Simulated oxygen isotopes in cave drip water and speleothem

Transcription

Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
www.clim-past.net/8/1781/2012/
doi:10.5194/cp-8-1781-2012
© Author(s) 2012. CC Attribution 3.0 License.
Climate
of the Past
Simulated oxygen isotopes in cave drip water and speleothem calcite
in European caves
A. Wackerbarth1 , P. M. Langebroek2,3 , M. Werner2 , G. Lohmann2 , S. Riechelmann4 , A. Borsato5 , and A. Mangini1
1 Heidelberg
Academy of Sciences, Heidelberg, Germany
Wegener Institute, Bremerhaven, Germany
3 Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, Bergen, Norway
4 Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
5 Museo delle Scienze, Trento, Italy
2 Alfred
Correspondence to: A. Wackerbarth ([email protected])
Received: 9 July 2012 – Published in Clim. Past Discuss.: 23 July 2012
Revised: 16 October 2012 – Accepted: 18 October 2012 – Published: 5 November 2012
Abstract. Interpreting stable oxygen isotope (δ 18 O) records
from stalagmites is still one of the complex tasks in
speleothem research. Here, we present a novel model-based
approach, where we force a model describing the processes
and modifications of δ 18 O from rain water to speleothem
calcite (Oxygen isotope Drip water and Stalagmite Model
– ODSM) with the results of a state-of-the-art atmospheric
general circulation model enhanced by explicit isotope diagnostics (ECHAM5-wiso). The approach is neither climate
nor cave-specific and allows an integrated assessment of the
influence of different varying climate variables, e.g. temperature and precipitation amount, on the isotopic composition
of drip water and speleothem calcite.
First, we apply and evaluate this new approach under
present-day climate conditions using observational data from
seven caves from different geographical regions in Europe.
Each of these caves provides measured δ 18 O values of drip
water and speleothem calcite to which we compare our simulated isotope values. For six of the seven caves modeled
δ 18 O values of drip water and speleothem calcite are in good
agreement with observed values. The mismatch of the remaining caves might be caused by the complexity of the cave
system, beyond the parameterizations included in our cave
model.
We then examine the response of the cave system to midHolocene (6000 yr before present, 6 ka) climate conditions
by forcing the ODSM with ECHAM5-wiso results from
6 ka simulations. For a set of twelve European caves, we
compare the modeled mid-Holocene-to-modern difference
in speleothem calcite δ 18 O to available measurements. We
show that the general European changes are simulated well.
However, local discrepancies are found, and might be explained either by a too low model resolution, complex local
soil-atmosphere interactions affecting evapotranspiration or
by cave specific factors such as non-equilibrium fractionation processes.
The mid-Holocene experiment pronounces the potential of
the presented approach to analyse δ 18 O variations on a spatially large (regional to global) scale. Modelled as well as
measured European δ 18 O values of stalagmite samples suggest the presence of a strong, positive mode of the North Atlantic Oscillation at 6 ka before present, which is supported
by the respective modelled climate parameters.
1
Introduction
Various studies demonstrate a correlation between oxygen
isotopic (δ 18 O) variations measured in stalagmites and climate changes above the cave (e.g. Van Breukelen et al.,
2008; Cheng et al., 2009; Cruz et al., 2005; Fleitmann et al.,
2003; Mangini et al., 2005; McDermott et al., 2001; Partin
et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2001). However, the δ 18 O signal
of speleothem calcite is influenced by atmospheric, soil and
cave processes, making the untangling of the climate contributions to the records a challenging task.
Atmospheric variables (e.g. near-surface air temperature
and amount of precipitation) and processes (e.g. moisture
Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.
A. Wackerbarth et al.: Simulated δ 18 Ocalcite in European caves
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Table 1. Cave locations and compilation of isotope data from monitoring programs. Further information about the caves can be found in the
respective references. Drip water δ 18 O values refer to VSMOW and calcite values to VPDB.
Altitude
δ 18 Odrip
δ 18 Ocalcite
13.92◦ E
100–200 m
−10 ± 0.23‰
−7.33 ‰
1991–1992
Lauritzen and
Lundberg (1999)
64.89◦ N
14.16◦ E
540–600 m
−12.02 ± 0.41 ‰
−9.41 ‰
2005–2006
Sundqvist
et al. (2007)
Tartair Cave
(Scotland)
58.14◦ N
4.93◦ W
300–500 m
−7.09 ± 0.26 ‰
−5.2 ± 0.35
2003–2005
Fuller
et al. (2008)
Bunker Cave
(Germany)
51.37◦ N
7.66◦ E
184 m
−7.91 ± 0.18 ‰
−5.91 ± 0.30 ‰
2006–2011
Riechelmann (2010)
Riechelmann
et al. (2011)
Ongoing
monitoring
Katerloch
(Austria)
47.25◦ N
15.55◦ E
900 m
−8.70 ± 0.10 ‰
−6.3 ‰
2005–2007
Boch et al.
(2009, 2010)
C. G. d.
Giazzera
(Italy)
45.85◦ N
11.09◦ E
1025 m
−9.18 ± 0.24 ‰
−6.7 ‰
2002–2003
2006–2008
Frisia
et al. (2007)
Miorandi
et al. (2007)
Grotte
de Clamouse
(France)
43.70◦ N
3.61◦ E
75 m
−6.2 ‰
−4.9 ‰
1999–2001
Frisia
et al. (2002)
Plagnes
et al. (2002)
Cave
Latitude
Longitude
Soylegrotta
(Norway)
66.55◦ N
Korallgrottan
(Sweden)
source and transport pathway from source to cave) affect
the isotopic oxygen composition of meteoric precipitation
that results in the drip water in the cave. These effects are
described in detail in comprehensive review publications
(e.g. Lachniet, 2009; McDermott, 2008; Mook, 2006). The
final drip water δ 18 O signal (δ 18 Odrip ) is furthermore influenced by sub-surface processes in the biosphere, pedosphere
and karst layer. These processes, such as evapotranspiration,
calcite dissolution, the residence time of infiltrating water
and mixing of water parcels of different ages, depend on parameters like the temperature, the properties of the soil and
karst layer, the pCO2 of soil air and the type and seasonal
state of vegetation. The drip water δ 18 O as well as the conditions in the cave affect the final speleothem δ 18 O signal
(δ 18 Ocalcite ). Cave temperature, the drip interval of the stalactite feeding the stalagmite and supersaturation of the drip
water solution with respect to calcite determine the amplitude of the isotopic fractionation between the δ 18 O signal
of drip water and speleothem calcite (e.g. Dreybrodt, 2008;
Mühlinghaus et al., 2009; O’Neil et al., 1969; Scholz et al.,
2009).
For an improved understanding of the relation between
climate variables and the δ 18 O signal of speleothems, forward models are used to simulate the processes that modify the δ 18 O signal traveling from the atmosphere through
the soil to the cave (Baker and Bradley, 2010; Bradley et
al., 2010; Jex et al., 2010; Wackerbarth et al., 2010). In
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
Cave monitoring
period
Reference
this study we use the Oxygen isotope Drip water and Stalagmite Model, ODSM (Wackerbarth et al., 2010; Wackerbarth, 2012). Instead of forcing the model with observational
data (Wackerbarth et al., 2010), here we use the results of
a state-of-the-art atmospheric general circulation model with
explicit water isotope diagnostics, ECHAM5-wiso (Werner
et al., 2011). This approach allows us to simulate the δ 18 O
value of drip water and calcite on a global scale and under
different climate scenarios. McDermott et al. (2011) highlighted the value of analysing spatially large-scale δ 18 Ocalcite
variations. They compiled a multitude of Holocene δ 18 O stalagmite samples and observed the changing zonal gradient
of these δ 18 O values for different periods throughout the
Holocene. By focusing on a compilation of stalagmite samples, the study allows to draw conclusions on the driving reasons for large-scale δ 18 O and climate variation. Our study
presents a new approach which aims to contribute to the understanding and analysing of large scale climate variations
which is one of the key aspects to understand the driving
mechanisms of climate variability.
We first test our approach on seven European caves (Table 1) which all provide both comprehensive present-day climate and monitoring data (δ 18 Odrip and recent δ 18 Ocalcite ).
The results of an ECHAM5-wiso simulation covering the period 1956–1999 are compared to observed climate variables
at the cave locations and used to force the ODSM. The resulting modeled δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite are then compared to
measured values. In the second part of this study, we employ
the model approach to the mid-Holocene (6000 yr before
present, 6 ka), where we compare our modeled δ 18 Ocalcite to
measured values from twelve European caves.
2
General model description
This section gives a short overview of both applied models, the ODSM and the ECHAM5-wiso. Specific experimental setup and simulation results using these models are described in Sect. 3 (present-day experiment) and Sect. 4 (midHolocene experiment).
2.1
The Oxygen isotope Drip water and Stalagmite
Model
The Oxygen isotope Drip water and Stalagmite Model
(ODSM) simulates the modification of the δ 18 O value in
precipitation (δ 18 Oprec ) by several processes in the soil and
karst matrix (evapotranspiration, calcite dissolution, the residence time of infiltrating water and mixing of water parcels
of different ages) to calculate the δ 18 O value of cave drip
water (δ 18 Odrip ). Furthermore, calcite precipitation at the
stalagmite’s surface is considered in order to compute the
δ 18 O value of speleothem calcite (δ 18 Ocalcite ). The description of isotopic fractionation during calcite precipitation is
one of the most challenging tasks in the speleothem science. Mickler et al. (2006) pointed out that for most natural
speleothems a pure equilibrium fractionation (“equilibrium”
as described in Mook, 2006) cannot be assumed. Since early
publications (e.g. Mook, 2006), ongoing research on natural and synthetic calcite precipitates (Friedmann and O’Neil,
1977; Kim and O’Neil, 1997; Coplen, 2007; Tremaine et
al, 2011; Feng et al., 2012) stresses the complexity of the
topic and how different cave specific parameters (temperature, pCO2 of cave air, calcite precipitation rate, cave ventilation, bicarbonate concentration of the drip water) influence the isotopic fractionation. For estimation of the true extent of isotopic fractionation sophisticated models (e.g. Dreybrodt, 2008; Mühlinghaus et al., 2009; Scholz et al., 2009)
must be applied. In principle the ODSM is able to apply kinetic fractionation as described by Mühlinghaus et al. (2009).
However, this module require cave specific parameters which
are not given for all of the stalagmites in this study. Therefore, we apply the equation by Friedmann and O’Neil (1977)
(Eq. 1).
2.78 × 106
− 2.89
(1)
T2
The equation leads to 0.3 to 0.8 ‰ higher values than stated
by the frequently used equation by Kim and O’Neil (1997)
which is considered to describe the true equilibrium fractionation. However, in a comparison of a compilation of different
modern cave δ 18 Odrip and the respective δ 18 Ocalcite by McDermott et al. (2005) stated that the Friedmann and O’Neil
1783
(1977) equation yields the most consistent results with measured values. They concluded that Friedmann and O’Neil
(1977) seem to be the best representation of the isotopic
fractionation during calcite precipitation under natural cave
conditions. However, the uncertainty of this topic should be
noted and regarded when modelled and stalagmite δ 18 O values are compared.
A more detailed description of ODSM can be found in
Wackerbarth (2012).
2.2
ECHAM5-wiso
ECHAM5 is the fifth generation of an atmospheric general
circulation model developed at the Max-Planck-Institute in
Hamburg (Germany). It was thoroughly tested under presentday conditions (e.g. Roeckner et al., 2003, 2006) and used for
the last Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment Report (Randall et al., 2007). Recently, the ECHAM5
model has been enhanced by a water isotope module in the
model’s hydrological cycle (ECHAM5-wiso), following the
work of Joussaume et al. (1984); Jouzel et al. (1987) and
Hoffmann et al. (1998). This enhancement allows an explicit
simulation of isotopic changes within the entire hydrological cycle, from ocean evaporation through cloud condensation and precipitation (rain- and snowfall) to surface water
reservoirs and runoff. On a global scale (Werner et al., 2011)
as well as on a European scale (Langebroek et al., 2011),
the ECHAM5-wiso simulation results are in good agreement
with available observations of the isotopic composition of
precipitation, both on an annual as well as on a seasonal time
scale.
3
Present-day experiment
In our present-day experiment, we force the ODSM with
the results from a present-day simulation using ECHAM5wiso (see Sects. 3.1 and 3.2). Model results are compared
to seven well-studied European caves for which climate data
and δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite are available. We first compare
the local ECHAM5-wiso simulation results to observational
data above the caves and discuss the differences (Sect. 3.3).
We then compare the modeled δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite to
the measured values within the caves (Sect. 3.4). Finally, we
evaluate in a sensitivity study how changes of local surface
conditions (temperature, precipitation amount and δ 18 Oprec )
will be imprinted in the simulated δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite
values (Sect. 3.5), in general.
1000 × ln α =
3.1
ECHAM5-wiso setup for present-day simulation
For this study, we are using results of a present-day
ECHAM5-wiso simulation covering the period 1956–1999,
recently performed by Langebroek et al. (2011). As surface boundary conditions observed monthly mean sea surface
temperatures and sea ice cover data (Atmospheric Model
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
1784
Intercomparison Project (AMIP)-style forcing, Gates et al.,
1999) were used, the δ 18 O values of the ocean surface waters
were set to observed modern values, derived from the global
gridded data set compiled by LeGrande and Schmidt (2006).
The surface waters of large lakes were set to a constant value
of 0.5 ‰. The orbital configuration and the concentration of
greenhouse gases are set to modern values (CO2 : 348 ppm,
CH4 : 1650 ppb, N2 O: 306 ppb).
The ECHAM5-wiso model was forced by sea surface temperatures and sea ice cover only, leaving the atmosphere on
inter annual timescales free to evolve. As a consequence the
modeled climate of a specific month and year cannot be directly compared to the corresponding monthly mean value in
any observational data set. When comparing model results
with data, rather long-term mean values and variations shall
be applied.
ECHAM5-wiso was ran in a relatively high spectral resolution, T106L31, which corresponds to a horizontal grid
resolution of approximately 1.1◦ by 1.1◦ , and 31 layers in
the vertical. For more information concerning this simulation
and a comparison to observational winter data over Europe,
we refer to Langebroek et al. (2011).
3.2
Forcing the ODSM
The ODSM is forced by the output values from ECHAM5wiso (temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration and
δ 18 Oprec ) in monthly resolution to capture the seasonality of
climate. Due to mixing processes in the soil and karst matrix
the δ 18 Oprec signal is smoothed to an infiltration weighted
mean δ 18 O value. To estimate the true residence time of water in the epikarst is highly complicated. Boch (2010) denote
a residence time of “few years” for Katerloch Cave, Fuller et
al. (2008) state 1–10 yr in Tartair Cave and experiments from
Bunker Cave using tritium tracer indicate a residence time of
2–3 yr (Kluge et al., 2010). However, we calculated δ 18 Odrip
values from monthly infiltration weighted δ 18 Oprec values at
Bunker Cave. The variability of the modelled δ 18 Odrip values
agrees with the measured variability when the averaging covers 48 months. Therefore, we set in this study the residence
time to a default value of 48 months. It should be noted, that
the averaging through the epikarst affects only the variance
of the δ 18 Odrip values, not the mean values itself.
Another key variable influencing the isotopic signature of
the drip water is the amount of evapotranspiration (ETpot )
occurring from upper soil layers. ETpot strongly depends
on local conditions, such as the soil and vegetation types.
The complexity of this variable motivated us to select and
compare two different methods of computation of ETpot :
(i) in the first setup (setup 1, named “ECHAM”), we use
the monthly mean temperature, T , amount of precipitation, P , amount of evapotranspiration, ETpot , and δ 18 Oprec
directly as computed by ECHAM5-wiso. (ii) In the second set of experiments (setup 2, “Thornthwaite”), we replace the ECHAM5-wiso ETpot values by ETpot calculated
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
using the Thornthwaite equation (Thornthwaite and Mather,
1957), where the amount of evapotranspiration depends on
the respective monthly temperature and the annual latitudedepending pattern of temperature. Both implementations
yield monthly mean δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite time series from
which long-term mean values and 1-σ standard deviations
are computed. The latter can be compared to the selected observed cave data (Sect. 3.4).
3.3
Comparison of modeled and measured climate
conditions above the caves
We evaluate our model results at seven European cave sites
supplying extensive data from cave monitoring programs.
Tables 1 and 2 show the geographic position, mean annual
temperature, mean annual amount of meteoric precipitation,
precipitation-weighted mean δ 18 Oprec , mean δ 18 Odrip and
modern δ 18 Ocalcite of these caves. For more details on the
observational data see the respective references (Table 1).
In general the simulated large-scale temperature, precipitation and δ 18 Oprec patterns are comparable to observations
over Europe (Langebroek et al., 2011). However, differences
between modeled and measured climate values at specific
cave locations occur (Table 2). This can be due to the different lengths of the analysed time periods. With ECHAM5wiso we compute climatological means for a period of 44 yr,
while the observed data at the respective caves are in most
cases from shorter time periods. In addition, the ECHAM5wiso model was run in a spatial resolution of 1.1◦ × 1.1◦ .
Therefore, it is possible that substantial differences occur between mean climate values of the grid box and the particular
cave location. Especially the amount of precipitation and the
corresponding δ 18 O values are sensitive to orographic features and the topographic position of the cave in the grid box.
Mean annual temperature: the expected positive temperature gradient from high to mid latitudes is clearly visible in
both, the modeled and measured values (Fig. 1a). However,
the simulated ECHAM5-wiso temperatures tend to be lower
(1.5 to 3.5 ◦ C) than the measured values (except Katerloch
Cave and Tartair Cave).
Annual amount of precipitation: the simulated annual
amount of precipitation agrees fairly well in all the locations
except Tartair Cave and Bunker Cave (Fig. 1b). For Bunker
Cave, Clamouse Cave, and Korallgrottan precipitation is too
high by 240, 160, and 140 mm yr−1 , respectively, while for
Tartair Cave the amount of precipitation is much too low
(+1030 mm yr−1 ). The discrepancies for Bunker Cave, Clamouse Cave and Korallgrottan agree with the general modelling results for present-day conditions. Langebroek et al.
(2011) stated that the amount of winter precipitation (DJF)
from ECHAM5-wiso shows slightly higher values than the
reanalysis data from ERA40 (Uppala et al., 2005). However, the extremely low precipitation amount modeled by
ECHAM5-wiso compared to the observed value at Tartair
Cave cannot be explained by this general model deficit, but
1785
Table 2. Compilation of ECHAM5-wiso results and observational climate data for each cave. The last column shows the difference between
modelled and observed data.
Annual mean model results
± 1σ -standard deviation (1956–1999)
Observational data
Monitoring period
Simulation offset
(observation – simulation)
Soylegrotta
P [mm]
T [◦ C]
δ 18 Oprec [‰]
ET [mm]
T cave [◦ C]
1120 ± 180
0.2 ± 0.7
−10.7 ± 0.6
440 ± 40
NA
2.7
−9.8
NA
2.7
1966–1989
1991–1992
+2.5
+0.9
see references Table 1
+2.5
1961–1990
1961–1990
1975–1988
-140
+1.5
−1.3
+2.5
Korallgrottan
P [mm]
T [◦ C]
δ 18 Oprec [‰]
ET [mm]
T cave [◦ C]
1000 ± 110
−0.5 ± 0.8
−12.4 ± 0.7
340 ± 20
860
1
−13.7
NA
2
Tartair
P [mm]
T [◦ C]
δ 18 Oprec [‰]
ET [mm]
T cave [◦ C]
870 ± 130
7.7 ± 0.4
−8.1 ± 0.5
540 ± 50
1900
7.1
−7.1
NA
7.1
1971–2000
1971–2000
2003–2005
+1030
−0.6
+1
−0.6
1978–2007
1978–2007
2006–2011
−240
+2.1
0
+2.1
1973–2004
2006–2008
1973–2004
+120
−0.5
+0.2
−2.5
1992–2004
1992–2004
2002–2004
+60
+2.4
−1.7
−2.4
2003–2007
1997–2007
1997–2007
−160
+3.5
+0.6
+3.5
Bunker
P [mm]
T [◦ C]
δ 18 Oprec [‰]
ET [mm]
T cave [◦ C]
1140 ± 140
8.4 ± 0.7
−7.7 ± 0.6
600 ± 30
900
10.5
−7.7
NA
10.8
Katerloch
P [mm]
T [◦ C]
δ 18 Oprec [‰]
ET [mm]
T cave [◦ C]
750 ± 150
8.5 ± 0.7
−9.0 ± 1.0
540 ± 50
870
8
−8.8
NA
6
Giazzera
P [mm]
T [◦ C]
δ 18 Oprec [‰]
ET [mm]
T cave [◦ C]
910 ± 160
10.9 ± 0.7
−7.1 ± 0.7
610 ± 50
970
13.3
−8.7
NA
8.5
Clamouse
P [mm]
T [◦ C]
δ 18 Oprec [‰]
ET [mm]
T cave [◦ C]
760 ± 120
11 ± 0.6
−6.4 ± 0.5
560 ± 50
600
14.5
−5.8
NA
14.5
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
1786
Fig. 1. Comparison of observational data (black) and model results (red: Setup 1 “ECHAM”, blue: Setup 2 “Thornthwaite”) for each cave
for (a) mean annual temperature, (b) annual amount of precipitation, (c) δ 18 Oprec , (d) δ 18 Odrip , and (e) δ 18 Ocalcite . Drip water δ 18 O values
refer to VSMOW and calcite values to VPDB.
might be caused by the position of the cave. Tartair Cave is
located close to the Atlantic Ocean on the weather side of the
Scottish Highlands, which could result in much higher precipitation values then the mean value of the respective grid
box.
δ 18 O of precipitation: the results of simulated and measured δ 18 Oprec values are displayed in Fig. 1c. In general,
the isotopic composition of precipitation depends on (i) the
temperature effect, referring directly to lower δ 18 Oprec signal with colder surface temperatures; (ii) the altitude effect
describing the isotopic depletion, when an air mass is lifted
to higher altitudes due to cooling of the air mass accompanied with a rain-out effect; (iii) the latitude-effect by which
an air mass depletes in 18 O with increasing latitude due to
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
lower temperatures; and (iv) the continental effect describing the depletion of an air mass through successive rain-out
on the path from the coast across landmasses (Mook, 2006).
Therefore, the δ 18 Oprec value at a cave location will be lower
with decreasing surface temperatures (increasing latitudes),
increasing distance from the coast and increasing altitudes,
and vice versa.
Observed δ 18 Oprec values: as seen in Fig. 1c, the measured precipitation samples from Soylegrotta and Korallgrottan (high latitude, cold surface temperature) show the lowest δ 18 Oprec . The precipitation at Korallgrottan is isotopically lower than at Soylegrotta, since Korallgrottan is located
more inland, leading to additional depletion through the rainout effect at Korallgrottan. At Tartair Cave the mean annual
temperature is about 6 ◦ C warmer than in Soylegrotta. Therefore, the measured δ 18 Oprec value is heavier by 4 ‰. The observed δ 18 Oprec value for Bunker Cave is similar to Tartair
Cave, despite the annual temperature which is about 3.5 ◦ C
warmer at Bunker Cave. However, Bunker Cave is not directly near the shore like Tartair Cave. Thus, the δ 18 O value
of precipitation becomes lower on the path from ocean to
Bunker Cave counteracting the temperature effect. Though
Katerloch Cave lies farther south than Bunker Cave, the location is at a rather high altitude (about 1000 m). The δ 18 O values of an an air mass decrease during its way upwards to the
cave. Hence, the δ 18 Oprec signal at the cave is lower. In addition the mean annual temperature is colder than at Bunker
Cave and the location is farther away from the ocean – two
effects that increase the depletion of the δ 18 Oprec . Giazzera
Cave is located nearly at the same altitude as Katerloch Cave.
Surface temperature is about 5 ◦ C warmer at Giazzera Cave.
Therefore, the δ 18 Oprec should be higher than in Katerloch
Cave. However, both measured values are nearly the same.
The δ 18 Oprec at Clamouse Cave shows the highest observed
value. Here the Mediterranean influence might yield higher
δ 18 Oprec values, since the Mediterranean Sea is isotopically
heavier than the Atlantic Ocean due to high evaporation rates
from the relatively small water basin compared to the Atlantic Ocean (Lachniet, 2009).
Simulated δ 18 Oprec values: in general the simulated European δ 18 Oprec values are in fair agreement with the observations. However, some small differences occur at the various cave sites. For Soylegrotta the simulated δ 18 Oprec is too
low by 0.9 ‰ which might originate from the simulated annual mean temperature (Table 2), which is 2.5 ◦ C lower than
the observed value. For Korallgrottan the simulated δ 18 Oprec
value is 1.3 ‰ too high when compared to observed data.
The reason could be an underestimation of the continental
effect depleting the δ 18 Oprec signal of the air mass while
transported to the cave. The modeled δ 18 Oprec value at Tartair Cave is again too low (by 1 ‰), while for Bunker Cave
and Katerloch Cave the modeled values agree well with the
data. The δ 18 Oprec at Giazzera Cave is 1.7 ‰ heavier than
the monitoring data, which could possibly be caused by an
overestimated influence of the Mediterranean in the model.
For Clamouse Cave this influence seems to be present in
the model, though the simulated temperatures are 3.5 ◦ C too
low resulting in slightly lower δ 18 Oprec values at the cave’s
location.
In summary, the comparison between simulated and observed δ 18 Oprec values must be carried out with some caution since the period of observation is in some cases rather
short. Only for Bunker Cave, Katerloch Cave and Clamouse
Cave could the mean δ 18 Oprec value and standard deviation
be given for periods longer than 10 yr. For Bunker Cave and
Katerloch Cave the standard deviation of the annual weighted
δ 18 Oprec is 0.7 ‰. Due to the lack of direct observational
data, we assume that the variations are in an equal range
also for the other caves. If this assumption is correct, all the
1787
modeled and observed values agree within the 2-σ standard
deviation.
3.4
Comparison of δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite results
In the following sections and whenever δ 18 O values are
stated, calcite δ 18 O values refer to the VPDB standard, while
drip water or precipitation δ 18 O values refer to VSMOW.
In the δ 18 Odrip values the characteristic European pattern
as discussed for δ 18 Oprec is present in both the simulated
and measured values (Fig. 1d). With respect to the simulated amount of evapotranspiration, for four caves setup 1,
“ECHAM” seems to be a good representation (Clamouse
Cave, Katerloch Cave, Korallgrottan and Soylegrotta). Alternatively, for three caves (Clamouse Cave, Bunker Cave, Tartair Cave) the measured δ 18 Odrip value can be well simulated
by the model approach with setup 2 “Thornthwaite”. For Giazzera Cave none of the two approaches is in agreement with
the measured δ 18 Odrip value.
Assessing the reason for this mismatch is complicated.
One reason could be an erroneously modeled seasonal infiltration pattern. Alternatively, the cave system could bear
some local features not included in the ODSM.
Overall the general spatial pattern of measured δ 18 Odrip
values is well grasped by our model approach. The agreement between modeled and measured δ 18 Odrip values, as
calculated by the Root Mean Square Deviation RMSD, is
1.32 ‰ for setup 1 “ECHAM” and 1.36 ‰ for setup 2
“Thornthwaite”.
As seen in Fig. 1d, the simulated δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite
values from setup 2 (ETpot from Thornthwaite) are significantly lower than from setup 1 (ETpot from ECHAM5wiso) for nearly all the cave locations. This is caused by
lower evapotranspiration rates during winter calculated by
the equation from Thornthwaite and Mather (1957) compared to the ECHAM5-wiso computation. Lower winter
evapotranspiration leads to higher infiltration rates and to a
higher weight of the isotopically lighter winter season. However, in the Mediterranean (Clamouse Cave and Giazzera
Cave) both setups agree with each other, indicating that the
seasonal patterns of evapotranspiration are similar. These two
cases suggest that the model setups yield equivalent results in
a warm climate.
In general, three reasons can cause discrepancies between
modeled and observed values of δ 18 Odrip : (i) offsets between
modeled and observed climate and isotope input parameters
and their seasonal pattern lead to shifts in the δ 18 Odrip values
(according to the sensitivities discussed in Sect. 3.5). (ii) The
modeled seasonal pattern of infiltration might be not representative for the true seasonal pattern. Too high simulated
δ 18 Odrip values correspond to an overestimated weight of the
warmer season while too low δ 18 Odrip values are assumed to
indicate a stronger influence of the colder season. (iii) The
enrichment with respect to 18 O of the water parcel during
evapotranspiration might be overestimated. The percentage
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
1788
Fig. 2. Sensitivity of δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite to temperature, precipitation and δ 18 Oprec . Each parameter is varied in a certain range:
temperature from −5 ◦ C to +5 ◦ C, precipitation from −50 mm month−1 to +50 mm month−1 and δ 18 Oprec from −2 to +2 ‰. The respective
parameter shift is added to the whole time series and the ODSM recalculates the (a) mean δ 18 Odrip , and (b) mean δ 18 Ocalcite with this
modified data set. Note, that this figure shows the sensitivity as δ 18 O anomalies with respect to the standard experiment (centre dot). Drip
water δ 18 O values refer to VSMOW and calcite values to VPDB.
of evaporation from the amount of evapotranspiration is in
the model estimated for the summer season (AMJJAS) to be
20 % and in the winter months (ONDJFM) to be 50 %. This
could especially be a major problem in warmer regions, since
evaporation rates are higher than in colder regions.
The pattern of δ 18 Ocalcite is similar to the δ 18 Odrip pattern
(Fig. 1e). However, the δ 18 Ocalcite variations among the different caves are smaller than for δ 18 Odrip , because the isotopic fractionation from drip water to calcite is anticorrelated
to temperature. This results in relatively smaller differences
of the oxygen isotope ratios between drip water and the precipitated calcite in warmer caves and larger differences in
colder caves. For the evaluation of modeled δ 18 Odrip and
δ 18 Ocalcite values it should be kept in mind that the ODSM
model calculates the isotopic fractionation between drip water and speleothem calcite as occurring under equilibrium
conditions. Therefore, the decision if the model approach
is representative of the true conditions at the cave should
mostly rely on the comparison of δ 18 Odrip values. For example, at Katerloch Cave the simulated δ 18 Odrip agrees with
the measured value, while the measured δ 18 Ocalcite value is
higher than the modeled δ 18 Ocalcite value. This is an effect of
the kinetic fractionation and additional enrichment of 18 O in
the calcite during calcite formation, which is not included in
the ODSM model due to lack of required input parameters.
3.5
Sensitivity of δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite values
regarding changes of T , P and δ 18 Oprec
In principle, a mismatch between modeled and measured
T , P and δ 18 Oprec might lead to a significant offset between the simulated and observed δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite
values. Therefore, we analyse here the general effect of
these variables on the δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite values. As a
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
representative, Fig. 2 illustrates the sensitivity of δ 18 Odrip
(Fig. 2a) and δ 18 Ocalcite (Fig. 2b) to changes in T , P and
δ 18 Oprec for Bunker Cave. Although the sensitivity differs
slightly for the other caves, Fig. 2 is a good example to investigate the occurring effects. The x-axes (“sensitivity step”)
show how temperature, precipitation, δ 18 Oprec are varied in
the sensitivity experiment relative to the mean annual values.
The investigated temperature range is −5 to +5 ◦ C, the precipitation range −50 to +50 mm month−1 and the δ 18 Oprec is
varied from −2 to +2 ‰.
Temperature sensitivity: the temperature influences the
isotopic fractionation during evapotranspiration. There are
two counteracting effects: (i) fractionation effect: with decreasing temperature fewer heavy 18 O isotopes are evaporated, leading to slightly higher δ 18 Odrip values. According
to Majoube (1971) the temperature dependence of the fractionation is small (0.09 ‰/◦ C). (ii) Weighting effect: with increasing temperature, the evapotranspiration increases in the
summer months leading to a higher weight of the precipitation from the winter season. This leads to lower δ 18 O values
of the drip water, since precipitation from the winter season is
isotopically lighter. By adopting the evapotranspiration from
ECHAM-wiso (setup 1), we only consider the first temperature effect on δ 18 Odrip (see Fig. 2a, black lines). In contrast, when ETpot is computed by the Thornthwaite equation
(setup 2), the precipitation weighting effect is also included
(Fig. 2a, grey lines). At Bunker Cave this leads to decreasing δ 18 Odrip values with increasing temperature. Compared
to the δ 18 Oprec or precipitation sensitivity (see below) the
temperature sensitivity of δ 18 Odrip is rather small. The isotopic fractionation with respect to oxygen from drip water
to speleothem calcite (Friedmann and O’Neil, 1977) has in
general a temperature gradient of about −0.23 ‰/◦ C. Hence,
the temperature sensitivity of δ 18 Ocalcite is affected by this
gradient on top of the δ 18 Odrip changes (see Fig. 2b, black
and grey lines).
Precipitation sensitivity: the influence of a changing
amount of precipitation is complex. Two mechanisms must
be distinguished: (i) change of the seasonal infiltration pattern. If the monthly mean precipitation amount decreases for
all months, the already smaller infiltration in summer due
to higher temperatures and more evapotranspiration experiences a larger relative change than the amount of winter
infiltration. This shifts the weight to the winter season. As
winter δ 18 Oprec shows low values due to low temperatures,
the resulting δ 18 Odrip value will be lower as well when the
weight of winter precipitation increases. This shift in seasonality affects δ 18 Odrip computed both in setup 1 “ECHAM”
and setup 2 “Thornthwaite”. (ii) Effect on isotopic fractionation during evapotranspiration (degree of 18 O enrichment in
the soil water). In setup 2 “Thornthwaite”, a decrease in precipitation furthermore may increase the δ 18 Odrip due to the
18 O enrichment of the soil water during evapotranspiration
caused by diminishing the infiltration/precipitation ratio. In
total, both effects (i) and (ii) counteract each other. Therefore, the particular situation at the cave must be considered
to estimate which effect prevails.
A major aspect of precipitation is the seasonality, since
more or less precipitation yields more or less contribution
of this water to the cave drip water. This shifts the δ 18 Odrip
value toward the season of the highest infiltration. A shift in
seasonality can therefore result in a major variation of the
mean δ 18 Ovalue value. As an example, if winter precipitation
increases the mean δ 18 Odrip decreases to due lower isotopic
values during the winter season compared to the summer season. For the δ 18 Ocalcite , a shift in seasonality can be even
more complicated, since other effects in the cave like supersaturation, cave air pCO2 and ventilation can play a role for
the contribution of monthly δ 18 Oprec values to the δ 18 Ocalcite
value of the growing stalagmite.
δ 18 Oprec sensitivity: a change in the isotopic composition
of precipitation does not affect the fractionation occurring in
the ODSM. Therefore, a shift of the initial δ 18 Oprec signal
can be directly translated into the same shift in δ 18 Odrip and
δ 18 Ocalcite (Fig. 2, green lines).
4
4.1
Mid-Holocene experiment (6 ka)
Experimental setup of the 6 ka experiment
After the evaluation of our model setup using present-day climate conditions, we apply our model approach to the climate
conditions for 6 ka before present. Unfortunately, only three
of the stalagmites from the present-day analysis can be used
for comparison with 6 ka (Korallgrottan, Bunker Cave, Clamouse Cave) due to the different growth periods. To extend
our analysis, we have therefore selected several other stalagmites which grew in this mid-Holocene period, although
1789
these could not be used for the present-day analysis as they
do not supply the required cave monitoring data.
We compare the modeled to measured δ 18 Ocalcite difference between present-day and 6 ka, assuming that local, cave
specific model offsets remain constant over this time period.
This allows for including caves with offsets in the presentday experiment, like Korallgrottan.
4.1.1
Studied stalagmites and measured 1δ 18 Ocalcite
The study from McDermott et al. (2011) gives an excellent overview of European stalagmites, their growth periods and corresponding δ 18 Ocalcite values. From this compilation twelve caves were selected (Table 3) with stalagmites
that grew at 6 ka as well as at present. For the 6 ka value of
the Spannagel Cave, we use the recently updated δ 18 Ocalcite
value of the COMNISPA record (Vollweiler et al., 2006;
Vollweiler, 2010).
Six stalagmites (from Korallgrottan, B7 Cave, Spannagel
Cave, Hölloch Cave, Savi Cave, and Garma Cave) reveal
higher δ 18 Ocalcite value at present-day compared to 6 ka BP,
while six others show a lower δ 18 Ocalcite values (Poleva Cave,
Bunker Cave, Ernesto Cave, Crag Cave, Carburangeli Cave,
Clamouse Cave) (Table 3).
4.1.2
ECHAM-wiso and ODSM setup for the
mid-Holocene
The mid-Holocene ECHAM5-wiso simulations were forced
by sea surface temperatures and sea ice cover extracted
from transient Holocene simulations performed with three
different fully coupled ocean-atmosphere models. By using the forcing derived from three different coupled models, we can compare a range of possible mid-Holocene climate conditions. The three models used are the Community Climate System Model CCSM3 (Collins et al., 2006),
COSMOS (Jungclaus et al., 2010) in a coupled atmosphereocean-land surface model version documented in Wei and
Lohmann (2012), and ECHO-G (Legutke and Voss, 1999).
The transient integrations were performed with identical orbital forcing, pre-industrial level of greenhouse gas concentrations, and were accelerated by a factor of ten. For details
on the transient simulations, we refer to Lorenz and Lohmann
(2004) for ECHO-G and Varma et al. (2012) for CCSM3 and
COSMOS. From these transient simulations, the monthly
mean 6 ka and preindustrial values (calculated over a 50-yr
period, each) were used to determine 6 ka anomalies of SST
and sea ice cover. These anomalies were then added to the
present-day AMIP SST and sea ice values and the resulting fields were used as forcing for the ECHAM5-wiso 6 ka
time-slice experiments. Thus, our 6 K simulations are driven
by a climatology of monthly mean SST and sea ice cover.
This setup is technically different from the ECHAM5-wiso
present-day simulation prescribing annually varying monthly
mean SST and sea ice fields. However, as we compare in
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
1790
Table 3. Cave locations and compilation of isotope data of the studied 12 speleothems with mid-Holocene (6 ka) δ 18 Ocalcite values, extracted
from McDermott et al. (2011). Calcite δ 18 O values refer to VPDB.
δ 18 Ocalcite PD
δ 18 Ocalcite 6 k
Reference
570 m
−8.55 ‰
−9.2 ‰
Sundqvist et al.
(2007)
9.44◦ W
60 m
−3.8 ‰
−2.9 ‰
McDermott et al.
(2001)
51.37◦ N
7.66◦ E
184 m
−5.7 ‰
−5.4 ‰
Riechelmann
(2010)
B7-5
51.34◦ N
7.65◦ E
185 m
−5.7 ‰
−5.8 ‰
Niggemann et al.
(2003)
Spannagel Cave
(Austria)
COMNISPA
47.09◦ N
11.67◦ E
2500 m
−7.9 ‰
−8.3 ‰
Vollweiler
(2010)
Hölloch Cave
(Germany)
StalHoel1
47◦ N
10◦ E
1440 m
−7.97 ‰
−8.27 ‰
Wurth et al.
(2004)
Ernesto Cave
(Italy)
ER76
45.96◦ N
11.65◦ E
1165 m
−7.8 ‰
−7.6 ‰
See McDermott et al.
(2011)
Savi Cave
(Italy)
SV1
45.61◦ N
13.88◦ E
441 m
−6.1 ‰
−6.74 ‰
Frisia et al.
(2005)
Poleva Cave
(Romania)
PP9
44.77◦ N
21.73◦ E
390 m
−8.62 ‰
−7.8 ‰
Constantin et al.
(2007)
Clamouse Cave
(France)
CL26
43.7◦ N
3◦ E
75 m
−4.95 ‰
−4.76 ‰
McDermott et al.
(1999)
Garma Cave
(Spain)
Gar01
43.43◦ N
3.66◦ W
75 m
−3.99 ‰
−4.39 ‰
See McDermott et al.
(2011)
Carburangeli
(Italy)
CR1
38.15◦ N
13.3◦ E
22 m
−6 ‰
−5.5 ‰
Frisia et al.
(2006)
Cave
Stal.
Latitude
Longitude
Altitude
Korallgrottan
(Sweden)
K1
64.89◦ N
14.16◦ E
Crag Cave
(Ireland)
CC3
52.23◦ N
Bunker Cave
(Germany)
BU4
B7 Cave
(Germany)
the following analyses long-time mean simulation values,
only, this difference in the model setup can be neglected.
The ECHAM5-wiso simulations were furthermore forced by
the 6 ka orbital configuration and greenhouse gas concentrations (CO2 : 280 ppm, CH4 : 650 ppb, N2 O: 270 ppb) as
agreed upon by the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison
Project Phase III (PMIP3, Braconnot et al., 2007).
All three ECHAM5-wiso simulations (with CCSMforcing: ECHAM5-wisoCCSM , COSMOS-forcing: ECHAM5
-wisoCOSMOS , and ECHO-G-forcing: ECHAM5-wisoECHO-G )
were run in T106L31 resolution for 12 yr. The first two years
are regarded as spin-up and the mean of the last 10 yr are
used for our data-model comparison. Like for the presentday ECHAM5-wiso simulation, we use the modeled monthly
mean values of temperature, precipitation and δ 18 Oprec to
compute δ 18 Ocalcite using the ODSM. Again we use two
setups for estimating the amount of evapotranspiration:
(i) taking the evapotranspiration directly as computed by
ECHAM5-wiso; and (ii) calculating the evapotranspiration
by the Thornthwaite equation using the temperature as
computed by ECHAM5-wiso.
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
4.2
Comparison of modeled 6 ka temperature,
precipitation and δ 18 Oprec
In Fig. 3 the differences between the 6 ka and present-day
experiments (6 ka-PD) are given for annual and boreal winter
(December-January-February) mean temperature, for precipitation (Fig. 4) and δ 18 Oprec (Fig. 5) over Europe.
The annual mean and boreal winter temperature anomalies reveal significantly lower values in the ECHAM5wisoCOSMOS simulation relative to the ECHAM5-wisoCCSM
and ECHAM5-wisoECHO-G simulations (Fig. 3a–f). In both
ECHAM5-wisoECHO-G and ECHAM5-wisoCCSM the midHolocene warming is most pronounced in Central Europe.
The mean annual 6 ka-PD anomaly of precipitation is
highest in the ECHAM5-wisoCCSM simulation with the
most pronounced seasonal cycle (Fig. 4a–f). During winter ECHAM5-wisoCCSM reveals a distinct north–south gradient from wetter to drier conditions with a minimum at
Poleva Cave. The same north–south gradient is also visible in ECHAM5-wisoECHO-G although less pronounced.
ECHAM5-wisoCOSMOS lacks a clear gradient of the precipitation anomaly during winter and reveals hardly any changes
1791
Fig. 3. Temperature anomalies (6 k-PD) in Europe as simulated by ECHAM5-wiso forced by sea surface temperatures and sea ice cover
extracted from transient Holocene simulations performed with three different fully coupled ocean-atmosphere models (CCSM, COSMOS,
ECHO-G). First row: annual mean temperature, second row: winter temperature.
Fig. 4. As Fig. 3, but for precipitation anomalies (6 k-PD).
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
1792
Fig. 5. As Fig. 3, but for δ 18 Oprec anomalies (6 k-PD) given relatively to VSMOW standard.
in the annual amount of precipitation from 6 ka to present
over the European continent.
The δ 18 Oprec anomalies in the ECHAM5-wisoCOSMOS
simulation are most negative (Fig. 5a–f), which can be ascribed to the low temperatures in this experiment. The mean
winter δ 18 Oprec anomalies from ECHAM5-wisoECHO-G reveal a north-west to south-east gradient from negative to positive anomalies, while the spatial pattern from ECHAM5wisoCCSM shows positive anomalies in central Europe and
negative in northern and southwestern Europe. In both setups the seasonality is suggested to be more pronounced at
6 ka than today (Fig. 5a, b, d and e).
4.3
Measured and simulated δ 18 Ocalcite anomalies of the
mid-Holocene
The correlation between modeled and measured stalagmite
1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) anomalies is displayed in Fig. 6,
together with calculated RMSD values. The results from
ECHAM5-wisoCCSM (both evaporation setups) show the
lowest RMSD values and therefore these set ups seem to
be the best choice to simulate European 6 ka stalagmite
1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) anomalies.
As shown in Fig. 6a and b, the ECHAM5-wisoCCSM results agree roughly in most 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) anomalies
for the Mediterranean stalagmites and up to B7 Cave. For
higher latitudes (Crag Cave, Korallgrottan) the modeled values differ from real 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) values. For five
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
caves, the offset between modeled and measured 1δ 18 Ocalcite
(6 ka-PD) values is 0.4 ‰ or greater: Korallgrottan, Crag
Cave, Bunker Cave, Savi Cave and Poleva Cave. For Korallgrottan ECHAM5-wiso seems to be unable to simulate the
full extend negative isotopic anomalies. The strongly positive
anomaly of the 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) value in Crag Cave
can also not be reached by our model setup. This might be
an effect of fractionation kinetics, but without present-day
δ 18 Odrip values, the true reason is difficult to determine. In
contrast, for Bunker Cave the influence of a strong kinetic
was revealed in the present-day experiment. Due to the very
low drip rate of the stalagmite from Bunker Cave the influence of fractionation kinetics might have a large effect. For
Poleva Cave it is challenging to assess why the cave system is
not captured by the model. It is possible that the geographic
position in the Carpathians and the influence of the Black Sea
versus Mediterranean as source of precipitation complicates
the local climate conditions as hinted by Badertscher et al.
(2011) for this region.
Figure 7 shows the spatial European pattern of measured and simulated 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) anomalies for the
ECHAM5-wisoCCSM simulation. The simulated 1δ 18 Ocalcite
(6 ka-PD) patterns (Fig. 7b and c) show less spatial heterogeneity than the measured 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) values
(Fig. 7a). The modelling results suggest lowest 1δ 18 Ocalcite
(6 ka-PD) values in central Western Europe and most positive values over southeastern Europe. The difference between
1793
Fig. 6. Modelled versus measured stalagmite δ 18 Ocalcite (6 k-PD) values for the different model setups. The value of the Root Mean Square
Deviation, RMSD, gives an evaluation of how well the modelled δ 18 Ocalcite (6 k-PD) values agree with the data. Black lines indicate the 1 : 1
ratio. All calcite δ 18 O values refer to VPDB.
the smooth modeled and the irregular measured 1δ 18 Ocalcite
(6 ka-PD) anomaly patterns indicate that the simulation results lack some location and/or cave specific features.
One major factor influencing the stalagmite δ 18 Ocalcite is
the kinetic fractionation. With the current model setup this
cannot be approximated. Other discrepancies between modeled and measured 6 ka-PD values might be caused by the
1.1◦ × 1.1◦ resolution of the climate model or by an inadequate representation of the mid-Holocene climate in the simulations. However, by applying a range of different sea surface temperature and sea ice fields (as derived from CCSM3,
ECHO-G and COSMOS), we already capture a broad band
of possible mid-Holocene temperature and precipitation patterns in this study.
4.4
Interpretation of the 6 ka δ 18 O anomalies
From this study the ECHAM5-wisoCCSM seems to be the
best climate model setup to simulate stalagmite data from
Europe. The modeled patterns of winter temperature, precipitation and δ 18 Oprec (Figs. 3, 4 and 5) display some
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
1794
Fig. 7. δ 18 Ocalcite difference 6 k-PD in Europe: (a) measured stalagmite date, (b) and (c) simulated by ECHAM5-wiso coupled with CCSM
using two different setups for calculating the amount of evaporation (setup 1 “ECHAM” and setup 2 “Thorntwaite”). The coloured dots
represent the cave locations and respective value for δ 18 Ocalcite (6 k-PD) according to the given colour bar.
similarities with a strong positive phase of the North Atlantic
Oscillation (NAO).
The basics of the NAO and the impact on the European
winter climate conditions are described in several publications (e.g. Hurrel, 2008; Jones et al., 1997; Wanner, 2001).
Trigo et al. (2002) and Baldini (2008) determined correlation
coefficients between the NAO index and precipitation, temperature and the δ 18 Oprec value for the present-day European
winter climate. According to these studies a positive mode
of the NAO (NAO+) results in a characteristic δ 18 Ocalcite pattern, as shown by Fig. 8.
During NAO+ strong westerlies from the Atlantic Ocean
transport a large amount of precipitation to mid- and northern Europe (accounting for German caves, caves in northern Alps, Garma Cave) during the winter months accompanied by higher winter temperatures and δ 18 Oprec values
compared to a negative NAO mode (NAO-). For Crag Cave
the correlations of temperature and δ 18 Oprec to NAO are
positive, but a correlation to the amount of winter precipitation is not detected (Baldini, 2008). High latitude locations (e.g. Korallgrottan) reveal a negative correlation between NAO+ and δ 18 Oprec and the amount of winter precipitation (Baldini, 2008). In southern Europe (south of the Alps)
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
winter precipitation originates primarily from the Mediterranean during NAO+ and is therefore reduced. During NAOprecipitation has its origin in the Atlantic. Temperature and
δ 18 Oprec are positively correlated to the NAO index due to
the diminished Atlantic influence (Baldini, 2008). In addition, a strong positive NAO phase is accompanied by a weak
Siberian anticyclone restraining cold air from the north to influence the climatic condition in southeast Europe (important
for Poleva Cave). The positive correlation to temperature and
anticorrelation to precipitation was shown by Winterhalder
(2011), Tomozeiu et al. (2002) and Tomozeiu et al. (2005).
The measured 6 ka 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) anomalies resemble the expected NAO+ induced 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD)
pattern to a large extent (Fig. 8). The stalagmites from Korallgrottan, B7 Cave, Spannagel Cave, Hölloch Cave and
Garma Cave show lower 6 ka δ 18 Ocalcite values compared
to present-day, while the samples from Crag Cave, Clamouse Cave, Ernesto Cave, Poleva Cave and Carburangeli
Cave reveal positive anomalies. δ 18 Ocalcite anomalies. Only
two caves (Bunker and Savi Cave) disagree with the expected 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) values. A possible reasons for
discrepancies are stalagmite kinetics, offsets between modelled and true seasonal climate parameters, determination
1795
Fig. 8. Scheme illustrating the impact of the positive NAO mode on the European pattern of temperature, precipitation, δ 18 Oprec and the
resulting, hypothetical δ 18 Ocalcite as discussed in the text. “+” represents an increase, “−” represents a decrease and the circle represents
invariance of the respective parameters. Coloured dots represent the measured 6 ka δ 18 Ocalcite anomalies from the different speleothems.
of evapotranspiration or the position of the cave in the grid
box as discussed above (Sect. 3.4). This characteristic, measured 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) pattern confirms the presence of
a positive mode of the NAO at 6 ka.
SST-based reconstructions of the NAO (Rimbu et al.,
2004), modelling studies of Lorenz and Lohmann (2004),
and a collection of proxy evidence summarised by Wanner
et al. (2008) also indicate a positive NAO phase during the
mid-Holocene. The same statement is supported by Jansen
et al. (2007) suggesting an overall temperature increase for
Europe compared to pre-industrial times.
In the simulated 1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) values from
ECHAM5-wisoCCSM , the predicted NAO+ related pattern
is also visible, showing a low δ 18 Ocalcite values for Garma
Cave, Hölloch Cave, Spannagel Cave, Bunker Cave, B7 Cave
and higher values in the Mediterranean region (Fig. 7).
Outliers are the δ 18 Ocalcite values from Korallgrottan and
Crag Cave. Although the ECHAM5-wiso output captures the
strong NAO+ phase pattern, the other seasons weaken the imprint of the winter season in the drip water and calcite δ 18 O
signal.
5
Summary and conclusions
We present in this study a new approach that aims to improve
our understanding of the climate factors influencing the oxygen isotope ratio measured in stalagmites (δ 18 Ocalcite ). We
force an Oxygen isotope Drip water and Stalagmite Model
(ODSM) with climate variables (temperature, precipitation
amount and evapotranspiration) and oxygen isotope values
in precipitation (δ 18 Oprec ) computed by an isotope-enabled
atmospheric general circulation model (ECHAM5-wiso).
Present-day climate and δ 18 O values: we first test our
model approach (forcing the ODSM with ECHAM5-wiso
output values) by comparing modeled present-day climate
variables and oxygen isotope ratios in cave drip water
(δ 18 Odrip ) and δ 18 Ocalcite to measured values in seven wellmonitored European caves. The modeled European temperature, precipitation and δ 18 Oprec patterns in general capture
the observed patterns. Differences occurring at some cave
sites are presumably caused by (i) general offsets between
the averaged climate variables of the grid box and the respective values at the cave location or (ii) the different time
periods used for the ECHAM5-wiso simulation (45 yr) and
measurements (varies per cave, but often just a few years).
There is a good agreement between modeled and measured
δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite for six of the seven investigated European caves (Soylegrotta, Korallgrottan, Tartair Cave, Bunker
Cave, Katerloch Cave and Clamouse Cave). Consequently,
the observed spatial European pattern of the δ 18 Ocalcite values is very well represented by the modeled δ 18 Ocalcite . Analyzing the influence of the evapotranspiration amount as calculated by two different approaches on δ 18 Ocalcite yields a
mixed result: for three caves, the evaporation as directly computed by ECHAM5-wiso seems to be the better choice, while
for two other caves the evapotranspiration amount as calculated by the Thornthwaite equation fits better to the observations. For two caves, both setups give almost identical results.
A general preference of one of the setups can therefore not be
derived suggesting the application of both setups for future
research projects. Some discrepancies between modeled and
measured δ 18 Odrip and δ 18 Ocalcite values still remain, which
can probably occur due to small-scale local effects, the important, but difficult to compute, evapotranspiration, and in
Clim. Past, 8, 1781–1799, 2012
1796
case of δ 18 Ocalcite values by kinetic fractionation between
drip water and speleothem calcite.
Mid-Holocene (6 ka) changes: in the second part of this
study we compare ECHAM5-wiso and ODSM simulated
δ 18 Ocalcite changes between the mid-Holocene (6 ka) and
present-day to measured δ 18 Ocalcite values for twelve European caves. For this comparison, ECHAM5-wiso was driven
by mid-Holocene sea surface temperature and sea ice cover
extracted from transient Holocene simulations modeled by
three different fully coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models (CCSM, COSMOS, ECHO-G). The best representation of the climate condition at 6 ka before present
seems to be supplied by the ECHAM5-wisoCCSM simulation.
The T , P , and δ 18 Oprec values modeled in this setup yield
1δ 18 Ocalcite (6 ka-PD) values which resemble the observed
values of the European stalagmites. This indicates that the
boundary conditions of this setup represent more closely the
true European climate during the mid-Holocene. An interesting result of the mid-Holocene experiment is the apparent spatial δ 18 Ocalcite pattern across Europe. The measured
as well as modelled patterns suggest the presence of a pronounced positive mode of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The
terrestrial climate pattern which is related to a NAO+ mode
can be observed in the ECHAM5-wisoCCSM simulated climate parameters at 6 ka BP.
This study demonstrates that our approach to simulate
δ 18 Ocalcite values by using the ECHAM5-wiso atmosphere
general circulation model with explicit water isotope diagnostics as input for the ODSM is a helpful tool to understand
δ 18 Ocalcite changes of the past and will be a valuable tool to
investigate other past time slices as well. In the future we intend to simulate more Holocene time slices in combination
with as much stalagmite data as possible for an improved
evaluation of the presented model results. This will allow us
to assess whether the detected discrepancies at specific cave
sites between 6 ka model and stalagmite δ 18 Ocalcite data are
a temporally varying problem (stalagmite kinetics) or a systematic offset (for example, caused by the geographical position of the cave).
Acknowledgements. This work is funded by DFG grant 668
(DAPHNE).
Edited by: C. Spötl
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Simulated oxygen isotopes in cave drip water and speleothem

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