Women, Empowerment, and Tattoos

Transcription

Women, Empowerment, and Tattoos
By
Patricia M. Stengle
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
ofthe requirements of the
University Honors Program
University of South Florida, St. Petersburg
August 1, 2003
Thesis Director: Rebecca Johns, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor, College of Arts and Sciences
University Honors Program
University of South Florida
St. Petersburg, Florida
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
Honors Thesis
This is to certify that the Honors Thesis of
Patricia M. Stengle
has been approved by the Examining Committee
on August 1, 2003
as satisfying the thesis requirement
of the University Honors Program
Examining Committee:
· Thesis Director: Rebecca,(Johns, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor, College of Arts and Sciences
Thesis Committee Mt;ID.ber: Raymond Arsenault, Ph.D.
Professor, College of Arts and Sciences
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ... .. . ........... .... . ... ....... . ... ................ .. ...... iii
Introduction ...... ... . ....... . ......... ... ........ .. ..... ... .... ...... . ........ . . 1
Chapter 1: History of Tattoos ..... . ........ . ........... ... ...... ... ... .. .... .. 6
Chapter 2: Women and Empowerment ........ . ........... . .... . .. .. .. ..... 25
Chapter 3: Why Women Over 40 Get Tattoos ....... . ..... .. .............. 40
Conclusion ......... . .... .. . ... ....................... . .. . .... . . ................ 51
lll
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Ray Arsenault for giving me the opportunity to participate in
the Honors Program. It has been a challenging and enlightening experience.
I would also like to thank Dr. Jay Sokolovsky for his assistance with my thesis.
Thank you for always being available and getting back to me as quickly as possible. Your
prompt attention was always appreciated.
I would like to extend a special thanks to my chaiiperson, Dr. Rebecca Johns. Thank
you for so generously opening your home to me. I could not have completed this thesis
without your encouragement, guidance, and endless patience. I will miss our talks.
Finally, I would like to thank my son, Chiistopher, who constantly supported me and
didn't let me give up on this project. You make a mother proud.
1
Introduction
"Tattoos appear to contemporary women as both emblems of empowerment
in an era of feminist gains and as badges of self-determination at a time
when controversies about date rape, abortion rights, and sexual harassment
have many women thinking hard about who controls their bodies and why."
(Margot Mifflin in Bodies ofSubversion).
Tattoos have long been considered an activity reserved for the deviant subcultures in
our society, but today tattoos have become main stream. Now the most popular group
getting tattoos are females over the age of30. Most of these women are considered
conservative, are middle class, and many are professionals 1
The first form of tattooing is believed to be done by puncture in Ancient Egypt. A
sharp tool was used to puncture the skin, leaving a dye under the first layer of skin. Puncture
tattoo was performed on both men and women. The art of tattoo spread from Egypt across
Southern Asia to China. The Shans2 , a southeast Asian tribe, migrated primarily to east and
northwestern Myanmar (Burma), and brought tattooing to Burmese. The Shans developed-an
elaborate technique of tattooing that is still part of their magical and religious beliefs today.
The indigenous Ainu ofHokaido migrated from Western Asia to Japan. Tattooing to the
Ainu was a considered a gift from the Gods and the Ainu were very proficient in the skill of
tattooilig. For the Ainu a tattoo represented social class and status and held special powers.
Tattooing was exclusively a female ritual. Markings were inked into a woman's hands and
around her mouths3 .
1
MSNBC Investigates: Tattooed Women (Documentary) 2001
2
Tai Shans. Online: http://www.lilesnet.com/pauVH... 2003
3
Victoria Lautman, The New Tattoo (New York: Abbeville Publishers, 1994) 11.
2
When Ainu women were about to marry, they would have a "moustache" and various
abstract-geometrical designs tattooed on their arms and legs. These tattoos were reminders to
the women that their mouth speaks for their husband and their body works for him. 4 Ainu
women also used tattoos as protection from the "demons of disease" by being tattooed to take
on the appearance of their goddess'. The Ainu believed that the tattoo would fool the
demons and scare them away. Old Ainu women who were losing their sight would have
5
tattoos put on their hands and mouth for better vision
•
When the Ainu settled in Japan, the
Japanese turned tattooing into an art. Tattoos were ornamental and did not carry the magical
belief of the Ainu people.
6
Japanese tattoos are known for their beauty, design, color and expression of
movement.
"A macabre point of interest is that Japan possesses the only known collection
of modem tattooed human hides, preserved at the Medical Pathology Museum
of Tokyo University. The hundred-plus skins were all collected as masterpieces
of the art form with the complete cooperation of the tattoos and their families."
(Victoria Lautrnan, The New Tattoo)
Japan' s first emperor, Jimmu Tenno, was adorned with tattoos, but subsequent
emperors used tattooing as a form of punishment. Tattooing then became associated with
criminals and pro.stitutes. During the mid-eighteenth-century Edo period, the Chinese novel
Suikoden became available in Japan. The 108 heroic rebels in the novel wore beautiful fullbody tattoos and these tattoos became popular with the Japanese unruly civilians and
tradesmen, such as fire brigades, carpenters, and palanquin bearers. In 1872, Emperor
4
Oriental Irezumi and Occidental Tattooing In Contemporary Japan.- History. Alterasian.com. 2003
Online: http://208.55.77 .56/alterasian/arttattooirezumi3 . html 2003
5
6
Frank Allen, Tattoo Rituals, Online: http://www.metal-tiger.com/Wu Tang PCA/tattoo.html
George Burchett, 2003 , Excerpt from Memoirs of a Tattooist by George Burchett. [London:
Oldbourne, 1958.] Copyright 1958 by George Burchett http://tattoos.com/ jane/steve/ 2003
Matsuhlto opened Japan to the outside world and outlawed tattoos. Emperor Matsuhito
thought foreigners would find tattoos barbaric, when in fact, according to author Victoria
Lautman, foreigners were the most appreciative of the tattooists' work7 • British sailors
thought the Japanese tattoo gave them protection from the dangers of traveling the seas,
while European tourists found them fashionable. Queen Victoria's grandsons Prince George
and Prince Albert, and the Russian heir Nicholas II, were tattooed while visiting Japan.
Winston Churchill's mother had a " tattooed snake entwined around her wrist like a reptilian
bracelet"8.
Many young women today fmd tattoos fashionable, but for many older women, in
their 40's and 50's, a tattoo is more than a fashion statement. A tattoo can be a symbol of
self proclamation, a new beginning, or a shield of protection. It can represent an epiphany or
a milestone in a woman's life. Women over the age of 30 are getting tattoos to reclaim their
bodies, heal emotional and physical wounds, to empower themselves and to redefine the
conventional definition of beauty.
Mainstream America has traditionally viewed people with tattoos as a subculture.
This subculture is very inclusive and consists of three different groups; biker, sailor, and the
"new class" being the most common group. Bikers are considered the "bad boys" or rebels
-·
-
and they are known to have tattoos done by "scratchers"; untrained and unprofessional
tattooists and can be potentially dangerous9 . These tattoos are usually of poor quality and
workmanship. Sailors may not have professional tattoos, but they do not see themselves in
7
Victoria Lautman, The New Tattoo (New York: Abbeville Publishers, 1994) 12.
8
Ibid. pg. 12
9
Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo community (Durham
and London: Duke University Press, 2000), l 02.
I....._
~
4
the same group as bikers. According to Margo Demello, sailors "do not see themselves as
part of the tattoo community." They are on higher rung than bikers. They are military men
whose tattoos are a "right of passage" to manhood and these tattoos are symbols of unity and
patriotism.
10
The "new class" is yet a higher rung than sailors. The "new class" according to
Margo DeMello in Bodies ofInscription, represents the upper class or professional people
who have one or two small artistic tattoos. This "new class" of people have tattoos done by
professionals who are usually considered artists in their field. The tattoos can be personally
symbolic and meaningful or just a fashion statement.
11
The profession of tattooing has always been a male dominated field, but in the past
three decades more women are becoming tattoo artists. Female tattoo artists face many
obstacles to become accepted and respected in this vocation. Books and articles about tattoos
have also emphasized male tattoo artists and men with tattoos, but as more women are
getting tattoos and are becoming tattoo artists themselves, the focus is turning to women.
12
Women tattooists have made it easier and more acceptable for women to pursue having
tattoos. In the 1920's women were tattooed to earn a decent living, but today more women,
especially those over 40, are getting tattoos for more spiritual reasons or because they
believe the tattoo makes them feel empowered.
This thesis will focus on women over forty, specifically women who state that their
reason for getting a tattoo is either spiritual or empowerment. Using a combination of
secondary and in-depth interviews, I will illuminate the reasons women over 40 get tattoos. I
10
Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history of the modern tattoo community,(Durham
and London: Duke University Press, 2000), 20.
11
Ibid. pg. 143.
5
have 6 primary interviews. Three of the subjects are friends and the remaining three subjects
are people who were referred to me by acquaintances. I conducted my interviews with
leading and open-ended questions.
12
6
History of Tattoos
It is not known when tattooing actually began. Mummified bodies have been found
around the world bearing tattoos. For example, a frozen Chinese woman was found with a
mythical creature tattooed on her shoulder. Carbon analysis showed the mummified woman
to be over 2,400 years old. A Neolithic hunter was discovered in 1991 in the Similaun
Glacier, between Austria and Italy, in the Italian Alps, with simple tattooed lines and crosses
on his back, ankles and behind his knees. This so-called Iceman tells us that tattooing is
over 5,000 years old.
13
Before the discovery of the Iceman in the Italian Alps, the first known tattoos were on
Egyptian women. Around 2000 B.C., the Egyptian priestess Amunet, also known as the
goddess Hathor who lived in the Thebes during the Eleventh Dynasty, had delicate elliptical
design on her lower abdomen. Two other Egyptian women from the Middle Kingdom, one a
dancer, had the same tattoo, which lead scientists to believe the tattoos were fertility related.
14
By 1000 B.C. tattooing had spread from the Middle East along trade routes by land and
sea to India, China, Japan and the Pacific Islands.
15
The Picts and Britons, two indigenous bribes of the British Isles, got their names from
their fierce devotion to tattooing. The Picts and Britons believed that their tattoos would
protect them by scaring away threatening intruders. The name Picts was derived from a
Celtic root word meaning "etched," and the pick-like instrument used to etch their tattoos.
The name Briton is from a Breton word meaning "Painted in various colors."
16
13
Victoria Lautman, The New Tattoo, (New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 1994), 8.
14
Ibid. pg. 8, 9.
15
Ibid. pg. 9
16
7
In the third century A.D., Roman soldiers were so impressed by the tattoos of the
Britons and Picts that they had tattoos inked into their bodies as souvenirs of their journey.
When the Roman soldiers returned from the British Isles, a decree was issued against tattoos
by the newly converted Christian Roman Emporer Constantine who believed tattoos
"damaged" the perfect creation made by God. This fundamentalist view, among many
religious sects, has been responsible for the banning and promotion of tattoos.
17
Leviticus
(91 :28) from the Old Testament states "You shall not make any cuttings in your flesh on
account of the dead or tattoo any marks upon you." Yet Galatians 6, Revelations 7:3 and
22:4 from the New Testament imply that Jesus' followers identified themselves by tattoos on
their foreheads. The Koran forbids tattooing, yet tattoos became popular in Moslem lands
during the third century A.D.
18
According to Victoria Lautman, author of The New Tattoo, Pope Adrian I issued a
ban against tattooing in A.D. 787, but the tenacious practice continued. One popular story
explains how King Harold ofNorway died in the Battle of Hastings 1066 and could only be
identified by his tattoos. Eadyth, the king's lover, was the only person who could identify his
body. Eadyth was brought to the battlefield and identified King Harold by tattoos that only
she knew were oq. his body.
Over the next two centuries, many religious warriors during
the Crusades to the Holy Land had tattoos of a crucifix or other religious symbols to ensure
they would get a Christian burial if they died abroad. During the sixteenth and seventeenth
century, many pilgrims had tattoos of their visit to Jerusalem as a permanent souvenir and
"spiritual memento" of their journey. In the late nineteenth century, the Prince of Wales and
17
Ibid. pg. 10.
18
Ibid. pg. 10
8
several members of the Russian imperial family collected tattoos during their visits to
Jerusalem.
19
Explorers have been fascinated by the tattoos they have discovered on their journeys.
Marco Polo refers to "etched" populations during his travels to Asia. In Yunnin, in southern
China, Marco Polo stated that the black bands or fillets around the arms and legs of the men
°
were considered "a piece of elegance and the sign of gentility." 2 Captain Cook wrote of the
tattoo process during his trips to the Polynesian islands which sparked an interest in tattoos in
the Western civilization. Captain Cook' s sailors started the tradition of tattooed seamen and
added to the popularization of tattoos.
Captain Cook's discovery ofmoko tattooing, though, lead to dire results for the
Maori tribes of New Zealand. Mokos are elaborate black spirals, stripes, and patterns
chiseled into the faces of Maori men and women. The art of moko was time consuming and
painful, but the tattoo represented status and identity. The tattooed heads of Maori men were
kept as trophies among the fighting tribes. Beginning in the late eighteenth century, Maoris
began to exchange these decorated heads for guns to Europeans who wanted their own
collection ofmoko heads. Unfortunately, when the supply of heads became low, prisoners
were tattooed and executed to fill the demand. In 1831 the colonial governor made the
possession of a moko head illegal and the trading ceased. Due to the lack of commercial
drive and the disapproval of the missionaries, the art ofmoko dwindled. In 1873, Gottfried
Lindauer, a Bohemian artist, was fascinated by the Maoris and for the next several decades
made a record of the Maori way of life. Lindauer left a priceless record of "some of the most
19
20
Ibid. pg. 11
9
artistic and sophisticated tattooing that has ever been done."
21
A new interest in the art of
moko designs and tribal motifs from various native populations has emerged among today' s
contemporary tattoo artists.
22
Japan has a rich tattoo history dating back as far as the Jomon period (1 O,OOOB.C. 300 B.C.). Jomon means "pattern of rope." Clay figurines, or dogu, were found with tattoolike markings on their faces and bodies. In 300 A.D. the Japanese, or Wa people, dove for
fish and shells and tattooed their bodies to protect themselves from large fish. Later the
tattoos became ornamental and distinguished the various tribes and their ranks.
23
The Ainu ofHokaido migrated from Western Asia to Japan. In 622 A.D., the women
of Ainu from the Hokaido tribe of Western Asia, and Ryukyu, a people from the islands in
the most southern part of Japan, were tattooed on their face, abdomen and back of their
hands. Some Ainu women were tattooed as early as age of 5 or 6, but most Ainu girls were
first tattooed when they were 10 to 13 years old. Women were tattooed until they reached
marriageable age. Ainu tattooing was for several purposes: cosmetic, tribal, sexual maturity,
religious, and ornamental. The Ainu women also had a tattoo belt similar the chastity belt
they wore. The Ainu tattoos symbolize virtue or purity and were also used for protection
against atrocities committed by other tribes. The Ryukyu tattoos were done on only the back
of the hands, including the fingers, wrists, and knuckles. The Ryukyu tattoo symbolized
religious beliefs, sexual maturity, indication of marriage, body adornment, distinction of sex
21
Steve Gilbert, Tattoo History: A Source Book, (Juno Books, 2000), 69. ISBN 1-890451-07-X
22
Victoria Lautman, The New Tattoo , (New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 1994), 11
23
MiekoYamada, Japanese Tattooing /rom the Past to the Present,. Online: www.tattoo.com
10
and tribal customs. In some tribes only women were tattooed while in other tribes both men
and women were tattooed, yet in other parts of the Ryukyu Island no one was tattooed.24
The Japanese book Kojiki
25
(712 A.D.), states there are two kinds of tattoos. One is
the mark of distinction on a man of very high status, and the other is to identify criminals.
Tattooing criminals has been used throughout Japanese history. In 1720 tattooing criminals
replaced the use of amputation of the nose and the ears as punishment. Japanese prostitutes
acquired tattoos to attract customers. In Japan, tattoos became the signature of criminality
and prostitution.
26
During the Edo Period (1603-1868) women lived by the "three obediences" or sanju:
obedience to her parents when a child, to her husband when married, and to her children
when she grew old. Japanese men had sex with their wives for procreation and with
prostitutes for recreation or sexual pleasure. Japanese men sought geishas for entertainment.
Prostitutes, or Yujos, were women who received money in exchange for sex, but geishas
were "art persons" who entertained Japanese men as singers, dancers and conversationalists,
but never or rarely engaged in sex. Marriages were arranged for social position and
obligation, while romantic love, personal preference and unconstrained social contacts were
found with geishas and prostitutes. Irebokuro, meaning tattoo, were not pictorial. An
example of irebokuro would be a man and woman holding hands and getting a mole-like
tattoo on each hand where the tip of their thumbs reached. Yujos were the first to accept
irobokuro, then geishas. It was rare for ordinary girls to be tattooed. Many yujo 's got tattoos
24
MiekoYamada, Japanese Tattooingfrom the Past to the Present, . Online: www.tattoo.com
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid.
11
to please their customers, but other yujo 's tattoos were symbols of a serious promise or
eternal love.
27
From 1720 - 1870, criminals were tattooed for crimes of extortion, swindling and
fraud. A black ring was tattooed around the arm of the offender for each crime committed or
a Japanese character was tattooed on the criminal's forehead. Criminals were tattooed so
they could be easily identified, but this resulted in them being feared by the public and
becoming social outcasts. This solitary group were known as the eta class28 , but there was
also another group of outlaws called ronin that were from the samuri class. When penal
tattooing was abolished, .the ronin form organized gangs. These gangs were later known as
the yakuza- today' s Japanese mafia.
In 1827 the ukiyo-e artist, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, published the first 6 designs of the
108 Heroes ofthe Suikoden. The Suikoden were "honorable bandits" who saved the weak
from evil. These ancient Robin Hoods were loved and admired by the common people of the
Edo period. The most popular hero of the Suikoden, Kyumonryu Shishin, had nine dragons
tattooed on his body. The image of a dragon was thought to summon water, so Shishin's
tattoo became popular among fireman. Many followers of the Suikoden heroes wanted to
emulate their heroes and did so by getting tattooed. This inspired the beginning of full body
tattoos and turned tattooing into an art form.
Common people of the Edo period could only wear plain clothing. Merchants were
not allowed to wear the beautifully colorful kimonos, so in rebellion they turned to body
tattoos. Tamabayashi (1956) believes only the lower class citizens and laborers gottattoos
27
Mieko Yamada, Japanese Tattooingfrom the Past to the Present. Online: www.tattoo.com
28
Mieko Yamada, Japanese Tattooing/rom the Past to the Present. Online: www.tattoo.com
12
and not wealthy Japanese merchants. The term iki means stylish and many commoners of
that time began to compete with each other by showing off their body tattoos. Today in
Japan, the tattoo carries a stigma related to the underground mafia or bad lower class people.
Only a minority of the Japanese youth get tattoos. The Japanese youth who consider tattoos
as iki will have Western tattoos on their upper arms so it is only visible when they want their
tattoos to be seen.
29
As Japan reached the Meiji Era of modernization, 1868-1912, the Japanese were so
influenced by Western culture that tattoos were considered barbaric and were banned by the
government. The ban even included the tribal tattooing by the Ainu and the Ryukyu. The
prohibition, though, did not apply to foreigners. Ironically, the Japanese began to wear
Western attire, sailors and European aristocrats were getting tattoos. The tattoo master, Hori
Chyo, tattooed the Duke of York who later became King George V and the Czarevitch of
Russia who later became the Czar Nicholas II. Others who were tattooed in Japan were
Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany, Princess Waldemar ofDenmark, King George of Greece, and
Winston Churchill's mother who had a tattoo of a snake entwined around her wrist like a
reptilian bracelet. Japanese tattoos became popular outside Japan, but due to its negative
history tatt'?os are not accepted even today by the Japanese culture. Professional boxer, Mike
-·
--
Tyson, hid his tattoo to appear in a Japanese commercial. The wife of a Japanese tattoo
master, Nakano, says that it is not uncommon for her full body tattoo to frighten people in
her culture. 30
29
Mieko Yamada, Japanese Tattooing from the Past to the Present. Online: www.tattoo.com.
30
Mieko Yamada, Japanese Tattooing from the Past to the Present, Online: www.tattoo.com
13
Native Americans used tattooing as a ceremonial rite of passage or for therapeutic
reasons. The Sioux believed that when a warrior died his spirit rode to the "Many Lodges"
of the afterlife. Along the way, the warrior is met by an old woman who demands to see his
tattoos. If the Indian warrior does not have a distinguishing tattoo, he would be turned away
and condemned to live among the living aimlessly as a ghost. The Ojibwa practiced
therapeutic tattooing. Tattoos were placed on the forehead, temples and cheeks to cure
headaches and toothaches. The tattooing ceremony was followed by ritual dancing and
singing to expel the evil spirits causing the headache or toothache. And according to Steve
Gilbert, Tattoo History, Native Americans used tattoos to show bravery and achievement in
battle. It was reported in the Jesuit Relations for 1663, that an Iroquois chief, known as
''Nero" by the French, had 60 tattoos on his thighs; each signifying an enemy he killed by his
own hands.
31
James C. Swan, a Boston native, left his family and prosperous ship-fitting business
to study the North American natives along the Pacific Coast. Swan was a self-made
anthropologist and the first to write a scholarly account of native tattooing in North America.
He wrote such books as Pacific Northwest, The Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte's Islands,
British Columbia,, and his personally financed "Tattoo Marks of the Haida". The Haida were
North American native artists and craftsman whose "totem poles, canoes, and dwellings were
embellished with traditional designs associated with mythical and totemic themes". Swan
respected the natives and wrote of their vanishing culture. Swan hoped "Tattoo Marks of the
Haida" would get him government grants for further studies of native tattooing, but the US
31
Steve Gilbert, Tattoo History: A Source Book, (Juno Books, 2000) 90. ISBN 1-890451-07-X
14
Government was "not interested in spending money to decipher the ancient meaning of tattoo
.
destgns.
, 32
Tattooing became popular among white Americans during the Civil War. Tattooing
was a form of bonding for many soldiers. Then in the 1830' s, natives and "freaks" displayed
their tattoos in circus tours across America. Between 1870' s to 1880' s, Prince Constantine
achieved international fame during his tour with the P.T. Barnum circus. Prince Constantine
had tattoos covering his entire body, including his eye lids and penis. 33 Prince Constantine
told varying stories of how he was captured, tortured and tattooed. One story Constantine
tells of selling arms to rebels and being captured by the Chinese Tartars when the rebels were
defeated. He was sentenced to " torture of tattooing" . In another story Constantine says
while helping the French to defeat the Chinese, he was captured, imprisoned and tattooed. 34
And yet another story says he was "married to a native princess, taken prisoner, suffered
torture by tattooing and escaped to travel throughout Asia and Africa" when in actuality he
was voluntarily tattooed while living in Burma so he could go into show business. 35
The first tattooed woman to perform in a circus was Norma Hildebrandt in 1882.
Norma said that her father, Martin Hildebrandt, was forced to tattoo her when she was
captured by Sitting Bull' s Indian warriors. This story later turned out to be untrue, but it
brought a lot of attention and curiosity seekers. Norma's father, a German immigrant, was
the first tattooist to open a professional tattoo parlor. Martin Hildebrandt tattooed circus
women, sailors, and both Confederates and Yankee soldiers during the Civil War. Irene
32
33
34
35
Ibid. pg. 137.
15
Woodward began appearing at the Bunnell's Museum shortly after Norma Hildebrandt and
bad a much longer and memorable career than her predecessor. Irene Woodward's tattoos
were engaging and artistic. Some of her tattoos included a sailor leaving home, the
goddesses of Hope and Liberty, and a floral necklace. 36 Tattooed women became very
popular in the circus.
At the turn ofthe twentieth century, tattooing became modernized. In 1891 Samuel
O'Reily invented the electric tattoo needle or "tattaugraph". O'Reilly's invention was
derived from Thomas Edison's autographic printing pen. The tattaugraph made between
2,000 and 3,000 pricks per minute. This was a vast improvement over the Japanese method
of90 to 120 hand-tapped prickings. The electric tattooing machine was less painful, quicker
and easier to use, and made tattooing more affordable to the working class with money.
During this period, Lew Alberts, a former wallpaper designer, started selling sheets of tattoo
patterns from his Chatham Square studio in New York, which could be used over and over
again by other tattoo artists. These sheets of tattoo designs are called tattoo flash art. 37
During the 1920's many male tattoo artists used their wives to display their artwork.
These wives were "walking advertisements" for their husband's work. During this time
cosmetic tattoos were popular. Woman had color tattooed on their cheeks, lips, brows and
liner on their eyes, but cosmetic tattooing was a short lived fad. During this time a few
women became apprenticed in the trade by their husbands. Located in seaport cities, these
36
Margot Mifflin, Bodies ofSubversion: A Secrety History of Women and Tattoo, (New York: Juno
Books, 1997), 11, 12.
37
L_
16
wives would bring in business from sailors who had not seen or been touched by a female in
a long time.
38
The first-known American woman tattooist was Maud Stevens Wagner. In 1904,
Maud met her future husband, Gus, at the St. Louis World's Fair. She agreed to date Gus
only if he would teach her how to tattoo. Gus Wagner, a former seaman, learned the trade
from English artist Albert South who it is said inked a Bengal tiger fighting a python on
Queen Victoria. In 1907 the organization The American Society for Keeping Woman in Her
Proper Place was formed, but this did not stop Maud Wagner from pursuing her hobby. 39
Maud Wagner's daughter, Lotteva, was tattooing by the age of nine. Both Maud and
Lotteva used the hand-poking method of tattooing as neither one could master the electric
tattoo needle. Unlike her mother, Lotteva had no tattoos on her body. Maude would not
allow her husband, Gus, to tattoo Lotteva. It was not until Gus died that Maude gave her
permission to Lotteva to be tattooed, but Lotteva said" ... if Papa couldn't do them like he
had done her, then nobody would." Lotteva's last tattoo was a rose she "hand poked" on
40
tattoo artist Don Ed Hardy in 1993. Lotteva died that same year at the age of eighty-three.
In the 1920's, at age fourteen, Anna Gibbons, a devout Baptist, left her home on a
farm in Wisconsip. and joined the circus. Anna's parents were poor and Anna wanted to see
the world. Anna knew she did not want to continue school, so when tattoo artist, Charles
Gibson, offered her a job with the circus as a tattooed woman, Anna took it. Anna's tattoos
were both religious and patriotic. Anna had the baby Jesus, Madonna, Botticelli's
Margot Mifflin, Bodies ofSubversion: A Secrety History of Women and Tattoo, (New York: Jun~
Books, 1997), 24.
38
39
Ibid. pg. 25-27.
40
Ibid. pg 27.
17
".Annunciation" and Michelangelo's "Holy Family" tattooed onto her porcelain skin. She
also had George Washington "nestled" between her breasts. Anna's stage name was Artoria
Gibbons and she was one of the first tattooed women to join the Ringling Brothers and
Barnum and Bailey Circus.
In 1927, Betty Broadbent, became the first televised beauty contestant with bared
tattoos. Although she knew she would not win, she did enjoy the free publicity. Betty
Broadbent was the most photographed and respected tattooed woman during that time. She
was soft spoken, but independent and smart. Betty Broadbent enjoyed a 40 year career with
Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey circus. 41
Pictura, Lady Viola, Princess Beatrice and Artfullete are just a few of the tattooed
women who made a decent living on the circus tour.42 During the Depression, these tattooed
individuals earned a good wage in the circus, but it was at this time that tattooing inherited a
negative connotation. Tattooed circus women became titillating and repulsive. Native
Americans, Maoris, and Marquesans, the first to exhibit their tattoos, were thought of as
"outsiders" by mainstream American. Now the sensational stories of"abductions and forced
tattoos" that surrounded tattooed people would caste them as "freaks". 43 Margo DeMello, an
authority on tattoos, defines "freaks" in two terms: "born freaks" and "made freaks." People
born with disfiguring diseases or disabilities or native people are "born freaks" and "made
freaks" are tattooed people).44 The emerging middle class began to associate tattoos with
41
Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A Secret History of Women and Tattoo, (New York, Juno
Books, 1997), 30. ISBN 1-890451-00-2
42
1bid. pg. 23.
43
Victoria Lautman, The New Tattoo, (New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 1994), 14
44
Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A Secret History of Women and Ta.ttoo, (New York: Juno
Books, 1997), 53. ISBN 1-890451-00-2,
18
criminals and loose morals, "freaks" and "outsiders." Tattoos soon became the "insignia of
"45
self-styled outcasts and outIaws .
After WWII, tattoos became associated with juvenile delinquents and bad boy bikers.
In the 1960's, only service men, rebels and criminals were getting tattoos. Tattooing went
underground and tattooists were guarded and didn't share their ideas or skills. They saw
their profession not as an art form but a trade that made them a decent income. Colors were
predominately red, green, yellow, and black. Flashes were of sailing ships, flags and eagles,
religious iconography and busty, barely clad women. A hepatitis outbreak in 1960 almost put
an end to tattooing. Sterilization machines made tattooing safer, but only the reputable tattoo
parlors used them until regulations were enforced.
46
Then in 1968, a tattoo renaissance began with the help of another key player, Norman
Keith "Sailor Jerry" Collins who is mainly responsible for renewing the interest in tattooing
in America. After WWII, the Japanese government made tattooing legal again, but most
"respectable" Japanese citizens still associated tattoos with criminals and saw tattoos as
deviant. Westerners, though, showed an interest in Japanese tattoos. American tattoos were
various tattoos put on various parts of the body. There was no unification or flow that
connected the ta~oos. The tattoos were scattered and placed haphazardly on the body.
American tattoos were also of poor quality whereas Japanese tattoos were elaborate and
picturesque. They told a story.and the body was used as a single canvas so the various
tattoos were thematic and connected in some way. Tattoo artist Sailor Jerry combined the
45
Victoria Lautman, The New Tattoo, (New York, Abbeville Press Publishers, 1994), 14.
46
Ibid. pg. 14
19
American style of tattooing with the Japanese style creating an art form that would be
etnulated by subsequent tattoo artists.
Sailor Jerry was a merchant marine during WWII and often tattooed at his ports of
calL During his travels to the East, Sailor Jerry developed an interest in Asian imagery and
Japanese irezumi. Jrezumi is the traditional Japanese tattoo that covers the whole body or a
large part of the body. The tattoo usually covers the back to below the buttocks and a section
of the arms. Sailor Terry was impressed by the colors, imagery and form used by Japanese
artists. In 1960, Sailor Jerry opened his last tattoo shop in Honolulu' s Chinatown. At this
time, Sailor Jerry developed a trade relationship with Japanese tattooist, Horihide (Kazuo
Oguri) and Hong Kong tattooist Pinky Yun, whereby he would exchange needles and
machines for designs and advice. During this time, Sailor Jerry also developed a close
relationship with Japanese tattoo artists, Horiyoshi II and Horisada. Ironically, according to
Margo de Mello, Sailor Jerry "never forgave the Japanese for attacking Pearl Harbor and for
what he saw as the economic take over of Hawaii (Hardy 1982c). In fact by his own
admission, Collins wanted to "beat them at their own game": to create an American style that
was based on ... the Japanese style of tattoo, yet one that reflected imagery from the United
States:·" - Although many American tattooists were doing large-scale pieces, Sailor Jerry was
the first to achieve a unified look as in Japanese tattoos. Collins did this by filling in
backgrounds with waves and clouds to create full body tattoos. Sailor Jerry's tattoos
reflected American history and pop culture with such designs as the Alamo, General Custer
at the Little Big Hom, and the Spirit of ' 76Y
47
Oriental lrezumi and Occidental Tattooing In Contemporary Japan - Histary. Alterasian.com.
2003 Online: http://208.55.77.56/alterasian/arttattooirezumi3 .html
20
During the late 1960's, there was a counter-cultural movement in the tattoo industry.
The Vietnam War and peace movement, the civil rights and Black Power movement, and the
women's liberation movement started a new rebellious period and many tattoo parlors had
flashes of peace and zodiac signs, marijuana leaves, mushrooms and other images of the
sixties. Lyle Tuttle opened his tattoo shop in San Francisco in 1957. Lyle is famous for
tattooing such celebrities as Janis Joplin, Cher, and Joan Baez. Lyle states that Janis Joplin
was the best advertisement for getting tattooed, but Lyle Tuttle was the best promoter for
tattooing at the time. He was comfortable and enjoyed talking to talk to the press. His shop
and tattooing were featured in Time and Life magazine. Lyle did more than any other
tattooist to promote and legitimize tattooing and was responsible to bringing tattooing into
the mainstream. Another important contribution Lyle made was in working with the
Department of Communicable Diseases to write new health regulations on tattooing in San
Francisco. Lyle' s sterilization techniques made tattooing safe and more acceptable to the
middle class population.48
Articles on tattoos were published in Rolling Stone, Time and Redbook. Hippies,
celebrities, and more women then before were getting tattoos. And this new generation of
tattooists saw themselves as artists. Many were art-school trained and saw the human body
as a living, moving canvas. In 1971, the Museum of American Folk Art in New York held
the first tattoo exhibit. 49
48
Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo community,(Durbam
and London, Duke University Press, 2000), 74-79.
49
L
Victoris Lautman, The New Tattoo, (New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 1994), 16.
21
An important group of tattoo artists influenced by Sailor Jerry Collins were Cliff
Raven, Don Ed Hardy, and Don Nolan. All three tattoo artists developed a close relationship
with Collins and were major contributors in transforming American tattooing into an art
form. Due to the Japanese influence, American tattoo designs were becoming more thematic
and unified. By the 1970's American tattoos were no longer connected to bikers, drunken
sailors, criminals or deviants, but were being accepted and applied to professionals and
mainstream America. Tattoos were now sophisticated and spiritual and had a broader appeal.
Don Ed Hardy was a graduate of the San Francisco Art Institute and, in 1974, was the first to
open an "appointment only" tattoo studio and offered only "one-of-a-kind original" tattoos
that were designed with collaboration with the client. 50 Don Ed Hardy has been a leading
figure in the avant-garde of the American tattoo renaissance. Don Ed Hardy curated the
exhibition, "Pierced Hearts and True Love", which was shown at The Drawing Center in
New York in September 1995 and traveled to several other museums. His work is
represented in the collections of The Honolulu Academy of Art, The Contemporary Museum,
Honolulu, The San Francisco Fine Arts Museum Achenbach Collection and the University of
Colorado Fine Art Galleries.5 1
lhe women's liberation movement, peace movement, and gay liberation movement
changed the face of flashes. The designs were more feminine and appealing to the middle
class clientele. Dolphins, butterflies, and ying/yang signs covered the flashes. Tattoos were
placed in more erotic places like the breast, ankle and shoulder. Middle class women found
50
Margot Mifflin, Bodies ofSubversion: A Secrety History of Women and Tattoo, (New York: Juno
Books, 1997), 74-77. ISBN 1-890451-00-2
51
Sharkskin.com 2003
22
the new design of tattoos more appealing and "with the apparent liberation of women's
bodies carne the liberation of middle-class bodies in general and with it carne a radical shift
in the nature and social practice of tattooing."
52
Female tattoo artists started emerging through this traditionally macho domain. In the
1970's Vyvyn Lazonga, now in Seattle; Suzanne Fauser of Ann Arbor, Michigan; Jamie
Summers, who died in 1983; Pat Fish of Santa Barbara, and Kandi Everett of Honolulu
started shifting tattoos from fashionable little rainbows, flowers and unicorns, to the larger,
fine-arts-related custom designs. 53
Today there is a new female clientele. Unlike the women in the late 1960's, women
today are getting tattoos not to be trendy or provocative, but are being tattooed for more
spiritual and empowering reasons. Women who are going through a life changing event,
such as a divorce, are using tattoos as a way to regain control over their bodies.54 Women
having mastectomies are choosing tattoos over cosmetic surgery as a way to empower them
towards "emotional healing and physical self-acceptance. 55 For some women a tattoo has a
more spiritual meaning. Spiritual in this context refers to the emotional feeling of being
connected to a loved one or with the world on a higher level than the physical aspect. For
example, Donna Gaine's mother was an optimist who believed everything is possible.
Nothing kept Donna's mother down. She rose, like a phoenix, after every fall. So after her
52
Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo community, (Durham
and London, Duke University Press, 2000), 75.
·
53
54
Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo community, (Durham
55
Amy Krakow, The Total Tattoo B ook, (New York: Warner Books Inc., 1994), 132.
23
death, Donna got a tattoo of a phoenix to represent the "immortality, resurrection, and the
6
spontaneous regeneration of spirit and body" that her mother's spirit so exemplified. 5
In summary, the women from 1920- 1940 who were getting tattoos, did so, to
survive a difficult economic time in America. During the 1950's tattoos became associated
with criminals, rebels and "freaks" and mainstream America was repulsed by people with
tattoos. Then in the late 1960's and early 1970's, the Vietnam War, the Black Power
movement, the women's liberation movement, and the sexual revolution brought about a
countercultural movement and during this time women used tattoos to express their sexual
freedom by getting tattoos of butterflies, flowers, or kittens strategically placed in
provocative areas such as the breast, shoulder or ankle. Other women got tattoos to express
their independence and to show they controlled what was put on their bodies. Still others
wanted to be fashionable and emulate their favorite stars, such as Janice Choplin or Cher.
During the mid 1970's, tattooist artists, such as Don Ed Hardy and Cliff Raven, who were
influenced by the Japanese aesthetics, brought tattooing to a new artistic level. It was during
this time that middle class America saw tattoos as "live art" and wanted tattoos that had
personal meaning.
-.Ta~~os are still popular today and the largest population getting tattoos are women
over the age of 40. Tattoo artist, Litos, has his own studio, Forbidden Images, in New Port
Richey. The majority, over 69 per cent, of his clientele are women over the age of 40.
Young women in their early 20' s are also getting tattoos, but their reasons for getting tattoos
are usually superficial. A tattoo is "cute" or "sexy" or "all their friends have tattoos."
Women over 40 are getting tattoos for reasons of "spirituality" or "empowerment". Thes.e
women want to express their spirituality or feel spiritually connected to someone or some
56
Amy Krakow, The Total Tattoo Book, (New York: Warner Books Inc., 1994), 70
24
idea. They want to feel empowered after a break-up or divorce or after surviving a life
threatening illness, such as breast cancer.
25
Women and Empowerment
Halfthe population getting tattoos today are women. 57 Most of these women are
upper middle class. 58 There are many reasons for women to get a tattoo: fad, act of rebellion,
art decoration, a way to express spirituality, or a way to show empowerment. This thesis will
focus on women over 40 who get tattoos to express their spirituality or to feel empowered.
The Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary defines empowerment as "promoting
self-actualization" and spirituality as the "quality or state ofbeing spiritual." One's
spirituality is how one feels connected to the universe and one's place or purpose on this
planet. During my research and interviews, I found women repeatedly asserted that their
spirituality was for them the equivalent of empowerment. Therefore, spirituality and
empowerment are terms that will be interchanged in this thesis.
Why would a woman, over the age of 40, need to express her spirituality? According
to the National Women's History Project, endorsed by National and State Organizations, the
number of women holding vocations, such as, bishop, priest, minister and rabbi, in religious
institutions is increasing.59 Yet for many women, religion is "another traditional site of
women' s oppression." 60 The role for most women in today's religious institutions is that of
"moral leaders ofthe family, expressing unconditional love and support for all." This is a
57
MCNBC Investigates: Tattooed Women (Documentary) 2001
58
Hoag Levins, "The Changing Cultural Status of Tattoo Art as Documented in Mainstream U.S.
Reference Works, Newspapers and Magazines." Online: http://tattooartist.com/history.btml 2003 ·
59
National Women's History Project, endorsed by National and State Organizations. Online:
http://www.legacy98.org/timeline.html 2003
60
1992), 4.
C. Margaret Hall, Women and Empowerment, (Washington: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation,
26
role that leaves many women feeling more oppressed than empowered. 61 In fa t
c , many
women feel disheartened with religious institutions and are turning to 'New A , .
ge behefs
"drawing on ancient concepts especially from Eastern and American Indian tr ct· .
a Ittons and
incorporating such theses as holism, concern for nature, spirituality, and meta h .
p
their search for finding or expressing their spirituality.
YSICS"
.
m
62
Women are not faring much better in the business world or on the dom .
esttc front.
Although women have made great strides since given the right to vote in 1923 h
• t ey do not
earn the same pay for the same job a man does, are denied membership to "all
,
male clubs
'
and still fight for control of their bodies.
In 1963, the Equal Pay Act, established equal pay for men and women p
t:
•
er1onrung the
same job duties, but it did not cover domestics, agricultural workers, executive
s,
administrators or professionals, which are the fields of employment held by wo
.
men, until
1972. The Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, established in 1964, bars employ
rnent
discrimination by private employers, employment agencies, and unions based
on race, sex,
and other grounds. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
Was
established to investigate complaints of discrimination and enforce penalties b t .
' u In 1965
Lyndon Johnson'~ Executive Order 11246 took the 1964 Civil Rights Act a ste furth
.
-··
---
P
·
required federal agencies and federal contractors to take "afflllllative action" m
employment discrimination.
Ibid pg. 12, 13.
62
Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary. IOtb ed., s.v. "new age"
63
.
overcorrung
63
61
er and
National Women's History Project, endorsed by National and State Organizati
.
ons. Onlme:
27
Today women are holding many powerful positions in government. A record number
ofwomen running for public office in 1992 won their elections making it "the Year of the
Woman" in politics. Twenty-four were elected to the House of Representatives and six to the
Senate. The women represented diverse cultures. They included the first Mexican-American
woman and the first Puerto Rican woman in the House, Lucille Roybal-alard (D-CA) and
Nydia Velazquez (D-NY), the first black woman Senator, Carole Moseley Braun, D-IL, and
both Senators for California, Barbara Boxer and Diane Feinstein, who are both Democrats.
Also, in 1992, women win all five of the gold medals won by Americans during the Winter
Olympics. 64
In 1993 "Take Our Daughters to Work Day" debuted. This program was designed to
build girls self-esteem and open their eyes to a variety of career possibilities for women.
And in 1993 The Family Medical Leave Act fmally went into effect. This act was vetoed by
President Bush, but was the first bill signed by President Clinton. Fifty states revised their
laws in prosecuting husbands for sexually assaulting their wives. With the increased number
of women members in government, the 103rd Congress passed into law thirty bills on
women's issues during its first year and 33 bills during its second year. The previous record
for any year was five. Women held a record number of positions in state as well as federal
government. Over 20% of state legislators were women. Positions women held at that time
were: 3 governors, 11 lieutenant governors, 8 attorneys general, 13 secretaries of state, 19
state treasurers, 6 women in the Senate, and 48 in the House of Representatives.
64
65
National Women's History Project, endorsed by National and State Organizations. Online:
65
Ibid.
28
Starting in 1994, the state of California gave all couples, applying for a marriage
license, information about domestic violence in the hopes to educate and prevent spouse
abuse. That same year, Congress adopted the Gender Equity in Education Act to train
teachers, promote math and science learning by girls, counsel pregnant teens, and prevent
sexual harassment. The Violence Against Women Act funded services for victims of rape
and domestic violence, allowed women to seek civil rights remedies for gender-related
crimes, provided training to increase police and court officials' sensitivity and started a
66
national 24-hour hotline for battered women.
The passage of title IX, which mandates equality in athletic programs in educational
institutions, gave more women the opportunity to participate in sports which resulted in the
U.S. women winning an amazing 19 gold, 10 silver, and 9 bronze medals during the 1996
Summer Olympics. And in 1997, elaborating on Title IX, the Supreme Court ruled that
college athletics programs must actively involve roughly equal numbers of men and women
to qualify for federal support strengthening the support and fairness for women in athletics
67
These are overwhelming statistics in the progress women have made over the
decades, yet discrimination still exist. For example, women are banned from membership in
the AugustaNati~nal Golf Club. The Augusta National Golf Club chair William "Hootie"
Johnson announced the club has no plans to change its all-men's membership.
68
Women still only eam.76 cents to each dollar a man earns for the same job.
. .
.
66 National Women's History Project, endorsed by National and 8
tate Orgaruzat10ns. Onlme:
. .
67 National Women's History Project, endorsed by National and Sta
te Orgamzat10ns. Online:
http://www.legacy98.org/timeline.htm1 2003
68 Kim Gandy, It 's Not About Golf: Feminists Blast Discrimin r
AprillO, 2003. Online: www.NOW.org. 2003
a ton at Home.of Masters Tournament.
29
The St. Petersburg Times reports women with college degrees are at a record high and
earning levels for women are also at a record high, still women are less likely to break the
glass ceiling and reach the highest salary bracket in their careers and are more likely to live
.mpoverty .69
Wal-mart has over 3,200 stores and employees 900,000 employees in the United
States. Nationwide, two-thirds of the low-paid "sales associates" are women, while twothirds of the management employees are men. Ninety percent of the store managers are also
men. The average "sales associate" earns $6.10 per hour with a "full time" work week of
only 28 hours- totaling less than $9,000 per year. 70
Many single working mothers are forced to either pay very high daycare costs or
leave their children in substandard day care facilities. Physical and sexual abuse is still high
and divorce often leaves women in serious financial distress. One out of every six American
women are victims of an attempted or completed rape in their lifetime. 71 Violence is the
leading cause for physical injury to women and women are twice as likely as men to become
victims of assault at work. 72
Tattooing will not solve the problems of abuse, poverty or discrimination that women
face, but on a personal level it can be a spiritual mechanism for individual empowerment. In
the following section, I will draw upon several key secondary sources to show how tattoos
69
"Women lag men in high-pay jobs." Associated Press, St. Petersburg Times, Business Section.
70
Gandy, Kim. Wal-Mart: Merchant of Shame. September, 2002. Online: www.NOW.org. 2003
71
Rape Abuse Incest National Network, www.rainn.org/counseling.htrnl 2003
032503.
72
Violence Against Women Online Resources. http://www.vaw.umn.edu, The Impact of Violence in
the Lives of Working women: Creating Solutions- Creating Change, Author: NOW Legal defense and
Education Fund, March 3, 2003. Online: http://www.nowldef.org/html/pub/pubs/CreatingSolutions.pdf
30
are used by women, over the age of forty, for personal and spiritual empowerment. Most
women over the age of 40 get their first tattoo after a life changing event such as a divorce,
illness, or the death of someone significant in their life. These women come from all walks
of life yet express their identity or empowerment through tattooing.
Anne Velliquette, a Ph.D. candidate and instructor of marketing at the University of
Arkansas, has studied the tattoo industry since 1997. Although her research is from a
marketing-consumer standpoint, she found the tattoo industry to be a diverse sub-culture
which included doctors, lawyers, teachers, and housewives. She writes, "Our society is so
fragmented and chaotic in this post-modem era .. .your body is the one thing you have
ultimate control over. Tattoos are a way of committing to something permanent and stable,
of recording who and what you are right now."
73
An example of how a tattoo can be a spiritual tool is shown by Akiko Busch, a
consulting editor for the design magazine Metropolis. Akiko has a small tattoo of a fan with
a tassel on her upper right shoulder. She describes her tattoo as a "delicate screen between
the self and the world, the graceful symbol of a shield- I could easily imagine being
accompanied through life by such an emblem". She continues, "The tattoo is the image as
witness. I have considered it a companion, an accomplice; a collaborator in my life ... this
tattoo of mine is a reminder of how an image can be a part of you."74
Author Margo DeMello found working and middle class women are "much more apt
to explain their tattoos in terms of healing, empowerment, or control" than their male
73
Anne Velliquette, Breaking the Tattoo Taboo: University ofArkansas Researcher Studies the
Symbolism ofSkin Art, VA News, Online:
http://www.advancement. uark.edulnews/N EWS ARCHIVES/tattoo.html
74
Akiko Busch, My decorated self, Print; Jan-Feb 1995, v49, nl, pll2{1).
31
counterparts. Margo DeMello states in her book, Bodies ofInscription, that no straight men
b'ave told her they acquired a tattoo as a means of gaining control over their life while
undergoing a crisis, but many women "show that is a powerful motivation for becoming
tattooed. For some women, that tattoo is an important step in reclaiming their bodies."
75
DeMello goes on to say that one of the most common dialogues for tattooing is
personal growth through self-help and empowerment. This brings a modern understanding to
tattooing for women. Female informants describe their tattoos in a deeply spiritual manner
and believe the tattoo actually heals them spiritually, emotionally, and physically. 76 One
young woman described her tattoo to DeMello as a panther and an orchid. The tattoo
represents to her a "quiet strength, beauty, seeming delicateness but the ability to last through
any trouble, a willingness to fight for what's important, protect what she's believes in, and a
match of two things that, while they don' t seem to go together, do so very well". 77
DeMello writes "the transformative power of the tattoo is especially
useful for individuals experiencing crisis in their lives. Women,
especially, speak of situations involving domestic abuse, the breakup
of primary relationships, or serious illness. These women see in their
tattoos the power to handle such crises" .
A university administrator, Elaine, described her dolphin tattoo to DeMello as
representing Treedom after a breakup. While Elaine's tattoo symbolizes freedom, another
woman interviewed by DeMello, states her tattoo gives her strength. Gail, a practitioner in
Wicca in her mid forties, was going through a bad time in her marriage and was plagued with
75
Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo communitY, (Durham
76
Marco DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history of the modern tattoo community, (Durham
77
Ibid.
32
illness. Gail was diagnosed with Hashimoto ' s Thyroiditis; a virus that causes the immune
system to think the thyroid is a foreign body and attacks it. The disease is treated with
hormones. Gail describes her Native American wolf tattoo as a shield. It represents strength
and has real power to her. She has the tattoo retooled when ever she feels weak. Gail' s tribal
tattoo is something her family would never approve. Getting this bold and black tattoo on
her thigh allowed Gail to "become herself." This was Gail's way to achieve personal
independence. 78
At the turn of the century, it was difficult for women to earn a living. Tattoos
allowed working class women, like Betty Broadbent and Artoria Gibbons, to earn a decent
income on their own terms. Tattoos gave these women fmancial independence. Today many
working class and middle class women get tattoos not for fmancial independence but
emotional and personal independence. For these women, a tattoo can be a transforming
event.
In an interview on an MSNBC documentary about women and tattoos, Pat Fish stated
men get tattoos for "allegiance" whereas women get tattoos to "claim their body as their
own." 79 - An example of how a tattoo can be a metamorphosing experience is Sylvia. Newly
divorc~d,
c?EJing out of a depression, and needing a sense of where she started and ended
apart from this other person she married, Sylvia decided to get a tattoo. She chose 46 year
old Pat Fish, one of the best c .eltic design tattoo artists in the United States. Until the end of
her marriage, Sylvia felt she was part of "two people" and had a partner all her life. Sylvia
wanted a bird tattooed on her shoulder to symbolize her new found freedom. Pat Fish
78
Marco DeMello, Bodies of Inscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo community, (Durham
79
33
wanted the tattoo and Sylvia to "become one" so Pat went to the National History Museum to
study bird skins until she found an owl wing that fit across Sylvia's shoulder and upper arm.
The face ofthe owl is in the center of Sylvia's back and the wings go across Sylvia's
shoulders and down her upper arms, so that when Sylvia lifts her arms up the owl gives the
appearance ofbeing "in flight". Sylvia feels she has become part of the owl. The owl tattoo
has empowered her to be comfortable in her own skin and singleness.
80
Another example of how a tattoo can be an expression of personal independence or
autonomy is Deb Parker. Deb Parker is a 41 year old bar owner who has tattoos all over her
body. Although Deb may look like someone who has had a rough life nothing could be
further from the truth. Deb proclaims her life is great. She had a wonderful childhood,
loving parents and was never abused, but she does feel nothing in her life lasts. The liquor in
her bar has a shelf life of three years and her boyfriends usually last one year. Tattoos, on the
other hand, are permanent. Tattooing gives Deb a sense of stability. As she decorates her
body with tattoos, the more she likes her body. The more she likes her body, the higher her
self-esteem rises. The tattoos give her "pride" -they tell her story and with each new tattoo
she feels more "empowered". Deb's life is a "constant" evolution - it keeps going and her
her never end'mg story. 81
.
t attoos contmue
.
- .-
--
"After a certain number of years," writes Cynthia Ozick, "our faces become our
biographies."82 Although Ozi.c k is referring to wrinkles on a woman's face as she ages, the
same can be said of Deb' s tattoos. Each tattoo telling a new story and another chapter in
80
MSNBC Investigates:Tattooed Women (Documentary) 2001
81
MSNBC Investigates: Tattooed Women (Docementary) 2001
82
Letty Cottin Pogrebin, Getting Over Getting Older, An Intimate Journey, (Boston: Bittle, Brown and
Company, 1996), 134.
34
Deb's life. As the wrinkles in our face continue to grow and become another life line, Deb's
tattoos continue to grow with each new event in her life leaving a permanent history on her
skin.
Another component in being empowered is overcoming grief and healing
emotionally. A second source I am using is Madame Chinchilla. Tattoo artist, Madame
Chinchilla, author of Stewed, Screwed & Tattooed, writes about women who have used
tattoos to help endure the traumas life has dealt them. An "In Memory" tattoo is a tattoo that
reminds the bearer of a lost loved one. It is a way of keeping that loved one's memory alive.
For example, Forever in My Heart, In Memory ofDad, and Do Not Fade Away are common
"In Memory" inscriptions. When Madam Chinchilla's close friend, Lynne Butler's son,
Brian, died, Madam Chinchilla tattooed an "In Memory" tattoo of a cherry blossom laced
with Brian's ashes around his mother Lynn's umbilicus. The cherry blossom signifies the
fragility of life, dating back to the Samurais who had cherry blossoms tattooed on their
bodies as a symbol of their reverence for life. Several of Brian's friends also had "In
Memory" cherry blossoms tattoos. Another client of Madam Chinchilla's, Annie, went a
step further when her father passed away. Annie had her father's ashes mixed with colored
pigments apd had Madam Chinchilla tattoo a lotus and bamboo on her back. 83
Two powerful examples of the spirituality a tattoo can hold are shown in the
following excerpts from Stewed, Screwed and Tattooed, in the chapter In Memory Tattoos:
We Named Her Rose.
"My tattoo screams through decades of pain. It feels like a completion of ·
someone who was never allowed to grow. It is my memorial, created out of
respect, to all those people who survived or perished in Auschwitz" - Carol 1995
83
Madame Chinchilla, Stewed, Screwed & Tattooed, (Mendocino: Isadore Press, 1997), 67.
35
"Without hesitation, I decided to have Chinchilla tattoo a tiny "Z" on my left
shoulder, in memory of my unknown gypsy relatives who died in Auschwitz.
All the gypsies were tattooed with a "Z" preceding their number (which stands
for zigeuner which is German for gypsy). As she marked the letter in traditional
blue ink, I thought about the pink triangles for gay men, black triangles for
lesbians, yellow Stars of David for the Jews and the gypsies playing violin music
in the camps .. ."- Francis Vavra 1995
Madam Chinchilla, like her friends and clients, Carol and Francis, also has an "In
Memory" tattoo on her left arm. This is an example of how a tattoo can be used as a coping
mechanism for grief. Madam Chinchilla's tattoo is the numbers 79496. These are the
numbers that were tattooed on a baby girl born in Birkenau on May 16, 1944. Madam
Chinchilla received a copy of a diary of a tattooist who was at Auschwitz for two weeks in
1944. It was a contribution from the curator of the Museum of Tolerance from the Simon
Weisenthal Center for Jewish Studies in Los Angeles for an exhibit at the Tattoo History
Museum on Tattoos Without Consent. The baby girl was not given a name. She was
exterminated right after her birth. Madam Chinchilla writes,
"Carol and I have chosen to wear the tattoo of her number, carrying
with us- under our skins- her memory. This child shared the same
birthday as Carol and the same religion as us both. On the day I
tattooed the numbers 79496 on Carol, as part of the ritual I handed
her a fresl;l red rose from my rooftop garden to hold. Before the
-tattoo·needles pierced her skin, she said to me, 'Wait! Let's give this
baby girl a name." I looked at her and at the lovely red rose and said,
'Let's call her Rose.' This young baby could have been me. I consider
her my sister ... The numbers are still on the arms of the Holocaust
survivors. Carol and·I have this tattoo in memory of that baby girl
born on May 16, 1944 and in memory of all the Jewish people who
perished in WWII. " 84
84
Madame ChinchilJa, Stewed, Screwed & Tattooed, (Mendocino: Isadore Pr.ess, 1997), 66, 67.
36
Madame Chinchilla explains that women who lose a breast from cancer also go
through a grieving process. The following women used tattoos not only as a coping
mechanism for grieving, but also as a tool to regain the essence of their being. For example,
Linda Marie mourned the loss of her breast after a mastectomy. She was proud of her breasts
but years after Linda Marie's surgery her depression over the loss of her breast grew. Then a
close friend showed Linda a photograph of a woman who also had a breast removed and had
a rose tattooed on her body where her breast had been. The rose covered the scar from the
woman's surgery. With encouragement from her friend, Linda designed her own tattoo - a
large fern similar to the Red Foxtail with a sea horse resting on an upper branch and a
tropical damselfish swimming through the lower branches. Linda cannot explain why or how
this tattoo makes her feel whole again, just that it does and now she is happy and eager to
enjoy life. 85
Another cancer survivor, Shawn Sierra Frizzell, In Celebration of a Scar, who chose
a tattoo rather than reconstructive surgery writes, "With this tattoo I stepped through another
doorway in my life .. . a ceremony of transformation ... a circle of healing."
A study in the Journal of Genetic Psychology found that older women do not base
their i~_eal b<:dy image on how attractive men find them. 86 Women over the age of 40 have
learned that men have a wide range of tastes. Life experience has taught the mature woman
to be more realistic about her ~ody image and not fall into the media or cultural ideal of
having the perfectly proportioned and thin body. The same seems to hold true for women
over 40 who are getting their first tattoo. By the time a woman has reached the age· of 40 she
85
86
Madame Chinchilla, Stewed, Screwed & Tattooed, (Mendocino: Isadore Press, 1997), 34.
The Journal of Genetic Psychology v. 159 (Mar. 1998) p. 94-102 ISSN: 0022-1325 Full text source:
WilsonSelectPlus
37
]cnows whether she wants a tattoo or not and does not let society dictate whether having a
tattoo is adding or taking away from her beauty. In extreme cases, such as mastectomies,
tattoos have redefined the definition of beauty and body image.
"My choice was not to have reconstruction after surgery because I didn't
want to pretend that my cancer hadn't happened. I'm a person who needs
large reminders. The cancer has brought so many blessings to my life, the
biggest is the perspective that each day is so precious.
My girlfriend designed my tattoo, it's a redwood branch with an eagle's
feather and a small abalone shell hanging from it. The eagle feather is
a sacred healing symbol for native Americans, and I feel birds are my
connection to the natural world. The abalone shell brings the water
element and is a symbol of the feminine. North Coast Native American
girls had the ceremony for coming of age where their mothers would
hold up an abalone shell and the girl was suppose to jump up and see the
reflection of the woman no longer a girl.
I feel Redwoods are my guardian. I think of them as the Elders, a being
that has been around for a couple thousand of years, and of the same roots
of the trees who had been around for thousands of years before that! Their
name is Sequoia or Sempervirens, which means always living. I use the
visualization of myself inside a Redwood Circle and have had many
ceremonies inside redwood circles. To me they are Mother Earth and
I will always be proud to have her on my heart." Pam Huntley, breast cancer
survivor, In Celebration ofa Scar. 87
87
In Celebration of a Scar. Online: http://www.triangletattoo.com/women.htm
38
Marcia Rasner and Pam Huntley, In Celebration of a Scar
Marcia Rasner, In Celebration of a Scar, also writes " Getting my tattoo was the
cummulination of a three year dance with Breast Cancer. The tattoo changed my mastectomy
scar into my shield."
What can make a person feel more empowered than to take control not only of his or
her life, but his or her own death. In 1997, seventy-one year old Marian Haglund Juhl, wrote
an article in an October issue of Newsweek, about getting a tattoo stating "DO NOT
RESUSCITATE." She wants her " last wish to be clearly visible so it will be honored by the
doctor-who treats me." Marian Juhl is a fiercely independent woman who is healthy, but
skeptical that the legal and medical communities will not recognize her fight to refuse
extreme measures to be kept-alive and not wanting to burden her family with the decision,
Marian Juhl' s solution is to get a tattoo stating her wishes. 88
88
Marian Haglund Juhl, A Tattoo in time: I want my last wish to be clearly visible so it will be honored
by the doctor who treats me. Newsweek, Oct 13, 1997, vl30, nl5, pl9(1).
L_
39
It is clear that women today get tattoos for various reasons and the renewed
opularity and acceptance of tattoos for women make it more socially acceptable · In recent
P
decades tattoos were seen as acts of rebellion, but today tattoos have moved from the
backstreet denizens to clinically sterile, art-like studios and have taken on a more spmtual
..
connotation. Women in their 20's and 30's may get tattoos to make a fashion statementorto
be provocative, but for most women in their 40's and SO' s, who are from a generat·1on where
tattoos were not socially acceptable, tattooing can take on a deeper meaning.s9
89
Dale Durfee, Tattoo, St. Martin's Griffm, New York, 2000. pg. 8.
40
Why Women Over 40 Get Tattoos
In recent decades, more and more people in the West have been seeking
out some stability, permanence and spiritual depth, leading to increasing
respect for all kinds of so-called 'New Age' beliefs and practices and for
the lifestyles of all traditional peoples the world over. Marry this search
for permanence with the age-old desire for adornment and the very modern
desire for unique forms of personal creative expression and ... you have
the tattoo (Durfee).
When a woman reaches her forties, she enters into what Gail Sheehy, author of New
Passages, calls the "second adulthood". It is during this period in a woman's life that she
begins to focus on herself and becoming her "own person." It is at this time, that the children
have grown and perhaps left the nest and/or career goals have been met. This is a time when
women begin to look at themselves, re-evaluate their lives, and either accept who they are or
make a change. This can be a drastic change, such as a divorce, or a more subtle change,
such as a new look. At age 40, many women find a new confidence. They no longer feel the
need to please or live by the standards of others, such as their parents, husband, or friends.
The 40's and 50's can become the age of optimism and self-actualization. This is when some
women turn to tattooing as a means of self-expression.
In this section, I discuss personal interviews conducted with women over forty about
their reasons for getting tattoos. My informants are friends, neighbors, and women I have
met during my research on this topic. These women have very different life histories, yet all
turned to tattooing as an expression of independence and/or empowerment. Mary was a
housewife and mother, but is now divorced and working. Cookie is fiercely independent and
spiritual. Arie is soften-spoken and shy, while Dee is energetic and creative. Ann; also
creative, is modest. Tina is beautiful and thoughtful. Most of these women wanted tattoos to
become empowered while others have tattoos to show they are empowered.
41
My Liberation
"One can argue that women, through marking their bodies with tattoos
and through the narratives that they construct about them, are working
to erase the oppressive marks of a patriarchal society and to replace them
with marks of their own choosing." Margo DeMello, Bodies ofInscription:
A cultural history of the modern tattoo community.
My first informant is Mary, a 57 year old receptionist, who works for a plumbing
company. She is soft spoken and dresses very conservatively. Mary has a quiet, almost shy
demeanor. Like a lot of women from her generation, Mary went from living with her parents
to living with a husband. Mary never lived independent of anyone. Mary comes from a
middle class family with conventional beliefs that a woman marries, raises her children and
serves her husband. Mary's marriage was not a happy one, but she knew her parents would
not approve of her being divorced, so she decided to wait until the children were grown.
When Mary's children grew up and Mary could not bear her husband's infidelity anymore,
she filed for a divorce after 28 years of marriage. Mary, on her own for the first time in her
life, decided to commemorate the beginning of her newly acquired independence by getting a
tattoo of a rose on her hip. She calls her tattoo, "My liberation." Mary has always been the
"good" girl. She did not disappoint her parents or family. She did what was expected of her.
She always put h~r parents, husband, and children first. After Mary's divorce she found a
new sense of self. She became stronger and surer of herself. Getting a tattoo is something
Mary did for herself and, by Mary's standards, it is something daring. Mary does not make a
point of telling people she has a tattoo so very few people know about it. To this day, Mary's
parents and ex-husband do not know about her tattoo. It is not out of shame that Mary keeps
her tattoo a secret, but because, as Mary states, she feels "empowered that she controls over
who knows about her tattoo." There is a kind of guilty pleasure in knowing that people see
42
Mary as a quiet, reserved person and no one would suspect she has this unconventional side
to her. Mary feels a sense of power knowing that her ex-husband will never know or see
what a bold act she could perform.
Another tattoo artist, Ruth Martin, writes:
"One of my clients, a recently divorced woman, came to me and said, "I want
a mark on my body that my ex-husband had never seen." And so, with that
tattoo, she gets a new sense ofherself." (excerpt from The Total Tattoo Book)
Six years after getting her first tattoo, Mary and her daughter decided to get tattoos
together. They each got a tattoo of a butterfly. The same tattoo design in the same location.
This second tattoo had a more spiritual meaning for Mary because unlike her first tattoo
which was a liberating experience, this tattoo was a bonding event between Mary and her
daughter. The tattoo that Mary and her daughter got together reflects Amy Krakow's belief
that a tattoo is a new found communal rite in today's society. The act of Mary' s second
tattoo reflects this ritual and the bonding experience with her daughter. This event is a
spiritual and physical way of showing their independence and unity.
We're All One
"Tattoos are an art form both spiritual and secular. Cultural anthropologists
believe that tattoos actually serve society by bringing ritual to cultures that
lack communal rites. That's just one of the reasons why tattooing is so
popular in America to.day. Our culture suffers from a decided lack of traditions,
combined with a latent desire for both spiritual and secular rites that bind people
to each other or to a larger group." Amy Krakow, The Tattoo Book
My next informant, Cookie, is a tall, slender woman with soft red hair. She is
compassionate, full of energy and fiercely independent. She has always supported herself
and has owned her own business for the last 25 years. Cookie personifies C. Margaret Hall's
43
definition of an empowered woman. C. Margaret Hall, author of Women and Empowerment
'
defines empowered women as women who defme their "attitudes, values, and behavior in
relation to their own real interests." These women ''use their talents to live fulfilling lives."
Empowered women and do not see themselves as inferior or superior to men, but as their
° Cookie uses her talent to live a fulfilling life, has a strong sense of self-worth' does
equals.9
not compromise her values, and is a benevolent person. Cookie is someone who did not get a
tattoo to feel empowered, but to express her spirituality.
Cookie got her first tattoo when she turned 40. She was riding across the country on
a motorcycle trip with her then boyfriend, John. While in Tyler, TX, Cookie and John
decided to get a tattoo. They chose a blue feather taken from the cover of their favorite book,
Richard Bach's illusion 's. This book has a spiritual meaning to Cookie. She describes the
book as inspirational and full of hope. Cookie felt that the book was saying that we define
our reality and can create our own happiness if we just have the courage to do so. Cookie's
blue feather is a reminder of the lessons she's learned in fllusion 's. She feels that your
.
become your reality. 9l
perceptwns
Cookie and John married and in 1989 they decided to sell their businesses and
traveled across the country on their bikes. This was when Cookie decided to get her second
I
I
I
tattoo. Both Cookie and John got a tattoo of an epsilon over their blue feather. The epsilon
was taken from the cover o_fRichard Bach's novel One and is the symbol for eternity. "We
are all connected, one entity," says Cookie as she describes the tattoo. This tattoo is a
reminder that she is connected to the world. She is not alone. The two tattoos together look
like one.
90
C. Margaret Hall, Women and Empowerment, (Washington: Hemispher~ Publishing Corpor r
a ton,
1992), 117.
4<1.
Cookie has since added two more tattoos. Her tattoos are like art that she can take
with her where ever she goes. They are always beautiful. They make her feel happy and
connected to this wonderful universe.
It's Permanent
"Tattooing begins as a personal means of self-expression and self-identificaf
marking of the body is often the human being's first expression of the awareness of Ion.· ·1'1)~
individuality." Spider Webb, Heavily Tattooed Men and Women.
~le in Forbidden Images tattoo salon in New Port Richey, I met, my third
informant, a lovely woman I will call Arie. She is a slender, soft spoken woman With a
beautiful Indian accent. Arie was getting her first tattoo. Her husband and children did
nat
believe she would actually do it, but as long as she could remember Aire wanted a tattoo.
l
Arie had always used Henna, which is a brownish-red ink that is put on a person's h d
an sat
feet. The henna usually fades in a few weeks. Arie wanted something permanent·
'sometJ...·
.
'4~
that would not fade. She decided to get a row of cascadmg hearts and has her husband
g
al:lcJ
children' s names put in the center of each heart. This would be a permanent symbol f
0 h~t
constant love for her husband and children. Although her husband and children did not
believe that Arie would get a tattoo, she felt confident that they would be pleased wh
I
l
)
r
en tl)_
saw it. This was a momentous occasion for Arie for she was fmally doing somethin
-
--
g Sh~
-
always wanted to do. It is a step towards "self fulfillment and personal creativity.,
~y
This
permanent ink on Aries' s~ ~ymbolizes her permanent, never changing love for her
husband and children. It is a constant reminder to her and to her family of her co
.
tnmitllJ.
~tlt
and love to them. This tattoo has created a spiritual bond between Aire and her famil
are always with her. Arie hopes that when her husband and children see her tatt h Y. "!bey
oo t e,,
J
know how special they are to her.
91
Richard Bach, Illusions - The Adventures ofa Reluctant Messiah, Dell Publishing
,
1977
"'in
· Pg 'oa
45
Being Unique
"To some extent, most of my informants emphasized in their narratives
the individuality of their tattoos and how this was connected to their own
personal uniqueness. This comes across in a number of ways, although
the simplest is by staring that the tattoo was custom designed rather than
taken from flash. The wearer of a custom tattoo - which is more expensive
than a piece of flash, involves more forethought and planning, and requires
a tattooist with the artistic skills to do custom work - is very proud that his
or her tattoo is unique, and he or she will always point that fact out." Margo
DeMello, Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo
community
Ann, my fourth informant, is a tall, slender brunette with long, curly dark hair. Born
in Columbus, Ohio, in 1955, she grew up on a six acre farm with her parents, two sisters, a
half-sister, and a brother. Ann's childhood reads like a chapter out of a Norman Rockwell
painting. Her mother stayed home while her father worked. Ann and her siblings enjoyed a
carefree and playful childhood.
Ann married and left home at the age of 17. The marriage quickly turned sour and
Ann found herself unhappy and with a child. She eventually divorced her husband and raised
her son by herself. It was a difficult time and Ann lived from paycheck to paycheck. Ann
has since remarried, is happy now, and lives in Florida.
Ann never thought of getting a tattoo when she was younger. Ann's father has a
tattoo,-hut iCwas something Ann never considered until recently. Ann's new husband, Bob,
decided to get a tattoo by tattoo artist, Litos, at Forbidden Images in New Port Richey. Ann
went with her husband to the tattoo parlor and was so impressed by the work she saw that she
decided to get a tattoo, also. Ann gave a lot of thought to the tattoo she wanted inked onto
her body. She wanted a tattoo that would be unique and have a special meaning to her. Ann
has two Ragdoll cats; a male named Rocky and female named Lilly Bell. Ann loves
46
butterflies and flowers and decided to have a tattoo of her cat Lilly Bell's face. Lilly Bell's
ears tum into the wings of a butterfly and hugging Lilly Bell's chin are colorful flowers.
I was with Ann when she got her tattoo. By the time I got to the tattoo parlor, Litos
had started the tattoo. I was amazed by the process. Litos took this white, porcelain skin and
inked a piece of art onto it. It was like watching an artist taking a blank canvas and painting
a landscape on it, only this canvas was a living being.
Ann feels that Litos has taken the "precious, sweet face" of Lilly Bell and turned it
into a "work of art." When Ann leaves for work in the mornings and says good-bye to her
cats, she feels that with this tattoo, she is "taking a piece of Lilly Bell" with her. A tattoo
gives Ann a way to stay connected to her beloved pet.
When asked what a tattoo means to her, Ann replied, "A tattoo makes you unique. It
expresses your individuality by what design you choose to put on it." For Ann, her tattoo
serves two purposes; one spiritual - to keep her connected to her cherished pet Lilly Bell and,
second reflecting empowerment - showing her uniqueness.
47
Creative Individuality
"Another way that middle-class people in particular explain their tattoos
is by emphasizing how sacred their bodies are- they would not dream of
putting just any design on them. Additionally, some people emphasized
that their tattoos are a way to care about their bodies." Margo DeMello,
Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo community.
Dee, my next informant, has an amazing history. In 1950, at the age of3, Dee' s
Serbian parents left Germany with her and her two year old brother. They came to America
on a boat full of Jewish families going to New Orleans to settle. Dee's family was sponsored
by the Serbian Church in Milwaukee. It was the only way they could come to America.
This country was not her parents' first choice, but Australia, Argentina and South America
would not take refugees with small children. The island of Haiti wanted refugees to help
rebuild their country, but Dee' s father became ill with TB and they were not allowed in Haiti.
America became Dee' s home. Her family got their citizenship papers as soon as they were
allowed. They knew very little English, but honed the language by going to the movies and
getting books on the English language. They lived in a close knit Serbian community.
Several families lived together in the same house. Dee' s parents worked hard and saved their
money until they were able to buy their own home. They never rented again. Dee' s father
went to night sch_ool and did his homework at the dining room table with his children. Dee' s
father got his real estate license. He left his factory job and opened his own real estate office.
From this struggling, hard working couple came a beautiful, vivacious daughter named Dee.
Dee, is a petite, flamboyant, bundle of energy. She is like a bumble bee, moving and
chatting constantly. When she talks it is a constant stream of words and she rarely stops for
air. Her radiant red hair contrasts against her deep olive complexion. She dresses in lively,
bright colors. Dee's house is an extension of her persona; welcoming and energetic. The
48
exterior of Dee's house is teal green with a pastel pink trim. The interior is soft jade with a
·"Miami- South Beach" decor. Palm trees and pink flamingos are accentuated throughout the
house's interior and exterior. The description conjures up a vision of tackiness, but nothing
could be further from the truth. Dee is one of those rare individuals who can put all these
contrasting, vibrant colors together and make it look stylish. I look at Dee and see a creative
spirit; someone who stands out in a crowd. It is no surprise to me that Dee is looking for a
tattoo "artist" who can tattoo a brilliant pink flamingo on her shoulder or hip. This colorful,
gregarious creature mirrors Dee's personality. Dee wants her tattoo to be a conversation
piece; "wearable art". She wants a tattoo that is small, but eye-catching. Although tattoos
are becoming more common place now, Dee wants her tattoo to reflect her uniqueness.
When asked if she always wanted a tattoo, Dee response is, "Yes, but my parents
were very strict and would never allow it." Dee's father is now deceased, but Dee has no
doubts that her mother will think she is crazy for getting a tattoo. On the other hand, Dee's
husband and children will not be the least bit surprised. They accept and enjoy their
mother' s extroverted behavior. Life with Dee is a constant adventure.
On the matter of tattoos, Dee is happy she waited. Dee believes if she got her tattoo
when..she w..as younger she would have regretted it. Dee sums it up by saying,
"Young people tend to get tattoos impulsively and don't give a lot of
thought to it, so later they regret it. They haven't really lived yet, so
they haven't done a lqt soul searching. I have a lot of life experience.
I know myself, so what I choose will reflect me - my inner self. A
younger person is more likely to get something that they feel everyone
else will like. It's not personal."
Thinking like an artist, Dee focuses on the aesthetic appeal of a tattoo. It must accent
your appearance. You must be and stay healthy for your tattoo to look good. And finally, it
must fit your personality. Dee is confident and outspoken. She enjoy~ the limelight. A
49
tattoo would not empower Dee nor have any "spiritual" meaning to her. A tattoo would be a
physical enhancement and tool to invite lively conversation.
The Confidence Factor
"The pain? It's very embraceable pain. It's odd. It feels like you' re being
scratched by a cat while you' re being massaged by magic fmgers. The area
that's being worked on is hot. Add that to the vibrations of the machine and
the pain is transformed into a strange, sexual sensation." Amy Krakow, The
Total Tattoo Book
The following informant is Tina. Tina has long, auburn hair and striking green eyes.
Her slim, statuesque frame draws the attention of both men and women. She is 41 years old
and stunningly beautiful. Tina works for BIC Graphic USA in Customer Service department.
The company imprints pens and lighters. Tina grew up in Cleveland, Ohio, with her four
brothers and twin sister.
Being a sun worshiper, Tina moved to Florida so she could soak
up the solar rays.
Tina's tattoo is celestial. It is a sun with a moon and stars shaped into a face. The
tattoo is on Tina' s lower back just above her backside. Tina did not always want a tattoo.
The desire for a tattoo started just a few years ago. Initially, the thought of getting a tattoo
was frightening. Tina feared a very painful experience, but found the pain wasn't that bad.
She recalls~ "It was like a needle prick."
Another fear Tina had was how people would react to her tattoo. Tina explains that
when she was younger she was too concerned about what other people would think of her if
she got a tattoo. She feared people would think she was not a nice person. Tina further
explains, "People have a certain (negative) opinion of tattoos and the people who have them.
I didn't want people thinking I was wild or some kind of low-life." As Tina matures, she is
50
becoming more comfortable with who she is. She is no longer concerned about what other
people think. Having conquered that fear, getting the tattoo was easy.
The reaction from Tina' s friends and co-workers is very positive. In fact, several of
Tina's friends have followed suit and now have their own tattoos. The biggest surprise,
though, came from Tina's 74 year old mother. Tina's mother is from the "old school" and
"good" girls do not get tattoos. Contrary to what Tina contemplated, her mother loved the
tattoo. Tina does not regret having this "artwork" permanently inked into her skin. In fact,
she recommends it and has encouraged several of her friends to get one. Tina shows off her
tattoo like it is a new piece of beautiful jewelry. Tina adds, "It' s a piece of living artwork on
your skin."
When asked if having a tattoo has changed the way Tina sees herself, Tina replies,
" Yes, I do feel different about myself. For some reason I have more confidence. I can't
quite explain it. I just do." Tina believes that overcoming her fear of the pain and what
others would think about her tattoo is what boosted her confidence.
51
Conclusion
Growing up I viewed people with tattoos as anti-social members of our society; the
rebels, criminals, misfits. Women with tattoos were society's outcasts. Even in the 1980's
when tattoos became "cute" and "fashionable" for women, I couldn't understand why a
woman would want to permanently mark her body in this way. Then a strange thing
happened. I reached my mid 40's and found myself being drawn to tattoos and it was the
very thing that repulsed me about tattoos that now drew them to me; they were permanent. I
began to think about what changed my attitude about tattoos.
My mother and husband died within a year of each other. Next to my children, these
were the two most important people in my life. Although, neither one added any stability to
my life. My mother had her own demons to fight and her emotional needs were the priority
in my life. We moved constantly. I never knew from one day to the next where I was going
to live or with whom. I lived with my mother sometimes, with relatives sometimes, and with
strangers other times. I learned to be flexible, but I craved stability. I wanted the house with
the notches in the doorway that showed how much the children had grown each year. I love
adventure, but I also love roots- permanence. I did not find this in my marriage, either.
__My_husband was a construction manager with a large commercial industry. We
moved constantly from state to state and back again. My husband knew how to build houses,
so when we did live in one st~te for any length of time he built houses. Therefore, when we
weren't moving from state to state, we were moving from house to house. Each move
became harder for me. Each move began to chip away at my spirit. I longed for stability and
permanence.
52
After my husband died, I developed an interest in tattoos. This thing that I found so
repulsive, I was now fascinated with. I began to think about the kind of tattoo I would get
and what it would mean. It could not be any ordinary, run of the mill tattoo. No flashestiny butterflies or cute Daisies. I do not want what everyone else is wearing. It will be
unique to me. It will symbolize my heritage and my strength. It will reflect me. After all,
this tattoo will be permanent. It is never going to leave me unless I choose to have it
removed. I control the fate of my tattoo. Every time I look at my tattoo I will be empowered
by the knowledge that this tattoo represents my roots and my determination to be in control
of my life.
In my quest to fmd the perfect tattoo, I discovered other women, in their 40's and
older, were also getting tattoos. I wanted to know if these women were getting tattoos for the
same, or similar, reasons I wanted one. In my research through articles, journals,
documentaries, and personal interviews I found many women over the age of 40 are getting
tattoos for reasons of empowerment and/or for spiritual reasons. These are women who
have been through the trenches and have survived the battle scars that life has thrown their
way. Many women over 40 are beginning to discover the essence of their being. After 40,
and e~pecia.Jly after 50, women have reached what Gail Sheeley, author of Passages, calls the
"second adulthood." These are women who have come to terms with their failures and/or
weaknesses and are empowe~ed by the knowledge that they are survivors. These women
have come to an age of self acceptance.
Something wonderful happens to some women when they tum 40. It is like a new
door has opened and these women step through the door, let go of the past and embrace the
future. Some of these women can forgive those who disappointed or hurt them. Others can
53
forgive themselves for their own shortcomings or failures. And still others have found a new
found freedom that comes with self-acceptance and the creativity to express it.
Reaching 40 can be like a rite a passage and some women may choose to mark the
occasion with a tattoo. These women are confident and are not concerned if others find their
tattoos repulsive or deviant. Psychology researchers state that women loose their femininity
at the age of 40 and older. Feminine in psychological terms is defined as submissive and
passive. Women may loose their femininity by psychology definition, but the women I
interviewed have gained independency and empowerment. Contrary to psychology studies, a
psychologist recently asked my best friend' s 73 year old mother if she ever thought of getting
a tattoo. The psychologist said, "Think about it. Getting a tattoo can be a very liberating
.
"
expenence.
History has always viewed women as social animals. Women do things in groups.
Women gather together at sewing bees, quilting groups, Bunco games, lunches, and talk
about husbands, boyfriends, children, work, and life events. The women I interviewed and
researched did not get a tattoo as a group event. This was something done independently.
The act of getting the tattoo was solely personal. And that alone, for a woman, is
empowering.
-·
In my interviews, Tina states that her tattoo gives her confidence. Dee's tattoo will
.
express her artistic individual~ty in an open arena. Ann's tattoo shows her uniqueness; where
as Cookie's tattoo represents her spirituality and connectedness to the universe. Aries' tattoo
is a symbol of permanence and Mary's tattoo symbolizes her liberation. If empowerment
means self-actualization, then the women in these interviews demonstrate how a tattoo can
make a women feel empowered and/or spiritually connected. Although their reasons for
54
getting tattoos were varied - independence, freedom of expression, confidence, and
spirituality- these are all forms of autonomy and empowerment.
In my other avenues of research I show more examples of how a tattoo can be
empowering. Elaine's tattoo represents her freedom and Gail her strength. Sylvia's tattoo
empowyrs her with independence and freedom, while Deb's tattoo symbolizes stability and
autonomy. Lynn, Annie, Madam Chinchilla and Francis have tattoos with deep spiritual
connections. Still, the most profound example of how a tattoo can be empowering is Linda
Marie, Shawn Sierra Frizzell, Marcia Rasner and Pam Huntley who opted for a tattoo rather
than breast reconstruction during their battles with cancer. These women describe their
tattoos as transforming, healing, and as a protective shield.
I am not purporting that all women over the age of 40 get tattoos for reasons of
empowerment and/or spirituality, but I do believe that this is the main reason for man f h
Yo t e
women in this age group. Granted, Dee and Ann state their reasons for wanting a tatt
.
00 IS
to
express her uniqueness and/or individual artistic persona; their reasons can also interpret as
being fashionable or provocative. Further research with a broader sample would be
recommended to further substantiate the results of this thesis.
_ I would also recommend a comparison sample between females in the1·r adol
· ·· escence
and twenties opposed to women over 40. Although younger women, in their late teens and
early 20's, were not included in my research, young girls that I did speak to said the
·
reason
they got a tattoo was because it was "cute" or "all their friends were getting them". Further
research could show if younger female's motivation for getting tattoos are the same or differ
from that of women over the age of 40.
55
Another area to study could be regret and tattoos. If a larger number of young
females regret getting a tattoo more than older females, it could signify that younger females
do not put as much thought into their tattoos and get their tattoos for more impulsive or
superficial reasons than older, mature women.
My tattoo will be the Chinese symbol for chaos, which means "before a great vision
can become reality there may be difficulty. Before a person begins a great endeavor, they
may encounter chaos. As a new plant breaks the ground with great difficulty, foreshadowing
the huge tree, so must we sometimes push against difficulty in bringing forth our dreams.
'Out of Chaos, Brilliant Stars are Born."' This tattoo will represent empowerment for me. It
will remind me that I am a survivor. Above the symbol will be a shamrock, which represents
my heritage and will be a constant and permanent reminder that I do have roots.
I believe my research has shown many women over the age of 40 do not get tattoos to
be provocative or rebellious, but do so to feel independent or spiritually connected -to be
empowered.
1
Works Cited
Allen, Frank. Tattoo Rituals, http://www.metal(12 January 2003)
tiger.com/Wu Tang PCA/tattoo.html
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Publishing, 1977.
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Copyright 1958 by George Burchett. http://tattoos.com/jane/steve/ (11November
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Chinchilla, Madam. Stewed, Screwed & Tattooed, Fort Bragg: Isadora Press, 1997
Cole, Ellen, Ph.D., Nancy d. Davis, MD, Esther D. Rothblum, Ph.D., Faces of Women
and Aging, New York: The Haworth Press, Inc., 1993
DeMello, Margo. Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history ofthe modern tattoo
community, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000
Durfee, Dale. Tattoo, St. Martin's Griffin, New York, 2000. pg. 8.
Gil be~,
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Hall, C. Margaret. Women and Empowerment: Strategies for Increasing Autonomy,
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will be honored by the doctor who treats me". Newsweek, Oct 13, 1997, v130,
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2
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York City: Juno Books, 1997
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January 2003)
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of Working women: Crating Solutions - Creating Change, Author: NOW Legal
defense and Education Fund,
http://www.nowldef.org/htmVpub/pubs/CreatingSolutions.pdf (3 March 2003)
Webb, Spider. Heavily Tattooed Men and Women, New York: McGraw-Hill. 1976
Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth, How Images ofBeauty Are Used Against Women, New
York: Double Day, 1992
Yamada, Mieko. Japanese Tattooing from the Past to the Present
http://www.tattoos.com/articles.html (11 May 2003)
1
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Allen, Frank. Tattoo Rituals, http://www.metal(12 January 2003)
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Online: bodyart.com
Bach, Richard. Illusions- The Adventures of a Reluctant Messiah, New York: Dell
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Copyright 1958 by George Burchett. http://tattoos.com/jane/steve/ (11November
2002)
Burton, Helena. Oxford University, Oriental Irezumi and Occidental Tattooing In
Contemporary Japan - History.
http:/1208.55. 77.56/alterasianlatitattooirezumi3 .html (5 January 2003)
Busch, Akiko, My decorated self (tattoos), Found In: Print, Jan-Feb 1995, v49,n1 ,
p112(1)
Caplan, Jane, Written on the Body, The Tattoo in European and American History,
-· Prin£eton: Princeton University Press, 2000
Chinchilla, Madam. Stewed, Screwed & Tattooed, Fort Bragg: Isadora Press, 1997
Cole, Ellen, Ph.D., Nancy d. Davis, MD, Esther D. Rothblum, Ph.D., Faces of Women
and Aging, New Yoric: The Haworth Press, Inc., 1993
DeMello, Margo. Bodies ofInscription: A cultural history of the modern tattoo
community, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000
Durfee, Dale. Tattoo, St. Martin's Griffin, New York, 2000. pg. 8.
2
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Hall, C. Margaret. Women and Empowerment: Strategies for Increasing Autonomy,
Washington: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1992
Irezumi- History-induced Stigma: The Role of Tattoos in Japan, ·
www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Shrine/2475/irezumi.html (5 January 2003)
Juhl, Marian Haglund, "A Tattoo in time: I want my last wish to be clearly visible so it
will be honored by the doctor who treats me". Newsweek, Oct 13, 1997, v130,
n15, p19(1).
Krakow, Amy. The Total Tattoo Book, New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1994
Lautman, Victoria. The New Tattoo, New York: Abbeville Press, 1994
Levins, Hoag. The Changing Cultural Status ofTattoo Art: A Report,
www.tattooartist.com/history.html 11//1 /00 (10 May 2003).
Living the Legacy: The Women's Rights Movement 1848-1998, sponsored by the National
Women' s History Project, endorsed by National and State Organizations.
http:/ /www.legacy98 .org/timeline.html
McKee, Nancy P., Linda Stone, Gender & Culture in America, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall, 1999
Mifflin, Margot. Bodies ofSubversion -A Secret History of Women and Tattoo, New
York City: Juno Books, 1997
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Brown and Company, 1996.
Rasner, Marcia. Huntley, Pam. In Celebration ofa Scar"
www.triangletatoo.com/women.htm (5 October 2002)
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3
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Studies the Symbolism ofSkin Art, UA News:..
http://www.advancement.uark.edu/news/NEWS ARCHIVES/tattoo.html (5
January 2003)
Violence Against Women http://www.vaw.umn.edu, The Impact of Violence in the Lives
of Working women: Crating Solutions- Creating Change, Author: NOW Legal
defense and Education Fund,
http://www.nowldef.org/html/pub/pubs/CreatingSolutions.pdf (3 March 2003)
Webb, Spider. Heavily Tattooed Men and Women. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976
Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth, How Images ofBeauty Are Used Against Women, New
York: Double Day, 1992
Yamada, Mieko. Japanese Tattooing from the Past to the Present
http://www.tattoos.com/articles.html (11 May 2003)

Women, Empowerment, and Tattoos

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