Promoting Research and Practice in Appropriate Technology

Transcription

Republic of Rwanda
Ministry in the Office of the President
In Charge of Science and Technology
3rd International Conference on Appropriate Technology
Kigali, Rwanda, November 12 – 15, 2008
“Promoting Research and Practice in Appropriate Technology:
Energy Solutions in the Era of Climate Change”
PROCEEDINGS OF ORAL PLATFORM PRESENTATIONS
J. Tharakan and J. Trimble, Editors
Northern California Council
of Black Professional Engineers
(NCCBPE)
International Planning Committee
D. Barker, United Kingdom
H. Carwell, Northern California Council of Black Professional Engineers, USA
T. Dalgety, Guyana
S. Dube, RSA
J. Fortunak, Howard University, USA
G. Kadoda, Khartoum University, Sudan
K. Madzima, Swaziland
A. Nyoni, NUST, Zimbabwe
K. Ngige, Clean Air Kenya, Kenya
A. Bart-Plange, Ghana
B. Stephenson, Howard University, USA
A. Tejansie, Liberia
J. Tharakan, Howard University, USA (Chair, Scientific Review Committee)
J. Trimble, Howard University, USA (Chair, International Planning Committee)
M. Zami, UK
Local Planning Committee
D. Ngarambe, chairperson
G. Gasani
L. Murenzi
P. Chatikobo, secretary
U. Rutagarama
J. Kayitesi
G. Damascene
J. Mupangwa
U. de Dieu
J. Trimble
Scientific Review Committee
H. Carwell, NCCBPE, USA
M. Castro, University of Peurto Rico, Mayaguez, Peurto Rico
P. Chatikobo, Umutara Polytechnic, Rwanda
S. Dube, UNISA, RSA
J. Fortunak, Howard University, USA
S. Ismail, The New College and Ecoscience Research Found, Chennai, India
G. Kadoda, Khartoum University, Khartoum, Sudan
I. Impofu, , Umutara Polytechnic, Rwanda
J. Mupangwa, Umutara Polytechnic, Rwanda
K. Ngige, Clean Air Solutions, Nairobi, Kenya
B. Stephenson, Howard University, USA
V. Sivasubramanian, Vivekananda College, Chennai, India
A. Tejansie, AME University, Liberia
J. Tharakan, Howard University, USA
J. Thomas, Byrraju Foundation, Hyderabad, India
J. Trimble, Howard University, USA
Published in Kigali, Rwanda, November 2008
ISBN 978-1-60725-559-8
The Historical Development of the International Conferences on Appropriate Technology
J. Trimble
Department of Systems and Computer Sciences, Howard University
Washington, DC USA; E-mail: [email protected]
The Relevance of Appropriate Technology
J. Tharakan
Departrment of Chemical Engineering, Howard University
Washington, DC USA; E-mail: [email protected]
IA.
ENERGY–PLENARY PAPER SESSION 1:
THURSDAY, Nov. 13; 10.30-12.00noon
1.
Laboratory Scale Biogas Production from Banana Tree Residues
T. Nkurunziza1 and J. Ntaganda2
1
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (I.R.S.T.),
P.O.Box 227, Southern Province, RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected]
2
National University of Rwanda, Faculty of Sciences, Southern Province, Rwanda
2.
Studies on Alcohol Production from Sweet Potato
M. Sankaranarayanan and P Mukarukaka
Institut Supérieur d’Agriculture et d’ Elevage, ISAE, Busogo
Post Box No. 210, Musanze, RWANDA ; E-mail: [email protected]
3.
Lighting Solutions for the Rural Poor In Africa
Kinyua Ngige
Clean Air Energy Solutions. P.O. BOX 70550-00400
Nairobi, KENYA; E-mail: [email protected]
4.
Using Wind Energy for Harvesting and Providing Sustainable Safe
Groundwater for a Rural Community in the Masendu Ward in Zimbabwe
William M. Goriwondo, Davison Zimwara, Nicholas Tayisepi
National University of Science and Technology
Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, P.O. Box AC 939
Ascot, Bulawayo, ZIMBABWE; E-mail: [email protected]
IB.
ENERGY – PLENARY PAPER SESSION 2:
THURSDAY, Nov. 13; 2.00-3.30pm
1.
Estimation of Global Solar Radiation in Rwanda using Empirical Models
Safari Bonfils and Jimmy Gasore
Department of Physics, National University of Rwanda
P.O. Box 117, Huye, RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected]
2.
Analysis, Design and Implementation of Solar Supply for Remote Flux Tower
and Village Community
J. Tharakan, M. Mitchell, and G. Jenkins
Departments of Chemical Engineering and Physics, Howard University
Washington, DC, USA; E-mail: [email protected]
3
3.
An Experimental Study of the Combustion Characteristics of Low-Density
Biomass Briquettes
J. Chaney, M. J. Clifford, and R. Wilson
School of Mechanical Engineering, School of the Built Environment
University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM
E-mail: [email protected]
4.
Factors Associated with the Adoption of Improved Cook Stoves in Southern
Parts of India
K. S. Pushpa
Home Science Department, Gandhigram Rural University
Gandhigram, Tamil Nadu, INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]
IC.
ENERGY–PLENARY PAPER SESSION 3:
THURSDAY, Nov. 13; 3.45 – 5.15pm
1.
Seasonal Energy Storage and District Heating
Sultana, Tanzeen
Department: Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South
Wales, Australia, 4 / 25 Hillard Street, Wiley Park, NSW 2195, AUSTRALIA
Email: [email protected]
2.
Comparative Study on Utilization of Internal Combustion Generator Engines
and Hydropower Plants in Solving Rwandan Electrical Energy Problem
M. N. Irechukwu, C. Cyusa and O. Muhayimana
National University of Rwanda
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Dept. of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Kigali, RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
3.
Breeding a Better Stove
Hugh Burnham-Slipper, Michael John Clifford, Stephen J Pickering
School M3, The University of Nottingham
University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD
UNITED KINGDON; E-mail: [email protected]
4.
Who and What Will Their Will be the Players in Green Technology Role Be?
Hattie Carwell
Museum of African American Technology (MAAT) Science Village, P.O. Box
1686, Oakland, CAE-mail: [email protected]
IIA. PARALLEL SESSION - ENVIRONMENT
FRIDAY, Nov. 14; 8.00 – 10.00am
1.
Application of Appropriate Technologies to Solve Water Supply and Sanitation
Issues in Bandung Municipality, Indonesia
Robby Yussac Tallar1, Inge Komardjaja2
Maranatha Public Service and Research Centre (LPPM),
Jl. Prof. drg. Suria Sumantri, MPH No. 65 Bandung 40164 West Java, INDONESIA
Email: [email protected] or [email protected]
4
2.
Collection of Useful Data for Sizing a Gray Water Treatment Plant at Butare
Central Prison
C. Ndayisaba, B.R. Ngirabakunzi, L. Nzabonantuma and A. Kabanda
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST)
P.O. Box 227 Huye, Southern Province
RWANDA; Email: [email protected]
3.
Dug Well Contamination – The Kerala Scenario
M.S. Biju and G. K. Verghese
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut
Kozhikode, Kerala 673 601
INDIA; E-mail: [email protected]
4.
Zinc and Chromium Removal Mechanisms from Industrial Wastewater by
Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms
R. J. Gakwavu, B.C. Sekomo and I. Nhapi
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Applied Sciences
National University of Rwanda
P.O.Box. 117 Huye, Southern Province
RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected]
IIB. PARALLEL SESSION - ENVIRONMENT
FRIDAY, Nov. 14; 10.15am – 12.15pm
1.
Characterization of Abbatoir Waste Water of Kigali, Rwanda
D. Muhirwa, I. Nhapi and N. Banadda
Faculty of Applied Sciences, National University of Rwanda,
Butare, RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected]
2.
Using Traditional Knowledge to Cope with Climate Change in Rural Ghana
B. A. Gyampoh, A.S. Amisah and M. Idinoba
Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)
Kumasi, GHANA; E-mail: [email protected]
3.
Appropriate and Sustainable Wastewater Management
S. V. Srinivasan, E. Ravindranath, R. Sunthanthararajan, K. Sri Balakameshwari, K.
Thirumaran, K. Chitra, B. Umamaheswari
Department of Environmental Technology,
Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai, INDIA; Email: [email protected]
IIIA. PARALLEL SESSION – INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
5
FRIDAY, Nov. 14; 8.00 – 10.00am
1.
WiMAX with Wi-Fi: Opening New Frontiers in Education
K.R.Santhi and G. Senthil Kumaran
Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST)
Kigali, B.P.3900, RWANDA; Email: [email protected]
2.
Enhancing Public and Private sector delivery through Rwandan National Smart
Card Initiative
Sashi Kumar Sivam
Senior Consultant
MSCTC, MALAYSIA
3.
A Systems Approach to Determining Critical Infrastructures and Appropriate
Technology
A. Nyamvumba 1, C. M. Kumile2, J. Trimble 3, and T. Nenzhelele 4
1
Industrial Engineering Department, 2Manufacturing Department, and 4Industrial
Engineering Department
Tshwane University of Technology, SOUTH AFRICA;
3
Systems and Computer Science Department, Howard University, Washington DC,
USA; [email protected]
4.
A National Framework for Infusing Information Technology in the Decision
Support Process
John Trimble and Andrew Nyamvumba2
1
Systems and Computer Science Department
Howard University, Washington DC, USA; E-mail: [email protected]
2
Rwanda Information Technology Authority, Research & Development Dept,
Ministry of Science and Technology, Kigali RWANDA
IIIB. PARALLEL SESSION ICT –
FRIDAY, Nov. 14; 10.15 – 12.15pm
1.
A Case Study of Software Procurement Strategies in Sudanese Organizations
Mohamad Abbas, Hisham Abu Shama and Gada Kadoda
Department of Computer Science, University of Khartoum
Khartoum, SUDAN; Email : [email protected]
2.
Promoting Virtual Schooling in the environment of the Least Developed
Countries using LoColms
Ngarambe Donart
Kigali Independent University, Kigali, RWANDA
Success and Failure Factors of Management Information Systems in the
Livestock Industry
Mpofu Irvin
3.
6
Umutara Polytechnic, P.O. Box 57
Nyagatare, RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected]
4.
Turning Stories into Creative Content
Samuel Suraphel
PUERTO RICO; E-mail : [email protected]
IVA. PARALLEL SESSION - FOOD, WATER, SHELTER and HEALTH
FRIDAY, Nov. 14; 1.45 – 3.45pm
1.
Effect of Feeding Moringa oleifera Leaf Meal on the Growth Performance of
Oreochromis niloticus Fry
1
Tagwireyi, T., 2*Mupangwa, J. F., 3Jepsen, J. and 4Mwera, P.
1
Department of Environmental Science, Bindura University of Science Education, P.
Bag 1020, Bindura, ZIMBABWE
2
Faculty of Agriculture, Umutara Polytechnic, P. O. Box 57, Nyagatare, RWANDA
3
Tree Africa, P. O. Box AV 231, Avondale, Harare, ZIMBABWE
4
Lake Harvest International, P. O. Box 40, Kariba, ZIMBABWE
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
2.
Milk Production from Lactating Holstein Cows Fed Cereal-Tree Forage Legume
Silages
1*
Mupangwa J.F., B. Z. 2Mugweni, B.Z., M. 3Titterton, M., B. V. and 4Maasdorp,
B.V. and 3F. Gandiya
1
Umutara Polytechnic, Faculty of Agriculture, P. O. Box 57, Nyagatare, RWANDA
2
Department of Livestock Production and Development, Ministry of Agriculture, P O
Box 143, Mutare, ZIMBABWE
3
University of Zimbabwe, Department of Animal Science, Harare, ZIMBABWE
4
University of Zimbabwe, Department of Crop Science, , Harare, ZIMBABWE
3.
Alfalfa Yield Under Subsurface Drip Irrigation Applying Secondary domestic
Effluent
Shija Kazumba1,2,*, Leonid Gillerman1, and Gideon Oron1
1
Department of Environmental Hydrology and Microbiology, Ben-Gurion University
of the Negev, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Kiryat Sde-Boker
84990, ISRAEL
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology
P.O.Box 2958, Dar es Salaam, TANZANIA; Email: [email protected]
4.
Smallscale Palm Oil Process Improvement for Poverty Alleviation and National
Development
N. Kyei-Baffour and C. Manu
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical and Agric.
Engineering, College of Engineering,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST),
Kumasi, GHANA, E-mail: [email protected]
7
5.
Upright cowpea varieties outyield trailing and climbing cowpea varieties when
intercropped with maize and leaf stripping and detasselling of maize enhances
productivity of the intercrops
A. B. Mashingaidze1 and R.D. Katsaruware2
1
Umutara Polytechnic, P O Box 57, Nyagatare, RWANDA; E-mail:
2
University of Zimbabwe, Crop Science Department, P O Box MP 167, Mount
Pleasant, Harare, ZIMBABWE; E-mail: [email protected]
IVB. PARALLEL SESSION - FOOD, WATER, SHELTER and HEALTH
FRIDAY, Nov. 14; 1.45 – 3.45pm
1.
Trends in Earthen Construction for Rural Housing in Zimbabwe: The Case of
Tsholotsho in Matabeleland North Province.
L. B. Ndlovu and S. I. Umenne
1
Civil and Water Engineering, National University of Science and Technology, P O
Box AC 939, Ascot, Bulawayo, ZIMBABWE; E-mail:[email protected] or
[email protected]
2
Faculty of the Built Environment (FOBE), National University of Science and
Technology, P O Box AC 939, Ascot, Bulawayo, ZIMBABWE; E-mail:
[email protected] or [email protected]
2.
Development of Quality Cereal Based Composite Flour for Nutritionally
Vulnerable Groups Using Locally Available Raw Material
Mukantwali C, Tiisekwa B, Ndirigwe J
Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda
Sokoine University of Agriculture
3.
Benchmark study on Husbandry Factors Affecting Performance of Artificial
Insemination in Smallholder Dairy Cows in Umutara Province, Rwanda
Paul Chatikobo1, M. Manzi2, J. Kagarama1, J.D. Rwemarika2, and O Umunezero2
1
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Umutara Polytechnic, P.B 57, Nyagatare
Eastern Province, RWANDA
2
Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR), Nyagatare Livestock
Production & Health Research Unit, B.P 5016 Kigali, RWANDA
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
4.
The Role of Government in the Establishment of Appropriate Industries for the
Manufacture of Construction Products with Non-Conventional Materials
Brian Stephenson
Department of Civil Engineering, Howard University
Washington, DC 20059, USA; E-mail: [email protected]
5.
The Prevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Milking Dairy Herds in Nyagatare and
its Implications on Dairy Productivity and Public Health
P. Chatikoba, M. Manzi, J. Kagarama, J.D. Rwemarika and O. Umunezero
Umutara Polytechnic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
P.B 57, Nyagatare, Eastern Province, RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected]
8
6.
Phenotypic Characterization of Goats Raised Under Traditional Husbandry
Systems in Bugesera and Nyagatare Districts of Rwanda
M. Manzi, T. Rutagwenda, N. Kanuya and P. Chatikoba
Institute des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR)
Nyagatare Research Station, B.P 84
Eastern Province, Rwanda; E-mail: [email protected]
V.
THE WAY FORWARD –
FRIDAY, Nov. 14; 4 – 4:30 pm
1.
Survival Ethics: Consequences for Appropriate Technology
Charles C. Verharen
Department of Philosophy, Howard University, Washington, DC, USA
9
TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR POSTERS
ENERGY
1.
Natural Gas Industry in Iran
Hedayat Omidvar
Research & Technology Dept., National Iranian Gas Company, No.77-Southern Aban
St., Karimkhan Ave.-Tehran-1598753113, IRAN; [email protected]
2.
Solar Cookers in Kenya
Stella Odaba
Solar Cookers International, KENYA; E-mail: [email protected]
3.
Laboratory scale biogas production from geranium distilled leaves
T. Nkurunziza1, J. Ntaganda2 and N. Hitimana3
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (I.R.S.T.),
P.O.Box 227, Southern Province, RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected]
2
National University of Rwanda, Faculty of Sciences, Southern Province, Rwanda
ENVIRONMENT
1.
Appropriate Housing Technologies for Sustainable Human Settlements,
Economic and Social Development: The case of Masendu Rural Community in
Zimbabwe
K. Chani, D. Chinounye, M. Chinula, T. Gumbo, S.A. Madaki, T. Mike,
M.C. Mutsambiwa, L. Ndlovu, S.Ik. Umenne
National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, ZIMBABWE
E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
2.
The Effect of Turbidity Levels and Moringa oleifera Concentration on the
Effectiveness of Coagulation in Water Treatment
T. Nkurunziza, J.B. Nduwayezu, E.N. Banadda and I. Nhapi
P.O.Box 227 Huye, Southern Province
3.
Energy and Environment Conservation, for Whom?
Asemota Godwin Norense Osarumwense
Kigali Institute of Science and Technology
Kigali, RWANDA; E-Mail: [email protected]
4.
Assessment of Wastewater Management Practices in Kigali City, Rwanda
I. Nhapi, Umujoza Mbateye and N. Banadda2
Water Resources and Environmental Management Project
Faculty of Applied Sciences, National University of Rwanda
Box 117 Butare, RWANDA; E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected]
Uganda Industrial Research Institute, Kampala, Uganda
10
5.
Modeling the Influence of Land use Changes on Hydrology and Sediment Yield
in a River Catchment Using SWAT Model
Francis K Kigira., J.M. Gathenya , P.G. Home
Biomechanical and Environmental Engineering Department
Jomo Kenyatta University, P.O BOX 62000-00200, Nairobi, KENYA
6.
Uncontrolled Waste Dumpsites-A Growing Concern to Rwanda Municipalities
Cyprien NDAYISABA
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST), P.o.Box 227 Huye
Southern Province, RWANDA; Email: [email protected]
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
1.
Towards the Next Generation Internet
Lubna Mohammed-Salih
Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, University of Khartoum
P.O. Box 321, Khartoum, SUDAN; Email: [email protected]
2
Appropriate Technology Web Applications
Munyaneza S. R. and 2Pickin S.
ICT Unit, Rwandan National Examinations Council, B.P. 3817, Kigali, Rwanda. Email: [email protected]
2
Dpto. de Ingeniería Telemática, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Av. Universidad 30,
28911 Leganés (Madrid), Spain. E-mail: [email protected]
3.
Impact of Using M-Commerce Model for Microfinance in Rebuilding Rwanda
Santhi Kumaran and Vijaya Kumar K.
Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology,
Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), B.P.3900, Kigali, Rwanda.
Email: [email protected] , [email protected]
1
FOOD, WATER, SHELTER and HEALTH
1
AppropriateTechnology for Sustainable Human Settlement Development –
The Case of the Construction of the NUST Campus in Zimbabwe
M.C. Mutsambiwa
National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, ZIMBABWE
E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
2.
Development of a Push-Type Seed Drill for Sowing Maize in Rwanda
M. Sankaranarayanan and A. Nzamwitakuze
Institut Supérieur d’Agriculture et d’ Elevage
ISAE, Busogo, Post Box No. 210
Musanze, RWANDA ; E-mail: [email protected]
11
3.
Effect of Brining on the Drying Parameters of Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in
a Glass-Covered Solar Tunnel Dryer
Kituu, G.M., D. Shitanda1, C.L Kanali1, J.T Mailutha1, C.K Njoroge2, J.K Wainaina3
1
Biomechanical and Environmental Department, 2FST Department, and 3ICSIT
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
P.O Box 62000, Nairobi, KENYA; E-mail: [email protected]
4.
Modification of a Large-Scale Palm Fruit Cage for Local Manufacture
J. O. Akowuah, A. Addo, and F. Kemausuor
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Kumasi, GHANA; E-mail: [email protected]
5.
Participatory Housing Construction for Vulnerable ad Under Resourced Urban
Communities
Alexio Mubaiwa
Practical Action Southern Africa
No. 4 Ludlow Road, Newlands, P.O. Box 1744, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Email: [email protected].; [email protected]
6.
Improving farming methods and livestock health through Infusion of indigenous
and scientific agricultural knowledge
Gudza L.D. and 2Mupunga E.G
1
Practical Action Southern Africa,
4 Ludlow Road, Newlands, Harare. Zimbabwe
7.
Theoretical Assessment of the Impact of Control Strategies on the Transmission
Dynamics of Malaria
C. Chiyaka, J.M. Tcheunche, W. Garia and S. Dube
National University of Science and Technology
Bulawayo, ZIMBABWE; E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
8.
Advanced Technologies for Managing Burn Injuries
Peter M. Corridon
The Center for Biomedical Imaging, The University of Trinidad & Tobago
Trinidad & Tobago, WEST INDIESE-mail: [email protected]
9.
MANAGEMENT OF MODERN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Robinson Onyango Manguro
Associate Architect, Creations Consult Limited, P.O Box 152, 00515, Buruburu,
Nairobi, Kenya
[email protected], [email protected]
12
The Historical Development of ICAT – International Conferences on
Appropriate Technology
John Trimble, Howard University, Washington, DC
The first ICAT was held in July 2004 in Bulawayo Zimbabwe. This effort drew on
previous work by a network of academics at Howard University that started with the
formation of the Howard University Project on Appropriate Technology (HUPAT) in 1998.
HUPAT had been involved with local and national conferences in the United States, hosted at
Howard University.
The 1st ICAT addressed the theme of “A Knowledge management Approach to the
Development of Appropriate Technology, with a focus on Sustainable land-based projects”.
This was a timely theme since Zimbabwe was concerned with projects that would assist new
farmers following their ‘fast track land reclamation’ process. This first effort was largely
possible through the support of academic staff at the National University of Science and
Technology (NUST) in Bulawayo Zimbabwe. Paper sessions addressed: industry and
production; construction and architecture; transportation and solar technology; water,
agriculture and environment; and knowledge management and appropriate computing. [1]
In preparation for the 2nd ICAT we actively sought to expand the international
planning committee. We also increased the role of Howard University and added the
Northern California Council of Black Professional Engineers (NCCBPE) as an active cosponsor. The current interest in health in underdeveloped countries was addressed. Once
again the conference was hosted by NUST in Bulawayo Zimbabwe. It took place two years
after the first ICAT in July 2006. The theme that year was “Sharing the Knowledge from
Research and Practice in Appropriate Technology, with a focus on Health-Related projects”.
The highlight of the conference was the ‘health related’ paper session and special talks by
health experts. Other paper sessions included: knowledge management; energy and physics;
water and agriculture; environmental; and architecture and small-scale industry. [2]
Active organization for the 3rd ICAT began in April 2007. We expanded our
international planning committee to include 12 countries. For the first time we involved
multiple universities in the host country: Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST);
the National University of Rwanda (NUR); Umutara Polytechnic University; Universite Libre
de Kigali (ULK) and Kigali Health Institute (KHI).
At an early point in the conference organizing, the Ministry of Science and
Technology in the President’s Office provided strong support. This has been instrumental in
expanding our work in appropriate technology. We owe as special thank you to Minister
Murenzi. The theme of this year’s conference is: “Promoting Research and Practice in
Appropriate Technology: Energy Solutions in the Era of climate change”
A common thread through all our conferences has been to connect research with
practice and to use knowledge technology to make best practices accessible beyond the
conference venue. Our commitment to the active promotion of ‘technology to empower the
people’ will make an impact on research, practice and policy regarding science, technology
and development planning.
Any vision of a better world must include a serious shift in how resources are used
regarding science and technology. We believe that the work of our ICATs will make a
contribution to this process.
[1] Mhlanga, S. and J. Trimble, editors, Proceedings from 1st ICAT, Buluwayo Zimbabwe, July 15-17 2004
[2] Muchabayiwa, B. and J. Trimble, editors, Proceedings from 2nd ICAT, Bulawayo Zimbabwe, July 12-15
2006
13
The Relevance of Appropriate Technology
John Tharakan
Department of Chemical Engineering, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, USA
The first technologies ever developed, whether the club as a tool, the spear or fire, were
tools appropriate to satisfy the needs of the community and enhance the community’s ability and
capability to survive and endure. Since the beginning of the human-technology relationship, the
development of technology and the purposes and the needs these technological developments
served have become increasingly complex from that early dawn. In the late twentieth century
and as we enter the closing years of the first decade of the twenty-first century, today’s world of
globalized and increasingly privatized resource and capital flows, the notion that an appropriate
technology can be defined and characterized may seem increasingly improbable and unlikely.
However, as recent market and economic dysfunction have amply demonstrated, globalized
privatization and unregulated transnational capital and resource flows with little government and
state oversight, also means globalized and almost ubiquitous economic difficulties across diverse
national economies and socio-techno-economic systems. Whether there is a need for
appropriate technology in such a context is a valid question and the answer must take into
account economic and livelihood realities of local communities, especially those in the countries
of the global south.
The complexity of this socio-technological relationship must be seen in the context of
over two thousand years of social and technological development which have resulted in some
of the wealthiest and most prosperous of times for certain members of the global population.
However, at this late stage in human civilization’s development, of the six and a half billion
people who inhabit this planet, almost a half, have no regular and consistent access to clean,
potable water. These same communities also lack access to hygienic and sanitary waste and
sewage disposal systems. Almost two-thirds lack access to the world-wide web and are left on
the wrong side of the digital divide – effectively being left out of the conversation and cut off
from the immense wealth of resources available on-line.
This disconnect, between the harsh realities of inequitable resource distribution and
access to technology, and the amazing and extraordinary technological developments and
advances of the previous two centuries, speaks clearly to a desperate need for a renewed focus
and emphasis on technology that is appropriate to the establishment of a just, equitable and fair
global social order. This must be a global social order defined by a human-technology
relationship that seeks to harness the immense creativity of the human species in their ability to
respond to their environment and engineer it to their benefit for a sustainable existence within
their own socio-geographical spaces.
Although E. F. Shumaker introduced into the western scientific and rational
consciousness the notion of small as beautiful and technologies that responded to human
communities at scales that were manageable, controllable and appropriate to the context of its
development and application, indigenous peoples from across the globe have developed and
implemented technological solutions relevant to their time and space; indeed relevant and
appropriate to their socio-economic and socio-ecological niches and habitats. These repositories
of indigenous knowledge have ranged from the oral (such as the oral traditions of the Native
American Indians and various African tribes and nations) to the documented and written (such
as technological and scientific handbooks from India, China and the Arab nations), and these
can provide a rich resource for current practitioner’s as we seek to develop solutions to problems
that have grown as complex as some of the proposed solutions.
14
Clearly, then, the relevance of appropriate technology cannot be disputed. In the context
of the 21st century, the principles and criteria that define and determine appropriateness of
technologies must be re-articulated and under scored. Appropriate technology means many
different things to different people. Generic searches on the internet reveal thousands of sites
that respond to the search engines calling, revealing that meanings can often be elusive and
illusory.
Nevertheless, although appropriate technology, or AT, is difficult to define and its
development and implementation have been a source of debate for some time [1], there is
general agreement on some of the governing characteristic of appropriate technology. It is
clear that AT should normally require only small amounts of capital. AT must emphasize,
wherever possible, the use of local materials. Implementation of AT’s should focus on
relatively labor intensive technological solutions that individual’s in community’s can
participate in. This suggests that AT should tends towards the smaller scale and be
affordable.
The community based nature of AT requires that the technological solutions being
developed should be understandable, controllable and maintainable without unduly high
levels of education and training; at the same time, AT should be adaptable and include local
communities in innovation and implementation. Finally, adverse impacts on the environment
should be avoided and the sustainable nature of the technological solution should be
emphasized [2]. Naturally, given the huge divide in resource access and availability, AT will
encompass diverse sets of tools, processes and technologies, but will be focused on
sustainable development.
The rationale of AT resides in its empowerment of people at the grass roots
community level. Development professionals agree that local needs can be met more
effectively with the community working to address their own problems. The rationale is also
grounded in minimization of financial, transportation, education, advertising, management
and energy services and costs with the goal of engendering self-sustaining and expanding
reservoirs of skills within a community. The result is a lowering of economic, social and
political dependency, and a move towards sustainable development that is focused on
people’s needs and is grounded in empowerment through education, technology transfer,
capacity building and local control.
AT could never have been more relevant. The diverse set of technologies that are part
of the different focus areas of the conference demonstrates the variegated needs that
appropriate technologies can be developed and implemented in a sustainable manner, and
speaks to the ever-present need to develop and extend these efforts. In concluding, it must be
emphasized that appropriate technologies will then necessarily range from the basic and
“primitive” technologies required for water supply and sanitation to the more sophisticated
and complex including alternative energy technologies focused on renewable resroucres to
the wireless rural internet that enable villagers to be valued participants in the global
economy.
REFERENCES
[1]Rybcynzski, W, Paper Heroes; Appropriate Technology: panacea or Pipedream, Penguin,
USA (1991).
[2]Darrow and Saxenian, Appropriate Technology Sourcebook, Volunteers in Asia, Stanford,
CA (1986).
15
Laboratory scale biogas production from banana tree residues
1*
Nkurunziza T. and 2Ntaganda J.
1
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (I.R.S.T.), P.O.Box 227, Southern
Province, Rwanda; 2National University of Rwanda (N.U.R), Faculty of Sciences, P.O.Box
117, Southern Province, Rwanda; *Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Key words: Banana tree, Biomethanisation, Biogas, Effluents.
Abstract
The present study aimed mainly at recovering all the residues of banana by producing a
firewood alternative source of energy: the biogas, and an organic fertilizer: the effluent.
Before conducting an anaerobic fermentation, all the parts of banana tree have been weighed
in order to determine their weight to weight ratio. Thereafter, they have been cut into small
pieces of almost 2cm, and then aerobically fermented for one week prior to an anaerobic
fermentation (biomethanisation). The anaerobic fermentation was carried out during 79 days
under a mean temperature of 37.4°C. Experiments have been done in two laboratory
digesters of 50L each, the first have received the residues alone and the second the residues
mixed with cow dung. The best results were obtained under those last conditions since with a
mixture of 12.6Kg (banana stems): 2.1Kg (banana leaves): 1.5Kg (ripened banana peels):
5.4Kg (cow dung): 17.5Kg (water), a total volume of biogas of 733897.6ml, a daily volume
production of 9289.84ml, a productivity of 0.2698m3/Kg.DM, a biogas composition of
58.07% CH4 and 41.93% CO2 and a calorific heat value of 21,647 kJ/m3 were obtained.
Moreover, the effluents constitute a fertilizer of good quality.
Introduction
Banana tree is an important crop to Rwandan population. Due to its dietary, economic
as well as social values, banana tree has been qualified as the « cow of the poor » [1]. In fact,
on top of serving as food, it is used to prepare a traditional drink, locally known as
«URWAGWA » which contributes to income generation for many families and, especially in
rural areas, plays a vital role during social festivities like dowry hand over, marriage, etc. As
a matter of fact, banana contributes to 60-80% of household income in major banana growing
zones [2] like the Eastern part, the Western region coastal to Lake Kivu and the volcanic
region in the Northern part of the country. Climatic conditions for banana are a mean
temperature of 15-30°C, an altitude of 1000 to 1200 m and enough rainfall exceeding
100mm/month [3;4]. Though many banana varieties including the one for cooking, the one
for dessert and the one meant to produce local wine exist in Rwanda, the last variety is
predominant and counts for 60% [2]. The present work focuses on a predominant wine
producing variety locally called « GISUBI ». In 2004, Rwanda produced 2469741 tones of
all banana varieties on a total cultivated area of 363383 ha, i.e. a mean yield of 6.8 tones/ha
[5]. Banana plantation occupies on itself 23% of the total arable land [2] and its production is
almost the half of the total subsistence crops. Therefore, at harvest, banana tree generates a
lot of wastes since the edible part of it is only 8.54% of the total biomass. Therefore, banana
tree residues represent undoubtedly a good choice and an appropriate biomass for biogas
production in Rwanda since they are sufficiently abundant and easily accessible to the
majority of the population. Hence, biogas production from those residues could be one of
possible solutions in order to reduce the problem of lack of energy at the household level in
Rwanda but also in order to preserve our forests which are being intensively cut.
16
Particularly, in case of biogas production it is advisable to use all the parts of banana tree:
stems, leaves and peels since they all are biodegradable.
The main objective of this study is to test, at the laboratory scale, the ability of all banana
tree residues, to produce biogas. The specific objectives are:
- To produce, from banana tree residues, an alternative fuel in replacement of wood;
- To produce an organic fertilizer from banana tree residues;
- To minimise the use of animal biomass in biogas generation.
Material and methods
Raw material was composed of different parts of banana tree which are stem, leaves and
peels. All this raw material has been collected at Mpare, Huye district, Southern province
during dry season of July. The weight of each component was determined prior to any
physical treatment in order to determine the weight/weight ratio of each. Before being loaded
into the laboratory digesters, the banana tree components were cut into small pieces of 2cm
and then put into an open cask where they aerobically fermented during one week. The
purpose of this composting process is to make the wax material which would complicate the
anaerobic fermentation, loose [6]. During this aerobic fermentation, one litre of water was
poured over the composting mass which was turned up and down every day in order to
facilitate the process as well as to allow equal air distribution. After one week of anaerobic
fermentation the material was introduced into 50 litre digesters together with a certain
quantity of active sludge from a well functioning digester. This sludge, called innoculum,
represents 30% of the total load [6]. Table 1 represents the quantities of different raw
materials loaded while Figures 1 and 2 describes the laboratory digesters used which will be
symbolised by Dig I and Dig II.
Table 1 Quantities and ratios of different raw material loaded
Different biomass (Kg)
Digesters
Dig I
Dig II
Quantity (Kg)
Ratio
Quantity (Kg)
Stems
12.6
8.4
12.6
Leaves
2.1
1.4
2.1
Peels
1.5
1
1.5
Water
17.5
11.7
17.5
Cow dung
0
5.4
Inoculum
4
4
Total
37.7
43.1
Dry Matter (DM)
1.79
5.3%
2.72
C/N Ratio
40.6
-
17
Ratio
8.4
1.4
1
11.7
3.6
6.3%
37.9
Metallic tub
Gasholder
Fermentation chamber
Biogas exit pipe
Water
Hydraulic joint
Thermostat cable
Gasholder
Bearer
Wood crate
Stirring device
Figure 1 Laboratory digester
Insulator
(wood shavings)
Figure 2 Heat stabilisation box
Dry matters content (DM) of raw material was determined by drying a fresh sample
into an oven set to 105°C [7]. The result in percentage is a ratio between a constant weight of
the sample over the weight of the fresh sample before drying. Volatile matters content (VM)
was determined by calcination of DM at 600°C [7]. From the ash obtained the percentage of
VM was determined.
The wet oxidation method following Schlichting and Blume in 1966 [8] was used to
determine the total carbon. After digestion of a sample in presence of a concentrated acid
(H2SO4, 97%) with the aid of an oxidising agent (K2Cr2O7, 2N), the concentration was given
by a u.v/visible spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 578nm. The milligrams (the result of a
spectrophotometer)
are
converted
into
percentage
as
follows:
mg of carbone ( spectropho tometer )
%C =
10 × weight of the sample(g)
The total nitrogen was determined using the classical Kjeldahl method as described by
Blume (1966) and USDA (1972) while the total phosphorus was determined by the ascorbic
acid method by IITA (1978) [8].
Ammonium, NH4+, was analysed using the Nessler reagent method [7]. The nitrite NO2- and
nitrate NO3- ions were analysed following the α-naphtylamine in presence of sulfanilic acid
and the phenoldisulfonic acid methods respectively [9]. Various ions including sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc and copper were also analysed on an
atomic absorption spectrophotometer at their respective wavelengths [8].
The volume as well as the composition of biogas were determined by an Orsat
apparatus. The leading principle of this apparatus is the ability of some gases to be absorbed
into specific solutions. In presence of an alkaline solution, KOH 40% in our case, the CO2
was absorbed forming a soluble salt (K2CO3). Hence with a known volume of biogas
(100mL) it was possible to quantify the absorbed gas (CO2) and the remaining one was taken
as methane. The biogas heating value was calculated from the fact that the heat value of pure
methane is 37,278 kJ/m3 [10]. This value was then multiplied by the biogas percentage in
methane.
18
Results and discussion
Weights of different parts of banana
Weights of different parts of banana, their relative ratios values and percentages are presented
in Table 2.
Table 2 Weight, ratios and percentages of different parts of banana (Kg)
Sample
Fresh banana Stems
Leaves
Ripe banana Peels
8.00
28.00
3.50
7.00
3.00
1
10.00
35.00
5.00
9.00
4.00
2
12.00
38.00
7.50
10.80
4.80
3
13.00
45.80
8.00
11.40
5.80
4
15.00
52.60
9.50
13.50
6.20
5
11.60
39.88
6.70
10.34
4.76
Average
Ratio
2.44
8.38
1.41
2.17
1.00
%
14.48
49.77
8.36
12.91
5.94
The weights and ratios of different parts of banana were determined in order to determine the
ratios at which they will be loaded into digesters in order to maximise the use of all the
residues. From table 2 it can be noticed the high percentage of stems (almost 50%) compared
to other parts of banana tree.
Results of raw material analysis
Table 3 summarises the results from the analyses of raw materials
Table 3 Results of different parameters analysed in raw material
Parameter
Stem
Leaves
Peels
Dry matter (%)
6.67
26.88
25.58
Humidity (%)
93.33
73.12
74.5
Ash (%)
9.09
16.67
18.87
Volatiles matter (%)
90.91
83.33
81.13
C (%)
35.4
51.3
51.6
N (%)
1.1
1.1
0.5
C/N ratios
32.18
46.64
103.20
P (ppm)
300
1125
1400
Na (ppm)
580
540
550
K (ppm)
72900
23100
44400
Ca (ppm)
18700
21400
9500
Mg (ppm)
3000
7300
4200
Fe (ppm)
510
304
420
Mn (ppm)
150
660
100
Zn (ppm)
110
64
76
Cu (ppm)
4
6
4
Cow dung
17.2
82.8
41.70
1.40
29.8
743.75
15200
62200
-
The results of analysis of banana tree residues show that the stems contain less dry
matters than the peels and the leaves. In all the cases the results are higher than the optimal
values of the literature which recommends between 5 and 10% of dry matters for a
continuous fermentation. C/N ratio is also high for the leaves and the peels but it is normal
for the cow dung and the stems. The recommended C/N ratio ranges between 20 and 30 [6].
To adjust these two important parameters, a dilution with water was carried out. As far as
cations are concerned, their contents are far lower than the thresholds of inhibition [6].
19
The trends of volume of biogas produced and temperature
Figure 3 exhibits the trend of the total volume of biogas produced
120000
Average volume of
biogas produced (mL)
100000
Dig I
80000
Dig II
60000
40000
20000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
A 5 days period
Figure 3 The biogas total volume trend
The gas starts to appear one day after the loading. As this gas was not combustible, it
could be simply the air entered during the loading. During 5 days which followed the loading,
the gas was combustible only after removal of CO2. If the trend of the curves is considered,
we note that Dig II knew a normal fermentation with a progressive rise from the 2nd period
(the 6th day of biogas production); it is from this day that the gas is perfectly combustible and
from the 50th day (10th period) the quantity of biogas starts to regress. The pick of
fermentation appears after 40 days approximately. As for Dig I, one notes that it did not
follow a normal fermentation. Indeed, a small quantity of biogas was produced after 40 days
for a period of 30 days. This difference could be explained by the contribution of cow dung in
the Dig II which, being a source of nitrogen, contributed to adjust the C/N ratio. During a
period of 79 days (experimental retention time), the total volumes were 142749 mL for Dig I
and 733898 mL for Dig II. The temperature remained in the mesophilic range during all the
experiments and did not know enormous fluctuations. This shows that the results obtained
can be reliable at least with regard to the influence of the temperature. The mean temperature
was 37.4oC.
Productivity calculation
From the total volume and the retention time another important parameter,
productivity has been calculated as indicated in Table 4.
Table 4 Productivity of the two laboratory digesters
Parameter
A : Dry matter (Kg)
B : The quantity under fermentation (Kg)
C : Total volume of biogas (mL)
D : Retention time (Days)
E = C/D : Mean production (mL/d)
Cx10-6/A : Productivity (m3/Kg DM)
Ex10-6/Bx10-3 : Productivity (m3/m3/d)
Dig I
1.79
37.7
142749
79
1806.95
0.0797
0.0479
Digester
Dig II
2.72
43.1
733898
79
9289.84
0.2698
0.2155
The productivity, expressed in m3/KgDM, is a significant parameter because it
accounts for the production capacity of biogas by a given biomass. When it is expressed in
m3/m3/d, it is related to the digester and shows its output of biogas per unit of volume
expressed as m3. Comparing the data obtained with those of the literature, we find that the
20
productivity of banana residues (269.8L/Kg DM) is comparable to that of trees leaves which
is 252 L/KgDM and is far higher than that of the sole cow dung which is only 205
L/KgDM[6]. The value of 0.2155 m3/m3/d is also comparable with that of the literature which
is 0.2 to 0.5m3/m3/d [6;11].
Evolution of the biogas composition
Mean biogas composition (%)
The biogas composition in methane and carbon dioxide is expressed as mean
percentage for each period of 5 days on Figure 4.
80
70
60
CO2-DigI
50
CH4-DigI
40
CO2-DigII
30
CH4-DigII
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
A 5 days period
Figure 4 Biogas composition trend for the two digesters
The profile of biogas composition is a normal trend for the second digester (Dig II)
whilst Dig I exhibits an irregular biogas production. Hence the biomethanisation succeeded in
Dig II. Indeed, a normal fermentation is characterised by a progressive increase in CH4 and a
progressive decrease of CO2 with time. The mean composition of biogas and its heating value
were also calculated as it appears on Table 5.
Table 5 Mean composition and heating value of biogas
Mean biogas composition and heating value
Mean CO2 (%)
Mean CH4 (%)
Calculated heating value (kJ/m3)
Dig I
41.4
58.6
21,845
Dig II
41.93
58.07
21,647
The mean biogas composition in methane achieved with banana tree residues (58.07%
for Dig II and 58.6% for Dig I) is similar to that of tree leaves (58.07%), to that of sole cow
dung and to that of maize stalks (59%) [6;12].
pH trend
The pH trend of the biomass under fermentation as a function of time is presented on
Figure 5. It can be noted that the pH remained almost unchanged. The literature estimates the
optimal pH for fermentation between 6.8 and 7.5. For values lower than 6.8 there is an acid
inhibition and over 7.5, an ammoniacal inhibition [6;12]. However, Dig II which gave a
better yield, exhibits values which slightly exceed those of the literature. One can thus
consider that the bacteria can always be active in an interval of +/-0.1 or even 0.2 units of pH.
Indeed, the maximum of production was recorded between the 30th and the 45th day when the
pH raised from 7.40 to 7.68. As for Dig I, its low yield would not be ascribable to the pH
21
because it is always close to neutrality. The causes are thus to seek elsewhere in particular in
the C/N ratio.
8
7.5
pH
7
DigI
6.5
DigII
6
5.5
5
0
1st
day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Weeks
Figure 5 The pH trend of the biomass under fermentation
Effluent analyses
Table 6 Results of effluents analyses
Digester
Parameter
DigI
DigII
pH-H2O
7.2
8.78
pH-KCl
6.58
7.85
C (%)
45.9
40.1
N (%)
2.7
2.3
NH4+ (mg/l)
49
58
NO2- (mg/l)
4.4
4.6
Parameter
NO3-(mg/l)
P(ppm)
K(ppm)
Ca(ppm)
Mg(ppm)
Na(ppm)
DigI
35
2125
16500
23200
8300
980
Digester
DigII
40
2150
34600
34500
13500
1780
The results from the analysis of the effluents are encouraging in the case of Dig II
since they are similar to those obtained for the cow dung alone. Indeed, the effluents of the
dung of cow contain 2.3 to 4.7%N, 0.9 to 2.1%P, 4.2 to 7.6%Ca and 0.6 with 1.1%Mg [11].
Assuming that the soil requires the maximum of nutritive elements, one hectare needs 33Kg
N, 11Kg P and 48 kg K [12]. The results out of the present study show that if an 8m3 batch
digester is considered, the quantity of the effluents obtained is 8 tons which contain 184 kg N,
17.2 kg P and 276.8 kg K. These contents largely exceed those which are proposed for one
hectare. Reference made to phosphorus which is often a limiting element, we note that its
content is almost twice higher that the recommended one.
Conclusion and recommendations
During this study the objectives were met. Indeed, from banana tree residues, biogas
and a fertilizer of good quality were produced. The results obtained on the productivity and
the effluents show that the biomethanisation of these residues can be exploited on a large
scale, especially in rural area of Rwandan where banana constitutes the main cash crop.
However it was found that banana tree residues cannot be expected as a source of biogas
alone; an animal biomass, cow dung in this case, has to bee mixed with them. In particular,
this study contributed to reduce the use of cow dung for the production of biogas since 5 to 7
cows are needed to make function an 8m3 biogas plant running on cow dung alone[12] whilst
the introduction of banana residues reduces the numbers of cows to 2, i.e. a reduction of 60
%. Finally it can be noticed that, although this study contributed a lot to the reduction of the
quantity of cow dung, it cannot guarantee that the technology of biogas will be easily
popularized in Rwanda where building materials are still very expensive. Therefore another
study on alternate building materials to bricks and cement, materials currently used, would be
22
of a great importance. Another study on the applicability of the results at large scale and for a
continuous type of digesters has to be carried out also.
Acknowledgement
Gratitude is conveyed to the Institute of Scientific and Technological Research
(IRST) for having availed its biogas production laboratory for the main part of the present
work.
References
[1] Lassoudière, A., (1983) Evaluation et programmation de la recherche bananière au Rwanda : rapport
de mission. Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda.
[2] Rukazambuga, N.T.D, (2008) Agricultural Innovation and Technology in Africa, Rwanda experience:
Coffee, banana and dairy commodity chains, Draft report.
Web: http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/243550/RwandaInnovationStudyreport.pdf
Accessed on 31-05-2008
[3] Ministère de l’Agriculture et des Ressources Animales (MINAGRI), (2005) Programme National pour
le Developpement de la Banane, Kigali, Rwanda.
[4] Sastry, P.S.N, (1988) Agrometeorology of the banana, Geneva, Switzerland
[5] République du Rwanda, Ministère des Finances et de la Planification Economique (MINECOFIN),
Direction de la Statistique, (2004) Indicateurs de Développement du Rwanda, Edition n°7. Imprimerie
de Kigali, Kigali, Rwanda.
[6] Compagnie d’Energie et d’Environnement de Coopération Internationale de Chengdu, Chine
(CEECICC), (2004) Brochure de formation en technologie du Biogaz, Kigali, Rwanda.
[7] Sawyer C., N., and McCarty P., L., (1978) Chemistry for environmental engineering, 3rd edition,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company New York, USA.
[8] Pietrowicz, P., (1985) Les sols de la région d’action du Projet Agro-Pastoral de Nyabisindu,
Nyabisindu, Rwanda.
[9] Nkurunziza, T., (2002) Rapport de stage effectué successivement au laboratoire d’analyse physico
chimique et bactériologique du MINERENA à l’Usine de Rwanda Plastic Industries et à la Station
Piscicole de Rwasave, UNR, Butare, Rwanda.
[10] Jactone A. O., Zhiyou W., Ignosh, J., Bendfeldt, E, and Collins, Jr.E.R., 2007 Biomethane
Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA.
[11] Uli W., Ulrich S., and Nicolai H., (1989) Biogas plant in animal husbandry, Eschborn, Federal
Republic of Germany, The Deutsches Zentrum für Entwicklungstechnologien - GATE, a Division of
the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
[12] Ludwig S., (1988) Biogas plant. Eschborn, Federal Republic of Germany, The Deutsches Zentrum
für Entwicklungstechnologien - GATE, a Division of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
[13] Centre Régional Africain de Technologie (CRAT), (1989) Manuel Biogaz, techniques de
construction et comparaison de 4 types de biodigesteurs, Dakar, Imprimerie Saint-Paul, p.4.
23
STUDIES ON ALCOHOL PRODUCTION FROM SWEET POTATO
1
Sankaranarayanan M and 2MUKARUKAKA P
Institut Supérieur d’Agriculture et d’ Elevage, ISAE, Busogo, Post Box No. 210, Musanze,
Rwanda; E-mail : [email protected]
Key words: sweet potato- alcohol – fermentation – distillations
Abstract
There is nothing new in the use of alcohol made from root crops as a motor fuel. Alcohol is
an excellent alternative motor fuel for petrol engines. The reason alcohol fuel has not been
fully exploited is that, up until now; gasoline has been cheap, available, and easy to produce.
However, nowadays, crude oil is getting scarce, and the historic price difference between
alcohol and gasoline is getting narrower. Alcohol fuel can be an important part of the
solution for Rwanda because there is tremendous scope to use bulk production of sweet
potato into alcohol. The total sweet potato production in both seasons is found to be
1,607,296 tones/year. The average productivity of Sweet potato in the country irrespective of
seasons is found to be 8.9 tones/ha. If all of the available agricultural surplus were
converted to ethanol, alcohol would supply less than 5% of motor fuel needs.
There is a need for alternate use of sweet potato because it cannot be stored for longer
periods without decay. This study has the specific objective of producing local beer from
sweet potato and to test the alcohol content of it. The study reveals the fact that the alcohol
production from sweet potato increases up to 48 hours of fermentation thereafter the alcohol
content decreases, though the fermentation is continued.
It is found that the average
alcohol content in 24, 48 and 96 hours of fermentation of sweet potato malt yields 13.0, 13.2
and 12.80 % of alcohol.
INTRODUCTION
Currently there is a big push to find and develop alternative sources of energy so that
dwindling reserves of crude oil and other fossil fuels may be conserved. As Edward Teller[4],
one of the America’s leading physicists points out: "No single prescription exists for a
solution to the energy problem. Energy conservation is not enough. Petroleum is not enough.
Coal is not enough. Nuclear energy is not enough. Solar and geothermal energy are not
enough. New ideas and developments will not be enough by themselves. Only the proper
combination of all of these will suffice", it showed the importance of alcohol extraction as a
fuel for engines in Rwanda.
Alcohol fuel can be an important fuel for Rwanda because there is tremendous scope
to use bulk production of sweet potato into alcohol. If all of the available agricultural surplus
were converted to ethanol, alcohol would supply less than 5% of motor fuel needs. The most
important aspect of this 5% is it can be renewed each year, and each litre of alcohol
produced will save a litre of petroleum oil.
Sweet potato is widely grown in Rwanda as a food crop. Sweet potatoes contain
average about 22% starch and 5-6% sugar for a total of 27-28% fermentable material. A
tonne should yield up to 182 Kg of alcohol. Sweet potatoes are cooked and converted in a
manner similar to potatoes with the exception that they contain only about 66% water and
some dilution is necessary. Sweet potato contains saccharine (sugar) materials in which the
1
Professor, ISAE, Busogo, Rwanda for all correspondences
24
carbohydrate (the actual substance from which the alcohol is made) is present in the form of
simple, directly fermentable six and twelve carbon sugar molecules such as glucose, fructose,
and maltose. Hence, sweet potato has the potential for alcohol production.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
There is nothing new in the use of alcohol as a motor fuel. Mathewson[1] stated that
when Nikolaus Otto invented the internal combustion engine, gasoline was not available.
Ethyl alcohol at 180-190 proof was the specified fuel. The model "T" Ford was designed to
run on the available crude gasoline, alcohol, or any combination of the two. Kusmayanto [2]
stated that there are two kinds of biofuel derived from crops, i.e ethanol and biodiesel.
Ethanol can be produced from any grain, root, tubers, fruits containing fermentable
carbohydrates. Mays [3] experimentally found out that sweet potato can yield alcohol of
5821 litre/ha from the crop yield of 462 tonnes/ha.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Cooking of sweet potato
The sweet potato is cleaned with water to remove the soil and other foreign materials.
It is cut into small pieces and put inside the cooking vessel. Water is added at the rate of 100
ml for every 200 gm of sweet potato. It is cooked well in the electrical stove. Cooking is
accomplished by heating the mixture of sweet potato and water to a slow boil and holding at
this temperature for 30-60 minutes. Generally, the mash is sufficiently cooked when it is soft
and mash. During cooking, it is stirred well.
Water for dilution of mash
Dilution is simply the addition of water to adjust the amount of sugar in the mash or
the amount of alcohol in the beer. It is necessary because the yeast, used later in the
fermentation process, can be killed by high concentration of alcohol. Also, during the
mashing and conversion of starchy material, dilution is necessary to make the mash easier to
stir and handle. The object of dilution is to end up with a beer of 10% or more alcohol when
fermentation is complete. The dilution of water with the mash prepared is 400 ml for the
200 gm of sweet potato.
Mash Cooling
After cooking, the content is diluted with water. It is allowed for cooling in the same
container. The temperature recorded is 45ºC. At this temperature of mash, yeast is added.
The amount of yeast added is 2 gm in the diluted mash prepared.
Fermentor
A glass flask of one liter capacity is taken as a container for fermentation of the mash.
The cooked, cooled, diluted mash with yeast is transferred into the fermentation container for
microbial action on starch and saccharine materials in the mash.
Rotating distillation unit
Rotating distillation unit consist of a stationery electrical heater. On the top of the
heater, a closed glass beaker is placed. This beaker is filled with the fermented mash of sweet
potato and yeast. This beaker is made to rotate by a electrical motor fitted in the system. The
beaker is also connected with a cooling tower, which is also made of glass. Cold water enters
inside the cooling tower, it cools the alcoholic vapor and get the heat from the vapour.
There is a continuous flow of cold water entering into the cooling tower and exiting as
hot water from the tower is also arranged. The glass beaker containing the fermented mash is
heated to a temperature 78ºC by means of a temperature controller. It is the boiling point of
25
alcohol. The vapour thus produced is condensed in the cooling tower and then the vapor is
converted into a mixture of alcohol and water. This mixture is collected separately.
Hydrometer
A hydrometer is a device used to find out the density of a mixture of water and
alcohol. It is a little float with calibrated stems used to measure the density of the mixture of
liquid of water and alcohol. The alcohol content of the mixture can be obtained from the
standard two way table plotted with temperature and density of the mixture..
Fig 1: Hydrometer used to measure the density of a mixture of alcohol and water
An electronic balance was used to measure the weight of sweet potato to prepare the cooking
material for mash. A sieve of hole size less than 1 mm is used to filter the fermented mash
of the sweet potato to separate the waste materials and the beer.
Experimental layout for alcohol distillation from sweet potato
The beer produced from sweet potato in different periods of fermentation is taken up
for finding the alcohol content. The experimental layout is shown below for easy under
standing.
Table 1: Experimental layout for distillation of Beer prepared from Sweet potato
Fermentation Stages
Replication
Fermentation hours
S1
R1
R2
R3
S2
R1
R2
R3
S3
R1
R2
R3
Note : S- stages of fermentation, R – replication of the experiments
24
24
24
48
48
48
96
96
96
Beer produced in 9 different experiments with different periods of fermentation are distilled
to find out the alcohol content. The flow chart for the alcohol production from sweet potato is
given below:
26
Fig 1: Flow chart for preparation of alcohol from sweet potato
Alcohol content from standard tables.
The beer produced from the sweet potato is distilled in the rotating evaporation type
distillation unit. Alcohol is evaporated at the temperature of 78ºC. The alcoholic vapor is
cooled by a circulating cold water tube around the vapors. The condensed vapor is collected
in the form of distilled alcohol in a container. Alcohol thus produced also has water content.
The amount of alcohol collected is measured and water is added to make it 100 ml. The
density of the mixture is found out by a standard hydrometer. The temperature of the mixture
is found out by means of a accurate thermometer. When the temperature and density of the
mixture is known, the alcohol content is found out by using a standard table. The standard
table is a two way table containing the density of alcohol water mixture and the temperature
of the mixture, which gives the alcohol content. The standard table to find out the alcohol
content is given in Annexure.
27
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Area of cultivation and productivity of sweet potato in Rwanda
Table 2 brings out the fact that the mean productivity of sweet potato in different parts of the
country in Season – A is 11.5 tonnes/hectare and 6.3 tonnes/hectare in Season – B. The
average productivity of sweet potato in the country irrespective of seasons is worked out to
be 8.9 tonnes/ha.
Table 2: Area of cultivation and productivity of sweet potato
Province
Season – A
Season – B
Byumba
Cyangugu
Cultivated Production, Productivity, Cultivated Production, Productivity,
area, Ha
area, ha
tones
tonnes
tonnes/ha
tonnes/ha
10761
112780
6888
64564
10.5
9.4
4643
68636
6762
34826
14.8
5.2
Gikongoro
6783
63165
9.3
8160
30525
Gisenyi
7066
39614
3.7
5.6
11424
35330
Gitarama
14687
117438
3.1
8.0
14259
117499
Kibungo
8580
127701
8.2
14.9
9350
66926
7.2
Kibuye
6551
65206
10.0
6490
32756
5
Kigali
11508
195541
17.0
11495
115076
10
8883
116084
13.1
11669
57740
Ruhengeri
4.9
61693.6
6.3
Mean
8829.1
100685
11.5
9610.8
Source : MINAGRI (Rwanda Development Indicator)
Alcohol content of sweet potato beers in different fermentation period
Three replications for 24, 48 and 96 hours of fermentation of sweet potato based beer
is carried out to find out the alcohol content. Alcohol produced in 9 different experiments
with different periods of fermentation are distilled to find out the alcohol content.
The sweet potato beer of nine samples each weighing 250 ml is produced in the
laboratory. Three samples are fermented for 24 hours, the second three samples are fermented
for 48 hours and the third three samples are fermented for 96 hours. Data is tabulated in
Table 3.
Table 3 reveals the fact that the average alcohol content in 24, 48 and 96 hours of
fermentation of sweet potato malt yields 13.0, 13.2 and 12.80 % of alcohol. It is also found
that the alcohol content increases up to 48 hours of fermentation thereafter the alcohol
content decreases. The reason assigned for increase of alcohol content initially is due to more
microbial activity and its multiplication, which consumes the sugar and starch in the beer and
produces more and more alcohol. After 48 hours, the feed material present in the beer is
almost consumed up by the microbes, there is not enough feed material for further microbial
activity, the microbes becomes dormant or it may die for want of sugar and starch or it may
consume some alcohol.
28
Table 3: Alcohol content of sweet potato in 24, 48 and 96 hours of fermentation time.
Fermentation
time (Hours)
and
replications
Distillate
collected
ml
24 Hours
R1
80
R2
60
R3
82
48 Hours
R1
80
R2
75
R3
70
96 Hours
R1
85
R2
90
R3
90
Dilution Density
with
after
water, ml dilution,
gm / cc
Temp.
°C of
diluted
mixture
Density
of 99%
pure
Ethonol
gm / cc
Alcohol
% .in 250
ml
sample
taken
20
0.960
22
0.780
31.92
(80/100)
40
0.960
18
0.780
33.48
(60/100
18
0.960
23
0.780
32.18
(82/100
Average alcohol content in 24 hours of fermentation, %
Alcohol
%.in
diluted
distillate
12.7
13.4
12.9
13.0
20
0.960
19
0.780 33.22
(80/100
25
0.960
20
0.780
32.96
(75/100
30
0.960
21
0.780
32.69
(70/100
13.3
15
0.960
21
0.780
32.69
(85/100
20
0.960
23
0.780
32.18
(80/100
10
0.960
24
0.780
31.92
(90/100
13.0
13.2
13.0
13.2
12.8
12.7
12.80
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The study revealed the fact that Rwanda has total cultivated area of sweet potato in
both season A and B is 175,592 ha/year and the total sweet potato production in both seasons
is found to be 1,607,296 tonnes/year. The mean productivity of sweet potato in different
parts of the country in season–A is 11.5 tonnes/hectare and 6.3 tonnes/hectare in season–B.
The average productivity of sweet potato in the country irrespective of seasons is worked out
to be 8.9 tonnes/ha. Hence; there is a need for alternate use of sweet potato because it cannot
be stored for longer periods without decay. The alcohol production from sweet potato showed
the fact that the alcohol content increases up to 48 hours of fermentation thereafter the
alcohol content decreases. It is found that the average alcohol content in 24, 48 and 96 hours
of fermentation of sweet potato malt yields 13.0, 13.2 and 12.80 % of alcohol.
29
REFERENCES
[1] Mathewson, 2006, Mother Earth Alcohol Fuel - The Manual for the Home and Farm Production
of Alcohol Fuel, Ten Speed Press, © Copyright 1980 J.A. Diaz Publications
[2] Kusmayanto Kadiman, "Crops beyond foods", paper delivered on the first international
conference of crop security, Malang, September 20-23rd, 2005.
[3] Mays, D.A., W. Buchanan, B.N. Bradford, and P.M. Giordano. 1990. Fuel production potential of
several agricultural crops. p. 260-263. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops.
Timber Press, Portland, OR
[4] Edward Teller, America’s leading physicists reprint from the United States Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250
30
Finding Solutions to Lighting Problems for the Rural Poor.
Kinyua Ngige
Clean Air Energy Solutions, P.O. Box 70550 – 00400, Nairobi Kenya
Key Words: Rural Light demand, Local Turbine manufacturers in informal sector, LED
technology, Affordable Pico and Micro Hydro Projects.
Abstract
This paper discusses how technological advancement and its adaptation by the informal
sector has given birth to a revolutionary solution to lighting problems for the rural poor.
Thomas Edison’s seemingly forward-looking statement that “we will make electricity so
cheap that only the rich will burn candles” was true enough for the industrialized world, but
it did not anticipate the plight of 1.6 billion people—more than the world’s population in
Edison’s time—who 100 years later still have no access to electricity. Due to population
growth, barriers to electrification, poverty and other factors, Edison’s dream has remained a
dream that until now seems un-surmountable. Estimates by the World Bank show that only
two percent of rural Sub-Saharan Africans have access to “modern energy” and electricity.
That means at least 500 million people do not. Lighting has been a primary need for the rural
areas whose use of fuel from outdated lighting technology typically comprises up to 15
percent of a person’s annual income.
The informal sector has been very active in trying to meet this need which has been ignored
by the formal sector. To realize this demystification of technology as the reserve for western
very sophisticated plants has been necessary. Entry to the informal sector by engineers and
technicians has led to the development of affordable technology to generate electricity and
distribute it to the rural. This includes the manufacture of affordable small water turbines
and wind mills.
New Technological advancement in White Light Emitting (WLED) which consumes very little
energy and can light for more than 50,000 hours now makes electricity affordable to the
poor. Small electricity projects can now reach up to ten times more people. By manufacturing
affordable wind and water turbines and use of WLEDs Edison’s dream will become a reality
for the rural poor.
Introduction
Thomas Edison’s seemingly forward-looking statement that “we will make electricity
so cheap that only the rich will burn candles” was true enough for the industrialized world,
but it did not anticipate the plight of 1.6 billion people—more than the world’s population in
Edison’s time—who 100 years later still have no access to electricity. Due to population
growth, poverty, barriers to electrification, and other factors, the International Energy Agency
projects that this number will decline very gradually (by less than 1% per year!) between now
and the year 2030.
This paper takes a look at the lighting problems faced by the rural households. It
focuses on solutions that our company “Clean Air Energy Solutions” has been researching
and implementing, that we believe will enable this group to start benefiting from electricity
using renewable energy. It demonstrates how the informal sector can reduce the cost of
electricity generating equipment to make them more affordable and how when combined with
31
advancement in lighting technology the solution is on hand. It also addresses other viable
energy solutions that the electricity generated can be used for when it’s not fully utilised for
lighting. It lays its emphasis on lighting as we feel the large energy needs for heating and
cooking can best be met using other renewable energy solutions such as Biogas and Biomass
using energy efficient cookers and heaters.
Lighting in the Households
The major sources of lighting for rural households in Kenya and most of Africa South
of the Sahara are kerosene and firewood. According to a sturdy conducted by the Kenyan
Ministry of Energy in year 2001 on Kenya’s demand, supply and policy strategy ; • Kerosene is used by approximately 94% of rural households for lighting.
• .The annual per capita consumption of Kerosene at the household level is 90 Litres.
• Electricity only reaches 3.8% of the rural households in Kenya mostly near the large
towns.
Kerosene has been for a long time been the more reliable lighting source for the rural
households. Above sturdy also show that although one in four people today obtain light
exclusively with kerosene, candles and biomass they receive only 0.1% of the resulting
lighting energy services. As an illustration of the inefficiencies involved, users of kerosene
lighting in Africa pay 600 times more per unit of useful energy services than do those in
electrified homes with incandescent lamps in Europe.
The International Energy Agency estimates that, in aggregate, the fuel-based lighting
costs the world's poor $38 billion each year, plus ~190 megatons of CO2 emissions, the most
important greenhouse gas. This does not even include the costs for candles and batteries.
Efforts to address the issue clearly have immense potential benefits for equity, development,
and the environment.
Kerosene lamps emit significant amounts of Carbon monoxide and unburned
hydrocarbons. This courses indoor pollution, which is hazardous to human health. This is
particularly detrimental to school children who must sit very close to the lamps to read. The
combustion of one litre of Kerosene produces about 2.5 kg of Carbon dioxide (1). Acute
respiratory infections ranked fourth in the share of the burden of diseases in sub-Saharan
Africa (accounting for 7% of the total) (2).
The cost of fuel has recently escalated to prices that most of the rural poor can no
longer afford. Those who have school going children are forced to use up high percentages of
their income for kerosene increasing poverty in the rural areas. Unfortunately due to
increased demand for electricity and exhaustion of large scale hydro potential sites the Kenya
Electricity Generating Company has become increasingly dependent of diesel driven
generators raising the cost of grid electricity tremendously. Small generator sets using fossil
fuels have also been popular with imports to Uganda between 1993 and 1997 of estimated
total capacity of about 69,955 Megawatts (3).
Presence of good sources of light improves livelihood of the population and makes it
possible for households to increase their working hours beyond daylight. Affordable clean
energy services will improve the income and health of the households hence reduction of
poverty.
Alternative Clean Lighting Solutions.
Electricity is produced mainly from hydropower in most of Africa South of the Sahara
However sites with large potentials are quickly running out and alternatives have to be
explored. Geothermal energy has become an important source for electricity especially in
Kenya with an installed capacity from Olkaria II of 64MW and Olkaria III of a further
64MW. However, its exploitation is very expensive and it’s only tapped by use of expensive
32
technology to supply the main grid. Solar lighting from photovoltaic panels for charging
batteries have also become popular with the more affluent rural households but the use is still
limited to less than 0.15% of the households due to high initial installations cost of about US
$ 625 for a 50 Wp PV System (4). Wind energy has not been used for lighting to any
significant degree in the region because of installation cost being very high compared to
energy produced from fossil fuels. However with the enormous increase in fossil fuel costs
and the resulting green house gas emissions its use is also increasingly becoming viable.
Africa and the Middle East annual wind energy potentials is estimated at 76,000 Terawattshrs of which 16% is realizable (5).
Barriers to Rural Electrification.
The most important barriers to promotion in rural electrification have been high initial
investment costs of renewable energy technologies and inadequate financial intermediaries.
Connection to the grid is very expensive for the rural poor who are mainly located far from
the grid. Electricity demands by industries and the urban area already outstrips the local
hydro electricity supply with most of the large hydro-power potential sites having already
been exploited. Current alternatives include geothermal which is very expensive, and
utilization of hydro power from sites with potentials lower than 1000kW. These sites have
previously not been exploited as they were deemed to be expensive and uneconomical due to
cost of small water turbines and distance from the main grid.
Solutions to Rural Electrification Barriers
The popularisation of small hydro-power plants in Kenya especially by Intermediate
Technology Development Group (ITDG) has raised a lot of interest by the informal sector in
this sector. Through its training about four companies are successfully installing affordable
hydro power solutions in Kenya. This has been made possible by availability of information
on Micro-Hydro design and locally made equipment.
Project cost for Small Hydro power projects
Using simple but reliable civil works and locally manufactured water turbines coupled
with high quality but affordable alternator, electrical control systems and affordable
distribution systems that meet regulatory standards most projects are achievable through
contributions of about US $ 3.57 Per watt that the beneficiary receive from the projects. Pico
and Mini Hydro Electricity projects have been criticized as not feasible as they produce very
little amounts of power, are far from the main grids and that the cost per watt is high
compared to large hydro power projects. However the value of return is much greater because
beneficiaries only require very small amount of electricity basically for lighting, large
populations normally live near the sites and can be connected using simple mini grids, Initial
Connection fees to the main grid is more expensive than contributions for a small hydro
project, cost of power after installation is very low as compared to current Kenya Power and
lighting tariffs.
Connection to the main grid in Kenya costs US $ 570 with minimum monthly charges
of about US $ 14. Fuel levies have recently doubled the electricity costs in Kenya. Most of
the rural poor are unable to raise the installation charges and many of those who do are
normally disconnected after a short period due to the very high cost of grid electricity. The
comparison below reveals that grid electricity is beyond the reach of the rural poor
households as its capital cost is almost 3-5 times their annual income. Renewables, however,
are more affordable as they cost a fraction of the annual household income.
33
Table 1.
Affordability Analysis of Grid Electricity, Solar PV & Pico-hydro by the Poor
818
818
Pico-Hydro minigrid serving 110
households (1.1kw)
818
2360-3840
325
56
54
289-469%
40%
7%
7
2,393-3873
398
162
151
293-473%
49%
20%
18%
Grid Electricity
Annual Household income (US $)¹
Capital cost per Household Incl.
internal wiring $ fittings(US $)
Capital cost per Household as a %
of annual household income
Total upfront cost per household
(US$)
Total upfront cost as a % of annual
household income (US$)
Solar PV
Pico-Hydro minigrid serving 110
households (2.2kw)
818
Source: Kenital, 2003 (6); Maher, 2002a & 2002b (7); ITDG, 2004 (8); Institute of Economic
Affairs/Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2002 (9); UNDP, 2001 (10); Republic of Kenya, 200a (11).
1
Only applies to household income in the Kirinyaga District where the two pico-hydro
projects are installed. Comparatively, household income is estimated to be US $ 1,825
deriving from the US $1 per capita per day threshold; approximately US $ 1800 (2002) based
on National GNP; and, about US $ 957.
Pico-hydro
Ndima Pico-hydro power project (ITDG)
Located near Kerugoya in Kirinyaga District of Central Province this project was
installed in 2001 to produce 3kW for a mini grid to supply 100 homes with lighting. The total
cost of the projected is estimated at US $ 70,000 with service lines to 100 homes. It is now
more than six years old since supply started in 2002 and serves 150 members with very few
members being permanently disconnected since. Each household can use three 7 watt energy
saver bulbs all lighted during the peak hours. Using LED lights each homestead can now use
6 lights of 1.5watt each and have a radio or a low watt Television operating at the same time.
Membership can be increased to 200 homes with the use of LED lights. Other uses of the
energy during of peak hours includes use of electric equipment for processing animal feeds,
lighting and heating for chicken at night, a barber shop and security lighting for the
community.
This project was made possible by member contributions from the community of US
$ 300 with the balance being met by ITDG and the ministry of Energy. The community has
been able to maintain the project through monthly payments of US $ 3. Benefits have
included clean energy for lighting, Radio, Television and for food processors. Reductions
have been seen in use of kerosene, diesel, dry cells and battery charging from grid power as
illustrated below.
The project is currently being upgraded by the community to increase the output to
better serve the beneficiaries. Other projects have also been developed in the area with a
Micro-Hydro project producing 14kW situated only 1km up stream. The success of these
projects prove that they are viable and indeed cheaper than the large projects and have
minimum ecological impacts are they are mostly runoff the river projects.
34
Table 2
Pre-electrification
average expenditure
(Kshs.)
Energy Source
Kathamba Pico-Hydro Installation
Lighting
Kerosene
340
Candles
62.5
Entertainment (radio & TV)
Battery Charging
90
Dry Cells (non-rechargeable)
241
Thima Pico-hydro Installation
Lighting
Kerosene
Candles
Entertainment (radio & TV)
Battery Charging
Dry Cells (non-rechargeable)
Post-electrification
average expenditure
(Kshs.)
Percentage
decrease
(%)
94
0
72
100
0
93
100
61
323
149
54
33
0
100
146
75*
49*
207
66
68
Source: Adapted from Balla, 2003 (13)
Locally Manufactured Water Turbines
Manufacture of affordable high quality turbines with efficiency higher than 75% has been
made possible by: • The availability of simple high quality designs
• Experienced personnel in the informal sector
• Availability of materials required.
However, the lack of foundries that can manufacture turbine bodies and runners restricts
the fabrication of some types of turbines that would be best suited for some of the sites.
Locally manufactured turbines are priced at about 70% less than new imported turbines and
40% less than reconditioned imported turbines. Most Pico to Micro-Hydro sites require
custom made turbines and they are not only expensive to import but they also take about 8
months before delivery. Availability for readymade turbines for Pico, Micro and Mini Hydro
projects is also very limited as most sites have unique characteristics which make uniformity
very hard. Quantities required are also very small for large manufactures locally and abroad
to be interested in. Imports from Asia are also more expensive than locally made turbines and
of less quality. Local manufacturers are also able to support their turbines better as compared
to distant manufactures where cost of returning the equipment or receiving parts is expensive
and takes long.
High quality efficient Cross flow, Pelton, Kaplan and Reversed Pump turbines can now
be fabricated at affordable prices locally. Fortunately most of our local sites can be served
very well by the two types. Turgo, Francis and Kaplan turbines are hard to fabricate to
precision that would result to good efficiency. Francis turbines would be applicable for sites
with high volumes of water with low heads that would not be served by the Pelton or
35
Crossflow turbines. This makes it necessary and thus the need for foundries that would
manufacture high quality reaction runners and cylindrical sophisticated bodies.
Technology Advancement in Lighting – WLED
Fig 4.
Light Comparison Table
Lamp Type
Homemade Kerosene
Incandescent
0.03
5-18
Rated Life
(Hours)
Supply of kerosene
1,000
Durability
Fragile and dangerous
Very fragile
0.04 – 0.06
Litres/hour
45W
Efficiency
(Lumens/Watt)
Power
consumption
(Watt)
Compact
Fluorescent
25-50
WLED
90110
6,500 –
50,000
15,000 to
100
,000
Very fragile
Durable
7W
2W
CCT deg K
1,800 deg.
2,652 deg.
4,200 deg. 5,000 deg
80
98
62
82
CRI
$1,251
$175
$131
$20
$ after 50,000
Hours
Source: Light Up The World, 2007 http://www.lutw.org/techapproach.htm, Philips Lumileds
Lighting Co.
New advancement in technology in lighting has recently improved efficiency in
lighting using White Light Emitting Diodes (WLED). LEDs are diodes, which is a
semiconductor device that will conduct electricity in only one direction. The device is
fabricated from layers of silicon and seeded with atoms of phosphorus, germanium, arsenic or
other rare-earth elements. The layers of the device are called the die and the junction
between the materials is where the light is generated. The electricity enters from one side of
the die and exits out the other. As the current passes through the LED device, the materials
that makes up the junction react and light is emitted. Different materials and designs have
different colored lights and intensities. LEDs are now bright enough to be considered for
applications that traditionally use incandescent bulbs.
Technical advances have dramatically improved the reliability and the performance of
the LEDs since they were invented in the 1960’s. The lifetime for the well engineered new
generation of LEDs is around 100,000 hours of use, or 30 to 40 years of normal
operation. Because they are a semiconductor device, they are also very rugged and are not
subject to fail when dropped or vibrated, as do incandescent and fluorescent lights.
The original LEDs only emitted light of one frequency or color of light. These were blues,
greens, yellows, oranges or reds and they were unsuited for domestic lighting. Recent
innovations in materials, doping and die structure have developed high brightness LEDs that
emit light in all visible frequencies to produce white light.
36
LED technology has developed rapidly with the achievement by Cree, Inc. (US)
demonstrating a 65 lm/W commercial use light in September 2003 and a 131 lm/W by 2006
at 20 mA. Nichia Corporation has developed a white light LED with luminous efficacy of
150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA which will revolutionize the LED market if
available in the market next year as planned at an affordable price. Curently the highest
efficiency high-power white LED is claimed by Philips Lumileds Lighting Co. with a
luminous efficacy of 115 lm/W (350 mA).
Some of the benefits that WLED give include: • LED’s convert about 90% of the electricity into light. A 1 Watt LED Emits approx
100 Lumens as compared to Incandescent bulbs with only 17 Lumens to a watt and 50
Lumens for Compact Fluorescent tubes (6)
• LED’s work at low and save voltage
• LED’s generate very low heat thus efficient and save to touch.
• LED’s Lasts about 100,000 hours about 5 years continuously without replacement
• No damaging Ultraviolet so they do not cause fading to artwork
• Not fragile or sensitive to shake
• Directional so emits higher percentage of light in the desired direction.
• Colored LED lights produce just needed colors thus no need for filtration
Table 5.
COMPARISON OF BENEFICIARY COST FOR A 10KW MICRO-HYDRO PROJECT
BULB TYPE
Incandescent
bulbs
Compact
Fluorescent bulbs
WLED
PROJECT
WATTS
BULB
WATT
S
4
BULBS
WATTS
TOTAL
BENEFICIARIES
PROJECT
COST ¹
US $
CONTRIBUTIO
N PER
BENEFICIARY
US $
10,000
45
180
56
57,142
1000
10,000
7
28
357
64,285
200
10,000
1.5
6
1,667
85714
51
Source: My own Estimates based on lumens per watt achievable from each technology.
¹ Estimated project cost increases by larger distribution system for increased beneficiaries.
Conclusion
At an approximate cost of US $ 51 per beneficiary using LED bulbs, lighting for rural
poor is now feasible where Pico to Micro-Hydro sites are found. Solar and wind turbine minigrids should also be feasible. Local manufacturing of affordable turbines and new technology
in lighting by use of White Light Emitting Diodes (WLED) has now made small hydro
projects viable and affordable to the rural households. Small hydro projects can now serve
many more beneficiaries than was possible before reducing each beneficiary’s contribution.
By being able to extract some of the 65% hydro-potential that has been considered not
feasible the potentials of lighting the rural poor and also the increased input to the grid would
be massive. Development of affordable and efficient wind power generating equipment is the
new frontier and a challenge that when conquered a true solution for lighting for the rural
households will be in hand. Locally we have made no significant progress in the manufacture
of Solar lighting equipment and photovoltaic technology products are all imported. However
37
the assembly of photovoltaic cells locally can drastically reduce the cost making it more
affordable to the rural poor.
References:
[1] SADCC, (1992), Assessment of Applications and Markets for Solar Photovoltaic System
in the SADCC Region, Project AAA.4.7 Report.
[2] World Health Report 1999, World Health Organisation.
[3] MEMD, (2002), Household Energy Status Report, Workshop, Nairobi, Kenya
[4] AFREPEN (2002) African Energy Data and Terminology Handbook No. 13
[5] IEA, (1995 and 1996), World Energy Outlook
[6] Kenital, 2003. Newspaper advertisement.
[7] Maher. P., 2002a Community Pico Hydro in Sub-Saharan Africa: Case Sturdy 1. The
Nottingham Trent University.
[8] Maher. P., 2002b Community Pico Hydro in Sub-Saharan Africa: Case Sturdy 2. The
Nottingham Trent University
[9] Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), 2004. ITDG-East Africa Energy
Programme. www.itdg.org/html/itdg_eastafrica/energy.htm
[10] Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA)Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (FES). 2002. The Little
Fact Book: The Socio-economic and Political Profiles of Kenya’s Districts. Institute of
Economic Affairs (IEA)/Friendrich Ebert Stiftung (FES), Nairobi.
[11] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2001. Addressing Social and
Economic Disparities-Kenya, Human Development Report 2001, UNDP, Nairobi.
[12] Republic of Kenya, 2000a; 2nd Report on Poverty in Kenya – Volume II: Poverty and
Social Indicators, Ministry of Finance and Planning, Nairobi.
38
Using wind energy for harvesting and providing sustainable safe
groundwater for a Rural Community in the Masendu Ward in Zimbabwe.
1
William M. Goriwondo, Davison Zimwara, and Nicholas Tayisepi
National University of Science and Technology, Department of Industrial and Manufacturing
Engineering, P. O. Box AC939, Ascot, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Key Words: Borehole, Environmentally friendly, groundwater, Wind energy, renewable energy
Abstract
Masendu Ward is a Rural Community in Zimbabwe with a population of approximately
16500. It lies in a semi - arid region with a low average seasonal rainfall resulting in a
general water shortage. Unavailability of reliable water sources is a cause for concern which
weakens the community to cope with development needs. This is exacerbated by the
emigration of young people to neighboring countries in search of employment leaving the
very young and very old to fetch water. This paper is an offshoot of a community intervention
project funded by Kellogg Foundation through the Institute of Rural Technologies. It looks at
harnessing the use of windmills as an alternative source of energy. The aim is to supply
sufficient water to the Community by establishing suitable sites for boreholes and installing
improved windmills. It highlights community involvement in the fabrication of the new
windmill system. It is an experimental intervention study that results in water availability
leading to community development and engagement in commercial activities. The project
team designed and constructed a windmill with a 100% improved throughput and less
material content on the wheel. Results pertaining to the improvement of windmill efficiency
are an ongoing issue.
Introduction
A windmill is a machine that converts wind energy to usable energy through the
rotation of a wheel made up of adjustable blades. It is an environmentally friendly way of
pumping water which has been used for a long time. It does not require human power and
uses wind a renewable source of energy. Most Rural communities in Zimbabwe are
characterized by the unavailability of safe drinking water. While this is not prevalent in all
rural areas, Masendu ward has such a problem that affects development of the community.
The ward is in the Bulilimamangwe Rural District in the Matabeleland South province of
Zimbabwe. The ward consists of six villages covering nearly 42km2 with a population of
approximately 16500 [1]. The villages together have a common problem of water shortage
for domestic and agricultural activities. This is as a result of the ward being located in the
semi-arid region that has a low average seasonal rainfall of 493mm [2]. It becomes prudent to
alleviate the problem of water shortage by utilisation of technological means for groundwater
abstraction. Wind energy was the main focus of progression to resolving the problem. Wind
is a renewable resource that can be put to good use and in areas where there is no electricity,
it becomes quite useful. In this development, the project team looked and encompassed skills
transfer and capacity building for community members.
Statement of the problem.
There is a general water shortage in the ward to carter for domestic, livestock and
commercial use. Boreholes have been sunk by the District Development Fund (DDF) and
39
these use manual hand pumps. Many have become dysfunctional due to various reasons.
Most youths have emigrated to neighbouring countries in search of employment leaving the
very young and very old to fetch water from the manual hand pumps. A survey of the
community has indicated that there is a perceived aquifer in one of the villages (Luvuluma).
Windmill power is an appropriate alternative for driving pumps required to draw water from
boreholes to the surface, especially considering that there is limited electricity supply in the
ward and the use of hand pumps is laborious.
Hypothesis
The people in the community are convinced that there is an underground aquifer in
Luvuluma village and that can be a source of ground water. The wind blows all year round
though at varying speeds and directions. This wind power can be utilized for driving water
pumps. There are 3 windmills in the ward and these are not properly working due to lack of
maintenance and spare parts.
Aim and Objectives
To utilize wind energy to provide consistently sufficient safe water supply to the
Masendu community simultaneously capacity building local cadres.
In order to achieve this, the project team will focus on the following areas
¾ To establish the extent of water shortage and provide a solution to the problem using
appropriate technology.
¾ To design, manufacture, install and commission windmill pumps and related water
reticulation infrastructure at suitable sites.
¾ To train the community in maintaining and repairing windmill equipment.
¾ To, through research, acquire knowledge in renewable energy utilisation.
Study Design
This study is two fold as it is experimental and interventional. Experimental in that it
involves the assessment of current windmill technology and formatting efficiency
improvements. It is interventional in that while the research is being done, the community
requires water supply and hence the current technologies are utilized to urgently intervene
and provide water.
Theoretical framework
To benefit from appropriate technology, an efficient energy supply system is required.
Several energy sources including electricity, hand pumps and windmills have been employed
for pumping water. Electricity is expensive and is therefore not an option for most rural
communities (e.g. Masendu) in the developing countries. Wind energy is an economic
alternative source for pumping water where wind conditions are reliable. A windmill is a
machine that converts wind energy into usable energy through the rotation of a wheel made
up of adjustable blades, [3] and has been in existence since A.D. 500. This method is
efficient, does not require human power, is environmentally friendly and is cheap [4].
Windmill with a drive mechanism that incorporates gears has been found to be durable [5]. In
1886, Thomas Perry designed the aerodynamic multi-bladed windmill [6], which is in
40
common use in Zimbabwe. The use of windmills in Zimbabwe has deteriorated, as they seem
to have inherent faults. The gear box that converts rotational motional into vertical
reciprocating motion fails often and hence rendering them unusable a few years after
installation.
Water consumption was found to be significantly correlated to explanatory variables
such as “household size” and “age of the household’s head” [7]. With these variables, water
consumption can vary from 100-170litres per person per day [7]. The Masendu community
has varying household sizes and livestock. Some villages engage in gardening activities while
others do brick moulding. All these factors affect water consumption.
Sandstones characterize Masendu area and this type of geology is known to be very
high yielding in underground water. Studies in the Nyamandhlovu-Tsholotsho areas that lie
to the north of Masendu ward [8] as well as areas around Bulawayo [9] with a similar
geological outlook have shown high groundwater potential. Oral discussion with community
members have shown that Luvuluma village lies on top of an aquifer that stretches from
Nyamandhlovu and boreholes in that area have good yields at an average depth of 50 meters.
Methodology
The methodology used directed effort towards provision of water to the community as
an urgent intervention while at the same time making improvements and research
comparisons on boreholes pumped by electric pumps with those pumped by windmills.
Interviews were conducted with community members with each village providing two
representatives to be part of the research team. These representatives were given
questionnaires to establish water requirements for their respective villages.
A survey visit was done to the Provincial headquarters and the district offices of the
District Development Fund (DDF) in Gwanda and Plumtree respectively. The aim of these
visits was to establish the number and status of boreholes and the challenges that the DDF is
facing in repairing and maintaining existing boreholes.
Windmill manufacturers were visited and the researchers’ engineering intervention
was intended to improving the durability of functionality and efficiency of the windmill
system.
Masendu Central village houses a cultural centre for the ward that is going through
major development. At this cultural centre there is a small fabrication workshop doing a
commercial activity in the area. As part of capacity building, the researchers were working
together with two key members of this cooperative for skills transfer and capacity building.
Members of this cooperative have no formal qualification in fabrication or business
management. Fabrication work is done by semi-skilled workers. Furthermore various
community cadre teams collaborated with the Institute of Rural Technology (IRT) research
team other than the cooperative members referred above.
41
Results
The results are presented under the ensuing subheadings thus;
Water demand survey
Table 1 below shows the estimated population, used to derive the water demand, in the ward
by village. Water consumption per person each day was pegged at an average of 100 litres.
Table 1 Ward Water demand survey by village
Water yield per
Estimated daily Water deficit
Village
Number of
village at average
Water demand per day in each
(Estimated
Boreholes
of 2000l/hr per
(litres /day)
village
population)
borehole
Masendu Central
8
128,000
360,000
-232,000
(3600)
Thandawani
1
16,000
300,000
-284,000
(3000)
Tjeboroma
1
16,000
320,000
-304,000
(3200)
Mambo
7
112,000
240,000
-128,000
(2400)
Luvuluma
Not established
200,000
-200,000
(2000)
Makumbi
Not established
230,000
-230,000
(2300)
TOTAL
1,650,000
-1,378,000
The ward has an overall water demand in excess of 1,650,000liters each day. This
demand is compared with the current capacity of installed boreholes giving a daily water
deficit of 1,378,000litres per day for the ward. It is important to note that at this stage, the
demand estimation excludes water demand by livestock and gardening activities.
The research looked at the borehole distribution and calculated an estimate of the
output that is expected per day. This is on the assumption that each borehole has a yield of
2000liters per hour and pumping is done 8 hours a day. Information in Table 1 considers
water from all boreholes noted as supply for the ward. This is considered with the
background information that some of the boreholes in the ward have salty water and have not
been abandoned.
Ward Water points Audit
An audit of the current number of boreholes in the ward was conducted. Table 2
shows a breakdown of the boreholes distribution in the six villages, the record of boreholes
sited by the IRT team and intervention work done.
42
A survey of the villages showed that the boreholes are distributed regardless of the
population distribution and this leaves some homesteads in the villages more exposed to
water shortage than others. The IRT team pegged and facilitated drilling of some boreholes in
the ward as indicated in the table above.
In view of the ward setup and population of people and boreholes, the research team
did an analysis to establish the adequacy and need of water in the water. This paper is an
offshoot of a project to provide water in all the villages. What has been done to date is only a
step towards provision of sustainable water sources for the ward at large. No work has been
done in Mambo and Makumbi villages as the team has not started work in these villages. The
pilot project was set for Masendu Central, Thandawani and Tjeboroma villages.
Table 2 Village Water points distribution
Village
Number of Boreholes
Drilled this
Current /
New sites
project.
In existence
pegged
/surveyed
Comment
Complete drilling and installation of
electric pump on 1 site, where water
is already being drawn.
Complete fabrication and installation
of windmill and tank for garden
irrigation and livestock watering. Has
a dam, which supplies more water
although it quickly dries out.
Drilling complete and windmill
fabrication in progress.
Boreholes quickly dry out due to
alleged lack of adequate ground water
Masendu Central
8
6
1
Thandawani
1
1
1
Tjeboroma
1
2
1
Mambo
7
0
0
No. not
established
No. not
established
3
1
1 flushed unsuccessfully
Yet to be
surveyed
and pegged
0
No work was done by the IRT
researchers in this village.
Luvuluma
Makumbi
District Development Fund (DDF) Operations
DDF has a water infrastructure maintenance team that is based in the ward. It is
however currently not fully equipped and hence not attending to maintenance of boreholes in
the area. This results in the exacerbation of the water shortage problems in the ward. An
interview with the District water engineer at DDF revealed the following problems.
Knowledgeable workers who are experienced in borehole installations and maintenance
have left the country.
Due to the economic hardships in the country, DDF is currently under-funded hence has
inadequate money to carryout repairs for the boreholes as necessary.
There is a general shortage of spare parts so repair and maintenance activities cannot be
completed.
If underground pipes leak, DDF would remove and not replace the leaking pipe and hence
the pumping cylinder would be above the water table and this result in the borehole quickly
drying up.
43
Windmill design, fabrication and installation
The research team designed a windmill which takes from the traditional windmill with
specific improvements for efficiency of use. The main improvements to note are on the
wheel, gearbox and the supporting structure. The wheel of the windmill is a 3meter diameter
one with blades made of reinforced 0.8mm galvanised sheets. This reduced the total weight
of the wheel material translating directly to savings in material used. Other windmills in
operation are made of 1mm-1.2mm galvanised sheets. The advantage to reduced weight in
this way is that the windmill is capable to turn easily from slow wind speeds as compared to
those with thick and heavier blades.
The gearbox for assessed windmill manufacturers in Zimbabwe from 3 main
manufacturers have an average stroke length of 150mm. Our design influences a stroke of
300mm in a borehole cylinder of 900mm. This improvement gives a 100% increase in water
throughput per wheel rotation.
There was also resulting and persistent bearing failure at the connection of the
gearbox to the supporting structure and an improvement for use of thrust bearings reduces the
number of failures. The main support structure was so designed to withstand all calculated
forces while remaining economic for construction. As such the designed windmill offers a
cost saving of 35% compared to other manufacturer’s windmills.
The picture in Fig.1 below shows the IRT water group team working on one of the windmill
wheels in their workshop.
Figure 1. Nicholas Tayisepi and William Goriwondo holding the wheel in the workshop.
Each village in the ward will have a windmill/windmills installed. The water shortage
in the ward can be alleviated by installation of water abstraction systems that use wind energy
as a source of power. Apart from Masendu Central village and the cultural centre in
particular, all other villages have no electricity. This gives use of Windmills an urge over
electric pumps. The emigration of young people in the ward also gives windmills an urge of
hand pumps as windmill power does not get tired as long as wind is blowing. In the same
way, water would be pumped into storage tanks for use later when the wind is not blowing.
Windmill power whenever wind blows and storage tanks are not full would be used to pump
water that would become available when required.
44
Challenges
Promoting the use of new technology in developing countries face a major challenge
in that the deserving communities will be requiring urgent assistance and research takes time
to deliver. As in this case, there was a push to have water for the communities; all
recommendations and findings were not implemented as at present though these would be
implemented at project completion. This cause a problem in developing countries for the use
of appropriate technology would be delayed.
This project was conducted in a hyperinflationary environment which made it difficult
and caused a lot of distortions. The challenges appeared throughout the life cycle of the
project.
Community level challenges
The community have cadres that are responsible for Water and Sanitation as well as
others that are responsible for Infrastructure development. These were attached to the project
and would be expected to perform manual work together with the project team. As this was a
voluntary exercise, team members lost interest along the way as they did not recognise with
the project. 4 cadres were selected to work with the research team together with 3members
from Bazose cooperative. Of the 7 members, only 4 consistently worked with the IRT
research team. The other 3 disappeared and hence did not benefit from the intended skills
transfer and community capacity building.
Material and services supplies
As this was an experimental project, the Bill of Materials would be largely dependent
on the final quantities. This was not the case since the project was also interventional with the
need to urgently provide water to the community. The hyperinflationary environment
compounded the problem. This meant that all quotations given by suppliers would be valid
for 24hrs. The project team was not responsible for procurement and by the time the orders
are placed, materials prices may have gone up or may have been sold out. This presented a
great challenge for the researchers. You are always rushing to have materials procured
effectively while they are still available.
Conclusion
There is a significant shortage of water in the ward which warrants great improvement
in the water supply situation. The IRT research team set to replace the use of hand pumping
with an improved type of windmill and this would provide a facility for water storage as
opposed to collecting just enough when hand pumping is in use. An improvement to the
windmill structure and gearbox was done and this is intended to replace the traditional
manual pumping of water and hence improvement to irrigation at Thandawani garden. On
completion all the target areas will have improved water supply. Capacity building and skills
transfer was achieved as Bazose cooperative members and community cadres were trained
on-the-job during the project. These would be available to attend to regular maintenance and
minor repairs of windmill pump systems. Future work in the ward involves the possibility of
totally providing for infrastructure to meet the total water demand of all households in the
ward and their anticipated development needs. Lack of access to a reliable source of water
impedes community development as community members spend lots of time abstracting
water.
45
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Professor C.T. Khombe and Ms Melta Moyo both of Kellog Foundation for
their support and encouragement leading to implementation of this project, Mr S. Mhlanga for his guidance, Mr
Bruce Dube of Bazose cooperative for use of his workshop in Masendu, Chief Masendu and The Masendu
Community members at large for their full participation throughout the project. This project was funded by
Kellogg Foundation through the Institute of Rural Technology (IRT) in Zimbabwe.
References
[1] Moyo M, Khombe C.T, Masendu Zoom site; Community Consultative Report, April 2007
[2] Meteorological Department, Meteorological Report for the year 2006.,
[3] Baker, T. L. North American Windmill Manufacturers' Trade Literature. University of
Oklahoma Press, 1998.
[4] Conlon T., 2005. http: //www.ironmanwindmill.com, home page
[5] Watts, Martin. Water and Wind Power. Shire Publications, 2000.
[6] Clegg and A. John. Windmills. Horseshoe Publications, 1995.
[7] Keshavarzi A.R, Sharifzadeh M, et al. Rural Domestic water consumption behavior: A case study in
Ramjen area, Fars province, I.R.Iran, 2005
[8] Beasley A. J., 1974. Investigation of the groundwater potential in the Nyamandhlovu District. Research
Seminar No. 3. University of Zimbabwe, Dept. of Geol., 24.
[9] Magore E. and A. E. Taigbenu, 2004. Land use impacts on quality of groundwater in Bulawayo, Water SA,
Vol 30, 4; 435 – 464.
46
Estimation of Global Solar Radiation in Rwanda using Empirical Models
Bonfils Safari and Jimmy Gasore
Department of Physics, National University of Rwanda, P.O. Box 117, Huye, South
Province, Rwanda; E-mail: [email protected]
Keywords: Global solar radiation, Angström, Energy, Photovoltaic, Rwanda.
Abstract
Understanding solar radiation data is essential for modeling solar energy systems. The
purpose of the present study was to estimate global solar radiation on horizontal surface
using sunshine-based models. Angström-type polynomials of first and second order have been
developed from long term records of monthly mean daily sunshine hour values and measured
daily global solar radiation on horizontal surface at Kigali, Rwanda. Coefficients of those
polynomials were derived using least square regression analysis. These coefficients were
then used for the estimation of solar radiation in other places of Rwanda where measures of
solar radiation do not exist but sunshine records are available.
Introduction
While Rwanda has adequate solar energy potential to support its energy demand, it is
therefore important to harness that resource in view to find solution to energy shortage and
environmental degradation the country is being faced to. Solar energy is now considered to
be the most effective and economic alternative resource [10]. In developing countries, such as
Rwanda, interest in solar energy applications has been growing in providing electricity and
water supply in rural areas. Understanding solar radiation data is essential for modeling solar
energy systems. Solar radiation is used directly to produce electricity for photovoltaic (PV)
systems and solar thermal systems. Therefore, precise knowledge of historical global solar
radiation at a location of study is required for the design and estimation of the performance of
any solar energy system.
In Rwanda, quite few stations have been measuring the daily solar radiation on a
consistent basis. Geostationary satellites give estimates of incident radiation on large regions
(1° by 1° or larger grid-cells) but their non-precise historical databases have limited
applications for local studies [5], [9]. In the absence and shortage of reliable solar radiation
data, hence, it is necessary to approximate solar radiation by the use of empirical model in
order to estimate and predict global solar radiation. These models use historical
meteorological data of the location under study. Empirical models are classified in three
categories: sunshine-based models, temperature-based models and cloud-based models [4],
[6], [8], [11]. Recently some studies on modeling solar radiation have been done in Rwanda
[2], [7], but yet comparative studies on techniques used and results are still needed.
In this work, Angstrom-type polynomials of first and second order have been
developed for approximating the global solar radiation in Rwanda from a long term records
of monthly mean daily sunshine hour values and measured daily global solar radiation on
horizontal surface at Kigali International Airport station, Rwanda. Correlation coefficients
obtained from the least square regression were then used to estimate solar radiation at
locations where only sunshine records were available.
47
Data and methods
Data
In Rwanda, recorded global solar radiation data on horizontal surface were obtained
for only one station located at the International Airport of Kigali (Lat: 01° 58S, Lon: 030°
08E, Alt: 1,490m). The remaining primary surface weather stations are recording daily
temperature, pressure, relative humidity, precipitation, wind speed and direction, and
sunshine duration. While the secondary stations (not mentioned in the present study) are
recording temperature, pressure, relative humidity and precipitation. Data were provided by
the Department of Meteorology in the Ministry of Infrastructure (Rwanda). Table1 presents
the locations of stations and the period of observation for which global solar radiation RG and
sunshine duration S were measured.
Table1: Location of
sunshine duration.
Station
Kigali
Butare
Kamembe
Gisenyi
Gikongoro
Kibungo
stations and period of observations of global solar radiation and daily
Altitude
1,490m
1,760m
1,591m
1,554m
1,930m
1,680m
Latitude
01o58' S
02°36' S
02°28' S
01°40' S
02°29' S
02o10' S
Longitude
30o08' E
29°44' E
28°55' E
29°15' E
29° 34' E
30 o 32' E
RG
1984-87
-
S
1971-now
1988-93
1988-99
1986-93
1990-99
1990-92
Description of the model for the estimation of solar radiation
The global solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface is made up of two components,
direct and diffuse. Direct radiation is the part which travels unobstructed through space and
the atmosphere to the surface, and diffused radiation is the part scattered by atmospheric
components such as gases molecules, aerosols, dust and clouds.
At the top of the atmosphere, extra-terrestrial solar radiation, also known as Angot
radiation (Whm-2/day-1) can be calculated using the following expression:
R0 = I 0
24
π
(1 + 0.033 cos(
2π
2π
J ) cos φ cos δ sin ω s +
ω s sin φ sin δ )
365
360
(1)
Global solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface can be estimated by empirical models
when measured data are available. The simplest model commonly used to estimate average
daily solar radiation on horizontal surface is the well-known Angström equation [1], [3]:
RG
S
= α1 + α 2 ( )
R0
S0
(2)
Angström
had
suggested
values
of
0.2
and
0.5
for
empirical
coefficients α 1 and α 2 respectively.
In the present study, Angström model was compared to a second degree polynomial
function of monthly average daily sunshine hours of the form:
RG
S
S
= α3 + α 4 ( ) + α5 ( )2
R0
S0
S0
48
(3)
Results and Discussion
Linear and polynomial least square regression techniques were developed based on
equations (1), (2) and (3), and observed global solar radiation at Kigali International Airport
station.
The
computed
values
for
the
coefficients
of
regression
are α 1 = 0.2416 , α 2 = 0.6411 , α 3 = 0.0696 , α 4 = 1.3261 , α4 = 1.3261, α 5 = −0.6674 .
The linear Angström equation is then given by:
RG
S
= 0.2416 + 0.6411( ) (4)
R0
S0
And the second degree polynomial function is given by:
RG
S
S
= 0.0696 + 1.3261( ) − 0.6674( ) 2 (5)
R0
S0
S0
Values of R G (4) and R G (5) corresponding to the estimated global solar radiation
respectively with equations (4) and (5) are presented in Table2 and are compared to the
measured values R Gobs . The deviations between the estimated and measured values given by
R2 (%), RMSE (%) and MBE (%) are presented in Table3. The poor correlation observed in
Figure1, Figure2 and Table2, during the rainy season period (November to April) is probably
due to large differences in the characteristics of the sky during this period. Nevertheless, the
two models are slightly in good agreement with the observed data, and hence they can simply
be applied to estimate monthly average daily global radiation from monthly average daily
sunshine hours, which are available in primary stations across the country. The results in
Table4 give an annual solar radiation of 5269 Wh/m2/day for Rwanda while the commonly
given value in literature or web site is 5.15 kWh/m2/day. In [7], the monthly value obtained
by the authors using a non linear meteorological radiation models (MRM) with satellite data
was varying between about 4.3 and 5.2 kWh/m2/day. In the present study in Table3, the
minimum value for the station of Kigali (RG (4) = 4942 Wh/m2/day, RG (5) = 4960
Wh/m2/day) occurs in May, while the maximum value (RG (4) = 5721Wh/m2/day, RG (5) =
5738Wh/m2/day).
49
Figure1: Least square linear regression and polynomial regression between RG/R0 and S/S0
Figure2: Comparison of Global solar radiation and estimates of global solar radiation from equations (4) and (5) at International
Airport station of Kigali.
50
Table2: Comparison between the observed global solar radiation RGobs and estimation of global
solar radiation from equations (4) RG (4) and (5) RG (5) at the station of Kigali.
Month RGobs RG(4)
Jan
5211 5311
Feb
5156 5473
Mar
5339 5336
April
5067 5055
May
5267 4942
Jun
5461 5472
Jul
5664 5680
Aug
5722 5721
Sep
5544 5525
Oct
5367 5447
Nov
5042 5114
Dec
5356 5161
Annual 5350 5353
RG
5315
5483
5326
5043
4960
5469
5652
5738
5557
5457
5079
5151
5352
RE(4)
-1.91
-6.15
0.06
0.24
6.16
-0.20
-0.28
0.02
0.35
-1.49
-1.43
3.63
-0.06
RE(5)
-2.00
-6.34
0.25
0.47
5.82
-0.14
0.21
-0.27
-0.23
-1.67
-0.75
3.81
-0.05
Table3: Values of R2, RMSE (%), MBE (%)
Model
R2
Linear
0.8893
Polynomial 0.8911
RMSE (%)
2.78
2.77
MBE (%)
-0.062
-0.054
Table4: Annual values of the ratio S/S0, extraterrestrial solar radiation R0, estimate of Global
solar radiation RG in Rwanda, and the ratio RG/R0.
Station
Annual S/S0
Kigali
Butare
Kamembe
Gisenyi
Gikongoro
Kibungo
Average
0.477
0.502
0.414
0.454
0.507
0.446
0.466
Annual R0
Wh/m2/day
10098
10164
10150
10067
10152
10119
10125
Annual RG
Wh/m2/day
Annual
RG/R0
5335
5488
4937
5196
5529
5131
5269
0.53
0.54
0.49
0.52
0.54
0.51
0.52
Rwanda, being a small country but with difference in terrain at different locations, the computed
coefficients α 1 , α 2 , α 3 , α 4 , α 5 obtained by least square regression techniques have been used to
estimate global solar radiation at places where there is no equipment to measure that quantity but
sunshine duration has been measured.
51
Figure3: Estimated Global Solar Radiation for the five studied sites
52
Figure4: Monthly average of estimated global solar radiation on the sites of Rwanda
Conclusion
The empirical Angström-type linear model and a second degree polynomial model
both based on sunshine duration have been studied in this work. The two models were
compared with the data collected on the site of Kigali International Airport station. From
the comparison of the results of these models it was observed that the estimated were in
good agreement with the observed data and the two models were slightly similar. This has
led to choose one of the two models to be applied for all stations of Rwanda where
measures of sunshine duration exist but facilities of recording global solar data do not
exist. The estimated data can further be used in the design and estimation of performance
of solar systems in Rwanda.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Meteorological Department of the Ministry of
Infrastructure (Rwanda) for having provided the necessary data, the National University of
Rwanda for providing requisite for data processing.
References
[1] A. Ångström, Solar and terrestrial radiation, Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 50 (1924),
pp. 121–125.
[2] M. Bashahu and P. Nkundabatware, Analysis of daily irradiation data for five sites in
Rwanda and one in Senegal. Renewable Energy 4 (4), 1994, pp. 425-435.
[3] T. C. Chidiezie, Equations for estimating global solar radiation in data sparse regions.
Renewable Energy 33 (2008) pp. 827–831.
[4] A. Firoz and U. Intikhab, Empirical Models for the Correlation of Monthly Average
Daily Global Solar Radiation with Hours of Sunshine on a Horizontal Surface at Karachi,
Pakistan. Turk J Phys 28 (2004), 301-307.
[5] W.P. Kustas, R.T. Pinker, T.J. Schmugge, and K.S. Humes, Daytime net radiation for
a semiarid rangeland basin from remotely sensed data. Agric. Forest Meteorol. 71(1994),
pp. 337-357.
[6] T. Muneer, S. Younes, and S. Munawwar, Discourses on solar radiation modeling,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007), pp. 551–602.
53
[7] C. Museruka and A. Mutabazi, Assessment of Global Solar Radiation over Rwanda.
Clean Electrical Power, 2007. ICCEP '07. International Conference on, 21-23 May 2007
[8] B.T. Nguyen and T.L. Pryor, The relationship between global solar radiation and
sunshine duration in Vietnam, Renew. Energy 11 (1), 1997, pp. 47–60.
[9] R.T. Pinker, R. Frouin and Z. Li, 1995. A review of satellite methods to derive surface
shortwave irradiance. Remote Sensing Environment 51(1995), pp. 108–124.
[10] H. Scheer, A. Ketley. The Solar Economy: Renewable Energy for a Sustainable
Global Future, Earthscan, 2002, ISBN 1853838357, 9781853838354, 347 pages.
[11] P.E. Thornton and S.W. Running, An improved algorithm for estimating incident
daily solar radiation from measurements of temperature, humidity, and precipitation,
Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 93(1999), pp.211-228.
Nomenclature
Astronomical quantities and solar quantities
δ = (23.5
Statistics quantities
α 1 , α 2 , α 3 , α 4 , α 5 : Coefficients of regressions
Qmesi : Measured quantity
π
) sin(2π (284 + J ) / 365) : Solar
180
Declination (radian)
Qest i : Estimated quantity
J=1,365, Julian day
1 N
2π
Qmes =
∑ Qmesi : mean of Qmesi , i = 1, N
φ =(
) × Latitude : Latitude at the place (radian)
N − 1 i =1
360
1 N
ω s = arc cos(− tan φ tan δ ) : Sunset Hour Angle
Qest i =
∑ Qesti : mean of Qesti , i = 1, N
N − 1 i =1
(radian)
π = 4.0 × arctan(1.0)
∑ (Qmesi − Qmes)(Qest i − Qest ) :
R=
−2
I 0 = 1367 Wm : Solar Constant
∑ (Qmesi − Qmes) 2 ∑ Qest i − Qest ) 2
-2
-1
R0: Extra Terrestrial Solar Radiation (Whm day )
Correlation coefficient between Qmesi and
R 0 : Monthly Average Daily Extra Terrestrial Solar
Qest i quantities
Radiation (Whm-2day-1)
RG: Daily Global Solar Radiation on horizontal surface R 2 : Coefficient of determination
N
(Whm-2day-1)
(Qmesi − Qest i ) 2
∑
R G : Monthly Average Daily Global Solar Radiation on
: Root Mean
RMSE = i =1
horizontal surface (Whm-2day-1)
N
2
180
Square Error
Day Length
S0 = ωs
15
π
RMSE
RRMSE =
: Relative Root Mean Square
2
180
S 0 = ωs
: Monthly Average Day Length
Qmes
π
15
Error
S: Daily Sunshine Hours
N : Number of observations
S : Monthly Average Daily Sunshine Hours
54
DESIGN OF A COMBINED SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM FOR A
REMOTE FLUX TOWER AND A RURAL COMMUNITY
1,*
2
John Tharakan, 1Mandy Mitchell, 1Janee Moore and 2Greg Jenkins
Department of Chemical Engineering, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, USA
2
Department of Physics, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, USA
Key words: Solar Energy, Flux Tower, Rural Electrification, RETScreen®, Photovoltaic
Abstract
In this paper, we report on the design and proposed implementation of a solar
photovoltaic (PV) system to power a rural community in conjunction with the development
and implementation of a PV system to supply a flux tower for remote weather monitoring
sited adjacent to the village. The flux tower is part of the broader NASA African Monsoon
Multidisciplinary Analysis field campaign and funding for the tower PV system is being
leveraged to support the needs of the community who will be the de facto caretakers of the
remote, infrequently visited flux tower. The design of the system was based on the
estimated power needs for the FLUX tower combined with that of the village community.
Community need was defined after a meeting including the village chief, community
members and students and faculty of Howard University who were part of the project. The
community understood that the design was constrained by the budget allocation for the
flux tower PV system, but nevertheless engaged in discussion about their needs and
arrived at a consensus, where community members agreed to allocate at least one light
bulb for one room in each village house, lights in two toilets and two kitchen areas and
two power outlets accessible to all villagers. The system was designed utilizing
RETScreen®, a free software[1], applying their PV System modules. The output from
RETScreen demonstrated the need for two sets of PV arrays, one to support demand from
the village and the second to support the FLUX tower instruments. For the village system,
an inverter was required to enable villagers to utilize AC, while the FLUX tower system
was routed directly through a charge controller to the batteries, and all instruments,
which were DC powered. The entire project was conducted using students enrolled in
independent study elective courses. The paper provides some background on solar energy
and discusses the rationale with particular attention to a wind-powered alternative. The
design output for system implementation from RETScreen® is presented and the
appropriateness of the technology selection is discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Especially in the African context, the development and implementation of alternative,
decentralized energy generation systems is imperative for development to occur in a
sustainable way. Using large centralized power generation facilities to feed electricity to rural
and remote communities and locations is expensive and non-viable in Africa away from the
major cities, primarily due to the lack of a well-dispersed electric grid. The benefits of
utilizing renewable energy technologies as the basis for decentralized energy generation have
been discussed at length in the popular and professional press and need not be re-stated here
*2 Author for correspondence
55
[2]. It is sufficient to reiterate that continued use of non-renewable fossil fuels is resulting in
increased green house gas (GHG) emissions and attendant increased drivers for climate
change. Hence, implementation of a solar energy system serves the purposes of both
providing energy to communities previously without power and to do so without contributing
to any increases in GHG emissions.
The energy situation in Senegal, as in much of sub Saharan Africa, is critical with
very low rates of rural electrification, rising from 5% in 1998 to only 9% by 2003. The
national grid, shown in Figure 1, generated about 514 MW in 2003, the bulk of which was
thermoelectric (448 MW) with an additional 66 MW from hydroelectric power [3]. Senegal
faces the usual problems of having to import the entire fossil fuel requirement for its thermal
power plants, while facing massive deforestation as rural communities and the poor have
only forest-based biomass to use as fuel. Rural electrification used to be based on the
extension of existing networks and installation of diesel power generators; however,
increasing energy costs and the need to address GHG emissions are forcing governments to
look for de-centralized systems that utilize renewable and alternative energy.
Successive governments have undertaken rural electrification projects which resulted
in 558 electrified localities by 2000, but this is less than 8%. The government views rural
electrification as a powerful tool to reduce poverty and has created the Agence Sénégalaise
pour L’Electrification Rurale [4] whose mission targets a 30% rural electrification rate by
2015.
Kawsara
Figure 2:Senegal and Kawsara [1]
Figure 1: Electric Grid in Senegal [1]
56
Decentralized alternative energy systems include solar, microhydro, geothermal, wind and
biogas, amongst others [5]. The selection of the appropriate alternative energy technology
follows heuristics that have been established before, such as the SHTEFIE ‡ analysis for
technology selection, which weighs various factors, including social, technological, and
financial considerations, in the final selection of the appropriate technology. Given the
Senegalese situation, there is abundant sunshine, on average 8.5 hrs of sunshine per day, and
solar energy becomes an option. Annual solar radiation is estimated at 2.18MWh/m2, enough to
provide electricity to all Senegal, had the government the resources to harness that energy! The
major drawbacks, including large initial capital outlay costs, availability of solar PV panels, and
efficiency of panels, are serious and substantive hindrances to the widespread adoption and
implementation of solar energy system.Solar energy has been used in many traditional
technologies for centuries, and has come into widespread modern use where other power
supplies or connection to a central grid are absent, such as in remote locations and in space.
While traveling through the atmosphere 6% of the incoming solar radiation (insolation) is
reflected and 16% is absorbed resulting in a peak irradiance at the equator of 1,020 W/m² [6].
Average atmospheric conditions (clouds, dust, pollutants) further reduce insolation by 20%
through reflection and 3% through absorption. Many technologies have been developed to make
use of solar radiation. Some of these technologies make direct use of the solar energy (e.g. to
provide light, heat, etc.), while others produce electricity. Specific direct-use technologies
include solar hot water systems that use sunlight to heat water, Trombe walls that passively heat
by channeling heated air into ventilation system while storing heat in a thermal mass which can
be radiated in the evening, and a solar box cooker, which traps the sun's energy in an insulated
box and which has been used for cooking, pasteurization and fruit canning. Solar cells, also
referred to as photovoltaic cells, are devices or banks of devices that use the photovoltaic effect
of semiconductors to generate electricity directly from sunlight.
Although solar energy has many benefits, it should be remembered that solar electricity
tends to be expensive compared to grid electricity. Solar heat and electricity are not available at
night and may be unavailable due to weather conditions – thus energy storage technology or
complementary power systems are required. Solar cells also produce direct current (DC) which
must be converted to alternating current (AC) when used in currently existing distribution grids,
which usually incurs an energy loss of 4 – 12%. New 50 watt solar panels cost about $4.25 a
watt, or around $212 for a 50 watt panel, in quantity. For 120 watt panels, the cost is $700, or
$5.83 per watt. For an average urban middle class residence, a robust solar electric system will
cost about US$20,000.
Wind may provide a potential alternative, although the average wind speed at the
Senegalese location may not be high enough to sustain sufficient wind power generation Wind
power is harnessed through turbines rotating through the force of wind on large blades, and the
turbine is usually placed on top of a tower over ten meters high to capture wind at that altitude.
These wind towers are usually built together on “wind farms” that are large scale and can feed
into the general grid. However, small individual turbines can also provide electricity to rural
residences or grid-isolated locations. Wind energy is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,
clean, and releases no toxic atmospheric or greenhouse gas emissions.
Selection of a suitable site is key to the success of wind energy. Power available from the
wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed, which means that, all other things being equal,
‡
Please see http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/technical-briefs/49-choosing-an-appropriate-technology.pdf
151
a turbine at a site with 5 meters/second (m/s) winds will produce nearly twice as much power as
a turbine at a location where the wind averages 4 m/s. Good wind resource assessment is critical.
In general, winds exceeding 5 m/s (11 mph) are required for cost-effective application of small
grid-connected wind machines, while wind farms require wind speeds of 6 m/s (13 mph). For
applications that are not grid-connected, these requirements may vary, depending on the other
power alternatives available and their costs. Drawbacks to wind energy include intermittent or
inconsistent wind, some communities consider them an eyesore, and they can negatively affect
bird migration patterns and pose a danger to the birds themselves. In the early 1980's, when the
first utility-scale wind turbines were installed, wind-generated electricity cost as much as 30
cents per kilowatt-hour; now, state-of-the-art wind power plants are generating electricity at less
than 5 cents/kWh, and costs are continuing to decline as more and larger plants are built and
advanced technology is introduced.
PROJECT BACKGROUND
As part of the NASA African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis
(http://www.joss.ucar.edu/amma) field campaign, a remote weather monitoring station was
established in the village of Kawsara (Figure 2), about 50 km outside Dakar. Faculty and
students from Howard University (HU) participated in the NAMMA field campaign, allowing
students and scientists to make measurements in Senegal to characterize bulk properties of
mesoscale convective systems. Data being acquired include wind speed and direction, cloud
shapes and contents, rainfall rates, temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure, all of which
provide informational input into models of weather patterns over western Africa and how these
influence hurricane formation. A 10-meter flux tower has been established at the site and faculty
from Universite Cheik Anti Diop (UCAD) and HU developed a plan to leverage NASA support
for a solar-powered remote flux tower to also provide minimal power requirements for the
Kawsara village community, who would be the care takers of the flux tower site.
In June of 2007, two faculty members and two students conducted an assessment site
visit to Kawsara. During the visit, students were first introduced to the principles of alternative
energy systems in general with specific focus on wind and solar based energy generation.
Students also received lectures on the energy situation in Senegal in general and Kawsara in
particular. This was followed by introduction to the RETScreen® software § including the
modules on clean energy systems, green house gas emission reduction calculations, wind energy
and photovoltaic solar energy systems. Following two days of lectures and demonstrations,
students were taken to the Kawsara Village community where the Flux tower placement site was
located.
Energy Needs Assessment
At the village, students met with the community and the village headman where the
project was explained and discussed. It was agreed that the current situation would be surveyed
and then the minimum expectations and provision established. The village community had never
had a connection to the central grid. There was a diesel generator that had either been purchased
or provided, but there were no funds to purchase diesel fuel to run the generator, so this
equipment lay in dis-use, rusting, in a shed. When it was purchased, rudimentary wiring had
been put in place for two light bulbs and a power socket. Some members of the community also
had cell phones, but they had no socket which they could use as a charge point. Discussion of
the lighting situation lead to the agreement to provide one light bulb to each dwelling, a light
§
RETScreen® is a free software available for download from http://www.retscreen.net and provides complete
textbooks and training manuals for diverse renewable energy applications.
152
bulb in two of the common toilet rooms (see Figure 2A and B) that were present in the village
and two light bulbs where there was a communal kitchen area.
Figure 2A: A house in Kawsara, Senegal
village.
Figure 2B: Two toilets in the
Table 1 shows lights and power that would be supplied to the village and the various individuals
and families in the community, showing the final outcome of the evaluations and discussion
with the community and village Chief and what was agreed upon.
TABLE 1: KAWSARA VILLAGE SITE SURVEY ON JUNE 27, 2007
HOUSE
INDOOR
OUTDOOR
TOILET
EXISTING EXPECTED EXISTING EXPECTED
13 W Bulbs
13 W Bulbs
7W Bulb
Abdoulaye
3
3
1
Cowboy
2
1
Baisall
2
1
Common Cooking
1
Rassoul
3
2
Fall
2
2
1
Maribout
4
2
2
Chief
3
1
House 8
4
1
House 9
4
1
House 10
4
1
TOTAL
20
17
9
3
2
TWO ADDITONAL OUTLETS 300W TO BE INSTALLED IN COMMUNITY AREAS
Students drew up the plan with the location of each light bulb and outlet and then the
plan was shown to the villagers who agreed with the number, distribution and location of the
light bulbs and power supply points. The needs assessment also provided the necessary inputs
153
into the RETScreen® analysis software as the solar system configuration was designed and
developed.
Flux tower energy requirements were also supplied as input into separate runs of the
RETScreen PV module. The designs that resulted from both these evaluations are presented
in the following section.
Design for Village
The system configuration for the village resulted in a total need of forty-nine (49)
13W light bulbs with a total wattage of 637W, two (2) 7W light bulbs and two (2) 300W
power outlets. All of this is AC requirements, resulting in the total AC wattage for village
community of 1251W (= 637W + 14W + 600W). Usage of three (3) hours per day is assumed
with the result of total wattage hours per day of 3,753 Watt-hrs. For all such solar systems,
installed battery capacity will depend on the number of days of autonomy assumed. For the
village, the team assumed three (3) days of autonomy, requiring total battery capacity of
22518 Watt-hrs. The battery bank size can be computed from the ratio of the battery capacity
to the chosen battery voltage. Using 12V batteries, the battery bank size is 1,876.5 Amp-Hrs.
The typical rating for a 12V battery is 105 AmpHr so that the total number of batteries
required for the village would be [Number of Batteries = Battery Bank Capacity / 105
AmpHr] which results in a requirement of nineteen (19) batteries.
Number of Solar Panels
For the solar panels, investigations in the market revealed that a 130W 12V solar
panel was available off the shelf with no delays in shipping and delivery. The number of solar
panels required can thus be calculated with knowledge of the amount of sunlight per day and
the total Watt-hrs required. The calculated watt-hr requirement is 3,753 W-h. Using 120W
panels and assuming 8 hours of sunlight, the number of panels required is calculated as
twelve. However, after factoring in the efficiency of the solar panels, only about 5 to 6% of
the incoming solar radiation is converted to electricity. Thus, accounting for the efficiency,
we would need sixteen (16) panels, which can be arranged in two rows of eight (8) panels
each, as shown in Figure 3 below. The RETScreen® software performed all the computations
once the site location was entered along with the energy requirements.
Inverter Size
Since the rural community would require alternating current (AC) for its applications,
the direct current (DC) from the panels and battery bank will be routed through an inverter so
that the entire wattage for the village is AC. Since the total wattage hours are 3753W-hr for
three hours daily, two 2,000W inverters will satisfy systems requirements.
Design for Flux Tower
The flux tower is comprised of various meteorological instruments, all of which run on
direct current (DC). The instruments and there power requirements are show in Table 2. It is
estimated that the radiometer, sonic anemometer, data logger, humidity/temp probes, and soil
probe will be a total of 3 amps. Operation will be continuous at 24hrs every day.
The total current requirement for the flux tower instrumentation is 5 amps, and with a
voltage utilization of 12V, the total power requirements are 60 Watts 24 hours per day,
corresponding to a total of 1440 Watt-Hrs. For this system, the battery capacity to provide
three (3) days of autonomy can be computed for a battery with nominal voltage of 12V and a
rating of 105 AmpHrs, and the calculation yields a requirement for six (6) batteries, which
will be connected in parallel.
TABLE 2: FLUX TOWER INSTRUMENTS
154
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sonic anemometer
net radiometer
data logger
barometer
humidity/temperature probe
propeller anemometer
carbon dioxide and water vapor gas analyzer
ozone gas analyzer
soil probe
data acquisition
= 1 amp (24 hr)
= 1 amp (24 hr)
= 1 amp (24 hr)
= 0.2 amp (24 hr)
= 0.2 amp (24 hr)
= 0.2 amp (24 hr)
= 1.2 amps (24 hr)
= 1.2 amps (24 hr)
= 0.2 amps (24 hr)
= 3-4 amps (once a month for 1 hour)
Solar Panels:
For the flux tower, the solar panels are also assumed to be 120W 12V panels, and we
assume 8 hours of sunshine per day. Based on the requirements and factoring in the
efficiency, six (6) panels will be required, connected in parallel.
Discussion and Conclusion
Based on the evaluations and system calculations performed through the RETScreen ®
software, this paper demonstrates the successful design and development of a solar supply
system utilizing the RETScreen ® PV module. For the supply of energy to both the rural
community and the flux tower, a total of twenty-two panels will be required. For the village, we
will need twelve (12) 2V, 700 Ah batteries, and six (6) 12V, 105 Ah batteries for the flux
tower. AC power for the village will be supplied through an inverter, while the DC power to
the flux tower will be controlled through a 12V 30A regulator.
This project demonstrated the leveraging of a government funded scientific research
project to support the development of a renewable energy system to satisfy needs of a rural
community who until then had not had electricity. It also shows that engineering students can
be engaged in appropriate technology projects as part of satisfying degree requirements in a
manner that enhances student’s global social understanding and environmental sensitivity and
awareness. Finally, the paper provides a documentary record of a project that demonstrates the
successful design, development and proposed implementation of a PV-based system utilizing
RETScreen® software and the utility of the software as both a teaching and design tool.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of NSF grant ATM-0621529.
REFERENCES.
[1] RETScreen Free Software, available from The Ministry of Natural Resources, Canada;
(http://www.retscreen.net).
[2] Gore, A., An Inconvenient Truth, 2006.
[3] Fadel, CMK (2007), Integration of Solar Energy in Rural Electrification in Senegal, UCAD,
Dakar, Senegal.
[4] ASER; Senegalese Rural Electrification Agency, Dakar, Senegal
[5] Kruger, P., Alternative Energy Resources: The Quest for Sustainable Energy, Wiley, New
Jersey, USA (2006).
155
- +
- +
- +
- +
- +
- +
(+)
(-)
- +
- +
- +
- +
- +
- +
Figure 3: Eight (8) 120W 12V Solar Panels in
Series- Design for Village Solar Supply
156
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE COMBUSTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-DENSITY BIOMASS BRIQUETTES
J. O. Chaney , M. J. Clifford and R. Wilson
Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park
Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK, E-mail: [email protected]
Key words: briquettes, briquetting, biomass combustion, solid fuels, stoves
ABSTRACT
In many parts of the developing world, wood is becoming a scarce resource.
Densifying waste crop residues into biomass briquettes can provide an alternative household
solid fuel, especially in rural areas. They can be manufactured industrially and on a small
rural scale using a simple hand-press, making them also very viable for poorer communities.
Compared with wood, biomass briquettes are unique in that they provide opportunity to
control in the manufacturing process the fuel density, moisture content, size and geometry. As
well as the material properties, all these factors have been shown to have a significant effect
on biomass burn rates. For a particular stove and cooking situation it is useful to be able to
optimise the steady-state burn rate and minimise the emissions, improving efficiency and
reducing exposure to smoke for those in the household. This paper forms part of a study
seeking to better understand and later optimise biomass briquettes for different cooking
situations. Here, preliminary results of a parametric study are presented for the variation of
steady-state combustion rate with the density and geometry of a biomass briquette, burning in
free air. Results are given for rectangular briquette slabs and for cylindrical briquettes with
a central hole. A simple semi-empirical model is presented that explains the trend in the
results. It is found that cylindrical briquette with holes burn faster than slabs with an
equivalent surface area to volume ratio.
INTRODUCTION
Nearly half the world’s population, almost all in developing countries cook using
biomass solid fuels [1], predominantly wood [2, 3, 4]. With deforestation becoming a major
problem in many parts of the developing world, there is increased scarcity of wood for
household cooking. This especially affects remote rural communities that have no access to
fuels such as liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and who depend substantially on burning collected
local biomass for their energy needs [5, 2]. In regions of many developing countries it is not
uncommon for women to spend more than 6 hours each day collecting and preparing the
wood despite the fact that there are often vast quantities of waste biomass residues available
with the potential to be used as fuel. Cooking is then often done over open fires, which are
highly inefficient transferring only 5-10% of the fuel’s energy to the cooking pot.
Diminishing forest resources and increasing population make this a pressing issue and
solutions are urgently needed, not only to meet energy demands in an environmentally
friendly manner, but also to address pressing human health issues. In addition to their low
efficiency, simple stoves such as the three-stone fire are smoky and are often used in enclosed
spaces with limited ventilation, especially in the more wet tropical regions. Indeed, burning
biomass such as solid wood fuels, cow dung and agricultural residues and coal is likely to be
the largest source of indoor air pollution globally, and to the greatest extent in developing
countries [1]. Open fires emit substantial amounts of pollutants, including respirable particles,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen and sulphur oxides, and benzene. The small particles in woodsmoke can bypass the normal body defence mechanisms and penetrate deep into the alveoli
of the lungs, harming the respiratory system and there have been clear links made between
157
their inhalation and disease [1]. These smoke problems particularly and considerably affect
women and young children who, in developing nations are typically responsible for the
domestic duties in the home.
In addressing these problems, much work has been done around the world on
designing and optimising improved stoves with the aim of increasing combustion efficiency
and improving thermal heat transfer to the pot. With the improved designs thermal efficiency
can be increased to 25-30 %. These stoves, however, continue to use wood as a fuel. Biomass
residues from agriculture and industry can provide an alternative to solid wood fuel. They can
be found in abundance in many parts of the world, for example in Malaysia there are
significant quantities of residues left over from palm nut processing [6], and in Ghana there
are large quantities of sawdust residues produced by the timber industry [7]. On a rural level
in developing nations, typically about 3-5 tons of agricultural residues are produced per acre
[8]. Residues however, are often small in size when compared with solid biomass, burn
rapidly with fluctuating power output and produce more emission products resulting from
incomplete combustion. These conspire to make firewood the fuel of preference. They also
have problems associated with their transportation and storage. This paper is part of a study
exploring one option for solving the technical problems associated with residues by
upgrading the biomass material by its densification into regularly shaped homogenous
briquettes [6]. In this way the energy density of the fuel is increased, handling characteristics
are improved [9], transportation is made more feasible and burn rate can be controlled [10].
Briquettes are not a new concept, in fact they are becoming well established in the
field and there is a growing network of people manufacturing them on both rural and
industrial scales. Notably an organisation called the Legacy Foundation in America has
developed a low-pressure wet-briquetting process that uses a simple wooden press and has
pioneered a successful training program for their production from crop residues aimed at
rural communities in developing nations. The result has been the establishment of many
small-scale briquetting enterprises that generate income and provide an alternative fuel for
rural village communities [11]. The briquettes produced have a central hole, which is
believed by many to improve the combustion characteristics of the briquette. This paper is
part of a study in which the combustion behaviour of biomass briquettes is being
experimentally investigated. The aim is to more rigorously understand the role of the central
hole in combustion and to develop a simple semi-empirical combustion model that will
predict the briquette burn rate.
Olorunnisola provides a good review on the manufacture of briquettes [9]. Various
authors have studied the feasibility of briquetting different residues and investigated
important parameters involved in briquette manufacture. This has involved the effect of
compressive pressure, material moisture content, the time the material is in compression
(dwell time), and binder content on briquette durability, mechanical strength, density,
handling characteristics and the relaxation behaviour of the briquette when taken out of the
mould [10, 9, 12].
Briquettes can either be burnt in woodstoves or in specially designed stoves. In terms
of briquette combustion, the effect of density on the burn rate of briquettes has been
investigated by Chin-Chin et al. [10]. Various authors have undertaken a proximate analysis
for different biomass materials (for example [13, 6, 14]). Most combustion work relating to
solid biomass is focused on wood. Kandpal shows that the burn rate of wood fuel in a stove
has a significant effect on the stove’s thermal efficiency, and that there is an optimum fuel
burn rate giving maximum efficiency for a given stove/pot configuration [15]. Being able to
control fuel burn rate is therefore essential if we are to optimise thermal performance of any
stove. The significant effect of fuel size on the burn rate has been observed by several authors
158
[16, 17], but there is not a parametric study of the effect of briquette geometry on the burn
rate, which is essential to optimise briquettes for a particular stove and cooking situation.
This paper considers how briquette geometry affects burn-rate. In the methodology
section the method of manufacture of briquettes of a consistent quality is described, followed
by the set-up of the combustion rig and method used for measuring their burn rate. The
results section presents the observed trends and fits a simple numerical model to the data. A
discussion of these results ensues in the section on modelling briquette combustion, followed
by some conclusions and a description of further studies that are planned.
METHODOLOGY
Briquette production
The manufacture of briquettes in more rural locations is of the central interest in of
this study. It is possible to form briquettes from waste crop residues, in locations with limited
equipment availability, using a wet process with a hand operated press [8]. In this study
newspaper was chosen as the material for the briquettes, because it is readily available in the
UK and bonds easily. Furthermore, because of its fibrous nature it is likely to behave in a
similar way in the densification process to other fibrous organic residue matter, such as maize
husks. It is this type of material that is more likely to be available for briquetting in rural
locations.
The paper was soaked for at least 5 days and pulped in an industrial food-mixer. The
briquettes were then formed by compression of the pulp into a mould with an Instron
compression test machine using a range of pressures to achieve different briquette densities.
Different shaped moulds were used: a large rectangular mould and cylindrical moulds with a
central solid cylinder passing through the centre along the central axis. The effect of pulp
moisture content on the briquettes’ final density was minimal; on compression water is
squeezed out until an equilibrium reaction force is attained at a particular pressure.
After forming, the briquettes were oven dried at 105°C to reach 0% moisture content.
This was done to minimise the effect of this variable during these preliminary experiments
because of the difficulty found in controlling moisture content. It should be noted that
pyrolysis does not occur at this drying temperature. On removal from the oven the briquettes
were then placed in a sealed container containing silica gel (which removes all the moisture
from the air) and were allowed to cool to room temperature. All irregular parts of the
briquette were removed from the edges. In order to produce briquettes of different surface
area to volume ratios (A/V ratios), the large rectangular blocks were taken and cut with a
band-saw into slabs of different dimensions and then oven dried again. The cylindrical
briquettes were cut to the required heights and if required turned on a lathe to different
diameters.
A stereometric method [18] was used to determine briquette density. This was chosen
over displacement methods in order to ensure the briquettes, which would later be burnt,
remained dry and were not structurally affected by the measurement. In this stereometric
method the briquettes were weighed using a mass balance to a precision of ±0.01g. The
dimensions of each briquette were measured using callipers as follows: For slabs, the height
and width of the briquette were both measured by taking three approximately equally spaced
positions along the edges and the mean calculated, the thickness was measured at each of the
four corners of a slab and the mean taken: For cylindrical briquettes with central holes, the
height was measured in four positions 90° to each other around the briquette, the external
diameter of the briquette was measured in three positions, at the top, middle and bottom, the
diameter of the internal hole was measured twice at each end in perpendicular directions. The
volume of the nearest geometrical shape was then calculated and hence the density
159
determined. Briquettes were then put back in the oven for a short time to drive off any
atmospheric moisture that may have been absorbed and then transported in the sealed silica
gel filled container to the combustion rig to be burnt immediately.
Combustion tests
In each test a single briquette was placed alone in the centre of a steel wire mesh grid
resting on two supporting fire retardant bricks, allowing the free flow of air around the
briquette. This was positioned on top of a mass balance (Metler tornado) interfaced with a PC
to record instantaneous measurements of the mass every 10 seconds throughout the
combustion process. Smoke was extracted using an extraction hood method [19]. The
extraction rate was set so that it was sufficient to capture all smoke, but had no visible effect
on a match flame held in the position normally occupied by the briquette. Ballard- Tremeer et
al. [20, 19] have statistically shown, to a 95% confidence level, that such extraction rates
have no effect on the burn rate.
Each briquette was ignited by placing a small amount of firelighter on a platform 4cm
directly beneath, but unconnected to the mass balance. Enough firelighter was used to ensure
the whole of the bottom surface of the briquette was ignited simultaneously, avoiding flame
spread in the transverse directions. The firelighter was left in until the briquette was well
ignited and had entered into its steady state burn phase. Mass loss was recorded every 10
seconds until the mass of the briquette was 5% of its initial mass. Mass loss readings were
normalised by initial briquette mass, and a graph of normalised mass was plotted against
time. Figure 1 shows a sample curve of a mass/initial mass versus time. There are three
phases of the burn marked: Phase (1) is the ignition phase, phase (2) the steady state flaming
combustion phase and (3) is when the flame dies and the briquette decomposes further by a
char combustion mechanism. The gradient of phase (2) is the normalised steady-state
combustion rate, referred to here as the normalised burn rate (NBR). For each briquette burnt,
these graphs were plotted and this quantity was calculated. The next section the results for
NBR are presented for briquettes of different geometries and the trends described.
Figure 6: A typical curve showing the decrease of mass/initial mass of a briquette as a function of time
throughout its burn. There are three distinct combustion phases marked and these are described in the
text
RESULTS
The effect of density on burn rate
Figure 2 shows curves of how the normalised burn rate of slab briquettes varies as a
function of the briquettes A/V ratio. The curves show that burn rate varies as linear function
of the A/V ratio, with a positive gradient that is greater the lower the briquette density.
Therefore, lower density briquettes have a faster normalised burn rate compared to higher
density briquettes. In practical terms, slabs with a high area to volume ratio will be those that
are either thin or short. In designing a briquette, it is clear from these results that its area to
volume ratio has a very significant effect on the rate. A typical briquette of density 276
160
kgm−3, with a height of 30 mm, an external diameter of 70mm and internal hole diameter of
25 mm would have an A/V ratio of 0.15 mm −1 and a mass of 27.8 g, therefore, according to
line (2) in Figure 2, it will have a normalised burn rate of 0.0015 s−1 giving a steady state
burn rate for a single briquette of 0.042 gs−1. Changing the height of this briquette to 45mm
would decrease the area/volume ratio to 0.13 mm−1, resulting in a decreasing in burn rate to
0.02 gs−1, a reduction of over 50%. This clearly demonstrates the significance of A/V ratio in
briquette design.
The effect of briquette area to volume ratio on the burn rate for briquettes with slab
geometry
Figure 3 shows how normalised burn rate varies as a function of briquette density.
The six curves are for different A/V ratios, the lower one having the lowest at 0.2 mm ±
0.005−1 and the most upper one having an A/V ratio of 0.35 mm ± 0.009−1. There is an
exponential decrease in the normalised burn rate with increasing density according to the
equation:
(Equation 1)
where =briquette density in
0.0023 ± 0.00005.
and P can be assumed constant and has a value of
Figure 7: A graph showing the variation in normalised rate for three different briquette densities
Figure 8: The variation in normalised burn rate of a briquette with briquette density for different
area/volume ratios of the briquette. For curve (1) A/V= 0.35 ± 0.009 mm−1, (2) A/V=0.30 ± 0.008 mm−1, (3)
A/V=0.27 ± 0.007 mm−1, (4) A/V=0.25 ± 0.007 mm−1, (5) A/V=0.23 ± 0.006 mm−1, (6) A/V=0.2 ± 0.005
mm−1.The dashed curves show that for each data set the points follow an exponential relationship of the
form given in equation 1.
161
There is a linear relationship between the constant Q for each curve as and the A/V
ratio, such that Q =0.074* (A/V)-0.0076. This exponential dependence on density is
confirmed by Chin Chin et al. [10] who studied the effect of briquette density on burn rate for
a number of different materials. Although their study does not consider newspaper briquettes,
the value P found here is of the same order of magnitude as values for other biomass
materials, which can be found from simple manipulation of their data. Consequently, for any
given A/V ratio, Q can be calculated and with P, now a known constant, the normalised burn
rate of a briquette with slab geometry burning in free air can be found according to the
equation:
(Equation 2)
This equation demonstrates the significance of a briquettes density and its A/V ratio
in determining its burn rate. This equation allows the power output of a briquette to be
written as:
(Equation 3)
where
steady
is the initial mass of the briquette and
state burn time of the briquette
is its calorific value. It also allows the
to be approximately calculated as:
(Equation 4)
where T is the steady state burn time of the briquette. 0.8 appears in the numerator because
approximately in each case 80% of the briquette mass is burnt in the steady state phase.
These equations apply specifically to slab-shaped briquettes burning in free air. However,
density and the A/V ratio is a physical properties of a briquette, thus these effects will also be
very significant in determining the rate in other combustion other conditions. For example
this could be in a fixed bed with many briquettes or in briquette stoves. Other conditions have
not been investigated as part of this paper, but forms part of the overall research into briquette
combustion of which this study is part.
Figure 9: A graph showing the normalised burn rate/exp(-0.0023ρ) for different A/V ratios for cylindrical
briquettes, where A/V is varied by changing the briquette height and keeping the other parameters
constant. The internal diameter of the briquette= 22.1 ± 0.1 mm and the external diameter is 62.2 ± 0.3
mm. The dashed line give the curve expected for slabs according to equation divided by the factor: exp(0.0023ρ).
162
The burn rate of briquettes with central holes
Figure 4 shows the variation of normalised burn rate/exp(-0.0023 ) to remove the
effect of density) for cylinders with a central hole, where the A/V ratio is varied by changing
the cylinder height. The dashed line is for briquettes of slab geometry and it is clear that these
results deviate significantly from this line. As the height is increased the A/V ratio of the
briquettes decreases. In other words cylindrical briquettes with central holes will have a
higher burn rate than slabs of the same A/V ratio. It is important to note that the curve
describing this change in rate will never cross the y-axis. This is because as the briquette
height increases, the rate of decrease of briquette A/V ratio deceases, until the point where
increasing the height further has no effect on A/V ratio. In other words, for a given internal
hole diameter and external diameter of a cylindrical briquette there is a maximum height
beyond which further increases in the height will not change the effective A/V ratio of a
dashed curve describing slab-geometry, giving the cylindrical briquette with a central hole an
increasingly higher rate compared to what would have been achieved from the same A/V
ratio with slab shaped geometry. The solid black line is a fit of a semi-empirical model that
considers the effects of the re-radiation that occurs inside the central hole. This is described in
the combustion modelling section. If the briquette height is kept constant and the central hole
the same diameter, and the A/V ratio varied by changing the external diameter of the
briquette, the resulting curve has the same gradient as that of the slabs, but is shifted to a
higher position on the graph. In this case the re-radiative effects and losses inside the central
hole are kept constant by maintaining a constant height.
DISCUSSION
Combustion modelling
In this section we offer a quantitative explanation of why the A/V ratio is important,
and explain the trend observed for cylindrical briquettes (with central holes) of varying
heights (see figure 4). A solid with a large surface area will transfer heat into the mass which
it bounds more quickly than if the surface area were small. A large surface area will therefore
lead to a more rapidly changing temperature profile passing through the solid mass. Many
authors have assumed, with much success, the kinetics of pyrolysis to follow, in a first
approximation, a unimolecular law according to the expression (for example [21, 22, 23]):
(Equation 5)
where is the pyrolysis rate constant and
is an activation energy, both quantities
determined from experiment and assumed constant for a given material.
The greater the rate of heat transfer into the solid, the more rapid the temperature
increase of the material, and the more quickly elements of the material reach high enough
temperatures for pyrolysis. The result is a greater overall rate of pyrolysis, and therefore an
increase in the overall mass burn rate of the solid.
The central hole in the centre of cylindrical briquettes provides an insulated
combustion zone resulting in less heat transfer by radiation to the surroundings from this
surface. This produces higher temperatures within the hole compared to the outer briquette
surface which is in contact with the atmosphere. The steeper temperature gradients result in
an increased rate of heat transfer into the solid at this surface, a heat wave moves inside the
solid, rapidly increasing its temperature. The result is a faster rate of pyrolysis compared to
the outer briquette surface which is exposed to the atmosphere. This increased rate in
pyrolysis in the central hole region compared to the outer surface explains the deviation of
the burn rate cylindrical briquettes from slabs in figure 4. The deviation becomes greater with
increasing height because not all radiation emitted from the surface is reabsorbed within the
163
hole, a fraction is radiated into the atmosphere and this fraction is a function of the briquette
height. The proportion of radiation that is emitted and reabsorbed within the surface of the
central hole is known as the view factor and can be calculated by considering how much each
unit area of the surface in the hole ’sees’ the other parts of the internal surface. An element
towards the top of the briquette will ’see’ a greater portion of atmosphere than an element
located in the centre of the hole, and thus the element in the centre will have a greater view
factor. As the height increases, the heat lost by radiation from surface elements closer to the
top and bottom of the hole becomes a lower proportion of the total central-hole view factor,
increasing the overall view factor of the central hole region. As the height tends to infinity,
the view factor tends to one and the rate tends to a limiting value determined by the chemical
kinetics of combustion. A lower proportion of heat lost to the atmosphere by radiation results
in higher temperatures and thus faster a pyrolysis rate.
The solid line is a computational model of this effect which suggests that radiation to
the atmosphere is the dominant means by which heat is transferred away from the briquettes
surface. These results clearly demonstrate the important role of boundary conditions in
determining the briquette burn rate.
CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK PLANNED
This study has shown the burn rate of biomass briquettes is steady and controllable.
Particularly it has been found that the A/V ratio of the briquette, its density and the boundary
conditions are all significant in determining the burn rate. An empirical expression for the
burn rate of a biomass briquette of slab shaped geometry burning in free air is given.
Knowing the normalised burn rate of a particular geometry allows an expression for the
briquette power output and the total burn time of the steady state phase to be calculated and
equations are given here for slab geometry. Slab briquettes have been compared with
cylindrical briquettes with central holes, and it has been shown that the central hole causes
this form of briquette to burn faster than slabs with an equivalent A/V ratio.
The next stage of this work is the further development of the numerical model and the
derivation of a more general expression for briquette burn rate. The study will then look into
understanding the burning of briquettes in stoves for cooking and consider the effects of the
briquettes physical parameters on harmful emissions. The aim is a more rigorous
understanding of the biomass briquette in order that its burn characteristics can be controlled
and optimised for a given stove and cooking situation. Ultimately, the results will allow the
briquette moulds and hand-presses to be designed to form briquettes with desired burn
characteristics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I’d like to thank Mike Clifford and Robin Wilson for all their help and guidance in
completing this study, and Alan Feebery for all his help in fabricating and setting up the apparatus for
the experiment. Also the Legacy Foundation in America for their inspiration and knowledgeable help
on everything to do with briquetting for rural communities.
REFERENCES
[1] Bruce, N., Perez-Padilla, R., and Albalak, R. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 78(9), 1078–1092
(2000).
[2] Amous, S. Technical report, FAO, (1999).
[3] Lefevre, T., Todoc, J. L., and Timilsina, G. R. In the role of wood energy in Asia. Forestry Department,
FAO (1997).
[4] In Strategic National Energy Plan 2006-2020. Energy Commission (2005).
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[5] Technical report, African Development Bank and European Commission and Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations, (2003).
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[7] Ishmael Edjekumhene, Sefa Bonsu, A. R. A.-K. A. B.-H. Ghana country study, Kumasi Institute of
Technology and Environment Ghana, (2001).
[8] Stanley, R. Fuel Briquette making. Legacy Foundation, (2003).
[9] Olorunnisola, A. O. Journal of Bamboo and Rattan 3(2), 139–149 (2004).
[10] Chin, O. C. and Siddiqui, K. M. Biomass and Bioenergy 18, 223–228 (2000).
[11] Stanley, R. Fuel Briquettes-Theory and applications from around the world. Legacy Foundation, (2003).
[12] Demirbas, A. Energy Conversion and Management 40, 437–445 (1999).
[13] Yaman, S., Sahan, M., Haykiri-acma, H., Sesen, K., and Kucukayrak, S. Fuel Processing Technology 68,
23–31 (2000).
[14] Obernberger, I. and Thek, G. Biomass and Bioenergy 27, 653–669 (2004).
[15] Kandpal, J. B. and Maheshwai, R. C. Energy Conversion and Management 36(10), 1015–1021 (1995).
[16] Blackshear, P. L., Murty, J., and Murty, K. A. In Tenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, (1965).
[17] Bhattacharya, S. C., Albina, D. O., and Khaing, A. M. Biomass and Bioenergy 23, 387–395, (2002).
[18] Rabier, F., Temmerman, M., Bohm, T., Hartmann, H., Jensen, P. D., Rathbauer, J., Carrasco, J., and
Fernandez, M. Biomass and Bioenergy 30, 954–963 (2006).
[19] Ballard-Tremeer, G. and Jawurek, H. H. Biomass and Bioenergy 16, 341–345 (1999).
[20] Ballard-Tremeer, G. and Jawurek, H. Biomass and Bioenergy 11(5), 419–430 (1996).
[21] Bamford, C. H., Crank, J., and Malan, D. H. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 166–182
(1945).
[22] Kanury, A. M. Combustion Science and Technology 1, 339–355 (1970).
[23] Liliedahl, T. and Sjostrom, K. Biomass and Bioenergy 15(6), 503–509 (1998).
165
COMPARATIVE STUDY ON UTILISATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION GENERATOR ENGINES & HYDROPOWER PLANTS
IN SOLVING RWANDAN ELECTRICAL ENERGY PROBLEM
1
Michael Nnamdi IRECHUKWU, 2Christopher CYUSA and 3Obed MUHAYIMANA
1 National University of Rwanda, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Dept. of Electrical &
Electronic Engineering. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
Key words: Hydroelectric energy, thermoelectric energy, cheap electric energy.
Abstract
As energy becomes the current catchphrase in business, industry, and society, energy
alternatives are becoming increasingly popular. Hydroelectricity exists as one option to
economically, meet the growing demand for energy and is discussed in this paper. Numerous
factors exist which must be considered when building hydropower plants; whether the
concerns are global or local, each has been measured when discussing this renewable energy
source.
The internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine in which the burning of a fuel,
e.g. gas oil, occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This option of
thermally produced electrical energy was adopted by our country Rwanda as a temporary
measure to address the immediate energy need and to avoid system collapse. This is because
the electric energy produced in Rwanda is practically insufficient. Only a small percentage of
naturally endowed energy is tapped. Moreover, Rwanda has significant hydro-electric
potential which could constitute a significant source of electric power once entirely exploited.
Presently the cost of kWh of electric energy produced in Rwanda is about 0.22USD due to
the high cost of gas oil. Thermally produced electrical energy constitutes about 50% of the
total electrical energy produced in Rwanda. The objective of this paper is to analyze the
problem of electrical energy deficiency in our country, explore and find a more practicable
and lasting solution to the problem, minimize cost of maintenance, reduce the amount of
thermally produced electrical energy and to provide sufficient and cheap electricity to
Rwandan population. In carrying out this research, different modes of data collection and
methods have been used, such as: interviews, library and web researches, observations and
analysis of data.
INTRODUCTION
The electric power energy that our country produces is practically insufficient. Only a
small part of naturally endowed energy is tapped. Rwanda has significant hydroelectric
potential which could go a long way to solving the energy problem once entirely exploited.
The introduction of generating units known as ICGEs into the Rwandan electric power
system made a considerable impact, 50% of the total energy produced in Rwanda. In this
comparative study it is clearly shown that the hydroelectric energy is very cheap, clean and
renewable compared to the ICGE’s thermoelectric energy.
166
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Considering the Rwandan population and the amount of electric energy generated by
existing power plants, we can conclude that Rwanda is a country without sufficient electrical
energy. The greater percentage of electric energy produced is used in some parts of the
country, majorly in urban cities, leaving the greater part of the country without electrical
power energy. The growth and expansion of different towns of the country especially Kigali
city, the industrial city of the country, and the vision of the government for a sustainable
development, have stretched the already insufficient available electrical energy, meaning that
the generated energy is no longer sufficient even for the installed load.
As a temporary urgent measure to address this problem, the Rwandan government
adopted the option of using Diesel Powered Generator Engines (DPGEs). That implies, an
increased consumption of petroleum product (fuel-oil), thus running the station at a very high
cost. In fact, DPGEs require large quantities of fuel-oil to keep the station running with the
attendant high cost of station maintenance. This results in a very high cost of electricity in our
country and constitutes a great obstacle to the investors and the development of the country in
general.
HYPOTHESES
•
•
•
Hydropower energy is the most available, practical and lasting solution to solving the
problem of insufficient electric energy production in Rwanda.
Thermal energy is a temporary solution to solving the problem of insufficient electric
energy production in Rwanda, but it is expensive to run and maintain.
The problem of insufficient production of electric energy can be solved by exploiting all
hydropower renewable sources (generated not only within Rwandan territory, but also in
partnership with neighboring countries).
COMPARISON BETWEEN GENERATED POWER AND POWER DEMAND
1. Demand in Electrical Energy
According to the data we got from ELECTROGAZ the demand is approximated to be about
60MW considering only the installed areas. This is due to continuous growth and expansion
of different towns of the country especially, the industrial town of the country Kigali city, and
the vision of the government for a sustainable development.
2. Present Production
In 2005, in addition to the dwindling hydroelectric power generation, ELECTROGAZ with
the help of Government rehabilitated Jabana and Gatsata Diesel generators to alleviate the
power crisis in the country. This was closely followed by the rental power from Aggreko
Gikondo and Mukungwa that have been connected to Rwandan network from November
2005. The actual national produced energy is given in the table 1 below.
167
Production
Unit
Number of
Number of
Installed
Generator
Generator Units
Power
Units
currently in use
(MW)
1. HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT
1
11.25
1
12
2
1.2
1
1.8
2. THERMAL POWER PLANT
Current
Production
(MW)
Ntaruka
Mukungwa
Gisenyi
Gihira
3
2
2
2
Gatsata
Jabana
Gikondo
Rental Power
Mukungwa
Rental Power
3
6
14
1
6
12
4.7
7.8
10
4
7.6
10
7
6
5
5
3. IMPORTED POWER
TOTAL
Table 1: Actual situation of Energy Production
1.2 – 3
3–5
0.5 – 1
1
15.5
50.5
3. Comparison
When we compare the present demand in electric energy, that is equal to 60MW, and
the present production, that is summed up to 50.5MW, we have a deficit in demand which
equals 9.5MW. Thus load shedding is unavoidable.
Recall that this concerns only the areas that have electric utility. And we know that
there are yet many towns and villages without electricity. [2]
HYDROPOWER PLANNED PROJECTS TO SOLVE THE INSUFFICIENT SUPPLY
OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
The present study confirms that Rwanda is endowed with natural hydroelectric
potential. This exploitable potential is found nearly on twenty sites, of different capacities
and varies according to selected criteria of classification.
The sites whose realization and exploitation can be carried out independently by Rwanda
are those situated inside the country, at various basins of which the widest is Nyabarongo.
The realization of exploitation of other sites will require collaboration with neighboring
countries because they are border-rivers. However, there are some constraints in exploiting
some of these sites namely:
¾ Small size of the site.
¾ Topographical nature of Rwanda preventing accumulation of large quantities of
water.
¾ Long transmission lines that are required for interconnection to these sites.
¾ The quality of river water.
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Hydropower Exploitable Sites
i) Internal Exploitable Sites
An evaluation of the most exploitable hydroelectric potential in Rwanda is summarized and
presented in this paragraph. The exploitation of the listed sites is based on technical criteria
and as well as economical. Among the Internal sites that are of much interest include
Rukarara, Mukungwa II and Nyabarongo.
The selection criteria for the above mentioned sites are as follows:
Rukarara:
- Good quality of water.
- 5 sites in cascade with head comprising between 28 and 40m.
- Its water flow is 5.3m3/s when using only the river and 8.6m3/s when an artificial
reservoir is made.
- Proximity to consumption centers of Gikongoro and Butare.
- Proximity to existing network, facilitating easy connection.
- Total guaranteed producible energy: 64GWh/year.
- Estimated capacity: 11MW.
Presently, this site is under construction.
Mukungwa II:
- Good quality of water and the head is 40m.
- Flow regulated by Mukungwa I power station is 13.50m3/s.
- Proximity to consumption center of Ruhengeri.
- Proximity to existing network, facilitating easy connection.
- Guaranteed producible energy: 16GWh/year.
- Estimated capacity: 4MW.
Nyabarongo:
The Government of Rwanda contracted an agreement with two Indian Companies to
execute the construction of Nyabarongo hydropower plant project at the cost of $97.5
million (US Dollars) on Wednesday, July 09, 2008, which when completed, will generate
about 27.5MW.
ii) Frontier Exploitable Sites
The largely untapped hydroelectric potential of River Rusizi and Rusumo falls on the
country’s boarders are two examples in this regard.
Rusizi site
River Rusizi runs about 42km on the border between Rwanda and the DRC
(Democratic Republic of Congo). On this section a fall of about 460m is available, with a
medium flow rate of about 65m3/s. Indeed the flow is regularized by the Lake Kivu with little
or without solid transportation, the slope is significant. Some part of this river has been
harnessed namely, Rusizi I and II hydropower plants, but there is a possibility to construct yet
another plant (Rusizi III) with a capacity of about 82MW.
Rusumo site
On the Akagera River, the OBK (Organisation du Basin de la Kagera) carried out
research on the site of Rusumo, and results showed that an estimated capacity of 61.5MW
and annual production of 270GWh is realizable.
The 61.5MW Rusumo falls and 82MW Rusizi III hydropower schemes would be
relatively large and would cost approximately $170 million (US Dollars) each. [3]
169
ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ICGEs IN RWANDAN ELECTRICAL NETWORK
As it has been stated previously, these ICGEs burn many liters of fuel oil and above
this, they are less efficient. And as known, our country is deprived of the fossil reserves,
whereas the fuel oil is imported from abroad at a high cost as it is shown in the Table 2
below.
2005
2006
Consumption
Fuel cost in
Consumption
Fuel cost in
l
l
in (liters)
USD
in (liters)
USD
6,607,450
5,480,070
5,028,640
4,395,877
Jabana
4,576,450
3,208,410
338,716
271,051
Gatsata
2,798,873
2,231,189
23,612,938
16,233,895
RP Gikondo
------------7,310,727
5,124,820
RP Mukungwa
13,982,773
36,291,021
Total
10,919,669
26,025,643
Table 2: Annual Fuel Consumptions and Costs in 2005 and 2006
Power Station
In Table 2, we can see that the total annual fuel consumption increased in 2006. And
that means more money was spent to keep the ICGEs running. Notice also that in our
calculations and data analysis we have not considered the lubricating oil costs and the
maintenance costs which are also substantial.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE USE OF ICGEs AND HPPs IN RWANDAN
POWER SYSTEM
From the data we got from ELECTROGAZ and the engineering calculations we made,
the production cost for our hydropower plants is $0.01 / kWh = 5.46RwF / kWh , and the
production cost for our diesel power plants is $0.128 / kWh = 69.904RwF / kWh . From the
above results, it is obvious that thermal plants are run at a much higher cost than hydro plants
for the same kWh. [2]
ECONOMIC INTERCHANGE OF POWER
Another problem that is encountered by a power system operator has to do with
determining when it is economical to buy power from or sell power to other systems.
Whenever power is purchased and received into a system, the power that usually must be
produced to carry system load is reduced by the amount of power received from the other
system. Conversely, whenever power is sold, power production must equal the system load
plus the amount.
When the power output of generating units is increased, the unit incremental cost and
also the system incremental cost increase. Conversely, when the power is received from
another system, as unit loading is decreased, the system incremental cost also decreases.
When power is sold, the additional incremental production cost must be determined in
order to be able to quote a price to the prospective purchaser of the power. When power is
purchased, production cost will be reduced and this saving has a value that must be
determined. The value of saving in a purchased transaction is called the decremental value.
The definitions of these two terms are as follows:
Incremental cost is the additional cost incurred to generate an added amount of power.
Decremental value is the cost saved by not generating an amount of power.
170
The seller’s quoted price (incremental cost) in $ / kWh is given by:

1
 OriginalCost + NewCost  

i cos t = 
 × 
2

  PenaltyFactor 
The buyer’s decremental value for the purchaser also in $ / kWh is given by:
 OriginalCost + NewCost 
d cos t = 
 × (PenaltyFactor )
2


In purchase and sale transactions, it is customary to split the savings between buying and
selling systems. In other words, the average of the sum of the buyer’s decremental value and
the seller’s incremental cost.
Av cos t = (i cos t + d cos t ) / 2
The purchasing system would pay the amount equal to the calculated average in $ / kWh and
would save the difference between what it would have cost to generate the power and the cost
of the purchased power, that is (d cos t − Av cos t ) , which represents for example at 1MW
delivery, a saving of $((d cos t − Av cos t ) × 1000 ) per hour. The seller would benefit by the
same amount. [2]
NUMERICAL APPLICATION
From what we got previously, we have seen that the:
• Production cost (Hydro) is of $0.01 / kWh ,and the
• Production cost (Thermal) is $0.128 / kWh .
The average production cost for both types of power plants in our country is
 0.01 + 0.128 
$
 / kWh = $0.069 / kWh
2


Our country also purchases power from neighboring systems such as SNEL (D.R.C.) and
SINELAC. The costs of 1kWh from each plant are given as follows:
• SNEL: 0.043DTS / kWh = 36.543RwF / kWh = $0.066 / kWh
• SINELAC: 0.055DTS / kWh = 46.741RwF / kWh = $0.085 / kWh
DTS (Droit de Tirage Special) is the type of currency and according to the rate of exchange
from the National Bank of Rwanda, 1DTS = 849.839RwF and $1USD = 546.761RwF.
The average cost of the purchased power is
 0.066 + 0.085 
$
 / kWh = $0.075 / kWh
2


Let’s now suppose that $0.069 / kWh is the original cost of the power produced in our
country and $0.075 / kWh is the new cost of the power purchased from neighboring systems.
From the data we collected from ELECTROGAZ, the transmission losses during that period
are 22% equivalent to a loss factor of 0.22. Thus, the penalty factor is given by
1
1
= 1.28
L=
=
1 − LossFactor 1 − 0.22
Having calculated the above results, we can now find the incremental cost
and the
as follows:
decremental cost
 0.069 + 0.075   1 
¾ i cos t = 
×
 = $0.056 / kWh
2

  1.28 
 0.069 + 0.075 
¾ d cos t = 
 × (1.28) = $0.092 / kWh
2


171
The average of the sum of the buyer’s decremental value and the seller’s incremental cost is:
 0.056 + 0.092 
Av cos t = 
 = $0.074 / kWh
2


Our country would pay the amount of $0.074 / kWh and would save, for example at 1MW
delivery,
$((0.092 − 0.074 ) × 1000 ) / h = $18 / h
The seller would benefit by the same amount. [2]
ADVANTAGES OF HPPs OVER ICGEs IN RWANDAN POWER SYSTEM
HPPs(Hydropower Plants)
9 Clean, renewable and reliable energy
source.
9 Cheap electricity.
9 It has operational flexibility.
9 Low running cost.
9 Low maintenance cost.
9 High efficiency.
9 No waste products.
¾ Since Rwanda is endowed with
hydroelectric potentials, the use of
HPPs is practical and the right choice.
ICGE(Internal Combustion Generator
Engines)
Not renewable energy source, it pollutes
the atmosphere.
High energy tariff.
Standby reserve.
High running cost.
High maintenance cost.
High consumption of petroleum products.
Much noise and pollutants.
¾ The use of ICGEs in our country is an
immediate solution but not a lasting one.
CONCLUSION
Generation and the supply of electricity under various economic, environmental,
social and political constraints is one of the major challenges in this 21st century. The best
energy is the cheapest [Prof. Rubbia, Nobel Price, physics].
In our study, we compared the utilization of Internal Combustion Generator Engines
and Hydropower Plants in solving Rwandan problem of insufficient electric power supply
and analyzed data collected from different sources (e.g. ELECTROGAZ, Aggreko and
MININFRA). From this study we have been able to prove that hydropower energy is the most
available, practical and lasting solution to solving the problem of insufficient electrical
energy production in Rwanda. Notice that the cost of 1kWh of electric energy produced in
Rwanda is too expensive, about the highest in Africa due to the introduction of the ICGEs,
which consume large quantities of petroleum products.
We hope that by the time the vision 2020 brings all the exploitable sites into operation
the cost of 1kWh of electric energy in Rwanda will become the cheapest within the East
African Community.
RECOMMENDATIONS
We make the following recommendations:
¾ To the Rwandan Government
- The Government should restructure ELECTROGAZ with the aim to increase private
sector participation and improve managerial and operational performance.
- The Government should expedite action on the ongoing methane project and boost
power electric energy production since about 82% of Rwandan population lives in
rural areas and the majority of them don’t have access to electricity.
172
-
Regional cooperation between Rwanda and her neighbors can solve some energy
problems.
¾ Lastly, to the electricity consumers we recommend that bills be paid promptly and illegal
connections be discouraged.
REFERENCES
[1] BLACK & VEATCH (2001), Power Plant Engineering, CBS Publishers &
Distributors, New Delhi, India.
[2] CYUSA C. & MUHAYIMANA O., Comparative Study on Utilization of Internal
Combustion Generator Engines & Hydropower Plants In Solving Rwandan Electrical
Energy Problem, National University of Rwanda (NUR), Butare, October 2007.
[3] BUNEP (1983), Etude du Secteur Energétique au Rwanda Plan Directeur
d’Electrification, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale (EPFL), Lausanne-Suisse.
[4] CORE International, Inc., Rwanda :Electricity & Water Tariff Analysis, USAID,
November 2005.
173
Breeding a Better Stove: the Use of Genetic Algorithms and Computational
Fluid Dynamics to Improve Stove Design
Hugh Burnham-Slipper, Michael John Clifford, Stephen J Pickering
Faculty of Engineering, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7
2RD, United Kingdom.
Tel: +44 115 8466134
Fax: +44 115 9513800
email: [email protected]
Key words
combustion, stoves, wood, genetic algorithms, computational fluid dynamics.
Abstract
Half the world cooks using wood, often on open fires or on inefficient stoves.
Collecting firewood is often left to women and children. As well as reducing the
time available for education and other activities, there are many cases of women
being raped while trying to collect firewood outside of refugee camps in the
Darfur region. The aim of this research is to produce optimised wood stoves,
reducing the amount of wood required, hence reducing carbon emissions, and
improving the quality of life, particularly for women and children.
Our approach is to use computational fluid dynamics and genetic algorithms to
improve the combustion conditions in wood-burning cook-stoves. In the initial
experimental phase, open wood fires were characterised in terms of burn-rate, and
gas temperature and velocity. Several stove designs were also assessed, including
the three-stone fire (3-5% efficient), the Eritrean mogogo (5-10% efficient) and
the rocket elbow (20-30% efficient).
The experimental results were replicated in a computer simulation which was
validated for a range of fires. This model was embedded in a CFD package which
correctly predicted the flame height, velocity and temperature.
The validated CFD model combined with a genetic algorithm was used to
optimise stove design: each stove is defined by a genome describing its
dimensions; the various designs are allowed to “mate”, each one vying for the
attention of the “fittest” or most efficient stove; the offspring inherit a mixture of
their parents’ features, until an optimum design emerges. Finally the optimised
design is to be built and physically tested before being modified to make it
suitable for field trials and dissemination to rural communities.
174
Introduction
Half the world cooks using wood, often on open fires or on inefficient stoves. Collecting
firewood is often left to women and children. As well as reducing the time available for
education and other activities, there are many cases of women being raped while trying to
collect firewood outside of refugee camps in the Darfur region**.
There have been many attempts to produce fuel-efficient stoves or to replace wood stoves
with other fuel sources or alternative means of cooking. Often research is carried out in
academic institutions away from where stoves are used and although the resulting stoves can
be fuel efficient, the neglect of social factors is a major barrier to successfully introducing
improved stoves into the homes of those living in remote communities. In Ethiopia and
neighbouring Eritrea, the staple food is injera: a spongy sour delicious flatbread, is cooked on
a large griddle on a mogogo stove (see Figure 1). These inefficient, smoky stoves are made
by individuals from a mixture of mud and clay, whilst the mogogo plates are supplied by the
local ceramics industry. Two recently proposed “improved” stoves are not suitable for
cooking injera (see Figure 1). The CleanCook alcohol stove [1], made in Sweden from
aluminium, has two small burners which are insufficient to heat a mogogo plate. The change
of fuel and stove also has adverse economic effects on local mogogo plate manufacturers and
firewood sellers. A stove from Aprovecho with a more traditional appearance but made from
concrete failed to take into account the even temperature distribution required, so although
testing in the USA by boiling pots of water appeared to show improved efficiency, when it
came to cooking injira, the results were inedible. Although these laudable attempts have some
merit, their use requires Ethiopians to change their eating habits, threatens local economies
and could thus be regarded as intrusive and colonialistic.
Figure 1: top left: classic mogogo, top right: Aprovecho improved mogogo, bottom left:
ERTC design, bottom right: Cleancook stove.
**
See: www.darfurstoves.org
175
There is also a design of mogogo promoted by the Eritrean government – the ETRC (Energy
Research and Training Centre) mogogo, but the cost of US $40 places it out of reach of many
Eritreans.
Alternative approaches involving local stakeholders have tended to be successful on a small
scale, but are much more labour intensive. For example, on a recent trip with Engineers
Without Borders UK in conjunction with FAMUSOD to install wood stoves in a remote
village in the Imbabura region of Ecuador, Nottingham University student Rob Quail found
that although initially the villagers were rather shy, by involving them in the design and
material selection process, they overcame scepticism. After taking a break to go trekking for
two weeks, Rob returned to the village to find that the villagers had built two stoves from his
design and had begun to experiment with modifying the stoves according to their own ideas
[2].
It may be impractical to involve end-users at every stage of the process in the design of
improved cook stoves. An alternative approach is to tackle the problems of poor fuel
economy and harmful emissions by modifying stoves which are currently in use rather than
starting with a blank sheet of paper. Indigenous stoves will have undergone a natural process
of evolution, with good stoves being imitated and bad ones replaced, although we must
exercise caution in defining the characteristics of good stoves. A project to replace smoky
stoves in Nepal was successful in eliminating harmful indoor air pollution, but after six
months, several dwellings collapsed due to termite damage; the previously used smoky stoves
had been effect at killing pests whereas the new improved stoves did not fulfil this secondary
(but essential) function [3].
A good example of using local knowledge in stove design is the Mirt stove distributed in
Ethiopia by GTZ (see Figure 2). The stoves are made of concrete from simple moulds
provided to local artisans. They are suitable for cooking injera and are fitted with traditional
mogogo plates, protecting another sector of the local economy. However, these stoves are not
suitable for use in Eritrea, due to the on-going tension between the neighbouring countries.
Eritreans are likely to be suspicious of technology developed in Ethiopia – another factor
traditionally ignored
by engineers designing
stoves.
Figure 2: Mirt stove
Whilst the evolutionary approach to stove design is commendable for the way in which it
builds up local communities, supports the local economy and fosters a sense of ownership,
the process is frustratingly slow and costly in terms of the number of new stoves that have to
176
be built and tested, many of which will not show any improvement on the previous
generation. A novel approach is to make use of genetic algorithms and computer modelling.
Traditional stoves are allowed to “mate” with stoves with good fuel efficiency, such as the
rocket stove depicted in Figure 3. The offspring stoves are modelled using Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and assessed in terms of fitness. Fitness can be defined to include
factors such as: fuel efficiency, temperature distribution, volume of material used to construct
the stove (indicative of cost) and so on. In this paper we apply the methodology to the
Eritrean mogogo. Details of the computational modelling and genetic algorithm (GA) are
given in the next two sections, results of the simulations are then presented and discussed
before conclusions and considerations for future work are proposed.
Computational Modelling
The computational fluid dynamic model of stoves was developed in Fluent 6.2, with a
bespoke user-defined function to describe the rate of fuel combustion in the fuel bed. The
model was simplified by assuming steady state conditions and an axi-symmetric domain,
divided into three regions: the solid parts of the stove; a porous fluid region to describe the
fuel bed and; a non-porous fluid region to describe the rest of the gases in the stove. The
standard axi-symmetric Navier-Stokes equations were solved, coupled with the energy
equation, the k-ε model with enhanced wall functions to describe turbulence, the discrete
ordinates model to describe radiation heat transfer and the species transport model to describe
chemistry with homogenous reactions limits by turbulent mixing as per the eddy dissipation
model. No soot model was included, and it will be shown that neglecting the effect of soot on
flame radiation has resulted in some significant errors.
Behaviour of solid fuel in the stove was described by a fuel sub-model, written as bespoke Ccode and attached to Fluent as a user-defined function. The sub-model avoided the
requirement to model each piece of fuel separately, instead applying a non-uniform flow
resistance coefficient to the fuel bed, calculated from the Ergun equation. The model only
accounted for the active (burning) surfaces of the fuel which were grouped together in lumps
throughout the fuel bed: this was necessary in order to make combustion in the resulting
flame diffusion limited as volatile matter and oxygen mix, rather than kinetically limited.
Within each lump, the rate of volatile release was limited by the transfer of heat through a
char layer of assumed thickness to the virgin fuel below. The rate of char combustion was
limited by the supply of oxygen from free stream conditions through the species boundary
layer to the char surface. The approach is novel, but the numerical model of buoyancy-driven
flow was validated against experimental data from the literature [4]; the fuel model was
validated against experimental data [5] and convection heat transfer as the plume of hot gases
impinge on the cooking surface was also validated against experimental data [6]. Mesh
independence of the model was assessed using the Richardson extrapolation.
177
Figure 3: Principal rocket stove dimensions. Variable dimensions are denoted A to F. T1..7
indicates location of thermocouples for experimental testing.
Genetic Algorithm
The genetic algorithm (GA) mimicked Darwinian evolution following the pseudo-code in
Figure 4. A generic stove was developed from the Rocket stove [7,8] which had previously
been assessed experimentally. This stove was almost axi-symmetric, with an annular air inlet
between the stove and the ground, a window to allow fuel to be introduced and a mogogo
plate (or similar) atop as a cooking surface. For each stove a gene of single-digits scalars was
stored. These were multiplied by a generic set of vectors to yield a unique stove shape for
each gene or creature. The GA is an iterative process, and for each stove in each generation,
the dimensions of the stove were derived as described above. The GA inserted the new
dimensions into a journal file which was executed in the meshing software, Gambit 2.1, to
give a coherent mesh. The mesh was then sent to Fluent 6.2 where a second journal file
imposed boundary conditions, models and model parameters and set the simulation to solve
for 2000 iterations. At the end of the calculation the GA exported data on the fuel burn rate
and the local heat flux to the cooking surface. Finally the fitness of each stove in the
generation was calculated according to the following objective function:
h(q" )
(1)
f 2 = g (q" ) +
mf '
178
where q” is the mean heat flux passing through the cooking surface and m’f is the total fuel
burn rate. Functions g(q”) and h(q”) are described in Figure 5. The objective function
primarily rewards stoves which achieve the target heat flux (q”t) using the first term in
Equation 1, and only when that is achieved does it heap additional fitness on stoves that
minimise their fuel consumption, using the second term in Equation 1. Earlier embodiments
of the objective function had an additional term to reward a uniform heat flux by monitoring
local deviation from the mean flux, but this was found not to be necessary.
initialise random genome of creatures
FOR each generation
FOR each creature
transform gene into mesh
call CFD to calculate fluid flow
calculate fitness from CFD results
ENDFOR creature
select mates
cross-over to create new generation
mutation on new generation
new generation usurps old generation
ENDFOR generation
Figure 4: Pseudo-code of Genetic Algorithm.
Figure 5: Functions g(q”) and h(q”), which contribute to the overall objective function.
Once the fitness of all stoves had been assessed, the GA moved on to the mating phase, using
the roulette wheel selection routine: a virtual roulette wheel was created with sectors sized in
179
proportion to the fitness of each stove. Two roulette balls were set into the wheel to identify
two parents. The genetic code of the two parents was mixed using a single cross-over point to
produce a child. The child’s genetic code was then subject to random mutations. The fittest
stove from the previous generation passed automatically to the next, and the rest of the
population was generated by random mating events: this encouraged rapid convergence of the
results to an optimum stove design. Finally the new generation of stoves usurped the old.
The GA was run with q”t = 5000 W/m2, giving 1 kW cooking power over a 0.5m mogogo
plate. There were 10 stoves in a population and the GA was run for 50 generations. The GA
was run for 10 heats, generating ten champions from random initial genomes. In a second
phase, the ten champions were set against each other three separate times to give a champion
of champions. The champion of champions (i.e. the best stove) was subject to a sensitivity
analysis, whereby all dimensions were subject to small perturbations and the effect on stove
performance was assessed to identify critical dimensions.
Results
The champion of champions is illustrated in Figure 6. It features a sharp “turbulator” (at
height, z=0.32) and a recirculation region in the combustion chamber, a wide thin virgin fuel
region and a tall lower section. Errors in heat flux and fuel burn rate for the optimum stove
were estimated to be 2% and 40% respectively using the Richardson extrapolation: results
concerning the fuel burn rate should be treated with circumspection.
The turbulator and thin neck (z = 0.34 m) supports a large block of material. It is anticipated
that these two features could easily break and render the stove useless, so a further sensitivity
analysis was conducted on this region of the stove. Reducing the turbulator size reduces
fitness from 6470 to 4220. Removing the turbulator completely results in a further decease to
3980. Clearly the large turbulator is important for mixing and heat transfer: a smaller version
is almost as useless as no turbulator at all, and a final design would have to include an insert
in this region to (a) act as the turbulator and (b) strengthen the neck. This is unfortunate as it
would increase the price of the resulting stove, and move away from the initial design
philosophy that the optimised stove could be manufactured on an ad hoc basis by rural
women without specialist training nor recourse to purchasing components.
180
Figure 6: Schematic of the best stove proposed by the GA. The dashed line shows an
improvement identified by the sensitivity analysis. The x-axis is the rotation of symmetry, the
y-axis is the ground and solid material is shown shaded.
Conclusions
The proposed stove achieved a target cooking heat rate of 997W, using fuel at a rate of 0.6
g/s. This performance is equivalent to 12% efficiency or specific fuel consumption 0.4 kg
fuel per kg food, compared to 0.5 for the classic mogogo. This result has not been
experimentally verified, and should be viewed with circumspection given the shortcomings of
the CFD model. Nonetheless, the proposed stove requires only one bought component, the
turbulator, with an estimated cost US$ 1, which compares favourably to the cost of the
optimised ERTC mogogo (US$ 40) and the Aprovecho design (US$ 9) and in that respect it
has realised the requirements of the project. Considerable further work is required in
experimental verification, to adapt the design to manufacturing requirements and to
successfully bring it to market in Eritrea.
References
[1] Esayas, M., 2006 “Testing of the CleanCook Alcohol Stove in Refugee Camps in East
Africa” ETHOS, Jan 27-29. 2006 Northwest University, Kirkwood, WA, USA
[2] Clifford, M.J., 2007 “Engineering Learning with Appropriate Technology” Education for
Sustainable Development: Graduates as Global Citizens, Second International Conference
10th - 11th September 2007, Bournemouth University
[3] Rouse, J., Rehfuess, E., 2005. “Understanding the visible impacts on people and poverty”
Central American Regional Training Workshop on Indoor Air
Pollution and Household Energy Monitoring, Antigua, Guatemala, 2-6 May 2005
[4] Rouse, H., Yih C.S. & Humphreys H.W., 1952. “Gravitational convection from a
boundary source.” Tellus 4:201-210.
[5] Burnham-Slipper, H., Clifford, M.J. & Pickering, S.J., 2007a. “A simplified wood
combustion model for use in the simulation of cooking fires”. In: 5th Int. Conf. Heat
Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Sun City, South Africa.
[6] Burnham-Slipper, H., Clifford, M.J. & Pickering, S.J., 2007b. “Jet impingement heat
transfer for low nozzle-to-plate clearances.” In: Proceedings of 10th UK National Heat
Transfer Conference. Edinburgh, 10-11 September 2007.
[7] Aprovecho, no date. Aprovecho’s stove research page [on line]. Available at:
<www.efn.org/~apro/AT/attitlepage.html> [accessed 9th February 2005].
[8] Scott P., 2006. “Rocket stoves for sub-Saharan Africa.” Boiling Point 50:7-8.
181
Who Will Be the Players in Green Technology and What Will Their Role
Be?
Hattie Carwell
Museum of African American Technology (MAAT) Science Village,
P.O. Box 1686,
Oakland, CA
Fax 011 (510) 536-9084, E-mail: [email protected]
Key words: green technology, alternative energy, solar photovoltaics
Abstract
At long last the general public and businesses have gotten the message. Something must be
done about the rising cost of imported oil, and high carbon emissions from it and other fossil
fuels that lead to global warming. One solution is to reduce the emissions and energy costs
and develop of alternative energy or renewable energy sources/green technologies.
The development of alternative energy sources or “green technology” once the focus of
small businesses, is now on the radar screen of major corporations. The shift to various
alternative energy sources has produced some interesting dynamics. Development of Green
Technology is equated with the expansion of the economy and job market.
The development of alternative energy sources has become big business funded by corporate
giants in the oil and semiconductors industries. Solar energy companies are now traded
publicly on the stock market. The alternative energy sources introduce new players to the
energy business, but the financiers are players with the gold and they rule. Farmers,
semiconductor technologists and energy innovator , biologists, venture capitalists,
politicians, architects, city governments, new energy providers such as integrate solar
companies. Community based and development organizations and individual energy
producers are among the new players who receive modest benefits.
This paper will explore who will play a role in Green Technology, and the dynamics that
influence what their role will be. Examples of development of solar and biomass will be
provided.
INTRODUCTION
Recent National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) studies are pretty
convincing that the carbon emissions from energy production and use is leading to global
warming [1]. One of the solutions to this problem is to replace the existing energy sources
with alternative energy or renewable sources that are cleaner. However, with energy as the
182
driving force behind the US economy, shifting to alternative energy sources can have major
implications and potential impact on maintaining the status quo of the economy. Energy is
big business, and all indications are that it will stay big business even with renewables.
Ninety per cent of renewables are used to produce electricity; therefore, examples of the
application of renewables to generate electricity will be focused upon in this paper. The
direction of renewable energy development will be covered and the players that make it
happen will be described.
Current Status of Renewable Energy
For a century, energy supply, use and demand have been controlled and manipulated
by petroleum based( oil) companies that have annual profits that exceed most global
economies. Traditionally, electrical generation for commercial industries and residences has
been run by large centralized public utilities. Renewable energy is 7% of the energy supply
and 90% is tied to the electric grid (in the USA).
The Role of Renewable in Energy Consumption in the Nation’s Energy Supply, 2006
Figure 1. The Role of Renewable Energy Consumption in the Nation's Energy
Supply, 2006 [2]. Biomass is the largest source of renewable energy
183
Figure 2. To reach parity
Solar must cost less than 10cents
per kwh [3]
Figure 3. PV market Distribution]
Germany's PV market reached 1,328 MW in 2007 and now accounts for 47% of the
world market. Spain soared by over 480% to 640 MW, while the United States increased by
57% to 220 MW. It became the world's fourth largest market behind Japan, once the world
leader, which declined 23% to 230 MW. World solar cell production reached a consolidated
figure of 3,436 MW in 2007.
Discussion-Players in Solar and Biomass Energy and Their Roles
Solar Energy
To accelerate the pace of the shift to alternative energies, some state governments are
now mandating milestones for public utilities to increase the per cent of electricity produced
from renewable energy. California is attempting to pass an initiative, Proposition 7 that
requires utilities to produce 20% of their power with renewable energy by 2010, 40% by
2020 and 50% by 2025 [5]. Some cities such as San Francisco are proposing to manage and
produce their own electricity. The goal is to shift the electrical production to 100%
renewable energy. In each case, the focus is centralization of control of the production of
renewable energy. This initiative is modelled after the German approach to solar.
The centralized approach leads to utility scale renewable projects in the 400-600
megawatt range that can only be managed and constructed by capital rich corporations.
Utility-scale PV solar projects feature photovoltaic solar modules, which convert sunlight
directly into electricity and produce the greatest amounts of power during the afternoons,
when electricity demand is high.
For example, PG&E, a California public utility, entered into an agreement with Topaz
Solar Farms LLC, a subsidiary of OptiSolar Inc., for a 550 MW of thin-film PV solar power
plant and with SunPower for a 250 MW solar power plant. Both plants would be located in
San Luis Obispo County, California (100 miles north of Los Angeles). The SunPower plant
will deliver an average of 550,000 megawatt-hours of clean electricity annually. The project
is expected to begin power delivery in 2010 and be fully operational in 2012. The OptiSolar
project would deliver approximately 1,100,000 megawatt-hours annually of renewable
electricity and is expected to begin power delivery in 2011 and be fully operational by 2013.
It will cover 10 square miles. Combined the two project will produce electricity for the
energy needs of 239,000 residents. Both projects are contingent upon the extension of the
federal investment tax credit for renewable energy and processes to expedite transmission
needs [6].
Over the past six years, PG&E has entered into contracts for more than 3,600 MW of
renewable power, including solar contracts that total more than 2,500 MW. PG&E now has
contractual commitments for more than 24 percent of its future power deliveries from
renewables, including wind, biomass and geothermal [7].
Such projects are ideal for the subsidiaries of oil giants. OptiSolar is backed by
private equity firms apparently with oil connections [8]. SunPower is backed by Cypress
Seminconductor Corporation which owns 52% of the company [9],
184
It is deals like this that makes renewable energy attractive to other oil giants like BP,
Chevron and Shell and semiconductor companies like Sharp Electronics and Siemens. These
are the players that are accelerating the alternative energy market and creating publicly traded
renewable energy companies that began to appear in 2004 on the U.S. stock market. They
have the gold and continue to rule.
Building solar power plants for utilities and franchised businesses will probably
squeeze out the smaller under-capitalized renewable energy companies who are ill equipped
to bid on such large scale projects. They probably will be limited to small commercial and
residential projects which will dry up as the utilities take over solar energy production. They
must also share their profits with suppliers and the customers to make solar affordable on the
smaller scale. With utilities as the producers of solar electricity, the need to continue
government rebates and tax incentives for the small energy users is significantly reduced.
Environmentalists and small solar energy companies are opposed to Proposition 7
because the initiative was written without input from renewable experts and proposed by a
billionaire from another state who is not an expert [10]. Setting milestones for the utilities to
become renewable energy producers without adequate studies of impact could result in large
scale projects that have adverse and unknown impacts on the environment and economy.
Scaling up project sizes that only major corporations can handle marginalizes the
participation of small companies and shifts the current market away from the decentralization
that provides individual control of energy production. The oil companies have been preparing
for the alternative energy shift for more than three decades, evidenced by their investment in
biofuels and the establishment of subsidiaries such as BP Solar in the 1970’s. BP Solar is
one of the largest solar companies in the world.
For decades, the solar energy industry was carried by small businesses with less than
20 employees because it was not very profitable, and the market focus was on small
commercial and residential projects. Home installations averaged 3kw of solar power and
large commercial installation were only double digit figures. A 3 kW solar power generation
system of the type designed for general home use can produce approximately 3,000 kWh of
electricity over the course of a year. The effect of this is equivalent to a 540 kg-C equivalent
reduction in carbon emissions annually.
The solar market was supported partially by government subsidy programs and tax
credits. Most solar systems installed privately were tied to the electrical grid. The solar
producer’s meters runs backward to credit production. At the end of the year, usage and
production are reconciled. No compensation is given for access to electricity produced
because of the government subsidies and tax credits given upfront.
Participation in the subsidy programs was on a volunteer basis, and was designed to
help expand the solar industry to reduce the cost of solar photovoltaic cells. At the end of
2007, according to preliminary data, cumulative global production was 2,400 megawatts
(mw), less than 1% of the global need. It resulted in a small reduction of the amount of
electricity that utilities need to produce from conventional sources. Rebates, and tax
incentives did not lower costs and the industry grew very slowly. For example, the 120W
Kyocera solar cell purchased in 2002 at $ 499 or $ 4.15/w are now $ 614 or $4.99/w (20 per
cent more).
185
Large investments into the industry are making a difference and have created a viable
market. Now that it is real, everyone what to be a player. The U.S. Presidential candidates
talked about green-collar movements and pledged the creation of millions of new jobs, job
training for current and future workers, and the identification of green industries of the future.
Community based and development organizations are clamoring for green jobs and a piece of
the pie albeit it the crumbs.
Republican Sen. John McCain -- "We have the opportunity to apply America's
technological supremacy to capture the export markets for advanced energy
technologies, reaping the capital investment and good jobs it will provide."
Democratic Sen. Barack Obama -- "We've also got to do more to create the green
jobs that are jobs of the future. My energy plan will put $150 billion over 10 years
into establishing a green energy sector that will create up to 5 million new jobs over
the next two decades."
The green that matter is money by the billions wrote Fortune Magazine’s Marc
Gunther. Fortune 500 companies, including BP Solar, SunPower, General Electric,
Mitsubishi, Sanyo, Sharp, and Shell, all want to grow their solar businesses.
In Silicon Valley, meanwhile, venture capitalists like John Doerr and Vinod Khosla,
entrepreneur Bill Gross, and Google founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin are backing
startups that claim they will revolutionize the industry. Chevron Technology Ventures LLC, a
subsidiary of Chevron Corporation, identifies, develops and commercializes emerging
technologies and new energy systems including hydrogen-related technologies, advanced
energy storage technologies, renewable energy and nanotechnology. Chevron, formerly
primarily petroleum-based, has expanded into a number of renewable energy technologies.
Solar energy development is definitely a hot item in the stock market. According to
John Cavalier, who is chairman of the energy group at Credit Suisse, the market value of the
world's publicly traded solar companies stood at about $1 billion in 2004. Now, after a slew
of Initial Pubic Offerings (IPOs), they are worth about $71 billion. If the U.S. enacts
legislation to counter global warming and it adds to the cost of making electricity from coal,
natural gas, and oil, solar energy will be among the winners. "The opportunity for solar
companies is absolutely tremendous," Cavalier says.
Major photovoltaics companies include BP Solar, Isofoton, Kyocera, Q-Cells, Sanyo,
Sharp Solar, SolarWorld, SunPower, Suntech, and Yingli Green Energy representing the
U.S.,Spain, Japan, German, and China. The best-positioned companies are integrated solar
players (REC, SolarWorld, SunPower, Suntech representing Norway, Germany, U.S. and
China). Integrated companies are those that desgn, manufacture, construct and install utility
scale solar systems. In addition, downstream companies with the skills necessary to originate
power deals in multiple markets have very strong growth potential (e.g. Conergy and
SunEdison)[88] .
186
Table 1. Top 20 Global Solar Companies and Energy Capacity from 2007-2010. [11]
Sharp Solar Energy Solutions Group, a group of Sharp Electronics Corporation is the
world's oldest and largest (disputed by Q-cells) photovoltaic module and cell manufacturer,
produces solar panels in Japan, and near Wrexham, UK. It has been producing solar energy
for a half century. SunPower was considered a dead business until Cypress Seminconductor
financed it in 2005. The company owns 52% of the business.
Biomass
Biomass is agricultural product specifically grown for conversion to biofuels. These
include corn and soybeans. R&D is currently being conducted to improve the conversion of
non-grain crops, such as switchgrass and a variety of woody crops, to biofuels.
The energy in biomass can be accessed by turning the raw materials of the feedstock,
such as starch and cellulose, into a usable form. Transportation fuels are made from biomass
through biochemical or thermochemical processes. Known as biofuels, these include ethanol,
methanol, biodiesel, biocrude, and methane. Agriculture and forestry residues, and in
particular residues from paper mills, are the most common biomass resources used for
generating electricity and power, including industrial process heat and steam, as well as for a
variety of biobased products. Use of liquid transportation fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel,
however, currently derived primarily from agricultural crops, is increasing dramatically [12].
187
Currently, a majority of ethanol in the U.S. is made from corn, while Brazil uses
primarily sugar cane. New technologies are being developed to make ethanol from other
agricultural and forestry resources such as:
•
•
•
•
•
corn stover (stalks and residues left over after harvest);
grain straw;
switchgrass;
quick growing tree varieties, such as poplar or willow; and
municipal wastes.
The Department of Energy makes funding for research and development related to
biofuels available via competitive solicitations. In 2007, BP, now referred to as a Global
Energy Company also present in the solar industry, selected UC Berkeley to lead the $500
million energy research consortium with partners Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, and
University of Illinois. The funding will create the Energy Biosciences Institute (EBI), which
initially will focus its research on biotechnology to produce biofuels — that is, turning plants
and plant materials, including corn, field waste, switchgrass and algae, into transportation
fuels [13]. BP adopted a new slogan in 2000, “Beyond Petroleum” and changed its logo to
rebrand itself as a green company.
Biofuels have been commercially successful in several countries. Brazil (ethanol) and
Germany (biodiesel) are two examples. In Brazil, "Eighty percent of the 2005 production
(ethanol) is anticipated to meet national demands (transportation fuels). In Germany, the last
ten years consumption and production of biodiesel has increased several fold. In 2004, 1.18
million tones were produced, up 45 percent from 2003 and an additional 500,000 tonnes were
planned for 2005 [14].
Key biomass energy players are already present in the Netherlands and include
Biopetrol, which is building a biodiesel plant at Vopak's terminal, and WHEB Biofuels and
Argos Oil, which are also building biodiesel plants there.
Conclusion:
Renewable energy is no longer unprofitable and small business. Companies are
publicly traded and worth over $71 Billion. The infusion of hundreds of millions of dollars in
renewable energy startups by capital rich petroleum-based and semiconductor - based
companies behind the scenes has made the renewable energy industry big business and led to
real growth. Government incentives have been critical to make these investments.
There are some new faces in energy renewables that have become IPOS, but they are
financially backed and often controlled by parent corporations entrenched in conventional
energy sources. New comers like farmers, small businesses, and job seekers will benefit
modestly from the renewable energy boom. The technical innovators fair a little better, but
he who has the gold rules.
REFERENCES
[1]National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2007, January 10).
NOAA Reports 2006 Warmest Year On Record For U.S.
188
[2]Energy Information Administration, Official Energy Statistics from the U.S.
Government, August, 2008
[3]Marc Gunther, “For Solar Power, the Future Looks Bright”, Fortune Magazine, October 4,
2008 . page 1.
[4]2007 World PV Industry Report
[5]Proposition 7, Renewable Energy Generation Initiative Statute, California General
Election, November 4, 2008
[6]Posted by Elsa Wenzel , “OptiSolar Sets Sights on World's Largest Solar Farm”,
Greentech, May 2, 2008.
[7]New Release,“PG&E Signs Contracts with BrightSource Energy for up to 900 Megawatts
of Solar Thermal Power”. Pacific Gas and Electric, April 1, 2008.
[8]Board, OptiSolar Webpage,
[9]Marc Gunther, “For Solar Power, the Future Looks Bright, Fortune Magazine, October 4,
2008 . page 2.
[10] http://www.noprop7.com/qanda.html
[11] Pradeep Chakraborty’s Blog, October 14, 2008.
[12]U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Program
[13]UC Berkeley News, Press Release by Robert Sanders, Media Relations , February1,
2007
[14] Biodiesel: Biodiesel Production and Marketing in Germany 2005. UFOP.
189
APPLICATION OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES TO SOLVE
WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION ISSUES IN BANDUNG
MUNICIPALITY, INDONESIA
Robby Yussac Tallar
Maranatha Christian University, Department of Civil Engineering,
Jl. Prof. drg. Suria Sumantri, MPH No. 65 Bandung 40164 West Java, INDONESIA
Email: [email protected] or [email protected]
Key words: water resources assessment, rainfall harvesting, biodrainage model
Abstract
The rapid expansion of urban sprawl and oftentimes, unplanned and even illegal
development has strained water supply and sanitation situation in most developing
countries, including Indonesia. Available water resources are severely impacted by
over abstraction, uncontrolled surface runoff, droughts caused by global climate
change and water pollution. Water supply and sanitation problem in Indonesia is
widespread even in small district. While Indonesia is rich in resources and has plentiful
water supply at the outset, on a number of islands of the archipelago water resources
have come under increasing pressure in recent years and are facing deterioration in
quality and quantity due to the socio-economic forces causing this deterioration.
Moreover, the degradation of groundwater level still happens in many cities in
Indonesia including Bandung Municipality, West Java. Bandung Municipality is facing
these problems simultaneously, and has recognized the need to develop a program to
manage water supply and sanitation in the region to address water quality and scarcity
issues in the next 25 years. Some appropriate technologies are introduced to solve the
issues. By rainfall harvesting technologies such as rain barrels and artificial recharge
well and also biodrainage model are the offered appropriate technologies besides
another alternative technology.
INTRODUCTION
The rapid expansion of urban sprawl and oftentimes, unplanned and even illegal
development has strained water supply and sanitation situation in most developing
countries, including Indonesia. Available water resources are severely impacted by
over abstraction, uncontrolled surface runoff, droughts caused by global climate change
and water pollution. Water supply and sanitation problem in Indonesia is widespread
even in small district. While Indonesia is rich in resources and has plentiful water
supply at the outset, on a number of islands of the archipelago water resources have
come under increasing pressure in recent years and are facing deterioration in quality
and quantity due to the socio-economic forces causing this deterioration. Moreover, the
degradation of groundwater level still happens in many cities in Indonesia including
Bandung Municipality, West Java. Bandung Municipality is facing these problems
simultaneously, and has recognized the need to develop a program to manage water
supply and sanitation in the region to address water quality and scarcity issues in the
next 25 years.
190
OVERVIEW OF STUDY AREA
Geographical Settings
The Bandung Municipality is a study area that located at western part of Java
Island, which is approximately 180 km south-east from the Capitol of Republic of
Indonesia-Jakarta and has an area for about 233.000 hectare. The Bandung
Municipality consists of two administrative jurisdictions : one is Bandung City and the
other is Bandung Regency. The area comprises an elevated basin ranging from 470 m
to 2,321 m (a.s.l). Geologically, the basin was made by eruption of volcanoes in the
north, east and south.
Figure 1. Location of Bandung Municipality
(Source : CPF_Bandung.pdf)
Water resources assessment
Water Availability
Based on previous research by Jayamurni on year 2006, the water availability in
Bandung Municipality is:
Wet Season
= 2.9 x 109 m3/year
Drought Season
= 1.44 x 109 m3/year
Average
= 2.17 x 109 m3/year
Thus, the potential water availability can be described in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Potential water availability in Bandung Municipality
Water Resources
Yield
(109 m3/year)
Rainwater
3.47
Surface water
0.2375 – 1.7035
Groundwater :
1.062
Intermediate aquifer
0.134
Deep aquifer
(Source : Jayamurni, 2006)
During the last 15 years, urbanization and industrial development in Bandung
Municipality have been taking place rapidly. It has a profound influence not only on
the quantity of water but also the quality of water in a certain watershed within.
Water Demand
191
The rapid urbanization in Bandung Municipality has been observed in recent
years. Population has been increased rapidly from 6,2 million people in 2000 to 6.9
million people in 2005. It was estimated that in 2025, the population in Bandung
Municipality becomes 11.4 million people (Table 2). It brings the problems about water
demand in the future. Besides, Bandung Municipality also have floods problem,
degradation of quality and quantity surface water problem, and a serious groundwater
level lowering problem.
Table 2: Estimated water demand in Bandung
Year
2000
2005
2010
Population
6.178.955
6.923.900
7.867.006
(person)
Domestic,
9.343
13.095
19.041
Municipal,
Industry
(m3/sec)
Irrigation
40.868
39.969
39.070
(m3/sec)
50.211
53.054
58.111
Total
(m3/sec)
(Source : Jayamurni, 2006)
2015
9.107.259
2020
10.190.304
2025
11.382.200
24.604
31.027
37.083
38.171
37.271
36.372
62.775
68.298
73.455
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Rainfall
Rainfall is one of the purest sources of water. When the rainfall was fallen in
Bandung area, only about 5% rainfall that absorbed by soil, the rest was become runoff
in rivers and impervious area. The average rainfall intensity in Bandung area is 2500
mm per year; the average of evaporation is 3.18 mm; the average of air pressure is
917.7 mb; the average of relative humidity is 77.3%. Based on data from Statistic
Indonesia Government Agency (BPS), only 2.78% people used rainfall for domestic
water use. Moreover, in Java Island, there was only 0.4% rainfall that has been used.
Given the fact that the majority of total water usage is used for non-consumtive use
such as showering, bathing, washing food, washing dishes, cooking and so on. So that
the rainwater harvested can be used for most non-consumption uses such as general
washing and flushing of toilets.
Groundwater
Groundwater in Bandung Municipality has been become one of important
sources of water availability especially for industrial use. However, an excessive
groundwater extraction due to rapid increase of water demand causes serious
groundwater level lowering problem. In Bandung Municipality, industry sector,
especially textile industries, used groundwater reached until 66,9x106 m3/year. Major
groundwater abstraction has been done in Cibeureum-Leuwigajah area, DayeuhkolotMoh.Toha area, Rancaekek and Majalaya area, etc. Based on data from year 2004, the
rate of groundwater level lowering is shown on Table 3.
Table 3: Rate of groundwater level lowering
192
Rate of groundwater
level lowering
(m/year)
3.11 – 5.12
1.27 – 4.32
1.61 – 3.10
1.63 – 2.12
Area
Land use
Cibaligo, Cibeureum,
Leuwigajah, Utama,
Cimindi
Pasirkaliki, Garuda,
Cijerah, Husein,
Buahbatu, Cibuntu,
Maleber, Arjuna
Dayeuhkolot,
Kebonwaru, Gedebage,
Kiaracondong
Cicaheum, Cipadung,
Ujungberung
Textile Industries
area
Residence,
Commercial area
Residence,
Industries area
Textile Industries
area
Residence,
Industries area
Residence,
Industries area
0.32 – 3.9
Majalaya
0.89 – 4.57
Pameungpeuk,
Banjaran, Ciparay,
0.38 – 1.6
Soreang, Katapang
0.52 – 3.85
Cikancung, Cikeruh,
Cimanggung
Residence area
(Source : Sachromi, 2006)
Surface water
Bandung Municipality has about 9 major rivers and the other surface water
resources such as reservoirs and well springs. The existing major reservoirs are Cirata
Reservoir, Juanda Reservoir, and Saguling Reservoir. They have several important
functions as electric generator, flood control, irrigation, recreation area, water supply
(industry and household) and aquaculture. The total area of all retention basins in
Bandung Municipality is 7.805 ha. The existing retention basins that has been built are
Cibatarua retention basin (capacity 7.5 x 106 m3), Cipanunjang retention basin
(capacity 22.4 x 106 m3), and Cileunca retention basin (capacity 11.3 x 106 m3).
Table 4: Surface water in Bandung Municipality
Major Rivers
Well springs
Cisangkuy
Sirah Cijagra
Cikapundung
Cigalumpit
Cikeruh hulu
Tarantang
Citarik hulu
Citamiang
Citarum atas
Cikareo
Ciwidey hulu
Cimahi
Cibeureum
(Source : Sachromi, 2006)
Major Reservoirs
Saguling
Cirata
Juanda
Existing Sanitation Condition
About 42 percent in Bandung Municipality have not a good sanitation. On the
other hand, about 58 percent of sanitation system directly connected with sewer system
in Bojongsoang area. Based on Word Bank data on year 2005, there was only 60.000
residences in 5 villages at Bandung Municipality that used septic tank. Furthermore,
sludge withdrawn from septic tank was dumped into river. Therefore, treatment
facilities in the area did not seem to working efficiently. Meanwhile, people who does
193
not have private toilet was using shared toilet. Most of shared toilet stood along
channel or ditch, and wastewater was directly discharged. Human excrements were
discharged into natural water body through nearly no treatment process in present
condition. In fact, feces floating in channel were always visible. In case inundation
occurred, that water comes to living area. It is not good hygienic condition.
ANALYSIS OF THE OFFERED APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES
Based on the calculation, the water demand on year 2005 in Bandung
Municipality can be covered approximately 62.5% from potential water availability.
Meanwhile, the estimated water demand on year 2025 is 2.316 x 109 m3/year and it
means the water demand on the future is higher than the average water availability that
only about 2.17 x 109 m3/year so that there is a deficit for about 0.146 x 109 m3/year.
To cover the deficit, there are several appropriate technologies offered to solve water
supply issues, by using rainfall harvesting facilities such as rain barrels and artificial
recharge wells.
Rain Barrels
The total rainfall yield is calculated as follows :
Total Rainfall Yield = Roof Area x Annual Rainfall x 0.9
Taking 100 m2 for roof area so the total rainfall yield = 100 m2 x 2.5 m x 0.9 = 225 m3/
year
Table 5: Rainfall yield
Roof Area (m2)
100
200
400
600
800
1000
Rainfall Yield (m3/year)
225
450
900
1350
1800
2250
Taking the assumption that to cover the deficit of water demand on year 2025 if only
depend on rain barrels facility so the roof area should be 6.5 x 107 m2. The total area of
Bandung Municipality is about 2.33 x 109 m2, so that only about 2.8% of roof area that
should be built rain barrels facility to harvest rainwater.
Artificial Recharge Well
By taking an assumption that the minimum volume area of artificial recharge
well is 6 m3 (Source:Books of Specification Standard about Artificial Recharge in Yards /SNI: 032453-2002), the targeted artificial recharge well can be calculated. If on year 2025, the
estimated population in Bandung Municipality is 11.382.200 persons, furthermore, if
one residence has 5 family members, so there are 2.276.440 residences in Bandung
Municipality. Each residence should have at least one artificial recharge well facility
with the minimum volume 6 m3 in their yard. So it means about 90.64% can cover the
water demand on year 2025. Figure 3 shows a typical design of artificial recharge well.
194
Figure 3. Typical design of artificial recharge well
(Source : practLowImpctDevel.pdf)
Biodrainage
For the alternative solution to handle the sanitation issues, there is a simple
facility that it called biodrainage model. This model is similar to Decentralized
Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) technology that effective, efficient and
affordable wastewater treatment solution for small and medium sized enterprises. It is
an effort to process wastewater with plant media. It is also an eco-friendly way of
treating polluted wastewater for reuse. Biodrainage used plant species that are suitable
in Bandung area, they are among others : red or yellow Anthurium, yellow or violet
allamanda, fragrant grass, water bamboo, red or yellow or white Canna, Dahlia sp., red
or green Dracenia, yellow or red Heleconia, dotted or black Caladium, red or white
Kenyeri, yellow or red lotus, red onje, red or white pacing, grass plants, papyrus,
banana plant, ponaderia, red or white sempol, spider lily, etc. From the past research, it
is a considerably effective and efficient means for handling heavy metal and poisonous
substance pollution so that it could be used to reclaim a waste disposal area by growing
plants on top layer of the disposal area or applying wetland method for a leachate pond.
Besides that, biodrainage model in a small scale also relatively economical as long as
land is available.
195
Figure 4. Typical design of Biodrainage model
Based on previous research, the results for the biodrainage model showed that
the efficiency removal rate of some parameters was good.
Table 6: Efficiency removal rate
Parameter
BOD
COD
Orthophosphate
Turbidity
Bacteria
Total Suspended Solids
Source : 1Tallar (2005)
2
PGDER (1993)
Efficiency Removal Rate
77.35% 1
71.36% 1
90.93% 1
95.41% 1
90% 2
90% 2
CONCLUSIONS
Rainfall harvesting technologies and biodrainage model are very appropriate to be
applied in Bandung Municipality to cover the water demand in the future that have
a deficit about 0.146 x 109 m3/year and to solve water supply and sanitation issues
in Bandung Municipality.
The design of this technologies depends on the typical conditions and the site
objectives, for examples the soil permeable condition, space requirement, the height
of water table, the slope, the socio-economic conditions of the residents and so on.
RECOMMENDATIONS

This technologies can be applied at schools, residence area, industries area,
commercial area, and the other public areas in Bandung Municipality.
There is a need for law enforcement and suitable regulations from government, and
also public awareness to apply this technologies.
Acknowledgements
The author wish to express sincere thanks to Maranatha Christian University, Ir. Heru
Susilo, M.Sc IPM as a Head of LPPM and Prof. Dr. Ir. Benjamin Soenarko, MSME as
a Dean of engineering faculty.
196
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Characteristics of Bandung Basin (Indonesia) between 2000 and 2005 as Estimated
from GPS Surveys.
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Basin Urgent Flood Control Project, The Study on Review of Flood Control Plan
Vol I, Indonesia.
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Demand in Greater Bandung on year 2025), Report for Hydraulics Engineers of
Indonesia meeting, Bandung, Indonesia.
[4] Legowo (2006) Pemenuhan Kebutuhan Air Baku di Cekungan Bandung Tahun
2025 (To Fulfill Water Demand in Greater Bandung on year 2025), Report for
Hydraulics Engineers of Indonesia meeting, Bandung, Indonesia.
[5] Puget Sound Action Team. (2005) Low Impact Development-Technical Guidance
Manual for Puget Sound.
http://www.psat.wa.gov/Publications/LID_tech_manual05/ (accessed 15 October
2006)
[6] Prince George’s County Departement of Environmental Resources (PGDER).
(1993). Design Manual for Use of Bioretention Stormwater Management. Division
of Environmental Management, Watershed Protection Branch. Landover, MD.
[7] Sachromi, Dicky. (2006) Penataan Ruang Metropolitan Bandung.( Bandung Urban
City Planning), Report for Hydraulics Engineers of Indonesia meeting, Bandung,
Indonesia.
[8] US Departement of Housing and Urban Development. (2003). The Practice of Low
Impact Development, USA.
197
Collection of useful data for sizing a grey water treatment plant at Butare
Central Prison
Cyprien Ndayisaba1, Benjamin R. Ngirabakunzi1, Léonard Nzabonantuma1, Alexandre
Kabanda2
1
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST), P.o.Box 227 Huye/ Southern Province/
Rwanda.
Website: www.irst.ac.rw, Email: [email protected]
2
Procter & gamble, Toronto, Canada.
Key words: wastewater, grey water, flow rate, BOD, fecal coliforms, Waste
stabilization ponds, constructed wetland.
Abstract
Rwanda faces serious environmental challenges as do many developing countries.
Environmental group from the Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) has
selected Butare Central Prison (BCP) to be the first beneficial of its research activities
because this centre has for long been in an alarming wastewater pollution situation. Our
goal is to conduct a profound and practical study of wastewater treatment aimed at reversing
the current status quo of environment disaster and thereby, protecting and enhancing the
public health. At the current stage of the project the group has achieved some results such as
the unification of all wastewater streams into one flow and the flow rate measurement, and,
the chemical-biological analyses. Results are important as they will serve in the calculation
and the designing of the natural system based wastewater treatment plant: BOD5 measured
by iodometric method has an average of 2150 mg/l. From ISO test, fecal coliforms are
greater than 105. The flow rate measured using triangle spillway and Kindsvater formula had
a mean value of 116.64 m3/day. The design temperature is estimated to be 18.4°C. The results
from analyses show that grey water from BCP is highly polluted and must be treated before
its disposal. The study and the feasibility of the plant treatment installation continue and the
construction activities of the facility itself will be launched as soon as all parameters are
determined and funds gathered.
Introduction
Rwanda is a developing country with a remarkable growing population. It is among
African countries with the highest density of population and the rural exodus phenomenon
increases the population in major cities. The urban population increase is associated with the
rise in water consumption and therefore, the increase of wastewater production. The results
from a study done in 2003 showed a mushroom increase in wastewater generation especially
after the year 1999 [8]. Important quantities of wastewater produced in Rwanda
municipalities are not purified before its disposal and yet, inadequate handling of wastewater
has serious consequences for human health, the environmental and economic development. It
contaminates water supply, increasing the risk of infectious diseases and deteriorating
groundwater and other local ecosystems, for instance after flooding [5]. Also, wastewater
with phosphorous and nitrates causes eutrophication of receiving water bodies [7]. We can
also mention unpleasant smell resulting in organic waste decay. In order to help to solve this
growing concern, the Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) launched this
wastewater treatment project that started in Butare city and the experience obtained from here
will be reproduced at several sites of the country. The present paper is done in order to report
the results of the first phase of an ongoing project at Butare central prison. The grey water
198
from bathroom, kitchen and sometimes from the medical facilities is our main preoccupation.
After the reunification of all wastewater streams, chemical and biological analyses were
carried out and flow rate was measured and data obtained will be used in sizing a treatment
plant.
Experimental set up
Description of the site
Butare central prison is located in Huye District, Southern Province. This prison of
more than 6 thousand inhabitants gets its water from a nearby well. After usage, black water
is conducted with faces into a biomethanisation unit to produce biogas that helps in cooking,
while grey water is delivered into nearby banana plantation without any treatment. Grey
water from BCP is considered to carry organic manure for plantations. Although the soil is an
excellent adsorbent for most soluble pollutants, domestic wastewater must be treated before it
can be used for crop irrigation to prevent the risk to both public and the environment [4].
Reunification of wastewater flows
The canalization of the grey water from BCP was done using PVC pipes, and
collectors. Two existing collectors were repaired and 7 new collectors were built. Those
collectors were interconnected with the pipes of 110 and 160 mm of diameter in compliance
with the estimated quantity of wastewater to be conducted. Upstream from the first collector,
screens and bypasses were installed in order to protect pipes downstream, but also to reduce
pollution by grit removal (figure 3):
Figure1: Exit from homes
Figure 3: Main exit after degritting
Figure 2: Solid waste from degritting
Figure 4: Exit from kitchen
It was observed that the composition of solid waste from screening was composed as follows:
-For the grey water from the dormitory site (figure 1 and 2), solid waste are essentially
composed of avocado seeds and peeling, worn clothes, packaging waste etc.
- For the grey water from the kitchen (figure 4), they are essentially composed of charcoal
pieces, beans and maize seeds, etc.
199
The screening reduces solid waste in wastewater, therefore, the generation of gases
that occurs by solid waste decay in water downstream. At the last collector, a channel was
built and a triangle spillway set up for flow rate measurement (figure 6).
Flow rate measurement
The flow rate was measured according to triangle spillway (V-notch) technique as
shown on the image below. The spillway was made from a piece of metal sheet that we
painted and graduated.
Figure 5: Triangle spillway
Figure 6: Flow rate measurement and sampling
Where: h= level of water above the notch in m
B= channel width in m
P= distance between the notch end the bottom in m
α= angle of the spillway
After measuring the water level above the notch (h), the calculation of the flow rate is done
using Kindsvater equation as follows.
5
Q = µ 158 tg α2 2 g (h0 + kh ) 2
[1]
Where: Q = the flow rate in m3/s
m = flow rate coefficient
α = angle of spillway
kh = coefficient taking account of superficial tension and viscosity
g = acceleration of gravity in m/s2
kh and m are given in abacus.
In our case of study, different values are B = 29 cm, P = 9 cm, α = 90° and g = 9.81 m/s2. The
channel has 14 m of length. Abacus gives the following values m = 0.592 and kh = 0.8 mm viz
0.0008 m [1]. Thus, numerical application in international system is calculated as follows,
taking the example of the maximum value where ho = 0.11 m.
5
8
90 °
Q = 0.592 x xtg
x 2 x9.81x(0.11 + 0.0008) 2
15
2
Q = 0.005715 m3/s viz 5.7 l/s
The detail from flow rate calculations is reported in the figure 7.
Chemical and biological analyses
Sampling
200
The sampling was done at the last collector, manually with latex gloves, polyethylene
bottle and cooling boxes to maintain the temperature around 4°C before reaching the
laboratory. After we noticed that the changes were important during a day more than between
days, multiple samples (6 per day) were taken for few days.
Methods of analysis
Table 1: Measured parameters and methods used
Parameter
Method of analysis
COD
HACH DR-2000 photometer and HACH COD reactor [9].
BOD
Iodometric method [9]
TSS
HACH DR-2000 photometer
Nitrates
Method MgO-DEVARDA [6]
Nitrites
Method MgO-DEVARDA [6]
Total nitrogen
Kjeldahl method [6]
Total phosphorus
Colorimeter method with UV-visible 320 SAFAS Monaco
after digestion with perchloric acid [6]
Turbidity
HACH DR-2000 photometer
Alkalinity
Titration by sulfuric acid 0.05 N [9]
Fecal coliforms
Membrane filter techniques, Reference: NF T 90-414-4021985 ISO 9308-1 1990
Results from flow rate measurement
The application in Microsoft Soft Excel for flow rate measurement according to
Kindsvater equation gave the following chart:
Figure 7: Flow rate variation with time
The flow rate was low on the days 6th November and 3rd December because of the
lack of fuel wood that limited culinary activities. Peaks in morning are associated with bath
and washings that are also observed around midday; while the evening peaks are related to
culinary activities. Thus, the mean flow was calculated using the data from two days 7th and
22nd November. This calculation gave the mean flow of 1.8 l/s, a value that matches the
201
estimation value using 15 l daily consumed by every prisoner according to prison authorities;
given the number of people equal to 7790 at the date of measurement. Assuming that daily
activities last 18 hours, the calculations based on measured mean flow rate led to 116.640 m
3
/day, while the estimation data led to 15 l per day x 7790 = 116850 l per day videlicet 116.85
m3/day.
Results from chemical and biological analyses
The quotations --- refer to failed analyses due to technical problems in laboratory like
power blackout, while ND refers to non selected samples (not done).
Table 2: Results for sample taken on 07/11/2007
Sample
reference
07/11/2007
8:00 AM
9:00 AM
12:00 PM
2:12 PM
4:12 PM
Parameters
Alkalinity
(gCaCO3/l)
4.485
0.550
0.438
0.590
---
NH 4 +
(g/l)
1.34x10-2
1.02x10-2
-------
NO2 (g/l)
1.2x10-3
1.8x10-3
-------
NO3 (g/l)
7x10-4
4.9x10-3
-------
PTot
(g /l)
6.1x10-3
1.2x10-2
4.5x10-3
1.1x10-2
1.2x10-2
Ntot
(g/l)
2.2x10-3
1.6x10-2
5x10-3
1.8x10-2
5.3x10-2
The above parameters are not directly involved in design of treatment facility which is
our aim, but they were analyzed in order to give information about others indicators of water
pollution. Their analysis was done in the laboratory of High Institute of Farming and
Agriculture (ISAE) located at Busogo. The following tables report results for parameters
analyzed in National University of Rwanda (NUR) laboratory of water quality located at
Kigali.
06/11/07
COD (mg/l)
BOD5 (mg/l)
Turbidity (NTU)
MES (mg/l)
Fecal coliforms (Cfu/100 ml)
7 : 00
AM
5820
--2100
2475
>1x 105
10 : 06
AM
2920
--1325
1675
>1 x 105
12 : 00
PM
2220
--675
900
>1 x 105
1 : 33
PM
5940
--ND
ND
ND
3 : 09
PM
4230
--ND
ND
ND
6 : 00
PM
3690
--ND
ND
ND
12 : 00
PM
3960
1380
1825
>1 x 104
1 : 30
PM
4020
ND
ND
<1 x 100
3 : 30
PM
6190
ND
ND
ND
6 : 00
PM
3280
ND
ND
<1 x 100
07/11/07
COD (mg/l)
Turbidity (NTU)
TSS (mg/l)
Fecal coliforms (Cfu/100ml)
7 : 00
AM
4030
1600
2200
ND
09 : 00
AM
3490
1230
1600
ND
Fecal coliforms are reported to be greater than 105 Cfu/100 ml in the morning while
they are reported to decrease in the afternoon. The presence of pathogens in the morning is
associated with the body washing that is actually not taking place in the evening. Theoretical
values for grey water range between 104 and 107 [2].
202
22/11/07
BOD5 (mg/l)
COD (mg)
07 :10
AM
1000
---
09 : 23
AM
1460
---
10 :52
AM
2090
---
12 :50
PM
1746
3150
3 : 20
PM
--11610
4 :50
PM
--3240
Ratio COD / BOD5
---
---
---
1.8
---
---
Hour
DCO (mg/l)
DBO5 (mg/l)
BOD5/ COD
7:15
AM
1630
1086
1.5
9:08
AM
6230
2298
2.71
10:25
AM
6490
2800
2.31
11:40
AM
5460
2298
2.37
12:45
PM
4950
2565
1.93
2:00
PM
4230
2052
2.06
3:45
PM
4550
2052
2.22
5:35
PM
2830
2052
1.38
Average
4546
2150
2.11
BOD of domestic wastewater usually ranges between 50 and 400 mg/l [9]. Grey water
from BCP has a mean BOD that overtakes 400 mg/l, characteristic of industrial wastewater.
This concentration of pollution is associated with the quantity consumed by each prisoner
that was reported to be 15 l/prison per day according to BCP authorities. However, the ratio
COD/BOD is one of urban wastewater that is generally around 2 [7]. From the results above,
we can calculate the pollution generation per capita as follows: (116.64 m3/day x 2150 g/m3
of BOD) / 7790 people that equals to 32.2 g of BOD per capita. Note that this number is only
for pollution associated with grey water not to all pollution produced by each prisoner. These
results will be used to calculate and design an adequate treatment plant based on natural
systems “Waste stabilization ponds and/or constructed wetlands” in compliance with site
specifications. Furthermore, these technologies have proven to be effective alternatives for
treating wastewater in tropical countries [3].
Conclusion
The study has shown that grey water from Butare Central Prison is highly polluted
with mean BOD5 of 2150 mg/l and more than 105 CFU/100 ml of fecal coliforms. The flow
rate had a mean value of 116.64 m3/day. These values indicate that the grey water from BCP
needs to be treated before its disposal. In this perspective, a study of feasibility of natural
system based treatment plant is ongoing and the final decision will depend on site
specifications that are also planned within the current year.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the following institutions: firstly to The Ministry of Internal Security and
BCP authorities for their permission to carry out our research. Secondly to Rwanda Pharmaceutical
Laboratory (LABOPHAR) for the equipment they lent us, and lastly to National University of Rwanda
Laboratory of water quality located at Kigali and to the Laboratory of High Institute of Farming and
Agriculture (ISAE) located in Busogo for their assistance in laboratory activities.
References
[1]. Calier, M. (1986). Hydraulique générale et appliquée, Edition Eyrolles, Paris.
[2]. Droste R.L. (1997. Theory and practice of water and wastewater treatment, John Wiley & Sons
Inc., Canada.
[3]. Kayombo, S. et al.(2005). Waste stabilization ponds and constructed wetlands Design manual,
Dar es Salam. At:
www.unep.or.jp/Ietc/Publications/Water_Sanitation/ponds_and_wetlands/Design_Manual.pdf,
accessed in July 2007.
203
[4]. Mohammed, B., Design and performance evaluation of a wastewater treatment unit, University of
technology Minna Niger State, Nigeria, AU J.T. 9(3): 193-198 (Jan. 2006).
www.journal.au.edu/au_techno/2006/jan06/vol9num3_article11.pdf, accessed on April 24, 2008.
[5]. NEP/WHO/HABITAT/WSSCC: Guidelines on Municipal Wastewater Management. UNEP/GPA
Coordination
Office,
The
Hague,
the
Netherlands
(2004).
At:
http://esa.un.org/iys/docs/san_lib_docs/guidelines_on_municipal_wastewater_english.pdf,
accessed in June 2008.
[6]. Page et al. (1982). Methods of soil analysis, part 2, Madison, USA.
[7]. Ramade, F. (2000). Dictionnaire encyclopédique des pollutions, Les polluants : de
l’environnement à l’homme, Ediscience internationale, Paris.
[8]. Rulinda, J. B., Inventaire des gas à effet de serre liés aux déchets, Projet MINITERE GF/2724-014331/Rev.01-GF/2010-01-08/Rev.1 «Elaboration de la Communication Initiale Nationale relative
à la Convention-Cadre des Nations Unies sur les Changements Climatiques "CCNUCC"», 2003
(Unpublished).
[9]. Tardat-Henry, M. (1992). Chimie des eaux, Les éditions Le Griffon d’argile, Canada.
204
DUG WELL CONTAMINATION- THE KERALA SCENARIO
1
Biju M. S and 2George K. Varghese
1
M.Tech. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, Kerala, India-673601
2
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, Kerala, India-673601
[email protected], [email protected]
Key words: Septic tank, Soil absorption system, Coliforms, Dug well
Abstract
In Kerala state (India), a substantial portion of the population depends on dug wells or other
ground water sources for their drinking water requirements. It is estimated that there are
over 6 million dug wells in the state catering to the domestic water demands of more than
half of its population. The main sources of dug well contamination are identified as the on
site waste treatment systems (OSWTS) like septic tanks. The guidelines laid down by building
rules to avoid this contamination were found to be insufficient. The safe distance between
well and an onsite sanitation system will vary from location to location. Based on
Physiographic classification, sociological data and previous studies a few soil zones were
identified as crucial to the study. Out of the various zones identified as important, one zone
was considered for the present study. From the current investigation, it is found that the
contamination level in dug well depends upon the horizontal distance between the dug well
and OSWTS as well as depth of water table. The sufficient horizontal distance for different
water table depth values to avoid contamination were thus calculated.
Introduction
Kerala (between longitudes 74o54’E & 77o25’E and latitudes 8o17’N & 12o47’N) - the
southern most among the twenty seven states of India- is one of the thickly populated regions
in the world, even though the current population increase is only 9.4 % per decade. Unlike
other Indian states, Kerala has achieved commendable progress in the social, cultural and
public-health sectors. Many of the indicators of social progress for the state are comparable
with that of the developed nations.
The state of Kerala is blessed with amazing greenery and water wealth. The state
receives an average annual rainfall of over 3000mm. It has many small and large rivers (44),
thousands of ponds (1, 35,620), numerous streams (3,200), many lakes (658) and a number of
rivulets (187). Apart from these, the State has more than 6 million wells. The State which is
supposed to be water rich faces so many water related problems.
The water related problems faced by the state are due to the following reasons
o Lack of serious and concerted efforts in water conservation.
o Increasing water contamination and improper use of water.
In spite of the fact that Government is taking many initiatives for providing fresh
water supply in different regions of the State, more than half of the population depends on
dug wells or other ground water sources for their drinking water requirements; and very often
the well water is consumed without any treatment.
The main sources of dug well contamination are found to be on site sanitation systems
like leach pits and septic tanks. Due to the very high density of residential units and dug wells
205
in the state, most of the wells are subjected to microbial contamination from septic tank
effluent. If the distance between the soil absorption system (SAS) and the well is not allowed
to fall below a certain limiting value (which is characteristic of a given soil type) for a
particular water table depth, the contamination can be greatly reduced, there by saving the
large amount of resources spent on the treatment, in terms of energy, man power, money, etc.
Present Scenario
There were many studies in the recent past which investigated into the level of contamination
of dug wells in Kerala. A study conducted by Centre for Water Resources Development and
Management (CWRDM), a government research institution, reveals that 80 to 85 % of dug
wells in Kerala are polluted by faecal contaminants [1]. The study conducted by ‘Malayala
Manorama’, the popular Malayalam daily, in a project named ‘Palathulli’ reported that
majority of the dug wells in Kerala state are contaminated and not safe for drinking. Their
findings are shown in fig.1. [2]
A study on the bacterial quality of water in selected wells in Kerala jointly conducted
by Kerala Water Authority and Kerala Pollution Control Board (KWA, 1991) showed that
water in none of the open wells investigated was safe for drinking.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India specifies the limit of Total
Coliforms Organism (MPN/100ml) in drinking water source without conventional treatment
but after disinfection, as 50 or less. According to the earlier legislation prevailed in the state,
the minimum distance between dug wells and SAS was 15m, which underlines the
importance of a sufficient soil-path length in contaminant removal. But as per the revised
Kerala Municipality Building Rules 1999(chapter XVI), which states “…No leech pit, sock
pit, refuse pit, earth closet or septic tank shall be allowed or made within a distance of 7.5
metres radius from any existing well used for supply of water for human consumption or
domestic purpose or within 1.20 metres distance from the plot boundaries…”, this distance
was reduced to 7.5 m.
206
Figure 1: Spatial distribution of Faecal Coliform Bacteria in Kerala well water
Many earlier studies conducted in the state regarding microbial contamination of
wells suggested safe distance between well and septic systems and this distance is much
above what is given in the Kerala Municipality Building Rules 1999. Thus a critical study of
the issue becomes relevant.
Experimental Investigations
The parameters which influences the removal of microorganisms from septage in soil
include grain size, Ionic strength, Bacteria sizes, Temperature, Soil Profile, Moisture content,
Salt content, pH, Time, Nutrient supply, Hydraulic conductivity and Length of travel. [3], [4],
[5] Thus, safe distance between well and an on site sanitation system will vary from location
to location. All parameters except the length of travel are assumed same for an area selected.
The length of travel depends on two factors, water table depth and horizontal distance
between well and soak pit. The flow direction is also a factor but the sample stations are
selected visually so that always the flow is towards the well.
207
‘Resource Based Perspective Plan 1997’, prepared by Kerala State Land Use Board
divided the soil of Kerala state in to 32 types connected to regions. [6] This classification was
taken as the basis for the study. As the efficiency of an SAS depends on the ability of the soil
to remove contaminants which in turn depend on the soil type, depth and extend, a study
conducted on one soil zone can be applied to all regions with similar soil profile. Thus, for
each soil zone a safe distance can be recommended. Before selecting a study area it is
important to identify the soil zones that are crucial to the study. For this, Physiographic
classification, sociological data and previous studies were used as guidelines.
Kakkodi, a place 16 km from the lab where this study was carried out, has 95% of its
soil profile falling in a soil zone identified as crucial to the issue of dug well contamination.
The selected area, Kakkodi, in Calicut district contains about 1750 houses. There are regions
in Kakkodi where the houses are very close to each other and also regions where one can find
isolated dwellings. Thus it was an ideal place for getting water samples for an unbiased
analysis. The place presented a typical cross section of a Kerala village with people
belonging to all social and economic status. The main source of water for the residents of
Kakkodi is dug well.
From the previous studies, it is assumed that the sanitation systems which are at a
distance of more than 35 metres will not affect the wells. Thus, to avoid influence of more
than one septic system, only such wells were considered for study where there was not more
than one septic system within a distance of 40m from it. Only the septic tank- soak pit system
and wells were considered for the study. Units like a cesspool were not considered as the
present regulations do not permit such systems of treatment. The wells considered for study
may or may not have been used as sources of drinking water, but were visibly clean. The
chances of contamination with animal waste like chicken litter, cow dug were to be avoided
since that also can influence the indicator micro organism level in water. This was achieved
by carefully selecting the wells.
Guidelines for drinking-water quality given by World Health Organization (WHO)
recommend multiple-tube fermentation technique for detection and enumeration of coliform
organisms, thermo tolerant coliform organisms and presumptive Escherichia coli. Drinking
water standards give
microbial contamination level in MPN of coliform bacteria per
100ml.Considering these points multiple tube fermentation technique was adopted as the
experiment method.
A regression analysis was done by considering water table depth and horizontal
distance between well and SAS as independent parameters and microbial concentration in the
well water as the dependent.
Results and Discussion
The test results are shown in Fig 2. MPN of coliforms obtained in the laboratory analysis in
y-axis is plotted against corresponding path length in x-axis.
208
3500
3000
MPN/100ml
2500
2000
first trial
Expon. (first trial)
1500
1000
500
0
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Path length in M
Fig.2. Relation between path length and MPN values
The path length was determined from the horizontal distance and water table depth
using a Matlab code. The concentration (as MPN) when Plotted against the calculated path
length gave a trend line that had a very low Percentage Root Mean Square Error (PRMSE)
value of 0.3. The equation of this curve is used to calculate the safe parabolic path length and
corresponding horizontal distance for any given water table depth.
x=
1
 C 
ln

− .3781  34309 
From the above equation the safe path length, such that the C value of 50MPN
suggested by the CPCB is not exceeded, is calculated as 17.27m, provided, it is the only one
SAS contributing coliforms to well water. If there is more than one soak pit situated within
the influence zone, the sum of the microbial concentration values contributed by each soak
pit individually must be less than the limiting concentration value. So before placing a soak
pit near to a well, position of existing soak pits should be considered. Now, if the worst case
of having a well under the influence of 4 soak pits is considered, it can be easily shown that
the safe distance increases to 21m. Thus, this distance can be suggested as the minimum safe
path length for the selected soil zone. Corresponding to this 21 metres of travel distance and
different water table depths, the horizontal distance are listed in table 1. The water table depth
varies according to the season and the worst case should be considered to get the horizontal
distance.
209
Table 1. Safe horizontal distance for different water table depths
Travel Distance from
well to soak pit
Water table
depth
Horizontal
distance
In metres
In metres
In metres
21
0
21.0
21
2
20.60
21
4
20.00
21
6
19.25
21
8
18.25
21
10
17.00
Conclusion
The study has brought to light that the dug wells of Kerala are subject to considerable
bacterial contamination during all seasons. Though the exact sources could not be identified
in all cases, the latrines situated close to the wells were found to have great influence on
contamination. The guidelines laid down by building rules to avid this contamination were
found insufficient .Certain policy guidelines and modifications in building rules might help in
improving the present situation. A horizontal distance of 21 meter between well and soak pit
will be sufficient to avoid microbial contamination due to this source in Kakkodi a village in
Calicut district. The same value can be used for other regions where the soil properties are
similar.
Acknowledgement
The authors express their heart felt gratitude to Prof. V. Mustafa, Dr. Santhosh G. Thampi
and Prof. S Chandrakaran, all from Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut.
Reference
[1] Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM)-2007,
Resume of the study : Assessing the risk to ground water from on-site sanitation in
rural Kerala
[2] www.manoramaonline.com/advt/palathulli accessed on 13-08-2007
[3] Fontes .D. E., Mills a. L., Hornberger g. M., and Herman j. S. Sept. 1991, Physical
and Chemical Factors Influencing Transport of Microorganisms through Porous
Media, Environmental Microbiology, 2473-2481 Vol. 57, No. 9.
[4] Gannon, J. T., U. Mingelgrin, M. Alexander, and R. J. Wagenet. 1991.Bacterial
transport through homogeneous soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 23:1155–1160.
[5] Reneau R B,Jr., Agedorn C.H, and Degan M.J, 1989, Fate and transport of
Biological and Inorganic contaminants from on site disposal of domestic waste
water, Journal of Environmental Quality ,Volume 18.
[6] Kerala State land Use Board- 1997, Resource based perspective plan
210
Zinc and Chromium removal mechanisms from industrial
wastewater by Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms
Gakwavu R. J., 2,3 Sekomo B. C. and 1,2Nhapi I.
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Applied Sciences, National University of
Rwanda, P.O.Box. 117 Huye, Southern Province, Rwanda; 2 UNESCO-IHE Institute for
Water Education, PO Box 3015, Delft, the Netherlands; 3Department of Chemistry, Faculty
of Sciences, National University of Rwanda, P.O.Box. 117 Huye, Southern Province,
Rwanda; Email: [email protected]
1
††
Key words: Chromium, removal mechanisms, wastewater, water hyacinth, Zinc
Abstract
Zinc and chromium are environmental pollutants toxic even at very low concentrations.
Domestic and industrial discharges are probably the two most important sources for
chromium and zinc in the water environment. Rwanda is still facing problems of heavy metal
discharges into natural ecosystems by factories and households without any prior treatment.
The objective is to investigate the major mechanisms responsible for Cr (VI) and Zn (II)
removal form industrial wastewater by water hyacinths. pH effects, plant relative growth,
trace metal remaining in water samples, translocation ability, bioconcentration factor,
adsorption, bioaccumulation and uptake mechanisms were studied. The pH slightly increases
from the start time (0 hr, pH= 6.7) to 48 hr (pH= 7.64 to 7.86); but after 48 hr of experiment,
the pH decreases due to the saturation of bound sites, so some H+ are released in water
samples. The relative growth significantly decreased (P ≤ 0.05) from 1, 3 and 6 mg/L in 1
week but it decreased linearly slightly after 1 week, with increasing (P ≤ 0.05) metal
concentrations. 56.7% of Zn (II) was accumulated in petioles, 27.0 % in leaves and 16.3% in
roots whereas for Cr (VI) 73.7% was taken up in roots, 14.1% in petioles and 12.2% in
leaves. It was seen that 17.6%, 6.1% and 1.1% were adsorbed for 1, 3 and 6 mg/L of Zn (II)
concentrations, respectively, by water hyacinth plants. For Cr (VI), 9.0, 36.4 and 54.6% were
adsorbed for 1, 3 and 6 mg/L, respectively. The order of translocation ability for Cr (VI) was
leaves<petioles<roots in water hyacinth whereas for Zn (II) was leaves<roots<petioles.
INTRODUCTION
Zinc and chromium are environmental pollutants toxic even at very low
concentrations. Pollution of the biosphere with toxic metals has accelerated dramatically
since the beginning of the industrial revolution [1]. The primary sources of this pollution are
the burning of fossil fuels, the mining and smelting of metals, municipal wastes, fertilizers,
pesticides and sewage. Heavy metals are of great concern primarily due to their known
toxicity to aquatic life and human health at trace levels [2]. It was reported that domestic and
industrial discharges are probably the two most important anthropogenic sources for metals in
the water environment [3]. However, the lack of a reliable method to predict metals
distribution in treatment units is a key weakness in determining metals fate and transport in
wastewater treatment processes, and therefore, the development of effective pre-treatment
guidelines [4].
The removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions has therefore received
considerable attention in recent years. However, the practical application of physicochemical
technology such as chemical precipitation, membrane filtration and ion exchange is
*†† Author for correspondence
211
sometimes restricted due to technical or economical constraints. For example, the ion
exchange process is very effective but requires expensive adsorbant materials [5] [6].
The use of low-cost waste materials as adsorbents of dissolved metal ions provides
economically viable solutions to this global problem and can be considered an eco-friendly
solution [7] [8]. At present, emphasis is given to the utilization of biological adsorbants for
the removal and recovery of heavy metal contaminants [9].
In Rwanda, the problem is still critical because there is no appropriate system of heavy metals
removal, particularly for zinc and chromium. The development of such a system to remove
these toxic contaminats is possible in Rwanda given the availability of water hyacinth. Water
hyacinth in the country causes serious problems in many aquatic ecosystems; however, it is
possible to use it in wastewater treatment by inoculating wastewater treatment ponds with
water hyacinth. This system is inexpensive and can contribute to cleanup in Rwanda with
more appropriate technologies.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
Sample collection area description
The experiment was performed using free-floating water hyacinth plants. The Water
Hyacinth plants (E. crassipes) were collected from a natural wetland area called Nyabugogo
located in Kigali city and was transferred to the laboratory of National University of Rwanda
in big plastic buckets as shown in Figure1and placed under natural sunlight for several days
to let them adapt to the new environment in the laboratory. Then plants with similar size,
weight and shape were selected, rinsed with distilled water to remove any epiphytes and
insect larvae grown on plants and then put in small buckets for experiments as shown in
Figure 2.
Fig.1: Water hyacinth plants in big container
set up.
Fig.2: Plan view of experimental
All experiments were run in batch mode, using a nutrient solution containing 500 ml
of tap water from the valley located at Butare near the Natural Science Centre, 500 ml of
wastewater from the Nyabugogo wetland and 20 mg of Ca(NO3)2 .4H2O and NH4Cl, and 40
mg of K2HPO4. Total fresh weight of plants in each bucket was measured before the start of
each growing time: 1, 2 and 4 weeks.
Description of the experimental laboratory pilot scale
The experimental laboratory pilot for zinc and chromium removal mechanisms
consisted of 12 small buckets as show in Figure 2. Three buckets without water hyacinth
plants served as controls (blanks) containing 1, 3 and 6 mg/L of zinc and chromium. Nine (9)
small buckets with water hyacinth plants were established with 3 buckets each containing1, 3
and 6 mg/L of zinc (ZnCl2) and chromium (K2CrO4). Buckets were maintained for 1, 2 and 4
weeks as the experimental period time. All experiments were performed in the laboratory at a
constant temperature (25ºC).
212
A stock solution (1,000 mg/L) of each metal was prepared in distilled water which
was later diluted as required. Individual plants were initially rinsed with distilled water to
remove epiphytes, microbes, and any nutrient that might be transferred and then placed in 2L
small plastic buckets containing 1L of solution (0.5Lfrom Nyabugogo wetland + 0.5L from
Butare valley ). They were maintained in water supplemented by the heavy metals by adding
the required volume of zinc and chromium stock solutions to obtain final concentrations of 1,
3 and 6 mg/L of Cr (K2CrO4) and Zn (ZnCl2), respectively.
Distilled water was added in order to compensate for water loss through plant
transpiration, sampling and evaporation. Water samples and pH measurements were taken
every 60 minutes for the first 6 hours and then one sample per day during 1, 2 and 4 weeks of
exposure to the metal solution. All samples were filtered using 0.45 µm cellulose acetate
filters (wattman papers) and acidified with 5 drops of nitric acid prior to storage of samples.
Samples were then analyzed using Perkin Elmer Atomic Absorption Spectrometer.
After each test duration (1, 2 and 4 weeks), final fresh weight for each water hyacinth
plant was taken and plants were harvested for other analyses. They were separated into
petioles, roots and leaves and were analyzed for relative growth, metals accumulation,
translocation ability, bioconcentration factor (BCF) and adsorption on the outer surface of
roots. In addition, the metals remaining in the solution were measured to assess the removal
potential of water hyacinth plants.
Data analyses
a) Relative Growth (RG)
Relative growth of control and treated plants was calculated to assess the effects of
zinc and chromium concentrations on water hyacinth plant growth: RG = FFW/IFW. Where
RG denotes the relative growth of the water hyacinth plants during experiment period, it is
dimensionless; FFW denotes final fresh weight in grams of water hyacinth plants taken at the
end of each experiment period and IFW denotes the initial fresh weight in grams of water
hyacinth plants taken before starting experiment.
b) Bioconcentration Factor(BCF)
The BCF provides an index of the ability of the plant to accumulate the metal with
respect to the metal concentration in the substrate. The BCF was calculated as follows: BCF
= (P/E)I . Where i denotes the heavy metals, BCF is the dimensionless bioconcentration
factor, P represents the trace element concentration in plant tissues (mgL-1), E represents the
initial concentration in the water (mg/L) or in the sediment (mg/kg dry wt). A larger ratio
implies better phytoaccumulation capability.
c) Metal Accumulation
Metals accumulation in plant and water samples was measured. Digestion of samples
in this study was performed according to the Standard Methods by APHA.7 [10]. Plant
biomass samples were decomposed to dry matter by heating at 105°C for 24 hours in a hot
air oven and the ash was digested with nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),
filtered through a Wattman® paper filter into a volumetric flask before Atomic Absorption
Spectrometer analyses. The three following mechanisms were performed in analyses to
differentiate the metal adsorbed, bioaccumulated, and translocated by water hyacinth during
the experiment period.
213
Adsorption
The adsorption consists of metal attached to the outer surface of the roots. To quantify the
metal adsorbed by water hyacinth; after the plant exposure to different concentrations of
chromium and zinc in different periods of times (1week, 2weeks and 4 weeks). After
experiment duration, the adsorption was determined by putting roots of water hyacinth plant
in nine 100 ml of EDTA-Na2 3, 24 mmolar respectively for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 and
45 min for removal of zinc and chromium trace elements on the outer surface of the roots.
Those EDTA-NA2 solutions were filtered, acidified by 5 drops of Nitric acid (HNO3) and
analyzed by Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) for zinc and chromium adsorbed by the
plants. The most important parameter to consider is the pH [11]. Generally when the pH
decreases, the toxicity of metal ions increases because the proportion of the adsorbed ion on
the root system decreases [12].
Uptake
The uptake process is a mechanism by which metal ions are transported across the cell
membrane and can be used in a building of new biomass or stored in vacuoles. To assess this
mechanism during our research; after experiment period, water hyacinth plants were taken
out form the small buckets, roots, petioles and leaves were separated, dried in dry oven at
105°C during 24h. Plant samples were transformed in ash, digested and analyzed by AAS to
identify the zinc and chromium concentrations in plant biomass (roots, leaves and petioles).
The results from AAS analyses show the plant parts which contribute more in metal
accumulation. The presence of carboxyl groups at the roots system induces a significant
cation exchange capacity and this may be the mechanism of moving heavy metal in the roots
system where active absorption takes place.
Translocation ability (TA)
The translocation ability was calculated by dividing the concentration of a trace
element accumulated in the root tissues by that accumulated in shoot tissues [13]. TA is given
by: TA = (Ar ⁄ As)i . Where i denote the heavy metal, TA is the translocation ability and is
dimensionless. Ar represents the amount of trace element accumulated in the roots (mgL-1
dw), and As represents the amount of trace element accumulated in the shoots (mgL-1 dw).
Statistical analysis
In order to detect quantitative differences in the data, statistical analyses were
performed.
Standard deviation
It was obtained from the variance by extracting the square root and was expressed in the unit
in which the measurements were taken:
S = ∑ fd
(n − 1)
2
Regression analysis
Regression is defined as the determination of statistical relationship between two or more
variables. In simple regression one variable (defined as independent) is the cause of the
214
behaviour of another one (defined as dependent variable). The correlation coefficient (r) is
expressed by equation:
r=
∑ dx.dy
∑ dx .∑ dy
2
2
9
8
7
705 hr
537 hr
393 hr
273 hr
177 hr
105 hr
57 hr
33 hr
21 hr
15 hr
10 hr
6 hr
3 hr
1 hr
6
5
4
0h
pH
Effects of pH variations
The initial solution pH was adjusted to 6.7 in the small plastic buckets using HCl or
NaOH. This is the pH tested in Nyabugogo wetland. The results from experiments are shown
in Figure 3 and show that the effects of pH vary considerably in different buckets with water
hyacinth plants over exposure time. Metal will precipitate as hydroxides when the pH of the
wastewater is raised to pH 8 to 11 [14].
Exposure tim e (h)
pH, 1mg/L
pH, 3mg/L
pH, 6mg/L
Fig.3: pH variations in plant water samples overtime
As a result, the extent of adsorption was rather low at low pH values. However, in the
equilibrium solid phase, Zn (II) and Cr (VI) ion concentrations increased with increasing pH
because of increasingly negative charges on the surfaces of the roots at high pH values. This
attracted positively charged Zn (II) and Cr (VI) ions more strongly. The ANOVA with
replications showed that for 1 mg/L, 3 mg/L and 6 mg/L there was no effect of exposure time
but high difference between pH effects and metal remaining in water samples (P ≤ 0.05). It
was seen that the pH effect variations were due to the saturation of binding sites on root
systems which affect the pH in water samples with water hyacinth plants by releasing H+ in
water samples.
Plants relative growth (RG)
The relative growth of water hyacinth plants at different concentrations of zinc and
chromium is shown in Table 1. It can be seen that the relative growth of plants decreases with
increasing of zinc and chromium concentrations.
215
Table1: Relative changes in growth of plants vs. zinc and chromium concentrations
Exposure time (week) with Zn
& Cr concentrations
1 wk, 1 mg/L
1 wk, 3 mg/L
1 wk, 6 mg/L
2 wks, 1 mg/L
2 wks, 3 mg/L
2 wks, 6 mg/L
4 wks, 1 mg/L
4 wks, 3 mg/L
4 wks, 6 mg/L
Initial water
hyacinth fresh
weight (g)
32.33
34.50
26.38
29.75
42.90
16.24
41.15
39.65
34.54
Final water Relative growth
hyacinth fresh
weight (g)
85.23
2.64
96.91
2.81
50.07
1.89
55.92
1.88
80.18
1.87
39.96
2.27
85.57
2.08
98.05
2.47
96.16
2.78
1 mg/L
8
3 mg/L
6 mg/L
6
4
2
0
initial conc.(mg/L)
conc.in plant
tissues (mg/L)
Variation of Zinc conc.
1 mg/L
10
BCF of Cr
conc. in m g/L
For water hyacinth plants treated with Zn and Cr, the relative growth significantly decreased
(P ≤ 0.05) from 1, 3 and 6 mg/L in 1 week but for 2 and 4 weeks, the relative growth
decreased only slightly with increasing (P ≤ 0.05) metal concentrations. The relative growth
exhibited a decreasing trend caused by relative increases in toxicity of chromium and zinc.
The analysis of variance showed that for 1 week exposure time, there is a high effect
(difference is significant) of initial concentrations (1, 3 and 6 mg/L) to the growth of the
plants (P > 0.05), but for 2 and 4 weeks related to initial concentrations, the difference is not
significant (P > 0.05). Xiaomei et al. [15] reported that the relative growth of water hyacinth
decreases when metal concentrations increase, confirming what was observed in this
investigation.
Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) of zinc and chromium
The bioconcentration factor (BCF) was calculated as the ratio of the trace element
concentration in the plant tissues at harvest to the concentration of the element in the external
environment [16]. The pattern of the bioconcentration factor of water hyacinth plants is
shown in Figures 4 and 5.
3 mg/L
6 mg/L
8
6
4
2
0
BCF
I.C
Conc./P.T
BCF
Variation of Cr Conc. in plant tissues
Fig.4: Variations in BCF of zinc
Fig.5: Variations in BCF of chromium
A high competition between zinc and chromium accumulation by the plants and zinc
was observed due to kinetics of these metals. The comparison of Zn (II) and Cr (VI) showed
that the BCF of zinc was higher than the chromium’s BCF for 1 and 3 mg/L, but very low for
6 mg/L for zinc. The plant accumulated more low concentrations than the high ones. It was
reported that there is no significant difference both for zinc and chromium when comparing
initial concentrations to the concentrations in plant tissues and bioconcentration factors (P >
0.05) for zinc and chromium.
216
4 5 m in
4 0 m in
6 mg/L
3 5 m in
2 5 m in
3 mg/L
2 0 m in
1 5 m in
1 0 m in
1 mg/L
3 0 m in
3
2
2
1
1
0
5 m in
conc.in (m g/L)
45 min
40 min
6 mg/L
35 min
30 min
25 min
3 mg/L
20 min
15 min
10 min
1 mg/L
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
5 min
conc. in m g/L
Adsorption
More trace elements of zinc and chromium were removed from 5 up to 15 minutes
and the high concentration observed for 6 mg/L was around 2 mg/L, for 3 mg/L was around
1.6 mg/L and for 1 mg/L was around 0.3 mg/L. The adsorption ability of water hyacinth
plants was seemed to be different when zinc and chromium are compared.
Period of time for removal (min.)
Period of time for removal
Fig. 6: Desorption of zinc
Fig.7: Desorption of chromium.
For zinc, 17.6% of 1 mg/L was adsorbed by the water hyacinth plants, 6.1% of 3
mg/L was adsorbed and the plants adsorbed 1.1% of 6 mg/L. For chromium, 9.0% of 1 mg/L,
36.4% of 3 mg/L and 54.6% of 6 mg/L were adsorbed on the roots of water hyacinth plants.
Meggo[17] has confirmed that aquatic plants are able to accumulate metal at low
concentrations.
Uptake for zinc and chromium
It was reported that 56.7% of zinc was accumulated in petioles, 27.0% in leaves and
16.3% in roots. The analysis demonstrated no significant difference for different initial
concentration and exposure time (p > 0.05) in uptake mechanisms of zinc. There was a
significant difference observed in plant parts in uptake processes (p ≤ 0.05). For chromium,
73.7% was taken up in roots, 14.1% in petioles and 12.2% in leaves, demonstrating the
preference of plants to store chromium in roots. The trend was the same for zinc; no
significant difference existed between plant parts (p > 0.05) and also between initial
concentrations in uptake processes (p > 0.05).
Translocation ability (TA)
The quantities of trace elements accumulated in the petioles exceeded those in the
shoots. Roots of water hyacinth accumulated about 3 to 15 times more trace elements than
did the shoots. It appears that chromium translocation is compared to zinc as shown in Table
3. The ability of plants to translocate trace elements of chromium increased for roots/leaves
(5.3 times for 1 mg/L, 6.5 times for 3 mg/L and 6 times for 6 mg/L). The number of times for
roots/petioles decreases (4 times for 1 mg/L, 4 times for 3 mg/L and 7 times for 6 mg/L)
because the order of storage was leaves<petioles<roots.
Table 2: TA of zinc
Table 3: TA of chromium
Zn (II) conc.
Roots/ Shoots
Roots/petioles
Roots/leaves
1 mg/L
0.382a
1.114a
3 mg/L
0.255a
0.732a
6 mg/L
0.383a
0.164a
2 weeks
Roots/petioles
Roots/leaves
0.478a
0.461a
0.485a
0.564a
0.439a
0.993a
4 weeks
Roots/petioles
Roots/leaves
0.171a
0.241a
0.510a
1.041a
0.109a
0.255a
1 week
I.Ca of chromium (VI)
Roots/shoots
1 mg/L
3 mg/L
6 mg/L
roots/petioles
4.104b
3.663b
6.831b
b
b
roots/leaves
5.288
6.487
5.965b
a: initial concentration; b: times of storage in roots
compared to shoots.
a: times of storage in roots compared to shoots.
217
The ANOVA shows the variability in translocation ability. It can be seen that the
difference is not significant between metal concentration (p > 0.05) and no significant
difference between roots and shoots translocation (p > 0.05). Stratford and co-workers [18]
found that metal accumulations in water hyacinth increased linearly with solution metal
concentration in order leaves<petioles<roots. In this research, the following order was
observed: leaves<roots<petioles. When the concentration is high, the water hyacinth plant
can only accumulate a low concentration in plant cells. This is in agreement with the results
of this study in the case of chromium concentration accumulation in water hyacinth plants,
where the high concentration was accumulated in roots followed by petioles and then leaves.
Water hyacinth materials were burned after all experiences to avoid the contamination.
CONCLUSIONS
From the above results, it is evident that water hyacinth when grown over wastewaters
in controlled environment/closed systems such as constructed wetlands can efficiently
remove zinc and chromium in wastewaters, provide fresh water, and possibly clean up the air
environment by removing CO2 and releasing 02. The removal mechanisms of zinc and
chromium by water hyacinth plants showed that the plant concentrated a high quantity of
metals. The aquatic plant water hyacinth have shown promising potential for the removal of
Cr (VI) and Zn (II) from industrial synthetic wastewater of three different concentrations (1,
3 and 6 mg / L).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are due WREM Program Rwanda in conjunction with UNESCO-IHE for the
support of this study. Appreciation is extended to supervisors and to all WREM staff for their
encouragement, provision of facilities and support for undertaking this study.
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thesis. Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium, 247 pp.
[3] Stephenson MG, Turner PP, Colt J, Knight A, & Tchobanoglous G (1980). The Use and
Potential of Aquatic Species for Wastewater Treatment. Publication No. 65, California
State Water Resources Control Board.
[4] Memon AR (2000). Heavy Metal Accumulation and Detoxification Mechanisms in
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[5] Lehmann M, Zouboulis AI and Matis KA (1999). Removal of metal ions from dilute
aqueous solutions: a comparative study of inorganic sorbent materials, Chemosphere 39.
881–892.
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[7] Volesky B, Holan ZR, (1995). Biosorption of heavy metals, Biotechnol. Prog. 11-235–
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[8] Mullen MD, Wolf DC, Ferris FG, Beveridge TJ, Flemming CA and Bailey GW (1989).
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[11] Keith C, Borazjani HS, Diehl V, Su2 Y and Baldwin BS (2006). Removal of Copper,
Chromium, and Arsenic by Water Hyacinths, Forest Products Department, Forest and
Wildlife Research Center, Mississippi State University, MS.
[12] Kara Y (2005). Bioaccumulation of Cu, Zn and Ni from wastewater by treated
Nasturtium officinale. Department of Biology, Faculty of science and Art.
[13] Volesky B, Holan ZR, (1995). Biosorption of heavy metals, Biotechnol. Prog. 11-235–
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[14] Barron L, Weand JJF and Benefield LD (1982). Process chemistry for water and
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[15] Xiaomei L, Maleeya K, Prayad P and Kunaporn H (2004). Removal of Cadmium and
Zinc by Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, Department of Biology, Faculty of Life
Science, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, P. R. China.
[16] Zayed A, Gowthaman S and Terry N (1998). Phytoaccumulation of trace elements by
wetland plants: I. Duck weed. J. Environ. Qual., 27: 715-721.
[17] Meggo R (2001). Allocation pattern of Lead and Zinc in Cyperus papyrus and Lemna
gibba. MSc Thesis DEW 147 DELFT IHE, Netherlands pp44.
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hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes). Aquat Toxicol 5(2), 117-28.
219
Characterization of abattoir wastewater of Kigali, Rwanda
‡‡
2
Muhirwa D., 2Nhapi I., 3Banadda N.
Faculty of Applied Sciences, National University of Rwanda, Box 117, Butare, Rwanda.
3
Uganda Industrial Rese, Box 7086 Uganda.
Tel. +250 08757091 E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The rapid pace and scale of urbanization in Rwanda represents a considerable
challenge for water resources management particularly the delivery of essential water,
sanitation services and environmental protection. The main objective of this study was
to analyze processes and products at Nyabugogo abattoir in Kigali, and to investigate
how they can be optimized for environmental safety. The effluent characteristics of the
abattoir were analyzed, with emphasis on nutrients, biologically active constituents,
and receiving water impacts. The study focused on establishment of the quantity and
quality of different raw materials, by-products and wastewater streams and assessment
of potential impacts of the application of cleaner production principles in abattoir
processes. The samples were collected fortnightly, preserved and analyzed in each case
using Standard Methods. The data were processed for trends and variance using SPSS
computer package. The wastewater parameters analyzed are temperature, salinity,
conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen pH, TSS, TDS, BOD5, COD, FOG, NO3-N,
TKN, total phosphorus, chloride, calcium and total coliforms. The capacity of the
abattoir is on average 566 cattle and 1512 goats and sheep slaughtered per week.
Results show that the current effluent quality is not suitable for discharge into the
watercourse. The abattoir wastewater streams’ total chemical oxygen demand (TCOD)
ranged form 7533 (± 723) from evisceration to 23,778 (± 1,673) mgl-1from slaughtering
step and the discharge into Mpazi River increases its TCOD from 213 (± 29) to 852(±
94) mgl-1 TSS varied between 2,452 (± 51) from slaughter process and 5,252 (± 174)
mgl-1. Results from the bacteriological analysis indicate that abattoir wastewater
discharged count (560 ± 81)105 cfu/100ml of total coliforms which increases from (2.8
± 0.58) 105 to (8.2 ± 0.86)105 cfu /100ml.
Keywords: abattoir effluent, cleaner production, sustainability, wastewater management
Introduction
The rapid pace and scale of urbanization in Rwanda represents a considerable challenge for
water resources management particularly the delivery of essential water, sanitation services
and environmental protection. In the last ten years, the city of Kigali has experienced a
spectacular growth in population leading to large volumes of domestic and industrial wastes.
Nyabugogo Abattoir uses large quantities of water and generates equally large quantities of
biodegradable wastewater with a high strength, and complex composition. There is, therefore,
an urgent need to develop sustainable management strategies that would control both water
and nutrients flows in Kigali city with the added advantages of cost reduction, handling
efficiency, increased food production, environmental integrity, and social benefits. This could
be achieved by of application of IWRM approach. This entails a holistic approach with waste
being seen as resource, and its management linked to that of water resources and nutrients
‡‡
Corresponding author
220
and this could be addressed from a ‘cleaner production’ angle [1], [2]. The cleaner production
concept has brought some innovative environmental thinking into the industrial sector,
especially in terms of waste avoidance/reduction and use of substitutes [3]. In this
framework, this study seeks to:
i.To assess the quantity and quality of the water and wastewater streams at the
Nyabugogo Abattoir and their impact r on the receiving Mpazi River;
ii.To explore the relationships between related parameters as a means of reducing
monitoring costs for the Abattoir;
iii.To explore ways of improving the abattoir performance for better environmental safety.
Description of the Study Area
The Nyabugogo Abattoir (Figure 1) is located in commercial zone and discharges effluent
into the Mpazi River. Adjacent to this area is a highly populated residential zone whilst other
industries discharge downstream of the abattoir. Besides the diffuse source of pollution from
the population, the main point source polluters of the Mpazi River are Centre Hospitalier
Universitaire de Kigali, the central prison of Kigali, Muhima police station, hotels and the
Nyabugogo Abattoir. The Mpazi River discharges into Nyabugogo River, a tributary of the
Nile River.
Figure1: An aerial view showing the Nyabugogo Abattoir and tannery, and Mpazi River
Figure 2: Abattoir flow chart, by-products and sampling sites
Analytical methods
Samples were analyzed for the following physico-chemical parameters: pH, temperature,
electrical conductivity, salinity, turbidity, TDS, TSS, dissolved oxygen measured in situ using
conductivity meter model HACH sinsionTM5, turbidity meter model wag-WT3020. The
analysis of BOD5, total COD, soluble COD, Oil and Greases, TKN, Nitrate, TP, Calcium, and
Chloride were done using standard methods. The bacteriological parameter analysed was
221
total coliforms. The analyses followed APHA’s Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater [4].
Data analysis and presentation
The means and standard error of the mean were calculated using 5 different samples taken
within 5 weeks during the experimental period. The data obtained from sites 7 and 9
respectively upstream and downstream of the discharge into Mpazi River were compared
using t-Test. The coefficient of correlation between related physicochemical parameters was
calculated by Pearson correlation test using SPSS package. Statistical significance was set at
p < 0.05 for t-Test (t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means) analysis in the comparison of
means of samples from Mpazi River.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize the quality of water and different wastewater streams from the
Nyabugogo Abattoir for five sampling runs under the monitoring period. The results were
split into two tables for clarity.
Table 1: Analysis results for water and various streams of wastewater, Sites 1 – 5
Parameters
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Site 4
Site 5
Temperature (°C)
23.5 ±0.6
24.2 ± 0.5
22.3±0.3
25.8 ± 0.9
22.9 ± 0.2
pH
7.4 ± 0.6
7.7 ± 0.4
8.2 ±0.5
7.2 ± 0.6
8.15± 0.1
0.10 ± 0
4.1 ± .36
0.62 ± 0.15
4.0 ±0.65
1.70 ± 0.09
EC (µScm )
180.3 ±13.9
1,890 ± 86.2
5,646 ± 707.9
3,137 ± 130.7
TDS ( mgl-1)
100 ± 5
6,792.4
±1303
3,434 ± 509
603 ± 149
2,657 ± 472
1,800 ± 289
TSS ( mgl )
8.7 ± 0.5
2,452 ± 51
3,492 ± 343
3,504 ± 143
4,412 ± 172
Turbidity (NTU)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3.2 ± 0.23
648 ± 66.1
208.2 ± 23.1
676.6±53.3
205.8 ± 23.1
1.1 ± 0.1
714 ± 13
244 ± 24.5
565 ± 43
423 ± 15
0.71± 0.16
693 ± 21
83 ± 7
937 ± 30
396 ± 55
O&G (mgl )
1
58
56
36
49
Chloride( mgl-1)
42 ± 5
190 ± 8
113 ± 4
72 ± 5
520 ± 27
7.6 ± 0.9
372 ± 26
54.9 ± 2
40 ± 3
218 ± 10
TCOD( mgl )
30 ± 7
17,019 ± 878
7,533 ± 723
13,126 ± 406
SCOD( mgl-1)
22 ± 4
23,778 ±
1673
7260 ± 1015
5,774 ± 806
1,445 ± 295
5,270 ±1187
SCOD/TCOD(%)
BOD5 ( mgl-1)
COD/ BOD5
78 ± 6
18 ± 3
1.67
29 ± 2
15,773 ± 847
1.51
33 ± 3
10,989 ± 814
1.54
18 ± 2
5,018 ± 180
1.50
44 ± 6
10,801 ± 456
1.21
TC (cfu/100ml)
0 ± 0.00
(9.4 ± 0.92)
105
(1.6 ± 0.40)
105
(29.6 ± 2.8)105
(33 ±
2.39).105
Salinity
-1
-1
-1
D.O ( mgl )
-1
Nitrate(mgl )
-1
TKN (mgl )
-1
TP ( mgl )
-1
-1
Calcium( mgl )
-1
Table 2: Analysis results for water and various streams of wastewater, Sites 6 – 9
222
Parameters
Site 6
Site 7
Site 8
Site 9
Temperature (°C)
pH
Salinity
Conductivity (µScm-1 )
TDS ( mgl-1)
TSS ( mgl-1)
21.0 ± 0.3
8.1 ± 0.1
3.54 ± 0.31
5,761 ± 361
3,231 ± 200.6
5,252 ± 174
20.8 ± 0.6
7.5 ± 0.1
0.34 ± 0.02
632 ± 33
328.4 ± 15.2
220 ± 16
19.8 ± 0.4
8.9 ± 0.2
1.82 ± 0.11
3,199 ± 66
1,833 ± 131.0
2,939 ± 71
21.3 ± 0.4
8.1 ± 0.1
0.54 ± 013
726 ± 77
358.6 ± 10.7
304 ± 34
Turbidity (NTU)
D.O ( mgl-1)
Nitrate ( mgl-1)
TKN ( mgl-1)
TP ( mgl-1)
O&G ( mgl-1)
Chloride ( mgl-1)
Calcium ( mgl-1)
TCOD ( mgl-1)
SCOD ( mgl-1)
%SCOD/TCOD
BOD5 ( mgl-1)
TCOD/ BOD5
Total coliforms
(cfu/100ml)
NA
NA
702.4± 101.4
735 ± 30
475 ± 73
61
275 ± 16
139 ± 10
20,271 ± 1552
7,001 ± 727
34.2 ± 1.4
12,786± 1230
1.58
(7.8 ± 0.86)105
662.4 ± 37.0
0.053 ± 0.11
114 ± 10.7
63 ± 1.9
3.1 ± 0.1
26
71 ± 5
12 ± 0.4
213 ± 29
133 ± 4
67.4 ± 9.6
161 ± 24
1.32
(2.8 ± 0.58)105
552.2 ± 26.6
224.0± 37.2
198 ± 16
438 ± 19
59
330 ± 14
337 ± 16
14,722 ± 811
6,100 ± 416
41.7 ± 3.1
13,157 ± 739
1.11
(560 ± 81.24)105
707 ± 37.6
0.509 ± 0.18
176.6 ± 13.3
82 ± 8
5 ± 0.4
31.8
130 ± 7
18 ± 0.6
852 ± 94
272 ± 24
33.5 ± 4.9
629 ± 27
1.35
(8.2 ± 0.86)105
In a further step, linear regression of analysis results obtained during the Nyabugogo Abattoir
wastewater and the Mpazi River water quality analysis are shown in Table 3. The results are
presented together with the corresponding equations and correlation coefficients (R2).
Table 3: Relationship between related parameters
Related parameters
Salinity and conductivity
TDS and Salinity
Conductivity and TDS
TCOD and BOD5
SCOD and BOD5
TCOD and SCOD
TCOD and TSS
TCOD and TKN
Fitted equations
y = 0.0006x – 0.15
y = 0.012x – 0.07
y = 1.8703x + 125.8
y = 1.411x–36.0
Y = 0.501x – 98.8
y = 1.8703x + 125
y = 3.620 x + 1753
y = 0.89 x + 29
Regression coefficients
0.97
0.94
0.97
0.95
0.97
0.97
0.61
0.87
The average water consumption was 69 m3/day for an abattoir of average of 81 cattle and 216
goat and sheep slaughtered per day. Compared to the water used in the USA, UK and
Australia, water consumption in Nyabugogo Abattoir is not high [7]. Table 4 presents the
quality of Nyabugogo Abattoir wastewater and its comparison with typical literature figures,
Environmental Health Safety Guidelines (EHSG) for Meat Processing.
Table 4: Comparison of Nyabugogo Abattoir wastewater quality with different guidelines
Parameters
Experimental value
Typical literature figures EHSG for Meat
(Table 2.1)
Processing (6)
pH
8.95 ± 0.26
6.5
6-9
COD
14,722 ± 811
9,790
250
BOD
13,157 ± 739
6,433
50
TSS
2,940 ± 71
1,886
50
TP
439 ± 19
128
2
O&G
56
46 ± 9
10
MPN 400/ 100 ml
Total coliforms
(560 ± 81) x 105
223
Nitrates are very high in the abattoir wastewater especially at the evisceration and slaughter
step where the urine and undigested stomach content concentrated in nitrate was mixed in
wastewater streams [7]. This is because wastewater streams for these processes consist of
mixed intestinal contents and blood with a high content of nitrates. The levels of nitrates in
the abattoir wastewater show that the wastewater could be treated by biological processes if
other inhibiting parameters, such as chloride, are reduced. The BOD5: N: P ratio was 31: 1: 1,
which makes it attractive to reduce the organic matter content first through such technologies
as anaerobic decomposition, and then further stabilisation before reuse. Conventional waste
stabilisation ponds or other natural treatment systems could be used for further stabilisation
and reduction of coliforms.
The concentration of TKN was very high in wastewater streams from slaughtering and
evisceration processes because of blood and intestinal contents. In the slaughtering area,
nitrogen is mainly in the form of TKN because nitrogen is maintained in organic compound
in the form of organic nitrogen and ammonia. For the wastewater from the evisceration
process nitrogen was mainly in the nitrate form the end product of nitrification because
wastewater was mixed with intestinal content and digested organic materials. The wastewater
discharged into impact on Mpazi River was concentrated in nitrogen mainly in the form of
nitrate.
The correlation coefficients of the fitted equations between total COD, BOD5 and soluble
COD were generally positive for the results for both Nyabugogo Abattoir and Mpazi River.
The high values of R squared (Rsq), and the significant value in the analysis of variance table
confirms the strong linear relationship that can be seen on the graph. The following can be
deduced:
•
The COD and the BOD5 for the Nyabugogo Abattoir wastewater and Mpazi River
showed that the degree of common variation between the two variables was highly
positive; thus, the COD and the BOD5 are said to be highly correlated.
•
The correlation coefficients were highly positive hence, they are very strong and
indicate a significant relationship between chemical oxygen demand and a five day
biochemical oxygen demand. The COD covers virtually all organic compounds, many
of which are either partially biodegradable or non-biodegradable. The strong
relationship between BOD and COD indicate that COD is could be used as an
indicator of the environmental oxygen load.
The TCOD / BOD5 ratio was situated between 1 and 2, suggesting that the organic
matter of this wastewater is highly biodegradable.
•
The BOD5 and the COD values obtained for the analysis of the effluents of the abattoir have
been found to be higher than those expected from literature [7]. These levels of BOD5 and
COD could constitute potential pollution problems for the Mpazi River since they contain
organic compounds that will require a large quantity of oxygen for degradation. The COD /
BOD5 ratios have been found to be less than 3. This implies that the compound in the
wastewater of the abattoir were relatively degradable, thus, a possible depletion of the
dissolved oxygen in the receiving rivers and a potential effect on aquatic life. The COD
correlates positively with the BOD5 of the wastewater. The correlation equations could be
used to estimate the BOD5 for reporting and treatment process control. The degree of
common variation between the COD and the BOD5 of the abattoir wastewater from
Nyabugogo and Mpazi River was highly positive the strength or magnitude of the
224
relationship is represented by the high values of the R2 and the significance of the correlation.
The correlation coefficient of the fitted equation for the prediction for Nyabugogo Abattoir
and Mpazi River may, therefore, be used to facilitate rapid wastewater quality assessment or
optimal process control by the abattoir once the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is measured
or vice versa.
The TCOD of Nyabugogo Abattoir wastewater was mainly in the form of suspended solids as
it is shown by the significant correlation between TCOD and TSS (R2= 0.75). The high
suspended solids concentration in wastewater discharged into the Mpazi River (Site 8)
compared to the septic tank influent (Site 5), also suggested some multiplication of biomass.
The high level of TDS and TSS values obtained for the wastewater streams support some of
the high values obtained for other parameters determined in this study.
Statistical correlation analysis of the data revealed that the wastewater load COD values
correlated with values measuring the presence of TSS, BOD5. This means that a change in
one parameter could account for a certain predictable change in other parameter. The abattoir
wastewater is characterised by substantial organic matter content, resulting in an average
TCOD concentration of 23,778 mgl-1 for abattoir wastewater stream from the slaughtering
area and 14,722 mgl-1 for the mixed wastewater stream discharged into the Mpazi River. The
wastewater stream from the evisceration process had a TCOD of 7,533 mgl-1which is low
compared to other sources of wastewater streams in the abattoir. The main contributors of
organic matter are blood, fat and paunch content from the evisceration step. Results show
great variability in the quality of wastewater streams, reflected by high standard error values
on the means. Great variability was observed with respect to the wastewater, depending on
the type of by-products generated on process, at the time of sampling.
Some useful relationships between parameters were calculated. According to the calculated
percentages soluble COD averaged 44.8% (± 6.8 %) and 18.9% (± 2.1%) of TCOD for
influent of septic tank and evisceration process respectively, and the significant correlation
between TSS and TCOD which is 0.79 indicate that very little amount of COD is soluble.
The SCOD of Mpazi River was 67.4 % (± 9.6 %) of TCOD before discharge and becomes
33.5 % (± 4.9 %) of TCOD after discharge. Most of it must be included in the paunch
content, coagulated blood and fat which increase particulate COD in downstream of the
discharge. The BOD5/ COD ratio range was 1.1-1.5, which was very high in comparison
with domestic wastewater, which has a range of 0.3-0.8 (8). Therefore, the biodegradability
of the wastewater was found to be high because the ration was less than 3 [8], [9]. In general,
organic contaminants entering the wastewater streams are from slaughtering and evisceration
processes. Blood and undigested materials are some of the major sources of organic wastes
entering wastewater streams, which end up waterways [7], [10].
Tables 1 and 2 show that the Nyabugogo Abattoir increases the organic pollution of Mpazi
River especially for TCOD and SCOD which were 213 mg/l and 133 mg/l respectively before
discharge and 852 mg/l and 272 mg/l respectively after discharge. The main contributor of
that organic material is the wastewater from the slaughtering area especially blood, as it is
represented by 23,942 mg/l of TCOD. The nutrients nitrogen and chloride are respectively
130.2 mg/l and 74 mg/l before discharge and 165 mg/l and 123 mg/l respectively after
discharge of the Nyabugogo Abattoir effluent. The BOD5 and the COD values obtained from
the analysis of the Nyabugogo processes streams have been found to be higher than expected
from Environmental Protection Agency standards guideline for discharge (BOD5 of 50 mgl-1
and the COD of 250 mgl-1) [11]. These levels of BOD5 and COD could constitute potential
225
pollution problems for the Mpazi River since they contain organic compounds that will
require a large quantity of oxygen for degradation.
The volume of the septic tank is 55 m3 and the wastewater produced per day was about 72
m3. The hydraulic retention time for anaerobic ponds is 8 day [11]. The quantity of
wastewater produced in 8 day is about 8000 m3.
Conclusions
From this study, it can be concluded that:
i. The effluent from Nyabugogo Abattoir is highly loaded with degradable organics and
other pollutant that pose an environmental risk to the receiving Mpazi River. The
existing septic tank is no longer sufficient to achieve any meaningful treatment, thus
allowing high loads of pollutants to enter the Mpazi River. Significant pollution of the
Mpazi River was observed for COD, BOD5, nutrients, chloride, calcium, total
coliforms and TSS.
ii. The inter-relationship between some parameters monitored could be used to deduce
the levels of others through certain equations, as derived in the study. This could
greatly reduce the cost of analysis.
iii. There are opportunities for improving the operations and processes at the Nyabugogo
Abattoir, thereby reducing environmental impacts and saving on costs. The
application of cleaner production concepts: good housekeeping practices, processes
optimisation and efficient use of resources by-products recovery and rendering,
together with the establishment of appropriate treatment systems, would greatly
improve the environmental performance of the Abattoir.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Dr Innocent Nhapi and Dr Noble Banadda for their guidance and comments in the
completion of this paper. Without their knowledge and expertise, this research could not have been
completed. We also thank WREM project authorities and lecturers for their class offering. The
technical staff of the DEA laboratory and the efforts of WREM students are also acknowledged.
References
[1] Gijzen, H.J., 2001. Low cost wastewater treatment and potentials for Reuse: A cleaner
production approach to wastewater management, paper presented at the international
symposium on low-cost wastewater treatment and re-use. , NVA-WUR-EU-IHE, Cairo,
Egypt, February 3-4, 2001.
[2] Nhapi, I. and Hoko Z., 2004. A cleaner production approach to urban water management:
Potential application in Harare, Zimbabwe. Water Science Technology 47 (7 -8)11-18.
[3] Huub J Gijzen and Nhapi I., 2005. A 3-step strategic approach to sustainable wastewater
management. Water SA Vol. 31 No. 1. on www.wrc.org.za.
226
[4] APHA/AWWA/WEF, 2005. Standard methods for the examination of water and
wastewater. 21sted., American Public Health Association /American Water Works
Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington DC.
[5] IPPC, 2003. Guidance for the red meat processing (Cattle, Sheep and Pigs) sector, UNEP
on http://www.unepie.org.
[6] EHSG, 2007, Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Meat Processing on
www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines.
[7] Massé D.I and Massé L., 2000. Characterization of wastewater from hog slaughterhouses
in Eastern Canada and evaluation of their in-plant wastewater treatment systems.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 42: 139 – 146. Lennoxville, Quebec, Canada.
[8] Ahn D.H., Chang W. S. and Yoon T. I., 1999. Dyestuff wastewater treatment using
chemical oxidation, physical adsorption and fixed bed biofilm process. Process
Biochemistry, 34 (5), 429 – 439.
[9] Jones H.R.,1974. Pollution control in Meat, Poultry and Seafood Processing. Noyes Data
Corporation. Park Ridge, New Jersey.
[10] Attiogbe, F. K, Mary G.A. and Nyadziehe, K., T., 2006. Correlating biochemical and
chemical oxygen demand of effluents: A case study of selected industries in Kumasi,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Sciences and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. On
www.wajae.org/papers.
[11] Metcalf and Eddy, 2003. Wastewater engineering : Treatment and reuse. McGraw- Hill,
Newyork.
227
USING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE TO COPE WITH CLIMATE
CHANGE IN RURAL GHANA
*
Gyampoh, B. A., S. Amisah2, and M. Idinoba3
1
Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. Email: [email protected]
2
Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. Email: [email protected]
3
Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
Keywords: Climate Change, Coping strategies, River Offin basin, Traditional knowledge
Abstract
Indigenous or traditional people often inhabit economically and politically marginal areas.
Their livelihoods depend on natural resources which are directly affected by climate change.
Such people have immense knowledge of their micro-environment but are usually neglected
in academic, policy and public discourses on climate change and adaptation. Coping with
increasing climate change/variability is a major challenge in less resourced, natural
resource dependent, low technology communities. This paper assesses coping strategies by
rural communities in the Offin River basin in Ghana to changing climate. Data was collected
in 2007 through questionnaires, focus group discussions, interviews and field observations in
20 rural communities. Key issues examined include observation of changes in local climate,
effects of the changes on livelihoods, strategies adopted to live with the changes, viability of
and challenges in implementing strategies, and what the people think is the way forward.
Identified coping strategies include water rationing, rainwater harvesting, indigenous
knowledge in agriculture and water management, and traditional taboo/forbidden days.
These strategies are based on traditional norms and practices, less expensive and easy to
implement but faces serious challenges due to modernisation. This calls for support and
integration of modern scientific and traditional knowledge in coping with effects of climate
change.
INTRODUCTION
As calls multiplied for high-tech solutions (installation of early warning systems using
cutting-edge satellite and ocean buoy technologies) as a means of preventing similar
disastrous occurrences like the 26th December 2004 tsunami off the coast of Indonesia, news
began to circulate about how indigenous communities escaped the tsunami’s wrath due to
their traditional knowledge. Unlike numerous persons who were attracted to the shoreline by
the unusual spectacle of fish flopping on a seafloor exposed by the sea’s withdrawal, the
Moken and Urok Lawai peoples of Thailand’s coasts and islands, the Ong of India’s
Andaman Islands and the Simeulue community of Indonesia all knew to head rapidly inland
to avoid the destructive force of the sea. The small villages of the Moken and Ong were
completely destroyed, but their inhabitants escaped unscathed. Even more striking was the
displacement of more than 80,000 Simeulue peoples beyond the reach of the tsunami. Only 7
persons died. This surprisingly efficient response, striking in its contrast with the frightening
losses suffered elsewhere in Indonesia, was acknowledged by the granting of a UN Sasakawa
Award for Disaster Reduction to the Simeulue peoples [1]. This drew world attention to the
228
traditional knowledge of indigenous people and its relevance to the emerging priority domain
of natural disaster preparedness and response.
Traditional knowledge, defined by [2] as a changing system, where western
knowledge has a place, has over the years played significant roles in solving problems
including climate change. Indigenous people, who live close to the natural resources, observe
the activities around them and are first to identify any changes and adapt to them. Appearance
of certain birds, mating of certain animals, or the flowering of certain plants are all important
signals of changes in time and seasons that are well understood by traditional knowledge.
Biodiversity have been used as a buffer against variation, change, and catastrophe; in the face
of plague, if one crop fails, another will survive [3]. In coping with risk due to excessive
rainfall, low rainfall, drought and crop failure, some traditional people grow many different
crops and varieties with different susceptibility to droughts and floods and supplement these
by hunting, fishing and gathering wild food plants. Diversity of crops and food resources are
often matched by a similar diversity in field location, some which are more prone to flooding,
others more prone to drought, so that in extreme weather some fields are likely to produce
harvestable crops.
Adaptation to climate change includes all adjustments in behaviour or economic structure
that reduce the vulnerability of society to changes in the climate system [4]. This is important
when considering climate change and variability because the impacts of climate change, and
hence its seriousness, can be modified by adaptations of various kinds (e.g., [5] and [6]). The
ability to, and for how long one can adapt, however, depends on the resources available.
Africa is clearly the most vulnerable and at the same time very far behind in adaptation to
effects of climate change because it is the least resourced to withstand the effects without
significant changes to its fundamental structures.
It is estimated that Africa has been warming through the 20th century at a rate of between
0.26 and 0.50oC per century. This trend is expected to continue and even see a significant
increase in the rate of warming with its attendant negative effects on livelihoods. According
to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report [7], a medium-high emission scenario would see
annual mean surface air temperatures expected to increase between 3oC and 4oC by 2080
(IPCC, 2007). This implies difficult times ahead for the local people who depend directly on
the natural resources for their livelihoods and their main and/or only weapon to cope with the
changes that are yet to come is their traditional knowledge and practices.
Over the last 40 years, Ghana has recorded temperature rise of over about 1oC as well
as reductions in rainfall and runoff of approximately 20 and 30% respectively. For a country
which depends mainly on rain-fed agriculture, Ghana’s vulnerability to changes in climate
variability, seasonal shifts, and precipitation patterns can not be over-emphasised. Over the
years, farmers and other natural resource dependent communities in Ghana have found ways
of coping with changes in climate as is being observed. Such coping strategies have been
based on traditional knowledge and practices and this varies from community to community
since the country has no climate change adaptation policy. The coping/adaptation strategies,
however, show some similarities among communities within one agro-climatic zone.
The evidence and impacts of climate change may be most felt in Africa than any other
continent but this does not mean that the continent sits down, looks on helplessly and waits to
be consumed by the changes in climate. Traditional knowledge has played a significant role
in Africa’s adaptation efforts, in the face of low technology. This paper critically looks at use
of traditional knowledge to cope with climate change in rural Ghana.
METHODOLOGY
229
Study Area
The study was carried out in 2007 in twenty (20) communities in the Offin River
basin in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. This region falls in the moist semi-deciduous forest
category with a semi humid tropical climate. The rainfall distribution of the basin is weakly
bimodal with a main peak between May and June and a secondary peak in September to
October.
Communities covered in the study are rural and predominantly subsistence crop
farmers. Some are also into cocoa farming. Agriculture in this region, like most parts of
Ghana is rain-dependent and planting seasons are along the two rainy seasons: main season
from April-July and the minor season from September-October. Livestock rearing is limited
in this region. Economic activity is very low though most of the people engage in petty
trading to augment the little income from agriculture. About 90 percent of the communities
covered have no pipe-borne water, and depend on the rivers/streams and rainfall for their
water needs.
Data Collection
Interviews, questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGD) were used in the data
collection. Four (4) focus group discussions were held in four communities to collate their
views on climate change and how they are coping with the changes. Semi-structured
questionnaires were administered to people in the communities studied, who are forty years
and above. The assumption was that younger people may not have observed and experienced
enough change in the climate to make good judgement. A maximum of ten (10)
questionnaires were administered per community. The questionnaires and FGD helped to
identify current observed climate changes and impacts of such changes particularly on local
livelihoods; livelihood resources, i.e., natural, physical, social, financial, and human
resources of communities in the Offin river basin; and the extents to which these resources
help the people to conduct their livelihoods and cope with the impacts of climate change. The
responses from the questionnaires were also used to cross-check with each other to get a very
good view of the situations prevailing in the communities.
Through the focus group discussions and questionnaire administration, individuals
who showed appreciable knowledge in environmental changes around them and their faming
operations were selected for in-depth interviews. They were mainly local farmers who were
directly affected by climate change and showed remarkable knowledge of the changes and its
effects on their farming; traditional leaders and opinion leaders who were usually old, well
respected personalities and involved in decision making and administration of the
communities.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Local knowledge, perception and effects of climate change in Offin river basin
The indigenous people may not understand the concept of global warming or climate
change but they rightly observe and feel its effects: decreasing rainfall, increasing air
temperature, increasing sunshine intensity and seasonal changes in rainfall patterns. This is
corroborated by a study in 2007 which recorded a remarkable reduction in mean annual
rainfall of 22.2% and a gradual rise in average maximum temperatures of 1.3oC or 4.3% rise
in temperature from the 1961to 2006, [8]. Gradually, there is increasing realisation that
indigenous groups are an important source of information on climate change. Most published
reports on indigenous observations of climate changes, however, have come from Arctic
regions where the co-operation between scientists and indigenous peoples is strongest [3].
230
Observed climate changes have resulted in serious effects on natural resources in the
Offin river basin. There have been low discharges in all the waterbodies in the Offin basin
with some streams becoming extinct. This is mainly in response to the reduction in rainfall
since it is the source of water for the streams/rivers in the basin. River Offin which is the
biggest river in the basin has been experiencing very low flows in the dry seasons to the
extent that the river bed could be seen during recent dry seasons. Generally, from 6.941 m3/s
of discharge in 1957, the discharge of River Offin at 2006 was 3.797m3/s indicating a 3.144
m3/s (45.3%) reduction in river discharge [8]. As a measure to ensure availability of water all
year round, wells have been dug by the communities but some of theses wells dry up during
recent dry periods, indicating a possible reduction in ground waters.
Recent crop failure in the basin has also been attributed to low rainfalls, prolonged
rainfall shortages and changes in rainfall patterns. Agriculture in the basin is rain-fed and
farmers have over the years perfected the art of predicting the onset of the rainy season.
Farmlands are cleared and prepared in anticipation for the rains to start the cropping season.
This has, however, become difficult during recent years due to significant changes in the
rainfall pattern. The beginning of the rainy season is no longer predictable, and during times
that it has started on time, there may be an unexpected long break before the rains resume.
This is making it difficult for farmers to plan their cropping seasons to coincide with the rains
to ensure maximum crop yield. The result is crop failure and low crop yield. Prolonged
rainfall shortages cause a drought situation and a reduction in the water available in the soil
for crop growth. This results in crop failure. Due to crop failure/loss, money spent on land
preparation and planting, as well as income from the sale of farm produce is lost and
household savings are spent to replant farms. People can withstand bad harvests at one time
or the other but when it becomes consistent, then things begin to go very wrong.
Another effect of climate change on agriculture in the River Offin basin is the effects
of intense sunshine and increasing temperature on crops. These changes coupled with
prolonged rainfall shortages causes the wilting of crops. Sunshine is increasingly becoming
very intensive and for long hours. Some farmers, notably cocoa growers, narrated incidence
of cocoa trees withering as a result of exposure to intense and prolonged sunshine. This
situation was also reported by other farmers such as vegetable growers who claim that the
high temperatures causes their vegetables to ripen prematurely and as such not getting the
expected income from the sale of their produce. This is a major loss to the farmers and puts a
big drain on their financial resources.
Heat and water related diseases such as malaria; diarrhoea, bilharzias, shingles and
other skin debilitations are becoming common the basin. Malaria has been mainly due to the
people sleeping in the open or with windows open due to high temperatures at night. This
situation exposes the people to mosquitoes and eventually malaria. During dry seasons and
prolonged rainfall shortages, water sources become scarce, stagnant and contaminated.
During such periods, cases of diarrhoea and bilharzias are common. Shingles and other skin
debilitations are also common during periods of high temperatures. Previously, according to
the communities, some skin diseases were rare in the communities but such diseases are
becoming predominant in recent years.
Local coping strategies and challenges in the Offin basin
The people realize that water shortages are a major threat to their survival and there
are several strategies to adapt to this new phenomenon. One of such strategies is water
rationing. For example, “waste water” from washing cloths, utensils and other activities are
also used for watering backyard gardens and nurseries. Households also try to reduce the
231
water use per person per day in an attempt to conserve water. This strategy needs to be part of
a behavioural change and not during periods of water shortage. Adaptation is not just a
climate change issue [9], and education on water conservation should be an on-going process.
Rainwater harvesting, an old traditional way of collecting and storing water where
every household had at least two big barrels placed at strategic places in the house where
rainwater is directed from the roof of buildings into those barrels for storage, is actively being
revived and advocated in most communities. This has become necessary following prolonged
rainfall shortages and drying of previously perennial streams that provided water all year
round, at a time where more water is needed by the communities due to increase in
population. But in all the communities covered under the study, not enough rainfall is
harvested because the harvesting technology is not good, i.e. outdated and not inefficient
under the current climate regime. The type of houses constructed and the roofing system does
not support efficient rainwater harvesting. Only a small percentage of the rains can be
harvested with the majority going waste.
The traditional and local authorities identifies clearing of riparian vegetation along
their river banks as a major factor affecting their streamflows and are putting on measures to
remedy the situation. Some of the measures are creating awareness on the effects of
deforestation around water bodies, sensitizing the communities to prevent bush fires,
community based management of forests, imposition of fines, etc. These measures by the
traditional authorities are not yielding much because the communities, though still rural in
terms of development and infrastructure, have become very cosmopolitan or heterogeneous in
composition and allegiance to traditional authority is not absolute. There have been settler
farmers who have moved into some of these communities and the communal nature of the
communities is breaking down and people now think more of themselves than of their
collective well-being.
There are also forbidden days or taboo days when nobody is expected to go to the
riverside. Previously, the use of taboos was very effective in controlling community
behaviour and the traditional leaders see it as an effective alternative in protecting their
waterbodies. The question then is, why does it need a re-introduction since such tradition has
not at any point been abolished? These taboos have been dormant for several reasons
including modernisation, heterogeneity of the communities, and even Christianity. Since
most of the people are now Christians, compared to previous years when almost everyone
adhered to traditional way of worship, traditional authority has been undermined and its
directives are seen as fetish and not adhered to. Although some do believe in the reintroduction and strict enforcement of taboos and forbidden days, they may not have the
desired impacts under the current dispensation. Religion is a very delicate issue in these
communities and although re-introduction and enforcement of some of the traditional laws
will be very useful, it needs a very cautious.
Indigenous knowledge in agriculture and water management, acquired over many
years of practice, has helped the communities to cope very well with water shortage,
droughts, and crop damage/losses. The farmers are able to predict, quite well, when the rains
will come and plan their planting season to coincide with the rains. This has, however,
become difficult in recent years due to changing rainfall pattern. To this, the farmers are
adapting by changing the type of crops they used to grow. Crops which thrive well under the
current prevailing conditions are increasingly being planted in areas which, hitherto, did not
support their cultivation. A case in point is shifting from cocoa cultivation to drought
resistant crops such as cassava. Vegetable growers are also gradually moving into the river
plains to grow their crops since they do not get enough water in the places they previously
grew their vegetables. This is a form of adaptation but obviously not sustainable. The money
which they previously earned from the sale of cocoa, for example, was a major source of
232
income which supplemented the upkeep of families and even in buying agricultural inputs
and expanding their farms. Clearing of the riparian vegetation and use of chemicals so close
to the rivers/streams, as is being done by the vegetable growers has its own hazards.
Farmers, especially cocoa farmers, who complained most about the effects of intense
sunshine on their crops see the best way to adapt is to have trees on their farms to provide
shade for the crops. Though some farmers already have trees on their farms or are planting
trees to provide shade, the practice does not seem appealing to most farmers. In Ghana, all
timber trees found on any land belong to the Government and the Government decides when
an area of land is given as concession to a timber company for felling. This has resulted in
some farmers, having in the past, deliberately killed trees on their farms to prevent timber
merchants from coming to fell their trees, destroy their farms and pay little or no
compensation. This policy has been a major disincentive to adaptation. Although the Timber
Resource Management Amendment Act, (ACT 617), 2002, provides that the right to harvest
trees and extract timber from a specified area of land shall not be granted if there are farms on
the land unless the consent of the owners of the farms has been obtained or if there is timber
already grown or owned by any individual or group of individuals on the land, not much has
changed in terms of the relationship between timber merchants and farmers. Due to inability
of farmers to show clear proof of ownership of trees on their farms (either planting the tree or
tending the tree till maturity), lack of education in forest laws and the financial strength of the
timber merchants, the farmers are still being exploited. To stop this exploitation and enhance
adaptation of rural farmers, there must be sustained education programmes to get the farmers
informed of their rights and empower them to protect their farms and most importantly, plant
more trees.
The way forward
The growing importance of traditional knowledge in coping with climate change leads
to the conclusion that there must be a healthy relationship between scientific knowledge and
traditional or indigenous knowledge especially in developing countries where technology for
prediction and modelling is least developed. Both scientific knowledge and traditional
knowledge have their limitations and a good merger will provide the desired results to help
cope with climate change. Whereas models and records of precipitation mainly focus on
changing amounts of precipitation with climate change indigenous peoples also emphasize
changes in the regularity, length, intensity, and timing of precipitation. While scientific
explanations of climatic changes have mainly concentrated on anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions, local interpretations of observed climate changes are often much more varied and
encompassing. Whether or not scientific models are incorporated into local explanations,
according to [3], depends on the status and accessibility of science within a culture and on the
influence of media.
In order to capitalize, develop, expand and mainstream indigenous adaptation
measures into global adaptation strategies, attempts by indigenous people to cope with
climate change using traditional knowledge should be studied, supported and integrated into
scientific research. This is less expensive compared to bringing in aid to salvage catastrophes
and disasters or “importing” adaptive measures which are usually introduced in a “top-down”
manner — which is difficult to implement due to several factors including financial and
institutional constraints. Main findings of the Stern review commissioned by the UK
Treasury to assess the economic impacts of climate change as well as the cost of mitigating
climate change were that mitigation costs are relatively moderate, while climate change
related losses are likely to be much larger than previously thought, [10]. The Stern review
was partly an attempt to counter claims that it would be too costly to try to mitigate climate
change compared to any damages that might arise from climate change.
233
The Moken, Urok Lawai, Ong and Simeulue surprised the world with their
resourceful and life-saving response to the destructive force of the Indian Ocean tsunami.
There is much to learn from indigenous, traditional and community-based approaches to
natural disaster preparedness. Indigenous people have been confronted with changing
environments for millennia and have developed a wide array of coping strategies, and their
traditional knowledge and practice provides an important basis for facing the even greater
challenges of climate change. While indigenous communities will undoubtedly need much
support to adapt to climate change, they also have much expertise to offer on coping through
traditional time-tested mechanisms.
References
[1] http://www.unesco.org/links.
[2] Bebbington, A., (1991). Capitals and Capabilities: A Framework for Analyzing Peasant
Viability, Rural Livelihoods and Poverty. World Development. 27(1999, 12): 2021-2044.
[3] Salick, B. and A. Byg,(eds) (2007). Indegenous Peoples and Climate Change. A Tyndall
Centre Publication.Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Oxford.
[4] Smith, J.B., Ragland, S.E., and Pitts, G.J. (1996). `A Process for Evaluating Anticipatory
Adaptation Measures for Climate Change', Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 92, 229-238.
[5] Smit, B. (ed.) (1993). Adaptation to Climatic Variability and Change, Environment
Canada, Guelph.
[6] Tol, R.S.J., Fankhauser, S., and Smith, J.B. (1997). The Scope for Adaptation to Climate
Change: What Can We Learn from the Literature? Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije
Universiteit, Amsterdam.
[7] IPCC, (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.
Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
and New York, NY, USA, 996 pp.
[8] Gyampoh, B.A., M. Idinoba, J. Nkem, and S. Amisah. (2007). Adapting Watersheds to
Climate Change and variability in West Africa – The case of Offin River basin in Ghana;
Proceedings, Third International Conference on Climate and Water. Finnish Environment
Institute, SYKE.
[9] Smit, B., Burton, I., Klein, R.J.T. and Wandell, J. (2000). An Anatomy of Adaptation to
Climate Change and Variability. Climatic Change, 45: 1, p. 233-51
[10] Stern N. (Ed.) (2006). Stern Review.
URL: http://www.hmtreasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_
climate_change/stern_review_report.cfm
234
WIMAX WITH WI-FI: OPENING NEW FRONTIERS IN EDUCATION
K.R.Santhi1 and G. Senthil Kumaran2
Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Kigali, B.P.3900, Rwanda.
1
Email: [email protected] , +250 08594505,
2
Email: [email protected] , +250 03000813
Key words: WiMAX, Wi-Fi, Mesh, broadband, HE
Abstract
Connectivity is vital to any country to usher in economic growth, better education and
healthcare and improved entertainment services as it has done elsewhere in the world. And
the solution must be wireless, to avoid the overwhelming cost and resources that would be
required to deploy countrywide fixed-line broadband Internet infrastructure. Some countries,
where there is not an established wired communication network, are investigating the
potential of broadband wireless technologies to support learning and teaching in remote
areas. In order to widen the participation in Higher Education (HE) there is a need for more
flexible delivery and study of courses to satisfy the needs of this wider audience. The lack of
physical connectivity or telecommunications infrastructure and the cost and lack of
broadband technologies are a big hindrance to more widespread participation of people in
HE. Broadband wireless technologies like WiMAX with Wi-Fi are beginning to offer reliable
alternatives to fixed-line access, offering the potential for widespread, affordable connectivity
to every education institutions viz Schools and Colleges, in the rural areas. This paper
addresses the potential uses of wireless and mobile technologies and identifies some recent
technical developments. It considers how their use might be developed within existing
learning and teaching paradigms and it identifies some new models for providing
connectivity to rural Educational Institutions.
1. Introduction
The education sector is being accorded top priority by governments in developing countries,
as a means of building a reservoir of competent leaders and skilled personnel who will guide
and sustain the region's current pace of development. As a result, both the government and
private sectors are directing huge technological inputs towards improving educational content
and delivery systems and in upgrading infrastructure. Wireless is one of the most important
technologies of the century, influencing the nature of business, commerce, education, and
society for all time to come. WiMAX with Wi-Fi offer new ways to approach emerging
learning environments that holds immense potential like lifelong learning, e-learning,
distance learning, home learning, virtual classrooms and mobility between different locations
of study in campus based learning. This paper will address in detail: (i) Potential uses of
broadband wireless technologies like WiMAX and Wi-Fi and identifies some recent
educational developments using these technologies in the world. (ii) How their use might
enable education empowerment within existing learning and teaching environments (iii) how
it supports connectivity to Educational Institutions in rural areas and provides mobility in
campus where connectivity is already available and finally (iv) to generate awareness of the
many advantages of wireless connectivity and the mobility it brings to the learning
environments.
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2. Technical Overview of Major Wireless technologies
Broadband wireless technology offers a number of concrete benefits over that of wireline.
They are as follows [2]:
a. reduced cost as compared to deployment of new wired infrastructure;
b. enhanced operational flexibility, in particular: more freedom in placement of
equipment; reduced installation interval; lower barrier to switching or upgrading
infrastructure; and ability to move and redeploy equipment as needed with minimal
incremental cost.
Moreover, Broadband Wireless technology has built a bridge over some of the education gap.
Let us see the technical overview of some of them.
2.1 Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)
802.11 WLAN often called Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) uses the license-free 2.4 GHz frequency
band and has become popular for its capability to provide high-speed Internet access at low
cost.. The ease of use and low cost are in turn driven by the adoption of the Wi-Fi standard by
equipment manufacturers, thus ensuring interoperability among Wi-Fi devices. Wi-Fi is
arguably the most ubiquitous form of broadband Internet access in the world [2].
2.2 Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access (WiMAX)
WiMAX is a standards-based wireless technology that provides high-throughput broadband
connections over long distances and it operates in a licensed spectrum. This is based on a
mesh structure and it is capable of delivering broadband Internet and, extending services
beyond the physical building constraints encountered with Wi-Fi. WiMAX offers a fast,
affordable, convenient solution to Internet access needs [1]. As WiMAX becomes more
widely available it could offer opportunities for educational use with groups interacting
wirelessly within a much broader virtual classroom [3].
A key characteristic of this standard is a differentiated approach to the Media Access Control
(MAC) layer; in contrast to Wi-Fi, the WiMAX MAC can support a range of physical (PHY)
physical layer implementations, thus substantially freeing equipment vendors in developing
solutions for different applications and vertical markets.
2.3 Wireless Mesh Networking (WMN)
A WMN is a communications network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology.
Meshed networks self-configure and self-heal by dynamically sharing information, almost in
real-time, between all the access points in a wireless network. If a mesh link becomes
obstructed in the event of a device failure, client traffic is dynamically re-routed, ensuring
uninterrupted communication through the other available access points. In the mesh network,
the core configuration is an array of access points or base stations, all managed by a mesh
routing protocol which determines the optimal path across the network at any given time [2].
The advantages of a mesh topology are route diversity and redundancy, thus maximizing the
performance of the network. Wi-Fi/WiMAX mesh uses such concepts as cellular-equivalent
"picocells" for node proximity and non-line-of-site mesh routing around obstacles.
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2.4 UltraWideBand (UWB)
Ultra wideband is a wireless technology for transmitting large amounts of digital data over a
wide spectrum of frequency bands with very low power for a short distance. UWB signals are
usually very difficult to detect. The amount of spectrum occupied by a UWB signal, i.e. the
bandwidth of the UWB signal is at least 25% of the center frequency. Thus, a UWB signal
centered at 2 GHz would have a minimum bandwidth of 500 MHz and the minimum
bandwidth of a UWB signal centered at 4 GHz would be 1 GHz. High data rate UWB can
enable wireless monitors, the efficient transfer of data from digital camcorders, wireless
printing of digital pictures from a camera without the need for an intervening personal
computer, and the transfer of files among cell phone handsets and other handheld devices like
personal digital audio and video players. Intel researchers are working on a variety of UWB
technologies, including a platform for next-generation development efforts, and believe it
will be a critical step in enabling advanced communications for a wide range of uses in the
future [7].
2.5 Free Space Optics (FSO)
FSO is a telecommunication technology that uses light propagating in free space to transmit
data between two points. The technology is useful where the physical connection of the
transmit and receive locations is difficult, for example in cities where the laying of fibre optic
cables is expensive. FSO uses lasers to transmit data, but instead of enclosing the data
stream in a glass fiber, it is transmitted through the air. Unlike radio and microwave
systems, FSO is an optical technology that operates in invisible parts of the optical
spectrum at near-infrared wavelengths and no spectrum licensing or frequency
coordination with other users is required, interference from or to other systems or
equipment is not a concern, and the point-to-point laser signal is extremely difficult to
intercept, and therefore secure. Transmission is highly directional making it far more
secure than RF technologies but also requiring that the two points to be connected be
within line-of-sight of each other.
2.6 Virtual Fiber
Virtual Fiber Connectivity is a line-of-sight technology that uses lasers to provide optical
bandwidth connections [9]. This is a point-to-point wireless system using very high radio
frequency (71-76 GHz and 81-86 GHz) to transmit up to 2.5 Gbps of data, voice, and video
communications. For example a ninety minute movie will download in one second.
3. Impact of Wireless Technologies in Higher Education
The emergence of wireless technologies and various solutions to extend the capability of the
wired world to a mobile secured environment in and out of the classroom is rapidly becoming
the norm in providing education programs to students of all ages. At the same time, teaching
methodologies have also evolved to encompass concepts such as e-learning, distance
learning, home learning, and lifelong learning. To support these different types of learning
the modern curriculum has been reformed. Such emerging learning environments and the
need for flexible hours in learning environment are driving forces to advocate for wireless
networking technologies and hence wireless campuses. This will result in some learners
moving between school, workplace and home. Mobile and wireless technologies offer new
ways to approach both learning and assessment. They could provide the following: [3]
237
a. both synchronous and asynchronous communication with peers and teachers
b. collaborative features enabling the sharing of material
c. the facility to access resources, including online communities from local and worldwide repositories via the internet
d. delivery of multimedia content.
The integration of technology in assessment activities has led many universities to use an
online Learning Management System (LMS) to present electronic content and control aspects
of course management relating to assessments and organization etc. that will facilitate online
learning. Wireless is clearly exploding across university campuses as it has in the corporate
and consumer sectors and educational applications, IT services and management solutions are
growing fast in higher education. Below are some scenarios that how higher education must
address the contribution of wireless beyond convenience to its potential impact on teaching,
learning and research.
3.1 Conventional networked Campus
Some of the most mobile and connected people in our society can be found in the education
community. So broadband wireless technology has become the present and the future of
education. It has changed the way instructors teach by relieving them from having to rely on
the book and straight lecture as the only tools. It has made learning much quicker than
looking for a book or something. Wi-Fi solutions within campus allow the possibility to
extend the physical space of the classroom in to other areas while maintaining access to
online resources. Wi-Fi goes from buildings to green spaces to the football stadium and other
athletic facilities.Thus WLAN solutions provide the necessary functionality, simplicity, and
trust to ensure an enriched learning environment.
3.2 Extended networked Campus
Not only within campus connectivity is needed, but extended campus offers more flexibility.
This supports both synchronous and asynchronous communication and collaboration. We can
build-out an Education Network linking schools and universities with Wi-Fi network. This
Inter-campus Wi-Fi network will facilitate students and educators of K-12 and higher
education campuses to seamlessly log into any other member campus' educational wireless
network. This will allow the educational community to extend their learning experience by
leveraging wireless networks of other schools and universities across the country.
Every member campus will become accessible to students, staff, and faculty via this network.
This single interconnect will allow the institution's IT department to dedicate scarce resources
just once, effectively growing the access available to their students and faculty without
having to dedicate additional IT resources and without changing the existing deployed
architecture[4].
3.3 Connected Rural Schools
Connectivity is important for the rural schools to participate in the extended campus
environment. Some countries where there is not an established wired communication network
must find ways to use cost effective hybrid wireless networks for education to the reach the
unreached sections of the society. This will increase the opportunities for students to do
online learning , to participate in audio/video conferencing, to research by accessing eresources from other schools and universities etc.. WiMAX plays a major role in providing
cost effective access to rural areas.
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4. Need for Connectivity and Mobility in Higher Education
In the world today, we have the potential to know and be able to access any kind of
information that has ever existed. While students may not want to have all that information
every minute, they do want to be able to access it whenever they need. So for colleges and
universities to attract the Mobile (M)-generation of students, it is mandatory to provide
wireless connectivity and mobility with broadband technologies like WiMAX with Wi-Fi.
Connectivity and mobility in Education is a necessity for the following reasons:
(i) Traditional campus based education often reaps the benefits of the proximity of groups of
learners. Even then connectivity and mobility are required in the campus to fulfill student
expectations to generate self-help groups, opportunities for informal discussion, and support
prescribed group work. Wi-Fi access will provide campus educational wireless network.
(ii) Today's educators and students demand an always-connected, everywhere wireless
campus environment [4]. WiMAX provides the backhaul for Wi-Fi access points and
provides anytime, anywhere connection.
(iii) Internet services provide a means for students to stay connected with their friends in
another campus through e-mail, audio or video chat, and to browse the Internet for job and
academic opportunities.
(iv) Over 55 percent of all educational documents are electronic at this point [1] and
broadband connectivity is very important to access these educational materials.
(v) Schools and libraries in rural or remote areas without wired infrastructure or broadband
services can be cost effectively connected to broadband using WiMAX, so that the students
in rural areas could videoconference with educators across the country, and use Internet
telephony services, like Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) [1].
(vi) Lecture classes from urban schools and top universities can be broadcast to rural
students, and the students could use the broadband facilities of WiMAX for communicating
with teachers and with their remote classmates. This will allow the educational community to
extend their learning experience by leveraging wireless networks of other schools and
universities across the country.
(vii)Universities providing distance education is increasing its use of online collaborative
activity and content and an online LMS to present electronic content and control aspects of
course management relating to assessments and organization etc. With higher bandwidth and
faster speeds, broadband Internet can make education more accessible by delivering
interactive distance education at a low cost.
(viii) Broadband wireless technologies help to bring our education customers the power of
being linked together. This will allow them to provide new services that give their students
more educational value while keeping operational costs low.
5. Broadband Hybrid Wireless Network (BHWN)
The potential of wireless communications is to break down traditional wired boundaries,
bridge digital divides and stimulate economic growth [2]. Although a range of new
technologies have emerged, including WiMAX, Wi-Fi and WMN, each one addresses a
specific network segment or application, and that no single technology fits all applications,
and also the necessary complementary technologies have differed in terms of stages of
development. So it will be critical to use these technologies in tandem to create truly scalable
broadband wireless networks. One limitation is that many vendors focus on selected
239
technologies and applications, thus increasing the complexity of evaluating, procuring,
installing, managing and maintaining different parts of the network. However, standards
based broadband wireless technologies particularly Wi-Fi, WiMAX, WMN are interoperable
and have matured to the point of being deployable in a single, connected network, and
furthermore such solutions can now be sourced from a single vendor. This is the concept of a
scalable Broadband Hybrid Wireless Network (BHWN).
6. Proposed BHWN for Connectivity to Rural Schools
Schools and libraries in rural or remote areas without wired infrastructure or broadband
services can be cost effectively connected to broadband by combining several broadband
wireless platforms.
In this proposed hybrid wireless network the traffic from the large fiber optic backbone from
the urban area is carried over the last mile via a high speed point-to-multipoint distribution
system based on the features of WiMAX that is, enhanced data rate and range. In the pointto-multipoint network, the core configuration is a single access point or base station
communicating with one or more clients, and a larger network can be comprised of several
such separate cells joined by a common backbone. WiMAX serves as a backhaul for Meshed
Wi-Fi Local Area Network. Figure 1 below shows WiMAX connecting to Wi-Fi access
points located in rural school buildings. The access points in turn will serve a mesh array
LAN which is not shown in the figure. With a robust backhaul system in place, coverage of
the network is practically just a function of the number of Wi-Fi access points installed at the
edge. The access points reside in a mesh array, with one radio available for access and a
second radio connecting into the array. In the figure the customer premise equipment (CPE)
serves as the access points.
Thus by combining Wi-Fi mesh and WiMAX could provide the rural population with the
most extensive and complete broadband wireless coverage. Though both technologies are
distinct, each with unique characteristics, they often are deployed in tandem using WiMAX
for backhaul and Wi-Fi mesh to provide access to the growing base of Wi-Fi enabled LANs.
Until now, the only solution was to install two separate units, one WiMAX and one Wi-Fi
mesh but nowadays companies have come with solutions of integrating these technologies in
a single compact outdoor enclosure.
7. Suggestions
(i) National level conferences should be organized to generate awareness of the many
advantages of wireless connectivity and the mobility it brings to the learning
environment.
(ii) This concept needs to be promoted from the early stages of school, given its importance
in achieving better broadband Internet connectivity, and its role in linking homes to
virtual classrooms, libraries, campus networks, and Internet labs and in delivering elearning courses.
(iii)Wireless should not be considered as a replacement for the wired technology, rather it
should be considered as a supplement to enhance the effectiveness of the learning
environment.
(iv) Research should be done on new methods and new approaches to learning with ICT
because ICT is an integrated part of learning process.
(v) Using BHWN with the convergence of multiple wireless services, using different
frequencies necessitates the creation of a campus wide spectrum Management group to
plan to use any form of wireless and then to work on coordination this with strategic
directions of IT, teaching, learning and research.
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Figure 1: WiMAX with Wi-Fi mesh on the Customer premise side for rural connectivity
8. Challenges in adapting Wireless Technologies
The challenges to adapt to wireless technologies by educators and students, however, is one
of understanding and exploring these resources to support teaching and learning.
(i) The most challenging problem facing higher education systems incorporating wireless
devices into their classrooms is technical support. Schools must have an in-house
support or outsourcing the support for the effective use of the wireless devices [11].
(ii) Speed plays a factor when there are several students competing for the same website and
the broadband width is not enough.
(iii) The use of wireless devices in classroom can be a challenge for faculty trying to get the
attention of students to a particular lecture when the students are engaged in the World
Wide Web [11].
(iv) IT security is still a reality in only a small minority of schools. This is one of the biggest
challenges of wireless technologies in classroom. With more data and information
transmitting frequently through the airwave, makes transmission of data easily accessible
by hackers and intruders.
(v) Allowing outside laptops onto the school network increases the risk of the spread of
computer viruses and hacker attacks. Therefore, there is a need for security software
updates to protect end-users from viruses and hackers.
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9. Conclusion
In conclusion, the opportunities of wireless technologies greatly outweigh the challenges.
Wireless is important to higher education for some of the same reasons it is important to other
areas of the society. It is believed that using wireless technologies in classrooms not only
improves teaching and learning but provides the accessibility of resources to students and
teachers. From this paper it is clear that convergence is inevitable, whether on a wireless
campus backbone or extended campus connectivity or rural connectivity. Though it is too
early to determine the impact of this converged wireless network concept on teaching and
learning, but this brief paper argues that in many aspects we are already envisioning the
possibility of students’ access to information by any device, from anywhere and at any time
has become very important in learning environment. The BHWN suggested combining
WiMAX with Wi-Fi and Mesh has the potential to provide the rural Educational Institution
with widespread Internet access that can usher in, better education, economic growth and
health care and improved entertainment services as it has done elsewhere in the world.
References
[1] “WiMAX in India: Opening New Frontiers through Broadband Connectivity”, Technology@Intel
Magazine, November 2004
[2] Amit Malhotra, “Scalable Broadband wireless networks”, Proxim Wireless Corporation, PTC
Proceedings, 2006.
[3] Diane Evans, “Potential uses of wireless and mobile Learning”, Landscape study in Wireless and
mobile Learning in the post-16 sector, The Open University, UK, April 2005.
[4] Robert Hoskins, Broadband Wireless exchange Magazine, “Wi-Fi Industry Leaders Launch
Nation's First Coast-to-Coast Inter-Campus Network To Link Schools and Universities”, May 2005,
[5] Sumit Kumar, “USRobotics to showcase latest wireless technology products for regional
education sector at GETEX Dubai”, DIT. Net online Magazine, Technology News, April 2006
[6] Erick Galindo, “Technology not necessarily a boon for all students”, Digital communications
online Magazine, October 2006.
[7] Rafael Kolic, “Ultra Wideband -- the Next-Generation Wireless Connection”, DeviceForge.com,
February, 2004, [Online]. Available: http://www.deviceforge.com/articles/AT8171287040.html
[8] SonaBeam Series, “Free Space Optics (FSO): An Introduction”, [Online]. Available:
http://www.free-space-optics.org/
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http://www.dtsi.com.ph/ni_vfc.htm
[10] EDUCAUSE , “Wireless: Coming Next to a Handset Near You”, White paper, September 2005,
[Online]. Available: http://whitepapers.techrepublic.com.com/abstract.aspx?docid=164731
[11] Ngozi Oriaku , “The Challenges And Opportunities Of Wireless Technologies In The
Classroom: Related Standards And Regulations” , College Teaching Methods & Styles
Journal, Volume 4, Number 4, April 2008
[12] William Pritchard , “Wireless Networks: Opportunities and Challenges for Foothill
College”, A White Paper, Foothill - De Anza Community College District, August 25, 2004.
242
ENHANCING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR DELIVERY
THROUGH RWANDAN NATIONAL SMART CARD INITIATIVE.
Sashi Kumar Sivam
1
Senior Consultant
MSC Technology Centre, Cyberjaya, Malaysia
[email protected]
Key words: Smart Card, National ID, Enhancement of Public sector delivery, Rwandan
National ID and Smart Card , GMPC, MyKad, Malaysian Smart Card Initiative
Abstract
This study is based on the ongoing Rwandan National Smart Card Initiative. Drawing
parallelism from The Malaysian Smart Card Initiative and similar Global Smart Card
Initiatives, the study intends to evaluate the role of smart card technology in enhancing
public and private sector delivery. Based on review, the enhancement in public and private
sector delivery could potentially be the key to the increment of National productivity and
competitiveness. Strategically, the elevation of National productivity and competitiveness has
been a strong catalyst for economic development and similarly poverty reduction. In view of
the above, the low level of productivity and competiveness are among the factors contributing
to the high poverty rate in the low income level nations. Therefore, the study intends to
provide a comprehensive overview on common global best practices and methodologies
which has led to the enhancement of public and private sector delivery. Strategically, it also
evaluates potential economy gains arising from the enhancement of public and private sector
delivery. Based on review and analysis, the study provides strategic recommendation and
global best practices that could be adopted during the Rwandan National Smart Card
program.
INTRODUCTION
Following the success of the National ID program, The Rwandan Government is optimistic in
launching the second stage of The National ID and Smart Card program. The second stage is
expected to commence as early as August 20081 and will involve the introduction of 500,000
smart cards to prospective Rwandan citizens.
A unique feature of the second stage will be the incorporation of a 64 Kb smart chip. Unlike
the 2D barcode that has limited data retention capacity and processing capability, the 64 Kb
smart chips is designed to incorporate vast amount of data and applications. Initial review
suggests that among the application that promises to be incorporated in the National ID and
Smart Card scheme are National Registry Information, Driver’s License, Immigration and
Passport Information, Health Information, Social Security Information, Banking and ATM
pin codes and Rwanda Revenue Authority Information 2.
Based on review, the stakeholders are optimistic with the potential success of this initiative.
Many stakeholders believe that the Rwandan Smart Card initiative would enhance their
quality of service delivery while reducing the lengthy turnaround time 3.Ultimately it could be
a catalyst to revolutionize The Rwandan public and private service delivery. In the near
future, the entire Rwandan citizen might be carrying a smart card in their pockets or in their
wallets.
243
Overview on Smart Card
Smart Card is a plastic card that contains an embedded integrated circuit, which can process
data. This implies that it can receive input which is processed - by way of the ICC
applications - and delivered as an output. 4b, 4c,
Historically it is recorded as a French invention and was first introduced to the European
consumers in 1982 in the form of serial memory phone cards. The first commercial
manufacturing of smart card dates back to 1977, when 3 commercial manufacturers, Bull
CP8, SGS Thomson, and Schlumberger get together to develop an IC based smartcard. The
first commercial success of smart card indicates to Motorola with the success of the first
secure single chip microcontroller for use in French Banks in 1979 4a. The First large-scale
smart card application implementation was in the United States in 1987 with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture's Nationwide introducing Peanut Marketing Card.
Ever since then, The National Smart Card initiative involving smart cards gained much
popularity throughout the world. In 1994, Germany launched the largest Smart Card initiative
with the issuance of 80 million serial memory chip cards in the form of National Health
Cards. Currently, there are more than 60 Nations reverting to some form of National Smart
Card initiative and the number is expected to grow with time. 4
Overview of Malaysian Government Multipurpose Card - MyKad
Due to cost and complexity factor, all smart cards initiatives have been for a single purpose
but all that changed in 1997, when The Malaysian Government introduced the very first
Multipurpose Smart Card 5. The notion of the Malaysian Government is best described by the
former Malaysian Prime Minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohammed. In his own words the
former premier indicated that “The Malaysian Government is proud to lead the new wave of
technology application for a better tomorrow. The transformation of public service and
Government machinery is the ultimate achievement for the nation, which is pro-investment
and growth-driven. The engine of growth can be propelled further with the world’s first
Multi-Application Smart Card as we travel into the cyberspace where a growing segment of
the economic pie is taking place.” 6
In a nutshell, The Malaysian Government Multipurpose Smart Card or better known as
GMPC MyKad is an integration of 9 core public and private service applications under a
single technology platform. Among the applications incorporated in the GMPC scheme are
identity card, passport information, basic medical data, frequent traveler card, public key
infrastructure, ATM application, electronic cash and transit or travel card. Among its primary
objectives are to improve The Malaysian public service delivery with the use of technology
vis-a-vis to create a pleasant experience for citizen while interacting with Government service
providers .To date some 20 Million GMPC cards have been distributed to potential citizens.
The large scale roll out operation was segmented into three distinct phases: 6a
• Phase 1 (1997-2000) – National Population Registration System
•
Phase 2 (2000-2002) – Pilot Roll out of 2 Million Cards to Klang Valley and MSC
Area.
•
Phase 3 (2003-2007) – National Roll out of 18 Million Cards covering all states
Phase I primarily involves the conversion of the National Registry Database to the new
GMPC format. A significant amount of digitization and automation exercises was carried out
during the first Phase. Among them includes the introduction of the new Automated Finger
Identification System (AFIS) and automation of 183 National Registration Department
(NRD) branches.
244
During Phase II, some 2 Million Smart Cards were rolled out to eligible Malaysian citizens in
the Klang Valley and Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) Area. Phase II also witnessed the
development of core GMPC Mykad applications. The pilot enabled the Malaysian
Government to evaluate and understand the impact and benefit of multipurpose smart card
before embarking on the more ambitious Nationwide National Roll Out.
Phase III, some 18 Million cards were rolled out to eligible Malaysian citizens throughout
West and East Malaysia. The seven years roll out period not only elevated the service level
delivery among public and private sectors but also created the platform for the emergence of
Smart card industry in Malaysia. To date, Malaysian Smart Card companies has a global
foothold in Card production (Iris), Chip Manufactures (My-MS), Smart Card Application
Development (Iris, Heitech). Smart Card Device Manufactures (Tricubes).
Impact and Benefit of The Malaysian Mykad Scheme.
In reference to the following illustration, The Malaysian Mykad Initiative underwent an
extensive integration exercise by incorporating nine (9) applications under a single smart card
platform. 8
Figure 1a: Integration Model of Malaysian Mykad Initiative.
In doing so, The Malaysian Government advertently integrated the following public and
private entities7:
• Six (6) Government agencies / ministries - NRD, RTD, Immigration, Police, Ministry
of Finance, Ministry of Health.
•
Twelve (12) Malaysian Banks and One (1) Micro – electronic payment systems (
financial gateway) provider - MEPS
•
Two (2) Digital Certificate providers – MSCTrustgate, DigiCert
•
One (1) Transit application provider – Touch’n Go
These technology centered integrations elevated the Malaysian public service delivery into a
new spectrum. The followings section will briefly explain some of the key Business Process
Improvements introduced throughout the implementation of Malaysian Mykad scheme:
245
Adoption of New Database Format:- The new database format brought a new level of
sophistication where it now allows the branches to retrieve more comprehensive informations
within a shorter time frame. As a result of this, the yield and the productivity of the branches
improved and more business transactions are processed in a day.
Digital Thumbprint:-. The biometric minutiae stored on the cards is an excellent mean of
citizen authentication Digital matching of the thumbprints are less prone to errors compared
to ink based thumbprints. Due to its nature, it suggests to be a popular adoption in the
financial world where it allows faster turnaround time on common financial transactions e.g.
opening on account, money transfer, mortgage and loan processing while providing the
required security and reliability
The integration coupled with the above mentioned business process improvement
revolutionized both the service offering and delivery of public and private sectors. Although
there were no empirical evidences indicating the success the Malaysian GMPC initiative but
through a series of observations it becomes clear that the initiative has resulted in the
following benefits 7a, 7b:
• The production and delivery of National IDs to citizens have significantly reduced
from a few months to a single day.
• Capturing and retrieval of National Registration data could be carried out from any
remote and mobile locations thus allowing citizens greater mobility and flexibility.
• Issuance and renewal of driving license have significantly reduced from three days to
less than an hour. Similarly, the operation can be carried out throughout nationwide
National Registration Departments (NRDs)
• Drivers information together with his/her traffic offences could be verified
immediately by traffic police from any remote location through GSM network
• Electronic issuance of traffic summons and payment collection through e-portals,
provided the citizens greater flexibility and wider customer interaction points
(touch-points).
• The introduction of Auto gate by Malaysian Immigration at the nation’s entry and exit
succeeded in eliminating the long queue at these points and subsequently reducing
the wait time to an approximate three minutes.
• Patient Registration at selected hospitals is carried out by reading the information
stored in Mykad thus significantly reducing the amount of time required for manual
entry.
• Opening of accounts and customer verification are carried out by reading the
information and biometric minutiae thus significantly reducing the time required
for data entry and customer verification.
• Automated Fare collection through the Touch’n go application stored in Mykad has
significantly reduced traffic queues at toll booths.
• Automated Fare collection through the Touch’n go application stored in Mykad has
streamlined passenger movement at both light rail transit (LRT) and public buses.
• Incorporation of Public Key Infrastructure (PKIs) on Mykad has provided the
necessary security needed for electronic filling of income taxes. The PKI together
246
with electronic filling resulted in greater flexibility on tax filing for Inland Revenue
Authority’s (IRA) customers.
In a nutshell, the Malaysian GMPC- Mykad not only revolutionized the Malaysian public
service delivery but it also provided the necessary cataclysm to enhance the productivity and
competiveness of Malaysian public sectors. Malaysia is not the only example where the
Government has enhanced the public and private sector delivery through National ID and
Smart Card Initiative. Similar achievements could be also credited to the Hong Kong
Government Initiative on “Octopus Smart Card” and Finland on “Fin-ID” initiative.
Parallelism between Malaysian MyKad Initiative with Rwandan National ID and Smart
Card Program
Therefore and by virtue of parallelism to other global initiatives, one should expect that an
efficient implementation of Rwandan National ID and Smart Scheme would harvest similar
impact and benefits.
Review suggests that the Rwandan Smart card Scheme is already progressing through similar
tracks. Among the first agencies to be integrated are the Police Departments which are to be
integrated with financial institutions and the National Registry. The following illustration
depicts of the proposed integration model. 9
Figure 2a: Suggested Integration of Rwandan National Smart Card Scheme
Subsequently the scheme intends to integrate the National Health Services, Financial
Institutions, Social Security, Medical Insurance and Immigration Services. The immediate
benefits expected for the implementation of the Rwandan National Smart Card program are:
• Establishment of a Central National Registry; which will act as an official reference
point thus reducing the amount of time and processes required to authenticate and
verify citizen related information.
•
Retention of data on digital media e.g. on Smart Chip and database would eliminate
the need of paper records thus reducing the cost involved in generating and
maintaining paper records.
247
•
Retrieval of stored user data from Smart Card will minimize the need to capture them
through human data entry. Potentially, it could reduce the time required for data
capture and minimize the errors resulting from human data entry.
•
The ability to rewrite or update digital records on smart chip could potentially reduce
the need to reproduce new ID cards whenever a change on user record occurs
•
The ability to store multiple applications and data in a single smart card reduces the
need for users to carry multiple cards.
•
The biometric minutiae stored on the card are an excellent mean of customer
authentication. Enabling, the banks and micro financiers a reliable means to
authenticate and verify potential customers.
•
Integration of Government agencies and financial institutions is among the key
requirements of this phase. Based on review, integration could potentially enhance
information flow and automate the common business processes and workflows.
Therefore, reducing the time required to process common business transactions.
In view of the above Rwandan National ID and Smart Card initiative is poised to
revolutionize both public and private service delivery and similarly to catalyze Rwanda’s
National productivity and competitiveness.
Conclusion
A comprehensive overview of The Malaysian and other Global National Smart Card initiative
does indeed suggest that the project has a potential to enhance public and private service
delivery. By drawing parallelism, to the Malaysian GMPC – MyKad initiative it becomes
evident that the Rwandan National ID and Smart Card Initiative could indeed be an efficient
vehicle to revolutionize both the public and private service delivery. In view of the above,
the Rwandan National ID and Smart Card Scheme are in the right path to evaluate the
Government entities and components to be integrated. The Malaysian and Global best
experience, case studies and best practices are indeed valuable tools to under see the success
of this initiative. Modernization of Government through the use of technology could
ultimately result in the enhancement of Rwanda’s National productivity and competitiveness.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the assistance of The Malaysian GMPC unit for the
valuable experience in implementing the Malaysian Mykad initiative, Mr. Zulranee, Mr.
Meor Fadzil, Mr. Ng Chee Wai and other fellow colleagues and consultants at MSCTC for
the patience guidance of Smart Card Technology, Mr. Pascal Nyamurinda, Mr. Jacques
Kayisire, Mr. Justin, Mr. Innocenece,Mr. Claude and other friends and colleagues from the
Rwandan National ID and Smart Card Uniit for letting me to be an advisor to the National
initiave, Mr. Patrick Nyirishema and Mr. Herbert for the assistance from RITA and last but
not least to my immediate family members and my lovely wife for being patience throughout
my assignment in Rwanda.
REFERENCES
[1]Interview with Mr. Pascal Nyamurinda, Rwanda National ID Coordinator on 24th April
2008 by Sashi Kumar Sivam.
248
[2]Adopted from the Presentation to National ID Steering Committee on 2nd May 2008,
Document source: Presentation to National ID Steering Committee 2-May-08 v2.4.ppt
[3]Interview with Stakeholders by Sashi Kumar Sivam on 28th April 2008.
[4]Adopted from card Cardswerk and SchlumbergerSema
[4a]Adopted from card Cardswerk and SchlumbergerSema
[4b]Adopted from Wikipedia on Smart card : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_card
[4c]Rankl, W.; W. Effing (1997). Smart Card Handbook. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-47196720-3.
[5]Adopted from Malaysian National Registration Presentation titled The Malaysian
Government Multipurpose Smartcard (MyKad) -The Malaysian Experience
[6]Adopted from Tun. Dr Mahathir’s speech during the launch of MSC Malaysia on 1st
August 1996.
[6a]Adopted from New Applications Workgroup - Cards Applications (Reduced), GMPC
Consulting Team, September 2003
[7]Adopted from The Malaysian Government Multipurpose Smartcard (Mykad) – The
Malaysian Experience presentation .
[7a]Adopted from Unisys & The Government of Malaysia : Malaysia Smart Card Delivering
Citizen Services Faster;
http://www.unisys.com/public_sector/clients/featured__case__studies/malaysia__smartcard_
_.htm
[7b]Unisys Case Study: Visible Breakthrough: Malaysia Smart Card Delivering Citizen
Services Faster : http://www.securityunleashed.com/pdf/Malaysia_Smart_Card_CS.pdf
249
A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO DETERMINING CRITICAL
INFRASTRUCTURES & APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
Andrew Nyamvumba §§, Dr Christopher M. Kumile2, Dr. John Trimble
1
Industrial Engineering Department, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa,
[email protected], P.o Box 2596, Kigali, Rwanda
2
Manufacturing Department, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa,
3
Systems and Computer Science Department, Howard University, Washington DC, USA,
Key Words: Simulation, supply chain, productivity, competitive advantage, systems
thinking, critical infrastructures
ABSTRACT
The Systems thinking approach to problem solving has been used to address strategic
questions in determining process choice and supporting infrastructures, including
optimisation of resources and project management.
This study is based on the need for an approach to determine critical infrastructures
and appropriate technologies to be deployed in underdeveloped and developing countries
and focuses on the dairy industry. The study is informed by our current work of developing a
productivity model for knowledge- based systems to be applied in the dairy industry in
Rwanda. The benefits of systems thinking approach in deriving a supply chain model is
examined against the constraints and goals of an individual organisation in the supply chain
attempting to maximise profit.
This paper provides an approach that uses a discrete simulation method at the factory
level and systems dynamics for simulation of the supply chain in determining alternative
choices, and links key characteristics of system dynamics and modeling to process choice for
organisational excellence and competitiveness. We close with some guidance on factors to
consider when selecting an analysis approach that is appropriate to the problem under study.
INTRODUCTION
The major constraints facing the dairy industry in Rwanda are the low level of
productivity, seasonal fluctuations in supply and demand, and inadequate infrastructures to
support the competitiveness of the industry. The lack of important services compounded by
the relatively high interest rates impact gravely not only on the competitiveness but also on
the sustainability of the industry. This paper suggests how these industry challenges can be
analyzed by using systems dynamics and discrete simulation models. The purpose of the
modelling is to gain insights into supply chain factors that contribute to the low productivity
and to explore strategies to minimise these effects. Changes to infrastructures are
recommended to support the process choice.
§§
Author for correspondence
250
LITERATURE REVIEW
Society is a complex system with many interacting constituents that influence each
other. These constituents include critical infrastructures whose availability and reliability
determine to a considerable extent the productivity, and hence the well being, of the
particular society. This is because for goal attainment, a process choice is made and the
process choice has to be supported by critical infrastructures.
A current definition of a “critical infrastructure” is a large scale infrastructure which if
degraded, disrupted or destroyed, would have a serious impact on the health, safety, security
or well-being of citizens or the effective functioning of the government and/or the economy
[2]. These infrastructures can be divided into physical and soft infrastructures. Examples of
physical (tangible) infrastructures include transportation networks, telecommunication
systems, and energy supply systems while the soft (intangible) infrastructures include trade
credit procedures and policies, regulatory systems, skills availability, and the easiness of the
business environment. It is deduced that an increase in availability of critical infrastructures
positively impacts productivity.
However, researchers have extensively highlighted the impact of knowledge on
growth and productivity during the last two decades. This discussion has put in focus the
importance of knowledge-based productivity and important measurement problems. It also
highlights potentially important conceptual challenges in the conventional ways of measuring
growth and productivity in the knowledge-driven society [9].
Ilka Tuomi [9] argues that these challenges are particularly visible in developing
countries as they try to increase competitiveness in the face of globalisation but that they also
require new approaches for understanding productivity and growth. The famous "Solow
paradox" can be interpreted as an indication of a need for a new productivity paradigm [9]. A
conceptualization of productivity that would allow substantial analysis of the impact of
knowledge seems [9] to require reconsideration of the links between growth and development
to innovation, creativity and the degree of openness of the system as well as its degree of
stability.
Within the supply chain, knowledge-based systems consist of hardware, software,
skills, systems integration, operational support, and infrastructure that support decision
making. They are what may be considered decision support technologies chosen from
existing ICTs and combined with research, modelling and optimisation applications.
However, a multidimensional and holistic conceptualization of application of knowledge
bases in a supply chain allows the researchers to address the different complementary
elements that are needed to make decisions affecting choices of appropriate infrastructures to
support total productivity goals.
Supply chains in rural areas are the next big issue for businesses in the dairy industry
in developing countries. The reasons are simple: the urban areas are congested with markets,
and more than 70% of Rwanda’s population lives in rural areas. Thus, there is a need for
transforming rural areas into a group of sophisticated vibrant activity centers. Innovations in
every layer – products, processes, business models, and service models are fundamental for
this transformation process to happen. Businesses need to be reinvented with appropriate
technology tools that can provide employment and services for millions of rural dwellers at
an affordable cost. Increased productivity of supply chains is needed.
251
WHY DOES PRODUCTIVITY MATTER?
The main purpose of improving productivity would be to improve service delivery
and increase availability of basic infrastructural facilities. It would also improve quality and
quantity of goods and services, increase both the quality and quantity of employment
opportunities, reduce poverty, increase self reliance and develop a well motivated, dynamic
and productive workforce.
Whereas policymakers use productivity outcomes to plan how productivity and
economic growth could be increased [9], managers relate productivity to increased
operational efficiency and reduced waste. If productivity increases, other things equal,
aggregate economic welfare increases. In the dairy industry, this means reducing losses and
increasing gains per invested input (labour, capital, information, energy, and raw materials).
Productivity measurement is also important for monetary and fiscal policy.
Productivity trends are used to forecast potential economic growth and, for example, tax
revenues. If labour income grows faster than labour productivity, the expected result is
inflation. Productivity measurement, therefore, is used in the difficult act of balancing
unemployment and inflation. Long–term productivity growth is commonly viewed as the
speed limit for sustainable economic growth [9].
A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SUPPLY CHAIN PROCESSES
The different firms in the supply chain should not work individually to achieve an
optimum, as the goal is not to achieve local optimums but to achieve the highest global
performance level. Therefore an organisation should take a systems approach to designing a
supply chain or making decisions in the organisation [16]. In a supply chain, business
processes can be considered the basic units of organisations. Thus, they are the means by
which an organisation, whatever the economic sector, survives and thrives by processing
products or services for a customer.
Due to specialisation in the dairy industry and the fact that factories [in Rwanda] tend
to structure themselves around tasks, there is a tendency to design and operate business
processes within a specific department or group of internal departments. This leads the
company not employing a systems (global) approach to carrying out operations. Today’s
need for specialisation stems from the rapidly growing body of knowledge and information
[15]. Specialisation should not be blamed, nor is it wrong to specialise in a specific field.
Specialists can still play an important role in any organisation, but the organisations ought to
structure themselves around outcomes [7]. Processes generate outcomes by linking functions
across the entire organisation (systems approach).
The same holds true for the entire supply chain. Specialist organisations still play an
important role within the supply chain, but organisations ought to structure the processes so
that the entire supply chain can achieve an optimum.
How are business processes designed to achieve global optimums for the entire supply
chain? There are no specific steps for this purpose, but business processes should be designed
so that each link in the supply chain would share in the risk of the entire chain [8].
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM
Improving the productivity of knowledge work is a significant societal problem. Peter
Drucker identified that:
252
To make knowledge work productive will be the great management task of
this century, just as to make manual work productive was the great
management task of the last century. [14]
He argued that unless managers undertake serious and effective approaches to improving the
productivity of knowledge workers, now the fastest growing sector in industrial societies,
nothing like the gains in prosperity of the 20th century will materialize in this century [13].
The significance of Drucker’s observation is that if non-trivial gains could be made in the
productivity of knowledge work [if integrated in a supply chain] the value to the economy
could be dramatic [especially for developing countries that lack both the knowledge and
organized supply chains].
APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM
A Lean Supply Chain could be of greatest importance in determining appropriate
technologies and infrastructures. A lean supply chain is characterized by as a set of
organizations and processes that are linked in a continuous flow of products and services,
finances and information, and that interact collaboratively to reduce cost and waste.
Knowledge [of opportunities to continual improvement] gives the competitive edge.
If a lean approach to managing the supply chain is to succeed, the entire organization has to
focus on removing waste and adding value. The organisation has to focus beyond its
boundaries and adapt change to focus on the entire chain.

Product value has to be defined from the customer’s point of view, not the
company’s; to eliminating waste caused by making the wrong product (one that
nobody wants), making the product at an unsuitable quality level, making too much
or too little of it, or delivering it too slowly or through the wrong channel.
Avoiding delays and discontinuities in the supply chain process is the second
principle. The supply chain should flow continuously, and so should the information
that supports it.
Product should be pulled by the customer, not pushed by the company.
Finally, continual improvement is critical, concentrating on the elimination of waste
and the addition of value in all of its supply chain processes.
THE MODELS
In choosing the appropriate model, it is recognized that business operations can be
formally described in business process models that capture activities, information, and flow
embedded in business operation. System dynamics modeling enables business process
designers to build computer simulations of complex business process behaviors.
System dynamics (SD) models provide an accurate description of system behavior
along the time dimension. It gives a convenient tool to conduct what if analysis though
dynamics points of view. The SD model in figure I below illustrates how ‘infrastructure
quality’; ‘farming practices & extension services quality’ and ‘milk products demand’ drive
the productivity in the Dairy Supply chain.
253
cows
birth rate
f arming practices &
extension serv ices
quality
milk
produced
milk at
collection
center
losss at
collection
center
deaths
births
death rate
milk
production
rate
inf rastructure quality
milk products
at distribution
points
milk at
f actory
transport
f rom milk
center loss at
f actory
transport
f rom
f actory
milk products
consumed
loss at
distribution
points
milk
product
demand
infrastructure quality
Figure I: An SD model for the supply chain
Strategies for organisational excellence: Applying knowledge for productivity
The individual organisations in the supply chain will have a value chain as
demonstrated in Figure II [12]. Primary activities are those involved in the physical creation
of the product or service – its marketing and delivery to buyers, and support and servicing
after sale. Supporting activities provide the input and infrastructure that allow the primary
activities to take place. Each activity in the organisational value chain employs purchased
input products, human resources and a combination of technologies. The organisation’s
infrastructure, such as legal work, accounting and general management, supports the whole
chain [12]. A competitive advantage is gained when all activities (primary and supporting)
in the chain are improved or managed on system principles [14]
254
SUPPORTING
ACTIVITIES
Infrastructure
M
A
R
G
I
N
Human resources
Technology
Procurement
Inbound
logistics
Operations
Outbound
logistics
Marketing
Service
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
Figure II: Value chain of an organisation
Porter [12] shows the importance of linkages within the value chain as a competitive
advantage and its valuable role in designing organisational structure and Goldratt &Cox [5],
[6] indicate how the same applies for the supply chain [16]. If a supply chain is considered as
a network of individual organisations, an individual organisation can be regarded as a
constraint that limits the output of the whole supply chain. A constraint within the individual
organisation limits the throughput of the organisation and has to be improved. The process of
continuous improvement by improving the constraint organisation within the supply chain
increases the throughput of the entire value chain [16]. Therefore, in order to improve the
output of the whole supply chain the constraint organisation has to improve. This means that
the other organisations in the supply chain have to work according to the constraint
organisation. In this way the entire chain will reach its full potential [4].
Supply chain lead-time is the time it takes information to travel from the market to the
raw material supplier (total supply chain information lead-time) plus the time it takes a single
product to travel through the different transformation processes (total supply chain
production lead-time) back to the market. By shortening the lead-time, sales will be made
more often. If more sales are made, more money is generated for the supply chain. To shorten
the total supply chain lead-time, the inventory levels have to be reduced [6] and/or additional
capacity be created within the system [5]
The effective flow of information, from a knowledge base, through a supply chain
plays a crucial role in ensuring that all organisations have the necessary information to make
global decisions regarding the productivity of the whole supply chain.
Some Factors to Consider When Selecting an Analysis approach
While this discussion has focused on Systems Dynamics, there are other approaches,
including the use of spreadsheets, discrete simulation, and various types of optimization
algorithms, that are often a better choice for addressing particular types of transport, supply
chain and logistics issues [10] [3]. Selecting the right approach or collection of approaches
will be guided by the problem to be solved [1] [3].
One example is provided by to use the SD model to link the quality of farming
practices, extension services and infrastructure to production through the supply chain. This
will be used to assist in the design of operations. The application of optimization techniques
255
to identify the ideal mix of infrastructure (number of sites, locations, functions, links between
these, etc.), use of a discrete event simulation model to test and develop the operational rules
that will govern the new operations (e.g. replenishment rules, production priorities, transport
policies, etc.), and creation of a spreadsheet model to combine and present the modeling
results in financial terms (e.g. calculate total costs and analyze cash flow, etc.) are also key
components. It is observed that in practice, using a mix of models is an iterative process
whereby results from one model may inform the inputs to another and vice versa [3] [1]. In
using systems approach to determine critical infrastructures and appropriate technology
utilizing systems dynamics and other approaches use of major assumptions that inform
models like perfect competition in which sellers are price takers and the quantities sold are
driven by supply and demand regulate the appropriate allocation of resources and push for
productivity improvement in the supply chain.
Collaboration in the supply chain is driven by information technology infrastructure
(interface/presentation devices, communications, Databases, and system architecture) as well
as applications like ERP (enterprise resource planning) ability to support SOA (serviceoriented architecture) and BPM (business process management) technology [17]. However,
the same factors associated with analysis of productivity, from considering the overall system
cost and perfect competition as a baseline, expands beyond the scope of this paper but
highlights the basis of analysis. The challenge of what information to share and what not to
share given the advantage of sharing information weighed against the competition challenge
remains the discretion of the organisation within the supply chain and is beyond the scope of
this paper.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, it has been highlighted that it is feasible for a process to strive to achieve
a global optimum in the enterprise instead of a local optimum for an organization if all parts
of the organization touched by the process can be taken into consideration as a whole. This
requires a systems approach to supply chain optimization. That in turn generates choices of
infrastructures that lead to global results that increase total productivity. A SD model allows
the impact of these choices to be modeled. This is combined with the use of other tools like
discrete event simulation, spreadsheets and optimization are employed using a systems
thinking approach.
REFERENCES
[1] An, L., and J.J. Jeng. On Developing System Dynamics Model for Business Process
Simulation, 2005 Winter Simulation Conference, pp. 2072, 2005.
[2] Dirk, H., Lomor, I., Lammer, S., and Rosato, V. Managing Complexity: insights,
concepts, applications: Critical Infrastructures Vulnerability: The highway networks,
Berlin Heidelberg, Sringer-Verlag, pp.219, 2008
[3] Dong, Jin, Hongwei Ding, Changrui Ren, and Wei Wang. 2006. IBM SmartSCOR - a
SCOR based supply chain transformation platform through simulation and optimization
techniques. Proceedings of the 2006 WinterSimulation Conference, accepted.
[4] Goldratt, E.M. Necessary but not sufficient. New York: North River Press, pp.222-223,
2000.
[5]. Goldratt, E.M. & Cox, J. The goal. New York: North River Press, pp p.151, 1986.
[6]. Goldratt, E.M. & Fox, R.E. The race. New York: North River Press. pp.28-29, 1986.
256
[7] HAMMER, M. Re-engineering work: don’t automate, obliterate. Harvard business
review, 1990, Vol.68, No.4, 104-114, 1990.
[8] HOLT, J.R. & BUTTON, S.D. Integrating strategy and tactics across multiple business
units: The supply chain solution. Society of automotive engineers, 2000-011767, 2000.
[9] Ilka, Toumi. Economic productivity in the Knowledge society: A critical review of
productivity theory and the impacts of ICT (online). Available via
<http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue97/tuomi/index.html> [accessed 12 March 2008]
[10] Mayo, D. D. and K. E. Wichmann. 2003. Tutorial on business and market modeling to
aid strategic decision making: system dynamics in perspective and selecting appropriate
analysis approaches. Proceedings of the 2003 Winter Simulation Conference, eds. S. Chick,
P. J. Sanchez, D. Ferrin, and D. J. Morrice. 1569-1577.
[11] P. F. Drucker. Knowledge worker productivity: The biggest challenge. California
Management Review,Vol.1 No. 2, pp. 79-94, 1999.
[12] Porter, M.E. Competitive advantage: creating and sustaining a competitive superior
performance. New York: The Free Press. pp.33-61, 1985 reprinted 1998.
[13] Peter Drucker. The Age of Discontinuity. Harper & Row, New York, 1969.
[14] P. F. Drucker. Knowledge worker productivity: The biggest challenge. California
Management Review,Vol.1 No. 2, pp. 79-94, 1999.
[15] TOFFLER, A. Powershift. New York: Bantam Books, 1991.
[16] Tshwane University of Technology, Btech Industrial Engineering, Production
Technology IV; process improvement, section 1.3, 2007, Unpublished
[17] Simchi-Levi D, Kaminsky P, Simchi-Levi E., 2008, Designing and managing the Supply
Chain: Concepts, strategies and case studies. McGrawHill Irwin, 3rd Ed, pp.438-439
257
A National Framework for Infusing Information Technology in the
Decision Support Process
Dr. John Trimble1 and Andrew Nyamvumba2
1
Systems and Computer Science Department
Howard University, Washington DC, usa, [email protected]
2
Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
Key Words: Knowledge management, decision support systems, e-governance, web portals, ICT
educational strategy
ABSTRACT
This study is based on an examination of the decision support needs of underdeveloped and
developing countries and draws largely on our current work in Rwanda. This effort centers
on a comprehensive framework for an information technology based decision support system
(ITDSS). It addresses decision support at the national and local levels. The strategies and
benefits of informed decision making at the central level are contrasted with the strategies
and benefits of involving the broader population in decentralized decision making.
Particular detail is provided on the strategy to infuse the necessary training and education in
the national education process. The focus of this education strategy is on the tertiary level,
but extends to recommendations to K-12 and community based education. The intent of this
work is to draw on previous studies, as well as an examination of current conditions to detail
a framework for IT-based decision support that national policymakers can consider as a
guideline for developing, enhancing and assessing their knowledge-based decision support
process.
INTRODUCTION
Every day the world becomes more globally connected. As a result our daily
economic and social lives are becoming more and more knowledge-driven. The challenge is
for individuals, organizations and nations to plan for more effective knowledge management
to aid in decision making at all levels. Computing researchers and academics will play a role
in the organization and development of decision support software and techniques to facilitate
all levels of decision-making. E-governance and e-government have unique roles in this
knowledge management decision support system partnership. They have the ability to
contribute significantly to more effective governmental administration on all levels and more
effective efforts by governments to empower the people. Academics have a particular task to
further curriculum development at all levels to better prepare future participants in this
scenario of: knowledge management – computer based decision support systems – more
effective e-governance. The collaborative, distributed nature of this scenario makes using
content management systems to develop web portal based Knowledge and decision support
systems a meaningful alternative.
METHODOLOGY
This effort starts by clarifying what is knowledge, knowledge management and a
decision support system (DSS), based on current work. This follows with a close
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examination of DSS’s role in e-governance. Based on the work and future plans of
Information Decision support Centers (IDSCs) in Egypt and Rwanda we propose 1) a
framework for DSS development to enhance e-governance and 2) an educational strategy to
complement that framework.
KNOWLEDGE
In projecting the role of knowledge management, a concise definition of knowledge
must be forwarded. This definition must distinguish knowledge from information and data.
These three terms are often used interchangeably and in many instances inconsistently and
contradictorily. “Knowledge is understanding gained through experience or study. It is
“know-how” or a familiarity with the way to do something that enables a person to perform a
task. It may also be an accumulation of facts, procedural rules, or heuristics.”[1] This
broader definition of knowledge includes ‘facts’ which in many instances are classified as
information. “Knowledge is a more subjective way of knowing and is typically based on
experiential or individual values, perceptions, and experience.”[2] This narrow definition of
knowledge excludes much of what is classified as explicit knowledge. A middle ground is
more appropriate.
Knowledge is ‘information about information’. Knowledge can be concisely defined
as rules, guidelines, decisions, algorithms or processes that act on information. Knowledge is
distinguished from information in that knowledge implies real or potential action. In contrast
data is a string of signals with no assigned meaning. Information is data with an assigned
meaning. Information can be simple facts such as my weight = 180 pounds or more complex
information structures such as a database of student information that includes names,
addresses, id numbers, courses, grades, etc..
Part of the confusion on distinguishing information and knowledge is the fact that
most information implies knowledge. For example the ‘class average = 74.5’ implies the
knowledge on how to calculate the mean from a set of individual grades. The equations and
the action of the calculations represent the knowledge and the practice of the knowledge.
However the individual grades and the class average are simply information.
KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES
Knowledge can be captured in a wide range of knowledge structures. Knowledge
structures can be placed in four broad categories: graphical representations, logic, prose, and
mixed approaches. Examples of graphical representations are decision trees, causal
diagrams, semantic networks and ‘stock and flow diagrams’. Logic knowledge structures are
grounded in proposition logic and predicate calculus. The most widely used logic knowledge
structures are ‘rule based systems’ popularized by expert system development. Prose is by
far the most widely used category of knowledge structures used in knowledge management
systems. Prose structures can take many forms such as: scripts, recipes, scenarios, cases,
guidelines and reports. These prose structures follow particular formatting rules that
facilitate their utilization.
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KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT (KM)
The definitions of knowledge management range from the simple and straightforward
“doing what is needed to get the most out of knowledge resources”[3] to Dalkir’s set of
contextual definitions captured in table 1 below.
Business Perspective
Cognitive Science Perspective
Process/technology
perspective
KM is a business activity with Managing
Knowledge
(the KM is the concept under
2 primary aspects: treating the insights, understandings and which information is
knowledge component of practical
know-how),
the turned into actionable
business activities as an fundamental resource that allows knowledge and made
explicit concern of business us to function intelligently. available effortlessly in a
and
making
a
direct Knowledge is one, if not THE, usable form to the people
connection
between
an principal factor that makes who can apply it. A virtual
organization’s
intellectual personal, organizational, and repository for relevant
assets and positive business societal intelligent behavior information critical to
results.
possible
tasks performed daily.
Table 1 Contextual Definitions of Knowledge Management (adapted from Dalkir)
As the world becomes more globally connected our daily economic and social lives
are becoming more and more knowledge-driven. Individuals, organizations and nations must
be more conscious of this and plan for effective knowledge management. The task of
knowledge engineering practitioners and researchers is to advance the science and art of
knowledge management to keep pace with advances in information and communication
technology (ICT). The definition and intent of knowledge management may vary given the
context. However, all knowledge management systems must be concerned with best
practices, rare expertise and complex knowledge practice.
LINKING KNOWLEDGE TO DECISION SUPPORT
Generally a knowledge management system is based on a particular ‘domain of
knowledge’. This domain can reflect a scientific discipline such as Botany or an
organizational structure such as Umutara Polytechnic University. Knowledge outside of the
principal domain can be used to manipulate the domain knowledge to assist in the decision
making process. This assisting knowledge is classified as ‘decision support techniques’ and
decision support software’. The relationship is evident in figure 1 below.
Figure 1 “Linking Knowledge to Decision Support”
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DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS
A Decision support system combines intellectual resources (information and
knowledge) of individuals and organizations with computing and communication technology
to improve the quality and timeliness of decisions. It uses a computer-based system to
support decision-making. Early decision support computing environments were isolated
dedicated systems.
The most recent wikipedia definition of DSS “A properly-designed DSS is an
interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile useful
information from raw data, documents, personal knowledge, and/or business models to
identify and solve problems and make decisions” [4] shows the shift to interactive
collaborative decision making.
The decision support process should cover 1) approaches to decision-making, 2)
techniques for decision-making and 3) technologies for decision-making. In addressing
approaches to decision making the concerns are philosophical and ideological perspectives,
critical, scientific and system thinking, and the role of collective decision-making versus
individual decision-making. There is a wide range of decision-making techniques that can be
considered such as: group meeting where consensus is required, individual and group ranking
techniques and the nominal group technique.
Decision support technologies automate communication and management techniques
where relations of production are key. Decision making technologies are built using a variety
of software approaches such as 1) intelligent systems (software agents, particularly search
agents; expert systems; case-based reasoning); 2) Operation research / Decision Science (math programming, inventory theory and supply chain mgmt, discrete simulation (grounded
in queueing theory and Markov decision processes)); and 3) system dynamics (based on
continuous simulation, grounded in closed feedback loop).
DECISION SUPPORT AND E-GOVERNANCE
“e-Governance is a growing phenomenon within public sector institutions around the
world and is emerging as a significant discipline within the field of public administration and
management in general. … The concept of e-Governance is evolving and efforts to stabilize
and clarify its operational implications must be made.”[5] The combination of knowledge
repositories and decision support tools and techniques combined under a e-governance
agenda can provide a powerful environment for empowering the public in the governance
process.
However “the debate regarding e-Governance is most often polarized between those
who feel that ICTs will enhance the participation of citizens in the government policy
decision-making process, and those who feel that it will simply be business as usual via a
new medium.”[5] Government, ICT practitioners, and academics all have a role in assuring
that it is not ‘business as usual’ by working to assure that the design and implementation of egovernance is ‘appropriate technology’. “The National Center for Digital Government seeks
to apply and extend the social sciences in research at the intersection of governance,
institutions and information technologies.”[6] This effort should promote a people centered
e-governance development.
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The public awareness, in general, of the potentials of the advances in ICT has led to
increased expectations of government efficiency and access. This will serve to increase
pressure on policy makers to make e-governance more people-centered. “Recent advances in
information and communication technologies (ICTs) have redefined citizens’ expectations of
the government and its services”.[7] Punia focuses on communication and coordination
between departments in the workflow and concludes “To facilitate coordination between
independent and autonomous government departments, public private process structure with
an independent third party monitoring may provide a feasible solution.”[7]
Misuraca examines the implementation of e-governance strategies in Ghana, Senegal,
South Africa and Uganda; and concludes “there is no single way of introducing ICTs ” in the
governance process. Their study recognizes that “local languages and illiteracy constitute a
barrier to access of information as well as lack of available skills to operate and maintain the
physical infrastructure, as well as develop and maintain software”.[5] Our personal
experience in Rwanda confirms this reality. Most of Africa lacks the ICT personnel to
develop and maintain an ICT-based governance process. One solution is orienting the
educational process to address this shortage and developing a national ‘information,
knowledge and decision support center’ to implement a long-range national and continental
strategy of e-governance.
INFORMATION DECISION SUPPORT CENTERS
As part of their ICT plan 2005-2010, Rwanda intends to establish a National
Information, Knowledge and Decision support center.[8] They indicate the purpose of the
center will be to provide “valid and robust information for use in decision-making by key
central authorities.” I will focus on the analysis of data and information required by such
agencies as the Presidency, the Cabinet, the Parliament, various Ministries and Agencies.
Rwanda identified Egypt’s IDSC as a model. Egypt’s IDSC Center identified five national
projects categories that are to reflect their objectives listed in table 2 below: 1) decision
support in strategic issues; 2) technological infrastructure; 3) information provision; 4)
human resources development and 5) development of the administrative environment.[9]
Egypt’s ‘Information and Decision Support Center (IDSC) Objectives
To Strategically identify opportunities and challenges confronting the Egyptian Government in
implementing its programs.
To Support implementation of public policies and decisions through carrying out state-of-the-art
policy research leading to solutions to the reform and development challenges facing Egypt.
To disseminate our findings and views through a regular flow of publications and public events.
To develop regional and international networks/ partnerships, to exchange know-how and research,
which will result in the integration of international best practices in government
Table 2 IDSC Objectives
ROLE OF WEB PORTAL DEVELOPMENT
Web portals provide a Content Management Framework System that also 1) Builds
connections with outside resources; 2) Brings many tools to one convenient Location and
3) Supports Dynamic Customization and Personalization. The private sector has seen
extensive use of web portal development. In recent years non-profit and government
organizations have begun to build sites using portal development tools. Kastel identifies four
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layers of an Enterprise Portal, from top to bottom: business layer, functional layer,
administration layer and portal platform layer. Key components of the functional layer are
single sign-on, workflow and collaboration. Much of our concern in constructing an egovernance portal lies with the administrative layer that handles: user management, content
management and document management.[10] The importance of content management is
apparent in that many of the portal development tools are classified as ‘content management
systems’. While major computing companies, such as IBM Microsoft, Oracle and SAP are
portal vendors, the open source community has developed several high quality content
management systems that can be used to develop and maintain a substantial web portal.
Bonfeld compares the three leading open source contenders: Joomla, Drupal and Plone. The
article concludes “For simpler requirements or lower budgets, Joomla, or possibly Drupal,
should suit your needs. If you need something powerful and proven, and are willing to
commit the resources to make it happen, Plone is likely to meet your need, but Drupal is also
worth a look”.[11] Look for the open source portal tool set to continue to develop. New tool
features and additional support (online videos, user groups, books and conferences) will make
it even easier to quickly develop and maintain decision support portals.
FRAMEWORK FOR IT BASED NATIONAL DSS
“While organizational leaders and managers must manage as knowledge leaders, they
must be aware of the relationship between knowledge and those who possess it. Obtaining
individual cooperation and motivation to be part of teams and groups is essential in making
knowledge sharing the core of effective knowledge management.”[12] Not only do all
government workers possess and use knowledge, but all citizens possess and use knowledge.
A comprehensive framework for decision support development must address knowledge
development and sharing from the highest leadership to the common citizen. The table below
serves as a starting framework for this process.
PARTICIPANTS
National leadership:
President, Prime Minister,
Cabinet, etc.
Local leadership and
technical workers:
Secretary generals, sector,
district and provisional
leaders
Citizens
TOOLS / STRATEGIES
-Operation Research Models,
-Simulation,
-System Dynamics,
-Statistical analysis
-Collaboration tools,
-Operation Research models,
-E-learning tools,
-Document sharing on portal
-Regular update of content
-Diverse ‘how to do’ content
-Elicit citizen inputs (i.e.
surveys, petitions)
Table 3: Framework for Decision Support Processes
BENEFITS
-Better central planning
-Better national assessment
-Better international linkage
-Decentralized work plans
-Larger segment of trained
e-ready government workers
-More collaboration across
organizations and regions
-Increase democracy
-More satisfied population
-Channel more creativity
-EMPOWER THE PEOPLE
The implementation of this framework requires governmental support at all levels.
However, it requires a strong commitment on the part of central or national government
leaders to involve the general citizenry and commit to the necessary training to make egovernance a reality.
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ADDRESSING EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
The implementation of any effective e-governance strategy requires the trained
personnel. In the case of most of Africa, the extreme shortage of personnel capable of
implementing and maintaining information and knowledge-based systems requires a
comprehensive, aggressive educational strategy.
The educational strategy is divided into two parts. The first addresses the general
needs – preparation at secondary school level, general education at university level for all
students, and community based education. Table 4 below addresses these needs. The 2nd part
deals with training ICT students at the university level to play a leading role in the future of
knowledge-based decision support systems. This curriculum is contained in Table 5. It
assumes a student has completed the secondary curriculum and general university curriculum
listed in Table 4.
SECONDARY
-Critical thinking
-Computer skills
-Student centered learning
-Scientific inquiry
-Introduction to systems
UNIVERSITY
-Computer Skills
-Development Studies
-Web utilization
-Appropriate Technology
-Critical Thinking
COMMUNITY
-Computer Skills
-Web utilization
-Introduction to Systems
-Appropriate Technology
-Critical Thinking
-Development Studies
Table 4: General Educational needs for Knowledge society
ICT CORE COURSES
ADVANCED COURSES
-Problem solving and programming
-Operation Research
-Web development
-Statistical analysis and data mining
-Introduction to modeling and simulation -System Dynamics
-Database design
-Knowledge management
-Data structures and algorithms
-AI and expert systems
-Data communications and networks
-Web services
-Probability and Statistics
-Portal development
Table 5: Curriculum for university degree in Knowledge systems.
CONCLUSIONS
A national strategy to achieve more effective use of computer-based decision support
processes should start with clarification on what knowledge is. A knowledge management
system that focuses on decision support is not only a knowledge repository of a given domain
knowledge, but must include techniques and technologies that assist in decision-making. The
inclusion of this decision-making component in an e-governance strategy requires 1) a
comprehensive evolving national decision support system strategy and 2) and aggressive
educational strategy. The educational strategy must be all inclusive – addressing students at
secondary and tertiary level as well as community members that are not students. The
decision support strategy must address training and tools for the highest administration
(national leadership) to the general citizen.
A comprehensive strategy of this type will serve to set and monitor a strong national
development agenda, as well as channeling the creativity of the broad citizenry. Most
importantly it will empower the people, thereby contributing to appropriate technology.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We must acknowledge are colleagues at RITA and Umutara Polytechnic University for their
assistance. We must also acknowledge Howard University for giving the primary author a
leave of absence between 2006-2008 making much of this work possible
REFERENCES
[1] Awad, E (1996) Building Expert Systems Principles, Procedures, and Applications, West
Publishing Company, St. Paul, MN
[2] Dalkir, K (2005) Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice, Elsevier, Oxford
[3] Becerra-Fernandez, A. Gonzalez, R. Sabherwal (2004) Knowledge Management
Challenges, Solutions, and Technologies, Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ
[4] definition of decision support systems, (last visit in September 2008)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_support_system
[5] Misuraca, G (2006) “e-Governance in Africa, from theory to action: a practical-oriented
research and case studies on ICTs for Local Governance” Proceedings of 2006 International
Conference on Digital government research, San Diego CA
[6] Fountain, J and D. Lazer (2005) “The National Center for Digital Government Integrating
Information and Institutions” Proceeding of National Conference on Digital Government
research, Atlanta GA
[7] Punia, D and K. Saxena (2004) “Managing Inter-organisational Workflows in
eGovernment Services” Proceedings 6th International Conference on Electronic Commerce
[8] Government of Rwanda (2006) “An Integrated ICT-led Socio-Economic Development
Plan for Rwanda 2006-2010”, http://www.rita.gov.rw/IMG/pdf/NICIfinal.pdf
[9] Egypt’s Information Portal (last visit September 2008) http://www.idsc.gov.eg/
[10] Kastel, B (2003) Enterprise Portals For the Business & IT Professional. Competitive
Edge International. Sarasota, FL
[11] Bonfeld, B and L. Quinn (2008) “Comparing Open Source CWSes: Joomla, Drupal, and
Plone” http://www.idealware.org/articles/joomla_drupal_plone.php
[12] Mcfarlane, D. (2008). Effectively Managing The 21st Century Knowledge Worker.
Journal of Knowledge Management Practice, Vol. 9, No. 1, March 2008
265
A case study of software procurement strategies in
Sudanese organizations
Mohamed Abbas, Hisham Abu Shama and Gada Kadoda***
Department of Computer Science, University of Khartoum, P.O. Box 321, Khartoum, Sudan,
Key words: Software Procurement, software acquisition, COTS software products, software
quality and measurement
Abstract
Generic software components that can be procured off-the-shelf (COTS) are now available to
perform most of the functions that in the past required bespoke development. The use of
commercial software products in organizations is being driven by its potential for reducing
the cost and time to develop software systems. A number of COTS-based development
methods and standards have been proposed in the literature, however, many organizations
struggle in their attempts to select appropriate software products for use in systems. This
paper examines procurement activities carried out in three organizations with the aim of
identifying their risks and potentials. The outcome of the work highlighted areas of
improvement, e.g. business requirements analysis, risk assessment, and documentation of
procurement projects. The authors argue that availability of products because of language,
cost, embargo add a further set of complexities to procurement in developing countries. The
paper concludes by making recommendations to foster the informal networks of information
exchange on products that exist among IT staff in similar (also across) organizations, as a
possible medium for wider participation in the development of national standards, as well as
outlining final thoughts on some of the imperative tasks and challenges that remain to be
addressed in country efforts on software procurement and development.
INTRODUCTION
Generic software components that can be procured off- the-shelf (COTS) are now available
to perform most of the functions that in the past required bespoke development. The use of
commercial software products (or COTS) in organizations is being driven by its potential for
reducing the cost and time to develop software systems. A number of COTS-based
development methods and standards have been proposed in the literature, however, many
organizations struggle in their attempts to select appropriate software products for use in
systems. Given the complexities of today’s software systems, the cost and risk of
procuring/purchasing wrong package due to inadequate requirements acquisition and product
selection is large.
Central to COTS evaluation for suitability is the process of establishing the context of
procurement such as functional, technical, business, etc. that determine the criteria for
evaluation criteria to assess the product. [1] While some of the challenges come from limited
access to internal design of products and scope for evaluation of fitness [10], other challenges
come from the dynamic nature of COTS market and rapid change in technology. Software
products procurement in developing countries have additional sets of challenges that come
from being at our infancy as software consumers, and hence have little effect on its market
and the development of standards. As part of local efforts by government to regulate and
develop standards for software procurement, this paper compares and evaluates processes
***
Author for correspondence.
266
employed at three local organizations with the aim of identifying their risks and potentials,
and propose a set of guidelines that can support organizations in making carefully reasoned
and sound product decisions, as well as improve their process models.
The paper is structured to give in section 2 an overview of the concepts that are knitted in the
procurement process and common procurement activities and steps proposed in the literature.
Section 3 presents procurement processes from the case study which is followed by
comparative and critical analyses in section 4. Section 5 concludes with highlighting some of
the questions and thoughts on product evaluation, process improvement, and challenges in
procurement processes that arose from the study.
Software Procurement Concepts and Processes
The development of systems using COTS products bring fundamental changes to the way
organizations do their work [4]. The central cause of change is that the organization becomes
a consumer with less or no control over the product implementation and adopts standard
interfaces based on COTS market. Some familiar software engineering activities are altered.
Requirements analysis may have to consider standard implementations, architecture design
must be performed together with package evaluation; and new activities will become
significant parts of development process, for example product adaptation and integration.
These changes require organizations to have an understanding of the capabilities and
limitations of COTS products and standards in their domain, conduct market research and
product evaluation to select products, and involve different kinds of expertise such as
business analysts and legal consultants in the procurement process.
There are two types of standards that an organization must deal with. The first are the
standards used in implementations to be able to balance requirements with available product
features. The second are standards and recommended practice for conducting procurement
processes. For example, IEEE 1062 suggests a number of major phases, steps and milestones
for acquiring COTS products, and its variant MOTS (Modified-off-the-shelf), as well as
provides checklists to assist organizations in developing their own processes [6]. Another
standard that is not specifically geared for COTS but offer related guidelines is the ISO 9126
for software quality. A number of COTS-based development methods have also been
proposed, for example OTSO (Off-the-Shelf Option) and PORE (Procurement-Oriented
Requirements Engineering). The OTSO method starts with a specified set of requirements
and provides techniques to define evaluation criteria and to compare the costs and benefits of
alternative products [7], while PORE [13] integrates the process of requirement specification
and product evaluation using techniques from requirements acquisition and engineering such
as card sorting and laddering, and provides guidelines to design evaluation test cases.
267
Investigating current procurement practice in Sudanese Organizations
This section will consider how three very different organizations deal with the problem of
procuring an appropriate COTS product. One organization, (“A”) is a major
telecommunication company that is privately owned. The second organization, (“B”) is a
government owned bank and the last organization (“C”), is a large industrial corporation that
is a public/private partnership. While the three use very different approaches to COTS
evaluation, still it was observed that the abstract process ideas underlying are similar. The
procurement project consists of three major steps to initiate, select, install and integrate of the
COTS product in the system. And the authors also learn that differences in approaches
support the notion that whatever the actual process used, it is driven by context. The
subsections below highlight the main features of the organizations and their COTS software
procurement processes (depicted in Figures 1, 2 and 3 – in the Appendix).
Organization “A”
This is an international telecommunication company that bought a public owned
company and has more than 20 branches worldwide. Software is fundamental to the operation
of the organization which procures from different ranges of COTS products, e.g. Antivirus,
Billing System. The company is frequently engaged in multiple procurement projects and
technology upgrades. Procurement projects are initiated at middle management level and the
decision to procure is taken in consultation and approval of higher management. Selection of
products considers vendors of existing running components of the system, for example the
Reporting system solution used the same vendor of the Billing system. A main feature of the
procurement process is the existence of end-of-project evaluation.
Organization “B”
This organization is a large government owned bank with 35 national branches, and
one branch outside Sudan. Although software is an integral part of the bank system and
improves its performance, failure of the computer system is not as catastrophic as for “A”,
because the bank can revert to its established manual system. The current core system the
bank uses is a Jordanian COTS product that is implemented in COBOL and runs under DOS
on Novell system. The rate of change of computer systems is slow in this organization and
undergoes various government regularity measures on spending and on procedures followed
from the Central Bank. The organization uses a tender system to select products and involves
representatives from different stakeholder groups in the organization in the procurement
team.
Organization “C”
This is an industrial corporation that is owned by government, and private national
and international investors. The company’s sites of management and production are located
in Sudan, with one office abroad. The main type of COTS the company deals with is CRM
(Customer-Relationship Management) systems. A continuous business and needs analysis
(using external consultants for large projects) is conducted in the organization that can initiate
a procurement project, and yield a list of requirements as well as possible solutions. The
procurement process in this organization is characterized by an early identification of a
suitable product and that it performs initial testing before signing the contract. This is
followed by customization and a second round of testing before the system is launched.
Analysis and Discussion
The information obtained from organizations is organized according to the software
acquisition life-cycle process model proposed in the IEEE 1062 which includes planning,
contracting, implementation, acceptance and follow-on activities. The activities considered
during information gathering are based on acquisition management and technical activities
associated with the use of COTS products and standards proposed in [11] and on other
268
generic processes of the PORE method that are specifically proposed for requirement
engineering and product selection. Table 1 lists the phases and related activities and state how
they are considered or occur in each organization.
Phases
Planning
(business
strategy,
risk analysis,
standards use,
software
requirements)
Contracting
(vendor and
product
selection,
suitability
assessment,
contract
development)
Implementatio
n
(configuration
management)
Acceptance
(conformance
testing)
Follow-on
(evaluation)
Organization “A”
• Considers immediate
performance needs.
• No risk analysis
• Choice of product is
based on quality and
short schedules.
• Use own standards.
There are no
evaluations of
standards used.
• Requirements are
determined by
beneficiary department.
They are expressed in
different forms by
different departments.
• Supplier is selected
based on personal
knowledge of staff. The
product is selected after
supplier selection.
• No suitability tests
conducted.
• Legal advisor part of
procurement team from
the start of project.
Organization “B”
• Considers change in
domain requirements.
• Risks are mainly
defined in terms of old
data.
• Products judged on
cost and quality.
• Select products from a
set of national standards
and participate in their
development.
• Requirements are
determined from outside
organization. They are
expressed in standardized
language used nationally
by similar organizations.
• Supplier and product
selected using a tender
system.
• Tests are performed
outside the organization
by national regulatory
bodies.
• Legal advisor is part of
the procurement from the
start of project.
• Configuration starts
after contract signing
led by vendors and
internal technical staff.
• Configuration starts
after contract signing led
by vendors and internal
technical staff.
• System installed by
vendor and technical
staff, testing performed
by internal staff in real
environment.
• Projects and
software are evaluated.
• Training of technical
staff is carried out, then
system set up and testing
(also by national bodies)
before launch.
• Evaluations are
conducted at national
level.
Organization “C”
• Considers output of
business analysis.
• Evaluates business and
technical risks.
• Product quality is prime
factor in selection.
• Extensive search and
evaluation of international
standards.
• Requirement are gathered
during business analysis and
expressed in standard used
by business department.
• Supplier is selected based
on business analysis.
Products are selected from
proposed solutions by
internal staff assisted by
external consultants.
• Conducts a set of
suitability tests set by
organization.
• Legal advisor joins team
after product selection.
• Some initial configuration
management and testing is
done by internal staff prior
to contract signing.
• Training of technical staff
is carried out before second
round of testing. The system
is then fully installed and
deployed.
• Continuous evaluations.
Table 1: Procurement Activities carried out in Organizations surveyed
It can be observed that organization “C” has a more robust process compared with
organizations “A” and “B”. This may be due to the fact that “C” has a business analysis
department as part of the IT Section. This department was important during the initiation and
requirements analysis activities and is engaged in a continuous process of assessing the
269
business needs of the organization. When these analyses suggest the need for a software, this
department ensures that the software product is in line the organization’s business objectives
and performance goals. This wide view of need/impact assessment of the proposed computer
system serve as a quality assurance mechanism for decisions made with regard to
investments, as well as ensures coverage of needs and compatibility of requirements from
different departments or sections in the organizations.
The tendering procedure used by Organization “B” is considered a strength as it facilitates
identification of suitable products based on tender criteria which reduces the search space.
The organization benefits from being under the judiciary of National Central Bank that
regulates and evaluates processes for government owned banks. However, this can also
prolong the procurement process as decision making is required at senior management level
and becomes focused on product cost more than quality.
In organization “A”, project and product evaluation – strength, are conducted at the end of
procurement. These evaluations are used to update information on vendor, user satisfaction,
or to improve procurement processes. More recently (after this study), the organization set up
a business/IT section to be responsible for procurement projects. Another characteristic of
this model is its emphasis on short schedules of procurement projects which may be
necessary in their context because new requirements are introduced at high rates.
Conclusion
The outcome of the work highlighted some areas of improvement to the organizations
procurement processes. For example, decision to procure must be based on business analysis;
use of organizations surveys and market research during product search; and risks to projects
must be identified. A number of COTS assessment attributes such as availability, ease of use,
maturity, vendor support are proposed Bohem in [2] to use in determining the time that
should be spent on product evaluation. Also, teams should include a number of fixed staff
assigned to procurement projects management, and evaluations of product in use and
procurement process must be carried out at end of projects. These are considered as some of
the enabling factors to improvement continuity and process maturity.
The context of the organization was found to significantly influence the procurement
activities carried out and their sequence. For example, the lengthy tendering system employed
by organization “B” is required for government procurement, while short project schedules
was an important criteria for organization “A” where change in requirements and
developments in the domain are faster. Alternatively, in organization “C” time was not a
factor as software is not a fundamental part of their business process.
The paper also identified that language, cost and availability of COTS products for economic
or political reasons, add a further set of complexities to known procurement problems and
cause some organizations to use unstable or “middle-vendors”. In these cases, serious
problems of quality and support types are reported to arise. Very few organizations outside
academia are currently using Open Source software (OSS), alone or within their COTS-based
systems. Lowering procurement costs, availability of source code and the freedom to modify
according to need present some of the benefits of this type of COTS. Quality and support are
major concerns in using OSS although this is not the case where OSS has been developing
e.g. operating systems and web servers [12]. Collaborative activities and social networks of
IT personnel working in related organizations in identifying products, selecting vendors,
fixing compatibility problems, is a particularly interesting finding in terms of its potential for
270
an organized local standards development efforts, user community set up, skills transfer,
information sharing, and in that it encourages wider participation in the development of
national standards.
Final remarks and thoughts
More recently in Sudan, specialized government agencies in information and
telecommunication technologies moved towards promoting an indigenous software industry
by funding the establishment of research centers in a number of universities as well
government owned ones. The impact of this initiative is yet to be seen however it is worth
noting that the importance of OSS is highlighted. For instance, the newly established
Information Technology Research & Development Center (ITRDC) in the Department of
Computer Science at the University of Khartoum, in collaboration with the National
Telecommunication Corporation, has a dedicated OSS research group and all research staff
currently being trained in Linux.
Some of the imperative tasks and challenges that remain to be addressed in the local context
of software procurement and development include: First, developing national standards or
guidelines that can be tailored for use by different sized organizations, to regulate and support
the purchase of products and services. This requires a broader situation analysis similar to the
study reported in this paper, as well as examining other country experiences e.g.
ChileCompra [5]; Second, resolving the paradox of the need for government support to local
(especially growing) industries and how that may infringe global free trade rules. [3] In
addition, developing countries gains from OSS is discussed and demonstrated by nongovernmental organizations like UNDP and UNCTAD and by researchers worldwide. The
slow uptake of OSS in Africa, behind that of South East Asia and Latin America, can be
understood in the context of inadequate telecommunication infrastructure, but it also begs the
necessity of political will as well as the examination and perpetuation of national interests,
e.g. Peru’s Bill for Free Software in Public Administration [9] and the recommendations of
South Africa’s National Advisory Council on Innovation [8]. Finally and crucially, centering
the issues of economic and social development into the heart of country software use and
development efforts would foster relevant indigenous industry and boost our critical minds –
to address pressing problems and seek appropriate solutions.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Organizations and their staff who participated in this study.
REFERENCES
[1] Alves C. and Finkelstein A. Challenges in COTS Decision-Making: A Goal-Driven
Requirements Engineering Perspective. Proceedings of the Fourteenth International
Conference on Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, Italy, 2002. pp.
Accessed at: http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/A.Finkelstein/papers/seke02.pdf
[2] Boehm B. and Port D. "Risk-Based Strategic Software Design: How Much COTS
Evaluation is Enough?" Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on EconomicsDriven Software Engineering Research. Toronto, Canada, 2001. Accessed at:
http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~sullivan/edser3/port.pdf
[3] Bohannon, M. Testimony on China’s Regulations on Software Procurement. At a Hearing
on “Domestic Source Restrictions Threaten Free Trade: What is the Federal Government
Doing to Ensure a Level Playing Field?” May 2005. Accessed at
http://www.siia.net/govt/docs/pub/TestimonyGovtReform_Final_13May2005.pdf
271
[4] Carney, D. Requirements and COTS-Based Systems: A Thorny Question Indeed. SEI
Interactive, Carnegie Mellon University, June 1999.
[5] ChileCompra (Chilean Procurement and Contracting System) project description.
Accessed at: http://www.stockholmchallenge.se/data/2439
[6] IEEE Computer Society. IEEE Recommended Practice for Software Acquisition. IEEE
Inc. 1998.
[7] Kontio, J. A COTS Selection Method and Experiences of Its Use. Proceedings of the 20th
Annual Software Engineering Workshop, Maryland, November 1995.
[8] Open Software Working Group (National Advisory Council on Innovation). Open
Software & Open Standards in South Africa - A Critical Issue for Addressing the Digital
Divide. January 2002. Accessed at: http://www.naci.org.za/pdfs/oss_v_1_0.pdf
[9] Nuñez, E. D. V. Letter to Peru General Manager of Microsoft in relation to Bill Number
1609, Free Software in Public Administration. April 2002. Accessed at:
http://bat8.inria.fr/~lang/libre/politique/perou/rescon_en.html
[10] Márcio de Oliveira Barros et. al. Scenario Oriented Project Management Knowledge
Reuse within a Risk Analysis Process. In Proceedings of the Thirteenth International
Conference on Software Engineering & Knowledge Engineering (SEKE'2001), Buenos
Aires, Argentina, June 13-15, 2001. pp. 37-44.
[11] Meyers B. C & Oberndorf P. Managing Software Acquisition: Open Systems and COTS
products. Addison Wesley, 2001. pp. 276-282.
[12] Muffatto M. Open Source – A Multidisciplinary Approach. Imperial College Press
(London), 2006. pp. 105-109.
[13] Ncube C. and Maiden N.A.M. PORE: Procurement-Oriented Requirements Engineering
Method for the Component-Based Systems Engineering Development Paradigm.
Proceeding of the International Workshop on Component-Based Software Engineering,
May 1999. Accessed at: http://www.sei.cmu.edu/pacc/icse99/papers/11/11.pdf
272
Figure 1: Organization “A”
Figure 2: Organization “B”
Figure 3: Organization “C”
Appendix: COTS Procurement Activities of Organizations in Sample
273
Promoting Virtual Schooling in the environment of the Least Developed
Countries using LoColms
Dr. Ngarambe Donart
Kigali Independent University (ULK)
B.P. 2280 Kigali – Rwanda
tel.: +250 08302577;
email: [email protected]
Key words: Virtual Schooling, LoColms, Proxy Cache Server, PSTN, PPP, Video-Stream Server
Abstract
We have been witnessing sharp increases in evening classes in many LDCs’ Institutions of
Higher Learning where enthusiastic learners have been converging to very few and
heavily crowded Institutions, sometimes many coming from as far as the ends of the
country (in the case of Rwanda). In these situations ICT becomes an appropriate
technology, providing a timely solution in this regard. It is becoming both possible and
easy to establish virtual schooling environments to make learning and teaching cheaply
and easily accessible from anywhere and at anytime; the movements in search of schools
and teachers is no longer a must to learning. LoColms (Local College Management
Learning System) is a learning management system that has been designed with the
purpose of making virtual schooling, especially in the LDCs environment, a viable option
[8]. It is designed to deliver multimedia contents, especially the rich full-motion video
contents, over the PSTN (which in most of the LDCs is being upgraded to digital system,
and with sufficient bandwidth by means of ADSL or fiber optical infrastructure used on
the subscriber loop). The LoColms lowers learning costs by employing the combination of
Proxy Cache & Multimedia Stream storage Servers and Point-to-Point communication
Protocol (PPP) Technologies. The learners can access the few tertiary institutions and the
limited expert staff any time and from anywhere, and the use of learning and teaching
materials is greatly reduced.
1. Introduction
The LDCs represent the poorest and weakest segment of the International community [1].
These countries are characterized by their exposure to a series of constraints such as
limited human, institutional and productive capacity; and lack of access to information and
communication technologies. Adequate tertiary education places a significant role in
national development, which the traditional mode of educational system is not able to
meet in the light of the current demand against the disproportionate population growth
rates and budget constraints in most of the LDCs.
Virtual schooling system can be a feasible and relieving alternative; the enrolment figures
and teaching/learning resources of each institution can virtually expand exponentially, and
the limited resources such as qualified teaching personnel and reference materials can
virtually be shared without a major extra stretch. Generally, the barriers to distance
education in these countries have been the: 1) lack of resources needed for meaningful
development and sustenance of technology-based learning; 2) lack of infrastructures
(which includes information and communication hardware systems) to support modern
technologies in least developed and/or low-technology countries, and; 3) the lack of
recurrent funding necessary to acquire or develop appropriate software and courseware on
a continuous basis, and maintain, service and replace the equipment [2]. This paper
274
discusses a prototype of LoColms, a system designed to support Virtual Schools. The
Virtual Schools in distance education can make the education a “must for all” [3],
especially in the LDCs, a realizable dream. One of the major objectives of distance
education is to help widen access to education, raise the quality of education by training
and making resources available to the classrooms, and to bring new methods and
approaches into schools, [4].
2. The LoColms Based Virtual Schools
2.1 The Concept of Virtual Schools
A Virtual Organization is defined as a “dynamic collection of individuals and institutions
which are required to share resources to achieve certain goals” [5] and as “a temporary or
permanent coalition of geographically dispersed individuals, groups, organizational units
or entire organizations that pool resources, capabilities and information to achieve
common objectives” [6].
As pointed out [7] the related terms “virtual”, “virtually” and “virtuality” imply that
something exists having a potential effect but this something is not tangible. In classical
organizations the boundaries are clearly defined, while virtual organizations are
characterized by fuzzy boundaries, flexible structure and the ability to include new
partners as the need arises. In a nutshell, virtuality can be defined as a temporary or
permanent coalition of geographically dispersed individuals, groups, organizational units
or entire organizations that pool resources, capabilities and information to achieve
common objectives, while decisively relying on information technology (IT). A virtual
school is also extended to cover different alternatives of symbiosis with physical school. A
virtual school can work as a virtual extension of ordinary school or classroom activity. The
concept of virtual school does not emphasize teaching; it focuses on individualism and the
independent initiative to study. The Virtual Schools concept allows a great deal of
flexibility for learners and educators.
2.2 LoColms General Architecture
The LoColms relies solely on the local resources, namely the local universities and the
local telecommunication facilities, a characteristic that makes it highly sustainable. The
rationale is to utilize what exists locally; every country has a well-established PSTN
infrastructure, and presumably that is already being digitally upgraded (for the ease of data
communication).
The key technologies supporting the LoColms virtual schools comprise PSTN, PPP,
and ProCa. The choice of the PSTN eliminates the duplication of communication
networks (especially Internet, a packet-switched network, that has been the main
infrastructure for the Web), or dedicated private virtual networks (PVN) usually required
in similar situations.and the choice to utilize the local educational institutions (LEI) is to
empower the local educational institutions. The PPP is used to provide a direct TCP/IP
link between the Local Educational Institutions (LEIs) and the Virtual School Centers
(VSCs), while the ProCas are to minimize communication traffic and costs. The choice of
the optical fiber cable or Digital Subscriber Link (xDSL) is to provide a broadband
environment over the ordinary telephone subscriber lines. The architecture is as in fig. 1.
The Video-Streaming technology is also employed to solve the downloading time. The
basic idea of video streaming is to split the video into parts, transmit these parts in
succession, and enable the receiver to decode and playback the video as these parts are
received without having to wait for the entire video to be delivered. Video streaming
allows the students to start studying even before the downloading has completed with a
short delay (usually on the order of 5-15 seconds) between the start of delivery and the
275
beginning of playback. For most users of the web (56k), streaming video appears as a
small video window, usually 160x120 pixels in size and 5-15 frames per second. For those
with intermediate Internet connections (DSL, Cable), that picture might be 320x240 pixels
and 15 frames per second. Those on institutional networks (T1, T3) are capable of viewing
640x480; full motion video. However, this is not required after the contents have been
saved on the ProCa. They are downloaded locally and played from the ProCa server.
Virtual School Center (VSC)
Study 1
Study2
StudyN
Login
Update units register
Proxy Cache
Shared Contents
Topic units register
Check ProCa
contents
PPP
link to
the
Locol
Redundant
topic units
discard from
register
No contents
ADSL, ISDN or Optical Fiber
LOCOLMS Server
Verify account
University LOCOLMS database:
(check payment)
(Download study
contents):
LEI LAN
Study contents repository
Record class session
LOCOLMS Multimedia Stre
DVR
Digital-Audio Recorder
Multimedia theaters
Fig.1: LoColms Architecture
276
2.3 LoColms Description
The LoColms, an asynchronous interactive educational system, is built on the Java
technology, and is based on the Client/Server paradigm. The objective of LoColms
Application is to provide both a sustainable and an economical solution, suitable for the
educational situation in the LDCs. Its economicability comes from the fact that it is
supported by locally existing resources. Its local feature comes from the fact all the
subscribing parties, namely the local universities offering the courses, the private
companies operating the LoColms based virtual school study centers, the local
telecommunication firms, and the remote students are all local resources and operating
purely on business terms. On LoColms the same lecturers can serve both the residential
and the remotely learning students with a minimum extra effort.
The LoColms deployed over PSTN, the VSCs and the LEI LANs are each linked
to the PSTN central office by bandwidth of either 128 kbps (using ISDNs) or higher (using
ADSL, or Optic fiber technologies) and the PPP technology, a link layer protocol to
transport datagrams across a serial point-to-point links. The system supports video
recorded class sessions that were saved in the LoColms servers, to be downloaded by
remotely learning students in VSCs over broadband links such as SONET/SDH on the
PSTN backbone and over ISDN or xDSL over subscriber links the; the learners on the
LoColms are organized in VSCs in order to provide sufficient bandwidth to the VSCs. On
making a PPP dialup connection to the respective LEIs, the users of the system must first
go through the login process for authentication, and the server keeps the record of the
number of times the online learner turned up for classes. At the client side the remote
learner is guided through the information about the college, the level, the course (or
major), and subject of study. First, the system must check whether the contents have not
been previously downloaded, because the study resources downloaded by previous
learners are temporarily saved in the VSC’s ProCa Server for the subsequent learners,
until they are replaced by successive course packages; either by automatic prefetch or by
more frequently shared resources, according to the Course Sequencing Prerequisites and
Completion Requirements. It is highly hoped that many courses would be shared, although
different remote learners may be studying different Assignment Units (Aus) of a same
course, according to the Course Structure Format (CSF) of each course. It is highly hoped
that many courses would be shared, although different remote learners may be studying
different Assignment Units (Aus) of a same course, according to the Course Structure
Format (CSF) of each course.
The Course Structure Format (CSF) and Course “Packaging” in the LoColms is
emulated in the ProCa. It requires contents of 45 minutes block units of a topic plus 15
minutes of Assignment Unit, (au) exercise of the subjects being studied at a time. The
learners from the VSCs will be served with Topic Assignment Units (Tau) according to
the prerequisites and completionReq procedure, (Tau1&Tau2 &…&Taux); studied sequentially
according to the sequence these units were taught at the LEI with an after Tau exercises to
mark the completion of the Tau if attempted after a period of 60 minutes. A finished Tau
is recorded in the LoColms. The LoColms application screens (figures. 2 and 3).
277
Fig. 2: selecting study content screens
278
Fig.3: downloaded content screen
2.4 ProCa storage optimisation
To optimize the ProCa storage capacity, the system will only be concerned with
the contents regardless of the LEI or colleges the contents were obtained from. In other
words, it doesn’t matter from which university the contents were downloaded, the learners
studying with different universities but studying the same courses will have to share the
contents. This is illustrated as follows. Since the basic purpose of caches is to encourage
sharing of contents, consider a subject, SubjectA (SA), having several Taus:
SA = {Tau1, Tau2, ---,TauN}
-------------------------------------------------------(1)
For, a Tauj, an Nai (number of students sharing a copy). The bigger the Nai for Tauj, the
fewer the copies of contents residing on the ProCa. By definition thus;
(Tauj) =
Nai = 1 (unshared contents)
Nai > 1 (shared contents) ---------------------------------------------(2)
Nai = 0 (no contents in cache)
The overall contents in the ProCa would be;
∑Tauj = ∑(Nai > 1) + ∑(Nai = 1) --------------------------------------------------------(3)
279
Since the ∑(Nai = 1) contents would be removed from the ProCa, the net content will
approximately be;
∑Tauj ≈ ∑(Nai > 1)
--------------------------------------------------------------(4)
For instance, if the video contents of say 45MB files were arranged in units of 45
minutes consisting and the end text file, Tau exercises, the proxy cache storage capacity
of, say, 100 GB used to the full capacity would support about 2000 units, (or 2000
different subject topics hosted) on the ProCa. In other words, ProCa would support 2000
students simultaneously studying from a single VSC LAN. If the size of one LAN had,
say, 20 PCs, and all the 20 computers were busy throughout the day (from 8.00 to 22:00
hours), it would accommodate nearly 300 learners; that is 1/6 of the capacity or 13 GB per
day, for the worst-case scenario.
According to the Zipf’s law, the popularity of a course will determine the
frequency of sharing the content. Since the number of LEIs and the volume of the
expected courses offered on line would also be small among the LDCs, we can expect a
very high hit ratio for most of the popular SAi in the ProCa.
3. Conclusion
In this paper we discussed the prototype of the Local College Learning
Management System (LoColms) we are using to support virtual schooling, a system used
to provide a sustainable and economical solution suitable for educational situation in the
LDCs. The application is supported by traditional communication technology, the public
switching telephone network system (PSTN) formerly regarded a voice communication
system, which already exists in all of the LDC countries to avoid the costs that would be
involved in deploying packet switched networks or dedicated private virtual networks
(PVN) usually required in similar situations, and is aimed at improving the traditional
form of education through empowering the local educational institutions. The work
discussed is an innovation, whereby different technologies are combined to provide,
cheaply, an easy access to higher education in the least developed countries. By this
approach a lot can be achieved: 1) the virtual infrastructure would be economically
established and with ease; 2) individual colleges’ enrollment would, virtually, increase; 3)
the local resources would be helped to develop; 4) the e-learning educational system that
is sustainable.
We hope that this work will stimulate further research in appropriate technologies,
especially the web-based ones, that will be more applicable in the LDCs’ situations, for
the interest of education in the LDCs in particular and any other socio-economic aspects in
an effort to bridge the digital divide in general, relying on the locally available resources
with an aim of strengthening them. Although the mastery of IT related technologies should
become a priority, it shouldn’t be a precondition for these countries to engage in the
technology-based education systems, especially if there already exists a minimum
technological capacity with which to start.
We are planning to improve the application by including an online examinations
aspect, where the set of examination sessions would be randomly selected for candidates
in such a way that no two papers would have same questions, to make the application
more or less a complete educational application.
280
4. Reference
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
The Third United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries Brussels,
UNCOLDC, (2001)
Gundani,& Govinda Shrestha, “DISTANCE EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES”,http://www.undp.org/info21/public/distance/pb-dis.html#up,
(1997)
General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed this Universal Declaration of
Human
Rights
(Article
26.1),
(1948),
http://www.historyoftheuniverse.com/udhr.html.
The Third United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries, Brussels,
(2001)
Tella, S., “Virtual School in a Networking Learning Environment.” University of
Helsinki. Lahti Research and Training Centre, 146-176, (1995).
Illich, I. “Towards a School-Free Society.” Helsinki: Otava, (1972).
Tiffin, J. & Rajasingham, L. 1995. In search of the virtual class: Education in an
information society. London: Routledge
Ngarambe D., Prof. Dr. Pan Yunhe, Prof. Den Ren, (2003), “LoColms: an
innovative approach of enhancing traditional classroom form of education by
promoting web-based distance learning in the poorer countries”. Journal of
Zhejiang University, SCIENCE, Vol. 4, No. 6, Nov – Dec. 2003
281
SUCCESS AND FAILURE FACTORS OF MANAGEMENT
INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY OF
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
Mpofu I. Umutara Polytechnic University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 57
Nyagatare Rwanda). Fax (250) 565191, E-mail: [email protected]
Key Words: Livestock, MIS, Success, Failure
Abstract
Management Information Systems (MIS) enable commerce and industry to collate and
manipulate their data in a methodical manner and use the records, facts and figures to
generate quality intelligent information. Information generated is knowledge which is used
in making timely decisions. There is an increase in the interest of MIS in the AgroIndustry, especially the livestock production and animal products processing operations.
MIS projects in the Livestock Industry are quite different from each other from the
technology standpoint, but we can reach similar conclusions about the factors that enable
each of them to succeed in the implementation process and in putting the systems into
operation. This paper seeks to appraise the importance of MIS in the Livestock Industry by
elucidating real factors of success and failure that developing nations needs to pay
attention to if livestock is to play a bigger role in economic development. The paper
recognizes that some key factors in the success and failure of any implementation MIS
project have hinges more on telecommunications infrastructure. This article therefore
supports the idea that it is important to have the right policies, then infrastructure and
have clear processes in place for data collection, processing and generation of quality
information.
1.0 Introduction
Management Information Systems in the livestock industry means the employment
of a record systems that create databases from which information can be retrieved,
processed, batch or real time, to generate quality information that is usable in decision
making. MIS in the livestock system can be applied in the following areas (departments):
1. Animal production and management (milk, meat, eggs, wool),
2. Nutrition (Feed analysis, fabrication, and feeding),
3. Animal Herd Health (epidemiology, prevention and treatment),
4. Breeding and genetics (artificial insemination, multiple ovulation and embryo transfer,
gene banks),
5. Animal products processing and
6. Marketing (on the hoof:- electronic auction system), on the hook (meat grading
schemes).
Many experts have talked of sustainable livestock production, integrated croplivestock systems and organic livestock farming methods for many years and yet their real
impact is very small especially in the developed world. Information is power, they say but
are we distributing it enough and using it to make decisions! If developing countries can
take the known, good MIS technologies to another level of magnitude then they can
contribute significantly to the supply of 300 million tones of meat (by the year 2020) from
non-industrial systems that the world so need [1]. It is a major challenge that relies on the
success or failure of the promotion, implementation, and sustenance of an MIS in each
country and within regional groupings like Southern African Development Community
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(SADC), Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA), Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS), to mention a few.
2.0 Critical Success or failure factors of a Livestock MIS
2.1 MIS Livestock Policy
The first factor is the presence of a policy statement within countries spelling out
the importance hence the need for the implementation of a Livestock centered MIS.
Policies with set milestones are critical but there must be a system in place to monitor and
evaluate progress, benefits, difficulties, experiences, effectiveness and efficiency of the
system. This will allow either change of course or fine tuning where necessary. At the
policy, producer and processor level, the provision of safe and wholesome animal products
as human food must be recognized as the cornerstone to sustainable livestock and product
development. At the end of the day, policy decisions must be made. At least these policies
should remove the obstacles for small producers and, in some cases, restrain the big
companies. Policies directly promoting MIS in the livestock industry in the developing
countries are not explicitly pronounced. One can only make inferences from the national
livestock strategies which consistently aim to commercialize animal production.
Commercialization of livestock production succeeds if relevant and current information is
used in decision making. For the developing countries, this can only be possible through
facilitation backed by specific policy statement that encourages a deliberate attempt to
promote distribution and hence intelligent use of data and information.
2.2 The central role of Telecommunications Infrastructure
One problem that directly hinders success or cause the failure of an MIS in the
livestock sector is infrastructure. This is in terms of telecommunication infrastructure to
enable transfer of data and information via telephones (fixed and or mobile), internet or
VOIP. How can small producers (who are usually the ones applying the more sustainable
technologies and integration of farming activities) have access to the livestock information
market? The answer probably lies in governments developing elaborate communications
technology infrastructure. A case in point is the NEPAD initiative of laying an optical
fiber from Cape to Cairo by committing member countries to an ICT protocol. This will
allow livestock farmers to participate in telemarketing, and telecommuting. A case in point
is the mobile phone, being used as a village communication tool in Bangladesh (Grameen
Bank) and Venezuela, which has had a positive impact on marketing from small producers
[2].
A functioning telecommunications infrastructure allows all classes of livestock
farmers (smallholder farmers, large scale commercial farmers, and specialist animal
breeders), agro dealers, middle men, veterinarians and other animal science practitioners
to access information about, animal breeds, feeds, veterinary drugs and medicines. There
is also a need and demand for low cost and simple processing technologies for livestock
products whose supply and demand can be assessed and accessed for the benefit of
livestock resource development.
In many situations, the middle-men or traders take the lion's share of the profit in
the livestock industry because they have the means, the knowledge and the access to the
consumer market. Emphasis needs to be given to the development of an inclusive
Livestock MIS that collects data and feed back information to the small-scale and village-
283
level livestock cooperatives, livestock products processors, including information on
equipment, training, distributions network and marketing channels.
Availability of information on suitable equipment, which can make small-scale
processing competitive, can easily make livestock development advance significantly.
There are examples on the African continent for example there is a successful project in
Uganda to develop value-added meat products by village women and young people. An
information system has been put in place to equip the same group of farmers, promoting a
method of milk preservation (the Lactoperoxidase System or LPS) which keeps milk fresh
for 7-8 hours longer [3]. The widespread adoption of the low-cost system stems from a
sustained inflow of technical information. This means increased income for farmers who
rely on livestock, enabling them to sell their fresh milk beyond the village and supply the
growing urban centers. The farmers use the information about supply from primary
production levels as well as demand trends from the market.
Sustained communication infrastructure has recently helped to prop up activities in
meat preservation in Ghana [4]. This has resulted in the development of highly effective
solar meat drying equipment.
Fulfillment of consumer demand is not only quantitative but also qualitative.
Livestock producers need timely systematic information for example that livestock
products must be produced from disease-free animals and under hygienic conditions. They
must have readily available information about the question on the use of additives that
'improve' production but are unacceptable to the consumer if they are to create
opportunities for export markets.
The best way to stimulate livestock production is to allow producers easy access to
information on good return for their products. This provides real incentive for livestock
production at farm level as farmers can make correct decisions on adjusting the scale of
their operations.
There is progress in some places, like Bangladesh where women farmers have been
assisted with both microcredit and training. There has also been effective training of
technicians in farm and village work and information technologies. A Livestock MIS that
combine new communications methods and greater focus on village-level action seems to
be the only way to expand and sustain livestock production.
There is a global 'knowledge base' that FAO is developing (through its World
Agricultural Information Centre (WAICENT)) which can provide solutions to production,
health and processing so as to enable small producers worldwide to meet food security
challenges of the future [5]. This must get through the system, via the technicians, to the
village level and telecommunications infrastructure holds the key to the success or failure
of these endeavors.
As production and consumption of meat and other animal products increase, the
problems will become even more pressing and acute making the need for improved
communications infrastructure more critical. Individual livestock farmers and livestock
cooperatives can not develop this kind of infrastructure due to the huge capital outlay
needed. As a result it is up the national governments to create an enabling environment by
making necessary investments in telecommunications now not later.
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2.3. Examples of Information Communication Technologies (ICT) that have a
potential for working under Developing Country constraints
In the crop agricultural industry, there has been adoption of commodity indexing
system in countries like South Africa through Agricultural Marketing authorities. This
information exchange system captures data on supply, demand and price trends. It has
helped small holder farmers to take part in formal markets to their advantage. If such a
system is put in place in the livestock sector, it will make a big difference in allowing
farmers to participate in competitive market. The advantage is significant as the cattle
farmers can be able to cut off middlemen who are currently exploiting them.
Another tool that has been adopted completely by commercial farmers in South
Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and Kenya is the LIVESTOCK
IDENTIFICATION SCHEME. In this scheme, only beef animals that are registered by a
national trust qualify for exports to European markets. The scheme captures a lot of data
from producers and feed back useful information which help the farmers to improve their
production levels. Wide adoption of such a scheme by smallholder farmers who have the
majority of beef animals can place them into the main stream of their national economies
and contribute meaningfully to wealth creation.
Dairy herd management data capture systems used in the developed world presents
an opportunity to improve milk production so as to match demand and supply. The scheme
exists only for big commercial milk producers in some developing countries and it is
possible to extend this to small scale dairy producers.
Computer aided feed formulation and computer based record keeping at the
production level has a potential of modernizing livestock production in the developing
countries. Use of correct and accurate data is critical for decision making. Individual
farmers may find these packages expensive, but there is an opportunity for government
extension staff to do it on the behalf of the farmers. Most extension staff in the developing
countries are computer literate and they can easily be organized into information agents.
3.0 Requirements for successful Livestock MIS
3.1 Empowered and enabled livestock-keepers
In order to achieve buy-in by the users of information of a Livestock MIS and
achieve pro-poor economic growth, it is imperative that resource-poor livestock-keepers
are involved right from the start of any livestock MIS intervention. Large scale farmers
operate from a business stand point and usually buy-in easily due to the desire to remain
profitable. But for the majority of the smallholder livestock farmers, resources must be
allocated to identifying them, targeting them and planning, with them, appropriate
interventions. There is no MIS system that is applicable to all levels of information
consumers. So targeting and wealth ranking is always necessary so that relevant
information channeling creates effective communication. In each country or regional
grouping, there is need to first obtain information on where resource poor livestockkeepers live, i.e. at province and district level [6], and on their systems of production. This
information helps direct investment into the most appropriate geographical locations. Care
should be taken in the process so that the local elite do not bias decisions at the expense of
poorer farmers.
The expectations are that a local Livestock MIS facilitates all the activities in
livestock farming e.g. herd management, feed management, inventory management, herd
285
breeding and genetics, interaction with centralized feed centers, pasture management and
fattening feedlots. A database is created that would provide the national herd management
services with information on management of each herd as a profit center, cost accounting
and economic analysis and the economic assessment of the animal husbandry aspects,
knowledge mining from the data sets, logical deviations, algorithms,, reports, knowledge
feedback from researchers and scientists. This system also allows for connectivity to all
providers and recipients of services, automatic report generation and dissemination.
3.2 Participatory Livestock MIS planning and management
The development of a Livestock MIS must make it clear to all stakeholders and
address the fundamental questions about the situation to be improved and what constitutes
an improvement. It may be necessary that the existing situation is assessed by livestockkeepers themselves and that they actively participate in defining their problems and
developing realistic solutions [7]. For long-term sustainability of any Livestock MIS,
stakeholders must see clearly into the future, what roles each one of them individually or
collectively will perform, as well as the roles of government and the private sector. This is
critical for the farmers to understand because they will sustain the Livestock MIS with
relevant data on say livestock numbers, breeds and breed structure, disease morbidity, take
off rate etc. which the government and private sector will use to make decisions that
benefits all.
3.3 Role and Potential of Farmer Organizations and Groups
It has been proved the world over that farmers acting as a group are stronger than
when they act as individuals. Groups, commodity associations and cooperatives can serve
a variety of purposes including, mutual support and encouragement through comfort in
numbers and sharing of experiences and novel ideas, provision of non-formal microfinance (through savings and credit schemes), animal breeding services (e.g. sire services,
Artificial Insemination (AI), registration, livestock identification schemes), veterinary
services (e.g. vaccinations, clinical procedures, diagnostic services, herd health
management calendars), feed and forage analysis, feed formulation, cost-effective input
supply through economies of scale (e.g. bulk procurement of feed, drugs, forage planting
material), technical support and training, product collection, bulking and processing (e.g.
bulk milk collection), improve access to markets, increase bargaining power and effective
lobbying. So, how organized the farmers and animal products processors are, has a huge
bearing on the success or failure of a Livestock MIS. For example, the Israel Cattle
Breeders Association (ICBA) represents all dairy cattle farmers in Israel. For the past 8
decades the organization has been the sole representative of all milk producers in the
country, taking care of all their professional needs and sustaining a vibrant and modern
industry [8]. The organization supplies essential assistance to its members and the satellite
organizations connected (through a Livestock MIS) to the industry. As a representative
organization the ICBA is involved in national milk pricing and milk production quota
policy, milk quality assurance, information dissemination, bull certification and more [8].
This Dairy Management Information System (MIS) was developed by the Israeli Cattle
Breeders Association (ICBA) to oversee the professional management of the National
Dairy Herd. Its main function is to give the individual and national herd managers updated
relevant and quality information regarding all aspects of dairy activity, addressing all
aspects of dairy farming. This Livestock MIS has been successful because it represents a
concept of optimizing each individual cow’s performance as the basis for dairy
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management rather than using “averages”. This concept in turn is aggregated to practicing
dairy herd management at the local, regional and national levels. Infrastructure on
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are critical success factors enabling
implementation and sustenance of this concept.
3.4 Marketing Livestock MIS
It is important to end this paper by reviewing success factors linked to the process
of innovation especially in the introduction of an electronic auction system for livestock.
While this might suit big livestock producers, small producers are part of it as they often
constitute the catchment area of most animals that are taken for fattening. The growth and
development of the system takes a number of years to implement and requires substantial
seed capital. Models of the innovation process implemented in the developed world
provide useful and powerful frameworks for the developing countries to emulate were
possible, resources and technical expertise allowing. The growth of ‘trust' in the system
(where it has been implemented) was found to be an important additional factor in
determining successful innovation [9]. Since electronic auctioning is high-tech,
appropriateness, defined in terms of the ability of the system to benefit the stakeholders, is
used to determine the competitive advantage over simpler marketing channels and hence
success. The gains accrued to stakeholders and the long-term changes in the
appropriateness have been found elsewhere to determine the long-run sustainability of this
kind of Livestock MIS.
4.0 Conclusion
The main support that the Livestock MIS provides is data updating and refinement
– mainly correcting current management programming issues. This exposes the users of
information so generated by the system to new management applications and supports the
integration of the various animal husbandry systems involved in all aspects of the
livestock industry. The critical point is that for the Livestock MIS to succeed, it must be
adopted, creating in the process, capabilities among information users so that they make
decisions that are compatible with the expected animal husbandry and market
developments over time. Apart from telecommunication infrastructure, it is necessary to
emphasize the importance of good leadership and putting in place enabling policies. It is
also vital to recognize the importance of stakeholder involvement to insure that
participants will make a good transition from implementation to maintenance. Livestock
businesses are spread out in different regions within a country and it is always important
for constant contact hence networking technologies are a big challenge to the success of
Livestock MIS.
5.0 REFERENCES
[1] FAO. Animal Production and Health Division. Editor- Andrew Speedy. World Animal
Review, 1999.
[2] Waltham, N. (1999). Experiences in the management and exchange of electronic
information for sustainable agriculture. Livestock Research for Rural Development.
11 (1), p. 1-18.
[3] FAO. (2000). Proceedings of the Second Annual Meeting of the Lactoperoxidase Group
of Experts. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
[4] Heinz, G. (1994). Preservation and processing technologies to improve availability and
safety of meat and meat products in developing countries. Meat and Dairy Service, Animal
Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.
287
[5] Ilboudo, J.P. (2001). FAO's Experience in the Area of Rural Radio, Including
Information and Communication Technologies Servicing Rural Radio: New Contents, New
Partnerships. First International Workshop on Farm Radio Broadcasting, Rome, Italy. 1222 February 2001.
[6] Thornton, P.K., Jones, P.G., Owiyo, T.M., Kruska, R.L., Herrero, M., Kristjanson, P.,
Notenbaert, A.,Bekele, N. and Omolo, A. (2006). Mapping climate vulnerability and
poverty in Africa. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
[7] Peacock, C. (2003). Goats—A pathway out of poverty. Small Ruminant Research.
60 (1), 179 – 186.
[8] NOA. (2007). A Management Information System for the National Dairy and Beef
Herds,
(An
Israeli
MIS
Development
case
study),
Ephraim
Ezra,
www.departments.agri.huji.ac.il/economics.
[9] Spinardi, G., Graham, I. & Williams R. (1998). "Electronic Commerce and Interorganisational Restructuring: Barriers to the Use of Information Technology for BPR", in
Garcia, C. E. & Sanz-Mendez, L. (eds). Management and Technology, COST A3, European
Commission, Brussels, p. 472 – 484.
288
A Model for Turning African Stories into Creative Content
Suraphel S. 1 and Bello S.2
Beta Bahil, P.O. Box 31511, Alexandria, Va., 22310, Email: [email protected]
Rogue Venture Labs, 3404 Coval Circle Atlanta, GA 30349, Email: [email protected]
Key Words: New Media, Creative Economy, Intellectual Property, Crowd-Sourcing
Abstract
Producers and consumers interested in content reflecting various manifestations of the
African world face a problem. For the producers, the pain is finding an economically
sustainable way to create work, such as music and film that present various narratives of
the global African community. The hurdles of traditional production, marketing and
distribution systems often prevent good storytellers from bringing their visions to a wide
audience. If their stories do reach a wide audience, it is usually at a severe trade-off for
equity in the ownership of the story. Thus, the content creator must either sell to a small
audience and risk not recouping their expense or sell to larger audiences and never
receive a sustainable share of the income. In either scenario the storyteller is left without
the financial resources which could have later assisted them to become financially
independent.
This paper evaluates examples of new technologies that have created an opportunity for
low cost high quality content production. Specifically, it examines strategies for
organizing the appropriate human and technical resources to leverage present and
emerging Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure to foster new
ventures that commercialize Africa’s abundant stories. The paper then addresses, from a
market perspective, the technological resources currently available, or within reach, of
most African countries to begin creating, packaging and exporting its stories. This new
export is sustainable and can lead to both job creation and economic growth.
Introduction
The African storytelling tradition and its many forms of artistic expression have
been a critical aspect of communication within the African tradition. From the
composition of music to the performance of dances, African artistic expression conveys
messages of identity, history and shared value systems that have sustained cultures
throughout dislocation and “development". Professor Harold Scheub once wrote “The
African oral tradition distills the essences of human experiences, shaping them
into [re]memorable, readily retrievable images of broad applicability with an extraordinary
potential for eliciting emotional response.”[10] People continue to seek out and connect
with African cultural expression. In many cases producers as well as consumers must
often overcome resource and product scarcity along with higher costs in order to fulfill
that need. This is the case due to both micro and macro issues with regard to content
creation, distribution and marketing on the continent and abroad. The emergence and
growth of ICT on the continent[11] and abroad has reduced some of these obstacles. The
creation process is now cheaper for producers who have improved access to global
10
Scheub H. A Review of African Oral Traditions and Literature. African Studies Review, vol. 28, 2/3, June/September
1985.
11
Gitta S., and Ikoja-Odongo J.R. The Impact of Cybercafés on Information Services in Uganda. First Monday,
http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/1043
289
audiences[12].
There are other resources that discuss policy issues in depth, namely the recently
published UN Report on the Creative Economy (UNRCE). This paper however, focuses
on the market and builds a case for a new digital media marketplace. A marketplace that
taps into the latent demand and nascent commercial potential of content built on the
multitude of identities and stories of the African experience. Further, differing from
the UNRCE that uses the linear United Nation’s(UN) classification[ 13 ] of creative
industries, we propose a model that allows storytellers to convert the vast stores of
cultural IP (Intellectual Property) into what the UN classifies as functional creations.
Taking into account the various strata of African societies, the writers considered
both those with and without the means of organizing the necessary resources for low cost
content creation. Given the level of constraints faced by the vast majority of African
storytellers a market intermediary is required to:
1. Define a set of resource independent guidelines that convert ideas into fundable
projects.
2. Provide an open marketplace where micro-producer and niche content consumer can
exchange value.
3. Provide a compendium of resources that assist in the above two items and can be
accessed at little or no cost.
Examples of Culturally Compelling Content
In this section we outline a number of examples of culturally compelling content
that can be mined for heuristics around building niche content accessible to mass
audiences. Recurring themes in the content offerings we examined where not related to
subjective visions of quality or technical sophistication but rather identity and
12
UNCTAD E-Commerce and Development Report 2004 has an excellent discussion of ICT as a growth engine for
developing countries (see chapter 3, “Creative industries and digital and Internet technologies: The case of music”, pp.
61-94). The report is available at: http://www.unctad.org/ecommerce/ecommerce_en/edr04_en.htm.
13
UNCTAD and the UNDP Special Unit for South-South Cooperation. The Challenge of Assessing the Creative
Economy Towards Informed Policy-making, UN Creative Economy Report 2008, page 38. 2008.
290
accessibility.
Identity
Identity in this context is used as a showcasing of ones self, or a reflecting of ones
self. The success of Bollywood and Nollywood film industries reflect this in today's media
landscape. They have shown that local and Diaspora audiences, if given the choice, will
consume media products that are reflective of their cultural identity. Bollywood, currently
the largest film making industry in the world, has not only been able to win over audiences
in South Asia but also reaches the South Asian Diaspora worldwide and attracts many
non-Asians. The same can be said about Nollywood’s products that are now favorites of
Nigerians and non-Nigerians across the African continent and in the Caribbean.
One of the ultimate examples of the concept of differentiation or content diversity
is the Hip Hop musical form. An art form born in the New York in the early 70’s[14], Hip
Hop has provided a platform for young people worldwide to both represent their local
conditions, styles, and realities through mc’ing, dancing, dj’ing, beat boxing and street art.
Through the songs of Run-DMC, NAS, Notorious B.I.G. and many others, youth across
the world learned about and sometimes emulated life in the Queensbridge and Brooklyn
boroughs of New York City. Despite its current image in certain quarters, Hip-hop is one
of the best modern examples of low-cost cultural content crossing boarders to globally
showcase one’s identity.
Differentiation/Diversity - Showcasing Individuality Amongst Global Identity
To stand out in a world where media and content crowd your television, computer,
and personal space one has to be different. The continent has a natural advantage in
gaining attention in the content marketplace with settings and sounds that are not widely
known by global audiences. In addition, though certain plots and themes may be universal,
the potency of the African storytelling tradition is as unique as it is old.
Diversity marks one cultural resource available to relate Africa's contemporary
identity. This diversity is present on tribal and regional levels and is further extended by
the divergent experiences of urban and rural populations. The urban/rural iteration of the
identity provides an opportunity to access perspectives that incorporate traditional
messages with modern realities. Bollywood’s movies, though not always reflective of
India's diverse population, has successfully crafted its unique music, dance, and visual
preferences into cultural artifacts that have won over audiences Indian and Non-Indian
alike. Delivering the storyline amongst traditional, modern and magical settings, as well as
in a unique format, Bollywood created fans with an affinity for the individual movies, the
culture, and the country.
Accessibility
Once the content has been identified, the next step is formatting the presentation
such that it can be consumed by an audience. Accessibility thus means leveraging
available digital storytelling methods and tools to reach the widest niche audience
possible. This includes the language in which it is presented and the medium in which the
audience receives the content.
Language - So We Speak Different Languages, Subtitle It!
Though most in the developing world have been consuming foreign language
content without translation, through both American and South Asian Films, there has been
14
Chang, J. Can't Stop Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation, Macmillan. 2005.
291
increasing demand for local content that can be consumed by those who may not speak the
foreign nor official state language. Today’s technology allows for many ways of either
dubbing or subtitling content to make it accessible to both audiences who speak different
languages or are hearing impaired.
South Africa, with 11 official languages and a constitution that grants equal status
to all of them, has shown how content can be brought to the masses by considering multilingual formatting[ 15 ]. On soap operas, the audience would find characters
speaking IsiZulu, English and Afrikaans on the same show. Subtitles are then used to
translate, for example, the IsiZulu and Afrikaans portion of the scripts into English. Thus,
allowing for writers to create in the natural language of their imagination, yet still making
it available to an English-speaking audience that could be in Ghana or Canada.
Medium – Content Designed for the Web and Mobile
ICT has revolutionized our world in terms of how and where we obtain our
entertainment and content. Therefore, content producers must consider these new
mechanisms in which the content is obtained. Further, great strides have been made by the
availability of fiber-optic cables and the 3rdgeneration mobile networks that provide for
streams of video, music and other rich media to be distributed and accessible.
Producers must now envisage these new tools when creating their work. ICT has
empowered both the audience in terms of choice, and producers in terms of access. With
animation, for example, one could envision a new cartoon based on a traditional story
being leveraged to create a website for further engagement with the kids, ringtone, and
picture to be downloaded onto one’s mobile handset. Each of these extensions from the
original intellectual property provides for additional revenue streams that were not present
in the past.[16]
As we've seen crafting culturally compelling content from the range of stories available
across the diverse regions of the African continent are possible by embracing what is
different about each storyteller and understanding the specific attributes and opportunities
present in the mediums used to get that content out to wider audience.
A Crowd-Powered Content Model
In his book Wisdom of Crowds, James Surowiecki[17] argues that a large grouping
of diverse, independent and decentralized people will often make better predictions and
decisions than experts. This insight is a central theme of many of the Web 2.0[ 18]
technologies that have wreaked turmoil on the business model of the traditional media
industries (music, film, television and newspapers). There are many crowd-powered
services that aggregate the intellectual, economic or technological might of individuals to
create new products, markets, services and innovations. Sites such
as Kiva.org, Digg.com, Fundable.com and Spot.Us all utilize a crowd-powered model to
achieve their goals. It is this model that we propose to leverage in order to overcome the
social, technological and policy impediments to a thriving digital media economy for
15
See http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm for further information
16
See http://www.cartoonnetworkshop.com/, http://mobile2.cartoonnetwork.com/, and http://www.aniboom.com/ for
case example of animation IP leveraged for new revenue streams.
17
Surowiecki J. The Wisdom of Crowds, New York Random House. 2004.
Web 2.0 is an evolving term used to describe a suite of tools, sites and services built around the central tenants of
openness, peering, sharing and global action. It does not refer to an existing technology or technical upgrade.
18
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African storytellers.
We have discussed elements of culturally compelling content and suggested a
crowd-powered model to harness it but are confronted with the real barriers that are faced
by today’s average storyteller on the African continent. Going beyond qualitative
attributes of what makes content “good” or viable, content creators need access to
financing, production tools, and technical expertise. These are nearly impossible to obtain
if one has little disposable income, technical infrastructure and education. Though
significant improvements have been made, even basic access to the tools of ICT,
Internet and mobile telephony, is still only found in urban centers and/or among those with
higher than average incomes. Therefore, it is difficult for the average African storyteller
or content producer to move from the idea generation stage to the final audience reception.
So how does a twenty-year old Griot from a small village with little education and no
access to modern tools communicate his story? The Community.
UN Creative Economy Report 2008,Pg. 102 [19]
A Brief Explanation of Kiva – Web 2.0’s Online Lending Community
Kiva is an online micro-lending organization that has distributed close to
$40,000,000 dollars in 42 different countries through 88 “Field Partners”20. It was founded
in 2005 and works through NGO partnerships providing micro-loans to entrepreneurs in
various countries. The loans carry no interest rate and are not tax-deductible under the US
tax code, despite Kiva’s non-profit status.
Kiva partners with in-country NGO‘s, who are then responsible for management of
the relationship with the micro-loan candidates (entrepreneurs). These NGO’s upload
information about various entrepreneurs and the project/business endeavor for which they
seek funding to the Kiva website. People from around the world (the audience) view those
stories and select entrepreneurs and business ventures to whom they would like to lend a
minimum of $25 USD. Once the project is fully funded the monies are dispersed to
the NGO, which then disperses it to the entrepreneur. The NGO also
provides periodic updates to the site from the entrepreneur on their progress. These
updates might include personal notes, photographs and business progress
reports, Kiva requires that partners have and be able to use digital cameras and daily
email.
Grio.tv: The Kiva model for African Story-tellers
Kiva has demonstrated that a crowd-sourcing model can work to provide large
19
The Challenge of Assessing the Creative Economy towards Informed Policy-making, UN Creative Economy Report
2008, © United Nations 2008
20
See http://www.kivafriends.org/index.php?action=graphs for further information
293
scale micro-credit opportunities to the worlds poor, quickly and efficiently. Drawing on
lessons from Kiva, Cambrian House and Zeros2Heros [21] it is possible to replicate and
adapt this model for the needs and realities of the African storyteller.
The Grio.tv system would have four core stakeholders whose interest must be
aligned. These are the content creators, in-country partners, Grio.tv and the audience.
The Content Creators
The content creators face a slew of challenges both environmental as well as
technological in getting access to the tools of content production, the audience which
might want that content and the resources to fund its development. Using
the Grio.tv model a storyteller (content creator) would be able to work with an in-country
partner to make their content idea available to the audience on Grio.tv for funding. The
storyteller could generate a base line level of information about the project using Grio.tv
content guidelines and any available media (from raw music to film/ story synopsis) to
describe their project idea and what might make it both viable and compelling to an
audience.
The creator would provide their plans for content to their local partner organization
who would generate the needed online information, thus expanding the reach of the
service well outside of the urban centers and financial elite. Much of this information will
be biographical (personal story, content background etc…) and the balance would be any
media available. This model would open the realm of available content to include anyone
with a creative bent and a product idea, from urban rappers and Zouk artists to drumming
groups and village folklorists.
The content creators would retain their IP rights to their content whether the
project is fully funded by the audience or not. Their goal and motivation is to have their
project seen, voted on and potentially funded by the crowd. Overtime, a modern Griot who
was initiated to new media tools by Grio.tv would later become a resource themselves,
aiding other creators. If their work has become commercially successful, there will be yet
another avenue, financial, for them to promote newer storytellers.
21
Cambrian House is a web-based community owned business that combined crowdsourcing and peer production to find
and select viable software development ideas. http://www.cambrianhouse.com/ .Zero2Hero is a Canadian website which
allows users to submit and vote on comic book ideas for publication in Web, print and film.
http://www.zeros2heroes.com/
294
The In-Country Partner
These organizations might be local NGO’s, public, cultural or academic
institutions or private enterprises who wish to assist in the creation and distribution of new
African centered content. Their input is on a frontline basis, managing the initial
relationship with creator, ensuring fulfillment of basic requirement, media capture
(images, audio, video). They will also conduct and facilitate training sessions to solicit
submissions and increase initial quality standards, a known issue with many mass
collaboration projects.
Aside from altruistic aims, the in-country partner will optimally have a commercial
interest in growing the IP market in their local communities. These commercial interests
would tie the success of the creator directly to improved income for any commercial
partners. In addition, the platform would allow for feedback and comments on the service
level of the partner by the creator.
While content partners have no IP rights in the product they benefit from the
relationship development and the insight into the commercial viability of content in their
local market. It is also very likely that as commercially viable content becomes apparent
through crowd interaction that the management of IP and exploitation rights across
borders is something that will be required.
The Grio.tv Site
The site is the global aggregator of the content from African storytellers across
media forms. It serves as an intermediary between the unwired, unbanked creative masses
and the audience seeking their stories. Grio.tv will initially provide two basic types of
functionality:
Peering – this suite of functionality allows content creators to display projects, receive
feedback on projects ideas, in the form of offers of support, votes and funds.
Marketplace – this suite of tools allows for content creators and content consumers to
establish rules to exchange value for specific digital media products.
The site will provide a trusted partner for the commercial transactions and microfinancing aggregation. It will also handle third-party commercial partnership for services
like iTunes, Amazon Unbox and Jaman. While initially there is unlikely to be either the
demand or capabilities to handle international distribution agreements the service could be
built with an eye towards helping to manage that workflow. Grio.tv is positioned as the
messaging hub for African storytellers, much like Kiva which is, in many circles,
synonymous with online micro-lending. Like Kiva, Grio.tv can become self-sustaining
through voluntary and transaction related fees.
The Audience
The audience drives the service. It is through the demand based model of peer
review and peer funding that any of the content creators will realize a financial incentive
to continue to participate and expand the service. Audience members will select the
stories/content that will be further developed. As in the Zero2Hero or Cambrian
House models, Grio.tv has a two-tiered system where ideas/projects are both voted on to
filter out the most viable for funding and then presented for funding. The audience can
have either a fixed or variable time in which to fund projects (determined by the content
creator) and projects not fully funded in given time frame are returned for reworking and
the moneys dispersed back to contributors.
295
Conclusion
In our globalized world where someone in Lilongwe, Malawi wakes up to the
weather forecast for Leeds, England, even local content is in competition with the
offerings from global content providers. Despite the asymmetry in access to tools and
resources that larger more experienced global content providers have, The Bollywood, and
more-so the Nollywood movie industry, shows us that there is a market for culturally
compelling content that delivers and makes accessible different identities of the world.
In Africa’s context, a great many of the creators are limited not by content ideas or
sources, but by tools for content production, finance, and distribution. The creator is not
only limited in reaching a broad local audience, but also potential audience members in the
international market. Therefore, a sustainable Web 2.0 approach is suggested through
involving the creator, an in-country partner, the Grio.tv operation, and the audience that
allows demand for African oriented content to drive the process and supplement weak
points in the value chain for producing more content reflective of the African tradition.
REFERENCES
296
EFFECT OF FEEDING MORINGA OLEIFERA LEAF MEAL ON THE
GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF OREOCHROMIS NILOTICUS FRY.
1
Tagwireyi T., *2Mupangwa J. F., 3Jepsen J. and 4Mwera P.
1
Department of Environmental Science, Bindura University of Science Education, P. Bag 1020,
Bindura, Zimbabwe; 2Faculty of Agriculture, Umutara University, P. O. Box 57, Nyagatare,
Rwanda; 3Tree Africa, P. O. Box AV 231, Avondale, Harare, Zimbabwe; 4Lake Harvest
International, P.O.Box 40, Kariba, Zimbabwe
Key words: Moringa oleifera, heat treatment, fishmeal replacement, growth performance.
Abstract
The study was conducted to determine the suitability of heat-treated M. oleifera leaves as
a protein source for Oreochromis niloticus fry. Four experimental diets were used; Diet A
had 5 % boiled moringa and 95 % frymeal; Diet B contained 10 % boiled moringa and 90
% fry meal; Diet C had 5 % steamed moringa and 95 % frymeal and Diet D contained 10
% steamed moringa and 90 % frymeal. Diet E was the control diet containing fishmeal. A
standard 24-day fry feeding trial was carried out in 10 fry tanks with each tank stocked
with 15 000 fry. The growth rate, feed conversion ration and protein efficiency ratio of fry
fed the five diets were similar. The body weight gain ranged from 0.012 to 0.014 g/d for
fry fed boiled moringa and the control diets. Fry fed diets C, D and E had higher FCR
values of 1.1, 1.1 and 1.0, respectively, compared to those on diets A and B (1.2 and 1.3,
respectively). Fry fed steamed diets had better growth performance than those on boiled
diets although the differences were not significant. It is concluded that steam-heated
moringa leaf meal can be used to substitute 10 % of dietary protein in Nile tilapia fry
without significant reduction in growth performance.
297
INTRODUCTION
The Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) was one of the first fish species cultured
and is still the most widely cultured species of tilapia in Africa. Positive aquacultural
characteristics of tilapia species include their tolerance to poor water quality and the fact
that they eat a wide range of natural food. Of the total world production of fish, which
amounted to 112.30 million tonnes in 1995, 18.97 % came from the aquaculture sector
while the rest came from the captured fishery [1]. Most of the increase in fish production
is expected to come from aquaculture, which is currently the fastest growing food
production sector of the world [2].
In aquaculture systems the increasing price of feed is considered one of the most
important factors that limit profitability, caused mainly by the cost of fishmeal used as a
primary source of protein [3; 4]. As a result, there is a need to search for alternative
protein sources for aquaculture diets. The high cost and fluctuating quality of imported
fish meal have led to the need to identify alternative protein sources for use in fish feed
formulations [5]. The identification and utilization of non-conventional and lesser–utilized
plant protein sources to replace fishmeal, either partially or totally in practical fry diets has
been an area of focus in aquaculture nutrition [6]. Earlier studies have shown that,
Moringa oleifera is a promising protein source for inclusion in fish diets at low levels [7].
Plant proteins are cheap and readily available, but have some antinutritional factors that
limit their use as aquaculture feeds. These limitations could be successfully overcome by
different methods of heat treatment [5; 8]. The objective of the study was to determine the
effects of heat-treated moringa supplemented diets on the growth performance of the Nile
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry.
Experimental Animals
O. niloticus fry with average body weight (ABW) of 0.01 g were taken from Lake
Harvest hatchery. The collection and transportation of the fry was done as recommended
[9]. They were taken to the experimental tanks in the early hours of the day from 0500 to
0700 hr.
Fry tanks and fry stocking
A total of ten fry tanks were used and each treatment diet was randomly allocated
to two fry tanks. Water in the fry tanks was continuously exchanged throughout the
experiment that lasted for 24 days. A compressor was used to supply oxygen into fry tanks
via air stones and this ensured adequate dissolved oxygen to be above 80 % saturation.
Each individual experimental tank with the volume of 3.16 m3 was stocked with 15 000
fry. The fry were weighed at the beginning and progressively at weekly intervals. No feed
was given on the weighing days to prevent stress.
298
Processing of moringa leaves and diet preparation
M. olifera leaves were taken from Lake Harvest forestry unit and were dried under shed.
After drying, some of the leaves were either heat treated by boiling or steam heating at a
temperature of between 60 ˚C – 80 ˚C for 15 minutes. Steam heating and boiling was
meant to minimize or deactivate the antinutritive factors such as tannins, phytic acid and
saponins that inhibit the digestion of plant proteins in Nile Tilapia. After the heat
treatments the leaves were allowed to dry under shed before being milled through a 0.01
mm screen.
Four isonitrogenous diets were formulated to have 450 g/kg DM of crude protein
(CP). Diets A and C were composed of 5 % boiled and 5 % steamed moringa leaves,
respectively, whilst 95 % by mass was fry meal. Diets B and D were composed of 10 %
boiled and 10 % steamed moringa leaf meals, respectively, whilst 90 % by mass was the
fry meal. The standard fry meal, Diet E, which contained no moringa leaf meal, served as
a control and had fishmeal as a protein source.
Feeding
The fry were fed a daily ration at a rate of 15 % of bodyweight. The daily ration
was divided into eight feedings per day at an hourly interval from 0800 hours to 1500
hours.
Data collection
The fry in each tank were weighed weekly in order to assess their growth
performance. A Tefal electronic digital scale was used to measure weights of fry per week.
The fish fry were weighed and returned into their respective fry tanks. No feed was
offered during sampling days. Salt was added to fry tanks at a rate of 5 mg/l after sampling
to prevent stress, which would have caused high mortalities.
Growth performance were analyzed in terms of total body weight gain (BWG), average
daily gain (ADG), feed offered (FO), feed conversion ratio (FCR), protein efficiency ratio
(PER) and survival percentages. The following formulae as described [10]:
BWG (g) = Final body weight – Initial body weight
ADG (g/d) = BWG/21 days
FO = Total dry feed offered (g)
FCR = Total dry feed offered (g)/ Live body weight gain (g)
PER = Wet body weight gain (g)/Crude protein fed (g)
Laboratory analysis
The diets were used were analyzed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude
fibre (CF), Ash, Ca, P and energy content using the standard procedures [11].
The growth performance was analysed using the one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using Minitab Version 12.1.
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RESULTS
Chemical composition of diets
The chemical composition of the diets is presented in Table 1. The diets had CP
content of that ranged from 46.4 to 46.9 % CP. The crude fibre of the diets that contained
moringa leaves was high, ranging from 2.95 to 4.17 % as compared to that of fry meal of
1.97 %. The ash content of diet A and C was higher as compared with other diets as shown
in Table 1. The calcium and phosphorus concentration in the diets was not different. The
energy content of the five diets ranged from 8.2 to 12.5MJ/kg.
Table 1: Proximate composition of experimental diets (% on DM basis)
Constituent
1
Dry matter
Diet A
Diet B
Diet C
Diet D
Diet E
87.9
89.9
88.1
89.6
90.00
Crude protein
46.5
46.4
46.7
46.4
46.9
Crude fibre
3.44
4.17
2.95
3.32
1.97
Ash content
17.27
13.37
18.57
11.03
11.12
Calcium
2.42
2.68
2.48
2.49
2.41
Phosphorus
1.42
1.5
1.76
1.14
1.07
M.E (MJ/Kg)
10.7
9.8
8.2
12.3
12.5
1
Diet A contains 5% boiled moringa leaves and 95% fry meal
Diet B contains 10% boiled moringa leaves and 90% fry meal
Diet C contains 5% steamed moringa leaves and 95% fry meal
Diet D contains 10% steamed moringa leaves and 90% fry meal
Diet E contains fry meal only
Feed intake, growth performance and feed utilization
The growth performance and feed utilization in terms of body weight gain (BWG),
average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and protein efficiency ratio (PER)
are presented in Table 2. There was no rejection of feed until the end of the experiment
and the acceptability of the diets was similar. No mortality or any signs of disease were
observed in any of the dietary groups during the study period.
There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) on total body weight gain and
average daily gain of the fry fed the five diets. Fry on diets C, D and E produced the best
FCR and PER as compared to all other diets, but this did not differ significantly (P >
0.05). In general, among the five diets, fry fed diets containing steamed moringa leaves
showed better growth performance in terms of final body weight, gain in body weight,
FCR and PER than those fed boiled moringa leaves.
300
Table 2: Growth performance and nutrient utilization of tilapia fed different experimental
diets.
Parameters
Diet A
Diet B
Diet C
Diet D
Diet E
IBW (g)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
FBW (g)
0.261
0.253
0.279
0.288
0.298
BWG (g)
0.251
0.243
0.269
0.278
0.288
ADG (g/d)
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.013
0.014
FO (g)
3074
3074
3074
3074
3074
FCR
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.1
1.0
PER
1.8
1.7
1.9
2.0
2.0
IBW = initial body weight, FBW = final body weight, BWG = body weight gain, ADG =
Average daily gain, FO = Feed offered, FCR = Feed conversion ration, PER = Protein
efficiency ratio
DISCUSSION
The crude protein content of the experimental diets used in this study was within
the range used in a previous study [3]. Protein is very important in fish growth and thus
crucial ingredient in fish diets. A comparison between the amino acid composition of the
raw and extracted moringa leaves to that of soybean revealed an almost identical
composition of essential amino acids. The proximate analysis of the experimental diets
showed that the crude protein was ranging from 45.4 % to 46.9 %. This range is within
Lake Harvest requirements for the growth of fry which ranges from 45 % to 47 % CP.
The diet which contained 10% steamed moringa leaves (Diet D) showed the
highest growth performance as compared to all other formulated diets, except for the fry
meal (Control diet) although the differences were not statistically different. In terms of
growth rate, fish which received the diet which contained 5 % steamed moringa (Diet C)
had low growth rate as compared to diet D. This is contrary to the previous study [12]
which showed that higher inclusion levels of moringa leaves in fish meal had an impact on
lowering the growth performance because of the presence of antinutrients such as phenols,
tannins, phytates and saponins. This present study indicate that a 10 % inclusion level of
moringa in fry meal yielded good growth performance possibly because the antinutritrients
such as phenols, tannins, phytates and saponins were could have been inactivated by steam
heating [13]. This could have resulted in the reduction of palatability-reducing factors.
Heat treatment methods employed might have increased the digestibility of
proteins and other dietary components such as starch related compounds leading to high
FCR and PER in fish fed with diets C and D. The reduction in antinutrients by processing
techniques such as soaking, drying and heat treatment on plant-based fish ingredients have
resulted in better palatability, increased feed digestibility and growth in fish [10; 13].
Generally steam heating reduces loss of soluble nutrients from moringa leaves since that
process does not involve a solvent media to dissolve the nutrients. Apart from that,
steaming employed in this study might have resulted in little protein being denaturated
301
thus making more quality protein been made available in steamed leaves than boiled
leaves.
Boiling breaks cell components like cell walls and cell membranes of plants cells.
Some of the nutrients within the cells of boiled moringa leaves were lost to boiling water
during the heat treatment process. The soluble cell components such as soluble proteins
and glucose molecules might have dissolved in water during boiling. This could have
caused the reduction of essential amino acids (EAA) in diet A and diet B. Boiling might
have caused the inactivation of antinutrients such as saponins, phytates, phenols and
tannins that bind some quality proteins and inhibit digestion in fish. Apart from breaking
the cell components; boiling induces the precipitation of polyphenolic and other
phytochemical compounds which might have depressed the growth of fish receiving feed
with boiled moringa leaves. Boiling also induces the formation of colloidal starches as a
result this reduces the amount of available glycoproteins to fish [13].
Boiling and steaming showed no significant effect on the crude fibre content but it
was within Lake Harvest requirements for the growth of fish; except for diet B that had a
higher crude fibre content of 4.17 %. This might have contributed to the lowest growth
rate of fish fed with diet B. It has been shown that fibre can bind nutrients like fats,
proteins and essential minerals, and reduce their bioavailability [10; 12]. Dietary fibres
apparently influence the movement of nutrients along the gastrointestinal tract and
significantly affect nutrient absorption.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study indicate that up to 10% inclusion of steam heated moringa
leaves can be recommended for Nile tilapia. In view of the favorable amino acid profile of
moringa leaves and their wide and ready availability throughout the tropics and subtropics,
moringa can be considered as a potential feed component with high nutritive value for Nile
tilapia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors greatly acknowledge the funding provided by Lake Harvest
International for the study. The assistance of Tree Africa in the provision of the moringa is
greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
[1] FAO (1998). Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 41p.
[2] FAO (2000). Yearbook of Fishery statistics 1998. Vol. 86/2. Aquaculture production.
FAO statistics series No.154 and Fisheries series No.56, Rome, FAO. 182p.
[3] Usmani N, Jafri AK., Alvi AS (1997). Effects of feeding glanded cotton seed meal on
the growth, conversion efficiency and carcass composition of Labeo rohita fry. Journal of
Aquaculture in Tropics 12:73-78.
[4] McCoy HD (1998). Fishmeal The critical ingredient in aquaculture feeds. Aquaculture
Magazine 16(2), 43-50.
[5] Olvera NMA, Campus GS, Sabido GM and Martinez PCA (1990).The use of alfalfa
leaf protein concentrates as a protein source in diets for tilapia (Oreochromis
mossambicus). Aquaculture 90: 291-302.
302
[6] Hossain MA, Focken U and Becker K. (2003). Antinutritive effects of galactomannanrich endosperm of Sesbania (Sesbania aculeata) seeds on growth and feed utilisation in
tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Research 34: 1171 – 1179.
[7] Chiseva S (2006). The growth rates and feed conversion ratios of fry fed conventional
fry diets and Moringa oleifera supplemented diets. B. Sc. Dissertation, Bindura University
of Science Education, Zimbabwe.
[8] Afuang W, Siddhuraji P and Becker K. (2003). Comparative nutritional evaluation of
raw, methanol extracted residue and methanol extracts of Moringa (Moringa oleifera
Lam.) leaves on growth performance and feed utilization in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus L.). Aquaculture 34, 1147-1159
[9] Mgaya YD and Tamatamah R (1996). The farming of marine organisms: Unpublished
training manual developed for Tanga coastal zone conservation and development
programme. 110 pp.
[10] Sidduraju P and Becker K (2003). Comparative nutritional evaluation of differentially
processed mucuna seeds [Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. var utilis (Wall ex Wight) Baker ex
Burck] on growth performance, feed utilisation and body composition in Nile tilapia
(Orechromis niloticus L.). Aquaculture Research 34: 487 – 500.
[11] AOAC (1990). Official Methods of Analysis, 15th Ed. Association of Official
Analytical
Chemists.
[12] Richter N, Siddhuraju P and Becker K. (2003). Evaluation of nutritional quality of
Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) leaves as alternative protein source for tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus L.). Aquaculture 217: 599-611.
[13] Rweyemamu LMP (2005). Influence of additives on quality characteristics of
Moringa leaf paste. IEF Annual seminar Proceedings. Tanzania.
303
MILK PRODUCTION FROM LACTATING HOLSTEIN COWS FED
CEREAL-TREE FORAGE LEGUME SILAGES.
1*
Mupangwa J. F., 2Mugweni B. Z., 3Titterton M., 4Maasdorp B. V. and 3Gandiya F.
1
Faculty of Agriculture, Umutara University, P. O. Box 57, Nyagatare, Rwanda;
2
Department of Livestock Production and Development, Ministry of Agriculture, P O Box
143, Mutare, Zimbabwe; 3 Department of Animal Science, University of Zimbabwe, Box
MP 167, Mt. Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe; 4 Department of Crop Science, University of
Zimbabwe, Box MP 167, Mt Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Key words: Silage, Acacia boliviana, Leucaena leucocephala, Milk yield, Milk composition.
Abstract
Trees are important throughout the world because of the services and products they
provide to humankind. Use of tree leaf meals in feeding livestock adds value to trees at
household level. The objective of this study was to assess the nutritive value of A.
boliviana and L. leucocephala-maize silages as partial substitutes for commercial dairy
meal in lactating Holstein dairy cows. The tree forage legumes were ensiled together with
maize in a 50:50 ratio (w/w). The ensilage was carried out in plastic bags for seven weeks.
The crude protein content of the maize-legume silages ranged from 176 to 209 g/kg DM
and was greater than that of maize silage, 71 g/kg DM. The neutral detergent fibre content
of the silages was not significantly different with values of 608, 658 and 603 g/kg DM for
bagged maize, maize-leucaena and maize-acacia silages, respectively. The modified acid
detergent fibre content of maize-leucaena silage of 357 g/kg DM was higher compared to
that of bagged maize, 304 g/kg DM, and maize-acacia, 319 g/kg DM silages which
themselves did not differ. The milk yield was higher in cows fed mixed maize-acacia, 15.7
kg/d, and maize silages, 17.0 kg/d, compared to animals on mixed maize-leucaena silage,
14.1 kg/d. However the milk composition in terms of butterfat, lactose, protein and total
solids was not different across the treatment diets. It is concluded that mixed silages can
be used to partially replace commercial feed supplements without loss in milk yield or
quality.
INTRODUCTION
In the tropics and sub-tropics there is a general shortage of natural grazing during
the dry season resulting in high use of commercial feeds in livestock production during
this period. The lack of all year round supply of high quality on-farm forages is one of the
major limiting factors to improved milk yield in the tropics [1]. In the smallholder dairy
sector of Zimbabwe commercial feeds account for over 60 % of the total production costs
[2]. In this regard dairy producers would benefit if the amounts of commercial feeds were
reduced in their feeding systems without a decline in yield and quality of milk.
Traditionally silage has been made from cereals and grasses whilst legume silages
have some potential [3]. The cereal silages are rich in energy but low in protein whilst the
converse is true for legume silages [4]. The protein content of the maize silage can be
improved significantly by ensiling it together with tree forage legumes [5]. The objective
of this study was to assess the nutritive value of A. boliviana and L. leucocephala-maize
silages as partial substitutes for commercial dairy meal in lactating Holstein dairy cows.
304
Crops and harvesting
The forage-tree legumes (FTLs) used in this experiment were Acacia boliviana
(Acacia) and Leucaena leucocephala (Leucaena) and the material used came from
coppices of the 1999 harvests. The coppices were cut 0.7 m high when more than 25 % of
the coppices were at flowering stage. The leaves were stripped by hand from the branches
and twigs. A long season white maize variety, SC709, was used. The crop was managed in
line with a commercial maize crop in terms of fertilizer application and weeding as well as
pest and disease control. The maize was harvested a medium-dough stage. Hand
harvesting was used and a motorised chuff cutter was used to chop the maize into pieces
of ± 15 cm long.
Ensilage process
Ensilage was done in 50 kg plastic bag silos [5]. Five kilograms of freshly chopped
maize was thoroughly hand mixed with five kilograms of the respective freshly cut leaves
of the forage tree legume (FTL). The mixed forages were then packed in the plastic bags
and compacted by hand to exclude as much air as possible and then tied by a string
ensuring air-tightness. The material was left to incubate in a room for seven weeks before
samples were taken for laboratory analyses. At the same time, maize from the same crop
was ensiled in a bunker silo. This silage provided the basal diet for the trial animals.
Samples preparation
Samples of freshly milled maize and mixed maize-legume material were taken for
laboratory analyses. After a seven-week incubation period three bags of each of the
respective silages were randomly selected, opened and thoroughly mixed before three twokilogram samples were taken for laboratory analyses.
Ration formulation
Individual animal rations were formulated to give an overall CP content of 130
g/kg DM and energy concentration of 11.0 MJ/kg ME. The bunker silage provided the
basal diet for the experimental animals. A commercial lactating meal (19.6 % CP and 13
MJ/kg ME) was used to balance the rations for overall CP and energy content. The diets
consisted of 10 kg treatment silage, 20 kg of basal maize silage (from the bunker) and 6.5
to 10.5 kg of a commercial lactating meal (19.6 % CP and 13 MJ/kg ME).
Animals and treatment allocation
Twelve Holstein cows with a mean of 610 ± 71 kg live weight and all in midlactation (days in milk 166 ± 27) were used in the study. The animals were arranged into
four groups of three animals each according to parity. The three cows in each group were
randomly allocated to one of the three treatment silages namely maize (control), maizeleucaena and maize-acacia. All the experimental animals were then randomly allocated to
individual feeding troughs in the feeding shed.
Feeding management
The cows were given three meals per day at 06:00, 12:00 and 17:00 hours for a
period of 21 days of which 14 days were for adaptation followed by seven days of data
collection. The meal was mixed with the silage to prevent excessive selection against the
roughages. The apparent intake was calculated as the difference between the amount
305
offered and the refusals for each meal. The animals were given access to water in-between
meals every day. Daily milk yields were recorded during the morning and evening milking
sessions.
Milk samples
Milk sampling was done twice per week during morning and afternoon milking
sessions. Twenty millilitre samples were collected into sample bottles with a Bromopol (2bromo, 2-nitropraine, 1,3 Diol + Natamycine) preservative tablet to prevent any spoilage
before chemical analysis.
Laboratory analyses
All samples were milled through 1.5 mm screen before analysis. The parameters
analysed on the fresh material and the silages included oven dry matter (DM), neutral
detergent fibre (NDF), modified acid detergent fibre (MADF), crude protein (CP) and ash.
All analyses were done in duplicate. The DM in fresh forages and silages were determined
in a forced air oven at 60 °C for 48 h. The CP content was determined by the Kjeldahl
method. The NDF and MADF were assessed using standard procedures [6]. Energy in the
forages was estimated from the MADF values according to the following formula: ME
(MJ/kg) = 0.16D (where D is the estimated digestibility of the forage calculated from the
MADF value from the formula; Digestibility (D) = 99.43 - 1.17*MADF). The milk
samples were analysed for butter fat (BF), lactose, protein, and total solids by a Bently
2000 infrared milk analyser.
The data on parameters for nutrient content was analysed using the Statistical
Analysis Systems (SAS) [7] analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures for a completely
randomised design as represented by the model below. Tukeys method was used to
separate the means.
Rij = µ + Ti + eij
Where: Rij = response variable (e.g. dry matter, crude protein),
µ = Overall mean,
Ti = treatment effect (i = 1, 2, 3),
eij = random error.
In the feeding trial the general linear model procedure of SAS, for repeated
measurements in a completely randomized block design was used for the analyses of DMI,
milk yield and milk composition data. The following model was used:
Rijk = µ + Pi + Tj +eijk
Where: Rijk = response variable (DMI, milk yield, protein, butterfat, lactose etc)
µ = overall mean,
Pi = effect due to parity (i = 1, 2, 3 or 4),
Tj = treatment effect (j = 1, 2 or 3),
eijk = random error.
The differences among the means were assessed by Tukeys method.
306
RESULTS
Nutritional composition of the silages
The NDF content of the silages were not different but they were all significantly
different from that of the meal (P < 0.05) as indicated in Table 1. Bagged maize silage and
mixed maize-acacia silage had similar MADF values of 304.4 and 318.6 g/kg DM,
respectively. The bunker maize silage and the maize-leucaena silage had significantly
higher MADF values of 353.5 and 357.4 g/kg DM, respectively, compared to the other
silages. The bagged maize silage had the highest D-value followed by the, mixed maizeacacia silage, bunker maize silage and the mixed maize-leucaena silage. The estimated D
value of the bagged maize silage was significantly different from that of the maizeleucaena and the bunker maize silage (P < 0.05) but similar to that of the maize-acacia
silage. The maize-acacia silage was not significantly (P > 0.05) different from that of the
bunker silage and the mixed maize-leucaena silage. The same trend was found with the
estimated metabolizable energy values.
The CP content of maize- acacia was the highest whilst the bunker maize silage
had the lowest. The ash content was highest (P < 0.05) in the mixed maize-leucaena silage
followed by the bagged maize silage and then the lactating meal with similar levels to
those of the bunker silage and the mixed maize-acacia silage.
Table 1:
The nutrient content of the silages .
Bagged
maize
silage
Maize-Leucaena
silage
Maize-Acacia
silage
Standard
Error of
means
276a
339a
12.3
DM (g/kg)
271a
c
b
a
CP (g/kg)
71.2
176.0
208.7
0.5
NDF (g/kg)
608.2a
658.4a
602.6a
17.5
MADF (g/kg)
304.4b
357.4a
318.6b
4.4
ME (MJ/kg)
10.21b
9.22c
9.95bc
0.1
Ash (g/kg)
6.6ab
7.4a
5.6b
0.2
Digestibility (%)
63.8 b
57.6 c
62.2 bc
1.5
abc
Values with different superscripts in a row are significantly different (P<0.05)
Dry matter intake
The dry matter intake (DMI) levels of the silages are shown in Table 2. The cows
given mixed maize-acacia and maize silage had higher intake levels than those fed the
mixed maize-leucaena silage (P < 0.05).
Milk yield and quality
The milk yield (Table 2) was higher (P < 0.05) in cows fed mixed maize-acacia
and maize silages compared to animals on mixed maize-leucaena silage. However, the
milk composition in terms of butterfat, lactose, protein and total solids was not different (P
> 0.05) across the treatment diets.
307
Table 2:
DM intake, milk yield and milk composition from animals fed mixed
cereal-legume silages.
Maize
MaizeMaize- Standard
silage
Leucaena
acacia
error of
(control)
silage
silage
means
DMI (kg/100 kg live
weight)
Daily milk yield (kg)
Butterfat (%)
Protein (%)
Lactose (%)
Total solids (%)
ab
3.30a
3.11b
3.31a
-
17.02a
3.59 a
3.36 a
4.58 a
12.47 a
14.06b
3.72 a
3.44 a
4.57 a
12.74 a
15.7a
3.57 a
3.45 a
4.48 a
12.48a
0.69
0.11
0.05
0.04
0.16
Values with different superscripts across the rows are significantly different at P<0.05
DISCUSSION
Nutritional composition of the silages
The CP of the mixed silages that ranged from 170 to 210 g/kg DM is comparable
to that of commercial dairy feeds and this gives them the advantage over the maize silage
that had a CP content of 68 g/kg DM. These findings are similar to those in an earlier
study [5] although the values in this study were slightly higher. However, the efficiency of
utilisation of the CP in the mixed silages is not guaranteed due to the perceived
interference from the polyphenolic compounds. In view of the interference from the
polyphenolic compounds, the feeding value of mixed silage can best be judged from the
performance of animals in a practical feeding trial. CP content and the availability of the
protein in any livestock feed is quite important in that it has a bearing on the
supplementary requirements, if any, for this expensive nutrient.
The NDF levels of the mixed maize-FTLs are within the range for some forage
silages in the tropics. For example, guinea grass silage in Sri-Lanka had 69.9 - 71.9 NDF
[1], napier grass silage in Thailand had 64.2 - 70.2 NDF [8]. The MADF of forages and
silages should be within the 220 – 500 g/kg DM range [9]. The lower the MADF the
higher the energy level in a forage or silage. The levels found in this study are within this
range and this indicates that the mixed maize-FTL silages have a potential to replace the
silage from traditional crops such as maize and sorghum if other factors are ideal. It is
important to note though that the NDF and MADF levels are dependent on the maturity
stage of any given forage since they are essentially indicating the levels of cell wall
components mainly the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (for NDF) and cellulose and
lignin (for MADF).
Similarly the DM and CP of silage all depend on the type and stage of maturity of
the crops at the time of ensiling in addition to the methodology of harvesting and
technique of ensiling. It is generally known that feeds with high fibre content have low
digestibility and hence are of poor quality. The MADF of the bagged maize silage and that
of the mixed maize-acacia were similar and so were those of the bunker maize silage and
that of the mixed maize-leucaena silage but they were all within the 22-50 % range
suggesting that the quality is acceptable. If NDF is considered, the picture is different,
with all the four silages having similar content. In this regard MADF seems a better
308
parameter to indicate the potential digestibility of a given silage than NDF. The MADF
was used to calculate the estimated digestibility values (D-value) for each silage. The
digestibilities of all the silages are slightly higher than those reported in literature. The
variation could be due to the differences in maturity of the various crops at the time of
ensiling, with better digestibilities being found in young forage material. After the
laboratory work there is need to confirm the estimated feeding value (the D-value) of the
mixed silages through proper feeding trials.
The ash content of the mixed silages was comparable to that of the maize silage
and the lactating meal. Mixed maize-leucaena silage had a significantly higher level of the
ash than the lactating meal and other silages used in this study. This suggests that there
may be no need to add commercial mineral supplements if the mixed silages are used.
However there is need to analyse the ash for the quantities of calcium, phosphorus, iron,
magnesium and other minerals required by lactating cows in order to ascertain the
sufficiency from the silages.
Dry Matter Intake
There was no significant difference between the DMI of maize-acacia (3.31 kg/100
kg liveweight) and the maize silage (3.30 gkg/100 kg liveweight). This demonstrates the
potential of the mixed maize-acacia silage as a source of protein in dairy cattle feeding.
DMI is an important parameter in assessing the nutritive value of a feed or forage. The CP
content of a feed influences the DMI of that feed because it tends to improve the
palatability. However the CP content alone can not be responsible for high DMI because
the energy content of the feed also plays an important role since animals eat to satisfy
energy requirements [10]. The DMI reflected the influence of NDF, MADF and
digestibility levels in the experimental treatment silages. The low DMI of the maizeleucaena silage could have been due to high fibre levels resulting in the rumen fill effect.
It is quite interesting to note that the DMI seems to have been influenced by the
fermentation quality of the silages. Generally, it is believed that if forage has high levels of
total phenolics its intake may be low. In this study mixed maize-acacia had the highest
levels of total phenolics but its dry matter intake was similar to the control that had the
lowest levels of phenolics. The reason could be that even the levels detected in the maizeacacia silage might not have been enough to exert significant negative effects on DMI.
This is supported by earlier studies [11; 12], which showed that low levels of tannins (20 40g extractable CTs/kg DM) may in fact be beneficial by reducing protein degradation in
the rumen and increase amino acid absorption from the small intestines without depressing
fibre digestion and voluntary food intake.
Milk yield and quality
Milk yield and quality are influenced by stage of lactation, parity, animal size and
the body condition at calving within the same breed in addition to the type of feed and
level of feeding. It is a fact that rations that stimulate high milk yield will depress butterfat
and increase total solids content. Good levels of feeding tend to stimulate high milk yields
and lactose but depress BF, protein and minerals. Conversely under feeding results in high
BF, protein and minerals and low milk yield and lactose [9]. In this study maize silage had
milk yields similar to that of the maize-acacia silage and this indicates that the mixed
silage has the potential to replace the maize silage without affecting yields. However the
potential of the mixed silages cannot be guaranteed as this depends on the prevailing
economic situation. Low DMI levels seem to have affected the milk yield from the maizeleucaena silage. Milk yields from animals supplemented with L. leucocephala hay were
higher than those from animals fed Acacia angustissima and Calliandra calothyrsus
309
supplements [13]. These findings seem to suggest that the processing done prior to feeding
the animals influence the performance of forages. In any case it has been found that sun or
oven or freeze drying have varying effects on tannin levels [14; 13] and this has an effect
on dry matter intake and subsequently the milk output.
There were no differences in the quality of milk across the treatments although
studies [15] suggested that milk yield and composition in dairy cows might be influenced
by the source of roughage. The data generated in the present study seem to be in
agreement with the conclusions made that the dairy cow can maintain similar milk yield
despite marked differences in the type of end products arising from carbohydrate and
protein digestion [16]. Similar studies [17] using mixed maize-red clover silage and
lucerne silage reported that the mixed silage increased milk yield compared to the maize
silage alone (control) but lucerne silage was out performed by the control. The same
authors also reported that the legumes compared to the maize silage lowered milk fat and
protein levels. The varying results indicate that there is need for more research into the
subject of mixed silages and their influences on milk yield and composition in given
environments. This is important since the quality of milk has an influence on processing
milk into milk products. Long-term studies are needed to determine the effects of mixed
forages on udder development and the subsequent milk yields.
CONCLUSION
Mixed silages of good quality can be produced and used to partially replace
commercial feed supplements without loss in milk yield or quality. However, there is need
to ascertain the trend with low yielding dairy cows especially crossbreeds cows where
there is potential to completely replace the commercial feeds with mixed FTLs and
increase profits.
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[1] Panditharatne, S., Allen, V.G., Fontenot, J.P. and Jayasuria, M.C.N. 1986. Ensiling
characteristics of tropical grasses as influenced by stage of growth, additives and chopping
length. Journal of Animal Science. 63: 197 - 207.
[2] Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (ARDA). 1999. Dairy Development
Program annual report – 1999, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Resettlement,
Government of Zimbabwe.
[3] Belibasakis, N.G., Progia, E. and Papaioannou, A. 1997. Comparison of effects of
maize and alfalfa silages on milk production, milk composition and blood components of
dairy cows. Veterinari-Medicina. 42 (8): 239-242.
[4] Catchpoole, V.R. and Henzell, E.F. 1971. Silage and silage making from tropical
herbage species. Herbage Abstracts. 41 (3): 213-221.
[5] Titterton, M., Maasdorp, B.V., Acamovic, T., Stewart, C.S. and Topps, J.H. 1997.
Nutritional improvement of maize silage for dairying: mixed crop silages from sole and
intercropped legumes and a long season variety of maize. 2. Ensilage. Animal Feed
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[6] AOAC. 1984. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of
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[7] SAS. 1990. Statistical Analysis System Institute Inc., SAS users guide: Statistics,
Version 6, 3rd Edition, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA.
[8] Shinoda, M., Kawashima, T., Pholsen, P. and Chuenpreecha, T. 1996. Evaluation of
quality and nutritive value of napier grass silage with different growth stages either
chopped or unchopped in Northeast Thailand. FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical
Silages, March 1999.
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[9] Slater, K. 1991. The Principles of Dairy Farming. Farming Press, 11th Edition, Ipswich,
United Kingdom.
[10] Seyd, J.S. and Leaver, J.D. 1999. Influence of milk production level of cow and
protein content of supplement on the selection of maize and grass silages by dairy cattle
given a choice of forages. Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science 2000:145.
[11] Barry, T.N., Manley, T.R. and Duncan, S.T. 1986. The role of condensed tannins in
the nutritional value of Lotus pedunculatus for sheep. 4. Site of carbohydrates and protein
digestion influenced by dietary reactive tannin concentration. British Journal of Nutrition.
55: 123-137.
[12] Wang, Y., Waghorn, G.C., Barry, T.N. and Shelton, I.D. 1994. The effect of
condensed tannins in Lotus corniculatus on plasma metabolism of methionine, cystine and
inorganic sulphate by sheep. British Journal of Nutrition. 72: 923-935.
[13] Hove, L. 1999. Proanthocyanidins and their influence on the nutritive value of leaves
from the shrub legumes Acacia angustissima, Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena
leucocephala fed as supplements in diets for ruminants. A Doctor of Philosophy thesis,
University of Zimbabwe.
[14] Ahn, J.H., Robertson, B.M., Elliott, R., Gutteridge, R.C. and Ford, C.W. 1989.
Quality assessment of tropical browse legumes: Tannin content and protein degradation.
Animal Feed Science and Technology. 27:147-156.
[15] Kumagai, H., Hirayama, K., Ishimoto, A., Ikeda, K. and Mitani, K. 1993. Effect of
various roughage source on milk yield and milk composition in dairy cows. Journal of the
Faculty of Applied Biological Science Hiroshima University (Japan). 32 (2): 101 - 107.
[16] Khorasani, G.R., Okine, E.K. and Kennelly, J.J. 1996. Forage supply alters nutrient
supply to the intestine without influencing milk yield. Journal of Dairy Science. 79 (5):
862 - 872
[17] Chenais, F., Jullien, J.P. and Le-Gall, A. 1993. Benefits in milk production of
incorporation of legume silage in maize silage-based diets. Fourrages. 134: 259-265.
311
ALFALFA YIELD UNDER SUBSURFACE DRIP IRRIGATION
APPLYING SECONDARY DOMESTIC EFFLUENT
1, 2
Kazumba S., 1Gillerman L. and 1Oron G.
1
Department of Environmental Hydrology and Microbiology, Ben-Gurion University of
the Negev, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Kiryat Sde-Boker 84990, Israel;
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology, P.O.Box 2958,
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; Email: [email protected]
Key words: alfalfa, lateral spacing , secondary domestic effluent, sprinkler irrigation,
subsurface drip irrigation, water use efficiency
Abstract
Scarcity of fresh high-quality water has heightened the importance of wastewater reuse in
dry regions together with improving its efficiency by using the most effective irrigation
method. In this study, field experiments were conducted during two years on the
commercial farm of Revivim and Mashabay-Sade Farm (RMF) southeast of the City of
Beer-Sheva, Israel. The response of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) to secondary effluent
application was examined. Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) system was compared with
conventional sprinkler irrigation. In the SDI the emitters were installed at 20 and 40 cm
below the soil surface and lateral spacing was 100, 150 and 200 cm. In an adjacent
field alfalfa was cultivated and sprinkle-irrigated. The amounts of effluent applied were
around 12,000 m3/ha during summer and 5,000 m3/ha during winter for both sprinkler
irrigation and SDI system. The results of dry weight yields of SDI showed higher yields
(from 3% to 25%) than sprinkled-irrigated. The average Water Use Efficiency (WUE)
indicate the highest mean value of WUE of up to 1.7 t/ML (tone per mega liter of water)
for alfalfa in SDI plots. This shows that SDI system under the examined conditions of
RMF, have best alfalfa yield when properly designed and managed.
INTRODUCTION
In many places throughout the world, the utilization of treated wastewater for
irrigation is becoming acceptable. However, wastewater contains a variety of excreted
organisms and pathogens that pose risk to the humans [1], [2] and [3]. The factors
influencing the transmission of diseases by irrigation are: the degree of wastewater
treatment, the crop type and the harvesting practices used (e.g. human consumption or not,
consumption after cooking or not, animal consumption fresh or sun-dried, etc), the degree
of contact with the treated wastewater and the irrigation method.
The intense use of effluent for irrigation has attracted public awareness of
environmental pollution and the impact on water quality [4], [5] and [6]. This was mainly
due to the fact that sprinkler irrigation was the primary application method associated with
microorganism distribution in the air. With the advent of advanced innovative technology,
on-surface drip irrigation (ODI) and subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) have become the
preferred methods. In the SDI method the laterals and drippers are buried below the soil
surface in the vicinity of crop root zone [7]. SDI method allows precise application of
water, nutrients and other agro-chemicals directly to the root zone of the plants. The depth
and placement of subsurface drip lines is determined by the soil composition and the crop
needs. An efficient installation together with frequent irrigation provides continuous root
zone wetting.
1,2,*
Corresponding author (on Post Doctoral leave from Tanzania)
312
The purpose of this work is to evaluate SDI system for growing alfalfa with treated
domestic wastewater over the conventional sprinkler irrigation system in terms of yield
production and water use efficincy. The ultimate goal is to come up with recommendation
for SDI implemenation for alflafa irrigation.
Experimental Site
Field experiments were conducted on the commercial farm of two community
farms (Kibbutzim), Revivim and Mashabay-Sade farms (RMF). The field is located a few
kilometers southeast of the City of Beer-Sheva, Israel. Mean annual precipitation is around
200 mm, mainly received from November to March. Mean maximum temperatures reach
330C during July and August and decrease to a mean minimum of 40C during January. The
soil moisture content by weight of the silt loam soil derived from loess at field capacity
was about 16% and the volumetric dry weight of the soil was about 1.55 g/cm3.
Crop Planting
The total area for the SDI plots was about 2,900 m2 and according to the treatments
was divided into two blocks. In each block six treatments were defined. The area for each
replication was 240 m2 (40 m long and 6 m wide). Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) was
cultivated by the use of SDI system with emitter depths of 20 and 40 cm below the soil
surface, and lateral delivery pipe spacing of 100, 150 and 200 cm depending on the
treatment as shown in Table 1. Emitters on lateral spacing was 100 cm and flow rate of 4
l/hr was used during irrigation.
In an adjacent field, alfalfa was irrigated by sprinklers. The sprinkled field was
divided into two sub-sections of about 500 m2 each to facilitate two different harvest
timings. The alfalfa in one of the sprinkled sub-sections was harvested at the same age as
the SDI system while the other was cut at maturation (when flowering reached about 50%)
as conventional agricultural practices. Alfalfa was planted in the month of November at a
seeding rate of 40 kg/ha. Prior to planting the field was ploughed, disked twice and
cultivated with a roller. To stimulate germination, 20 mm of effluent (200 m3/ha) was
applied by sprinkler irrigation since the initial soil water contents were not adequate [7].
The experimental field was fertilized at the beginning of experiment with urea (40% N) at
a rate of 75 kg/ha.
Table 1: Lateral spacing and emitter depths (cm) in different treatments for SDI
system experimental plot
Treatment
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Lateral spacing
(cm)
100
100
150
150
200
200
Emitter depth (cm)
20
40
20
40
20
40
313
Effluent Source
Almost all raw domestic wastewater from the City of Beer Sheva is diverted to the
treatment plant. The wastewater plant consists of four settling ponds, two facultative
ponds, two maturation ponds and an effluent reservoir with capacity of about 500,000 m3.
Daily raw sewage inflow was approximately 10,000 m3/day and retention time for the
wastewater (in the ponds only) varied from 12 to 20 days. The effluent was pumped from
the reservoir and applied for irrigation. Total five day biological oxygen demand (BOD5)
of incoming raw sewage was about 215 mg/l. Prior to application, the effluent was filtered
through a series of net screen filters to diminish emitter clogging. Concentrations of
various constituents in the effluent are listed in Table 2.
Effluent Application
The SDI plots were irrigated twice a week with a locally developed crop
coefficients based on evaporation measurements taken from an adjacent class “A” pan [8].
About 1,200 mm of effluent were applied during the summer and 500 mm applied during
the winter. The sprinkled plots were irrigated every 10 to 14 days, similar to conventional
practice in the region. Total amount of effluent applied per year for all treatments were
similar during the
Table 2: Constituent concentration range of the effluent applied as irrigation water on the
RMF for the 1st Year and 2nd Year of experiment
S/No
Constituent
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total COD
Ammonia
PO4
Na
Ca
Mg
K
TSS
1st Year
Concentration
(mg/l)
281-426
33-47
22-42
218-263
95-105
36-41
28-33
90-121
2nd Year
Concentration
(mg/l)
199-436
29-64
32-39
227
82
49
20
60-149
experimental period of two years (Figure 1). Effluent application during the winter season
was adjusted to precipitation rates and events. Total amount of effluent applied during the
first year and second year of experiment were between 1,310 and 1,480 mm, respectively.
Total precipitation during the related periods was 197 and 116 mm, respectively.
Yield
The alfalfa yield obtained in one of the sprinkled sub-sections was harvested at the
same age as the SDI system. Two sub-samples for the yield assessment were taken for
each harvest, from a sampling area of 21 m2. A similar sampling area was taken in the
sprinkle-irrigated portion of the experiment. The fresh samples were oven dried and used
for yield analysis. The samples were dried for about 48 hours at 70 0C to obtain dry
weight. The dry weight yields obtained at the same age in SDI and sprinkler system were
compared as presented in Figure 2.
314
(Values with similar letters for the data are not different according to Post Hoc test at 5%
significance). The results show that in the first year of experiment in all treatments of SDI,
the yield of alfalfa was 11%-25% higher than the yields obtained from sprinkler irrigated
system. In the second year of experiment all treatments of SDI showed higher yields (from
3% to 9%) than sprinkled-irrigated except when the lateral spacing was 200 cm where
yield was 5% less.
In general, the yields of the two experimental years indicate higher yields of alfalfa
in all SDI treatments than sprinkler irrigation system when the lateral spacing was 100 cm
and 150 cm. The highest yield was obtained when emitter depth was 40 cm with lateral
spacing of 100 cm in the first year and 150 cm in the second year of experiment.
C u m m u lat iv e am o u n t o f e fflu e n t
(m m )
1600
1400
1200
1000
Ammount applied in 1st
Year
Amount applied in 2nd
Year
800
600
400
200
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Figure 1: Effluent received by alfalfa on RMF for the 1st Year and 2nd Year of experiment
Water Use Efficiency
Water Use Efficiency was compared not only for the yields harvested at the same
age as SDI in the sprinkler plot but also the plot harvested at maturation (50% flowering).
Water Use Efficiency, WUE (t/ML), was calculated by the amount of alfalfa produced
(tones/ha) per mega liter (ML/ha) of irrigation water applied [9].
Yield (tonnes)/ha
WUE( t / ML) =
Water applied (ML/ha)
The WUE for two experimental years are presented in Table 3. The results show
that in the first year of the experiment all SDI treatments had WUE values that were higher
than those obtained from sprinkler irrigated system (Table 3). Alfalfa harvested at
maturation in the sprinkler irrigated sub-section produced the lowest WUE of all
treatments as well as in the second year. In the second year of the experiment all
treatments of SDI showed higher WUE values than sprinkled-irrigated except treatment
number 5 and 6 where the lateral spacing was 200 cm. In general, the average WUE of the
two experimental years indicate higher WUE of alfalfa in all SDI treatments than sprinkler
irrigation system as indicated by mean value of WUE (Table 3).
315
27500
a)
c
25000
Yield, kg/ha
bc
abc
ab
abc
a
22500
20000
17500
15000
E m it t e r d e p t h
20 cm
Y ie ld
40 cm
20 cm
100 cm
L a t e r a l s p a c in g
23697
40 cm
20 cm
150 cm
25565
24184
40 cm
200 cm
24291
22529
23741
25000
Yield, kg/ha
bc
b
20403
b)
c
22500
S p r in k le r s
b
ab
a
20000
17500
15000
E m it t e r d e p t h
20 cm
Y ie ld
40 cm
20 cm
100 cm
L a t e r a l s p a c in g
21708
21836
40 cm
20 cm
150 cm
21777
23076
40 cm
S p r in k le r s
200 cm
21060
20151
21150
Figure 2: Alfalfa yield response to different parameters (lateral spacing and emitter depth)
of SDI system comparing to conventional sprinkle irrigation. [ a) and b) first and second
years of experiment respectively].
Table 3: Annual WUE (t/ML) of alfalfa for the 1st Year and 2nd Year of experiment
Treatment
Lateral
Emitter
Water Use Efficiency, (t/ML)
Number
spacing (cm)
depth (cm)
First Year
Second Year
2 years Mean
1
100
20
1.57
1.36
1.47 ± 0.15
2
100
40
1.70
1.37
1.53 ± 0.23
3
150
20
1.60
1.36
1.48 ± 0.17
4
150
40
1.61
1.45
1.53 ± 0.11
5
200
20
1.49
1.32
1.41 ± 0.12
6
200
40
1.58
1.26
1.42 ± 0.23
1.35
1.33
1.34 ± 0.01
Sprinkler
Sprinkler (50% flowering)
1.31
1.25
1.28 ± 0.04
Treatment number 2 with lateral spacing of 100 cm and lateral (emitter) depth of
40 cm produced the highest value of WUE in the first year of experiment while treatment
number 4 with lateral spacing 150 cm and lateral depths of 40 cm indicated highest value
of WUE in the second year. In general the highest average value of WUE of 1.7 t/ML was
obtained in treatment number 2. The average WUE in the sprinkle-irrigated that were
316
harvested at the same age as SDI was 1.34 ± 0.01 t/ML while that at maturation (50%
flowering) produced only 1.28 ± 0.04 t/ML of dry weight. The extra yields obtained under
SDI are due to two main outcomes: (i) the yield per cut under SDI was higher than under
sprinkler irrigation due to the earlier maturation in the drip plots, and (ii) there was at least
one additional harvest per year in the drip plots as compared to the sprinkled plots.
Conclusions
A field study with SDI of alfalfa was compared with sprinkler irrigation of alfalfa
showed that treated wastewater can be effectively and economically applied through a SDI
system. The SDI systems offer many technological and agronomical advantages.
Additional benefits are gained with the convenience of field cultivation in the SDI system.
The followings are the outcomes of this study:
1. The best alfalfa yields were obtained from SDI system at a trickle lateral
depth of 40 cm and when the lateral spacing is 100 cm and 150 cm. This
shows that SDI system have the best yield of alfalfa when properly
designed and managed compared to sprinkler irrigation system.
2. The results also showed that when lateral spacing was 200 cm the SDI
system produced less yield compared to sprinkler irrigation. Therefore,
depending on the soil type and kind of crop, the SDI system installation and
use parameters have to be studied thoroughly for better efficiency when
SDI is to be used.
3. The average water use efficiency show that SDI system has higher water
use efficiency than sprinkler system when properly designed and managed.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from UNESCO and
Israel government through UNESCO/ISRAEL Co-sponsored Fellowship for making this
study possible as well as the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev for providing facilities
during the period of study.
REFERENCES
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Passino R (2006). Agricultural wastewater reuse in southern Italy. Desalination.
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[2] Oron G, Gillerman L, Bick A, Manor Y, Buriakovsky N & Hagin J (2007).
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challenges. Desalination. 213, 189-198.
[3] Pollice A, Lopez A, Laera G, Rubino P & Lonigro A (2004). Tertiary filtered
municipal
wastewater as alternative water source in Agriculture: a field investigation in
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Italy. Science of the Total Environment. 324, 201-210.
[4] Campos C, Oron G, Salgot M & Gillerman L (2000). Behavior of the fecal pollution
indicators in a soil irrigated with treated wastewater under on-surface and subsurface
drip irrigation. Water science and Technology. 42 (1-2), 75-79.
[5] El-Arby AM & Elbordiny MM (2006). Impact of reused wastewater for irrigation
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availability of heavy metals in sandy soils and their uptake by plants. Journal of
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[6] Oron G & Beltrão J (1993). Complete environmental effluent disposal and reuse by
drip irrigation. (Eds. A. C. Fragoso and M. L. van Beusichem). Proceedings of the
8th Int.colloquium for the optimization of plant nutrition, 31 August - 8 September
1992.
pp. 589-592. Lisbon, Portugal. Kluwer Academinc Publishers, Netherlands.
[7] Camp CR, Lamm FR, Evans RG & Phene CJ (2000). Subsurface drip irrigationpast,
present and Future. (Eds. R. G. Evans, B. L. Benham and T. P. Trooien). Proceedings
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the 4th Decennial National Irrigation Symposium. Nov. 14-16, 2000. pp. 363-372.
Phoenix AZ ASAE, St. Joseph MI.
[8] Jensen MJ (1980). Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems. ASAE,
Monograph no. 3. p. 829. ASAE St. Joseph, MI.
[9] Tee E, Burrows D & Boland A (2004). Best Irrigation Management Practices for
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pp. 15-17. Glen Osmond, South Australia.
318
SMALLSCALE PALM OIL PROCESS IMPROVEMENT FOR
PORVERTY ALLEVIATION AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Kyei-Baffour, N.1 and Manu, C.2
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical and Agricultural
Engineering, College of Engineering, KNUST, Kumasi-Ghana; 2Director, Challen
Consult, Kumasi-Ghana
1
Keywords: Oil palm, Palm oil, kaizen, moisture content, impurities, free fatty acids
(FFA), yield
Abstract
What makes oil palm development more strategic and economically sound is that there
exist enormous opportunities globally for palm oil and products from it. Currently, there is
an estimated external market for 2.6 million tonnes of crude oil and allied products from
Ghana and West Africa but only 800,000 tonnes is produced annually in the sub-region.
Indeed, there are even greater long-term opportunities in oleo chemicals and paints and
as bio-fuel because of the rising cost of fossil fuels. Thus this study sought to improve yield
and quality of palm oil produced by using 10 palm oil mills for the initial background
study and subsequently 4 of the studied mills were chosen for the validation phase in the
Ashanti Region of Ghana. The results showed that moisture content, impurities and FFA
were poor and could be improved considerably by training the stakeholders. The yield of
palm oil could also be improved considerably following recommended procedures to
improve returns with minimal layout changes costing next to nothing. The quality and
quantity gains improved access to the market which was hitherto not the case. Oil
recovery from the sludge for the local soap industry did boost the incomes of millers. The
main difficulty at the mills was the mountains of palm nuts crying to be processed into
palm kernel oil. The outcome of this work could be replicated in oil palm producing
countries on the continent to improve the livelihood of the poor and accelerate national
development.
Introduction
The current population of Ghana is estimated at 22 million based on the 2000
population census. Ghana currently produces about 100,000 tonnes of palm oil annually
but her annual requirement is estimated at about 240,000 tonnes. There is therefore a
deficit of 140,000 tonnes which is imported at great cost to the nation. The nation can
therefore save up to about $200 million in terms of import substitution alone by producing
her palm oil requirements since conditions for doing so are right. Ghana with her peaceful
environment and democratic credentials see herself as the gateway to the sub-region with
many international agencies relocating their offices to the country. The economic
integration of the 15-member Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
is progressing satisfactorily. This promises a market of some 250 million people. There is
also a deficit of 1.8 million tonnes of crude palm oil in the sub region.
Ghana is a West African country lying along the Gulf of Guinea between latitude
40°44’N and 11°11’N, and longitude 3° 15’W and 1° 12’E. It is bound on the east by
Republic of Togo, on the west by La Cote d’Ivoire and the north by Burkina Faso. Kumasi
is the capital of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Ghana is predominantly an agricultural
country with about 50.7% of the working population working in agro-industry which
accounts for approximately 42% of her GDP. The government of Ghana has also
319
encouraged the development of non-traditional industries over the past decade in order to
diversify the country’s export base.
Crude Palm Oil (CPO) is extracted from the mesocarp which in turn can be further
refined. The refined oil and fat is used in industrial production of non-dairy creams, ice
cream powder, salad additives and fat spread. It is used as substitute in the formulation of
soaps, detergents, margarines and baking fats. Palm oil is also a rich source of vitamins A,
D and E which are indispensable in the pharmaceutical industry. The fibre is used in mills
(boilers) as fuel and for stuffing car seats and mattresses. The list of products cannot be
complete without reference to the nut which comprises a shell and a kernel. The shell of
the palm nut is used as fuel and as activated carbon for bleaching purposes. This product is
in high demand on the international market. The kernel is a rich source of lauric acid, a
vital ingredient for the soap, cosmetic and confectionary industry.
What makes oil palm development more strategic and economically sound is the
fact that there exist in Ghana, West Africa, the rest of Africa and the world at large
enormous opportunities for palm oil and products processed from it. It is currently
estimated that there is an external market for 2.6 million tonnes of crude oil and allied
products from Ghana and the sub-region but only 800,000 tonnes is produced annually in
the sub-region (PSI, 2003). Indeed, there are even greater long-term opportunities in oleo
chemicals and paints. Others are researching into its use as a bio-fuel because of the rising
cost of fossil fuels. For example, the energy content of industrial diesel oil per tonne is
42.3 GJ and that of palm oil is comparable of value 41.0 GJ. There is scope for the use of
the waste for the generation of electricity from boilers or biogas plants. A wealth of
technical know-how also abounds locally to be tapped for this industry.
The peak season for harvesting palm fruits in Ghana is from January to June. The
period from July to October is regarded as the mid-season and the lean season is from
October to December. During the lean season, production of palm oil is cut down due to a
drop in the supply of raw materials. This is being addressed by breeders and also putting
much larger areas under cultivation. There is also the need to ensure that seedlings of the
tenera variety is produced and sold to farmers for cultivation since it gives the highest
yield in terms of fresh fruit bunches and oil. Farmers are also being taught the correct
lining and pegging techniques to maximise production on farms. In order to overcome the
problem of shortage of fruits for processors, the government of Ghana is pursuing an
aggressive policy to add 20,000 ha of oil palm plantations per year for the next five years.
Materials and Methods
The palm oil process involves a point where harvested bunches are received at the
factory or mill and these may be loaded into cages in a factory setting or stripped at an
association mill. The bunches are then taken through, sterilisation, threshing or stripping,
digestion, pressing for the palm oil, separation of the fibre from the nuts, clarification of
the oil, storage of the oil and disposal of the sludge. Each of these stages was monitored to
ascertain the losses occurring. The layout of each factory and mill visited was also
measured as part of the study. The quality of fruits/bunches used in the preparation were
also assessed. Most of the measurements entailed some level of weighing either using
normal scales or in the case of bigger factories, weighing bridges. Samples of the oil were
taken for laboratory analysis of the free fatty acids content, moisture content and
impurities.
Results and Discussions
320
Table 1-3 show the studied mills in the Ashanti Region, the areas under oil palm
production and employment offered especially to women respectively. During the main
season a lot of casual employment is offered to inhabitants in the areas of manual stripping
of the fruits, fetching water, separating of fibre from nuts, provision of firewood and
vending of food. Where no casual labour is provided, the association members assist
themselves with free labour known as ‘nnoboa’ locally to contain cost and maximise
profits. The mill at Amaning is the only one wholly controlled by women.
The availability of a company farm may help but it is not a necessary condition
for starting an oil mill in Ghana. All the mills are located in areas with oil palm plantations
owned by individuals. The desirable fruits are tenera which contains 21-24% oil.
Unfortunately the traditional varieties are still in the system since millers buy fruits with
different varieties which are difficult to differentiate just from the looks as shown in Table
4.
The capacity of the cooperative mills is just a tonne per hour. Those of the
factories were between 2-13t/h. The sources of funding for the factories/mills were
individual member shares, bank loans and the district assemblies. The Rural banks have
been assisting in the development of these rural enterprises. Technoserve, an NGO (NonGovernmental Organisation), has also been assisting the mills with technical expertise.
Palm oil processing is a lucrative business. The cost of the fruit per tonne is about $70 but
crude palm oil sells for about $1000/t, the kernel oil for $1087/t and the shells could sell
for $136/t. The cost of machinery, water, labour and other incidentals need to be factored
into the cost though.
Table 1: Location of Studied Oil Mills
Name of Oil Mill
Location
District
1
2
Amansie West
Sekyere East
3
4
Antoakrom
Antoakrom
Sekyere East Oil Mill Asokore
Limited
Pease Oil Palm Association
Pease
Ntinanko Cooperative Oil
Palm
Farmers
Society
Limited
5 Ayokoa (Sir Speedy)
6 Afotom Oil Palm Processing
and
Marketing
Society
Limited
7 Amaning
Women’s
Association
8 Adansi Oil Mills Limited
9 Juaben Oil Mills Limited
10 Anwiankwanta Oil Mills
Limited
Distance from
Kumasi (km)
55
55
32
Ntinanko
BosumtwiAtwimaKwanwoma
Amansie East
Ayokoa
Afotom
Adansi North
Offinso
82
45
Amaning
Offinso
65
Dompoase
Adansi North
Juaben
Ejisu-Juaben
Anwiankwanta Amansie East
44
63
50
35
321
Table 2: Production of Oil Palm in Ashanti Region (2005)
No. Districts
Area under
Production of Fresh
Cultivation (ha) Fruit Bunches (t)
1
Ejisu Juaben
4,163
14,986.8
2
Asante Akim North
1,821
6,555.6
3
Asante AkimSouth
3,902
14,047.2
4
Sekyere East
3,122
11,239.2
5
Sekyere West
1,301
4,683.6
6
Ejura Sekyedumase
520
1,872
7
Kwabre
1,821
6,555.6
8
Efigya Sekyere
1,821
6,555.6
9
Offinso
3,643
13,114.8
10
Ahafo Ano South
3,122
11,239.2
11
Ahafo Ano North
3,122
11,239.2
12
Atwima Nwabiagya
3,122
11,239.2
13
Atwima Mponua
3,122
11,239.2
14
Amansie East
3,122
11,239.2
15
Amansie West
2,081
7,491.6
16
Amansie Central
3,122
11,239.2
17
Adanse South
3,643
13,114.8
18
Adanse North
3,643
13,114.8
19
Obuasi Municipality
1,041
3,747.6
20
BAK
1,041
3,747.6
21
KMA
0
0
52,295
188,262
Total
322
Table 3: Employee breakdown of oil mills
Name of Oil Mill
Actual Employees
Male Female Managerial
1 Antoakrom
12
21
1
2 Sekyere East
5
145
3 Pease
1
14
4 Ntinanko
12
26
7
5 Ayokoa (Sir Speedy) 6
2
2
6 Afotom
4
15
7 Amaning
3
11
8 Adansi
18
1
4
9 Juaben
125
125
6
10 Anwiankwanta
24
2
2
Casuals Total
100
150
6
10
5
3
251
6
134
300
15
45
16
29
19
26
557
34
Fruits were kept for too long at the association mills. A maximum period of 3-5
days is recommended to prevent deterioration and higher FFA’s in the oil. Sterilisation is
also done for too long and with too much water at a lower temperature which is not
optimal for the efficiency of oil yield. There is temperature loss during digestion and
pressing because of the sheer distances between sterilisation and digestion. Clarification
temperatures at the association mills also needed some fine-tuning.
Table 4: Raw material base of oil mills
Size of company
Name of Oil Mill
farm (ha)
1 Antoakrom
230
2 Sekyere East
Nil
3 Pease
Nil
4 Ntinanko
4.5
5 Ayokoa (Sir Speedy) 50
6 Afotom
Nil
7 Amaning
Nil
8 Adansi
Nil
9 Juaben
175
10 Anwiankwanta
Nil
Type of fruits used (%)
Tenera
Dura
80
20
60
40
90
10
90
10
90
10
100
Nil
100
Nil
90
10
70
30
80
20
Apart from the free fatty acids content at the factories which were within the
recommended average of 5-5.5 %, all the others were just too high. To target the
international market, FFA will have to come down to about 2-3 %. This will mean
processing the fruits in far fewer days than is currently the case. Currently, fruits are stored
for up to 14 days at some places. This does not include the period harvested bunches are
kept in the farm. They are piled up and some are stored in fertiliser sacks in the open.
These generate a lot of heat leading to faster deterioration, mouldiness and bruising which
cause higher free fatty acids. Storage is slightly better at Ntinanko and Asokore where
fresh fruit bunches (FFB’s) are stored on wooden platforms.
The standard for impurities is 0.045 %. Unfortunately, the dirt content is way too
high but better at the factories. Much of this is due to poor storage of bunches and lack of
patience to allow settlement before skimming-off the oil. The introduction of filters at the
cooperatives will be helpful. The pressing of oil from the pulp present a problem of nuts in
the fibre which is a limitation on how much pressure can be exerted. Pressures of 200kPa
323
are exerted by the presses at the factories. In the case of manual screw presses, the
pressures are up to 22 kPa which is woefully inadequate.
The yield of tenera is high in the range of 22-24 % (Poku, 2002). This is the
preferred fruit for palm oil production. Unfortunately, there is this tradition of not
destroying economic crops during land preparation. Also squirrels and other animals
disperse the palm fruits to all sorts of places. Wild dura fruits are also harvested for
consumption and sale. Some farmers also produce their own seedlings and some
unscrupulous people produce seedlings to cash in on the booming seedlings business. No
wonder a lot of dura is available in all the production centres studied. There is the need to
intensify education on seedling production and sale. Certified seedling producers must be
encouraged and farmers made aware through agricultural extension officers. Finally,
buyers of bunches and fruits can be trained to decipher this problem since most mills do
not own their own farms. Subsequent studies focussed on the small scale millers because
of their many problems and lack of assistance in their activities.
It is recommended that the oven and digester distance should be at a maximum
distance of 10 m. This will reduce the carrying of fruits for longer distances which resulted
in severe temperature drops to affect the yield of palm oil in the old production techniques
studied. The digester and press must similarly be close to prevent further temperature
drop. The sum total of these modifications minimised the drudgery associated with the
process and more importantly ensured high enough temperatures in the digested mash
during pressing to improve yield.
The other problem is the use of inefficient local ovens by essentially placing three
stones to form a tripod for the sterilisation/clarification/drying tanks. This led to a lot of
smoke in the environment. It is recommended that more efficient ovens should be built
with bricks to deal with the unhealthy smoky environments. If improved ovens are built,
then the distances between the digester and steriliser could even be closer. The
improvements kept temperatures of digested material above 70oC which is a pre-requisite
for keeping the palm oil in a liquid state to optimise yield. The digester and press were
equally close, thus the temperature of the fibre and nuts after pressing was even around
70oC. Boiled fruits were also not heaped before digestion but were carried in reasonable
bits straight to the digester after sterilisation.
Table 5: Analysis of quality/ yield of Palm oil under old
methods
Location of Mill Type of
Afotom
Antoakrom
Processing
Old Method
24.01 (2.31) 18.81 (1.02)
Oil Left in
Fibre (%)
New Method 6.21 (0.86)
5.48 (0.82)
Old Method
8.82 (1.14)
7.21 (2.01)
Impurities (%)
2.00 (0.56)
Old Method
1.21 (0.28)
1.10 (0.32)
Moisture
Content (%)
0.35 (0.09)
Old Method
10.56 (2.00) 11.38 (1.84)
Free Fatty
Acids (%)
6.30 (0.72)
Old Method
8.18 (0.84)
10.36 (1.20)
Yield
(Theoretical
New Method 18.94 (0.98) 17.16 (3.52)
Yield is 22-24)
%
Standard Deviation in Parenthesis
and improved processing
Ntinanko
Pease
20.20 (0.97)
6.23 (1.37)
8.21 (1.18)
1.78 (0.64)
1.05 (0.17)
0.30 (0.11)
10.43 (2.02)
6.65 (0.73)
9.77 (2.93)
19.31 (0.57)
21.83 (0.68)
5.28 (0.70)
8.66 (0.88)
1.41 (0.52)
1.02 (0.16)
0.30 (0.10)
9.49 (1.56)
6.41 (0.76)
9.27 (2.64)
19.21 (1.01)
324
The level of impurities reduced substantially simply by pre-washing before boil
and also using cleaner containers at all stages. Skimming of the oil layer after clarification
must minimise some of the sludge getting in with the oil to be dried. This was the cause of
too many particles after the drying process. The technique of skimming of particles after
drying must also be improved. By drying until all the bubbles died down, the moisture
contents were brought within recommended standards as shown in Table 5 for all the
mills. The drying process must be carried out in about 30 minutes. The fire temperature
must be managed to keep drying temperature around 120-130oC like Antoakrom in Figure
1. Drying to high temperatures as at Afotom in Figure 1 wasted time and energy and also
destroyed the quality of oil. The volatile components of the palm oil vaporised at higher
temperatures to destroy its quality.
160
DryingTem
perature( OC)
140
120
100
Afotom
Antoakrom
Ntinanko
Pease
80
60
40
20
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Tim e of Drying (m inute s )
Figure 1: Correlation of drying time with temperature
The FFA of palm oil produced (see Table 5) using the new procedures improved.
The yield of palm oil nearly doubled in most cases. This clearly shows that by following
the improved methods, millers stand to gain a lot financially. It is the result of not leaving
fruits to rot and keeping temperatures very high up to pressing. The extension of the effort
arms for manual presses and changing of oil in hydraulic presses to the correct hydraulic
oil contributed to this.
Fruits must well-covered to ensure boiling temperature of at least 100oC. It is
better to add about 45% of the material volume of the fruits as water. Where there are no
weighing scales, a third of the tank to be filled with fruits for sterilisation must be filled
with water and covered tightly with no heaping.
The effort arms of the manual presses were extended with galvanised iron pipes to
the length of the existing effort arm by about 0.5-1.0 m each side to improve pressing and
minimise human effort. An attempt to use bamboo for the extension failed, but more
mature bamboo could serve the purpose. Heaping of mashed pulp in the basket for
pressing was avoided to prevent pressed oil from falling back into the fibre and nuts to
reduce yield. Pressing was gently done to avoid spillage onto the floor and was continued
until no more material oozed out. The cake was ejected afterwards and immediately
separated manually into fibre and nuts. When enough fibre to fill the cage of the press was
obtained, a final pressing was recommended.
The efficiency of extraction improved tremendously from 65% to over 100% in the
areas studied with the improvement techniques and also as shown in the low level of oil
left in the fibre in Table 5. There is a limitation on how much oil can be squeezed given
the pressure available and the presence of concretions in the form of nuts. No matter the
pressure, some oil will still stick to the fibre.
325
The sludge was never thrown away after clarification. It was poured into a 200 litre
oil drum (45 gallons) or a reasonably sized container, covered and left for 1-4 days (KyeiBaffour and Manu, 2007). It is better to avoid longer periods to prevent decay and the
emission of offensive odour. A new oil layer appeared on the sludge afterwards, and this
was skimmed into a drying container. An equal quantity of clean water was added to the
oil skimmed and dried. The quality of this oil is low. It is therefore not palatable or edible
so it is best sold to the local soap industry. This can also boost the incomes of millers.
Finally, the sludge must be disposed off in pits dug for the purpose not into natural drains
or water ways. The water in the sludge will infiltrate into the soil. When the pit is full, it
should be covered with soil to control the stench, flies and scavengers and also to ensure a
relatively clean environment.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Serious education is needed to ensure that only certified seedlings of tenera are
grown in Ghana to optimise palm oil yield. Storage and the general environmental
conditions of mills must be improved. Capacity must be improved to minimise the storage
of fruits for longer periods. There is the need to train all association type millers to
improve on their efficiencies. The factories will need to rehabilitate sensors for monitoring
temperatures and pressures as well as all valves and filters. The disposal of sludge is not
currently acceptable and serious research is needed to deal with the problem. Millers must
be encouraged to go into palm kernel oil production to prevent waste and increase their
incomes. The duration of storage of bunches and fruits need to be kept to a minimum of 35 days since rotten fruits at the association mill when boiled led to a lot of oil losses
through the sterilisation water and higher FFA’s in the palm oil produced.
Over-sterilisation must be avoided. Boiling with too much water for over 2 hours
is not good. At the factories, the quality of steam is important since this affects the
extraction rate, the quality of oil and the efficiency of the machinery. Trapped air in the
steriliser happens because of the lack of automatic air vents at the factories studied. This
can lead to longer than required sterilisation period because the air forms a barrier to
sterilisation. Steam temperature and pressure at the factories of 140oC and 300kPa
respectively were the recommended standard.
Inadequate sterilisation leads to poor threshing leading to the loss of oil to
bunches. However, the clearance between the inner cylinder of the digester and the beating
arms had problems leading to lots of undigested fruits and subsequently longer digestion
time for all the mills. Pressures and temperatures were controlled at the factories during
pressing. Excess pressure could break the nuts and affect the quality of palm oil. Pressures
exerted by manual presses were too small at the association mills.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the total support of JICA for this study.
References
[1] Poku, K. 2002. Small-scale palm oil processing in Africa. FAO Agricultural
Services Bulletin. 56 pages
[2] PSI, 2003. The President’s Special Initiative on Job Creation and Poverty
Reduction through Agribusiness. Technical paper by a team of consultants.
MOTI/PSI.
[3] Kyei-Baffour, N. and Manu, C. 2007. Technical Manual for Improved Palm Oil
Processing for Association Mills. JICA
326
Phenotypic Characterization of goats raised under traditional husbandry
systems in Bugesera and Nyagatare Districts of Rwanda
Manzi, M1*., Rutagwenda, T2. Kanuya N3 and Chatikobo, P4
I
Agricultural Research institute of Rwanda (ISAR), Nyagatare Research Station, B.P 84,
Eastern Province, Rwanda; Email:[email protected]; 2Rwanda Animal
Resources Development Authority (RARDA), B.P.804, Kigali, Rwanda; 3Sokoine
University of Agriculture, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary
Surgery & Theriogenology, P.O. Box 3020, Morogoro, Tanzania; 4Umutara Polytechnic
University P.0. Box 57 Nyagatare, Rwanda; * Corresponding author
Key words: Rwanda, Goats, Indigenous, Phenotypic characterization
Abstract
Phenotypic characterization is a simple, non-invasive, inexpensive technology that can be
utilized in mapping out an inventory of characters peculiar to a group of animals. A
random sample of 487 non-descript village goats in Bugesera and Nyagatare were
characterized according to their phenotypic characteristics. Three age categories, based
on dentition, were examined: milk, young, and adults. Parameters assessed included face,
back, and rump profiles, presence of beards and toggles,,tail, and ear lengths, coat color
and pattern, presence of horns, live weight, heart girth, wither height, body and back
lengths. Overall, 77.2% of goats sampled had a flat face while 22.8% had concave faces.
More than ninety eight percent (98.4%) had flat backs with 1.6% having a hollow back.
All the goats in the study had a sloping rump. Only 6% had beards. About fourteen
percent (13.5%) had toggles averaging 3.4 cm in length. Average horn length varied from
4.3± 0.2 cm in the milk category to 8.0 ±-0.1 cm in the mature goats. Horn diameter
varied from 3.3 +/0. cm in the kids to 8.6 +/-0.2 cm in adults respectively. The mean tail
length ranged from 9.6(+/-0.1 to 12.0 +/-0.1 cm for the same age categories as above.
Average mean ear length ranged from 10.3 (+/-0.1) to 11.5(+/-0.09) (milk-adults). There
was no significant difference (P > 0.05) from one dentition category to another. The
predominant coat color was the uniform multi-colored coat pattern. The mean live weight
(kgs) recorded were 13.1 (+/-3.3) (kids), 25.5 (+/-0.7) (young), and 33.3 (+/-0.5) (mature
goats). Mean heart girth (cm) recorded was 54.4 (+/-0.5) (Milk), 67.0 (+/-0.5) (Young),
and 74.0 (+/-0.4) (mature goats). Our results show that goats in the study are
predominantly not the East African Small type, but rather, are an improvement from the
typical East African Small. Implications of the present findings on goat breeding and
productivity in Rwanda are discussed.
Background and Justification
In Rwanda, it has been estimated that there are approximately 1,379,895 goats in
the country (12). Goats are a very valuable genetic resource that is suited for low-input
agricultural production systems. They require low inputs and are easy to manage, making
them suitable for the resource poor rural households (1). The abilities to reduce their
metabolism, efficiently use water, minimize nitrogen requirements, and efficiently digest
high-fiber forage are among the desired adaptive features of goats (7, 19, 14, 11). These
characteristics enable them to continue providing milk and meat even when cattle have
succumbed to drought (16). On account of their adaptability, goats can survive on woody
browses and infrequent watering during droughts, and after drought, their high
reproductive rate and short generation interval enable their owners to recover quickly and
327
economically (9, 15). Other valuable attributes of goats include provision of food (9), fibre
(18), income generation (18), and creation of employment (9), for poor rural families,
especially women and children. They can be sold to attain immediate cash assets for poor
goat holders, helping them improve livestock and crop farming and financing social events
(14). Last but not least, the value of goats for the use of the vast areas of natural
mountainous and hilly regions where crop production is less practicable should not be
overlooked (9).
Despite their multiple roles and economic importance, information collected by the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations indicates that
approximately 30% of the world’s farm animal breeds inclusive of goats are at risk of
extinction (FAO, 1999). The major threat has come from animal breeding practices that
have emphasized productivity and specialization, and by so doing, promoted prevalence of
a relatively small number of breeds at the expense of locally adapted, but less productive
native breeds. Unfortunately, once animal genetic diversity has been lost, it cannot be
replaced. Unlike breeds from temperate regions, most of the available goat genetic
resources in Rwanda have undergone natural selection (8,6). As a result, the reproduction
performance and production of most tropical goat breeds are both low. To improve this
situation, native goats should be selected for their abilities to produce and reproduce
efficiently and survive in the environments in which they are kept (3). Breed
characterization should thus be prioritized, if we are to select superior animals.
Characterization means the distillation of all knowledge which contributes to the
reliable prediction of genetic performance of an animal genetic resource in a defined
environment and provides a basis for distinguishing between different animal genetic
resources and for assessing available diversity. It thus includes a clear definition of the
genetic attributes of an animal genetic resource and the environments to which it is
adapted or known to be partially or not adapted to at all. It also include the population size
of the animal genetic resource, its physical description, adaptations, uses, prevalent
breeding systems, population trends, predominant production systems, description of
environment in which it is predominantly found, indications of performance levels (milk,
meat, growth, reproduction, egg, fibre, traction etc.), genetic parameters of the
performance traits and information on genetic distinctiveness of the animal genetic
resource and its evolutionary relationship with other genetic resources in the species (8, 6)
Phenotypic breed characterization is an essential, initial step in breed identification
(4). However, very little effort has been made towards characterization of indigenous goat
breeds in Rwanda. The lack of information on characterization of a genetic resource may
lead to the underutilization of that resource, its replacement, and dilution through
crossbreeding despite their local adaptation to prevailing environmental constraints.
Therefore, assessment of genetic variability in domestic animals is an important issue to
preserve genetic resources and maintain future breeding options in order to satisfy the
demands of changeable markets (10). Unplanned and indiscriminate breeding among
native stocks is directly or indirectly responsible for the dilution of Rwandan livestock
germplasm. Hence, identification and characterization of the goat breeds in Rwanda is a
must to identify our genetic resources and also to prioritize breeds for conservation.
Characterization of animal genetic resources promotes continuing use and
conservation of indigenous livestock, which are usually more productive than exotics
under low levels of input. Given that most of the goats in Rwanda are in the resource-poor
rural households, promotion of breeds that thrive under low input systems is envisaged to
result in increased farmers’ incomes and food security. Presently, Rwanda does not have a
complete inventory of the indigenous goat breed resources nor a basic description of many
of the current species. It is therefore important to obtain an inventory of domestic animal
328
genetic resources in general and goats in particular, and to characterize these resources at
the phenotypic and genotypic levels. In this endeavor, physical or morphological
characteristics can be particularly useful in the classification of populations, strains, or
breeds within a species (21). The objective of this study was therefore, to make an
inventory of phenotypic characteristics of and genetic diversity among indigenous goat
breeds in Nyagatare and Bugesera districts of Rwanda. The information so generated will
be used in determining their relationships which may thereafter be useful as potential
predictors of performance traits.
Material and Methods
Sites of study
The two site chosen for characterization exercise were Tabagwe and Kamabuye
sectors in Nyagatare and Bugesera districts respectively because these sectors are known
for keeping purely indigenous breeds. The type of climate experienced in both sites is
equatorial and are found in the low altitude zones of the Eastern and South-Eastern parts
of the country respectively. The approximate distance between the two districts is 261 km.
The study area is located 30’ 300– 300 25’ East and 20 05’- 20 30’ South and an altitude of
1400 m a.s.l with average temperature 25o C in wet season and 30o C in dry season and
relative humidity of 74% . The rainfall received is a moderate bimodal, fairly well
distributed within the year, with the short rains (Season A) falling between September and
December, while, the long rains extends from March through May (Season B).
The most popular goat production system is semi-intensive where tethering the
goats close to the homesteads or some take them to graze freely in communal areas
beginning at about 9.00am to mid day, then they are brought home and either kept in
sheds/pens or tethered on pegs and they are supplied with twigs, banana leaves, peels,
potato vines, leaves etc. till at about 4.00pm. They are normally taken back to the grazing
area, where they are tethered till 6.30 to 7.00pm. Banana leaves and pseudo-stems are cut
and fed to the animals in the sheds at resting time at mid day when the ambient
temperatures are high outside. Supplementation with agro-industrial by-products and other
sources of supplements is rather uncommon within the farming systems. The local goats
have been adapted to the environment and bear tremendous resistance to a good number of
diseases prevalent in the region. Common diseases in the area include helminthiasis and
contagious pustular dermatitis. Generally disease control is done on an ad hoc basis. The
lack of effective disease control measures has been attributed to inefficient veterinary
services and lack of awareness by farmers who rely on use of indigenous technical
knowledge. Few farmers keep bucks for breeding. Normally nearly all born male kids are
castrated when less than three month of age for improved meat quality. As a result, the
farmer keeping a buck, whenever, other farmers bring does for mating they pay for that
service and the price varies between 0.4– 0.6 US dollars
Data collection
Data on a random sample of 238 and 249 goats was collected from Nyagatare and
Bugesera districts respectively. The goats were categorized by dentition ranging from
young animals with no permanently ruptured teeth (milk teeth) to those with four pairs
permanently ruptured teeth (Full Dentition). This is because farmers seldom keep birth
records, so to determine various stages of growth, dentition was found to be the most
appropriate. Goats without any permanently ruptured teeth were classified as milk goats
while those with one or two permanently ruptured teeth were grouped together and
referred to as young and those with three or four permanently ruptured teeth were
considered as the mature category. All goats were weighted using a spring balance after
329
ascertaining their dentition. Measurements were recorded using a tape measure in cm.
These included; heart girth, wither height, body length and back length from the base of
the neck to the root of the tail. Tail, ear type and their lengths were also recorded. Horn
orientation, its length, and diameter at the base were also noted. Presence of toggles, their
length and if single which side they occur was also recorded.
Data Analysis
Data was analyzed with SAS using the general linear models. ANOVA for live
weight and linear measurements was carried out to determine the fixed effects of dentition,
coat color, origin, and their interactions. Least square means were computed for all the
tested factors. Coefficients of correlation between the measured parameters were
computed for the various dentition categories in Nyagatare and Bugesera districts to
determine linear associations. Stepwise regression models of body weight as the
dependent variable with linear measurements as the independent variables for milk, young
and mature categories of goats in both districts was determined. This was done to find the
most suitable models showing relationships between live weight and linear measurement
of heart girth, withers height, back length, and body length for various dentition
categories. Proportion of live weight to heart girth, withers height, back length, and body
length was calculated for the various dentition categories to determine the trends of these
associations. Other linear proportion that was considered were heart girth with withers
height and back length for various dentition groups.
Results
Three age categories (based on dentition) were examined: milk, young, and adults.
Parameter assessed included face, back, and rump profiles, presence of beards and
toggles, horn, tail, and ear lengths, coat color and pattern, presence of horns, live weight,
heart girth, wither height, body and back lengths. The predominant coat color was the
uniform multi-colored coat pattern. Overall, 77.2% of goats sampled had a flat face while
22.8% had concave faces. More than ninety eight percent (98.4%) had flat backs with
1.6% having a hollow back. All the goats in the study had a sloping rump. Only 6 % had
beards. About fourteen percent (13.5%) had toggles averaging 3.4 cm in length.
Polledness was observed in 8.9 % and 4% of goats in Nyagatare and Bugesera districts,
respectively. The horn length and diameter varied from 3.4 cm to 8.8 cm and 4.3 cm to 8.3
cm respectively from milk to mature groups. Average horn length varied from 4.3(+/- 0.2)
in the milk category to 8.0 (+/-0.1) in the mature goats. Horn diameter varied from 3.3
(+/0.1) cm in the kids to 8.6 (±0.2) in adults respectively. Fifty one percent (51%) of the
horns shape was straight and the orientation of 67.9% being backwards. The mean tail
length ranged from 9.6 (+/-0.1) to 12.0 (+/-0.1) for the same age categories as above. Tail
length did not differ with age category. Average mean ear length ranged from 10.3 (+/-0.1)
to 11.5(+/-0.09) (milk-adults). There was significant difference (P< 0.05) in ear length
from one dentition category to another. The mean live weight (kgs) recorded were 13.1
(+/-3.3) (kids), 25.5 (+/-0.7) (Young), and 33.3 (+/-0.5) (mature goats). Goats with
black/brown coat coloration were the heaviest followed by black/white and uniform black
(Table 2). Heart girth increased as dentition category increased but the difference between
consecutive categories reduced progressively. Mean heart girth (cm) recorded was 54.4
(+/-0.5) (Milk), 67.0 (+/-0.5) (Young), and 74.0 (+/-0.4) (mature goats). A similar trend
was observed for wither height, back length and body length. Just like weight,
black/brown goats had larger linear measurements. Within the dentition groups the
proportion of live weight to linear measurements (heart girth, wither height, body length
and back length reduces progressively (Table 1). Live weight was significantly correlated
330
with heart girth (P < 0.01). There was strong indication that heart girth is a good predictor
for live weight as it appears in all dentition categories.
Table 1. Linear measurement and live weight for the different age-groups of goats in
Nyagatare and Bugesera Districts, Rwanda.
Dentition Weight
(Kg)
Milk
Young
Mature
13.1±
0.3
25.5
± 0.7
33.3
± 0.5
Heart
Girth
(cm)
54.4
± 0.5
67
±0.5
74
± 0.4
Wither Body
Back
height Length length
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
49.3
46
44.1
±0.5
±0.5
± 0.4
59.6
57
55.3
± 0.4
± 0.5
± 0.4
63.1
62
59.2
± 0.4
± 0.3
± 0.3
Tail
length
(cm)
9.6
± 0.1
11.1
± 0.12
12
± 0.10
Ear
length
(cm)
10.3
± 0.1
11
± 0.1
11.5
± 0.09
Horn
Horn
Toggle
length diameter length
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
3.3
4.3
3.3
± 0.15
± 0.2
± 0.3
6.7
6.8
3.36
± 0.1
± 0.1
± 0.17
8.6
8
3.7
± 0.2
± 0.1
± 0.2
Table 2. Live weight and linear measurements of the different colors of Goats in
Bugesera and Nyagatare Sectors (mean + SE of mean)
Coats Color
Live weight
Heart Girth
Back Length
66.20 ± 0.74
66.07± 0.78
65.30 ± 3.05
69.40 ±1.62
62.00±2.77
61.56± 2.57
Wither
Height
57.81± 0.59
58.03± 0.60
55.60 ± 2.73
59.80± 1.37
55.11± 2.16
55.40 ±1.70
53.49± 0.60
53.25± 0.64
52.90± 2.10
55.57± 1.20
49.78 ±2.48
52.52± 2.10
Body
length
55.42± 63
55.12± 0.67
53.50± 2.51
57.33± 1.41
54.67± 3.11
54.04± 2.21
Black
Black/white
Brown
Black/ Brown
White
Ikivuzo (mixes of
black and white)
Black/Ikivuzo
25.22 ± 0.73
25.32± 0.91
21.50± 2.99
28.28± 1.70
21.00±2.60
21.64 ±2.20
24.72±1.97
65.85± 2.28
58.63± 1.98
54.26 ± 2.14
55.93±2.23
Discussion
The World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity [WWL-DAD] prepared by
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 1993, and which
has since been revised two times (1995 and 2000), has defined a breed as: either a
homogenous, sub-specific group of domestic livestock with definable and identifiable
external characteristics that enable it to be separated by visual appraisal from other
similarly defined groups within the same species, or a homogenous group for which
geographical separation from phenotypically similar groups has led to general acceptance
of its separate identity. The colour ranges recorded in this study is in line with other
observations on East African Goats, which is described as ranging from pure white to pure
black with various intermixes of roan and speckled brown (20). However, horn length in
the pure East African goats is reported to range from 2.5-20 cm in length(20) whereas our
findings were that horn length ranged from 4-8 cm. Our findings showed great variation in
all characteristics studied in relation to those of known breeds hence little could be said
about the breeds under study. However, while little is known about the actual breeds of
goats in these study sites, differences in their horn shapes indicate that two or more breeds
could have been present.
Based on coloration, and all other phenotypic characteristics studied, it appears all
the indigenous goats under study belong to the Small East African goat type. ‘Indigenous
goat’ is the collective term used for all varieties of native East Africa goat breeds.
331
However, it is almost impossible to classify a group of goats into different populations
using phenotypic characters commonly used to describe goat breeds (coat colour, horns,
physical body measurements and productive traits) (2), because there is considerable
variability within and among the populations. As a result, it is difficult to combine
different characters in order to have a useful tool for assigning individuals to their source
populations. Elsewhere, attempts have been made to assign specific breed names
according to the geographical areas in which they occur, or the names of breeds and types
were taken over from the nations or tribes that own them (8). However, this classification
system does not accommodate thousands of indigenous goats found outside these specific
locations, hence it has not been well accepted.
Discrimination among individuals is essential for effective and proper management
of livestock breeds for conservation, especially for Rwandese breeds which are not
adequately characterized even at phenotypic level and have no pedigree information. To
overcome this, microsatellites can be used to determine the genetic differences between
closely related goat populations thereby paving the way for assignment of anonymous
individuals to their source populations. Though no definite breeds were identified,
phenotypic characterization is an essential, initial step in breed identification, which
should be followed by in-depth genetic characterization of indigenous goat breeds. A lack
of information on genetic resource characteristics may lead to the underutilization,
replacement, and dilution through crossbreeding of local goat breeds, despite their local
adaptation to environmental constraints.
The presence of toggles in 13.5% of the goats studied contrasts with observations
of (17) who recorded toggle presence of between 68% and 98% in Spanish goats.
Polledness was observed in 8.9% and 4% of goats in Nyagatare and Bugesera districts,
respectively. The low prevalence of Polledness can be explained by the fact that the hop
allele which is present in both sexes determines the presence of horns and is dominant
over the Ho+ which when homozygous, determines the presence of horns in both male and
females (17). The Hop+ allele is generally therefore, of low frequency in East African
goats.
Overall, present findings indicate that the indigenous goats of Rwanda vary in horn
and coat types, colour, ear length, and size, and are mostly of medium size. Variation in
size between goat types is attributable to environmental extremes. Nevertheless, the local
breeds of goats are well adapted to their varied natural environments. This might have
influenced the phenotypic characteristics observed herein. Similar observations were
reported (13) in Botswana. Heart girth increased as dentition category increased but the
difference between consecutive categories reduced progressively. This was the same for
wither height, back length and body length (Table 1). The mean live weights and linear
measurements for various coat colors observed (Table 2), shows that goats with
black/brown coat coloration were the heaviest followed by black/white and uniform black.
Black/brown goats, similarly exhibited larger linear measurements. When we consider live
weight as a proportion of linear measurements we find that for all the linear measurements
the proportions reduce as the age of goats increases for each measurement. This could be
due to morphological changes as result of tissue accumulation relative to linear growth as
the animal gets older.
It was also observed that within the dentition groups the proportion of live weight
to heart girth, wither height, body length, and back length reduces progressively. However,
when we consider wither height as proportion of heart girth measurements, constant
proportions for all dentition categories for heart girth with wither height and back length
are observed. This indicates that there is a proportionate increase of linear measurements
as the goats’ age. As has been observed by various authors live weight associates
332
significantly (P<0.01) with heart girth and therefore heart girth could be a reliable
indicator for live weight, particularly in circumstances where a weighing balance is
unavailable. The association reduces as the animals get older. Similar trends are also
observed for other linear measurements exhibiting stronger association. These
observations are in agreement with those of (20).
Conclusion
Goats from the two regions of Rwanda differ in various linear measurements and
live weights. Thus there is need to plan to harmonize the classification criteria such that
the various strains, landraces and breeds of goats can clearly be identified to plan for an
appropriate selection, methodology leading to improvement and thereafter conservation of
some of these unique indigenous genetic materials. The characterization exercise forms
the beginning of identifying the different heterogeneous goat strains located in the various
localities nationwide that constitute previously uncharacterized populations.
Acknowledgement
Sincere appreciation is extended to the ISAR who provided the necessary
facilitation, Special regards also go to executive Secretaries of Tabagwe and Kamabuye
sectors.
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334
Trends in Earthen Construction for Rural Shelter in Zimbabwe: The
case of Tsholotsho in Matabeleland North Province
1
Lookout B Ndlovu1 and Sampson Ik Umenne2
Civil and Water Engineering, National University of Science and Technology (NUST), P O Box AC 939,
Ascot, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe; E-mail:[email protected] or [email protected]; 2 Faculty of the Built
Environment (FOBE), NUST , P O Box AC 939, Ascot, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe; E-mail: [email protected]
or [email protected]
Key Words: Durability, earthen construction, rural housing, appropriate technology, sustainability
Abstract
Historically, earth and other local materials have been in dominant use in construction for
both rural and urban housing in Zimbabwe. The Matabeleland Provinces in the Southern
part of Zimbabwe are no exceptions. With advances in technology and noticeable
improvement in living standards, people popularly tend towards a set of building
materials, albeit for the purpose of securing more durability and modernity. However, the
adequacy and effectiveness of these materials, in terms of affordability and sustainability
in rural housing remains below expectations. The use of non-traditional materials is
prevalent and the provision of affordable housing is still a major challenge in rural
Zimbabwe.
This paper seeks to examine the trends in earthen construction, for housing in the
Matabeleland region and specifically, Tsholotsho. It also seeks to explore the potentials
for improved, affordable and sustainable earthen construction for shelter housing in
Zimbabwe. Alongside, the paper addresses some of the inherent psychological factors
militating against the promotion of earthen construction in general.
Introduction
In the history of human settlement development, communities have largely been
concerned with locally available materials and their appropriateness to the climatic
conditions and other threats. Thus shelter has evolved from olden day caves to the modern
structures we have today, where the use, comfort, social customs, convenience and status
are some of the factors that influence the choice of materials and construction techniques.
Traditional building materials in rural Zimbabwe include adobe, timber, stone,
thatch and other related locally available materials. However these are used with little or
no scientific input, leading to their faster deterioration. Hence the shift from these
appropriate building materials to the non-traditional materials. The communities desire to
construct durable structures and reduce maintenance. Notably, these materials except clay
bricks are ‘imported’, and their prices are beyond the reach of many. Their manufacturing
processes and transportation consumes lots of energy. Further more environmental
concerns inform the reduction of materials like timber and fired brick as deforestation in
the district has risen to alarming levels. Thus the use of non-traditional materials such as
steel, cement, plastic floor tiles, aluminium roofing sheets, etc easily proved inadequate. A
study carried out in South Africa showed that traditional construction materials and
methods were more cost effective than the conventional [3]. Despite these factors, the
335
popularity of non-traditional building materials continues to grow in Zimbabwe, thus
enhancing the ability of families to develop and own houses. Almost everyone sufficiently
eligible to own a house is a victim of this negative trend. This paper embodies the outcome
of a research carried out in Matabeleland to identify trends in earthen construction with
focus on the promotion of sustainable earthen construction. The objectives of the research
are essentially to promote earthen materials in rural housing and to investigate the aspects
of further exploitation of the potentials of earthen construction in Tsholotsho District.
Recently, earthen construction has gained some recognition in the first world,
where various scientific mechanisms are being applied in an effort to improve its
durability, aesthetics and cost effectiveness. Regionally, there are research efforts
underway in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe to establish a framework for
developing performance-based codes. The use of performance-based codes would
certainly preserve earthen building materials and methods in Southern Africa [3]. Ngowi
[7] has also done some work on improving the traditional earth construction in Botswana.
In South Africa, research on earthen construction dates back to 1950. Currently research is
being undertaken on the subject by the University of the Free State (Bloemfontein), by the
Peninsula Technikon (Bellville) and the Namibian Clay House Project (Windhoek and
Otjiwarongo, Namibia). The University of the Witwatersrand and Hydraform Africa have
achieved reasonable success in the use of earth and waste materials such as the ‘sludge’
precipitated at the water treatment plants for the production of masonry elements [6]. In
2003 the International Centre for Science and Technology an institution within the
framework of the United Nations Development Organization (ICS-UNIDO) initiated a
project on strengthening the capacity of Mozambique in the production of cost-effective
building materials based on local clay resources.
In Zimbabwe, the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre
(SIRDC) through its Building Technology Institute (BTI) has perfected and promoted
rammed earth Technology in Zimbabwe. BTI built rammed earth structures at their
premises (1997), in Insiza district (2003), and in Mutoko (2003) and launched a National
Pilot Project with the Ministry of Science and Technology. BTI in conjunction with the
Standard Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ) also developed standards for rammed earth
construction. SIRDC and Practical Action worked on the promotion of stabilized soil
blocks as well. In another initiative sponsored by the Department for International
Development (DIFD), BTI identified Kalahari sand, river sand and cement as potential
materials for stabilized soil brick production for blair latrine construction in Tsholotsho
and Lupane Districts where the geological formations are the predominantly unstable
Kalahari sands [8]. These are some attempts to promote sustainable use of earthen
construction in Zimbabwe.
Although much has been done in the development of earthen construction technology
locally and internationally, the innovative earthen materials ideal to ease shelter problem
have remained largely unimplemented as a result of a number of challenges. These include
but not limited to stigma and perception, social status, psychological mindset, poor
marketing of earthen products, ineffective dissemination of research results and the gap
between supply and demand. It is therefore vital to address these challenges, which have
affected the promotion of earthen materials in Zimbabwe.
Features and Retrospective Issues of Study Area
The study was carried out in Tsholotsho District in the Matabeleland North
Province. The District is administratively divided into 20 Wards, and each Ward into six
Villages (Fig.1).
336
Fig. 1. Location of study area showing the subdivisions of the Wards
The housing situation in Tsholotsho is below acceptable standards for a contemporary
rural community. The province has poverty levels averaging 81.1% [2]. It is a general a
generally drought prone area. Settlement patterns in Tsholotsho are generally linear or
clustered. Generally, the settlement is divided into residential, arable and grazing blocks.
A homestead in the District normally consists of an area made up of 4-8 shelter units.
These units include: separate main house for the parents/family head, girls’ house, boys’
house, other relatives’ houses as well as the kitchen. Normally, new units are erected as
the need arises. The need factors include: family expansion and rebuilding old dilapidated
units. Granaries for storing maize and other grains are built closer to the kitchen. A typical
homestead in Tsholotsho is shown in Fig.2.
In history, shelter construction can be traced to the eighteenth century when the
Ndebele settled into the area, now western Zimbabwe. They migrated after they broke
away from the Zulus and headed north from South Africa. The original dwelling type was
the Zulu bee hive structure with no distinction between the wall and the roof (Fig.2).
Fig. 2. Typical homestead
[4]
Fig. 3. Traditional bees hive housing. Source
By evolution in time, the houses acquired the form with distinct separation between the
walls and roof. Walls are made of straight poles with mud infills. These materials soon
gave way to sun-dried bricks (adobe) and hand made in-situ bricks (cob). Figure 4.
indicates the separation of walls and roof. Colourful clays are then used on both walls to
give a unique decorative finish. These three earthen construction methods co-exist even
today. Thatching using grass was, and is still the dominant roofing material. In earthen
walls, the roof is supported by a central wooden post and a ring of poles (columns). The
crossbeam technique was introduced by the Europeans around 1930. Here, a ring of poles
337
with connecting horizontal poles at the top replaces the central structural support system as
illustrated in Figure 5. This technique was later adopted in the modern building methods
and marks a remarkable deviation from the traditional method.
Fig 4. Roof supported by the walls
Fig 5. Cross beam technique of supports
In Tsholotsho where there was a high degree of social cohesion and housing construction,
the act of shelter building was a major community event in which all able bodied men and
women participated [5]. The actual construction work was a culmination of several weeks
of assembling of the materials, etc and preparation of the building site. At the end the
participants were treated to food and local beer party. This enhanced the continuity of
indigenous knowledge in traditional building practices and environmental conservation.
Earthen Construction Practices and the Factors of Change
Until the establishment of the Ministry of Rural Housing and Social Amenities in
2005, there was no Government arm that dealt specifically with rural housing. Although
this development is commendable, it is worrying some that the schedule of materials for
their model homestead specifies non-traditional materials. Initiatives from other
organisations like the Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have been restricted to
relief and disaster management projects with none addressing the issue of earthen
construction materials in their housing programmes. Earthen construction in rural areas is
not regulated by any codes, standards or building by laws. The absence of bye-laws and
standards has led to a range of sizes of plots, building heights, spaces, material
specifications, etc. On the other hand, it encourages creativity and diversity in earthen
construction.
There are environmental, geographic, social, cultural and economic factors that
influence the design and construction of rural houses and hence the trends in earthen
construction. In Tsholotsho, the choice of materials and techniques is attributed to the
following: climate, aesthetics, tradition, durability, cost, external influence, source of
procurement, government policy, income levels, agricultural practices, diversity of
geology etc.
Wall thicknesses vary depending on shelter type and adobe blocks. The walls rest
directly on the ground, as there are no formal foundations. Rectangular houses are now the
most common type because they can easily be partitioned. The circle is the prime shape
for kitchens. The superstructure was found to be of adobe, cob, and pole and dagga. Floors
were done by ramming in an appropriate quantity of earth after the removal of top soil.
This incremental beating of mud results in floors as durable as cement. Earthen floor
finishes are a product of an earthen mix and cow dung and are smoothed with the regularly
338
shaped coal blocks. In Tsholotsho high quality thatch roofing increases the life span of the
earthen walls.
There are no earthen roofs. As this is a generally dry area with an average rainfall between
400mm and 450mm per annum, the buildings have small overhangs. There is also no
evidence of longer overhangs on the windward side to protect walls from wind driven
rains, neither are there wind breakers nor buffers on the windward side.
Traditionally, the community has a good building maintenance culture. This is
done at least once a year during the dry season i.e. between April and October. Normally,
plastering, plinthing and re-roofing are the main tasks. Earthen plaster is normally applied
externally for waterproofing and internally for appearance and to even out the wall
surfaces. It is a common practice to retouch the plastering of the internal wall of granaries.
There are little or no extensions to the existing buildings save for internal partitioning.
Families either put new buildings or demolish existing ones to create space for a new
structure. Three Wards, namely 13, 18 and 20 were selected for case studies. The criteria
for their selection are: Ward 13 is a flood prone area; Ward 18 is one of the first areas to
be inhabited in this District; Ward 20 is a former commercial farming zone and now a
resettled area. In the Villages in the later Ward, save for Dhlula Villages were occupied
under the government fast track resettlement programme between 1998 and 2002. Dhlula
was set up by ex-farm workers when the previous owner moved out of the country in the
early eighties.
Ward 13 Villages
These are Villages along the Gwayi Riverbanks, the main river in the District. As
such, they are affected by floods due to the seasonal bursting of the riverbanks during
heavy rains. The most severe was the Cyclone Eline induced floods in 2000 and river
floods in 2001. Although flash floods occur anywhere in the district, villages in the Gwayi
River flood plain have been the most affected especially as was the case in 2005.
Floodwater destroys homes, household property, livestock and other important utilities,
which suffer extensive structural damage. When people have lost their homes to such
natural calamity, only local materials are available for reconstruction. Relief agencies
through the Civil Protection Unit (CPU) can only assist in rescuing operations, and
provision of relief labour and temporary shelter. In the ensuing scenario the victims have
to respond to the situation at a very short space of time using locally available materials
mainly in their raw state. Normally the fastest construction techniques are employed,
resulting in structures with low durability, unable to withstand the next seasonal floods.
Consequently, adobe, grass and wood remain the main building materials in the Ward.
Despite the frequency of floods in the area, the communities have not been pro-active in
developing technologies/strategies for post flood construction. Thus flooding, speed of
construction, availability of materials, external influence and rising incomes are the major
factors affecting the trends in earthen construction in this Ward.
Ward 18 Villages
The political situation before independence and the civil strife between 1980 and
1987 led to the slow rate of socio-economic development of this area. Driven out by
poverty, unequal opportunities and political unrest, economically active members of the
community trekked to South Africa and Botswana as refugees. The males (mainly
craftsmen) were more mobile during the civil disturbances. The resultant attrition of the
expert builders created unwanted gap in continuity of building culture and led to low
339
quality shelter construction outputs. Unfortunately, the migration trend has persisted with
negative impacts on continuity of sustainable building practices.
Today, Tsholotsho’s wealthy sons and daughters in diaspora especially in South
Africa give Ward 18 a comparative advantage in infrastructure development over
neighboring districts such as Lupane, Hwange and Bubi. Equally true is the rapid
disappearance of the local architectural milieu and building practices in favour of
diasporian practices in non-traditional materials. Consequently, foreign influence, higher
aspirations and rising incomes led to a revolutionary transformation of the architectural
landscape of this Ward. Today, more and more people find appealing the use of nontraditional materials and technology to the detriment of appropriate local materials.
However not all families have members who earn their livelihoods outside the country.
There are still a lot of people who are unemployed who channel their meager resources to
their housing needs. They hire out their labour locally for their livelihoods. Their success
is solely on fate and chance. This has led to the stratification of the communities in terms
of the haves and the have nots. These factors have brought negative trends in shelter
development using earthen construction technology. Regularly shaped adobe bricks are
the most common type of earthen materials in this area. Deforestation has led to reduced
use of pole and dagga. Due to the increasing distance to locations of colourful clays,
decorators are opting to use low quality mud and other materials.
In a bid to increase the durability, reduce frequent maintenance and improve
appearance, there has been an increased use of impervious/waterproof plasters on external
walls, cement mortar and plaster on floors and walls. Although this approach improves the
outlook, the plasters often delaminate within two years after application because of weak
bonding. This also justifies the use of non-traditional materials eg: cement mortar, for the
repairs of earthen structures. The tendency towards application of non-traditional materials
on earthen construction is a pertinent issue of concern requiring conserted research for
optimization.
Ward 20 Villages
The resettled farmers in this Ward were all originally from different communities
within the District. Local materials are available in abundance. However, owing to the
shortage of skilled builders, the output quality is poor. Besides, villagers walk up to 10km
to fetch water for building purposes. Therefore the scarcity of water contributes to the poor
quality of the earthen products. Thus the bricks soon exhibit cracks and other defects. In
addition, the high speed of construction affects the durability of the structures. The use of
pole and dagga has become the most common earthen construction method. Naturally, the
newly resettled farmers need to build many structures to establish their homesteads. These
include kraals, houses, perimeter walls and external works. Normally, developments in a
homestead are incremental. Building works are normally done during the period of May to
October. Except in some special circumstances, only family labour will be available in this
period as most households are preoccupied with their pressing commitments.
The prevalent building material used in the Ward is sun dried earth bricks. The
moulds are cut from disused five litre cooking oil containers. The pole and dagga
technique is not refined and produces irregularly shaped walls. Lack of adequate infill on
walls has lead to frequent maintenance as the infill falls away in rainy season. Floors in
this area are also earthen. Rendering and painting are practiced here but time constraints
have led to fewer houses being rendered.
340
Trends and Impacts
The desire to build shelter with less frequent maintenance has brought about
understandable paradigm shift in shelter construction amongst the communities. It has
certainly resulted in a changed architectural milieu. Foreign influence and sub-contracting
has brought about the weakening of strong family ties. Developments in earthen
technologies have resulted in a discernible level of expertise on traditional practices.
Arguably, this has improved family incomes and diversified source of their livelihoods.
However much of the familiar archi-forms are fast disappearing in the process. Although
burnt bricks are the prime choice at the moment and locally produced in the District, its
production entails the use of wood resulting in deforestation and environmental
degradation. In spite of the fact that cement stabilized earth blocks are growing in
popularity within the district, their rate of use is limited by the hyper inflationary state of
the economy and a very erratic supply of cement since 1997. High-pressure compaction
machines like the Cinva Ram and the Amandla Press have been promoted by BTI. The
dependence syndrome created by the NGOs has made it difficult for many families to
acquire these machines.
Government policy for shelter and infrastructure provision for rural communities
based on new concepts and materials has a further discouraging impact on the
communities who see their indigenous houses as inferior [7]. It further strengthens their
perception that traditional earthen houses do not qualify for modern life conditions. There
is therefore a need to urge the Ministry of Rural Housing and Social Amenities to reappraise the current rural housing policy with a view to popularizing innovative materials
and technologies.
Conclusion
On the strength of its affordability, abundance and availability, earthen materials
will continue to be of fundamental importance in rural housing and as one of the main
building materials for rural as well as urban communities in the near future, despite the
attendant social stigma and the apparent popularity of non-traditional materials. Naturally,
earthen houses provide an environment compatible with the life style, social, and cultural
values, economic and physical needs of the rural communities. Doubtless, earthen
materials remain the tested and true for human settlement development. From the
evaluation of the case studies, it is evident that geographic, physical and climatic
conditions in the district affect the layout and choice of earthen construction systems. The
prevailing conditions with regards to rising incomes, external influence, migration etc.,
have led to a high rate of social changes and consequently favour the use of non-traditional
building materials. Culture and tradition, natural disasters, database of traditional building
skills, poverty, speed of construction, availability of labour were the main reasons for
continued use of traditional earthen practices. In the cost analysis factor for earthen
construction, the procurement/hiring of compacting equipment and stabilizers should be
inclusive. As the cultural, physical, social and even psychological needs change with time,
earthen construction must be developed to move with them. Thus from the findings of this
research there is a valid case for promoting indigenous earthen dwellings through
improved and appropriate earthen construction techniques.
The communities of Tsholotsho and rural Zimbabwe in general should not abandon
locally available material, but new technologies must be designed to enhance their quality
and durability as sustainable technology is crucial for shelter delivery in Zimbabwe. This
341
will not only help in sustainable rural development but also have long-term positive
impact on the well being of rural Tsholotsho communities.
References
[1] C.S.O (1998). Poverty in Zimbabwe. CSO Publications. 1998.
[2] Kanyemba. J. (2004). Preserving Traditional Building materials and Construction
Methods by the use of Performance Based Building Codes. Proc of the Strategies
for a Sustainable Built Environment.
[3] Kuchena J. (2004). Appropriate low-cost building materials/construction
techniques. Proc of the First International Conference on Appropriate Technology.
Bulawayo.
[4] Mafico. C.J.C.(1991). Urban Low Income Housing in Zimbabwe. Averbury,
England.
[5] Morris J and Booysen Q . (2000) Earth construction in Africa. Proceedings of the
Strategies for a sustainable Built Environment Conference. Pretoria .
[6] Ngowi A. B. (1996). Bridging the gap between the modern and indigenous
construction technologies – A case study of Botswana. Botswana Journal of
Technology.
[7] Sithole H. and Jade D. (1999). Alternative building materials from Kalahari Sands
for Tsholotsho and Lupane Districts of Zimbabwe. Proceedings of the ICS
workshop on Material Selection and Design for low cost housing. Trieste, Italy.
[8] SIRDC. (2004). SIRDC takes initiatives in low cost building materials provision,
SIRDC Bulletin. www.sirdc.ac.zw/articles/mcrtiles.htm. Date accessed 02/09/05
[9] Toumbakari E. (2002).Lime-Pozzolan-Cement grouts and their structural effects
on
composite
masonry
walls.
http://bwk.kuleuven.be/materials/Publications/Ph%20D%20Theses/PhD_ET_2002.
pdf. Date accessed 15/06/08.
http://earthenconstruction.com/earth.htm Date accessed 14/06/08.
[10]
http://earthbuilding.org.nz Date accessed 12/05/08.
[11]
342
DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY CEREAL BASED COMPOSITE
FLOUR FOR NUTRITIONALLY VULNERABLE CHILDREN USING
LOCALLY AVAILABLE RAW MATERIAL
Mukantwali C1, Tiisekwa B2, Ndirigwe J3
Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda1 3, Sokoine University of Agriculture2
BP 138 Butare-Rwanda Tel. (250) 08445328. Fax (250)578768
E mail. [email protected]
Key words: Cereal based composite flour, Quality Protein maize, Soybean, Orange
fleshed sweet potatoes, nutritional composition
Abstract
Quality protein maize (QPM) based composite flour for nutritionally vulnerable groups
was developed using QPM, soybean and orange fleshed sweet potatoes (Caceapedo
variety). Single flours of QPM was prepared by soaking the grains into cold water at
ambient temperature for 24 hours, drained and then milled into flour using a conventional
milling machine. Soybean flour was prepared by roasting the grains and milling them
also using a conventional milling machine. Orange fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP) were
prepared by washing, peeling, cutting, soaking in sodium metabisulfite solution for three
hours and milling. Single flours were mixed in different proportions. Prepared gruels
using different composite flours with traditional methods were subjected to sensory
evaluation by 15 testing panellists. Panellists scored the gruels made with 55 g of QPM,
35g of soybean and 10g of OFSP as the more testing than other nine tested gruels. The
preferred composite flour and the red sorghum flour taken from Butare market were
subjected to nutritional analysis using ISAR chemistry laboratory for comparison. Results
showed that the protein concentrations were higher in the composite flour than in the
sorghum flour normally used for gruels preparation for young children.
The
concentrations were as follows Protein: 18.32mg/100g of flour; ash: 3.62mg/100g in
composite flour comparing to Protein: 6.25mg/100g and ash 1.85mg/100g sorghum flour.
Background
The term to wean means to accustom and it describes the process by which the infant
gradually becomes accustomed to the full adult diet. During the weaning period the young
child’s diet changes from milk alone to one based on the regular family meals. Milk
should be given as a supplement to the child for as long as possible [1]. Weaning is a
dangerous time for infants and young children. It is well known that there is higher rate of
infection particularly of diarrhoeal diseases during the weaning than any other period in
life [1]. This is because the diet changes from clean breast milk with certain anti-infective
factors to foods which are often prepared stored and fed in very unhygienic ways.
Malnutrition is more common during this transitional period than in the first six months of
life because families may not be aware of the special needs of the infant, may not know
how to prepare weaning foods from the foods that are available locally, or may be too poor
to provide sufficient nutritious foods. Often, the weaning foods for infants are of poor
nutritional value and unhygienically prepared and this often leads infection and
malnutrition. Today traditional child feeding habits that were reasonably satisfactory can
no longer be followed because of urbanization, new patterns of family structure higher
prices of foods and changes in the pattern of women’s work [1]. The need for weaning
food for some babies from six months to two years old is being met through commercially
343
produced weaning foods. These foods are normally excellent products and meet the
nutritional requirements of the infant. However the products marketed are expensive for
the target groups who need such product especially in poor communities in Rwanda. It is
therefore necessary to develop less costly but equally nutritious weaning foods that may be
within the reach of the target group. It is advised that the development of weaning foods
should utilize raw material based on locally available staple grains such as maize and other
cereals and legumes [2]. It is also advised that the technology for developing such foods
should not be sophisticated and should be highly adaptable. From the point of view of
children’s nutritional requirements, the weaning food mix should be nutritionally well
balanced in carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and essential minerals. It should be
precooked if possible so that it can be fed to babies as soft products by simple stirring in
hot or boiling water. The fiber content in the material should be low within permitted
limits. Traditional cereal foods play an important role in the African diet [3]. Attempts
have been made to improve the protein quality of many cereal based foods including ogi in
Nigeria, corn dough in Ghana, Kisra in Sudan and many others [3,4]. Supplementation of
legumes is one way of improving the protein quality of cereals diets. Most of the protein
enrichment of traditional foods has used soybean as source of protein. Another approach is
to develop high protein foods with physical and organoleptic characteristics similar to
those existing foods but based on readily available commodities and technology. The
current study aims at developing a Quality Protein Maize based composite flour for
nutritionally vulnerable groups.
Hypothesis
The QPM based weaning gruel is higher in nutrients density than the normal sorghum
based gruel from the market and is organoleptiqually acceptable.
Objectives
1. To develop a QPM based composite flour for weaning porridge enriched with
either soybean or high Fe and Zn bean
2. To determine the nutrients content of the composites flours
3. To assess the acceptability of the QPM based weaning gruels
Methodology
Materials
The materials used included QPM, high Zn and Fe bean, sorghum, soybean, and
orange fleshed sweet potatoes. They were newly produced raw materials from Institut des
Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR). We used pool 26 for QPM, Caccarpedo for
OFSP, CAB2 for bean and Peka 6 for soybean.
Preparation of QPM grain
In the first methods, grain maize was soaked in water at ambient temperature for (°
C) 24 hours after which water was drained. The grain was steamed for about 10 minutes
and then sun dried.
In the second method, the grain was soaked for about 24 hours, dried followed by
roasting sparingly in order to improve the taste and odor. The reason to use non roasted
maize was to see how the lysine lost during the roasting step may be minimized.
Preparation of high Zn and Fe bean
344
Beans were sorted, washed and then steamed for about 10 minutes. The steamed
beans were cooked for about 30 minutes in order to reduce antinutritional factors. Beans
were cooled and the skin removed using hands. The deskinned beans were then sun dried
and milled into flour using a normal commercial hammer mill at ISAR.
Preparation of germinated sorghum flour
Sorghum was soaked into water for about 2 days. It was then drained, washed and
put into a dark place for two days to germinate. The germinated grains were sun dried, and
then millet into flour.
Preparation of soybean flour
Soybean was sorted, washed, sun dried and roasted. All these steps were covered
for one day. The roasted soybean was then milled into flour.
Preparation of OFSP flour
Orange fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP) were prepared by washing, peeling, cutting,
soaking in sodium metabisulfite solution for three hours. The chips were then removed
from the solution, washed and sun dried. They were milled into flour.
All these steps were covered for one day.
The preparation of composite flour for weaning porridge
The simplest recipes for weaning foods are composed of only two ingredients. An
example is of cereals and roots mixed with legume and this is called basic mix. However
other foods must be added to make a complete meal [5]. Based on this principle, the
following square in Figure 1 was proposed by [1] and was used for the preparation of
different proportions of simple flours to be used in the mixtures.
Preparation of composite flours
Four composites flours types were prepared. The first formulations were
(composite flours I) was prepared by mixing roasted Quality Protein Maize , High Fe and
Zn bean flour, OFSP flour and germinated red sorghum flour.
Fig 1: Food square followed during the preparation of composite flours
A
The staple :
cereals, tubers,
I
roots
B
Protein food supplements:
all legumes and animal
foods
Breast milk
C
Vitamin C and mineral
supplement: fruits and
vegetables
D
Energy supplements:
fats, oil, sugars
Table 1 shows different proportions of the ingredients used in preparing composite flour I.
345
Table1: Proportions of ingredients used during the preparation of the gruels for
Composite flour I
Samples * codes
Maize roasted
Bean
OFSP
Germinated
(g)
(g)
(g)
sorghum (g)
923
85
10
0
5
886
75
15
5
5
779
65
20
10
5
766
55
25
15
5
745
45
30
20
5
445
35
35
25
5
567
25
40
30
5
351
15
45
35
5
614
5
50
40
5
Composite flour II was composed with a mixture of non roasted QPM, high Fe and Zn
bean, OFSP, and germinated red sorghum.
Table 2: Proportions of ingredients used during the sensory evaluation of the gruels
Samples codes Maize non roasted(g) Bean (g) OFSP(g)
Germinated sorghum (g)
852
85
10
0
5
735
75
15
5
5
652
65
20
10
5
544
55
25
15
5
432
45
30
20
5
378
35
35
25
5
298
25
40
30
5
427
15
45
35
5
356
5
50
40
5
Composite flour III was made with a mixture of roasted soybean, OFSP and germinated
red sorghum (Table3). Composite flour IV was composed with a mixture of non roasted
QPM, roasted soybean, OFSP and germinated red sorghum. Table 4 shows different
proportions used during the sensory evaluation test of the gruels.
Table3: Proportions of ingredients used for the preparation of the gruels for
composite flour III
Samples codes Maize non roasted(g) Soybean(g) OFSP(g)
891
85
10
0
5
224
75
15
5
5
390
65
20
10
5
135
55
25
15
5
265
45
30
20
5
589
35
35
25
5
754
25
40
30
5
537
15
45
35
5
491
5
50
40
5
10
25
20
50
5
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Table 4: Proportions of ingredients used during the sensory evaluation of the gruels
Samples codes Maize roasted(g) Soybean(g) OFSP(g)
662
85
10
0
5
859
75
15
5
5
922
65
20
10
5
864
55
25
15
5
591
45
30
20
5
246
35
35
25
5
100
25
40
30
5
340
15
45
35
5
230
5
50
40
5
Preparation of gruels
All the ingredients used in a gruel sample were hand mixed together in the
mentioned proportions. The gruels were prepared using the traditional methods of mixing
cold water with the flour, putting on the electrical oven and cooking while stirring until the
gruel is ready to be tested.
Sensory evaluation
Sensory evaluation was done when the gruel attained the normal temperature at
which it is normally consumed at household level. Gruel in identical glass bowls were
coded in three digit numbers for the presentation to 13 trained panelists (a mixture of boys
and girls) of ISAR. They were given distilled water in colorless glasses to clear the palate.
Panelists were asked to taste the foods and indicate how acceptable the foods were using 5
point hedonic scale. The hedonic scale used for samples scoring according to the panelists
preferences was as follows: 0= very poor, 1= poor, 2= passable, 3= good; 4= very good;
5= excellent. The sensory attributes evaluated were color, aroma, taste, texture and overall
acceptability.
Data were subject to one way analysis of variance using MSTAT C, and a difference
was considered to be significant at P<0.05 according to[ 6].
The following tables 5, 6, 7, and 8 show the panelists results of different formulations.
Table 5: Mean scores of the sensory attributes for the nine different gruels made with
non roasted, QPM, high Fe and Zn Bean, OFSP and germinated red sorghum
Samples codes
color
Texture Aroma Taste
Viscosity
Overall acceptability
852
2.615
2.615
2.538
2.615
2.769
2.885
735
2.846
2.385
2.615
2.654
2.538
2.769
652
2.615
2.577
2.615
2.808
2.538
2.692
544
2.615
2.308
3.000
2.462
2.538
2.615
432
2.846
3.007
3.077
3.077
2.538
3.308
378
2.538
2.923
2.92
3.000
2.927
3.077
298
2.769
2.846
2.69
2.615
3.077
2.769
427
2.591
2.427
2.77
2.538
2.923
2.769
356
2.538
2.538
2.538
2.462
2.846
2.462
CV %
24.15
30.57
30.32
28.50
30.69
27.13
LSD (5%)
0.506
0.632
0.650
0.599
0.656
0.595
347
The above nine formulations were not significantly different for all parameters.
Since the overall acceptability parameter is scored after the panelist has considered all the
other parameters, and since the formulations are QPM based, the relatively high scored
formulation (3.308) under overall acceptability was kept as the one for further analysis.
That formulation is a mixture of 55 g of roasted QPM, 25 g of high Fe and Zn bean flour,
15 g of yellow cassava flour and 5 g of germinated sorghum. The time for cooking for this
formula was estimated at 5 minutes using a kitchen oven with minimum of 800 ml of hot
water.
Table 6: Mean scores of the sensory attributes for the nine different gruels made
with roasted, QPM, bean, OFSP and red sorghum flours
Samples Codes
Color Texture Aroma
Taste
Viscosity Overall
acceptability
923
2.846
2.923a
3.000
2.846a
2.646
3.000
886
2.692
2.538a
2.615
2.462ab
2.923
2.841
779
2.846
2.846a
2.615
2.846a
2.615
2.923
766
2.923
2.923a
3.000
2.615a
2.462
2.574
745
3.154
1.846b
2.615
2.923a
3.077
2.910
445
3.077
1.923b
2.462
2.615a
3.000
3.080
567
2.923
1.715b
2.308
2.692a
3.231
2.225
351
2.538
1.684b
2.077
1.923ab
2.846
2.000
614
2.231
1.542b
1.826
1.615b
2.077
2.462
CV %
26.60
24.70
31.21
33.91
34.18
27.00
LSD (5%)
0.581
0.508
0.629
0.661
0.730
0.560
The formulations were statistically significant different in texture and taste
(P<0.05). Thus the most acceptable formulation was a mixture of flours with 55 g of
roasted QPM, 25 g of bean, 15 g of OFSP and 5 g of germinated sorghum. The cooking
time for this formulation was estimated at 5 minutes using a kitchen oven with minimum
of 600 ml of hot water.
with non roasted QPM, soybean, OFSP and Sorghum flours
Samples codes Color
Texture Aroma Taste
Viscosity
Overall
acceptability
891
2.846
2.731
3.192
3.000a
2.308
3.000
224
2.692
2.654
2.923
2.808ab
2.462
2.771
390
2.846
2.846
2.923
3.115a
2.769
2.923
135
2.923
2.846
2.885
2.654ab
2.615
2.910
265
2.846
2.077
2.538
2.231ab
2.462
2.412
589
2.808
2.769
2.615
2.369ab
2.538
2.790
754
2.538
3.000
2.846
3.038a
4.000
3.052
537
2.462
2.692
2.308
2.154ab
2.462
3.000
491
2.462
2.500
2.385
2.385ab
2.154
2.531
CV %
22.04
28.57
31.05
32.77
66.57
26.23
LSD (5%)
0.466
0.596
0.668
0.683
1.369
0.520
Overall acceptability of gruels in the above table was statistically similar for all
nine formulations. However, for the taste, the formulation made from a mixture with 35 g
348
of non roasted QPM, 25 g of roasted soybean, 15 g of OFSP and 5 g of germinated
sorghum scored high comparing to other formulations with minimum cooking time of 7
minutes and 700 ml of cooking water. This formulation was kept for further analysis.
from roasted, QPM, soybean, OFSP and sorghum flours
Samples
color
Texture
Aroma
Taste Viscosity
Overall
acceptability
662
3.462a
2.769ab
2.962a
3.000
3.154
3.000a
859
3.231a
3.385a
3.154a
3.462
3.192
3.308a
922
2.731ab
2.769ab
2.923a
3.000
2.769
2.923a
864
2.808ab
3.038a
2.269b
3.423
3.000
3.192a
591
3.077a
2.923a
3.000a
3.262
3.308
3.195a
246
3.077a
2.538ab
2.538b
3.615
3.077
2.615ab
100
2.462ab
2.385ab
2.231b
2.692
2.538
2.577ab
340
2.577ab
2.615ab
2.769a
2.462
2.669
2.692ab
230
2.423ab
2.385ab
2.385b
2.462
2.231
2.385ab
CV %
24.77
28.25
26.64
29.33
39.03
23.68
LSD (5%)
0.554
0.606
0.581
0.673
0.862
0.530
Results in Table 8, show that the parameters taste, aroma, color and texture for the
formulation made with 55 g of roasted maize, 25 g of roasted soybean, 15 g of yellow
cassava and 5 g of germinated sorghum was the most appreciated with minimum time of
cooking of 10 minutes and 500 ml of cooking water. Thus, this formulation was kept for
further analysis. The most accepted formulation and the sorghum flour were analyzed by
ISAR laboratory. Results showed that QPM based composite flour was higher in nutrient
density than sorghum flour. The concentrations were as follows Protein: 18.32mg/100g of
flour; ash: 3.62mg/100g in composite flour comparing to Protein: 6.25mg/100g and ash
1.85mg/100g sorghum flour. The high density in nutrient content of the QPM based flour
was expected. This is because it is well known that the addition of soybean flour and
maize with high content of lysine and tryptophan were expected to improve on the
nutrition composition of the flour/
Conclusion
The gruels were acceptable for all tested parameters. There was no single rejected
formulation of tested ingredients. . Panelists scored the gruels made with 55 g of QPM,
35g of soybean and 10g of OFSP as the more testing than other nine tested gruels.
Therefore, knowing that Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) is the most common
malnutrition disorder among the most nutritionally vulnerable groups (infants, pregnant
and lactating mothers in Rwanda, there is a need of developing more recipes using the
newly introduced biofortified crops in Rwanda in order to diversify the preparations based
on the most simple, less costly methods with maximum nutrient retention. This study also
demonstrated successful use of locally available and affordable foods to enhance
nutritional quality of nutritionally vulnerable groups.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du
Rwanda and USAID through its Agriculture Technology Development and Transfer
Project for funding this project.
349
REFERENCES
[1] Cameron M, Hofvander (1983). Manual on feeding infants and young children.
New York. Oxford University Press
[2] Desikachar H.S.R (undated). Technology options for formulating weaning foods
for the economically weaker segments of populations in developing countries
[3] Mensah EO, Sefa-Dedeh S (undated). Traditional food processing technology and
high protein food production.
[4] Stoecker BJ, Gates GE, Hinds MJ, Abebe Y (2006). Nutritive value and sensory
acceptability of corn and Kocho based foods supplemented with legumes for infant
feeding in Southern Ethiopia. AJFAND Vol 6 (1). P1-13.
[5] Mosha AC (Sorghum and millet processing and utilization in the southern Africa
Development Coordination conference area. Post Production Food industry
Advisory Unit. Zimbabwe.
[6] Watts BM, Ylimaki GL, Jeffery LE, Elias LG (1991). Méthodes de base pour
l’évaluation sensorielle des aliments. Ottawa, Canada. Centre de recherche pour
le dévelopement international.
350
Benchmark study on husbandry factors affecting reproductive
performance of smallholder dairy cows subjected to artificial
insemination (AI) in Nyagatare, Gatsibo, and Kayonza districts of
Rwanda
Chatikobo P1*, Manzi M2, Kagarama J1, Rwemarika JD2, Umunezero O2
1
Umutara Polytechnic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.B 57, Nyagatare, Eastern
Province, Rwanda. Phone: 250 08832596; E-mail: [email protected]/
[email protected]
2
Institute des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR), Livestock Production & Health
Research Unit, B.P 5016 Kigali, Rwanda (head office), Tél/Fax : (250) 578768/574997
*Corresponding author
Key words:
Rwanda.
Artificial insemination, Husbandry, Reproduction, Smallholder, Dairy,
Abstract
The objective of this study was to identify existing farmer practices that may influence
reproductive performance of cows bred through artificial insemination. A random sample
of 1080 households supplying milk to the milk-processing centre was drawn in Nyagatare,
Gatsibo, and Kayonza districts of Rwanda between October and November 2007.
Extensive grazing (71 %) was the predominant production system identified with only 10
% of the farmers supplementing veld pastures with barna grass during the dry season.
Farmers use a variety of signs to detect estrus in cows. Among these, ‘standing to be
mounted’ (6.83 %), was rated the least while mucus discharge (35.58%) was regarded as
the most important sign of heat in cows. Further, only 11.54 % of the farmers invited
inseminators after observing standing heat, while the majority (88.46 %), observe for
signs such as decreased feed intake (26.51 %), ‘mounting of other cows’ (21.54 %), clear
mucus discharge from vulva (15.38 %), swelling of vulva (13.85 %), and ‘being followed
by a bull’ (11.54 %). Non-return to heat after service was the predominant method of
pregnancy diagnosis used by about 86 % of the farmers. The major reproductive problems
encountered included abortion (13 %), retained placenta (33 %), and dystocia (37 %),
while tick borne diseases (27.6 %) and gastrointestinal parasites (18.4 %) were among the
most prevalent general diseases reported. Very few farmers (1.1%) vaccinated their cattle
against reproductive diseases such as brucellosis and more than 95 % do not keep
records. None of the respondents completed the sections requiring disclosure of critical
reproductive events such as dates of service and calving. Seventy-eight percent of the
respondents were below primary school education. Poor heat detection, diseases,
nutrition, and lack of record keeping were the major husbandry factors identified whose
performance was below expected. The implications of these findings are discussed in the
text.
Background and justification
Artificial insemination (AI) has become one of the most important biotechnologies ever
devised for improvement of reproductive performance of farm animals. Todate, it is the
main tool for dissemination of outstanding germplasm, control of venereal diseases and
cost-effective dairy farming. The dairy industry plays an important role in the agrarian
economy of Rwanda. Development of this sector is viewed as a means of reviving the
351
rural economy, achieving national self-reliance and ensuring food security in milk and
milk products. However, of the many constraints facing dairy development in Rwanda,
low genetic merit of indigenous cattle is understood to be the most important. As a result,
since 1996, the government of Rwanda vigorously pursued genetic upgrading of
indigenous stock through crossbreeding with exotic germplasm in order to enhance milk
production. In order to rapidly achieve this objective, artificial insemination (AI) was
accepted as the primary breeding method (19). The number of inseminations over the last
two years has increased drastically from 10 000 in 2006 to 47 000 in 2007, and milk
production improved from 55 500 tonnes in 1999 to 158 700 tonnes in 2007. Over the
same period, milk powder imports dropped from 1280 tonnes to 500 tonnes (19).
Although both number of inseminations and milk production has improved to some extent,
the overall pregnancy rate following AI has been very low, around 50%. The precise cause
of this failure of AI, however, is unknown. The resulting decrease in rates of reproduction
has direct economic implications on the Rwandese dairy industry and warrants
identification of the aetiological factors involved and formulation of appropriate
interventions. Clearly, there is a need to undertake a comprehensive assessment of fertility
and to identify various factors affecting the success of AI. With this in mind, a series of
studies were designed to assess the performance of the AI service and identify its
constraints, in order to develop and implement remedial measures.
Initially, a field survey was carried out to identify prevailing animal husbandry practices
among smallholder farmers. Part of the objectives of the initial survey was to identify
problems that required further investigations so as to enable generation of tailor –made
solutions. These field observations will be complemented with data on measurement of
milk progesterone using radioimmunoassay (RIA) to monitor the success of AI.
Monitoring the success of AI through conventional methods, such as rectal palpation of
genitalia and non-return rate, has very limited value. On the contrary, measurements of
progesterone profiles of cows by RIA has been used to assess the suitability of animals for
AI, monitor stages of estrous cycle, perform early diagnosis of non-pregnancy (1), and
diagnose factors limiting reproductive efficiency (7). This paper presents the results on the
initial benchmark survey on prevailing husbandry practices that may negatively influence
success of AI in Nyagatare, Gatsibo, and Kayonza districts. The overall aim of the project
is to improve the productivity of smallholder dairy farms through improvement in the
performance of AI services.
Materials and Methods
A random sample of 1080 smallholder households in the former Umutara Province
(Nyagatare, Gatsibo, and Kayonza Districts) was carried out between October and
November 2007. Twenty per cent of farmers delivering milk to each milk collection centre
in the target area were randomly selected. Data collection was through household
interviews conducted by trained enumerators using a pre-tested semi-structured
questionnaire. The information gathered included level of education, record keeping,
production system, heat detection, diseases and disease control measures. The number of
questionnaires administered to farmers in each district were 761 (Nyagatare), 169
(Gatsibo), and 150 (Kayonza). The data collected was entered into SPSS Version 8
databases for descriptive statistical analyses.
352
Results
Three production systems were identified with the extensive grazing system (71 %) being
the most common followed by semi-zero or mixed grazing (15 %), and zero grazing (9 %).
Only 10 % of the non-zero grazing farmers gave extra feed (supplementary feed) to their
cows during the dry season. Communal dams or rivers were the major source of drinking
water for their cows. Farmers use a variety of signs to detect estrus in cows. Among these,
‘standing to be mounted’ (6.83 %), was regarded as the least important sign while mucus
discharge (35.58%), was ranked the most important sign of heat in cows. Not
surprisingly, the least (11.54 %) of the farmers invited inseminators after observing
standing heat, while the majority (88.46 %), observe for a number of varied secondary
signs of heat such as decreased feed intake (26.51 %), ‘mounting of other cows’ (21.54
%), clear mucus discharge from vulva (15.38 %), swelling of vulva (13.85 %), and ‘being
followed by a bull’ (11.54 %) (Figure 1). None of the farmers had a heat detection
programme, and estrus detection was carried out on an ad hoc basis. After mating, nonreturn to heat (85.6 %) was the predominant method of pregnancy diagnosis used,
followed by rectal palpation (4.8 %), while 4.4 % did not utilize this management tool.
General animal health problems identified by the farmers included dystocia (37 %),
retained placenta (33 %), tick borne diseases (27.6 %), gastrointestinal parasites (18.4 %),
abortion (13 %), Blackleg and Anthrax (9.0 %), Foot and Mouth Disease (8.3 %),
Trypanosomiasis (8.2%), Lumpy Skin Disease (7.9%), and many others reported by less
than 5% of the farmers. While vaccination was used to control general diseases such as
Foot and Mouth Disease, Anthrax and Lumpy Skin Disease, very few (1.1 %) vaccinated
their cows against specific reproductive diseases such as brucellosis. Seventy-eight percent
(78 %) of the farmers had not attended school beyond the primary level, and 95 % did not
keep records. None of the respondents completed sections requiring disclosure of critical
reproductive events such as dates of service and calving.
Table 1. The distribution of signs of heat observed before inseminators are invited.
30
25
Prevalence (%)
20
15
10
5
0
Decreased Feed
intake
Mounting other herd
mates
Mucus discharge
Swelling of vulva
Being followed by
bull
Standing when
mounted
Sign of heat observed
353
Discussion
Extensive grazing management systems where cows are given very little supplementary
feeding may affect reproductive performance of cows subjected to artificial insemination.
These systems do not generally guarantee enough feed for the cows unless a
comprehensive supplementary programme supports it, and, the mixing of cows from
different herds and different disease status promotes spreading of diseases. As reported by
Obese (17), and Domecq et al (8), lack of supplementary feeding in extensively grazed dairy
cows affect their reproductive performance. Frequently, extensively grazed cows are
exposed to heat stress, which suppresses estrus activity in cows (13, 20, 25), making its
detection difficult. In addition, exposure to heat stress 1-3 days after insemination induces
embryonic death (9), leading to poor conception rate and repeat breeding.
Almost eighty-nine percent (88.46 %) of farmers under study are inseminating cows while
they are not in true estrus. Such a level of heat detection error is alarming, and well outside
the 5 – 30 % range frequently observed on most farms (21). Estrous detection errors are
brought about by identifying cows to be inseminated based on secondary signs of estrus.
The problem with use of secondary signs is that they vary in duration and intensity, and
may occur before, during, or after standing heat. As such, these signs cannot be used to
correctly predict the time of ovulation. Therefore, inseminating cows based on secondary
signs of heat will result in asynchrony of sperm-oocyte interactions leading to poor
conception (12, 11, 16), and wastage of semen and labor (18, 24). Perhaps, instead of using these
signs for deciding when to inseminate, farmers should use these signs as clues or watch
the specific cow more closely for standing behavior.
There are many possibilities as to why farmers in the study inseminate cows based on
secondary signs of heat. Common practices resulting in high heat detection errors include
inadequate animal identification, poor record keeping, lack of a specific heat detection
programme, and lack of knowledge on significance of the various heat signs displayed by
cows. All these negative practices are highly prevalent in the study area. Standing to be
mounted’ (6.8%), was ranked the least important sign of heat yet the converse is true. This
shows that those responsible for checking for heat do not fully understand signs of heat. In
the absence of a heat detection programme, people involved in heat detection will only be
present with the cows at regular working hours. This can give rise to increased missed
heats because the pattern of heat onset in cows is variable, with the greatest activity
occurring early morning and late evening (2). According to Senger (23), the ideal goal for
estrous detection error rate should be less than 2% in any herd. With 89 % of farmers
failing to observe standing heat, it is clear poor heat detection is the major reproductive
management problem in the study herds. The error margin as reported herein is a serious
cause for concern. It should be noted, however, that estrous detection efficiency is under
the total control of the management team and significant improvements in overall herd
reproductive performance can be achieved if estrous detection is improved (15).
Implementation of programs designed to focus exclusively on detection of estrus is highly
recommended.
Farmers in the study use non-return to heat 18-24 days after service as a sign of
pregnancy. However, while this is considered the easiest and cheapest method of
pregnancy diagnosis, it requires keen and timely observation superimposed on heat
detection skills for it to be accurate. As observed, farmers in the present study have a
serious problem with heat detection, hence pregnancy diagnosis using non-return rate
354
could be inaccurate and misleading. As reported by Senger (22), the efficiency of nonreturn rate is further confounded by embryonic mortality, which results in lower calving
rates. This method further suffers the disadvantage that farmers are generally not keen to
follow up on heat detection on the same cow after insemination. In addition, cattle kept
under zero grazing (though a small percentage in our study), exhibit a high degree of silent
heats, which are difficult to detect. Because of these shortfalls, rectal palpation remains the
most reliable, efficient method of pregnancy diagnosis. However, its requirement for
skilled labour may explain why it is not a favorite with the farmers.
Farmers identified a number of systemic and reproductive diseases, which are a major
cause for concern. Among the reproductive problems reported, dystocia was the major
cause for concern. Dystocia means “difficult birth.” The prevalence of dystocia (37 %)
reported in this study is much higher than the 2-12% as reported from many field studies
(23)
. Although it can occur due to other causes, the crossing of exotic, large framed breeds
such as the Friesian Holstein with the short, framed local Ankole cows precipitate fetopelvic disproportions (calf too large for the birth canal) leading to dystocia(3). The problem
with dystocia is that with few exceptions, cows that have ‘difficult births’ almost always
have “downstream” reproductive problems inclusive of retained placenta, metritis, delayed
uterine involution and poor cyclicity (23). Similar findings were reported by (15, 25). Further
studies are needed to identify the true factors behind this unprecedented increase in
prevalence of dystocia.
The causes of retained placenta are fully known (23). Nevertheless, the prevalence of
retained placenta (33 %) reported in this study is much higher than the literature values of
between 4% and 10% (22, 23). Like dystocia, cows with retained placenta almost always
experience infertility syndromes characterized by delayed return to estrus, increased
services per conception, lengthened calving interval, higher culling rate, reduced milk
production and increased days open (6, 10). These infertility syndromes are believed to be
because of the subsequent endometritis and pyometra that develop following retained
placenta (4, 5). The combined high prevalence’s of abortion and retained placenta is highly
suggestive of the presence of brucellosis infection among the cows (14). Because of
zoonotic and reproductive effects, urgent longitudinal studies are needed to rule out the
suspicion on brucellosis.
Regardless of when and how pregnancy diagnosis is carried out, the identified
reproductive problems affects performance of Ai through poor conception, embryo
mortality, and abortion, hence farmers might be justified in their complaints on poor
pregnancy rate in dairy cows subjected to artificial insemination. However, it must be
noted that problems such as dystocia, retained placenta, and abortion, are under the direct
influence of the reproductive system of the cow. For that reason, these factors are
somewhat difficult to manage and control because the cow’s reproductive system is the
primary component influencing the outcome. Nevertheless, reduction in incidence of
dystocia can almost always occur when sires used in AI are selected for a high degree of
calving ease especially in heifers. Further, calvings should be accompanied by attendants
with the appropriate obstetrical skills. Thus, management can exert a strong preventive
influence by keeping records and selecting calving-ease bulls for use in heifers and
employing proper heifer management and maternity pen care. Further, a good reproductive
health program, which provides for checking normal uterine involution and return of
ovarian cyclicity, is required.
355
Apart form specific reproductive disorders, a high prevalence of general systemic diseases
such as East Coast fever (ECF), black leg, anthrax, and lumpy skin (to mention but a few),
were observed. These diseases result in sickness and or death of cows. In particular, East
Coast Fever can have severe impacts on exotic cattle. Diseases, whether associated with
the reproductive system or other systems of the body, have deleterious effects on fertility
of dairy cows (15). The high prevalence of diseases for which disease control technology
such as effective vaccines, and acaricides is available maybe taken to reflect failure of
veterinary extension. Further studies are needed to determine the effectiveness of
veterinary extension in the country.
More than 95 % of the farmers in the study did not keep records, while the few records
being kept were incomplete, inaccurate or not updated. Poor record keeping affect
performance of artificial insemination in several ways. Any attempt to improve the
efficiency of AI has to be based on an understanding of the most important causes for
failure under each specific production system. Traditionally, methods used to gain this
understanding rely on accurate recording and analysis of reproductive events such as
estrus, services, pregnancies and calvings. However, farmers in the study area rarely kept
records, and even when available, they do not allow an assessment of the importance of
factors such as efficiency and precision of estrus detection by the farmers or incorrect
timing of insemination. Without proper records, elements used when reproductive
performance is evaluated such as conception rate, numbers of services per conception,
pregnancy rate, day’s open, calving interval and many others cannot be measured. Simple,
complete and accurate records about the entire reproductive life of the dairy cow are
required to monitor components contributing to reproductive management. This aspect of
management needs to be improved. Poor record keeping has been reported to be one of the
major management attribute affecting AI in dairy cows (1, 11).
The majority of farmers interviewed (77 %) were illiterate. This might possibly be a
directly aftermath of the 1994 genocide which wiped out most of the skilled labour force
of the country. While it is debatable, in our view, such a high illiteracy level among
farmers is a potential in breeding of animals through AI because it creates imbalance
balance between technical demands of the AI technology and the skills of the existing
farm laborers. Further analyses are needed to determine the impacts of education level on
reproductive performance.
Conclusion
Artificial insemination is a comparatively sophisticated method of animal breeding whose
impact on cattle development is closely linked to the simultaneous introduction of
reasonable standards of animal husbandry. In our study, the major basic animal husbandry
practices are well below expected standards. Poor heat detection, diseases, nutrition, and
lack of record keeping were the major husbandry factors identified that needed further
investigation. Training is needed to uplift management capacity of most of the farmers
because most if not all of the factors identified fall directly or indirectly under the control
of the individuals performing the task or making a decision about the task. It is our
conviction that fertility factors controlled by man, can be improved significantly with the
appropriate management decisions and implementation of well-focused herd health,
356
production and reproduction management programmes. For example, greatest
improvement in reproductive performance can be made by improving estrous detection
efficiency, estrous detection accuracy, nutritional management, and record keeping,
among others. The probability of successfully implementing and controlling most of the
factors identified in this study is much higher than attempting to control other factors,
which cannot be totally controlled by the management team.
Recommendation
The nature of our study, do not allow us to determine any causal relationships. It is
therefore imperative to carry out further studies to determine the effects of each of these
factors on reproductive performance of artificially inseminate cows before any corrective
measures can be taken.
Acknowledgement
Appreciation is extended to PDRCIU/ISAR/UP directorate for support during the study
period.
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Developmental changes in sensitivity of bovine embryos to heat shock and use of
antioxidants as thermoprotectants. J. Anim. Sci. 73:1401.
[10] Eiler, H. (1997). Retained placenta in Current Therapy in Large Animal
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[11] Heersche, G., Jr., and R. L. Nebel. (1994). Measuring efficiency and accuracy of
detection of estrus. J. Dairy Sci. 77:2754.
[12] Hunter RHF (1994). Causes of failure of fertilisation in domestic species. In
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Boca Raton; 1994:1-22.
[13] Jordan, E. R. (2003). Effects of heat stress on reproduction. J. Dairy Sci. 86: E.
Suppl.: E104-E114.
[14] Karimuribo ED, Ngowi, H A Swai E S and Kambarage D M. (2007). Prevalence of
brucellosis in crossbred and indigenous cattle in Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural
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[21] Senger, P. L., W. C. Becker, S. T. Davidge, J. K. Hillers, and J. J. Reeves. (1988).
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[24] Walker W.L., Nebel R.L., McGilliard. (1996). Time of ovulation relative to mounting
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358
The Role of Government in the Establishment of Appropriate Industries
for the Manufacture of Construction Products with Non-Conventional
Materials
Brian Stephenson, PE,
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Architecture, Engineering, and Computer
Science, Howard University, Washington, DC (USA)
Key words: Non-conventional construction products, appropriate technology industries,
government role, development economics)
ABSTRACT
The cost of construction materials represents a disproportionately larger percentage of
total construction costs for a building compared to costs for the same building in a
developed economy. This is partly attributable to the developing economy’s dependence
on construction products manufactured by the developed economies. These imported
construction products are often inappropriate to the local socio-economic environment
where they are used. They bear a high energy cost in their manufacture and transport and
generate excessive carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Significant research has been
conducted in non-conventional construction materials (NOCMAT) and technologies which
are non-polluting, consume little energy in their production and utilization, are low in
cost, and are environmentally sustainable. This paper takes a look at the critical role
government must play in the establishment of appropriate manufacturing industries which
utilize this body of research to make affordable, environmentally friendly, construction
products. Government can be the change agent for the creation of appropriate industries
which feature NOCMAT-based construction products by shaping, enabling, and
regulating public policy.
Introduction
For certain developing and underdeveloped economies, the prolonged reliance on
conventional construction materials is inappropriate to their economic development. The
use of these same construction materials by developing and industrialized economies is
environmentally inappropriate with global impacts. Buildings consume 71% of the
electricity and generate 65% of the waste in the United States. Their environmental
contribution to carbon dioxide emissions is around 39% [1]. The world-wide movement
towards sustainable construction is a direct effort to reduce this dependence on energy
intensive, environmentally insensitive construction materials. This paper considers the
body of research in non-conventional construction materials (NOCMAT) and looks
towards their rapid integration into the construction industry. To this end, government is
expected to play a significant role.
The development of new industries and the reshaping of existing ones based on
NOCMAT products must first make economic sense. In a competitive marketplace,
industries have little incentive to embrace NOCMAT unless the rules of the game dictate
it. The marketplace has no environmental conscience. Instead, the pursuit of profitability
perpetuates a culture of waste of global proportions. Government has the ability to
positively shape the rules of the marketplace and take leadership in the creation of
appropriate industries which are responsive to their economic and environmental
priorities.
359
“A critical examination of current design and build (or manufacture)
practices shows its close tie to trends in conventional industry, which
“take, make and waste” ideal can only produce what environmentalists
refer to as “cradle-to-grave materials and products, designed for a oneway trip to the landfill”. Under exploitation, these products generate waste
which are toxic, dangerous to health, impacts negatively on the
environment and are not renewable – hence the search for a burial place
for them after use. Within their life span as buildings, they unsustainably
consume energy and other non-renewable resources with the emission of
abundant waste. And at the end of their useful life, the body parts remain a
nuisance to the natural system.”[2]
Appropriate Construction Industries
The use of the term ‘appropriate’, in this paper, is an adaptation of green engineering
principles established at a 2003 conference in Sandestin, Florida.[3] The criteria of
appropriateness for the manufacture of construction products is presented below.
Criteria of Appropriateness for Manufacture of Construction Products
1. Holistically use systems analysis and integrate environmental impact assessment
tools in their development
2. Conserve and improve natural ecosystems while protecting human health and wellbeing
3. Use life-cycle thinking in their implementation within the built-environment
4. Ensure that all material and energy inputs and outputs are as inherently safe and
benign as possible
5. Rely on renewable natural resources common to the geographic region
6. Strive to minimize waste and maximize resource conservation
7. Are grounded in engineering solutions which are responsive to the physical
environment, socio-economic conditions, and potential for workforce development
in the local marketplace.
8. Reflect sustainable engineering solutions beyond current or dominant technologies
9. Are easily implemented and maintained without high levels of education and
training
10. Includes input from local communities in their development process
11. Are affordable
12. Specifically address society’s basic need for shelter; particularly for those who
have been the least satisfied.
Rooted in the principles of appropriate technology, the criteria seeks to make
technology relevant to the real needs of the society that uses it, is affordable, is harmonious with the
environment, does not compromise the quality of life for subsequent generations, and results in economic
empowerment at the broadest level.
Most construction products begin by converting commonly available raw materials
into refined materials which can then be used to create products such as: roof shingles,
wall and floor sheathing, framing elements, and exterior cladding. For example, the steel
industry melts iron, burns off its impurities, and then blows oxygen through the molten
material to reduce the carbon content. A wide array of structural shapes, with varying
physical and geometric properties, is then produced for construction use. Other staples of
360
the construction industry include: concrete, masonry, lumber products, aluminum,
gypsum, glass, stone, plastics, and a range of composites.
The environmental cost of conventional construction materials borne by society is only
now being quantified. The manufacture of cement, for example, a key component of
concrete, emits significant quantities of CO2, NOX, SO2, particulates and dioxins into the
atmosphere. Quarrying activities associated with the cement industry also impacts land use
and biodiversity [4]. In the case of steel, the environmental cost is linked both directly and
indirectly to its energy cost.
The energy consumption of steel production in the United States, one of the largest
steel producers in the world, represents about 2.5% of domestic energy use and about 8%
of all U.S. manufacturing energy use. About half of this energy is derived from coal. [5]
Under pressure from government agencies and environmental groups, voluntary goals
have now been set for these industries to reduce their greenhouse emissions and use
renewable energy.
IC-NOCMAT and ABMTENC
Since 1984, IC-NOCMAT (the International Committee on Non-Conventional
Materials and Technologies) and ABMTENC (Brazilian Association of Materials and
Non-Conventional Technologies, founded in 1996) have organized a series of events and
collaborations to promote the development and dissemination of knowledge on nonconventional construction materials which are non-polluting, consume little energy in their
production and utilization, are low-cost, and are environmentally sustainable. Their
principal areas of research are:
1) Bamboo as a construction material, 2) Vegetable fibers and soil construction, 3)
Environmentally friendly, energy-efficient construction, 4) Technology applied for lowcost housing, 5) Durability aspects of non-conventional materials, 6) Composite materials,
7) Non-conventional materials and technologies management, and 8) Waste materials in
building construction.
Given this body of research, NOCMAT-based construction products are still far
from integration into the construction marketplace. What are the pathways to product
development, manufacturing, and conventionalization of these technologies? What is the
character of a marketplace where these industries are both healthy and satisfy the essential
criteria of appropriateness? What forms of partnerships between government, industry,
and academia are required to facilitate a healthy marketplace and a healthy economy? This
paper examines the role the government must play to advance such industries.
Governments Role to Protect and Enhance the Commons
The commons refers to the common heritage resources which are the collective
birthright of our species, to be shared equitably by all. The commons includes all aspects
of our natural environment, our freedoms, and the vast mosaic of our heritage on this
planet.[6] Given the general inclination of individuals to pursue their self-interest, issues
of community and our collective welfare (past, present, and future) are typically placed
under the domain of government. It is the accepted role of government to protect and
enhance the commons. The establishment of a thriving business environment which is in
alignment with the principles of appropriateness and stewardship of the commons must,
therefore, begin with government.
Good governance, at any level, will rally to this responsibility of protection and
enhancement of the commons. Good governance balances self-interest with the common
361
good. Three generic areas of responsibility will be examined with respect to the
development of appropriate NOCMAT industries. They are: 1) Declaration of sound
economic development policy based on research, 2) Enabling policy implementation, and
3) Regulating, enforcing, and modifying policy.
A seminal document proclaiming government’s responsibility to protect the
commons came out of a United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in
Rio de Janeiro in 1992.[7] The document promoted cooperation among nation-states and
key sectors of society to protect the integrity of the global environment and the
developmental system.
Subsequent conferences in Santo Domingo and Peru have continued to build upon these
declarations and are the root of the Millennium Development Goals and Agenda 21, a
comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by
organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which humans
impact on the environment.
By establishing policy, governments are able to establish national priorities in the
interest of the commons and shape the behavior of the marketplace. Using Brazil as an
example, the Agenda 21 declarations and goals were adopted as national policy in the
Green Protocol of 1996. One of the guidelines of the document was the creation of special
lines of credit and financing for undertakings which promote environmental protection and
preservation. Public banks committed themselves against financing environmentally
aggressive undertakings and to provide support to sustainable production systems. To this
end, the banks adapted their procedures for analysis and concession of credit. Policy was
translated into economic growth and it shaped the behavior of the marketplace.
Declaration of Sound Economic Policy
Government must place a high priority on the protection and enhancement of the
commons through its public policy. Sound economic policy must be fact based, relying on
a breadth of research. There is already an abundance of research and experiential data
relative to global warming and environmental degradation to warrant alarm and immediate
corrective policy from all levels of society. Within the United States, local governments
are now rapidly establishing policy on low-carbon emissions and embracing the
construction standards of the U.S. Green Building Council [8]; this trend, in spite of
resistance at the federal level to do the same with greater impact [9] .
The critical gap between research and initiation of public policy for the
construction industry requires the active involvement of technocrats (technically trained
managers employed in government) who are able to comprehend the essentials of
NOCMAT research, validate, analyze and then debate their long-term economic and
ecological fit for their targeted communities. Technocrats are able to simplify and craft
this information into a rational, sustainable public policy. Consider the dramatic and rapid
rise of India in the global marketplace. The role of the Indian Institutes of Technology
(IIT) in expediting this development is obvious but is not always publicized.
Commensurate with India’s economic and technological growth has been the prevalence
of IIT graduates in government and industry. “Many of these graduates (IIT) occupy the
highest echelons of the private (and even Government) sector bureaucracy. They also form
a significant proportion of the scientific manpower pursuing cutting edge research across
the globe.”[10] The absence of technocrats in key decision-making positions will
inevitably frustrate all efforts to implement meaningful public policy and can hinder an
agenda of appropriate economic development.
362
Unfortunately, the looming threats to the commons are often heard but rarely translate to
policy until there is a crisis. “After it suffered severe damage from natural disasters in the
late 1990s, the Baha de Carquez (Ecuador) government and nongovernmental
organizations working in the area forged a plan to rebuild the city to be more sustainable.
Declared an "Ecological City" in 1999, it has since developed programs to protect
biodiversity, re-vegetate denuded areas, and control erosion. The city, which is marketing
itself as a destination for eco-tourists, has also begun composting organic waste from
public markets and households and supporting organic agriculture and aquaculture.”[11]
Systematic structures are needed in government which filter out special and self-interests,
objectively evaluates reliable, fact-based environmental policy demands, and generates
proactive, appropriate responses. Once policy is established, feedback mechanisms must
be in place to validate its adequacy and need for improvement. Proof of reduced
environmental degradation and the stimulation of economic self-sufficiency on a region
level are desired outcomes.
Enabling Policy Implementation
Government must initiate actions which enable its policies to be successful. They
can facilitate the nurture of thriving and appropriate construction manufacturing industries
through a variety of development incentives, bonds, low-interest financing solutions,
regulatory process, tariffs, and taxes. A healthy business environment can be facilitated if
both scale and partnerships are comprehensively addressed within a regional economic
master plan, guided by effective leadership. The master plan must consider the character
of the local labor force and their guiding self-interests, required investments in training,
existing and projected demand for construction products, local availability of raw
materials, and transport costs.
The creation of the Brazilian Business Council for Sustainable Development, a part
of the Latin American Council of the Business Council for Sustainable Development, was
significant to the development of “green industries” in Brazil. The organization has an
ambitious plan for sustainable development of the Amazon which balances both economic
and environmental priorities.
"We all understand that the Amazon needs to develop, but we also
understand that there had to be a development model that is well thoughtout, and not predatory, just like we have in other regions of the country,"
President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva [12]
One sector of NOCMAT implementation where government has a clear role
involves the recycling of wastes from agriculture and industry to produce building
materials. For example, vegetable fibers such as bagasse, a by-product from the extraction
of sugar from sugar cane, may be used to form cementitious composites for use as roof
tiles.[13] Bagasse is already used in Brazil’s ethanol industry where the material is burned
as an energy source to operate the plants. Brazil now boasts the world’s first sustainable
bio-fuel economy. With three quarters of the world’s sugar made from sugar cane in
tropical zones of the southern hemisphere and with increasing concern for the disposal of
agricultural residues, this industry has the potential for tremendous gains in efficiency by
selling bagasse to manufacturers of cement products. Other vegetable fibers with favorable
research results include bamboo, coconut, sisal, coir, banana, and eucalyptus pulp. Even
disintegrated newsprint offers similar value. An array of actions may be introduced by
government to facilitate win-win partnerships where the wastes from the agricultural
industry may be directed into the manufacture of affordable, locally-manufactured
construction products.
363
Other forms of waste materials which may be introduced into NOCMAT industries
include: soil reinforced with waste tire shreds, egg shell waste substituted for sand in
mortars, rice husk ash, peanut husk ash, and corn leaf ash as a pozzolanic material in
cement, building demolition waste ground into fine recycled aggregates and substituted for
sand, and the residue of marble and granite in mortar and concrete.
Bamboo is the most important non-wood forest product and, in India, is known as
the ‘poor man’s timber’. In China, it is the valuable raw material for the booming bamboo
industry. Its high strength, light weight, low cost, and fast growth cycle are some of its
notable physical properties. Although, additional research is needed relative to its
durability and susceptibility to decay, it remains a superior substitute for wood, bamboobased panels and boards are hard and durable. Bamboo can be used as posts, roofs, walls,
beams, trusses, and fences. Bamboo offers tremendous potential as a NOCMAT industry
leading to increased economic and environmental development and international trade.
The cultivation and harvest of bamboo is an early stage market sector which must
be established. Unless there is a clear financial benefit for small and medium-sized
farmers to cultivate bamboo, their economic situation will demand that the land be used
for food crops or shared with more reliable cash crops. There must be a matrix of
economic incentives that must be initiated by government to foster the widespread
cultivation of bamboo, in all its feasible species and varieties.
Government must also play a key role in promoting regional reliance on bamboo as
an affordable construction material or as the raw material of a manufactured product.
India presents one successful example of government investment in the bamboo industry.
The National Mission on Bamboo Applications [14] has been tasked with helping to
enlarge the bamboo sector, and with supporting the efforts of the Government of India to
augment economic opportunity, income and employment. Areas of investment have
included: 1) improved bamboo propagation and cultivation techniques, 2) development of
a range of efficient, sturdy and low-cost tooling and processing machinery, suited to
Indian conditions and species, to reduce drudgery, improve productivity and minimize
waste, 3) developing mechanisms, methodologies and markets to encourage entrepreneurs
to take up the processing of bamboo shoots for the marketplace, 4) supporting applicationoriented research and developmental activity, utilizing bamboo for constructional
applications, and 5) enabling activities to develop and validate technology, encourage
entrepreneurial and community enterprise, test products and promote their usage and
application. The mission promotes the use of bamboo and bamboo-based composite
material and innovation with different construction techniques. It sets benchmarks of
quality for construction, functionality, strength, safety and aesthetics
Technical training is a necessary investment to the large scale cultivation of
bamboo. Beyond the background of agricultural science required for successful bamboo
cultivation, principles of industrial engineering are also needed. The harvested bamboo
must be sorted and systematically rated and graded, presumably at a mill, with processes
similar to those found in the lumber industry. Agricultural and technical institutes
established near the source of bamboo production must have programs to train the local
labor force to carry out this work.
India’s National Mission on Bamboo Applications can serve as a practical model
for how government initiatives can spearhead the creation of appropriate industries.
Starting with policy statements, an action-oriented structure was established to stimulate
local and regional economic activity in alignment with a national agenda for sustainability.
A premium was placed on building a knowledge base and transferring it to all levels of
production. In support of the needs of the marketplace, research and standardization of
364
products is an on-going activity. Projects which best demonstrate the economic value
created by this agency are: 1) Design, development and prototyping of hydraulic hot
presses for the manufacture of bamboo composite materials in Hyderabad, 2) Preparation
and dissemination of a data base written in the form of an annotated bibliography of
bamboo literature (published in CD form), 3) Arched engineering models for wide-span
structures in low-cost housing, 4) Development of simple processing and packaging
technologies for bamboo shoots intended to provide value addition and income generation
options at the community and tiny enterprise level, and 5) Testing of the physical,
chemical and mechanical properties of bamboo culms, slivers and composites of identified
species.
Regulating, Enforcing, and Modifying Policy
In the time-sensitive, cost-conscious world of construction, building codes help to
ensure minimum standards of public safety by establishing material specifications and
engineering performance expectations. Collaborations between government, engineers,
builders, and the manufacturers of construction products are essential to effective code
development.
Engineers specify construction products based on building code
requirements. These products must be accessible to the point of use, should come in
modular dimensions, compatible with other construction products, must be routinely tested
and certified to be reliable, and must not require a highly skilled labor force to install.
Building inspectors and building permit agencies serve as the agents of government to
enforce building codes in their respective regions. While this fabric of relationships and
infrastructure is inherent for conventional construction materials and products, it is still at
an embryonic stage for NOCMAT. Developing economies which lack the technological
resources and trained workforce needed for regulatory enforcement commonly adopt the
codes and standards of the more industrialized nations. Code enforcement, however,
remains problematic and ineffective.
Conclusions
Research in the area of NOCMAT has been a high priority for developing
economies, particularly those in the southern hemisphere. The infrastructure required to
develop appropriate industries which manufacture construction products based on
NOCMAT is still in its infancy. However, substantial progress has been made in some
countries where national policy has declared this a priority. In contrast, for many other
economies, the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals are far from within reach
and they remain victims of their own history. In 1999, the Declaration of Santo Domingo
recognized that the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean need to collaborate with
one another to confront the declining quality of life of their inhabitants and health of their
respective economies. Similar collaborations and partnerships between Africa, Asia, and
Latin America are needed to address the Agenda 21 goals, in general, and the integration
of NOCMAT into the construction industry, in particular. A change of culture from waste
to sustainability is mandated on a global scale.
There are two different aspects to be considered in the fight against waste.
The first involves the change in consumption patterns which ultimately is a
cultural change. However, it is necessary to start this combat against waste
while still during the productive process, by adopting technologies less
intensive in energy and which are less demanding on raw materials. Civil
construction is a segment which has a lot to contribute as, for example,
searching for alternatives to waste practices in the work sites. [15]
365
As a steward of the commons, government carries the burden of addressing global,
national, and regional issues on behalf of individual communities. Through the
establishment of sound public policy and initiatives which enable those policy goals to
take shape, and through the adoption of regulatory standards which are then reasonably
enforced, a reversal of the chronic under-development and the un-sustainable management
of natural resources of the can be experienced. The ranks of government must include
technically trained professionals who possess the communication skills needed to translate
NOCMAT research into profitable and appropriate industries. A marketplace based on
collaboration rather than on competition may best lead to eliminating the disparities which
plague our global community and slow the rapid erosion of our common heritage.
References:
[1]David Pratt, LORAX Corp, Panel Discussion: Legislative Overview of Green
Building in Maryland, Lambda Alpha International, Baltimore, MD, May 21, 2008
[2]Sampson Ik Umenne, “The Architecture for Sustainable Development and Ecological
Living”, 2nd International Conference on Appropriate Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
2002.
[3] As developed by more than 65 engineers and scientists at the Green Engineering:
Defining the Principles Conference, held in Sandestin, Florida in May of 2003.
[4] Ian Marlowe and David Mansfield with contributions from Neil Hurford, Alistair Bird,
and Sue Wood, “Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry”, Substudy 10: Environment,
Health & Safety Performance Improvement, December 2002
[5] “Climate and the Steel Industry”, January 1, 2008; ClimateBiz,
http://www.climatebiz.com/resources/resource/climate-and-steel-industry
[6] The International Forum on Globalization, Alternatives to Economic Globalization: A
Better World is Possible, San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2002
[7] “Report of the United Nations Conference on the Environment”, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14
June 1992, Annex I, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
[8] Greve, Frank, “Green revolution sweeping the U.S. construction Industry”, McClatchy
Newspapers; http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/1212-03.htm; December 12,
2006
[9]Jane Spenser,“UN Conference Adopts Plan For New Climate Pact”, Bali, Indonesia.
The U.S. reluctantly joined almost 200 nations in a United Nations pact that lays the initial
groundwork for a new global treaty to combat climate change. The Americans succeeded
in wiping out most language regarding specific targets for emission reductions from
industrialized nations, despite strong objections from the European Union. December 15,
2007
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119771523266431909.html?mod=hpp_us_whats_news;
[10] “Exit Tax on IIT and IIM graduates”, Urbanomics, Friday, September 7, 2007
http://gulzar05.blogspot.com/2007/09/exit-tax-on-iit-and-iim-graduates.html
[11]15 Green Cities; 19 Jul 2007; http://www.grist.org/news/maindish/2007/07/19/cities/
[12] “Brazil launches sustainable development plan for Amazon”, World Business Council
for
Sustainable
Development,
May
8,
2008
http://www.wbcsd.org/plugins/DocSearch/details.asp?type=DocDet&ObjectId=Mjk5ODg,
[13]Arsène, Marie-Ange, Savastano Jr., Holmer, Allameh, Seyed M., Ghavami, Khosrow,
Soboyejo, Wole O., “Cementitious Composites Reinforced with Vegetable Fibers”,
NOCMAT-2007 Conference, Maceio, Brazil, October 2007.
366
[14] The National Mission on Bamboo Applications, structured as a Technology
Mission, is one of the key initiatives of the Department of Science & Technology
for the Tenth Plan by the Government of India
http://www.bambootech.org/subsubtop.asp?subsubid=67&subid=13&sname=miss
ion&subname=nmba
[ 1 5] The Savings Economy in the Society of Knowledge, Objective 1: “Sustainable
Production and Consumption versus the Waste Culture”, Brazilian Agenda 21: Priority
actions.
367
The prevalence of bovine brucellosis in milking dairy herds in
Nyagatare and its implications on dairy productivity and public health
Chatikobo P1*, Manzi M2, Kagarama J1, Rwemarika JD2, Umunezero O2
1
Umutara Polytechnic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.B 57, Nyagatare, Eastern
Province, Rwanda; E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; 2Institute des
Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR), Nyagatare Livestock Production & Health
Research Unit, B.P 5016 Kigali, Rwanda; *Corresponding author
Key words: bovine brucellosis, zoonotic disease, infertility, dairy herds, Rwanda
Abstract
Between April and June 2008, 998 serum samples from 205 herds located in 10 different
sectors within the district were screened for brucellosis using Rose Bengal Plate test. Out
of a total of 998 serum samples tested, 99 (9.9 %) reacted positive for brucellosis using
the Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT). Bovine brucellosis was detected in nine out of the ten
sectors in Nyagatare, and out of the 205 herds studied, 62 were seropositive. The overall
brucellosis herd prevalence rate (HP), i.e. at least one positive RBT reactor identified in a
herd, was associated with sector (X2 = 8851.228, P = 0.000), Breed (X2 = 413.567, P=
0.002), and parity of the cow (X2 = 580.292, P = 0.000). Significantly higher brucellosis
herd prevalence values were reported for Byera (100 %), Katabagemu (45.45 %), and
Rwimbogo (42.86 %) sectors. The herd prevalence was 29.62 % in Ankole cattle (95 %
CI: 28.36 to 30.87) and 23.71 (95 % CI: 17.23 to 30.19) in purebred Friesian-Holstein
cattle, with a statistically significant difference (x2 = 413.567, P = 0.000). Individual
animal prevalence (IAP), i.e. number of individual positive reactors, differed (P < 0.05)
between and within the sectors, and was also associated with the breed of the cow.
Significant higher overall IAP´s were found in Byera (20 %), Rwimiyaga (12.17%), and
Rwimbogo (12 .00 %). Individual animal prevalence was 9.75 % (95 % CI: 9.34 to 10.16)
in Ankole cattle and 7.15 % (95% CI: 5.46 to 8.84) in Purebred Friesian-Holstein cattle
with a statistically significant difference (x2 =335.339, P= 0.000). There was no
statistically significant difference in individual prevalence between Ankole cows and
crossbred cows. On the other hand, the prevalence of brucellosis in cattle was also found
to be higher in the older parities than younger ones. Overall seropositive reactors
recorded were 12/204 (5.9 %) for parity 1, 20/181 (11.05 %) for parity 2, and 11/77
(14.29 %) for the fourth parity cows. However, no statistically significant difference was
observed in the prevalence of brucellosis between male and female animals. Overall, the
study reveals that bovine brucellosis is endemic in Nyagatare. The public health and
livestock productivity implications of the present findings are discussed.
Background and justification
Bovine brucellosis is a highly contagious systemic bacterial disease caused by
Brucella abortus (12, 7). It is primarily a disease of ruminants (5), and is regarded as one
of the most widespread zoonoses in the world (13). The disease is of economic importance
in dairy production because it adversely affects the reproductive and productive potential
of dairy cows and is a major impediment for trade and export of livestock products (28).
Infection in pregnant cows is characterized by abortion, birth of dead or weak calves,
retained placenta, endometritis, repeat breeding, infertility, as well as reduction or
complete loss of milk yield after the abortion. In bulls the disease result in testicular
368
lesions such as orchitis, epididymitis, and seminal vesiculitis which affect their breeding
capacity.
Besides the impacts of the disease on livestock, brucellosis is also an important zoonoses,
more commonly known as undulant fever. Infection in human beings result in chronic
debilitating illness which requires prolonged treatment. The established mode of
transmission of Brucella spp. to humans is usually by direct contact with infected animals
or their carcasses (32), or through ingestion of infected unpasteurized milk or dairy
products (12). Affected humans develop a chronic debilitating, on- and off (undulating)
febrile flu-like illness (8, 33), that is frequently confused with malaria or typhoid with the
result that inappropriate treatment is often given. The course of the disease is prolonged
leading to considerable medical expenses in edition to loss of income due to loss of
working hours.
Brucellosis is of particular public health importance in societies that live closely
together with their livestock. In Rwanda, about 92% of the population live in rural areas and
depends on agriculture for survival. The rural areas or ‘villages’ in Nyagatare are generally
regarded as resource-poor areas with a weak infrastructure, a high unemployment rate and
subsistence livestock farming dominate over other agricultural activities. As observed
elsewhere (21), consumption of unpasteuralised milk, undercooked or fresh meat are not
uncommon in the rural households. However, very little is known about the prevalence of
important zoonotic and production diseases of cattle in these areas, which is essential
information for the prioritization and implementation of disease control schemes.
In our previous study (6), we observed unusually higher incidences of abortion,
retained placenta, and infertility of unknown origin in dairy cattle in Nyagatare, Gatsibo,
and Kayonza Districts. Although these symptoms are commonly seen in brucellosis
infected herds (29, 22, 21), there is no documentation about the occurrence of this disease
in this district. To gain an understanding of the prevalence of brucellosis in Nyagatare, and
to seek possible explanations on the causes of abortion in dairy herds and devise
appropriate control strategies in the area a large scale serological brucellosis screening
survey was undertaken.
Materials and methods
Study site
Nyagatare is located in Eastern Rwanda, bordering Uganda, and Tanzania. The
district is about 150 km away from Kigali, the capital city. Nyagatare, Gatsibo, and
Kayonza (the former Umutara Province) hold about 40% of the cattle population of the
country currently estimated at just over 1.2 million. While some of the milk produced in
the district is sold at big urban markets in Kigali, most of it is sold through the informal
market within the district. Presently the province is in a transition phase from the extensive
traditional husbandry to the market orientated systems. The cattle population consists of
predominantly local Ankole types and various crosses between these and exotic breeds,
raised in extensive traditional husbandry system. However, there is an increasing
proportion of introduced purebred cattle such as Friesian- Holsteins, Jerseys and
Guernsey. Both cattle and small ruminants are often grazed or tethered together. All study
herds were selected by stratified random sampling, milk collection centers being the strata.
The criteria for selection of herds was the supply of milk to local milk collection centre,
and high reported prevalence’s of abortion, and retained placenta of unknown origin in
previous studies (6).
369
Blood Sample Collection
About 10 mL of blood was collected form the jugular or coccigeal vein of each
selected animal using plain vacutainer tubes and allowed to clot overnight at room
temperature. The serum samples were separated and transported in iceboxes to Rwanda
Animal Resources Development (RARDA) Veterinary Research and Diagnostic
Laboratory, in Kigali and stored at -20°C until testing.
Serological detection of Brucella antibodies
At RARDA, the Rose Bengal Plate test (RBPT) was used to screen the serum
samples to detect the presence of Brucella agglutinins. Serum samples from cattle were
tested using RBPT according to standard methods as described by (1, 2). Briefly, the sera
and antigen were brought to room temperature for 45 min before use. One Brucella
positive and one negative reference samples were used on each plate. Equal volumes (30
µl) of serum and antigen (concentrated suspension of B. abortus, Weybridge strain 99;
Institut Pourquier, France) were mixed and rotated on a glass plate for 4 minutes. Presence
of agglutination was regarded as positive.
Data analysis
The data collected in the field were entered into a computer on a Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet. Statistical analysis (multivariate logistic regression) was performed using
‘Statistical package for the social sciences’ (SPSS), version 11.5 (for Windows). The
prevalence proportion was calculated as the number of animals testing positive by the
RBPT, divided by the total number of animals tested. Three epidemiological parameters
were generated, the herd prevalence, within-herd prevalence, and individual prevalence.
Herd prevalence was calculated by dividing the number of herds with at least one reactor
in RBPT by the number of all herds tested (Equation 1). The within-herd prevalence was
calculated by dividing the number of RBPT reactors within a herd by the number of serum
samples tested in the herd (Equation 2). The individual or total prevalence was calculated
by dividing the number of RBPT positive animals by the total number of animals tested
(Equation 3). Equations below show how the three epidemiological parameters were
derived.
1. Herd prevalence =
number of herds with at least one positive reactor
Number of herds sampled
number of positive reactors
2. Within-herd prevalence =
Number of serum samples tested from this herd
3. Individual animal prevalence = number of individual positive reactors
Number of serum samples tested.
Analyses were carried out to compute proportions of seropositive animals
(stratified by sector, breed, sex, and parity where relevant) and their 95% confidence
intervals (CI). The association between each risk factor and the outcome variable was
assessed using the Chi-square (2) test. For all analyses, statistical significance between
variables was examined using P-value at critical probability of P < 0.05 (a p-value of less
than 0.05 was taken as significant).
Results
Out of a total of 998 serum samples tested, 99 (9.9 %) reacted positive for
brucellosis using the Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT). Bovine brucellosis was detected in
370
nine out of the ten sectors in Nyagatare, and 62 herds out of the 205 herds studied were
seropositive. The overall brucellosis herd prevalence rate (HP), i.e. at least one positive
RBT reactor identified in a herd, was associated with sector (X2 = 8851.228, P = 0.000),
Breed (X2 = 413.567, P= 0.002), and parity of the cow (X2 = 580.292, P = 0.000).
Significantly higher HP values were reported for Byera (100%), Katabagemu (45.45 %),
and Rwimbogo (42.86 %) sectors (Table 1). In Gatunda sector, while all the two herds
from Byera Sector were seropositive giving an HP of 100 %. HP in other sectors ranged
from 0 % to 33.33 % (mean 15.46 % ±11.35) in Karama sector, 7 % to 60 % (mean 32.18
± 13.21) in Karangazi sector, 0 % to 41 % (mean 35.49 % +/- 8.920) in Rwimiyaga
sector, and, 0 % to 100 % (mean 18.41 % ± 26.60) in Tabagwe sector. The herd
prevalence was 29.62% in Ankole cattle (95% CI: 28.36 to 30.87) and 23.71 (95% CI:
17.23 to 30.19) in purebred Friesian-Holstein cattle, with a statistically significant
difference (x2 = 413.567, P = 0.000).
Individual animal prevalence (IAP), i.e. number of individual positive reactors,
differed (P < 0.05) between and within the sectors. Significant higher overall IAP´s were
found in Byera (20 %), Rwimiyaga (12.17%), and Rwimbogo (12 .00 %) (Table 1).This
study showed a higher seroprevalence (by RBT) of brucellosis in local cows than purebred
Friesian Holstein cows (Table 2). Individual animal prevalence was 9.75 % (95 % CI: 9.34
to 10.16) in Ankole cattle and 7.15 % (95% CI: 5.46 to 8.84) in Purebred Friesian-Holstein
cattle with a statistically significant difference (x2 =335.339, 28 df, P= 0.000).
There was no statistically significant difference in individual prevalence between
Ankole cows and crossbred cows, Ankole and purebred Jersey, and Ankole and purebred
Guernsey cattle (Table 2). Similarly, the prevalence of brucellosis in cattle was found to
be higher in the older parities than younger ones. Overall seropositivity to bovine
brucellosis was 5.9 % (12/204) for parity 1, 11.05 % (20/181) parity 2, 11.04 % (18/163)
parity 3, 14.29 % (11/77) parity 4, and 8.82 % (3/34) for parity 5. However, no statistically
significant difference was observed in the prevalence of brucellosis between male and
female animals.
Table 1. Herd, within herd, and individual animal prevalence based on RBT
stratified by sector in Nyagatare
Byera
Gatunda
Karama
Karangazi
Katabagemu
Matimba
Musheri
Rwimbogo
Rwimiyaga
Tabagwe
Total
N1
+ve
herds
Herd prevalence
in % (CI)
2
3
15
81
11
8
5
7
54
19
205
2
0
2
26
5
1
1
3
19
4
63
100.00a (100.0, 100.0)
0.00b (0.00, 0.00)
15.46c (11.15, 19.78)
32.18d (30.92, 33.44)
45.45e (45.45, 45.45)
12.50fc (12.50, 12.50)
20.00gc (20.00, 20.00)
34.38hd(34.38, 34.38)
35.49ih (34.45, 36.53)
18.41jcg(11.15, 25.67)
31.66 (30.68, 32.65)
Within Herd
prevalence in
% (CI)
20.00a (20.00, 20.00)
0.00b(0.00, 0.00)
8.05ai (-1.92, 18.02)
9.92ag (8.36, 11.49)
11.53ah (7.01, 16.04)
1.89c(0.54, 3.23)
5.56d(1.68, 9.44)
21.71af(11.93, 31.50)
11.19aj(9.14, 13.23)
5.56e (0.91, 10.20)
9.93(8.85, 11.01)
N2
Cases
10
9
29
427
59
53
36
35
286
54
998
2
0
3
42
7
1
2
7
32
3
99
Individual
prevalence in
% (CI)
20.00a(20.00, 20.00)
0.00b(0.00, 0.00)
10.34c(9.47, 11.22)
9.84dc(9.38, 10.30)
11.86ec(11.86, 11.86)
1.89fb(1.89, 1.89)
5.56g(5.56, 5.56)
12.00hc(12.00, 12.00)
12.17ieh(11.82, 12.52)
5.56jg(4.21, 6.90)
9.92(9.62, 10.22)
N1 = Number of herds, N2 = number of animals sampled, CI = Confidence interval
Figures with similar superscripts within a column are not statistically different at P < 0.05
Figures in parentheses represent the lower and upper limits of the confidence interval
371
Table 2. Herd, within herd, and individual animal prevalence based on RBT
stratified by breed in Nyagatare.
Breed
N Cases Herd prevalence
Within-Herd
Individual Prevalence
in % (CI)
prevalence in % (CI)
in % (CI)
Ankole
520
52
29.62a (28.36, 30.87)
11.19 (8.57, 13.81)
9.75a (9.34, 10.16)
4.03 (1.76, 6.29)
7.15b (5.46, 8.84)
Friesian
53
3
23.71b (17.23, 30.19)
8.42 (6.67, 10.16)
9.50a (8.91, 10.09)
Crosses
248
22
33.16c (31.07, 35.24)
ac
6.11 (-3.89, 16.11)
8.88ab (1.29, 16.46)
Jersey
12
1
28.89 (-10.40, 68.19)
ac
4.00 (-7.11, 15.11)
7.17ab (-2.18, 16.53)
Guernsey 13
1
31.69 (-16.25, 79.63)
Total
832
30.30 (29.18, 31.42)
9.83 (8.10, 11.55)
9.49 (9.15, 9.82)
Figures with similar superscripts within a column are not statistically different at P < 0.05
Discussion
The serological prevalence of brucellosis for 6 out of the 9 infected sectors of
Nyagatare district included in this survey was around 10 % with a 99 % confidence.
Considering that no formal control programme is in place, that about 1.1 % vaccinate their
cattle against brucellosis each year (6), and that other surveys in East African and subSaharan Africa frequently encountered prevalence in excess of 10 % (31), the high
prevalence of the disease here, is not surprising. Overall, our results indicated that bovine
brucellosis was endemic in Nyagatare district.
Since very few vaccinations against brucellosis are carried out in the district, the
seroprevalence figures obtained are a reliable estimate of exposure to wild type Brucella
spp. The mean prevalence of the disease ranged from 1.89 % in Matimba sector to 20 % in
Byera sector (Table 1). The finding of such a higher prevalence of the disease among the
sectors is supported by observations of high incidences of abortion and retained placenta
previously reported in Nyagatare (6).
The observed significant difference in herd, within herd, and individual animal
prevalence of brucellosis signifies differences in breeds of dairy cows kept and animal
husbandry practices prevailing among the different sectors. For example, 18 out of the 54
animals tested in Tabagwe sector (individual prevalence 5.56 %) were improved breeds
while 55 out of the 59 tested in Katabagemu sector (individual prevalence 11.96%) were
crosses between exotic and local cows. The low prevalence in herds with a higher
proportion of improved breeds is likely to be explained by zero grazing feeding practices
that minimizes contacts between herds and animals. Most purebred cows are concentrated
along the peri-urban centers, townships, and are mostly fed barna grass through the cut
and carry system (6). However, the “cut and carry” system of feeding may serve as a
potential risk for bovine brucellosis when the fodder is collected from areas used by
indigenous traditional cattle.
The higher prevalence of bovine brucellosis in herds with a higher proportion of
local or cross bred breeds of cattle is likely to be explained by the extensive system of
grazing management practiced for such cows. In extensive grazing, animals from different
locations, and likely of different brucellosis status, come into close contact in pastures or
at watering points which facilitates spreading of the disease between and within herds (16,
17). Discharges from aborting animals or following normal birth contaminate pastures and
possibly lead to higher herd prevalence rates in extensively managed animals. In addition,
the mixing of local and exotic herds favors increased spreading of brucellosis between and
within herds (26, 27). The prevalence of brucellosis in cattle in the extensive management
system in this study agrees with reports from other countries with similar cattle husbandry
systems (15, 4, 19, 26, 27).
372
It was observed that the local Ankole cattle or their crosses with exotic breeds made up the
majority of the total sampled and also the seropositive animals, hence, breed alone may not have
played a key role in the results reported. As explained above, the breed factor relates more to how
the breeds are perceived and managed rather differences in breed susceptibility to brucellosis per
ser. It can be argued that the observed differences in prevalence of brucellosis between
indigenous and exotic animals are mostly attributed to differences in exposure to
infectious animals or materials as a result of differences in management. The finding of
high proportions of seropositive animals in indigenous as apposed to exotic breeds
conform to results of a recent study in Tanzania which also reported similar observations
(18)
.
There was no further investigation to identify the Brucella species infecting cattle
in this area, where breeding of cattle alongside goats and sheep is a common practice. It is
therefore not possible from the results of this study to rule out that besides B. abortus
infections, B. melitensis, originating from the small ruminant reservoir, may also infect
cattle as described by OIE (24). However, despite this limitation, this study has revealed
that, in spite of the fact that official data from Rwanda about brucellosis is lacking, the
disease is still enzootic in some parts of the country and the risk posed to the human
population and the economy of cattle production should not be underestimated (11).
In this discussion, parity was taken as a rough estimate of age and it appears a
statistically significant effect of parity on prevalence of brucellosis existed. The
prevalence of brucellosis increased with increasing parity or age of the cow. Susceptibility
of older cows has been attributed to the effects of sex hormones and erythritol, which
stimulate the growth and multiplication of Brucella organisms. These substances tend to
increase in concentration with age and sexual maturity of cattle (30). The observations that
the prevalence of brucellosis increases with parity or age of the cow are consistent with the
findings of several other researchers who reported significantly higher proportion of
positive reactors in older animals (29, 3, 34, 21).
In the present study, no male reactors were identified. None of the bulls tested in
the present study reacted positively to RBPT. However, the absence of male reactor
animals in this study could probably be due to the smaller number of male (n = 24)
animals studied as compared to females (n = 974). Even though it is difficult to draw a
firm conclusion, due to the smaller sample of males, the lack of difference between the
two sexes observed in this study corroborates established facts about the disease. Hirsh
and Zee (14) have reported that male animals are less susceptible to Brucella infection,
due to the absence of erythritol. Further, testes of infected male animals do not always
react to the infection or show low antibody titers (23, 10), thereby contributing to low
seroprevalence in this particular sex. Present observations are comparable with many
others (3, 4, 21).
In estimating exposure to brucellosis, the Rose Bengal Test (RBPT) should ideally
be used as a screening test, followed by more specific tests such as Serum agglutination
(SAT) or compliment fixation test (CFT) because the specificity of this test is low (20). In
addition, RBPT has limitations in the diagnosis of chronic brucellosis because the test
mainly detects IgM, yet the amount of IgM in serum of infected animals declines with
time to levels below the sensitivity of this test (34). However, these more specific tests are
currently not available in Rwanda. Nevertheless, regardless of low specificity, RBPT is an
excellent test to use in order to detect early infections (11). Therefore, it’s possible the
prevalence reported herein maybe an underestimation of the true situation on the ground.
Despite the dairy productivity implications, the high prevalence of brucellosis as
observed in this study pauses undisputable risk to the human population given the fast
growing dairy farming sector and intensification of livestock production in Nyagatare. The
373
high prevalence of bovine brucellosis, a livestock and zoonotic disease, which is easily
amenable to control through effective use of existing disease control technology such as
use reliable vaccines reflects failure of veterinary extension within the country.
Conclusion
From this study, it can be concluded that brucellosis is enzootic in Nyagatare and
could be the major cause of reproductive wastage previously reported from the same
district (6). This disease presents a significant impediment to the economic potential of
dairy production and is a zoonotic hence preventive and control measures should
immediately and strictly be implemented to protect animals and humans from brucellosis.
Further significance of the present findings relate to the fact that brucellosis is a
significant health hazard in human beings, causing a variety of chronic debilitating
illnesses for people who either come into contact with infected animals or consume
infected dairy products. Both, the control of infertility and prevention of brucellosis
infection in humans provide enough justification for the advocacy of brucellosis control
measures.
Recommendations
The authors recommend further epidemiological studies and isolation and
identification of the biotypes of Brucella responsible for infection in Nyagatare. Such
investigations have important implications for the type of vaccine that should be used and
when monitoring the efficacy of control programmes. The further investigations above
could should pave the way for mass vaccination to reduce the incidence of the disease to
significantly low and manageable levels prior to implementing a test and slaughter policy
where cattle, sheep and goat testing positive for brucellosis are slaughtered to remove
source of infection from the herd.
Large-scale studies are also required to determine the epidemiology of brucellosis
in humans. The impacts of the disease on the health of the local population can be
decreased through awareness campaigns which can be initiated through training of animal
health technicians on the routes of infection and preventive measures such as boiling of
milk before consumption and avoidance of contact with aborted material and placentas.
Owing to the relatively nonspecific symptoms in humans and a frequent lack of
information on zoonotic diseases (9), it is further important to inform and collaborate with
the human health services to increase the likelihood of correct diagnosis and treatment as
well as to advocate the prevention of the disease through precautionary measures.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the staff of Umutara Polytechnic and ISAR involved in this
survey
and the stock owners for their cooperation. Without their assistance the work could not
have been carried out.
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376
SURVIVAL ETHICS: CONSEQUENCES FOR APPROPRIATE
TECHNOLOGY
Charles C Verharen
Howard University, Department of Philosophy, Washington, DC 20059 USA
Key words: ethics, science, appropriate technology, survival
Abstract
This essay examines critically the demarcation of ethics and science. While its method is
theoretical rather than experimental, it proposes a research program as a logical next
step to test its conclusions. It offers a conceptual foundation for a new ethics whose chief
aim is the survival of life. Only a global consensus can challenge contemporary threats to
life. The foundation of this new ethics is compatible with classical ethical systems. The
essay's concluding sections will sketch the consequences of survival ethics for new
definitions of "appropriate" technology. The conclusion proposes both a new discipline
called teleonomics that combines philosophy, science, and technology, as well as a
demonstration project to test the feasibility of this new discipline.
INTRODUCTION
The discipline of ethics has never achieved consensus. Historically, this aspect of
ethics has been an asset rather than a failure. The varieties of philosophical disagreement
have amplified our choices about how we should live our lives. However, humanity now
confronts a crisis never before experienced: the human destruction of life as we know it.
A nuclear war of significant proportion will destroy the food chain through nuclear winter.
Growing consensus acknowledges that global warming carries the threat of imminent
species extinction. The unprecedented magnitude of these threats to life demands a global
response. That response must be grounded in a common sense of ethics, a whole earth
ethics.
Saturated in the wrangling that characterizes philosophy, current ethical systems
cannot achieve that consensus. Philosophers and neuroscientists have recently suggested
new methods for doing ethics as we begin to understand more clearly the relations
between brain and behavior. Kwame Anthony Appiah’s Experiments in Ethics insists that
ethics is at its core an experimental discipline [1]. Richard Joyce’s more radical The
Evolution of Morality displaces ethics into the neurobiological and psychological sciences
[2].
This essay examines critically the demarcation of ethics and science. While its
method is theoretical rather than experimental, it proposes a research program as a logical
next step to test its conclusions. It offers a conceptual foundation for a new ethics, a
survival ethics, whose chief aim is the survival of life. Only a global understanding can
challenge contemporary threats to life. The foundation of this new ethics is compatible
with classical ethical systems developed over the past five thousand years. The essay's
concluding sections will sketch the consequences of survival ethics for new definitions of
"appropriate" technology. The conclusion proposes a new discipline called teleonomics
that combines the strengths of philosophy, science, and technology. The conclusion also
proposes a demonstration project to test the feasibility of this new discipline.
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The foundation for a survival ethics springs from a comparison of rationality and
ethicality. Richard Joyce collapses ethics into the neurobiological and psychological
sciences. These sciences attempt to explain the origins and development of ethics by
means of evolutionary theory. The mainspring of this kind of explanation is genetic
change and natural selection. More traditional philosophers like Kwame Anthony Appiah
resist the conflation of science and ethics. For them, science is an instrument of
generalized description. Scientific generalizations do not have the force of ethical
prescriptions. The first two sections of the paper will compare rationality as the
embodiment of contemporary science with ethicality to examine their separability.
RATIONALITY
Rationality’s deepest meaning is to be discovered in its Proto-Indo-European root.
The ar sound in rationality is linked with other words like harmony, architecture,
arithmetic, arm, art, ratio. The sound ar means to join or to connect. Like all rationality,
human rationality is connecting by means of abstractions. Abstractions are patterns
common to environmental and brain states and accessible through transform mechanisms
not now understood. The virtue of an abstraction is its generality, which enables us to
predict and thereby control our environmental and brain states.
This essay engages an instrumental or pragmatic definition of rationality.
Rationality evolves in the service of survival. To be rational, a belief or theory must
correspond with experience, be consistent with other beliefs, be practical, be of wide
scope, be generalized to an appropriate degree, call itself into question when appropriate,
and be meaningful in both semantic and emotional senses.
The conditions of rationality are set by its survival function. Three common
theories of truth express this relationship. The correspondence theory of truth derives its
plausibility from the consideration that brain states must mirror environmental states so
that the organism may make appropriate decisions about actions. The coherence theory of
truth is based on the foundational principle of rationality as connectivity. A connection
either exists or it does not exist; it cannot both exist and not exist at the same time in the
same way. The pragmatic theory of truth reflects the evolutionary origins of rationality.
A theory or belief as an expression of rationality must serve its intended use.
The remaining constraints of rationality follow from evolutionary mechanics. To
be rational is to know all possible facts and theories pertaining to a decision. A rational
belief or theory covers all pertinent belief and experience. The most perfect expression of
the rationality of a belief or theory is its degree of generality. The test of generality is the
ratio between the number of symbols required to express a belief or theory, and the area of
experience covered by the theory or belief. Since the rationality of our beliefs and theories
itself evolves constantly, a penultimate test is the propensity of a belief to call itself into
question.
The final test is a function of the instrumentality of expressing our beliefs. We at
present can only do that through symbols, literally in Greek “throwings-together.”
Symbols are aspects of experience that we choose to re-present other aspects of
experience. The potentially arbitrary nature of the relation between symbol and
symbolized means that we must constantly test that relationship—both for ourselves and
our interlocutors.
With this definition, we can now ask whether there can be a science of rationality.
At this stage of human evolution, there is no algorithm for making guaranteed decisions
about what to believe in making the foundational choices that direct our lives in general,
or our choices of theories and beliefs more particularly. The seven tests of rationality
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constitute a basket that must be sorted through in making rational choices. In extremis,
one might create a hierarchy of values in the basket.
When faced with urgent choices upon which our survival might depend, practicality can
become an overriding concern. Consistency is infamously the “hobgoblin of narrow
minds.” The simplicity or beauty of a theory might encourage its proponents to dismiss
experiments that contravene the theory. Well-established theories become nearly
impossible to question. Widely-shared symbols assumed to have meaning over long
periods may acquire a false semantic stature.
Nonetheless, deeply seated theories that persist over time meet all seven tests of
rationality to the degree possible given the historical limits of understanding. Perfect
rationality implies total knowledge, the myth that animates Plato’s definition of
philosophy as love of wisdom or perfect knowledge. Philosophers through the ages have
made their reputations through acts of hypertrophy—emphasizing one of the tests of
rationality to the exclusion or diminution of others.
Thus Leibniz’s “universal calculus” sets the stage for computation based on noncontradiction or consistency as the primary test of rationality. Locke, Berkeley and Hume
exaggerate the role of empirical (rather than imaginary or calculative) experience. The
eponymous pragmatists embellish the role of practicality in rationality. Idealists like
Hegel, Spinoza, and Plato focus on the importance of generalization or simplification.
Socrates makes his mark by emphasizing the hyper-reflexive character of rationality: “We
know only that we don’t know.”
Twentieth-century analytic philosophers like
Wittgenstein make the most important if not the sole burden of philosophy the need to
clarify meanings.
These European philosophers demonstrate the variegated nature of rationality.
Given our historical perspective, it would be a grave mistake to imagine with them that
one aspect of rationality is of overriding importance—or even to imagine that there is no
more to life than rationality. Rationality is in fact itself a value. As the primary
instrument of human survival, rationality's importance may appear to be paramount.
Humans are weak, slow, dimly sensing, poorly naturally armed, tasty creatures that would
yield to our competitors at the top of the food chain if not for our ability to think.
Thinking is generalizing through abstraction in order to predict and control the future.
Philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Kant have exaggerated rationality's
importance, declaring it to be the primary human value. However, rationality itself
depends on our survival for its exercise. Pleasure also drives us toward survival, as do
love, caring, and community bonding in our lives. Freedom, happiness, and contemplation
as well are close allies of survival. Nevertheless, survival cannot be given a role as the
preeminent value because many humans whom we respect and cherish over the ages have
sacrificed their own survival for the sake of values they deemed more important than
survival--love in the case of Christ, duty for Socrates, satyagraha for Gandhi.
Rationality and ethicality are analogous in that no single element or trait can
encompass the whole of either characteristic, as I will show in the next section of the
paper. The bridge to ethicality is to ask what the value of rationality is for life itself. Shall
we use "rational" means to judge our fundamental values? Does rationality receive its
own value through an instrumental analysis along evolutionary lines? Is rationality
valuable as an end in itself, or only as it serves other ends, such as survival or freedom or
happiness?
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ETHICALITY
Ethicality first requires its own definition. Ethics has acquired the sense of a field
distinct from morals. Morals refers to behavior that is customary or acceptable in a given
society. Ethics means the study of morals and more deeply the study of value itself. What
is valuable is what is desired or, more strictly, what is desirable given some set of
fundamental assumptions.
At its most basic level, ethics considers appropriate mechanisms for choosing principles or
values to guide our lives. Rationality and ethicality are analogous in the sense that both are
complex phenomena that cannot be given a single-factor analysis. Both are indispensable
for choosing the directions of our lives. What I want to do in this section is to draw an
analogy between tests for rationality and ethicality. Just as rationality cannot have a single
defining criterion, so ethicality is expressed through a basket of values. The separate
values have their champions in the history of philosophy. Each philosopher makes a case
for a single value’s having overriding status.
The history of African, Asian, and European ethics presents a medley of
sometimes conflicting goods. Early African and Asian primary values appear to be
commonsensical and grounded in the conditions necessary for human survival and
flourishing. The oldest written philosophy, that of ancient Egypt starting around 2800
BCE, presents Maat as the highest good. Maat is variously translated as harmony, order,
peace, justice, tranquility.
Other African cultures like the Oromo in Ethiopia emphasize a similar overriding
ethical principle. The principal ethical good of the Borana, the Oromo group in the
southernmost part of Ethiopia bordering on Kenya, is Nagaa, translated as peace or
harmony. The Oromo ensure a community-wide harmony among themselves, their
neighbors, and the environment through a democratic system called gaada.
The ancient Chinese philosophy of Taoism, canonized by Lao-Tzu and ChuangTzu around 600 BCE, enjoins the ethical principles of wu-wei, translated as passive nondoing. The Taoists, as their name suggests, believe that the universe is comprised of a
single principle, the Tao, which is a balance of complementary principles striving for
harmony. As the Tao or nature seeks its balance, humans live well if they follow nature’s
guiding principle of harmony rather than forcefully imposing an artificial system of
control on nature.
The common-sense principles of Maat, Naaga, and Wu-Wei contrast sharply with
the ethical maxims of other ancient traditions. Hindu philosophy enjoins a value of
moksha or liberation from our common-sense conviction that this life we live daily is real
rather than a dream. The primary ethical practice of this tradition is meditation, known
through the practices of yoga, or the union of Self with God. Buddhism dispenses with the
metaphysical presuppositions of Hinduism to focus on a single practical problem—how to
eliminate suffering or achieve nirvana. Like Hinduism, however, Buddhism focuses on
meditation as the instrument of liberation from suffering.
Plato's concept of the good is the very idea of good itself. For Plato, the whole
point of life is to contemplate the perfect model of all that is good. Plato stands out among
Greek ethicists for making the contemplation of the good by an immortal soul the
overarching end of humanity. Other Greek ethicists are much more down to earth. The
hedonists notoriously make pleasure the end of all ends. Aristotle rejects pleasure and
substitutes happiness. He defines happiness as activity in accord with excellence.
Excellence is a function of the nature of an organism. As thinking beings, our highest
activity is thinking, and the greatest kind of thinking is thinking about thinking itself,
defined by Aristotle as contemplation or philosophy.
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Subsequent European philosophies lose this passion for pure abstraction, but make
abstraction the ground for more practical pursuits—the enslavement and colonization of
large portions of the world's populations. Augustine carries on the theoretical Christian
tradition of universal, unconditional love as the primary ethical principle. However, this
principle, first enunciated by the now little known Chinese philosopher Mo Di (or Mozi)
in the fifth century BCE, is honored more in the breach than in the observance.
Subsequent ethicists in the European tradition subscribe to more common-sense ethical
principles: pleasure for Bentham and Mill; duty expressed through universalization for
Kant; freedom for Hegel, Marx, and the existentialists; and the return to the basics of
survival and flourishing by "American" pragmatists like James, Dewey, and Rorty.
These apparently quite diverse and seemingly random ethical "goods" or values
can be reduced to a basket of seven fundamental values. My reduction here is provisional.
The basic values are survival, rationality, pleasure, love, happiness, freedom, and
contemplation. They cut across African, Asian, and European traditions, and they are
associated with the most illustrious philosophers in the traditions of these continents. The
common key values are the following: survival for Darwinists, pragmatists, Taoists, and
Africans; pleasure for hedonists, Bentham, and Mill; rationality for Kant, Hegel, and
Spinoza; love or caring for Christians, Mohists, and feminists; happiness for Aristotle;
freedom for Hegel, Marx; and contemplation or meditation for Hindus, Buddhists, and
many Judaic, Christian, and Muslim sects.
Can these disparate values be ranked or does each hold an independent status, as is
the case with the basket of values comprising rationality? As the pragmatic criterion for
believing a theory may sometimes take precedence over other rational values, so survival
may under certain circumstances trump all other values—particularly for communities or
for the whole earth population when survival is at risk. To be good, after all, is first to be.
If survival is not an issue, however, it may deserve little consideration in choosing the
fundamental values that are to serve as guidelines for one's life.
Nonetheless, the six values other than survival may be given an explanation
through evolutionary considerations. Rationality is the primary instrument of human
survival. Pleasure is the stimulus for the behaviors most necessary for the survival of the
species--breathing, temperature control, hydration, eating, reproduction, and the like.
Love is indispensable for human survival, given the long maturation period of humans and
the need for community bonding for group survival. Variation is key to survival, and the
value of freedom promotes variation. Contemplation may seem to be quite disconnected
from the immediate concerns of survival. However, the primary focus of contemplation or
meditation is the control of the attention.
Ordinarily, random environmental
circumstances dictate the attention’s direction. Survival under this condition is a matter of
luck. Meditation gives the individual rational control of her attention.
The fact that basic human values may be grounded in considerations of survival
does not confer a privileged status on survival. In fact, we may deliberately choose to
dismiss survival as a ground value. We may very well be the kind of species that sets up
the "ethical" conditions for its own extinction. Powerful historical slogans point in this
direction: "Live free or die!" "Give me liberty or give me death!" "Patria o muerte!"
Religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam proclaim that this
life is merely a test. "Real" life starts only after death or transcendence of life.
However, the fact that the survival of the species is now at risk makes survival an
issue of overriding contemporary concern. The key question is whether enough humans
believe that a primary mission of our lives is pass life on to our successors in better
condition than we have received this gift. If this proves to be the case, we need a new
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"technology" to furnish the grounds for continuing life. This technology must synthesize
three disciplines: ethics or philosophy, science, and technology itself. The technology
must find a common ground for a "whole earth" ethics that the majority of humans,
regardless of their individual cultures and religious beliefs, can subscribe to. This new
ethics must have as its primary focus the survival of the species.
TELEONOMICS: A NEW STRATEGY FOR A SURVIVAL ETHICS
My proposal for a new discipline assumes that basic human values or ends are
naturally defined. Just as we are born to be grammatical, so we are conceived to be ethical
[3]. Nevertheless we can assign hierarchies to naturally ordained values as well as subvert
them. The enterprise of selecting our deepest ethical ends, interpreting what they mean,
and assigning weights to them is a basic task of philosophy or more specifically ethics.
This task includes highly theoretical proposals for achieving ends or values in ways that
are consonant with other ends.
A quite separate enterprise is the task of actually achieving these ends. This part of
the enterprise must be both scientific and technological. I define science as the system of
generalizations and explanations that we use to understand, anticipate, and control
experience. Technology is defined as the art of translating our understanding of
experience into action. I call the fusion of philosophy, science, and technology
teleonomics after the Greek terms for ends and laws.
The point of teleonomics is threefold: to choose ethical ends consonant with
survival; to propose general means for achieving those ends through scientific reflection;
and finally to propose practical means for realizing those ends through a synthesis of
appropriate technologies.
The epistemological status of teleonomics must be comparable to that of
economics, the “rules of the house” in Greek. Scientific generalizations about “what
happens when” with respect to human behavior are notoriously statistical and often
unreliable. However, the less general aspects of teleonomics are based on experience, and
are quite reliable. Appropriate technologies exist to translate scientific or common sense
generalizations into practical arts. The statements of teleonomics are hypothetical rather
than categorical. Ethics tells us "Thou shalt do thy duty!” or “Thou shalt survive!” or
“Thou shalt maximize pleasure!”
Teleonomics phrases its commands in hypothetical form: "If you wish to survive,
then you must breathe, regulate your temperature, drink, eat, sleep in descending orders of
urgency." Techniques for survival have been worked out over perhaps hundreds of
thousands of years. Teleonomics is a synoptic discipline in that it relies on all other
sciences to project its conclusions. It is an evolving science because it must change its
hypothetical imperatives to fit altered circumstances. Weapons of mass destruction and
global warming provoke unprecedented calls for ethical action.
Teleonomics is a bridge between ethics and science in unique ways. All sciences
have a philosophical component—the extreme assumptions that drive research in the
sciences in different directions, assumptions that cannot be tested given the current state of
knowledge and their degrees of generalization. The Duhem-Quine hypothesis holds that
theories can neither be refuted nor verified, because we cannot test the deepest
assumptions. Parallax serves as an example. Geocentrists held that the failure to detect
parallax meant the earth could not be moving. But geocentrists assumed that the distance
between the earth and the stars was not sufficient to make parallax detection difficult. The
falsity of that assumption required better instruments for measuring stellar distances.
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All sciences face this difficulty. However teleonomics must not only cope with
our inability to test deep ethical assumptions, but also translate scientific generalizations
into appropriate technologies. Appropriate here means ethically appropriate—productive
of global peace and sustainable with respect to the rights of future generations.
Teleonomics must bridge the spectral divides between science and philosophy as well as
between science and technology.
The relations among the three disciplines are not hierarchical. Working with
appropriate technologies may in fact show that our philosophical choices of ends or our
basic scientific understanding of their realization have been wrong. The current
hypertrophy of technology (“things are in the saddle and ride mankind,” as Emerson
declares) illustrates this claim. Choosing to focus on rationality and using complex
technologies to realize basic human values have threatened our survival.
In translating philosophical assumptions into scientific generalizations, and those
generalizations in turn into ethical and sustainable technologies, teleonomics is neither
philosophy nor science nor technology, but a fusion of all three disciplines. The sciences
should furnish the chemistry, physics, and biology of alternative renewable safe energies
and other resources. The technologists or engineers using these fields should propose
appropriate techniques for survival. By reason of its synoptic character, teleonomics is not
a discipline that can be exercised by a single researcher.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper sketches a theoretical instrument for assessing technologies that are
ethically and practically appropriate in the largest possible sense of ensuring human
survival and sustaining our environment. Implementation would entail recruiting
interdisciplinary teams to collaborate on the planning of appropriate micro- and macrotechnologies. The first phase of a practical execution of this research proposal will select
a small-scale demonstration project on water treatment and management to be developed
by an interdisciplinary team of philosophers (Charles Verharen), scientists (George
Middendorf, biology, Howard University) and engineers (John Tharakan, chemical
engineering, Howard University). Because the appropriateness of a technology is
inseparable from reflection on local culture, the team will include anthropologists (Bruce
Dahlin, Shepherdstown University) and critical members of the community (to be selected
from the Global South) where the project is to be implemented and tested.
REFERENCES
[1] Appiah A (2008). Experiments in Ethics. Cambridge, Harvard University Press
[2] Joyce R (2004). The Myth of Morality. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press.
[3] Hauser M (2006). Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense of
Right and Wrong. New York: Harper Collins
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Natural Gas Industry in Iran
Hedayat Omidvar
Member of IGU Marketing Committee Responsible for Strategic Studies, Research &
Technology Dept., National Iranian Gas Company, No.77-Southern Aban St. - Karimkhan
Ave.-Tehran-1598753113-Iran; Email: [email protected]
Abstract
AT the end of March 2007, the remaining quantity of recoverable gas reserves in the
country has been in excess of 28.3 trillion cubic meters that is the second gas rich country
in the word. While the geological studies in certain geographical regions of the country
have not been thoroughly conducted yet. it is likely to explore further reserves of gas in the
future. Therefore a thorough and explicit planning knowledge is essential for utilization of
this energy carrier. Iran is one of the largest gas rich countries in the world that
production potentials exceed gas injection and domestic consumption requirements. Gas
can be utilized as feedstock for petrochemical and refining products or exported through
pipelines or as LNG. By injecting gas into oil reservoirs while increasing the oil recovery
ratio of oil fields, gas storage from production of shared reservoirs into non – shared
reservoirs is as well accomplished.
Gas consumption in domestic markets and its substitution with oil products in
addition to environmental benefits, will also result into the optimum consumption of these
products and relieve the government from the heavy burden of existing subsidies and the
heavy expenditures of importing these products into the country.
To supply gas requirements, proper operation and appropriate production of shared
reservoirs such as south pars with the objective of securing gas requirements and
providing balance of supply and demand as well as utilization of maximum share in these
reservoirs are other essentials towards development of this vital industry.
Several energy experts and Iran's economy analysts believe that further expansion and
utilization of natural gas is an essential element for sustainable development and this
energy carrier is considered the superior fuel of the 21 century.
According to reliable estimations, natural gas in regard to its intrinsic characteristics and
especially environmental suitability is one of the energy carriers that will attain the
highest growth rate among other energy carriers with in the next two decades which itself
is indicative for consumption growth of this substance in the global basket of energy
consumption.
The need of the world's countries for energy sources along the enormous natural
gas reserves in the country opens broad economical, political dialogue scene towards us
and contributes an outstanding strategic significance to our gas resources.
Iran, regard to her geographical and political strategic situation. Can play a leading role
in global gas supply and act as a bridge between the enormous Middle Eastern gas
reserves with major gas consumption and demand centers in Europe and Asia
Planning and policy making regarding the development of gas industry, it is
essential to manage all aspects of gas from exploration and production to consumption,
injection and exports and etc. is essential to be administered by the national Iranian gas
company so that prepared plans could be implemented without being subject to such
problems as lack of coordination, parallel activities and organizational difficulties.
The Islamic republic of Iran having access to enormous quantities of gas reserves,
towards attaining the appropriate disposition in regard to her volume of reserves should
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as well furnish the provision of absorbing the world's up to date technological capital , to
compensate her remoteness from worlds gas markets.
The 21 century is the century of gas and our country potentially and in an
exceptional manner, by adopting an organized strategy ,could portray the most natural
and influential role for the people and the country's economy as well as in the region and
the world.
The increasing global needs for hydrocarbon energies and related industries /
encompasses one of the golden opportunities for our country.
In conclusion it is worth mentioning that within that the next 10 years Iran
requires capital investment in excess of $50 billion in her gas industry to become capable
of accomplishing objectives such as supply of domestic demands/provide the necessary
gas for injection to oil wells / increase gas reservoirs/added value through transaction
with industries and to realize proper disposition in regional and global gas market.
Preface
The country's gas reserves today is over 28 trillion cubic meters and in terms of
calorific value equivalent to over 176 billion barrels of crude oil which this figure far
exceeds the country's stated crude oil reserves for some 136 billion barrels and therefore
with this account from the country's total hydrocarbon reserves 60% consists of natural
gas and 40%crude oil that considering further oil reservoirs operating complexities and
serious uncertainties concerning the actual quantity of these reserves and the existence of
issues such as ratio of recovery and quantity of recoverable oil reserves and etc, the
certainly of statistical information for the country's gas reserves will exceeds oil reserves
statistics.
Iran holding 17% of global gas reserves is privileged with an outstanding and
exceptional standing among gas rich countries. However Iran's market share does not
comply with share of reserves and due to enormous investment expenditures for
production and transmission of gas to global markets and remoteness from consumption
markets and increasing domestic requirements ,Iran has not been able to achieve yet a
standing in proportion to the quantity of her reserves in the global market.
The most apparent reason for the increasing significance of natural gas and its
entry into the competition market of other energy sources is the statistics unfolding the
increasing dependence of the global industrial sector to natural gas.
The quantity of gas utilized as a source of energy by various global industrial
sectors has reached to44% and share of electricity in this sector as well is 13% in general
based upon annual assessments, the share of natural gas in total energy consumption is
23%.
Analysts emphasize that the significance of natural gas in future will still increase
due to its low pricing and minimal environmental polluting impact.
Natural gas market is constantly expanding and its dependency as a clean source of energy
has also increased in different sectors.
Obviously these assessments have been submitted assuming current conditions and
with consideration to the extensive research being implemented. If a major technological
breakthrough takes place in this respect and especially the process of producing oil
products from natural gas GTL turns in to a feasible process and refinery products are
substituted by these manufactured products in the transportation sector, a major step
forward will emerge in natural gas demand.
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Furthermore / in respect to the environmental protection issues and agreements
there will be more serious endeavors taking place to substitute the global basket of energy
consumption with natural gas .
The estimations are also indicative that within the next two decades, global natural
gas demand will further exceed other primary energies.
Natural gas in regard to intrinsic characteristics and especially environmental
compatibility is one of the energy carriers that until year 2030 will maintain the highest
growth rate among other energy carriers and this in effect suggests that the share of natural
gas in global basket of energy consumption is gaining momentum. the Islamic republic of
Iran in consideration to her geo- strategic disposition located among two regions with
huge global natural gas reservoirs ( the former Russia and Persian gulf border countries ) /
is considered the second largest gas rich country in the word ( after Russia )
Obviously the second largest gas rich country in the word can not ignore entering
the global society of natural gas exporters.
Therefore Iran possessing extremely rich natural gas reservoirs and also as the
most economical/ secure and the most immediate gas transit route to global markets
among regions countries especially the east Asia and European countries has an
indisputable role in the region and it is reasonable to study the possibilities of natural gas
markets.
LNG is considered a competitor of pipeline gas transmission to consumption
markets. For short distance and bulk- market transmission cases usually utilizing pipeline
has the least expenditures. In other words utilizing LNG is the most appropriate
technology for transmission of gas within long distances.
Factors such as reducing LNG production expenditure increasing demands for
imports of LNG and tendency of gas producers for economical production of remote gas
reservoirs have impacted the increasing natural gas trade through LNG.
The consequences of these factors have impacted the global LNG trade by
initiating a new trend that have had annual growth rate of almost 6.8% between years 1995
to 2005 ( that is trade increased from 92 to 188.8 billion ) . in year 1995 /there were 8
exporting and 8 importing LNG countries at global level while in year 2005 this number
has altered to 13 exporting and 14 importing countries the capabilities of the gas sector in
Iran's economy are quite obvious and it could be barely claimed that optimum utilization
of gas resources and related industries will be one of the country fundamental issues for
economical development during future decades. In any case / one can not disregard the
very fact that utilization of these capabilities will depend on absorption of required capital
and technology.
Iran intends to become one of the largest LNG producing countries in the world
through annual production of 75 million tons of LNG The agenda of this plan includes
construction of 5 LNG projects in the new region of Tonbak called (pars LNG), (Iran
LNG) LNG and two LNG projects utilizing gas production from reservoirs of Golshan
/Ferdos and north pars.
The (Iran LNG) project will liquefy 1940 million cubic feet/day (5o million cubic
meters /day) from gas production of south pars phase 12. after project conclusion ( Iran
LNG ) approximately 10 million tons of LNGWILL be produced annually that in regard
to the expanding market to this product and approaching the commencement of this
project in year 2012 and energy consumption transition from oil to gas /this project is
expected to have a special disposition towards supplying global market requirements. in
domestic sector the country's gas treating capacity with a growth rate exceeding 10 % has
also reached to440 million cubic meters / day and furthermore through utilization of south
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pars gas reservoirs phases 6 to 10it is anticipated that the country's gas production capacity
will in crease to approximately 600 million cubic meters.
The national Iranian gas company left a track record in the area of transmission in
year 2006 implementing 2900 kilometers of high pressure pipelines and 7 gas compressor
stations which in effect considerably increased the stability and the consistency of the
country's gas transmission system.
In this direction over 53 million people throughout the country have had the
privilege for utilizing natural gas that represents 76% of the population.
The commencement of the national Iranian gas company's dispatching system
operations that is one of the most advanced and extraordinary systems existing in the
world in its own rights has provided more efficient supervisory capabilities for the
national gas transmission system and increased security of supply and the reliability of the
transmission grid especially during peak consumption periods.
In year 2006 a quantity in excess of109 billion cubic meters of gas has been
consumed throughout the country having a growth rate of rate of approximately 12%.
In regard to budget absorption there have been in excess of 70 billion Rials ($5.6
billion and 21 thousand billion Rials) contracts concluded in the national Iranian gas
company.
Moreover the national Iranian gas company has $ 19.7 billion worth of projects being
executed and implemented in the framework of gas transmission pipelines /gas treating
plants and underground storage projects.
Natural Gas Treating & Dehydration Capacity
The country's gas treating and dehydration capacity in the years 1996-2006
indicates as substantial increase of 297.8 million cubic meters / day. The natural gas
treating and dehydration capacity during this period with average annual growth rate of %
13.3 increased from 142.2 to 440million cubic meter/day in year 2006. This increase is
generally contributed to Fadjr, South pars, and Khangiran, Parsian and Sarkhun plants.
THE FADJR ( KANGAN ) plant capacity increase:
This increase has been implemented through optimization and capacity increase of
existing units and utilizing the spare unit through buy-back gas delivery provisions.
Which has increased from 79 million cubic meters / day in year 1997 to 110 million cubic
meters / day in year 2000.
Sh.Hashemi Nejad ( Khangiran ) plants phase Two construction :
The operation for Khangiran plants second phase was commenced in year 2001
with capacity of 17 million cubic meters / day .increasing total gas treating capacity to
44.5 million cubic meters / day .
South pars Gas plant :
1-phases 2 and 3 went on stream in year 2002 with capacity of 57 million cubic
meters/day.
2- Phase 1 of this plant with capacity of 25 million cubic meters / day started operations in
year 2003.
3- Phases 4 and 5 of this plant with capacity of 58 million cubic meters / day went on
stream in year 2004.
Parsian Dehydration plant:
The plant with capacity of 25 million cubic meters /day started operations in year
2003. for a capacity of 25 million cubic meters / day. The subsequent expansion phases of
the plant include. 20 million cubic meters / day by NIGC and 37 million cubic meters /
day by NIOC.
387
Gas transmission pipelines
Implemented high pressure natural gas pipelines in national Iranian Gas Company
indicate construction of approximately 14584 kilometers of pipelines during years 19972006.
The average yearly activity during years 1997-2006 has been 1373 Kilometers
while at the end of year 2005 total length of transmission pipelines reached 22000
kilometers.
Iranian Gas Transmission IV
Objective: Transmission of south pars reservoir and Parsian refinery gas production to
northern regions of the country
(Pipeline construction is at final stages and only compressor stations remain to be
installed)
Iranian Gas Transmission V ( Asaluye – Agha jari )
Objective: Transmission of south pars sour gas production from phase 6, 7&8 to
Khuzestan province for gas injection to oil fields
(Construction to be concluded in late 2007)
Iranian Gas Transmission VI ( Asaluye-Khuzestan )
Objective: Gas delivery to Bushehr province, supply of gas demands for injection to oil
reservoirs and supply of Khuzestan provinces gas shortages.
Iranian Gas Transmission VII
(Gas delivery project to Sistan & Baluchestan province)
Objective: Cities incorporated in the Project in clued the following 48 cities:
-17 cities in eastern regions of Hormuzgan and southern Kerman provinces
-31 cities in Sistan & Baluchestan province
Consumption forecast for year 2021 equal to 50 million cubic / day
Required funds: 2.6 billion
Supply source of funds: General governmental revenues or utilizing financing or buy back
provisions.
Iranian Gas Transmission Viii
Objective: Transmission of new phases of south pars gas production to central and
northern regions of the country en route Assaluye – Eastern Fars Province – Naien –
Eastern Tehran – north eastern Transmission system.
Iranian Gas Transmission IX
(Export pipelines)
Objective: partial supply of gas Lorestan/ Kermanshah / Azarbayjan provinces and gas
exports to Europe
Gas compressor stations
Towards maximum utilization of constructed pipeline capacities / increasing
efficiencies at consumption points and the possibility to complete urban gas networks and
export pipelines/ the design and construction of compressor stations are of significant
importance.
In year 2006 / on the whole / 7 new compressor stations became operational which
were: Dorahan 3/sirjan Abshirin/ (On sarkhun- Kerman pipeline) / Khoramdareh/
Hashtrud (on the second Azerbaijan pipeline) /and Neyzar & Ghom-1 and Marrand.
Compressor stations under construction in year 2007
388
12345678-
Khonj& Lamerd on IGAT-4
Safashahr on IGAT-4
Ghazvin on the second Azerbaijan pipeline
Marganlar on the Export pipeline
Nikpay ( zanjan ) – second turbine
Sh.Mohammadi ( in khoozestan province )
Sh.Mostafavi ( in khoozestan province )
Stations no.2 and Khonj 8 ( on IGAT 8 According to the Transmission system
Requirement Report )
9- Shahreza on IGAT-4
BUY Back Project – phase II
Part (1) item ( G ) Clause 85 of the Islamic Republic of Iran's Third Economical
social and Cultural Development plan .
Part (1) item (y) and item (H) clause 29 of the country's year 2001 budget rule.
LAW for Maximum utilization from technical engineering, productive, industrial

and executive capabilities of the country for project execution and provide
facilities to export services.
Report NO 15/1-3424 of HE the Minister of petroleum to the Management and
programming Organization for Economic Councils consideration.
Ratification NO 1315/200-22652 dated 11/1/2001 of the National Iranian Oil
Company's Board of Directors.
The Economical Councils ratification NO. 34/2172 dated 28/3/2001.
Tri lateral service contract of NIOC, NIGC dated 14/17/2002.
Order NO 1351/200-23158 dated 18/11/2002 of the National Iranian Oil
Company's Board OF Directors.
Project Specifications
Project owner : The National Iranian Oil company ( NIOC )
Execution contractor : The National Iranian Gas company ( NIGC )
Financial contractor : T he Naftiran inter trade company ( NICO )
Net amount : $2,144 million
Gross Amount : $2,385 million
Execution period : 5 years
Initiation date : 14/8/2002
Repayment period : 6 years
Repayment source: project incomes or items stated in item (a) clause 120 in Third
plans Law.
Project Goals

Gas Delivery to 2 million urban and rural households in the country.
Construction of transmission pipelines for delivery of gas to 130 new cities.
Gas delivery to 1500 industrial & major units.
Gas delivery to 44 industrial cities.
Gas delivery to 8 power plants.
Generate natural gas consumption potential for 67 million cubic meters / day.
389

Annual substitution of 186 billion liters of oil products by 25 billion cubic meters
of natural gas towards exports and / or decrease of imports.
Project Items

Completion of Parsian Gas Dehydration plants emergency section (Final capacity
48 million cubic meters / day. )
Construction and completion of 12 gas compressor stations with 1108 total horse
powers.
Construction of 744 Kilometers of high pressure transmission pipe line in
diameters of 40 to 546 inches.
Construction of 3634 Kilometers of high pressure transmission pipelines in
diameters below 36 inches.
Gas delivery to villages in the country (204200 natural gas connections).
To equip and train man power for project operation.
Completion of remaining projects from the Gas Delivery buys back project phase1.
Irans Natural Gas Trade
The Turkmenistan imports contract for annual quantity of 8 billion cubic meters
was signed in year 1995 and gas imports commenced in year 1997.
Implementing the project require construction of a 40 inches 60 kilometers pipeline from
Iran Of Turkmenistan border to Kordkuy
Gas Exports
The gas exports contract to Turkey was signed in year 1996 with the "Botas"
company for annual quantity of 10 billion cubic meters.
To implement the export project, 253 Kilometers of 40 inches pipelines were constructed
from Tabriz to the border city of Bazargan. Exports were commenced as of December
2001.
Natural gas under ground storage project
During year 2006/ the following four projects were under construction:
1- Yortsha – anticline aquifer
2- Sarajeh hydrocarbon reservoir
3- Talkheh-anticline aquifer
4- Central Iran
Main Activities in Research /Development & Technology Division
Holding the first national gas conference
Mid term planning by determining research in 7 following categories:
A- Energy optimization including 6 projects
B- Natural gas transmission / distribution & storage including 15 projects
C- Natural gas processing including 24 projects
D- Corrosion and industrial protection including 7 projects
E- Health /safety and environment (HSE) including 7 projects
F- Legal and executive management including 7 projects
G- Finance / economics 7 business including 7 projects
.
390
“HOW SHALL WE COOK?”
Stella M. Odaba
Solar Cookers International (Ea)
P.O Box 51190 – 00200 Nairobi, Kenya
Keywords: Solar cooking; Energy solutions; Climate change; Deforestation;
Abstract
Use of fossils as the world’s major source of energy has contributed to the release of
carbon emissions and green house gases into the atmosphere causing global warming and
eventual change in climate. Increasing deforestation and escalating petroleum prices,
have led to an energy crisis forcing counties to find alternative, sustainable and affordable
energy especially for domestic cooking and heating. This provides a challenge to
developing countries to develop less carbon-intensive energy systems that would save their
economies, reduce dependence on fuel-wood, save forests and improve living standards of
the majority of their people who depend on the natural resources, especially forests, for
their livelihoods. Much of Kenya’s original forest cover has been lost and currently only
six per cent of the land is forested. Widespread deforestation is contributing to
desertification, low precipitation and general change in climate. The introduction of solar
cookers in Kenya has considerably reduced the daily wood fuel consumption in its
operational areas. This has brought about savings in wood fuel thus preventing
deforestation, and its associated negative climatic impacts. It has improved health,
livelihoods, and quality of life through reduced exposure to indoor air pollution from
smoke, primarily among women and children while promoting clean, reliable, affordable,
efficient and safe home cooking and heating practices.
INTRODUCTION
For many years, climate change was seen as an environmental problem: the focus was
on how to mitigate through cutting emissions of greenhouse gases. In the last few years,
the developmental impacts of climate change are being increasingly realized. Even if
strong measures to cut greenhouse gases are taken now in developed countries, the lags in
the global atmospheric system means that global temperatures will continue to rise for
some time leading to serious impacts in the world. The nature of climate varies and it
includes:
- Increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as storms, floods
and droughts
- Increasingly erratic patterns of rainfall, and decreased rainfall over large areas of
Sub-Saharan Africa
- Rise in sea levels of between 50cm and 149 cm by 2100, with impacts of
freshwater supplies in low lying coastal regions
- Rises in temperatures causing death of coral reefs
- Melting of glaciers with impacts of medium term on flooding and water
availability downstream
391
Nations will need to adapt to the changes that will take place, and the most vulnerable
people in the developing nations will face the greatest challenges and Kenya being one of
these nations is not an exception [1].
CHALLENGE
Almost 3 billion people burn traditional fuels; twigs, agricultural residue, dung, coal
.etc for home cooking and heating. The number of people using these fuels is expected to
increase each year from breathing elevated levels of indoor smoking substantially by 2020.
Subsequently, more than 1.6 million people, mainly women and children, die prematurely
each year from breathing elevated levels of indoor smoke. The technology to burn these
fuels (3 stone fire or rudimentary stores) results in poor combustion efficiently and high
levels of indoors air pollution [2]. (IAP) respirable particulates (small particles of smoke
that get into the lungs) are considered most pollutant, and carbon dioxide is another known
hazard .There are multitudes of reasons why this situation has not received much attention;
- The people concerned are very poor and often biomass and firewood are obtained
at no monetary cost – the time cost is often not considered
- A lack of recognition of the scale of the problem by policy makers until very
recently
- Lack of funds, at government level to address to scale of the problem
- The low status of women and children in many poor communities
- Rural electrification is seen as the key to poverty alleviation though non-grid
systems seldom produce enough power for cooking. People very poor cannot
afford anything more than basic lighting. The many household enterprises that use
biomass and fuel wood are often overlooked in development circles in favour of
electrification. [3]
The situation is to deteriorating and this calls for exploring alternate sources of energy
that are affordable, sustainable, efficient and environmental friendly. Use of renewable
resources can counter the challenges posed by climate change. Mass use of solar, hydro
and wind in combating energy needs can eventually create a sustainable solution for
Africa’s energy in this era of climate change.
SOLAR ENERGY AS AN ALTERNATIVE SOURCE
A concern over clean in – door air and a worsening of environmental situation has
forced nations to look for alternatives sources of energy for domestic cooking and heating
and Kenya is an exception. Cooking fires, are often inefficient, wasting energy, failing to
combust the wood properly, contributing to green house gas release and creating severe
indoor smoke pollution [3]. More and better woodstoves mean less waste, more and health
and a better environment for all. Solar cooking relieves the conflict between their basic
needs and the need to preserve, earths dwindling forests, loss of tree cover leads to climate
change, flooding, erosion, loss of top soil and reduction in agricultural yields.
World distribution of solar radiation
Solar radiation is unevenly distributed throughout the world because of such
variables as solar attitude, which is associated with latitude and season, and atmospheric
conditions, which are determined by cloud coverage and degree of pollution. The most
favourable belt (15- 35º N) encompasses many of the developing nations in northern
392
Africa. It has however 3000 h/year of sunshine and limited cloud cover. More than 90% of
the incident solar radiation comes as direct radiation [4].
The moderately favourable belt (0-15 ºN), or equatorial belt, has high atmospheric
humidity and cloudiness that tend to increase the proportion of the scattered radiation. The
global solar intensity is almost uniform throughout the year as the seasonal variations are
only slight. Sunshine is estimated at 2 500 h/year [4].
Figure 1. Distribution of sunshine in the world [ ]
Why use solar energy?
-
It is not only infinite
It is also plentiful in Africa. Most countries in Africa have plenty of sunshine
nearly 300 days in a year
It is free
It is available at the point of use
It is non-polluting, no smoke
It does not require complicated drilling and refining
Technologies to tap it for different needs – especially for cooking are also available
Applications of solar energy technology
- Active solar lighting method is the hybrid solar lighting (HSL). HSL systems
collect sunshine focusing that track the sun and use optical fibers to transmit it into
a buildings interior to supplement conventional lighting.[5]
- Day lighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior
illumination; they are passive systems. Directly offset energy use by replacing
artificial lighting, and indirectly offset non-solar energy use by reducing the need
for air conditioning [6]
- A range of prototype solar vehicles provide ground, air and sea transportation –
NuNa fastest solar car at TU Delft University in the Netherlands [7].
- Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space
cooling and process heat generation[8]
393
-
Charging batteries and mobile phones[6]
In agriculture, green houses expand growing seasons and pumps powered by solar
cells (photovoltaic) [6]
Solar distillation and disinfection techniques produce portable water for millions of
people. (SODIS) is a simple method in of disinfecting water using only sunlight
and plastic bottles. [6]
For cooking, drying and preservation of foods, simple applications include
clotheslines and solar cookers with concentrate sunlight for cooking [9]
More sophisticated concentrating technologies magnify the rays of the sun for
high-temperature material testing, metal smelting and industrial chemical
production[6]
Used to power eclectic fencing in game reserves[6]
Types of solar cookers
There are many types of solar cookers in the world. The three main types are: Box/
oven cookers, Panel/ combinational cookers and concentrator cookers [9]. Cooking
systems have also been generated in India with capacities of up to 30,000 meals per day
and save fuel for institutions. An example is the Scheffler reflector is a parabolic dish that
uses single axis tracking to follow the suns daily course. [10]
History of Solar Cookers
The principle of the solar cookers has been known for a long time; and the basic
design was published in 1776 in Scientific America [6]
Solar Cookers International (SCI) is based in Sacramento, California, with an Eastern
Africa Regional Office (EARO) in Nairobi Kenya. SCI has promoted the use of simple
low cost solar cookers since 1987. SCI’s refugee camp projects have empowered 25, 000
families in camps in Kenya and Ethiopia from 1995 -2003. Recent data from Zimbabwe
indicates that 40,000 cookers have been sold near Harare and Bulawayo since 1998. For
20 years, SCI has pioneered innovations in solar cooker technology and dissemination
processes. SCI is now recognized as the leading source of information on solar cookers
and solar water pasteurization worldwide. After successful refugee projects solutions are
now being offered to three other communities in Kadibo and Nyakach on the western part
of Kenya and Kajiado on the southern part of Kenya [11].
In Kenya support for the solar oven projects have been provided by several
institutions, among them Earth watch, a US based environmental action organization and
several institutions, the University of Nairobi, the Kenyan National Academy of Sciences,
the Ambassadors Development Agency (of East Africa), the African centre for
Technology Studies (ACTS), Solar Cookers International and the Ministry of Energy. The
Rotary Club of Nairobi East has distributed 500 solar cookers, Cookits’ in Kenya. This has
provided a suitable replacement for cooking basic foods such as githeri (beans and dried
corn) which consumes a lot of fuel and time. There is not enough publicity and training
workshops to giving benefits and availability of solar cookers in Kenya [11]
THE COOKIT
394
The cookit is the world simplest solar cooker. It is a flat surface pasted with a shiny
rreflecting aluminium foil. The surface is folded at specific intervals to create angles that
reflect more light towards the cooking area.
Figure 2. The cookit
How it works
When the sun rays falls on the cookit, shinny surface reflects the sunrays towards the
black pot, which absorbs. Dark surfaces in sunlight absorb solar energy, creating heat that
can be used to cook food or pasteurize water here light energy changes to heat energy. The
transparent heat trap (plastic bag) around the dark pot lets in sunlight, and prevents the
heat from escaping. The heat trap is transparent, heat-resistant plastic bag. One or more
shiny surfaces reflect extra sunlight onto pot, increasing its heat. [9]
• Cooks at 180o-250oF ( 82o-121oC)
• Can steam, roast, bake and boil food.
• Does not burn food
• Clean – no smoke
• Pasteurises drinking water
• Clean healthy cooking as the food retains most of the nutrients.
• You can put two small pots at the same time.
• Can cook food for up to 8 people
Advantages of the cookit
•
•
•
•
•
Light weight, foldable and portable. One can adjust and easily move it
Easy to make from local materials hence can be mass-produced
Cheap compared to other types of solar cookers
Easy to set up, use and maintain i.e. It requires minimum attention or adjustment
when being used
Its profitable for someone who wants to do business
395
The cookit costs $17 but the costs can be subsidized once the users are able to make in
their country (location) with the available materials. For other solar cookers (box cooker,
concentrator) the prices range between $69 to $278 according to size. Costs increases with
increase in size.
Figure 3. Solar cooking demonstration
BENEFITS ACCRUING TO USERS
Health
• Safe drinking water – better child and family health
• Reduction of smoke related illnesses
• Foods retain their vitamins enhancing health and nutrition
• No dangers from open fire accidents
• Cleaner surrounding air
• Useful to victims of HIV / AIDS, safe water for ARVs, can cook without much
strain.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Economic
Saving money that would have bought firewood or charcoal. Using a cookit
everyday saves 40kg of charcoal/fuel wood every month this translates to a savings
of $17 per month
Freeing up women’s time to other income generating activities
Frees up time for young girls to attend school
Smoke free kitchen and clothing enhances social status and appearance.
Foods do not burn in CooKits or fireless cookers – less waste
The technology , while saving hard earned incomes are also a source of income to
those who make and promote them
Successes
•
•
•
After two successful refugee projects, the solutions are now being offered to three
other communities in Kenya.
Over 4,000 CooKits have been sold at cost
Women are at the core of the dissemination
396
•
•
•
•
They learn to use, they make the cookers, promote its adoption and use and offer
after sales service.
Make and use fireless cookers for when there is no sun or early in the morning
Fireless cookers savings range between 20% - 83%
Energy saving stoves such as the KCJ (Kenya ceramic jiko), Upesi/Kuni mbili and
conservation practices in the Kitchen also enable savings of fuel wood between
30% – 50%.
Figure 4. Kuni mbili/upesi stove
Figure 5. Fireless cooker
Conclusion
There is no question that solar cookers work; and hundreds of different designs and
models have worked for years in many countries. Past success and failures are the keys to
establishing a format for a successful solar cooker program and determine the ideal futures
of a solar cooker. The technologies, while saving hard-earned incomes are also a source of
income to those who make and promote them. Worsening environmental situation is
forcing nations to seek alternatives. The concern over clean in – door air also lead to
alternatives. Solar cookers integrated with other energy saving stoves (rocket stoves, KCJ,
upesi stoves & fireless/hay baskets) especially during the cloudy and wet seasons would
help reduce the consumption of fuelwood by almost 50%, thus reducing environment
degradation which leads to climate change. When solar cooking is practiced daily, it
would improve health, livelihood, and quality of life through reduced exposure to indoor
air pollution, primarily among women and children. It would also increase the use of
clean, reliable, affordable efficient and safe home cooking and heating practices that
reduces exposure to indoor air pollution. The search is not over yet for an energy solution
to counter the negative impact of climate change. People need to know and use the above
technologies to alleviate their problems. There is a need to create awareness and initiate
community programmes in targeted areas to build sustainable projects. SCI can provide
technical assistance - Guides, consultations, and support for independent promotion by
local women groups, NGOs, government agencies, and businesses.
397
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the assistance of Solar Cookers International (SCI)
Regional Director Ms. Margaret C.A Owino for the support and knowledge in Indoor
pollution and climate change. To all SCI (EARO) staff for their support and experience in
solar cooking projects.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
Household energy Network “climate change and household energy” - Boiling
point No. 54 pg 23 (2007) Practical action publishing www.hedon.info
Warwick, H. and Doig, A. (2004). Smoke – The Killer in the Kitchen:
Addressing Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries. ITDG Publishing
103-105. Southampton Row, London WC1B 4HL, UK
http://www.itdg.org/docs/smoke/itdg%20smoke%20report.pdf
World Health Organization, World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risk,
Promoting Health Life (Geneva, 2002)
Miller 1963, M.C Veigh 1977, Sabus 1978, Michel 1979 (WHO 1979)
Sun World Magazine, Vol. 22 No. 4, December 1998 “The Introduction and
Promotion of Solar Cooking”
http://www.sungravity.com/solar_cooking__overview.html
Botes, J (2006,June 16). Solar Energy Use in Home design.Ezinearticles.com.
http://ezinearticles.com/?solar-Energy-Use-In-Home-Design&id=221489
TU Delft Dossier Nuna 4. The World’s fastest Solar car
http://www.tudelft.nl/live/pagina
Http://almashirq.hiof.no/lebanon/600/610/solar-water/idrc/01-09.html
www.solarcookers.org, www.solarcooking.org
http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/3cooker.htm
www.cdmindia.com
Kammen, D. (1993) Introducing Solar Ovens to Rural Kenya. The Solar cooking
Archive. Available at: http://solarcooking.org/kammen93.htm
398
Laboratory scale biogas production from geranium distilled leaves
1*
Nkurunziza T. 2Ntaganda J. and 3Hitimana N.
1
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (I.R.S.T.), P.O.Box 227, Southern,
Province, Rwanda; 2National University of Rwanda (N.U.R), Faculty of Sciences,
P.O.Box 117, Southern Province, Rwanda; 3Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African
Plants Products Country Co-ordinator, P.O.Box 6090, Kigali, Rwanda; *Corresponding
author. Email: [email protected]
Key words: Geranium, Distillation, Biogas, Productivity, Effluents.
Abstract
During a laboratory experiment, biogas was produced from geranium leaves after their
distillation. The purposes of this study were to find an alternative energy source in
replacement of wood used during distillation of geranium leaves and to obtain an effluent
that would be used as fertilizer for geranium plantations. Two days after their distillation,
when they were sufficiently cool, the geranium leaves were introduced into three
laboratory digesters of 50 litres each. One of the digesters was taken as a reference and
received geranium leaves and water only. The others received a mixture of geranium
leaves, cow dung and water into different proportions.
After a period of 112 days (experimental retention time) of digestion, the mixture of
geranium leaves with cow dung at the ratio of 6.7Kg: 3.3Kg i.e. 2:1 performed better than
other ratios since the total volume was 331392.1 mL, the productivity was
0.1266m3/Kg.DM and the biogas heat power was approximately 24044.3 kJ/m3. The
effluents analyses proved that they can serve as good fertiliser.
1. Introduction
Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) is an industrial plant whose essential oils are
sought on the international market for various uses: perfumery, soap factory, etc.
Moreover it is recognised to repel Malaria vector mosquito and this represents indeed one
of its important added values. Therefore this plant proves a lot of advantages that it could
be easily adopted by the Rwandan population. In addition to all those advantages,
Pelargonium graveolens offers a lot of facilities for cultivation and does not require too
much care after cultivation. As far as climatic requirements are concerned, Pelargonium
graveolens needs altitude ranging between 300 and 1500m, an annual rainfall between
1000mm and 1500mm and likes a warm- temperate climate. Normally Geranium is
propagated by cuttings and it is estimated that one hectare can receive up to 35000 plants,
i.e. with an inter crop spacing of 30 to 60 cm in the rows and 80 to 100cm between the
rows [1]. The mean yield of Geranium is estimated between 25-40 tones/hectare [1;2].
With the above mentioned facilities and due its cash generating potentialities,
Geranium is being intensively cultivated in Rwanda, particularly for its essential oils.
Therefore we can expect that in the near future, the distillation units will be put in place
countrywide. In Rwanda, the technique which is currently used in order to extract essential
oils from Geranium is the steam distillation using wood as a source of energy. Obviously,
energy will be a limiting factor since the country has taken measures restricting the forest
cutting due to serious environmental degradation problems. It thus proves necessary to
seek for possible alternative energy sources at the right moment. Importantly, it could be
399
more beneficial if that source of energy was from the wastes generated by the processing
of that plant. It is within this context that we undertook the present study whose principal
objectives are:
3 To produce biogas which can replace wood during oil extraction by recycling
the residues of distillation (leaves of geranium) by biomethanisation;
3 To produce an organic fertilizer for the plantations of geranium.
Figure 1 highlights the envisaged recycling process
Essential oils
Distillation
Unit
Solid residues (leaves)
Distillation
Geranium
Fertilization
Biogas
Biomethanisation
Effluents
Digester
Figure 10 Diagram of integral exploitation of geranium
2. Material and methods
After their distillation, Geranium leaves have been put into an open cask where they
have cooled and partially fermented during two days. Their analyses and their anaerobic
fermentation into laboratory digesters of 50L respectively followed. The total load of a
digester included inoculum (sludge from a functioning digester) representing 30% [3].
Three digesters have been used. Figure 2 shows photos of the laboratory digesters used. In
this work they will be symbolised by Dig I, Dig II and Dig III.
Metallic tub
Gasholder
Fermentation chamber
Biogas exit pipe
Water
Hydraulic joint
Thermostat cable
Gasholder
Bearer
Stirring device
Figure 11 Laboratory digester
Wood crate
Insulator
(wood shavings)
Figure 12 Heat stabilisation box
400
Table 1 shows the parameters before the anaerobic fermentation. Dry matters content and
the C/N ratio were calculated from the data of analysis of raw material (see Table 2). Two
temperature stabilisation boxes were used; Box I which received Dig III and Box II which
received Dig I and Dig II.
Table 7 Pre- loading conditions
Box
Digesters
Load (Kg)
Geranium
Cow
leaves (Kg) dung
Box I Dig III
5
5
Box II Dig I
10
0
Dig II
6.7
3.3
Ratio
Inoculum
(kg)
Dry matters (DM)
%
Kg
C/N
Ratio
1 :1 :7
1:0:3.5
2:1:10.6
3
3
3
5.3
6.8
5.8
26.38
22.95
25.21
Water
35
35
35
2.39
3.06
2.62
The dilution with water aimed at reducing the DM content in order to facilitate the
digestion process. The values of DM and C/N obtained after dilution are favourable for
biogas production since the recommended values are 6% for DM and 30 for C/N ratio [3].
The DM content (DM) of raw material was determined by drying a fresh sample
into an oven set to 105°C [4]. The result in percentage is a ratio between a constant weight
of the sample over the weight of the fresh sample before drying. Volatile matters content
(VM) was determined by calcination of DM at 600°C [4]. From the ash obtained the
percentage of VM was determined.
The wet oxidation method following Schlichting and Blume in 1966 [5] was used
to determine the total carbon. After digestion of a sample in presence of a concentrated
acid (H2SO4, 97%) with the aid of an oxidising agent (K2Cr2O7, 2N), the concentration
was read on a u.v/visible spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 578nm. The milligrams
(the result of a spectrophotometer) are converted into percentage as follows:
%C =
mg of carbone ( spectrophotometer )
10 × weight of the sample(g)
The total nitrogen was determined using the classical Kjeldahl method as described
by Blume (1966) and USDA (1972) while the total phosphorus was determined by the
ascorbic acid method by IITA (1978) [5].
Ammonium, NH4+, was analysed using the Nessler reagent method [4]. The nitrite
NO2- and nitrate NO3- ions were analysed following the α-naphtylamine in presence of
sulfanilic acid and the phenoldisulfonic acid methods respectively [6]. Various ions
including, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc and copper were also
analysed on an atomic absorption spectrophotometer at their respective wavelengths [5].
The volume as well as the composition of biogas were determined by an Orsat
apparatus. The leading principle of this apparatus is the ability of some gases to be
absorbed into specific solutions. In presence of an alkaline solution, KOH 40% in our
case, the CO2 was absorbed forming a soluble salt (K2CO3). Hence with a known volume
of biogas (100mL) it was possible to quantify the absorbed gas (CO2) and the remaining
one (taken as methane). The biogas heating value was calculated from the fact that the
heat value of pure methane is 37,278 kJ/m3[7]. This value was then multiplied by the
401
biogas percentage in methane. Potentiometric method was used to determine the pH of the
effluents while temperature was read using a thermocouple (TESTO 2000). Biogas
volume and temperature are reported as a weekly basis.
3. Results and interpretation
Raw material analysis
The results on the analysis of raw material, geranium distilled leaves and cow
dung, are presented in table 2.
Table 8 Results of the analysis of different biomasses used
Parameter
Geranium Leaves
Cow dung
DM (%)
30.6
17.2
Humidity (%)
69.4
82.8
Total Nitrogen (%)
2.10
1.40
Total Carbon (%)
48.20
41.70
C/N ratio (%)
22.95
29.8
The analysis of the biomass exhibits high values for DM compared to those recommended
by literature, i.e. between 6 and 10% [3]. To deal with that problem, dilution with water
was used. As for the C/N ratio, all the results are favourable for a good anaerobic
fermentation since the optimum is between 20 and 30 [3].
Results of total volumes and temperature readings
The total volume of biogas produced expressed as a week cumulative is reported on Figure
4. It can been read from that figure that Dig II started producing biogas a bit later than Dig
I and that Dig III did not produce biogas during all the experiment.
Total volume of biogas (mL/week)
60000
50000
40000
DigI
DigII
30000
Dig III
20000
10000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Weeks
Figure 13 Trend of the total biogas volume per week
The biogas production trend exhibits a normal evolution in both cases. Though Dig
I started producing biogas a bit earlier than Dig II, it is clear that the bacteria adapted to
the medium later because the normal biogas production starts at the 10th week. Dig III did
not produce biogas till the end of the experiments. This situation could be explained by the
low DM content as well as the high C/N ratio. The total volumes produced are high:
295052.6 mL in case of Dig I and 331392.1mL for Dig II. During all the experiments
temperature did not show fluctuations and the average was 31oC in the container no1
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(DigIII) and 33.3oC in the container no2 (Dig I and Dig II). The hydraulic retention time
was 112 days.
From the total volume, the hydraulic retention time and the DM content,
productivity has been calculated. The results are shown on Table 3.
Table 9 Productivity of the biomass and that of the mini digesters
Parameter
Unit
Dig I
Dig II
Total volume
mL
295052.6
331392.1
Retention time
Day
112
112
Daily production
mL/d
2634.4
2958.9
Productivity
L/Kg.DM
96.42
126.5
Productivity
m3/m3/d
0.059
0.066
The retention time of 112 days is rather high if compared to that of the cow dung
alone which is 60 days [3]. It is necessary to think that this time was influenced by the
presence of the leaves of geranium which are not easily degradable.
The Biogas composition and the heating power
Mean week biogas composition (%)
The mean biogas composition calculated on the weekly basis is depicted on Figure 5.
90
75
Dig I CH4
60
Dig I CO2
Dig II CH4
45
Dig II CO2
30
15
1
2
3
4
5 6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Weeks
Figure 14 Total biogas production trend
In general, the curves of methane production show a progressive rise while those
of production of the carbon dioxide are rather downward. Indeed, this is in agreement with
the expected trend. Methane is produced significantly during the last stage while CO2 is
produced more during the second stage as the first stage consists of hydrolysis of complex
molecules into simpler ones [3]. During the experiments, we noted that even at the first
day the non combustible gas was produced. This gas would be the air entered during the
loading phase. The mean biogas composition was 51.1% CH4 and 48.9% CO2 for DigI
and 64.5% CH4 and 35.5% CO2 for Dig II. The calculated heat power was 19049.1 kJ/m3
for Dig I and 24044.3 kJ/m3 for Dig II.
Effluents analysis
Table 10 Effluent analysis results
Parameter
Dig I
pH H2O
5.86
Dig II
6.17
Parameter
K (ppm)
Dig I
6600
Dig II
5300
403
pH KCl
Exchangeable acidity Al3+
Exchangeable acidity H+
%C
%N
P (ppm)
5.25
5.85
48.8
1.7
1425
5.56
4.65
45.2
1.8
1975
Ca (ppm)
Mg (ppm)
Fe (ppm)
Mn (ppm)
Zn (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
24800
3700
16650
222
328
12
26600
4600
16800
440
418
14
From the results of Table 4 it can be concluded that all the effluents are moderately
acid since their pH-H2O lies between 5.2 and 6.2. As for the pH-KCl, a sample is slightly
acid if its pH lies between 5.0 and 6.0 [8]. Therefore these effluents may not have any
effect on the soil as far as acidity is concerned. By comparing the contents of the essential
nutrients N, P, K, Ca and Mg with those of the effluents of the cow dung alone which are
respectively 2.3-4.7%, 0.9-2.1%, 4.2-7.6%, 1.0-4.2% and 0.6-1.1% [9], we note that
except for Ca and Mg, the content of the other elements remains weak in the effluents
which we obtained. However, as the effectiveness of a fertilizer depends at the same time
on the nature of the soil and the requirements of the crop to be fertilized, one can plan to
increase the content of these elements by applying a great quantity of effluents per unit of
area in case of high concentration requirement. Particularly, Geranium requires a pH
between 5.5 and 7.0 and a fertilizer of the following dosage 150- 200Kg N, 60- 80 Kg
P2O5 and 150- 200 Kg K2O per hectare [1]. Considering that 15 tones of fresh leaves can
be obtained at one harvest/hectare, in order to produce biogas, one may need 7.5 tones of
cow dung and 80 tones of water (ratio is 2:1:10.6). Obviously digester of 100m3 would be
needed for a one hectare holding person.
4. Conclusion and recommendations
Biogas production from Geranium distilled leaves is of great importance at the same
time for the economy and the environment. Indeed, now that our country wants to promote
the cultivation of Geranium, one must expect an increased of energy request because the
extraction of his essential oils (distillation) request a source of energy for heating. If
attention is not paid, the consequences related to deforestation are likely to worsen with
the introduction of this plant.
This work which aimed at producing biogas from Geranium distilled leaves which are
normally regarded as wastes met its objective. With a mixing ratio of 2:1:10.6 in
Geranium distilled leaves, cow dung and water respectively, it was possible to normally
produce biogas at the laboratory level. This ratio should also be maintained at large scale.
It is worth mentioning that it could not be possible to expect biogas production without
cow dung. As the present study represents a preliminary one, some points should be
considered with a particular interest in the future researches:
- In addition to this preliminary study, it would be necessary to carry out further
studies on the yield of different concentrations in DM in order to optimize the
volume of biogas which can be obtained from the distilled leaves of geranium.
- As the distillation process is limited in time (2 weeks for instance at not stop rate)
while biogas is still produced as far as the retention time has not been reached, the
means of storage of biogas should also be considered in order to make wise use of
biogas and to draw maximum profit from it.
Acknowledgement
This present work has been achieved thanks to the close collaboration between the
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) and the Agribusiness in
404
Sustainable Natural African Plant Products (ASNAPP). Sincere gratitude is then addressed
to the ASNAPP Coordinator for his devotion for the completion of the experiments.
References
[1] Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products (ASNAPP), Rose Scented Palrgonium.
Web: www.asnapp.org/resources/plantlist/plantlist_download.php?id=75
Accessed on 3-07-2008
[2] Kajangwe, V., Kamanzi J.B. and Mukarusine E., (2002) Pelargonium graveolens (Geranium rasat)
« Essai de culture et production d’huile essentielle » in Bulletin de l’Institut de Recherche Scientifique et
Technologique, IRST, n°2. pp. 26-37.
[3] Compagnie d’Energie et d’Environnement de Coopération Internationale de Chengdu, Chine, (2004)
Brochure de formation en technologie du Biogaz, Kigali,Rwanda.
[4] Sawyer C.N. and McCarty Perry, L., (1978) Chemistry for environmental engineering, 3rd edition,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York, USA.
[5] Pietrowicz, P., (1985) Les sols de la région d’action du Projet Agro-Pastoral de Nyabisindu, Nyabisindu
Rwanda.
[6] Nkurunziza, T., (2002) Rapport de stage effectué successivement au laboratoire d’analyse physico
chimique et bactériologique du MINERENA à l’Usine de Rwanda Plastic Industries et à la Station
Piscicole de Rwasave, UNR, Butare, Rwanda
[7] Jactone A. O., Zhiyou W., Ignosh, J., Bendfeldt, E, and Collins, Jr.E.R., 2007 Biomethane Technology,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA.
[8] Musana Segatagara, (2003) Contribution à l’étude de la valeur agronomique des composts préparés à
base
de biomasses de Leucena leucocephala et Lantana camara, mémoire, UNR, Butare, Rwanda
[9] Ludwig Sasse, (1988) Biogas plant. Eschborn, Federal Republic of Germany, The Deutsches Zentrum für
Entwicklungstechnologien - GATE, a Division of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
405
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE HUMAN
SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT.
THE CASE OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NUST CAMPUS IN
ZIMBABWE.
Mutsambiwa Calvinos Mutsambiwa
National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
Department of Architecture
[email protected] or
[email protected]
[email protected]
Keywords: Sustainable Architecture, appropriate technology, ethics.
Abstract
The vision of the National University of Science and Technology, NUST, in Bulawayo,
Zimbabwe is to be a first world university in a third world country. Without doubt, the
university has beautiful ultra modern architectural buildings. The Zimbabwe Architectural
Quarterly, describes the campus as giving out a loud expensive noise and that it is an
architectural demonstration of conspicuous consumption. The construction of the
University started in the early 1990’s when the economy was stronger than it is now. The
construction of the works was also supported through donor funding in addition to
contributions from the tax payers. It is supposed to be complete by now. Currently the
inflation level of the economy is the highest in the world. The construction of the university
is far from complete because of among other issues, inappropriate technology used in the
context of the prevailing economic environment. Thus the development is not sustainable
as it does not address the needs of the communities on the ground.
This paper describes the development of the university from appointment of consultants,
the construction done to date measured against economic performance of the country in
general. The paper looks at the philosophy of the designers in conjunction with world best
practices and what Michael Porter would call sustainable competitive advantage.
INTRODUCTION
The Zimbabwean construction industry and hence the architectural related business and
profession has been on the decline since the 1990s era and has worsened especially after
the land reform exercise of the year 2000. Ten years prior to that year, the construction
industry was relatively booming. Eight years after the exercise, the construction industry
is virtually non existent. The campus at the National University Of Science and
Technology is a major and perfect case study which reflects on the performance of the
nation during the period in question.
Brian Edwards [6] defines sustainability as a process and sustainable development as a
product. The Brundtland Commission of 1987 defines sustainable development as
‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.’ Whereas Appropriate Technology (AT)
according to John Tharakan [7] has the following attributes: local material use, labor
intensiveness, small scale in nature, low capital expenditure, affordability,
understandability, controllability, maintainability, adaptability, participation of local
communities in innovation and implementation. AT is difficult to define. It can be
summarized that it has both attributes of a process and a product. It infers that it is a
product derived through processes. It can further be inferred that it is similar to
406
sustainability and sustainable development although the latter takes consideration of
resources for future generations. According to the Webster’s 3rd International Unabridged
Dictionary, architecture is both a science and art of designing buildings. It infers that it is a
product from a process. So whereas architecture and AT are both products from processes,
architecture relates specifically to buildings and AT to anything. In its definition for
sustainable construction, Holcim Foundation [8], a Switzerland based organization uses
the following five criteria:Balanced environmental performance, social performance, economic performance,
creation of a good building and significant advancements that can be applied on a broad
scale encompassing the following: ecology quality and energy conservation; economic
performance and compatibility; ethical standards and social equity; contextual and
aesthetic impact; and quantum change and transferability
The Beginnings Of National University of Science and Technology.
According to the NUST website [9], The National University Of Science And
Technology, NUST, was established by an Act of Parliament in 1992 after there was a
recommendation to do so in a report [10] of February 1989. The idea for a second
university was mooted in 1982 after a Commission of Inquiry into the high failure rate at
the first University of Zimbabwe during the 1981 and 1982 academic years. It was also
observed that for economic growth of the country it was necessary for the
University to be strongly science and technology biased. It was to be located in Bulawayo
and was to admit its first students in 1993. The enrollment would rise from approximately
1000 students in 1993 to about 6 500 in the 2000.The faculties and schools of the
University should include industrial technology, science, architecture and quantity
surveying, environmental science, communications technology, commerce, arts and
education. The orientation of the programmes should be towards applied studies and
production etcetera. The University would have a strong research orientation, with an
emphasis on the applications of science to technological development; a research and
development centre would focus the activities of the University in research and
consultancy.
The Commission indicated the action needed to establish the Second University including
the legal steps, the appointment of the first officers, and the appointment of a Council to
initiate planning. Early attention would be needed to staff development, given the serious
shortages of academic staff then. The Commission estimated then that the total cost of the
Second University as being in the region of $300 million to $350 million on the capital
side, and in annual recurrent cost terms rising from about $11million in 1993 to
$71million in the year 2000, all in 1988 prices.
It was argued that if the construction was carefully phased, the total financial burden was
believed to be sustainable. It was emphasized that a vigorous fund raising campaign inside
and outside Zimbabwe would be required. The effect of the university would be to
improve the supply of professionals for the growth of the economy. It was also envisaged
that after the second half of the 1990s, the opportunities for students to enroll in degree
programmes would be much better than then.
According to a local publication [11], Mwamuka and Mercuri and Associates were the
architects commissioned to develop the University after they won the master plan
development. They were however in collaboration with American architects Davis, Brody
and Associates and Planners as well as Ove Arup a British based international firm of
engineers.
The architects informed the public that the design conceptionalises a ‘ first world
university in a third world country because of its ultra-modern architecture’.
407
There were to be three phases and the first two phases were estimated to consume
$17million in foreign currency component. According to the report [10, p.5], on April 18,
1980 one US dollar was equivalent to Z$0,64 and in January 1989 it was equivalent to
Z$1.96 which shows a triple in economic fall.
Zimbabwean Economic And Performance
The advent of the 1990s saw the beginning of efforts initiated by the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund towards global integration of individual national economies
through Structural Adjustment Programme. Its intentions were to among other issues;diminish the role of the state in economic affairs and increase the international movement
of capital[1,p.20], this brought about improved foreign currency inflows into Zimbabwe
through lines of credits and subsequently led to increase of exports. Earlier on, there were
other efforts to improve the post independent Zimbabwean economy notably in 1981
through the Zimbabwe Conference on Reconstruction and Development (ZIMCORD) in
tandem with the Transitional National Development Plan. In addition between 1982-1990
two Five Year Development Plans were implemented. The economy was doing well
according to an international magazine [13,p61].
In 1997 a political decision to compensate liberation war veterans led to the beginning of
the sliding down of the Zimbabwean economy. In year 2000 another political decision to
redress the land imbalance which was still in status quo of pre-independent Zimbabwe
state was speedily undertaken, through a belated land reform exercise. It is ironic that
although the country experienced capital flight due to sanctions by donors such as World
Bank ( Structural Adjustments Loans) and International Monetary Fund (Balance of
Payments Support), the same institutions were now pursuing lending policies linked to
sustainability [1,p41] which route the country in hindsight also was now following but not
to the satisfaction of everyone.
As of July 2008, the campus development has not been completed. Only the
Administration Block and Commerce Buildings have been fully completed. The other
operational buildings namely Chemical-, Applied Chemistry-, Students’ Hostels and
Ceremonial Hall have been beneficially handed over but most of them already need
maintenance.
The National University of Science and Technology is a glaring example of a project
failing to complete although a budget has been set aside through Public Sector Investment
Program, which is a government fund used to support public infrastructure development.
A local publication [11], used the symbolism of a loud statement to describe the
architecture and also alluded to the fact that the construction was very expensive and the
design never evaluated. It is interesting to note that the late Sir Ove Arup, the structural
design engineer of international repute and whose firm of engineers which now trades as
ARUP designed the Nust campus buildings shared his opinion on architecture with
architects in a journal [14,p526], that architects act and should act as the counsel for
humanity and as such should speak out against the double forces of high finance and
technology, otherwise, no one else will do so in an informed way. This therefore implies
that ARUP and engineers in general would absolve themselves from the burden of
protecting the public from high finances and technologies used on buildings. It then means
that architects are the antennae for morality on designs of buildings and activities on
construction sites. In Architecture, matters related to morality and professionalism are
regulated by an Act of Parliament [15].
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Building
Level
of
completion (%)
Administration Block
Library
Workshop and Laboratories
Lecture Rooms
Lecture Theatres
Halls of Residence
Staff Flats and House
100
30--40
40--45
50--60
70+
30--35
9--15
Table 2: Levels of completion of NUST Phase 1 (2008).
Source( Author’s observation)
Prioritization Of Material Resources
Currently Zimbabwe, typical of many third world countries is facing unprecedented
economic challenges in all fronts and in shelter delivery in particular. Public buildings, to
be specific, which are state funded, have shown the greatest stress from the economic
challenges. This is highlighted by snail paced, if at all, of progress of construction of such
buildings. Granted, the economic environment is not conducive for many business
initiatives to flourish, and some people blame the economic policies and politics of the
ruling elite for such failure in delivering results.
However, some medical research on child mortality for instance according to news
reports report in 2008 [16], has shown that relatively rich third world countries such as
Angola with revenues from oil and petroleum and India which is a technologically rapidly
developing country have higher child mortality rates than Malawi and Bangladesh. This
shows that even though a third world nation might have the means to improve its people,
its priorities might not be focused to other areas which are important. Locally, the question
can be raised whether the priorities are right in terms of the architectural option being
pursued currently in the construction industry. Knowledge is a resource which has to be
used effectively.
The material technology resource has been found quite wanting as materials are no longer
affordable as they should be imported. Materials such as wallpaper which is peeling off;
aluminum sun- shading blinds, some of which have broken down; massive steel sun
shading grills which allows light through; aluminum curtain walls in hostels, and polished
granite on almost every building on site so far cause concern.
Ethical Standards And Social Equity
Brian Edwards et al,[12, p12], opined that professional institutes have a duty to serve
society in the provision of decent, acceptable, maintainable, and low energy designed
housing. He supports that local accountability be the first principle of sustainability and
professional practices should put the community first instead of profit, fees nor speed of
construction. He advocates that local accountability be the basis for decisions for designs,
construction methods, tenure mix, management and crime prevention, p14.
The construction of the name display wall at the main entrance of the campus points out
the professional challenges involved. The challenge with this wall is that it had three
different architects commissioned to design it. This meant duplication of payments for a
service and thus wasting financial resources. It also does not comply at face value with
planning conditions of title deed of property [17] i.e. that it should be built either on the
boundary line or within the boundary as the wall is 35 meters outside of the campus
boundary limits. However such an anomaly in development can be mitigated through the
granting of a special consent by the local planning authority [17, Section 26 (3)(a)(2)],
This therefore underlines the essence of professionalism, ethical conduct and competence
in the implementation of AT.
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According to Holcim Foundation a project should adhere to the highest ethical standards
and support social equity at all stages from planning and building processes to long term
impact on the communal fabric.
Since the construction began in 1998 the campus has not yet been completed. In fact if the
right term be used, the buildings have not been handed over as having been completed.
They have been beneficially handed over. They should actually be in the maintenance
period.
This is attributed to unavailability or insufficient building capital. As of
July 20, 2008, monetary inflation in the country was at more than two million percent, the
highest in the world. In an economically challenged country like Zimbabwe, sustainable
construction means building to supply urgent and basic needs within the people’s means.
Wastefulness and excessive consumption is financial irresponsible. Sufficient materials
and resources should be left for others, including future generations. Sections of the
Library Building whose construction is in limbo, shows excessive use of concrete and
steel, elements which are very expensive. Such construction technology is associated with
dam wall. Krause and Plewe [18, p.21,p.95,p.211) describe concrete framed buildings,
column and beam and column & slab alternative construction methods which could be
employed on a similar structure. The walls are then constructed by a brick infill. This
then gives a cost effective solution.
The ablutions serving the Ceremonial Hall are a single story structure yet the walls have a
345cm thick outside wall. A normal outside wall for a habitable room has a thickness of
230cm. An ablution is not a habitable room [19] and is for short term use. This is
excessive considering that the purpose of walls is for structural stability or for thermal or
sound or privacy control etc. In addition to that it has a concrete roof.
The students’ hostels have façade portions with aluminum curtain walls. Aluminum is
very expensive and has good aesthetic qualities but does not offer better thermal properties
than brick. The hostels are therefore either extremely cold in winter or hot in summer.
Thermal comfort is not achievable in the rooms. Inconsideration to materials’ physical
properties lead to environmental problems just like Mies van der Rohe [20,p92] had
internal climate control problems with the Edith Farnsworth house, Illinois, 1949-1951.
Energy Conservation
One of the major critiques to the built environment concerns its inability to conserve
energy. According to a source [21], energy is consumed mainly through processes in
obtaining raw materials, manufacturing processes, transportation and distribution,
construction processes, operations and maintenance, demolition, disposal or recycling.
In an environmental conscious energy conservation guide [22], architects are
recommended to consider using design techniques encompassing thermal insulation and
heat storage using weighty porous material, appropriate building positioning in relation to
the sun, natural lighting and ventilation, passive heating using the green-house effect
whereby infra red light and hence warmth is converted from visible light, active water
heating using the sun.
Africa has plenty of sunshine. Solar energy could be used to the benefit of all stakeholders.
According to a news report[12], scientists estimate that every year a desert area of 1km
square receives energy equivalent to 1,5 million barrels of oil. In reality the biggest
setback to solar energy use is the initial investment cost to buy polysilicon which is the
main component of the energy generation mechanism. However since the competition to
find the best solar technology is stiff, costs for silicon wafers are predicted to fall from
US$300/kg to $100/kg in three years. Forbes magazine is quoted as saying that in the next
25 years solar will be the fastest –growing alternative source of electric energy. Other
than hydro-power and fuel cell technology, it is the only zero-greenhouse-gas-emission
technology that can rival the coal-fired power. Electricity generated could be routed into
410
the local grid. An investment in solar electrical generation would be a good long term
investment.
The concepts for natural light and ventilation have been used generously to most buildings
and open spaces.
According to Koenigsberger et al[5], the materials selected for Halls of Residences,
Laboratories to name just a few do not save energy in buildings, hence they are so cold for
habitation. Student residents have aluminum curtain walls. Buildings for Chemical
engineering, library, the canteen have internal concrete walls although some have a coat of
brick cladding.
Material
Aluminum
Brick
Concrete
Conductivity(w/mdegC) 220
0.806
1.44
Table 3 Conductivity assessment of selected materials. Source [5].
One of humanity’s immediate and major challenge is caused mainly by modern
greenhouse global warming according to BBC News [2]. In anticipation of the drastic
effect of climate change, the brick is the most appropriate material to ensure that heat
exchange between out- and in doors is minimized.
Quantum Change And Transferability
The architecture at NUST can be described as post modern. Post modernist architecture
can fit any where in the world but it does not mean that it is always environmentally,
socially or culturally acceptable. The architects’ architectural handwriting is post
modernist. One attribute of post modern architecture building materials is the use of a lot
of metals (steel), concrete and glass, which are generally more expensive compared to
traditional materials like bricks and stones. The architects were the country’s leaders in
post modern architecture as at the turn of the millennium. Michael Porter [3], would have
pointed out that it was their formula or strategy for how their business was going to
compete and win within the architectural fraternity. It was their competitive strategic
advantage. Who would blame them? They both got educated from extreme capitalistic
societies where success is measured by wealth. Funabashi Haruo [23] quoted former
American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan as saying the American CEOs have
“infectious greed”. This appears like a bad disease yet but in that society it has deep social
roots in that values are expressly capitalistic. Success is defined as becoming rich i.e. as
having money. The architects business approach was to them appropriate. They do not
deserve criticism for having got their reward.
Their other projects Southampton Life Center, Kopje Plaza Building, Construction House,
Joina Centre in Harare and Bulawayo Centre in Bulawayo are testimony to this. Post
modern architecture is transferable and works in very strong economies as evidenced by
the countries which have adopted them. Center Pompidou in France and Lloyds of
London and Shangai Bank in Hong Kong.
In some aspects the design demonstrates innovation at the forefront of construction and
quantum leap to conventional methods as evidenced by the curved ceremonial hall roof,
the branch like roof supports to the administration buildings. However, were the roofs to
need some repairs, the university would not be able to hire experts from South Africa and
to buy the material and components used as they might be unavailable. Although the
technology is innovative in the integration of materials, people would find it hard to copy
it again and again. The innovative concepts are therefore currently not affordable, simple
and broadly applicable.
411
The delta theater situated in the commerce building is naturally cool all year round due to
innovative use of a void concrete basement which is naturally ventilated. The cooling
system involves the cooling of air by the concrete. The air then naturally filters into the
theater through vents below seats using the stack effect. In this way the comfort level in
summer is good.
Balanced Environmental Performance
As a result of the construction of the NUST campus environmental change definitely took
place. According to a survey report [4], considerations for evaluating the campus’
environmental change were categorized according to five major pressures namely:
environmental, biotic, economic, cultural and aesthetic. The conclusion of the assessment
found that initial and short term concerns to the construction were due to raw material
extraction, construction waste materials, roads clearing; biotic threats resulted in wildlife
movement and aesthetic performance was compromised by the following: construction
noise disturbances, which were short term, visual impact due to non completed structures
which is still persistent.
Conclusion
It is clear that the vision of a science and technology based university was taken as an
appropriate tool for economic development. It is, however, an irony that the empowered
technologists cannot save the country from economic perils using the knowledge gained
from the same universities which gave them the knowledge in the first place.
It is clear from observation of built environment that the architecture for the provision of
public buildings, in particular, is not sustainable in respect to the state of the economy. In
other words it is not appropriate. At a closer analysis of the architecture and related
disciplines applied to buildings, it is evident that sustainability should anchor the whole
complex process. It is rare to find a situation like this in the African context. Value
systems should be considered broadly in favor of the client. Sometimes national or
institutional infrastructure delivery goals and objectives are not met, not because there is
an economic constraint per se but probably because the principles of sustainability have
not been followed. Impartial and professional construction project managers could best
safe guard the interests of clients against the other consultants involved in the
construction project. The university can also learn a leaf from the University of Pretoria
whose vision “to be for South Africa what Oxford is for England” is similar to that of
NUST and which it follows using the sustainable path [24].
Reference
[1] David Reed, Structural Adjustment, the Environment, and Sustainable Development,
Earthscan Publication, London.
[2] BBC News http//news.bbc.co/nol/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/07/sci_nat_climate_change_and_the_sun0_...4/3/2008.
[3] Wendy Robson, Strategic Management & Information Systems. Prentice Hall.p4.
1997.
[4] Tafangenyasha, Nhamo, Teigbenu. Environmental Evaluation of Nust. NUST,2005
[5] Koenigsberger Ingersoll, Mayhew, Szokolay, Manual of Tropical Housing and
Building, Longman Group, p285, 1973.
[6] Brian Edwards and David Turrent. Sustainable Housing, Principles and Practice, p20.
[7] Tharakan, John ‘Appropriate Technologies for Water Use and Conservation in Public
Health’. Proceedings from the 2nd International Conference on Appropriate Technology
according. Bulawayo. Zimbabwe.p87. 2006.
[8] http://www.holcimfoundation.org
[9]( www.nust.ac.zw
412
[10] National University of Science and Technology, Report Of The Commission Of
Inquiry Into The Establishment of A Second University Or Campus.1989.
[11] Looking at Nust, Zimbabwe Architectural Quarterly,Vol.2,p26 1999.
[12] Mail & Guardian, 22 February p6. 2008.
[13] New African ,Winter 2007/2008
[14] RIBA Journal, November 1970.
[15].Architects Act Professional Conduct By-Law Statutory Instrument number 375 of
1975 revised, of the Architects Act Chapter 27:01.2000
[16] http://www. bbcworldnews.com/ feb18,2008
[17] Regional, Town And Country Planning Act, Chapter 29:12, Section 26 b(ii).
[18}Karl Heinz Krause and Kaus Plewe,VEB Verlag fuer Bauwesen. Berlin. 1988.
[19] Model Building By-Laws, Chapter 10,p1.
[20] Jean Louis Cohen. Mies van der Rohe. E & F Spon. Glasgow.p92. 1996.
[21] http://erg.cud.ie/mid--career/pdfs/tech-mod-3pdf
[22] Alex Lohr, Jorn Behnsen, Klaus Molitor, Gabi Willibold-Lohr.Energie- und
umweltbewuzstes Bauen mit der Sonne. Verlag TUV. Köln. 1991.
[23] Funabashi Haruo. Institutionalized Greed. Look Japan. January 2004. Vol.49. No.574
[24]Mail & Guardian.p4, February 2008.
413
The effect of turbidity levels and Moringa oleifera concentration on the
effectiveness of coagulation in water treatment
1,2*
Nkurunziza T. 2Nduwayezu J.B. 3Banadda E.N. and 1Nhapi I.
1
WREM Project, National University of Rwanda, P.O.Box 117 Huye, Southern Province, Rwanda
Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) P.O.Box 227, Huye, Southern Province, Rwanda
3
Department of Food Science and Technology Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
2
*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]
Keywords: water quality, Moringa oleifera, turbidity, flocculation.
Abstract
This work aimed at assessing the water purification capacity and antimicrobial property
of Moringa oleifera (MO) seeds over a wide range of turbidity levels. Different
concentrations of MO varying from 25 to 300 milligrams/litre were prepared and applied
to a range of turbid water from 50 to 450 NTU. A salt solution (1M NaCl) was used as
coagulant extractant. The parameters determined before and after coagulation were
turbidity, pH, iron, manganese and Escherichia coli. It was noted that the turbidity
removal is influenced by the initial turbidity. The lowest turbidity removal of 83.2% was
observed at 50NTU while the highest of 99.8% was obtained at 450NTU. The pH didn’t
show high variation though it slightly rose. However, MO proved highly effective in iron
and manganese removal with 90.4% to 100% removal for iron and 93.1% to 100% for
manganese. The highest E. coli removal achieved was 96.0%. The optimum MO dosages
were 150mg/l (50NTU and 150NTU) and 125mg/l for the rest of the initial turbidity
values. Furthermore all the parameters determined satisfied the WHO guidelines for
drinking water except for E. coli.
1. Introduction
Worldwide, about 1.1 billion people lack access to improved water supply [1] and 1.8
million people, of which 90% are children under 5 years, die from diarrhoea every year
mostly in developing countries [2]. Like most of other developing countries, Rwanda
water supply coverage is still very low. In 2005 it was estimated that only 54 % of
Rwandan population, and only 44% in the rural areas, had access to safe water supply [3].
Furthermore, water consumption in rural areas is estimated at only 8 litres/person/day, far
below the national recommendation of 20 litres. Hence, diarrhoea and other water related
disease conditions remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality in Rwanda [4].
For many developing countries, people rely on household-level, decentralized methods to
collect, transport, store and purify water, especially in areas that lack centralized systems
for delivery of safe water directly into homes [5]. Specifically, the use of Moringa oleifera
MO in drinking water treatment has been suggested as a way to tackle the issue of a high
operational cost associated with a conventional water treatment plant [6;7]. Hence the use
of MO in drinking water treatment could be cost effective and environmental friendly[7;
8]. MO properties of clarifying turbid water was first reported by Jahn after observing
women in Sudan use its seeds to clarify the turbid Nile water [9]. From then, MO has been
414
extensively studied in drinking water treatment as a coagulant and a disinfectant
[10;11;12] both at laboratory and full scale [13]. A number of researches have confirmed
that MO can both act as a coagulant and a disinfectant replacing therefore the aluminium
sulphate [14;10]. The molecule responsible for coagulation is a positively charged protein
having a molecular weight of 13 kDa and an isoelectric point between 10 and 11 [10;15]
while Suarez et al.[15] and Ghebremichael (2004) attribute the antimicrobial effects of the
seeds to the compound 4(α-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocynate. Studies showed that
water treatment with MO removes turbidity by between 92% and 99% [10] and 90-99% of
bacteria [14]. However, most of the existing literature focuses on synthetic water and they
rarely treat the issue of drinking criteria in view of the existing guidelines. Therefore, there
is still a dearth of literature on the composition and the drinking criteria of water treated
with MO in the parameters of major concern in drinking water.
This study seeks to explore low cost water treatment alternatives which may be put in
place in order to alleviate the problem of lack of drinking water in the country. It
investigates the potential use of MO as a primary coagulant and a disinfectant in water
treatment. Based on a laboratory experiments, it determines the influence of the initial
turbidity and MO concentration on the quality of treated water, and assesses the potability
of the resulting treated water according to WHO guidelines.
2. Materials and methods
Matured seed were manually removed from their dry pods and shelled. They were then
ground in a mortar with a pestle and then sieved through a 0.21mm sieve. The powder
obtained was weighed using an analytical balance (Adam PW254, +/- 0.0001g) and
dissolved in 1M NaCl solution. A 3% solution of MO was prepared by soaking 3 g of
the powder in 100 mL of 1M NaCl solution. The mixture was then vigorously shaken for 5
minutes and the suspension rested for 2 hours and was then filtrated. The solid retained on
the cotton wool was disposed of. Neglecting that solid, a simple calculation shows that
0.8mL of the solution corresponds to 25mg of MO, 1.7 mL to 50mg, 2.5 mL to 75mg, etc.
The water to be tested was collected during the rainy period of September from two
rivers, namely, Kadahokwa and Rwamamba. Both of rivers are located in Tumba Sector,
Huye district, the Rwandan Southern Province. The justification for choosing these two
rivers is to study naturally occurring conditions. Hence even where the dilution was done,
less turbid water was used. The volumes to be mixed in order to get the desired turbidity
are found from the information that the turbidity of Kadahokwa river is 512NTU and that
of Rwamamba is 47NTU and by solving the following system of equation.
47 v1 + 512v 2 = 1000T Where T is the desired final turbidity (see Figure 1), V1 is the volume of Rwamamba

river and V the volume of Kadahokwa river.
v1 + v 2 = 1000
2
Table 11: The raw water parameters obtained after mixing water from the two rivers.
Parameter
Initial turbidity (NTU)
50
150
250
350
450
7.19
7.20
7.25
7.20
7.16
pH
2.5
8.4
13.9
22.3
26.5
Fe (mg/l)
3
8.7
12.4
20.7
30.3
Mn (mg/l)
500
400
400
100
100
E. coli (Cfu/100mL)
415
A fully randomised 5 x 12 factorial experiment with factor A, the initial turbidity,
having 5 levels and factor B, MO concentration, having 12 levels, was carried out. There
were 3 replications for each combination of the two factors. However, for E. coli the test
was carried out on the best flocculated samples and one sample was analysed instead of
three.
Figure 15: Experimental design
The coagulation and flocculation were based on jar test (PHIPPS & Bird)
experiments. A vigorous shaking of 100 rotations per minutes (rpm) was applied and after
one minute different volumes of the coagulant were introduced into each beaker. The rapid
mixing was maintained for two minutes and then speed was reduced to 15 rpm for 20
minutes after which the flocculator was turned off. The sedimentation process took one
hour. After settling the supernatant was carefully drawn from each beaker and analysed.
Analyses have been carried out on turbidity, iron, manganese, and E. coli. In addition to
these parameters, pH was also analysed to assess the influence of MO on the pH of treated
water.
After calibration of apparatus according to the manufacturer indications, pH was
measured using glass electrodes pH meter whose 0.01 (HACH Sension1, +/- 0.01). The
turbidity was analysed with a direct reading turbidimeter (HACH 2100P, +/-0.01). Iron
was analysed using the phenanthroline method while Manganese was analysed using the
periodate oxidation method (HACH DR/890, colorimeter). E. coli was analysed using
colony counting method after an incubation at37°C for 24 hours with m-coliblue24 as the
growing medium.
3. Results and discussion
Turbidity removal
Table 4 summarizes the results for the mean turbidity removal (%) based on 3 samples
for each concentration level.
416
Table 12: Mean turbidity removal expressed as percentages ± standard error for different
MO concentrations and initial raw water turbidity.
MO concentration
(mg/l)
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
50
87.48±0.77
89.68±0.93
85.52±1.25
89.94±1.71
93.10±0.64
95.00±1.35
85.56±2.30
86.34±0.21
83.24±1.57
88.66±1.17
86.66±1.17
85.58±1.11
150
250
96.25±0.59
98.80±0.24
97.71±0.42
99.23±0.19
97.83±0.89
99.10±0.18
98.43±0.54
99.33±0.06
98.37±0.73
99.37±0.07
98.56±0.37
99.30±0.13
97.81±0.18
99.34±0.04
97.78±0.54
99.23±0.20
97.85±0.40
98.96±0.08
97.59±0.08
99.27±0.17
97.24±0.38
98.93±0.11
96.67±0.49
99.12±0.23
350
99.14±0.02
99.49±0.08
99.67±0.01
99.66±0.01
99.69±0.01
99.63±0.03
99.61±0.04
99.56±0.01
99.51±0.03
99.30±0.06
99.30±0.02
99.31±0.05
450
99.72±0.01
99.63±0.01
99.68±0.00
99.73±0.03
99.80±0.02
99.78±0.02
99.71±0.04
99.69±0.04
99.61±0.07
99.73±0.03
99.67±0.04
99.70±0.05
The turbidity removal (%) is weak for low level of the initial turbidity. In addition,
there is a lot of variability for low values of the initial turbidity. The variability diminishes
at higher turbidity values, i.e., 250NTU, 350NTU and 450 NTU.
The best concentration was 150mg/L for the raw water turbidity of 50NTU and
150NTU while it was 125mg/l for the rest of the turbidity levels. Therefore the optimum
dosage decreases as the raw water turbidity increases. This observation differs from results
reported by Yung [6] and Katayon [12]. During all the treatments, the final turbidity
remained in the allowable range of WHO guidelines of 5NTU [16] except for 50NTU and
150NTU for which the probability of getting turbidity values less than 5NTU is 0.17
(2/12) and 0.83 (10/12) respectively. As the computed values of F (9.338, 175.921 and
2.482 for the concentration, the initial turbidity and the interaction between those two
parameters) are higher the tabulated ones for the same parameters at α = 0.05, it can be
concluded that there is a significant difference in the mean residual turbidity and the
turbidity removal (%) values. Also the influence of those two parameters, both separately
and combined, on the final turbidity and the turbidity removal is significant.
pH variation
Figure 2 shows the overall mean pH variation as a function of the final turbidity.
The pH change (%)
10
5
0
-5
-10
50.00 150.00 250.00 350.00 450.00
Figure 16: Overall pH variation (%).
Figure 2 shows that the highest positive pH variation, around 10%, has been observed
at low turbidity value (50NTU) and the highest negative variation, around - 10%, at
417
150NTU. On average the pH slightly rises as the concentration of MO increases since the
mean pH variation lies below zero in all the treatments. The dispersion around the mean
(variability) is noticeable for low turbidity values. Hence the range is 0.77 for 50NTU and
0.51 for 150NTU. For a total of 60 mean values of pH, 15 values (25%) fall below the
initial pH value and 45 (75%) fall above the initial pH value. As the calculated F values
are higher than the tabulated ones at α = 0.05, it can be concluded that the mean final pH
and the pH variations (%) are different and the effect of the initial turbidity and MO
concentration, both separately and combined, on the final pH are significant.
Iron removal
The iron removal values are summarised in Table 7.
Table 13: Mean iron removal (%) ± the standard error as a function of MO concentration and the initial
turbidity.
MO concentration
(mg/l)
50.00
150.00
250
350
450
25
90.40±1.19
90.48±0.10
94.68±0.39
97.44±0.14
98.87±0.18
50
95.60±0.46
98.33±0.14
99.35±0.02
99.82±0.11
99.85±0.09
75
96.80±0.13
98.10±0.24
99.57±0.10
99.87±0.04
99.92±0.01
100
97.60±0.40
99.64±0.10
99.93±0.02
99.87±0.00
100.00±0.01
125
100.00±0.13
99.88±0.00
99.35±0.06
99.91±0.05
99.70±0.05
150
100.00±0.13
99.88±0.04
99.21±0.02
99.96±0.03
99.85±0.03
175
100.00±0.13
99.88±0.04
99.50±0.08
99.91±0.01
100.00±0.01
200
99.60±0.13
99.88±0.04
100.00±0.02
99.87±0.05
100.00±0.01
225
100.00±0.13
100.00±0.04
99.14±0.06
99.87±0.03
100.00±0.01
250
100.00±0.13
100.00±0.04
99.28±0.06
99.91±0.03
100.00±0.01
275
100.00±0.13
100.00±0.04
98.99±0.15
99.96±0.01
100.00±0.01
300
100.00±0.13
100.00±0.04
99.78±0.04
99.82±0.01
100.00±0.01
In general, the iron removal is better at high turbidity values and the variability
between the data is closer to zero in that range. The removal is very high (up to 100%) and
as the concentration of MO increases the removal increases at the same time and from
125mg/l the removal is almost the same for all the turbidity values of the raw water. The
mechanism by which the iron is removed has not been studied during this research but we
suspect the presence in MO of oxidising agents which can oxidise the iron which
precipitates then as oxides. During all the tests, the iron concentration in the treated water
was far below the upper limit recommended by WHO which is 3mg/L [16]. The analysis
of variance (ANOVA), revealed that the calculated F values are greater than the tabulated
ones. Therefore the iron removal values are significantly different.
418
Manganese removal
Table 8 summarises the mean manganese removal as a function of the initial turbidity
level (NTU) and MO concentration (mg/L).
Table 14: Manganese removal (%) ± the standard error
MO concentration
(mg/l)
50
150
250
25
100.00±0.00
98.85±0.00
97.58±0.27
50
100.00±1.11
93.10±0.66
97.58±0.97
75
96.67±2.94
98.85±0.00
99.19±0.00
100
96.67±2.94
98.85±0.66
99.19±0.00
125
100.00±0.00
98.85±0.00
98.39±0.47
150
96.67±1.92
98.85±0.66
99.19±0.27
175
100.00±0.00
97.70±0.00
96.77±0.27
200
100.00±0.00
97.70±0.66
99.19±0.00
225
100.00±1.11 100.00±0.00
100.00±0.27
250
93.33±2.22 100.00±0.00
99.19±0.27
275
100.00±0.00 100.00±0.00
97.58±0.27
300
100.00±0.00
98.85±0.66
98.39±0.27
350
98.55±0.16
99.52±0.16
99.03±0.16
99.52±0.16
99.52±0.28
99.52±0.00
99.03±0.16
98.55±0.16
98.55±0.32
99.03±0.32
99.03±0.16
97.10±0.43
450
98.68±0.19
98.68±0.11
99.01±0.19
99.67±0.00
99.01±0.11
99.01±0.19
99.01±0.00
99.01±0.19
100.00±0.11
99.34±0.11
99.34±0.29
100.00±0.11
The MO proved effective in manganese removal. In all the treatments, the removal
was above 90% (between 93.10 % and 100%). In addition, MO performed better at high
initial turbidity. However, there is no clear trend for Mn removal though the range gets
smaller as the initial turbidity increases. This means that at high levels of initial turbidity,
weak concentrations of MO perform also better in terms of Mn removal. The mechanism
by which Mn is removed could be similar to that of iron removal. The effects of MO
concentration and the initial turbidity on the final Mn concentration were significant at α =
0.05. The effect of interaction of those parameters on Mn removal was also significant at α
= 0.05. Hence there is evidence that the final manganese means are significantly different.
According to WHO guidelines for drinking water [16], the limit concentration of Mn is
0.5mg/l. Therefore, almost all the treatments showed satisfactory results. Only 2% of the
cases have gone over that limit (3 treatments out of 180). As far as iron and manganese
removal is concerned, literature survey makes no mention of similar studies.
E. coli removal
Data on E. coli removal based on the best flocculated samples are presented in table 9.
Table 15: E. coli removal (%) for the best flocculated samples.
Initial turbidity
MO optimum
Initila E.coli
(NTU)
dosage (mg/L)
(Cfu/100mL)
50
150
500
150
150
400
250
125
400
350
125
100
450
125
100
Final E. coli
(Cfu/100mL)
46
32
28
6
4
E. coli removal
(%)
90.8
92.0
93.0
94.0
96.0
As it appears on table 9 the best flocculated samples (with low turbidity) have been
obtained with 150mg/L (MO) for 50NTU and 150NTU and with 125mg/L for the rest of
419
E. coli removal (%)
the initial turbidity levels. A relationship between E. coli removal (%) and the initial
turbidity levels can be drawn as indicated on Figure 3.
y = 0.0124x + 90.06
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
2
R = 0.9786
0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 17: Relationship between E. coli removal and the initial turbidity
As indicated on Figure 3, E. coli removal is positively correlated with the initial turbidity
(R2 = 0.9786). The process by which the E. coli removal occurs is likely via precipitation.
Specific studies on E. coli removal mechanism with MO and the final microbial
population after treatment are rare. However, a number of researchers propose that the
microorganisms are removed the same way as the suspended matter, i.e. via precipitation
[7; 10; 17]. Treating the Nile water, Price [18] achieved a removal of 99% in total
coliforms but still this cannot be compared with the E. coli removal. A study by Dishna
[17] confirms that water treated with MO is potable without any further treatment.
However, it was found that a further treatment is necessary in order to avoid any health
risk.
4. Conclusion
This study aimed at purifying turbid water using MO. Different turbidity values as
well as MO concentrations have been tested. MO powder, after dissolution in 1M NaCl
solution has shown effectiveness as a coagulant and a disinfectant which can be
satisfactorily be used in drinking water treatment. The resulting water met a number of
WHO guidelines for drinking water except for the microbial content. This is a crucial
parameter; therefore further treatment is of paramount importance.The turbidity values
obtained for the optimum concentrations are satisfactory that there is no need for filtration.
MO sufficiently removed iron and manganese which normally occur at high
concentrations in fresh water. Therefore the use of MO as coagulant in drinking water
treatment would save a lot of money used to install an aeration unit which aims at
removing those elements by oxidation. The mechanism by which those elements are
removed during treatment with MO has not been examined in this study. However, we
suspect the presence of oxidising agents in MO powder. The coagulant from MO powder
is not efficient in removing the hardness (Ca2+ and Mg2+) from the raw water. The ions
responsible for the hardness might not be easily oxidised. Interestingly, MO didn’t affect
the pH of the raw water so much. Therefore there is no need to use the pH adjustment
chemicals like lime. This could be beneficial if the raw water has already the pH falling in
the recommended range.
420
Acknowledgement
This study has been carried out both at the National University of Rwanda (NUR) and the Institute of
Scientific and Technological Research (IRST) laboratories. We therefore address our sincere gratitude to
those two institutions for their support to its completion.
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[18] Price, M. L. (2000) The Moringa Tree. ECHO Technical Note. North Fort Myers, Florida, USA.
421
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT CONSERVATION, FOR WHO?
1
1
Asemota Godwin Norense Osarumwense
Kigali Institute of Science and Technology, Kigali, Rwanda
E-Mail: [email protected]
Key words: energy, environment conservation, linkages
Abstract
The twin requirements of satisfying increased energy demand and need to conserve
environment for sustainable development and our mutual good is presently an
incongruous construct. Energy, which is ability to do work, has gradually replaced “food
as the prime necessity of life”. Energy as a derivative resource creates linkages. This
derivative status is closely linked to natural resources like water, land, forests,
biodiversity and mineral deposits. It is a means of production, recreation, transport and
also a commodity that is in a complex of international, regional, national and local
networks. It is this maze of interlocking bundles of multifunctional, multidimensional,
multidisciplinary and multi-factorial interests in energy and energy related issues that
have made requirements of providing increased energy demand and need to conserve the
environment for sustainable development an intractable problem.
Energy generation, distribution, and utilisation have been exploitative, wasteful, depletive
and disruptive of almost every natural energy resource in the environment. Until
concerted efforts are put in place and everyone acts responsibly a time will come when
there is no one to enjoy the energy so produced. This paper attempts to investigate the
energy-environment relationship, interplay of drivers, quality of advice and public policy
implementation consequences, as they affect the energy-environment equation.
Additionally, the passion and struggle for more energy have come to stay as the 21st
Century religion for status, influence, political, social and economic power bases for both
individuals and states. Unfortunately, this new religion of energy for domination is at best,
self-destructive.
INTRODUCTION
Energy, which is ability to do work, has gradually replaced “food as the prime
necessity of life”. Energy as a derivative resource creates linkages. This derivation is
closely linked to natural resources like water, land, forests, biodiversity and mineral
deposits. It is a means of production, recreation, transport and also a commodity that is in
a complex of international, national, regional and local networks. It is this maze of
interlocking bundles of multifunctional, multidimensional, multidisciplinary and multifactorial boundaries of interests in energy and energy related issues that have made the
twin requirements of satisfying increased energy demand and need to conserve the
environment for sustainable development an incongruous construct and a vicious spiral.
METHODOLOGY
Extensive literature search, review and analyses were used to study energy and
environment conservation in this paper.
422
ENERGY SOURCES
There are several energy sources and their use depends on availability, cost, and
reliability.
Wood-Biomass: Wood and plant resources are commonly used for energy in rural areas
and are obtained from planting fast growing plants that are harvested and burnt as fuel.
The problems are that they use up large agricultural lands coupled with problems of
handling and transportation. It is not a practical large-scale contributor to world energy [1,
2].
Coal: Large coal deposits could last several hundreds of years at current consumption
patterns. The problems with it are that its mining is dangerous, dirty and unpleasant. It
requires that people work underground and burning it to produce energy could lead to
serious pollution [1, 2].
Hydro-Electric: This is limited to about ten percent of world energy needs. Hydroelectric
power is inexhaustible and does not use up the resources of the earth, but it is destructive
of the environment [1, 2].
Oil: This has taken the place of coal, with a bourgeoning new range of industries since its
discovery. It is cheaper and more convenient than coal. Natural gas that is found closely
with oil, or separately, is currently being wasted through flaring because of transportation
and handling problems: which ultimately have negative repercussions for the environment
[1, 2].
Solar: The sun’s energy is ultimately the source of all our energy since coal and oil
contains the sun’s energy stored in the earth years ago. About 200 Watts/m2 reaches the
earth’s surface but conversion losses brings it to about 50 Watts/m2.
Wind Mills: Wind power has been around for some time and has been used on farms. The
irregular pattern of wind flow, bulk of component parts and large area to be occupied for a
sizeable power output, have precluded their use as major world energy source before now
[1, 2].
Wave, Tidal and Ocean Thermal: Are other energy sources that demand more research
and practical demonstration of their large-scale applications, presently. Another
disadvantage is that they are not reproducible everywhere, but location specific and
produced in small quantities [1, 2].
The bottom line is that we need energy from all practicable and possible sources, since the
energy demand would not always meet with supply-The supply side would continuously
be in deficit.
DRIVERS
Energy as we know it has become synonymous with life and standards of living.
The more energy at one’s disposal, the higher one is rated in terms of standards of living,
economic power, affluence and importance in society. What are then the drivers in the
increase between the energy and environment divide?
Multinational Corporations: Multinational corporations are the very large energy
consumers with the worst disposition at environment conservation. They usually employ
ineffective and inefficient means of production and machinery for economic and financial
considerations to the detriment of the environment. Because of their huge financial base
are prone to influencing policy makers and policy decisions of nation-states in their favour
on the strength that changing to new and more efficient production systems would require
huge financial outlay that are not available to them, lead to job losses, political tension and
instability, crime, inflation and a host of other untoward consequences. An example is the
refusal of the US President George Bush in signing into law the banning of CFCs for
refrigeration in the US.
423
Thermodynamics: The laws and processes of thermodynamics and the Cobb-Douglas
production function of constant returns to scale place limitations on energy generation,
distribution, utilization and hence, its wastage through the antecedents of entropy and
enthalpy [2].
Wastage: Energy is used wastefully by those who have access- Industrial processes
developed in times of cheap oil are still in operation. Heating homes beyond normal in
cold weather and much use of air conditioning equipment in warm weather, especially the
richer and developed countries. Also, heat escapes through doors and windows while it is
more expensive to improve the thermal properties of old buildings than to construct new
ones at less cost [1, 2].
Resources: Economic growth is by far smaller in countries with a rich resource base than
in resource-poor countries. This is particularly true for countries with great amounts of
mineral resources such as oil and other minerals. However, it also applies- if to a lesser
extent- to countries with comparatively vast areas of arable land. Further, countries that
have to rely on fewer resources were forced to develop by diversifying and industrialising.
In contrast, countries richly endowed with resources tend to develop “exploitative”
mechanisms, while diversification and the promotion of productive performance are often
neglected. It is the combination of economic policy that promotes diversification with a
comprehensive resource policy and good governance on the national level that is a
prerequisite for sustainable development in these countries [3].
Energy Efficiency: There are difficulties about improving energy efficiency. Improved
energy efficiency leads to reduced energy prices that enable poor people to afford the
energy they need. This situation would make the rich to buy more and to spend on their
luxuries. It is doubtful if a differential tariff structure would be enough discouragement.
Additionally, Carr [2] reports that some Oil companies bought patents for fuel efficient
automobile engines, keep them away and sponsor new models, which are less fuel
efficient in order to boost their sale.
Globalisation: Globalisation concerns technologies, markets, tourism and information. It
also involves the promiscuity of all goods and exchanges, and the perpetual flow of
money. Globalisation represents homogenisation and growing discrimination, with
relegation and exclusion embedded in the very logic and fabric of its creation.
Unfortunately, almost everywhere the gaps are widening, often irretrievably [4]. Another
pertinent question is: Does the third industrial revolution herald a new set of unified social,
cultural, economic and political ground rules valid world-wide? Expert opinion is divided
[5]. But, science and technology increasingly impact upon the way we produce, trade and
consume across borders. In Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia and China, instead of growing rice
and logging trees, the young workers today engage in mergers and acquisitions,
automobile companies and chemical firms. Upon looking at the globe closely, coupled
with the vested interests of consultants, investors and business people, much of humanity
is headed for disaster and self-destruction [5]. Arguably, globalisation has been shown to
bring us into contact with one another. But, it also maintains and strengthens profound
divisions and fractures in terms of societies and income. Most important in our capacity to
generate and utilise knowledge. These fractures are dividing the human race into two
civilisations. Additionally, the industrialised countries had learned that science and
technology possess the potential for creating harm as well as benefits, for creating
enormous divisions and for being appropriated and used to increase profits or enrich a
small part of humanity [6].
Genetically Modified Organisms: About ninety percent of the world food supply is
provided by little more than 100 species out of the 250,000 known to man. While about
twenty species carry most of the load, only four of these-wheat, maize, rice and banana
424
stand between humanity and starvation. Additionally, all the plant species and organisms
on earth are potential gene donors, which can be transferred through genetic engineering
in order to improve their performance. Presently, the effects of new transgenic food on
human health are difficult to predict, and are never free of risk. Consequently, the fear and
public opinion of genetic engineering is to agriculture as nuclear engineering is to energy
[7]. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) represent yet another step in the quest for
mastery. It is to raise animal and plant productivity or to stimulate resistance to natural or
industrial enemies or to manufacture substances useful to humans. Yet, people are
indignant that GMOs have been imposed without prior demonstration of their simple risks
and also of their advantages. They are uneasy mainly because of the attitude and posturing
of scientific and political leaders, which show ideological concern bordering on deceit and
irresponsibility, to convince first and foremost themselves, and others of the reality of
genetic control [8].
Bio-fuels: production from food sources traditionally meant for human beings and their
animals have been shown in 2008, to result in food shortages, escalating food prices,
tension, demonstrations and civil unrest in many cities of the world. The above
complications were brought about on the globe mainly because of that urge to satisfy:
“The feeling of desperation, when luxuriating Americans and Europeans momentarily fail
to get enough motor fuel to generate their normal quota of smog, is the desperation of a
people spoiled rotten and made petulant by an overabundant planet” [1]. Also,
hybridisation sponsored mainly by FAO, and globalisation with its networks, have
changed the world peoples traditional foods to mainly the homogenised and globalised
foods of wheat, maize, rice and their derivatives. These tend to exacerbate food crises.
Need Assessment: Need, is the basis upon which a range of public services are currently
distributed. It is important to policy makers because: 1) a number of new policy
developments require by law or strongly recommend needs assessment; 2) in an
environment of scarce resources, ability to demonstrate relatively high levels of need in
your area can bring with it extra resources; 3) widening inequalities have resulted in a
“rediscovery” (again) of poverty and a concern to focus what resources are available on
those who are in greatest need- (needs assessment can be used to hide the facts in favour
of those with “special needs”); and 4) development in the way in which public services
are organized and managed, despite being borne out of a concern to introduce elements of
the market into public services, have resulted in an environment in which needs
assessment is recognized as an essential input into the policy process, to assist in decision
making [9]. Need implies the accomplishment of a desired end-state. It raises two issues:
first, the definition of “desired outcomes”; and second, the assessment of the effectiveness
of various means to the achievement of these outcomes [10]. The assessment of needs
requires the collation, collection and analysis of information. Using existing information
provides a cost effective and relatively quick means of drawing attention to comparative
needs of different population groups whether they be defined spatially or along such lines
as gender, age, or ethnicity [11]. The implementation of the community care changes and
the subsequent development for individuals and for planning purposes has raised a number
of practical and theoretical issues like: 1) what is need and who defines it?; 2) To what
extent is the system now needs-led?; 3) unmet need; 4) the link between population needs
and individual needs; 5) assessment as a tool for rationing and 6) the boundary between
social care and health care [12]. Four main reasons suggest why community needs
assessments are moving from being a peripheral activity to a mainstream activity. They
relate to changes in the way public services are managed and delivered, recent
425
developments in urban policy; a revival of the community development and a rediscovery
at the political and ideological levels of the concept of community [12, 13].
Policy and Advise: The Indian Government, in 1962 integrated Garhwal into national
development by opening the region to increased movement of people and goods. The
forests were the first to be rapidly exploited to meet commercial and local needs. But, the
Chipko strategy of hugging trees in the 1970s raised several issues for the social,
environmental, and economic processes occurring in the region. Today; the forests
continue to serve as battlefield for different actors because of conflicting interests [14].
Traditionally, the districts of Kolar and Bangalore have been pulses, oilseeds and ragigrowing areas. By 1982-83, on advise of both the World Bank and Overseas Development
Authority (ODA), 63.3 percent of agricultural lands originally cultivating these food crops
have been covered under eucalyptus. As a direct consequence of “farm forestry” in
Eucalyptus species used in rayon and paper industries, 97 percent of all eucalyptus species
grown in Kolar is sold to industries. However, the eucalyptus epidemic on farmlands has
relied heavily on government subsidies. Also, farmers have been supplied free seedlings,
technical help, and soft loans, all under a most inappropriately named “social forestry”
programme which benefits only industry and commercial farmers, while the rural poor,
worse hit by the biomass shortage, are left in the cold. Also, the species of eucalyptus
allowed to be planted were not those that could be gleaned by livestock [15]. That is why
future projects must carry out preliminary investigation into their social and environmental
impact. Nevertheless, certain misconceptions must be overcome to ensure more
transparency: plantations do not necessarily prevent floods and they only rarely alleviate
pressure on primary forests, and their contribution to carbon absorption is minimal. Nor do
plantations necessarily create jobs. But, the integration of local stakeholders in the
decision-making process can bring benefits to all concerned. On balance, it may be better
to encourage consultation and appropriate planning of such plantations, to meet heavy
demand, rather than adopt extremist positions [16]. The same kinds of advice and policy
implementation occur for energy.
STATISTICS
Demographic and urban growth and the worldwide progress of industrialization combined
to increase the demand for energy and water. The world population tripled during the 20th
Century, its water needs have increased six-fold. 50 percent of the world’s wet zones have
disappeared, a third of catchment areas have lost up to 75 percent of their forests and there
are over 47,000 major dams worldwide [17]. People in America, Europe and Japan use ten
times energy as those in Africa. World population doubles about every 35 years and the
average energy consumption per person for the whole world is about 2 KW yr/yr. Whereas
70 percent of the world population would have to try to survive with much less, people in
the developed countries use around 10 KW yr/yr at the extreme. Even if we adopt the
relatively modest goal of 3 KW yr/yr during the 21st Century, we would have to triple the
world’s energy production [18].
ENERGY DEPENDENCE
It may not be apparent that energy use and wastage is addictive. This is so because the
more energy we use, the more we need, as it has no storage bag. Energy and energy
related issues have become the number one issues discussed, talked about and most
researched in the world today. Additionally, energy like food is an expendable resource.
426
ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP
Energy generation depends on natural resources that are obtained from the environment.
Depending on the state at which these natural resources can be utilised for energy
generation, they can then be exploited, processed and transformed to the usable forms.
Others, can be mined, refined, cleaned and modified. This transformation process leads to
depletion in natural resources of varying kinds in the environment. These activities cause
disruption, degradation and further depletion of natural resources and replenishment cycles
if any ever existed. Consequently, energy generation, distribution and utilisation bear a
depreciation relationship with the environment.
ENERGY AND WORLD CONFLICTS
Upon the discovery of large deposits of Oil and Gas especially in the Middle East/ Gulf
states and other third world countries, conflicts have become prevalent and endemic
resulting from the politics of the economics of supply and demand of the commodity. The
use and production of oil have brought these third world Oil-rich states a mixed bag of
prominence, wealth, power and trouble, for which they are usually ill prepared. With this
realisation, the developed West and North including Japan have devised several means to
dictate the pricing and hence, availability of this commodity. The first major conflict arose
in 1973-1974 in the famous “Yum Kippur” war. This price war brought with it increase in
oil prices and its attendant general increase in price levels for goods and services, the
world over [1, 2]. In 1991, Iraq over ran Kuwait, another major OPEC Oil producer for no
known reasons. America went there to dislodge Iraq from Kuwait in order to forestall any
possible Oil price increase and impact negatively on cost of production in the developed
world as a result of this occupation. From then onwards, there has been a “love-hate”
relationship between America and Iraq, coupled with that fact that the Middle East which
has one half the world’s Oil resources is both unstable and tension laden. The present wars
in Iraq and Afghanistan have persisted in order to secure oil flow to run American
industries [19]. Similarly, the war in Darfur of Sudan is probably still on because it has to
supply China about 6 percent of her Oil requirements from Sudan. The few days, war of
August 2008 between the Russian Federation and Georgia, was fought and won because
Russia wants to ensure that Georgia does not become a clog in its gas supply chain to
Europe. Conversely, the restive youths of the Niger-Delta in Nigeria have been at war with
themselves, every successive Government and Oil companies operating in the region.
Their activities of kidnappings, destruction to oil facilities and bucchaneering for ransom
have tended to make the Niger-Delta a very unsafe place for Oil workers, their families
and, also at increasing oil prices at international markets.
ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
Ecological damage and distortions by the privileged few, have created the large intractable
problems that will gradually and inevitably drive the human race to an abrupt end, sooner
than later, if urgent steps are not taken to realistically address the situation without sticking
to predetermined economic and esoteric considerations. The powerful West and North
have used deception all through the ages to dominate others and poverty has been the
result for the dominated. The of extraction and sale of tropical hardwoods to Japan and
European Union, make them to have appropriated more than their share of the world’s
carbon sinks. With approximately 20 percent of the global population produce almost 60
percent of global CO2 emission [20]. Further, degraded and secondary forests, which is
statistically classified as subtropical forest resources provide a living for 300 million
people [21].
Irregular and violent seasons, rising water levels, floods, landslides,
prolonged droughts, climate change are some of the factors that are already noticeable in
427
respect of the drastic changes in the water cycle and energy that afflict certain parts of our
planet. The costs generated by water-related natural disasters have more than doubled over
the past ten years. Dams, other constructions and potential man-made risks make the
situation worse. Governments lack both the capacities and financial resources to
implement effective measures to prepare for and reduce the impact of these disastrous
developments. Preventive action still lag behind traditional curative solutions. Risk
reduction has not been well integrated into water and energy resource management, which
continue to be viewed primarily as technical problems with economic repercussions, while
the socio-cultural and environmental aspects are often ignored [22].
However, these devastating effects of weather in seemingly unlikely places may have been
“reversals” arising from depletion, or disruption of replenishment cycles, global warming
and climate change.
CONCLUSION
The passion and struggle for more energy has come to stay as the 21st century religion for
status, influence, political, social and economic power bases for both the individual and
the state, since its generation and use have been depletive and exploitative of
environmental resources. Consequently, a time would come when the environment is
completely eroded of its energy resources; where the energy output becomes infinitum, the
human race wiped out, with the energy so produced, belonging to no one, in particular.
Hence, that passion and struggle is at best, self-destructive. Unless, balanced and “middle
of the road” approaches, are employed for increased energy production and environment
conservation.
REFERENCES:
[1] Carr DE (1976). Energy & the Earth Machine, W W Norton & Company, New York
[2] Hinrichs RA & Kleinbach M (2002). Energy: Its Use and the Environment, Thomson
Learning, USA, 284-310.
[3] Auty RM (2003). Improving sustainable management of renewable resources through
macro-economic policy, InfoResources Focus No 3/03: 1.
www.iied.org/docs/eep/dp03_01.pdf
[4] Binde J (Ed) (2004). The Future of Values: 21st Century Talks, UNESCO & Berghan
Books, 1 (1), 19-24.
Books, 1I (1), 107-109.
Books, 1I (1), 123-126.
Books, 1V (1), 255-259.
Books, 1V (1), 260-269.
[9] Percy-Smith J (Ed) (2000). Needs Analysis in Public Policy, Open University Press,
Buckingham, 83.
Buckingham, .
Buckingham, 23.
Buckingham, 57.
428
Buckingham, 1-9.
[14] Friedmann J & Rangan H (Ed) (1993). In Defense of Livelihood: Comparative
Studies on Environment, UNRISD, Kumariah Press, Connecticut, 155-165.
[15] Friedmann J & Rangan H (Ed) (1993). In Defense of Livelihood: Comparative
Studies on Environment, UNRISD, Kumariah Press, Connecticut, 186-206.
[16] Cossalter C & Pye-Smith C (2000). Industrial forests plantations: An economic
necessity with questionable effects, InfoResources Focus No 3/03.
www.panda.org/downloads/forests/fastwood.pdf
[17] Anon. (2003). Livelihoods and Climate Change, InfoResources Focus No 1/03.
www.iisd.org/publications/publication.asp?pno=529
[18] Hogson PE (1997). Energy and Environment, Bowerdean Briefings, Bowerdean
Publishing company Limited, London.
Books, 1 (3), 47-54.
[20] Reid D (1995). Sustainable Development: An Introductory Guide, Earthscan
Publishing Limited, London, 106.
[21] Anon. (2002). A Counterweight to political “neglect’ of degraded and secondary
forests, InfoResources Focus No.3/03, 2.
www.itto.or.jp/policy/guidelines/index.html
[22] Anon.2003. Water for People-Water for Life, InfoResources Focus No 1/03.
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/aadr/index.shtml
429
ASSESSMENT OF WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN
KIGALI CITY, RWANDA
1
Umuhoza Mbateye F.A., 1 Nhapi I. and 2 Banadda N.
1
WREM Project, Faculty of Applied Sciences, National University of Rwanda, P.O. Box
117 Butare, Rwanda, Email address: [email protected] and [email protected]
2
Uganda Industrial Research Institute, P.O. Box 7086, Kampala, Uganda, Email address:
[email protected]
Keywords: water consumption, wastewater generation, wastewater management
strategies, urban wastewater management, wastewater reuse, City of Kigali.
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the current wastewater management practices in the City of
Kigali (CoK). It focused on the quantification of household wastewater production,
estimation of its quality, and the development of practical strategies for sustainably
managing the wastewater, now and into the future. It is based on data on population,
water supply and on data from questionnaire survey carried out which are used to assess
and derivate figures on water consumption, unit wastewater production by the three
different residential categories according to dwelling type and household income; these
are high, medium and low standings. Three samplings runs were conducted in order to
assess the quality of wastewater. The average water consumption was found to be 184
l/ca.d for high standing, 57 l/ca.d for medium standing, and 20 l/cap.d for low standing
dwellings. The respective return flows (or wastewater discharge coefficients) were found
to be 0.5, 0.7 and 0.75. For the monitored main parameters of DO, COD, TN, and TP, the
effluents quality far exceed the limits for effluents discharged into sensitive waters. It is
recommended that all concerned institutions and key stakeholders should work together in
formulating an appropriate wastewater management strategy, with special emphasis on
decentralized sanitation, reuse of wastewater components wherever possible, and cleaner
production in industries.
Introduction
Tremendous efforts have been made to launch a Rwandan national policy for the
management of water and sanitation sector that consists of strategies and programs for the
construction and rehabilitation of human resources, social and economic infrastructures.
The long term vision is to provide better guidance for the development and the
coordination in the water sector. According to MINITERE (2004), a planning and policy
document of Rwanda, the government is making concerted efforts to improve water and
sanitation coverage in both rural and urban areas. The current distribution of drinking
water is still inadequate and the rate of access in the country is estimated at 54% but does
not exceed 44% in the rural areas. Regarding sanitation, even though over 80% of the
country’s population has access to latrines, only 8% of these meet hygienic standards. In
order to achieve the Millennium Development Goals and the 2020 Vision, in 2005 the
Government of Rwanda launched a 15-year water and sanitation program in rural areas.
This program aims to improve the percentage of people with access to water, presently at
44%, and increase the sanitation rate, presently at 8%, to 66% in 2010, to 80% in 2015 and
100% in 2020. In the City of Kigali (CoK), with the surface area of 73,100 hectares
(KCMPT, 2007), the concept of wastewater management is an emerging issue for which
high importance is now attached. The bulk of the wastewater produced in CoK is treated
430
to a very minimal degree, if at all, and can be classified into a few broad categories. These
are described in terms of their prevalence and risk to the environment and human health.
Pit latrines are the typical residential form of excreta removal in the CoK. Regarding
wastewater treatment practices, only on-site or individual facilities for some institutions
and establishments exist in the CoK. Those are especially for Hospitals, hotels, prisons,
banks and for some estate of Caisse Sociale; and few of them have an adequate
functioning. There is currently no enough data available on domestic or industrial
wastewater quality and quantity in CoK, and for Rwanda in general. It is therefore not
possible to establish and to implement effective strategies without information on the
quantity of generated wastewater. The main objective of this study is to estimate the
quantity of wastewater generated in CoK and derive unit figures for water consumption
and wastewater production for future use in Rwanda. These figures will be useful for
modelling and decision making of strategies for wastewater management in CoK, and this
will contribute to the achievement of the National Sanitation Policy and MDG’s in
Rwanda.
Materials and methods
Quantity of water consumed and wastewater production
A survey was carried out to find information from which figures on the quantity
and the quality of consumed water by different domestic uses were derived. The questions
asked were on domestic water consumption and uses, on the used soap and detergents, and
on wastewater disposal. According to the purpose of the study, to the population size and
to the availability of resources, a sample size of 100 was adopted, with ±10% as the
precision level, 95% as the level of confidence and 0.5 as the degree of variability. The
used methods of sampling are stratified and systematic methods (Sudman, 1976). The used
strata consist of habitat and income standings (categories) for different dwellings in the
CoK. The categorisation in CoK according to habitat and economic status are high 16 %;
medium 22 %; and economic or low income 62 % (Electrogaz, 2007). The investigated
districts are Gasabo, Kicukiro and Nyarugenge, in their cells respectively Kimihurura,
Rugando, Rukiri, Niboye, Rwezamenyo and Kimisagara. Wastewater flow calculations
started with water use by customers and only part of indoor water use becomes wastewater
flow. Total water consumption of the study area was determined from Electrogaz (energy
and water utility company) data, which include also the water consumption of big
consumers. For the Districts studied, wastewater was calculated on the basis of population
and the average of water consumption per capita per day. The water consumption per
person per day was determined from the information collected from the survey.
Assessment of the quality of wastewater in CoK
The selection of the six sites used for sampling was done based on the type of
activities and institutions. The selected sampling sites are Muhima thalweg (stormwater
drain), Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Mille Collines Hotel, Union
Trade Center, Kigali Central Prison and the effluent from Industrial Park. The approach
adopted for data analysis and presentation was to analyze the data in terms of mean and
standard deviation using Microsoft Excel and SPSS software packages. Since there are no
effluent discharge regulations in Rwanda, the Zimbabwean regulations for effluent
discharge into sensitive waters (Government of Zimbabwe, 2000) and Composition of
Typical Residential Untreated Wastewater guideline (Burks and Minnis, 1994) were taken
as the basis for discussion. Basing on results obtained and the current wastewater
management options being applied worldwide, the basic scenarios for wastewater
431
management have been suggested.
Study area
The City of Kigali is the capital city of Rwanda and is also the largest and fastest
growing city in the country. It covers a total area of about 4,930 hectares (ha) and the
population of CoK was estimated to be 970,000 in 2007, with 5.4% as an annual
population growth rate. Its population is expected to reach 1,990,000 by the year 2020
(Electrogaz, 2007). The CoK consists of two parties, one urbanized and the other nonurbanized. It is this urbanized party which was considered in this study. In 2002, the urban
area covered about 6,560 hectares with a population of about 765,300. This urbanized part
was representing 6% of the total surface of the city and about 70% of its population
(KCMPT, 2007).
Water consumption in CoK
The water consumption patterns of each category for the years 2005 and 2006 are
presented in Table 1. These data are from the Commercial Service department of Electrogaz.
The individual connections represent special residential connections or small consumers. The
table shows only those consumers supplied by Electrogaz whilst the rest of the people in
Kigali are supplied from private sources.
Table 1: Structure of water consumption in 2005-2006 (Electrogaz, 2007)
Consumption in 2005
Type of customers
Individual
connections
Public standpipes
Administration
Industries
Total
3
Quantity (m )
%
Consumption in 2006
Quantity (m3)
%
4’705’325
77
5’044’284
77
233’672
801’730
378’766
4
13
6
272’417
808’209
452’249
4
12
7
6’119’493
100
6’577’159
100
The change in drinking water consumption at the national scale, during the period
2000-2006, was an annual growth average of 6.5% (Electrogaz, 2007). The strongest
growths have been recorded between the years 2000 and 2002 with yearly rates
respectively of 12% and 15%. On the other hand, the increase in water consumption in
CoK during the same period of 2000-2006 has been more important. The annual water
billed has increased by 12.8% (Electrogaz, 2007). The water consumption for 2005 and
2006 the consumption in CoK remained almost constant, with a clear dominance of
domestic consumption (Fig 1).
Wastewater collection, treatment and disposal in CoK
The management of collection, treatment, disposal of wastewater plus sludge
handling infrastructures is the responsibility of the Municipality of Kigali through its
Public Infrastructures Department. The last consist of 7 persons for 4 units: (i) Sewerage
Network and Sanitation (sewerage network include storm water collection), (ii) Transport
unit, (iii) Water and Electricity unit, (iv) Open spaces unit (Sidi, 2007). Only around ten
significant wastewater treatment facilities exist in the City of Kigali area.
Only a small portion of the wastewater in CoK is treated by the existing treatment
facilities, mainly for some large water consumers and 3 small treatment systems for high
432
income dwellings (Nyarutarama, Gacuriro and Kacyiru Caisse Social estates). Generally,
the other part of wastewater generated is discharged into either septic systems or to open
drains which are designed for storm water conveyance. This direct discharge of
wastewater is prevalent especially in areas close to wetlands (Kajevuba, Kagugu,
Rwampara, Gatenga and Mulindi) and streams.
Results
Per capita water consumption by housing category
From the carried out survey, figures for water consumption per capita per day in
CoK were derived. Table 2 gives a summary of the derived water consumption data. The
Electrogaz data is based on desk studies for all towns, which may not reflect the current
situation. However, further studies using a larger sample size would give a much accurate
figure.
Table 2: Summary of water consumption data for different residential categories in Kigali City compared
with the figures used by Electrogaz
Housing category
Average No. of
Category Average Water
Estimates from
Average
persons per
consumption
Electrogaz*
Water
household
m3/household/month
l/cap.d
consumption
l/ca.d
High income
5
32.5
184
140
Medium income
8
16.4
57
80
9
Economic
5.5
20
20
income
* Source: (Electrogaz, 2007)
The considered domestic uses are: cooking, dish washing, bathing, cleaning, washing, toilet
flushing, car wash and garden watering (Fig 1). The water from dish cleaning, bathing,
washing/laundry, and toilet flushing was assumed to end up as wastewater. From this
questionnaire data, a mean discharge coefficient for each housing category has been derived
respectively as 0.5, 0.7 and 0.75 for high, medium and low income categories.
Figure 1: Proportions of water consumption in Kigali for different domestic uses in l/ca.d
433
Fig 2 below, illustrates statistically the data on water consumption based on
different household water uses. The black line in box shows the median and whiskers
show the quartiles and extreme values. The box plot provides a vertical view of the data.
The box contains the middle 50 percent of the data. The position of the median and the
box itself identify the center of the distribution.
The length of the box is called the “hinge spread” (solid vertical line in the
previous figure). This provides a visual representation of the spread of the distribution. A
less reliable measure of spread is the “whisker spread”. The symmetry of distribution can
be judged by the position of the median within the box and box within the whiskers. Also,
the presence of outside values toward one side of the box suggests asymmetry.There is no
data for toilet flushing for low income because they do not have flushing toilets.
The sample size is 100 households, with respective 16, 22 and 62 households for
high, medium and low income categories. As observed in Fig 2, the possible reasons
which caused these extremes and outliers may be either the skewed population distribution
especially in dwellings for low standing or to the small sample size of each housing
category.
14
50
30
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
20
10
0
medium
high
16
140
14
120
BATHING (l/ca.d)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
low
high
low
medium
20
high
medium
40
100
80
60
40
20
0
-2
30
medium
FLOOR CLEANING (l/ca.d)
low
40
10
-10
high
WASHING (l/ca.d)
TOILET FLUSHING (l/ca.d)
DISH CLEANING (l/ca.d)
COOKING (l/ca.d)
12
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
high
low
medium
high
low
medium
Figure 2: Questionnaire results showing average proportions of daily wastewater generation for different
housing categories in l/ca.d
Domestic water uses and wastewater generation
High income category: Fig 2 shows percentage proportions of generated
wastewater in high standing dwellings of Kigali. These percentages represent the average
of the amount of each water use per capita per day and per housing category. The domestic
activity which consumes much the highest amount of water is bathing (18%) and the one
which consumes little amount of water is cleaning (3 %). The estimated amount of
wastewater for this category is 95 l/cap.d.
Garden watering and car wash water is not considered in wastewater calculation.
Medium income: As observed for high income category, for medium income also,
it is the toilet flushing that consumes much the highest amount of water (32 %) and except
bathing (26 %), other uses range together around 5%. The estimated amount of wastewater
for this category is 39 l/cap.d.
Low or economic income: The difference with other categories is the absence of
connection to a water supply network for most houses. That is why there is no toilet
434
flushing. Also, as the plot surface in low income areas is very small (>500 m2), there is no
garden watering. The main water uses in this category are bathing (40 %), washing (20 %)
dish cleaning (15 %) and cooking (15 %). The estimated amount of wastewater for this
category is 15 l/cap.d.
Wastewater quality
Tables 3 and 4 summarize analytical results for different collected around Kigali
and analyzed under this study, for the period October to November 2007. All analytical
results appear to be high compared to the composition of typical residential untreated
wastewater (Burks and Minnis, 1994). Wastewater in Kigali is generally highly
concentrated because of low water usage in the area.
Table 3: Results of conductivity, total dissolved solids, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Dissolved Oxygen
(DO).
Sampling Site
Conductivity (µs/cm)
TDS (mg/l)
Dissolved
Oxygen (mg/l)
B
C
COD (mg/l)
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
Muhima
892
961
792
472
519
402
630
800
1015
0
4.4
KIST
811
623
528
434
339
267
177
222
271
4
3.2
Mille Collines
428
581
508
230
315
257
142
293
380
4.2
8
UTC Rujugiro
1081
851
-
588
466
-
97
121
-
5.6
-
Industrial Park
623
645
621
332
347
315
37
74
72
3
4.4
Central Prison
Untreated residential
Effluent Standard *
3.11
3
3.57
1737
1655
1926
2210
2130
3230
0
0
Key
700
500
A =10 October 2007
B =01 November 2007
C =8 November 2007
* Composition of Typical Residential Untreated Wastewater (Burks and Minnis, 1994)
Table 4: Results of pH, total nitrogen and total phosphorus.
Sampling Site
Muhima
KIST
Mille Collines
UTC Rujugiro
Industrial park
Central prison
Untreated residential
Effluent Standard *
Key
pH
TN
TP
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
7.3
6.9
6.9
42.4
33.4
42.6
44
39.76
39.36
7.6
7.4
7.5
2478
2493.8
2496
44
40.64
21.4
7.3
7.3
7.3
118.8
125
126.4
34.16
54
61.2
7.7
7.7
158.2
136
0
32.4
38.88
0
6.9
7.6
7.2
178.4
150.2
160.6
5
5.04
2.64
6.7
6.8
7.1
16.4
15.8
16.8
>132
>132
>132
40
12
A =10 October 2007
B =01 November 2007
C =8 November 2007
* Composition of Typical Residential Untreated Wastewater (Burks and Minnis, 1994)
Estimation of wastewater flow and pollution loads
Table 5 gives an estimation of the volume of wastewater and nutrients produced in Kigali.
It attempts to cover all the areas including those not supplied by Electrogaz. The figure on
wastewater would be a potential figure and would be useful for planning purposes.
Table 5: Calculated current water consumption and wastewater production in City of Kigali based on
residential categories
Landuse
(Housing
Category)
High-income
>1,500 m2
Total
population
per category
Water
Use
l/cap.d
Total water
consumption
m3/d
154,968
184
28,514
Wastewa
ter
Producti
on,
l/cap.d
95
Total
Wastewate
r
Productio
n, m3/d
14,722
Unit TN
Productio
n, g/cap.d
Total TN
Productio
n, kg/d
TP
Productio
n, g/cap.d
Total TP
Productio
n, kg/d
4.3
664
1.4
221
435
Medium income
500 - 1,500 m2
213,080
57
12,146
39
8,310
4.3
913
1.4
304
Low- income
≤ 500m2
Total
600,499
20
12,010
15
9,007
4.3
2,574
1.4
858
968,547
52,670
32,040
4,151
1,384
N.B.
The used figures for TN and TP are from the study carried out by Twagirayezu (2007)
Household sizes are 5, 8, and 9 people respectively for high, medium and low income houses according to
survey results
The population is based on percentages of 16% (for high income), 22% (medium), and 62% (low) given earlier
Discussions
The existing wastewater management in CoK is very precarious. There is no
planned wastewater management being either at national level or at CoK. For example, the
effluent from the Central Prison, consisting of black and grey water, is discharged every
day during the night for around six hours (from 5:30 pm to 11:00 p.m) and it passes just
near households before reaching into the Nyabugogo River. That river is used by people
who stay on its surrounding for some domestic uses as washing and cleaning. There is no
institutional framework for managing wastewater, no standards and regulations, and
therefore no enforcement.
Estimation of wastewater quantity
Domestic uses that consume much more water and consequently generate much
more wastewater are as following: in high and medium income categories, bathing and
toilet flushing consume much more water. In medium standing, the amount of the used
water in bathing is very high, this is due to the higher number of persons per household (8
compared to 5 number of persons per household for high income). For low income
category, washing, cooking and dish cleaning are the first consumers of water. This may
be attributeds to the high number of children and babies in household (from the
questionnaire information, the average of children under 12 years is 3 per household).
Also, the water used for cleaning is much more than in other categories because cleaning,
for most cases, is done every day and two times per day. The calculated domestic
wastewater quantity 32,040 m3/day exceed the water supplied, 18,020 m3/day, given by
Electrogaz for year 2006. This is because the amount of wastewater generated in CoK was
calculated based on the obtained figures in this research and for the whole population of
the City, i.e. including the non-urbanized part, which is not supplied with water from
Electrogaz. The total water consumed calculated for the whole city is 52,670 m3.
Therefore, the return ratio of consumed water to wastewater generated for the CoK is
around 60%. For the coming years, the water consumption is expected to increase, if
Electrogaz increases also its production and adequately supplies the whole population. In
fact, the current Electrogaz production represents only 70% of the demand in CoK
(Electrogaz, 2007). If water consumption increases, wastewater will also increase,
necessitating more attention to wastewater management to avoid further environmental
pollution.
Wastewater quality
Most of the analyzed parameters exceeded standards for typical residential
untreated wastewater (Burks and Minnis, 1994). The COD concentration for Muhima and
Central Prison sites are out of the given range, and the latter had the highest concentration.
For TN, except for the two sites at Muhima and Central prison, others exceeded the
standards for effluent discharge. It was the same case for TP with the exception of the
Industrial Park site. The high concentration of TP might be attributed to the used soaps
436
and detergents as direct discharge of domestic wastewater was particularly observed for
the site which has the highest concentration, the Central Prison. This concentration was
very high so much that only 0.5 ml of sample had to be used in order to stay within the
range of the spectrophometer used. Also, all concentrations of TN and TP far exceeded the
limits for effluents discharged into sensitive waters, i.e., 10 mg/l for TN and 0.5 mg/l for
TP, as given by the Government of Zimbabwe (2000). The pH readings were within the
expected range.
Proposed strategies for wastewater management in CoK
The strategies recommended, therefore, are decentralized sanitation, EcoTechnologies and the 3-Step approach. To each strategy measures are assigned, the
following Table 6 represents them.
Table 6: Measures assigned to the proposed strategies for wastewater management in CoK
Decentralized sanitation
− Primary treatment methods

Septic tanks

Imhoff tank,

Septic tank with attached
growth
− Secondary treatment methods

Intermittent sand Filter

Recirculating Sand filter

Lagoons

Constructed wetland

Attached growth

Sequencing batch reactor

Suspended growth
Measures
Eco-Technologies
− Natural processes:
Wetlands,
Algal ponds
Macrophytes
Stabilisation ponds
− Systems for nutrient and energy
recovery and reuse:
Anaerobic treatment,
Aquaculture( in stream
assimilative capacity
improvements)
etc
3-Step approach
− Prevention or reduction of waste
production
Rain harvesting
Etc
− Treatment and recovery of waste
components
Biogas
Fertiliser
Etc
− Safe disposal of any waste
components not recycled or reused by
stimulating self purification.
Although, choosing the “Most appropriate technology” is not an easy task, but it
could reduce the risk of future problems and failures. The two key issues in choosing a
treatment technology are affordability and appropriateness. Based on the affordability,
which is related to the economic conditions of the community, and on the appropriateness,
which is linked to the environmental and social conditions, strategies for wastewater
management are proposed in the Table 6. It is proposed that management strategies should
be site specific, accounting for social, cultural, environmental and economic conditions in
the target area. We can say that the proposed strategies can meet successfully the
mentioned criteria: affordability and appropriateness
Conclusion and recommendations
i.
Wastewater effluents are discharged in the environment without treatment. The
existing wastewater treatment systems are not efficient because their operation and
maintenance are not good for the most cases. Therefore this leads us to conclude
that wastewater management in Rwanda, and for our case, in CoK is not viable.
Monitoring should be conducted at the existing systems so that the performance of
these plants could be checked against design standards.
The amount of generated domestic wastewater in CoK by this study is estimated to
ii.
be 32,040 m3 per day and the estimated pollution load is 1,384 kg/day of TN and
4,151 kg/day of TP. For high and medium standing bathing and toilet flushing are
the domestic water uses, which consume much more water. The analyzed
parameter, TN, TP, pH, TDS, conductivity and COD, showed that the quality of
wastewater in CoK is bad; because except the pH, other parameters are out of the
437
iii.
consulted standard range. Further research on wastewater quality (microbiological
and other toxic compounds), assessing the health risk and the pollution of water
resources which is taking place in CoK is recommended. Also, there is a need of
standards for local effluent discharge.
Decentralized sanitation, Eco-Technologies and the 3-Step approach are proposed
as strategies to be adopted in CoK. Every strategy focuses on its proper measures.
Decentralized sanitation measures are especially primary treatment and secondary
treatment methods, while Eco-Technologies deals especially with natural processes
and systems for nutrient and energy recovery and reuse. Lastly, 3-Step approaches
emphasis on prevention or reduction of waste production (rain harvesting),
treatment and recovery of waste components (Biogas, fertiliser…) and safe
disposal of any waste components not recycled or reused by stimulating self
purification.
Acknowledgement
This research was founded by the Rwandan government through SFAR and the WREM
project of Applied Sciences Faculty of National University of Rwanda.
References
[1] Burks B.D. and Minnis, M.M. (1994). Madison, Onsite Wastewater Treatment
Systems, WI: Hogarth House, 12, LTD.
[2] ELECTROGAZ (2007). Plan Directeur d’Assainissement - Kigali: Rapport de
Collecte des Données et Analyses, Groupement SGI-Projema/ID2, Kigali,
Rwanda, 3,49-62 ;69-71.
[3] Government of Zimbabwe (2000). Statutory Instrument (S.I) 274 of 2000, Water
(Waste and Effluent Disposal) Regulations, Government Printers, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
[4] Kigali Conceptual Master Plan Team (2007). Kigali conceptual Master Plan Draft,
Existing conditions analysis, MININFRA, Kigali, Rwanda, 5, 96-140.
[5] Metcalf & Eddy (2003). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal & Reuse,
McGraw - Hill, Inc, Singapore.
[6] Ministry of lands, Environment, Forests, water and natural resources (MINITERE)
(2004). Sectorial policy on water and sanitation, Kigali, Rwanda, 7, 8-21.
[7] Sidi A. O. (2007). Rwanda : Stratégie Nationale d'assainissement, Ministry of
lands, Environment, Forests, water and natural resources (MINITERE), Kigali,
Rwanda, 6, 16-20.
[8] Sudman S. (1976). Applied Sampling, Academic Press, New York, USA.
[9] Twagirayezu B. (2007). Evaluation of Natural Wastewater Treatment Pond in
Nyarutarama, Kigali, MSc. Thesis, National University of Rwanda, Huye,
Rwanda, 7, 24-35.
438
MODELING THE INFLUENCE OF LAND USE/LAND COVER
CHANGES ON SEDIMENT YIELD AND HYDROLOGY IN
THIKA RIVER CATCHMENT KENYA, USING SWAT MODEL
1
Kigira F.K.2Gathenya J.M. and 3Home P.G.
1
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Department of
Biomechanical and Environmental Engineering, P.O. Box 62000-0020 Nairobi,
Kenya, E-mail:[email protected]
2
Kenya, E-mail: [email protected]
3
Kenya, E-mail: [email protected]
Key words: Modeling, Land Use/Land cover Changes, Influence
Abstract
The Thika River catchment has undergone tremendous changes in land use and land cover
in the recent past. These changes are suspected to have impacted negatively on the
hydrology and soil conservation of the catchment. In order to make recommendation for
the management of the Catchment, a study was undertaken to assess the impact of the
changes in land use and land cover on water and sediment yield on Thika River
Catchment, whereby land cover changes from the satellite images of 1987 and 2000 were
analysed. Weather and stream flow data for the years 1979-1984 was used to simulate
streamflow and sediment yield using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model.
Remote sensing and GIS techniques using Idrisi Kilimanjaro software were used in
evaluating land use and cover changes. The results revealed that the forest cover in the
Thika River catchment decreased by 36%, the area under horticultural crops increased by
32% while the built up area expanded by a whooping 141%. Deforestation is mostly
occurring on the highlands forests whereas opening of land for agriculture is in the upper
midland and along the river channels. The calibrated SWAT model accurately predicted
the streamflow in the Thika River under different land use and land cover scenarios with
an R2 of 82%. The scenario studies indicated that increasing forest cover would
substantially reduce sediment yield and modulate stream flow. A 100% forest cover would
decrease the current sediment yield by 30%, while a decrease in forest cover of 20%
would increase sediment yield by 40%. It is therefore recommended that planting of trees
and agroforestry should be undertaken to increase the forest cover of the catchment and
consequently reduce sediment yield.
INTRODUCTION
Problem Statement
Soil erosion is a worldwide environmental problem that degrades soil productivity
and water quality, causes sedimentation of reservoirs and increases the probability of
floods [4]. Most of the countries in the tropics have no appropriate and accurate soil
erosion prediction model although the Soil Loss Estimation Model for Southern Africa
(SLEMSA) and the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) are used in different tropical
countries [2]. Thika River contributes substantially to the sedimentation of the dams
439
situated along River Tana [5]. The report [5] showed that River Thika contributes a total
of about 75,188 tonnes of suspended sediment per year. It is estimated that the annual loss
in storage capacity of the world’s reservoirs due to sedimentation is around 0.5-1.0%. For
many reservoirs, however, annual depletion rates are much higher and can go up to 4% or
5% such that they lose the majority of their capacity after only 25-30 years. The Masinga
reservoir, one of the main reservoirs in Kenya and which has Thika River as one of its
source of water. The reservoir which was designed for hydropower generation, public
water supply and irrigation is faced with severe sedimentation. The designed sediment
load into the reservoir in 1981 was estimated to be 3.0 x 106 m3 per year, about 1% per
annum reservoir reduction [3]. By the year 2000, annual sediment loading had increased to
over 11.0 x 106 m3, nearly four times more, reducing the design capacity by more than
15% [3]. As land degradation has become more evident with numerous land uses e.g. the
stone quarries within upper Tana Catchment over the years, the operation and life span of
reservoirs is therefore under eminent danger from erosion and sedimentation.
Deforestation on the upper zones of the catchment and neglect of steep lands previously
used in growing of coffee, has also contributed to soil erosion that eventually leads to a
very high sediment yield. In the middle zone of the catchment, the Thika River passes
through intensively cultivated steep slopes devoid of proper soil conservation practices
around Gatunyu market. This zone has widespread riverbank cultivation for horticultural
crops, which has exposed the banks to severe soil erosion. In the lower areas and plains
overgrazing and felling of trees for charcoal burning has caused widespread soil erosion
[1]. In order to come up with plausible recommendations to reverse the soil erosion and
curb dams sedimentation, there was need to conduct a study to evaluate and document the
effect of the changes of the land use and land cover over the years on soil erosion and
siltation of the reservoirs in the catchment.
Methodology
Input Data
The required input data for this study were Digital Elevation Model (DEM),
landuse/landcover map, soil map and soil data, weather data, Landsat images, sediment
and stream flow data. This data was available from various sources, which includes
Internet, Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI), Kenya Meteorological Department
(KMD), Kenya Soil Survey (KSS) and Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for
Development (RCMRD). Land use/land cover map was obtained from the International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). GIS database were found at www.ilri.cgiar.org/gis
and Kenya Soil Survey.
Digital Elevation Model
A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) gives the elevation, slope and defines the
location of the streams network in the catchment. A Thika catchment DEM with a spatial
resolution of 90 x 90 m was used in this study. The DEM was in Lambert Equal Area
Azimuthal projection (LEAA). The terrain data at a resolution of 90 x 90 m was obtained
from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data (FAO, 2004), which in turn had
been acquired from USGS EROS data archives. The DEM was clipped using GIS
techniques. Land use/land cover data combined with soil data was used to give hydrologic
characteristic of the catchment, which was used to determine the amount of excess
precipitation, recharge to the ground water system and storage in the soil layer. Land
use/land cover map for the year 2000 was used.
Soil Information
The soil data required for SWAT to predict stream flow are those that describe the
hydraulic properties of the soil.
440
Available Sediment and Streamflow data
The stream flow data were available for two gauging stations in the Catchment:
4CB04, and 4CB05. The 4CB05 station had data ranging from 1995-2000 but there was a
lot of missing data and only station 4CB04 had all the required data. Table 3.1 gives a
summary of the stream flow data. The sediment data were available for the year 1984 for
gauging station 4CB04. More sediment load data was collected between April and June
2006. Water samples from the Thika River for sediment analysis were collected at various
locations in the catchment . The data from these samples was to be used in comparing
sediment concentration from different land uses and land covers
Weather Data
Rainfall data were available for thirteen rainfall-recording stations in and around
the catchment. These data were maximum and minimum temperature, solar radiation,
relative humidity and wind speed. Other data was obtained from Kenya Meteorological
Department (KMD).
Landsat Images
Landsat images bands 1 to 4 for MSS and bands 1 to 5 and 7 for TM and ETM +
images of 1987 and 2000 which completely cover the catchment were used in this study.
SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a process based continuous daily
time-step model. It was developed to predict the impact of land management practices on
water, sediment and agricultural chemical yields in large complex watersheds with varying
soils, land use and management conditions over long periods of time [6}. Figure 1 below
shows the processing and display of SWAT model.
Figure 1. Processing and display by SWAT model
Land use/land cover Change Analysis
After the analysis of LandSat MSS, TM and ETM images of Thika River
Catchment for the years 1987 and 2000, land use/land cover maps shown in Figure 2 were
obtained. The area of the catchment covered by each land cover type for 1987 and 2000
are also shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Land use /land cover areas change statistics.
Change in Area Change
Land cover type
Area in1987 Area in2000
(km2)
(1987-2000)
(%)
(km2)
441
(km2)
Forest
Tea and coffee field
Pineapple
horticultural crops
Shrubland
Water Surfaces
Built up areas
TOTAL
and
175
136
191
115
131
259
-60
-5
68
-36
-3.7
32
341
1
12
856
320
2
29
856
-21
1
17
-7.5
100
141
Figure 2: Land cover maps prepared for 25th Jan 1987 and 21st Jan 2000
These land cover maps were prepared for the two separate years 1987 and 2000 to
compare the activities that had risen and the extent within the 13years duration.
442
Figure 3: Changes in landuse/landcover 1987-2000
The changes in land cover between 1987 and 2000 are presented in Figure.3. The
map was developed using image differencing technique in GIS with the use of Idiris
Kilimanjaro software.
Figure 4: Simulated Sediment yield from each sub-catchment for the year 1979.
Different parts of the catchment have varying sediment yields depending on the
land cover and land use and human activities in a given part. Sediment yield is highest in
sub-catchments 28, 29, 34, 37, 38. In these subcatchments, there is intensive cultivation on
443
hilly areas without much attention to soil conservation measures giving rise to high surface
runoff as shown in Figure 4 produced when SWAT model was run.
Conclusions and Discussion
The Thika River Catchment has in a period of 13 years (1987-2000) undergone a
tremendous changes in land cover with the natural cover of forests, shrubland and coffee
and tea land being opened up for other uses. The forest cover, shrubland and tea and
coffee have decreased by 36%, 7.5 % and 3.7 % respectively. The aerial coverage of
pineapple and horticultural crops, water bodies and built up areas have increased by 32%,
100% and 141% respectively. Deforestation is mostly occurring on the highlands forests
whereas opening of land for agriculture is in the upper midland and along the river
channels. The calibrated SWAT model performed well in simulating stream flow and
sediment yield with a coefficient of determination of 0.82, despite scarcity of adequate
data in the catchment. It captured the stream flow and sediment yield fairly accurately
across the catchment and especially at the catchment outlet gauging station. However due
to lack of continuous sediment data, the simulation results of sediment yields can only be
taken as indicators of the likely trends rather than absolute values. The scenario studies
indicated that increasing forest cover would substantially reduce sediment yield and
modulate stream flow. A 100% forest cover would decrease the current sediment yield by
30%, while a decrease in forest cover to 20% would increase sediment yield by 40%. In
scenario simulation 100% forest cover gave water yield of 2115 mm, while a decrease in
cover to shrubs decreased the water yield to 920mm.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Joseph Sang for the
knowledge on use of SWAT model. Also would like to appreciate the administration of
Jomo Kenyatta University for funding this project.
REFFERENCES
[1] Gachene, C.K.K. 1995. Effect of soil erosion on soil properties and crop response in
central Kenya. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, 1995.
[2] Mulengera, M.K. 1999. “Estimating the USLE-Soil Erodibility factor in developing
tropical countries”.Trop. Agric. (Trinidad), 76 (1), 17 – 22.
[3] Mutua, B.M., Andreas, K. and Willibald, L. 2005. Modeling Soil Erosion and
Sediment Delivery to Reservoirs at a large scale domain, a strategy for catchment
management: The case study of Masinga Catchment, Kenya. Ph D Thesis, University
of Natural Resources and Applied Life Science (BOKU), Vienna,
[4] Oyung, D. and Bartholic, J. 2001. “Web-based GIS Application for Soil Erosion
Prediction.” Proceedings of An International Symposium. Soil Erosion Research for
the 21st Century Honolulu, HI. Jan. 3-5, 2001. Institute of Water Research, Michigan
State University.
[5] Thomas, D.B. 1992. Exploring the Potential Impact of Deforestation on Hydrology.
Published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Soil and Water Conservation Branch.
[6] Neitsch, S.L., Arnold, J.G., Kiniry, J.R. and Williams, J.R. 2002a. “Soil and Water
Assessment Tool Theoretical Documentation”, Version 2003, Grassland, Soil and
Water Research Laboratory Agricultural Research Service 808 East Blackland Road,
Temple, Texas 76502
444
Uncontrolled rubbish dumps, a growing concern to Rwanda
municipalities
Cyprien NDAYISABA
P.o.Box 227 Huye/ Southern Province/ Rwanda
Website: www.irst.ac.rw, Email: [email protected] Mob: +250 08460491
Keywords: Waste, biodegradable, rubbish dump, landfill, compost, pollution, biogas, lixiviate
Abstract
Rwanda municipalities are growing day by day. Besides the population growth and
the improvement of life standards, there is a growing concern associated with waste
generation. Some efforts were made to handle the urban waste, but there are still
some weaknesses. For the best management of waste, landfill sites are the last
option for ultimate wastes and must be selected in compliance with environmentally
friendly guidelines. The observations from the survey that we carried out in some
townships of Rwanda, it was noticed that rubbish dumps are generally not ecofriendly. We also mentioned uncontrolled fire on most of rubbish dumps, therefore,
the loss of energy and the generation of greenhouse gases. These problems have
negative impact to the environment, especially the pollution of ground water by
lixiviation, the climate change and the risk to the nearby residents with the breeding
of communicable diseases. This paper is written to make local authorities aware of
such risks. To solve this problem, one of the ways consists in community based
management of waste, the education being the prerequisite. This can help to sort
waste from household level, to benefit from marketable fraction, to promote an
environmental friendly incineration and sustainable landfills.
Introduction
Dumping sites are a growing concern to Rwanda municipalities. Actually,
dumping sites are the source of a serious pollution of air, water and land. The fire on these
sites generates, by incomplete combustion, important quantity of gases and particles that
are toxic (dioxins, PCB, mercury, cadmium, etc.). Furthermore, the run-off and lixiviate
from the dumps are seriously polluted and contain sometimes formidable pollutants that
risk to pollute natural and ground water [2]. In Rwanda, urban wastes are generally
handled as follows:
- Landfill: the main managed landfill is located at Nyanza in Kicukiro District. Other
rubbish dumps are uncontrolled.
- Incineration: This is also uncontrolled as the resulting energy is not profitable, and the
wastes are not completely destroyed.
- Valorization: This is done by composting, reutilization, recycling and cattle feeding.
Some NGOs are involved in waste valorization and the main products consist of
compost and metal containers [3].
The transitional sites that are used are generally not environmentally sound and the
unwanted fraction is not well handled. This qualitative research was done in order to call
all stakeholders to work in synergy in solving this growing environmental concern.
Methodology
In our research, we benefited from our personal travels (week end, official mission,
etc.) and we observed many dumping sites in different districts. As there were no funds for
445
this research, we did not cover the whole country, and industrial waste are not studied in
this paper due to their accessibility that requires formal and long procedures. However, our
research is a good reference for further research. The visited rubbish dumps are in the
following districts: Huye, Nyanza, Muhanga, Gasabo, Musanze, Rubavu and Karongi.
Rubavu District
Solid wastes are gathered near north-west gate of the central market, before they
are evacuated by dumpsters towards the rubbish dump near Gihira ELECTROGAZ 22
station: At this site, found children picking up ember, burning worn-down tyres in order to
withdraw wires and other marketable stuffs (figure 1). According to security agent from
MPA23, an association that bought the land including this site; the rubbish dump will be
displaced towards another place that will be indicated by Rubavu District authorities. The
sort is not well done; however, we noticed that broken glasses from BRALIRWA24 are
disposed separately.
Figure 1: Dumping site of solid wastes from Rubavu central market at Gihira
Huye District
Rwabayanga: Solid wastes are disposed without being sorted. Children were
present, looking for marketable things.
Figure 2: Dumping site in Rwabayanga
Rwabuye: Wastes from nearby quarters are disposed at this dump without being sorted.
Children are always present. This dump is in close proximity to Rwabuye valley, a
potential risk to the environment.
22
ELECTROGAZ: Public utility for production, transmission and distribution of Water and Electricity in Rwanda.
MPA : Metal Processing Association
24
BRALIRWA: Brasserie et Limonaderie du Rwanda
23
446
Figure 3: Dumping site in Rwabuye valley
Cyarwa: Wastes from households are collected by a local NGO25 by trucks. The sort is
done by the NGO agents at the site after disposal and the resulting manure is marketed to
farmers.
Figure 4: Dumping site in Cyarwa
Karubanda: The main quantities of solid waste are generated by Butare central prison, and
sometimes from ONATRACOM26. Solid wastes are disposed without sort. After decay,
people come to take organic manure for their plantations. Most of time there is fire at this
site especially worn rubber firing generates blackish smoke in the atmosphere (figure 5).
Figure 5: Dumping site at Karubanda (Butare central prison)
25
26
NGO: Non-governmental organization
ONATRACOM: Office National des Transports en Commun
447
Musanze
Solid wastes are evacuated towards a rubbish dump located at Mubona hill. There is no
sort of waste and at our arrival, wastes were burning.
Figure 6: Dumping site in Musanze (Carrière market) and Mubona dump site
Muhanga
Solid waste from the main park and from surrounding quarters are gathered and locked in
a container. When dumpsters come to evacuate the rubbish, the container is open and
wastes are removed from it towards a rubbish dump. At our visit, the container was open
and there were children looking for marketable things. We observed the gases freeing
from the container. Wastes from Muhanga main market are transitionally disposed behind
the market before the final evacuation towards a rubbish dump located in Rwansibo
marshland.
Figure 7: Transitional rubbish container near Muhanga Main Park
Gasabo (Kacyiru side)
This rubbish dump is located in a marshland downstairs and receives waste from Kacyiru
households. The separation and composting are taking place at the site and children are
present. The contamination of the marsh is noticeable.
448
Figure 8: Dumping site in Kacyiru, Former ULK27 building side
At Gatsata side, we had the same observations: waste are separated and composted in
close proximity to Nyabugogo valley.
Karongi
The dump site is located near the market. There is a little quantity of waste as the market is
visited by few people. At our visitation, there was smoke from the burning of waste.
Nyanza
Wastes from Nyanza Township are disposed at Kivumu rubbish dump without any
separation. The site is located at a sloping plot not far from a nearby valley. Nearby
populations are complaining about the unpleasant gases from this site especially when it is
raining. When we visited the site, waste were firing and freeing unpleasant gases and
smoke.
Figure 9: Rubbish dump in Nyanza-Kivumu
Results and interpretations
Results from our study are synthesized in the following table
Table 1: Synthetic results
District
Visited
site
and date
Huye
Cyarwa
27
Origin of waste
Main constituents
households
Biodegradable,
wrapping waste
Observations
plastic,
The
slope
is
not
acceptable,
the
non
profitable fraction is not
well handled
ULK: Université Libre de Kigali
449
Rwabayanga
Market
restaurants
Rwabuye
and
Muhanga
Park
Gasabo
Rwansibo
rubbish dump
Kacyiru
Households,
drinking
places
and food shops
Butare
central
prison
and
ONATRACOM
Park
and
household
Households
and
Muhanga market
Households
Gatsata
Carrière
Market
Mubona
Rubbish dump
Market
Households
Market
and
households
Households,
market and shops
Market and shops
Gihira rubbish
dump
Market, shops and
industries
Karongi
Main market
Nyanza
Kivumu
rubbish dump
Market,
nearby
shops
Households,
market and shops
Karubanda
(Butare prison)
Musanze
Rubavu
Biodegradable,
slaughterhouse waste, rice
bran, wrapping waste
Biodegradable,
rubber,
wrapping waste, glasses
Biodegradable and worn
rubber.
Biodegradable paper and
wrapping waste
idem
Biodegradable,
waste
wrapping
Biodegradable
wrapping waste
idem
and
Biodegradable, wrapping
waste.
Plastics,
glass,
biodegradable,
paper,
wrappings, worn rubber
etc.
Biodegradable, wrapping
waste.
idem
The
slope
is
not
acceptable. Valorization
is not developed
The dump site pollutes
nearby valley.
The sort
problem
is
the
big
The rubbish dump
pollutes the marshland
The marshland is being
polluted
idem
The slope is not
acceptable.
The rubbish site is
located in a former
quarry which is
permeable (not clayey).
Lixiviate can pollute
ground water.
The problem is low
The rubbish dump is near
houses.
Noticed risks
- To our children:
Children are visiting rubbish searching for marketable stuffs. There are many risks:
contamination of their respiratory system; hurt by glasses, metal, animal like snakes and
rats as some of those children have no shoes to protect their feet (figures 1, 3 and 7).
- To our environment:
¾ The emission of gases from rubbish dumps has two main sources: On one hand, the
biological decay generates the biogas that frees itself from rubbish dump. On the other
hand, burning of waste on rubbish dumps generates smoke that contains greenhouse
gases and other toxic gases and particles. These emissions have negative impact to the
atmosphere (figures 1, 5 and 9). Indeed our climate is favorable to biological decay of
waste hereby the generation of biogas with methane gas being predominant. This
biogas must be used as source of energy as methane is 21 times more a greenhouse gas
than CO2 [1].
¾ The percolation of lixiviate has crucial risk to surface and groundwater contamination,
because many of the rubbish dumps are not placed in compliance with environmental
guidelines (figures 3, 8 and 9). For a good selection of the site, permeability should not
be more than 10-9m/s and the slope must be lower than 1/3 or 18o on the horizontal [4].
¾ The odor from rubbish is embarrassing and in most of cases the dumps are located near
the population who are complaining about their presence. Communicable diseases are
also predictable.
Conclusion
450
Our research showed that rubbish dumps apart from Nyanza-Kicukiro which is
official; all dumping sites are uncontrolled and have negative impact to our environment.
For the sustainability of our environment, an adequate sort from household level is a
prerequisite for a good management of solid wastes. This is only successful after
education of the people and their involvement in waste handling. After the sort, some
fractions must be transformed in marketable things such as: compost, combustible coal
nuts. Biological digestion can also yield biogas that can be used as the source of energy.
Other material like metal can be recycled for many purposes especially iron and
aluminium. Where burning is a useful option, resulting heat must be used as source of
energy. Landfill site must be the last option for treating ultimate solid waste and this must
be done under environmental conditions. Indeed, the selection of a landfill site must be
done after further study and is must ensure the minimum of environmental impact during
construction and after closure. If possible sanitary landfills are fenced and controlled in
order to prevent misuse and the visitation of children.
References
[1]. Fédération Canadienne des Municipalités, Les déchets solides, une ressource à
exploiter.
Recueil
des
technologies
relatives
aux
déchets.
At:
www.sustainablecommunities.ca/files/Capacity_Building__Waste/DS_Guide_Vd_ensemble.pdf. P. 66. Accessed in May 2008.
[2]. Ramade F. (2000), Dictionnaire encyclopédiques des pollutions, les polluants: de
l’environnement à l’homme, Ediscience international, Paris, France. pp 125-136.
[3]. Rulinda, J. B., Inventaire des gas à effet de serre liés aux déchets, Projet
MINITERE GF/2724-01-4331/Rev.01-GF/2010-01-08/Rev.1 «Elaboration de la
Communication Initiale Nationale relative à la Convention-Cadre des Nations
Unies sur les Changements Climatiques "CCNUCC"», 2003 (Unpublished). pp
5-7.
[4]. Thonart P et Diabaté Sory I. et al.(2005), Guide pratique sur la gestion des déchets
ménagers et des sites d’enfuissement techniques dans les pays du sud. Organisation
internationale de la francophonie, publications de l’Institut de l’énergie et de
l’environnement
de
la
Francophonie
(IEPF),
Canada.
At:
www.iepf.org/docs/publication/IEPFGuideDéchets.pdf, accessed in January 2008. Pp
43-44.
451
Towards developing the Next Generation Internet
Mohammed-Salih A. L.
[email protected]
Keywords: Internet Topology, Autonomous Systems, Action Mapping
Abstract
Whereas developing the first generation of the Internet was relatively easy during the
Internet initial days as a research project, the current share scale of the AS-level Internet
topology as well as the diversity of stakeholders of the Internet makes improvements in
Internet connectivity and content quality very complex. An actual snapshot map of the
current AS-level Internet topology is a first preliminary for developing the Next
Generation Internet.
This is a project designing paper, in which I propose an Internet action mapping scheme
that produce constantly updated map of regional AS-level Internet topology. The map will
identify all Internet stakeholders in a given region, map their activities, and examine the
relationships among them.
1. Introduction
The Internet has assumed a central role in many of the critical functions of our
society and interactions with the global community. It has also proven capable of
reinforcing inequities within our society. This research project aims to durable systemic
change in the Internet by improving contents quality and connectivity among key
stakeholders from the local to the international levels and supporting the creation of new
capacity and action where gaps exist. The foundation for building a global multistakeholder initiative in the Internet are rapidly emerging, and now is the right time to
bring the diverse set of stakeholders together to create a vision that will lead the
development of the Next Generation Internet.
This paper is organized as the following. In section two, a general description of the
Internet action mapping scheme. In section three, a background on the AS-level Internet
topology. Section four describes the design of the techniques for measuring regional ASlevel Internet topologies. Lastly, section five discusses the future work.
2. Internet Action Mapping
Action mapping of the current Internet landscape is the first step in improving the
Internet connectivity and content quality among various stakeholders in the Internet. An
action mapping approach provides insight into the strengths, weaknesses, and overall
dynamics of the Internet. Information on the strengths, weaknesses, and dynamics will
reveal the current state of the Internet to the existing stakeholders and further support the
development of the quantity and quality of network interactions.
Internet action mapping aims to identify key stakeholders and their relationships
as: organizations and roles, in terms of their connectedness, interactions and exchanges,
coordination and coherence. This action mapping approach will increase and improve the
knowledge, energy, and commitment to enter the next phase of developing the Next
Generation Internet.
The key elements which constitute the action mapping project of this initiative are:
• Identifying all stakeholders on the Internet and their networks relationships.
• Further defining the key gaps in the Internet connectivity and content quality.
452
• Help identifying initial mechanisms and activities that stakeholders would value
undertaking to further build connective tissue in the Internet.
• Formulate a longer-term strategy to further developing the Next Generation
Internet.
For effective implementation of the above points, a project team and a key
stakeholder stewardship body (and perhaps more than one in the different geographies
envisioned) should be assembled to provide a container of legitimacy and action. The
stewardship group will work closely with the project team to realize the overall goals of
the project.
Although the final project will be of a global and transcontinental scale, an initial
more manageable sized pilot to test and refine the methodologies and tools is a necessary
starting place. Because of the relative ease and low initial costs, as well as immediate
needs of improvements, I propose to use Africa-based Internet stakeholders as a pilot.
Activities for this project phase will include:
1. Measuring the Internet topology in Africa:
The measured topology will identify all Internet stakeholders in the region and the
connectivity between them. The details of the measuring techniques design is described
later in this paper.
2. Survey:
A survey (partly web-based) will be developed and implemented with the key stakeholders
who are identified by the measurement techniques to gather more detailed information
about them, their network linkages, and system gaps.
3. Analysis:
Analysis of the results generated by the research activities (topology measuring, and
survey) contribute to the overall map and to the identification of system boundaries, roles,
relationships, and potential gaps.
The expected results of this project phase are:
1. A draft directory of Africa based stakeholders working in the Internet field;
2. Maps of the relationships between the Africa based stakeholders;
3. An analysis that includes descriptions of the Africa based stakeholders in
terms of their connectedness and the role they fill;
4. An examination of system gaps and where capacity is needed.
In the following section, I provide a brief background about the Internet structure at the
AS-level as well as a definition for the AS-level Internet topology.
4. AS-level Internet Topology
The
Internet
landscape
comprises
thousands
of
autonomous systems (ASs) networks, spread around the globe,
managed by different organizations and commercial service
providers. Network operators interconnect their ASs so as to
ensure global connectivity, while at the same time allowing
independent organizations to meet their own commercial
advantages. Currently, there are more than 26,000 ASs. Each AS has a
unique number (AS number) and IP address space. Allocation of AS numbers and IP
addresses is administered and managed by Regional Internet Registries (RIRs). There are
453
5 Regional Internet Registries (AFRINIC in Africa, APINIC in Asia-Pacific, ARIN in
North America, LACNIC in south America, RIPE in Europe). Each RIR is responsible for
address management in its geographic region.
There are two main types of ASs, transit networks, and stub networks. A transit network
provide packet forwarding service between other networks. Stub networks, on the other
hand, do not forward packets for other networks and so they need transit networks as their
providers to gain access to the rest of the Internet. The transit networks are usually
described by being at different tiers, e.g., regional, national, and global.
AS-level Internet topology is a graph of nodes and edges that represent the interconnection
between directly connected ASs in the network; that’s each node is an AS, and each link
represents a business relationship that results in the exchange of traffic between ASs. A
business relationship means that there is at least one direct router-level connection
between two existing ASs, and these two ASs exchange traffic according to a commercial
contract between them.
Now, in the following section I describe the design of the measuring techniques
that produce AS-level Internet topology of a given region with continental scope.
4. Measuring Regional AS-level Internet Topologies
Since the Internet is a collection of thousands of ASs, each under its own
administrative control, there is no single place from which one can obtain a complete view
of its topology. As a result, researchers attempt to construct the AS-level topology by
collecting AS paths from many vantage points to many destinations.
One direct source of AS path information is Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
routing tables. However, BGP-based topologies are inherently incomplete as confirmed in
[1]. There are two reasons behind this incompleteness. First, as a quality, the BGP
protocol reflects AS relationship and not physical AS connectivity. For example, BGP
does not reveal public or private exchange points within the infrastructure. Second, as a
quantity, BGP table only shows the selected (best) routes, rather than all possible routes
stored in the router. For instance, backup links connecting multi-homed ASs may not show
up in BGP routing table. Additionally, only a very limited number of ASs make their BGP
routing tables publicly available. The alternative methodology for measuring the Internet
AS-level topology is traceroute measurement. Traceroute sends a series of TTL-limited
probes towards a target destination, and reports the interfaces on the forwarding path and
the round-trip time for each hop [2]. Consequently, traceroute measures the IP forwarding
path. To infer the corresponding AS-level forwarding path, IP addresses need to be
mapped to their origin ASs. Despite the limitations of IP-to-AS mapping, traceroute is the
only effective way to measure the path packets traverse without real-time access to
proprietary routing data from each traversed domain.
Given the existing data sources: traceroute measurements, BGP data, and the RIRs
databases, the design of the measuring techniques is driven by three main goals:
1. Accuracy:
The measured topologies should be accurate. In this context, accuracy has the
following two parts:
• Completeness: Finding all existing ASs and all connection between them in a
specified region is a challenging task. Each of the above data sources provides
partial and different information about the existing ASs and connectivity. Data
sources need to be properly combined in a way that results in the most complete
topology.
454
•
Correctness: The transient routing problems and error in measurement affect the
correctness of the resulting measured topology. Moreover, combining disparate
data sources without awareness of the nature and differences between them, yield
incorrect topology.
2. Efficiency:
In the absence of precise knowledge, discovering complete topology may need many
measurements. However, correctness is affected by the time over which the measurements
are taken, because ASs and peering relationships can change during that time interval.
Thus, I define here efficiency as using only productive measurements that are sufficient to
extract the most accurate topology.
3. Robustness:
The measuring techniques should automatically provide persistently-updated AS-level
topology of any of the five regions: AFRINIC, APINIC, ARIN, LACNIC, and RIPE.
My premise is that each of these data sources is a productive measurement which
provides primary information. The RIR database is a productive measurement that
provides information on all assigned AS numbers for the Region, as well as the allocated
IP prefixes for each AS. Traceroute is a productive measurement that measures the IPlevel connections between the ASs. BGP data is productive measurements that identify the
utilized (announced) IP prefixes for each AS appeared in the BGP routing table.
To maximize the usage of these productive measurements, I divide the problem of
measuring regional AS-level topology into: measuring the IP forwarding paths that cover
the region, and extracting ASs of the IP-level hops.
4.1. Measuring IP forwarding Paths:
The ultimate goal is to measure connections between existing ASs in the region.
So, the first step is to find these ASs using the RIR database. Measuring the IP path
between the ASs by traceroute requires initially the determination of sources and
destinations. I argue that intelligent selection of sources and destinations is the main key
for using the minimum number of productive traceroute measurements that is sufficient to
yield accurate topology. I describe this in the following subsections.
4.1.1 Destinations Selection
Measuring all connections between existing ASs in the region suggest selecting
destinations in each AS, however, the question is how to efficiently select destinations
within an AS so as to maximize discovered connections between ASs? I answer this
question by considering an AS as a collection of IP prefixes that correspond to different
networks within the AS. Then using BGP data I determine the set of utilized (announced)
IP prefixes for each AS. Lastly, I randomly select destinations in each utilized IP prefix. I
expect this technique to reveal private peering connections which are hard to observe.
4.1.2 Sources Selection
Although increasing the number of sources has a major impact on completeness and
fastness of the measuring technique, It is not clear how to determine the sufficient number
of sources. [3] discussed the marginal utility of adding additional sources. It shows that
this utility declines rapidly after the second or third source. In case of the ability of using
more than one source, sources are better be located in different ASs with topological
diversity.
455
After selecting the set of sources and destinations the next step is to run traceroute from
the sources to the destinations. Ideally, traceroute returns a complete list of IP addresses
up to and including the destination [4]. However, in practice the traceroute path does not
always reach the destination. This limitation is generally due to firewalls that discard the
UDP traceroute probes at large portions of the networks' edges and thus never reach the
destinations in breadth. Also destination does not necessarily correspond to a live
machine. In such case, I replace the unreachable destination by the last reachable IP
address on the path.
4.2 ASs Extraction
After collecting the IP forwarding paths that cover the intended region, the next
step is to extract the corresponding AS forwarding paths by mapping IP-level hopes to AS
numbers. A straight forward method is to map the IP addresses to their ASs using the RIR
database.
The aforementioned techniques provide constantly updated map of regional ASlevel Internet topology that shows all existing ASs as will as the connectivity between
them in the intended region. Using these techniques with the other tools described in the
Internet action mapping scheme will provide us with a very live complete picture of the
Internet stakeholders' connectivity, activities, and content quality condition.
5. Future Work
My plan for future work is to develope and implements the measuring techniques
and lunching the Internet action mapping project starting by the Africa based Internet
stakeholders. Later on, data-gathering will be extended to include more of the international
stakeholders working outside Africa. This increasing global understanding of the Internet
will help to guide developing the Next Generation Internet. This is not a traditional
research project, although it involves significant learning and knowledge generation. It is
an action-research project that engages and empowers key stakeholders in the Internet
through joint production of knowledge and action.
6. References:
[1] Chang H., Govindan R., Jamin S., SHenker S., and Willinger W., Towards capturing
representative AS-level Internet topologies, Computer Networks 44(6): 737-755, (2004).
[2] Mao M. Z., Johnson D., Rexford J., Wang J., and Katz H. R.,
Scalable and accurate identification of AS-level forwarding paths, In
Proc. IEEE INFOCOM, (2004).
[3] Barford P., Bestavros A., Byers J., and Crovella M., On the Marginal
Utility of Network Topology Measurements, In Proc. of the ACM SIGCOMM
Measurement Workshop, San Francisco, CA, (2001).
[4] Mao M. Z., Rexford J., Wang J., and Katz R., Towards an Accurate ASlevel Traceroute Tool, In Proc. ACM SIGCOMM, (2003).
456
IMPACT OF USING M-COMMERCE MODEL FOR
MICROFINANCE IN REBUILDING RWANDA
Santhi Kumaran and Vijaya Kumar K.
Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology,
Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), B.P.3900, Kigali, Rwanda.
Email: [email protected] , [email protected]
Keywords: M-commerce, Microfinance, m-banking, mobile phones
Abstract
M-commerce, which uses mobile devices to communicate, inform, transact and entertain
using text and data via a connection to public and private telecommunication networks
has become an important tool to increase the access to financial services by the un-banked
and the under serviced in Africa. The explosion of cell phone usage in Africa has paved a
way for using them more for banking and micro financing activities and it has more
effectively impacted the mass market residing in the rural areas. In this paper we have
made a study on the impact of using M-commerce model for Microfinance (MFI) by
analyzing how a mobile phone enables subscribers’ access to a cashless and card-less
method of money transfer; how it enable remote payments, send remittances, pay bills
without lining up etc. The analysis shows that the use of M-commerce for MFI will have a
positive impact to reduce poverty and to increase economic growth in Rwanda. This paper
will also look at the various technologies used to implement the m-commerce effectively
and proposes an m-commerce model for MFI which can be implemented.
Introduction
The Microfinance (MFI) industry in Rwanda experienced rapid development
following to the 1994 genocide as the government moved in to the developmental phase.
By that time, many international organizations involved in humanitarian assistance
transformed themselves into microfinance institutions and in many cases operating
without professionalism. In 1995, the Government launched the reform of the financial
sector with the objective of creating an effective and efficient financial system.
In 1999, the National Bank of Rwanda (BNR) was assigned the responsibility to
regulate and to supervise MFIs. In 2002, a Fund for Refinancing and Development of
Microfinance (FOREDEM) was created under the Rwandan Development Bank (BRD).
Its mission was to institute a microfinance program and increase the mobilization of funds
in favour of micro-enterprises and the poor population. Currently Rwanda has over 230
institutions involved in the microfinance sector. In the vision 2020 program of the
Rwandan government, MFI plays a key role in transforming Rwanda from a low-income
into a medium–income country with a dynamic, diversified, integrated and competitive
economy. But if MFI is operated in the old traditional way it will take time to improve the
Rwandan economy and hence the reduction of poverty. So the latest technologies have to
be embraced in the use of MFI sector to reach the people on time.
457
One of such technology is termed as M-commerce which uses mobile devices to
communicate, inform, transact and entertain using text and data via a connection to public
and private telecommunication networks. M-commerce is nothing but mobile commerce
or mobile e-commerce. Mobile phones play a major role M-commerce. The tremendous
growth of the ICT sector in Rwanda has paved the way of using M-commerce for MFI.
This paper will look at the various technologies used to implement the m-commerce
effectively and a prototype model for m-commerce is suggested.
Defining the Terms
(i) M-commerce
The flexibility of mobile devices and wireless technologies has made m-commerce
an effective alternative to e-commerce. First, in comparison to the wired Internet, the
mobile is a very personalized device, because information flows from and to the device on
a person-to-person basis only. Second, the mobile is by its nature a ubiquitous device,
which consumers can use at anytime and anywhere.
In [1], m-commerce is defined as “any transaction with a monetary value that is conducted
via a mobile telecommunications network”.
M-commerce is characterised more broadly [2], as “the emerging set of applications and
services people can access from their Internet-enabled mobile devices.”
(ii) Mobile Banking
Mobile banking referred to conducting bank transactions through wireless
handheld devices which included account balance inquiry, transfer of funds (from one’s
own account to another account, possibly of a different bank), payment for credit card
bills, water bills and electric bills, and purchase of mobile phone loads charged to a bank
account or a credit card[4].
(iii) Microfinance (MFI)
Microfinance means providing very poor families with very small loans
(microcredit) to help them engage in productive activities or grow their tiny businesses.
Over time, microfinance has come to include a broader range of services (micro credit,
savings, insurance, etc.) focused on providing a very standardized credit product as the
poor and the very poor who lack access to traditional formal financial institutions require a
variety of financial products.
Technologies used for M-commerce
The Mobile Banking Technologies can be categorised into two environments:
(i) Server-side technologies
Server-side technologies are those applications built on a server, away from the
consumer’s SIM or Mobile handset. Examples of server-side technologies would be SMS,
IVR, USSD2 and WAP.
a) SMS solutions[3]
SMS Banking requires a registered customer to initiate a transaction by sending a
Structured SMS (SSMS) message to the Mobile Banking Service. This SSMS requires a
tag word identifier to instruct the SMS gateway to submit the message to the correct SMS
application. A tag word is the first word in the SSMS. The balance of the SSMS would
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hold the instruction from the customer to the Mobile Banking application. E.g.:
‘bank_balance_PIN’
for
a
sms
based
bank
balance
enquiry;
or
bank_transfer_cheque_savings_100.00_PIN’ for a transfer from a cheque account to a
savings account of an amount of 100.00.
In each of these examples the SSMS would be sent to a SMS short code or address (a
shorter version of a phone number). The SSMS would pass from the consumer’s handset
through the GSM Network to the MNO SMSC (Short Message Service Centre). A SMSC
stores and forwards the SSMS to the SMS Gateway allocated to the short code used by the
Mobile Banking Service Provider. The Mobile Banking Service Provider would use the
consumer’s mobile number, forwarded by the SMSC with the SSMS, to identify the
consumer and respond to the consumer’s request. The response would follow the same
return path and, in the examples given above, would respond to the consumer with an
SMS confirmation message. E.g. ‘Bank Balance 150.00’ or ‘Transfer from cheque to
savings of 100.00 successful’.
b) Interactive Voice Response(IVR)
IVR is the oldest form of consumer-facing mobile banking technology. It is a phone
technology that allows a computer to detect voice and touch tones using a normal phone
call. The IVR system can respond with pre-recorded or dynamically generated audio to
further direct callers on how to proceed.
The IVR system would then take the necessary instructions from the consumer by
recording the tones of the number selections that the consumer enters on the key pad, or
through spoken commands, and creates an instruction that is given to the service
provider/bank. The service provider would use the consumer’s mobile number forwarded
by the network operator to identify the consumer and as a factor of authentication [3].
c) USSD(Unstructured Supplementary Service Data)
USSD allows for the transmission of information via a GSM network. It allows
interactive services between a mobile subscriber (consumer) and applications hosted by
the Mobile Network Operator(MNO). These messages are composed of digits and the #, *
keys, and allow users to easily and quickly get information/access services from the
Operator. A typical USSD message starts with a * followed by digits which indicate an
action to be performed or are parameters. Each group of numbers is separated by a *, and
the message is terminated with a #. This number of a registered consumer could be saved
in the consumer’s phone book as the bank’s name to avoid confusion in dialling or having
to remember the USSD string.
Example of USSD codes are as follows:
*101#
*109*7234893785763#
234893785763 spells bank and therefore could be marketed as *109*bank#. Once the
consumer has entered, and dialled the USSD string, the consumer’s request for the service
would be passed through the network to the USSD gateway at the MNO, which in turn
would recognise who the service provider/bank was and forward the request to that service
provider. The service provider would respond by forwarding to the consumer, through the
MNO, a text based menu similar to the one on the left. The consumer would receive this
menu on their screen, press the reply button on their phone and enter the number of the
option that they required.
d) Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
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WAP is the de-facto world standard for the presentation and delivery of wireless
information and telephony services on mobile phones and other wireless terminals. Using
WAP internet banking can be adapted for display on mobiles in a number of ways. Mobile
internet banking offers a consumer a similar experience to that of internet banking.
The consumer would browse to a mobile internet site by accessing the WAP browser
on their mobile phone and entering the website address. The actual banking application
resides at the bank and is secured and monitored in the same way as an internet banking
website. MNOs often segment this functionality to post-paid customers only [3].
A number of banks are already offering mobile banking services using the WAP mobile
phone technology. Many banks currently deliver static account information to wireless
devices, and an increasing number allow customers to transact over the mobile Internet
[5].
(ii) Client-side technologies
Client-side technologies are those applications, solutions and service offerings built or
embedded on a consumer SIM or mobile handset. Examples of client-side applications are
SIM based and J2ME (JAVA).
a) SIM based applications
SMS based banking is another mainstream of m-commerce research. The SIM
Application Toolkit allows for the service provider or bank to house the consumer’s
mobile banking menu within the SIM card. Once the application is on the SIM,
instructions from the consumer can be entered, encrypted, and transported by SMS to the
service provider or bank. A benefit of SIM Based Applications is the ability of the
network operator or bank to own a piece of the real estate on the SIM Card. Since the SIM
card is provided by a specific MNO, this ensures the prevention of churn for that MNO,
and ensures that the bank’s specific application is on the SIM and therefore provides
similar benefits to the bank.
b) Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition (JAVA/J2ME)
J2ME is a technology that allows programmers to use the Java programming language
and related tools to develop programs for mobile wireless information devices such as
cellular phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs). A consumer would browse through
his/her phone menu until they find the J2ME application, select and launch the application,
and follow the JAVA browser menus to complete a transaction. The data is typically
encrypted prior to leaving the handset and being sent to the service provider or bank. Once
received, the service provider or bank would decrypt the message and process the
consumer’s instruction.
Elements of M-commerce
With the introduction of smart money system by SIMTEL in Rwanda, there is a
breakthrough in m-commerce which will help to implement m-commerce for MFI. Smart
Money was a debit card (pre-paid card) which can be accessed using an Automatic Teller
Machine (ATM), a credit card terminal or a mobile phone. The Smart Money card allowed
users to withdraw credit or to charge purchases through any MasterCard terminal.
Nowadays users conduct transactions using the mobile phone such as sending cash credit
from one’s Smart Money account to another person’s Smart Money account. Subscribers
were informed of their Smart Money transactions through mobile phone either for
information or for transaction confirmation.
460
Regardless of the technologies and processes of smart money there were elements
common to both m-commerce services which can be regarded as the essential components
of m-commerce. M-commerce model for MFI can be implemented in Rwanda with the
following key elements shown in the figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Five elements of M-commerce model for MFI
(i) Description of the terms used in the prototype
•
•
•
•
•
•
Over The Counter (OTC) - This involves the physical hand-over of cash to an
accredited partner and provision of m-commerce account information (a SIM number
or an equivalent account number). The accredited partner will then use their network
facilities to credit the electronic currency into the user’s m-commerce account.
Phone-to-Phone transfer (P2P receive) - P2P refers to “phone-to-phone” transactions
in this paper. This transaction requires a sender (an m-commerce user) to send
electronic currency to a receiver (another m-commerce user).
Phone-to-phone transfer (P2P send) - P2P allows a user to transfer electronic
currency from his/her own m-commerce account to another user’s m-commerce
account. Both the sender and receiver of the electronic currency are given SMS
records of the transaction.
Purchase of Load - This is a simple m-commerce transaction in which, users purchase
mobile phone load using their m-commerce account. The users have the option to
credit the load to their own mobile phone or to another subscriber’s mobile phone.
OTA – This transaction is the payment of a service or product using one’s mobile
phone to initiate or complete the m-payment.
Credit card POS – Point Of Sale systems use computers or specialized terminals that
are combined with cash registers, bar code readers, optical scanners and magnetic
stripe readers for accurately and instantly capturing the transaction. Rather than paying
a tradesman by cheque, consumers will be able to conduct an instant transferral of
funds from the mobile account to the account of the tradesman, linked to their
461
identifying phone number. The debit card allows users to access an m-commerce
account using POS machine also known as the “swipe machines” used to validate
credit cards. Some transactions require the user’s confirmation. This confirmation is
sent via the mobile phone.
(ii) Analogy for M-commerce [4]
To further understand these m-commerce elements, an analogy can be made
between m-commerce elements and a water tank. The first element, Value Repository, is
the water tank itself. Water is contained in the tank the same way electronic currency is
stored in an m-commerce Value Repository. The second element, Management, is
associated with the valves that control the inflow or outflow of water. Management of an
m-commerce account involves allowing or disallowing the inflow or outflow of electronic
currency. Inlet pipes connecting the water source to the tank represent the third element,
Credit. It is possible to have multiple inlet pipes. Depending on the configuration of the mcommerce service, incoming electronic currency (credit) may either be automatically
accepted into the tank OR may require confirmation (management of inflow) by the owner
of the account (owner of the tank). The fourth element, debit, is related to the outlets of
water. For the water to flow out, the owner needs to open an outlet (initiate or allow debit
of electronic currency). Lastly, Security is like the padlocks on a faucet or gate valves that
automatically allow or disallow flow of water (allow or disallow usage of electronic
currency).
(iii) Relationships in the m-commerce value chain for MFI
There are likely to be a range of different relationships that will be established in
different m-commerce transactions for MFI. The m-commerce for MFI environment
requires both a bank and a MNO to deliver a transactional or informational banking
service to a microcredit consumer through the mobile phone. In this description, neither
the bank, nor the MNO, can deliver the solution to the consumer in isolation. The Mobile
Banking Vendor plays the pivotal role of integrating the bank and the MNO and
technically delivering the application to the consumer.
Credit
Institution
or BANK
MNO
Mobile
Banking
Vendor
Service offering
Microcredit
Consumer
462
Figure 2: M-commerce value chain for MFI
Expected impact of using M-commerce model in MFI
(i)Microfinance in Traditional way (Cash) vs. using M-commerce model
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
M-commerce model for MFI is estimated to penetrate to 70% in rural population;
because there is wide use of mobile phone (approximately 90 percent of rural bank
clients own a mobile phone or have a family member who owns a mobile phone).
Now it is 100% using traditional methods.
M-commerce model for MFI is secured as compared to handling cash which is
vulnerable to incidents of robbery at different levels.
In traditional approach one has to travel from one cluster meeting to another with
huge amounts of money while using m-commerce travels are avoided.
In using m-commerce model for MFI, loan disbursements can be done without any
delay by e-transactions.
There was also a reduction in time spent counting money because payment is made
using m-commerce approach.
M-commerce model for MFI reduces the cost of collecting loan amortizations for
the rural banks.
It improves the efficiency for the banks and its clients, and increases competition
between rural banks and commercial banks.
(ii)Challenges
•
•
•
•
•
Though there are many mobile users in rural communities of Rwanda, the higher
cost per service ratio is a hindrance for the deployment of m-commerce model for
MFI.
Another concern is about the security of the transactions (e.g. what will happen if
they lose their mobile phone?) and transmittal delays [4].
The survey indicated that the rural bank clients were afraid and were reluctant to
try out the new technology.
The clients also fear the loss of the personalized relationship with the banks, thus
the banks needed to re-assure the clients that personal relationship will not be lost
with the introduction of this technology.
Good telecommunications coverage – Unsuccessful repayments through mcommerce model due to poor coverage and technical problems may discourage
clients to use the technology again.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The m-commerce model should be structured so that all parties involved in it such
as, the clients, telcos, banks and mobile banking vendors benefit from it either through
increase in profits, savings in time and money or increase in the efficiency of operations
[4]. Thus, the m-commerce model for MFI was designed to address the different needs of
the different stakeholders/ business partners. However, the most critical factor that will
463
ensure the wide spread use of m-commerce in micro-finance at this very early stage of the
technology, is the setting up of ATMs and mobile banking vendors in strategic areas.
The following are the recommendations:
•
•
•
•
•
•
M-commerce and its application have seen only modest growth due to lack of
standards in terms, concepts, and theories. So collaborative research has to be
encouraged between academic institutions and industries who participate in mcommerce.
More promotions, education and awareness campaigns can be created that will
highlight the benefits of using m-commerce model for MFI.
The telcos can also offer more value-added services to the clients to encourage the
use of the technology.
There are business prospects for the m-commerce model for MFI. If this is to be
pursued, a more in-depth business feasibility study should be undertaken.
Effective training system for the merchants will be the key to increasing their
numbers; however, it was proven that merchants try to learn on their own when
they are presented with a profitable business model.
There is a need for a targeted marketing campaign that will encourage the use of
the technology among MFI clients and people in the rural areas. Currently,
advertisements and marketing campaigns are targeted towards the urban middle
and upper class or those who have access to a wide variety of financial services
such as the traditional banking system, credit cards, debit cards and on-line
banking. In order to spread m-commerce use in microfinance institutions, there is
a need to market it to the rural masses [4].
Lastly, the Rwandan government should play a very important role in this endeavor. The
government should encourage the development of the m-commerce technology model for
MFI in rebuilding Rwanda.
References
[1] Shintaro Okazaki, “New perspectives on M-commerce Research”, College of
Economics and Business Administration, Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain, White
Paper.
[2] Sadeh, N., “M-Commerce: Technologies, Services, and Business Models” , New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 2002.
[3] Gavin Troy Krugel, “An Overview of the different mobile banking technology options,
and their impact on the mobile banking market”, FinMark Trust, August 2007
[4] Edwin S. Soriano and Eloisa A. Barbin, “M-Commerce for Microfinance: The CARDNGO and RBAP-MABS”, March 24, 2006
[5] Tanya Sewards, “M-commerece: What will it mean for consumers?”, Consumer
Affairs Victoria (CAV), June 2002.
[6] R Srinivasan and M S Sriram, “Microfinance: An Introduction” IIMB Management
Review, June 2003.
[7] Raymond Adjei Boadi and Avez Gause Shaik, “M-Commerce breakthrough in
Developing Countries”, Master Thesis, Department of Business Administration and Social
Sciences, 2007
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APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY WEB APPLICATIONS
1
Munyaneza S. R. and 2Pickin S.
ICT Unit, Rwandan National Examinations Council, B.P. 3817, Kigali, Rwanda. E-mail:
[email protected]
2
Dpto. de Ingeniería Telemática, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Av. Universidad 30,
28911 Leganés (Madrid), Spain. E-mail: [email protected]
28
Key words: appropriate technology, ICT for development, Web applications, human
development, sustainable development.
Abstract
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) play an
important part in improving human livelihood and in the last
few years their role in development has been the subject of a
good deal of attention. In this article, we explore the
application of appropriate technology concepts to ICTs, in
general, and to Web-based software, in particular. We then
discuss the implementation of the ideas developed in the
article on a case study: the design and implementation of an
Examinations Coordination and Management Information System
for the Rwandan National Examinations Council.
INTRODUCTION
In this paper we discuss the concept of appropriate technology as applied to Web
applications before presenting a concrete example involving the development of a Web
application for use in the Rwandan education system. In order to do so, we first present very
briefly the conceptual background, discussing the terms appropriate technology, human
development and sustainable development. Next, we discuss the use of ICTs for development
and the more specific use of Web applications for development before going on to present
our example application. On the way, we mention some prominent initiatives in the area of
ICTs for development and Web applications for development.
Appropriate Technology
Appropriate technology is the term given to technology that is well-suited to lowincome, resource-poor circumstances and to the adaptation of technology to the needs of
developing countries. It refers not only to issues of cost of development, deployment and
maintenance but also to addressing the range of issues needed to obtain the acceptance of the
intended users and to incorporating ideas of environmental and social sustainability and
respect for local techniques and cultures into technological development. Exact definitions
vary due to different authors putting emphasis on different aspects. The term was first used in
the 1960s and was pioneered by Ernst Schumacher [21]. Early work put the emphasis on low
cost and small-scale but appropriate technology is now generally placed in the wider context
of sustainable human development.
465
Sustainable human development
The first Human Development Report (HDR) [26] of the United Nations
Development Program (UNDP) defines human development as “a process of enlarging
people’s choices, the most critical ones are to lead a long and healthy life, to be educated and
to enjoy a decent standard of living”. In this context, income and economic growth are seen
as a means and not an end of development. The origins of the human development ideas lie in
the 1970s, when different socio-economic indicators were proposed to palliate the
deficiencies of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita as a measure of standard of living.
The notion of Basic Needs used in earlier work was later replaced by ideas of entitlements
and capabilities. The first HDR brought together these ideas and defined a Human
Development Index (HDI), consistent with the capabilities notion, in an attempt to quantify
them.
Sustainable development, on the other hand, was defined in the Brundtland Report
[32] in 1987 as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs". The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 gave the first big boost to
sustainable development ideas, leading, among other things, to the very influential
programme of action know as Agenda 21.
Sustainable human development attempts to integrate both approaches and guarantee
a minimum level of quality of life that should not decrease in the long term. Attempts to
quantify this approach via a corresponding Sustainable Human Development Index are still
on-going.
ICTs FOR DEVELOPMENT
The beginning of the 21st century has seen a tremendous growth in interest in the
topic of ICTs for development. In the field of education, of particular interest in this article,
organisations such as the Global e-Schools and Communities Initiative [8], the African
Virtual University (AVU) [2] and the Global Virtual University (GVU) [9] and studies such
as [30], are testimony to the current interest in ICTs for development.
Many documents on this topic contain very upbeat language about how ICTs will
reduce poverty and improve quality of life throughout the world. However, while it is now
well-recognised that ICTs are an essential form of infrastructure for development and there
is evidence that they can help to reduce poverty, e.g. [22], they do not “automagically” lead
to sustainable human development. [13] pours cold water on much of the standard rhetoric,
stating that “realistic thinking about future technological impact will have to accept both
benefits and risks”, pointing out that “the assumption that effects would be equally
distributed betrays a considerable lack of historical insight”, suggesting that use of such
insight would indicate that those on the top of the social hierarchy are likely to see most of
the benefits while those lower down are likely to have to live with most of the risks. An
often-neglected risk concerns security, a crucial aspect of applications such as the mobile
banking or electronic voting applications currently being deployed in many developing
countries, the dangers of the latter having already been amply demonstrated in the U.S. itself
[14]. Other studies such as [15] and [23] also discuss the tendency for the benefits of ICTs to
accrue mainly to elite groups. [13] criticises the WSIS discourse as being overly optimistic
and devoid of context, one striking example of the latter being the “absence of references to
already-existing international agreements in domains that affect information developments”,
notably the World Telecommunications Agreement and the TRIPS agreement. The author
concludes that in the current global context “it is wishful thinking to believe that future
information societies will be inclusive, equitable, transparent and participatory
466
arrangements”. [3] also draw attention to the lack of an adequately critical perspective in the
area of ICT for development, concluding that “benefitting from ICTs requires a prior
accumulation of physical and human capital”.
The above considerations highlight the need to be cautious about the benefits of
ICTs and to tread warily in the design and implementation of ICT projects. Moreover, as
[12] states, opinions can differ as to whether a given project is successful or not, for which
reason, success should be assessed relative to some external criteria such as contribution to
the Millenium Development Goals. Learning lessons from previous experience is also of
crucial importance, for example, by studying reports such [29], [22], [18] and the WSIS
follow-up documents or, in the area of mobile communications, reports such as [31], [1] and
[11].
Another type of criticism sometimes levelled at ICT-for-development projects is that
they “put the cart before the horse”, as [23] puts it. According to this critique, development
must start with nutrition and healthcare, move on to education and literacy and then tackle
infrastructure, and in particular the infrastructure needed by ICT (electricity, telephony,
network connectivity), before ICT projects can make any contribution. However, the
interrelations between these different aspects of development are complex and experience
has shown that ICTs can be used in ways that promote human development by responding to
the needs and aspirations of individuals and institutions without necessarily fitting into this
rigid development trajectory. For example, [23] points out that “perhaps the most important
rationale for using networked technologies in rural and underdeveloped parts of the world is
that new resources can compensate for the absence of other forms of infrastructure”. He
goes on to cite the example of the use of the village information centre in India as “a
community centre, a bank, a medical centre, a public telephone booth, a public library and
educational resource centre – all at a fraction of the cost of the corresponding ‘real’
institutions... the development of technological infrastructure can enable the on-going
development of social infrastructure.”
Of course, ICT-for-development projects cannot ignore the difficulties engendered
by poor infrastructure, notably with regard to electricity, telephony and network
connectivity. In another illustration that developing countries cannot wait to arrive at the
appropriate point of some fixed development trajectory, there is a ‘chicken and egg’
dilemma here in that, as [23] states, social infrastructure in rural areas is unlikely to improve
until demand for these resources grows (such a dilemma is also part of the explanation for
the relatively slow deployment of fibre in the loop in developed countries). Regarding
electricity, large UPSs, circuit breakers and voltage stabilizers, and even purpose-built
earthing pits, are often needed; diesel generators can be a solution in isolated situations
though they are environmentally questionable; photovoltaic panels are cleaner but
expensive; bicycle electricity generation is clean and cheap but rather impractical.
Regarding telephony, difficulties can be circumvented using, for example, radio or
microwave transmission, direct satellite connections, etc. Regarding connectivity,
technological solutions include Wireless Local Loop, in particular use of IEEE 802.11, and
mesh networks. In this context, we mention also solutions for the distribution of software
and other types of digital content via CDs, in particular the innovative vending-machine
approach of the Freedom Toaster [7].
The current interest in mobile applications is in part a response to connectivity and
telephony issues in developing countries. There has been particular interest in SMS-based
applications, see for example [17], perhaps the most well-known being the Rapid SMS
application developed by UNICEF, see for example [16]. However, the difficulties that arise
in using SMS for emergency alerts have been pointed out in [25]. The role mobiles can play
in disaster relief is explored in detail in [10].
467
The issue of the regulatory environment is also important. [23] cites the case of
exorbitant license fees for VSATs and digital signatures and the Indian governments
obstruction of community radio – currently, only educational institutes are allowed to use it
– on grounds of national security. On this note also, the universal access fund, an important
element of the regulatory environment in many countries, has had mixed success. For
example, [18] cites the rather extreme case of an operator preferring to pay the
corresponding fine rather than fulfill their contractual obligations regarding installing
infrastructure in remote areas.
Most studies of ICT initiatives in developing countries stress an issue that is crucial
to ensuring the appropriateness of technology: the need to involve the intended beneficiaries
in the design, monitoring and evolution. [18] highlights the following: “Information systems
for farming – ‘e-agriculture’ – should not be a one-way flow of information. They should be
a place where farmers and fishermen can contribute and share their own knowledge.” In
[29], the first of the lessons learned from the seventeen projects monitored is given as:
“Involve target groups in project design and monitoring”. Among other important
considerations, this section of the report states that “one of the best ways to generate local
content is to have members of local communities create it”, noting also that “if local content
is to be generated, however, ICT projects must incorporate instruction in how to apply
creative skills to content development”. In [1], the first subsection of the “lessons learned”
section is entitled “listen to users early and often”. Finally, the “summary of key findings”
section of [22] begins as follows: “Strong links between social and technical networks
emerge as highly important for the successful development of community-based ICT
initiatives that aim to improve the conditions of the poor and marginalized. These links are
most likely to be established as strong links if grown over time through gradual, localized
and organic developments, and in response to communities of users. In order to achieve this,
initiatives need to be responsive to those they seek to include and reflexive about how well
they are doing, and how they might do better.”
WEB APPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT
The Web has proved to the “killer app” for the Internet largely due to its simplicity
and its ease-of-use. It is therefore no surprise that a growing number of ICT for development
initiatives involve Web applications. The “Web for Development” (Web4Dev) series of
conferences is testimony to this growing interest [27]. The fact that in 2007, while the
metaphorical paint on the terms "participatory Web" and "Web 2.0" was still wet, the Food
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) organised a “Participatory Web for Development”
(Web2forDev) conference [28], is further indication of this interest. However, the
presentations at these conferences have so far not contributed much to the field.
On the other hand, interesting examples of the use of the Web for development can
be found in reports from diverse organisations. For example, the Web plays a prominent part
in several B2B projects discussed in [29] notably “PEOPLink” in which groups of artisans
in several different countries were given training to build, maintain and update their own
Web catalogues of craft products, “B2Bpricenow.com”, an e-marketplace in the Philippines
that enable farmers fishermen and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) to access market
prices and trade products, and “SibDev”, whose goal is to increase the capability of Siberian
SMEs to attract investments. Of particular interest in this article are educational applications
such as the Tanzania Education and Information Services Trust [24], a Web portal used to
disseminate news in the education sector in Tanzania, or SchoolNet Africa’s pan-African
education portal the African Education Knowledge Warehouse [20]. We note also that the
Web is the key element of distance learning projects such as that of the GVU and the AVU.
468
Perhaps surprisingly, neither of these uses an open-source learning platform, that of the
former being based on Fronter Open Learning Platform and that of the latter on WebCT.
Web applications for development can take advantage of the fact that Web
technology is one of the areas in which the role of FLOSS is particularly significant. By way
of example, the Apache Web server and the Mozilla Web browser are two of the most
successful of all FLOSS projects, and those using languages popular in Web development,
such as PHP, Python, Ruby and Java, are some of the most active. The fact that the
international standards concerning Web technology published by organisations such as the
W3C and OASIS have achieved a high degree of acceptance is also an advantage for Webbased development projects, helping to avoid “vendor lock-in” and the costs and inflexibility
associated to this phenomenon. Examples of such standards are HTML and CSS, XML and
the associated family of standards, and Web services standards.
As already mentioned in Section 2, a great deal of current ICT-for-development
efforts concern mobile technology so, naturally, there is also growing interest in the use of
Web applications on mobiles in developing countries. There is currently much optimism
about the spread of the mobile Web in developing countries, as witnessed by articles such as
[5] and by the recent creation of the W3C working group “Mobile Web for Social
Development”. Again, the role of FLOSS, e.g. Linux-based phones, and international
standards, e.g. XHTML Basic, is of some importance. However, many researchers see this
optimism as premature, at least outside of countries such as South Africa or the so-called
BRIC countries, and have strong reservations about the potential of the Mobile Web, these
reservations being related to affordability, the need for high-end phones, the high cost of
data access via cellphone networks, and ongoing problems with connectivity [4].
AN APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY WEB APPLICATION FOR THE RNEC
The Rwanda National Examinations Council (RNEC) needs to reach all stakeholders
who are scattered around the country taking into account the poor connectivity in terms of
telephone, Internet and communications systems. The use of an appropriate technology may
palliate some of the problems of low bandwidth, maintenance costs and ease of use.
The Rwandan National Examinations Council
The Rwanda National Examinations Council is a public institution charged with
educational assessment including preparation and conducting of examinations at primary,
ordinary and advanced levels of education.
In the assessment process, the RNEC undertakes various massive tasks of
registration of students, preparation of examinations, conducting of examinations, marks
processing and publication of results, and then orientation of successful students to the next
level of education. These tasks involve processing of large databases and message
exchanges through internal and external communications; and interaction with students,
parents or guardians, teachers, heads of institutions and district education officers through
announcements, rules and regulations governing the conduct of examinations.
The RNEC has plans to develop its ICT capability in order to deliver its services
much more efficiently and effectively. This also is necessitated by the fact that the number
of candidates increases every year, hence ICT capability to deliver and meet the long term
needs and expectations of Rwandan primary and secondary schools is essential.
The RNEC intends to develop a web based tool to enable it improve the coordination
and managements of the high-stakes public examinations processes.
469
Initial Prototype
The first version of the application was developed in the context of a dissertation
project for the Erasmus Mundus “M.Sc. in Network and e-Business Centred Computing”
offered jointly by the University of Reading, the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, and
the Carlos III University of Madrid [6].
Having realized the important role that free and open-source software (FOSS) can
play in sustainable development, see for example [19], it was decided that using FOSS tools
would be most suitable for developing this application. A number of options were
considered:
1. Developing a Web application from scratch, e.g. using the combination of technologies
known as LAMP (Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP).
2. Developing a Web application in an open-source framework such as Ruby on Rails.
3. Developing modules for an open-source CMS such as Joomla!.
4. Developing modules for an open-source LCMS such as Moodle.
Looking at the purpose of this project and the concept of appropriate technology that
urges consideration of the local communities as the centre of the sustainable development, it
was decided that option 4 would be the best. This is because the examinations centres which
form the largest part of the examinations coordination are learning centres, so the learning
orientation of a tool such as Moodle should facilitate its deployment in these centres.
Moreover, it was felt that the use of this tool in the learning administration context may
encourage its adoption in the learning context itself.
The scope of this initial project was to design and implement part of this exam
coordination system. The modules chosen were: user authentication, posting
announcements, viewing announcements, uploading rules and regulations, downloading
rules and regulations, uploading student lists, and downloading student lists
Since this is a database driven web application, a database known as Exam_Process
has been created in the MySQL DBMS with the following tables: Centres, Documents,
Departments, Districts, Users, Exam_announcements, Reports and Studentlists.
The application must handle content that changes in the course of the examination
period. For ease of use, content is submitted to the database via HTML forms. Though the
coding style follows Moodle guidelines, the code is completely different to that of existing
Moodle module. The Moodle system does have a user authentication module but it was not
suitable for this exams coordination system in which different user profiles are needed.
So designing this application as a database-driven Web-based CMS-style application
is suitable for the appropriate technology context, since users can submit their documents
and participate in the whole process of exam coordination without any specialised
knowledge.
Extended application
An application including the following modules will be developed by a private
company.
Registration of candidates, publication of results and SMS communication system. The
objective of this module is to build a highly-secure online Results Information System (RIS)
that will be used to provide primary and secondary school leaving candidates with online
access to their exam results in the RNEC databases, either on their cell phones via SMS or
via the Web, using specific student codes such as registration numbers or other pin numbers.
The RIS will also provide other services such as on-line registration and registration
verification via SMS. Queries should be made directly to the database through a web
interface. Information retrieved from the website should also be available for downloading.
470
There is also a need to implement a database within RNEC that will enable the
collection of statistics on the traffic and usage of the SMS and Internet system. This is also
important for SMS service provider monitoring. The RIS should have the ability to create
historical trend reports (annual reports on primary and secondary schools examination
results) using the electronically stored data, for use in planning and reporting on the
activities of the sector.
The successful firm will conduct system requirements analysis, design, development,
deployment, testing and also provide a clear maintenance plan of the system, comprising
both client and server system components, as well as train the RNEC staff in its use. The
firm will implement a central database and server software for storage and retrieval of
examination results information. This information would be correlated and aggregated in the
manner required by RNEC. The firm will build the website that will be used to publish
examination results and student registration details and additional promotional information
about the System including basic information about RNEC. The firm will provide built-in
reporting mechanisms to support statistical analysis of examination results data. Data
collected should be summarized and made available through the website and other media
formats (Tables, Graphic Charts, PDF, Spread sheets, GIS Maps, etc).
Selection process. This module would enable the RNEC to gather important statistics as
indicated below; schools or institutions are expected to submit these vacancies online into
the RNEC server: number of places available at Ordinary and Advanced secondary school
levels and at the University level; number of places available at A level by option for
candidates completing O level. A very high degree of security and privacy is required
Examiners tracking system. This module would cover the following items using online
interfaces that are well designed making use of appropriate technology concepts: registration
of examiners, giving their personal details; the exams an examiner sets and the exams he/she
marks; the examiner/teacher’s qualifications; the class a teacher teaches:- A-level, O-level
or primary level and the subject that he/she teaches; team leader’s comments A very high
degree of security and privacy is required.
School performance. The RNEC would like to track the results and examine the
performance of schools. This system should be able to generate statistical data on
performance of each school.
CONCLUSION
In the last few years, ICTs for development has been the subject of a great deal of
attention and evidence is accumulating that ICTs can contribute to development and
poverty-reduction in developing countries. However, ICT for development projects need to
be wary of a generalised tendency towards excessive optimism in this regard, particularly
since such optimism is often stoked by organisations for whom the objective of sustainable
human development is peripheral at best. Attempting to ensure that the technology to be
used is appropriate is an often neglected question, it being recognised that the involvement
of the intended beneficiaries in all stages of the project is important to achieving this.
Web applications have an important place in ICTs for development, though there are
a range of factors that should be taken into account when designing such applications for
resource-poor environments, such as low Internet connectivity rates, low processing power,
lack of technical skills of the user communities and aspects related to local cultures. During
design and implementation, it must always be borne in mind that keeping the costs of
acquisition, installation/configuration, maintenance and operation very low is of paramount
471
importance, and that simplicity accelerates development and eases maintenance.
Encouraging community acceptance and adoption of Web applications calls for initiatives to
make such applications more broadly useful to users in their daily activities. To this end, we
claim that a path-based incremental development approach, in which users are involved in
evaluating each increment, is a good approach for appropriate technology Web applications.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the RNEC for their cooperation and the EU
“Erasmus Mundus” programme for financing the collaboration reported on here in the
context of the “M.Sc. in Network and e-Business Centred Computing” [6].
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473
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE HUMAN
SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT.
THE CASE OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NUST CAMPUS IN
ZIMBABWE.
Mutsambiwa Calvinos Mutsambiwa
National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
Department of Architecture
[email protected] or
[email protected]
[email protected]
Keywords: Sustainable Architecture, appropriate technology, ethics.
Abstract
The vision of the National University of Science and Technology, NUST, in Bulawayo,
Zimbabwe is to be a first world university in a third world country. Without doubt, the
university has beautiful ultra modern architectural buildings. The Zimbabwe Architectural
Quarterly, describes the campus as giving out a loud expensive noise and that it is an
architectural demonstration of conspicuous consumption. The construction of the
University started in the early 1990’s when the economy was stronger than it is now. The
construction of the works was also supported through donor funding in addition to
contributions from the tax payers. It is supposed to be complete by now. Currently the
inflation level of the economy is the highest in the world. The construction of the university
is far from complete because of among other issues, inappropriate technology used in the
context of the prevailing economic environment. Thus the development is not sustainable
as it does not address the needs of the communities on the ground.
This paper describes the development of the university from appointment of consultants,
the construction done to date measured against economic performance of the country in
general. The paper looks at the philosophy of the designers in conjunction with world best
practices and what Michael Porter would call sustainable competitive advantage.
INTRODUCTION
The Zimbabwean construction industry and hence the architectural related business
and profession has been on the decline since the 1990s era and has worsened especially
after the land reform exercise of the year 2000. Ten years prior to that year, the
construction industry was relatively booming. Eight years after the exercise, the
construction industry is virtually non existent. The campus at the National University Of
Science and Technology is a major and perfect case study which reflects on the
performance of the nation during the period in question.
Brian Edwards [6] defines sustainability as a process and sustainable development
as a product. The Brundtland Commission of 1987 defines sustainable development as
‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.’ Whereas Appropriate Technology (AT)
according to John Tharakan [7] has the following attributes: local material use, labor
intensiveness, small scale in nature, low capital expenditure, affordability,
understandability, controllability, maintainability, adaptability, participation of local
communities in innovation and implementation. AT is difficult to define. It can be
474
summarized that it has both attributes of a process and a product. It infers that it is a
product derived through processes. It can further be inferred that it is similar to
sustainability and sustainable development although the latter takes consideration of
resources for future generations. According to the Webster’s 3rd International Unabridged
Dictionary, architecture is both a science and art of designing buildings. It infers that it is a
product from a process. So whereas architecture and AT are both products from processes,
architecture relates specifically to buildings and AT to anything. In its definition for
sustainable construction, Holcim Foundation [8], a Switzerland based organization uses
the following five criteria:Balanced environmental performance, social performance, economic performance,
creation of a good building and significant advancements that can be applied on a broad
scale encompassing the following: ecology quality and energy conservation; economic
performance and compatibility; ethical standards and social equity; contextual and
aesthetic impact; and quantum change and transferability
The Beginnings Of National University of Science and Technology.
According to the NUST website [9], The National University Of Science And
Technology, NUST, was established by an Act of Parliament in 1992 after there was a
recommendation to do so in a report [10] of February 1989. The idea for a second
university was mooted in 1982 after a Commission of Inquiry into the high failure rate at
the first University of Zimbabwe during the 1981 and 1982 academic years. It was also
observed that for economic growth of the country it was necessary for the University to be
strongly science and technology biased. It was to be located in Bulawayo and was to admit
its first students in 1993. The enrollment would rise from approximately 1000 students in
1993 to about 6 500 in the 2000.The faculties and schools of the University should include
industrial technology, science, architecture and quantity surveying, environmental science,
communications technology, commerce, arts and education. The orientation of the
programmes should be towards applied studies and production etcetera. The University
would have a strong research orientation, with an emphasis on the applications of science
to technological development; a research and development centre would focus the
activities of the University in research and consultancy.
The Commission indicated the action needed to establish the Second University
including the legal steps, the appointment of the first officers, and the appointment of a
Council to initiate planning. Early attention would be needed to staff development, given
the serious shortages of academic staff then. The Commission estimated then that the total
cost of the Second University as being in the region of $300 million to $350 million on the
capital side, and in annual recurrent cost terms rising from about $11million in 1993 to
$71million in the year 2000, all in 1988 prices.
It was argued that if the construction was carefully phased, the total financial burden was
believed to be sustainable. It was emphasized that a vigorous fund raising campaign inside
and outside Zimbabwe would be required. The effect of the university would be to
improve the supply of professionals for the growth of the economy. It was also envisaged
that after the second half of the 1990s, the opportunities for students to enroll in degree
programmes would be much better than then.
According to a local publication [11], Mwamuka and Mercuri and Associates were
the architects commissioned to develop the University after they won the master plan
development. They were however in collaboration with American architects Davis, Brody
and Associates and Planners as well as Ove Arup a British based international firm of
475
engineers. The architects informed the public that the design conceptionalises a ‘ first
world university in a third world country because of its ultra-modern architecture’.
There were to be three phases and the first two phases were estimated to consume
$17million in foreign currency component. According to the report [10, p.5], on April 18,
1980 one US dollar was equivalent to Z$0,64 and in January 1989 it was equivalent to
Z$1.96 which shows a triple in economic fall.
Zimbabwean Economic And Performance
The advent of the 1990s saw the beginning of efforts initiated by the World Bank
and the International Monetary Fund towards global integration of individual national
economies through Structural Adjustment Programme. Its intentions were to among other
issues;- diminish the role of the state in economic affairs and increase the international
movement of capital[1,p.20], this brought about improved foreign currency inflows into
Zimbabwe through lines of credits and subsequently led to increase of exports. Earlier on,
there were other efforts to improve the post independent Zimbabwean economy notably in
1981 through the Zimbabwe Conference on Reconstruction and Development
(ZIMCORD) in tandem with the Transitional National Development Plan. In addition
between 1982-1990 two Five Year Development Plans were implemented. The economy
was doing well according to an international magazine [13,p61].
In 1997 a political decision to compensate liberation war veterans led to the
beginning of the sliding down of the Zimbabwean economy. In year 2000 another political
decision to redress the land imbalance which was still in status quo of pre-independent
Zimbabwe state was speedily undertaken, through a belated land reform exercise. It is
ironic that although the country experienced capital flight due to sanctions by donors such
as World Bank ( Structural Adjustments Loans) and International Monetary Fund (Balance
of Payments Support), the same institutions were now pursuing lending policies linked to
sustainability [1,p41] which route the country in hindsight also was now following but not
to the satisfaction of everyone.
As of July 2008, the campus development has not been completed. Only the
Administration Block and Commerce Buildings have been fully completed. The other
operational buildings namely Chemical-, Applied Chemistry-, Students’ Hostels and
Ceremonial Hall have been beneficially handed over but most of them already need
maintenance.
The National University of Science and Technology is a glaring example of a
project failing to complete although a budget has been set aside through Public Sector
Investment Program, which is a government fund used to support public infrastructure
development. A local publication [11], used the symbolism of a loud statement to
describe the architecture and also alluded to the fact that the construction was very
expensive and the design never evaluated. It is interesting to note that the late Sir Ove
Arup, the structural design engineer of international repute and whose firm of engineers
which now trades as ARUP designed the Nust campus buildings shared his opinion on
architecture with architects in a journal [14,p526], that architects act and should act as the
counsel for humanity and as such should speak out against the double forces of high
finance and technology, otherwise, no one else will do so in an informed way. This
therefore implies that ARUP and engineers in general would absolve themselves from the
burden of protecting the public from high finances and technologies used on buildings. It
then means that architects are the antennae for morality on designs of buildings and
activities on construction sites. In Architecture, matters related to morality and
professionalism are regulated by an Act of Parliament [15].
476
Building
Level of
completion (%)
Administration Block
Library
Workshop and Laboratories
Lecture Rooms
Lecture Theatres
Halls of Residence
Staff Flats and House
100
30--40
40--45
50--60
70+
30--35
9--15
Table 2: Levels of completion of NUST Phase 1 (2008).
Source( Author’s observation)
Prioritization Of Material Resources
Currently Zimbabwe, typical of many third world countries is facing
unprecedented economic challenges in all fronts and in shelter delivery in particular.
Public buildings, to be specific, which are state funded, have shown the greatest stress
from the economic challenges. This is highlighted by snail paced, if at all, of progress of
construction of such buildings. Granted, the economic environment is not conducive for
many business initiatives to flourish, and some people blame the economic policies and
politics of the ruling elite for such failure in delivering results.
However, some medical research on child mortality for instance according to news
reports report in 2008 [16], has shown that relatively rich third world countries such as
Angola with revenues from oil and petroleum and India which is a technologically rapidly
developing country have higher child mortality rates than Malawi and Bangladesh. This
shows that even though a third world nation might have the means to improve its people,
its priorities might not be focused to other areas which are important. Locally, the question
can be raised whether the priorities are right in terms of the architectural option being
pursued currently in the construction industry. Knowledge is a resource which has to be
used effectively.
The material technology resource has been found quite wanting as materials are no
longer affordable as they should be imported. Materials such as wallpaper which is peeling
off; aluminum sun- shading blinds, some of which have broken down; massive steel sun
shading grills which allows light through; aluminum curtain walls in hostels, and polished
granite on almost every building on site so far cause concern.
Ethical Standards And Social Equity
Brian Edwards et al,[12, p12], opined that professional institutes have a duty to
serve society in the provision of decent, acceptable, maintainable, and low energy
designed housing. He supports that local accountability be the first principle of
sustainability and professional practices should put the community first instead of profit,
fees nor speed of construction. He advocates that local accountability be the basis for
decisions for designs, construction methods, tenure mix, management and crime
prevention, p14.
The construction of the name display wall at the main entrance of the campus
points out the professional challenges involved. The challenge with this wall is that it had
three different architects commissioned to design it. This meant duplication of payments
for a service and thus wasting financial resources. It also does not comply at face value
with planning conditions of title deed of property [17] i.e. that it should be built either on
the boundary line or within the boundary as the wall is 35 meters outside of the campus
boundary limits. However such an anomaly in development can be mitigated through the
granting of a special consent by the local planning authority [17, Section 26 (3)(a)(2)],
477
This therefore underlines the essence of professionalism, ethical conduct and competence
in the implementation of AT.
According to Holcim Foundation a project should adhere to the highest ethical
standards and support social equity at all stages from planning and building processes to
long term impact on the communal fabric.
Since the construction began in 1998 the campus has not yet been completed. In
fact if the right term be used, the buildings have not been handed over as having been
completed. They have been beneficially handed over. They should actually be in the
maintenance period. This is attributed to unavailability or insufficient building capital.
As of July 20, 2008, monetary inflation in the country was at more than two million
percent, the highest in the world. In an economically challenged country like Zimbabwe,
sustainable construction means building to supply urgent and basic needs within the
people’s means. Wastefulness and excessive consumption is financial irresponsible.
Sufficient materials and resources should be left for others, including future generations.
Sections of the Library Building whose construction is in limbo, shows excessive use of
concrete and steel, elements which are very expensive. Such construction technology is
associated with dam wall. Krause and Plewe [18, p.21,p.95,p.211) describe concrete
framed buildings, column and beam and column & slab alternative construction methods
which could be employed on a similar structure. The walls are then constructed by a brick
infill. This then gives a cost effective solution.
The ablutions serving the Ceremonial Hall are a single story structure yet the walls
have a 345cm thick outside wall. A normal outside wall for a habitable room has a
thickness of 230cm. An ablution is not a habitable room [19] and is for short term use.
This is excessive considering that the purpose of walls is for structural stability or for
thermal or sound or privacy control etc. In addition to that it has a concrete roof.
The students’ hostels have façade portions with aluminum curtain walls.
Aluminum is very expensive and has good aesthetic qualities but does not offer better
thermal properties than brick. The hostels are therefore either extremely cold in winter or
hot in summer. Thermal comfort is not achievable in the rooms. Inconsideration to
materials’ physical properties lead to environmental problems just like Mies van der Rohe
[20,p92] had internal climate control problems with the Edith Farnsworth house, Illinois,
1949-1951.
Energy Conservation
One of the major critiques to the built environment concerns its inability to
conserve energy. According to a source [21], energy is consumed mainly through
processes in obtaining raw materials, manufacturing processes, transportation and
distribution, construction processes, operations and maintenance, demolition, disposal or
recycling.
In