dynamics
Anti-foulings
Heavy metals
PCBs
PAH
Spectrometer
Available
now?
Partially
Partially
Partially
Yes
Partially
Yes
Yes
No
No
Partially
No
3. Geohazards
Subject
Process
Parameter
Tools
Geohazards
Seismic activity
Seafloor motion
Pressure
Strain
Volcanic activity
T-phase
Seafloor motion
Pressure
Strain
seismometer
hydrophone
distance meter
Tilt meter
SOFAR hydrophone
seismometer
hydrophone
distance meter
Tilt meter
Magnetometer
Gravity meter
(In-line gas analyser, e.g.
H2S)
(sampler)
Sensors
Pore pressure probe
distance meter
Tilt meter
Current meter / ADCP
transmissometer
nephelometer
CTD
Seismometer
Hydrophone
Distance meter
Tilt meter
Gravimeter
Magnetometer
Thermometer
EM field variation
Gravity changes
(Gas and fluid chemistry
variation)
Slope stability
Pore pressure
Strain
Turbidity currents
Tsunami
Seafloor motion
Pressure
Strain
Gravity fields
Magnetic fields
Temperature
Available
now?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Partially
Partially
Yes
Yes
Yes
Partially
Partially
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
19
It is apparent from this review that most of the sensors required by a seafloor observatory are already
available. Some sensors, such as molecular probes, in-line gas analysers and anti-fouling monitors
require further R&D investment.
4.3. Data End-users
An end-user data requirement template was drawn up, based on a standard GMES template1. The
ESONET project partners and other interested parties were invited to complete an end-user list for their
country under the following headings:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
User Name
User Category
User Area of Interest
Parameters to be Measured
Location
Real Time Data Required
Forecast Timescale
Statistics Requirement
Policy Issue Being Addressed
Source of Current Information
Comments
User category, user area of interest and policy issues were categorised as set out below:
User Category
User Interest
Policy Issue
Government Departments
Public Institutes
State Sponsored Bodies
Research Organisation
Private Consultancy
Private Industry
Industry Organisation
Charitable Organisation
Offshore oil industry
Fisheries
Mineral extraction
Ecosystem assessment
Environmental protection
Pollution
Biodiversity and nature
protection
Waste prevention
Climate change studies
Regulation, policy
administration
National civil security defence
Geohazard identification
Education and training
Pharmaceutical
Biotechnology
Bio-terrorism
Industrial accidents
Protection and conservation of
the marine environment
Noise
Renewable energy
Climate change
Noise
Waste
Biodiversity decline/habitat
destruction
Environmental
security/geohazards
Oil pollution/hazardous
substances
Water quality
Radioactivity
1
Review of GMES User Requirements: Operational Procedures, Wyatt, B.K. et al, April 2003
20
4.3.1. End-user category
End user lists were ultimately completed for eleven countries –
Belgium
Bulgaria
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Romania
Spain
UK
The thoroughness of the lists varied from country to country and the lists are not comprehensive – in
particular, private industry and consultancy groups may be underrepresented, nevertheless a total of
203 end-users were identified.
A breakdown by country and end user category is given in Table 3.
21
Table 4.3 – Breakdown of identified end-users by country and category
End
User Belgium
Category
Government
Departments
Public
1
Institutes
State
Sponsored
Bodies
Research
7
Organisation
Private
Consultancy
Private
1
Industry
Industry
Organisation
Charitable
Organisation
Total
9
22
Bulgaria
France
Germany Ireland
2
10
3
3
8
10
1
2
2
1
7
7
5
3
Italy
1
Netherlands Portugal
5
Romania
1
7
5
3
4
1
5
1
Spain
5
4
3
1
1
1
1
3
30
1
2
35
6
9
30
7
8
48
4
5
11
28
2
8
11
19
50
203
3
1
8
12
43
15
18
6
11
13
7
Total
2
1
2
UK
19
Figure 1 Identified data end users by country
4%
26%
6%
22%
9%
7%
3%
6%
5%
3%
9%
Belgium
Bulgaria
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Romania
Spain
UK
Figure 2 Identified data end users by category
4%
9%
15%
14%
17%
2%
15%
24%
Government
Public
State Sponsored
Research
Private
Private
Industry
Charitable
23
4.3.2. End-user policy issues
Policy issues of particular relevance to identified end-users was recorded on the end-user data sheets
and are illustrated graphically below.
The predominant issues raised were environmental
security/geohazards, biodiversity decline/habitat destruction and climate change, although oil
pollution/hazardous substances were also issues of significant interest.
Figure 3
Data end-users - policy issues
Climate change
Noise
7%
12%
15%
Waste
7%
8%
14%
21%
16%
Biodiversity decline/habitat
destruction
Environmental
security/geohazards
Oil pollution/hazardous
substances
Water quality
Radioactivity
4.3.3.Timeliness of data
The end-user lists show that there are very few real-time parameters that require a forecast timescale of
less than one hour. These include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Seafloor seismicity
Seafloor volcanism
Tsunami risk
Marine slides
Current/storm surge
Marine pollution incidents
Near real-time data (one day to one week) was considered desirable in monitoring a range of other
parameters, such as environmental, chemical and biological, however receipt of data on a monthly
basis or longer was considered sufficient for general background monitoring.
The most important aspect of seafloor observation identified by end users is the need for long term
statistics, i.e. trends, variability and frequency. These statistics are essential for development of
predictive models critical for GMES.
24
4.3.4. ESONET End User Data Requirements Listings
KEY
User categories:
1.Government Departments
2. Public Institutes
3. State sponsored bodies
4. Research organisation
5. Private Consultancy
6. Private Industry
7. Industry Organisation
User Interest:
1. Offshore oil industry
2. Fisheries
3. Mineral extraction
4. Ecosystem assessment
5. Environmental protection
6. Pollution
7. Biodiversity and nature protection
8. Waste prevention
9. Climate change studies
10. Regulation, Policy administration
11. National civil security defence
12. Geohazard identification
13. Education and training
14. Pharmaceutical
15. Biotechnology
16. Bio-terrorism
17. Industrial accidents
18. Protection and conservation of the marine environment
19. Noise
Location:
NWES=North West European Shelf
WES=West European Shelf
MED=Mediterranean
Policy Issue:
1 Climate change
2. Noise
3. Waste
4. Biodiversity decline/Habitat destruction
5. Environmental security/Geohazards
6. Oil pollution/Hazardous substances
7. Water quality.
8. Radioactivity
25
4.3.4.1 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS BELGIUM
BELGIUM
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Flanders Marine
Institute
Public
Institute
2,3,4,5,6,7
,8,9,10,11,
12,13,14,
15,16,17,
18,19
Current, Storm surge,
Drift, Bio ecological
parameters, Physical
& environmental
parameters, chemical
contamination,
seabed temperature,
water column
chemistry, seabed
chemistry
& environmental
parameters, seabed
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
Drift, Physical &
environmental
parameters, seabed
temperature, seabed
chemistry
University Gent
Marine / Biology
Section
Prof. Vincx
Prof. Vanreusel
Research
organisation
University Gent
Renard Centre for
Marine Geology
Prof. Henriet
Prof De Batist
Research
organisation
2,4,5,7,18
1,3,4,5,12,
18
Location
WES
NWES
WES
NWES
WES
NWES
26
Real
Time
Yes
Yes
Yes
Forecast
Timescale
1 day to 1
month
1 day to 1
month
1 day to 1
month
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Yes
Policy
Issue
Support to
marine sector,
marine
research, and
education
1,2,3,4,
5,6,7,8
Oceanography,
Marine
Biology,
4
Oceanography,
Seabed
processes,
Marine
geophysics
4, 5,
Yes
Yes
Source of
Information
at present
Info and data
from research
projects where
Belgian
research
groups
partcicpated
4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection
BELGIUM
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Free University
Brussels
Laboratory of
Chemical
Oceanography and
Water Geochemistry
Prof Wollast
Prof Chou
Research
organisation
4,5,6,9,18
Free University
Brussels
Laboratory for
analytical and
environmental
chemistry
Prof Baeyens
Prof Goeyens
Prof Dehairs
Research
organisation
WES
NWES
University of Liège
Chemical
Oceanography Unit
Prof Frankignoulle
Research
organisation
& environmental
contamination,
seabed temperature,
water column
chemistry, seabed
chemistry
& environmental
contamination,
seabed temperature,
water column
chemistry, seabed
chemistry
& environmental
contamination,
seabed temperature,
water column
chemistry, seabed
chemistry
WES
NWES
Yes
1 day to 1
month
Yes
WES
Yes
1 day to 1
Yes
University of Liège
Research
4,5,6,9,18
4,5,6,9,18
4,5,6,7,9,
Location
WES
NWES
Real
Time
Yes
Yes
Forecast
Timescale
1 day to 1
month
1 day to 1
month
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Policy
Issue
Oceanography,
Marine
chemistry
1,5,7
Oceanogrpahy,
Marine
chemistry
1,4,5,6,
7
Oceanography,
Marine
chemistry
1,5,7
Oceanography,
1,3,4,5,
Source of
Information
at present
Yes
Yes
27
BELGIUM
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Location
Laboratory for
Oceanology
Prof Bouquegneau
organisation
18
NWES
MED
University Liège
Geohydrodynamics
and Environment
Research
Prof Nihoul
Research
organisation
4,5,9
URS
Private
Industry
& environmental
contamination,
seabed temperature,
water column
chemistry, seabed
chemistry
& environmental
contamination,
seabed temperature,
water column
chemistry, seabed
chemistry
Drift, Physical &
environmental
parameters,
28
1,17
NWES
NWES
WES
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
month
Yes
1 day to 1
month
Yes
1 day to 1
month
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Yes
Yes
Policy
Issue
Ecotoxicology,
Ecohydrodyna
mics
6,7
Oceanogrpahy,
Marine
chemistry,
Ecohydrodyna
mics,
Modelling
1,5,6,7
Operational
support to
marine sector
5,6
Source of
Information
at present
4.3.4.2 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS BULGARIA
BULGARIA
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Laboratory in
Nonorganic Salts,
Institute in General
and Non-organic
Chemistry, Burgas
Institute of
Meterology &
Hydrology, Sofia
2
?
Location
BS
2
9
3
Institute for Water
Problems, Sofia
2
Institute in Geology,
Sofia
2
Central Laboratory
in General Ecology,
Sofia
2
Commission Against
Disasters, Sofia
3
4,5,6,7,9,
18
5,6,8,17,
18
Statistics
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Comments
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information at
present
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
BS
EC Address List –
BS
12,13,
4,5,6,7,
BS
4,5,6,12,
16,17
?
Forecast
Timescale
BS
BS
BS
2
Real
Time
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
BS
National
Oceanographic
Committee, Sofia
Laboratory in
Parameter
Variable
29
BULGARIA
User Name
Nonorganic Salts,
Institute in General
and Non-organic
Chemistry, Sofia
High Navy School,
Varna
User
Category
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Comments
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information at
present
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
1
11
BS
Hydrographical
Service, Ministry of
Defence, Varna
1
Institute of
Oceanology,
Bulgarian Acedemy
of Sciences, Varna
Research Institute of
Fisheries, Varna
2
30
User
Interest
12, 18
BS
4,5,7,18
BS
2
2
BS
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
4.3.4.3 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS FRANCE
FRANCE
User Name
Secrétariat de la
mer
Direction des
Pêches et des
cultures marines
Marine nationale
User
Category
Government
Department
Government
Department
Government
Department
Centre
d'océanographie
militaire
Government
Department
IFREMER
Public
Institutes
User
Interes
t
Parameter
Variable
1, 2, 3,
5, 6, 7,
8, 10,
12, 17,
18
parameters, Physical &
environmental
contamination, seabed
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
2, 4, 5,
7, 10,
185, 6,
8, 10, 0
Bio ecological
environmental
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistic
s (trends,
Comments
Policy
Issue
Mainly policy
and protection
4, 5, 6, 7
variability,
frequency)
8, 11,
12, 16,
17, 19
All aspects of physical,
chemical and
biological observations
8, 11,
12, 16,
17, 19
chemical and
1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6,
Location
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
1day1month
Source of
Information
at present
On-shore
information and
data from
cruises
Yes
Mainly policy
& regulation
NWES
WES
MED
NWES
WES
MED
NWES
WES
MED
NWES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
1day to
weeks
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Defence
related issues.
Regulatory
support
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Defence
related issues
1day to
Yes
Regulatory
support,
31
FRANCE
User Name
CETMEF
CEDRE
User
Interes
t
Parameter
Variable
7, 9, 12,
13, 15,
18,
WES
MED
Public
Institutes
5, 6, 8,
10, 12,
17, 18
Physical &
environmental
parameters
NWES
WES
MED
Public
Institutes
6, 17,
18
environmental
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
User
Category
Ministère de
l'Environnement et
du développement
durable
Government
Department
Service National
de la Protection
civile
Government
Department
Région PACA
Government
Department
32
2, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8,
9, 12,
18
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistic
s (trends,
Comments
variability,
frequency)
6, 8, 11,
12, 17,
18
environmental
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
Physical &
environmental
parameters
5, 6, 7,
12, 18
months
and years
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
marine
research,
operational
support to the
marine sector
Environmental
protection and
policy issues
Protection
against
pollution.
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
Yes
NWES
WES
MED
NWES
WES
MED
MED
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Environmental
protection
policy issues
and regulation
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Yes
1 hour to
days and
weeks
Yes
1 hour to
years
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime
safety
Yes
Environmental
protection &
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
FRANCE
User Name
Région Bretagne
Région Aquitaine
Région Languedoc
Rousillon
User
Category
Government
Department
Government
Department
Government
Department
User
Interes
t
5, 6, 7,
18
5, 6, 7,
18
5, 6, 7,
18
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistic
s (trends,
Comments
variability,
frequency)
environmental
parameters, sismicity,
chemical
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
environmental
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
environmental
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
maritime
safety
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime
safety
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime
safety
Yes
1 day to
months
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime
WES
WES
MED
33
FRANCE
User Name
User
Category
User
Interes
t
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
INERIS
Public
Institutes
5, 6, 8,
16,18
Water quality
Institut Français du
Pétrole
Public
Institutes
1, 6, 12,
18
chemical and
INSERM
Public
Institutes
6,
14,15,1
6
chemical and
Public
Institutes
CNRS
Public
Institutes
IFRTP
IRD
34
Statistic
s (trends,
Comments
variability,
frequency)
environmental
temperature, water
column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
Commissariat à
l'Energie Atomique
Forecast
Timescale
chemical and
safety
and years
NWES
WES
MED
NWES
WES
MED
NWES
WES
MED
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
Not
required
Not
required
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime
safety
Environmental
protection
Yes
Environmental
protection
Yes
Yes
Environmental
protection
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
All aspects of
marine
research
Public
Institutes
4, 5, 6,
7, 9,
12, 13,
14, 15,
18, 19
4, 5, 7,
9, 18
chemical and
NWES
Not
required
Yes
All aspects of
polar research
Public
Institutes
4, 5, 7,
9, 18
chemical and
WES
Not
required
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Physical,
biological and
ecological
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
FRANCE
User Name
User
Category
User
Interes
t
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistic
s (trends,
Comments
variability,
frequency)
State
sponsored
bodies
2, 6, 9,
11,
Drift, Physical &
environmental
parameters
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
IUEM (Institut
Universitaire
Européen de la
Mer
Observatoire
océanologique de
Villefranche sur
mer
Observatoire
océanologique de
Roscoff
Observatoire
océanologique de
Banyuls sur mer
Research
organisation
5,7, 9,
12, 13,
14, 15,
18
5,7, 9,
12, 13,
14, 15,
18
5,7,
13, 14,
15, 18
5,7,
13, 14,
15, 18
All aspects of
physical,geophysical,
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
Not
required
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
All aspects of
physical,geophysical,
chemical and
MED
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
chemical and
WES
Not
required
Yes
chemical and
MED
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
Laboratoire de
Biologie Marine de
Concarneau
Research
organisation
5,7,
13, 14,
15, 18
All aspects of physical ,
chemical and
WES
Not
required
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
Station Marine
d'Arcachon
Research
organisation
5,7,
13, 14,
15, 18
chemical and
WES
Not
required
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
Research
organisation
Research
organisation
Source of
Information
at present
research
Lond term
forecast
Climate
change
Météorologie
Nationale
Research
organisation
Policy
Issue
Physical,
geophysical,bi
ological and
ecological
research
Physical,
geophysical,
biological and
ecological
research
Biological and
ecological
research
35
FRANCE
User Name
User
Category
User
Interes
t
Parameter
Variable
5,7,
13, 14,
15, 18
5,7,
13, 14,
15, 18
chemical and
MED
Not
required
chemical & biological
observations,
hydrodynamical and
climatic research
chemical and
MED
Yes
MED
Research
organisation
Institut
Océanographique
Paul Ricard
Charity
5, 7,
13, 14,
15, 18
Muséum National
d'Histoire Naturelle
State
sponsored
bodies
5, 7,
13, 14,
15, 18
chemical and
OCEANOPOLIS
Charity
5, 7, 9,
13, 18
chemical and
36
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistic
s (trends,
Comments
variability,
frequency)
Centre
d’Océanologique
de Marseille
Fondation Albert
1er de Monaco
Charity
Location
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
Yes
Weekq to
months
Yes
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education
at all levels
and in terms of
data, concepts,
policy and
environmental
awareness.
NWES
WES
MED
Not
required
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
WES
NWES
Yes
weeks to
years
Yes
Significant
potential for
public outreach
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
FRANCE
User Name
User
Category
User
Interes
t
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistic
s (trends,
Comments
variability,
frequency)
NAUSICAA
Charity
5, 7, 9,
13, 18
chemical and
WES
Yes
weeks to
years
Yes
Cité de la Mer Cherbourg
Charity
5, 7, 9,
13, 18
chemical and
WES
NWES
Yes
weeks to
years
Yes
Aquarium de La
Rochelle
Industry
Organisation
5, 7, 9,
13, 18
chemical and
WES
Yes
weeks to
years
Yes
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
and education
at all levels
and in terms of
data, concepts,
policy and
environmental
awareness.
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education
at all levels
and in terms of
data, concepts,
policy and
environmental
awareness.
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education
at all levels
and in terms of
data, concepts,
policy and
environmental
awareness.
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education
37
FRANCE
User Name
User
Category
User
Interes
t
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistic
s (trends,
variability,
frequency)
Marineland
Antibes
Industry
Organisation
5, 7, 9,
13, 18
chemical and
MED
Yes
weeks to
years
Yes
Robin des bois
Charity
2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7,
8, 9,
10, 13,
17, 18,
19
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
1day to
months
and years
Yes
Greenpeace France
Charity
2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7,
8, 9,
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
1day to
months
and years
Yes
38
Comments
at all levels
and in terms of
data, concepts,
policy and
environmental
awareness.
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education
at all levels
and in terms of
data, concepts,
policy and
environmental
awareness.
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education
at all levels
and in terms of
data, concepts,
policy and
environmental
awareness.
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
FRANCE
User Name
User
Category
User
Interes
t
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistic
s (trends,
Comments
variability,
frequency)
10, 13,
17, 18,
19
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
at all levels
and in terms of
data, concepts,
policy and
environmental
awareness.
Biological and
ecological
research.
Public
outreach and
education
Environmental
protection and
maritime
safety
SEPNB
Charity
2, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8,
13, 18
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
1day to
months
and years
Yes
TOTAL
. Private
Industry
1, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7,
8, 17,
18
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
Yes
1day to
months
and years
Yes
GEP
Industry
Organisation
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
Not
required
Weeks to
years
Yes
Environmental
protection and
maritime
safety
SYCOPOL
Industry
Organisation
6
Depollution,
rehabilitation
Yes
1 day to
weeks
Yes
Environmental
protection
Groupe EVEN
. Private
Industry
15
chemical and
NWES
WES
MED
WES
Not
required
Months to
years
Not
required
Biotechnology
development
39
4.3.4.4 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS GERMANY
GERMANY
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
BP
Private Industry 1, 5, 6, 12
British Petrol
Parameter
Variable
Physical & environmental
temperature, water column
chemistry, seabed chemistry
Research
4, 7, 9, 12, Current, Storm surge, Drift,
GeoB
Organisation
13
Bio ecological parameters,
Dept. of
Geosciences
Univ. Bremen
Private Industry 1, 5, 6, 12 Physical & environmental
IES
Integr.
Exploration
Systems
Research
MPI
Organisation
13, 15
Max-PlanckPhysical & environmental
Institute for
Marine
Microbiology
40
Comments
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Statistics
(trends.
Variability)
Yes
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
Oceanography,
marine
Geophysics
research
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
Oceanography,
marine
Microbiology
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
GERMANY
User Name
Statoil
User
Category
User
Interest
Private Industry 1, 5, 6, 12
Parameter
Variable
Research
UNH
13
University New Organisation
Hampshire
Research
UW
Organisation
13
Univ.
Washington
Comments
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Statistics
(trends.
Variability)
Yes
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
Oceanography,
marine biology,
marine
Geophysics
research
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
Oceanography,
marine biology,
marine
Geophysics
research
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
41
GERMANY
User Name
User
Category
BSH
Bundesamt für
Seeschifffahrt,
Hydrographie
Government
Department
Bundesforschun Government
Department
gssanstalt für
Fischerei
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
3, 5, 10, Current, Storm surge, Drift,
12, 13, 17, Bio ecological parameters,
18
contamination, water column
chemistry
2, 4, 5, 6, Bio ecological parameters,
7, 8, 10,
13, 17, 18
contamination, water column
chemistry, seabed
State sponsored 2, 4, 5, 6, Current, Storm surge, Drift,
bodies
7, 8, 10, Bio ecological parameters,
World Wildlife
13,
17, 18 Physical & environmental
Fund
BGR
Government 1, 3, 4, 7, Current, Storm surge, Drift,
Department 9, 10, 12, Bio ecological parameters,
Bundesanstalt
13
für
Geowissenschaf
ten und
Rohstoffe
WWF
42
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Statistics
(trends.
Variability)
Yes
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
Comments
Mainly policy
and regulation,
Oceanography
Policy and
regulation,
sustainable
development of
the fishing
industry
sustainable
development of
the fishing
industry,
Environmental
protection
Policy and
regulation,
Oceanography,
marine
Geophysics
research
GERMANY
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Industry
1, 5, 6, 10, Current Strom surge, Drift,
Organisation
12
parameter, chemical
contamination
OSAE
Private Industry 4, 7, 9, 12, Current, Storm surge, Drift,
13
Offshore Survey
and Engineering
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Statistics
(trends.
Variability)
Yes
NWES
Yes
1 day -1 month
Yes
Germanischer
Lloyd
Comments
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
Oceanography,
marine
Geophysics
research
43
4.3.4.5 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS IRELAND
IRELAND
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Dept of
Communications,
Marine & Natural
Resources
Government
Department
1, 2, 3,6,
10, 12, 18
Marine Institute
State
sponsored
body
Current, Storm surge, Drift,
parameters
Department of
Defence
Met Eireann
Bord Iascaigh
Mhara, Irish Sea
Fisheries Board
Dublin Institute
for Advanced
Studies
Environmental
Protection
Agency
44
1, 2 4,
7,15, 18
Government
Department
2, 6 ,8, 10,
11, 16, 18
Government
Department
State
sponsored
body
9
2, 4, 5, 7,
18
State
sponsored
body
12
State
sponsored
body
5, 6, 10,
17, 18
parameters
Physical parameters
Location
NWES
Yes
NWES
Yes
NWES
Yes
NWES
Yes
NWES
NWES
contamination, water
column chemistry, seabed
chemistry
Real
Time
NWES
Forecast
Timescale
1 day to 1
month
1 day - 1
month
1 – 3 days
Hindcast
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Policy
Issue
Mainly policy &
regulation
4,5,6
Regulatory
support, marine
research,
operational
support to the
marine sector
1, 4,5, 6
Regulatory
support
4,5,6
Climatology
studies
Sustainable
development of
the fishing
industry
1
Yes
Yes
Not
required
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
4, 6, 7
Seismic
research, gravity
magnetics
5
Environmental
protection
6, 7, 8
Source of
Information
at present
IRELAND
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
The Heritage
Council
State
sponsored
body
10, 13, 18
parameters
Port Authorities
State
sponsored
body
State
sponsored
body
12, 16, 18
parameters
Elan Corporation
plc
Private
Industry
14,15
Irish Shell
Limited
Private
Industry
1, 5, 6, 12
Marathon
International
Petroleum Ireland
Ltd
Irish Offshore
Operators
Association
Private
Industry
Radiological
Protection
Institute
National
Industry
Organisatio
n
Research
5, 6, 18
1, 5, 6, 12
1, 5, 6, 12
4, 7, 9, 12,
Physical parameters,
chemical contamination,
water column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
Bio ecological parameters
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
NWES
Not
require
d
Not
required
Yes
NWES
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Not
required
NWES
Yes
1 day - 1
month
NWES
Not
require
d
NWES
NWES
Yes
Yes
Not
required
1 day - 1
month
1 day - 1
month
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Not
required
Policy
Issue
Protection of
marine heritage
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
Environmental
protection
5
8
Drug research
4
5, 6,
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
5, 6
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
5, 6
Oceanography,
1, 4
Not
required
NWES
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Yes
NWES
Yes
1 day to 1
Yes
Source of
Information
at present
45
IRELAND
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
University of
Ireland Galway
organisation
13
National
University of
Ireland Cork,
Coastal & Marine
Resources Centre
Research
organisation
4, 7, 9, 12,
13, 18
National
University of
Ireland Dublin
Research
organisation
seabed temperature, water
chemistry
Halia
Oceanographic
Consulting
Services
5
Ecological
Consultancy
Services Ltd
5
46
4, 7, 9, 12,
13, 18
4,5,6,18
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
NWES
Yes
Yes
1 day to 1
month
1 day to 1
month
Yes
Yes
NWES
Yes
4,7,18
Yes
1 day
to 1
month
1 day to 1
month
Yes
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
marine biology,
marine
geophysics
research
month
NWES
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Yes
Marine biology
and geophyics,
Seabed
processes
research
1, 4
Marine biology
and geophysics,
meteorology,
environmental,
seabed
processes
research
Deployment,
collection,
analysis and
interpretation of
oceanographic
data, ROV's,
Env monitoring
& hydrographic
surveys.
1, 4
UCD Science
Faculty
1, 4
ESONET
Directory
1, 4
Specialising in
marine and
freshwater
ecology
4.3.4.6 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS ITALY
ITALY
User Name
User Category
Finsiel S.p.A.
Private Industry
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
9
Physical and
environmental
parameters
Physical and
environmental
parameters
CONISMA –
Consorzio
Nazionale
Interuniversitario
per le Scienze del
Mare
INFN –Istituto
Nazionale di
Fisica Nucleare
Dipartimento
Protezione Civile
Private
Consortium
among 30 Italian
Universities
1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,
9, 12, 13, 15,
18
Research
organisation
4, 5, 12, 13
Government
Departments
ICRAM –Istituto
Centrale Ricer-che
Applicate al Mare
OGS –Istituto
Nazionale di
Oceanografia e
Geofisica
Sperimentale
Research
organisation
1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 10, 11, 12,
14, 16, 17, 18,
19
2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9,
15, 18
Research
organisation
1, 4, 5, 7, 9,
12, 18
Physical and
environmental
parameters
Physical and
environmental
parameters
Physical and
environmental
parameters
Physical and
environmental
parameters
Location
MED
WES
MED
MED
MED
MED
MED
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
Yes
Not required
Not required
Yes
Days
Yes
Not required
Yes
Days
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Not required
Days
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Environmental
monitoring and
climatic change
Environmental
monitoring and
climatic change
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
1, 5
1, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8
Yes
Yes
Yes
Environmental
monitoring
5, 8
Geo-hazards,
environmental
monitoring and
climatic change
Environmental
monitoring
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Geo-hazards,
environmental
monitoring and
climatic change
1, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7
1, 4, 5, 6
47
4.3.4.7 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS NETHERLANDS
NETHERLANDS
User Name
Department of
Public works
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Govt.
1,2,3,4,,5,
Currents, wave effects,
shear stress, salinity,
temperature, chemical
contamination, , Physical
& environmental
parameters
6,7,8,10,
18
Ministry of
Agriculture and
Fisheries
Govt.
Ministry of
Defence
Govt.
Netherlands
Organisation for
Advancement of
Sciences (NWO)
State
sponsored
body
48
2, 4, 5, 7,
18
5, 6 ,8, 10,
11, 16, 18
1, 2 4,
7,15, 18
Bio ecological
environmental
temperature, water
chemistry,
parameters, seabed
currents, waves, shear
stress
Currents, Storm surge,
environmental
temperature, water
chemistry
Location
NWES
NWES,
WES
Real
Time
yes
Yes
Forecast
Timescale
1 day to 1
month
1 day - 1
month
1 – 3 days
NWES
NWES
Yes
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
yes
Yes
Not
required
Yes
Sustainable
development of
the fishing
industry
Policy
Issue
Coastal
zone
managem
ent,
resource
developm
ent, policy
&
regulation
4, 6, 7
Regulatory
support
4,5,6
Marine
research,
Climate
research,
1, 4,5, 6
Source of
Information
at present
NETHERLANDS
User Name
Royal
Netherlands
Institute for Sea
Research (NIOZ)
ALTERRA
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
NWO
sponsored
body
4,5,6,7,9,
12,13,
parameters, , Bio
ecological parameters
contamination,
parameters, , Bio
ecological parameters
contamination,
environmental
temperature, water
chemistry
parameters Bio ecological
parameters,, chemical
temperature, water
chemistry
parameters
Govt.and 1,2,3,4,5,6
industry ,7,9,10,12,
15,18
supported,
Advisory
KNAW/
NWO
sponsored
body
1, 2 4,
7,15, 18
Netherlands
Institute for
Fisheries
Research (RIVO)
Govt.
12
Port Authorities
Govt.
NIOO-CEMO
12, 16, 18
Location
NWES,
WES
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES
WES
NWES,
WES
NWES
Real
Time
Yes
Yes
Forecast
Timescale
1 day - 1
month
1 day - 1
month
Statistics
Yes
Yes
Seismic
research, seabed
sampling,
groundtruthing,
mapping
Policy
Issue
Marine
research,
biodiversity
research,
Climate
research,
Yes
Sea research,
nutrient
demands,
biodiversity
mapping
1, 4,5, 6
1 day - 1
month
Yes
Sea research,
fisheries
research,
nutrient
demands,
biodiversity
mapping
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
5
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Not
required
Source of
Information
at present
5
1 day - 1
month
Yes
Yes
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
5
49
NETHERLANDS
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Private
Industry
1,3, 5, 6,
12
Research
organisation
4, 7, 9, 12,
13
FUGRO ltd
Free University
of Amsterdam
50
Parameter
Variable
Location
environmental
temperature, water
chemistry
environmental
temperature, water
chemistry
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Yes
1 day to 1
month
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Yes
Resource and
seabed
exploration,
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
Oceanography,
marine biology,
marine geology,
climate research
Yes
Policy
Issue
5, 6,
1, 4
Source of
Information
at present
4.3.4.8 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS PORTUGAL
PORTUGAL
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Instituto de
Meteorologia
Government
Department
5,9,11,12
parameters
Serviço Nacional
de Protecção
Civil
Government
Department
5,6,9,11,1
2,17
Instituto
Hidrográfico
Government
Department
5,6,9,10
Storm surge, Bio
ecological parameters,
parameters.
parameters
Location
WES
WES
WES
IPIMAR
Instituto
Geológico e
Mineiro
Instituto da Água
Government
Department
2,4,5,6,,7,
18
Government
Department
3,5,9,12
Government
Department
5,6,7,8
Government
5,6
Bio ecological
environmental
temperature, water
chemistry
parameters
chemistry
WES
WES
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
Yes
1 – 3 days
Yes
Yes
1 – 3 days
Yes
1 day - 1
month
Yes
No
No
1 day - 1
month
No
1 day - 1
month
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Yes
Yes
WES
No
1 day - 1
month
Yes
WES
Yes
Not
Yes
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
Civil Protection.
1, 5
Only On-shore
information is
used
Only On-shore
information is
used
Regulatory
support, Civil
Protection.
5
Regulatory
support, marine
research,
operational
support to the
marine sector.
Sustainable
development of
the fishing
industry.
1
Data from
coastal stations
and moorings
4
Data from
cruises
Seismic
research, gravity
magnetics.
1, 5
Only On-shore
information is
used
Environmental
protection.
5, 7
Data from
coastal stations
Environmental
51
PORTUGAL
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Department
Government
Department
4,5,6,7,9,1
0,18
Universidade de
Lisboa
Research
organisation
2,4,5,6,7,
9,12,13
Research
Instituto Superior
organisation
Técnico
5,9,12,13
Research
organisation
5,9,12,13
Research
organisation
5,9,12,13
Research
organisation
12,13,14
52
Location
Real
Time
parameters
Instituto
Marítimo e
Portuário
Instituto do
Ambiente
Universidade do
Porto, Instituto
Geofísico
Universidade de
Évora, Centro de
Geofísica
Universidade dO
Algarve, CIMA
Parameter
Variable
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
water column chemistry,
seabed chemistry
parameters, Bio
ecological parameters,
WES
No
Not
required
Yes
parameters
WES
No
Not
required
Yes
No
Not
required
parameters
WES
WES
parameters
WES
parameters
WES
No
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
Environmental
protection
1, 3, 4, 5
Data from
coastal stations
Oceanography,
marine biology,
marine
geophysics
research
Seismic
research, gravity
magnetics
Seismic
research, gravity
magnetics
1,4, 5
On-shore and
cruise
information is
used
5
Only On-shore
information is
used
Only On-shore
information is
used
protection
required
1day - 1
month
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Yes
Yes
5
Yes
Seismic
research, gravity
magnetics
1, 5
No
Not
required
Only On-shore
information is
used
Not
required
Yes
Seismic
research, gravity
magnetics
1, 5
No
Only On-shore
information is
used
4.3.4.9 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS ROMANIA
ROMANIA
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Romanian Center of
Marine Geology and
Geo-Ecology,
Bucharest
National Institute of
Meterology and
Hydrology,
Bucharest
Environmental
Research and
Engineering
Institute, Bucharest
Aquaproject S.A.,
Bucharest
2?
3,4,12,18
Romanian Marine
Research Institute,
Constanta
2
Romanian Center of
Marine Geology and
Geo-Ecology,
Constanta
Research Laboratory
for Aquaculture and
Aquatic Ecology,
Piatra Neamt
2?
Parameter
Variable
Location
BS
2
9
BS
2
4,5,7,18
BS
?
?
BS
?
BS
3,4,12,18
BS
4?
2,4,5,18
BS
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Comments
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information at
present
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
EC Address List –
Major European
Research Institutes
and Centres
53
4.3.4.10 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS SPAIN
SPAIN
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Centre Mediterrani
d’Investigacions
Marines i
Ambientals
CMIMA-CSIC
Research
organization
2,3,4,5,6,7
8,9,12,13,
15,18
All aspects of
geological, physical,
chemical, biological
observations and
parameters, real-time
measurements, audio
and visual displays, bio
& geo-samples
Institut de Ciències
de la Terra “Jaume
Almera”
ICTJA-CSIC
Research
organization
Instituto de
Investigaciones
Marinhas
IIM-CSIC
Research
organization
Institut Mediterrani
d’Estudis Avançats
IMEDEA-CSIC
54
Research
organization
1,12,13,19
2,4,5,6,7,8
,11,13,18
4,5,6,7,8,
13,18
Physical &
environmental
parameters, real-time
measurements
chemical and biological
observations, chemical
column chemistry,
specimens
observations, water
column chemistry,
current, drift
Locati
on
MED,
WES,
NWES
WES,
MED
WES
MED
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Yes
1 day to
months and
years
Yes
1 day to
months and
years
Statistics
Yes
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
Biological,
chemical,
physical and
geosciences
research,
fisheries,
technological
development
1,3,4,5,
6,7
National and
international
funded
research
Geophysical
research
2,5
National and
international
funded
research
4,6,7
National and
international
funded
research
1,4,6,7
National and
international
funded
research
Yes
1 day to 1
month
Yes
Biological,
chemical and
physical
research,
fisheries, food
technology,
pollution
1 day to
months and
years
Yes
Biological,
chemical and
physical
research.
modelling
Yes
Yes
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
SPAIN
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Universitat de
Barcelona
UB
Research
organization
1,3,5,9,12,
13
Physical &
environmental
parameters
Universitat
Autònoma de
Barcelona
UAB
Research
organization
Universitat
Politècnica de
Catalunya
UPC-VG
Research
organization
Instituto Español de
Oceanografía
IEO
State
sponsored
body
1,2,3,5,10
Instituto Geológico
y Minero de España
IGME
State
sponsored
body
1,2,3,5,6,9
12
Institut Cartogràfic
de Catalunya
ICC
State
sponsored
body
1,5,12
Instituto
State
5,6,10
5,6,9,13
1,3,5,6,12,
13,19
Physical &
environmental
parameters and
observations, chemical
contamination
Physical &
environmental
parameters and
observations, real-time
monitoring
Physical &
environmental
parameters
Physical &
environmental
parameters
Physical &
environmental
parameters
Locati
on
WES
MED
NWES
WES
MED
WES
MED
WES,
MED
WES,
MED
Real
Time
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Forecast
Timescale
1 day to 1
month
1 day to 1
month
1 day to
months and
years
1 day to 1
month
1 day to 1
month
MED
Yes
1 day to
months and
years
WES,
Yes
1 day to 1
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
Environmental
and
geosciences
research
1,5
National and
international
funded
research
Environmental
radioactivity
research
1,8
National and
international
funded
research
Engineering
research,
technology
2,5
National and
international
funded
research
Fishery stock
assessment,
pollution,
policy and
regulation
4,5,6,7
National
funded
research
Environmental
and
geosciences
research
1,3,5,6
National and
self-funded
research
Yes
Environmental
risk
assessment
5
National and
self-funded
research
Yes
Environmental
5,6,7
National
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
55
SPAIN
User Name
User
Category
Hidrográfico de la
Marina
IHN
sponsored
body
Servei Meteorològic
de Catalunya
METEOCAT
State
sponsored
body
5,9,11
Dirección General
de Protección Civil
DGPC
Government
Department
11, 18
Ministerio de Medio
Ambiente
MMA
Government
Department
Agència Catalana
de l’Aigua
ACA
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Locati
on
observations
MED
oceanic and climatic
observations
MED
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Yes
1 day to
months and
years
WES,
MED
Yes
1 day to 1
month
4,5,6,7,8,9
10,18
observations
WES,
MED
Not
required
months to
years
State
sponsored
body
5,7,8,10,
17,18
observations, water
column chemistry
Yes
1 day to
months and
years
Port Autònom de
Barcelona
APB
Private
Industry
3,5,6,7,8
Not
required
1 day to 1
month
Museu de la Ciència
MC
Public
Institute
13,18
Aquari de Barcelona
56
Private
13,18
observations
MED
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
month
observations
MED
Statistics
Policy
Issue
protection and
marine safety
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Source of
Information
at present
funded
research
Climatological
studies, civil
protection
1,5
National
funded
research
Policy and
regulation,
civil protection
5,7,8
National
funded
research
Policy and
regulation
1,2,3,4,
5,6,7,8
National
funded
research
Climatological
studies, civil
protection
3,4,6,7
National
funded
research
Environmental
protection and
marine safety
2,3,5,6,
7,8
Self-funded
and contract
research
1,2,3,4,
5,6,7,8
None
1,4,6,7
None
Geological, physical,
observations, audio
visual displays,
specimens
MED,
WES
Yes
1 day to
months and
years
Yes
Public
outreach and
education,
environmental
awareness
All aspects of
MED
Yes
1 day to
Yes
Potential for
SPAIN
User Name
User
Category
AB
Industry
REPSOL
Private
Industry
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Locati
on
Real
Time
geological, physical,
observations, audio and
visual displays,
specimens
1,3,6,7,8,
12,17,19
observations
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
months and
years
WES,
MED
NWES
Yes
1 day to
months and
years
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
public
outreach and
education at all
levels,
environmental
awareness
Yes
Environmental
protection and
marine safety
1,2,3,4,
5,6,7
Self-funded
and contract
research
57
4.3.4.11 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS UNITED KINGDOM
UK
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
National
Museums of
Scotland
Public
institutes
13, 18
Specimens, audio and
visual displays, live
and/or near-real time
data, all aspects of
physical, chemical and
University of
Aberdeen
BP
Subsea7
Transocean
Research
organisation
2,4,7,12,1
3,18
Private
Industry
1,2,3,4,5,6
,7,8,17,18,
19
observations
Private
Industry
1,2,3,4,5,6
,7,8,17,18,
19
observations
Private
Industry
1,2,3,4,5,6
,7,8,17,18,
19
observations
Location
NWES,
WES
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
58
Real
Time
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Forecast
Timescale
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
weeks
1 day to
weeks
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Biological and
ecological
research
1,2,3,4,5,6
,7,8
None.
1, 4, 5
National and EU
funded research
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7
External
contract research
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7
External
contract research
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7
External
contract research
Yes
Yes
Yes
UK
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
World Wildlife
Fund
Charity
2, 4, 5, 6,
7, 9, 10,
13, 18
Centre for
Environment,
Fisheries and
Aquaculture
Scottish
Association of
Marine Sciences
Scottish
Environment
Protection
Agency
SEA
Environmental
Consulting
State
sponsored
body
2, 4, 5, 7,
18
State
sponsored
body
4, 7, 13,
18
observations
State
sponsored
body
2, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 10,
18, 19
observations
Private
consultancy
2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 12,
17, 18
observations
2, 4, 7, 9,
13, 18
University of
Wales, Bangor
Research
organisation
Proudman
Research
2, 4, 7, 9,
observations
Location
Real
Time
NWES,
WES,
MED
Yes
NWES,
WES
Not
requir
ed
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES
NWES
Yes
Not
requir
ed
No
1 day to
months
and years
Months to
years
1 day to
months
and years
Statistics
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Environmental
protection and
policy issues
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Self-funded
research,
national and
international
funded research
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National funded
research
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 4, 5,
National and
international
funded research
Yes
Environmental
protection and
policy issues
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National funded
research
Not
required
Environment
al protection
and
remediation
4, 6, 7
None
Yes
Yes
Yes
Months to
years
1 day to
weeks
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 4, 5
National and
international
funded research
Yes
1 day to
Yes
Biological and
1, 4, 5
National and
NWES,
WES
NWES,
Forecast
Timescale
59
UK
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Location
Oceanographic
Laboratory
organisation
13, 18
WES
Southampton
Oceanography
Centre
Research
organisation
2, 4, 7, 9,
13, 18
Gatty Marine
Laboratory, St.
Andrews
University
Research
organisation
2, 4, 7, 9,
13, 18
University of
Plymouth
Research
organisation
observations
2, 4, 7, 9,
13, 18
Seas Ltd., Oban,
Scotland.
Private
consultancy
2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 12,
17, 18
Office of Naval
Research,
International
Field Office,
London
State
sponsored
body
11, 12, 16,
18
Sealife Centre,
Private
13, 18
60
observations
Real
Time
Yes
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
WES
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
NWES
Not
requir
ed
1 day to
weeks
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Policy
Issue
ecological
research
months
and years
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
Forecast
Timescale
Yes
Yes
Yes
Not
required
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Yes
1 day to
Yes
Source of
Information
at present
international
funded research
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 4, 5
National and
international
funded research
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 4, 5
National and
international
funded research
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 4, 5
National and
international
funded research
Environmental
protection and
remediation
3, 4, 5, 6,
7
None
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety.
Defence related
issues.
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Self-funded and
contract research
Significant
1, 3, 4, 5,
None
UK
User Name
User
Category
UK
industry
National History
Museum,
London
Public
institute
Institute of
Fisheries
Management
Environment
Agency
AK Rainbow
Ltd.
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
WES
13, 18
NWES,
WES,
MED
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Industry
organisation
2, 4, 7,
18
observations
NWES,
WES
Months to
years
Yes
State
sponsored
body
2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10,
12, 13,
17, 18,
19
observations
NWES,
WES
Not
requir
ed
Not
requir
ed
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Private
industry
14, 15
Biological organisms
NWES,
WES,
Not
requir
Not
required
Not
required
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
months
and years
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Mainly policy &
regulation
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
6, 7
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
None
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Contract
research
Mainly policy &
regulation
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National funded
research
Biochemical
and
6, 7
Self-funded
research
61
UK
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
MED
ed
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
Department of
Environment,
Food and Rural
Affairs, UK
National
Environment
Research
Council, UK
Biotechnology
and Biological
Sciences
Research
Council, UK
Society for
Underwater
Technology, UK
Government
department
4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9,
10, 18
observations
NWES,
WES
Not
requir
ed
Months to
years
Yes
State
sponsored
body
2, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8,
9, 13, 18
observations
NWES,
WES
Not
requir
ed
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
State
sponsored
body
13, 14,
15, 16,
18
observations
NWES,
WES
Not
requir
ed
1 day to
months
and years
Charity
1, 15,
17, 18
observations
NWES,
WES
Not
requir
ed
SeaFish Industry
Authority
Industry
organisation
2, 4, 5,
7, 18
observations
NWES,
WES
Scottish
Executive
Environment and
Rural Affairs
Department
Government
department
4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9,
10, 18
observations
NWES
Fisheries
State
sponsored
2, 4, 5,
NWES,
62
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
biotechnological
development
Mainly policy &
regulation
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National funded
research
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National funded
research
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National funded
research
Not
required
Not
required
5, 6
None
Not
requir
ed
Not
requir
ed
Months to
years
Yes
Application of
subsea
technology for
research and
survey purposes
Mainly policy &
regulation
4
National and
international
funded research
Months to
years
Yes
Mainly policy &
regulation
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National funded
research
Not
Months to
Yes
Fishery stock
assessment
4
National and
international
UK
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Location
Research
Services
Marine
Biological
Association
body
7, 10, 18
observations
WES
Charity
2, 4, 5,
6, 7, 13,
18
observations
NWES,
WES
Challenger
Society
Charity
observations
NWES,
WES
British
Ecological
Society
Marine
Conservation
Society
Charity
2, 4, 5,
6, 7, 13,
18
2, 4, 5,
6, 7, 13,
18
2, 4, 5,
6, 7, 13,
18
observations
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
Charity
observations
Shell UK
Private
Industry
1,2,3,4,5,6
,7,8,17,18,
19
observations
National Marine
Aquarium
Charity
2, 13
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
requir
ed
Not
requir
ed
years
Statistics
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
funded research
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
None
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
None
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National and
self-funded
research
Months to
years
Yes
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Self-funded
research
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
Yes
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Contract and
self -funded
research
Significant
potential for
1, 4, 5, 6,
7
None
Months to
years
Yes
Not
requir
ed
Not
requir
ed
Not
requir
ed
Months to
years
Yes
Months to
years
Yes
Yes
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Yes
63
UK
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
Statistics
and years
UNEP World
Conservation
Monitoring
Centre, UK
Charity
2, 4, 7,
13, 18
NWES,
WES,
MED
Not
requir
ed
Months to
years
Yes
Sir Alister Hardy
Foundation for
Ocean Science
(SAHFOS)
MacDuff
Aquarium,
Scotland
Charity
2, 4, 7,
13, 18
observations
NWES,
WES,
MED
Not
requir
ed
Months to
years
Yes
Private
industry
2, 13
NWES
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Charity
2, 7
NWES,
WES,
Not
requir
1 day to
months
Yes
Marine
Connection,
64
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Environmental
monitoring and
climatic change
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Significant
potential for
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National and
international
funded research
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
National and
international
funded research
1, 4, 5, 6,
7
None
4
None
UK
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
London
Port Erin Marine
Laboratory
Research
organisation
2,4,7,
13,18
Briggs Marine,
Inc.
Private
consultancy
Halliburton, UK
Private
consultancy
Greenpeace, UK
Charity
1, 3, 5,
8, 12,
17, 19
1, 3, 5,
8, 12,
17, 19
2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10,
13, 17,
18, 19
Texaco, UK
Private
industry
1,2,3,4,5,6
,7,8,17,18,
19
Parameter
Variable
Location
Real
Time
Forecast
Timescale
observations
observations
MED
ed
and years
NWES
Yes
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
NWES,
WES
Not
requir
ed
Not
requir
ed
Yes
Days to
weeks
Not
required
Days to
weeks
observations
NWES,
WES
NWES,
WES,
MED
observations
NWES,
WES,
Yes
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
Biological and
ecological
research
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
4, 5
National and
international
funded research
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
4, 5, 6, 7
None
Not
required
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
6, 7
None
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Significant
potential for
public outreach
and education at
all levels and in
terms of data,
concepts, policy
and
environmental
awareness
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Self-funded,
national and
international
funded research
1 day to
months
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Self funded and
contract research
65
UK
User Name
User
Category
User
Interest
Parameter
Variable
Mobil North Sea
Ltd.
Private
industry
1,2,3,4,5,6
,7,8,17,18,
19
observations
Fugro Survey
Ltd.
Private
industry
observations
University of
Glasgow
Research
organisation
1, 3, 4,
6, 7, 12,
17, 19
4, 7, 13,
18
Ministry of
Defence (Navy),
UK
MET Office
Government
department
Kongsberg
Simrad Ltd
Private
industry
66
1
11, 12,
16, 17,
19
5, 9, 13
1
observations
All aspects of physical
oceanic and climatic
observations
observations
Location
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES,
MED
NWES,
WES
Real
Time
Yes
Not
requir
ed
Yes
Yes
Yes
Not
requir
ed
Forecast
Timescale
and years
1 day to
months
and years
Days to
weeks
Statistics
Comments
(trends,
variability,
frequency)
Policy
Issue
Source of
Information
at present
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Self-funded and
contract research
Yes
Environmental
protection &
maritime safety
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
None
1 day to
months
and years
Yes
Biological and
ecological
research
1, 4, 5
National and
international
funded research
1 day to
months
and years
1 day to
months
and years
Not
required
Yes
Defence related
issues.
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Self-funded
research
Yes
Climatological
studies
1, 8
National and
international
funded research
Not
required
Environmental
protection.
5, 6
None
4.4. The Role of ESONET in Detection of Tsunamis.
The Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004 triggered by an earthquake off Sumatra has
focussed attention on needs for warnings against similar events in Europe. Europe has suffered
from major catastrophic tsunami events since prehistoric times, the largest being:
1. The Western Mediterranean mega-tsunami of ca. 80,000 yr BP
2. The AD365 tsunami in the eastern Mediterranean
3. The Storegga tsunami in the North Atlantic ca. 8000 yr BP
4 The Lisbon tsunami of AD 1755
Most seismicity in Europe occurs around the Mediterranean Sea and a tsunami can be expected
there approximately every 10 years. The most recent was in the western basin, triggered by an
earthquake off Algeria in 2003. The wave hit the Balearic Islands but there were no fatalities.
Tsunamis with fatal consequences can be expected at intervals of ca. 100 years and catastrophes
at millennial time scale intervals. The eastern and western basins are isolated from one another
as far as tsunami wave propagation is concerned, so at any given location the frequency of
occurrence is lower than these figures for the whole Mediterranean.
Tsunami detection can be divided into two kinds of monitoring:
1.
2.
Detection of triggering events.
Detection of wave propagation.
4.4.1. Detection of triggering events:
(a) Earthquakes.
Tsunami warning systems are generally based on detection of earthquakes. Using data from
networks of seismometers, the time, location, depth and magnitude of the earthquake is
calculated. If an earthquake is close to or under the sea, above a certain magnitude and possibly
applying certain depth criteria it is deemed to be tsunami-genic and a warning is issued. This
can be achieved with seismometers remote from the earthquake epicentre and warnings are
possible within 15 min of an earthquake using existing technology. The information improves as
time elapses for arrival of data from more stations and for further computation.
As part of the ESONET system it is planned to install seismometers (e.g. SN-1) on the sea floor
and furthermore systems such as ASSEM can provide direct measurements of local movements
of the earth’s crust. ESONET therefore has the potential to contribute to improving detection of
tsunami-genic earthquakes, this will be through integration of the instrumentation into terrestrial
seismometry networks.
(b) Slope failures and slides
Tsunamis can be generated by major movements of the sea floor such as occurred in pre-historic
times at the Storegga slide off Norway and might occur in future off Gran Canaria. Such events
can be triggered by an earthquake and indeed can be the cause of amplification of the effects of
earthquakes. Slides can occur spontaneously through structural failure owing to accumulation
of overburden in areas of high rates of sediment deposition or by release of fluids from below
that cause an increase in pore pressure. Monitoring for such effects must be local with pore
pressure, tilt and movement sensors in place in an area considered to be at risk. One such area is
the Ormen Lange gas field at the head wall of the old Storrega slide. Removal of oil and gas has
the potential to cause changes in sea floor stability. This has been thoroughly investigated and
safe development of the field is assured.
Development of necessary technology has occurred in Europe under the ASSEM programme,
monitoring of areas of risk is technically feasible and will be developed further under the
ESONET programme.
67
4.4.2. Tsunami propagation.
If an earthquake has been detected there is considerable uncertainty regarding the subsequent
propagation of any tsunami wave. The magnitude and extent of movement of the sea floor may
be unknown. Specialist centres are capable of modelling likely propagation scenarios and can
operate using a library of pre-calculated scenarios that be called up depending on location and
magnitude of the trigger event. Selection of the scenario and constraining of the model is
greatly aided by real-time information on the tsunami wave.
The basic means of detecting a tsunami wave is real-time measurement of changes in sea level.
Existing satellite based altimeters only pass over any given area of the earth for a few minutes at
intervals of days of weeks. Whilst occasional detection of a tsunami is possible and may
provide useful research information data acquisition is essentially serendipitous unless a swarm
of satellites was launched. Tsunamis are detected by existing tide gauges deployed at most
major ports around the coasts of Europe. Surprisingly in most countries these data are not freely
available. Implementation of real time coastal monitoring of sea level around Europe appears to
be an administrative and political issue rather than an area requiring major technical innovation.
Local sea floor topography in coastal regions has a major effect on behaviour of tsunami waves,
so interpretation of data from coastal tide gauges is difficult. The best data are achieved using
sea floor pressure sensors in deep water. At depths of 1000 to 4000+ m the effects of windgenerated waves is filtered out and tsunami signals are clearly detected. ESONET with its
proposed network of deep sea cabled junction boxes and observatories is ideally placed to
provide these data. Pressure sensor technology is well established. Data from each sensor at
sub-minute intervals (e.g.
every 15s) would meet the
#
Arctic
needs of tsunami monitoring.
The proposed ESONET system
should be extended either by
#
Norwegian Margin
use of telemetry buoys or
Nordic Seas#
longer cable runs to monitor
key areas particularly in the
centre of the deep basins in the
#
Porcupine
Mediterranean and in the
Black Sea
Ligurian
#
#
Atlantic Ocean.
30°
80°
25°
20°
15°
10°
5°
0°
5°
10°
15°
20°
25°
30°
35°
40°
45°
80°
75°
75°
70°
70°
65°
65°
60°
60°
55°
55°
50°
50°
45°
45°
Azores
40°
40°
#
Iberian
#
#
East Sicily
#
ESONET will be deploying
observatories
on
a
multidisciplinary
basis
The ESONET chain of observatories around Europe
throughout the deep-water
margins of Europe. All of these observatories should be fitted with pressure sensors
transmitting in data real-time.
35°
30°
30°
25°
20°
15°
10°
5°
0°
5°
10°
15°
20°
25°
Hellenic
30°
35°
35°
40°
45°
30°
4.4.3. Conclusions
ESONET will enhance tsunami detection in Europe in the following ways:
1.
2.
3.
68
Those observatories fitted with seismometers will transmit real-time data to existing
national and international seismic networks to enhance monitoring of earthquakes.
Localised geotechnical monitoring will be possible in areas of potential slope failure
and similar risk.
Real-time pressure sensor data will be made available to a hitherto undefined European
real-time sea level monitoring system.
5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories
Section 5.
Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories
The deployment of recording instruments in waters around Europe has a long history. In this section
we review operational systems that can be regarded as observatories. Traditional current meter
moorings are excluded from this review. Important features of observatories are considered to be one
or more of the following:
imaging cameras
structure on the sea floor
integration of a suite of instruments
minimum duration capability of one month but typically 6-12 months plus.
The National Research Council (USA) restricted the definition to systems with real-time data telemetry
capacity.
“…unmanned system of instruments, sensors and command modules connected either acoustically or
via seafloor junction box to a surface buoy or a cable to land. These observatories will have power and
communication capabilities”1
However most operational systems are autonomous, with integral power supplies in the form of
batteries and data storage on various electronic, optical and photographic media with no real-time
telemetry capability. A useful set of concepts and definitions is provided by Tecnomare Spa. Basic
elements characterising a seafloor observatory are:
• Multiple payload
• Autonomy
• Capability to communicate
• Possibility to be reconfigured from remote
• Positioning accuracy
• Data acquisition procedures compatible with those of shore observatories
Definitions
SEAFLOOR OBSERVATORY
Unmanned station, capable to operate for long-term at seafloor, supporting the operation of a number
of instrumented packages related to various disciplines.
INFRASTRUCTURE
Any system providing power and/or communication capacity to an observatory (e.g. a submarine cable,
a moored buoy, another observatory). An infrastructure may also serve as support for other
instrumented packages.
INSTRUMENTED PACKAGE
Sensor or instrument devoted to a specific observation task. May be hosted inside the observatory,
operated autonomously, directly connected to an infrastructure or placed in the vicinity of an
observatory and interfaced to it (so having the observatory as its infrastructure).
Autonomous observatory
Observatory not provided with any infrastructure for power/data connection, but featuring some other
basic features characterising a seafloor observatory.
1
National Research Council (NRC) (2000): Illuminating the Hidden Planet. The future of Seafloor Observatory
Science (National Academy Press, Washington D.C.), pp.135.
69
Acoustic linked observatory
Observatory having as infrastructure an acoustic modem allowing data to be transmitted to a ship of
opportunity, and adjacent observatory or a mooring equipped with a surface buoy providing a radio link
to the shore or via a satellite.
Satellite Linked Observatory
Observatory having as infrastructure a cable to a surface buoy providing direct satellite telemetry to the
shore.
Cabled observatory
Observatory having a submarine cable as infrastructure, providing power and data links
• Use retired cables
• Use dedicated cables
• Share cables devoted to other scientific activities (like Neutrino Experiments)
5.1 Autonomous Systems.
Autonomous systems can be deployed in the following ways:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Free-fall landers. - Negatively buoyant on deployment and free-fall to the sea floor.
Recovered by release of ballast and buoyant ascent to the surface (e.g. Bathysnap, BOBO)
Passive Video Launcher - In this case the lander is lowered to the sea floor by a launcher
on a cable. Real-time video telemetry up the cable to the ship allows the placing of the
lander to be controlled by movement of the ship and timing of release. Recovery is as for
free-fall landers (e.g. IFM-GEOMAR).
Video docking launcher with thrusters – The launcher in this instance has powered
thrusters and can be manoeuvred over the sea floor for precise positioning and docking
for recovery. (e.g. GEOSTAR).
Remotely Operated Vehicle. ROVs can deploy and recover instruments within the limits
of their power and lifting capacity
5.1.1. Bathysnap.
Brian Bett. DEEPSEAS Group, George Deacon Division, Southampton Oceanography Centre,
Empress Dock, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK. [email protected]
Bathysnap is a time lapse camera system operated in various forms by the Southampton Oceanography
Centre (Lampitt and Burnham (1983). It is a simple but effective example of a autonomous
observatory system and made several important pioneering discoveries in the deep sea environment.
Bathysnap consists of a series of buoyancy packages that carry a flag, radio beacon and flashing light to
aid relocation at the surface. Suspended below the buoyancy is a seabed unit loaded with a tripod
ballast weight. The seabed unit carries a camera, flashgun, recording current meter and an acoustic
release system. These are mounted of plastics tubular frame which is very corrosion resistant and rests
on a steel ballast module. Once activated, the camera and flashgun fire at preset intervals (15 seconds
to 8+ hours) for the duration of the deployment (up to 12+ months), having a typical film load of 2,5003,000 half-frame 35-mm stills. Recovery of the system is initiated by the transmission of coded
acoustic signals to the release unit, causing small pyrotechnics to be fired, releasing the ballast weight
and allowing the mooring to rise.
Typically, the recovered film is transferred to video for initial observation, compressing a year of
seabed activity into one and a half minutes of video footage. The process of generating useful scientific
data from the film, almost invariably through frame-by-frame analysis of the stills, is a rather more
laborious process. Various forms of quantitative analysis are possible through knowledge of the optical
geometry of the system.
70
Bathysnaps have been deployed for periods of up to year at three northeast Atlantic abyssal plain sites
(Figure 2),: PAP, Porcupine Abyssal Plain (48° 50´ N 16° 30´ W, depth 4,850 m) MAP Madeira
Abyssal Plain (MAP: 31° 06´ N 21° 11´ W; depth 4,944 m) and the CVAP Cape Verde Abyssal Plain
(21° 03´ N 31° 11´ W; depth 4,600 m).
At PAP time series has been sustained for over 10 years with some gaps owing to equipment failure or
funding limitations.
Undoubtedly the most significant observation made with the Bathysnap system concerns the seasonal
deposition of phytodetritus to the deep-sea floor (Billett et al. (1983). Phytodetritus is the degraded
remains of surface ocean phytoplankton blooms. In the past it was assumed that phytoplankton would
sink rather slowly into the deep-ocean, and during its long descent to the seabed would be almost
totally consumed, leaving little if any seasonal signal to reach the seafloor. However, following a series
Fig.5.1 Schematic representation of the
“Bathysnap” system, as deployed on the
seabed
Fig.2 “Bathysnap” study areas: PSB –
Porcupine Seabight; PAP – Porcupine
Abyssal Plain; MAP – Madeira Abyssal Plain;
CVAP – Cape Verde Abyssal Plain.
of Bathysnap deployments (and other observations) in the Porcupine Seabight and on the PAP (as
above) this notion was gradually overturned (see e.g. Lampitt (1995), and Rice et al. (1983). During the
early summer, a layer of ‘fresh’, green, phytodetritus can carpet the seabed of the PAP. Today, the
phenomenon of seasonal phytodetritus deposition is relatively well known and has been reported from
various oceanic areas (see e.g. Smith et al. (1985).It is this area of work that has stimulated the use of
long term observatories in deep sea biology and biogeochemistry.
71
5.1.2 Bathysnack
The Bathysnap system has also been employed in a baited mode, known as “Bathysnack”. Typically a
single mackerel wrapped in muslin is used as the bait and attached to a pole to place the bait at the
centre of the camera’s field of view. Of the numerous Bathysnack deployments made to date, Thurston
et al. (1995) provide a good example of how this simple technique can be used to address important
scientific questions. In this case, how regional variations in the supply of organic matter to the deep-sea
floor influence the abundance and behaviour of the benthos.
Lampitt, R.S. and Burnham, M.P., 1983, A free fall time lapse camera and current meter system “Bathysnap” with notes on the
foraging behaviour of a bathyal decapod shrimp. Deep-Sea Res. I, 30, pp. 1009-1017.
Thurston, M.H., Bett, B.J. and Rice, A.L., 1995, Abyssal megafaunal necrophages: latitudinal differences in the eastern North
Atlantic Ocean. Int. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol., 80, pp. 267-286.
Billett, D.S.M., Lampitt, R.S., Rice, A.L. and Mantoura, R.F.C., 1983, Seasonal sedimentation of phytoplankton to the deep-sea
benthos. Nature, 302, pp. 520-522.
Lampitt, R.S., 1985, Evidence for the seasonal deposition of detritus to the deep-sea floor and its subsequent resuspension. DeepSea Res. I, 32, pp. 885-897.
Rice, A.L., Billett, D.S.M., Fry, J., John, A.W.G., Lampitt, R.S., Mantoura, R.F.C and Morris, R.J., 1986, Seasonal deposition of
phytodetritus to the deep-sea floor. Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, Sec. B, 88, pp. 265-279.
Smith, C.R., Hoover, D.J., Doan, S.E., Pope, R.H., Demaster, D.J., Dobbs, F.C. and Altabet, M.A., 1996, Phytodetritus at the
abyssal seafloor across 10° of latitude in the central equatorial Pacific. Deep-Sea Res. II, 43, pp. 1309-1338.
Thurston, M.H., Bett, B.J. and Rice, A.L., 1995, Abyssal megafaunal necrophages: latitudinal differences in the eastern North
Atlantic Ocean. Int. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol., 80, pp. 267-286.
5.1.3 The DOBO Lander (Deep Ocean Benthic Observatory)
Alan Jamieson, University of Aberdeen, Oceanlab, Newburgh, Aberdeen, AB41 6AA, Scotland UK.
[email protected]
The DOBO was specifically designed to operate continually for 6-12 months at depths down to 6000m.
Long-term DOBO deployments can take the form of one continuous experiment or a series of replicate
experiments over the deployment period as scientific demands dictate. DOBO was intended to
combine the typical long-term lander equipped to measure physical oceanography and advancements in
baited photographic lander techniques (Jones et al., 1998; Priede and Bagley, 2000).
DOBO has been operated in the Porcupine Seabight (NE Atlantic) at ca. 2500m for 6 and 7-month
deployments back to back, followed by a 9-month deployment on the Porcupine Abyssal Plain at
4000m. It has since completed a 2-month deployment in the Charlie Gibbs fracture zone on the Mid
Atlantic Ridge followed by a 4-month deployment near the Goban Spur at 4400m in the NE Atlantic.
For full technical and operational descriptions see Bagley et al., 2004 and Jamieson and Bagley, (in
press).
Scientific Payload
The DOBO lander is equipped with a time-lapse 35mm reflex lens stills camera (M8S, Ocean
Instrumentation, UK) to photograph the response of deep-sea scavenging animals to bait (artificial
food-falls). The camera is controlled by a custom built on-board control microprocessor installed with
proprietary software. A text command code can be adjusted for each deployment and loaded into the
controller via a PCMCIA flash RAM card (Compact Flash type 2, San Disc, USA). The camera can be
biased to take photographs at times of interest if required by external control. The camera can take up
to 1600 colour photographs on 35mm Ektachrome colour reversal film (Kodak, UK) at a
programmable interval greater than 30 seconds (allowing for flash charge time). The camera is situated
at a height of 2 metres and at a fixed angle of 82o, photographing 2.3 x 1.6 metres of seafloor.
72
To attract scavenging fauna to the field of view of the camera, bait is placed in the centre of the field of
view. The long-term DOBO deployments require either a large naturally stranded common cetacean
carcass, used to simulate the appearance of a large food-fall, or alternatively custom built periodic bait
release (PBR) systems can be used to obtain temporally punctuated bait introduction. The PBR systems
can utilise 7 solid bait parcels
(Mackerel; Scomber scombrus) for up
to 3-month deployments, or artificial
liquid bait for deployments of up to
one year. The DOBO lander is
equipped with both a near bottom
acoustic current meter (2D-acm97,
FSI, USA) and an upward looking
300 kHz ADCP (RDI, USA). The
DOBO acoustic current meter is used
to provide single current strength and
direction readings close to the bait.
The ADCP is used to detect the longterm physical ocean parameters in the
vicinity of the baited area. These data
are automatically used to determine
current velocities and direction at
multiple depths throughout the water
column. Both current meter readings
are logged internally, typically every
1-hour.
Fig. 5.3 The DOBO lander being recovered from the North East
Atlantic Ocean
Delivery system
The DOBO uses a fixed buoyancy
configuration consisting of 16 syntactic foam buoys (CRP group Ltd, UK) attached directly to the
grade 2 titanium frame. Fixed buoyancy and titanium framework is essential for long periods of time
as mooring lines and metal components and subsequent connecting hardware are susceptible to
corrosion/erosion. Syntactic foam was opted for fixed buoyancy to prevent chain reaction implosions
that glass spheres in close proximity are susceptible to should they fail at depth. To release ballast, the
lander uses 2 acoustic releases in parallel (RT 661 B2S-DDL/ AR 661 B2S-DDL; Oceano, France) to
provide back up should one fail to activate. The RT model allows two-way communication with a deck
unit on the ship enabling diagnostic functions (battery power, angle), slant range from the lander to the
ship and release command. Two steel bars (60kg each in water) provide ballast.
Bagley, P.M., I.G. Priede, A.J. Jamieson, D.M. Bailey, E.G. Battle, C. Henriques, and K.M. Kemp (2004). Lander techniques for
deep ocean biological research. Underwater Technology, Vol. 26, No.1, 3-12
Jones, E.J., M.A. Collins, P.M. Bagley, S. Addison and I.G. Priede. (1998) The fate of cetacean carcasses in the deep sea:
observations on consumption rates and succession of scavenging species in the abyssal north-east Atlantic Ocean, Proceedings of
the Royal Society B, 265: 1119-1127
Priede, I.G. and P.M. Bagley (2000) In situ studies on deep-sea demersal fishes using autonomous unmanned lander platforms,
Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review 38: 357-392
73
5.1.3 The BOBO Lander (Benthic Boundary Observatory)
Tjeerd Van Weering Royal NIOZ,P.O.Box 59,1790 AB Den Burg,Texel,the Netherlands,
[email protected], [email protected]
The modular lander BOBO is designed for long (up to one year), in-situ measurements in the
lowermost 3 meters of the benthic boundary layer, directly above the seabed, in water depths down to
5000 m. The BOBO is a free falling tripod lander with an array of industrially available, and /or
specifically designed or adapted instruments, to provide the lander with a multi-purpose applicability.
The BOBO frame consists of 3 legs of 2 metres high. At the base of the legs the BOBO has a width of
4 metres. The upper part of the BOBO lander consists of a hexagonal frame with a diameter of about 2
metres. The lander frame has been specially designed to remain on the seabed for periods of more then
one year in terms of the material used. Exceptional care has been taken to avoid corrosion or
electrolysis by isolation of construction parts and connections. Additionally all instrumentation is
mounted in Delrin blocks and instrument housings are either made of titanium or various kinds of
plastics. Benthos glass spheres are attached to the upper frame for buoyancy. The instrumentation is
attached in the hexagonal frame as well as to legs of the lander. Electrical power for the instruments is
supplied by a battery pack that is build in a glass sphere.
The lander is deployed by free fall from a surface vessel. Its speed of descent is 57 metres/minute.
Recovery is done by activating a Benthos acoustic release (if necessary the backup release is activated).
The releases are installed in the top frame and are connected through non-elastic ropes with clamps at
the base of the legs. Each of the clamps holds a 100 kg weight that is released upon opening of the
clamps. After the release BOBO will rise to the surface with the same speed as the descent. If one of
the weights is not released properly the lander will still rise the surface, albeit with a lower velocity.
Near-bed current velocity and direction measurements are made by a customised 1200 kHz high
resolution broadband acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) made by RD Instruments. This
instrument is mounted with its 4 sensors looking downward at 2 m above the sea bed. Current velocity
and direction is measured in bins of 5 cm. Due to interference and seabed reflections the measurements
in the 30 cm directly above the bed may be less accurate. The salinity and temperature of the water are
measured by a Sea-Bird SBE-16 conductivity/temperature recorder mounted at 2.5 m height in the
frame. This instrument has its internal power supply and data logger. The software of the data logger
has been adjusted and an additional external battery pack is installed to be able to store not only the
salinity and conductivity data, but also the data of the optical backscatter sensors. Two of these
Seapoint OBS sensors are installed on the BOBO lander, at 1 and 3 m above the sea bed. As an
alternative the lander can be supplied with a Sea Tech transmissometer. For the measurement of the
amount, the temporal variability and the composition of near-bed particle fluxes a Technicap PS 4/3
sediment trap is built in the hexagonal frame. This type of sediment trap has a revolving platform with
12 sample cups that can be programmed for different sampling intervals. One of the NIOZ BOBO
landers is fitted with two downward facing photocameras, producing stereo images of the seabed at
pre-programmed intervals.
The BOBO lander can be equipped with other types of equipment as well. Recently preparatory work
has been carried out to equip the lander with an underwater camera that can be connected to and
programmed through a cabled network and allows the transmission of online seabed images.
Over the years the various NIOZ operated BOBO landers have been deployed at many sites at the
European continental margin. The deployments have been for periods of 1 day to more then 15 months
and in water depths of just over 200 m to almost 5 km. An overview of all deployments is given in the
table below.
74
Table 1 Royal NIOZ BOBO lander deployments
Station
Area
Position
Latitude
Longitude
Water depth Date
Total no.
(m)
of days
Deployment Recovery
M2000-06
SE Rockall Trough
53 º 46.80 'N
13 º 59.87 'W
903 29-07-2000 31-07-2000
2
M2000-06
SE Rockall Trough
53 º 46.80 'N
13 º 59.87 'W
903 06-08-2000 28-08-2000
22
M2000-18
SE Rockall Trough
53 º 46.52 'N
13 º 57.74 'W
809 31-07-2000 06-08-2000
6
M2000-19
SW Rockall Trough
55 º 36.14 'N
15 º 27.53 'W
821 02-08-2000 04-08-2000
2
M2000-19
SW Rockall Trough
55 º 36.14 'N
15 º 27.53 'W
821 04-08-2000 27-08-2000
23
M2001-02
SE Rockall Trough
53 º 46.70 'N
13 º 56.80 'W
665 29-06-2001 09-07-2001
10
M2001-03
SE Rockall Trough
53 º 46.81 'N
13 º 55.96 'W
793 29-06-2001 04-07-2001
5
M2001-28
SW Rockall Trough
55 º 32.85 'N
15 º 39.79 'W
677 05-07-2001 28-07-2002
388
STRAT01-01 Faroe-Shetland Channel
62 º 44.95 'N
1 º 21.98 'W
1685 15-07-2001 16-07-2001
1
M2003-10
SW Rockall Trough
55 º 41.92 'N
15 º 18.10 'W
627 05-08-2003 17-08-2003
12
M2004-09
Gulf of Cadiz
35 º 18.00 'N
6 º 47.00 'W
545 19-08-2004 21-08-2004
2
M2004-13
Gulf of Cadiz
36 º 11.64 'N
7 º 17.96 'W
739 22-08-2004 26-08-2004
2
M2004-29
SW Rockall Trough
55 º 25.31 'N
15 º 36.66 'W
1437 01-09-2004 07-09-2004
6
OMEX-II
Goban Spur
49 º 11.31 'N
12 º 44.00 'W
1296 26-06-1993 25-05-1994
334
OMEX-II
Goban Spur
467
49 º 11.24 'N
12 º 49.31 'W
1454 08-06-1994 19-09-1995
ENAM97-01 NW Porcupine Bank
53 º 28.02 'N
13 º 54.96 'W
230 29-05-1997 01-06-1997
3
ENAM97-02 Feni Drift
54 º 27.81 'N
16 º 32.34 'W
2285 04-06-1997 06-06-1997
2
53 º 48.84 'N
13 º 50.84 'W
780 06-10-1998 12-10-1998
6
53 º 48.05 'N
13 º 53.68 'W
756 26-07-1999 11-08-1999
16
7
ENAM99-20 S Rockall Trough
53 º 39.50 'N
14 º 46.20 'W
2819 04-08-1999 11-08-1999
ENAM99-10 SE Rockall Bank
55 º 28.94 'N
15 º 49.57 'W
731 28-07-1999 01-08-1999
4
64PE204-03 Lacaze-Duthiers Canyon 42 º 33.42 'N
3 º 24.59 'W
524 03-11-2002 06-11-2002
2
64PE204-23 Setúbal Canyon
38 º 17.04 'N
9 º
38 º 12.00 'N
9 º 31.37 'W
64PE204-56 Nazaré Canyon
39 º 38.90 'N
9 º 14.69 'W
343 08-11-2002 20-11-2002
2
39 º 31.52 'N
9 º 49.00 'W
3010 02-03-2003 27-10-2003
239
12
M2003-10
6.01 'E
972 11-11-2002 14-11-2002
3
2716 14-11-2002 23-10-2003
343
SE Rockall Bank
55 º 41.92 'N
15 º 18.10 'W
627 05-08-2003 17-08-2003
38 º 15.00 'N
9 º 32.00 'W
1213 15-10-2003 23-10-2003
8
38 º 16.39 'N
9 º
1324 26-10-2003 01-05-2004
188
9.00 'W
39 º 35.06 'N
10 º 17.33 'W
4298 29-10-2003 08-05-2004
192
RV Suroit
42 º 14.95 'N
4 º 20.76 'E
2113 14-12-2003 20-05-2004
159
9 º 19.56 'W
1858 06-05-2004
at sea
4975 09-05-2004
at sea
Sète Canyon
38 º 19.90 'N
39 º
55 'N
11 º
9.95 'W
van Weering, Tj.C.E., Hall, I.R., de Stigter, H.C., McCave, I.N., Thomsen, L., 1998. Recent sediments, sediment accumulation
and carbon burial at Goban Spur, N.W., European Continental Margin (47-50°N). Progress in Oceanography, 42: 5-35.
Thomsen, L., van Weering, Tj.C.E., 1998. Spatial and temporal variability of particulate matter in the benthic boundary layer at
the N.W. European Continental Margin (Goban Spur). Progress in Oceanography, 42: 61-76.
Thomsen, L., van weering, T., Gust, G., 2002. processes in the benthic boundary layer at the Iberian continental margin and their
implication for carbon mineralization. Progress in Oceanography, 52: 315-329.
van Weering, T.C.E., de Stigter, H.C., Boer, W., de Haas, H., 2002. recent sediment transport and accumulation on the NW
Iberian margin. Progress in Oceanography, 52: 349-371.
75
Fig 5.4 Example of BOBO data measured in the Nazaré Canyon at 3007 m water depth at the Iberian margin.
Currently velocity (blue) measured by the ADCP and acoustic backscatter (green, also taken from the ADCP) show a
clear tidal signature.
Fig 5.5. Example of BOBO data measured at the Pen Duick Escarpment, Gulf of Cadiz at 545 m water depth. Current
velocity (blue) and water temperature (red) reveal a clear tidal influence on the processes active at the sea bed.
Fig. 5.6. Example of BOBO data measured at the SW Rockall Trough margin at 1437 m water depth. Changes in
salinity (yellow) and water temperature (red) also here show the importance of the tides on the processes active at
the sea bed.
76
Fig 5.6. Engineering drawing of the BOBO lander
Radiobeacon
Acoustic telemetry/
control
sensors
sensors
Figure 5.7. The BOBO lander being hoisted on board R.V. Pelagia.
The ballast weights have been shed from the legs.
77
5.1.4 Description of the Göteborg University landers
The research group lead by Professor Per Hall at the Göteborg University (Sweden) has developed and
operated autonomous landers since the early 1990. Collaborative work between the group and research
institutes in France, Denmark and the USA has resulted in the development and use of 5 different
lander systems. Considerable efforts have also been made in developing new sensor technology (e.g.
for oxygen sensing).
Today two landers, one big and one small, are operated routinely in several European research projects
(Fig. 1). Both landers are built of non corrosive materials (Titanium and various plastics) as modular
system in which experimental modules can be exchanged as desired. The bigger lander carries four
experimental modules and has been successfully deployed about 80 times in water depths ranging from
20-5200 m. The smaller lander is a one module version of the bigger and it has been deployed about 50
times in waters depths shallower than 1000 m.
Fig. 5.8. The big and small Autonomous Göteborg landers on-board R/V Aranda during an expedition to the Gulf of
Finland (the Baltic Sea) in September 2004.
The landers basically consists of two parts, an inner and an outer frame (Fig. 2). The outer frame serves
mainly as a carrier platform for the syntactic foam buoyancy package, the ballast and the acoustic
system for the ballast release. The inner frame is a versatile system that carries the experimental
module(s). These modules can easily be exchanged as desired. On the big lander the middle of the
inner frame holds space for three pressure cases, which are used to control different experimental
modules. The modules that has been in operation on the landers so far include: chambers (see below),
planar optode (see below) microelectrodes and a gel peeper module (not in operation any more). The
operation of microelectrode profilers on landers is common and has been described frequently before
(for a review see Tengberg et al., 1995).
78
1. Lander assembly
2. Basic structure
Planar Optode
Module
Chamber
Module
3. Inner chassi
Peeper
Module
Microelectrode
Module
Fig. 5.9. Schematic drawings of the big Göteborg lander including experimental modules that have been in operation
on this platform.
79
5.1.4.1. Chamber modules
The use of incubation chambers on landers to estimate sediment-water fluxes of oxygen, total
carbonate, nutrients, metals etc. has been common practice for over three decades. The incubation
principles of the Göteborg lander chambers are no different from the first experiments of this kind
performed by Smith et al. (1976).
Some of the features which are particular with these chamber modules are that they have been carefully
studied with respect to hydrodynamic properties and intercalibrated with other chamber designs
Tengberg et al. (2004 and 2005). They have also been modified to study the effects of resuspension on
e.g. carbon turn-over and nutrient fluxes (see Fig. 3).
The first results from such studies were presented in Tengberg et al. (2003) and since then the
technology has been further developed within the frames of the European Union project COBO.
Some of the improvements include a wider range of the stirring regime. Another improvement has been
to include single point optical oxygen sensors (optodes) in the chambers. These commercially available
sensors are a result of a collaborative work between our group and two companies (PreSens in
Germany and Aanderaa Instruments in Norway). The sensors have demonstrated superior accuracy,
precision and long-term stability compared to electrochemical sensors (see e.g. Körtzinger et al., 2004
and 2005; Tengberg et al., 2005). Replacing the previously used oxygen electrodes with optodes has
enhanced the data quality considerably, eliminated most calibrations issues and made the modules
compatible for easy integration of an oxygen regulating “Oxystat” systems, under development in the
EU COBO project.
10 water sampling
syringes. Can also
be used for injection
Triggered by stepper
motors.
Stirring motor in
kerosen fil led
PVC housing
Topvi ew: Incubated sedi ment
2
surface is 400 cm
Coil to replace
sampled water
Paddle
wheel
30-300 RP M
Oxygen Optode
(Aanderaa 3830)
Sideview
Water
Turbidity/SPM Sensor
(Aanderaa 3612)
100-150mm
200mm
Turbidity
sensor
200mm
Sediment
200-250mm
200mm
Fig. 5.10 : Principal drawing of the resuspension chamber.
80
Paddle
wheel
Oxygen
Optode
5.1.4.1. Planar Optodes
So called Planar Optodes are based on the same principles as the single point optode (described above) with the
difference that this technique permits to take two dimensional photos of the oxygen distributions in the sediment and
at the sediment-water interface. The first device of this kind that was used out of the laboratory was described in Glud
et al. (2001). This system was cable operated and required contact to the surface. Since then the technology has been
developed or autonomous operation on the Göteborg and other landers (Glud et al., 2005).
Oxygenated water
Anoxic sediment
Fig. 5.11: Left, the Göteborg minilander equipped with an autonomous planar optode being recovered in the Gulf of F
Sea). Right, example of oxygen data from the same Gulf of Finland.
5.1.4.2. Other sensors, networking and future developments
During operation the Göteborg landers carry additional sensors and instrument that are mainly used to
collect data from the environment surrounding the landers. The big Göteborg lander normally register
data from up to 30 sensors including: turbidity and oxygen in the chambers and outside, salinity, depth
and temperature sensors, current sensors (such as single point and profiling acoustic current meters)
and a video camera.
A future aim is to interconnect all sensors and systems into a modern CAN based network, an idea that
originates from the EU-ALIPOR project. CAN based networks are used in many industrial applications
including on cars. A CAN network allows high speed and high security communication between
instruments and sensors. The advantage of such a network is that new instruments and sensors (up to
60) can be hooked up “plug and play” to the existing network and all data can be collected by one
player in the network which is in wireless two way communication (acoustic) with the surface. Most
sensors and data loggers on the landers are supplied by Aanderaa Instruments which shortly will
provide all new sensors and systems as CAN enabled.
Another aim is to develop the Planar Optode technique so that it can measure other parameters
simultaneously (e.g. pH and organic substances).
For more information on the Göteborg landers and recent examples their use see e.g. Brunnegård et al.
(2004), Karageorgis et al. (2003) and Ståhl et al. (2004).
References:
Brunnegård J. S. Grandel, H. Ståhl, A. Tengberg and P.O.J. Hall (2004) Nitrogen cycling in deep-sea sediments of the Porcupine Abyssal Plain, NE
Atlantic. Progress in Oceanography, 63: 159-181.
Glud R.N, A. Tengberg, M. Kühl, P. Hall, I. Klimant and G. Holst (2001) An in situ instrument for planar O2 optode measurements at benthic
interfaces. Limnology and Oceanography, 46(8): 2073-2080.
Glud R.N., F. Wenzhofer, A. Tengberg, M. Middelboe. K. Oguri and H. Kitazato (2005) Benthic oxygen distribution in central Sagami Bay, Japan:
In situ measurements by microelectrodes and planar optodes. Submitted to Deep Sea Research I.
81
Karageorgis A.P., H.G. Kaberi, A. Tengberg, V. Zervakis, P.O.J. Hall and Ch.L. Anagnostou (2003) Comparison of particulate matter distribution,
in relation to hydrography, in the mesotrophic Skagerrak and the oligotrophic northeastern Aegean Sea. Continental Shelf Research, 23: 1787-1809.
Körtzinger, A., J. Schimanski, and U. Send (2005). High-quality oxygen measurements from profiling floats: A promising new technique. Journal
of Atmospheric and Oceanographic Technology, in press.
Körtzinger A., J. Schimanski, U. Send and D. Wallace (2004) The Ocean Takes a Deep Breath. Science, 306: 1337.
Smith K. L., JR., C. H. Clifford, A. H. Eliason, B. Walden, G. T. Rowe and J. M. Teal (1976) A free vehicle for measuring benthic community
metabolism. Limnology and Oceanography, 21, 164-170.
Ståhl H., A. Tengberg, J. Brunnegård, P. Hall, E. Bjørnbom, T. Forbes, A. Josefson, I.-M. Karle, F. Olsgard and P. Roos (2004). Factors influencing
organic carbon recycling and burial in Skagerrak sediments. Journal of Marine Research, 62: 867-907.
Tengberg A., E. Almroth and P.O.J. Hall (2003). Resuspension and its effect on organic carbon recycling and nutrient exchange in coastal
sediments: In-situ measurements using new experimental technology. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 285-286: 119-142.
Tengberg, A., de Bovée, F., Hall, P., Berelson, W., Chadwick, B., Ciceri, G., Crassous, P., Devol, A., Emerson, S., Gage, J., Glud, R., Graziottin,
F., Gundersen, J., Hammond, D., Helder, W., Hinga, K., Holby, O., Jahnke, R., Khripounoff, A., Lieberman, H., Nuppenau, V., Pfannkuche, O.,
Reimers, C., Rowe, G., Sahami, A., Sayles, F., Schurter, M., Smallman, D., Wehrli, B., & de Wilde, P. (1995). Benthic chamber and profiling
landers in oceanography—a review of design, technical solutions and functioning. Progress in Oceanography, 35, 253–294.
Tengberg A., P. Hall, U. Andersson, B. Lindén, O. Styrenius, G. Boland, F. de Bovee, B. Carlsson, S. Ceradini, A. Devol, G. Duineveld, J.-U.
Friemann, R. N. Glud, A. Khripounoff, J. Leather, P. Linke, L. Lund-Hansen, G. Rowe, P. Santschi, P. de Wilde and U. Witte (2005)
Intercalibration of benthic flux chambers II. Hydrodynamic characterization and flux comparisons of 14 different designs. Marine Chemistry, In
press.
Tengberg A., J. Hovdenes, J. H. Andersson, O. Brocandel, R. Diaz, D. Hebert, T. Arnerich, C. Huber, A. Körtzinger, A. Khripounoff, F. Rey, C.
Rönning, S. Sommer and A. Stangelmayer (2005).Evaluation of a life time based optode to measure oxygen in aquatic systems. Submitted to
Limnology and Oceanography, Methods.
Tengberg, A., H. Ståhl, G. Gust, V. Muller, U. Arning, H. Andersson and POJ. Hall (2004) Intercalibration of benthic flux chambers I. Accuracy of
flux measurements and influence of chamber hydrodynamics. Progress in Oceanography, 60(1): 1-28
5.1.5 IFM-GEOMAR- Modular Lander Systems
Peter Linke & Olaf Pfannkuche IFM-GEOMAR, Wischhofstrasse. 1-3, 24148 Kiel, Germany
[email protected],[email protected]
At present IFM-GEOMAR operates a suite of 8 landers of modular design as universal instrument
carriers for investigations of the deep-sea benthic boundary layer. Two of these 8 landers have a
squared design and carry a large benthic chamber covering 1 m2 sediment surface area to channel and
measure fluid fluxes emanating from the seafloor (Vent Sampler System – VESP, Fig. 1). The second
line, the “GEOMAR Lander System” (GML) is based on a tripod-shaped universal platform which can
carry a wide range of scientific payloads to monitor, measure and perform experiments at the deep-sea
floor (Pfannkuche & Linke, 2003; Fig. 2). Both types of landers can be either deployed in the
conventional free-fall mode or targeted deployed on hybrid fibre optical or coaxial cables with a special
launching device. The launcher enables accurate positioning on meter scale, soft deployment and rapid
disconnection of lander and launcher by an electric release. The bi-directional video and data telemetry
provides online video transmission, power supply (< 1kV) and surface control of various relay
functions. These landers provide the platform systems for:
-
gas hydrate stability experiments,
quantification of gas flow from acoustic bubble size imaging,
integrated benthic boundary layer current measurements,
quantification of particle flux,
monitoring of mega-benthic activity,
fluid and gas flow measurements at the sediment-water interface,
biogeochemical fluxes at the sediment-water interface (oxidants, nutrients).
Depending on the scientific mission and the material of the lander frame (stainless steel or titanium) the
GML-System may carry a maximum payload of up to 450 kg. With the growing need of long-term sea
floor observatories as presently outlined in the ESONET Programme lander will play a vital role.
Targeted deployed landers with a wide range of instruments and sensors for physical, chemical,
biogeochemical and biological parameters (Fig. 3) will be used in single autonomous mode in
relatively inaccessable terrains (e.g. cold seep, hydrothermal vent and aphotic coral settings). Typical
observation periods are 1-2 years. Right now bi-directional communication with the lander is possible
by using an acoustic link through a modem. The transmission rates and data quality, however, is
hampered by the baud rate of the modem.
In the future, landers will be also incorporated as modules into glass-fibre optical cable systems.
Autonomous lander clusters connected by optical cable and with data transmission to the surface and
82
further on by satellite link to the shore are envisioned as an important contribution to future sea floor
observatories. The lander cluster (Fig. 4) can consist of very diverse lander types for scientific
observation, power supply and garage types for small autonomous (AUV, crawler) and tethered
vehicles (ROV).
Fig. 5.12: The VESP-Lander with the Launcher on top; enlarged the release mechanism. The Lander consists of the
floatation unit and the measurement & sampling unit.
83
Fig. 5.13. A sketch of the GML-configuration with floats,
ballast and launching device (on top). The central
platform potentiates the incorporation of a large
spectrum of scientific payload.
84
Fig. 5.14. A fleet of six GEOMAR Modular Landers lined up for
deployment.
5.2. Acoustic Linked Observatories
5.2.1. GEOSTAR (Geophysical and Oceanographic Station for Abyssal Research)
Paolo Favali, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Roma,
Italy. [email protected]
Fig 5.15 Geostar with the Mobile docker
ready for deployment
In the framework of EU sponsored projects Geostar
1(1996-1997) & Geostar2 (1999-2000)” with “GEOSTAR
1st phase (1995-1998) and GEOSTAR 2 (1999-2001),
INGV and Italian, German and French partners have been
responsible for the development of GEOSTAR deep
seafloor observatory. GEOSTAR concept is characterized
by the dedicated intervention vehicle (Mobile Docker)
designed and manufactured by the Technical University of
Berlin (TUB). This is essentially a special ROV equipped
with thrusters and navigation system, lowered on an
armored electro-optic cable that can carry the full weight
of the observatory. Real time video and navigation data
are transmitted to the surface vessel. The observatory has
a vertical docking pin placed centrally on top of its
structure. The Mobile Docker has female mechanical
gripper at the apex of a docking cone. This enables
recovery of the observatory by maneuvering the Mobile
Docker into place and lowering on top of the docking pin
which mates precisely and the observatory is then lifted to
the surface by the umbilical cable
The observatory is designed and built by Tecnomare Spa.
GEOSTAR geophysical payload includes a triaxial broad-band seismometer (CMG-1T Guralp), a
Scalar magnetometer (GEM), a Fluxgate magnetometer (INGV prototype), an Hydrophone (OAS E2PD), a Gravity meter (CNR-IFSI prototype). Since the inception of the project an important aspect
has been to work towards real-time data capability necessary for earthquake monitoring so the system
is equipped with three communication systems:
1.
2.
3.
Acoustic multimodulation modem (ORCA MATS 12) allowing bi-directional communication
with a ship of opportunity.
The same acoustic modems can relay data to a surface buoy moored adjacent to the
observatory. Data are transmitted to shore via INMARSAT, Iridium or radio link.
At regular intervals or when triggered by an event such as an earthquake a messenger float
(IFREMER) is released that relays data to shore via the ARGOS system.
In the addition to the geophysical payload, GEOSTAR is equipped with an ADCP (RDI 300 kHz
Workhorse), a CTD (SeaBird SBE 16), a transmissometer (Chelsea Aquatracka), a single point current
meter (FSI 3D-ACM), a water sampler (MacLane RAS 48-500) and a chemical package
(Tecnomare/INGV prototype).
Success of GEOSTAR led to the subsequent development of a class of observatories designed for
different applications but sharing common solutions and infrastructures (EU ORION project, Italian
projects SN-1 and MABEL).
Three GEOSTAR-class observatories and associated instruments with telemetry are linked together
into a submarine network known as ORION (Ocean Research by Integrated Observatory Networks).
Between 2003 and 2005 this network operated in the Tyrrhenian sea (Marsili Volcano seamount, 3320
mwd), transmitting data between themselves and the telemetry buoy. Acoustic telemetry restricts data
rate and ARGOS messenger capsules have delays in floating to the surface, ARGOS satellite delay
times and very restricted message length.
85
Fig. 5.16. Schematic of Geostar with the Mobile docker and data telemetry systems in
the Orion network
SN-1 has been
developed
between 2000 and
2002 as a lighter
version
of
GEOSTAR,
specifically
dedicated
to
seismology and
oceanography. It
represents
the
first node of the
Italian
seafloor
seismic network
To obtain true
real time data
transmission, in
2005 SN-1 has
been connected to
an
existing
submarine cable
for
neutrino
astrophysics.
5.2.2 MABEL (Multidisciplinary Antarctic Benthic Laboratory)
Francesco Gasparoni, Tecnomare S.p.A.San Marco 3584,30124 Venice,Italy
[email protected], http://www.ingv.it/GEOSTAR/mabel.htm
MABEL is a seafloor multidisciplinary observatory specifically developed for operation in polar areas.
This system derived from the GEOSTAR design was supplied by Tecnomare to PNRA, the Italian
Antarctic Research
Program.
It is
equipped with a
Seismometer,
Hydrophone, CTD,
Transmissometer,
ADCP, Single point
current
meter,
Chemical Package
and a
Water
Sampler.
It
is
designed to be
deployed off the
Antarctic continent
in deep water from
the research vessel
Polarstern.
Figure 5.17 Schematic of MABEL deployment off the German Neumayer research
IIt will be possible
to download data via the acoustic modem using ships of opportunity but most data will be logged on
board the platform.
86
5.2.3. ASSEM (Array of Sensors for Long Term Monitoring of Geohazards)
Jérôme BLANDIN, IFREMER - Centre de Brest - TMSI/TSI/ME, ASSEM Project, BP 70, 29280
Plouzané, France
The aim of ASSEM is to develop the means to
measure and remotely monitor a set of
geotechnical,
geodesic
and
chemical
parameters distributed on a seabed area, over
an extended time period at two sites two sites,
the Ormen Lange oil/gas field (Norway) and
the Gulf of Corinth (Greece). The Ormen
Lange oil field is at the head of the Storegga
slide and the Gulf of Corinth is possible the
fasted moving rift in the world with a rate of
1.5cm.year-1. It is important to monitor sea
floor stability in these areas.
ASSEM is a cluster of sea floor observatories
which can form an underwater geodetic
network by mutual acoustic ranging between
them and also these platforms carry a range of
sensors including seismometers, tilt meters,
pressure sensors and methane sensors. The
latter measure methane emission that may be
stimulated by, or be the cause of sea floor
movements. The observatories are held on the
sea floor by suction anchors. They are
deployed either free fall or by lowering on a
wire via an acoustic release. This avoids the
need for any special ships or equipment for
deployment.
A suction anchor is essentially an overturned
"bucket" penetrated into the seabed. Partial
penetration is achieved by self-weight. Full installation is complete by pumping water from the interior
of the anchor. Typical differential pressures required for full penetration are on the order of 10 to
100kPa. An ROV or manned submersible is used to interconnect cables between the observatories and
as an aid in recovery of the systems.
Figure 5.18. ASSEM M1 node being deployed
Data are transmitted acoustically to surface relay buoy for radio transmission to shore. To demonstrate
compatibility between seafloor observatories developed in parallel EU ASSEM and ORION projects,
one ORION node has been integrated in ASSEM network operated in Gulf of Corinth pilot experiment
(2004). This result was obtained sharing communication protocols and acoustic telemetry hardware.
87
5.3. Satellite Linked Observatories
5.3.1 ANIMATE (Atlantic Network of Interdisciplinary Moorings and Time-series for Europe)
Prof. Uwe Send, IFM-GEOMAR, Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften an der Universität Kiel,
Duesternbrooker Weg 20, D-24105 Kiel, Germany, [email protected] http://www.soc.soton.ac.uk/animate
ANIMATE is a collaboration between 6
European research institutions and has selected
3 mooring sites to collect data for the North
East Atlantic.
CIS (Central Irminger Sea) 59.7oN 39.6oW
ESTOC (Estación Europea de Series
Temporales del Oceano, Islas Canarias)
29o10'N 15o50'W
PAP (Porcupine Abyssal Plain) 49oN 16o30'W
These are all deep sites in over 3000m of
water. The difficult conditions throughout the year make them ideal for providing the technology and
systems required to record real-time and delayed-mode data. Sensors are mounted at depths of down to
1000m on the moorings to measure a wide range of physical, chemical and biological variables: Carbon
Dioxide, Nutrient Concentrations, Temperature, Salinity, Pressure, Current Speed and Direction and
Marine Snow. This project is aimed at measuring processes related to production in the upper part of
the ocean. Instruments are distributed on long mooring lines anchored to the sea floor with acoustic
releases. Real-time telemetry of data has been set up all three sites
At the start of the project 3 moorings were deployed at each site.
1. A titanium frame positioned in the eutrophic zone carrying the Fluorimeter Nitrate analyser, CO2
sensor, and temperature, salinity and pressure sensor. Below this at 150m were ADCPs, measuring
direction and speed of the current.
2. A mooring with a surface buoy communicating in near real-time, via satellites, sending temperatures
and salinities from up to 12 sensors positioned at depths of between 10m and 1000m.
3. A mooring with sediment traps and current meters.
Experiments are in progress on combining all these sensors into one mooring at CIS. See table. Real
time data is via telemeter from the surface buoy.
The moorings use MicroCAT conductivity, temperature and pressure recorders with built-in Inductive
Modems that allow transmission of data using a single plastic-coated, steel mooring cable. The bottom
of the insulated mooring wire is earthed to seawater and through a corresponding sea water electrode at
the surface completes a conductive loop through the water. Coupling transformers clamped round the
cable can transmit and receive data via using DPSK (differential-phase-shift-keyed) telemetry. IM
instruments can clamped anywhere along mooring cable. At the surface buoy a Surface Inductive
Modem (SIM) completes the communication link between the underwater instruments and a computer
or data logger. Data from the instrument string is stored and transmitted via the satellite link back to the
laboratory. As insurance against loss of the real-time data, each MicroCAT simultaneously backs up
the data in its non-volatile internal memory. Telemetry of data is the ARGOS and Orbcomm satellite
systems.
88
Assessment of the technological concept of ANIMATE
The basic technological concept of ANIMATE has proven to be a viable solution for open ocean
monitoring stations. Although satellite transmission systems do not allow for high data rate
transmissions they offer a dependable solution for instruments with limited data output which for the
majority of scientific instruments in use is the case. The main disadvantage results from the difficulty
to synchronize the time between each individual mooring structure. As long as no technical solution is
available for that seismic measurements are rendered useless.
At all the moorings within the ANIMATE project the real-time telemetry link has suffered damage
owing to the need for a surface buoy which can be damaged by bad weather and shipping activity.
Therefore other approaches are under consideration. Currently a cooperative project funded by the US
(NSF) and the European Commission (CARBO-OCEAN) is underway which aims at developing an
underwater winch system, which will allow for profiling the upper 100 m of the water column with a
buoy containing a suite of biochemical instruments. As soon as the buoy reaches the surface a data link
to shore can be set up to access the data stored in the central subsurface controlling system.
With the new battery systems that are available on the market it will be possible to enable a sustained
operation of a mooring system like ANIMATE for time periods of up to one year. This is also the
typical time period for necessary recalibrations in particular for the most interesting parameters like
nutrients, chlorophyll and CO2 . Therefore the mooring technology as it exists today or rather with
some additional but manageable development steps offers a coherent concept and will fulfill most of
the requirements for open ocean observatory systems.
Figure 5.19. The basic structure of the ANIMATE mooring together with possible future addition
of cabled nodes on the seafloor.
89
5.4 Cabled Observatory Systems.
Scientific cabled observatories are in their infancy in Europe but several prototype systems are
operational.
5.4.1 Neutrino Observatories
Three observatories have been installed in the Mediterranean Sea. Two neutrino telescopes projects,
ANTARES and NESTOR, are aiming at scientific discoveries with medium sized detectors while the
NEMO project is undertaking research and development for the construction of a future larger detector.
The aim of these systems is to trace cosmic rays arriving from outer space back to their origins in
supernova remnants, pulsars or microquasars in the local galaxy and in active galactic nuclei and
gamma ray bursts outside our galaxy. Under water neutrino telescope are capable of detecting
neutrinos in the 1010 to 1016 eV energy range. The detection principle is based on sensing Čerenkov
light stimulated in sea water by muons and hadrons produced by neutrino interactions with matter
around the detector.
As a neutrino passes through sea water or the solid earth below beneath, muons are produced that
continue along a track very closely aligned with the parent neutrino. The muon travels through
seawater at close to the speed of light and causes emission of characteristic UV-Blue Čerenkov light as
the result of a kind of shock wave effect of a fast moving particle. Čerenkov light is responsible for the
blue glow seen in water tanks in nuclear reactor facilities and contributes to the natural low level
background light in the deep sea. By deploying an array of photo-multiplier tubes housed in glass
spheres the time of arrival of the Čerenkov light wave front is timed to nanosecond accuracy at
numerous points over a large volume of sea water. From this it is possible to back-calculate the track
of the muon and hence the original direction of the neutrino. By running the detector over a number of
years and integrating over time the cosmic sources of neutrinos can be mapped.
There is an ultimate aim to assemble an array of ca. 5000 detectors occupying one cubic kilometre of
sea water somewhere in the Mediterranean as a collaboration between European research institutes
(KM3NET ). Choice of the Mediterranean Sea as a site for research is based on the following criteria:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Closeness to the coast to ease deployment and reduce the expense of the power and signal cable
connections to the shore
A sufficient depth to reduce background from atmospheric muons. A depth of 1000m is a
minimal requirement.
Good optical properties in water long absorption (>20m) and scattering (~50m) lengths for
light in the range 350 - 550nm wavelength.
Low level of bioluminescence.
Low rates of biofouling (bacterial film deposition and marine life accretion) on optical
surfaces.
Low rates of sedimentation (for any upward-looking optical components).
Low velocity bottom current (~few cm/sec), since rate of bioluminescence is dependent on this
parameter.
The enclosed oligotrophic basins of Mediterranean provide amongst the best conditions on the planet
for deployment of such a system. All three sites have cables installed and in addition to servicing the
neutrino detector array have junction boxes with connections for power and data for other
observatories. There is a need for environmental data to understand and interpret the performance of
the neutrino detector system. Also additional benefit is derived from interdisciplinary sciences.
90
Fig 5.20. Locations of the sites of the three Mediterranean Neutrino Telescope projects.
5.4.1.1. ANTARES (Astronomy with a Neutrino Telescope and Abyss Environment Research)
John Carr, Centre de Physique de Particules de Marseille / IN2P3-CNRS, 163 Ave. de Luminy, 13288
Marseille, France http://antares.in2p3.fr
The ANTARES collaboration is composed of around 150 engineers, technicians and physicists from 22
institutes in France, Italy, Netherlands, Germany and Spain.
This is the most advanced neutrino
project installing a detector with initially 900 optical modules and effective area 50,000m2 off the
south coast of France near Toulon. The collaboration started in 1996 with exploration of sites off the
French coast. The site chosen is at 42° 50’N 6° 10’ E with a depth of 2400m. The ANTARES detector
array will suspend optical modules on individual mooring lines, with readout via cables connected to
the bottom of the lines. This requires connections to be made on the seabed by underwater vehicles.
With advances in relevant underwater technology due to the needs of the offshore-oil industry a wide
range of suitable deep-sea connectors is available, including electro-optical connectors wet-mateable at
depth on the site.
The layout of the detector is shown in figure 2. The optical modules are arranged in groups of three on
lines with a total height of 420 m which are weighted to the sea bed and held nearly vertical by
syntactic foam buoys at the top. The sea bed at the site is at a depth of 2400m and the optical modules
positioned at depths between 2300m and 2000m. A line has a total of 75 optical modules arranged in
25 storeys containing three light detectors.
A “Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing” (DWDM) system is housed in an electronics container,
the “String Control Module” (SCM) at the base of each detector line. In the SCM the outputs from all
the detectors on the line are multiplexed on to one pair of optical fibres. These fibres are then
connected to a junction box on the seabed via interlink cables. In the junction box the outputs from up
to 16 lines are gathered onto a 48 fibre electro-optical submarine cable and sent to the experiment shore
station at La Seyne-sur-Mer.
91
Fig. 5.20. The layout of the ANTARES Neutrino Telescope on the sea floor
The
electrical
supply
system has a similar
architecture to the readout
system. The submarine
cable supplies up to
4400V, 10A AC to a
transformer in the junction
box.
The
sixteen
independent
secondary
outputs
from
the
transformer provide up to
500V, 4A to the lines via
the interlink cables. At the
base of each line a “String
Power Module” (SPM)
power supply shares the
same container as the
SCM. The SPM distributes
up to 400V DC to the
elements in the line to
provide the various low
voltages required by each
electronics card.
The 45km electro-optical undersea cable2 linking the detector to the shore station was laid in October
2001. The cable was terminated in December 2002 with the deployment of the central electro-optical
junction box.
5.4.1.2. NESTOR (Neutrino Extended Submarine Telescope with Oceanographic Research)
Leonidas Resvanis, The NESTOR INSTITUTE, Anagnostara 111, 24001 Pylos, Greece,
http://www.nestor.org.gr
The NESTOR INSTITUTE for DEEP SEA RESEARCH, TECHNOLOGY and NEUTRINO
ASTROPARTICLE PHYSICS was created by the Greek Government as a small National Laboratory
1998 and in 2003 it was incorporated as part of the National Observatory of Athens (NOA). Located at
Pylos it exploits the nearby deep water site, extending to a maximum of 5200 m depth in the
Mediterranean Sea. Part of the Institute’s charge is to evolve into an International Laboratory possibly
hosting the future KM3NET development.
The current aim of NESTOR is to build a detector with 168 optical modules and around 20,000 m2
effective area at a depth of 4100m. A key concept of the NESTOR project is the arrangement of the
optical modules on a tower structure with all internal connections made on the surface during
deployment, hereby avoiding the need for underwater connectors. The NESTOR towers will contain 12
hexagonal floors of 16m radius with photomultipliers looking both upward and downward.
An electro-optical cable has been laid from a shore station at Methoni to a site at a depth of 4100m
around 15km from the shore 4100m located at 36° 38.12’N, 21°35.49’W. The array, shown will
comprise a series of ‘towers’, each rising 360m from a seabed anchor, held in tension by an underwater
buoy. Each tower will contain 144 Photo multiplier tubes mounted on 12 titanium-framed 32m
diameter ‘floors’ in the form of six-pointed stars. A pair of detectors will be mounted on each arm, one
looking up, and the other down.
2
Manufactured and deployed by Alcatel
92
The water in this region of the Ionian basin is very clear, with ~ 55m attenuation length for blue light.
Bottom currents have been measured to be below 10cm/sec. Extremely low rates of sedimentation and
biofouling permit a significant number of upward-looking optical sensors.
The NESTOR cable to shore
was deployed in June 2000,
but was damaged by the ship
during the cable lay. In
January 2002 the end of the
cable was recovered; the
cable was repaired and
redeployed at 4100m with an
electro-optical junction box
and associated instruments
including an underwater
current meter, an ocean
bottom
seismometer,
a
nephelometer to monitor
light scattering, temperature
and pressure sensors, a
compass and a tilt-meter.
Instrument
data
were
transferred to the shore for
nearly a year; the first longduration
real-time
data
readout from a component of
deep-sea neutrino detector.
Fig. 5.21. Conceptual Layout of the NESTOR array 8 towers are shown.
The transparent cone represents the wave front of Čerenkov radiation
around an upward going muon track.
The first detector floor was
deployed in March 2003 and
more than five million events
were recorded which allowed
the first reconstruction of
muon
tracks
in
the
Mediterranean.
Following
this initial success at the
NESTOR site European
efforts in neutrino astronomy
are manly centred on the
ANTARES experiment but
Pylos remains a candidate
site for the KM3NET
development.
5.4.1.3. NEMO (Neutrino Mediterranean Observatory)
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Laboratori Nazionali del Sud, via S.Sofia, 44 - 95123 Catania –
Italy. http://nemoweb.lns.infn.it [email protected]
NEMO is an Italian collaboration between 9 centres within the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare
(INFN) and, 4 centres in CNR concerned with oceanography, marine biology and geology, and 5
othere institutes including, the Insituto Nationale de Geofisica e Vulconologia (INGV) that leads the
Geostar consortium.
A possible site has been indentified for a km3-scale array at a depth of 3500m, 80km off the coast of
Sicilly near Capo Passero. At this location in the Ionian Sea, bacterial concentration is relatively low,
93
with the consequent advantages
of low expected bioluminescence
background and biofouling rate.
Preliminary studies over a period
of 40 days have shown no
evidence for biofouling. At the
site, the light attenuation
(absorption) length exceeds 35m
(70m) [4]. The average bottom
current is around 3cm/sec, with a
measured sedimentation rate of
~20m/gm/day. It remains to be
proven that this low rate would
not seriously degrade the
performance of upward-looking
PMTs after ~ 1 year, should the
detector design include them.
The NEMO concept is for a
1km3-scale array with 4096
optical modules hung from 64
“towers” laid in a square grid
with 200m spacing. Each tower,
shown in figure 5, would rise
750m from a seabed anchor, and
Fig. 5.22 Conceptual layout of a NEMO tower. The system is deployed
would contain 16 “floors”
folded up on the sea floor. The buoy is then released and the series of
spars is unfurled. Successive support beams with detectors at their
separated in height by 40m, each
ends are at right angles to one another to create the array.
with a pair of PMTs at each end
of a 20m composite support arm.
A matrix of support cables would ensure that successive floors deploy orthogonally under the force of
the suspension buoy.
A test site has been established at a depth of 2031m, 28km off Catania in Sicily. An electro-optical
cable from Catania splits 23km from the shore, a second branch running 5km to the “Geostar”
underwater environmental platform (SN1). Each site is serviced by 10 optical fibers and 6 electrical
conductors.
94
5.4.2 Cabled multidisciplinary observatory SN-1.
Paolo Favali, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Roma,
Italy. [email protected]
Fig 5.23. Schematic of the NEMO/SN-1 cable and junction box.
The multiparametric, geophysical
and environmental observatory of
the
National
Institute
of
Geophysics and Volcanology SN1was deployed in deep sea, at
2060 m w.d. over 25 km off-shore
Eastern Sicily, and connected to a
submarine cable. SN-1 is the first
real-time submarine point of
observation which can be
integrated in the terrestrial
geophysical networks and, being
situated in an area interested by
catastrophic earthquakes and
tsunamis in historical and recent
times, it will give a meaningful
contribution to identify signals
related to these events. SN-1 is
an Italian national project with technology
derived from the European projects
GEOSTAR, GEOSTAR 2, ORIONGEOSTAR 3, which were co-ordinated bv
INGV and experimented in the Italian seas
with
prototypes
of
geophysical,
oceanographic
and
environmental
observatories and a network of submarine
observatories.
The
multiparametric,
geophysical
and
environmental
observatory of the National Institute of
Geophysics and Volcanology SN-1was
deployed in deep sea, at 2060 m w.d. over
25 km off-shore Eastern Sicily, and
connected to the NEMO submarine cable.
SN-1 is the first real-time submarine point
of observation which can be integrated
into terrestrial geophysical networks. It is
located in a major area of interest for
catastrophic earthquakes and tsunamis in
historical and recent times, and will make
a meaningful contribution to identify
signals related to such events.
The connection of SN-1 to the submarine
cable is the result of synergy between
Fig. 5.2.4. The SN-1 Platform attached to the launcher
Italian scientific institutions and industries
module
under a specific collaboration agreement
started in early 2001 between INGV and INFN. The NEMO submarine cable, deployed in 2001, was
provided by INFN. The terrestrial termination is lodged inside INFN laboratory situated in Catania
Harbour and the sea part of the cable extends for over 25 km down to depth greater than 2000 m, on the
first plateau of the Malta escarpment, a very important regional submarine tectonic structure. The
installation of the observatory was carried out by the cable laying vessel CV Pertinacia owned by
95
Elettra Tlc company. Personnel involved were
from Elettra, INGV, Technical University of
Berlin, Polytechnic of Berlin, Tecnomare-ENI
SpA and INFN. Connection of the observatory
to the electro-optical cable in the deep sea
required the use of a Remote Operated Vehicle
(ROV), vehicle able to complete operations of
manipulation to deep sea remotely controlled
from the ship.
Fig. 5.25. The 3-component broad-band seismometer (Guralp
CMG-1T) inside the titanium sphere
SN-1, was built between 2000 and 2002 as the
main activity of a project coordinated by
INGV and financed by the National Group for
the Defence from Earthquakes (GNDT), and is
equipped with a suite of including; hreecomponents broad-band seismometer, gravity
meter, scalar magnetometer and hydrophone.
Some oceanographic sensors
such as
conductivity, temperature and pressure (CTD)
and a three-component current meter, have
been installed for oceanographic long-term
time series and also to provide auxiliary
measures to the analysis of the geophysical
data. Acoustic sensors belonging to INFN
have also been installed as part of NEMO-1
pilot experiment to study the deep sea
background noise.
This is essential for
evaluation of the feasibility of acoustic
detection of high energy cosmic particles. An
additional benefit will be detection of
bioacoustic signals from marine mammals.
Figure 5.26. ROV mateable connector (Ocean Design) used to connect SN-1 to the termination frame of one of the 2 cable tails
96
Figure 5.27. The ROV used for the connection between SN-1 and the termination frame
Figure 5.28. SN-1 on the deck of C/V Pertinacia
97
5.4.3 IUB – ESONET Long Time Observatory
.
Laurenz Thomsen, International University Bremen, School of Engineering and Science Campusring 1
D-28759 Bremen , Germany, [email protected]
The IUB ocean research group in association with NIOZ, Technical University Hamburg-Harburg
(TUHH), and Meerestechnik Bremen GmbH (www.mt-bremen.de) has developed a new deep-sea long
term observatory. The design is based on a lander frame with several “standard” instruments adapted
for Ethernet data-transfer. Four different crawlers are attached to this station, each of them carries a
scientific load.
The aim of this main project is the development of a cabled deep sea observatory for long term
investigation of seafloor processes.
The objectives are:
• to quantify slow versus fast fluid flow and carbon/methane fluxes
• to develop long term monitoring observatories for oil/gas industry
• to create a science platform capable of offering a totally new approach to public outreach and
awareness of ocean processes.
• to develop an enhanced 3D visualization of multi parameter datasets
• to carry out hydroacoustic studies on fluid flow pathways and mineral crusts in upper
sediment laysers
• to link fluid, methane flow with tectonic movement and seismic activity
Scientific rationale
Our present knowledge about the functioning of the ocean in the earth system is mainly based on
seagoing expeditions and shipboard operation of equipment. The data sets thus obtained are constrained
in time and space, and generally lack sufficient knowledge of the temporal and spatial variability of
parameters. As the importance of the oceans to society grows, so does the need to understand their
variation on many temporal and spatial scales. Long term observing systems will enable the study of
processes in the ocean over varying timescales and spatial scales, providing the scientific basis for
addressing important societal concerns such as climate change, natural hazards, industrial exploitation
and the health and viability of living and non-living resources along our coasts and in the open ocean.
IUB is currently developing a long term instrument system, which will be deployed at 1200 m water
depth 65 km off the California in 2006. The system consists of one central station with internet/power
connection to land and several small tele-operated robots, which move along the seafloor and measure
carbon/methane turnover rates.
In 2003 IUB (coordination, crawler design, general instrument setup, mechanical construction), TUHH (development of control electronics, benthic chamber), RCOM (acoustics), MPI (microsensors),
Ifm-Geomar (joint US MARS/NEPTUNE project) and University of Washington (coordinator
NEPTUNE) as well as the NIOZ (lander design) and the SME Meerestechnik Bremen (general layout
of control and data transfer) started the project. The aim of the development was to build the first
prototype of an internet operated vehicle (IOV) with the capability to move along the seafloor by video
control and to carry out detailed investigations on fluid- and particle fluxes in the benthic boundary
layer. The Crawler should be small (50x50x30 cm), versatile, tele-operated and capable of carrying a
scientific payload of up to 30 kg. Even an untrained user should be able to direct the IOV from any
internet connected computer. The IOV should be connected to the internet via a junction box (node)
within an underwater network or via an Ethernet/power connection at an offshore installation. The
connection to a node should be established by the use of a ROV. Once connected the system should
remain on the seafloor for extended periods of several months to study the temporal and spatial
variations at a given location in the deep sea. For the IUB deep sea observatory three crawlers will be
built, each equipped with different sensor systems. All crawlers will be connected to one central
instrument system (lander), which is located up to 100 m away from the node, carries additional
sensors and transfers the data of the IOVs to the land based data center or offshore installation. After an
extended planning phase it was decided to build the observatory with the following capabilities:
98
Existing hardware and sensors:
The central lander will be equipped with
• 1 CTD
• 1 down-looking profiling ADCP for hydrodynamics
• 1 up-looking single point flow meter
• 1 in situ filtration with 21 filters for particle measurements
• 1 sediment trap with settling tube
• 1 sonar to detect gas bubbles
• 1 pan/tilt/zoom web cam for monitoring and video mosaicking
The three crawlers will be equipped with following sensor systems and experimental devices:
• 1 CTD
• 2 methane
• 1 newly developed Schlieren camera for the detection and quantification of fluid flow
• 8 oxygen micro profilers
• 1 benthic flow simulation chamber to determine particle dynamics
• 3 shear-stress sensors
• 3-4 pan/tilt/zoom web cams for controlled tele-operated crawler movement
• 1 newly developed parametric echosounder system to image mineral deposits in the upper
sediment column at the decimeter scale and to detect pathways of fluid flow in high
resolution.
Fig. 5.29: Cartoon of deployed lander with crawler in the Monterey Canyon.
99
Fig. 5.30. Crawler in test basin investigating a simulated gas discharge.
Fig. 5.31 Control webpage
All gained data transmitted online via internet will be transformed into a XML file format. This will
enable a convenient incorporation into existing archives such as Pangaea (http://www.pangaea.de/). For
public outreach we already established the www.deepseacam.com homepage.
100
Fig. 5.32. Flow chart for data transfer.
Fig. 5.33. Webpage for public outreach.
101
102
5.5.Observatory Data Sheets
103
5.5.1.
General
information
Observatory type
Benthic Chamber Lander
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Weight in air
Weight in water
Dimensions (l x w x h)
Material
Depth rating
Up to 4 squared benthic
chambers w. syringe samplers
Weeks
Power capacity and type
Data capacity
Status
Web page
BCL
GEOMAR
1996
Free fall or
video deployed
Autonomous
Biogeochemical sediment/water
interface fluxes
1440 kg
277 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
Stainless Steel 1.4571
6000 m
Type and characteristics of sensors
installed: Open for further expansions
2-6
6V, 28Ah (rechargable NiCd cells)
- MByte
Operative since 1996
http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/ind
exsedi.html
Photo/drawing
Schematics of the BC Lander
with 1 chamber and fully
equipped for video-guided
deployment (right).
Archived data
References
104
http://www.pangaea.de/PangaVista
Witte U. and Pfannkuche O. (2000) High rates of
benthic carbon remineralisation in the abyssal
Arabian Sea. Deep-Sea Research II 47, 27852804.
5.5.2
General
information
Observatory type
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
GEOSTAR
(Geophysical and Oceanographic Station for Abyssal Research)
Country of origin
European Union
Owner
GEOSTAR Consortium
Developer
Tecnomare (seafloor observatory),
TUB (intervention vehicle)
Year
1996-97 (Geostar 1 version)
1999-2000 (Geostar 2 version)
Architecture
Deployment and recovery managed by dedicated
intervention vehicle (MODUS)
Interface
Moored buoy interfaced
Geophysics
Oceanography
Geochemistry
Weight in air [kN]
25.42
Weight in water [kN]
14.16
Dimensions
3500 x 3500 x 3300
(l x w x h) [mm]
Material
Aluminium, titanium
Depth rating
4000 m
Payload
Communication
system
Seismometer (CMG-1T Guralp)
Scalar magnetometer (GEM)
Fluxgate magnetometer (INGV prototype)
ADCP (RDI 300 kHz Workhorse)
CTD (SeaBird SBE 16)
Transmissometer (Chelsea Aquatracka)
Hydrophone
Gravity meter (CNR-IFSI prototype)
Single point current meter (FSI 3D-ACM)
Water Sampler (MacLane RAS 48-500)
Chemical Package (Tecnomare/INGV prototype)
Underwater segment
Surface segment
Autonomy
Status
Web page
Photo/drawing
Months
Power capacity
Data capacity
Acoustic multimodulation modem (ORCA MATS 12)
ARGOS Messengers (Ifremer)
INMARSAT Mini M
VHF radio link (back-up)
6
24 V, 3000 Ah
4 Gbyte
Two missions carried out (1998 and 2000-2001); will be
integrated in ORION network
http://geostar.ingv.it
105
5.5.3.
General
information
Country of origin
Owner
Observatory type
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Weight in air [kN]
Dimensions
(l x w x h) [mm]
Material
Depth rating
Payload
Communication
system
Autonomy
Status
Web page
106
Underwater segment
Surface segment
Months
Power capacity
Data capacity
GMM (Gas Monitoring Module)
European Union
IFREMER Co-ordinator (ASSEM Project), INGV task
leader, Exploitation agreement to be defined
Tecnomare
2002-2004
Benthic tripod
Diver assisted deployment and recovery
Cabled observatory
(plus internal data back-up storage)
Gas occurrence monitoring close to seabed
1.5
0.7
φ 1500 x 1500
Aluminium
1000 m (except H2S sensor)
3 methane sensors (Capsum METS)
H2S sensor (AMT)
CTD (SeaBird SBE-37SI)
Cable telemetry
ASSEM network
Min 6
12 V, 960 Ah
512 MByte on Flash memory (extendable)
Operative since April 2004
First mission April-June 2004 (*)
Second mission Sept 2004-January 2005 (*)
(*) Gulf of Patras, integrated in ASSEM network
www.ifremer.fr/assem ; http://geostar.ingv.it
5.5.4
General
information
Observatory type
Biogeochemical observatory
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Web page
Photo/drawing
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
2 benthic chambers
(mesocosms) w. 4 syringe
samplers,1 gas exchange
system & reservoir
Provision for further
expansions
Days
Data capacity
BIGO
GEOMAR / TU HH, MT 1
2002
Free fall or video deployed
Autonomous
Biogeochemical fluxes and environment-tal
parameters at sediment water interface
1520 kg
294 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
Titanium
6000 m
2 Aanderaa oxygen optodes
Savorius current meter
profiling micro-electrodes
6
6/12V, 2*28/56Ah rechargable NiCd cells
1 Mbyte SRAM
1 Mbyte flash
http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/indexsedi.html
Scheme of the gas exchange system
BIGO prior to its deployment with launching
unit mounted on top.
Archived data
References
Pfannkuche O., Eisenhauer A., Linke P., Utecht C. and
Scientific Party (2003) RV SONNE Cruise Report
SO165, OTEGA-I, GEOMAR Report 112.
107
5.5.5
General
information
Observatory type
Deep-sea Observation
System
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
Time-lapse stereo
camera/flash, sediment trap,
current meters, CTD, feeding
experiments
Months
Power capacity and type:
Each sensor self-contained
with primary cells (Duracell
MN)
Data capacity:
Status
Location/depth
Web page
51°27.28N / 10°45.23W
DOS
GEOMAR
1996
Autonomous
Biology and environmental sea floor
and BBL monitoring
1370 kg
250 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
6000 m
2 ADCPs (RDI workhorse, 300 & 1200
kHz), CTD (SBE 16plus), MAVS-3
(NOSKA), Kiel sediment trap
Open for further expansions
4
ADCPs: 42V/18Ah
CTD: 14V/18Ah
MAVS-3: 14V/5.4Ah
ADCPs: 74/84 Mbyte flash card
CTD: 8 Mbyte RAM
MAVS-3: 64 Mbyte flash card
806 m
http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/ind
exsedi.html
Photo/drawing
Video-guided deployment on a
coral thicket on Galway
Mound, Porcupine Sea.
Archived data
References
108
http://www.pangaea.de/PangaVista
Witte, U. (1999) Consumption of large carcasses
by scavenging assemblages in the deep Arabian
Sea: observations by baited camera. Mar. Ecol.
Prog. Ser. 183, 139-147.
5.5.6
General
information
Observatory type
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Fluid Flux Observatory
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
2 benthic chambers w. syringe
samplers and 1 FLUFO
module
expansions
Months
MN)
Data capacity:
Status
Web page
Photo/drawing
FLUFO
GEOMAR / TU HH, MT 1
2002
Autonomous
Acoustic Modem
Fluid flow and environmental control parameter
1560 kg
330 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
Titanium
6000 m
CTD (SBE 16 plus),
MAVS-3 (NOBSKA),
Longranger ADCP (RDI 75 kHz),
Digital Camcorder (Canon)
Bidirectional communication
1
6/12V, 4*28/ 56Ah rechargable NiCd cells
(chambers);
ADCP: 42V/18Ah
CTD: 14V/18Ah
MAVS-3: 14V/5.4Ah
ADCP: 74 Mbyte flash card
CTD: 8 Mbyte RAM
FLUFO TT8: 660 Mbyte flash card
http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/indexsedi.html
Schematic picture of the FLUFO-module.
Left: FLUFO during launch.
Archived data
References
Pfannkuche O., Eisenhauer A., Linke P., Utecht C. and
Scientific Party (2003) RV SONNE Cruise Report SO165,
OTEGA-I, GEOMAR Report 112.
109
5.5.7
General
information
Observatory type
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
Payload
Autonomy
expansions
Days
Data capacity
Status
Web page
GasQuant
GEOMAR/Elac Nautik GmbH
2002
Autonomous
Gas bubble detection, periodicity &
quantification
1830 kg
226 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
1000 m (transducer)
180 kHz swath transducer (75°
opening angle with 21 beams;
resolution of each beam 3° horizontal
and 1.5° vertical),
electronic transducer unit (SEE 30;
transmitting and Receiving Unit) and
data acquisition PC
integration in cabled network
6
24V, 230Ah
20 GByte
http://www.geomar.de/~jgreiner/web_LOTUS/sta
rt_sp2.htm
Photo/drawing
Top: Scheme of the detection of 2 gas
bubblesites by the back-scattered
signal.
Right: View of the GasQuant Lander
with launcher on top ready for
deployment. The frame at the base of
the lander carries 4 deep-sea batteries
and the SEE electronics in a titanium
barrel. A compass, observed by one of
the two launcher-cameras, was used
to control the lander heading during
the deployment.
Archived data
References
110
Pfannkuche O., Eisenhauer A., Linke P., Utecht
C. and Scientific Party (2003) RV SONNE Cruise
Report SO165, OTEGA-I, GEOMAR Report 112.
5.5.8
General
information
Observatory type
Hydrate Detection and
Stability Determination
System
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
HDSD-II module: 3 parallel
stingers (1 heated, 2 with
sensors) slowly pushed into
the sediment to a depth of
100cm
expansions
Days
Data capacity
HDSD
GEOMAR/SFB 574
2002
Autonomous
Gas hydrate detection, sediment
physical properties
1320 kg
220 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
2000 m
23 temperature and resistivity sensors
each 4 cm apart
Shear strength, pore pressure
2
4*12V, 4*56Ah rechargable NiCD cells
194 MByte
reDesign phase 2003
Pre-operative stage 2004
Photo/drawing
Sketch of the deployment of a HDSD-II-equipped lander.
References
Bohrmann G., Schenck S. (2004) RV SONNE
Cruise Report SO174, OTEGA-II, GEOMAR
Report 117.
W. Brückmann, M. Türk, T. Mörz, P. Linke
(2004): In-situ thermal perturbation tests of nearsurface gas hydrates - results from
theTexas/Louissiana continental shelf (Gulf of
Mexico) Abstract EGU 2004.
111
5.5.9
General
information
Observatory type
Vent Sampler Lander
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
Large squarred funnel-shaped
benthic chamber with syringe
sampler
expansions
Months
MN)
Data capacity:
Status
Web page
112
VESP
GEOMAR
1999
Autonomous
Fluid flow and environmental control
parameters
890 kg
280 kg
1660 x 1660 x 2230 cm
6000 m
CTD (SBE 25, 16plus or FSI mCTD,)
CH4-sensors (CAPSUM),
H2S- & pH-sensors (AMT),
Thermistor flowmeter (100 Ohm),
Seismometer (GEOLON), Geophon,
Hydrophon
MAVS-3 (NOBSKA),
ADCP (RDI 300 kHz),
Microseismicity
3
6/12V, 2*28/ 56Ah rechargable NiCd
cells (chamber);
ADCP: 42V/18Ah
CTD: 14V/18Ah
MAVS-3: 14V/5.4Ah
ADCP: 74 Mbyte flash card
CTD: 8 Mbyte RAM
Flowmeter TT8: 1 Mbyte flash card
Seismometer: 4 Gbyte micro drives
http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/indexsedi.ht
ml
5.5.10
General
information
Observatory type
Developer
Year
Architecture
IUB deep-sea observatory
IUB, TUHH, Meerestechnik Bremen,
NIOZ
2004
cabled, internet operated
stationary lander with crawlers
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Web page
Cable connected
Biology
Sediment transport
Geophysical
Fluid flow
Geohazard Identification
Weight in air
500 kg
Weight in water
400 kg
4x4x4m
Material
stainless steel
Depth rating
4000 m
• 1 CTD
The three crawlers will be equipped with following sensor systems and
experimental devices:
• 1 CTD
• 2 methane
• 1 newly developed Schlieren camera for the detection and
quantification of fluid flow
• 3-4 pan/tilt/zoom web cams for controlled tele-operated crawler
movement
• 1 newly developed parametric echosounder system to image mineral
deposits in the upper sediment column at the decimeter scale and to
Provision for further expansions
Months
12
400/48V DC
Data capacity
10/100Mbps Ethernet
Pre-operative stage
Monterey Bay Canyon
2000 m
http://www.deepseacam.com
113
5.5.11
General
information
Observatory type
Country of origin
Owner
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Weight in air [kN]
Dimensions
(l x w x h) [mm]
Material
Depth rating
Payload
Communication
system
Autonomy
Status
Web page
114
Underwater segment
Surface segment
Months
Power capacity
Data capacity
SN-1
Italy
INGV
Tecnomare
2001-02
Autonomous, acoustic link with ship of opportunity
available
(will be upgraded with interface for connection to NEMO
experiment cable)
Seismology
14.22
8.2
3000 x 3000 x 2900
Aluminium, titanium
4000 m
Seismometer (Guralp)
Hydrophone (OAS E2-PD)
Gravity meter (CNR-IFSI prototype)
CTD (SeaBird SBE 16)
Single point current meter (FSI 3D-ACM)
none
6
12 V, 1920 Ah
17 GByte
First mission offshore Catania (Oct 9 2002 – May 12
2003, 2105 mwd)
5.5.12
General
information
Observatory type
Country of origin
Owner
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Weight in air [kN]
Dimensions
(l x w x h) [mm]
Material
Depth rating
Payload
Seismometer
Hydrophone
CTD
Transmissometer
ADCP
Single point current meter
Chemical Package
Water Sampler
Communication
system
Autonomy
Underwater segment
Surface segment
Months
Power capacity
Data capacity
Status
MABEL
(Multidisciplinary Antarctic Benthic Laboratory)
Italy
PNRA (Italian Antarctic Research Program)
Tecnomare
2002-on
Autonomous, acoustic link with ship of opportunity
available
Geochemistry
Seismology
14.22
8.2
3000 x 3000 x 2900
Aluminium, titanium
4000 m
none
1 year
12 V, 1920 Ah
17 GByte
Under development
Mechanical frame manufactured
Data acquisition and control electronics qualified in ice
basin tests (HSVA Hamburg, 2002)
115
5.5.13
General
information
Developer
Observatory type
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
Payload
Autonomy
Status
116
Months
Power capacity
Data capacity
CIESM (array of autonomous CTDs)
Classical (programme initiated, and action
recommended by myself)
2002
Free fall
Autonomous
Physical Oceanography
400 kg
300 kg
Sub-surface mooring shape 10 m height
Various
6000 m
One autonomous CTD (SBE 37-SM type)
Any kind of instrumentation usually set on
subsurface moorings
2 years (nominal)
9V, 7.2Ah
3 MByte
5.5.14
General
information
Observatory type
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Web page
Free-fall Respirometer
AWI/GEOMAR
2000
Free fall
Autonomous
Biogeochemical sediment/water
interface fluxes
Weight in air
1100 kg
Weight in water
100 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
Material
Stainless Steel
Depth rating
6000 m
Up to 4 squared benthic
chambers with water samplers installed: current meter, thermometer
etc.
(open for further expansions)
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Weeks
Data capacity
Deep-sea long-term station
AWI-HAUSGARTEN
Experiments normally up to 1 week
4x12V, 14Ah (rechargable NiCd cells)
- MByte
Down to 5600 m
http://www.awibremerhaven.de/Research/ProjectGroups/Deep
Sea/lander.html
Photo/drawing
Archived data
Currents, temperature, oxygen
demand
117
5.5.15
General
information
Observatory type
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Web page
Experimental Lander
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
Time-lapse camera,
Scanning sonar,
Baited traps
Weeks
Data capacity
AWI-HAUSGARTEN
AWI/GEOMAR
2000
Free fall
Autonomous
Experiments at the deep seafloor
800 kg
100 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
Stainless Steel
6000 m
installed: current meter, thermometer
etc.
Experiments normally up to 2 days
24V, 42Ah (rechargable NiCd cells)
- MByte
Down to 5600 m
Sea/lander.html
Photo/drawing
Archived data
118
Currents, temperature, photos
5.5.16
General
information
Observatory type
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Web page
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
Time-lapse camera,
Sediment trap,
Optode
Long-term Lander
AWI/GEOMAR
2000
Free fall
Autonomous
Long-term observations/sampling
1000 kg
100 kg
Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm
Stainless Steel
6000 m
installed: current meter, thermometer
etc.
Months
Data capacity
AWI-HAUSGARTEN
1 year
12V, 25,5Ah (rechargable NiCd cells)
- MByte
Down to 5600 m
Sea/lander.html
Photo/drawing
Archived data
Currents, temperature, oxygen, particle
flux, photos
119
5.5.17
General
information
Observatory type
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Colonisation Trays
AWI/IFREMER
2002
Free fall
Autonomous
Colonisation experiments
Weight in air
750 kg
Weight in water
91 kg
160 x 160 x 200 cm
Material
Stainless Steel
Depth rating
6000 m
4 trays containing artificial
sediments
installed: (open for further expansions)
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Months
Data capacity
AWI-HAUSGARTEN
Web page
Photo/drawing
Archived data
References
120
Desbruyères, D., J. Y. Bervas, et al.
(1980). “Un cas de colonisation rapide
d'un sédiment profond.” Oceanologica
Acta 3(3): 285-291.
1 year
Down to 5600 m
5.5.18
General
information
Observatory type
BOttom BOundary Mk2
lander
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Web page
Photo/drawing
Archived data
References
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
Standard Equipment:
Sediment trap
OBS (2)
Salinity, Temperature,
ADCP
B/W stereo camera system
Other sensors can be installed
Plans for further expansions
Years
Data capacity
Operational
Currently two systems
deployed at Iberian margin
BOBO (3 systems)
NIOZ
1998
Free fall
Autonomous
Bottom boundary layer currents and
sediment dynamics
1050 kg
150 kg
Triangular foot print: 1 side=4 m
Height 3.5 m
Aluminium
5000 m
Type:
Technicap PPS 4/3
Seapoint
Seabird SBE-16 CTD
RDI, 1200 kHz
Time lapse video camera
1
25 Ah 45V, 25 Ah 12V, 35 Ah 14V
Alkaline batteries
1 year, 5 min. interval
Depth in metres
1858 m and 4975 m
BOBO being recovered after a
deployment.
Contact NIOZ
van Weering, T.C.E., Koster, B., van
Heerwaarden, J., Thomsen, L., Viergutz, T.,
2000. New technique for long-term deep seabed
studies. Sea Technology, February 2000: 17-20.
121
5.5.19
General
information
Observatory type
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Deep Ocean Benthic
Observatory
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
Camera
Flash Unit
Bait system
ADCP
Controller
Acoustic releases (2)
Months
DOBO
Oceanlab
2001
Free fall
Autonomous
Faunal and environmental monitoring
263.7 kg
166.9 kg
H 270cm, W 200 cm, L 200 cm
Titanium Grade 2
6000 m
35mm stills camera (model M8S, Ocean
Instrumentation, UK)
ADCP (RDI workhorse, 300kHz),
AR 661 B2S-DDL and RT 661 B2S-DDL,
Oceano France
Open for further expansions
9
variable
Data capacity:
ADCP: 10Mbyte flash card
Controller: 48 MB flash card
Camera: 1400 frames
NE Atlantic-Porcupine Seabight
(PSB), Porcupine Abyssal Plain
(PAP)
Dep1: 7 day depl PSB Aug 2001 (2555m)
Dep2: 7 month depl PSB Sept 2001-Mar 2002 (2710m)
Dep3: 8 month depl PSB Mar–Oct 2002 (2752m)
Dep4: 1 month depl MAR June–July 2004 (3664m)
Dep5: 3 month depl PAP Sept - Nov 2004 (4182m)
Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) - Charlie
Gibbs Fracture Zone
Web page
Photo/drawing
http://www.oceanlab.abdn.ac.uk/research/dobo.shtml
Archived data
Dep1: 1400 images, ADCP, ACM data
Dep4: 1400 images, ADCP data
Dep5: 1400 images, ADCP data
Bagley, P.M., I.G. Priede, A.J. Jamieson, D.M. Bailey,
E.G. Battle, C. Henriques, and K.M. Kemp (2004). Lander
techniques for deep ocean biological research.
Underwater Technology, Vol. 26, No.1, 3-12
References
122
Jamieson, A.J. and P.M. Bagley.
Biodiversity Survey Techniques: ROBIO
and DOBO Landers. Sea Technology.
January, 2005, pp53-57
5.5.20
General
information
Observatory type
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Web page
Photo/drawing
Archived data
References
Göteborg Big Modular Lander
Göteborg University
1998
Free fall
Autonomous
Physical, biological and chemical
studies at the sea floor
Weight in air
1500 kg
Weight in water
80 kg
l=2.0 m x w=2.0 m x h = 2.1 m
Material
Titanium and various plastics
Depth rating
6000 m
1. User selectable modules
Examples of used modules:
(see right)
1A: Benthic resuspension chamber: 10
2. Profiling current meter
syringes, sediment sampling, oxygen
(RDCP-600, Aanderaa) with
optode & turbidity sensor (Aanderaa).
CTD, O2 optode & turbidity.
1B: Planar optode: 2D distribution of
3. Scanning digital video(Sony) oxygen, photos of in-fauna and sed.
4. Niskin bottle
1C: Microelectrode module.
5. Sediment traps
1D: Gel peeper module (not in use)
6. 2 acoust. releases (Oceano)
7. Argo transmitter (Orca)
Future development
CAN network & acoustic 2-way com.
Weeks
2-6 (module dependent)
24 V, 36 Ah Alkaline battery pack
Data capacity
1-10 GByte (module dependent)
About 80 successful deployments
Latitude and longitude
Depth in metres
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Göteborg Big Modular Lander
being deployed off R/V Aegeo
in the Mediterranean Sea.
Various international databases
* Ståhl, Tengberg, Brunnegård, Hall,
Bjørnbom, Forbes, Josefson, Karle &
Roos (2004). Factors influencing
organic carbon recycling and burial in
Skagerrak sediments. Journ.Marine
Research, 62: 867-907.
* Tengberg, Almroth & Hall (2003).
Resuspension and its effect on organic
carbon recycling and nutrient exchange
in coastal sediments: In-situ
measurements using new experimental
technology. JEMBE, 285-286: 119-142.
123
5.5.21
General
information
Observatory type
Göteborg Mini Modular Lander
Developer
Göteborg University
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Web page
Photo/drawing
Archived data
References
124
Weight in air
Weight in water
Material
Depth rating
1. User selectable module (see
right)
2. Single point current meter
(RCM9, Aanderaa) with CTD,
O2 optode & turbidity.
3. Niskin bottle
4. 1 acoust. releases (Oceano)
5. VHF & Flash (Novatec)
Future development
Weeks
Data capacity
Latitude and longitude
1999
Free fall
Autonomous
Physical, biological and chemical
studies at the sea floor
350 kg
50 kg
l=1.1 m x w=1.2 m x h = 1.9 m
Titanium and various plastics
1000 m
Examples of used modules:
1A: Benthic resuspension chamber: 10
syringes, sediment sampling, oxygen
optode & turbidity sensor (Aanderaa).
1B: Planar optode: 2D distribution of
oxygen, photos of in-fauna and sed.
CAN network
2-4 (module dependent)
12 V, 25 Ah Dry Pb rechargeable
0.1-5 GByte (module dependent)
About 50 successful deployments
Depth in metres
Göteborg Mini Modular Lander
being deployed with Planar
Optode Module off R/V
Skagerak in the Baltic Sea.
Various international databases
* Ståhl, Tengberg, Brunnegård, Hall,
Bjørnbom, Forbes, Josefson, Karle &
Roos (2004). Factors influencing
organic carbon recycling and burial in
Skagerrak sediments. Journ.Marine
Research, 62: 867-907.
5.5.22
General
information
Observatory type
Country of origin
Owner
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Weight in air [kN]
Dimensions
(l x w x h) [mm]
Material
Depth rating
Payload
Communication
system
Underwater segment
Surface segment
Autonomy
Months
Power capacity
Data capacity
Status
Web page
ORION Node # 3
European Union
INGV co-ordinator, Exploitation agreement to be defined
Tecnomare
2002-2003
Node of an underwater horizontal acoustic network,
managed by a moored relay buoy
Seismology
14
8.5
2900 x 2900 x 2900
Aluminium (frame, supports), titanium (pressure vessels)
4000 m
Seismometer
Hydrophone
Single point current meter (optional)
Radio link
IRIDIUM back-up
min 6
12 V, 1920 Ah
3 x 8 GByte hard disks + 3 x 64 MByte Flash Cards
Operative since December 2003
First mission Dec 2003 – Apr 2004 (*)
Second mission Jun 2004 – May 2005 (*)
(*) Marsili Volcano, Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, networked
with GEOSTAR
125
5.5.23
General
information
Observatory type
Country of origin
Owner
Developer
Year
Architecture
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Weight in air [kN]
Dimensions
(l x w x h) [mm]
Material
Depth rating
Payload
Communication
system
Autonomy
Status
Web page
126
Underwater segment
Surface segment
Months
Power capacity
Data capacity
ORION Node # 4
European Union
INGV Co-ordinator, Exploitation agreement to be defined
Tecnomare
2002-2004
Cable deployed from ship (mechanical rope and
acoustic release); recovered with ROV assistance
Node of an underwater horizontal acoustic network
Seismology
6.6
3.4
2000 x 2000 x 2000
Aluminium
1000 m
Seismometer (PDM-Eentec)
Hydrophone (OAS E2PD)
Methane sensor (Capsum METS)
GPRS cellular network
Min 6
12 V, 960 Ah
3x8 GByte Hard Disks + 3x64 MByte Flash Cards
Operative since April 2004
First pilot experiment April-November 2004 (Corinth
Gulf), integrated into ASSEM network
http://geostar.ingv.it; www.ifremer.fr/assem
5.5.24
General
information
Observatory type
IUB deep-sea observatory
Developer
Year
Architecture
IUB, TUHH, Meerestechnik Bremen,
NIOZ
2004
cabled, internet operated
stationary lander with crawlers
Interface
Purpose
Technical
characteristics
Payload
Autonomy
Status
Location/depth
Web page
Photo/drawing
Cable connected
Biology
Sediment transport
Geophysical
Fluid flow
Geohazard Identification
Weight in air
500 kg
Weight in water
400 kg
4x4x4m
Material
stainless steel
Depth rating
4000 m
• 1 CTD
The three crawlers will be equipped with following sensor systems and
experimental devices:
• 1 CTD
• 2 methane
• 1 newly developed Schlieren camera for the detection and
quantification of fluid flow
• 3-4 pan/tilt/zoom web cams for controlled tele-operated crawler
movement
• 1 newly developed parametric echosounder system to image mineral
deposits in the upper sediment column at the decimeter scale and to
Provision for further expansions
Months
12
400/48V DC
Data capacity
10/100Mbps Ethernet
Pre-operative stage
Monterey Bay Canyon
2000 m
http://www.deepseacam.com
127
128
6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations
Section 6.
The European Ocean Margin & Proposed
ESONET site Locations
6.1. European Ocean Margin Assets and Hazards
The submarine terrain around Europe from the continental shelves to 4000m depth known as the
European Ocean Margin extends approximately 15,000km from the Arctic Ocean to the Black
Sea with an area of ca. 3 million km2. This is comparable in size with the total land mass of
Europe and is increasingly important for resources, such as minerals, hydrocarbons and
fisheries. The biodiversity in this region probably exceeds that of the European land mass. There
are natural hazards such as submarine slides and earthquakes with associated tsunamis. The
ocean margin spans contrasting marine geographic zones, from the Arctic, Subarctic (Iceland,
Norway, Finland) North Atlantic Drift (Ireland, France, United Kingdom), Atlantic Subtropical
Gyre (Portugal, Spain) to the Mediterranean and Black Sea, but these have been unevenly
sampled and documented.
The definition of the area of operation for an ESONET has been determined. The zone of
importance extends from 30° N in the south to 80° N in the north, and from 35° W to 45° E.
Fig 6.1. The area of operation for ESONET
The distribution of ESONET regional networks has been determined by reference to plate
tectonics, sea floor features and overlying oceanography. The aim of ESONET is to provide
representative monitoring around Europe. Seismic activity in Europe is generally along the
southern margin of the continent associated with collision with the African Plate beneath the
Mediterranean Sea. Plate boundaries extend into the Atlantic Ocean at the Straits of Gibralter
and to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Seismicity is evident throughout the length of the Mid-Atlantic
ridge from the Azores to Iceland (Fig.6.2)
Fig 6.2. Locations of Earthquakes around Europe
There is a clear need for seismic monitoring capability in Southern Europe at strategic locations
along these plate boundaries to monitor events in the earth’s crust and as an aid to protection
against earthquakes and tsunamis
The EU sponsored project HERMES project (Hotspot Ecosystem Research on the Margins of
European Seas) http://www.eu-hermes.net/ has identified sea floor features around Europe that
are sites of fluid flow, structural instability or foci for biodiversity which are presented in
overview form in Fig 6.3.
Fig 6.3. Chart showing locations of major mud slides (red), coral reefs (pink), mud mounds (yellow)
and seep/fluid flow (white). Data courtesy of HERMES
Europe is bounded by the following oceanic basins, the Black Sea, Eastern Mediterranean,
Western Mediterranean, North East Atlantic, and the Arctic Ocean. Important boundaries in the
North East Atlantic are the Mid Atlantic Ridge and the Wyville Thompson Ridge between
Shetland and Faroe and the extensions to Iceland and Greenland.
Fig 6.4. Chart detailing the bathymetry of the European margin, Data from Centenary Edition of
GEBCO.
Superimposed on this pattern within the solid earth are contrasting environments associated with
the water column. Longhurst1 has divided the world’s oceans in to biogeographic zones based to
a large extent on sea surface chlorophyll distribution as measured using the Coastal Zone Color
Scanner carried on board US NIMBUS remote sensing satellites.
Around Europe 5 such deep water biogeographic provinces are recognised (Fig. 2). ARCTAtlantic Arctic Province. This is the part of the Arctic Ocean with non-permanent ice cover and
is characterised by strongly seasonal plankton production in surface layers. SARC- Atlantic
Subarctic province is influenced by surface warm water from the Atlantic and shows seasonal
production that is distinct from that of true arctic waters further north. This region includes the
highly productive Barents sea fishery area.
NADR – North Atlantic Drift Province, This area has the biggest seasonal change in chlorophyll
concentration anywhere in the world’s oceans and has a dominant effect on the environment of
western Europe.
NAST – North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre Province has lower productivity than the regions to the
north and shows minimal primary production in later summer. Production increases in late
autumn and reaches a peak in late spring. MEDI – The Mediterranean Sea resembles the
subtropical Atlantic in its pattern of productivity but there are special features of an enclosed
sea. The Mediterranean deep water is warm (ca. 12°C) to the bottom at over 4000m and highly
oxygenated. The Black sea is strongly influenced by freshwater inflow from continental rivers
producing a strong density gradient and a boundary at 80-200m depth below which oxygen is
absent and hydrogen sulphide concentrations increase with depth.
1
A.Longhurst, Ecological Geography of the Sea. San Diego, CA. Academic Press. 1998.
.
ARCT
SARC
NADR
MEDI
NAST (E)
Fig 6.5. Biogeographic provinces around Europe. ARCT- Atlantic Arctic Province, SARC- Atlantic
Subarctic province, NADR – North Atlantic Drift Province, NAST – North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre
Province, MEDI – Mediterranean Sea/Black Sea province. Ocean colours represent cholorophyll
concentration in summer, blue low red high, courtesy of the US SeaWifs programme
Life in the deep sea is almost entirely dependent on fall out of organic matter from the surface
layers. Therefore the abundance, biomass and composition of deep sea life is influenced by the
patterns of surface productivity. The abundance of deep sea fishes is clearly influenced by
surface production. Furthermore flux from the surface varies both seasonally and from year to
year. In the NADR province on the Porcupine Abyssal Plain a strong seasonal deposition of
phytoplankton detritus has been observed in late summer at 4800m depth. Over time the
composition of the deep sea fauna has changed possibly associated with change in fluxes to the
deep sea influenced by the North Atlantic Oscillation. During 1997-2000 an infestation of the
North east Atlantic Ocean abyssal plain by sea cucumbers Amperima rosea (6457 ha-1) and
brittle stars Ophiocten hastatum (54,000 ha-1) was detected. If such events had occurred
following some human intervention, such as deep sea waste disposal, it is likely that that the
anthropogenic effect would have been held responsible. It is evident that the deep waters around
Europe function as coupled systems and it cannot be assumed that the deep sea is uniform and
stable. Large scale changes occur that are very poorly understood. The central Porcupine
Abyssal Plain location (PAP) in NADR is the best monitored deep sea abyssal location in the
world. However monitoring only began in 1989 and a number of years are missing from the
time series. There is an urgent need to establish continuous monitoring at this and other sites in
order to track changes over time in the Oceans around Europe. Simple exploration during single
visits to locations is no longer adequate.
An additional driver for development of ESONET is the development of underwater telescope
arrays for detecting high energy neutrinos passing through the earth. Three such systems are at
various stages of development in the Mediterranean sea which has been chosen for its relatively
sheltered location and low productivity resulting in low level of natural bioluminescence in the
water column. The neutrinos are detected by an array of photosensors that identify Cerenkov
radiation stimulated by interactions with water molecules. The aim is to implement an array up
to 1km3 in dimension at a depths greater than 2km. Such an infrastructure with extensive cabling
systems on the sea floor would provide considerable opportunities for synergistic development
of ESONET observatories.
6.2 ESONET Coverage.
ESONET proposes a network of 10 regional observatories as shown in Fig 6.6. ESONET will
be a federation of these regional observatories each with its own lead institution and
implementation committee. ESONET will provide standardisation, co-ordination and data
interchange.
A)
B)
Fig 6.6. The proposed 10 ESONET regional observatory networks, A- Mercator projection,
blue = deep white = shallow, B - 3D solid model
6.3 The proposed ESONET Observatory Locations.
Monitoring of the ocean margin is, in itself, not a trivial task and will need to foster energies
from all EU member states in a variety of disciplines, including engineering,
telecommunications, information technology, biology, ecology, geology, geophysics,
oceanography and socio-economics. A multi-faceted approach is required. In order to be
effective, however, the placement of fixed observatories cannot be random or limited to
locations that offer cheap alternatives. Instead, the division of the European ocean margins into
representative zones, each with an observatory capacity, is a more fruitful way of maximising
environmental monitoring capacity. Indeed, the main innovation of ESONET is to co-ordinate
the use of existing European infrastructure. It is not necessary to complete a cabled network
around Europe from the outset, rather a phased introduction of appropriate technology in key
provinces is more realistic. Many potential sites have already been identified as being operable
to some degree and provide promising opportunities in terms of their scientific contribution to
the network, geographical location and adaptability. Some of these sites are already being
evaluated with regard to forming the principle strategic nodes of an ESONET, and plans are
being put in place for future integration. The sites so far proposed include, but are not limited to,
ten initial locations.
6.3.1. Arctic – Arctic Ocean
Arctic water exiting into the Atlantic ocean between Europe and Greenland is an
important component of the global deep water circulation of the planet and its heat
budget. Establishment of a long term station here is important for tracking global change
as ice cover decreases but there are also important deep sea habitats such as mud
volcanoes in the ‘Hausgarten’ region, off Svalbard.
Fig 6.7. Sea Ice in the Arctic Ocean
The polar regions play an important role within the earth’s climate system. Both regions, at high
northern and southern latitudes, are characterised by low temperatures, distinct seasonality, huge
areas of seasonal and permanent ice coverage. Massive and deep reaching permafrost layers
cover large areas of the Arctic coasts. In particular, the Arctic is of outstanding relevance in
respect to the development of the climate in Europe.
Polar regions are very sensitive to climate change. At the same time, they govern global climate
evolution, directly influencing global sea level changes and, hence, the impact on coastal
regions. Due to extremely long recovery cycles polar ecosystems are highly susceptible to
perturbations. These sensitivities and properties make polar regions pertinent for long-term
observations.
Enabling the detection of any expected changes in abiotic and biotic parameters in the transition
zone between the northern North Atlantic and the central Arctic Ocean, and contributing to a
better understanding of deep-sea biodiversity, the German Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar
and Marine Research (AWI) established a long-term deep-sea observatory (AWI-"Hausgarten")
in 1999. This observatory, displaying 15 long-term stations covering a depth range of 1000 to
5500 m water depth, is situated west of Svålbard (see Figure). Repeated sampling and the
deployment of moorings and different long-term lander systems which act as observation
platforms has taken place since the beginning of the station. At regular intervals, a Remotely
Operated Vehicle is used for targeted sampling, the positioning and servicing of autonomous
measuring instruments and the performance of in situ experiments. A 3000 m depth rated
Autonomous Underwater Vehicle, operated by the AWI, will extend our sensing and sampling
programmes in the near future.
Seasonal ice cover at "Hausgarten" hampers direct access on data and samples obtained by
moorings and free-falling observation platforms. A cable connection to "Hausgarten" will help
to overcome these logistic problems. The development of new long-term sensors and sampling
devices operating autonomously over long time scales (e.g. an autonomous sediment sampler)
are scheduled for the near future in close cooperation with SMEs.
Fig 6.8. The proposed ARCTIC network with a shore station on Svalbard. Putative sub sea cable
routes are indicated by pink lines.
Fig 6.9. The proposed ARCTIC network with a shore station on Svalbard. Putative sub sea cable
routes are indicated by pink lines.
6.3.2.Norwegian margin - Atlantic Ocean
The Norwegian margin region has shown slope instability with evidence of major slides
which if repeated could result in catastrophic damage to offshore oil and gas installations
as well as indirect effects of tsunamis striking the coasts of the British Isles and elsewhere.
Special deep water habitats, such as coral reefs, are also an issue.
Although there is a wide range of evidence indicating that global warming is taking place we are
not well prepared to detect rapid as well as long term thermohaline circulation changes on a
human time scale. How rapid and at what amplitude do changes in thermohaline circulation in
the Nordic Seas occur? If there is a response of the Nordic climate to rapid changes in ocean
circulation what are the potential temperature amplitudes? Fluid flow from gas hydrates and
geohazards may be a significant process within continental margins. The flow and gas emission
at the seabed system that operates within them is not understood, even at the most fundamental
level. Fluid flow is also potentially an important influence on the local distribution of benthic
biota on continental margins and on biota in the sediments beneath them. We need to understand
flow systems at a range of time and scales from that operating through the whole margin to
those acting through a single seep. Do potential areas of deep-sea methane release have impacts
on geohazards or climate? What are fluid flow episodes and how do they relate to ocean
temperature changes?
Did you know that the seabed of ocean margins functions like a great bioreactor which harbours
a vast diversity of microorganisms? There is ample evidence indicating that gas production,
degradation of hydrocarbons, precipitation of minerals, transformation of metals and much more
are all microbial processes shaping ocean margin ecosystems. However, we are only beginning
to identify the key microorganisms in these processes.
Two sites of major interest relate to both the very important northern high latitude thermohaline
circulation loop and gas hydrates. The thermohaline circulation to the Norwegian Sea manifested in the northward directed warm-water flow of the Norwegian current – determines
climate and living conditions above the Arctic Circle. Its warm water masses reach down
approx. 700m, bathing the upper slope of the Norwegian continental margin. It is known that
“switched on/off” scenarios existed for the Norwegian current and that such changes occurred
during global climate change. It is deemed important to understand its short and long term
development for predicting rapid and/or drastic changes which may, in turn, influence resources
such as fish stocks in the ocean or societal living conditions on land.
Second, gas hydrates consist of ice-like crystals and store huge amount of methane, which is a
potent green house gas. Gas hydrate melting and methane release may have elevated the planet
out of ice ages, but they also may contribute to a future increase in global warming. The stability
of this cold ice stored in sediments of the continental margins depends on both temperature and
pressure. Thus the ocean bottom temperature are to be monitored in order to decipher potential
environmental impacts. Two observatory stations with cable transects, one on the MidNorwegian margin close to one of the largest deep-water gas fields in Europe (Ormen Lange at
Storegga), and one on the Barents Sea continental margin at a submarine mud volcano
(HMMV), are envisioned. The sites range from approximately 900 and 1200 m water depth to
the shallow water depth of the Norwegian current.
Fig 6.10. The proposed Norwegian Margin network. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by
pink lines.
Fig 6.11. The proposed Norwegian Margin network. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by
pink lines.
6.3.3. Nordic Seas – Atlantic Ocean
The MOEN (Meridional Overturning Exchange with the Nordic Seas) station uses the
Faroes branch of the CANTAT-3 cable for measuring water column induced voltage. The
recorded voltage is strongly influenced by the inflow of the North Atlantic Current. Long
term monitoring of this current is of paramount importance in the understanding oceanic
fluxes of heat, salt and freshwater at high northern latitudes and their effect on global
ocean circulation and climate change in the arctic region.
The pleasant and stable weather situation of the northern Europe is largely a result of a heat and
salt transport from lower to higher latitudes by the Gulf Stream. The actual Gulf Stream turns
south at lower latitudes, but a persistent branch continues northwards. Eventually this current
flows from the North Atlantic into the Nordic Seas, where it gradually loses its heat. The once
warm and saline water becomes cold and heavy and as a result sinks and refills the Nordic Seas
basin with dense saline bottom water. The continuous refilling of dense water results in an
overflow of bottom water into the Atlantic over the deepest exit in the submarine ridge. This
takes place in the Faroe Bank Channel. Hence, the warm surface stream has returned into the
Atlantic as cold bottom water. This flip-over of water is named ‘the thermohaline circulation’ by
oceanographers. A not insignificant side-effect of the heat loss is that living conditions of
northern Europe become endurable.
There is no doubt that a slight change in the heat transport will alter the European climate and
indirectly put a large strain on the social-economical status of the modern European society. The
last ice age was associated with large changes in the thermohaline flow pattern, leading among
others to the extinction of Neanderthals. Hence a long-term monitoring of the heat-flux into and
out of the Nordic Seas is an important task to achieve. A highly providential circumstance is the
fact that the Faroes are situated in the centre of the flows. This makes the Faroes a natural node
of the Nordic Seas.
Why the Nordic Seas region? The main reason is that this region has a profound influence on
the climate of Europe. A networked monitoring of the Nordic Seas would be a major step in
providing the European decision makers with relevant information so to base future decisions on
facts rather than on opportune opinions.
A full coverage of the flows requires three cabled branches, all of them commencing from the
Faroes. The northern branch should be laid so to make measurement of the major inflow route
possible. Likewise should the southern branch, monitor the warm surface water entering the
Nordic Seas east of the Faroes. The western branch is laid with the purpose to facilitate
measurement of the outflow into the Atlantic of dense cold bottom water. The work-horse will
be the acoustical-doppler-current-profilers, but electromagnetic methods, current meters,
temperature and salinity rigs will also be used. The locations of sensors are dictated by the
position of the flow. All three branches have to make measurements possible over a transect-line
covering meanderings of the flows. Each branch should, therefore, be equipped with junction
boxes, to which the observatories will be connected.
Fig 6.12. The proposed Nordic Seas network. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by pink
Fig 6.13. The proposed Nordic Seas network. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by pink
6.3.4. Porcupine/Celtic –Atlantic Ocean
The Porcupine Seabight and Abyssal Plain area has been an important area for biogeochemical flux studies in the past but is also a very productive fisheries and oil-gas
exploration area. It is a stable margin with little evidence of seismicity, but does have
important deep water habitats.
The 'Atlantic Frontier‘, to the west of Ireland, is endowed with a diverse and rich assemblage of
marine environments and associated habitats and fauna. At the European continental margin,
water depth increases over a relatively short distance from about 150m to 4500m. Ireland's
extensive offshore territory is considered one of the most promising for petroleum hydrocarbons
(i.e. crude oil and natural gas). The Porcupine area forms a focal point of European deep sea
fisheries and is closely located at one of the main arteries of global shipping. The continental
margin features a high geomorphological variety with abundant canyons, broad- and narrow
banded slopes, a vast intersection into the margin (Porcupine Seabight, PSB), in combination
with a variety of smaller mesoscale geomorphological structures such as carbonate mounds.
This large geomorphological variability provides the basis for a multifaceted habitat- and
species diversity. Consequently, the area represents a major genetic and biochemical reserve of
the European continental margin. One of the most spectacular ecosystems of the Irish EEZ are
aphotic coral ecosystems, widely distributed along the NW-European continental margin. In the
North Atlantic the major reef constructing coral is the colonial azooxanthellate Lophelia pertusa
that has the potential to build substantial reefs in the aphotic zone. The reefs themselves provide
a series of habitats for thousands of species that live permanently or temporarily in the coral
ecosystem. Compared to off-reef environments, the richness of species and biomass can be ten
times higher in the reef environment. Like their tropical cousins, deep-water coral reefs play an
important role in the life cycle of demersal fishes. There is convincing evidence that many fishes
deposit their egg cases between the corals (sharks, rayfishes). Others form huge schools of fish
in the summit regions of the reefs for a certain time period (redfish, cod). For this reason, deepwater reefs are substantial for fishes acting as nursery, breeding and spawning sites.
Fig 6.14. Underwater Images of deepwater coral and associated fauna. Images from ACES project
(Atlantic Coral Ecosystem Study) http://www.pal.uni-erlangen.de/proj/aces/
Adjacent to the Irish continental margin lies the Porcupine Abyssal Plain (PAP). Surface water
layers during winter form a mixed layer as deep as 800m driven by thermally convective
overturning and wind forcing. With warming and reduced storm frequencies in spring, the water
column becomes more stable and an upper mixed layer of about 50m thickness is established,
leading to a major phytoplankton bloom. PAP lies south of the main stream of the North
Atlantic Current and is subject to return flows from this coming from the West and Northwest.
Processes at the seabed are dynamically coupled to upper mixed layer processes geared by
atmospheric forcing. The downward flux of particulate matter from the upper part of the water
Fig 6.15. Photograph of the sea floor at the Porcupine Abyssal Plain (4800m depth) from
‘Bathysnap’. Sea cucumbers Amperima are visible feeding in green detritus recently
deposited from the surface.
column has a profound effect on ocean biogeochemistry and hence on the global climate; export
below the winter mixed layer may isolate it from the upper ocean for decades or centuries. Over
the last decade, a dramatic change has occurred in the abundance of megafauna living over a
vast expanse of the PAP. Many taxa, particularly sea cucumbers, on the abyssal seafloor at a
depth of about 4850m have all increased significantly in abundance.
In the last 8 years a dramatic change has occurred in the abundance of megafauna living over a
vast expanse of the PAP. Many taxa, particularly, sea cucumbers on the abyssal seafloor at a
depth of about 4850m have all increased significantly in abundance. The sea cucumber species,
Amperima rosea has increased in abundance from just 2-3 individuals per hectare to more than
6000. This increase occurred suddenly in 1995/1996. The increase in number of the large
invertebrates by at least two orders of magnitude led to a significant increase in the rate at which
the seabed was reworked. Before 1996 it took 2.5 years for the animals to reprocess the
sediment surface. After 1996 it took less than 6 weeks with fundamental consequences to the
functioning of the ecosystem. The species that have increased most in abundance are specialist
feeders on phytodetritus, the seasonal peak deposition of detrital organic matter on the seabed
derived from primary production in surface waters. Recent work on using chlorophyll and
carotenoid pigments as tracers of the organic matter holothurians feed on has shown that each
species feeds on a slightly different fraction of the phytodetritus.
Fig 6.16. Numbers of Amperima per hectare on the Porcupine Abyssal Plain during the years 19882000.
There is already a substantial data base from previous EU and various national programmes
from the Celtic Margin and Porcupine Abyssal Plain on which to build. Ships of opportunity
contribute significantly with frequent transects by the Continuous Plankton Recorder since 1949
and pCO2 transects under the EU programme CAVASSO. Sites of significance encompass a
main cable route from the shelf through the Porcupine Seabight into the Porcupine Abyssal
Plain focussing on a carbonate mound/ coral reef ecosystem (Belgica Mounds), a vast
sponge ecosystem (Phaeronema Belt), a mid Bight station, the mouth of the PSB and the
BENGAL Station on the PAP. Branches are proposed to the Hovland Carbonate Mound
province, to the Goban Spur and to a canyon system, the later acting as a rapid conduit between
shelf and deep sea. The high levels of biological productivity in the area support rich and
diverse marine communities, including rich fishable stocks and probably many species yet
unknown to science.
Fig 6.17. The proposed Porcupine regional network in the North East Atlantic Ocean.
The Celtic Continental Margin and adjacent Porcupine Abyssal Plain is a key European Seas
area because it:
• encompasses all important deep-water habitats (except seeps) in a confined area.
• contains a large habitat diversity and biodiversity and thus an enormous genetic and
natural product potential.
• is located in an a region, where global changes will manifest rapidly ( changes in
atmospheric forcing, currents, productivity, plankton and benthic biota,fish stocks).
• contains ecosystems with high indicator potential, dynamically. responding to either
natural or anthropogenic environmental changes (e.g. aphotic corals)
• is impacted by economic interests (fishing, oil and gas prospection) and a high
anthropogenic disturbance potential (shipping accidents).
• attracts a strong demand for environmental protection (foundations of MPAs) by nature
conservation stakeholder.
Fig 6.18. The proposed Porcupine regional network in the North East Atlantic Ocean.
6.3.5. Azores – Atlantic Ocean
The Azores and Mid-Atlantic Ridge area has special habitats associated with
hydrothermal vents and sea floor morphology is distinct with recent crust spreading from
the mid ocean ridge axis.
Why the Azores? Several international meetings promoted by the InterRidge community
concluded that the Azores is the key area of the North Atlantic for continuous monitoring. This
area extends over the Azores Islands and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and offers a unique
opportunity to monitor:
- biodiversity of marine ecosystems
- life in extreme environments,
- the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
- volcanic seamounts
- response to environmental change
- sustainable management of fishing resources/ biodiversity
- chemical, geological, and geophysical processes
- interactions over inter-annual to decadal scales of the air-sea interface, water column, seafloor
and mantle
A regional seafloor system will be an important European contribution to the global network of
seismic and magnetic Observatories, currently implemented to study the Earth’s deep interior.
The MAR near the Azores is ideally located for this marine multidisciplinary observatory
project: it is near port, allowing for short transit times for the deployment and retrieval of tools,
and for cable deployment. It has been the focus of a great number of cruises in the past few
years, as part of FARA (French-American Ridge Atlantic), the MARFLUX (MAST II, EC),
AMORES and ASIMOV (MAST III, EC) and VENTOX (Framework V) European projects.
The geological-geophysical background of this region is well constrained, as are the general
characteristics of the known hydrothermal vents and the broad diversity of the associated
ecosystems. From an oceanographic and climatic standpoint, an opportunity for remote
observation of basin scale ocean circulation and its effect on long-term climate changes is
possible.
Fig 6.19. Azores region cable to an observatory proposed by the MOMAR (Monitoring the MidAtlantic Ridge) project (http://beaufix.ipgp.jussieu.fr/rech/lgm/MOMAR/)
The processes of interest are multi-scaled in space and time, requiring both fine and broad scale
spatial sampling (cm to km), frequent temporal sampling, and sustained observation (interannual to decadal). Classical methods of observing the ocean fall short of such sampling
requirements. They also fail to provide proper tools to detect and monitor episodic events (e.g.
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, bacterial blooms…). Long time-series measurements of critical
biological, geological, chemical and physical parameters are needed; addressed only by
establishing continuous long-term observing capabilities.
The MAR near the Azores is ideally located for this marine multidisciplinary observatory
project: it is near port, allowing for short transit times for the deployment and retrieval of tools,
and for cable deployment. It has been the focus of a great number of cruises in the past few
years, as part of the FARA program (French-American Ridge Atlantic), the MARFLUX (MAST
II EC programme), AMORES and ASIMOV (MAST III EC programme) and VENTOX
(Framework V) European projects. The geological-geophysical background of this region is
well constrained, as are the general characteristics of the known hydrothermal vents, and the
broad diversity of the associated ecosystems. From an oceanographic and climatic standpoint,
the MAR near the Azores also offers an opportunity for remote observation of basin scale ocean
circulation and its effect on long-term climate changes.
Fig 6.20. Azores region cable to an observatory proposed by the MOMAR (Monitoring the MidAtlantic Ridge) project (http://beaufix.ipgp.jussieu.fr/rech/lgm/MOMAR/)
6.3.6. Iberian Margin – Atlantic Ocean
The Gulf of Cadiz / Iberian margin is a region of complexity with the junction of the
Eurasian and African plates resulting in doming of the sea floor, mud volcanoes and other
complex features. The interaction of the Mediterranean outflow with Atlantic waters is
significant.
Southwest Portugal, the Gulf of Cadiz and Morocco are prone to earthquake and tsunami as
testified by the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami. This event was the most catastrophic
earthquake that ever occurred in historical times, Western Europe. With an estimated magnitude
8.5-9.0, this event generated anomalous sea waves that struck the coast of Portugal, Spain and
Morocco and were observed all over the North Atlantic, as far as Great Britain, Finland and the
Caribbean Sea. It caused severe destruction in Lisbon, Tanger and Casablanca. Most of the
seismic activity is due to Europe - Africa plate convergence and it occurs at sea, along the
continental margin of SW Iberia and in the Gulf of Cadiz. Due to lack of permanent seismic
stations at sea the seismic activity is not properly monitored. This fact prevents either the early
detection of the eventual tsunamis waves, either the precise location of low magnitude
earthquakes, which are key data to understand the present stress behaviour of the margin.
Extensive mud volcanism, pockmarks, mud diapirism and carbonate chimneys related to
hydrocarbon rich fluid venting are been recently observed throughout the Gulf of Cadiz. The
Fig 6.21. South West Iberian Margin, details of earthquakes in this region.
Gulf of Cadiz is also the site to investigate of the Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW)
because it affects the deep-water circulation on global scale.
The main objective for the Iberian region is to realise a seismic monitoring network in the Gulf
of Cadiz, thereby providing an in-depth knowledge of the seismic activity of the area and a
capability in early detection of tsunami. This proposal follows the path of several projects,
funded by the European Commission during the last years, for the earthquake/tsunami risk
assessments of the area as BIGSETS (Big Sources of Earthquake and Tsunami in SW Iberia)
and GITEC. From an oceanographic point of view the Gulf of Cadiz is of great importance for
the study of the Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW), which affects global deep-water
circulation. An additional objective in this region is to monitor the temporal variation of the
warm (13°) and saline (>37 g/l) MOW. The MOW flows out from the strait of Gibraltar and
spreads in the Gulf of Cadiz at depth of 800-1200 m with two main branches. One branch
diverge northward, toward the Bay of Biscay, the other crosses the North Atlantic reaching the
Labrador and Norwegian – Greenland seas after 20-30 years. The station will allow, through
continuous measurements over the years, the correct assessment of the salinification and
warming of MOW and the study of its inter and intra-annual variability in relation to
atmospheric forcing. Measurements of MOW in the Gulf of Cadiz may anticipate climate
change at the scale of tens of years.
The location for the main deep-sea long-term observatory is at about 100 Km SW Cape San
Vicente at water depth of 3000-4000m. This observatory will be equipped with broad band
Fig 6.22. The proposed Iberian Margin network of observatories.
seismometers with control on seismometer tilt and orientation, pressure transducer,
magnetometer, gravimeter and will be integrated with an oceanographic mooring with acoustic
current meters, transmissiometers and T/P sensors and it will be integrated with the network of
seismic station present onshore, in Portugal and Spain. The selected site owns the following
characteristics: it is easily and rapidly reachable in any season; it presents key features for the
scientific/monitoring targets; it is suitable for investigations on various scientific/monitoring
targets; it offers safe operating conditions for the deployed instruments. Along the cable
pathway it is planned to install additional sensor for the measurements of the MOW which main
branches turns just South of Cape San Vicente at water depth 800-1000 m. Future expansion of
the main station are planned for the continuous monitoring of the fluid venting occurring at
seafloor and the biological community associated to it. Precise location of the "fluid escape" site
will be defined after completion of the on going high resolution bathymetric mapping of the
area. The planned deep sea observatory will be starting point for both real time warning network
and long term seismic observation, to recover important measurements of the tsunami
generation critical parameters, to grant long term oceanographic data, to monitor geochemical
and physical parameter of the fluid escape on the seafloor and the biological community
associated to it.
Fig 6.23. The proposed Iberian Margin network of observatories.
6.3.7. Ligurian – Mediterranean Sea
Existing cables installed for the ANTARES neutrino detector experiment and long term
data for the nearby Banyuls Sola site (SOMLIT network) make this a practical early site
for development.
The Ligurian sea is a large multidisciplinary area of interest with many technical advantages for
a demonstration observatory. It would play in ESONET a similar role to the Monterey
Accelerated Research System (MARS) in the American NEPTUNE development. Many
subsystems are already available such as the land fall station, the cable landing and one junction
box from the Antares neutrino observatory project. All the technology and subsea intervention
know-how is mastered by the partners. Moreover, the site is in deep water not far from
important harbours and seastate conditions are well known and favourable for tests and sea
operations.
Almost all scientific packages within ESONET will have a scientific interest at the Ligurian
region. Long term series of data exist in many fields and scientists now require real time high
frequency sampling rates to understand processes and develop predictive modelling.
Why the Ligurian region?
• It is a seismic area not far from an inhabited region. The active fault in deep water
cannot be monitored from shore due to propagation anomalies induced by the geologic
structure. An instrumented ODP borehole will complement seismometer measurements
in the future.
• Slope instabilities are located on the continental slope. The last catastrophic event
occurred at Nice airport, October 1979. One effect of this land slide was the rupture of
tele-communication cables 110km from Nice (2500m water depth). It would be
dangerous to land the cable in this area; it is better to use the Antares installation in
Toulon.
•
•
•
•
•
Hyperpycnal and turbidity currents appear at the Var river month during overflow
events and their effect is propagated down the Var canyon. The same phenomena at
larger scale appear in major river systems like the Zaïre. The site is convenient to
develop a scientific knowledge on this process.
In the Ligurian Sea, the offshore area is completely isolated from coastal influence by
the Liguro-Provençal current. It is representative of large areas of the world ocean.
Dynamics of Fluxes in this region have been monitored since 1988, participating to the
JGOFS program.
More than 20 parameters are collected on a monthly basis. Since 2003, the area is used
as a calibration point (BOUSSOLE buoy) for water colour satellite sensors.
Dynamics of oceanographic processes: wind driven coastal upwelling, particle plumes,
nutrient benthic exchange, bottom boundary layer processes, mesoscale variabilities,…
The site is an international sanctuary for marine mammals. The observatory will allow
an understanding of their behaviour in relation with oceanic processes.
Consequently, the Ligurian Sea observatory will comprise: (1) three stations with at least
broadband seismometers, biogeochemical sensors and physical sensors; (2) a local array with
acoustic networking will monitor slope stability (piezometer, geodesic and turbidity –current
sensors, turbidimeter, …); (3) moorings on DYFAMED area will monitor the dynamic flux
studies (particle samplers, fluorimeter, chemical analysers, …).
Fig 6.24. The proposed Ligurian Sea regional network
Fig 6.25 The proposed Ligurian Sea regional network
6.3.8. East Sicily – Mediterranean Sea
An important offshore site close to Mount Etna, where the Italian SN-1 multidisciplinary
observatory recently completed its first 6 month mission. The existing cable for NEMO
neutrino experiment provides a focus for real-time data transfer and the integration of the
seafloor observatory into land-based networks.
Eastern Sicily has experienced disastrous seismic events, some of them accompanied by
tsunamis, mostly generated by seismogenic structures lying at sea. The 1693 and 1908
earthquakes, both reaching an intensity of XI on the MCS scale, completely destroyed the cities
of Catania and Messina. A large area, from the southern Calabria to Malta, was devastated. Both
shocks were followed by large tsunamis along the whole eastern Sicily coast, the Messina
Straits and, probably, the Aeolian Islands. In recent times Eastern Sicily has experienced events
of minor intensity, many of which originated from off-shore tectonic structures, causing serious
coastal damage. In December, 1990 an earthquake (intensity VIII MCS) caused severe damage
in Augusta, south of Catania and numerous fatalities in the small town of Carlentini (Catania).
This earthquake was accompanied by anomalous sea behaviour along the Augusta coast.
The Mediterranean basin is characterised by the collision processes between the African and the
European plates; Sicily represents the natural connection between the Apennine and the NorthAfrican chains. The region is characterised by intense volcanic basaltic activity, probably
connected to extensional tectonics responsible for the Iblean volcanism and the formation of the
Etna edifice, or by frequent and strong seismic events. The adjacent Ionian region is
characterised by the presence of a large submerged structure, the Malta escarpment. The
existence of other important submerged seismic structures is confirmed by off-shore
bathymetric and seismic prospecting; however, medium-low magnitude marine seismicity,
which could provide useful information on the characteristics of the area, is neither well
detected nor localised.
Technology. The Eastern Sicily node will be based on SN-1, a deep seafloor multi-parametric
cabled to shore observatory. SN-1 mainly focuses on geophysical, oceanographic and
environmental data that are uniquely time referenced. A modular design allows additional
sensors to be added as required.
SN-1 was developed in the framework of an Italian national project co-ordinated by INGV, and
was validated during a long-term mission (7 months) in the period Autumn 2002- Spring 2003
in the Ionian sea, 25 km off the city of Catania at a depth of 2000m at the foot of the Malta
escarpment. SN-1 is a spin-offs of the GEOSTAR projects (GEophysical and Oceanographic
Station for abyssal research), which led to the development and successful operation of the first
European seafloor observatory.
Fig 6.26. The East Sicily SN-1 observatory
Fig 6.27. The East Sicily SN-1 observatory
The underwater electro-optical cable for the connection of the observatory to on-shore, already
deployed, is property of the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) and will also
supply a pilot experiment for the submarine detection of neutrinos (NEutrino Monitoring
Observatory, NEMO). SN-1 is already equipped with a junction box for the connection to the
wire of the interface-device. The land termination of the cable is located in the harbour of the
city of Catania and linked to the INFN laboratory facilities (Laboratori Nazionali del Sud).
Offshore, around 20 km far from the coast, the cable is split in two branches, each long 5 km. A
junction box will terminate each branch end, providing the physical connection for the seafloor
observatory and NEMO experiment.
Fig 6.28. The East Sicily SN-1 observatory . Examples data obtained with a pre-cable prototype.
A
B
Fig 6.29. A, B, East Sicily SN-1 observatory
6.3.9. Hellenic – Mediterranean Sea
The eastern Mediterranean is characterized by significant seismicity, special habitats in
deep basins and a very steep drop off in depth from the coastlines.
The international geophysics and oceanographical scientific community has recently defined as
a priority the acquisition of data in those areas of the globe, like the ocean depths, for which at
the moment we have few or no data at all. The monitoring of the water column parameters that
can be performed by a deep-sea laboratory will provide very useful data for the study of the
global circulation of waters in the Mediterranean. Earthquakes generated by offshore seismicity
have, in the past, caused great damage to coastal regions, both from earthquakes and the
resulting tsunamis. Events originating at sea can only be precisely located by using on-land and
underwater seismic stations together. A permanent network of underwater stations will
complement the existing land network, enhancing its performance. A further advantage of
underwater stations is that, if suitably located, they suffer from a much lower background noise
than land stations.
Deep-sea regions have been generally considered as stable environments, not subjected to the
strong and rapid modifications related to human influence that characterize the coastal regions.
More recent studies have demonstrated, however, that deep-sea regions are subject to strong
variations of the trophic and sedimentation rate, even on a seasonal scale. An observatory able
to monitor the deep-sea environment by measuring in situ biological, chemical and physical
parameters will be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
Monitor seismic activities for geo-hazard prevention
Measure benthic-pelagic interchange and turnover
Measure oxygen consumption
Detect fluid fluxes from the seabed into the ambient bottom-water
Project of images of the benthic and pelagic fauna
The Hellenic region comprises of four distinct networks: NESTOR (existing neutrino
observatory cable), BUTT-1 (IODP – site of proposed deep borehole), the Cretan basin and the
Rhodos basin. The overall aim of these stations is for the long term investigation of seafloor
processes. The objectives are:
• to quantify slow versus fast fluid flow and carbon/methane fluxes
• to develop long term monitoring observatories for oil/gas industry
• to create a science platform capable of offering a totally new approach to public
outreach and awareness of ocean processes.
• to develop an enhanced 3D visualization of multi parameter datasets
• to carry out hydroacoustic studies on fluid flow pathways and mineral crusts in upper
sediment layers
• to link fluid, methane flow with tectonic movement and seismic activity monitor the
biology and ecology of these deep area
An internet operated vehicle (IOV) has been built with the capability to move along the seafloor
by video control and to carry out detailed investigations on fluid and particle fluxes in the
benthic boundary layer. The IOV should be connected to the internet via a junction box (node)
within an underwater network. Once connected the system should remain on the seafloor for
extended periods of several months to study the temporal and spatial variations at a given
location in the deep sea.
For the NESTOR-ESONET deep sea observatory three crawlers will be built, each equipped
with different sensor systems. All crawlers will be connected to one central instrument system
(lander), which is located up to 100 m away from the node, carries additional sensors and
transfers the data of the IOVs to the land based data centre or offshore installation.
Fig 6.30. The Hellenic Network, The Nestor cable is already existing, the other three are proposed.
Fig 6.31. The Hellenic Network , in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea
6.3.10. Black Sea
With anoxic conditions in the deep, problems with invasive species and high sediment
loads delivered to the system, this area has unique problems requiring long term stations.
The Black Sea represents an almost landlocked basin and the largest anoxic water mass on earth.
It is a key region for the south European climate as it is the source for the south European rain
fall. The coastal zone is densely populated with approximately 16 million inhabitants and an
annual 4 million tourists visiting the sea coast. Since the early 70s, there has been a rapid rise in
nutrients, organic eutrophication and chemical pollution due to transportation, construction,
tourism and the use of pesticides and fertilizers. In addition, high intensity gas seeps, gas
hydrates, mud volcanoes and earth quakes are frequent. Both in turn affect the Black Sea biota
and biological resources. The intense marine traffic and offshore exploration of oil and gas
constitute additional sources of marine pollution.
The biological components of the Black Sea ecosystem are strongly dependent on its
geographical position and morphology. The upper water layer, supporting a unique biodiversity
of species is so thin and fragile that the effects of pollution, unsustainable fishing or destruction
of habitats and landscape result in dramatic ecological changes which have knock-on socioeconomic impacts. In deeper anoxic waters, unique microbial ecosystems form reef-like
structures above methane seeps. However, knowledge about life in the deep layer is still very
limited. The disturbance of the natural balance between the two water layers could trigger
irreversible damage to the ecosystem and people of the Black Sea.
Sites of significance
• Zernov’s Phylophora fields (unique ecosystem endangered by hypoxia since the 1960s)
• Dnjepr paleo-delta at the shelf margin (shallow, above gas hydrate stability zone, gas
plumes cross anoxic/oxic interface and may reach sea surface)
• Dvurechenskiy mud volcano area at the Sorokin Trough (deep, below gas hydrate
stability zone, 1000m high gas flare detected 2002)
• Danube Delta (major river discharge)
• Dniestr and Dniepr River mouths
• Varna & Bosporus (earth quake occurrence)
The long-term cabled observatory will provide:
•
•
•
Continuous data on high intensity gas flares and environmental control parameters of
gas and fluid discharge (e.g. bottom currents, microseismicity, earthquakes, gas hydrate
stability, role of mud volcanoes)
Continuous input data for ecosystem approach on adaptive management of the Black
Sea to (1) provide evidence for the causes and effects of eutrophication and (2) to
assess the effectiveness of measures proposed to control eutrophication
Protection of this sensitive and unique European ecosystem
Fig 6.32. Bathymetry of the Paleo Dnepr delta area with position of hydro-acoustically detected gas
flares.
Fig 6.33. Sea floor features in Black Sea. Bacterial mats, encrustaceans and gas bubbles streaming
upwards from vents. Images courtesy GHOSTDABS – Hamburg University.
Fig 6.34. The proposed regional network in the Black Sea. The putative cable routes in pink are not
realistic the lines simply link sites of interest.
Fig 6.35 The proposed regional network in the Black Sea.
6.3.11. Mobile response observatory
To the observatory backbone, must be established an appropriate mobile response
observatory to monitor unforeseen natural or anthropogenic disasters, wherever they may
take place, in order to mitigate any negative impacts on ocean resources and guarantee
future environmental security. Catastrophic maritime events often happen in very bad
weather conditions and in areas where environmental conditions are not very well known.
Crisis management and safety advice can only be based on available data. The recent high
profile wreck of the oil tanker Prestige in deep Atlantic waters off Iberia, for example, has
demonstrated the inadequacy of existing infrastructure for monitoring continuing oil
seepage and its environmental impact.
Fig 6.36. The oil tanker Prestige sank on November 19, 2002 resulting in an extensive clear-up
operation on the coast of western Europe.
Mobilisation of resources from within the ESONET network would provide a hitherto unseen
capacity to respond and tackle such issues rapidly and efficiently, while providing vital
information in a timely and coordinated way. The deployment of an acoustic networked
observatory system, for example, could be promptly achieved using ships of opportunity,
military aircraft or civilian chartered helicopters. Equipment flown from a centrally located
environmental security centre could arrive anywhere within Europe in less than 24 hours,
providing environmental managers with a critical and distinct advantage.
Emergency approach
ESONET proposes to deploy a local acoustic networked observatory system around the wrecked
ship or within the geohazard event area. Operations will be conducted in two steps:
1 - Deployment of bottom stations, by ships of opportunity or helicopters, performing standard
environmental measurements (temperature, salinity, current profile, oxygen, methane,…). These
stations will be flown from a security centre to maximise a rapid response time. An acoustic
local network, will be used to communicate between stations and between stations and a surface
receiver, on a ship or on a helicopter during the first step.
Fig 6.37. Response at a disaster, Stage 1. Rapid deployment of observatories using ships of
opportunity and helicopters.
2 - Additional dedicated nodes equipped with sensors appropriate to the cargo of the wrecked
ship or geohazard will be deployed after the initial response phase. Sites of data collection will
be refined and specific monitoring infrastructure will be relocated by submersible or ROV: e.g.
cameras for monitoring continuing seepage, fluorimeters, spectrometers, chromatographs etc. A
buoy will be also moored to assume permanent communications with a remote control centre.
Fig 6.38. Response at a disaster, Stage 2. Deployment of sensors and long term monitoring
equipment.
7.4 Conclusions.
Deep seafloor and ocean observation and monitoring is a technological challenge to Europe, as
it will foster observatory-related technologies and solutions for long-term multidisciplinary
autonomous observation systems at the seafloor, including in-situ sensors, data transmission,
data management, autonomous underwater vehicles, marine robots, and energy supply systems.
All these technologies are essential to the future of oceanography. They also have many
applications in other fields (space exploration, oil exploration in the deep seas, automated
genomics, etc). In addition, deep seafloor biodiversity studies represent a specific
biotechnological challenge, because natural products of marine microbes and deep-sea fauna can
be identified and patented, and used by drug and food industries, as well as for medical
purposes.
The strategy in design of ESONET provides for maximising information gathering capacity
from global change in the Arctic to seismic activity and tsunamis in the Mediterranean. The
time scale extends from decadal plus durations of changes to real time responses measuring to
sub millisecond precision. The details of technology are discussed in subsequent sections but
the general concept is presented in figure 6.39.
Cables will extend from the shore landfall stations equipped with power supplies and
telecommunications interfaces. The control centre of each regional network may be some
distance from the coast. The subsea cable will be terminated with one or more junction boxes to
which observatory platforms can be connected by means of underwater mateable connectors.
The landfall, cable and junction boxes represent the permanent infrastructure of the observatory
With a planned working life of the order of 20 years.
The observatories would be planned to be serviced probably at 12 month intervals. This will
also allow updating and modifying the sensors. Furthermore cable spurs may be possible for
some distance away from the junction box thus extended the “footprint” monitored.
Developments already in progress include crawler vehicles cable of moving over the sea floor
under real time control via the world wide web. Autonomous vehicles may be able to dock at
the junction box for recharging of batteries and downloading of data. These may be able to
range tens or hundreds of km from the docking station.
Fig 6.39. Concept of an ESONET observatory regional network cable termination with a junction box
and array of observatories, both fixed and mobile.
6.5 Cable Lengths and costs
The descriptions of the observatory networks in sections 6.3.1. to 6.3.10 do not specify cable
routes but direct straight lines are shown on the charts between the shore and the various
offshore nodes. The total lengths of these derived from GIS calculations are indicated in tables
6.1. and 6.2. In the case of the Black Sea the theoretical cable runs are clearly impractical. For
the purposes of the length given in Table 6.1 it is assumed that the cable is connected to the
nearest landfall to each observatory site.
The total length of cable required is approximately 4000km. This is modest in comparison with
major transoceanic cables and could theoretically be deployed from a modern cable laying ship
on a single voyage. However the complexity of these systems with branches and junction boxes
is unlikely to warrant such an approach. The actual length of cable used will be based on route
surveys which would almost certainly reject the straight line owing to topography, geohazards,
presence of other cables and probable use of a cable loop going out to sea, interconnecting all
the junction boxes and returning to shore. Such a loop or network system is potentially more
reliable.
Scientific cable network technology is in its infancy and so cost estimation is problematic.
However the University of Victoria, on behalf of a consortium of Canadian Universities recently
published a REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL for the NEPTUNE Canada Subsea Electro-Optic
Cabled Observatory and attracted a number of bids from pre-qualified suppliers by the closing
date of 22 November, 2004.
The University of Victoria had a nominal budget of Canadian $40,000,000 for purchase of this
stage 1 of the Neptune Canada system. Taking straight lines from the shore base at Bamfield to
the specified sites this amounts to 805km of subsea cable, minimum length. This is equivalent
to €33,408 per km including the cost of junction boxes and other subsea hardware. For the
distances required in ESONET this gives a total cost of €135,000,000 (estimate 1) . This
assumes that ESONET will have the same density of nodes and junction boxes as Neptune.
Table 6.1. Lengths of Cables and Estimates of Costs for the Subsea (wet) segment of ESONET
Estimate 1
Region
km
1 Arctic
319
2 Norwegian Margin
614
3 Nordic Seas
301
4 Porcupine Seabight
1343
5 Azores
392
6 Iberian
127
7 Ligurian Sea
180
8 East Sicily
26
9 Hellenic
221
10 Black Sea
518
Total 4041
US $
15,235,269
29,324,312
14,375,599
64,140,962
18,721,710
6,065,452
8,596,704
1,241,746
10,554,842
24,739,403
192,996,000
Euro
10,657,016
20,512,249
10,055,679
44,866,370
13,095,768
4,242,762
6,013,363
868,597
7,383,073
17,305,122
135,000,000
Estimate 2
US $
Euro
26,100,000
21,750,000
32,650,000
27,208,333
25,800,000
21,500,000
57,900,000
48,250,000
17,800,000
14,833,333
13,100,000
10,916,667
17,700,000
14,750,000
0
0
24,350,000
20,291,667
40,500,000
33,750,000
255,900,000 213,250,000
It is likely this is an underestimate. An alternative approach is a provisional estimate provide by
a supplier based on a combination of comparison with Neptune and analysis of the complexity
of each of the ESONET regional networks. (East Sicily was excluded since this has already been
installed in early 2005) The assumption is individual installation of each regional network.
This gives a total of €213,250,000 (estimate 2).
Actual costs are likely to be influenced by:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Details of the specifications finally required in the designs of the different regional
networks. (numbers of nodes, junction boxes etc,)
Possible discounts if more than one regional network is ordered at once.
Decrease in costs as contractors gain experience.
Increase in costs as contractors find unforeseen problems.
Timing of ordering within the economic and cable business cycles.
Currency rate uncertainties
A likely estimate for the whole system probably lies between 150M€ and 250M€.
It is interesting to compare with the cost of research vessels. The new UK research vessel RRS
James Cook project has a budget of ca. 60 M€. A major regional observatory such as the
Porcupine system is hence equivalent to a large research ship and the whole network equivalent
to a small research ship fleet.
The status of the different regional networks and their elements varies from preliminary
concept, through active research by repeat visits and autonomous instrumentation through to
fully operational real time data via cable. For each regional network ESONET has appointed a
contact person to whom requests for further information should be addressed (Table 6.2).
Region
Table 6.2. ESONET regional contact persons
Name
Address
1 Arctic
2 Norwegian Margin
3 Nordic Seas
4 Porcupine Seabight
5 Azores
6 Iberian
7 Ligurian Sea
8 East Sicily
9 Hellenic
10 Black Sea
11 Emergency Mobile
System
Thomas Soltwedel Alfred Wegener Institute for
Polar and Marine Research
(AWI),
Am Handelshafen 12
27570 Bremerhaven
Germany
Juergen Mienert
University of Tromsø
Department of Geology
Dramsveien 201
N-9037 Tromsø
Norway
Peter Sigray
Stockholms Universitet
MISU,
106 91 Stockholm,
Sweden.
Olaf Pfannkuche IFM-GEOMAR.
Leibniz-Institut für
Meereswissenschaften
24148 Kiel, Germany
Miguel Miranda
Centro de Geofísica da
Universidade de Lisboa
Faculdade de Ciências da
Universidade de Lisboa
Campo Grande, Edifício C5,
1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
Nevio Zitellini
Istituto Per La Geologia Marina
CNR
Area Ricerca CNR di Bologna
Via Gobetti 101
40129 Bologna
Italy
Roland Person
IFREMER
Direction de la Technologie
Marine et des Systèmes
d'Information.
Technologie des Systèmes
Instrumentaux
BP70
29280 Plouzane
France
Paolo Favali
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e
Vulcanologia
Via di Vigna Murata, 605
00143 Roma
Italy
Anastasios
Hellenic Centre for Marine
(Tassos)
Research (HCMR)
Tselepides
Institute of Marine Biology and
Genetics (IMBG)
Gournes, Pediados
POBox 2214, Heraklion 71003,
Crete, Greece
Peter Linke
IFM-GEOMAR.
Leibniz-Institut für
Meereswissenschaften
24148 Kiel, Germany
Roland Person
IFREMER
Direction de la Technologie
Marine et des Systèmes
d'Information.
Technologie des Systèmes
Instrumentaux
BP70
29280 Plouzane
France
E-mail
[email protected]
[email protected]
t.no
[email protected]
opfannkuche@geomar.
de
[email protected]
[email protected]
Roland.Person@ifremer
.fr
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Roland.Person@ifremer
.fr
Table 6.3 Calculation of length of the ESONET cable network
ESONET Lengths of cables
Subsea Cable Length
NB these are horizontal straight line distances between points: actual cable length will be greater
Area
Arctic
From-to
Koldewey Station (AWI) - Hausgarten-East
(E)
ausgarten-North (N) - ausgarten-Central
Hausgarten-South (S) - ausgarten-Central
ausgarten-West (W) - ausgarten-Central
Hausgarten-East (E) - ausgarten-Central
Norwegian HMMV: Tromsø - HMMV
margin
University of Tromsø-University of Bergen
Storegga: Kristainsund – Storegga
University of Bergen -Storegga: Kristainsund
Bold= land
backhaul
Subsea only
Black Sea,
reduced
Region Total
FROM
TO
Longitude Latitude Longitude Latitude Distance (km) Distance (km) Distance (km) Distance (km)
11.15
78.15
6.08
79.13
167.53
167.53
167.53
4.33
5.07
2.83
6.08
79.28
78.60
79.13
79.13
4.13
4.13
4.13
4.13
79.07
79.07
79.07
79.07
24.20
57.21
28.73
41.00
24.20
57.21
28.73
41.00
24.20
57.21
28.73
41.00
18.92
69.68
14.74
72.13
355.18
355.18
355.18
18.92
7.75
5.33
69.68
63.12
60.38
5.33
4.50
7.75
60.38
64.82
63.12
1121.42
258.88
318.77
258.88
258.88
318.67
614.05
Table 6.3. Calculation of length of the ESONET cable network (Continued)
Nordic Seas N-current -G-2 - N-current -G-1
-6.08
62.92
-6.08
62.70
24.18
Midvagur - Faroese Fisheries Laboratory
-7.17
62.05
-6.83
62.00
17.84
Hamrabyrgi - Faroese Fisheries Laboratory
-6.73
61.45
-6.83
62.00
61.13
Gjogv - Faroese Fisheries Laboratory
-6.93
62.32
-6.83
62.00
35.23
N-current -G-3 - N-current -G-2
-6.08
63.10
-6.08
62.92
20.46
Outflow-MV-1 - Midvagur
-8.20
61.47
-7.17
61.45
54.68
E-current-HB-3 - E-current-HB-2
-4.77
60.57
-5.30
60.78
36.31
E-current-HB-2 - E-current-HB-1
-5.30
60.78
-5.83
61.00
36.02
E-current-HB-1 – Hamrabyrgi
-5.83
61.00
-6.73
61.45
66.17
N-current -G-1 – Gjogv
-6.08
62.70
-6.93
62.32
64.09
Porcupine
Galway - Waterville/Co Kerry
WHC-3 - WHC-2
WHC-2 - WHC 1
WHC 1 - GBS/1
GBS-3 - GBS-2
PSB-1 - PSB-2
GBS-2 - PSB-3
GBS-1 - PSB-1
PSB-7 - PSB-6
PSB-6 - PSB-5
WHC-4 - WHC-3
PSB-5 - PSB-2
PSB-4 - PAP-1
PSB-3 - PSB-4
PSB-2 - PSB-3
Waterville/Co Kerry - PSB-1
-9.00
-10.63
-10.75
-10.45
-13.42
-11.75
-12.82
-11.52
-12.77
-12.72
-10.30
-12.50
-14.17
-13.00
-12.00
-10.13
53.28
48.22
48.50
48.87
49.08
51.45
49.18
49.40
52.15
51.95
47.83
51.75
49.92
50.50
51.38
51.83
-10.13
-10.75
-10.45
-11.52
-12.82
-12.00
-13.00
-11.75
-12.72
-12.50
-10.63
-12.00
-16.50
-14.17
-13.00
-11.75
51.83
48.50
48.87
49.40
49.18
51.38
50.40
51.45
51.85
51.75
48.22
51.38
49.00
49.92
50.50
51.45
188.54
31.77
49.25
90.93
47.24
19.95
146.80
228.60
22.23
24.81
46.64
49.28
214.91
114.82
130.93
125.32
24.18
24.18
20.46
54.68
36.31
36.02
66.17
64.09
20.46
54.68
36.31
36.02
66.17
64.09
301.91
31.77
49.25
90.93
47.24
19.95
146.80
228.60
22.23
24.81
46.64
49.28
214.91
114.82
130.93
125.32
31.77
49.25
90.93
47.24
19.95
146.80
228.60
22.23
24.81
46.64
49.28
214.91
114.82
130.93
125.32
1343.47
-28.63
38.54
-31.29
37.29
391.54
Azores
IMAR -Junction box 1
Iberian
Burgau - MOW station
seismic station - MOW station
CGUL – Burgau
-8.74
-9.50
-9.15
37.08
36.17
39.19
-9.00
-9.00
-8.74
36.72
36.72
38.08
Ligurian Sea Junction box 1 - Junction box 2
Institut Michel Pacha La Seyne sur - Junction
box 1
IFREMER Brest -Institut Michel Pacha La
Seyne sur Mern
Junction box 2 - Junction box 3
6.17
5.90
42.83
43.10
7.40
6.17
-4.50
48.40
7.40
East Sicilly Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare Laboratori Nazionali del Sud (LNS) - Catania
Harbour LNS Wor
Catania Harbour LNS Workshop - NEMO-1
North Cable Termination (N1-N)
Hellenic
-Methoni Station
Rhodos Aquarium - Rhodos Basin
Port of Kali Limenes - IODP site, sta. BUTT1, south Crete
IMBC Station - Cretan Basin
Methoni Station - Nestor Basin
391.54
391.54
391.54
47.92
79.32
235.84
47.92
79.32
47.92
79.32
127.23
43.28
42.83
107.97
38.01
107.97
38.01
107.97
38.01
5.90
43.10
1002.03
43.28
7.82
43.50
34.23
34.23
34.23
180.21
15.07
37.52
15.10
37.49
4.97
15.10
37.49
15.39
37.55
25.46
25.46
25.46
25.46
21.73
28.23
24.82
36.90
36.43
34.93
21.75
28.50
24.91
36.82
36.00
34.31
9.93
61.34
73.69
61.34
73.69
61.34
73.69
25.33
21.75
35.33
36.82
25.17
21.58
35.83
36.63
62.82
23.87
62.82
23.87
62.82
23.87
221.71
Blacksea
Danube II - Danube
Landfall location - CRIMEA
Danube - CRIMEA
Varna - Danube
Bosporus - Danube
GHOSTDABS -CRIMEA
Sorokin Trough - CRIMEA
Zernov’s Phyllopho - CRIMEA
30.00
44.87
30.60
44.60
65.48
33.54
44.63
32.00
44.83
132.92
30.60
44.60
32.00
44.83
103.87
28.33
42.97
30.60
44.60
216.07
29.25
41.43
30.60
44.60
352.23
31.99
44.78
32.00
44.83
6.75
34.98
44.28
32.00
44.83
268.33
31.37
45.82
32.00
44.83
143.13
TOTAL
2
3
This estimate includes excessive lengths for the Black Sea
Based on more probable landfalls closer to observatory sites in the Black Sea.
65.48
132.92
103.87
216.07
352.23
6.75
268.33
143.13
2
4813.03
55.00
132.92
55.00
55.00
55.00
55.00
55.00
55.00
517.92
4042.17
4042.17
3
7. Future Observatory Designs
Section 7.
Future Observatory Designs
This section of the report was written by Roland Person (IFREMER) who with Jean-François
Rolin coordinated two workshops at Brest in July 2003 and London in March 2004.
The work reported reflects the exchanges during these dedicated workshops and other meetings
such as the international Workshop on Standardization of Seafloor Observatories held in Paris
in February 2005. ESONET also benefits from the studies of on-going EC projects such as
ORION, ANIMATE and ASSEM (FP5), EXOCET/D and COBO (FP6).
Text, illustrations and other material have been contributed by specialists listed below mostly
partners of ESONET.
IFREMER as WP coordinator is grateful to these people :
Author
Francesco
Gasparoni
Paolo Favali
Hans Gerber
Christoph
Waldmann
Kostas
Kristodoulou
J. Blandin
J. Marvaldi
J.F. Rolin
J.F. Drogou
Annick
Vangriesheim
Jean-Pierre
Leveque
Gary
Waterworth
Antoine
Lecroart
Shaheen Nazeh
J. Smith
John Carr
L. Thomsen
Organisation
Status
Email address
Tecnomare
Partner
[email protected]
INGV
TFH Berlin
MARUM
Partner
Partner
Partner
[email protected]
IMBC/NCMR
Partner
[email protected]
IFREMER
Partner
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Alcatel Submarine Networks
Supplier
[email protected]
[email protected]
Nautronix
The Scottish Association for
Marine Science (SAMS)
CPPM/ ANTARES
International University of
Bremen
Supplier
Partner
[email protected]
[email protected]
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ESONET WP 7 Future Observatory Designs
Other participants in the workshops.
The following persons who also attended the workshops are also thanked for their input to
discussions
Name
Daniele Calore
Dr Giuseppe d'Anna
Alan Jamieson
Eberhard Kopiske
Organisation
Tecnomare
INGV
Univ. of Aberdeen
International University Bremen
Partner
Partner
Partner
Partner
Peter Linke
Jorge Miguel Alberto de
Miranda
Luis Manuel Marques Matias
Nick O'Neil
Ed Slowey
P.M. Sarradin
G. Loaëc
J.Marvaldi
M. Nokin
J.C. Duchêne
Antony Manuel
GEOMAR
Centro de Geofisica da Univ. Lisboa
Partner
Partner
CSA Group, Dublin
Partner
Burkhard Sablotny
Pascal Tarits
Wayne Crawford
Antoni Bermudez
Patrick Lefeuvre
Henri Picard
IFREMER
Observat. Océanol. Banyuls
Univ. Potitecnica de Catalunya
(UPC)
Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI)
UBO/IUEM
IPGP
Unitat de Tecnologia Marina (UTM)
Technitrade
EUROCEANIQUE
Email address
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Partner [email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
End user [email protected]
End user [email protected]
End user
End user
End user
End user
Supplier
Supplier
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
This section of the report analyses future observatory design from four main aspects;
7.2. Availability of Sensors
7.3. Sub-systems analysis
7.4. Deployment and maintenance analysis
7.5.Standards
174
7.1 Introduction.
The ocean sciences are often marked by the introduction of new technology that, in turn, drives
science in new directions. In some cases, such innovations are the direct product of development
within the community, but in most instances new methodology is imported and adapted from
other fields as opportunities are identified and recognized by forward-looking individuals. A
prominent example is the introduction of modern time series and spectral analysis methods from
the statistics and electrical engineering disciplines beginning in the 1950s. These techniques
have transformed geophysics and physical oceanography from qualitative to quantitative fields;
geoscience requirements are, in turn, driving new developments in time-series analysis.
A second example is the development of data assimilation and modelling techniques in the
1980s, which are the product of dramatic increases in computer speed and size driven by the
nuclear weapons design community combined with broad-based improvements in numerical
methods. Data assimilation techniques have transformed the way in which physical
oceanography experiments are carried out, and operate synergistically with new float-based
observational systems. Their impact is only beginning to be felt in other fields of oceanography.
Presently, marine biology is undergoing a similar transformation.
The introduction of the family of technologies that enable ocean observatories will be
transformational for both ocean scientists and ocean engineers. There are four principal areas in
which this is already occurring, and in which the trend can reasonably be expected to accelerate
their implementation :
1. The design of new sensors required to answer evolving science questions.
2. The design and implementation of remote, reliable, self-controlling undersea hardware.
3. The development of software elements (cyber-infrastructure) to manage sensors, data, and the
physical infrastructure.
4. The development of mobile platforms necessary to extend ocean observatories from point to
aerial coverage.
7.2. Availability of Sensors
The development of ocean observatories marks a transition in ocean sciences from samplerecovery-based systems to in situ measurement protocols. In situ measurements are the only
effective means to obtain temporal information that can be correlated with a contemporaneous
ocean observatory data base. In some disciplines, sensor technology is relatively advanced; for
example, seismic sensors with noise levels below ambient and with very broadband response are
commercially available. In general, sensors for the measurement of physical quantities (e.g.,
pressure, velocity, acceleration, temperature, salinity) are relatively mature in comparison to
those that measure chemical or biological properties. Because a key goal of ocean observatory
research is the resolution of change on inter-annual or longer time scales, a significant effort to
improve long term stability and provide an in situ calibration capability will be needed. Many
chemical sensor technologies used on land (e.g., laser-based atomic and molecular or magnetic
resonance spectroscopy) require a significant amount of power that presently precludes their use
in most autonomous applications. Cabled Ocean observatories offer a large increase in user
power, and hence will provide a base for the application of these techniques in the ocean. This
inevitably will drive the sensor technologies in a smaller, lower power, cheaper direction and in
turn increase their utility for ocean sciences research. In a similar vein, the existence of ocean
observatories will accelerate the transition of many genomic technologies from functionality
only in a laboratory environment to operation in a remote, hostile one, and will in turn empower
new directions in in situ biology. A list of sensors needed or wanted for ocean sciences would be
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175
virtually endless, and in many instances, sensors will evolve which cannot be envisioned in the
present.. Nevertheless, we will try in the next paragraphs to identify more important needs.
7.2.1. - Review of sensors required
The opportunities and needs of a broad range of marine scientists were defined by the others
work packages. The objective was to produce a practical plan for long term monitoring of the
ocean margin environment around Europe as part of GMES (Global Monitoring for environment
end Security) with capabilities in geophysics, geotechnics, chemistry, biochemistry,
oceanography, biology and fisheries. ESONET will be multidisciplinary, with stations
monitoring the rocks, sediments, bottom water, biology and events in the water column… Both
long term data collection and alarm capability in the event of hazards have to be considered.
An ESONET questionnaire was widely diffused in the European marine science community to
identify sensors needed by scientists of various disciplines.
Table 7.1. Survey of Sensor Requirements
Seismic activity
Slope instability
Tsunamis
1
Seafloor motion
Time arrival
Pressure
Geodesy
Geodesy
Electromagnetic field changes
Turbidity currents
Marine Bottom Seismometer
High precision clock
Hydrophone
Positioning
Vertical motion
Magnetometer
current meter / ADCP
CTD
Pressure at seabottom and surface
Time arrival
Accurate pressure sensors
High precision clock
Acoustic detection
Benthic biodiversity
Biodiversity
Growth
Recruitment
Pelagic biodiversity
1
Water column height
Species
Size
Abundance
%cover
Functional groups
Activity
Metabolism
Bioturbation
Size
Composition
Larval release
Larval settlement
Species / sizes
Biomass
Activity
Imaging
Imaging
Imaging
Imaging
Imaging
Imaging
Automated sampling
Electrodes
Imaging
Sampling
Imaging/sampling
Imaging
colonisation plate
Imaging
Acoustic echosounder
Bioacoustics
Results of a questionnaire on the availability of sensors based on a standard issued from the GMES project
BICEPS (Global Monitoring for Environment and Security).
176
Particle dynamics
Mammal species
Particle number
Particle size
Bioacoustics
Imagery laser
Imagery laser
Table 7.1. Survey of Sensor Requirements (Continued)
Recruitement
Particle composition
Water current
Turbidity
Pigments
Egg deposition
Larval development
Migrations
Time/abundance
Seeping and venting
Fluidflow
Fluid composition and properties
Chemical pollution
Concentration
Physical disturbance
Area and depth disturbed
Turbidity
Noise pollution
Persistant organic
pollutants
Sediment traps
Current meter
Transmissometer, optical backscatter
Fluorometer
Imaging
Sampling
Imaging
Sampling
Bioacoustics
Flowmeter
Acoustics
Imagery
Sampler
Full hydrocarbon sensors
Sampling
Fluorimeter
Imaging
Imaging
Transmissometter
Hydrophone
PCBs
PAH
Spectrometer
Productivity and
particle flux
Export production
Sediment traps
Particle cameras
Radio tracers
Satellite imagery
Resuspension
Turbidity, bottom water velocity,
shear stress
Changes in bottom
water hydrography
C/T, oxygen, CO2, CH4, currents,
hydrostatic pressure
Transmissometer
optical/acoustic backscatter
Particle camera
CTD
ADCP, current meter
chemical sensors
7.2.2 - Sensors already used for long term measurement; return from experiments
European institutes were interrogated to find out what sensors are used and to give their
comments. The results are given below :
•
10 scientific packages will be operational in 2006 (seismology, slope stability, geodesy,
biodiversity imaging, biodiversity of sediment layer, pelagic biodiversity, particle
dynamics, nuclear pollution, physical oceanography, borehole instrumentation),
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•
•
4 scientific packages will be operational in 2008 (hydrocarbon and chemical pollution,
chemistry associated to fluid seeps, turbidity currents),
3 scientific packages are planned to be operational in 2010 (larval biology, microscopy
imaging, spectrometry for persistent pollutants).
These sets of instruments are supplied from world market but many European SMEs are present.
They include 30 pre-operational basic sensors for monitoring in 2003. 25 others sensors will be
available in 2008. More then 80 parameters can be collected. Some of these scientific packages
were developed from EC funded projects (EXOCET D for example), some others from lander
experience, some others are extrapolated from coastal experience.
The ESONET questionnaire shows that :
• 26 basic sensors are mastered by ESONET partners;
• 11 are mastered by participants in ESONET workshops;
• 12 are mastered by other EU institutes (CEA, …);
• 13 require international cooperation with US, JAPAN,
Only a few sensors were already deployed for long term experiment, at least two years : sensors
for physical measurement which can be easily coupled to the medium with non corrosive device
and acoustic systems – electronics are installed in a corrosion resistant container and
manufacturers are able to produce long term reliable transducers even in deep water.
Temperature : titanium encapsulated probes are currently used even in severe environments for
many years. The only problem could be an increase of response time with fouling or
concretions.
Pressure gauge : different technologies with different precision and costs exist. High precision
quartz pressure gauges are deployed for several years for measure of tides or tsunami detection.
Other less accurate sensors are also available, using strain gauges
Pore pressure : It is a modified pressure gauge. Some long term deployments have been done.
Special care is required to condition of this instrumentation for this application.
Local current : Only acoustic current meter seem practical for long term deployment but some
instruments on the market need to be critically evaluated since some non coherent results were
obtained during deep water deployments.
Current profiler : Acoustic doppler current profilers are a reliable instruments used very often
during long term deployments.
Acoustic signals and acoustic noise : hydrophones are reliable sensors in all the frequency
domains, but specifications for long term deployment in deep water need to be very precise
since some standard devices may be corroded in deep water.
Acoustic range meters and acoustic positioning systems are currently deployed for long periods.
Acoustic turbidimeters have the same performance than as current profilers.
Optical Oxygen sensors have been uses with success for long term deployments.
7.2.3 - Current developments likely to deliver new sensors in the near future.
Many groups in Europe are developing new instrumentation. These new sensors could be
deployed on prototype demonstration observatories. We give here some examples from two
current EU research projects EXOCET-D and COBO.
178
7.2.3.1 EXOCET-D
(EXtreme ecosystem studies in the deep OCEan) is a STREP within FP6 which will conduct
many technological developments to implement and test specific instruments aimed at
exploring, describing, quantifying and monitoring biodiversity in fragmented deep-sea habitats :
•
A first aspect is to develop video imagery, image scaling and measurement systems
associated with automatic image analyses. The objectives are :
•
To set up a complete methodology for 3D reconstruction of small-scale scenes from
underwater video imagery,
•
To design a long-term imaging module,
•
To develop a macro photography module.
•
A second aspect is to evaluate the potential of using sonar data to study deep-sea
community changes and to explore their complementarities with video imagery.
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180
Fig. 7.1 - Hydrothermal vent
Fig. 7.2 - Deep corals (Caracole 2001)
Fig. 7.3 - Cold seeps (Biozaire 2002)
Fig. 7.4 - Hydrothermal fluids (HOPE99)
Fig. 7.5 - PICO 98
Fig. 7.6 - Victor cameras
Fig. 7. 7 - S. Durand et al., (2002) CBM, 43:235
•
A third aspect is to conduct in situ analysis of habitat chemical and physical components.
This work relays on five tasks :
Adaptation of existing « sensors »,
Second version of the Alchimist in situ analyser,
Optimisation of the Capsum Methane sensor,
Optimisation of the « Medusa » fluid flow meter
Design of a water sampler
Fig. 7.8 - Alchimist, HOPE99
Fig. 7.9 - Flowmeter, ATOS2001
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181
Fig. 7.10 - Victor Water sampler
•
A fourth aspect is to develop quantitative sampling of macro- and micro organisms and in
vivo experiments :
•
•
Optimal sampling of deep-sea micro- and macro-organisms,
Improved in vivo experimental conditions on board research ships, at in situ
pressure.
Fig. 7.12 - K. Takai et al, 2003, FEMS
182
Fig. 7.11 - Capsum Methane sensor
Fig. 7.13 - Ipocamp, ATOS 2001
A demonstration action will be organize during MoMARETO, 2006, a cruise conducted by
Ifremer during 20 days on the MoMAR zone with the NO Pourquoi pas ? and the Victor 6000
ROV. The objective is studying the response of hydrothermal species to their environment at
two temporal scales with these new sensors :
• micro variations of the habitat (hour/ day),
• observatory scale (month/ year) with first long term ASSEM based observatory.
Fig 7.14 MoMARETO
7 days Technical validation of EXOCET/D
13 days Scientific validation
1700m
Lucky Strike
Fig. 7.15 - Lucky Strike site
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7.2.3.2 - COBO (Coastal Ocean Benthic Observatory)
The overall objective of COBO is to integrate emerging and innovative technologies from
different disciplines (physics, chemistry, biology, imagery) to provide in situ monitoring of
sediment ecosystem in coastal ocean benthic areas, but some developments could be adapted to
deeper observations.
COBO aims to understand the complex interactions between the biota (their functioning and
diversity) and their chemical environment. Existing technologies have limited spatial and
temporal resolution to resolve key parameters of coastal ecosystems and this has hampered
progress in understanding and modelling coastal ecosystem dynamics. Organism-sediment
processes are still poorly understood in shallow water sediments that receive the bulk of
anthropogenic disturbance.
The COBO project represents a logical stepping-stone towards the development of permanently
operating benthic observatories for coastal management in order to give economic, scientific
and societal gains.
Fig. 7.16 - MPIMM :
Geomar biogeochemistry landers
184
Fig. 7. 17 - CEFAS : XYZ profiler undergoing sea trails from RV Calanus
Fig. 7.18 - SAMS Elinor and Profilur landers
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Fig. 7.19 - SAMS oxystat system
COBO will integrate innovative technologies to provide multiparameter, real-time in situ
monitoring of sedimentary environments in coastal marine ecosystems, along with an insight
into perturbation/relaxation issues to provide unique and novel descriptions of organismsediment interactions and their link to ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Instrumentation
development will be conducted in four steps :
•
•
•
•
186
Integration of observation technologies and the development of controlled sediment
perturbation devices.
Integrated observations of the natural environment at high spatial and temporal resolution to
enable a quantitative description of the fundamental processes governing the interaction
between the biota and their chemical environment in the sediment on a short time scale
(hours to days).
Controlled disturbance experiments to promote our understanding of changes in ecosystem
functioning and biodiversity in an environment under stress (addition of organic matter,
resuspension of sediment, sediment reworking).
Development of numerical tools to extract quantitative information from the chemicalbiological images acquired by SPI-Optode systems.
Fig 7.20. Integrated Sediment Disturber.
This is a free falling system being developed in the COBO project. It features disturber units that rake the
surface of the sediment at programmed intervals, and a sediment micro-profiler in an x-y-z „autonomous
positioning drive“, and a camera system.
7.2.4 - Priorities for future development of sensors
The main priority for underwater observatories is to reach an acceptable level of reliability for
long term deployment. Innovation may also bring new monitoring potential.
Innovative Sensor issues where analysed by the Marine board of ISF and discussed during the
Brest meeting of Esonet (Technical meeting- July 2003).
Measurement of the physical, chemical, geological and biological parameters that characterise
the conditions of our marine environment is critical to both developing our knowledge and
understanding of the complex processes occurring within it and to enhancing our ability to
protect it.
The parameters that are prioritised for measurement will determine to a large extent which
sensor technologies should be emphasised. There is general unanimity in the literature about this
prioritisation. Key analytes to be monitored are listed in the following table :
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Table 7.2: List of Key Analytes
Physical
Chemical
Temperature
Nutrients
Conductivity
Heavy metals
Density, Pressure
Volatile amines
Light transmission
Dissolved gases (O2,
CO2, …)
Turbidity, Grain size PH
analysis
Velocity, turbulence PCB, PAH, CFC
Radionucleides
Pesticides
Biological
RNA, DNA, proteins,
key enzymes
Anthropogenic organic
molecules
Virus particles
Bacterial and
picoplankton cells
Plant pigments
(chlorophyll, ..)
Pelagic animals
Benthic communities
Geophysical
Pore pressure
Bathymetry
Geodesy
Magnetism
Seismic signal
Seabed
characteristics
Gas hydrates
7.2.4.1. Limitations of existing sensor technology.
Although considerable time and money has been expended in sensor research over the past two
decades, there has been only limited success in the development sensors for “real-world”
applications. This is particularly true of sensors for in situ monitoring in the marine
environment. Principal difficulties include :
•
•
•
•
•
•
The complex nature of the marine environment
Insufficient sensitivity for trace level chemical concentrations (extremely low level of
detection is required)
Fouling of sensor surfaces
Selectivity limitations – interference from other species
Limited temporal stability of sensor chemistry and material
Insufficient resolution of pressure and depth sensors to allow in situ instruments to
match satellite altimeters data.
Sensor innovation will have to be adapted to two types of physical environments present in the
oceanic environment :
1. water column where physical processes are mainly predominant,
2. sediment/water interface and sediment bodies which are the memory of past events and
where liquid/solid interactions are predominant.
The main limitation factor for the choice of the payload is the time interval required between
servicing (service interval):
188
% of
100
available
instruments 90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
SENSORS
SAMPLERS
CAMERAS
4~12
12~18
18~
Service interval(months)
Fig. 7.21. Required service intervals of different classes of instruments
7.2.4.2. New emerging sensor technologies - The analyst in a laboratory ashore has very many
measuring techniques and sensor technologies available. A challenge is to identify and develop
those technologies or techniques that will work well in the marine environment and that provide
information on parameters of importance. In the following paragraphs, the main categories of
sensing techniques are reviewed and promising innovations are highlighted.
7.2.4.2.1. Biosensors- are powerful tools which aim at providing selective identification of toxic
chemical compounds at ultratrace levels. They combine a recognition surface which is sensitive
to ions or molecules and a transducer which transforms the interaction into an analytic signal.
The wide variety of reactions, sensing systems (enzymes, cells, DNA, antigen/antibody, …) and
transducers (optical, thermals, electrochemical, …) accounts for the large number of sensors
reported. These developments are progressing very rapidly; and biosensors are expected to make
a major impact in the coming decades in view of the massive investment in the area in this
“post-Genome era”. In particular, Bio-chips based on micro-arrays of bio-recognition elements
(e.g. antibodies) will enable simultaneous measurement of a range of parameters (multi-analyte
sensing). These are generally single-shot devices, however, and it is not clear whether or not
they would survive in the harsh marine environment for in situ monitoring. Other areas of
biosensor technology that are of significance include those based on enzyme inhibition,
bioluminescence, as well as sensors based on living cells.
7.2.4.2.2. Sensor Arrays -(e.g. micro-electrode arrays) will allow the detection and
quantification of multiple analytes such as nitrate, nitrite, silicate, ammonia and phosphate
simultaneously and in real time since slow colorimetric detection methods are not required. In
order to prevent biofouling and guarantee high accuracy, frequent calibration will, however, be
required. Electronic and optical tongues will be used to detect gases such as dimethyl sulfide,
methyl amine or methane as encountered in the deep-sea environment or as biogenic gases at
sea bottom.
7.2.4.2.3. Microsystems Technology (MST)- is an area that is very likely to have major impact
on marine monitoring in terms of operational stability and reliability of sensors. MST has
emerged as part of the general trend of miniaturisation of traditional instrumentation systems
and has been enabled by a range of recent developments in microtechnologies (including among
others microsensors, microactuators, micro-electromechanical systems or MEMS,
microspectrometers). In the case of chemical sensing and biosensing, applications of MST are
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generally referred to as “Lab-on-a-chip” or Micro-Total Analysis Systems (MicroTAS). Such
systems are characterised by miniaturisation and integration. Typically, these planar chip-based
platforms incorporate a range of functionality such as: sample injection, sample pre-treatment
(e.g. clean-up), on-line pre-concentration (to lower the detection limit), separation from
interfering species, reaction chambers, and finally, detection. The very small volumes involved
enable the use of well-established irreversible sensor chemistries, which are renewed as
required. So microsystem technology should be considered as a generic method which could be
adapted to specific chemical or biological component detection and quantification by just
choosing the reagents and/or the detection technique and the processing method.
7.2.4.2.4. Coupled optical sensors - spectro-electrochemistry can combine the advantages of
optical and electrochemical sensing especially concerning the detection limits for heavy metal
ions. Thus, via electrochemistry, heavy metal ions can be preconcentrated on the sensing device
while the selective indicator chemistry is then used to obtain an optical signal. Microspectral
imaging systems which consist of coupling spectral discrimination (e.g. fluorescence), shape
analysis and spatial distribution, directly available in situ, expanding the capabilities of present
day flow cytometers. Lasers (especially Quantum Cascade Lasers for Infrared Monitoring) offer
large possibilities of detection as for example, methane (clathrates) and hydrocarbon, using
infrared spectrometry.
7.2.4.2.5. Mass spectrometers - have already been adapted to in situ conditions, but with limited
depth, atomic mass and detection capabilities. Improvements of this technique have to be
continued to permit long term measurements through improved sample injection system, wider
atomic mass range, lower detection limits.
7.2.4.2.6. Smart Materials - (including molecularly imprinted polymers and enrichment
matrices) are candidates to recognise and quantify biomolecules (e.g. algal toxins) and other
species that cannot be detected by conventional methods. The recognition of these molecules is
based on luminescent molecularly imprinted polymers which exhibit significantly enhanced
stability (operational and shelf life) compared to enzyme based sensors. Nanoparticles
exhibiting immobilised indicator dyes for pH, ions or oxygen, may be inserted into cells or
micro-organism to monitor their health. Novel nanomaterials and active coatings may be
developed to overcome the problem of biofouling on sensing surfaces.
Beside this review of emerging sensor technologies, it has to be reminded that most of
“classical” sensors still need improvement (limit of detection, long term stability, …). It should
also be clearly stressed that periodic re-calibration of sensors using reliable procedures and autocalibration techniques are absolutely necessary when long term in situ measurements are
considered. These methods and techniques have to be continuously improved as they represent a
significant part of the monitoring systems operating costs.
The following tables 7.3 and 7.4 give examples of the time scale to develop new technologies
applied to scientific application in different field of marine science. It gives an illustration of
how useful they could be but, also, how long it could take to obtain the first concrete results.
190
Table 7.3 Biotechnology: Sensing the Ocean
3 Years
5 Years
10 Years
> 10 Years
Now
I. Single use /
spot sample
Fluorescent in situ
hybridisation (FISH)
DNA micro arrays
for genomic analysis
Automated species
identification in
simple ecosystems
Bioavailable iron
using modified
cyanobacteria
Microbial biomass
via DNA analysis
II. Medium
endurance
(week/month)
III. Long
endurance
(year)
IV. Alarm
Sensors for
biogeochemical
functions
Biomaterial against
biofouling
Automated species
identification in
complex ecosystems
Biomaterial against
biofouling
Detect precursors of
harmfull algal
blooms by immuno
assay (lab)
Detect precursors of
harmfull algal
blooms by immuno
assay (in situ)
Table 7.4. Microsystems, smart materials and nanotechnology
Now
I. Single use /
spot sample
Mesoporous material
for electrodes (eg
DO)
3 Years
Bioarrays based on
antibodies or
immunoassay (in
situ)
Bioarrays based on
antibodies or
immunoassay (in
vitro)
III. Long
endurance
(year)
IV. Alarm
> 10 Years
Microfluidic
chemical analyser
for nutrients
Gas chromatograph
Surface Acoustic
Wave mass detector
(in situ)
Electronic or optical
tongue
Mass spectrometer
for biogenic gases
CO2 partial pressure
Transition to anoxia /
hypoxia
10 Years
Mass spectrometer
for biogenic gases
Mesoporous material
for electrodes (eg
Dissolved Oxygen)
II. Medium
endurance
(week/month)
5 Years
Gas chromatograph
Surface Acoustic
Wave mass detector
Microfluidic
chemical analyser
for nutrients
Detection of
endocrine
components
disruptive
Detection of harmfull
algal blooms by
molecular imprints
Radionucleides
Colour Codes
Ocean climate
Marine life
Health of coastal zone
New frontiers in marine life
All disciplines
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7.2.5 - Qualification procedure for sensors deployed on ESONET observatory
The qualification procedure must check that the sensors are withstanding the subsea
environment. It includes : short term environment tests, short term functional tests and long term
functional tests. The metrology issues are very important and do not correspond to any
international, european or national standard. This should be a topic of cooperative work at an
international scale with a strong input from scientific users, metrology specialists and
instrumentation SME’s from Europe in the near future.
For the more classical tests, the project ASSEM (EU FP5) made an overview of practices in
Norway (NORSOK standards), France (NF, Ifremer and GAM-EG13), Italy and Greece. The
testing methods issued by this project are agreed by other Esonet participants. From a life cycle,
which is determined hereunder for an Assem mode, the required tests are determined according
to the NF-X-10-800 standards. The relevance for subsea observatories to comply to Norsok
standards used in the Norwegian offshore sector has been studied (see Annex 1 Industrial
offshore standards).
7.2.5.1 - Life cycle
7.2.5.1.1 – Principle -Each item of the subsea observatory equipment (for instance ASSEM
equipment), as any other equipment from the E2 Family (Equipment normally operating outside,
in sea water) has a specific life cycle, which the supplier and user shall know and analyse. An
oceanographic campaign for a subsea observatory will include several cycles including the
following steps. During its life cycle, the equipment will suffer various types of environment
and aggression. According to its specific life cycle, environmental testing will be conducted
prior to equipment validation. Tests to be carried out will be either mandatory or recommended.
For good understanding, an ASSEM monitoring node is composed of an aluminium frame
hosting several components (or items), at least: junction boxes, battery packs, circuit breakers,
sensor rack, COSTOF, mast, antenna, connection tool.
Here under are the descriptions of the life cycle steps :
7.2.5.1.2 Storage -In between two campaigns, the equipment will be stored for a few weeks to
several years (up to 5 years). Battery cells must withstand 1 year storage in the same conditions.
The monitoring node (MN) can be stored all geared but it is likely that each component of the
MN be stored individually, and that, for two reasons :
At completion of a campaign, components need maintenance and fixing. After this phase of
reconditioning, each component is stored in its own packaging.
As each campaign is different from the previous one, it is useless to re install components
within the frame prior to know precisely the requirements for the new campaign. It is safer
to store parts individually and tailor the MN as needed for the following campaign.
The MN frame can be stored outside, under cover, protected from adverse weather.
The components will be stored indoor, in their own packing case, in a air-conditioned
atmosphere preferentially, in a dry and ventilated place in any case. Storage conditions should
be between - 20°C and + 50°C, RH 93 % at 50°C.
7.2.5.1.3 - Mobilisation at storage site
When a campaign is planned and the required equipment defined, the components may be preassembled if required, tested individually and tested as a network. COSTOF will be configured
with parameters specifics to the campaign.
MN will be tested as a standalone and as a seabed network. At completion of tests, equipment
will be disassembled and components will be re installed in their own packaging.
Packaged components and the necessary spare parts and ancillary equipment, will be packed
into waterproof and resistant crates. Protection against shocks will be added inside the crates.
192
Crates will be geared with handling devices compatible with lifting equipment in use on the
campaign. The MN frame does not need to be packed.
7.2.5.1.4 - Outgoing transportation
From the storage site to the port of mobilisation of equipment :
By road, equipment will be trucked. Protect against rain. Maximum distance is 1 500 km.
By plane, in pressurised or non-pressurised cargo, but heated and ventilated. Negative
pressure difference will be approximately 0.8 bar.
If the port of mobilisation of equipment is different from the port of mobilisation of the survey
vessel, transportation between both ports can be :
By cargo ship or ferry, on deck (protect against rain) or in storage room (air-conditioned or
not).
7.2.5.1.5 - Temporary storage
It may be necessary to store the equipment at the port of mobilisation for various reasons such
as custom clearance, waiting for vessel, waiting for team, … Storage can be outside, on the
quay. In this case, equipment is exposed to adverse weather. Storage can, also, be provided
inside a warehouse.
7.2.5.1.6 - Mobilisation of equipment on board the vessel
Handling and installation of crates on board the survey vessel will be performed with cranes or
specialized lifting equipment.
7.2.5.1.7 - Transit to operational site
During transit, equipment that do not need to be checked or connected will remain packed and
stored, preferentially indoor.
Most of the equipment, however, will need to be unpacked, connected, checked and tested as a
whole network. Testing operations may be carried out either indoor, in laboratory, or on deck, in
wet and saline environment. As a consequence to these testing operations, the equipment will
suffer hostile conditions. Test operations will follow working procedures.
Movement of the equipment on deck will be handled by onboard lifting equipment or by hand.
7.2.5.1.8 - Onboard preparation
At completion of the transit, the vessel stops at the mooring location. The MN frame will be
geared with necessary components and will stand by for deployment. Two options should be
considered :
Equipment is switched on on deck, the MN station is immersed by free fall and will start
data acquisition as it lands on the seabed. No underwater vehicle is required to launch
mission. This option is only required in case of a station working as a standalone with no
connection to other nodes or sensors.
Equipment is switch off on deck, the station is immersed by free fall. An underwater
intervention will be necessary to finalise installation and launch the data acquisition.
7.2.5.1.9 - Launching deployment
The deployment is presented in §7.3.2.
7.2.5.1.10 - Seabed installation
Once on seabed, an underwater vehicle, manned or not (ROV, UUV, MS) will accurately
position the MN station. The same underwater vehicle will achieve the final installation
consisting into :
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Last functional tests, final seabed configuration, acoustic transmission tests, autotests
triggered by ROV or MS through the COSTOF.
Plugging off-structure sensors into the junction box.
Wiring two monitoring nodes.
Switching the MNs on.
The vessel, equipped with the Ship Terminal equipment (ST) moves at the vertical of an MN
fitted with vertical communication capability and tests the whole network. Automatic data
acquisition is triggered from the vessel.
7.2.5.1.11 - Seabed autonomous acquisition
If properly installed and on a stable seabed, the MN structure and all components are designed
to work for up to 2 years. In normal exploitation, only maintenance inspections for battery
changes would be necessary on a regular basis (every 6 months).
Depending on the water depth, the localisation with respect to geological hazards and industrial
or leisure activity areas, the station may suffer from :
Trawling gear aggression, digging out by anchors
Slump slide, tsunamis and tremors
7.2.5.l.12 - Maintenance and visits
There are major reasons for visiting the MN, on seabed, during data acquisition campaign :
Battery replacement, every 6 months.
Replacement of faulty monitoring node.
Replacement of faulty component of the MN (junction box, Costof, …).
Data retrieval, status checking and reconfiguration.
In addition, any intervention on sensors (replacement, punctual measurements, fixing) will lead
to a visit to the monitoring node.
Prior to any action on the MN, fouling and sediment will be removed.
7.2.5.1.13 - Preparation for recovery
Either for a simple monitoring node change or a decommissioning of the whole network at
completion of a campaign, interventions on MN are similar, and are carried out by ROV, or MS.
The first action will be to turn off the energy packs.
Then, cleaning the interfaces from fouling and sediment may be necessary prior to any
intervention.
Wires from other nodes and from sensors will be disconnected from the MN.
Released from the remaining part of the network, the monitoring node is now ready for recovery
to the surface.
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7.2.5.1.14 - Recovery
The recovery is presented in §7.3.2.
7.2.5.1.15 - Return transit
Once all equipment is on deck and the campaign is completed, the vessel will steam to port.
During return transit, equipment will be cleaned from saline environment and packed, firstly in
packing cases and, secondly, in crates. Care will be taken to add necessary shock protection in
crates. Handling devices will be checked out in order to be all set for the demobilisation phase.
7.2.5.1.16 - Demobilisation at port
In the same way as for mobilisation of equipment, handling and disembarkation of crates on
quay will be performed with cranes or specialized lifting equipment.
Temporary storage, at port of demobilisation, may be necessary as well. As for mobilisation
phase, the same constraints for storage will apply.
7.2.5.1.17 - Return transportation
The return transportation will be at the inverse of the Outgoing Transportation, § 1.5.1.4.
7.2.5.1.18 - Demobilisation at storage site – Unpacking, Maintenance and Repair
At the storage site, the equipment will be unpacked, repaired, re conditioned and stored in
operational condition for the next campaign. Battery packs should be removed from equipment.
7.2.5.2 - Environmental specifications
Environmental specifications, covering testing and recommendations, should be read in close
relation with Document [R2]. This document includes two references:
XP X 10-800 : Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Guide
Environmental Tests.
XP X 10-812 : Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation –
Environmental Tests and Recommendations for Submerged Equipment.
The life cycle, made up of the steps addressed in Chapter 10, represents the operating conditions
of the equipment.
As per the Document [R2], the subsea observatories for Esonet fall in the Family E2 , i.e.
equipment normally operating outside, in sea water. During its life cycle, such equipment is
subject to hostile conditions linked to the particular environment in which it is.
For Family E2 equipment the standard, setting out the tests to be carried out and the
recommendations to be taken into account, is referenced XP X 10-812. This document describes
the typical environment of the E2 Family and the tests applicable to the E2 Family life cycle.
Tests are described in Annexes A and B of [R2] document. Two types of tests are proposed :
Minimal contractual tests and additional recommended tests.
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195
7.2.5.2.1 - Minimal contractual tests
Tests are as follows :
Cold
Damp heat
Salt spray
Solar radiation
Vibrations
Mechanical shock
Movement of the deck
Earth continuity
Electromagnetic compatibility
Thermal shock through immersion
7.2.5.2.2 - Additional recommended tests
Recommendations concern the following tests :
Condensation
Marine fouling
Main supply disturbance
Lightning strike
Shock through swinging
Fluid contamination
7.2.5.2.3 - Tests sanctions
The tests are sanctioned by the judgement, whether favourable or not, or the results of the
checks made on the equipment during and after testing. The inspection is performed according
to three criteria and the judgement is made according to the sanctions to be defined by the
specifications author. These criteria are :
(1) The apparent condition of the equipment.
(2) The safety.
(3) The specific operation.
(1) Apparent condition of the equipment :
No modification or degradation of the state of the equipment can be tolerated, in
so far as the following are concerned :
Appearance (geometry, surface condition, attachment of various components,
etc).
Conditions for disassembly, re assembly and access to components.
Connectors and connections.
Operating comfort (flexibility of controls, operation, legibility and protection
of markings, etc).
(2) Safety :
No modification of the parameters which define safety can be tolerated.
(3) Specific operations :
Specific operation shall remain nominal.
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7.2.5.3 - Environmental conditions according to the life cycle
The following table addressing the hostile environmental conditions related to each step of the
ASSEM equipment life cycle is an example available for all observatories :
Table 7.5 Environmental Tests
Steps
Hostile environmental conditions
Storage
Damp heat
Mechanical shock
Condensation
Mobilisation at storage site
Mechanical shock
Outgoing transportation
Cold (snow, hail, frost)
Spray (precipitation, rain)
Solar radiation and heat
Vibrations
Mechanical shock
Temporary storage
Damp heat
Spray (precipitation, rain)
Mechanical shock
Condensation
Fluid contamination
Mobilisation of equipment on Spray (precipitation, rain)
board the vessel
Mechanical shock
Transit to operational site
Spray (precipitation, rain, sea water)
Vibrations
Mechanical shock
Condensation
Fluid contamination
Onboard preparation
Same as “transit to operational site” step + Electromagnetic
disturbance
Launching deployment
Salt spray
Vibration on the mooring line
Mechanical shock and stress in the splash zone
Shock through swinging against the hull or other objects
Thermal shock with immersion
Fluid contamination by hydrocarbons
Corrosion
Seabed installation
Saline environment and corrosion
Mechanical shock when landing on seabed
Mechanical shock by ROV manipulation
Damage caused by ROV manipulation (on cables,
connectors, sensors, containers, etc)
Seabed autonomous acquisition Saline environment and corrosion
Trawling gear aggression
Natural disaster (slump, tsunami, tremor, etc)
Marine fouling
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Table 7.5 Environmental Tests (Continued)
Maintenance and visits
Preparation for recovery
Recovery deployment
Return transit
Demobilisation at port
Return transportation
Demobilisation at storage site
Same as “seabed installation” step
Same as “seabed installation” step
Same as “launching deployment” step
Same as “transit to operational site” step
Same as “mobilisation of equipment” and temporary
storage” steps
Same as “outgoing transportation” step
Same as “mobilisation at storage site” step
7.2.5.4 - Test description
Tests are described in detail in the [R2] document.
Minimal contractual tests are referenced as follows :
Cold
Damp heat
Salt spray
Solar radiation
Vibrations
Mechanical shock
Earth continuity
Electromagnetic compatibility
Thermal shockt
Section A1
Section A2
Section A3
Section A4
Section A5
Section A6
Section A7
Section A8
Section A9
Section A10
Section A11
Severity is parameter of high importance in the test.
For electromagnetic compatibility test, both “disturbance” and “susceptibility” are addressed
and, for each, through / to conduction and radiation.
Additional recommended tests are referenced as follows :
Condensation
Marine fouling
Main supply disturbance
Lightning strike
Fluid contamination
Section B1
Section B2
Section B3
Section B4
Section B5
Section B6
7.2.5.5 - Extension to functional and long term tests
A limited number of tests must be performed with the subsea equipment in its normal
acquisition mode. An example is given in Annexe 2. They will ascertain that external conditions
do not modify the functional characteristics of the equipment. The system designer will organize
its system architecture in such a way that these tests can be followed externally and that
troubleshooting is easy to undertake.
While performing such rather tedious tests, the system reliability is enhanced. Moreover, the
testability is ascertained for most of the future breakdown or special maintenance conditions
when the underwater equipment will not be accessed during months to years.
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7.2.6 - Scientific Packages (SP)
Data output from observatories is generated by suites of sensors and instruments which are
difficult to develop for long term deployment in the harsh sub sea environment. The data needs
to be gathered into meaningful packages involving technological know-how, calibration
procedures and scientific expertise.
The term “Scientific Package (SP)” as defined here, refers not only to the reliable hardware
(and/or software) but also as includes the metrology, calibration, interpretation and data
processing procedures associated with the equipment. Thus it includes the scientific know-how
necessary for experts in the decision making process of pollution response and risk assessment.
Fig. 7.23. Scientific Packages, Integration of hardware, software, management systems and know-how.
Decision making
Scientific treatements and expertise
Data management - data base
Communication segments
Seafloor observatory
Scientific package
Set of instruments
Basic sensors
Seabird conductivity cell
Parameters
Conductivity
(« determinand »)
Fig. 7.22. Scientific Packages
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Recognized criteria on
environment and security
Decision making
Scientific treatements
Integrate data in simulations and models
Open data, agreement on data validation procedure
and formats
Data management
Communication segments
Seafloor observatory
Compatibility with standards, protocols, response time,...
Electronic standards, geometric or deployment constraints
Scientific package
Set of instruments
Basic sensors
Parameters
Pre-operational validation
Industrial production,
after-sale service,...
Recognized calibration
protocols
Background theory
Fig. 7.23. Scientific Packages, Integration of hardware, software, management systems and know-how.
From the discussions within the ESONET project about sensors, it is possible to define some
scientific packages with their suites of instruments.
7.2.1.Seismology package includes the large band 3D geophones, hydrophone,
gravimeter, electrometer and magnetometer. (e.g. EC project Geostar, Orion)
Fig. 7.24 Orion seismometer node deployed during Assem Trisonia pilot experiment Gulf of Corinth
200
7.2.2. Tsunami package. High precision pressure measurement. Interpretation software.
Link with seismic measurements.
7.2.3.Borehole instruments installed in wells drilled in the earth crust are providing data
from the fluid flows, seismic informations and evaluation of deformations.
Fig. 7.25 Monitoring of an ODP well in Barbados Acretion Prism using a Cork
.
7.2.4. Geodesy package follows the deformation of the seaflood at a scale of 100 m to
few kilometers in very active zones. It follows the motion of reference spots called
benchmarks. (EC project Assem).
7.2.5. Physical oceanography. From the seafloor, upward, a number of valuable data
(current, temperature, salinity, oxygen, CO2,…) can be obtained at Eulerian
observatories. The real time information will complement other Ocean scale
observation from satellite, buoys or floats. (EC project Mersea).
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201
Logging
station
Multiple
depth
piezometers
Uncertain depth
of pressurised
soil layer
Fig. 7.26: Monitoring of slope stability by subsea observatory using pore pressure sensing.
7.2.6. Biodiversity imaging (EC projects Exocet/D, Cobo) is a unanimous request from
ESONET meetings. Slow modification of the seafloor as well as the episodic events in
biological communities of extreme and non extreme environments need to be imaged.
Fig. 7.27: Monitoring of hydrothermal vent by SAMO
(camera, temperature of the and current)
7.2.7.Biodiversity of sediment layer requires a full range of sensors positioned at and
under the interface, benthic chambers, imaging and sampling. (EC projects Alipor,
Bengal). The range of sampling can be enhanced by mobile vehicles, such as crawlers
forming part of the SP.
202
Fig7.28 : Extension by a crawler
7.2.8. Pelagic biodiversity (sea mammals to small fishes) will be assessed in an
innovative way from acoustic imagery and passive acoustic monitoring. The use of
intrusive methods such as trawling might be diminished.
7.2.9.Particle dynamics. Long term trends of the deep sea currents and flow of
particles.
•
•
Click on the photo
•
Click on an event
•
Fig. 7.29: Data from benthic station MAP (lander)
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7.2.10.Turbidity currents. Sudden events are occurring in canyons, involving a huge
amount of sediment.
7.2.11. Nuclear pollution. Above the natural level of radioactivity, some events can be
observed due to ship wrecks or other security issues.
7.2.12.Hydrocarbon or chemical pollution. It is important to detect quickly the pollutant
levels reaching a threshold.
7.2.13.Larval biology requires specific developments of sensors, sampling and
imaging.
7.2.14.Microscopy imaging is at its infancy but opens huge perspectives of
understanding of the biological mechanisms. The data to be transmitted is
dimensioning for the observatories of the future.
7.2.15. Spectrometry for persistent pollution. The way contaminants are circulating and
trapped is still a question. The development of advanced in-situ spectrometric devices
will be able to solve such questions together with particle dynamics. This application is
demanding for the pre-treatment and transmission capacities of sub sea observatories.
Many developments have been already done in Europe, with a major input of the European
Union Research policy, the last stage of improvement and long term reliability is mandatory for
the success of sub sea observatories. In most cases, the demonstration of scientific packages will
start by experiments performed on accessible sites, on coastal observatories. The new cooperation potential open by European initiatives such as Esonet, Arena in Japan, Neptune
Canada and Mars may open opportunities of testing in real scale. Neptune Canada for instance is
proposing to use its more coastal stations (Venus) for testing purposes.
The criteria for the constitution of the basis of these scientific packages are the choice of well
established suite of sensors to build up the « basis suite ». Other sensors are needed to promote
the innovative modelling or interpretation or cross-correlation of time series. To the extent
possible, especially if they are funded by global observatory budgets, these instruments should
possess the following characteristics :
•
•
•
•
204
Be long-lived.
Require little or no in-situ calibration?
Measure unaliased integral quantities representative of larger scales (spot measurements are
then welcome to address spatial variability).
Be useful for multiple disciplines.
205
7.3 - Sub-systems analysis
7.3.1 - Energy
7.3.1.1 - Batteries
Autonomous observatories are usually powered by batteries of cells. For long term deployment,
only the lithium cell family is used, to avoid too heavy and huge battery containers.
The power supply system includes usually Lithium cells which will support power for at least 2
years. Sea water battery systems could replace them in the future, if environmental conditions
(current speed, oxygen density,…) were suitable. Power consumption of an observatory is less
than 5 W without sea bottom seismometer and 8 W with two seismometers (borehole and sea
bottom). Additional power could be necessary for a magnetometer. The energy requirement for
2 years is about 90 kWh (24 V, 3 750 Ah) or 140 kWh (24 V, 5 800 Ah) in the second case.
Observatories with cameras requiring illumination are probably the most power-hungry with
power consumptions of 40 to 100W or more when a video system is running. With autonomous
observatories neither power supply not data storage would permit continuous operation.
The same cells as for GEOSTAR can be used : CSC lithium oxyhalide primary cells
(Electrochem part 3PD0897). Each cell is 150 Ah under 24 V (3,6 kwh) for a weight of 7,8 kg.
We needs 25 or 39 cells for a weight of 195 or 305 kg. In GEOSTAR 2 we have a cylinder
housing 20 cells.
An autonomous observatory could use two GEOSTAR cylinder battery units. These containers
would be connected to the CAU through the Junction box. They will be replaced by the ROV
during maintenance operations without failure of the power (Fig. 2.1).
Figure 7.30. Specific power and energy of different battery cell types. Note high performance of the
lithium chemistries
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206
7.3.1.2 – Fuel Cells.
Research and development related to electricity production by underwater fuel cell systems is
very limited in comparison with efforts devoted to terrestrial applications.
Projects, at least those on which some technical information has been made available, are
restricted to a few units among which a system for AUV energy supply in Japan (JAMSTEC),
another one in Germany for the same purpose and a prototype test system for AUV or fixed
underwater equipment in France (PICOS project).
In all cases the systems are based on the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
technology, which takes advantage of the use of a polymer membrane as solid electrolyte and of
moderate operating temperature around 70 °C.
7.3.1.2.1 - Specific requirements to be complied with by an underwater fuel cell system
Fuel cell systems for underwater applications must comply with a set of specific requirements :
-
-
-
the stack is necessarily supplied both with hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) and must reach a
high level of gas to electricity conversion efficiency so as to reduce as much gas storage
volumes,
the system operates in a confined volume; consequently it has to be inerted with nitrogen
(N2) during stop periods and to be fitted with a refrigerating system to convey heat
produced within the stack to surrounding sea water,
the system must function autonomously, safely and with a high reliability level under the
action of a control and command system installed within the confinement pressure vessel,
the system must prove a high level of endurance compatible with long lasting periods of
operation between intervention as common for sea bottom deployed equipment especially
in deep sea.
7.3.1.2.2 - Fuel cell system architecture for underwater stationary applications
To comply with the specific requirements and constraints imposed by underwater operation, the
fuel cell stack has to be integrated in a multi-component system rather more complex than for
terrestrial applications.
Main subsystems surrounding and servicing the stack comprise :
-
fluid managing equipment,
power managing electronics and buffer battery,
control and command electronics.
All these subsystems are enclosed with the stack in a pressure resistant vessel designed to
sustain the system deployment depth. To this main container are adding :
-
the gas containers for H2, O2 and N2 which have to resist both to internal gas pressure and
outside hydrostatic pressure,
and the set of tubes, valves and pressure reducing devices for delivery of gases to fuel cell
container.
Let us look some more in details at the functions and components of the various subsystems.
206
207
7.3.1.2 2.1. the fluid management system fulfils five main functions :
- to feed stack with H2 and O2 at convenient temperature, pressure and mass flow,
- to manage N2 delivery,
- to manage the water by-produced in the stack,
- to extract the heat power by-produced in the stack.
• Feeding H2 and O2
The subassembly performs the following actions :
-
feeding the stack with gases at regulated pressures,
controlling gas temperature,
recirculating gases in convenient proportion.
• Managing N2
Two actions are fulfilled :
- to pressurise gas circuit at regulated N2 partial pressure,
- to wash and inert gas circuits when stopping energy production.
• Managing by-produced water
By-produced water in the stack O2 channels is separated from re-circulated O2 and stored
before being discharged to surrounding sea water.
• Managing by-produced heat
By-produced heat is extracted from the stack by a closed-loop water circulation and
transferred to surrounding seawater through a heat exchanger in contact with the pressure
resistant vessel wall.
7.3.1.2 2.2 - Power managing electronics and buffer battery. As in any type of electrical
generator, fuel cell stack functioning is characterised by specific features the more relevant
being (Fig.7.31) :
- for a given gas feeding per unit area of basic cell, current intensity is proportional to
cell active area,
- for a given current density, stack voltage is proportional to number of cells,
- cell voltage declines with increasing current density ; along the curve there is point of
optimum gas to electricity conversion, which is not the point of maximum power,
Thus the power rating of a stack around the point of optimum efficiency is both proportional to
the unit cell active area and to the number of cells in series; and so power rating is proportional
to stack voltage.
To comply with a given power need, the best trade-off should be chosen between stack voltage
and cell active area, knowing however that unit cell are only available in a finite number of
active section values, that is cell size cannot be chosen freely on a continuous range.
Also operating the stack at partial or over power with respect to point of optimum efficiency is
detrimental to gas consumption.
There result two consequences :
-
the stack should always be functioning close to its optimum efficiency power level. This
requires the stack to be necessarily coupled to a buffer battery. In periods of low power
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208
-
demand the stack will be run according to stop and go sequences up to full load of buffer
battery. In periods of extra power demand the battery discharge will provide the additional
power.
as cell system auxiliaries or powered equipment require various voltages probably different
from the stack voltage, a set adequate tension converters is needed.
In addition the power electronics pack includes the power distribution and safety functions.
7.3.1.2 2.3 - Control and command electronics ensures the autonomous, safe and reliable
functioning of the fuel cell system.
Its functions include :
-
acquisition of operating and safety monitoring parameters,
management of system regulations,
management of system stop and go,
activation of safety procedures.
7.3.1.2.3- Typical System Characteristics
Let us consider an underwater station with following power needs :
-
mean continuous power : 200 Watt,
autonomy/energy need
1st
3 months
440 kWh
2nd
6 months
880 kWh
7.3.1.2 .3.1- Power production
• Fuel cell stack
Power demand could be met for instance by using a PEM stack with the following
characteristics :
- Unit cell characteristics
. active area
330 cm2
. electrical characteristics at nominal operating point
. current density
0.45 A/cm2
. intensity
150 A
. cell voltage
0.7 V
. cell power
105 W
- Stack characteristics
. number of cells
15
. voltage
10.5 V
. power
1 575 W
. overall dimensions : section : 250 * 250 mm / length : 430 mm
(see Fig. 2.2 & 2.3 for a 12 cell stack).
Taking into account a 10 % power consumption by system auxiliaries, net power delivered to
the underwater station amounts to 1 400 W, resulting in a mean 14 % stack operating time.
• Buffer battery
A non-unique solution could be to couple the stack to a 12 V battery of 200 Ah / 2 400 Wh
useful capacity.
208
209
With 1 200 W available over station consumption to feed the battery, it would take 2 hours to
charge the battery.
Mean 200 W power need would then be delivered during 12 hours by the battery with the stack
being stopped.
7.3.1.2.3.2. - Fuel cell system container. The whole fuel cell system (stack + auxiliaries) is
deemed to be installable inside a pressure resistant vessel of about 0.2 m3 overall volume,
typically a cylinder 1 500 mm long and 400 mm in diameter, with an overall mass of 250 / 350
kg for 3 000 m service depth.
7.3.1.2.3.3 - Gas storage volume under 350 bar pressure would require a set of containers with
an overall volume of 2.5 - 5 m3 for 3 - 6 month autonomy.
Overall mass would amount to 2.5 - 3.5 tons for gas cylinders in high-grade aluminium alloy for
3 000 m service depth.
7.3.1.2.4 Development status and prospects
7.3.1.2.4.1 Fuel cell stack. PEM fuel cell stacks with a fair level of performance regarding both
gas to electricity conversion efficiency are available today.
Further progress remain necessary and operationality proven on two points :
-
stack endurance
The figure of 1 500/2 000 hours is commonly agreed with reference to continuous operation
of the stack, while there exists a lack of experience regarding operating profiles with
repetitive stop and go sequences.
Considering the above system with stack functioning sequence 2 hours on/12 hours off, the
cumulated operating time (14 %) amounts to :
. 300 hours for 3 month autonomy,
. 600 hours for 6 month autonomy;
Those values are well within the commonly agreed endurance range in continuous
operation and should be acceptable, provided that the repetitive on/off operating mode
(150/300 cycles in 3/6 months) does not decrease too much the endurance.
-
stack cost
Stack cost is to day rather high due to fabricating process (for instance, machining cell fluid
channels in carbon plates).
Many R & D actions are underway to remedy this drawback for terrestrial applications,
which could benefit to underwater field.
7.3.1.2.4.2. - Fuel cell system. Reliable and safe operation of a confined PEM fuel cell system
under autonomous control and command has been demonstrated during significant but still
limited durations.
This first achievement should be pursued by long duration pre-operational field demonstrations.
Secondarily further efforts towards more compact system should advantageously be continued.
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210
7.3.1.2.4.3 - Gas storage. At present there is a little experience of H2 and O2 gas storage under
high pressure up to 700 bar in the field of terrestrial applications.
Underwater storage know-how appears to be limited to some theoretical and engineering
analyses and few practical tests of gas bottle resistance under external pressure.
Underwater applications would benefit from the R & D efforts aimed at terrestrial applications,
provided those developments are modified to take into account the specific constraints of
underwater field, that is :
-
resistance to the hydrostatic pressure of service depth
compliance with long duration stays in the corrosive sea water environment.
Fig.7.31 -PEM cell stack – Voltage and power vs current intensity
2
(active area 330 cm ) (PICOS project)
210
211
Fig 7.32 PEM cell stack on laboratory test bench (CEA Grenoble)
(PICOS project)
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7.3.1.3- Diesel engine
To provide high power to a buoy which supplies the seafloor and telemeters, the buoy would be
fitted with diesel generators. While operating diesels on an intermittent basis reduces their longterm reliability, to some degree, it will allow for longs periods of acoustic silence which may be
important in some applications where very low level acoustic signals are being measured. In
general, diesels operate most reliable when run continuously under constant load and
temperature conditions. The U.S. Coast Guard operate its large navigational buoys with diesel
power, and the continuous operation of diesel generators on these buoys for periods of at least 2
to 6 months is well documented. What is required is a constant supply of clean fuel and lube oil.
The typical requirement of industrial or marine diesel generators with integral lube oil sumps is
a service interval of 250 hours. The service usually consists only of changing the lube oil and
changing fuel and oil filters. Given the size of typical integral lube oil sumps, this corresponds
to about 720 hours per litre of lube oil. At least one manufacturer markets a fixed, air cooled
system designed for 2 190 hours service interval with an external 65 litres sump. Clearly a
system could be designed for extended periods by providing the generator with adequate
filtering and lube oil supply. Whether this could be extended to an 8 760 hours service period (1
year) needs to be determined in consultation with manufacturers. Another trade-off that needs to
be studied is that between air-cooling and water-cooling the generator. Air cooling is the
simplest design except that it requires an air flow rate of 0.13 m3/s (10 kW generator) to 2 m3/s
(30 kW generator), thus requiring sizable penetrations through the sides of the buoy. Water
cooling in contrast, could be effected with a “keel-cooler” in thermal contact with the ocean
with no buoy penetrations.
A pair of diesel generators, one acting as a back-up, on the buoy could provide the necessary
power with a good reliability.
7.3.1.4 – Solar energy
The power system requires converting the solar radiation to electrical power, storing it, and
delivering it to the electrical systems of the buoy. Its efficiency has been estimated at 4.3 %.
The solar energy potential varies with latitude, from 27 W/m2 at 51° to 197 W/m2 at 15° by
example. At high latitude, solar array would be adequate only 6 months per year.
Solar radiation could be used for mid-to low latitude sites when a low power is required.
7.3.2 – Cable
If a cable is used to supply energy to the observatory, this cable will be also used to
communicate with the shore station. Characteristics are depending of the type of cable and will
be specified below.
Different types of cables could be used to deploy an observatory :
7.3.2.1 Dedicated submarine Cable
In this case, the use of an International Telecommunications Cable is recommended. It is a
robust proven technology which can be deployed in deep water up to 8 000m. Submarine optical
cable connects the shore station to the Science Node, providing suitable protection to the optical
fibres and the power conductor. The cable will normally house up to 48 fibres, the number
depending on the degree of Wavelength Division Multiplexing and redundancy that is
employed. There are many types of optical fibre available today that are already qualified for
use in submarine cable. The choice would depend on the distance between the shore station and
the Science Node, the number of optical channels per fibre and the transmission rate and format.
Submarine Cables provide varying degrees of protection depending on the deployment depth,
seabed conditions and local hazards (fig. 2.4). This is achieved through varying levels of
external protection. (See fig. 2.5). The single power conductor can support a 12kV power
voltage.
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20m
Surface lay
200m
DA
DA
SA
SA
DA
Cable Xing
Burial to 1000m
Beach
Poor Burial
Rocky Ground
Moving sediment
etc
SA
Optional Burial to
1000m
LW
From 1000m
Fig.7.33. Cable route engineering
Fig. 7.34. - Various cable mechanical structures of communication used in various environmental conditions
The protection provided by the cable alone is insufficient to protect it against repeated
aggression such as entanglement with fishing trawls or ships anchors. It is standard practice
today to carefully plan the route of the submarine cable avoiding where possible both natural
and man-made hazards and risks. An initial "Desk-Top" study is carried out looking at existing
information and by visiting possible cable landing sites. A marine survey of the most promising
route is then conducted looking at :
•
•
•
•
Bathymetry – the shape of the sea-bed,
Side scan sonar data – the surface details of the seabed,
Sub-bottom profiler data – The sub surface material of the sea-bed,
Samples – physical analysis of the sea bed material,
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•
•
•
Current and temperature – The dynamic conditions over the sea-bed,
Fishing and near-shore activity – Human impact on the route,
Other existing or planned submarine cables and pipe-lines.
A route is then engineered from the survey swath data, both geophysical and geo-technical, to
ensure that the route is optimised with regard to : steep slopes, inhospitable seabed, in-service
cable and pipeline crossing angles, seabed debris, burial potential, and the limits of the possible
installation vessel and tools. Where necessary and where the seabed structure allows, the
submarine cable is typically buried to depths d with ploughs that can bury the cable quickly and
safely down to 3 meters directly during installation, at rates of between 4 and 40kms per day.
(See Fig. 7.35 and fig. 7.36).
Fig 7.35 - Latest Generation Cable Ship
Fig 7.36. Cable burying meter plough
A permit has to be requested from concerned countries in accordance with international
regulation. Figure 7.37 shows the track of the cable for the MARS observatory chosen to avoid
dangerous locations.
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Fig. 7.37– Track of the cable for the MARS Observatory, avoiding canyon
The cable is connected to the observatory node through a junction box. Constraints are :
Trawler Resistant Frame
Connection to the Cable
Electrical Power Converters
10 kV to 400 V and 400 V to 48 V
Data Communications
To and from Shore Station
To and from Science Instruments
Science Instrument Ports
Accessible by ROV
Wet-Mate Connectors
Serviceable Science Module
Decoupled and Recoverable by ROV
Different architectures are possible for the junction box. Figure 7.38 shows a design from
Alcatel. Fig. 7.39 shows another design from IFREMER, derived from the ANTARES junction
box.
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Fig. 7.38 - Example of junction box nnode proposed by Alcatel
Table 7.5 - Typical Science Node Specification
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Maximum Operating Depth
8 000 m
Supply Voltage
10,000 VDC
Total Power Available
10,000 W
Internal Power Load
< 500 W
Shore to Node Communications
2.5 Gb/s or 1 Gb/s
Number of SIPs
8
Instrument Distance from SIP
<1000 m
SIP Voltage
48 VDC or 400 VDC
SIP Data Communications
Ethernet 10/100Mb/s or Serial
Extension Capability
100 km / 1 Gb/s
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Fig. 7.39 Junction box derived from the Antares project
7.3.2.3.Use of decommissioned telecom cable
It is technically feasible
• assuming a donation from a Telecom Company (liabilities)
• may require a "special" node for long systems
• Long term support may be an issue
The VENUS project used a decommissioned cable between Okinawa and Guam. It works only
during one month due to critical technical problems.
7.3.2.4. Branch on a future telecom cable
It is technically feasible but some routes are currently saturated (North Atlantic)
It may be difficult to implement with Consortia of Buyers:
Different expectations
Service affecting operations not allowed
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7.3.3 Communication segments
7.3.3.1.- RF link
Communications from a surface buoy to shore are well known (see Annex 4 "Telemetry").
There are a number of different data transmission systems that could be used for data transfer.
Close to the coast RF (radio) transmitter or GSM phones are most favourable. Where satellite
systems become necessary ARGOS, ORBCOMM, INMARSAT and IRIDIUM are mostly in
use. The following table and figure 2;11 shows a comparison between theses systems :
Table 7.6: Comparison between different satellite transmission systems
System
1
Orbit1
Mode
Data rate
Inmarsat D+
Pager
GEO
< 1 kbyte/day
GOES, Meteosat
Messaging
GEO
< 5 kbyte/day
Argos
Messaging
LEO
< 5 kbyte/day
Inmarsat C
Messaging
GEO
< 10 kbyte/day
Orbcomm
Messaging
LEO
< 50 kbyte/day
Iridium
Voice
Big LEO
1 Mbyte/hr
GEO – geostationary orbit, LEO – Low earth orbit
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global
Argos
Iridiu
Orbcomm
?
?
New ICO
??
Inmarsat
D+
GOES,
etc
Ocean
DataLink
???
Globalstar
??
regional
0.1
1
10
100
data rate (kbyte/day)
Fig 7.40 : Coverage and data throughput of various satellite communication systems
Fig. 7.41 Project INGAS Measurement of water pore pressures,
University of Bremen, Denkmanufaktur:
Example - IRIDIUM Data Throughput Capabilities, 1 MByte within 70 minutes
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7.3.3.2 - Underwater links
For transmission below the water surface there are three alternatives for data transmission:
Acoustic telemetry,
inductive data transfer
EM or EOM cable.
The characteristics are listed in the following table :
Table 7.7: Comparison of different transmission technologies
Acoustic
High power demand
(typically 100 J/KByte)
Low data throughput, high
BER (10-4), half duplex
Highly flexible, no
restrictions on mooring
design
Independent of power
supply
Limited range (~ 6 km)
Inductive
Low Power demand ( ~10
J/KByte)
Low data throughput, medium
BER (10-6), full duplex
Certain restrictions are
applicable but first promising
experiences exist
May be combined with power
supply ( 20 W)
Limited range (~ 6 km)
Cable EM or EOM
Extremely low power demand
High data throughput,
extremely low BER
High restrictions on mooring
design. Not well proven
Power supply easy to
implement (up to 100’s W)
Repeater free range ~ 200 km
To achieve maximum flexibility in the mooring design acoustic modem transmission would be
the best choice. But the limited data throughput and the high power demand are imposing
certain constrictions on an all acoustic design. Therefore combinations of different techniques
should be pursued. At least acoustic telemetry should be considered as a backup path for
transmitting data to the surface.
7.3.3.4. - Messengers
The idea of sending messengers to the surface was first tested on a Japanese seafloor
observatory as an emergency transmission system for seismic events. The messengers are inside
glass containers and transmit their data once at the sea surface through satellite communication.
In the European project GEOSTAR, the Messenger Communication System (MCS), consists of
a set of buoyant data capsules, the messengers (MES), which carry the data to the surface with a
typical periodicity of one to two months, and either transmit their data via the ARGOS satellite
system, or are recovered by a ship on the experiment site.
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Fig. 7.42. The GEOSTAR Messenger Communication System.
Fig. 7.43. The GEOSTAR Messenger Communication System.
Two data structures are to be transmitted through the MCS : the Summary Messages and the
Data Records.
The Summary Messages are data packages of a maximum size of around 600 bytes generated
every day. They are composed of several data blocks corresponding to each instrument on the
BS and to a certain number of technical operating parameters of the BS. The instrumental data
blocks only contain statistical values derived from the measures. Summary Messages are
transferred to the Expendable Messenger in activity. With a memory capacity of 32/64
Kilobytes, each Expendable-Messenger can store about 30/60 Summary Messages, that is the
data generated in one/two months.
The Data Records are data packages of a maximum size of around 800 Kilobytes generated
every hour. They are composed of several data blocks corresponding to each instrument of the
BS. The block size and the nature of the data contained depend on the volume of data produced
by the equipment. Every one out of N records is transferred to the Storage Messenger in activity.
With a memory capacity of 40 Megabytes, each Storage-Messenger can store about 40 Data
Records.
The MCS is composed of four main sub-systems :
-
the Messenger Drive Unit (MDU) : it is the intelligent electronic unit, which manages the
data transfer from the Bottom-Station to the Messengers and controls their release.
-
the Messengers (MES) : they are the vehicles used to bring the data to the surface. Basically
the MES are pressure resistant housings with positive buoyancy, which contain the
electronics which manages the data transfer and storage, an ARGOS emitter and antenna,
and the powering batteries. MES are of two types :
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-
The Expendable Messengers (MES-E) are released on alarms or when their memory
capacity is full. When reaching the sea surface they deliver their data through the ARGOS
satellite system, and then are considered as non-reusable equipment.
-
The Storage Messengers (MES-S) are released by an acoustic command sent from a ship on
the site of the experiment. They are localized by the ARGOS system or goniometry,
recovered by the ship and their data unit is extracted and read on a microcomputer.
-
The Acoustic-Transmission-System (ATS): it is the acoustic link and equipment by which
the command to release a MES-S is sent to the BS. It also allows the operator to recover a
summary of the registered data.
-
The ARGOS-Transmission-System: this sub-system transfers the data load of a MES-E to
the exploitation shore-station.
Seven messengers of each type have been manufactured and used satisfactorily during the
projects GEOSTAR 1 and GEOSTAR 2.
The dramatic increase of storage capacities during the last 5 years made the GEOSTAR
Ifremer/Orca/Tecnomare design obsolete. The potential of stored data is now of the order of
several Gbytes. The satellite transmissions are a limiting factor. At least as a back-up for
communication in hazard areas, messengers may constitute a key component for future seafloor
observatories.
7.3.4 - Connectors
It was demonstrated in the early 80’s by military projects and civilian projects of deep sea
submersibles that the electrical connectors are the weak points of underwater systems. Since
then, technology improvements have been substantiated with more than one hundred patents. It
was then possible to design various architectures of distributed systems. The monohull systems
were not very suited for underwater equipments with multiple functions such as subsea wells in
the offshore industry. New products were then developed by several manufacturers. They were
obliged to meet for instance MIL standards in United-States and the failure rates were
diminished.
In the mean time, the underwater communication cable industry has always tried to avoid
connectors. The underwater links between cables (for one cable, for Y branches, for repeaters or
after repair) are built on the cable-ship, following a well established procedure operated by
specially trained crew. They are lowered to the seabed where no other connection is necessary.
When underwater observatory projects are launched for a long term objective of 15 years or
more, one must keep in mind that the reference of telecommunication cables as a mature
technology for such durations is not including connectors.
The electrical and now electro-optical connectors are key components allowing a design with
various subsystems. This is not avoidable for versatile seafloor observatories. Nevertheless, the
unnecessary connections must still be avoided when not completely necessary.
The market of underwater connectors is held by approximately twenty manufacturers, each of
them having special products. The qualification of a connector design and the control of even
manufacturing requires very cautious methods.
7.3.4.1.Qualification
After several costly accidents, Ifremer have followed a double testing program between 1996
and 2002. One program was dedicated to a qualification towards the safety requirements of the
manned submersible Nautile. It included a complete reliability and safety study including
qualification of all the components, materials and tests in normal or damaged mode. The
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experience of some failures showed the necessity to qualify also the bulkhead side of the
connectors in "open face" : in case of water entering a cable, this component must be pressure
resistant and watertight in order to stop the water ingress. Some of the tests are applied to every
connector before installation. Some connectors, manufactured in the same set as those mounted
on the submersible, are cycled at least 200 cycles ahead of the mounted ones.
For unmanned equipments, a second program was applied to 12 deep water connector types
from 6 manufacturers. The following tests were performed at least on two pieces for each type:
Table 7.8. Qualification of subsea connectors (Ifremer procedure 31 ST 19).
1) Non-destructive control of
materials
2) Dielectric characteristics
3) Isolation resistance
4) Contact resistance
5) Environment tests
6) Pressure strength
7) Cyclic tests
8) Creep tests
9) Dielectric characteristics
10) Isolation resistance
11) Non-destructive testing of
materials
12) Enduring test
(2 U + 1 000) volts
>5 103 MΩ
< 15 mΩ
According to standard NF X 10 800
24h at Ptest = 1.5 * Pservice,
at service temperature
1 000 cycles at service pressure
500 hours at service pressure
(2 U + 1000) volts
>5 103 MΩ
500 cycles of connection/disconnection
U is the maximum voltage of use in service.
From such experience, some limits of connectors were determined. In order to evaluate the
safety factor, one piece for each connector type fulfilling the tests was brought to its failure
pressure.
Figure 7.44 Sections through bulkhead connectors after test.
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Fig 7.45 Failure modes of some connectors for the deep sea (rated 6000m waterdepth)
7.3.4.2.Penetrators
Penetrators do not allow plugging and unplugging. They nevertheless include a bulkhead
component similar to the one of a connector, so that water ingress in one pressure resistant
housing is not transmitted to the others. Some of the failure modes are the same.
Due to the limits of underwater connectors, the Antares project made the choice to purchase
cables with penetrators for the lines between detectors.
7.3.4.3. Underwater pluggable connectors
The manufacturing of underwater pluggable connectors was one of the technological
enhancements that allow modular underwater observatories. They were used first in the offshore
industry for shallow water. In academic research, the French-US borehole observatory
Hydrogeo in the Barbados accretion prism area used a first generation of OD-Blue connectors to
connect the ODP drilling rod to the monitoring equipment. It was left on site for more than one
year and the connection was ensured by a submersible (Alvin and Nautile) to retrieve the data
through the "cork".
The same connector was used in the mechanical design of the Geostar messengers sending
information to the surface from the 4 000 m observatory. Its reliability was not acceptable and
limited the extension of use of this concept. OD-Blue is no longer manufactured.
Among other companies providing connectors for offshore industry, Seacon and Ocean Design
are also proposing underwater pluggable connectors for the deep sea. Based on various patented
designs, they use the principle of an oil filled receptacle where the male pins are inserted. It is
pressure compensated and avoids a contact with seawater.
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Fig 7.46, Underwater mateable connector
Adaptor sleeve to allow
access for umbilical
Fibre interconnect handling
and storage based on existing
piece parts
Standard single gland
bulkhead and gland
ODI
penetrator
Standard cable
termination and
couplings at both
ends
For manifold solutions –
Double feed-through bulkhead modified to
take ODI penetrator plus standard ASN gland
For last mile solutions –
Single feed-through bulkhead modified to take
ODI penetrator only.
Fig 7.47 Detail of underwater mateable connector
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7.3.3.4. Cable assembly
The link between the cable and the plug of a connector is a weak point. The mounting and
overmoulding process must be perfectly mastered by the manufacturer. It is a good practice to
ask the manufacturer a training phase for his personnel on the actual cable and connector
elements. Then a destructive testing will determine the ability of this personnel to produce the
cable assembly. An assembly with a different cable is not a proof that can be accepted. This is
especially true for fibre optic cables where an attenuation measurement at both ends is a good
way to check that no additional stress is supported by the fibre.
Several connector problems have been encountered by subsea observatory projects in United
States, Europe and Japan. Such failures are only considered as incidents on ROV or short term
deployment equipment. They have more dramatic consequences on long term automated
deployments. Typical tests to try to overcome these reliability problem were performed before
the purchase of Antares connectors.
Fig. 7.48 Complete equipment under test. Two connectors, two penetrators and 300m cable length.
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Fig. 7.49 Connection and disconnection tests under pressure are prepared with a
complete equipment (cable and connector) and testing devices: actuators to simulate
ROV handling and camera for viewing.
The qualification of electro-optical connectors includes :
- environment tests – 50°C during 96 h – Thermal shock from 50°C to 12°C –
- Mechanical environment tests – vibrations in connected configuration or disconnected
configuration –
- Pressure tests during 10 cycles at 1.2 times the working pressure. The connection and
disconnection is performed 30 times under pressure. A control of the attenuation of the
signal through the fibre optic connection is continuously tested.
The connector design of one manufacturer has been complying the tests for 2 500 m water
depth.
Conclusion
The connectors are necessary for the system architecture of modular underwater observatories.
The technology exists for long term deployment, it is also available for wet pluggable electric or
electro-optic connectors. The reliability of these components is nevertheless among the most
difficult technical problem faced by subsea observatories. Intensive tests are needed for
qualification and control of the connectors provided.
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Fig. 7.50 – Wet connection on the Antares junction box
7.3.5 Materials for subsea observatories
The material choices were a difficult issue for the telecommunication cable industry. Cable
thread protection, polyethylene sheathing, glass epoxy composite repeaters were developed and
now allow high performances.
The material choice for long term underwater deployment requires the experience of specialized
designers and in some cases analysis of experts. A lot of knowledge was acquired through
offshore, academic and military projects. The material providers are seldom aware of the
behaviour of their products in long term seawater exposure: the quantity produced for this
market is most of the time negligible with respect to the overall production.
Research is active in the field of materials in marine environment. The processes of corrosion
and especially biofouling are requiring tests and theoretical studies. Some projects such as
Neptune Canada are planning R&D activities on materials in parallel to the subsea observatory
design and first deployments. EC funded projects have been devoted to materials in Marine
environment: Composite Housing, BRIE, BRIMON.
The hydrothermal environment is very corrosive. High temperature and high pressure systems
may be encountered with black or white smokers. Hydrogen sulphide, a vast host of metal-rich
sulphide minerals, carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen are present. Other places are rich in
chlorides and metals. The monitoring by seafloor observatories will bring very interesting
scientific data on biodiversity, ecological processes, and time related variations of chemical or
physical parameters. Specific tests are required to check the design of the observatory. The EC
FP6 project Exocet/D includes such tests.
The deployment of subsea observatories in the continental margins means a long immersion at
pressures of 2000 to 6000 dbar. This is considered as “ultra-deep” because it exceeds the usual
offshore oil industry standards. Under such pressures, some design parameters and some
material behaviours have not been tested yet. Therefore, extra tests and studies may be required.
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7.3.5.1.Use of metals
For subsea observatories intended to be deployed during more than 10 years, the choice of
metallic materials for structural design is limited.
Steel with cathodic protection is the standard solution. Rules of the offshore industry may be
applied. For the deep sea, cathodic protection parameters have to be modified: Joint Industry
Projects between oil industry companies and research institutes are addressing this matter. The
cathodic protection required must be limited by a preliminary protection by Zn and painting
according to a process guaranteed by the manufacturer. The control and exchange of anodes will
represent a maintenance cost that must be accounted for in the operating costs.
Stainless steel. Common stainless steel is liable of cavernous corrosion and must be prohibited.
Some minor pieces may be built with 316L. Grades designed for seawater corrosion (904,
superduplex,…) are not so common and are quite expensive.
Nickel alloys.Several grades of Nickel based alloys are available and constitute safe solutions:
Inconel 625, Hastelloy C22,…
Titanium alloys The Titanium alloys have been one of the technical enhancement allowing
deep underwater intervention. Their extensive use is only limited by the cost. For subsea
observatories, the experience of Geostar housings designed by Ifremer and built by Tecnomare
with a Russian manufacturer is a good example.
Unalloyed titanium (T40) is used when the mechanical requirements are not stringent.
Alloys in alpha-beta phase such as 6% Aluminium and 4% Vanadium (or equivalent Russian
grades) are a reliable solution.
One drawback of titanium alloys is their electrochemical potential which may corrode other
metals. It is suggested to protect it by painting for instance to limit its active surface.
Bronze.Among copper alloys, some have a good behaviour for long time exposure to seawater.
They may have the advantage of intrinsic biofouling protection by release of copper ions.
Aluminium alloys of several kinds are a solution for underwater components. The serie 5000 is
not prone to heavy corrosion and may be used unprotected. The powder produced by corrosion
may be a disturbance for some very precise measurements of particles in the abyss. The 6000
serie and to some extend 7000 serie (with better mechanical performances) are used with hard
anodizing specified for marine application. A cathodic protection with Aluminium-Indium
alloys anodes is ensuring long term endurance.
7.3.5.2.Use of thermoplastic materials
Thermoplastic materials have the great advantage to suffer no electrochemical corrosion. Their
limitation of use is due to the water ingress and creep. Thermoplastics with brittle behaviour can
only be used in special configurations.
They are used in cable sheathing and overmoulding, for light mechanical pieces, electrical
insulation, o-rings view ports for cameras and water-tightness components.
Due to the creep characteristics, the load must not be permanent for equipments immersed a
long time such as subsea observatories.
PEEK or PCTFE have exceptional behaviours but are quite expensive, they are only
manufactured into small pieces in sensors and instrumentation.
Polyurethane is commonly used, but its formula must be especially suited for long term
seawater exposure. The polyether type of molecule has acceptable performances. The
components of polyurethane and of most thermoplastic materials are changing quite often due to
environment regulations and medical regulations for the workers. This may lead to perform
again acceptance tests or tests on mechanical characteristics.
In general, characteristics for under-water ageing is dependent on the crystalline to amorphous
ratio.
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However, the improvement of these materials is very promising and may lead to light weight
equipments with long immersion potentials.
7.3.5.3. Use of composite materials
The high mechanical characteristics of composite materials and the lack of corrosion are
excellent arguments for their use at sea.
In long term sea floor deployments, these performances have been demonstrated. In the telecom
cable industry, repeaters in glass epoxy have been produced and used for the last twenty years
by Alcatel for instance. Components of sensor strings implemented in underwater wells, by
industrial companies such as Schlumberger or academic institutes like Ifremer, have shown their
cost effectiveness.
In these applications, thick glass epoxy is machined and used as any material.
Resin
The plastic matrix to be reinforced by fibres must be well tested. The criteria are, as such, a
R&D issue in : water ingress, creep, shock, ageing of matrix-fibre interface. The choice of
epoxy and vinyl-esther is acceptable. Other matrices such as polyester are not recommended.
The production methods (responsible of the void ratio) and chemical components are changing
according to the manufacturer. The qualification is specific, unfortunately existing standards are
not sufficient.
A good example of methodology was given by the EC project Composite Housing.
Glass fibres
The reinforcement by glass fibre is providing good performances for the long term. The high
glass/matrix ratios are giving better hydrostatic pressure and compressive strength (70 - 80 % in
mass). The use of S or R glass for the fibre and the choice of manufacturing method such as
filament winding, fabric prepreg, injection have been qualified in several design of underwater
equipment.
The lander MAP 2 using a glass-epoxy hull and several glass-epoxy components such as
amplificating flexural springs for release has shown its performances for two years deployments
in the deep sea (Mast - Alipor project). On offshore oil production templates, more and more
equipments include glass-epoxy elements.
Carbon fibres
Lighter structures may be designed using carbon fibres. Under tensile or flexural strength design
criteria, the additional cost finds good arguments. It is more limited for structures dimensioned
by the compressive strength.
The feasibility of carbon epoxy pressure hulls has been demonstrated by the EC project
Composite Housing.
Syntactic foam
A composite material made up with very small hollow glass spheres inside a plastic matrix is
able to provide buoyant material. It has been qualified for full water depth floats as well as pipe
insulation material.
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7.3.5.5. Use of brittle materials
Brittle materials such as glass or ceramics have exceptional compressive strength. But any
tensile or shear stress may lead to rupture.
They are used for electric insulation in connectors with a very stringent manufacturing process.
Glass spheres are often used for the buoyancy necessary during deployment phases of subsea
observatories. They are a major component of landers and used as instrument containers (on
seismometers of GEOSTAR, neutrino detectors of ANTARES,…). The rules for deep sea
manned submersibles from the international committee PVHO (Pressure Vessels for Human
Occupancy vehicles) have banned the glass spheres in the vicinity of a submersible. It is still the
rule for submersible Nautile, Alvin and Shinkai and a few ROV such as ROPOS in Canada.
Brittle materials may be used provided a reliability study based on their probability of failure.
The Weibull coefficient must be determined for this purpose.
The complete interoperability of deep sea intervention underwater vehicles will have to address
the acceptance or not of glass spheres.
7.3.5.5. Biofouling
Any material immersed in seawater will be covered by a first biofilm layer. From this layer and
thanks to its bonding characteristics, a microscopic fauna will initiate colonization by all kind of
living species. This phenomena is site dependent and must be analyzed case by case for long
term deployment of subsea observatories. The EC project Mispec have proposed a method of
evaluation of biofilm on optical components: the Biopam. EC projects BRIE and BRIMON have
developped and tested protections for oceanographic instruments.
The main idea is to release biocide from a coating or by active production. The limitation is to
avoid the use of forbiden substances such as TBT.
When biofouling is a main issue for the instruments on a subsea observatory, a specific study
with in-situ tests is necessary: it has been done for neutrino observatories sites such as Antares
and is underway in EC FP6 project Exocet/D.
232
7.3 - Deployment and maintenance analysis
Within Europe a number of systems appropriate for deployment and access to subsea
observatories have already been developed. These are reviewed below.
7.3.1 - Existing European tools
7.3.1.1 – FRANCE Nautile
Nautile is a three man submersible operated by IFREMER that has been used in pioneering
work on deployment of observatory arrays in the Mediterranean Sea.
Fig. 7.51. The Nautile 3-man submersible
233
The Nautile provides the following functional features :
-
Direct viewing, via three portholes with a wide field of vision and six floodlights providing
both colour range and restitution.
Video and still camera shots.
Object detection on panoramic sonar.
Manipulation and sampling using two arms and an isothermal basket (retractable).
Carrying additional equipment, special tools or sampling capacity increase.
Surface positioning using either a long baseline system (beacons on sea bed) or an ultrashort baseline system (sensor aboard the support ship).
In-vehicle positioning combining measurements of distance to beacons with position
reckoning made using the measurements of the submersible speed and attitude.
Acquisition and recording on board the vehicle of navigational data and measurements
taken by its sensors: altitude, pressure, temperature, heading, speed and time.
Preparing, monitoring, archiving and examining data with VEMO+ and ADELIE software.
And, as options :
Rather than the sampling basket, it is possible to install the Robin (ROBot d'Inspection du
Nautile), a small robot remotely controlled from the Nautile, used for surveying, inspecting
filming and taking photos of areas that are not accessible by the submersible,
Standard or special tools can be developed and taken on board upon request.
Technical characteristics :
The Nautile is quite lightweight in relation to its performance, and it can be launched from a
support ship of relatively light tonnage and it is easily manœuvrable.
Working depth: 6 000 m.
Weight (for a 6 000 m dive) : 19.50 t
Dimensions :
length: 8.00 m
width: 2.70 m
height: 3.81 m
Manned sphere :
crew: 3 men
inside diameter: 2.10 m
material: titanium alloy
portholes: 3 (120 mm in diameter)
Lead-acid battery power ; capacity at 6000 m :
37 kWh in 230 V
6.5 kWh in 28 V
Pitch and trim control adjusted by mercury pump : ± 8°
Main propulsion : 1 adjustable axial thruster
longitudinal displacement speed: 1.7 knots
radius of action at 1.5 knots: 7.5 km
Auxiliary propulsion : 1 transversal bow thrusters
1 transversal aft thruster
2 vertical thrusters
Autonomy (working on seafloor) at 6000 m : 5 h
Remote control handling/manipulation :
1 handling arm movable up to 4 degrees (+ claw opening and closing)
234
1 manipulator arm movable to 6 degrees (+ claw opening and closing)
Hydraulic units : 2
Communications :
undersea telephone while diving
VHF transceiver on the surface
Equipment :
1 altitude sounder
1 sediment sounder
1 panoramic sonar
2 colour 3-CCD video cameras
1 still camera photo with 300 and 600 J flashes
1 digital still camera
two 650 W iodine floodlights
five 400 W H.M.I. floodlights
1 data acquisition and navigation unit
1 sampling basket
Scientific equipment payload : 200 kg
Safety :
additional life support: 120 h
9 emergency pyrotechnic devices
1 emergency locating device
Payload
A waterproof box is provided outside the vehicle for scientific equipment and it presents the
following characteristics :
Gross available volume : 330 x 350 x 300
Possible mounting of a 4U 3/4 19", 180-deep rack
Power supplies : 240 VDC and 28 VDC
Links to the sphere :
4 built-in remote controls
1 pre-cabled link with 5 single wires and 1 armored pair for ground bus
Shipboard installation
The Nautile can be taken on board two French oceanographic vessels : the Nadir and l’Atalante.
Both ships are equipped with a 20 t stern A-frame that is used to safely lower and hoist the
submersible
The Nautile's operational crew comprises at least 8 men.
235
7.3.1.2 – FRANCE Victor
Fig. 7.52. The Victor 6000m Remotely Operated Vehicle
Victor, dedicated to scientific ocean research, is a deepwater, remote-controlled system. It is
instrumented, modular, can perform high quality optical imaging and can carry and operate
various equipment and scientific tools.
The lower part of the vehicle is composed of an instrumented scientific module which can be
changed according to the type of assignment. It contains most of the instrumentation as well as
the sampling basket. This modular system can also be enhanced and used as a technological
platform for new equipment.
Fig 7.53 Victor Deployment configuration
Vehicle technical specifications
Working depth : 6,000 m
Thrust : 200 kg in all directions
Speed : 1.5 knots
Cameras :
1 main 3-CCD camera with zoom and direction-finder
2 piloting cameras
5 additional colour cameras
Lighting : 8 flood lights totalling 5 kW
Sensors :
236
Attitude
pressure depth
altitude
sonar
log
Manipulators :
one 7-function manipulator arm, lifting 100 kg
one 5-function grasping arm, lifting 100 kg
Variable ballast system: 70 litres at 2 litres/mn at 600 bars
On-board system overview
UW positioning and navigation with POSIDONIA USBL
The VICTOR 6000 can be taken aboard the 2 French research vessels L'Atalante and La
Thalassa or on ships of opportunity.
Fig. 7.54 Victor aboard F.S. Polarstern
7.3.1.3- Germany QUEST ROV
Fig. 7.55. The QUEST on the FS Meteor
Fig 7.56. The toolskids
Telemetry via 1 SM fibre
237
2 ASR SeaNet HUBs:
60 transparent data channels
16 simultan. video channels
Capabilities for science missions :
- data telemetry : 60 (40 available) RS232 channels, 8 RS485
- vision telemetry : 16 simultaneous video channels
- dynamic positioning and auto control functions
- hydraulic power 3 000 psi @ 9 gpm for hydraulic tooling
- 16 kW spare power reserve, 8 kW lighting upgrade will be installed
- 250 kg payload (without toolskid installed)
- Quick-connect toolskid concept for easy installation of scientific
equipment and adaption to other existing toolskids
- drawtable-concept with 2x platform for variable experiment or samplebox installation
SPP 1144 video/acoustic upgrade
- 2.4 kW light (incand. And HMI)
- Atlas 3CCD colorzoom camera
- ScorpioPlus Digital still
- 2 Insite 150 Ws flashlights
acoustic homer system
3 laser beam units
RDI Doppler Velocity Log:
Water velocity, Bottom velocity, Bottom displacement: XYZ ( cm
esolution)
Kongsberg Scanning Sonar
Hydraulic circuits:
1 HPU 3000psi @ 9gpm - 4 compensation circuits
Initial hydraulic tools:
7-f Orion Master-Slave Arm, Position controlled
5-f Rigmaster, Rate controlled, 250 kg payload
Fig. 7.57. ASR ORION 7 function arm
Fig. 7.58. ASR RIGMASTER 5 function arm
Data processing
Data acquisition with WERUM realtime data base
UW positioning and navigation with POSIDONIA USBL
238
DVL log based navigation to be installed (DVLNAV-WHOI)
Post processing with ADELIE GIS and Video tool by IFREMER
239
7.3.1.4 – United Kingdom ISIS ROV
Fig. 7.59 ISIS ROV
3.1.5 - MODUS
Nautile, Victor, Quest and ISIS are multipurpose underwater vehicles capable of a variety of
functions. MODUS has been specifically developed for deployment and recovery of sea floor in
the GEOSTAR programmes. In view of its specialist function it is described detail.
3.1.5.1 - Mobile Docker
The Mobile Docker named MODUS (MObile Docker for Underwater Sciences) is basically a
special, simplified version of a Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV), capable to deploy at seafloor
heavy payloads (GEOSTAR -Bottom Station) and subsequently recover them as a ship-born
procedure. Within GEOSTAR 2 the Mobile Docker was enhanced to be operable in a water
depth of 4 000 m. The design and the concept are based on the design of the Mobile Docker
developed through the GEOSTAR 1 project. The enhanced version called MODUS is equipped
with four main thrusters ensuring mobility on the horizontal plane [x, y], while the winch of the
used vessel regulates the descent/ascent [z]. Two additional thrusters are dedicated to motion
stability reasons. These thrusters are orientated vertically at the bow and the aft of MODUS. By
means of acoustic, visual and other instrumental systems of the R/V used MODUS is capable to
locate the pre-determined installation area or find the BS on the seafloor for retrieval.
Fig. 7.61 shows the complete structure of the system development of MODUS. All details and
the preliminary planning for the Technical Mission and Deployment Mission of the BS will be
documented in parts below.
The whole operation of deployment and recovery can be divided into eight steps, the ones of the
recovery procedure are shown in Fig. 7.62.
Deployment
1
Shipborn preparation of MODUS and BS separately. Coupling of MODUS and the BS
using a clutch that consists out of the pin (BS) and the latch device (MODUS). First the
termination of the umbilical (including fiber optic and power supply) of the ship winch is
mounted to the gear on top of MODUS and the power and data lines have to be
connected. The MODUS is lifted and positioned over the BS and lowered until the Latch
device catches the pin that is mounted on top of the BS. The MODUS has to meet the BS
240
in a predefined angular position [x, y] that allows the mounting of the electrical
connector (MODUS - BS) and the four antirotation devices. Final system checks have to
be executed.
2
Deployment of MODUS-BS assembly from the dynamically positioned vessel. Surface
position will be determined by means of GPS or dGPS. During deployment MODUS
provides information of the angular position [x, y], and x, y-tilt of the system via the
fiber optic telemetry. An altimeter will measure the distance to the seafloor. A sonar
system will detect the BS on the seafloor. Approaching the BS sited on the seafloor the
MODUS-operator will have support by two cameras. Dependent to the visibility of the
sea the MODUS cameras will provide information of the site when the whole system is
next to the seafloor and/or the BS. Approach to the seafloor is also supported by the echo
sounder of the BS.
3
Once the MODUS-BS assembly has reached the seafloor all the functional checks can be
performed. Cameras will assist to control complete BS-deployment actuation of the
release of the seismometers and of the two magnetometer booms. Through the umbilical
FO-lines the surface operator can interact with the system and verify all functions.
4
Detachment of MODUS from the BS and recovery of MODUS to the vessel.
Recovery
5
Ship-born preparation of MODUS. Using DP and dGPS the vessel has to be positioned in
the place where the deployment of the BS took place.
6
Deployment of MODUS next to the seafloor (10 m). Finding the BS through the Sonar
system in the range of 300 m, MODUS approaches the BS in a vertical distance of 5 m to
the BS with the use of the thrusters (analogic to the deployment phase).
7
Final lowering of MODUS when in position and docking of the BS to MODUS using the
Latch device.
8
Recovery of the whole MODUS-BS system.
General Concept of Specification, Design and Manufacturing
MODUS is designed to operate at a maximum water depth of 4 000 m. Total weight of the
MODUS-BS assembly is 4.0 ton in air, the part of MODUS is about 1 ton, the part of the BS 3
ton in air that is 2,2 ton in water (0,7 ton MODUS ; 1,5 ton BS). Therefore the shear strength of
the seafloor should not be too low. Sea state for shallow water operation has to be sea state 2.
Sea state 3 will be an upper limit for operation because of some sensors located in the BS for the
scientific mission. Typical wave values assumed for e.g. USTICA site were determined H.s =
1 m, T. min = 4 s. Simulations for the dynamic behaviour of the entire system (R/V, umbilical
and MODUS) have been performed by the project partner Tecnomare. Slope of the test site has
to be a flat lying sealer with a maximum inclination of 5°. Dimensions of MODUS and BS
should allow transportation with standard lorries. Endurance of MODUS thruster operation is
not terminated – it has total at least one hour. At an operation depth (shallow water 200 m) the
maximum operation range of MODUS has a diameter of about 10 % of water depth. Operation
radius at 3 400 m water depth is about 100 m with the provided power of 20 kW. Limiting
current for a basic operation is assumed of 0.5 m/s. Fig. 7.63 shows the subtasks with the
internal project code. The first number is the similar to the last of the WP-code, the last on to the
location (1 ship-born, 2 sub-sea) : For better understanding of the whole design concept, the
manufacturing and the assembly an extensive description and documentation including photos
and prints is given below. The general plan of the sub-sea unit gives a quick survey about the
main components used, Fig. 7.64. This includes the two pairs of thrusters for the lateral and
vertical movement, the sonar system, cameras and lighting for the orientation, altimeter for
241
seafloor distance measurement, the latch device and the pressure boxes. The boxes are dedicated
to different purposes as follows :
- Power – P-Box : Transformer, compensation unit and power distribution.
- Telemetry – T-Box : dedicated to the telemetry unit.
- Electronic – E-Box : Contains all control components and sensors.
- Distribution – D-Box : Thruster electronics and power units.
Surface Unit
The control centre for the intervention system MODUS consists of three units :
- the video rack,
- the control rack and the
-sonar rack.
A standard 19"-rack-design was used for the units, that are located in scientific mission control
room on board the ship. The racks are housing video recorders, monitors, two computers for
data logging and control purposes, the control panel showing all data transferred via telemetry
from MODUS, the joystick for steering, and finally it provides the interface for the BS bypass
line for the TEC surface control unit of BS. The video system is partly used as purchased in
GEOSTAR 1. Moreover the console for the sonar system and the video overlay is implemented.
Fig. 7.65 shows the entire MODUS control centre in three 19" racks on board the R/V
URANIA. The telemetry unit is linked with a 25 m deck cable to the junction box of the winch.
During operation the racks can be moved to any place of the vessel within that range of 25 m
from the winch J-Box. The video lines can be separated to connect additional monitors e.g. close
to the winch. This flexibility gives the opportunity to support direct communication with the
winch driver or the ships master to control ship movements and descent and ascent of the
submerged system. For the software controlled operation LABVIEW routines are used,
generating a display with the main features of the MODUS-controls and indications, Fig. 7.66.
Power system, transformer, rectifier
The power of about 25 kW for the use of MODUS is provided by an umbilical with three
conductors. Transmission is realised by 3 phase 3000 V current, that are generated by the
shipborne transformer from 3 phase 400 V of the generators of the ship. There are standard
voltages and currents for the feed the board unit. The surface transformer unit (Fig. 7.67) is
equipped with safety devices. On the sub-sea side the transformer (Fig. 7.68) is a closed
structure filled with oil and using a pressure compensator. The power is rectified and distributed
to the several boxes and units of MODUS.
The Innova sub-sea transformer main specifications :
In : 3 x 3 000 VAC, 25 kVA, 50/60 Hz
Out :
- 192 VAC, 27 A
- 192 VAC, 8.2 A
- 19 VAC, 12.2 A
- 19 VAC, 5 A
- 200 VAC, 2 A
- 12 VAC, 2 A
Telemetry system
For communication purposes with MODUS and the BS a big amount of data have to be
transferred continuously. For this a multiplex unit is located on both the sub-sea and the surface
unit collecting and transferring all relevant data.
FO Data Telemetry including 50 m test cable, 19”-board unit, parts for power supply (T-Box).
Data I/O rate of the single mode NEXUS-System (Mac Artney) guarantees transfer of all data
required. 12 lines are available :
242
Table 7.9. MODUS Data Channels
Channel number
Channel setting
Data speed (Bits/s)
1
RS 232
19200
2
RS 232
19200
3
RS 232
115000
4
RS 232
19200
5
RS 232
19200
6
TTL
19200
7
RS 232
19200
8
RS 232
19200
9
RS 422
19200
10
RS 422
19200
Uplink 1,2
Pseudo video
5 (MHz)
Uplink 3,4
Pseudo video
5 (MHz)
Channel 5 – 8 can be configured to RS 232, RS 422, TTL, Current loop (active) and Current
loop (passive). The system is configured with channel 11/12 to full duplex RS 232. Topside
channel 1 and 2 are dedicated to respectively sensor 11 and 12 sub-sea.
2 Data transferred ship to MODUS - i.e.
- Thruster on / off, rpm (± 5 V),
- Cameras on/off, choice 2 out of 4 cameras,
- Lines for lighting on/off, dimming,
- Bypass lines for ship-BS communication going to the BS via Seacon connector,
- Linear Actuator up / down / off,
- Controls for the sonar system (see channel description above).
3 Data transferred MODUS to ship
- Four video channels simultaneously,
- Compass, tilt and other sensors,
- rpm, sense of rotation and power consumption of all four Thrusters,
- Docking control,
- Several status data for power supply,
- Bypass line for ship-BS communication coming from the BS via Seacon connector,
- Altimeter (9 600 Baud, 200 kHz, 20° conical beam),
- Sonar images (360°, dual frequency: 325 kHz, 675 kHz up to 300 m).
Telemetry can be used up to 5 000 m umbilical length. Another electronics can be added to
transfer further data like homing sonar data.
Acoustic homing device
Acoustic homing devices aid sub-sea orientation : The vertical distance to the seafloor is
determined with an altimeter while the lateral distance to the target is realised with a Sonar
system (both TRITECH) (see following table and Fig.3.1.5.1/j,k). The altimeter is directly
mounted to the lower plane of MODUS avoiding shadow effects caused by the structure. The
location of the Sonar head is on the upper bow in parallel to the front camera. Thus the images
can be partly compared, at least in shorter distances to the target.
Table 7.10. MODUS Acoustic instrumentation (from GEOSTAR 2 Final Report, 2002 )
Model: PA
20° conical
9600 Baud
200 kHz
24 V
Altimeter
200/20-S
beam
Model:
RS 232 115
dual frequency: 325
360° horiz.,
1836 V
Super
kBaud
kHz, 675 kHz, range
70°vertical
Sonar
SeaKing
< 300 m
243
Frame
As material for the outer frame of MODUS, cylindrical tubes made of Al Mg Si 1 - 60 x 5 were
chosen. General layout was necessarily totally redesigned using proposed material. The frame
was designed as a closed cage-like welded structure (about 800 x 2 200 x 2 500 without payload
and fender), (Fig.3.1.5.1/l left). The top flange connects both the umbilical termination and the
docking cone. (Fig.3.1.5.1/l right), right gives an idea of the dimensions of the assembled
MODUS.
A bumper system at the lower plane of the frame using a standard rubber fender profile is added
to protect the upper beams of the BS from impact due to failure during the recovery phase of
MODUS. Even in the case of heavier impacts the outer shape of the four upper beams of the BS
and the MODUS frame itself is protected from major plastic deformation. Furthermore the outer
frame has just one connection to the inner zone of MODUS, the flange coupling on the upper
part of the docking device. If any impact will cause deformation of the frame, it will not be
directly transmitted to its cone. Some investigations using FEM (Finite Element Method)
calculations concerning stresses and deformations on the MODUS frame due to impacts have
been carried out (see First Annual Report). Eight plates of abrasion-proof plastic material are
fitted into the cone to guarantee safe re-entry of the funnel shaped docking cone onto the top of
the BS.
Mounting of the payload like cameras and thrusters. is realised by means of clamps to the frame.
Some of these clamps have rubber connectors as damper to protect the payload from shocks.
Positions of thrusters are fixed. Final positions have been adjusted after the manoeuvrability
tests during sea trials.
On top of the structure the frame of transportation means is positioned. It is made of stainless
steel and is the interface for the gear that is hooked to the umbilical. The vertical tubes provide a
stabile flow of forces from top through the umbilical – cable termination – transportation frame
to the Latch-Device directly to the pin of the BS without influencing other components of
MODUS.
Table 7.11. Main Properties of MODUS
Properties
MODUS
Purpose
Built for frequent missions
Weight in air (kg)
1070
Weight in water (kg)
730
Total length (mm)
2878
Total width (mm)
2348
Total height (mm)
1700 (without cable termination)
Power (kW)
25
Horizontal Thrust (N) 2x700 (up to 4)
Vertical Thrust (N)
2x700
Electronics housings
There are five housings in total on MODUS. To guarantee full operational depth of 4000 m it
was decided to purchase a titanium housing for the telemetry unit. The power box with the
transformer is delivered as a pressure compensated oil filled housing (stainless steel). The other
three housings, distribution, electronics box and the thruster electronics are made of titanium
grade 5. Main dimensions are (Length-in/out x ∅ -inner/outer): 608/680 mm x 150/173 mm
(refer to Fig.7.73).
244
Payload
The MODUS payload consists of following main items: (Refer also to Fig.7.74)
Table 7.9. MODUS payload specifications
245
Payload
Description / Function
Supplier
Illumination
4 x dimmed lights
DeepSea Power
and Light
Cameras
- 3 x b/w - 1 x color
2 x Mariscope
2 x DeepSea Power
and Light
Tilt
Compass
Voltage +
leakage
Sense of
rotation
Rotation
speed
Docking
sensors
Linear
actuator
Altimeter
Sonar
Model
Deep –
SeaLite, 250
W, 24 V
- 2 x Micro
6000 - 1 x
Multi-SeaCam
1050 - 1 x
Multi-SeaCam
2050
each 1/3’’
CCD Chip
CPU
- analog and – digital for
heading
CPU
Depth
rating
(m)
11000
6000
Inbox
-- TCM-2-50
Bender
Inbox
Inbox
of thrusters
Inbox
of thrusters
Inbox
4 x for the latch-device
GO Switch
5000
Tecnadyne
SPDT Model
73
Model 218
1/1 x for the latch-device
Seafloor distance
Tritech
PA 200/20-S
4000
Target position
Tritech
Super SeaKing
dual freq.
4000
4000
Thrusters
An umbilical for the use of MODUS has been specified. It includes the power supply and three
FO lines. The dedicated winch has a slip-ring to transmit the needed power from the board
power unit to the cable during the whole operation. The transformer which can be placed in 25
m distance to the winch converts the three phase current 380 VAC from the power unit of the
vessel into 3~3000 VAC. A fault current breaker is used within the power supply unit to prevent
accidents caused by short circuits. Inside the power box the voltage is transformed again and
rectified to feed the consumers. Thus Voltage is partly converted to 12 VDC, 24 VDC and 48
VDC for sensors, lighting and other components, respectively.
Following design philosophy from GEOSTAR 1, two main thrusters with thrust of approx. 2100
N each (TECNADYNE 8010 – 6 000 m version, Fig.3.1.5.1/o right) are foreseen to guarantee
horizontal movements. They are attached direct to the frame and can be used independently in
both senses of revolution and magnitude of thrust. The layout of the chosen 6 000 m version
separates the electronic components from the mechanical parts, so that the first have to be
housed in a spatial separated pressure box. This reduces the length of the thrusters’ hub and
improves efficiency. In addition two thrusters with thrust of 700 N each (TECNADYNE 2010 –
4 000 m version, Fig.3.1.5.1/o left) are vertically mounted at the bow and the aft of the MODUS
frame. They are dedicated to stabilise the pitch angle during forward movements. The control of
the thrusters is realised with a control circuit in which the man-operated joystick is placed at the
ship borne MODUS operator console. This Console contains the mission control and telemetry
unit. Unfortunately it was not possible to receive the thruster models 8010 on time as
proclaimed by TECNADYNE during the early concept phase 1999. The delay was caused by
multiple performance and reliability problems of these brand new models. Thus, it was decided
to change our concept and to work with the smaller thrusters 2010 on the horizontal positions.
Although this sanction reduces the horizontal thrust performance, it bears the advantage of easy
246
exchangeability of spare parts between all four thrusters in case of damages. The deep-sea trials
and the deployment during the mission in September 2000 have confirmed feasibility of this
configuration. Further improvement of performance could be achieved due to a new concept for
each horizontal position. This concept let to the mounting of additional two thrusters on each
side to get two pairs for horizontal thrust. The recovery mission in April 2001 approved the new
concept with almost the thrust of the models 8010.
Docking device
The housing system consists of three basic components: Docking cone (MODUS), latch device
(MODUS) and docking pin (Bottom Station).
The docking cone is made of aluminium. Changes of the pre-set basic ideas had to be made
during the detail design process. The funnel shaped cone (opening angle 90°) had to be
shortened from a diameter of 2 100 mm down to 1 980 mm because of the other important
requirement – loading in one piece into standard container. This decrease the total weight of the
structure, which is compensated by the additional weight e.g. of the transformer. The latch
device is positioned in the center of MODUS. Its outer shape is cylindrical. Inside it bears the
spring-lever mechanism - sensors check the position of the levers and the electrical linear
actuator. The Linear Actuator is operated from the vessel allowing repeating the re-docking
procedure as often as needed (failure or testing). To reduce the total height and gain some space
on top of MODUS, the linear actuator was moved to a sideward position. Thus the height of the
Latch device is reduced by half compared to the GEOSTAR 1 version (Fig. 7.76).
The ability off the docking pin to move up to 15° out of the vertical orientation helps the mating
with the Latch device. In addition in case of impact deformation will be avoided up to certain
amount because of the non-linear behaviour of the used cone shaped spring. The configuration
of the latch device; cone and pin is given in Fig. 7.77.
MODUS - Design and Manufactured System The design structure of MODUS is divided into
five major groups or modules Fig. 7.80 and Fig.3.1.5.1/s :
1) latch device for the docking of the bottom station,
2) transportation frame with interface to the umbilical termination and the outer
frame,
3) docking cone that fits to the top of the bottom station;
4) outer frame with bumper, and the clamps for the payload, the boxes and thrusters,
5) payload and thrusters .
This modular structure has been adopted to open up the range of possibilities for potential
modifications after all tests and sea trails. Using simple flange couplings as mechanical
interfaces, one group can be separately modified without influencing other groups. This means
decreasing the effort to be made for further development, design, calculations and even testing
of single components.
As presented in the following, this has a lot of advantages compared with a fully integrated
solution especially during phases of further prototype enhancements.
In the first phase of GEOSTAR the combination of the pin with its flexible bearing was
developed and manufactured. Functioning tests in the lab, basins and in the Adriatic Sea were
performed and showed satisfying results. A reason to change the design was not given. The pin
itself is bear with a cone shaped spring to give the system angular flexibility supporting the
guiding of the extended docking cone. Due to the fact that the BS is placed on the seafloor,
tolerances were chosen rough to avoid malfunction. Protection against contamination with dirt is
realised from the topside. In the lower part an opening is located to allow water to intrude during
descent and to flow out during ascent.
247
Once the umbilical is linked with the transportation frame, forces go directly from the cable
termination into the stainless steel beams of this frame and are led to the centre flange coupling
next to the latch device. The latch device is also mounted with a flange to this junction area,
which is located on top of the docking cone (Fig. 7.80-left - 1). The clamps inside the latch
device grab the pin of the BS. Directly from the top centre of the BS the forces are distributed to
the four tubes. The static load to be carried is 4 ton, dynamics will lead to higher forces due to
acceleration dependent from tide and frequency of the waves and floating of the vessel. Even
higher forces may result from the suction forces at the feet of the BS during recovery. Also
angular position of the BS on the seafloor (slope up to 5°) or sideward forces from the main
cable had to be taken into account for calculation and design. The system is designed in a
manner that ropes of the gear and the frame can manage loads up to 10 ton.
The junction area is a stainless steel ring that combines several flanges. As mentioned above
latch device and transportation frame are directly mounted together. In addition, this is the
mechanical interface for the outer frame and the extended docking cone.
Below the junction flange ring the cone itself is connected. The cone is manufactured of
aluminium plates. The aperture angle of the cone amounts 90° and ends at a height of 1 900 mm
(measured from the top of the flange ring). In that position a circular shaped tube encloses the
cone. Like in the first version, that tube ring marks the end of the docking cone. As already
mentioned above malfunction of the system has to be avoided, like a) intrusion of the pin into
the inside space of MODUS followed by destruction of components like cameras and thrusters;
b) too small docking area. Therefore cover plates had been added (Fig. 7.79). They leave a gap
of approx. 45 mm between the docking ring and the outer frame (pin : ∅ = 80 mm).
The inner area of the cone is filled with detachable plates of plastic. This had to be done because
the need for exchange of eventual damaged plates should be possible. The plates protect the
outer aluminium cone and reduce friction between the pin and the cone.
Anti-rotation Devices are placed in four positions at the docking ring to avoid relative angular
movement between BS and MODUS. This is important for the knowledge of orientation and to
keep the electrical connector that connects BS with MODUS telemetry unit in a fixed position.
Main improvements to GEOSTAR phase 1
An increase of water depth influences the entire docking system concerning the mobility in the
plane area [x, y]. As already mentioned above, the vertical movement [z] of MODUS is realised
using the winch. Although a model of MODUS plus umbilical reminds of a simple stiff
pendulum, it does not move in a plane when moving sideward, moreover curves of the
movement are on a sphere. MODUS is fixed with the cable to the vessel and sideward
movement causes a lift of MODUS and with that a restoring force. Operation range was
projected with 5 % of the water depth (confirmed by the shallow water tests – GEOSTAR 1)
that needs a thrust of about 1400 N. To introduce that force, horizontally oriented thrusters and
supporting equipment is needed. Compass and tilt-meter provide information of direction and
inclination. Two additional thrusters (700 N each) have been installed in a vertically orientation
to compensate harmful inclinations and to adjust the horizontal position during coupling
procedures.
To mount all the needed components and protect MODUS and its components from destruction,
a frame was designed that covers the space under the latch device and docking cone. Cylindrical
aluminium tubes for this second step of the prototype were arranged in a manner that all
mounted components can be moved to different places to find an optimum according
manoeuvrability and operation of MODUS.
Due to improvements and modifications made in the overall concept and in detail, the total
weight of MODUS could be kept to 1 000 kg in air and 750 kg in water. This means a
significantly reduced weight and a compensation of the added components like the sub-sea
transformer and thrusters (see table below):
248
Table 7.13. Modifications to MODUS to increase depth of operations in GEOSTAR 2.
Modified item
Improvements
Overall dimensions
Reduced height (now 1,8 m), width (now 2,37 m) for easy
containerisation.
Outer frame
Completely revised to cylindrical aluminium tubes
Bumper
Completely revised for reduced size and stiffness
Cone
Strongly revised: Aluminium instead of steel with reduced height
and weight. New detachable abrasion-proof plastic plates for inner
cone protection
Top flange of the cone
Reduced dimensions
Latch device
Completely revised for reduced height
Transportation frame
Completely revised design
Thrusters
+ 2 thrusters for vertical movements (4 in total now)
Sub-sea transformer
Adaptation to 4000 m umbilical concept: Available sub-sea power
is now 25 kW
Cameras
+ 1 b/w and +1 colour (3 b/w and 1 colour in total now)
Telemetry
New single mode telemetry unit: Now are four video channels
available
These improvements are results of intensive investigations for detail and global optimisations
with the aid of computational flow field analysis and drag determination, structural impact
analysis (deformations and stresses) and wave-ship interaction analysis for operation
simulations. The investigations have been carried out utilising state-of-the-art software for
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD - Fluent), Finite-Element-Method (FEM - Pro/Mechanica)
and potential theory (WAMIT), respectively.
249
Fig. 7.60 Structure of the System Development
Fig. 7.61. MODUS-concept for deployment and recovery
250
Fig. 7.62. Block diagram of the basic subtasks and the correlating WP numbers : ship, between the ship and
MODUS, MODUS itself, and the BS
251
Fig. 7.62. General plan of sub-sea electrical and electronic components : Umbilical connection to surface
unit, telemetry T-Box, power P-Box, electronic E-Box, distribution D-Box, cameras, lighting, thrusters, latch
device,
altimeter,
sonar
Fig. 7.64: The MODUS control unit during sea trials :- Video rack incl. two monitors, two recorders and video
overlay device (1), - Steering and control rack (2) with two computers and 15" monitor, Nexus telemetry
surface unit (3), steering console and keyboard (4),- Sonar rack (5), plotter (6), 17’’ monitor, CPU switch (7)
and Tritech sonar surface unit (8)
252
Fig. 7.65. Display of the software controlled operation.
Fig. 7.66: Surface transformer on board the ship, details.
253
Fig. 7.67 : Top : face transformer (l) ; Sub-sea transformer mounted on the front (r) Bottom : sub-sea
transformer (l) ; pressure compensation (r)
Fig. 7.68: Telemetry unit with pressure housing (left – substituted by enhanced Ti-housing) test cable and
surface equipment (right).
254
Fig. 7.69: Altimeter and Sonar head (left and centre) with Surface Units (right hand side).
Fig. 7.70: Sea King sonar head (1) and altimeter (2) mounted on MODUS bow.
255
Fig. 7.71: Plain MODUS frame (left), and the fully equipped during sea trials (right).
Fig. 7.72: Exemplary titanium vessel for the electronics (here N-Box).
256
Fig. 7.73 MODUS with mounted b/w front camera 1, lights 2, sonar head 3, sub-sea transformer 4 with
pressure compensator 5, analog compass 6, cables and connectors 7 and electronic pressure boxes 8.
Fig. 7.74 : left - CAD drawing of a vertical and a planned horizontal thruster with mountings; right – vertical
thruster in front of sub-sea transformer.
257
Fig. 7.75: Left – components for the active coupling unit including pin; right. Right - Latch device with actuator
housing in horizontal position and the cable termination holding device mounted on top of the docking cone.
Fig. 7.76: left - CAD drawing of the Docking Cone (1), the Latch Device (2) and a Camera (3); right Docking
pin and inner side of the cone, plated with a detachable, abrasion-proof plastic material. (Rhino Hyde).
258
Fig. 7.77: Virtual assembling of the CAD components of MODUS with docking cone and latch device (1),
transportation frame (2) and frame with pressure boxes, thrusters and payload (3) and the complete system
on the right.
Fig. 7.78: Payload components of MODUS : Transformer box (1), power box (2), electronics box (3),
telemetry box (4), thrusters for horizontal movements (5) and for pitch control (6), lights (7), cameras (8, 9),
sonar head (10), altimeter (11), routing plates (12), fender (13,14), cover plates (15).
259
Hydrodynamic and hydro elastic analysis and operation simulations
Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamic investigations have been carried out with 3d Computational Fluid Dynamics
analysis (CFD) using the commercial Software Fluent. Results of these numerical simulations
have been verified by fullscale tests in a large circulating water tunnel in project GEOSTAR 1
(Gerber and Schulze, 1998).
The hydrodynamic analysis assumes a roughly symmetrical MODUS and a symmetrical flow
along the vertical mid section. An unstructured tetrahedral grid of up to 900.000 control
volumes discretised the flow field to achieve a high degree of modeling accuracy even on
surfaces with high grade of curvature (Fig. 7.80). Fluent uses an implicit Finite-Volume Method
to solve the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations. The flow is considered stationary
utilizing the RNG k-ε turbulence model, which allows predicting the effects of wall shear
stresses, flow separations and secondary flows better than the standard k-ε model. The near wall
treatment is introduced by standard wall functions. Experiences from the shallow water
demonstration mission (GEOSTAR 1) led to the integration of large fins with high
hydrodynamic mass at the aft part of MODUS to stabilise forward movements and to reduce
rotational speed (Fig. 7.80 and Fig. 7.82 - MODUS_v3). Due to the extreme complexity of the
entire system of ship - winch - umbilical - MODUS plus benthic station, flow evaluations are
focused on the MODUS ROV only.
The combination of 3d CAD design and 3d CFD fluid flow analysis results in an iterative
process to optimize the design of MODUS regarding overall drag, undisturbed streamlines of
the accelerated flow, horizontal manoeuvrability and performance during descent and ascent
operations (Fig. 7.82).
CFD simulations for various preliminary design studies of MODUS have been performed to
give indications for the most favorable global and detail design strategy. The final structure
derived from the whole revision and optimization process. Fig. 7.80 (left) shows a part of the
CFD model of the MODUS while it also shows (right hand side) the generated unstructured grid
on MODUS surface. Fig. 7.82 (left, center, right) illustrates results for the velocity magnitudes
in the center plane for let off operation, horizontal movement and heave operation. Compared to
the initial design of GEOSTAR 1, a significantly (up to 20 %) reduced total drag for the final
design of MODUS could be reached.
Motion analysis and hydroelasticity
The motion simulations carried out in co-operation with the partner Tecnomare are based on the
spectral analysis method (see TEC report: GEOSTAR 2 installation procedure - Preliminary
dynamic analysis). This method is well suited to the ship motions problem turning out during
the GEOSTAR operations, because Gaussian random processes can model seaway and wind
and because system characteristics of this kind can be modeled linearly.
General Remarks
The description of the seaway as a random superposition of many elementary waves of different
height, length and direction of propagation forms the "superposition model" of the stationary
seaway. This process can be interpreted as a strip of infinitesimal width dω of the seaway
spectrum Szz(ω) of this process. The whole surface under this spectrum is proportional to the
total energy of the seaway. To analyse the linear behaviour of offshore structures in arbitrary
seaways, transfer functions are used to specify the reaction of that structure to a standard wave
excitation. This transfer function H(ωn) is the ratio of the complex amplitudes of the output
signal s(ωn) to the input signal ζ(ωn). The characteristic of the transfer function thus defines the
behaviour of the structure in a natural seaway. Fig. 7.83
For calculating current induced displacements of the umbilical with MODUS or MODUS+BS,
respectively, a dedicated FEM program has been developed: "TOBO-SIM" (TOwed BOdySIMulation) uses 159 nodes connected with elastic beams for the discretisation of the flexible
cable. No wave excitation at the suspension point is considered. Results are presented in Fig.
260
7.84. The model calculations assume a relatively strong steady state current with speeds of 0.2
m/s and 0.4 m/s at the water column. The resulting overall displacement depend on the mass at
the end of the cable, which depend on the operating phase, e.g. deployment (MODUS + BS)
followed by stand alone MODUS operations after de-coupling of BS etc.
All the results of the simulations and calculations showed that the concept
requirements of the system specifications (WP 2100).
satisfies the
Fig. 7.79 : High accuracy of MODUS modeling : 3d CAD model (left hand side) and 3d CFD model (right
hand side), with thruster streamlines and part of computational grid of the bottom boundary region.
261
Fig. 7.80 "Evolution" of the MODUS ROV: From initial shallow water design to enhanced deep
water design with significant drag reduction.
GEOSTAR 2 Final Report, 2002
262
Fig. 7.81 Modelling of the Mobile Docker in Freestream ; Fluent v5.1 (3d, segregated, rngke)
Contours of velocity magnitude (m/s) in center plane for
(top) : MODUS during let off operation ; Velocity : Uy=-0,4 m/s
(center) : MODUS during horizontal movements ; Velocity: Ux=0,4 m/s ;
(bottom) :MODUS during heave operation ; Velocity: Uy=0,4 m/s.
263
Fig. 7.82: Response of floating structures (like ships) in random seas.
264
-4000-1600-1400-1200-1000-800-600-400-2000
Horizontal distance from the winch [m]
Fig. 7.83: Displacement due to steady state horizontal current of 0.2 m/s and 0.4 m/s, respectively.
265
3.2 - Deployment methods
Fig. 7.84 Concept of cabled junction box and observatories
The design of an underwater observatory and the choice regarding its deployment and future
maintenance mode are inter-dependent. In fact, the choice of the deployment mode depends on
the station capabilities (setting up, sensor deployment, maintenance, data collection, power
supply, displacement, recovery…) and this mode behaves according to the station design
(mechanical interface, floating material necessary or not, particular sensors used or not).
Moreover, the requirements set by the support ship are linked to the station characteristics.
Thus, in theory, the general design process consists of :
the establishment of the station functional features,
the choice of the deployment and maintenance mode,
the choice of the support ship.
In practice, this design process could be different for financial reasons :
To minimize sea operation cost, several missions may be brought together on the same ship
as they will use the same underwater intervention system (if the latter is not dedicated only to
station set up).
Because some multi-use systems are already operational (ROVs, submersibles,
MODUS…), the decision regarding the development of new specific systems can only be
justified in case of technical requirements (related to station features) or of financial interest
(deployment of a large number of stations using a lower-cost device).
Thus, sometimes, the station design may be determined by a pre-defined deployment
system.
266
For the presentation, the operations have been grouped in two main parts :
•
•
Deployment and recovery (that is possible without ROV assistance)
General maintenance and assistance on the site after deployment (that need ROV
assistance on the bottom if the observatory is not recovered on surface ship).
3.2.1 - Observatory deployment and recovery
These operations include the two general areas :
•
•
Lifting and lowering technology
Station control and positioning
Underwater stations can have various functions which makes it impossible to analyze them all in
this study. So, we have decided to focus on the main characteristics which can influence the
choice of deployment systems :
The station type : heavy or neutral in water. This feature, linked to the initial choice of
deployment concept, may become a constraint in the future.
The total station density (payload + buoyancy) which determines the surface handling
system capabilities.
The station displacement which defines the deployment system abilities when the station is
underwater.
The payload density (scientific equipment, data recovery, power supply, carrying structure)
which can be deducted from the total density if the buoyancy material is subtracted.
Accuracy necessary for load control and positioning: issues related to placing the load in
the desired location, at a correct compass heading, and at a stable attitude on the seabed.
The need to deploy sensors or equipment after the station setting (in some cases, we can
envisage automating these operations but it could generate large additional costs for station
design). Again, this could only be justified by technical requirements or financial interests.
The need to recover data during the whole station mission (out of data recovery using the
deployment system), others solutions are possible -"messengers", buoys, data acoustic
transmission, etc- what is another situation where technical and financial constraints have to be
assessed.
The requirement of station battery power supply.
The maintenance of the station underwater (equipment replacement, cleaning…)
Different means of deployment can be used according to these elements. However, these
concepts can be grouped in two main categories.
• The deployment of heavy bottom stations by passive cable or dynamically positioned power
pod
• Free Fall Mode (FFM) of neutral stations
267
3.2.1.1 - Deployment of heavy observatory by cable lifting and lowering
The two means, passive cable and dynamically positioned power pod, are attractive existing
methods for the deployment of observatories with "conventional" weights (few hundred kg to
less than ten tons). The technology is often used in the offshore industry, and is cost-effective.
The use of spoolable compliant tubulars is not presented in this study because uneconomic to
use, and probably reserved to observatories of great weights, where existing methods and
equipment will not work.
However these techniques have some limitations and problems, particularly in deep water
applications. There is a number of technical challenges that may be classified in the following
general areas :
- When using cost effective steel wire ropes, as the depth increases, the ratio of the weight of
the cable to the weight of the payload becomes extreme, and at 6 000 m the safe working load of
the steel wire is almost entirely used by its self-weight.
Synthetic fiber rope provides a potential answer to the self-weight problems. They have
attractive properties such as small bend radii and ability to be repaired, but to-date there are
potential problems related to stretch, creep, durability and life that, with the cost, limit their use
in some applications.
- They can be very significant dynamic effects due to excitation caused by the motions of the
surface vessel which can be amplified with large oscillations and high dynamic tensile loads in
the lifting line. Moreover the added mass of the load can be very significant to be many times
it’s weight in air due to the water trapped inside, and to the shape of the load. It is shown that for
lowering into deepwater there will nearly always be a depth at which a resonant response will
occur. It is important that this resonant region can be passed through relatively quickly, and that
it does not occur at full depth where careful control is required for placement of the payload on
the seabed. Modelling methods have been developed in industry and in Ifremer in particular to
predict behaviour of these dynamic responses.
- Placing the load in the desired location, at the correct compass heading, and at a stable
attitude on the seabed can be critical. In deep water, relatively small currents can introduce a
very large offset between the ship and the load on the sea bed. The success of the final
touchdown operation is susceptible to the load’s interaction with the seabed. Once the load is
released, the lowering system hook must remain under control and be prevented from getting
entangled with the subsea equipment. In some particular cases the assistance of a submersible or
a ROV can be used to assist the operation.
- The problem of station recovery has to be solved. Different solutions are possible and
described below, according to the possibility or not to make the observatory buoyant. Some
solutions need the use of a ROV or dynamically positioned mobile docker. Following examples
are illustrating these different solutions
- Position reference needs particular attention, and involves non conventional systems in
great water where communication with the surface may be unreliable (long path lengths and
vessel noise).
- The influence of weather and sea state are important in particular when the depth increase.
The required weather windows, and the speed with which tasks must be accomplished in order
to fit into these practical windows are more critical.
Some experiences using cable deployment are described below. A special part is dedicated to
dynamically positioned power pod, which is a non conventional response.
268
PENFELD deployment :
Penfeld penetrometer developed by Ifremer and Geocean is an operational system able to make
geotechnical measures by penetrometry in deep-sea (6 000 m).
This heavy system (6 tons) is deployed by cable. It remains connected after it has been laid on
the bottom, with the ship in station keeping during the penetrometry operation.
The lift line is set up by main cable, a depressor weight (500 kg) and a polyamid tether 50 m
length. This concept permits to absorb high dynamic tensile loads during lifting phase, and, after
laying on the bottom isolates the system from vessel movements by means of the flexible loop.
Fig. 7.85 Penfeld penetrometer deployment
Moreover, a specific equipment called "handling messenger" has been developed for
deployment and recovery from a unique A-Frame. This device make it possible to transfer at
low depth (corresponding to synthetic tether), tension from the lift line to the main cable and
vice-versa.
Instrumented trials have validated deployment procedures and system "Penfeld + cable + ballast
+ tether" behaviour.
269
Fig. 7.86 Details of Penfeld deployment
270
P r o b e fo r
S o u n d v e lo c it y
P r o f ile r fo r
Sea c urrant
(A D C P )
5 Sto r eys o f
O p t ic a l M o d u le s
P r o b e fo r s a lin it y a n d
t e m p e r a t u r e (C T D )
h yd ro p h on e
J u n c t io n B o x
L ED B eac o n
h yd ro p h on es
S e is m o g r a p h
Laser B eac on
A n c h o r w it h
e le c t r o n ic s
c o n t a in e r s
L in k C a b le s
Fig. 7.87. Configuration of prototype ANTARES elements on the sea floor. Left - Photon detector
mooring string. Centre – Sea Floor Junction box. Right - Oceanographic and geophysics instrument
line.
ANTARES deployment
The project is concerning the development of neutrino detector that will be installed in 2 500 m
of water in Mediterranean sea. The envisaged detector is made up by network of optical
modules set up on vertical strings. The network is connected to the shore by means of electrooptical cable, main junction box and interconnecting links. Ifremer is in charge of sea operations
including installation and future maintenance.
Fig. 7.88. The full proposed ANTARES array with 12 and lines 25 storeys per line
271
In this project, detector lines and junction box are deployed and recovered by cable from a DP
vessel. For all the operations a precise long base line acoustic positioning system is essential.
Junction box deployment and recovery : for deploying the ANTARES junction box, the end
of the 50 km electro-optical cable is connected to a fishing tail to be dredged with a grapnel for
connector recovery. With a good positioning of the cable and the fishing tail, the operation of
recovery takes a few hours.
Fig.7.89 Diagram of the dredger line and fishing tail on the bottom
After connection on the ship, the junction box (about 1 ton) is deployed by cable with acoustic
transponder for positioning and double acoustic released system. Underneath the JB, a new
fishing tail with a dead weight (1 T) is fixed ready for future junction box recovery for
maintenance. The fishing tail and the load are laid on the bottom with continuous positioning.
The operation in good sea conditions takes one day.
272
Fig. 7.90. Deployment of the junction box
Strings deployment and recovery : The instrumented strings comprises (from the bottom) an
anchor with electronics containers, storeys of optical modules mounted along the sector line,
and at the top a sufficient buoyancy to make buoyant the string without anchor.
273
Fig. 7.91 Deployment of the Prototype ANTARES photon detector line (see Fig 7.88) in December 2002
The instrumented strings are launched (and recovered ) step by step using special automatic
hooks. It is deployed to the bottom by cable with acoustic transponder for positioning and
double acoustic released system.
Fig 7.92: Step by step automatic block
274
For recovery, the connectors on the bottom of the strings are automatically disconnected after
string release for maintenance and stay on the anchor waiting for future re-connection. A special
design using dampening pistons and parallelogram geometry allows a smooth disconnection
with no risk of water ingress during disconnection.
Fig. 7.93 Antares string: anchor with electronics housing
The other operations are using submersible and ROV, and are described below.
MODUS
The MODUS (Mobile Docker for Underwater Sciences) system is a specialized mobile shuttle
for the deployment, servicing and recovery of benthic stations with maximum payload of 30 kN
to the seafloor. It is described above in this report.
- Mass (kg) : 1090
- Weight in water (N) : 7350
- L/B/H (m) : 2,88/2,35/1,02
The system needs a support ship of medium size, with dynamic positioning, well designed AFrame for the envisaged loads and dimensions, and available space on board to support
simultaneously deployment system and benthic station. The R/V Urania has been used for the
first operations.
The operational crew is composed of 2 persons for maintenance and piloting.
Typical scenario of deployment and recovery :
Deployment
a- Ship-born preparation of MODUS and station, with final coupling.
b- Deployment (0,5 m/s) : surface position is given and controlled by means of GPS or
dGPS. During deployment MODUS provides different informations from its main
sensors. Approaching the seafloor, the operator use sonar and the cameras for
information of the site.
c- Once the MODUS-Station has reached the seafloor all the functional checks and some
possible servicing operations can be performed.
275
d- Detachment of MODUS and recovery of MODUS to the vessel.
Recovery
e- Ship-born preparation of MODUS. Using DP and dGPS the vessel has to be positioned
in the right place.
f- Deployment of MODUS next to the sea floor, with final approach at 5 m vertical
distance.
g- Final lowering of MODUS when in position and docking the station using the latch
device.
h- Recovery of the whole MODUS-Station
Total time for deployment and recovery can be less than 4 hours for 2 000 m depth.
The system has been operating in various missions in the Mediterranean down to max.water
depths of 3900 m.
It is a dedicated tool that needs well adapted seafloor stations. It can perform only specific
"vertical operations", and is not adapted to other operations (connection, wiring, maintenance..).
One of the most critical aspects is the dynamic behaviour of the complete system including the
sea-keeping characteristics of the research vessel in arbitrary sea states and the associated
hydroelastic behaviour of the tethered mobile docker with a bottom station.
3.2.1.2 - Neutral observatories deployment
As general guidelines, the deployment of neutral observatory will be done in free falling mode
(FFM) to be accurately positioned by submersible afterwards. This technique is used when
accurate load control and positioning on the bottom are required. This technique have further
attractive responses to some problems evocated for very deep water. The deployment of the
heavy structure can be done by non dynamic positioning vessel, with no anti heave
compensating system. The influence of metocean effects and weather window requirements are
less critical.
This is clearly a non reversible process which does not easily solve the recovery problem
if/when the subsea equipment needs to be returned to the surface for any reason. However this
mode can be convenient for large assemblies that have to be installed for a long duration, in the
knowledge that recovery may be performed on individual modules or components. The
necessity further to recover the station independently from the assistance of a submersible by
releasing acoustically an ascent weight has to be considered.
As example, the document presents solutions for ASSEM (Array of Sensors for long term
Seabed Monitoring of geo-hazards) European project. In this context, an array of sensors has
been installed in April 2004 in the Gulf of Corinth, in a very active seismic zone, where it is
possible to monitor tectonic movements along faults, as well as creeping and fluid flow. The
array has been maintained through a 7 months deployment and retrieved.
276
Fig. 7.94 ASSEM Configuration
Deployment
Generally the operation will be done by good sea conditions, but the landing point will not be
precise. After locating it, the ROV will further be able to horizontally translate the load to the
right position.
In free fall mode, some scenarios are proposed depending on the in water weight of the
equipment. In these scenarios, the equipment includes a releasable ascent weight and buoyancy,
and an additional descent weight suspended to a chain is added for descent. The system ensures
a soft arrival on the sea floor. The structure is equipped with some weight adjustment devices,
the submersible only giving control. Reliable docking devices have to be designed to ensure the
transit.
After the ROV has put out the descent weight, the station will be placed on the seabed, under
self weight, or even sucked down. This operation will be done by the submersible and its
manipulating devices.
Some particular procedures have been tested to ensure the transit and positioning of the
observatory with safe benthic station / ROV docking process, are illustrated in Fig 7.96 and
7.97.
When the station is in right position, the next operation is release the buoyancy by acoustic
signal from the ship. Then the ROV puts out all protections and fittings used for deployment
operation, and makes checklist and tests before leaving. This operation includes sensors reading,
acoustic transmission tests and auto tests. These can be triggered by the submersible using its
manipulator and standard user interface, including electric and hydraulic power, data
communication and payload, through local data access port. At this stage, extra sensors can be
deployed from the main station with cable links, the necessary connections being made using
the ROV manipulator capabilities.
277
Fig 7.95 Typical free-fall mode deployment
278
Fig 7.96 Benthic Station / ROV Docking Process
Observatory retrieval with ROV assistance
The first phase consists in disconnecting cable-links between the station to be recovered and
other equipment staying on the bottom.
The plugs of disconnected cables must be probably protected and placed on a special disposal
receptacle. These operations are achieved by the ROV.
The second phase consists in deploying a recovery line.
At this stage, there are two options :
(a) the recovery line is deployed directly by the handling system of the ship with the assistance
of the ROV. The recovery line must be laid very close to the station.
279
(b) the recovery line is deployed with its buoyancy by FFM and station hooking. The operation
is done by the submersible. The recovery line which can be put not very close to the station,
can then be moved by the ROV.
The chosen solution depends of the precision of recovery line deployment on the seabed that can
be achieved by the ship.
In either case, the ROV takes the hook of the recovery line, and moves the line on the sea floor
towards the station and fixes the hook on the a lifting point of the observatory structure.
Finally the ship recovers the ROV on board, releases the descent weight of the recovery line, or
in the other case retrieves the line and the station with the handling system.
Fig. 7.97 Typical recovery scenario
280
Typical scenario of deployment and recovery
Deployment
1. Ship-borne preparation of the station
2. Deployment of the station (1m/s) : following position during descent to the sea floor.
Preparation of the ROV on the ship.
3. Deployment of the ROV.
4. During descent and on the bottom, the ROV goes to the station, helped by acoustic
positioning system, sonar and by end optical means.
5. ROV weights of the load, release the descent weight, and moves the station to the right
place.
6. At the right place, the ROV makes all preparation, checklist and tests.
7. Before leaving, the ROV order release of the buoyancy.
Recovery : (recovery line in FFM)
1. Deployment of the recovery line by FFM: the line is positioned all the time by acoustic.
2. Deployment of the ROV: during descent the ROV goes to the recovery line, helped by
acoustic positioning system, sonar and optical means.
3. The ROV takes the hook in the basket and hangs it on the load.
4. Before leaving, the ROV order the ship to release the lest.
5. The ship recover the ROV.
6. The ship recovers the station with the buoyancy and acoustic transpondeur.
3.2.2 - ROV operations for on the bottom observatory assistance and maintenance
There are many possible operations during observatory life time. Most of these operations will
be made by ROV with manipulating, power and payload capabilities, and it is noted that all
things to be handled by the submersible include handles, gripping points, marking, coloring..
etc…and have limited size and weight in water.
For example, in the ASSEM array project, four generic operations for maintenance have been
selected that may be carried out during the life of the array :
Wiring and connection
Monitoring Node data retrieving, status checking and reconfiguration
Adding a new sensor
Replacing a sensor
Replacing the energy pack
Specific procedures and tools have been designed and developed to carry out these operations
with the NCMR submersible THETIS, but all of them can be made by ROV. The main ones are:
Connecting tool
Contact less serial interface
Battery pack special basket
Among these operations, subsea connection and disconnection of equipment, with deployment
of cable link, is a specific and generic operation, which is often necessary to achieve the
deployment of an array.
In the ASSEM project, specific tool and procedures are adapted to a low cost solution using
standard Subconn connectors and the use of Thetis manned submersible and its manipulating
devices. In this example, the submersible makes some preliminary actions on the Monitoring
Node – removing protection, triggering disjunction lever, putting out connector cap, preparing
cable presentation – after puts the plug in a special tool fixed on the junction box, and operates
the tool in way to connect the cable at the junction box.
281
In ANTARES project, the strings are connected to the junction box using interconnecting cables
equipped with wet mateable connectors Ocean Design, which are directly operated by
manipulator arm of the submersible..
Figure 7.98 Antares submarine cable connection, March 2003
water, and it is important that techniques that are developed are within the feasible capability of
existing oceanographic ships.
The interconnecting cables can be held on the station or on the sensor pack to be connected
(short lengh) or are laid on the bottom using a special drum sent from the surface in FFM and
manipulated by a manned submarine or a ROV. The last solution is used for long cable (up to
400 m for Antares strings)
The other operations use typical ROV or submersible manipulating tasks. The observatory must
have adequate interfaces that have been clearly anticipated in the design. This is the case in
ASSEM project from the beginning. Mock ups have been realised to test techniques and
procedures.
3.2.3 - Conclusion
Scientific institutes or industry need assurance that adequately reliable and economic
observatory installation techniques and equipment will be available to give the necessary
confidence to plan complex projects. Conventional means of lowering and positioning heavy
subsea equipment may not work in ultra deep waters
Whilst each Institute has his specific vessels, there is a considerable value in collaborative
development of deployment equipment, techniques and analytical tools which can be
demonstrated to be effective. This not only reduces the cost to each Institute of developing the
capability, but also reduces the time from development to full acceptance of the capability by
the operators.
282
REFERENCES
- ASSEM sea deployment for gulf of Corinth (2003)– JP Lévèque, JF Drogou
- ASSEM- Detailed deployment procedures for monitoring nodes and benchmarks in Corinth
Gulf (2003)– JP Lévèque
- Advanced Deepwater Intervention with MODUS (2004) – G.Clauss, S.Hoog, F.Stempinski
and Hans Gerber
- ANTARES sea operations (2003)– P.Valdy
- DESIBEL (1997)- New methods for deep sea intervention on future benthic laboratories
(MAST II project) – Marc Nokin
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7.4. Standards
In most areas of engineering, standardisation has been a successful means of achieving, lower
cost, interoperability and reliability. Sub-sea observatories are in their infancy and standards
have not yet been established but it can be envisaged that progress will be realised in
mechanical, electronic hardware and electronic software standards.
The level of standards to be promoted was discussed during all the Esonet Technical meetings.
Tecnomare (Italy), the main designer of Geostar and Orion projects presented their position in
the Brest meeting in July 2003, leading to interesting comments by other Esonet partners or
participants.
In design of a multi-disciplinary observatory an important requirement is “Supporting the
operation” of diverse scientific packages. These can be defined needs for:
Making space and providing mechanical support in a frame.
Electrical power
Data acquisition-storage
Communication link
Integration in a network.
This defines 5 integration levels at which the architecture of the observatory system may be
standardadised.
7.4.1. Standardization of mechanical elements.
The GEOSTAR class of observatories is a successful example of mechanical standardisation
based the use of the MODUS deployment and recovery system. Further standardisation will
develop in junction boxes and other elements of observatory networks.
GEOSTAR class observatories
Fig 7.99. Mechanical Standardisation in the GEOSTAR class of Observatories
284
7.4.2 Standardization of electronics in a subsea observatory
Position of electronic design in the interoperability and modularity requirements
Acoustic Link
Acquired
Scientific Packages
Communication
Electronics
Fig 7.100. Subsea observatory (Tecnomare)
Network Gateway
on a Buoy
Radio or Satellite Link
To Shore Stations
Subsea
Network Gateway
Wired Link
Fig. 7.101. Network of observatories (Tecnomare)
285
The Tecnomare and Esonet working group considered that standardisation inside subsea
observatory should be limited to essential features. The following list of hardware and local
software components call for a standard:
• Instrumentation interfaces (digital due to the difficulty to predict electromagnetic
compatibility of analog interfaces in a long term versatile environment)
• Minimal hardware requirements
• Minimal Software Tasks
• Data structures to be generated (ruled by the data management at a network level)
• Organisation of acquired data
• Management of sensors for each discipline
• Network protocols
It is mandatory at some levels to offer a well documented modularity. These compatibility
levels were addresed in Assem project.
http://…
GPRS
User / Operator
PSTN
M1
M2
A
ORION 4
GMM
Fig 7.102. The ASSEM suite of observatories and communications network, showing interoperability of the different
systems
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7.4.3. Standardization at sensor interface level
Objectives of a communication link of subsea observatory (Assem example)
The objective is to provide the system with a bi-directional link between the users and the remote
sensors. This link must enable the data produced underwater to be forwarded to the users and the users
to interact with the underwater system. At the project start, the identified components of this link were:
Enhanced
sensor
1
COSTOF*
* COmmunication and STOrage Front-end
2
Shore
linked
COSTOF
3
Permanent
data server
4
user
2
1 standard sensors interface
2 underwater network
3 telecommunication segment
4 internet
Communication and storage front-ends in Assem project
Architecture study – Various architectures of the monitoring nodes electronics were studied in
ASSEM, taking into account the recommendations of representatives of oil industry
participating to the Advisory board. When evaluating pros and cons of a centralised architecture
versus a distributed architecture, because emphasis is placed on the robustness, simplicity and
modularity of the system, a distributed architecture exploiting the secured local communication
services of the CAN field-bus was adopted. In the short run, this architecture is based on the use
of standard simple microprocessor units named bridges, providing the interface between the
core of the monitoring node (field bus) and the various peripheral units to be integrated (sensors,
storage and communication devices) that traditionally use a point to point serial link as
communication interface. The entire justification of this architecture will be found if, in the long
run, sensors and communication device manufacturers integrate the field bus interface to their
products, saving one microprocessor board stage per device, hence dividing the complexity,
weight and cost of the monitoring nodes.
COSTOFs design and realisation - The detailed specifications of the COSTOFs were written.
The various bridges will use a common microprocessor board (core board with basic resources
like memory, field bus and serial interfaces…) on which can be plugged, when required, a
specific extension board. The acoustic link and the contact-less serial interface (CLSI) have
been developed in parallel as first priority, allowing an alternate communications technology to
be employed for collecting data if conditions prevent the primary technology from fully
functioning. Cable link and messenger transmission are developed outside the ASSEM delay
and budget. The software specifications are written for each type of board: sensor bridge,
acoustic modem bridge, contact-less serial interface bridge and Monitoring Node technical
watch board. Once tested on one type of configuration, other configurations and the diversity of
sensors are then easy to cope with. The reply to the bids called in the ASSEM project , from
industrial companies mastering low power embarked electronics and field bus technologies, to
perform the COSTOF design and realisation was satisfactory. It may be considered as a mature
technology.
287
Local
comm.
(CLSI)
Acoust.
comm.
housekeeping
bridge
1 GB
64 MB
64 MB
Pop-up modules driver
64 MB
bridge
bridge
bridge
Sensor A
Sensor B
Sensor C
Wired
comm.
bridge
bridge
CAN/ CANopen
64 MB
bridge
Sensor n
...
Fig.7.103. Concept of the ASSEM project: use of field bus
Sercel UAD
Micrel-nke
Micrel-nke
Acoust.
comm.
housekeeping
bridge
1 GB
64 MB
64 MB
Pop-up modules driver
bridge
CO
STO
F/ CANopen
CAN
64 MB
Wired
comm.
bridge
64 MB
bridge Communication
bridge
bridge
& Storage Front-end bridge
Ifremer
sensors
Horizontal geodesy
acoustic
distancemeter
Vertical geodesy
Pressure sensor Methane sensor
IPGP Paris
- Capsum Germany
NGI logger
Oslo
Multilevel differential
piezometer - NGI Oslo
Fig. 7.104. Definition of COSTOF as demonstrated during ASSEM project. The modularity is an
advantage to work with various partners.
288
Liaison série inductive, sans fil
Station
Capteur
Fig. 7.105. Contact Less Serial Interface (CLSI)
Communication and storage front-ends (COSTOF)
A monitoring node must be able to host a set of devices such as communication units (with the
external world), sensors and memory units, and enable proper communication between them.
Communication devices - Today, the identified devices are: acoustic and wire modems for
remote communication and Contact-Less Serial Interface for local communication with a
submersible. Acoustic data transmission being the most constraining technology (in terms of
data rates and energy requirements) it was decided to implement it first, as well as CLSI. The
future implementation of conventional modems is not considered as a difficult step, provided
that the core of the COSTOF was designed properly. A distributed architecture where specific
communication interfaces can be developed independently allows this extensibility.
Sensors - A major difficulty encountered in the COSTOF design was the very large diversity of
sensors to be supported: they range from single analogue output sensors that just deliver a signal
on power-on to multi-channel data loggers with embedded memory, sequencing and processing
capabilities. This heterogeneity induces a wide range of constraints on the COSTOF, sometimes
contradictory, in terms of energy management, data handling and sequencing requirements. This
was an additional reason for choosing this distributed architecture where each sensor bridge can
easily be tailored to the peculiarities of its sensor.
Memory devices –. For very high data volumes, a gigabyte unit can be built as a separate field
bus unit. Pop-up memory modules (messengers) can be built on the same principle. The fast
increase of storage capacities of mass memories offers new potential for low cost redundancy
storages.
Choice of a field bus – The selected field bus had to satisfy primarily the possibilities of very
low power implementation and multi-master operation. The CAN bus, initially developed for
the automotive industry, meets those requirements and provides in addition robust data integrity
control mechanisms and data rates up to 1Mbps. It is widely spread in numerous industrial areas
and easy to implement. Its basic principles make it suitable for producer to consumers data
exchanges, a key concept in the design of extensible platforms. However, proper data exchanges
between the various units on the CAN bus require that they run the same application layer
protocol, which will have to be chosen among industrially acknowledged and manufacturer
independent protocols. The choice in Assem is CAN/CANOpen.
289
Software Standardisation
Fig. 7.106 The ORION control software display. Standardisation on this kind of model can be
envisaged.
Control Software Display:
Power Status
set of parameters to monitor the status of
the power supply subsystem
Internal Status
set of parameters to monitor the internal
status of the underwater vessels
Position Status
set of parameters to monitor the
position/orientation of the observatory
System Status
set of parameters to monitor the status of
the electronic system
.
290
4.2 Standardization : the key issue for international cooperation
The discussions during ESONET workshop and a more recent worshop organized by Ifremer in
Paris on the 1st and 2nd February 2005 show an involvement at international level to exchange on
standards of subsea observatories. The ESONET approach is regarded as an important issue for
cooperation with Japan, Canada and United-States.
In addition to data dissemination and data management (see WP8), two working groups have
been constituted in the Paris meeting:
SENSOR INTEROPERABILITY
The ideas of all the designers, exploitation bodies and promoters of subsea
observatories is to raise the level of confidence of the instruments plugged on the
observatories
SUBSEA INTERVENTION TESTING.
The need to operate safely with the most convenient means available
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7.5 Considerations on the architecture of future observatories in Europe
Acoustic
transmission system
Messengers Unit
Power packs
Mass storage
Control unit
Underwater mateable
Connection system
ROV docking area
Fig. 7.107. Conceptual view of the Central Unit of an autonomous observatory
Real time ocean observatories may be designed around either a surface buoy containing an
autonomous power source and a wireless (e.g., satellite or RF) communications link or a
submarine fibre optic/power cable connecting one or more seafloor science nodes to the
terrestrial power grid and communications backhaul. Quasi real time observatories can also use
an acoustic link between the bottom and the surface. In this case the bottom unit is self powered
and is similar to an autonomous benthic station.
Surface moorings are a mature and reliable technology, and satellite data telemetry from surface
buoys and ships has become routine. Their connection to sensors on the seafloor is more
problematic, but to be useful in ocean observatory applications, they must operate reliably over
periods of years, must be serviceable from international-partner vessels, and must be costeffective. Acoustically linked surface moorings that do not deliver power to the seafloor (Fig.
7.108) provide low-band-width (up to 30 kbit/s) connectivity. Single-point moorings tethered
with electro-optical-mechanical (EOM) mooring cables and using surface following buoys (Fig.
7.109) can provide seafloor power (about 100 W) from the buoy and can link data at maximum
satellite connectivity rates. Large tri-moored spar buoys that respond primarily to low-frequency
wave motions are a complementary approach to the EOM-tethered single-point design and can
provide substantially more power (up to 1 kW) from diesel generators located in the spar buoy.
292
Fig.7.108. Acoustically linked observatory architecture
Acoustically linked surface moorings do not require the development of new mooring
technology. GEOSTAR and ASSEM demonstrated that this technique is mature. The major
challenge for the EOM tethered designs is designing a cable that provides adequate mooring
compliance without damaging the conductors and optical fibres from bending strain, and that
has a size, weight, and cost compatible with operation in strong current regimes and with small
surface buoys. This is an area of active current research, and a range of solutions appears to be
feasible.
293
Fig. 7.109 – EOM tethered observatory architecture
Over a hundred years of development of submarine cables for the telecommunications industry
has resulted in highly reliable commercial-off -the-shelf products. The design requirements for
an ocean observatory cable are highly compatible with the standard capabilities of
telecommunications cable. Cable-based installations can provide much greater amounts of
power and bandwidth for instruments than buoys.
Whether a system is buoyed or cabled, most science users will connect instruments at a seafloor
node that contains the electronic subsystems necessary to provide power, communications, and
control functions for both infrastructure and sensors, along with a wet-mate able connector to
which instruments may be connected. Examples of seafloor nodes are shown in the ESONET
reports. These designs allow the node to be recovered by a research vessel for repair or
servicing.
A simple physical block diagram (Figure 7.111) shows the key hardware subsystems of a cabled
observatory science node. Copies of these subsystems appear both in other science nodes (if
present) and in a shore station. While the figure 7.111 is directly pertinent to a cabled
observatory, the same subsystems will appear in a buoyed installation except that the submarine
cable is replaced by the combination of a buoy-to-satellite communications link and an
autonomous power source in the buoy. The remaining subsystems will still be present in the
seafloor science node, although their power and bandwidth capability may be more limited. This
remark is also available for an autonomous observatory where the communications link is
replaced by a storage device and where specific subsystems as precise clock are necessary.
The main subsystems in an ocean observatory science node handle power, data communications,
observatory management, and time distribution. Each of these may be subdivided into a
hierarchy of sub-subsystems or beyond.
294
Electrical wire
Fiber optic
Backbone
Comms
Access
Comms
Time distribution
Node control
Optical modem
Backbone
Power
Instrument
Power
Packages interface
Scientific
Package 1
Sensor 1
Scientific
Package 2
Technical
Package 1
Sensor n
Sensor 2
Fig. 7.110 – Observatory architecture
The power subsystem transforms the high voltage (up to 10 kV) carried by the single conductor
(with seawater return) present in fibre optic cable to lower levels usable by both the node
infrastructure and science users. Normally, this transformation will be accomplished in two
stages for a cabled observatory, with the backbone power stage converting the line voltage to a
medium level and the user power stage providing isolated standard voltages to user loads. For a
single node cabled or buoyed observatory, a power system of this sort with simple monitoring
and telemetry will probably suffice. As the number of nodes grows on a multi-node cabled
observatory, issues of power monitoring and management increase in complexity.
The data communications subsystem serves two key purposes: aggregation of data streams from
many sensors around a science node, and routing/repeating on the high-speed backbone optical
network. Anticipating that future ocean observatory instrument data will consist primarily of
Internet protocol (IP) packets, the access communications block can be implemented using an
Ethernet switch that transfers data to the backbone communications subsystem. Ethernet is
available at standard data rates of 10 and 100 Mbit/s and 1 and 10 Gbit/s, and these are expected
to increase over time.
For a single node cabled or buoy observatory, the backbone communications/optical transport
sub-subsystems can consist of a high-speed Ethernet switch with single channel optical
transport. For multi-node ocean observatories, the backbone communications functions can be
implemented in one of several ways, depending on the optical transport protocol and network
physical topology. For a mesh network, which constitutes the most efficient way to increase
network reliability for a given number of nodes, the most general approach would use a highspeed version of Ethernet using multiple independent optical transport channels, with the
number depending on the desired total data rate.
Time distribution can be provided by Network Time Protocol, which is a widely used protocol
that can serve time at an accuracy of a few milliseconds across simple networks. It can serve as
a primary time standard suitable for most instruments on a cabled ocean observatory. Higher
accuracy (e.g., order 1 µs) synoptic time can be served to science users using a separate system.
The remaining science node subsystems provide specialized functions that are actually elements
of a comprehensive observatory management system comprising the data management, node
control, and instrument interface subsystems. The node control subsystem provides high
reliability oversight of all node functions, including telemetry of critical data and master control
of key subsystems. It may be distributed among the other node subsystems or centralized,
depending on the implementation. The instrument interface subsystem provides power,
295
communications, and time services to instruments and sensors, and may be physically
distributed between the science node and individual instruments. It may also provide critical
data management functions such as storage and service of metadata, and contains part of the
seafloor component of the data management subsystem that is logically distributed throughout
the observatory
Management functions includes: monitoring and control of the node power busses; monitoring
and control of the node data communications system; and collection and transmission of node
engineering data. The node control process may reside physically in the node or on shore/in a
buoy.
An ocean observatory operations centre on shore contains all of the processes to monitor and
manage the components of an ocean observatory. The operations centre connects to a set of
distributed data archives, which are probably not collocated. There are four main types of shoreside processes: the communications control process, the power control process, the data
buffering process, and the data archive process. These two last function are part of the data
management.
The communications and power control processes are used by ocean observatory operators or
users to control various node, instrument, and sensor functions, and may interact with both the
node control and instrument processes. A partial list of their functions includes: monitoring and
control of system-wide power usage and availability; monitoring and management of systemwide data bandwidth usage and availability; and creation and elimination of connections
between instruments or nodes and other processes.
An instrument process resides logically between the instrument and the access data and user
power connections at the node. Some of its functions include: monitoring and control of power
to the instrument; instrument ground fault detection; bi-directional transmission of data to/from
other instruments, other nodes, and the shore station; storage and forwarding of instrument as
required; and acquisition and processing of synoptic time. The instrument process may
physically reside in the instrument itself, in the node between the wet-mate able user port and
the node data/power hardware, or even in proxy mode on shore or in a buoy, depending on how
the software implementing the user process has to interact with the hardware making up the
ocean observatory.
The node control process may interact both with hundreds of instrument processes and with
several shorebased processes. Data archive processes gather and receive data and metadata from
specified instrument. Different repositories may receive and process data from different types of
instruments. A partial list of the data archive process functions includes: extraction of
instrument metadata from the instrument processes as required; flagging metadata state change;
acquisition and post-processing of data streams from instrument processes; and possibly
provision for national security control over data access.
While many of the processes described above could be implemented in hardware, a key
characteristic they share is the need for repetitive, automatic inter-service communication and
the concomitant exchange of data or commands. In addition, it is likely that the processes
needed to operate an ocean observatory will evolve over time as unforeseen modes of operation
develop and users and operators build an experience base. Evolving uses argues strongly for an
implementation that places hardware interfaces at primitive levels in the subsystems and
implements the inter-process links and their control in software which can be remotely modified
as required. This implementation process is especially needed for a seafloor installation where
changes of hardware are extremely expensive. Finally, as ocean observatories proliferate, the
need for interoperability will become increasingly important, especially at sensor and user
interfaces; however, interoperability at the internal levels of ocean observatories will lead to a
reduction in operating costs as the community-wide experience base grows. If all of these
interfaces are well defined, then the internal workings of instruments or infrastructure become
irrelevant to most users.
The design of ocean observatories must be driven by the needs of the scientific community who
will use the facilities. Extracting requirements from the scientific community presents a
challenge to the engineering team responsible for ocean observatory design, as the typical
science user cannot readily quantify present and future needs that will lead to a formal design,
and may not be familiar with the relevant power, communications, control, and ocean
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engineering technologies.
While mature technology exists for most components of subsea observatories, the available
sensors for long term deployment are not adapted enough. In order to progress in parallel on
scientific interpretation, sensor metrology and calibration and technological improvements, it is
mandatory to think in term of “scientific packages”. Each scientific package will have a
development and pre-operational testing plan corresponding to a close cooperative work
between specialists.
The criteria for the constitution of the basis of these scientific packages are the choice of well
established suite of sensors to build up the « basis suite ». Other sensors are needed to promote
the innovative modelling or interpretation or cross-correlation of time series. To the extent
possible, especially if they are funded by global observatory budgets, these instruments should
possess the following characteristics :
•
•
•
•
Be long-lived.
Require little or no in-situ calibration?
Measure unaliased integral quantities more representative of larger scales (spot
measurements are then welcome to address spatial variability).
Be useful for multiple disciplines.
The following is an example set of generic top-level design requirements. Not all of these need
apply to a given installation; for example, several are specific to multi node observatories, and
may be irrelevant for single node implementations. The ordering does not imply priority.
• Lifetime: an ocean observatory shall meet all science requirements, with appropriate
maintenance, for a design life of at least 25 years.
•
Cost: an ocean observatory shall be designed to minimize the 25 year life cycle cost.
• Reconfigurability: an ocean observatory shall allow resources to be dynamically
directed where science needs and priorities dictate.
• Scalability: an ocean observatory shall be expandable, so that additional science nodes
which meet the observatory reliability goals can be placed near or at locations of interest
that may develop in the future.
• Upgradeability: an ocean observatory shall be upgradeable to accommodate future
technology improvements.
• Robustness: an ocean observatory shall utilize fault tolerant design principles and
minimize potential single points of failure. Failure of a sensor or of a scientific package
must not propagate to the other functions.
• Reliability: the primary measure of ocean observatory reliability shall be the
probability of being able to send data to/from any science instrument from/to shore and/or
from/to other science nodes, exclusive of instrument functionality.
• Open Design Principle: ocean observatory hardware designs and specifications shall
be freely and openly available, and all software elements shall be based on open standards
to the greatest extent possible.
A major challenge in ocean observatory design lies in reliability engineering. The electronic
infrastructure required to implement an ocean observatory will always be complex, and
constructing an installation that delivers the required performance and is maintainable at a
reasonable cost is critical to their success. High reliability engineering is a critical element in
minimizing the life cycle cost of ocean observatories. Thorough life cycle cost estimates and
projecting operations and maintenance (O&M) costs are an essential ocean observatory design
element (See Annexe 4 Connection to shore and costs).
297
A major concern in the engineering of large, complex projects that contain significant new
applications of technology is minimizing the risk of major problems or even failure. One useful
approach to risk mitigation is the construction of a test bed that still contains all of the critical
elements of the full system and will allow to scientist to learn how use this new kind of
instrument.
_______________________________
Annexes at the end of this report.
ANNEX 1 Industrial offshore standards
ANNEXE 2 Environment tests
ANNEX 3 Telemetry
ANNEX 4 Connection to shore and costs
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8. ESONET Data Management
Section 8.
ESONET Data Management
This section of the report was written by
Gilbert MAUDIRE,
Catherine MAILLARD,
Christian BONNET,
Michèle FICHAUT
of
IFREMER/IDM, Brest, France
8.1 Introduction
A major interest of Sea Floor Observatories is to produce multidisciplinary data sets of good quality
and well organised to facilitate their further use for any kind of users, scientific and non scientific.
Therefore the data management should represent an essential activity of the project, to insure that the
data collected during the ESONET experiments will be processed, qualified, safeguarded for the long
term and made easily and timely available.
The data management section of this report is complementary to the previous section dedicated to the
Future Observatory Designs (Section 7). It aims to develop standardized data management protocols
"from the sensor to the user" and to give specifications for the design and development of a data
management system that efficiently transmits large volume of multidisciplinary. The multidisciplinary
nature of ESONET creates particular problems in that different sensors on the same or on remote
platforms, may require completely different time scales of data acquisition and dissemination. However
the final users should be able to receive coherent and quality data from the whole network of
observatories. The data management services needed to support the many facets of activity in the ocean
are themselves complex. From each sensor to the user, the data circulate into several sub-systems:
transfer/communication, processing, archiving, dissemination, monitoring, which are schematised in
Fig. 8.1 and should be taken into account in designing the data management structure.
As ESONET is strongly related with the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), the framework and
guidelines of the establishment of the ESONET data management takes into account the data
management and communication requirements of GOOS, and in particular the coastal module of
GOOS. The data management activities cover the observation data, the information on the data
collection (meta data) and integrated products prepared on routine mode. It includes warnings related to
sensors status provided in real time, and some warnings related to environmental events in real time
and delayed mode, depending on the considered time scales. It doesn’t not include higher level
information products prepared from the qualified data by scientific analysis activities.
The basic requirement is that the users should get an integrated access to qualified data, information
and products of each observatory:
•
•
real time (environmental alerts, …)
delayed mode (scientific studies, global change, …)
As a consequence, data must be recorded in long term archives. Moreover, the data management should
make possible the merging of these data with data from other observing systems, and make the
integrated data sets accessible via Internet.
In particular, interfaces with the following existing sea bottom observatories should be made:
- DOBO Porcupine sea Bight 2001-2001
- SOFOS Adriatic
- GEOSTAR North of Sicily
- A S S E M Array of Sensors for long term SEabed Monitoring of geohazards.
This will be made by the adoption and use of common standards, data processing protocols and
exchange formats.
Fig. 8.1 Data Management Activities between the in–situ data collection and the scientific products preparation
An important point is not to reinvent the wheel, and to use or adapt the existing standards and data
management infrastructures to implement the tasks. The standards and protocols used should be
compatible with the internationally agreed protocols, defined by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission of UNESCO (IOC), the Joint IOC/WMO Commission and the International Council for
the Exploration of the Sea (ICES).
Similarly, the optimisation of the use of the existing infrastructures is a necessity both for compatibility
reasons, and to minimize the costs in terms of personnel, hardware and software. It does not mean that
the data management structure should be centralized in a unique centre. The activities can be
distributed over several centres regional and/or thematic to take benefits from regional / thematic
expertise. In that case again, standardisation will make possible the interfacing and communication. For
example, the data system used for the management of ASSEM observatories and MAREL coastal
buoys (Fig.8.2) is a unique system, and these experiments will be used further in this document to
illustrate and discuss the different data management issues.
Fig 8.2. Use of an existing data management system for MAREL (coastal buoys) and ASSEM (bottom observatories)
8.2 Data, metadata and products
The data to be managed are heterogeneous and consist of observation data, meta-data, derived data
products.
8.2.1 Environmental observation data
• Numerical values
• Digital pictures & video (eg: Fig.8.3)
Fig. 8.3. Example of quick look at real time data (from ASSEM)
If many users are interested in getting data products in near real time, the data archiving and quality
control activities will have to put special attention on the observation data and meta-data, because in
case of loss, they can never be made again. The bottom observatories collect multidisciplinary data, but
they are presently focused on:
- biological data from regular sampling in the water column and in the sediment : nutrients,
microbiology and from video
- geophysical data: seismicity data, sediment pore water and pore gaz composition and pressure
- physical data: current form ADCP and classical current meters, pressure, temperature, salinity,
chemicals, turbidity and optical parameters.
8.2.2. Meta-data
The meta-data are the information on the experimental conditions, processing and quality level, and can
be mandatory or optional.
• The meta-data are necessary to proceed to the quality control and for the data searching. They are
therefore included in the catalogues and inventories, and several standardisation and
communication protocols issues discussed here below are related to meta-data.
8.2.3. Data products
The data products are prepared from observations checked for quality and with common agreed
algorithms and methods, either in the data management workpackage on routine mode, or in analysis
workpackages if the methodologies are under development or require specific expertises. They belong
to the main following groups:
Subsampling: interpolated data at regular intervals for specific studies
Alarms/Alerts: time scale=1 second to 1 day
• Environmental risks & hazards
• Sensors status
Long term Statistics and trends: time scale = 1 month
Interpolated (gridded) data
Maps
8.3. Data processing and Quality checks
The real time data should be automatically decoded, reformatted, documented, corrected from
measurement artefacts and translated in geophysical parameters before loading in the data management
system, in general a relational database system (RDBS). In addition to this processing, quality control
procedures should be applied with the following objectives:
• to insure a minimum level of quality in data, information and product
• to insure coherence and compatibility between data from different observatories
The quality assurance of the system will insure that all these procedures (Fig. 8.4) are fully documented
and applied.
8.3.1. Quality Assurance
The overall objectives of the quality assurance protocol are 1) to insure a minimum level of quality in
data, information and product and to 2) to insure coherence and compatibility between data from
different observatories. It is based on the definition of standards and the implementation of
standardised procedures for data formatting, processing and dissemination. The internationally agreed
standards will be used when available, and if not they will be extended according to the international
guidelines and contribution to expert groups.
The data manual will cover the following items:
• Standards and procedures for transfer and dissemination
• Definition of exchange formats, including standardised parameter names and units, based on
the International System (SI) of units
•
•
Procedures for data collection
Procedures for data processing and archiving
Fig. 8.4: Processing modules
8.3.2. Data processing
Data processing consists of converting an engineering signal into geophysical parameters, making the
appropriate corrections of sensor drift etc. and computing expected high level data products. Each of
these steps corresponds to a “processing level” and the data are modified at each processing level to get
the best estimate. Four main levels of data processing are widely used:
T0 : Raw unqualified data
T0.5 : Data checked in real time by automated processing, only for alarms & alerts
T1 : Data checked by an operator in near-real time for operational purposes
T2 : Data calibrated and corrected from experimental errors, full checked for quality by
comparison with statistics and data from other sources. Only at this level, the data can be
distributed in delayed mode for scientific long term studies
T3 : Data with optional corrections like filtering for tidal signal
T5 : Gridded data - Statistics
8.3.2.1 Images and Video
For the images and videos, there may be a need for data compression and extraction of interesting
sequences corresponding for example, to image changes.. However the compression creates a risk of
being not be able to read again the data on the long term, either if the algorithm is lost, or if the
compression library is not maintained. To encompass this difficulty, it is recommended to:
• Study the compromise between the cost of the media /risk of loss
• when necessary, document the methods and algorithms
• Take into account the practices of the satellite and geophysical communities
8.3.3. Quality Control
The quality control consist of performing a series of checks on each data set and adding at the end a
quality flag to each numerical value reflecting the level of anomalies met if any. Comparing
the data with known statistics and relation between the data and to assign to them a quality flag,
without modifying the data. It should be made at each processing level, but in practise, it is generally
made at two levels of processing only: at the “validated observation” level, which is the data corrected
from any measurement artefact, and at the final products (analysed data) level. The quality control
procedure includes automatic checks first in which a quality flag is added to each numerical value.
Then the data are check visually with being colored according to their quality flags, to check the overall
consistency and validate the flag. An example is given in Fig.8.5. in this case, the flag scale adopted is
the international Argo/IOC/WMO/GTSPP quality flag scale:
0 not controlled value (processing level T0)
4
5
9
1 all checks passed - no outlier detected - correct value
2 value differs from statistics (seasonal statistics, …)
3 dubious value (spike, gradient..)
false value (out of scale, constant profile, vertical instability …)
interpolated/computed value (not direct observation)
missing value
0
not yet controlled
Fig.8.5. Quality check of a time series
8.4 Data Transfer and communication
The data are transferred from the observing system to the data management structure (data centre) and
then from the data centre to the users, and to other data stuctures for interoperability purposes. The
communication technology makes necessary the use of communication standards and at least for the
final dissemination, the data transfer should be standardized. Two kinds of standards are used:
communication standards, which are common to georeferenced data and thematic standards adapted to
the specific marine data.
8.4.1. Transfer from the observatory to the data centre
The data are transferred automatically from the bottom observatories to the reception station (the data
centre ) in real time by the local more adapted system: satellite transmission, radio or
cable. The standardization is limited at this stage, as the transfer protocol is given by the manufacturers.
It is recommended to work with the sensor manufacturers to standardize the data acquisition systems
and processing and to get compatibility with other observatories including coastal buoys.
‘They are also transferred in delayed mode if the observatory is equipped with a recorder. The data are
then transferred at the maintenance periods. The data received in delayed mode are in general more
complete, and the following operations: decoding, loading, processing and safeguarding are launched
manually.
8.4.2 Existing Geographical & earth observation standards
8.4.2.1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
The ISO Technical Committee for the Geographic Information and Geomatics have
produced several relevant standards for meta-data and catalogues definition:
• ISO 19115 (and sub-standards) Metadata description
• ISO 23950 (Z39.50) : catalogues design
8.4.2.2.OpenGIS Consortium (OGC)
The OpenGis Consortium (OGC) develops standards to improve compatibility and
inter-operability for geospatial and location based services. These standards are mostly
software interfaces like Web Map Server (WMS) and Web Feature Server (WFS). The
Geographical Markup Language (GML) based on XML, has been developed to transfer geodata
between these servers.
8.2.3. Data Format (UNIDATA) and Data Exchange (OpenDAP)
NetCDF (Network Common Data Format), developed by UniData Consortium is now widely used in
the Marine Community to exchange and process large data sets (hydrology, geophysics, remote sensing).
OpenDAP is an exchange an remote data access protocol used to network
distributed databases, both on local and long-distance network. OpenDAP can be
directly interfaced with databases in NetCDF format.
8.4.3. Marine XML / ISO 19115 Metadata
Communication Scheme (Fig.8.6) to implement ISO Metadata for marine data sets, developed in
Cooperation with :
- Sea Search
- Marine XML
8.4.3.1.Geographical area & datum
<geoBox>
<northBL>+45.1234</northBL>
<southBL>+44.987</southBL>
<westBL>-10.2</westBL>
<eastBL>-10.115</eastBL>
</geoBox>
<geoId>
<identCode>WGS84</identCode>
</geoId>
8.4.3.2. Temporal extent
<dataExt>
<tempEle>
<exTemp>
<begin>19930210 2300</begin>
<end> 19930307 1100 </end>
</exTemp>
</tempEle>
</dataExt>
8.4.3.3. Data manager & Chief scientist
<citRespParty>
<rpIndName> data manager name </rpIndName>
<role>
<RoleCd value=« curator">
</role>
</citRespParty>
<citRespParty>
<rpIndName> chief scientist name </rpIndName>
<role>
<RoleCd value=« chiefScientist">
</role>
</citRespParty>
Fig.8.6. Consultation of a catalogue (meta-data ) by using XML transfer scheme
8.4.4. GML - Geography Markup Language
GML is an XML format for vector geographical data, in which attributes can be added and linked to
the geometry description such as (Fig. 8.7) :
• Type of data (intermediate family of parameters),
• Location (data are always geo-referenced)
• Time of measurement, Month of measurement
• Measurement platform, sensor
• Observatory, experiment, responsible scientist, institution
It allows Generic criteria for queries for data search and recovery and is used by WFS (« feature
server »)
.GML is therefore well adapted to describe the geometry of a seafloor observatory network
Fig.8.7 Example of a GML Scheme
Fig.8.8
Example of result of database interrogation with GML Scheme
8.4.5.Thematic standards and protocols
Further common standards and protocols may be necessary, especially when the number of
observatories and parameters measured will increase/
•
Common thesaurus & Data dictionary:
o measured parameters with names, units, codes
o ‘‘Agreed parameter Grouping” – (cf. Sea-Search)
o taxonomy
• Common unique identifiers to discards duplication in data sets:
o platforms, time series
o to discards duplication in data sets, especially when the data sets circulate in several
organizations.
• Data Exchange formats
Several dissemination formats will be provided to users. Binary NetCdf is widely used in the scientific
community, but some groups prefer flat ASCII or spread sheet tables. A good data service should be
flexible enough to handle all, including adapted audio and video formats.
- For NetCdf, international formats defined in the frame of the international Argo program will
be similarly reviewed, and adapted if necessary.
- For ASCII, the EU MEDATLAS will be similarly reviewed and adapted;
- for spreadsheet table export format, the same compatibility will be searched with
WOCE/Ocean Data View software
Compatibility with other observing systems, either other bottom observatories or sensors in the water
column or coastal buoys and observatories. Like for the data transfer, work with the sensor
manufacturers to standardize data acquisition systems and processing is critical.
8.5. Data Dissemination
The data dissemination is determined by:
• the data policy
• the availability of adapted dissemination tools, taking into consideration the wide use of
internet in the research community, and the fast evolution of these tools..
8.5.1. Data Dissemination Policy
The ESONET Data Policy will be defined in the context of free an open access to data as recommended
by the UNESCO/IOC/IODE and WMO data policies, and which should be adopted for IOC projects
such as GOOS.
The ESONET Consortium already considers that the Data Policy should meet the following objectives:
• Provide elements to monitor governmental policy changes and provide access to appropriate
data and information for the citizens:
o Simple digested information: hazards and risks, images, videoclips
o Simple standard interface
o Target public: schools, museums, aquariums, libraries
• Highlight relevant data sets into the future
• Encourage the highest number of scientific publications.
• Assess the copyright and intellectual property rights without hampering the project in
international and societal context.
Therefore ESONET should provide an open access for key data to:
• geohazards monitoring at sea floor
• Environmental Monitoring Parameter
• Global change parameters
• Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and particle transport
But ESONET will restrict the access to data in the following cases:
• Datarelated to fisheries and anthropogenic impact
•
Experimental data, which should follow classical scientific confidentiality rules : no more than
2 years restriction
8.5.2. Distribution media
Several media for information distribution will be used according to different uses :
Real time alerts :
messages on GSM
Regular deliveries :
ftp exchanges, …
On demand deliveries : web sites
8.5.3. ESONET Data Portal
The ESONET data portal will contribute to promote the use of ESONET data information and
products:
It will include:
• the documentation on formats, protocols, standards and processing methods
• tools for on request access to data, meta-data and products
• a link to the ftp site for regular delivery.
Several levels of selection criteria to search for data should be proposed, basically answering the
generic level: What, Where, When, Whose :
• Type of data (intermediate family of parameters),
• Measurement platform, sensor
• Location (data are always geo-referenced)
• Time of measurement, Month of measurement
• Observatory, experiment, responsible scientist, institution
• Thematic level
o Processing level
o Data quality flag
• A private restricted site will be opened for the project partners.
8.6.Long term safeguarding and exploitation
The data, meta-data and products should be safeguarded for exploitation on the long term. The data
management system should be back-up regularly in at least two different sites. Moreover it is
recommended that for a long term safeguarding and exploitation :
1-all the key parameters, should be integrated in databases of the same types. The integration
problems (format errors, data organisation ..) will be reported to the source scientists for
correction.
2- The engineering and non-standard data could be simply safeguarded without reformatting
but with automatic backup system and indexatioin in a catalogue. However, if a data type
become operational, the previous procedure should apply.
3- The archiving system should be reviewed periodically and get feedback from the users
These tasks should be implemented by a perennial and professional data management infrastructure.
8.7. Data Management Structure
The ESONET data management structure has to develop, maintain and manage the modules above
mentioned and schematised in Fig.8.9:
• Contributors of ESONET should be able to transmit data into the system with a minimum of
obligation to convert their data to specialized data formats or restructuring of data sets,
provided basic conditions of data quality and meta-data standards are met. While it may be
possible to
provide a single portal for data users for one-stop access, this will be a simplified front end for the data
management system that supports all the different observatories. Local access points will tend to focus
first on national or regional data sources for waters in their vicinity. For a limited number of key
variables, a centralised access point, which is suitable for all types of customers, will give access to
data from all available sources designed with the ESONET standards. The construction of specialized
customer-related access points will be carried out by delegated teams of experts, who know both the
needs of these customers and the user software which is most suited to them.
• data transfer protocols for real time and delayed mode data
• data processing and preparation of products
• long time archiving
• dissemination and exploitation
Fig. 8.9: Scheme of the data management structure associated with several observing systems
For many reasons, man power availability of computer and archiving resources and data
responsibilities, the data management structure to work out these tasks will be a distributed structure.
In a first pilot period stage, it is likely that the node will be associated with each observatory
(geographical distribution). In a operational phase, the distribution of the data management tasks could
be centralized for each data type (thematic distribution).
To optimise the resources, long time archives should be under the responsibility of professional data
centres equipped with appropriate facilities and skilled personnel such as the network of World,
Regional and National Oceanographic Data Centres. Thesse data centres will process and archive the
data by using their local facilities. Copies of the validated data will be transfered to the data
management coordinator at the archiving centre at the exchange format. The archiving center perform
further quality checks (date, position, data points) according to the international standards. The data
will be merged in databases of the same type.
8.7.1. Hardware and software equipment
The data management structure will be equipped with adapted hardware, software and network
communication facilities. The integration of these facilities will result, for instance, to provide map
visualization to users, in a WMF server according to the scheme presented in Fig.8.10.
In addition, specific intercompared (for distributed structures) software tools to reformat, index,
process and qualify the data should be available for each data type.
Fig. 8.10: Elements of data servers
8.7.2. Networking and communication
Each node of the structure should used standards and standardized communication links in order that
any user got an integrated access to quality data, information and products. The standardization will be
insure by developing and implementing a common protocol for data processing and dissemination.
The data management structure will be created based on the following elementS:
• An archiving center which would insure a perennial safeguarding of an archive copy of the
data;
• Thematic and/or observatory data centres associated with the main data types biological,
geophysical, physical and chemical of each observatory
An example of data structure is represented in Fig. 8.11, the ASSEM case.
Fig. 8.11: Data Management structure of ASSEM
8.7.3. Networking of the observing systems
All the permanent observing systems, including the bottom observatories, are inventoried in the
EUROGOOS/EDIOS catalogue, which include detailed descriptions of each observatory and
summaries of the data sets collected set (eg. biological data collected):
EDIOS : European Directory of the Initial Ocean-observing System http://www.ediosproject.de/
A subset of the information on data is common with the catalogue EDMED catalogue,
which describes all the data collected in the Pan-European scientific and operational
communities:
EDMED: European Directory of Marine Environmental Data catalogue EDMED
http://www.bodc.ac.uk/services/edmed/
Standardized communication links should be developed between the observatories described in these
catalogues to make them interoperable.
8.7.4. Perennial data management infrastructures at the Pan-European level
The different elements of the data management infrastructure should be developed and operated by
professional engineers and technicians. This requires and important investment in terms of human and
financial support, and rather than reinventing the wheel, it is recommended to make use of and adapt
when necessary, the existing facilities. This is compatible with the growing interest on standardization,
and allows to getting an integrated access other long time series of the same type of data. A key point is
also that professional infrastructures can insure a perennial system, which is more difficult in the frame
of a scientific project, by itself limited in time.
The national oceanographic data centres have developed national infrastructures for data safeguarding
and dissemination. They work together to develop the above mentioned standards and to improve the
data processing practises in cooperation with the international authorities and working groups (IOC,
ICES, JCOMM) and in the frame of international projects such as IODE (International Oceanographic
Data and Information Exchange), ARGO (deep sea operational oceanography), GOSUD (Global Ocean
Surface Underway Data), GODAR (Global Ocean Data Archaeology and Rescue) and MEDAR for the
Mediterranean and Black Seas. They actively cooperate to develop a standardized distributed PanEuropean data infrastructure in the frame :
•
•
Sea Search : Oceanographic and Marine Data & Information in Europe –
Consortium of National Data Centres: http://www.sea-search.net/
and
the
next
step
under
development
Sea
Data
Net:
http://www.seadatanet.org/
This Data Centre network, distributed over 36 countries around the European Seas (Fig.8.12) can
provide to the bottom observatories, a perennial archiving system with adaptations specified by the
observations responsible.
8.7.5. Maintenance and Review of the structure
Several actions should be made to insure an appropriate maintenance and evolution of the data system.
First, tracking efficiency, problems raised and possible new developments of the data management
structure, the software and the data circulation scheme should be reviewed at regular periods, and
recommendations made for the system evolution. In this context it is important to settle a procedure to
get continuous feedback from users.
Fig. 8.12 : Network of the Pan-European National Oceanographic Data Centres
Strong cooperative links exist in Regional sub-networks
8.8. Time schedule
The time schedule of the data management will follow the development of the full ESONET observing
system. Preliminary phases will be necessary before getting a data management operated in routine
operational mode:
1) Pilot phase
• First versions of the protocols and methodologies written
• Data management structure by observatory
• Costs estimated, structure tested, specifications for next phases
2) Implementation phase
• Protocol validated
• Operational structure developed and tested
3) Pre-operational phase
• Maintenance and no major evolution
• Uniform data management and products delivered
Test of performances.
8.8 Selected Web sites:
ISO Technical committee TC211 for Geographic information / Geomatics : www.isotc211.org
OpenGIS Consortium: www.opengis.org UNIDATA consortium publications:
http://my.unidata.ucar.edu/content/software/netcdf/index.html
OpenDAP Organization publications: http://opendap.org/
ESONET: The European Seafloor Observatory Network www.abdn.ac.uk/ecosystem/esonet/
IFREMER contribution site: http://www.ifremer.fr/esonet/
ASSEM - Array of Sensors for long term Seabed Monitoring of Geohazards
http://www.ifremer.fr/assem/
Coastal DataBuoys – MAREL System: http://www.ifremer.fr/prod/marel/mareluk.htm
IFREMER/SISMER (Data Centre): http://www.ifremer.fr/sismer/
BIOCEAN database for biological samplings and submarine diving. http://www.ifremer.fr/isi/biocean/
EDIOS : European Directory of the Initial Ocean-observing System: http://www.edios-project.de/
EDMED: European Directory of Marine Environmental Data catalogue:
http://www.bodc.ac.uk/services/edmed/
IODE: International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange: http://ioc3.unesco.org/iode/
CORIOLIS/ARGO Data Centre
http://www.coriolis.eu.org/coriolis/cdc/
SEA SEARCH : Oceanographic and Marine Data & Information in Europe – Consortium of National
Data Centres: http://www.sea-search.net/
SEA DATA NET: Pan-European infrastructure for Ocean & Marine Data management:
http://www.seadatanet.org/
9. Conclusions: Future Implementation
9. Conclusions: Future Implementation.
9.1 Necessary conditions for the implementation of an ESONET observatory
• The scientific need for long term continuous data acquisition has long been
acknowledged for several disciplines1. It is based on historic data (probably not
complete) demonstrating the necessity of permanent monitoring
•
The complementarity with on land networks, satellite data, lagrangian float data,
permanent moorings is demonstrated with models (improvement of positioning for
earthquake epicenter for instance).
•
The number of disciplines interested in case of cabled observatory must be high.
•
The site must be well defined, the seabed must be mapped with the latest acoustic and
seismic equipments and the soil sampled and analysed. The legal issues of EEZ
extension, fishing rights and regulations,… must be solved.
•
Another crucial condition is the ability to build a regional consortium of users and
financing institutions.
9.1 ESONET observatories should be established where there is a well demonstrated multidisciplinary scientific need and an active regional consortium.
9.2 . Cabling vs not cabling: maturity of the decision
In this report we propose that representative monitoring around Europe may be done through a
network of 10 regional nodes. This can be seen as an operational objective for the next decade.
An evidence is the relatively limited cost of some preliminary deployments at some spots of
high scientific interest :
- with near real time or periodic data transmission needed to continue the first set of historic
data such as Hausgarten (Arctic), Gulf of Corinth (Hellenic), Momar (Azores),
- built on existing cable infrastructure such as extension of Antares cable (Ligurian sea),
extension of SN-1 (Sicily), or NESTOR site,
- mobile observatory for the monitoring of wrecked ships or geohazard events.
A stepwise development starting with these observatories would bring a significant expertise on
scientific packages, data management systems and strengthen multidisciplinary cooperation.
The criteria to be fullfilled for the decision of launching new networked cable observatories
have to be established.
9.2 Initial development of ESONET will use existing cable infrastructure. Other parts will
operate with non-real time data acquisition using non-cabled observatories.
1
e.g Thiel et al (1994) Scientific requirements for an abyssal benthic laboratory. Journal of Marine
Systems 4: 421-439
317
3. Comparison of Communications Cables and Scientific Cable Systems.
The global telecommunications industry is very well established with a long history of
installation of transoceanic cables starting with early copper conductor telegraph cables
in 1858, telephone cables from 1956 followed by fibre optic cables from 1988. It is
logical therefore in considering sub sea observatory networks to turn to this industry
for their expertise. There are however important differences between scientific and
communications cables.
Table 9.1. Comparison of telecommunications and scientific cables
(After Tokura et al. 2004)
Parameter
Telecom Cable
Scientific Cable
Network Configuration
Channel Capacity between
terrestrial terminals
Cable Failure
Point to point
Very large
Mesh-like
Small
Fatal
Up to tens of kb.s-1
Rerouting using
mesh-like Topology
Hundreds of Mb.s-1
Simple
Complex
Low
High
Essential
Comparable with
terrestrial devices
Telemetry from underwater
plant
Functions of underwater
plant
Power consumption of
Underwater plant
Reliability of underwater
plant
Typically a telecommunications cable has a simple point to point configuration transmitting data
between land stations at either end. The essence of scientific cables is that data are collected by
sensors in the ocean for transmission to one or more land stations. Control signals are also
transmitted from the land stations to the sub sea instrument platforms. In telecommunications
systems the most complex functions, modulators and demodulators are on shore whereas in
scientific systems much of this complexity will be on the sea floor.
Scientific systems are
likely to comprise a network of sensors suggesting a mesh-like layout of cables on the sea floor.
Scientific cables have a modest data capacity compared with telecommunications cables,
100Mbs per node is proposed by NEPTUNE with High Definition Television (HDTV) probably
the most demanding (24Mbps using MPEG2 compression). Third generation fibre optical
telecom cables introduced in 2001 have a data capacity of 960 Gbps per fibre but the control
signals for the repeaters represent only a few tens of kbs.
The TCP-4 cable installed between Japan and North America in 1992 has a total length of 9850
km with repeaters at intervals of 120km. The power consumption of each repeater is ca. 50W
giving a total power consumption of the transoceanic underwater system of less than 5kW. By
contrast scientific cables may require 1-2kW per observatory. Underwater cameras with lights
require the most power and managing fluctuations in power demand in an underwater network
may be challenging for designers.
Current prototype cabled observatories such as ANTARES and SN-1 use standard
telecommunications cable technology. However as complex networks are deployed across the
sea floor is likely that some development will be required. For scientific cables there will be a
requirement for a new generation of hardware with relatively low data rate, high power supply
to sub sea nodes and a mesh-like architecture that can be readily added to or reconfigured.
9.3 ESONET should be developed through installation of a network of up to date fibre optic
cables dedicated to scientific use.
318
9.4. Reuse of Telecommunications cables for Scientific Applications.
Since 2001 telecommunications companies began installing 3rd generation fibre optic cables
which has resulted in premature retirement of the 1st and 2nd generation cables installed in the
early 1990s. These retired cables have been offered to the scientific community. There are a
number of disadvantages in re-use of old telecommunications cables:
(a) The location of the cables may not be ideal.
(b) The power (copper conductor) capacity is unlikely to be sufficient for many scientific
applications.
(c) Attachment of hardware at sea by retrieval of the old cable and splicing on board ship
entails significant risk.
(d) For obsolete cable technologies, the training of maintenance teams is not assured.
(e) Performance and life of the cable cannot be guaranteed.
(f) For cables less than 1000km in length, cost saving in reuse of an old cable is negligible,
zero or negative over the life of the project.
Reuse of telecommunications cables may be advantageous in establishing mid-ocean arrays or
observatories where cost of the length of cable is prohibitively high. For example the H20
observatory is located in the Pacific Ocean approximately half way between Hawaii and
a
mainland USA(http://www.whoi.edu/science/AOPE/DSO/H2O/) on the end of
telecommunications cable which was cut and terminated especially for this purpose. A power
supply and modulation/demodulation equipment was installed at Makaha in Hawaii. The cable
is an old type second-generation SD series analogue cable with substantial copper conductors.
The TCP-4 second generation fibre optic cable is considered to be well located for a linear array
of geophysical sensors in the North Pacific Ocean ( Shirasaki 2004).
Reuse of telecommunications cables is generally not considered advantageous for any part of
the ESONET system. The longest length of cable required for ESONET reaches 650km into the
Atlantic Ocean; too short to make reuse a viable proposition. In the MOEN experiment (Section
7.3.3.) use is made of existing cables but this is a special case with no fitting of subsea
hardware to the cable
9.4 Re-use of disused telecommunications cables is generally not appropriate for ESONET.
5. Choice of Cable Technology for ESONET.
Scientific sub sea cable technology is still in its infancy and no standard designs have yet
emerged. There are clear advantages in using commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) products used
in other industries where the R&D spend is much greater. Technology in optical networks is
advancing very rapidly and it is difficult to decide when to make the design choice.
Considerable engineering development work has been done by NEPTUNE-MARS projects in
the North America, and the VENUS-ARENA projects in Japan. The objectives of NEPTUNE
and ARENA are broadly similar but they have adopted completely different solutions for their
power systems. NEPTUNE proposes a constant voltage feeding system whereas ARENA will
use a constant current system. The constant current system is conventionally used in
telecommunications cables and has the following advantages.
(a) It can continue operating even when there is a cable fault. The power feed can
compensate for faults in the cable by adjustment of the voltage.
(b) The position of faults can be easily located.
(c) The power circuits in underwater repeaters are simple and easy to isolate from the sea
ground potential.
Disadvantages are:
(a) Science nodes usually require a constant voltage so a converter is required which may
be inefficient.
319
(b) Splitting of power at branches is complicated requiring use of special Power Branching
Units (PBU). Responding to change in demand from high loads such as lights which
might be switched on and off autonomously at the sub sea node is particularly
demanding.
The constant current mode was chosen for the ARENA project because it is deemed important
that the system should continue to function even if cables are damaged during an earthquake.
An important function of ARENA is to monitor earthquakes. The constant voltage network is
capable of higher total power and this was one factor in favour of its use in the NEPTUNE
design. (Kojima et al. 2004). It is doubtful if there is any single optimal solution for all
systems.
For communications, various signal protocols might be used. Telecommunications cables are
generally fixed systems working to some form of SONET (Synchronous Optical Network)
standard. Scientific networks need to accommodate expansion and alteration of the distribution
of nodes on the sea floor. For scientific networks IP-over-Ethernet technology is being
considered. Sonnichsen et al. (2004) discuss various technical options for NEPTUNE and
ARENA based on Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) that is capable transmitting more
than one wavelength on each fibre pair. Typically up to eight different wavelengths can be
accommodated thus vastly increasing bandwidth. Possibilities discussed are Dense Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (DWDM) and Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM).
These can be used in various ways including WDM with Raman optical modulators. The latter
is a new development (Tokura et al. 2004) proposed for ARENA and it is estimated that it is
possible to achieve 16 Gb.s-1 over a 10,000km length of cable (including optical repeaters) and
includes a precise clock signal necessary for timing of earthquake observations. The diversity
of technologies is indicated by the data for unrepeatered (UR) submarine optical cables from
one manufacturer, Alacatel. These UR systems are a growth area in submarine fibre optics
enabling links of up to 400km in length to be set up with minimal sub sea infrastructure. Four
different configurations are proposed according to distance and capacity.
(http://www.alcatel.com/submarine/products/ur/)
For scientific applications where transmission of data is required originating from a sub sea
node there remain considerable uncertainties. For DWDM the reliability of necessary stabilised
laser sources in underwater housings has not yet been proved in the field. The WDM/Raman
modulator overcomes this problem by generating the optical signals in terrestrial terminals
which then only need modulation in the underwater observation nodes. However these
modulators have not been yet been evaluated in the field.
At the time of writing therefore it is not possible to determine the optimal cable technology for
ESONET both from the point of view of power supply and communications protocols. The
University of Victoria in its Request for Proposals (RFP) to potential contractors for the first
part of the NEPTUNE system (NEPTUNE Canada) is using a “technology neutral” approach.
The RFP defines performance requirements and it is left to the contractors to choose the
appropriate technology.2
In the case of ESONET it is unlikely that the same communication system would be used
throughout all the regional observatory networks. Different lengths of cables and number of
observatory nodes imply different hardware solutions. Furthermore the schedule of observatory
implementation is dependent on external budgets and regional or national decisions and over the
time period of the whole ESONET implementation, optimal solutions are likely to change.
Nevertheless, the objectives of strengthening the integration of Marine Research in Europe and
involvement of SME’s are leading to compatibility requirements:
2
Differences may have arisen owing to the difference in timing of developments between North America and
the USA. ARENA started some years before NEPTUNE.
320
-
-
-
-
-
at the seafloor, the high level of instrumentation required by a long-term monitoring
requires the possibility to exchange measuring equipment by better ones ;
methods of measurements for environment and security are likely to change more quickly
than the cable lifetime (20-25 years) due to advances in science, sensor technology,
environment policies or regulations ; it may be very costly to adapt new features to several
regional networks with various constraints and interfaces ;
scientific cooperation must be based on “transparent” conditions for any institute from
Europe or collaborating country ; it means that communication protocols with sensors,
interfaces with subsea nodes and software on land must be well documented and in open
access ; it is more easily guaranteed by a preliminary agreement on standards (Esonet
label);
a buseness opportunity must be offered to European companies and SME’s ; the interest to
place the project Esonet at a European level instead of national level is to offer a wider
market ; the competition will be more open if some standards are defined, leading to lower
prices and better testing of scientific package technologies ;
if we were not able to define enough standards for interoperability, only some very big
institutes will be able to manage and operate their regional subsea observatory network ;
because of the long life of the cables, this could be a drawback for any integration of
Marine Science in Europe during the next 25 years.
Standards should ease for a limited cost the transfer from a non-cabled observatory to a
cabled observatory
WP 7 workshops of ESONET AC have concluded that Ethernet is a good standard for
transmission on the cable, and that an agreement on data encapsulation in the
communication protocol is very efficient for exchange between partners.
9.5. ESONET should specify standards and protocols defining both ends of the system (land and
subsea-system) for interoperability and modularity but leave to each bid for tender the
specification of technical details of cable engineering, power supplies or intermediate
communications protocols.
9.6
ESONET Organisation and implementation.
ESONET comprises 10 regional networks totalling ca. 4000km of cable. This length of cable
would represent a modest contract for a cable company with ships capable of laying over
10,000km during one voyage. However it is unlikely to be practical to install the whole of
ESONET as a single project.
(a) In some regions there are existing cables.
(b) Different regional nodes require different technologies.
(c) Simultaneous organisation of 10 or more land-fall sites is not practical, some projects
would be delayed and others implemented too hastily.
Furthermore because of the above and other reasons a unified ESONET organisation owning
and operating all the regional networks is not feasible. We propose a federal organisation for
ESONET with local ownership and management of each regional observatory.
The essential components of an ESONET cabled regional network are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Administration centre.
Data management and dissemination centre (networked to other Esonet
regional observatories)
Land-fall site with power supplies.
The sub sea cable with branches.
Sub sea junction boxes to which observatories are connected.
Tether cables connecting observatories to the junction boxes.
Observatories
Permanent scientific packages
321
9.
Hosted scientific packages.
In a mature system a scientific user of the observatory should see elements 1,3,4,5 as a utility
providing power and communications on the sea floor and should not be concerned with details
of their operation.
In the case of non-cabled networks, the essential components are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Administration centre.
Data management and dissemination centre.
Land based telemetry station
Observatories
Permanent scientific packages
Hosted scientific packages.
Each regional network should be organised by a legally incorporated entity or “person” that can
own property, hold bank accounts and enter into contracts nationally and internationally. This
might be a local research institute, university, government agency, company, partnership or
private organisation depending on the size and circumstances of the project. This regional legal
person (RLP) would be responsible for providing the utility services to the observatories in the
ocean and will report to the stakeholders and financing bodies
ESONET Federation Of Regional Networks
Data
Archive
Dissemination
Black
Sea
ESONET
•Co-ordination
•Standards
•Technology
•Data
Arctic
Norway
Hellenic
(Nemo)
SN1
Porcupine
Antares
MOMAR
Iberia
Mobile
Fig 9.1 ESONET Federation
The Europe-wide ESONET consortium should promote and seek funds for development of the
network but the RLP will be responsible for receipt of funds from international and national
sources and paying for installation and operation of the regional network. Since the RLP
controls funds, it should be responsible for choice of technical solutions, deployment and
operation of the system, albeit with constraints from the ESONET organisation and potential
users.
322
ESONET will ensure that minimum standards for open use, data quality and European
compatibility are complied with. This corresponds to the EU financial participation and must not
be more heavy in proportion than other criteria. It may be relative to the fullfilment of EU policy
requirements in environment and security coordinated at EU level such as GMES.
Other stakeholders representing users (scientific or governance, local national or international)
will have their own requests on operational data. This corresponds to their financial participation
and must not be more heavy in proportion than other criteria.
Data dissemination:
open use, decision making, scientific treatements
Data management - data base
Link to shore New seafloor or
cable
Seafloor
observatory
Scientific
packages
Extension
or
of
seafloor cable
Deployment/
intervention
systems
Diverse
observatories
with open
architecture
Biology
Seismology
Acoustic and
tether,
near real time
Other
(environment
and security)
Exchange of best practices inside Esonet Consortium
Contractors
International or Esonet standards for interfaces or communication
Fig 9.2 Components of an ESONET cabled regional network
9.6. ESONET should be implemented by “regional legal persons” (RLP) responsible of
acquiring and operating3 the sub sea infrastructure. Central European coordination will be
limited to the control of the respect of standards and quality of data
9.7
Management of Installation of the Network.
In the case of a small systems, not cabled for instance, it may be possible for a large RLP to
own, install, operate and service the network using its own technical resources including ships
and remotely operated vehicles. This would generally not be possible for cabled observatories.
More typically much of the work will be contracted out. Since the size of a project will exceed
250,000Euro the invitations to tender should be advertised in Official Journal of the European
Union (http://www.ojec.com). For the largest projects this would entail an initial Prior/Pre
Information Notice (PIN) inviting suppliers to enter a pre-qualification process. Selected
suppliers would then be issued with an invitation to tender (ITT) which would specify in detail
the requirements for the system.
Cabled networks are inherently complex projects. Failure of the Hawaii 2 Observatory (H20), a
relatively simple system with one cable and one junction box, failed through inadequate
management (Chave, 2004) . Effective professional project management is the key to success.
3
In many cases, a regional legal person will be in charge of the investment, implementation and testing
phase and will pass over to another consortium for operation.
323
This will be the responsibility of the RLP. In the UK a public funded project of this size would
have to be managed under the PRINCE 2 system recommended by the Office of Government
PRINCE, (Projects in Controlled
Commerce (OGC) (http://www.ogc.gov.uk/prince).
Environments), provides a formal framework for project management and is used successfully
for large scale procurements. Under this system the RLP would establish a project board. The
project board should be small, comprising 3 or 4 persons and effectively should “own” the
project and formally take all major decisions based on advice from the project team. The
project team lead by a project manager and comprising technical and other experts would
undertake day to day management. The team should have in place methods for tracking of; time
schedules, budgets and risks which are reviewed by the project board on a regular basis.
Superimposed on this, OGC recommends a Gateway process (http://www.ogc.gov.uk) whereby
the project is regularly reviewed by an external team at six critical stages from establishment of
the need for the project (Strategic Assessment, Gateway zero) through procurement to readiness
for Service (Gateway Four) and Final evaluation (Gateway five). Different countries and
organisations will have different versions of the management process but formal methods are
important in view of project complexity.
The project board thus would appoint a contractor to install the cable and sub-sea junction
boxes. A key issue to address is how the system is specified and who carries the risks. In one
model the RLP provides the designs and detailed specification so that the contractor builds in
accordance with what is provided. In this case risk lies with the RLP since if the supplier installs
the equipment that is specified he is not responsible for any design flaws. A alternative model
to adopt is that the RLP specifies locations and performance requirements and the contractor
then designs the system, cable routes, cables, hardware and software to meet those requirements.
The risk then lies with the contractor. The contract is against a statement of requirements (SOR)
It is this SOR model that has been
rather than a predetermined design or specification4.
adopted by NEPTUNE Canada and should be the preferred method. There is a criticism that
contractors may be conservative in their approach under this approach, however if a more
innovative approach is desired the risks should be assessed realistically and the project may be
forced to bear the costs of any failures.
9.7 - RLP should make use of formal project management tools and generally contract out
design and installation of the cable system and junction boxes to specialist companies.
9.8
The Junction-box to Observatory Interface.
The RLP is responsible, through its contractors, for establishment of the cable and junction box
network on the sea floor. It is envisaged that the observatories themselves may be built or
configured by research institutes and universities participating in the project. There is
considerable expertise in Europe in this area and a variety of projects will be forthcoming that
can be plugged into the sea floor infrastructure. Observatories will need to be initially deployed
and connected into the system. They will then need to retrieved and redeployed at intervals for
servicing or updating. There should be provision for annual inspection and servicing of
observatories by ROV.
Typically the observatory will be equipped with thin (ca. 5mm diameter) cable tether which
might be up 1-10km in length enabling it to be deployed at some distance from the junction box.
4
There is no contradiction between the two. It is only a matter of project phases, see international standards
on project management.
Phase 0 (Underway with Esonet AC): defines the need , the price, the market and stakeholders and the
th
feasibility. Then decision is taken to go ahead or not (4 Call of FP6 says go)
Phase 1;1: Synthesis of Requirements, general and specific to each regional network. It states the
background, the functions (aims –often ranked from the most important to the less important), the range of
performances (that will be discussed depending on cost effectiveness), the constraints (environment, legal,
regulatory, ethics,…). Note that standards on interfaces, modularity, interoperability, open software, … are
very common constraints that will be relevant for ESONET. Access and storage of data, as well as ease of
maintenance by several potential contractors are more in the “functions”.
Phase 1.2 : Pre-design study. May be already a First Part of the work of the contractor selected with the
Requirements (case of Neptune Canada), then a good practice is that the second Part is launched only in
case of fulfilment of some price and delay conditions.. Or the predesign study is performed internally by the
project who writes Specifications ; prices are asked to several companies before a choice.
324
Bird (2004) at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute has demonstrated an ROVmounted cable spool capable of laying and retrieving up to 2km of cable at depths down to
4000m (http://homepage.mac.com/ieee_oes_japan/abstract.html). Thus an observatory can be
deployed, the cable laid on the sea floor, terminated at the junction box, all by ROV.
Alternatively the observatory might be lowered on a cable from the ship, released and then
connected up using the ROV. JAMSTEC in Japan has demonstrated a deep water towed body
that
can
deploy
10km
of
tether
cable
from
spool
(http://seasat.iis.utokyo.ac.jp/SSC03/session7.html) which is subsequently connected at either end by ROV. This
system is offered commercially by OCC Corporation. (www.occ.ne.jp). Within Europe there is
experience of connecting the ANTARES array off the south coast of France and the new
NEMO-SN1 system off Sicily.
When an ROV or deep towed cable layer approaches the junction box there is a significant risk
that the junction box might be damaged thus compromising the integrity of the whole subsea
network. The question arises as to whether general purpose scientific ROVs should be used for
installation and servicing or whether this task should be carried out by specialist ROVs provided
by industry.
Currently in Europe there is some experience of operation of scientific deep water submersibles.
Ifremer has a long experience of servicing subsea stations using submersible Nautile and Cyana.
With VICTOR6000, Ifremer has demonstrated the versatility of scientific ROV’s capable of
interventions for security on wrecks or observatories (ANTARES, Hausgarten-Arctic node,
Momar-Azores node, Carbonate mounds-Celtnet node) in addition to academic research. In
GEOSTAR and ORION, it was demonstrated that some intervention tasks may be performed by
a Mobile Docker. ASSEM made the demonstration of the capabilities of small ROV’s and
submersible of the HCMR on connection and retrieval tasks. New ROV’s like ISIS (SOC) or
QUEST (Bremen) will enhance this European potential. These ROVs or submersibles are
mostly operating from national oceanographic research vessels, a field of European cooperation
in the future. ASSEM deployment in the Gulf of Corinth showed the possibility to exchange
subsea intervention techniques between specialists of Italy France and Greece. It is doubtful if
these research vessels and ROVs would be available for extended periods each summer to
service the needs of ESONET observatories.
The ESONET technical workshops concluded that:
• cable laying can be done is by industry and there is significant number of capable
contractors
• ROV intervention is a mature technique and is available from private service
companies as well as scientific institutes,
• the subsea observatories will benefit from well defined interfaces and procedures
applicable by most ROVs
ESONET will propose general requirements for the ROV interventions. It will be incumbent
upon the RLP to identify certified ROV operators that can intervene at junction boxes. These
operators might be scientific ROVs if they can gain sufficient experience. It is not practical to
have research vessels of different nations accessing the junction boxes in an unregulated
manner. It may be feasible for these vessels to deploy the observatories for subsequent
connection by the certified ROV operator. Another model might be that the original contractor
responsible for the cable and junction box installation is also responsible for the servicing and
connections, taking on the associated risks.
The RLP should also have in place protocols for approving the design and interfaces of each
observatory in the system to ensure that is does not compromise the integrity of the sub sea
network. This might be a function that could be provided through ESONET, an independent
technical audit based on preliminary established rules.
325
9.8. Observatories can be designed, manufactured or commissioned by user organisations but
best practice must be shared at European level ; design and installation arrangements should
ensure that damage is not caused to the system infrastructure.
9.9
Data Management and Dissemination.
Data management is a complex issue that is considered in detail in section 8 of this report, it
must tend to a similar level of availability as satellite or in-situ data from other GMES projects
(Mersea, Coastwatch, Roses). An ESONET data management center will host a portal for access
to the various regional centers where regional or thematic (data base of a recognized specialist
institute) data will be stored.
The different tasks and activities can be distributed over regional or thematic centres (depending
on EU or international agreements). The user should get an integrated access to quality data,
information and products ; standardisation5 makes possible communication and networking.
The RLP for each part of ESONET may be responsible for the cable infrastructure but may play
varying roles in the data management. Theoretically the RLP could simply provide the cable
infrastructure and by analogy to a telecoms utilities need not be concerned with the data content
or management6. However in practice the RLP may be a research institute that is also a user
and responsible for some of the observatories or instruments on the network. Data from the
regional network may be buffered or archived locally7. Some data such as real-time seismic data
would be transmitted directly to relevant international networks. Chave et al.(2004) describe a
hierarchical or “stovepipe” design for an ocean observatory in which data transfer to users is
controlled by the structure of the system. They argue that this will be replaced by the “web
services architecture” in which data can move between nodes with no attempt to pre-define the
linkages between different elements. Thus intelligent observatories on the sea floor may talk to
one another and make use of data without reference to any shore based command or control.
Also users might configure “virtual observatories” by linking together sensors and services in
different ways for different applications. The access to environment data must be accessible by
all citizens according to the new regulations. The challenge for ESONET will be to meet all
these demands from users. It requires an open data principle: open software and open
architecture.
9.9 Data dissemination policies and methods will have to take account of potential nonheirarchical modes of operation in future.
The databases issued from subsea observatories are not stand alone systems, they are linked to
modelling, satellite sensing data, historical time series, land networks,… The real output of
ESONET will be integrated information products decision makers and other stakeholders.
There is an aspiration in ESONET to allow instant free access to data right across the network.
However those individuals or organisations that have invested in the system would expect to
5
International: ISO 19115+ICES/IOC + EC Marine XML + SeaSearch
Common thesaurus :
Unique identifiers
Exchange format(s) including common codes
Codes for identifying the processing levels and the Quality level
6
In such a model the RLP simply transfers the data from sensor to user but is not concern with content or
meaning. Web architecture of sensors could, would ensure that metadata such as sensor calibration and type
is attached to the data packet. Data integration and quality control could be very remote from the
observatory and indeed remote from the regional network.
7
We presume stake holders and financing bodies will require evidence value for money so such a laisez
faire attitude may not be practical.
326
have privileged access possibly exclusive use for a defined time period (for academic research).
There may also be issues of confidentiality (restricted information for security applications,
fisheries and anthropogenic8). For example an external user accessing geotechnical data may
conclude that a disaster is impending, information that may be commercially sensitive.
A data dissemination policy needs to be carefully considered as the ESONET develops.
ESONET results should contribute to monitor policy changes and highlight relevant data sets
into the future :
• free and open access according to IOC Data Policy programmes is recommended for basic
data, especially the data requested for risk assesment in real time and delayed mode
• The data policy should encourage the highest number of scientific publications
experimental data should not be restricted for more than 2 years of scientific confidentiality
• Free access to specific data products for the citizens.
Data archiving must ensure perennial access.
9.10.
Future development of ESONET technology and Operations
The primary focus of ESONET should be to provide platforms, power and data transmission
services for sensors in the ocean.
Ultimately it is envisaged that much of this will be achieved through use of networks of cables
on the sea floor but telemetry buoys and other technologies will be used in appropriate locations
and missions.
Given the above two premises, there are two directions in which the ESONET can develop;
•
•
ESONET comprehensive ocean data and information service (ESONET-Maxi)
ESONET sub-sea communications and power service (ESONET-lite).
ESONET-Maxi.
In this model ESONET establishes the observatory networks around Europe as outlined in this
report and is intimately involved in sensor calibrations, data management, archiving,
dissemination and exploitation. ESONET thus becomes a major point of contact for marine
information services.
ESONET-Lite.
In this model ESONET only concerns itself with providing the platform, power and
communications and does not concern itself with data content. For example data from a
client’s sensor (e.g. Seismometer) is transmitted to the client’s shore base or other specified
locations. Clients may also access and interrogate sensors using the ESONET communications
facility. ESONET confines itself to ensuring sensors, instruments and data transmission are
compatible with overall network integrity.
Within Europe there are a various of marine data archiving and dissemination services at
regional, national and international. It is inappropriate for ESONET to compete with or seek to
supersede existing systems. In initial development of cable observatories it is inevitable that
the research institutes carrying out this work will have a direct interest in use of the data.
Ultimately ESONET should not have a special role in analysis of data. For example real-time
seismic or sea level data, should be simply made available to relevant earthquake or tsunami
protection agencies. Also in long term monitoring of global change the ANIMATE project is
has already successfully deployed and operated ocean data buoys in the North Atlantic Ocean,
and has set up sensor validation, data archiving and dissemination protocols. If such systems
are connected to future ESONET cables there is no reason why ESONET needs to intervene in
8
From discussions at ESONET Kiel Workshop
327
the existing data management. ESONET simply provides access to a junction box, power and
communications bandwidth.
It is important that ESONET does not duplicate what is already being done by other agencies.
The aim should be to create the critical mass of human, physical and financial resources
necessary to implement the future major subsea infrastructure.
328
ESONET Annexes to Report
Annexes .
ANNEX 1 Industrial offshore standards
ANNEXE 2 Environment tests
ANNEX 3 Telemetry
ANNEX 4 Connection to shore and costs
329
ESONET Annexes to Report
330
Annex 1
APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. EXAMPLE OF A SUBSEA OBSERVATORY DESIGN (ASSEM
here).
DEFINITION:
AP:
N/A:
INV:
Comply
Stand.
ID
A-001
4.3.3
NORSOK Standard applicable to ASSEM project
NORSOK Standard non applicable to ASSEM project
This Standard investigated by experts
Y:
Yes, ASSEM complies with NORSOK Standard
N:
No, ASSEM does not comply with NORSOK Standard
Standard Title
A - ADMINISTRATION
Development, Structure, drafting and
revision of NORSOK Standard, Rev 4
Language
Standard Description
ASSE
M
Comply
As ASSEM do not intend to set new standards up, it is
N/A
Consequently, that should be the standard to/from
Norwegian Organisations.
N/A
N/A
AP
Y
No Standard available on NTS web site
N/A
N/A
Deal with living quarters
N/A
N/A
Deal with drilling and well facilities
N/A
N/A
Deal with A.C. voltage and D.C.
voltage of UPS 48V minimum.
Minimum voltage considered in the
Standard is UPS 48V D.C., for
telecommunication systems.
D.C. voltages for telecommunication
system may have one pole earthed
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Defines rules for structure and
drafting of NORSOK Standards.
Standards shall be written in English
(British) language.
Comments on Standard
B - PROCUREMENT
E-001
C – CIVIL / ARCHITECT
Living quarters area, Rev 2
D - DRILLING
Drilling facilities, Rev 2
E - ELECTRICAL
Electrical systems, Rev 4
5.1
System voltage and frequency
5.4.2
System earthing
C-001
D-001
G-CR001
331
G - GEOTECHNOLOGY
Marine soil investigations
Deal with marine soil investigation in
the view of Oil and Gas structure
installation (to address geohazards,
ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK.
INV
INV
shallow gas occurrence, seabed
features). Sampling covers piston
samplers and rotary coring. The
procedure addresses, as well, drilling,
in situ testing and lab tests.
H - HVAC
Deal with heating, ventilation and air
conditioning
I-001
4.1
4.2
I – INSTRUMENTATION / METERING
Field instrumentation, Rev 3
Instrument Supplies
• Electrical supply to field instruments:
24V D.C. (standard) or 230V A.C. 50
Hz
• Electrical supply to field instruments:
24V D.C. (standard) or 230V A.C. 50
Hz
Signal Types
• Analogue input/output: 2 wires, 4-20
mA
• Digital input: Potential free contact
• Digital output: 24V DC
N/A
N/A
This standard identifies the
requirements to field instrumentation
design
AP
AP
Need to be investigated by Electronic Engineers (JB,
NLD, PEG)
INV
INV
INV
4.3
332
Instrument Design Principles
• Analogue instruments shall be used
for switch functions
• Galvanic isolation barriers shall be
used for I/O signals
• Any arrangement of instruments shall
allow the removal of sensor/detector
head while maintaining the integrity of
the other sensors, e.g. in addressable
systems.
• Instruments shall meet requirements
to EN 50081-2 and EN 50082-2
regarding electromagnetic
INV
INV
AP
N
•
compatibility
For field instruments not specifically
dealt with in this standard, the design
shall be based on recognised
international standards where
applicable.
Possible interferences with ROV, vessel’s equipment,
NGI equipment
INV
AP
4.4
4.5.3
J-003
Instrument Installation Design Principles
• Package suppliers shall terminate
instrumentation cables in junction
boxes at skid edge or at agreed
termination point
Instrument Housing
• Instrument housing shall be resistant
to saline atmosphere
J – MARINE OPERATIONS
Marine operations, Rev 2
•
•
4.5.4
•
7.1
•
•
333
Key personnel participating in marine
operations shall be able to speak a
Scandinavian language or English.
Marine operations shall be properly
planned for all stages of a project or
operation.
A project operations manual shall be
prepared for and cover all phases of
the work, from start of preparations
for the operation to the complete
Defines the basic requirements to •
vessels performing marine
operations, to the planning,
execution and work associated
with such operations on the
Norwegian Continental Shelf.
•
Coastal state regulations may
contain requirements additional to
this standard, depending on the
function the vessel is to perform
in the petroleum activity.
All requirements presented in this standard are in
agreement with basic international rules and
procedures for work at sea, in any part of the world.
They are fully applicable for operations in ASSEM.
A few points to emphasize:
As we expect that the Ormen Lange operations will
be carried out from a Norwegian vessel, we assume
that the vessel and her crew will abide by NORSOK
requirements. NGI and his O&G Partners are
certainly aware of all regulations applying in the
Norwegian Waters.
AP
AP
AP
AP
AP
ASSEM key personnel participating to Ormen Lange
pilot should speak English.
AP
A project operation manual should be prepared prior to
Ormen Lange pilot.
Question to NGI: What is the deadline to deliver this
document ?
AP
7.3.2
demobilisation.
All marine operations close to third
part installations or their surrounding
safety zones shall be performed in
compliance with third party
requirements.
L – PIPING / LAYOUT
•
M-001
M - MATERIAL
Materials selection, Rev 2
M-102
Structural aluminium fabrication, Rev 1
ASSEM operations should comply with O&G Operators
requirements if Ormen Lange pilot is in the vicinity of
their installations.
AP
Deal with pipes, fittings, flanges and
valves
N/A
Standards provides general principals,
engineering guidance and
requirements for material selection
and corrosion protection
Standard covers requirements for
•
fabrication and inspection of
aluminium structures.
•
INV
•
•
Fabrication and Welding sections are fully relevant
to ASSEM fabrication of MN.
Testing sections may be, nevertheless, not so
critical for ASSEM.
The standard refers to many norms (EN, BS, NS)
The whole standard should be reviewed by
IFREMER key engineers.
INV
M-121
Aluminium structural material, Rev 1
Standard presents aluminium material
specifications for use in aluminium
structures. It gives recommendations
on alloy grade and temper.
•
•
•
Selection of material is a section relevant to
ASSEM.
QC testing may be, however, not so critical for
ASSEM.
IFREMER key engineers.
INV
M-501
Surface preparation and protective coating
Standard gives requirements for
selection of coating materials (paints,
thermally sprayed metallic coatings,
passive fire protective coatings),
surface preparation, application
procedures and inspection
•
•
•
•
•
334
Mainly deals with steel material
Numerous references to ISO norms but all refer to
steel
Aluminium is supposed not to be coated
The general guidelines are probably known by
IFREMER Engineering Department
N/A
IFREMER key engineers
INV
M-503
M-CR505
Cathodic protection, Rev 2
Corrosion monitoring design, Rev 1
M-506
CO2 Corrosion rate calculation, Rev 1
M-CR621
GRP piping materials, Rev 1
M-650
Qualification of manufacturers of special
materials, Rev 2
Standard gives requirements for
cathodic protection design of
submerged installations and
manufacturing of sacrificial anodes.
•
•
•
Standard applicable to design and
installation with monitoring systems
for external and internal corrosion on
offshore structures and production
systems.
Standard presents calculation of
corrosion rates. The corrosive agent is
CO2.
Apply in hydrocarbon production for
topside piping, vessels, pipelines and
subsea production facilities.
Standard defines requirements for
design, manufacturing, installation,
etc of GRP piping systems
•
Standard establish a set of
qualification requirements to verify
competence and experience of
manufacturer.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
335
Cathodic protection generally not used by
IFREMER. Furthermore, standard deals mainly
with steel structures
But gives interesting anode design parameters.
The standard should be reviewed by IFREMER key
engineers, to assess the applicability for ASSEM
Objective is to monitor the efficiency of the
cathodic protection system.
Deals with steel submerged structures
Deals with piping systems and flowlines
Fully refers to a UKOOA Specifications and lists
amendments to this norms.
Piping covers flowlines for all kind of liquid, i.e.
various waters, aggressive fluids (acid) but not
hydrocarbons.
Standard describes how to assess knowledge of
manufacturer experience, how to check facilities
and equipment.
Also described is qualification of the process and
testing procedures to produce a Qualification Test
Record.
The term “Manufacturer” seems to cover, in the
standard, activities under responsibilities of SemiFinished Product Provider (i.e. the foundry) and
IFREMER (final designer)
INV
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
M-710
Qualification of non-metallic sealing
materials and manufacturers, Rev 2
Standard defines requirements for
critical polymer sealing materials for
permanent use subsea (well, X-mas
trees, control systems, valves). It
covers requirements and procedures
for qualification of polymer for use in
such applications.
•
The document should be scanned by key engineer
to check if all qualifications are valid.
•
Standard describes in detail the tests to qualify
manufacturers of sealing materials (thermoplastic
and elastomeric) and the materials themselves.
Test procedures require conditions of temperatures,
pressure and fluids that are not relevant to a project
like ASSEM.
It may be useful, however, to review this standard
by key engineers, to confirm that those sealing
materials will / will not be used in ASSEM and
under which conditions.
•
•
INV
N/A
N/A
INV
N - STRUCTURAL
•
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Provides requirements for topside process piping and
equipment design on offshore production facilities.
N/A
N/A
Describes technical requirements for design,
manufacture, assembling, product inspection,
installation and testing of mechanical equipment, except
lifting equipment. Pumps, compressors, turbines,
transmissions, and more are addressed. No equipment
N/A
•
Specifies general principles and guidelines for the
structural design of load bearing structures.
Deal with all types of offshore structures, even sub
sea structures but not applicable to ASSEM
equipment.
O - OPERATIONS
P - PROCESS
R-001
336
R - MECHANICAL
Mechanical equipment, Rev 3
R-CR002
Lifting equipment, Rev 1
Annex
A
Equipment data sheets (normative)
R-003
Lifting equipment operation, Rev 1
R-100
Mechanical equipment selection, Rev 2
Describes basic requirements for
design, fabrication, testing and other
relevant services of lifting equipment.
applicable to ASSEM project.
• All requirements presented in this standard are in
agreement with basic international rules for work at
sea, with lifting gears. They are fully applicable for
operations in ASSEM.
• Note 1: It is expected that the Ormen Lange
operations will be carried out from a Norwegian
vessel. It is assumed that the vessel and her crew
will abide by NORSOK requirements.
Data sheets and sketches are provided for various lifting
appliances: hoists, trolleys, chain slings, shackles, load
hooks, lifting lugs, eyebolts and eyenutes. There are no
dimension shown but it may be wise to match MN
lifting devices to the shape of those appliances.
• All requirements presented in this standard are in
agreement with basic international rules and
procedures for work at sea, with lifting gears. They
are fully applicable for operations in ASSEM.
• See Note 1
Covers guidelines for the selection
and sizing of rotating machinery and
other mechanical equipment, in
critical service, in oil installations.
AP
AP
AP
N/A
S - SAFETY
•
S-001
337
Technical Safety, Rev 3
All requirements deal with health, safety and work
environment, on offshore installations. By
extension, requirements apply to vessel working in
the vicinity of offshore installations.
• Note 2: Requirements are applicable to ASSEM
during system deployment at Ormen Lange.
Installation vessel and crew should abide by
NORSOK requirements. ASSEM team should abide
by installation vessel safety procedures. Apart from
this deployment phase at Ormen Lange, there are no
specific obligations to the ASSEM system design.
Describes principles and requirements See Note 2 above.
for the development of the safety
design for offshore production
AP
AP
N/A
S-002
Working Environment, Rev 3
S-CR002
S-003
Health, Safety and Environment During
Construction, Rev 1
Environmental Care, Rev 2
S-005
Machinery-working Environment
Analyses and Documentation, Rev 1
S-006
HSE-Evaluation of Contractors, Rev 1
T - TELECOMMUNICATION
.
U-001
U - SUBSEA
Subsea Production
Systems, Rev 2
U-002
Subsea Structures and
Piping, Rev 2
U-006
Subsea Production
Umbilical, Rev 2
338
installations, including vessels
Describes design principles related to
the working environment (noise,
illumination, chemical hazards,
vibrations, …).
See Note 2 above.
AP
Defines requirements for HSE during See Note 2 above.
construction activities.
Deal with discharges of chemical and See Note 2 above.
wastes on installations (offshore
drilling, production and transportation
of petroleum).
Describes methods for working
See Note 2 above.
environment analyses applicable to
offshore machinery, and other
technical products having similar
hazards.
AP
Describes items and methodology for
evaluation of contractor’s HSE
management.
See Note 2 above.
AP
Requirements deal with telecom systems and subsystems (intercom, alarm, UHF radio, sonar, radar, real
time clock, …) onboard manned offshore installation
and exploration rig.
N/A
Set the overall design requirements for underwater
production systems and interfaces between subsea system
and surroundings systems
Deal with minimum requirements of subsea structures and In NORSOK, “structures” means O&G offshore
piping systems.
installations i.e. platforms, pipes and subsea production
equipments. Some requirements may, however, apply to
smaller subsea structures such as ASSEM nodes.
See details of U-002.
Deal with umbilical, tube, wire, cable specifications.
In NORSOK, “umbilical” means various sealines
connecting surface offshore installations to subsea
production equipments.
AP
AP
N/A
AP
AP
U-007
Subsea Intervention
Systems, Rev 2
Deal with ROV requirements when working on offshore
installations.
U-100
Manned Underwater
Operations, Rev 1
Diving Respiratory
Equipment, Rev 1
Y - PIPELINES
Deal with diving operations (personnel, equipment, …).
U-101
Some requirements may, however, apply to wires
connecting ASSEM nodes.
Some requirements fully apply, however, to ROV
operations on ASSEM nodes. They are applicable to
ASSEM during system deployment at Ormen Lange.
Therefore, It is assumed that the ROV and support
vessel crew are aware of NORSOK requirements and
will abide by them.
Not applicable for Ormen Lange.
Deal with design and test of breathing apparatus for
divers.
AP
N/A
N/A
N/A
Z - MULTIDISCIPLINE
Most of the requirements in this standard deal with
coding and identification systems, documentation,
libraries, …, not fully applicable to ASSEM project.
Except, maybe, the two following requirements:
Z-001
Documentation for
operation, Rev 4
A.4.1 & System design reports
2
and operation manuals
Z-010 Electrical,
Standard covers functional and technical requirement
instrumentation and
related to installation of electrical, instrumentation and
telecommunication
telecommunication equipment.
installation, Rev 3
4.5
Electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC)
N/A
Page 5 of the text presents typical contents for System
Design Reports and Operation Manuals
Deal principally with installation on platforms with
voltage => 1000 Volts.
•
•
AP
N/A
All equipment and installation shall comply with
Norwegian Directorate for Product and Electrical
Safety: Regulation on electrical equipment (Chapter
4) regarding EMC requirements for both emission
and immunity.
It may be useful to review this Norm.
INV
339
N/A
N/A
340
ANNEXE 2
Example of environmental tests for each subsystem in the Assem project.
– Qualification Tests
d173000
d171800
d171200
d171100
d140000
SUB SYSTEMS
Energy Pack
C/DC Mechanism
JB Energy + Circuit Breaker
JB Comms and Sensors
CLSI Pen
d174000 Flexible Mast and Bell-shape
Protection
d175000 ORCA Transducer - Marine
Unit
d175100 ORCA Transducer - Vessel
Unit
d172500 COSTOF - Set of boards
d172000 COSTOF – Complete container
d170000 Instrumented Structure
d176000
d167000
d276000
d276100
d273000
d273100
d273200
d275000
d272000
d191300
Wiring
Anti Trawling Shield
Benchmark – Anchor
Benchmark - Clamp System
IPGP Sensor - Distancemeter
Mast
Container
IPGP Sensor - Pressiometer
Container
CAPSUM Sensors
NGI Sensors
Buoy – Flotation
d191310 Buoy – Frame
d191400 Buoy – Containers
d175200 Buoy - ORCA Transducer
ENVIRONMENTAL TESTS - REFERENCE NUMBER (*)
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 A12
Comments
F
F
S
S
F
S
S
F
S
S
F
S
S
F
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
F
S
S
F
F
F
S
S
Note 7: Test the perturbations
generated by THETIS propellers
S
S
S
S
F
S
F
S
S
F
F
S
S
F
S
F
F
F
S
S
S
F
S
F
S
F
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
F
F
F
S
F
F
F
S
S
F
F
F
S
S
F
F
F
F
F
S
S
S
S
S
F
F
S
F
F
F
F
S
F
F
F
S
Structure geared with a hook
compatible NORSOK
Note 8: Flotation is optional
Note 9 : See Family E1
341
ESONET Annex 2: ASSEM EXAMPLE OF A PROGRAMME OF TESTS
d191410 Buoy - GSM Bay
NOTES
F
1
S
2
F
F
6
12
10
3
11
4
F
5
Notes:
S = Severity for STORAGE
F = Severity for OPERATION (“FUNCTIONING”)
(*) References are made to the document:[R2]. This document includes two references:
XP X 10-800: Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Guide Environmental Tests.
XP X 10-812: Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Environmental Tests and Recommendations for Submerged
Equipment.
1 – ACCEPTANCE tests on equipment for Norway will serve as QUALIFICATION tests (as there is only 1 equipment).
2 – SALT SPRAY tests will be replaced by BASIN tests on the complete instrumented structure.
3 – MARINE FOULING tests are mandatory but would require 6 months immersion on several sites. They will be planned on another project. An anti fouling coat is
recommended on the buoy.
4 – LIGHTNING STRIKE is a risk for the buoy. However, IFREMER is not equipped to undertake this test. No incident was reported on previous IFREMER buoys. A
lightning rod and conductor are, however, recommended on the buoy.
5 – BASIN test is not referenced in [R3]. Test will be carried out in the IFREMER Brest pool, on the instrumented structure and the instrumented buoy, in operation.
6 – Usefulness of ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY tests need to be assessed, as they are complex. As per IFREMER experience with buoys, no perturbation was
ever reported.
7 – If ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY test is carried out, test on CLSI would serve as monitoring the level of (possible) perturbations generated by the THETIS
propellers, on CLSI system. Propeller characteristics should be obtained from NCMR. This point is to be checked out in September 2003, in NCMR, during the tests
on THETIS.
8 – During BASIN test, the flotation is optional. Aerial equipment can be stored on pool ledge.
9 – Tests on structure sub systems, sensors and transducers should relate to “Family E2”. Tests on buoy sub systems (except transducer) should relate to “Family E1” more
appropriate than “Family E2” as for aerial equipment. The severity is identical on both Families except for SOLAR RADIATION, more severe in case of “Family
E1”.
10 – CONDENSATION test: In case of work on an air-filled container, onboard the vessel, special work procedure should apply to dispel air inside the container with
nitrogen spray (or equivalent).
11 – DISTURBANCE OF THE MAIN SUPPLY test: Incidence of low battery voltage on the operation should be considered. Does it lead to no data ? Erroneous data ? Or
equipment damage ?
12 – ASSEM contractual operation depth is 4000 m. Norm is Ps = 41.2 MPa (412 bars), Ts = 2°C.
342
– Acceptance Tests
d173000
d171800
d171200
d171100
d140000
d174000
d175000
d175100
d172500
d172000
d170000
d176000
d167000
d276000
d276100
d273000
d273100
d273200
d275000
d272000
d191300
d191310
d191400
d175200
d191410
SUB SYSTEMS
Energy Pack
C/DC Mechanism
JB Energy + Circuit Breaker
JB Comms and Sensors
CLSI Pen
Flexible Mast and Bell-shape
Protection
ORCA Transducer - Marine
Unit
ORCA Transducer - Vessel
Unit
COSTOF - Set of boards
COSTOF – Complete container
Instrumented Structure
Wiring
Anti Trawling Shield
Benchmark – Anchor
Benchmark - Clamp System
Mast
Container
IPGP Sensor - Pressiometer
Container
CAPSUM Sensors
NGI Sensors
Buoy – Flotation
Buoy – Frame
Buoy – Containers
Buoy - ORCA Transducer
Buoy - GSM Bay
NOTES
ENVIRONMENTAL TESTS - REFERENCE NUMBER(1)
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 A12
F
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
F
S
S
S
F
S
S
F
S
S
F
S
S
S
F
S
F
Structure geared with a hook
compatible NORSOK
S
S
F
F
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
13
343
Notes:
S = Severity for STORAGE
F = Severity for OPERATION (“FUNCTIONNING”)
13 – Acceptance tests with STORAGE severity, followed by tests in operation..
Above recommended tests do not only apply to Corinth and Norway Pilots. They may apply, as well, to operations in very hot or very cold weather
conditions. This list of tests may be reduced if only the Corinth and Norway environmental conditions need to be taken into considerations.
For each test on each sub system, a form will be filled-in, describing conditions of test (personnel, resources, packaging, period, special procedures, …). A test
report will be issued.
so recommended as it deals with ROV requirements including ROV tools.
(1) References are made to the document:[R2]. This document includes two references:
XP X 10-800: Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Guide Environmental Tests.
XP X 10-812: Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Environmental Tests and Recommendations for Submerged
Equipment.
344
Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems
ANNEXE 3 Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems
1. Introduction
This document intends to synthesise some information about different telecommunication means,
which can be used in Europe in order to transmit data coming from a data collector system. This device
could be for example a buoy relaying the data from an underwater station, this system being implemented
offshore.
2. Medium list
One can distinguish three types of communication link:
- Terrestrial network: GSM, GPRS
- Satellite: Iridium, Globalstar™, Mini-M, Inmarsat,…
- Free space: HF, VHF
3. Medium choice
The choice for appropriate telemetry medium is depending on different criteria. The distance between
the data collector system and the coast, which is influencing the choice of the radio technology as well as
the necessary power, itself conditioning the requisite energy.
The foremost decision elements are listed below not necessarily in importance order:
- Coverage of the area by a telecommunication operator
- Budget of the experiment: investment, maintenance and communication budget
- Volume of the transmitted data during the mission
- Number of messages
- Data throughput
- Energy autonomy of the system
- Special specifications such as TCP/IP implementation
345
4. GSM/GPRS system
4.1. Presentation
GSM technology is the most known of the terrestrial universal telecommunication standards. GSM
has started in 80's. GPRS is its natural evolution allowing easier data transfers. Notably GPRS permits to
use TCP/IP protocol with help of some development mainly software. With this technology and thanks to
its protocol, the data transmissions are reliable. This well-tried technology is very attractive.
Its drawback is its coverage. Indeed the operators do not cover the areas which are little inhabited,
thus even more the sea area.
4.2. Implementation
Different techniques can be used with GSM/GPRS for transferring the data. For little data volume like
alarm signals it is possible to communicate by SMS and thus to receive the data on an Email box or Web
site if they need to be consulted by several users.
This method is used for information indicating that an automatic distributor is empty. The drawback is
that the SMS does not have priority on the network and can be delayed until the traffic has decreased.
Among others, the difference between GSM and GPRS is that the GPRS is well adapted to TCP/IP
protocol. Moreover the communications are charged according to the data volume and not to the time
connection. Therefore, the connection can be permanent
Concerning the system development the user has to be aware that the equipment using the GPRS is
not capable to be called and shall be seen as server. When the user want to be able to call his system, it is
necessary to have a trick for signalling his intention to the remote system and then to initialise the call.
The solution can be a ring sequence or another simpler system communication used to wake up the
device.
In the present state of art of the technology, it seems to be the less expensive provided that the
targeted area is covered. Moreover, the service is very reliable with a rate of unsuccessful communication
very low. These failures are depending on the area but except in big cities, which is not, our daily topic,
remains marginal.
The devices too are very reliable and it is possible to implement two modules in order to have a spare
link if the first is out of service. The advantage of the implementation of the same technology for the
main and the second link is that the software is identical and the use voltage and requisite current are the
same, limiting the development costs.
However, we have to admit that the offshore areas are not much covered. Nevertheless, GPRS use can
be easily envisaged in estuary or close coast. See the annex 1 and 2
346
4.3. System architecture using GPRS
GPRS architecture
GPRS Provider
server
Offshore
unit
Web
ou
PSTN
GPRS
modem
PDS
RS232 link
Measurement
coullector unit
INTERNET
NETWORK
LAN
347
5. Satellite technologies
More and more satellites are dedicated to telecommunications. One can share the satellite
technologies in two classes.
- GEO : Geosynchronous Earth Orbits with orbits at an altitude above 15,000km
- MEO : Medium Earth Orbits with orbits at an altitude between 3,000km and 15,000km
- LEO : Low Earth Orbits at an altitude below 3,000km
At present, the trends of the planned networks are leading towards the LEO satellite. Indeed if the
GEO networks need less satellites than the low orbit networks, it is hindered by a transmission delay very
long, very cramping in particular for the voice communications. But even for data transfer this latency
time is a problem for duplex system. Moreover, these systems need user equipment's more powerful, thus
needing more available energy and sometimes directive antennas.
Contrary to the LEO satellites, the coverage area of GEO satellite is less big. Therefore, it is necessary
to dispose of an important satellite constellation for covering the entire world.
The advantage of the LEO network is an answer time less long. Moreover, the devices require less
power and the antennas are smaller.
Generally, satellite network providers offer roaming services allowing connecting you with other
networks like GSM, thus artificially expanding their coverage. It is the case for example for Thuraya.
Thuraya network covers South Europe, North Africa, Near and Middle East. But the handsets are also
GSM, enabling its use in the most parts of the world.
Generally the fees are important and for the GEO networks, the material is expensive. A table §10
summarises some characteristics of these networks in term of performances and costs.
In order to set up these technologies, a minimum communication protocol should be achieved for
guaranteeing a good data integrity.
348
5.1. A GEO network: Inmarsat
5.1.1. Description
Inmarsat is a GEO communication satellite network. It can come in several modes, A, B, C, D, M,
according to the wanted use. It is built up with four satellites. Inmarsat C is the more rugged system,
which, due to the answer delay very long, is suitable for positioning and distress system. The most
advanced is Inmarsat D+, which enables data packet transfers from a mobile.
The maritime equipment well adapted for data transmission is Inmarsat M. Called "Mini M" its
transmission consumption is around 20W.
5.1.2. Inmarsat coverage
5.2. A MEO network: ICO Global Communications
The project concept launched in 1995 with a first satellite put on orbit in 2001 is planned to be in full
operation in 2005. But it has already undergone many delays. It should be made up with 12 satellites. It is
supposed a trade-off between GEO networks requiring few satellites for a global coverage but having
high latency delay and LEO satellites with very good propagation delay comparable to terrestrial network
but needing many satellites.
349
5.3. LEO network:
5.3.1. Iridium
After many setbacks (bankruptcy in 1999), Iridium Satellite System® now seems to have a good
financial health. The commercial services have been relaunched since March 2001.
The company name is referring to the atomic number of this metal, which is 77. At the beginning, it
was scheduled to have a 77 satellites constellation. Now, the total coverage of the earth including oceans,
airways and Polar regions, is get with a number of 66 plus 6 in-orbit for backup. All the system satellites
are shared out at an altitude of 780 km along six polar orbits.
This technology uses the inter-satellite links to deliver its services. When a network terminal initiate a
communication (data or voice), the nearest system satellite handles it, send it through the constellation to
the Earth Gateway. Then, the communication will be dispatch to a Iridium mobile or to the terrestrial
wireless transceiver switch for roaming agreements with other telecom services providers around the
world (GSM, Internet, PSTN.).
The maximum total capacity of the system is 253,440 users but due to the inter-satellite connection
the real possible traffic is 172,000 users with a digital voice and data transmission rate of 2,4 kbits/s
Note: The frequencies used between the mobiles and the satellites are in L-Band (1616 MHz to
1626.5 MHz), in Ka-band (23,18 to 23,38 Ghz) for inter-satellites link. The system modulation is mixing
both time division multiple access (TDMA) and frequency division multiple access (FDMA).
5.3.2. Globalstar™ description
The most serious Iridium competitor is Globalstar™. Its 48 satellites plus 4 for spare are flying
around an altitude of 1400km. The first coverage was the US in October 1999, expanded to UK in 2000.
The Globalstar™ frequency band is included between 1.6 and 2.5 GHz and uses a QPSK modulation.
Currently thanks to about hundred gateways the coverage is vast but not total due to the lack of intersatellite link. Some uninhabited areas without close gateway are not covered although satellites are above.
The coverage should not be improved for a while.
350
5.3.2.1. Globalstar™ coverage
: Globalstar™ coverage
6. Free space transmissions
This designation gathers all the systems, which do not need special substructure or network. They can
use any frequencies provided that the frequency distribution peculiar to each state is respected. This
communication mode has a drawback sometimes crippling its lack of confidentiality.
For our type of application we can distinguish two main frequency bands: VHF and HF.
HF frequencies are those ones between 5 and 40 MHz while VHF communications are between 40
and 500 MHz. Their functioning mode is very different.
6.1. VHF mode
For VHF the maximum theoretical propagation reach is simply the distance defined by the line of
sight. This one is depending on the heights of the transmitter and receiver. The theoretical distance is
governed by the equation:
(
)
D (km) = 4.1 * H1 + H 2 where H1 and H2 are the transceivers antennas heights from the sea level.
Ex: Communication between a buoy at 2 meters above the sea surface and a terrestrial station on a hill
at an altitude of 900 m.
The equation yields an expected distance of 128 km.
Due to their wavelength values, the VHF waves are not reflected by ionosphere. Therefore, their
performances in term of distance flown are much or less higher than HF waves. Conversely, they are also
less affected by atmospheric noise and interferences from electrical equipment than lower frequencies.
For deriving the real distance expected the transmitter power, the receiver sensitivity and the antenna
gains have also to be accounted.
351
Knowing these elements and taking into account the free space attenuation equation:
A = 32.4 + 20*Log F + 20*Log D with F in MHz and D in km, it is possible to calculate the real
propagation distance conceivable.
Therefore the VHF can be used for short distances around 100 km. Beyond their transmission success
can be randomly.
In order to guarantee a reliability in the transmission it is advisable to implement a radio protocol
between the two entities. This protocol could be based on checksums and acknowledgements of the
transmissions. This demands a software development in order to manage this protocol and check the data
integrity and the correct transmission.
352
7. HF mode
7.1. Introduction
When one is talking about HF link, one is standing for frequencies up to 40 MHz. This kind of
transmission mean is often based upon SSB (Single Side Modulation). This type of radio link is used a lot
by amateur radio often called ham. It is still very used in the maritime world where it remained long times
the sole to be able to communicate at more than 100 km. Nevertheless, with satellite communications this
media is a little neglected for professional communications.
But HF communication keeps its advantages for ham radio. Indeed, the equipment is less expensive
than satellites. It needs no subscription and the communications are free conversely to satellite
communications, which are very expensive. For this subject, examples of system communication and
equipment prices can be found paragraph 10.
Now companies like ICOM offers through radio station such as Monaco radio some sophisticated
service like transmission mail. This service is intended to become available world-wide.
Another disadvantage is the difficulty to guarantee always a good reception. Indeed the transmission
quality is very dependent on random physical phenomena strongly difficult to handle such as weather or
geomagnetic configuration.
A brief overview of the HF propagation laws is necessary at this stage.
7.2. Overview about HF propagation
The principle of the HF propagation consists in ionosphere propagation. The ionosphere is located
between 50 and 1000 km above the earth's surface. It is mainly composed of three layers designated by
letters D, E and F, F layer itself subdivided into 2 layers, F1 and F2. The thickness, height and electron
density is fluctuating along time.
HF waves take benefit of their reflection by the ionosphere layers in order to travel up to several
thousand kilometres when the optimal conditions are available. But this can only be achieved provided
that perfect management of the frequency range and power emitted would be undertaken with respect to
the current propagation conditions. Because this range is very random it is difficult to use for data
applications. More generally, with average conditions one can expect easily more than 400 km with a
single skip. Indeed, we will see later that it is possible to reach further distances using several reflections
between earth and the ionosphere. Without explaining in detail the theory, some basics about the general
principles can be introduced.
353
Examples of ionosphere simple propagation modes
7.2.1. Propagation parameters
What are the more important parameters acting upon the HF propagation conditions and thus the
expected range?
In fact the propagation conditions are tied up to the electron concentration in the layers, this one
depending upon different parameters whose the mains are listed hereafter:
- Geomagnetic activity.
- Seasons.
- Transmission site area: ex: Equator, polar area
- Travel path: ex: through the polar area
- Daytime: sunset, night, sunrise.
- Influence of sun: zenith angle, intensity, solar cycle, and so on…
- Solar wind
- D layer absorption
- Aurora absorption.
- Frequency and transmission power.
- Height of the different ionosphere layers
- Weather
- So on...
These items are dependent upon each other. The signal quality prediction must take into account all
the previous parameters.
For a given electron density there exits a maximum frequency above which the signal is no longer
reflected but penetrates into the ionosphere. Therefore, this critical frequency is according to the
parameters above listed.
Therefore, for optimal propagation efficiency (large distances) it is mandatory to manage the
frequency value in order to keep it below this critical frequency.
In order to reach the maximum distance limit, the experts also adjust the radio source angle with the
help of directional antenna. In this manner the wave penetration angle is optimised and using a frequency
near the critical frequency allow getting the farthest distance, sometimes achieving several skips between
ionosphere and earth surface.
354
7.2.2. Propagation forecasts
The determination of best frequency to use is not an easy task.
Day
Night
Day: best frequencies to use:
Night: best frequencies to use:
A to B: possible optimum: 3 MHz
A to C: possible optimum: 7 to 9 MHz
A to D: possible optimum: 13 to 16 MHz
A to B: possible optimum: 3 MHz
A to C: possible optimum: 5 to 7 MHz
A to D: possible optimum: 9 to 12 MHz
The determination of ionosphere propagation conditions is not an easy task. Conditions can vary
widely from hour to hour and are strongly tied up with the area location. But like the weather the
propagation conditions can be foreseen. On some web sites, maps of the current electron density in
respect to the height are broadcasted. The following map allows evaluating the probability of those radio
propagation conditions.
355
Current electron density map
7.2.3. Consequences
The issues exposed just above show that care has to be taken in order to maintain a good transmission
quality when using HF frequencies. Mainly it is convenient to manage dynamically the frequency in order
to get the best radio path. Moreover, the radio-transmitted power shall be monitored in order to save
battery energy.
Thus a frequency scanning should be considered enabling the device to attempt a transmission on a
given frequency value. Without response from the receiver it changes the frequency automatically until
receiving a correct answer. In case of total communication failure the RF power could be increased in
order to try again the previous sequence.
7.3. HF set-up
7.3.1. Hardware
The frequency range offered by the professional devices are from 1 MHz to 30 MHz and their
available RF powers from 5 to 150 W. Generally various modulation types are available including SSB.
In addition, the device can be driven by software through a NMEA80 bus.
7.3.2. HF management
356
7.3.2.1. Frequency scanning
Given the important power delivered by the devices even in reception (refer to §10) and assuming
that the available energy is limited, to keep the RF link on all the time is not possible. In order to have a
quasi real time link; radio beacon system offers a solution. It consists in a radio signal emitting
periodically during few seconds. These ‘time-slots’ are distributed regularly along the day. Their
periodicity will depend on the terrestrial station requests.
7.3.2.2. Communication scenario
Due to the high consumption of the HF receiver when the energy autonomy is limited, it is advisable
not to stay in receive mode all the time. A scenario, which could be thought, would be the following one.
During the scheduled ‘time-slots’, the buoy electronic wakes up and switches to its receive mode until
it detects the beacon by frequency scanning. On shore, at the same time, the beacon will be transmitted
successively on several frequencies. Naturally, this frequency scanning would take into account the
previous frequency values stored in order to reduce the average search time.
The success and the connection speed are propagation's conditions dependent. If they were identical to
previous communication, the right frequency would be quite the same. The buoy will be in receiving
mode successively with the same frequency scenario. When it will identify the beacon, it broadcasts its
own identification frame. As soon as the shore station and the buoy will have recognised each other and if
the signal quality is sufficient, the shore station will keep the same transmission frequency.
Then the two units will be able to communicate and exchange their data and commands, either on
buoy initiative concerning the alarm and event messages, either on initiative of the shore station for the
data message requests
7.3.2.3. HF link Synoptic
357
Terrestrial
station
MODEM
HF
MODEM
PC
Data
transfer
IN/OUT
Interface
board
module
RS232
Electronic card for
radio management
User
Application
NMEA bus
Offshore
station
MODEM
HF
IN/OUT
Interface
board
module
Data
transfer
RS232
Electronic board for
radio management
liaison HF
NMEA bus
358
DATA
COLLECTOR
7.4. Conclusion
Analysing the impact of using a HF transmission this chapter has shown that the HF technology
is very interesting for transmitting data through area without network and over very long distances
as several kilometres offshore.
The power management is the key for the system reliability. The need of a preliminary trial with
the actual equipment in orders to optimise the dynamic choice of the frequency values and power
levels is mandatory.
Then software able to manage the radio link must be developed.
8. TCP/IP implementation
Except the GPRS technology, the others technologies discussed here are not dedicated to
TCP/IP implementation. However, it is mandatory to develop Internet applications.
Due to the specificity of this process, TCP/IP is not yet a commonly used protocol in radio
communication especially for half-duplex. Indeed TCP/IP protocol has a very bad yield in radio
transmissions. Due to the TCP/IP error management, the propagation delay and the radio noise are
seen like collision problems. These confusions are resulting in several process errors. Therefore
they are inducing a growth in transmission time, causing troubles like untimely disconnection's,
without taking really benefit from the protocol error management.
Some providers have developed specific applications compatible with the implementation of
TCP/IP. In France, let us name Monaco radio for HF technology or France Telecom for Iridium
which distribute software's allowing to transmit a TCP/IP protocol for Internet access. Another
solution example is a device, VDC500 made by Viasat, enabling to transmit data with TCP/IP
format without altering the yield of the radio link. But in fact for example when linking by radio
two LAN networks, the VDC500 only uses the IP address through the radio path and compresses
TCP data at the start and decompresses it at the arrival.
359
9. Media association
In order to assure a good reliability of the system it can be advisable to associate two media, one
is the main, the other being a relief link assuring the relay in case of the main has trouble whether it
should be temporary or definitive. Temporary outage can be due to bad atmospheric conditions
(HF), occupied channels (VHF) or busy network (GSM).
We have seen just above that concerning GSM/GPRS link, one can consider the network
reliability correct enough for advocating the same technology for main and second link.
Concerning free space media, the communication attempts are not successful at 100%. So it
could be opportune to use as second link such as satellite link. Now, Iridium seems to be the most
adapted for data transfer from offshore. Its coverage is total around the world including the poles.
9.1. VHF-HF/Satellite link association
SHORE STATION
V.H.F +
Modem
RS232
User
Network
INTERNET
RS232
PSTN
modem
Software application for link
management
ETHERNET
Offshore
station
IRIDIUM
V.H.F
or
HF
RS232
Data collector +
Link management
RS232
360
10. Media comparative
The table below summarises the main characteristics of the radio technology described above.
System
designation
Transmission
Power
SSD (BLU)
VHF
GSM/GPRS
150 W
(tunable)
5W
2W
Iridium
Globalstar™
Thuraya
Inmarsat D
0.6 W
0.4 W
2W
40 W
Power consumption
Transmission
Reception
mode
mode
400 W (for
13 W
150W)*
24 W
0.96W
7.2 W
0.48W
Subscription
fees (€)
Roll out
fees (€)
Communication
fees (€)
Equipment
price** (€)
free
free
free
3340€
free
33€ (set price for
free
None
free
Out of set price:
1254€
170€
free
75 €
44€
45 €
0.3€/mn
1.65€/month
1€/mn
1.7€/mn
2.64€/mn
1392€
1790€
1392€
4200€
2h)
9.7 W
15 W
12.3 W
20 W
0.53W
2.5W
0.7 W
5W
20 €/month
30 €/month
20€/month
45 €/month
* 65W consumption for 20W output power
**Antenna included
All these technologies can provide a throughput of at least 2400 bauds. This throughput is
generally sufficient for the aimed applications. Given the weak throughput generally transmitted
each time the energy spent is mainly due to the radio protocol rather than the transmission of
payload data.
11. Conclusion
This document gives the reader data in order to choose a radio medium adapted to its need. All
these technologies have their justifications function of the different parameters of the desired
transmission: localisation, traffic, distances…
Some technologies need more development than others do. As seen chapter 7, the use of HF
propagation system over long distances will make mandatory a software development for power
and frequency management in order to optimise the probability of link success.
Other technologies like GPRS are proposed with comprehensive solutions. The only need is the
development of the interface between the radio link and the data collector.
When several technologies can be used in a given site, the choice of the technology resides in
the trade-offs between energy requirements and cost objectives.
361
12. Bibliography
Internet documents:
- Computer simulations by Marcel H. De Canck http://www.qsl.net/on5au/
VHF/UHF/
Microwave
Radio
Propagation
by
Barry
www.tapr.org/tapr/html/ve3jf.dcc97/ve3jf.dcc97.html
- ICOM web site: www.icom-france.fr
- Monaco Radio website: www.icom-france.fr/icom2/proxsea
- NAL Web site: www.nalresearch.com/
Book:
-Antennas and Radio Waves Propagation by R.E. Collin, Editor: McGraw-Hill
362
McLarnon
Gary Waterworth
Nazeeh Shaheen
Steve Thumbeck
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Alcatel Optical Networks Division
Greenwich SE10 0AG, UK
Nautronix Maripro
Goleta, CA 93117, USA
Ocean Design Inc
Ormond Beach, FL 32174, USA
ABSTRACT
Ocean scientists have been studying the deep sea for many years, during cruises aboard specialist research vessels. They
have now started to make the transition from exploration to understanding, where a permanent presence on the sea floor is
required to monitor both sporadic short-term events such as earthquakes and long-term trends such as global warming.
These multidisciplinary projects require integrated industrial products such as deep-water fibre optic cable, science
instrument nodes and underwater connectivity to ensure the cost effective flow of reliable data to and from the sea floor.
1.
2.
SEA CHANGE
Since the 1800s, oceanographers have been exploring
and sampling the Earths oceans using research vessels
as their primary observation platform. This work has
produced a vast quantity of data with limited resolution
in time. Analysis of this information has resulted in the
growing recognition of how complex the process that
takes place in and below the worlds oceans really is.
This early work has been termed the “Exploration
Phase” [1] and scientist now embark upon the new
“Understanding Phase” where the existing Tools-of-theTrade cannot answer all the questions now posed.
Scientists are now starting to observe Earth-Ocean
systems by entering the ocean environment for ever
increasing periods. Long-term access to the sea floor
and water column is essential for the study and
predictive modeling of temporal and episodic processes
and events. Much of the natural phenomena of interest
are highly variable, spanning many scales of space and
time.
CABLED OCEAN OBSERVATORIES
In order to study this new ocean sciences paradigm a
relatively new tool is being advocated with innovative
facilities that will provide unprecedented levels of
power and communication to access and manipulate
real-time sensor networks deployed within many
different seawater environments. This new facility is
the cabled ocean observatory. These new facilities with
their Real-Time information flow; high power and
associated data archives will allow entirely new
approaches to this corner of science. Cabled ocean
observatories facilitate the possibility of bringing the sea
floor to the student’s classroom or the general public’s
own home, dramatically impacting on the general
understanding and attitudes toward, the ocean sciences
and science in general.
Many ocean observatory programs are well underway
around the world; some are planning to implement
major cabled ocean observatory infrastructure. Programs
are under consideration in Japan, ARENA (Advanced
Real-Time Earth monitoring Network in the Area)[2], in
Europe, ESONET (The European Seafloor Observatory
Network)[3]; and the United States, OOI (Ocean
Observatories Initiative). The largest component of the
OOI is a US-Canadian regional cabled observatory
called NEPTUNE (North East Pacific Time-integrated
Undersea Networked Experiment) [4], for which the
Canadians have received 62 Million Canadian Dollars in
late 2003, (See Fig 2.)
Fig 1 Modern Research Vessel
Page 1 of 8
events such as seaquakes, which is crucial for some
multiple node observatories concepts.
Short-term observatories have used microwave or
satellites to provide near real-time communications to
the shore. These are however limited in terms of
operational weather window, transmission capacity and
quality. The long transmission delays do not support
accurate timing distribution.
4.
Fig 2 Neptune
3.
BENEFITS OF LONG TERM CABLED
OBSERVATORIES
Cabled observatories out perform traditional short-term
experimentation platforms such as moorings or Landers
in two main areas:
• Power Management
• Real-Time Communications
Power is supplied from the shore through the cable via a
single conductor to the Science Node. The return takes
place through the seawater using an electrode at the
Science Node. The power requirements of a single
Science Node observatory can be as much as 10kW [5].
This high power capability is available for the complete
system lifetime of 25 years using Power Feeding
Equipment (PFE) in the shore station.
Short-term observatories are limited to battery power of
a few hundred Amp hours at low voltage. This limits
the operation of cameras and lights that consume as
much as 200W [6], to only a few hours per mission
before the observatory or modules are replaced.
Logistics and costs often limit this replacement cycle to
3 or 6 months, resulting in the cameras and other power
hungry experiments such as oceanography being
available for less than 0.1% of the year.
The other area of high performance that cabled
observatories bring to the scientist is the ability to use
the optical fibres of the cable for high-speed broadband
communication, to and from the shore. Optical fibres
also minimise the transmission delay in sending back
data to shore. Accurate timing distribution is therefore
possible with fibre based on protocols such as Network
Time Protocol (NTP). With further enhancements it is
possible to achieve a timing accuracy of 1µsec. This
enables the synchronisation of monitored episodic
CABLED OBSERVATORIES
INFRASTRUCTURE
No two cabled observatory systems would be the same.
Some are short coastal systems with a single cable
landing, one Science Node and limited instrumentation.
Other, so-called, regional systems might have several
cables coming ashore, multiple nodes and hundreds of
Science Instruments. However, many of the elements
and technology choices are similar. Most of these are
also readily available as Commercially Off The Shelf
(COTS) products. Some of the more integrated products
are currently under development and will be available
by 2005. The key elements of a Cabled Observatory
Infrastructure are the:
• Shore Station
• Submarine Optical Cable and Installation
• Science Node
• Science Instrumentation
Figure 3 Elements of a Cabled Observatory
Shore Station
A shore station is required to locate the Medium Voltage
(up to 12kV) Power Feeding Equipment and the optical
transmission Line Terminating Equipment. This station
can be close to the shore or several kms away from the
point at which the cable lands. An ideal location is
within a research institute’s premises. Many marine
institutes have facilities located close to the coast. This
Page 2 of 8
allows for some of the build and operating costs to be
shared with other activities. The data transmission lines
can be backhauled from the shore station to another
location or connected directly to the Internet or private
optical network via optical cross connects and IP
Routers.
Submarine Optical Cable and Installation
Submarine optical cable connects the shore station to the
Science Node, providing suitable protection to the
optical fibers and the power conductor. The cable will
normally house up to 48 fibers, the number depending
on the degree of Wavelength Division Multiplexing and
redundancy that is employed. There are many types of
optical fiber available today that are already qualified
for use in submarine cable. [7] The choice would
depend on the distance between the shore station and the
Science Node, the number of optical channels per fiber
and the transmission rate and format.
Submarine Cables provide varying degrees of protection
depending on the deployment depth, seabed conditions
and local hazards. This is achieved through varying
levels of external protection. (See fig 4)
•
•
Bathymetry – the shape of the sea-bed,
Side scan sonar data – the surface details of the
seabed,
• Sub-bottom profiler data – The sub surface
material of the sea-bed,
• Samples – physical analysis of the sea bed
material,
• Current and temperature – The dynamic
conditions over the sea-bed,
• Fishing and near-shore activity – Human
impact on the route,
• Other existing or planned submarine cables and
pipe-lines.
A route is then engineered from the survey swath data,
both geophysical and geo-technical, to ensure that the
route is optimised with regard to: steep slopes,
inhospitable seabed, in-service cable and pipeline
crossing angles, seabed debris, burial potential, and the
limits of the possible installation vessel and tools.
Where necessary and where the seabed structure allows,
the submarine cable is typically buried to depths
between 0.8 and 4m. Modern powerful installation
vessels with 130 Ton bollard pull are equipped with
ploughs that can bury the cable quickly and safely down
to 3 meters directly during installation, at rates of
between 4 and 40kms per day. (See Figs 5 and 6)
Figure 4 Typical range of Submarine Cable
The protection provided by the cable alone is
insufficient to protect it against repeated aggression such
as entanglement with fishing trawls or ships anchors. It
is standard practice today to carefully plan the route of
the submarine cable avoiding where possible both
natural and man-made hazards and risks.
An initial ‘Desk-Top’ study is carried out looking at
existing information and by visiting possible cable
landing sites. A marine survey of the most promising
route is then conducted looking at:
Fig 5 Latest Generation Cable Ship
Science Node
The submarine cable is connected to the Science Node
via a Cable Terminating Assembly (CTA), which
provides safe optical and electrical connectivity and
adequate axial and torsional strength even when
articulated through 90° [8]. The Science Node consists
of the following main elements:
• Trawler Resistant Frame
• Electrical Power Converters
• Data Communications Equipment
• Science Instrument and Extension Ports
Page 3 of 8
power needs to be transferred to the external seawater
heat sink, in order to keep internal component operating
temperatures down to around 50°C. As maintenance at
the bottom of the ocean is a costly and reasonably
complex task, all active and passive components of the
Science Node must meet higher reliability standards
than those of their on-shore counterparts. This is
achieved by way of careful physical design, built in
redundancy, component and assembly selection,
construction and qualification. The design of a compact
and highly reliable converter is important to a successful
Science Node design. [9]
Figure 6 Meter Plough
Trawler Resistant Frame
The Science Node equipment and Instrument Ports are
protected by a fabricated frame work with sloping sides
to deflect bottom trawled fishing equipment such as
otter boards or beams (See Fig 7). This Trawler
Resistant Frame (TRF) is only required for observatories
in less than 2000m, however a structure that houses the
various node elements and the Cable Terminating
Assembly is always necessary. The Trawler Resistant
Frame must also provide Remotely Operated Vehicle
(ROV) access to the Science Instrument Ports.
Figure 7 Trawler Resistant Frame (TRF)
Electrical Power Converters
Power supplied from the shore at 10kV or 400V must be
converted down to a lower voltage for the operation of
science
experiments
and
the
internal
data
communication equipment. These power converters
must work reliably and efficiently inside pressure
resistant housings. The size of the pressure resistant
housing impacts greatly on the overall weight, size and
cost of the science node, therefore there are limits on the
volumetric space and diameter of the sub sea power
converters.
Even at 90% efficiency up to 1 kW of locally dissipated
Figure 8 10kV to 400V Power Converter Module
Data Communications Equipment
Data transport requirements from science experiments,
cameras and sensors back to the shore may vary from a
few Mb/s to 20Mb/s with an aggregate data rate of up to
1 Gb/s [1]. In addition to this an overhead needs to be
included for system functions such as framing, error retransmission and a time synchronous clock. Data
transport from the shore to command cameras, lights,
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and other
interactive experiments is also a requirement.
In a multi Science Node system the node might also
have to handle the system backbone aggregate data of
up to 8Gb/s. There are several technologies available
with their associated pros and cons. Direct Science
Node to shore communication using a few pairs of
optical wavelengths and Synchronous SONET or SDH
WDM transport over distances of <500km without
underwater amplification and up to 13,000km with
amplification is one option. Shore station to Science
Node or Science Node to Science Node communication
using multiplexed channels over a high speed serial or
Gigabit Ethernet links of up to 100km is another option.
There is a clear advantage to standardise the transport
function, but some flexibility is required since no two
Science Node locations and associated networks will be
identical.
Page 4 of 8
Again as for the power converters size, thermal
management and reliability are of key importance. The
communication system design therefore takes into
account redundancy, automated sub-sea switching and
unit Failures In Time (FIT) rates in order to provide a
cost effective and workable solution [10]. Two
additional parameters that are considered are the
distance that science sensors or experiments are located
from the Science Node and the conversion of sensor
serial data to and from Ethernet data.
Figure 9 Communications module with 400 to 48
V converter
Science Instrument and Extension Ports
To facilitate flexible connectivity to science experiments
and sensors, a number of pre-installed and configured
Science Instrument Ports (SIP) are required. These are
safely housed and protected within the Trawler Resistant
Frame. A door is provided to allow access to the ROV
for connection of the science experiment to the port.
(See Fig 10). The need for flexibility of experiments in
terms of duration, type, evolving technology and
demands results in a simple to reconfigure architecture.
Each port is equipped to provide low voltage power and
serial or Ethernet data communications to science
experiments or sensors up to 1km from the Science
Node. The Science Node can be configured so that one
of these ports has sufficient power to extend the
observatory to remote location up to 100km away.
Figure 10 Ports accessible for ROV connection of
Science Instruments
Serviceable Science Module
It is not economically possible to develop specialist subsea equipment with very low FIT rates. Therefore some
sub sea communications or power converter equipment
failure is expected over the 25 year life time of the
system. The Science Node is therefore designed so that
the active communication and power modules can be
recovered to the surface for repair or replacement (See
Fig 11). This is achieved by mounting the serviceable
units within an integrated, detachable and almost
neutrally buoyant module. A repair operation would
begin with a Remote Operated Vehicle disconnecting
the underwater Wet-Mate optical and electrical
connectors that link the Cable Terminating Assembly to
the Science Module, before docking with the module
and recovering it to the surface, leaving the Trawler
Resistant Frame, cable and Cable Terminating Assembly
in place on the sea floor. Once the Science Module is
onboard the vessel, it can be repaired or replaced with a
spare module.
Fig 11 Serviceable Science Module
Wet-Mate connectors
Underwater connectors are now available which can
provide reliable and repetitive mating and un-mating of
electrical signal, electrical power and optical fibres.
Connectors available today have been proven to provide
multiple connect / disconnect cycles underwater at full
ocean depth. A typical Remotely Operated Vehicle
actuated Wet-Mate connector is shown in Figure 12.
Page 5 of 8
5.
TYPICAL SINGLE SCIENCE NODE
SPECIFICATION
Table 1 provides a rough guide to a cabled observatory
Science Node specification. It assumes for simplicity
that only a single Science Node with an engineered
extension capability.
Operating Depth
Down to 8000m
Supply Voltage
10 000VDC
Total Power Available
10 000W
Node internal power load
<500W
Shore
to
Node
Data 2.5Gb/s or 1 Gb/s
Communications
400km or 100km
Shore to Node Distance*
Instrument distance from SIP
<1km
Number of SIPs
8
SIP Voltage
48VDC or 400VDC
SIP Data Communications
Ethernet 10/100Mb/s
Input / Output SIP data
Serial or Ethernet
Extension Capability
100km / 1 Gb/s
*Without multiple nodes or sub-sea amplification
Table 1 Typical Science Node Specification
Fig 12 Wet-Mate ROV Connector
The architecture of the Science Node utilises these
connectors in two areas, firstly in providing flexible
connectivity to the science experiments and secondly by
enabling the Science Module to be serviceable at sea.
There are three basic types of wet-mate connectors that
are utilized in a Science Node. The first type is an
optical wet-mate connector that is integrated to the
Cable Terminating assembly (CTA). This wet-mate
connection allows for direct optical hook-up of the
communications equipment located in the Science
Module. In addition to the main CTA connection, these
wet-mate optical connectors allow for system extension
or where multiple Science Nodes are deployed. The
second type of wet-mate provides medium voltage
electrical power connectivity (10kV) between the same
elements as the optical connector. The third type is a
wet-mate electrical connector that is used for connection
of the science instrument at the Science Interface Ports
on the Science Module. Instruments such as, Ocean
Bottom Seismometers (OBS), Acoustic Doppler Current
Profilers (ADCP), Cameras or modified ‘Landers’ are
typical experiments connected by electrical wet-mate
connectors.
Figure 13 Mating a Connector on the Sea Floor
with an ROV
6.
ROUGH ORDER OF MAGNITUDE COST
ANALYSIS
The following is a simplified comparison of the related
costs of a new cabled observatory and those of a noncabled (short term) observatory deployed and recovered
by research vessel cruises.
The scenario chosen for estimation purposes is a
reasonably long new cabled observatory 400kms off the
Western Coast of Europe with an operational life of 20
Page 6 of 8
years, equipped with 8 Science Instrument Ports and one
additional port for expansion to a future science
experiment 100km away. The 8 Science Instrument
Ports can provide more than 500W to power hungry
science experiments or studies such as oceanography or
marine biology.
This is compared to 8 short term non-cabled Landers
regularly deployed in the same location.
The
assumptions made are by no means applicable to all
long or short-term observatories, just to the scenario in
question.
Appling the following assumptions:
i.
Ocean going research vessel cost is €30,000 per
day
ii.
8 Non-Cabled Observatories can be deployed /
replaced during a 20 day cruise
iii.
The Non-Cabled Observatories are replaced every
6 months (twice a year)
iv.
The Non-Cabled Observatories can provide 150A
hours of power @ 12V for experiments.
v.
A High Power Science experiment such as High
Definition TV and Lights requires 100W of power.
vi.
Low Power Science Experiments such as
Geophysics requires 15W of power.
vii.
The Long Term cabled observatory cost is
€10,000,000 including Shore Station Equipment,
Cable, Installation and a single Science Node.
viii.
The working life of a cabled observatory is 20
years
ix.
The cabled observatory Science Node has 8
Science Instrument Ports
x.
The cabled observatory is visited once per year for
sensor deployment and / or servicing of the
Science Module with a deep water ROV
xi.
The Cabled Observatory Science Module servicing
/ maintenance and sensor / instrument deployment
takes 10 days at sea per year.
xii.
A deep water Vessel equipped with ROV costs
€65,000 per day for cable and observatory
maintenance and sensor / instrument deployment
and Science Module servicing.
xiii.
Other operational expenses and capitol costs for
both cases are ignored.
Initial Costs / 20 years
Annual Costs
Total Cost per year
Cost per hour for High
Power Experiments
Cost per hour for Low
Power Experiments
Real Time
Communications
Accurate Time
Synchronous Clock
Non-cabled
Short Term
Observatory
€1,200,000
€1,200,000
€4167
Cabled
Long Term
Observatory
€500,000
€600,000
€1,050,000
€16
€625
€16
No
Yes
No
Yes
Table 2 Comparison of Non-Cabled and Cabled
Observatories
It can be seen that the long term costs per year are
similar between cabled and non-cabled systems. The
high power availability of the cabled system
dramatically reduces the related cost per hour of the
science experiments.
It could be argued that the benefits of Real-Time
communications and the Synchronous Clock come free
with a cabled system.
As mentioned before this is only an estimate to compare
the relatively high upfront cost of a cabled observatory
with the lower capital investment required for a noncabled observatory.
The benefits of a cabled
observatory are by no means just lower long-term costs,
but it is important to attempt to put the costs of such
systems in to context with existing projects.
Table 2 shows rough estimates and comparisons
between a traditional short-term non-cabled observatory
and a long term cabled observatory.
Figure 14 NO NADIR connecting experiments at a
water depth of 2500m with the ROV NAUTILE
Page 7 of 8
7.
CONCLUSION
Long-Term Cabled Observatories are now being
planned and built using robust industry available
products and solutions.
Cabled Observatories bring new and powerful facilities
into the reach of those studying the ocean margins and
the deep sea, from the Principal Investigator to the
student in the classroom.
Continuous Real-Time communications with accurate
timing and abundant electrical power are available at
costs not un-similar to those of ongoing un-cabled
systems. Cabled Observatory designs include Science
Node architectures which support the rapid development
of science experiment sensors and their relatively short
life spans. Sensors can be replaced as required and do
not have to meet the high reliability requirements of the
cabled observatory backbone infrastructure.
Existing short-term observatories are easily connected to
cabled observatories with the associated improved
efficiencies.
Cabled observatories with their high power availability
and reliable fast broadband communications are now
readily available and represent the future of sea bottom
science.
They enable a vast new realm of undersea study to be
performed in Real-Time utilising the latest and future
generations of sensors and experiments.
8.
[4] Delaney, J.R. et al: Real-time ocean and earth
sciences at the scale of a tectonic plate, Oceanography,
13, 71-83 (2000)
[5] Chave, A.D. et al: Science Requirements and the
Design of Cabled Ocean Observatories, Ann. Geophys.,
in press (2004).
[6]Shirasaki, Y. et al: Proposal of Next-Generation
Real-Time Seafloor Global Monitoring Cable-Network,
Proc Oceans 2002.
[7] Waterworth, G. : High Reliability submarine Cables
and Their Scientific Application. Proc. 3rd Int.
Workshop on Scientific Use of Submarine Cables and
Related Technologies (Piscataway: IEEE), pp. 181
(2003)
[8] Waterworth, G. : Submarine Communications Cable
for Deep-Sea Application, proc Oceans 2003.
[9] Kirkham, H. et al: The NEPTUNE power system:
design from fundamentals, Proc. 3rd Int. Workshop on
Scientific Use of Submarine Cables and Related
Technologies (Piscataway: IEEE), pp. 301 (2003).
[10] Maffei, A. et al: A Modular Gigabit Ethernet
Backbone for Neptune and other Ocean Observatories,
Proc. 3rd Int. Workshop on Scientific Use of Submarine
Cables and Related Technologies (Piscataway: IEEE),
pp. 191 (2003).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Antoine Lecroart of
Alcatel Submarine Networks, Jean-François Rolin of
IFREMER and Monty Pride and Martin Solan of the
University of Aberdeen for their kind assistance. The
pictures shown in this paper are by the courtesy of
Alcatel, Nautronix Maripro, Ocean Design Inc,
IFERMER, The Neptune Consortium and UNOLS.
9.
REFERENCES
[1]
Waterworth, G. and Chave, A.D. : A New
Challenge and Opportunity for the Submarine
Telecommunications Industry – Ocean Observatory
Networks, Proc. SubOptic 2004 (In Print)
[2] Shirasaki, Y. et al: ARENA: A versatile and
multidisciplinary scientific submarine cable network of
next generation, Proc. 3rd Int. Workshop on Scientific
Use of Submarine Cables and Related Technologies
(Piscataway: IEEE), pp. 226 (2003)
[3] Pride, I : ESONET- European Sea Floor
Observatory Network, Ocean Margin Research
Conference, Paris, 2003.
Page 8 of 8

Final report of ESONET CA - ESONET, a Network of Excellence

Transcription

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