From Purgatory to the "Primavera": Some Observations on Botticelli

From Purgatory to the "Primavera": Some Observations on Botticelli and Dante
Author(s): Max C. Marmor
Source: Artibus et Historiae, Vol. 24, No. 48 (2003), pp. 199-212
Published by: IRSA s.c.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1483739
Accessed: 12-01-2016 17:12 UTC
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MAX C. MARMOR
FromPurgatoryto the Primavera:
Some Observationson Botticelliand Dante
Once more Botticelli and Dante
Since the rediscovery of Sandro Botticelliin the 19thcentury,1 several poets have responded in their verse to the
painter's elusive Primavera in the Uffizi [Fig. 1]2, and the
famous painting has been studied, with varying combinations
of sensitivity and learning, by more eminent art historians
than perhaps any other work of Renaissance art.3The chronicle of close readings, beginning with Aby Warburg's
"admirablelittlework"of 1893,4 would make for a fascinating
anthology of 20th-centuryart historical methodologies. If no
consensus about the painting's "meaning"has emerged, that
is attributableto a few key factors, above and beyond the
guild's generational need to rethinkthe meaning of masterpieces-and the real possibility that, as the philosopher F. H.
Bradley memorably said of metaphysics, art historical
hermeneutics is "the finding of bad reasons for what we
believe on instinct."
For one thing, scholars have been unable convincingly to
define the precise genre of the painting. With the Primavera
and related works, Botticelli seems to have helped define
a new genre that emerged in Italyin the 1470s, the monumental mythological painting. Hence the very novelty of the painting suggests that it cannot be wholly explained in terms of
established pictorial conventions, while, on the other hand,
only an understanding of those conventions, and of the rules
of decorum they both reflected and reinforced,can provide an
essential curb on the interpreter'simagination.5
Add to this the inescapably poetic character of the painting, which in its imagery and style is so evocative of the rich
pastoral tradition in western literature. On the reasonable
assumption that Botticelli was not technically a learned
painter-certainly not as learned by half as the erudite professors who mostly wrote about him in the 20th century-many
scholars have felt compelled to conclude that a painting as
richly resonant of literaryconventions as the Primaveramust
have been shaped fundamentally by the hand of a learned
"humanist adviser."6 But we have neither independent evidence that such an adviser existed, nor, finally, much direct
evidence concerning the scope of Botticelli's own learning.
We thus lack a sure cultural and intellectual context for the
paintingand its genesis.
And yet we do know something about Botticelli'spersonal
literaryculture. Much less, granted, than we know about the
learning and literarytastes of the relativelyfew Renaissance
artists who, unlike Botticelli, left a significant literarylegacy
(Alberti, Ghiberti, Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Durer), but
significantlymore than we usually know about the intellectual
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MAXC. MARMOR
c. 1482, tempera on wood, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
1) Sandro Botticelli, <<Primavera)>,
culture of early Renaissance artists.7For our earliest witnesses agree that Botticelli had a serious and abiding interest in
Dante, and their testimony receives ample confirmationfrom
several of his survivingworks. The purpose of this article is to
view the Primaverain the context of what we know, and what
we can reasonably surmise, about the artist's own literaryand
intellectualculture, and especially his lifelong engagement, as
reader,exegete and artist,with Dante's DivinaCommedia.
In his distinctly unsympathetic profile of the painter's life,
GiorgioVasari,impatientas always with behavior smacking of
a lack of professionalism on the part of his subjects, chides
Botticellifor his protracteddalliance with Dante. Botticelli,he
writes, "per essere persona sofistica commento una parte di
Dante, e figuro lo Infernoe lo mise in stampa, dietro al quale
consumo dimolto tempo: per il che non lavorando,fu cagione
di infinitidisordini alla vita sua."8 This has been charitably
translated as: "being a man of inquiring mind, he made
a commentary on part of Dante, illustratedthe Inferno, and
printedit; on which he wasted much of his time, bringing infinite disorder into his life by neglecting his work."9Horne rendered the introductoryphrase, "peressere persona sofistica,"
in a similarly genteel way, as "being of a restless turn of
mind."10But in context, it would be more faithfulto Vasari's
judgemental tone to adopt Lightbown's version: Botticelli,
Vasari wishes us to realize, was "a person of sophistical
mind."11
200
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TOTHEPRIMAVERA:
SOMEOBSERVATIONS
ANDDANTE
FROMPURGATORY
ON BOTTICELLI
That Botticelli literally wrote a "commentary" on even
a "part"of Dante nobody seriously believes today, though it is
noteworthythat in the second edition of his Lives (1568) Vasari
puts the same accusation into the mouth of one of the
painter's friends. Facetiously and anonymously accused by
Botticelliof heresy, his friend, upon learningthe identityof his
accuser, replies: "He [Botticelli] is the heretic, since without
a scrap of learning, and scarcely knowing how to read, he
plays the commentator to Dante and takes his name in
vain?"12Vasari'swords prompted KennethClark,writingtwenty-fiveyears ago, to remarkthat "as usual withVasari,a kindof
general truthtranscends his errors of detail. There is no doubt
that for at least twenty years Botticelli was obsessed by the
study of Dante."13And in fact we have abundant independent
evidence of Botticelli's deep and abiding interest in Dante,
which he shared with several of his fellow artists, especially
Leonardo, Michelangelo, and the Sangallos.14 One of Vasari's
more reliable contemporary sources, the so-called Anonimo
Magliabechiano, relates similarlythat Botticelli "painted and
worked with stories a Dante on vellum, for Lorenzo di
Pierfrancesco de' Medici, which was held to be a marvelous
thing."15The Anonimo is thought to be referringto the magnificent set of 92 drawings illustratingthe Divine Comedy, today
divided between the Berlin Museums (85 drawings) and the
VaticanLibrary(7 drawings), and usually dated to the 1490s.16
Horne observed early on that these drawings "show an
acquaintance with the poem, which would have been remarkable in any scholar of his day."17
Returningto Vasari's account, Botticelli'ssurviving Dante
illustrationswere never printed, neither are they confined to
the Inferno.Accordingly,Vasari's unambiguous assertion that
Botticelli "illustrated the Inferno, and printed it" is usually
taken to referto a much earliercampaign of Dante illustration,
undertaken in the late 1470s. For in the fall of 1481, just as
Botticelliwas called by Pope Sixtus IVto work on the interior
decoration of the Sistine Chapel in the company of Pietro
Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio,Cosimo Rosselli, and Luca
Signorelli, the first Florentineedition of the DivinaCommedia
was printed by Nicolo di Lorenzo della Magna, a deluxe production with an elaborate commentary by the dean of
QuattrocentoDante exegetes, professor of poetry and rhetoric
at the Studio Fiorentino, the great humanist Cristoforo
Landino.18A series of engravings illustratingthe early cantos
of the Inferno was provided, probably, by the goldsmith
Baccio Baldini. We know less than we could wish about the
genesis of the Landino Dante, but Baldini's uninspired prints
are certainly Botticellesque in all but the mediocrity of their
execution, and being confined to the Inferno answer to
Vasari's description.19 Moreover, Vasari's statement that
Botticelli executed his Dante illustrations"immediately"after
his returnfrom Rome, though clearly inaccurate,suggests that
his labor was connected with the LandinoDante. Forthis reason, most Botticelli scholars agree that the painter probably
provided the lost models for the Baldiniprints. Only nineteen
prints, illustratingthe first cantos of the Inferno,seem to have
been engraved. Probably,Botticelli'scall to Rome interrupted
workon the project.Whileall known copies have blankspaces
where the illustrationswere intended to go, few have more
than two or three illustrations,and the copy printedon vellum
and presented by Landino to the Florentine Signoria dispensed with the printsaltogether.
In sum, Botticelli's"obsession" with Dante probablytook
root in the course of the 1470s,20 evolving in tandem with
a commission to provide illustrationsfor the famous Landino
Dante, and then flowered independently into a twenty-year
engagement withthe poem, culminatingin the extensive set of
drawings now in Berlinand Rome.
From Purgatory to the Primavera?
Botticellischolars long assumed-and most still assumethat the Primavera,like the LandinoDante, was commissioned
as well as executed during the course of the late 1470s or, at
the latest, the early 1480s. Inthe early 16thcentury,Vasarisaw
the painting in the suburban villa at Castello previously the
propertyof Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici (1464-1503),
scion of the younger branch of the Medici family and cousin
and ward of Lorenzo the Magnificent-the same young man
who, judging from the testimony of the Anonimo
Magliabechiano,later commissioned Botticelli'ssurviving set
of Dante illustrations.The villaat Castello was remodeled in the
late 1470s for the younger Lorenzo, and accordingly scholars
long assumed that the Primaverawas commissioned in connection with the redecorationof the villa. However,inventories
of the Medici family properties, discovered and published in
the 1970s, suggest that the paintingin fact hung initiallyabove
a sofa bed (lettuccio) on the first floor of his urban Florentine
residence, on the Via Larga(now Cavour),and not at his country estate.21 Horst Bredekamp has recently emphasized that
the evidence of these inventoriescalls traditionalassumptions
about the date of the commission into question. He furtherproposes that the paintingbelongs on stylistic grounds to the mid1480s, and especially that Botticelli's precise classicizing
imagery betrays his study of an ensemble of antiquities the
artist can only have encountered during his Sistine sojourn.22
Michael Rohlmann,by contrast, has recently marshaled contextual evidence suggesting that the Primaverawas, as has
201
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MAXC. MARMOR
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indeed often been suspected, commissioned in connection
with Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici's marriage to
Semiramide Appiani in July 1482. He argues furtherthat the
painting must therefore be understood in the context of contemporary domestic decorative and pictorial conventions,
especially those associated with marriage.This theory, in support of which Rohlmannadduces stylistic as well as historical
arguments, has also been championed by FrankZollner and
has the virtueof situatingthe Primaverawithina generic interpretivecontext of the kindwe have so far lacked.23Even in the
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Staatliche Museen, Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin.
absence of a consensus about the stylistic evidence and the
date of the commission, one might observe that if the painting
was in fact initially commissioned in connection with the
patron'sbetrothal,its execution mightwell have been interrupted or delayed, like Botticelli'swork on the LandinoDante, by
the artist'sSistine commission, much as the wedding itselfwas
delayed by a death in the family.24And Botticelli's Roman
sojourn,and with it his firstexposure to the EternalCity'santiquities, might in turn have fundamentally shaped the
Primavera'simagery,as Bredekampproposes.25
202
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TOTHEPRIMAVERA:
SOMEOBSERVATIONS
ON BOTTICELLI
ANDDANTE
FROMPURGATORY
Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici seems to have
shared Botticelli's keen and abiding interest in Dante. As
noted, the wealthy young Medici is commonly assumed, on
the basis of the Anonimo's explicit contemporarytestimony,to
have commissioned Botticelli's surviving Dante drawings.26
And Lightbownhas suggested that he already subsidized the
publication of the Landino Dante of 1481.27 If Lorenzo di
Pierfrancesco did cultivate, along with Botticelli,such an early
interest in Dante, we should not be entirely surprised to find
signs of that shared engagement in the Primavera. On the
other hand, if Bredekamp is right that the Primavera dates
from the mid-1480s, that makes it still more likely that
Botticelli's patron, by then an adult, had come to share the
artist's interest in Dante by the time the Primaverawas commissioned, since such a late date would place the painting
roughly within the timeframe generally associated with
Botticelli'swork on his survivingDante drawings.
That, at the very least, Botticelli himself eventually came,
in his own expressive imagination,to associate his Primavera
with Dante is as nearly demonstrable as such things can ever
be. Scarcely anyone who has studied Botticelli's surviving
illustrationsin Berlinand Rome has failed to note the kinship
in style, imagery,and sensibility between his evocative renderings of the EarthlyParadise (paradiso terrestre) [Fig. 2], as
described in the final cantos of the Purgatorio, and the
Primavera.Adolfo Venturiobserved the kinship eighty years
ago, writingthat "thePrimavera...come[s] to mind before this
exquisite dream, which with delicate lines, incised subtly as
with a diamond on crystal, forms, with poetic license, the forest, in Dante 'dense and living'."28Yves Batardwent still further thirtyyears later,asking, partlyrhetorically:Could the figure of Flora in the Primavera, "Botticelli's florid dancer,"
already be inspired by Dante?29
Among contemporary writers, Paul Barolsky deserves
great credit for taking this possibility more seriously than any
other scholar. Ina series of perceptive essays,30 he has drawn
attention to the striking similarities between Botticelli's painting and Dante's description of the EarthlyParadise.
Cantos xxvii-xxxiof the Purgatoriorepresent a distinct and
enchanting pastoral interludein Dante's narrative,in which the
barrenwasteland of the Infernoand Mt.Purgatoryyields, suddenly, to the EarthlyParadise's sylvan setting of lush verdure,
flowing waters, and gentle resonant breezes. This shift in
mood and setting is heralded in Canto xxvii,when Dante, having passed through the purifyingwall of fire, is overcome by
"sleep, which often knows the news before the event" ("il
sonno che sovente, anzi che 'I fatto sia, sa le novelle"). At
dawn the poet experiences a prophetic dream that anticipates
in its imagery his imminentarrivalin the EarthlyParadise:
Ne I'ora,credo, che de I'oriente
primaraggio nel monte Citerea,
che de foco d'amor par sempre ardente,
giovane e bella in sogno mi parea
donna vedere andar per una landa
cogliendo fiori;e cantando ...
(In the hour, I think, when [Venus] Cytherea, who seems
always burningwith the fire of love, first shone on the mountain from the east, I seemed to see in a dream a lady young
and beautifulgoing through a meadow, gatheringflowers, and
singing...) (Purg. xxvii, 94-99).31
This "lady young and beautiful"identifies herself as the
biblical Leah and introduces her silent companion as her sister Rachel, who sits motionless in the grass before a mirror.In
this, one of Dante's several "prophetic morning dreams,"32
both the sylvan setting and the encounter with Leah heraldthe
poet's imminententry into the EarthlyParadise, situated atop
Mt.Purgatory,and his encounter withthe resident spiritof that
other Eden. Landino, in his commentary,stresses the importance of Dante's dream of Leah and Rachel, which he insists is
not a mere dream but a "vision"(visione), for Dante's entire
EarthlyParadise narrative.33
The following day, Dante encounters the maiden Matelda,
singing as she gathers flowers among the trees, meadows,
and waters of the EarthlyParadise. In response to the poet's
query, Mateldaexplains the natureof this place, where flowers
bloom withoutseed and waters need no replenishing. She further explains that this is-"perhaps"-the very Golden Age
dreamed of by the poets of antiquity:
Quellich'anticamente poetaro
I'etade I'oroe suo stato felice,
forse in Parnaso esto loco sognaro.
Qui fu innocente I'umanaradice;
qui primaverasempre e ogne frutto;
nettare e questa di che ciascun dice.
(They who in olden times sang of the Age of Gold and its
happy state perhaps in Parnassus dreamed of this place. Here
the root of mankindwas innocent; here is always spring, and
every fruit;this is the nectar of which each tells) (Purg. xxviii,
139-144).
Dante commentators ever since the Renaissance have
observed that, in renderingthe EarthlyParadise, Dante draws
on the very classical poets he invokes expressly here.
Landino,always alert in his commentary to Dante's classical
literary sources, accordingly characterizes the Earthly
Paradise as a "loco amenissima," modeled closely and con203
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MAXC. MARMOR
sciously on the classical locus amoenus or pastoral pleasance.
Envisioning Dante's "divinaforesta, spessa e viva," we
moderns are hard put not to thinkof Botticelli'spainting,which
has helped define our very image of the pastoral in art. Butthe
kinship between Dante's imagery and Botticelli's is not confined to a common-and entirely conventional-sylvan setting. As we have seen, Dante's dream or "vision"of Leah in
Canto xxvii,in which he beholds "a lady young and beautiful,"
becomes a realityin the following canto with the first appearance of Matelda:
...e la m'apparve,si com elli appare
subitamente cosa che disvia
per maravigliatutto altro pensare,
una donna soletta che si gia
e cantanto e scegliendo fior da fiore
ond'era pintatutta la sua via.
(...and there appeared to me there, as appears of a sudden
a thing that for wonder drives away every other thought, a lady
all alone, who went singing and culling flowerfromflower,with
which all her path was painted) (Purg.xxviii,37-42).
Do not the goddesses in the Primavera-the three dancing Graces; Chloris, fleeing the embrace of Zephyr even as
she is transformed by his warm breath into Flora;and Venus,
presiding over the scene-inevitably come to mind upon
hearing Dante's description of Matelda? Their path, too, is
"painted"with flowers-more than forty kinds, according to
one scholar's botanical tabulation.34 And though none of
them culls flowers, Chloris is transformed before our eyes
into the very goddess Flora herself. As Barolsky observes,
even Dante's "soave vento," the sweet breeze that causes the
forest to sing, blows caressingly through the painting35thereby justifying, one might add, the fluttering draperies,
flowing hair, and other "animated accessories" (bewegtes
Beiwerk)that, as Warburgfirst observed, came to be so characteristic of Botticelli's, and the late Quattrocento's, style
all'antica.
The striking similarities between Botticelli's surviving
drawings of Dante's EarthlyParadise and the Primaveramight
only reflect the fact that over many years Botticellicame, like
most of us, to envision Dante's EarthlyParadise in light of his
own early "selva antica,"and surely they do demonstrate that
if nothing else. But Barolsky,following Batard,has suggested
persuasively that the currentof inspirationflowed both ways,
and that the Primavera itself betrays Botticelli's close and
enthusiastic study of Dante.36In the balance of this articlewe
willtryto take this propositiona step further.
Learning from Landino
Like most students of Dante through the centuries,
Botticelliand his contemporaries read the Divina Commedia
with the aid of a scholarly commentary-in this instance,
Cristoforo Landino's. The teacher of Angelo Poliziano and
MarsilioFicino and one of the leading Florentinehumanists,
Landino (1424-1492) lectured on Dante for perhaps twenty
years before finally publishing a magisterial commentary on
the poem, the commentary printed, as we have seen, alongside the poem in the first Florentineedition of the Commedia,
published in 1481-the very edition for which Botticelli is
thought to have provided preliminary drawings. Landino's
commentary immediately preempted the genre; no other
Florentine even attempted a commentary on Dante until the
mid-16thcentury, and Landino'scontinued to enjoy canonical
status throughoutthe Cinquecento.37
In his several extensive commentaries on the poets,
Landino adopted two distinct but overlapping interpretive
models.38As a humanist,he excelled in philological,linguistic,
rhetorical,and stylistic analysis, an approach that characterizes his commentaries on Persius (1462), Juvenal (1462),
Horace (1482), and Virgil(1488). Inother works, however,and
most especially in his Dante commentary, Landino sought,
above all, to elucidate for his fellow Florentinesthe esoteric,
philosophical sense of the text, by means of an allegorical
method deeply indebted to Florentine Renaissance
Neoplatonism. Early on, Landino had encouraged his pupil
Ficino to undertake his first Platonic composition, the lost
Institutionesad Platonicam disciplinam of 1456, which Ficino
ultimately dedicated to Landino.39 Eventually, the teacher
became the pupil, Landino emerging as one of the primary
proponents and popularizersof the Platonic revivalinaugurated by Ficino. In this role, Landino tailored Ficino's
Neoplatonism to fit his own criticaland philosophical agenda.
Characteristically,Landinoincorporatedin the Proemio to the
1481 Dante a congratulatoryepistle from Ficino, in which the
philosopher toasts his former teacher's accomplishment and
the exiled poet's glorious returnto Florence.40
The defining philosophical theme of Landino's Dante
commentary is one that engaged Landino throughout his
career: the soul's moral and spiritual pilgrimage from what
Landino called, emulating the ancients, the vita voluptuosa,
through the vita activa, to the vita contemplativa. This key
theme was already elaborated in Landino's reading of the
Aeneid, first presented in Books IIIand IVof his Disputationes
Camaldulenses, composed around 1472 and published in
1480.41 And while Landino subjugated his interest in this
theme to a more strictlyphilologicaltreatmentof the Aeneid in
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SOMEOBSERVATIONS
ON BOTTICELLI
ANDDANTE
TOTHEPRIMAVERA:
FROMPURGATORY
his full-length commentary (1488), he made it a keystone of
his commentaryon Dante.
Landinohimselfobviouslywanted readersof his Dantecommentaryto see his previousallegoricalreadingof the Aeneid as
of the DivinaCommedia:
a preludeto his interpretation
Ora perche havevo novellamente interpretato,et alle latine
lettere mandato I'allegorico senseo della virgiliana
Eneide, guidicai non dovere essere inutilea miei cittadini,
ne ingiocondo, se con quanto potessi maggiore studio et
industriasimilmente invenstigassi gl'arcani et occulti ma
al tutto divinissimi sensi della Comedia del fiorentino
poeta Danthe Alighieri;et chome el latino poeta in latina
lingua havevo expresso, chose el toscano in toscana
interpretassi.42
Now because I had recently interpreted,and rendered in
Latin,the allegorical meaning of Virgil'sAeneid, I judged
that it would not be useless to my fellow citizens, nor
unpleasant, if I similarly investigated, with further study
and effort, the arcane and occult but supremely divine
meanings of the Comedia of the Florentine poet Dante
Alighieri;and as I had expressed the Latinpoet in Latin,so
now I would interpretthe Tuscan poet in the Tuscan language.
Thus the Proemio to Landino'sDante commentary.In the
commentaryitself, Dante, accordingly,assumes the role previously played by Aeneas, and his journey,too, is said to symbolize the soul's moral and spiritualpilgrimage (Aeneas' "itinerarium animae") from the knowledge of sin in the Inferno,
through purification in the Purgatorio, to the "contemplatio
rerumdivinarum"in the Paradiso. Landinoconsistently traces
this pilgrimageacross recurringtracks of sylvan imagery,interpretingDante's "selva oscura" at the beginning of the poem as
an allegory of the vita voluptuosa and the EarthlyParadise at
the end of the Purgatorioas the setting for the perfected vita
activa. Finally,Dante ascends to the vita contemplativa in the
Paradiso, receivingthe vision of divine perfection.
As Landino proudly observes, his commentary on Dante,
unlike his previous commentaries on the poets, is composed
in the vernacular.One cannot overemphasize the importance
of this gesture. As Arthur Field has remarked, "Landino's
1481 commentary on Dante marked the high point of
Florentine Quattrocento Neoplatonism in its volgare expression"; and he adds that "Platonism was indeed available
through Dante to every Florentinewho was able to read and
who could afford to buy a book."43That, incidentally,seems
to have been true of quite a few Florentines, since the
Landino Dante was issued in a first edition of 1200 copies.44
Field observes further that "Florentine Platonism, however,
had already embraced Dante for at least two decades, from
the time of Landino's first lectures on the Divine Comedy."45
For in fact Landino's allegorical Dante commentary was the
culmination of a prolonged, public engagement with the text
and its philosophical meaning.46Landino'sfellow Florentines,
Botticelli and his young patron among them, did not have to
wait until 1481 to become familiarwith his allegorical reading
of the Commedia.
Returningto Botticelli's Primaveraand its relationshipto
Dante's EarthlyParadise, what "arcaniet occulti ma al tutto
divinissimi sensi", what "arcane and occult but supremely
divine meanings," does Landinodiscover in Dante's account
of the Earthly Paradise? Landino's reading of this crucial
episode depends fundamentally upon his understanding of
Dante's narrativetechnique. Landinoobserves that the poet's
entry into the EarthlyParadise and his encounter with Matelda
were propheticallyforeshadowed in the poet's "vision"of Leah
and Rachel, in which, as we have seen, he beholds Leah
"going through a meadow gathering flowers and singing,"
while her sister sits motionless before a mirror(Purg. xxvii,
98f.) In medieval biblical exegesis as in previous Dante commentaries, Leah and Rachel were invariablyregarded as types
of the active and contemplative lives. Dante invites this interpretation when he has Leah explain that "she with seeing, I
with doing am satisfied" ("leilo vedere, e me I'ovrareappaga")
(Purg. xxvii, 107f.). Landino takes occasion several times to
affirmand expand upon this conventional interpretation,particularlyin his long discussion of Rachel at Infernoii, 100ff.47
Returningto this theme in connection with the dream of Leah
in the Purgatorio,Landinoagain contrasts the vita activa and
the vita contemplativa, harkeningback to his previous discussion:
...ma in questo luogo stimo ponga Lya per dinotare che
I'huomo gia purgato d' vittii s'exerciti nel paradiso terrestre, cioe nella mortalevita, nella vita activa, secondo le
virtucivili, et secondo la christiana religone, in forma che
essendo stato buono cittadino in questa Hierusalemcitta
terrena, possiamo salire a Hierusalemcitta superna, dove
non e Lyama Rachel, idest la vita contemplativa...48
...but in this place, I submit, he situates Leah to indicate
that man, purged of vices, exercises himself in the earthly
paradise, that is, in mortallife, in the vita activa, in accordance with civic virtueand according to the Christianreligion, in such a way that having been a good citizen of this
earthly Jerusalem, we can ascend to the heavenly
Jerusalem, where we find not Leah but Rachel, that is the
vita contemplativa...
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Landinothus explicitlyidentifies the EarthlyParadise with
the vita activa,49and he goes on to explain to the reader that
Matelda,the spirit of the place, is herself the perfect embodiment of the vita activa, as anticipated in the poet's vision of
Leah:
Per questa donna intende la vita activa et chiamala
Mathelda.... Adunque... in questo principio del paradiso
delle delitie, nel quale costituisce la vita activa, finge
trovare Mathelda, la quale in quella congiunse le virtu
civile con la vera religione christiana. Pone che sia sola
non perche la vita activa sia in solitudine, ma per
dimostrare, che anchora in queste e disbisogno assidua
meditatione...50
By this lady he means the vita activa and he calls her
Matelda... Thus... at the beginning of the paradise of
delights, in which he situates the vita activa, he has us find
Matelda, in whom are conjoined civic virtue and the true
Christianreligion. He says she is alone not because the
vita activa is solitary,but to show that in this, too, there is
need of assiduous meditation...
Inthis passage, Landinoemphasizes his profoundconviction that the perfected vita activa is a life in which "civicvirtue
and the true Christianreligion"-that is, the vita contemplativa51--areconjoined, in a precariousbut essential balance that
itself demands "assiduous meditation." Landino clearly
believed that a union of the two "formsof life"was essential to
moraland civic well-being,and in this passage, as no doubt in
his public lectures on Dante over the preceding two decades,
he forcefullydefines his stance in a philosophical debate that
engaged Renaissance humanists for decades.52 Yet Landino
remains fully mindfulthat even this EarthlyParadise, in which
civic virtueand the contemplativelife are harmoniouslyunited,
is ultimatelyno more, but also no less, than an enchanting
episode on the soul's pilgrimage.Forthis fugitivemomentmust
ultimatelyyield to the soul's pursuitof "theheavenlyJerusalem,
where we find not Leah but Rachel,that is the vitacontemplativa"-much as Mateldayields to Beatricein the Paradiso.
One of the few things Botticelli scholars do generally
agree about when it comes to the Primaverais that, despite its
characteristically episodic composition, a significant visual
syntax defines the sequence of Botticelli's figures and their
unorthodox right-to-left movement.53 An episode of
unabashed erotic pursuitat the rightyields, underthe celestial
influence of Venus, to a scene of contemplation at the left, as
Mercury gazes up at the heavens, dispersing, with his
caduceus, tiny wisps of mist that linger in the treetops and
obscure his view. WithLandino's interpretationof the Earthly
Paradise fresh in our minds, it is tempting to see in the
Primaveraprecisely what Landino beheld in Dante's Earthly
Paradise: an allegory of the soul's pilgrimage from the vita
voluptuosa to the vita contemplativa.And if Dante formulates
his allegory in terms of a pastoral interludeset in a paradiso
terrestre embodying, Landinotells us, the perfected vita activa, surely the same might be said of Botticelli's Primavera,
itself a variation all'antica on the same pastoral theme.
Moreover, Landino, as we shall see, expressly associates
Dante's Earthly Paradise episode with Venus, pronouncing
that "celestial Venus" has guided Dante throughout his pilgrimage, finally leading him to the Earthly Paradise. In the
Primavera,of course, Dante's "arcaneand occult but above all
most divine meaning" is rendered explicit in the figure and
gesture of Botticelli'sVenus.
Seeing the Primaveraas a visual allegory of the soul's
passage from the vita voluptuosa, through the vita activa, to
the vita contemplativa helps explain the painting's curiously
episodic narrative structure. It also allows us to see the
Primaveranot as sui generis but as resonating with a central
theme in Quattrocentomoral philosophy. As a painted allegory, the Primaverasimultaneously alludes, in ways Botticelli's
circle would have appreciated, by its imagery and poetics to
Florence's own greatest poem and poet, welcomed back from
exile in 1481 through the vehicle of a glorious printededition,
and also to the key role played in this act of repatriationby
Cristoforo Landino. Finally, Botticelli's floral allegory surely
alludes, too, as Bredekamp has suggested, to Florence
itself,54an allusion we should see as advancing that city as the
setting for a new, perfected vita activa, a new paradiso terrestre.
"Venere celeste lo conduca"
But if the Primaverais a visual variationon a theme from
Dante, inspired by Landino's interpretation of the Earthly
Paradise episode, the question remains why Botticellielected
to present this variation all'antica, with a distinctive cast of
classical deities. The Landino Dante again points to an
answer. Cantos xxvii-xxviiiof the Purgatorio are, as is well
known, rich with allusions to classical mythology.These allusions are partand parcel of Dante's invocationand imitationof
the poets of antiquityin these very cantos. They also supply
Landino, in his commentary, with further opportunities to
assimilate Dante to Virgil,Christianityto Antiquity,and, especially, Dante's "verareligione christiana"to the "divinemeanings" of ancient mythology. Finally, these literary allusions
echo, in suggestive ways, the Primavera'sparticularpantheon.
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FROMPURGATORY
TOTHEPRIMAVERA:
SOMEOBSERVATIONS
ON BOTTICELLI
ANDDANTE
Venus, who of course is the central figure in Botticelli's
Primavera,is mentioned or alluded to three times, at critical
junctures in the "cantidi Matelda";but according to Landino,
the goddess is present throughout Dante's pilgrimage.
Dante's dream or "vision"of Leah occurs, as we have seen, at
dawn, "inthe hour when [Venus]Cytherea,who seems always
burningwith the fire of love, first shone on the mountainfrom
the east." Landino, closely attentive to Dante's narrative
devices, notes in this connection that Venus was also in the
ascendent when Dante first entered Purgatory.Referringthe
reader back to his commentary on Purgatoryi, he takes this
rhetoricalstructureas a powerfulconfirmationthat it is "celestial Venus"who leads the poet on his spiritualpilgrimage. "In
questo, Dante dimostra, che Venere celeste lo conduca."55
That Venus leads Dante on his pilgrimage is, to Landino,
amply confirmed by Dante's subsequent references to the
goddess. In Canto xxviii,when Dante first beholds Matelda,he
addresses her as "fairlady, who do warm yourself at love's
beams" (bella donna, che a' raggi d'amore ti scaldi). Again in
the same canto, when Matelda raises her eyes to Dante, the
poet says that:
Non credo che splendesse tanto lume
sotto le ciglia a Venere, trafitta
dal figlio fuor di tutto suo costume.
(I do not believe that so great a light shone forth under the
eyelids of Venus, transfixedby her son against all his custom)
(Purg.xxviii,64-66).56
Dante's first address to Matelda in Canto xxviii contains
still further suggestive allusions to classical mythology. He
says that the "fairlady"reminds him of Proserpina, seized by
Pluto as she gathered flowers with her mother,who thus lost
her as she lost the Spring:
Tu mi fai remembrardove e qual era
Proserpinanel tempo che perdette
la madre lei, ed ella primavera(Purg.xxviii,49-51).
The rape of Proserpina is, strikingly, only one of three
episodes of erotic pursuit alluded to in connection with
Dante's initial encounter with Matelda. And the attendant
notion that somewhere Spring abides eternallyis also invoked
by Dante. "HereSpring is eternal,"Mateldasays, "quiprimavera sempre" (Purg.xxviii,143), echoing Dante's classical literary sources, and Landinoduly elaborates, in his commentary
on these verses, on the theme of a "perpetuaprimavera."57
In
this passage as in so many that define the imagery of these
cantos, Dante draws directly upon precisely the "antique
poets" who, since Warburg,have been invoked to account for
the precise classical imagery of the Primavera,in this case the
scene of erotic pursuitat the right,which seems to be an allegory of the vita voluptuosa, and in which the wind-god Zephyr
pursues the nymph Chloris, who is transformed before our
eyes into the goddess Flora.58
This scene is, as we have seen, balanced, at the left, by
Botticelli's liminal figure of Mercury,dispelling remnants of
mist that linger in the treetops, oblivious to the other characters in the painting. Many scholars have felt that Mercuryis
somehow miscast among the vernal company of the
Primavera.While Mercuryis not mentioned in the final cantos
of the Purgatorio,a metaphor used twice in close succession
by Matelda in Canto xxviii should be recalled. Matelda
explains the nature of the EarthlyParadise, proposing to "dispel the cloud" from the minds of the two poets, Dante and
Virgil(disnebbiar vostro intelletto) (Purg. xxviii,81). Again: "I
will clear away the mist that offends you" (purghero la nebbia
che ti fiede) (Purg. xxviii,90). Barolsky has noticed the relevance of this recurringmetaphorto the curious role of Mercury
in the Primavera.59Surely Botticelli's Mercury is a visual
metaphoralludingto the vita contemplativa.
In the Primavera,of course, Venus' son, Cupid, aims his
dart, not at Venus, "against all his custom," but at the centermost of the three Graces, who dance in a circle between
Venus and Mercury.The Graces are not mentioned by Dante in
his account of the Earthly Paradise, but following his
encounter with Matelda,the poet comes upon three maidens
who, "showing themselves by their bearing to be of a higher
order,came forward,dancing to their angelic roundelay."The
three maidens are, as Landino observes, an allegory of the
Theological Virtuesof faith, hope, and charity.ForLandino,the
role of this triad of dancing maidens is to lead Dante, irreversibly, from the vita activa, briefly embodied alongside
Christianvirtue by Matelda,to the vita contemplativa, embodied, Landinotells us, by Beatrice: "Beatricecontiene la dottrina della contemplativa."60 Now by general consensus,
Botticelli'ssurvivingdrawing in Berlin,depicting Dante's three
maidens, dancing to their "roundelay,"is directly inspired by
the Primavera'sthree dancing Graces [Fig. 2]. Perhaps the
Graces in the Primaverawere, in theirturn,already inspired by
the unforgettable imagery of Dante's three dancing maidens,
who beseech Beatrice to "turnyour holy eyes upon your faithful one.... For grace do us the grace..." ("per grazia fa noi
grazia")(Purg.xxxi, 133ff.)61
I have suggested that the centraltheme of Dante's Earthly
Paradise episode-according to Landino,a vision of the perfect, if fugitive, vita activa, markinga crucial turning point in
the soul's pilgrimagefrom the vita voluptuosa to the vita con207
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MAXC. MARMOR
templativa-fundamentally shaped the similarly episodic
structureof the Primavera.In the painting,the beholder's eye
is invitedby "celestialVenus"to take in, at a single glance, the
passage from the dynamic scene of erotic pursuitat the right
(vitavoluptuosa) to the scene of contemplationat the left (vita
contemplativa).The same episode, rich in allusions to classical poetry and mythology-allusions observed, emphasized,
and elaborated upon by Landino in his commentary-might
also have reinforcedBotticelli'suse of selected classical poetic texts to define the painting's precise cast of characters and
their characteristic poses and gestures. But what remained
fugitive in Dante's narrative-an elusive vision of the Earthly
Paradise-is rendered permanentlyavailable to the beholder,
and in the first instance to the painter's patron, in Botticelli's
Primavera.
Botticelli's Paragone
To conclude, those writerswho, from WalterPaterto Paul
Barolsky, have sensed a significant kinship between
Botticelli's visionary Primavera and Dante's vision of the
Earthly Paradise are right: the painting is dyed deep with
Dante's imagery and poetics, reflecting Botticelli's own, and
perhaps also his patron's,abiding engagement withthe Divina
Commedia. Butthe Primavera'srelationshipto Dante seems to
go beyond mere community of imagery and style, however
evocative, and I wish to suggest that the paintingwas directly
inspired by Landino's reading of Dante's Earthly Paradise
episode. In both we are invited to ponder the soul's spiritual
and moral pilgrimage from the vita voluptuosa, through the
vita activa, to the vita contemplativa. And both offer an
enchanting vision of that brief passage in which the soul
achieves, under the guidance of "celestial Venus"and within
a perfect paradiso terrestre, a fugitive harmony between the
vita activa and the vita contemplativa.
These brief "observations"on Botticelli and Dante leave
unanswered some key questions. To whom did Botticelli
address his painted allegory of the soul's moral and spiritual
pilgrimage, set within an Earthly Paradise conceived
all'antica? The answer is, surely, the young Lorenzo di
Pierfrancesco de' Medici,as well, perhaps, as his bride-to-be,
Semiramide Appiani, in both of whom all Florentines surely
hoped to see, variously embodied, civic and political virtue
and the "trueChristianreligion,"the vita activa and the vita
contemplativa, conjoined within a flourishing Florentine
EarthlyParadise.62
But what of Botticelli'selusive "humanistadviser"?Could
Landino, whose close engagement with contemporary
Florentinepaintingis well known and indeed most in evidence
precisely in his commentary on Dante, have himself directly
shaped the artist's attempt to devise a visual allegory representing the very themes Landino found in Dante's Earthly
Paradise?63However that may be, Botticelli'svisual allegory
does seem to offer valuable evidence of the keen interest the
leading Florentine artists took in Dante's poem, an interest
profoundly shaped by Landino's commentary, but of which
our knowledge is still tantalizinglyindirect.
Leonardo'sinterest in Dante, for example, has never been
adequately studied, but seems on the basis of his surviving
manuscripts and drawings to have been of some signifcance;64and it probablydefined itself, at least initially,vis-a-vis
Botticelli'sepic engagement withthe poem. There is some evidence that this interesttook shape, like Botticelli's,as early as
the 1470s,65 and Leonardo might well have witnessed
Botticelliworkingon the preparatorydrawingsfor the Landino
Dante. Leonardo is also thought to have studied Botticelli's
surviving Dante drawings of the 1490s, which he could have
known either through the artist himself or through Lorenzo di
Pierfrancesco de' Medici,with whom Leonardowas in contact
between 1500 and 1503, the year in which the young Medici
died.66It has been suggested that some of the most beautiful
drawings from Leonardo's later period (ca. 1503-1506), and
especially his bewitchingPointingLadyat WindsorCastle, traditionally associated with masqueraders, are in fact illustrations of Dante's EarthlyParadise episode as interpreted by
Landino,67and that in these drawings Leonardosought especially to demonstrate his superiorityto Botticellias an illustrator of Dante.68Leonardoseems to have been especially captivated by Dante's descriptions of natural processes, and his
PointingLadyis particularlyremarkablefor its treatmentof the
landscape setting in which "Matelda"appears.69 Leonardo's
manuscripts, of course, contain several friendly criticisms of
Botticelli,especially of his abilityto render landscape. Could
he have been trying, in his drawing, to trumpthe allegorical,
Dantesque landscape of Botticelli'sPrimavera?
Michelangelo,too, is reportedto have fully illustratedwith
pen drawings a wide-marginedcopy of the LandinoDante, no
longer extant.70 A well-known anecdote related by the
Anonimo Magliabechiano suggests not only that both
Leonardo and Michelangelo were popularly regarded as
learned students of Dante but that the artistic rivalrybetween
the two artists mightwell have extended to the study and interpretation of the Divina Commedia. In this anecdote, the
Anonimo, whose description of Botticelli's surviving Dante
illustrationshas been cited above, relates how a group of educated men, engaged in a conversation outside the Palazzo
Spini, glimpsed Leonardopassing by and invited him to eluci-
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FROM PURGATORYTO THE PRIMAVERA:
SOME OBSERVATIONSON BOTTICELLI
AND DANTE
date a few difficult lines of Dante. When Michelangelo turns
up, Leonardo declines their request, deferring (perhaps with
sarcasm suppressed by our source?) to his great rival and
eliciting a characteristically sarcastic riposte.71 Leonardo's
closest study of Dante, as well as this emblematic encounter,
seemingly occurred in the first decade of the 16th century, during the period of intense rivalry when the two masters were
working alongside one another in the Palazzo Vecchio,
Leonardo on the Battle of Anghiari, Michelangelo on the Battle
of Cascina; perhaps it was even prompted in part by this very
rivalry.
Some memory of heated artistic competition in the interpretation of Dante might linger in Vasari's dismissive if vicarious description of Botticelli as a "persona sofistica" who,
"without a scrap of learning ... plays the commentator to
Dante." Could the Primavera be Botticelli's attempt at
a "paragone": a tour de force intended to demonstrate that the
painter can-as Leonardo would later seek to demonstrate in
his writings and, perhaps, also in his Pointing Lady-rival the
poet, in this instance by powerfully evoking an allegorical paradiso terrestre all'antica, resonant with classical and
Christian paradises lost?72
I met Philipp Fehl in 1992, thus relativelylate in his long and
productivelife and at a point when he and Rainawere "nel mezzo del
cammin" of their importantwork on the Cicognara Library.It was
a shared love of early art literaturethat broughtus together. I had written a comparativereview essay on the various editions of Schlosser's
Die Kunstliteratur,
for the BurlingtonMagazine, which had caught his
eye. He invitedme to speak at a conference devoted to the subject of
the historyof art librariesand the bibliographyof art.
Characteristically,his generosity blinded him to the fact that I had no
business appearing on the same panel with scholars of the stature of
E. H. Gombrich,Francis Haskell, and... Philipp Fehl. Subsequently, I
was honored to help with the Cicognara project in a very small wayreallylimitedto occasionally thinkingtogether about such librarianish
things as cataloging protocols and standards and to expressing abiding enthusiasm for this remarkable scholarly labor of love. Philipp
was, and will be remembered as, a great humanist like his beloved
FranciscusJunius, and he will be missed as a human being.
Iam most gratefulto FrancisAmes-Lewis,Paul Barolsky,Horst
Bredekamp, Caroline Elam, Creighton Gilbert,and Ralph Lieberman
for reading and commenting upon previous drafts of this article.The
arguments presented here were initially developed in my thesis,
Antiquityand the Sistine sojourn in the art of Sandro Botticelli and
Domenico Ghirlandaio(CaliforniaState University,Northridge,1982),
supervised by Donald S. Strong.
1 M. Levey, "Botticelliand nineteenth-centuryEngland",Journal
of the Warburgand CourtauldInstitutes 23 (1966), pp. 291-306; F.
Kermode, "Botticellirecovered," in his Forms of attention, Chicago,
1985, pp. 3-31.
2 See especially R. Clements, "Botticelli's Primavera and
Venere:eighteen literaryreadings,"Forumitalicum 13, no. 4 (1979),
pp. 439-453 and, more recently,P. Barolsky,"Theethereal voluptas of
Botticelli,"Konsthistorisktidskrift64, no. 2 (1995), pp. 65-70.
3 The classic monograph on Botticelliremains H. Home's
magisterial monograph of 1908, reprintedas Sandro Botticelli,painter of
Florence, Princeton, 1981. The most importantrecent monograph is
R. Lightbown,Sandro Botticelli, 2 vols., Berkeley, 1978, with a catalogue raisonne, an appendix of documents and full bibliography
throughthe 1970s.
4 Home, p. 54, referring to Warburg's seminal dissertation,
"SandroBotticelli'sGeburtder Venus und Fruhling,"(1893), reprintedin
A. Warburg,GesammelteSchriften,Leipzigand Berlin,1932; reprinted,
Nendeln, 1969, I, pp. 5-68, 308-328, and in Warburg,Ausgewahlte
Schriftenund Wurdigungen,ed. D. Wuttke,2nded., Baden-Baden,1980,
pp.11-64. Englishtrans. in A. Warburg,Therenewalof pagan antiquity:
contributionsto the culturalhistoryof the EuropeanRenaissance, ed.
by KurtForster,Los Angeles, 1999, pp. 88-156, 405-431. Inthis articleI
will make no attemptto cite the literatureon the Primaveracomprehensively, since to do so would be to row hopelessly against a currentof
footnotes. Foran initialorientationto the literature,see the ample references in recent articles by M. Rohlmann,"Botticellis'Primavera':zu
Anlass, Adressat und Funktionvon mythologischen Gemalden im
FlorentinerQuattrocento,"
Artibuset Historiae17, no. 33 (1996), pp. 97132, and F Zollner,"Zuden Quellen und zur Ikonographievon Sandro
Botticelli's 'Primavera,"'Wiener Jahrbuch fur Kunstgeschichte 50
(1997), pp. 131-158, 357-366; Zollner's argument is summarized in
English in his Botticelli:images of love and spring, Munichand N.Y.,
1998, pp. [32]-67. Influentialdiscussions of the Primaveracited below
include: E. H. Gombrich,"Botticelli'sMythologies:a study in the neoplatonic symbolism of his circle" (1945), reprinted in Gombrich,
Symbolic images, London, 1972, pp. 31-81; M. Levi d'Ancona,
Botticelli's Primavera:a botanical interpretationincluding astrology,
alchemy and the Medici, Florence, 1983; C. Dempsey, Theportrayalof
love: Botticelli'sPrimaveraand humanistcultureat the time of Lorenzo
the Magnificent,Princeton,1992; and H. Bredekamp,SandroBotticelli,
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MAXC. MARMOR
La Primavera:Florenz als Garten der Venus, Frankfurta. M., 1988,
proposing a political interpretationin which the painting becomes
a document of the strainsbetween the two branches of the Medicifamily. For the recent restorationof the Primavera,see U. Baldiniet al.,
Primavera:the restorationof Botticelli'smasterpiece, New York,1986.
5 Gombrichinsisted early on that sound
methodology, and any
hope of interpretivetact, requires close attention to the question of
genre and contemporary conventions of decorum. On this general
subject see now the essays assembled in F. Ames-Lewis et al., ed.,
Decorum in Renaissance narrativeart, London, 1992.
6 Bredekamp,Primavera,is an exception, arguing that Botticelli
was, together with his patron,capable of conceiving "hisindependent
personificationof Spring... withoutfurtherassistance" (p. 61).
7 See F. Ames-Lewis, The intellectual life of the early
Renaissance artist, New Haven, 2000 for a thoughtful study of the
early Renaissance artist'sintellectualengagement with his craft.
8 G. Vasari,Le vite de' piu eccelenti pittori,scultori, et architettori nelle redazioni del 1550 e 1568, ed. by. Paola Barocchi and
Rosanna Bettarini, 6 vols. (text and commentary vols.), Florence,
1966-87 (henceforthVite), III,p. 516. The text is identical in both the
first (1550) and second (1568) editions.
9 G. Vasari, Lives of the painters, sculptors, and architects,
trans. by Gaston Du C. de Vere; now handilyavailable with an introduction and notes by David Ekserdjian, 2 vols., New York, 1996
(henceforthLives), I, p. 538.
10 Horne,Botticelli, 76.
p.
11 Lightbown,I, 56, adding that "Vasari'sdescription of Botticelli
as 'sophistical'appears to implythat Botticellihad a speculative, curious, searching intellect, one which in the judgement of some was
over-subtleand over-confident"(pp. 57-58).
12 Vasari,Lives, I, p. 541; "e bene e egli eretico, poi che senza lettere comenta Dante e mentova il suo nome invano"(Vite,III,p. 519).
13 K. Clark, Drawings by Sandro Botticelli for Dante's Divine
Comedy after the originals in ther Berlin Museums and the Vatican,
New York,1976, Introduction,p. 8. A. Parronchi,in his importantarticle, "Comegli artistileggevano Dante,"Studidanteschi 43 (1966), pp.
97-134, speaks similarlyof "unavera ossessione" (p. 120). Lightbown,
I, p. 56, writes similarlythat "throughouthis life Botticellispent much
of his leisure working out a visual commentaryto the poem," and it
seems likelythat in oral traditionthat "visualcommentary"gradually
became the written"commentary"of Vasari'saccounts.
14 For Botticelli's relation to Dante see, amid a vast literature,
Home, Botticelli, p. 189-255, and Lightbown,Botticelli, I, p. 147-205
(with bibliography). Significant monographs include L. Donati, 1I
Botticelli e le prime illustrazionidella Divina Commedia, Florence,
1962, and A. Parronchi,BotticellifraDante e Petrarca,Florence, 1985,
the latter proposing that Botticelli'sillustrationsof Dante, discussed
below, were related to a project for the interior decoration of the
Duomo in Florence, a proposal first advanced in the author's "Come
gli artisti leggevano Dante,"and later summarized in C. Gizzi, ed.,
Botticellie Dante, Milano,1990, a volume that contains several significant essays, as does H.-T. Schulze Altcappenberg, ed., Sandro
Botticelli: the drawings for Dante's Divine Comedy, London, 2001;
also available in Italianand Germaneds. For Dante and Renaissance
artists in general, see especially Parronchi, "Come gli artisti
leggevano Dante,"passim; A. Chastel, Art et humanisme a Florence
au temps de Laurentle Magnifique,3rded., Paris, 1981, p.106-120; D.
Parker, ed. "Visibile parlare: Dante and the art of the Italian
Renaissance," an entire volume of Lectura dantis 22-23 (Spring/Fall
1998); and P. Sabbatino, ed. Dante e il Rinascimento:rassegna bibliografica e studi in onore di Aldo Vallone,Firenze, 1994.
15 1Icodice
magliabechiano cl.xvii. 17, ed. C. Frey,Berlin,1892,
reprintedFarnborough,1969, p. 90. Cited in Home's trans., Botticelli,
p. 190.
16 Registered by M. Colomb de Batines, Bibliografiadantesca,
Prato, 1845-46, I1,p. 174. A superb facsimile ed. by P. Dreyer,Dantes
DivinaCommediamit den llustrationenvon SandroBotticelliReg. Lat.
1896, Zurich1986. Clark'sed. (above) remains more readilyavailable.
Lightbown,I, p. 148, has not persuaded scholars that the Anonimois
referringto a lost set of drawingsand that the Berlin-Vatican
drawings
reflectonly Botticelli'spersonal engagement with Dante.
17
Home, Botticelli,p. 251.
18 Forthe LandinoDante see: L. Hain,Repertoriumbibliographicum, 2 vol., Milan,1948, no. 5946; Colomb de Batines, I, p. 36ff.; G.
Mambelli,Gliannali delle edizioni dantesche, Bologna, 1931, p. 17ff.
19 For the engravings see especially A. M. Hind, Early Italian
engraving,7 vols., London,1938-48, 1,p. 99ff.
20 Horne,Botticelli,p. 76f., writes that "alreadyin 1481, Botticelli
had spent no littletime over the study of Dante:and, perhaps, in the
phrase of his father's 'Denunzia' [tax statement] returned in 1480,
'lavorain casa quando evole' [he works at home when he has a will],
we may detect an allusion to this time of apparent idleness, to the
days and weeks squandered in this vain study, as his familyno doubt
thought, and as Vasari,who seems to preserve a traditionof the opinion then current in the workshops, records" (bracketed comments
added). For a recent discussion of "Le due serie di disegni del
Botticelli per la Commedia,"see P. Bellini's essay with that title in
Gizzi,Botticellie Dante, p. 41-50.
21 For the inventories see J. Shearman, "Thecollections of the
younger branch of the Medici,"Burlingtonmagazine 117 (January
1975), pp. 12-25, and W. Smith, "On the original location of the
Primavera,"Art bulletin 57 (March 1975), pp. 31-40. R. Cocke,
"Botticelli'sPrimavera:the myth of Medici patronage,"Apollo 136
(1992), pp. 233-238, uniquelydoubts that the young Medicihad anything to do withthe painting.
22 Bredekamp,Primavera,p. 22ff. argues that during his Roman
sojourn, Botticellistudied closely the antiquitiesassembled and displayed in the late Quattrocentointhe del Bufalocollection, and that he
derived direct visual inspiration for the figural imagery of the
Primaverafrom this study. His argument rests upon the persuasive
evidence adduced by H. Wrede, DerAntikengartender del Bufalobei
der Fontana Trevi,Mainz,1982 (TriererWinckelmannprogramme,
4),
esp. pp.17-18.
23 M. Rohlmann, "Botticellis'Primavera"',seconded by Zollner,
"Quellen,"passim.
24 Zollner,"Quellen,"p. 134 (with references), notes that it was
not unusual for wedding preparationsto take as much as two years,
that in this instance the first documentary evidence of a proposal
dates from as early as October 1480, and that the date of a wedding
commission did not necessarily coincide closely with the wedding
date.
25 The recent restorationof the Primaverashows that the painting
has very few pentimenti indeed and that the painterexecuted it with
great confidence once his design was sketched out (Baldini,
Primavera,p. 40f.). This suggests a lengthy preliminarystudy of the
details of its imageryand composition, a gestation period that might
well have occurred in Rome.
26
Horne,Botticelli,p. 51.
27
Lightbown,I, p. 56, states, without providinga documentary
source, that "Lorenzodi Pierfrancesco de' Medici, the Magnifico's
cousin, who was... Botticelli'sgreatest and most faithfulpatron,paid
the cost of printingand publishingLandino'sDante, a fact which may
210
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SOME OBSERVATIONSON BOTTICELLI
AND DANTE
FROM PURGATORYTO THE PRIMAVERA:
explain Botticelli's connection with its illustrations."Jane Roberts
makes the same assertion in her contributionto the exhibitioncatalog
Leonardoand Venice, Milan,1992, p. 292.
28 A.
Venturi,IIBotticelliinterpretedi Dante, Florence,1921, p. 99.
29 Y.
Batard,Dante, Minerveet Apollon:les images de la Divine
Comedie, Paris, 1952, p. 431, n. 9. Batarddoes not take up this question in Les dessins de Sandro Botticellipour la DivineComedie, Paris,
1952.
30 P. Barolsky,"Botticelli'sPrimaveraand the traditionof Dante,"
Konsthistorisktidskrift52 (1983), pp. 1-6; "Botticelli'sPrimaveraas an
allegory of its own creation,"Source: notes in the historyof art 13, no.
3 (spring 1994), pp. 14-19; "Theethereal voluptas of Botticelli,"previously cited; "Botticelli'sPrimaveraand the origins of the elegiac in
Italianrenaissance painting"(withAnne Barriault),Gazette des BeauxArts 128 (September 1996), pp. 63-70; "Matilda'shermeneutics,"
Lectura dantis 22-23 (spring/fall 1998), pp. 199-202; WalterPater's
Renaissance, UniversityPark, 1987, Chapter 13, "Botticelliand the
eternalvision of art"(incorporatingportionsof the firstarticleabove).
31 Dante is cited here in the accessible ed. and (prose) trans. of
Charles Singleton, Princeton,1977.
32 C. Speroni, "Dante's prophetic morning dreams," Studies in
philology45 (1981), pp. 50-59.
33 Landino,Comento, p. 1447, with reference to Purg. xxvii, 9496. All references to Landino'scommentaryon Dante are based on P
Procaccioli's admirable new critical ed.: Landino,Comento sopra la
Comedia, 4 vols., continuously paginated, Roma, 2001 (Edizione
nazionale dei commenti danteschi, 28) (henceforth Landino,
Comento). This ed. also conveniently reproduces (following p. 216)
Baldini's engravings from the copy in the Biblioteca Riccardiana,
Florence (Ed. Rare691).
34 Levid'Ancona,Botticelli'sPrimavera,p. 71ff.
35 Barolsky,"Botticelli'sPrimaveraand the traditionof Dante,"p. 4.
36 Barolsky,"Botticelli'sPrimavera,"
passim. Even Bredekamp,in
proposing a dynastic interpretationof the painting, acknowledges
(Primavera,p. 70f.) not only that Botticelli's extant drawings of the
EarthlyParadise reflect the imagery of the Primavera,but that the
paintingitself already betrays distinct signs of the painter's"previous
preoccupation"with Dante duringhis workon Landino'sedition.
37 For Landino's commentary see especially the authoritative
study by M. Lentzen,Studien zur Dante-Exegese CristoforoLandinos,
K61n, 1979; summary in Lentzen, "Cristoforo Landinos Dantekommentar"in Der Kommentarin der Renaissance, ed. A. Buck and
O. Herding,Boppard,1975, p.167-189. Fora criticaled. of the Proemio
to the Landino Dante see Procaccioli's ed. of the Comento, p. 219278; also R. Cardini'sed. of Landino'sScritticritici e teorici, 2 vols.,
Roma, 1974 (henceforth Landino,Scritti),I, p. 97-164. Landino'soration delivered, along with the presentation copy of his Dante edition,
to the Signoria is available in Procaccioli's ed. of the Comento as well
as in Lentzen, "DieOrationedi messere CristoforoLandinofiorentino
havuta alla illustrissima Signoria Fiorentina quando presento el
comento suo di Dante,"Romanische Forschungen80 (1968), pp. 530539 and in Lentzen,ed., Reden CristoforoLandinos, Munich,1974, p.
36-45. The standard biographical source on Landino remains A. M.
Bandini, Specimen literaturae florentinae saeculi XV ..., 2 vols.,
Florence, 1747-1751. Fora now somewhat dated summaryof the state
of research on Landino,see Lentzen, "Zumgegenwartigen Stand der
Landino-Forschung," Wolfenbutteler Renaissance Mitteilungen 5
(1981), pp. 92-100, and his Studien, pp. 1-26. See also C. Dionisottiin
Enciclopediadantesca, Rome, 1971, III,p. 566-568, s.v. "Landino."On
the fortune of the LandinoDante, see J.V.de Pina Martins,"Apropos
du commentairede la 'DivineComedie' par Landinodans les editions
du XVeet du XVIesiecles," in Les cultures iberiques en devenir:essais
publies en hommage a la memoire de Marcel Bataillon (1895-1977),
Paris, 1979, pp. 261-277.
38 On Landino's dual approach in his commentaries see C.
Kallendorf,"CristoforoLandino'sAeneid and the humanistcriticaltradition,"Renaissance quarterly36 (1983), pp. 519-546. On Landinoand
poetry generally see A. Buck, "Dichtungund Dichter bei Cristoforo
Landino: ein Beitrag zur Dichtungslehre des italienischen
Humanismus,"Romanische Forschungen 58/59 (1947), pp. 233-246;
R. Cardini, La critica del Landino, Florence, 1973; M. di Cesare,
"CristoforoLandinoon the name and nature of poetry: the critic as
hero,"Chaucerreview 21 (1986), pp. 155-181.
39 See A. Field, "CristoforoLandino's first lectures on Dante,"
Renaissance quarterly39 (1986), pp. 16-48.
40
Landino,Comento, p. 268f.; also in Landino,Scritti,I, p. 153f.
41 Landino lectured on
Virgilas early as 1462/63. See Field, "A
manuscriptof CristoforoLandino'sfirst lectures on Virgil,1462-63,"
Renaissance quarterly 31 (1978), pp. 17-20. On the date of the
Disputationes, see P. Lohe, "Die Datierung der 'Disputationes
Camaldulenses' des CristoforoLandino,"Rinascimento 9 (1969), pp.
291-299, and his introduction to his critical ed.: P. Lohe, ed.
Disputationes Camaldulenses, Florence, 1980. Thomas Stahel has
translated Books IIIand IVinto English in his dissertation:Cristoforo
Landino's allegorization of the Aeneid: Books III and IV of the
Disputationes Camaldulenses, Johns Hopkins, 1968. For comment
see E. Muller-Bochat,Leon Batista Albertiund die Vergil-Deutungder
bei
DisputationesCamaldulenses:zur allegorischen Dichter-Erklarung
Cristoforo Landino, Krefeld, 1968; see also Kallendorf,"Cristoforo
Landino'sAeneid,"p. 525.
42 Landino,Comento, pp. 219-220 (=Proemio). On the relationof
the Dante commentary to Landino's reading of the Aeneid in the
Disputationes,see especially Lentzen,Studien, pp. 137-157. Alltranslations from Landinoare my own.
43 Field, "CristoforoLandino'sfirst lectures on Dante,"p. 37.
44 Lentzen,Studien, p. 34.
45 Field, "CristoforoLandino'sfirst lectures on Dante,"p. 38.
46 Landino himself writes in his dedicatory Orazione alla
Signoria, that he had lectured on Dante "for many years": "... perche
le parole non commesse alla lettere presto volano de' pecti umani e
spesso nessuno vestigio di se lasciano, tentai quelle medesime sententie mandarealle letere, le quali avevo moltianni nel vostro celeberrimo gymnasio a voce viva expresso (Comento, p. 110; Landino,
Scritti,I, p. 171).
47 Landino, Comento, pp. 364f.
48 Landino,Comento, p. 1447, with reference to Purg. xxvii, 91108.
49 See Lentzen,Studien, p. 109: "Theseobservations are of great
importancein so far as the location of the 'vitaactiva' is identifiedwith
the EarthlyParadise"(translationsfrom Lentzenare my own).
50 Landino, Comento, pp. 1458f., with reference to Purg. xxviii,
34-42.
51 Lentzen (p. 109) comments on this crucial passage: "By the
'verareligone christiana'is to be understood a Christianized'contemplatio rerumdivinarum.'Thus Matelda,as a kind of synthesis of Leah
and Rachel, symbolizes the harmonious union of the two forms of
life,"the vitaactiva and the vita contemplativa.
52 On Landino, the vita activa and the vita contemplativa, see
Lentzen, Studien, pp. 94-110; E. Garin, "The problem of the relation
between action and contemplationin CristoforoLandino,"in his Italian
humanism:philosophy and civic life in the Renaissance, New York,
1965, pp.84-88. Book I of the Disputationes is devoted to this theme,
211
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MAXC. MARMOR
the defense of contemplationbeing undertakenby Alberti.Itis a recurrent motif in Landino'sworks. For its place in Quattrocentohumanist
thought, see F. Schalk, "IItema della 'vitaactiva' e della 'vitacontemplativa' nell'umanesimo italiano,"in E. Castelli, ed., Umanesimo e
scienza politica (Attidel congresso internazionaledi studi umanistici,
Rome-Florence,1949) Milan,1951, pp. 559-566.
53 Probablya productof the architecturalplacement of the painting, in which the beholder's eye took the painting in progressively,
from rightto left.
54 Bredekamp,Primavera.
55 Landino,Comento, p. 1045, with reference to Purg. i, 19-21.
56 Landino, Comento, p. 1461, writes that Dante compares
Matelda to Venus-"et maxime quando fu accessa dell'amore
d'Adone"-in order to evoke the "great splendor" ("splendore
grande")of Matelda'seyes as she raises them to the poet.
57 Landino, Comento, p. 1469.
58 Landino, Comento, p.1460,
observes
that the Rape of
Proserpinaoccurred in a "pratoamenissimo," and writes that Dante
wishes to show that the EarthlyParadise is like the "prato"described
by Ovidin his account of this event
59 Barolsky,"Matilda'sHermeneutics,"passim.
60
Landino,Comento, p. 1469, referringto Purg.xxviii,145ff.
61 As
Warburgfirstobserved, Horace, upon whose poetry (Odes
i.30) Botticelli'sdepiction of the three Graces is thought to depend,
explicitlyinvokes the Graces as well as nymphs (Gratiaezonis properentque Nymphae). Botticelli'sdrawingincludes, in simultaneous narrative,not only the three TheologicalVirtues,but also the fourdancing
maidens, allegories of the MoralVirtues,whom Dante encounters just
priorto this episode.
62 Gombrichand, among more recent students of the painting,
Rohlmann and Zollner, have argued that the painting embodies
a moral admonitionto the young Medici,the latterbasing their argument on the growing body of evidence thatartworks commissioned in
connection with weddings typically sought to inculcate appropriate
virtues (chastity,faithfulness,etc.).
63 The Proemioto Landino'scommentaryincludes (Comento,pp.
240-242) a briefsurveyof the principalQuattrocentoFlorentinepainters
and sculptors, in which he develops a criticallanguage, based on Pliny,
for the description of painting; Eng. trans. in S. Baldassarii and A.
Saiber,eds., Images of QuattrocentoFlorence:selected writingsin literature, history,and art, New Haven,2000, p. 204-206. M. Baxandallhas
used Landino'stext as a lens for studyingcontemporaryways of experiencingRenaissance artin Paintingand experience in fifteenthcentury
Italy,2nd ed., New York,1988, pp. 114-153. Landino'sclose engagement withcontemporarypaintingsurely providespartof the contextfor
Botticelli'skeen attentionto his readingof Dante. For Landinoand the
visual arts see also O. Morisani, "Arthistorians and art critics, III:
CristoforoLandino,"BurlingtonMagazine95 (1953), pp. 267-270.
64 E. Solmi compiled many of the references to Dante in
Leonardo's manuscripts in his standard "Lefonti dei manoscrittidi
Leonardoda Vinci:contributi,"firstpublished in 1908 and now convenientlyavailable in his Scrittivinciani,Florence, 1976, pp. 1-344, esp.
pp. 130-135, along with his supplemental "Nuovicontributi",in the
same volume, pp. 345-405, esp. p. 354 on Dante. See also Parronchi's
previously cited article, "Come gli artisti leggevano Dante,"pp.123130, and the briefnote by C. Pedretti,"Leonardo&Dante,"Achademia
leonardi vinci 4 (1991), pp. 204-210. Most of Leonardo's references
concern Dante's naturalisticdescriptions of landscape, the movement
of water and air,etc. (see below).
65 B. Degenhart, in a book-length article, "Dante,Leonardound
Sangallo: Dante-lllustrationen Guiliano da Sangallos in ihrem
Verhaltniszu Leonardoda Vinciund zu den Figurenzeichnungender
Sangallo," Romisches Jahrbuch fur Kunstgeschichte 7 (1955), pp.
101-292, suggested that the marginal illustrationsin a copy of the
1481 LandinoDante in the BibliotecaVallicelliana,Rome, attributedto
the Sangallos, are based on a lost set of Leonardoillustrationsdating
from the 1470s. The lecture on which that article is based was first
summarized in Degenhart, "Dante, Leonardo, Sangallo in einem
Zeichnungstypder Renaissance,"Kunstchronik7 (1954), pp. 131-134.
Parronchi,"Comegli artistileggevano Dante",p. 126, agrees that the
model can only have been drawings by Leonardo,and suggests that
the illustrationsinvitecomparisonwiththose in the Vaticanmanuscript
derived from Leonardo's lost treatise on painting (Cod. Urb. Lat.
1270).
66 P Meller, "Leonardo da Vinci's drawings to the Divine
Comedy,"Acta historiae artium2 (1955), pp. 135-168, especially p.
140.
67 Meller,"Leonardoda Vinci'sdrawings to the DivineComedy,"
has argued persuasively that Leonardo'sThe PointingLady (Windsor
Castle 12.581) is a portraitof Dante's Mateldaand partof a series of
drawingsdatable ca 1503-1506 and illustratingepisodes from Dante's
EarthlyParadise narrative.KennethClarkwarmlyendorsed this reading in the revised edition of his standardcatalog of the Windsordrawings, Drawingsof Leonardoda Vinciin the collection of Her Majesty
the Queen at WindsorCastle, 2nded., rev.withthe assistance of Carlo
Pedretti,3 vols., New York,1968. Pedrettihimself,"ThePointingLady,"
Burlingtonmagazine 140 (1969), pp. 338-346, observed shortlythereafter that Meller'sis "the kind of theory that can be replaced only by
a better one" (p. 140) and cautiously explored alternativeinterpretations. Jane Roberts ("Nymphs"),has recentlyendorsed Meller'sthesis
still more strongly, as did Parronchi ("Come gli artisti leggevano
Dante,"p. 129), the lattereven suggesting that the imageryof Dante's
Earthly Paradise episode takes us to the heart of Leonardo's art,
where the depiction of the naturalworldyields to the imaginativecreation of new worlds.
68
Meller, p. 140.
69 The
Sangallo drawings studied by Degenhart(see above) are
associated with Leonardoin part because of their close attentionto
Dante's descriptions of naturalphenomena. C. Vecce, in an excellent
recent biographicalstudy, Leonardo, Rome, 1998, p. 288, has suggested that Leonardosought out a copy of Dante's Quaestio de aqua
et terra,published in Venice in 1508 by Manfredodi Monferrato,shortly after it appeared.
70 For Michelangelointerest in Dante, see especially K. Borinski,
Die Ratsel Michelangelos: Michelangelo und Dante, Munich, 1908;
Parronchi,"Comegli artistileggevano Dante,"p. 131-134; and, more
recently, P Armour, "'A ciascun artista I'ultimo suo': Dante and
Michelangelo," in Parker, ed., "Visible parlare," pp. 141-180. For
Michelangelo's lost Dante illustrationssee Meller,p. 144 and, for the
text of the report, his n. 52; the volume in question is said to have
belonged to the sculptor Antonio Montauti(d. 1740) and to have perished with the latter in a shipwreck between Livorno and
Civitavecchia.
71 /I codice magliabechianocl.xvii.17, p. 115. Forthe suggestion
that Leonardo's response might have been sarcastic, see Parronchi,
"Comegli artistileggevano Dante,"p. 131.
72 It is worth recalling in this context that Leonardo'sinitialwork
on a paragone of the arts, undertakenin the early 1490s in Milan,was
prompted, in part, by the publication of Landino's translation of
GiovanniSimonetta's De gestis FrancisciSphortiae, Milan,1490, and
especially by Francesco Puteolano's preface with its attack on the
visual arts; see recentlyVecce, Leonardo,p. 120.
212
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