Appendix 1: Hip Hop major exponents

Transcription

Universidad de Magallanes
Facultad de Humanidades, Ciencias Sociales y de la Salud
Departamento de Educación y Humanidades
The Impact of American Popular Music in Language and
Culture of the United States of America
Students:
Eduardo Núñez Gajardo
Claudia Sabando Muñoz
Juan F. Velandia Guzman
Guide Teacher: Patricia Díaz Aguilar
Punta Arenas, Diciembre 2012
i
“Education in music is most
sovereign because more than
anything else rhythm and harmony
find their way to the innermost soul
and take strongest hold upon it.”
Plato
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Eduardo
A cycle of this journey called “life” has got to an end. It becomes imperative to extend
my most frank and well-deserved gratitude to all the people who contributed to this
accomplishment. First, I want to thank my classmates with whom I developed this thesis which
sets the end of one of the most memorable moments of my life; to our secretary Efira and to
Beba, whose assistance and faithful tenderness facilitated this process considerably; to my
professors, without their challenging training this would not have been possible at all. Finally I
want to thank the pillar of my life, my family, especially to my mother, whose love, support and
trust in my success were crucial for sorting every obstacle I faced.
Claudia
I would like to manifest all my gratefulness to the people who gave me the strength to
overcome this process satisfactorily. To Juan Francisco and Eduardo, my classmates and most
importantly, my friends, who accompanied me in this arduous experience; To Efira and Beba,
whose willingness became a crucial part in this journey; To Miss Patricia Diaz and all my
teachers during these five years of this winsome pedagogy, who guided me and offered me all the
knowledge to become a successful teacher of English. Finally, to the most significant persons in
my life, for whom I have done everything to make them feel proud, my parents, whose
wholehearted love, encouragement and tenacity comforted me and gave me the fortitude to solve
the drawbacks I encountered.
Juan F.
Once upon a time, in a land far away from home, a young boy took the risk of leaving
behind everything he knew and the things he had grown with. His father, his sister and friends,
and his beloved grandparents all left behind…In this new land of cruel winters and chilly winds,
the boy learned to stand proud with his head high, just like he had been taught, amongst people
he had never seen before. And although life had changed for this small boy, many blessings had
been bestowed upon him, and love in all its form had been patiently waiting for him in this land
far away from home. Thank you God for your daily blessings, look over my teachers and friends,
and all those who made our dream come true.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………………iv
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………...ix
I An overview to American Popular Music…………...…………………………………………1
1.1
The beginnings of Popular music………………………………………………………..1
1.1.1 European influences ................................................................................................. 1
1.1.2 Afro American influences………………………………………………………….3
1.1.3 Latin American influences ..................... ……………………………………….… 4
1.2 History and definitions of other genres………………………………………………….….5
1.2.1 Hip Hop history……...…………………………………………………………….5
1.2.2 Rhythm and Blues foundations …………………………………………..….......10
1.2.3 The birth of Jazz………………………………………………………………….12
1.3 Iconic performers in American Popular Music……………………………………………14
1.3.1 Hip Hop, masters of the genre……………………………………………………14
1.3.2 Groundbreaking performers of Rhythm and Blues……………...……………….23
1.3.3 Influential Jazz artists…………………………………………………….………27
II. Influences in language and society ........................................................................................... 31
2.1
Hip Hop with no boundaries ........................................................................................... 31
2.2
The use of metaphors and hyperbole in Rhythm and Blues ........................................... 42
2.3
The role of Jazz in society .............................................................................................. 54
III American English Language in Chile....................................................................................... 58
3.1 Early beginnings .................................................................................................................. 59
3.2 The forbidden English ......................................................................................................... 65
3.3 Current Chilean domain of the English language ................................................................ 69
IV Methodological Framework…………………………..………………………………………76
4.1 Epistemological approach…………………………………………………………………76
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4.1.1 Quantitative approach………………………………………………………………77
4.1.2 Qualitative approach…………………………………………………..……………81
4.2 Kind of research…………………………………………………………………...………83
4.3 Process to collect the information…………………………………………………...……84
4.4 Scenario and characteristics of the subjects under investigation………………………….88
4.5 Limitations of the study……………………………………………………………...……93
V Analysis of the Information ....................................................................................................... 95
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .......................................... 110
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 115
Appendix 1: Hip Hop major exponents ....................................................................................... 117
Appendix 2: Rhythm and Blues major exponents ....................................................................... 120
Appendix 3: Jazz major exponents .............................................................................................. 123
Appendix 4: Map of the United States ........................................................................................ 126
Appendix 5: Division of the United States .................................................................................. 127
Appendix 6: Survey ..................................................................................................................... 128
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TABLES AND FIGURES
Page
Table 1: Personal information of the participants………………………………………..84
Table 2: Participants with Post-Secondary Education………………………………...…85
Table 3: Participants with PhD degree…………………………………………………..85
Table 4: Participants with College degree……………………………………………….85
Table 5: Participants with Master’s degree…………………………………………...…85
Table 6: Participants with Doctorate in progress………………………………………..86
Table 7: Participants born in the 50’s……………………………………………………86
Table 10: Participants born in the 90’s…………………………………………………..87
Table 11: Participants born and raised in the Mid-West region of the United States…...87
Table 12: Participants born and raised in the South region of the United States………..87
Table 13: Participants born and raised in the West region of the United States………...87
Graph showing the level of the participants’ schooling………..…………………….…..96
Graph showing when the participants were born……………..………………………….97
Graph illustrating the regions the participants were born in…………………………...98
Graph depicting the participants’ preferences concerning music genres………….…....99
Graphs showing the genres which have influenced participants the most…………..….100
Graphs showing the genres which have influenced participants the most……..………101
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Graphs showing the genres which have influenced participants the most………...……102
Graphs specifying the degree of influence in specific aspects..........................................103
Graphs stating the degree of influence in specific aspects...............................................104
Graphs visualizing the degree of influence in specific aspects........................................105
Graph showing the positive or negative influence of music…………………...………. 106
Graphs ranking artists of each genre…………………….……………….…….…..……. 107
Graphs ranking artists of each genre ……………………………………...………..…….108
Graphs ranking artists of each genre …………………………………………………...….109
Graph illustrating participants’ capacity to identify lyrics of each genre……………..110
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ABSTRACT
American Popular Music has influenced not only cultures around the world but also has
had impact on the language people use every day. The pivotal role of music in quotidian life has
marked a precedent on the way people interact and communicate to one another. This paper has
as a foremost motive to scrutinize the leverage of American music, more specifically Jazz,
Rhythm & Blues and Hip Hop, in the common expressions, words and slangs that people living
in the United States have adopted in their mother tongue. It also intends to peruse the effects of
American major exponents of each musical genre into people’s lives and behaviour, trying to
comprehend the reason of their power among crowds. The implications of this investigation were
measured through a survey destined to people born in the United States who provided their
insights about their own experiences and lives. Countless countries around the world have opted
for English as their main mean of communication and Chile is not an exception; even though it is
still applying resistance to the acquisition of this language, it is observable the noteworthiness it
is gaining as time goes by.
Key words: American Popular Music, music, language, Jazz, Rhythm and Blues,
Hip Hop, leverage, role
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INTRODUCTION
Music is something hard to explain, it sparks countless emotions on people that it turns
out impossible to define its qualities or to state its purpose. Since the beginning of times music
has been more than sounds, lyrics and rhythm, but something that can be said about music is that
in a deep aspect, it is pure communication; musical rhythms save the essence of feelings,
emotions, ideas or desires that someone wishes to express in a way that captivates the attention of
others and light the remotest aspects of people’s souls. It results unimaginable to believe that
someone could live without the melodies that give rhythm to every step someone makes; music
brings so many memories to the present that it can be argued that people´s minds would not be
able to store sacred, wonderful and sometimes mournful moments without the immortal presence
of music in life.
One of music purposes is to communicate. The words listened, the rhythms marked, the
sounds recalled are created and remembered as they are given meaning from the person who
composes them and of course from the ones who listen to them; in a certain moment of history
words were incorporated to the rhythms and sounds that were heard in the beginnings and from
that moment it was evident that societies were witnessing an endless landmark that would
reverberate in time.
The list of musical genres that are found nowadays is infinite, there are thousands of
alternatives for the diverse tastes that exist all over the world; people can find a select range of
styles to cope with specific contexts, activities, moods, etc., no matter the place, company even
time of the day, there will always be a perfect song so as to live the perfect moment; the slightest
idea that the music someone needs has not been created turns out hilarious.
It is true that words, phrases, expressions, etc. were incorporated to music as a way of
enhancing the power and importance that music gains in people´s life. However, it is well-known
that sometimes when two things co-exist, there are possibilities that the control that one aspect
has over the other could suffer an unforeseen twist.
Languages are not static elements of society, as everything evolves the same happens to
the way people communicate. The purpose of this study is to present information that will help to
demonstrate how some specific music genres, have caused detrimental modifications to the
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English language. Moreover, it would be one of the most famous and used English languages in
the world (North American English), the one perused in order to prove this. The amazing features
that music encompasses will continue shaping the way people communicate for a considerable
time, hence it is imperative to recognize the extent of the influence that music has had over
people´s languages so far; hopefully, the data collected will aid to prove that this influence is
much more present that what people believe.
At the beginning of this work, it was important to clarify that North American music did
not get the fame and admiration it has by itself; many are the influences through history that
deserve to be named in order to understand where it all began and who are the responsible that
contributed to create the amazing rhythms that are heard nowadays along and across the United
States. Data concerning external influences from all over the world are given the corresponding
recognitions since disregarding them would mean discarding core components which not only
shaped music of the United States, but help build the most powerful nation in the world.
Besides the effects that foreign forces had over North American music, it will be
important to make allusion to some of the music genres which save the most magnificent records
which have marked transcendental periods in history. Three will be the genres presented as core
components of United States’ musical history.
Hip hop, Rhythm and Blues and Jazz are the three music styles selected for this
investigation, the reasons for choosing these genres are that they have a transcendental position in
North America’s current music industry; another reason is the rich history that each one of them
saves and the last reason is that these musical styles not only have tremendous fame, but they
contributed to the birth of many other styles that transformed music forever. It is a fact that
history teaches people about many significant topics, for many different reasons, and about
diverse contexts; it is through history that everyone learns not just what things were, but that they
are to be recalled as well.
Each one of this genres will be discussed in detail presenting the historical facts that they
save, where these rhythms were heard for the first time, which the conditions were, what the
impact that they had was, what periods of history keep the best out of each one and of course
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curious and enthralling anecdotes that will contribute to back up the information, besides spicing
the work for the delight of all the readers.
History is built by people; music would not exist without the presence and talent of men
and women whose passion for music led them to devote their lives to the creation of rhythms and
songs that have prevailed in time. Iconic characters of the three mentioned genres will be
presented, along with facts about their views of life and society, life conditions that determined
the decisions that each one made, intentions they had when starting their careers and of course
contributions that prevail in the music environment which marked the path for many other artists.
All this becomes significant as it cannot be obviated that in some moment, particular situations
generated remarkable landmarks, and that it is the reason why these genres possess specific
features, due to that at certain moments of music history these characters began to create music
but finished making art.
Following with the analysis of the three genres, information regarding the modifications
that these genres caused to the North American English and lifestyle will be presented in a
meticulous manner; facts about the moments and places where these genres got more relevance
will turn out fundamental as it is in those moments of history where particular circumstances
conditioned the meaning that these genres would have for their artists and followers.
Furthermore, a thorough scrutiny to specific language variations that each of these music styles
caused will be done. Changes in varied aspects of the language such as vocabulary, stress,
spelling even figures of speech, will be detailed to support the main argument which states that
these rhythms have unquestionably altered the general understanding of the North American
English.
Once historical facts, iconic characters, and language variations of the North American
English language have been presented, the analysis will be brought to a closer context which will
demonstrate the conspicuous influence that North American English has over the world with
almost no exception.
The appropriate references to the beginnings of the English language influence in Chile
will be presented. Historical facts about immigrations and first records of English presence in
Chile, together with the reasons for the overwhelming spread thanks to many aspects of the massxi
media, will provide unquestionable evidence that the relevance that the English language gains
day after day in Chile is worth considering.
A slight mention will be done to some features of the English language that save
relationship with some forbidden aspects of it. Vulgar language, slang terms and the use of
“Spanglish” will be recalled as they are a pivotal aspect of the every-day English that is spoken
and heard.
Afterwards, the current situation in Chile in relation with the domain that Chilean
population has over the English language will be discussed with the purpose of contextualizing
the topic in a more familiar environment. It turns out important to consider the statistics, opinions
and research done with regard to this aspect since they are irrefutable evidence that there is a
perilous lack of concern about the deficient English level that exists in Chile nowadays;
testimonies from foreign people demonstrate how precarious the English level in our country is.
In addition, some data about the English language in schools must also be acknowledged as it is
in this area where it is expected that possible solutions to the poor English language domain can
be applied. It might be cogitated that education has no strict relationship with the subject in
question, however, since the key aspect of study is language in the entire research, disregarding
education would be irresponsible.
The objective of the whole investigation is to analyze what is happening with the English
language in the United States. In order to do this, it will be necessary to have the assistance of
Native Americans who could answer a short interview which will contain questions about their
musical preferences and the changes that they have noticed in relation to social behavior and
communication.
Following, the section in which the analysis is introduced presents all the data that
composes the study. This section begins detailing the information regarding the existent analyses,
researchers´ points of view, advantages and disadvantages, and some examples of cases analyzed
through these methods; all this is necessary as a way of supporting with reliable information that
there is a kind of research to be done, that will indicate the design of the study and from which
perspective the information gathered will be examined.
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The process to collect the information is also presented. This section explains in detail
how the instrument was developed and also the steps to gather the results. The importance of this
section is that people will be able to understand the thorough process which was necessary in
order to obtain the data this work encompasses.
The population studied is displayed in charts which classify them according to the
similarities that the subjects share. This structured order will facilitate the analysis of the
responses given, which are the main aspects that will lead to the conclusions that this study will
have.
Finally, it is important in every investigation to surmise which the possible limitations and
drawbacks could be when developing an examination; it cannot be taken for granted that
everything will work the way it is intended. It must be thought which things can go wrong or
which changes are necessary before carrying out the final inquiry. These contemplations will help
to have in mind that it is pivotal for the investigation to be careful about certain aspects and to
keep considerations when carrying out the study; it must never be forgotten that problems are an
undeniable reality that needs to be considered for the sake of the research.
The final chapter of the thesis will cover the results obtained after analyzing the responses
gathered. The quantitative data and the qualitative results (appraisals and inferences) will be
exposed through pie charts and the corresponding analyses that will attempt to provide a proper
closure to the whole study.
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RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1) What is the impact degree of American Popular Music in Language and Culture in the
United States of America?
2) How conscious are North Americans of the important features of American Popular
Music?
3) Which are the cultural implications behind the usage of an evolving language?
OBJECTIVES
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
•
To analyze and quantify the impact of the American popular music in language
and culture in The United States of America.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1) Recollect information pertaining the influence that music has on the English language.
2) Design a survey to measure the level of impact that some music styles have
on Americans’ quotidian life.
3) Apply the instrument to people born in The United States of America.
4) Scrutinize and interpret the results obtained.
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I
An overview to American Popular music
1.1 The beginnings of popular music
A countless number of aspects of American popular music are rooted in imported
traditions. These origins can be classified in three main divisions: the European, African and
Latin American and each one of them is constituted of varied music styles which have had a
significant impact in all the others.
1.1.1
European influences
The basis of American popular music was almost entirely European until mid XIX
century. During the Revolution of the United States, the professional songwriters of popular
music in England went over insistently to ballads. According to the definition taken from “La
música popular estadounidense”, ballads are songs that consist of adapted verses inside a
repeated melody which uses a narrative style to tell a story that is more often romantic, historical
or tragic.
1
The pleasure garden was the most important place for public entertainment in England
between 1650 and 1850. Amusement parks were the main places that professional songwriters
had to divulge their printed songs. In the decade of 1760 the first American amusement park of
Charleston was inaugurated in New York.
The English popular tradition of ballad was popularized in the United States in the
beginnings of the nineteenth century. The best known play of this genre is The Beggar’s Opera
(1728) of John Gay. The main characters of the opera ballads were common people, no queen or
kings as in the important operas; the songs had a familiar tone because of their shape and content
and were sung integrally in English, not in Italian.
The tradition of the English ballad folk flourished at the beginnings of the twentieth
century and the folklorists recorded dozens of versions of antique English ballads in the United
States. These ballads are alive mainly because of country and contemporary western music. The
nasal tonality better known as “high lonesome sound” is still a distinctive feature of the white
identity of the south of the country.
Irish, Italian and Scottish songs had also an influence in the beginnings of American
popular music. Some copies of the collection “Irish Melodies” of Thomas Moore, circulated in
the country and many Scottish songs such as “Auld Lang Syne” reached a huge popularity. In the
first years of the nineteenth century, Italian opera was popular in the US and the operatic singing
called bel canto had an appreciable effect in the development of famed singing.
Immigration brought to the United States a diversity of European folk music. The
descendants of the first French colonizers arrived to North America and the Caribbean
newcomers kept their musical traditions. In the nineteenth century, millions of Irish and German
immigrants landed in the United States. Between 1880 and 1910 the country received another 17
millions of incomers; this amount of people contributed to the diverse musical life.
2
1.1.2. Afro American influences
Not all the migrants made the decision of coming to the United States. Between one and
two millions of Africans were forced to come to the United States in the seventeenth and
nineteenth centuries. The regions where the African slaves were taken from fostered the mixture
of languages and distinctive musical traditions. Considering the conditions of their daily living,
forced to communicate with one another and struggling to survive, who would have thought this
was the beginning of a spectacular musical movement?
The genesis of the Afro American music in the United States comprised two different
processes. On one hand, syncretism, the amalgamation of selective traditions from Africa and
Europe and on the other hand, the creation of institutions that became important centers of the
black musical life such as family, church, volunteer associations, schools and so on.
The Afro American culture has adopted different shapes in Brazil, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica
and the United States, since it was formed from a particular mix of traditions coming from
African and European sources, and the social conditions of each place. In the United States,
people from the Senegambia region in Western Africa were part of the big population of slaves
who were brought by force into the Americas.
Some of the traits of African music are part of both, Afro American and Popular
American music. The forms based on calls and answers, in which a lead singer and a choir sing
alternately, are a distinctive seal of the Afro American musical traditions. In Afro American
music, melodies as riffs are constant patterns that are recurrent in a singular cycle. These short
phrases are combined in several ways to produce more complex and powerful melodies.
To great extent, the esthetical interest of African music consists in the concatenation of
repetitive patterns to form dense polyrhythmic textures in which several rhythms are heard at the
same time. This technique is evidently used in Afro American music styles such as funk,
especially in the works of James Brown and in the recordings of contemporary rap.
3
1.1.3
Latin American influences
For a long time, the Caribbean, Mexican and South American traditions have influenced
the American popular music. The first Latin American style that had a considerable international
impact was Cuban habanera. The characteristic rhythm of the habanera influenced ragtime music
in the late nineteenth century, meaning an input for the pianist of New Orleans Ferdinand “Jelly
Roll” Morton and the style he called the “latin dye” in American jazz.
Tango was another Latin American influence in American music, and it came from
Argentina. In the United States, the version of the ballroom tango, in which a couple dances in
persistent contact at the sound of an insistent rhythm, was popularized around 1914 with the
dancing stars Irene and Vernon Castle.
The subsequent influence was rumba. During 1920 in Cuba it was feasible to find the
roots of rumba style popularized in the United States as a ballroom dance. Don Azpiazú who
specialized in displaying cutting edge rumba partiers, and his “Havana Casino Orchestra”
presented a “refined” version of rumba. The recording of “El manicero” from Aspiazú in 1929
turned out to be a huge international success. After a few months of its release, a lot of dancing
orchestras in the United States had already recorded their own versions of the song. Rumba
reached its maximum popularity in the United States during the 1930s and some others styles
such as mambo in the 1940s and cha-cha-chá in the 1950s followed the same steps.
The variants of Cuban music in the United States went from the exciting mixture of
modern jazz and rumba, whose precursors were Machito and Dizzy Gillespie (see appendix 3) in
the 1949 decade, to Desi Arnaz orchestra which interpreted a sort of tourist oriented style in the
television series I love Lucy. In the 1960s the salsa emerged with Cuban and Puerto Rican
migrants living in the city of New York. Among the salsa stars artists like Celia Cruz and the
band director Tito Puente stand out. In the 1980s, Miami Sound Machine created a successful and
commercial medley of salsa and disco music, and several musicians from “world beat” as Paul
Simon and David Byrne began to experiment with traditional Afro Cuban rhythms.
4
1.2 History and definitions of other genres
History is a core aspect of life that should never be forgotten; history is what people are, it
is what saves the most memorable memories about events that were long witnessed. Everything
in the world saves some aspects of history forging present issues in the world.
1.2.1 Hip hop history
There is no general truth concerning the birth of hip hop as a music genre and subculture,
but it can be said that admirers of this music style believe that the rhythm and lyrics were created
in times of slavery as a way for African-Americans to communicate with their peers without
warning the slaves-tenants; however, there is no much information or strong facts that can prove
that; it is merely a matter of personal belief. Nonetheless, it is known that after slavery was
abolished in America, immigrants including African people came to the United States looking for
a better living standard, pursuing the American Dream; they never knew that they would end up
being in charge of building what is nowadays one of the strongest nations in the entire world.
A crucial distinction must be done about the differences between “rap” and “hip hop”;
many times people mix up these terms and ponder these titles as mere synonyms. It becomes
transcendental to make the corresponding clarification on this issue. In the “scratch” documentary
directed and edited by Doug Pray in the year 2001, DJ Grand Wizard Theodore, who will be
properly-mentioned later, states certain differences that are worth keeping in mind. He explains
that rap includes rapping and MCs (B-boying.) On the other hand, hip hop encompasses besides
these two components, graffiti, breakdancing, the way you dress, the way you talk and the way
you live.
5
There is a curious anecdote that attempts to indicate the precise moment in which hip hop,
or at least the first “scratches” of it, were heard. According to the detective Tukufu Zuberi , from
the TV show “History Detectives”, there is a particular landmark that establishes the beginning of
hip hop: “The story goes that on August 11, 1973 DJ Kool Herc, a building resident, was
entertaining at his sister’s back-to-school party, and tried something new on the turntable: he
extended an instrumental beat (breaking or scratching) to let people dance longer (break
dancing) and began MC’ing (rapping) during the extended breakdancing.” 1 It is, therefore,
believed that this simple moment of leisure and entertainment changed the history of American
popular music through the creation of the new movement known as hip hop. Of course it ought to
be kept in mind that there are traceable indicators which signal the origin of the first
characteristic components of hip hop music back to the fifties and even twenties.
An article published in the “About” webpage by Henry Adaso, a music journalist, states
that “Earl Tucker (aka Snake Hips), a performer at the Cotton Club invents a dance style similar
to today’s hip-hop moves. He incorporates floats and slides into his dance style. Similar moves
would later inspire an element of hip-hop culture known as breakdancing.”2 There might be
certain discrepancies concerning this information as the first movements which were considered
actual breakdance were recognized years later by their complexity and speed; aspects this dance
did not possess, but, considered by certain experts as the first scratches of breakdance battling in
some degree. In the same article Henry Adaso makes reference to the fifties; he states that in this
decade “The Soundclash contest between Coxsone Dodd’s “Downbeat” and Duke Reid’s
“Trojan” gives birth to DJ Battling.”3 This can be considered accurate since that event actually
took place and was regarded as a Djing battle. However, battles in music have existed since
always in many music genres, djing was not something strictly linked to hip hop and this might
generate the existent doubts concerning the birth of breakdancing and scratching battles.
1
Zuberi, T. (2009, 08). Birth of Hip Hop. PBS. Retrieved 09, 2012, from www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives
2
Adaso, H. (2011, 05). The History of Hip Hop Music. About.com. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://rap.about.com/od/hiphop101
3
i.b.
6
Another more general information states that hip hop was actually born in the states, and
that in fact, was developed by the black race in the ghettos of New York; the situation is that the
rhythm existed, and the beats marked the lives of black neighborhoods, becoming a sort of
rhythmic anthem for the poor social classes. It is in this time when the word hip hop appeared;
according to hip hop history researchers “the word "hip-hop" did not yet exist, it was invented a
few years later, when already grown-up culture needed some overall title, by a legendary DJ
(DJ), Africa Bambaataa.”4 The appropriate and well-merited reference to this performer of the
hip hop subculture will be presented in the following chapters.
It is necessary to state a definition that truly represents the accurate meaning hip hop has
for the thousands of followers whose lives follow the rhythm of the music they love. Gangsters,
The Unknown, The Forsaken, even Drug Dealers or Despicable People, were and are still
nowadays some of the phrases or prejudicial labels applied when referring to hip hop performers.
For many people it turns out complicated to make allusion to hip hop by a specific definition;
some people say it is not music, while other supporters affirm that it is more than music; others
state that it is just resentment and anger, and the common argument of course that music is not
the same anymore; no matter how dissimilar the appraisals are, it is unquestionable the power and
increasing relevance that hip hop gains in society every day.
Davey D, a journalist and a Hip Hop activist from the Bronx states that “nowadays if you
ask most people to give a definition of "rap", they're likely to state that it's the reciting of rhymes
to the best of music. It's a form of expression that finds its roots embedded deep within ancient
African culture and oral tradition. Throughout history here in America there has always been
some form of verbal acrobatics or jousting involving rhymes within the Afro-American
community. Signifying, testifying, Shining of the Titanic, the Dozens, school yard rhymes, prison
'jail house' rhymes and double Dutch jump rope' rhymes are some of the names and ways that
various forms of rap have manifested.”5 Here, this scholar of the hip hop culture and history
gives credit and regards the importance of the African roots, and points out how the African4
(2008). History of Hip Hop Style. Hip Hop History. Retrieved 09, 2012, from http://hiphophistory.indiegroup.com/
5
Cook, D. (1985). The History of Hip Hop. Davey D's Hip Hop Corner. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://hiphopandpolitics.wordpress.com
7
American population who emigrated to The United States stored up qualities of their culture
which they needed to replicate in the subculture they created.
Hence, an appropriate definition and explanation must be given to the terms mentioned
above. According to the The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, signifying
is “To exchange humorous insults in a verbal game (slang).”6 This action can be immediately
related to what happens in hip hop when a battle begins. The term testifying, on the other hand
means “To express or declare a strong belief, especially to make a declaration of faith.”7 The
title “Shining of the Titanic” is made as a reference to the historic landmark that took place in
1912 during the sinking of the Titanic; according to an article published by the Author, professor
of English and folklorist Mona Lisa Saloy in 1989 in the Louisiana Folklife Festival booklet, this
toast, rhyming over rhythm, is brought up to mention “the heroic efforts of an old Black stoker to
warn of the ship's impending disaster, but when ignored, he strives to save himself. The Titanic
sank on its maiden voyage in 1912, during the Jim Crow days when Blacks were not allowed as
passengers.”8
The toasts “The Dozens School yard rhymes”, “Double Dutch jump rope' rhymes” and
“Prison 'jail house' rhymes” refer to melodies and rhymes that are sung in specific situations in
which descendants from the Afro-American culture express their thoughts, preferences and
emotions, in times of leisure or to satisfy the feeling of imprisonment. The lyrics, message and
rhythm these songs are given regard nothing, but their own enjoyment and necessity.
Hip hop is constantly contemplated as a music style that encompasses Djing,
breakdancing, Mcing (B-boying) and graffiti. Nonetheless, this describes the components and
basic characteristics that hip hop has and which for a long time started to be defined as a culture
6
signifying. (n.d.) The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. (2003). Retrieved
November 11 2012 from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/signifying
7
testify. (n.d.) The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. (2003). Retrieved
November 11 2012 from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/testify
8
Saloy, M. (1989). The African American Toast Tradition. Lousiana's Living Traditions. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays
8
and not as a music genre. According to The Global Awareness Through Hip Hop Culture
Program, hip hop is “the constantly evolving spirit and consciousness of urban youth that keeps
recreating itself in a never-ending cycle.”9 This definition is an irrefutable proof that hip hop
followers are not likely to refer to their subculture as another music genre; they need to make this
clear by always alluding to the social background and deep emotions that sparked the necessity
for communicating what they felt and believed in.
Lifestyle is another term used when making allusion to hip hop. According to the Oxford
Advanced Learners Dictionary lifestyle is “the way in which a person or a group of people lives
and works.”10 Having this definition in consideration it can be assumed that hip hop is much
more than music and dancing, encompassing beliefs and principles that people opt for as a
personal desire; sometimes it aims to stand out of the mob they so eagerly address as mere slaves
of the system which they reject by principle.
The recognition of hip hop by his exponents and followers, as a unique subculture, makes
the view of its language and dialect appreciable by considering it as the opportunity to spread
their voice in the crowd.
The Oxford Advanced American Dictionary defines dialect as“the form of a language
that is spoken in one area with grammar, words, and pronunciation that may be different from
other forms of the same language”11. The slang and linguistic characteristics of their speech have
transformed the conception of hip hop music into a well-understood subculture that possesses
characteristic features, that incontrovertible highlights its existence beyond the general
understanding.
9
(2009). The problem with Hip Hip: patriarchy, proletarians and revolutionary culture. RHHF. Retrieved 09, 2012,
from http://www.realhiphopforever.com/
10
lifestyle. (n.d.) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2011). Retrieved 09, 2012 from
http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/lifestyle
11
dialect. (n.d.) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2011). Retrieved 09, 2012 from
http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/dialect
9
Hip hop is applied in all moments rappers wish to communicate any idea, thought or
opinion; it must be understood that they are more than artists due to the living conditions they had
to abide for decades, compelling them to put an end to their silence and build doors where there
were none before; they do not want to be seen as commercial singers that seek a profitable
business; but rather as the voice of the silenced. Perhaps, this is one of the key explanations, why
an important degree of the population does not look with good eyes this form of art. Drugs, guns,
violence and ego are regretfully nowadays some of the subjects utilized when writing and
composing hip hop songs. In the development of history cooperation, mutual support and social
issues were partially left aside by certain rappers who understood the power that hip hop was
gaining, and how profitable it would be to create lyrics addressing the youth.
1.2.2 Rhythm and Blues Foundations
The following is a brief definition of what Rhythm and Blues is. “In its early years, the
rhythm and blues meant, as its name suggests, a form of rhythmic blues performed exclusively by
black musicians. Born in the aftermath of the Second World War, this style is heavily influenced
by the jazz bands of the black era of swing, boogie-woogie rhythm, and harmonic structures of
the blues, especially the gospel.”12
“During the industrial boom of the post-war era, Chicago became the main destination of
black emigration. In 1946 the black ghetto of the South Side, became the second black city in the
USA (after New York's ghetto, Harlem). The South Side was the place where the musical styles of
the South met the musical instruments of the North. Chicago's blues style was not only faster and
more turbulent than the Southern styles: but it managed to adopt the horns and the electric
guitar.” 13
12
(2007, 11). Rhythm of Blues History. Rhythm of Blues. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://rhythmofblues.blogspot.com/2007/11/rhythm-of-blues-history.html
13
Scaruffi, P. (2003). Rhythm'n'Blues. A brief history of Rhythm'n'Blues. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://www.scaruffi.com/history/rb.html
10
“Eventually, a new term was coined for this aggressive kind of blues music:
"rhythm'n'blues". Its birth date is disputed. In 1946 Muddy Waters cut the first records of
Chicago's electric blues. In 1947 Billboard's writer Jerry Wexler coined the term "rhythm and
blues" for Chicago's electric blues. In 1949 the Billboard chart for "race" records was renamed
"rhythm and blues". The first major rhythm'n'blues festival was held in Los Angeles in 1950 (the
"Blues & Rhythm Jubilee"), and became as important as the Carnegie Hall concert of 1938 that
launched boogie woogie nationwide.”14
The history of Rhythm and Blues is perhaps as old as American slave history itself. At the
beginning, lyrics and sounds were very different and performed with a big sense of struggle and
sadness, all of which was portrayed very secretly within small circles of slaves that gathered to
dance and sing, and to lose themselves in music.
The book American Popular Music portrays an enthralling point of view, giving reasons
why African-Americans continued their attempts to survive through music. The black community
saw in popular music an escapade from the daily, often successful attempts of racism against
them, therefore it became obvious that the freedom offered to express themselves through music
was infinite. The words and ideas reflected in their music depicted the drama, the day by day
struggle and at times the hope they felt in a world that looked down on them.
Little by little that same music, not still a defined genre, began to suffer changes as history
continued to advance. Life for the African slaves and their offspring had clearly reached a
summit as they had gained a bigger knowledge of the English language and its proper use. The
“freedom” it offered gave way to thoughts of change and perhaps finally, a little respect. This
new found knowledge allowed them to communicate their thoughts and ideas better and at the
same time to improve their sense of sound and enhance their lyrics. Music would never be the
same.
14
Scaruffi, P. (2003). Rhythm'n'Blues. A brief history of Rhythm'n'Blues. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
11
1.2.3 The birth of Jazz
Having several types of definitions, an accurate and academic explanation of the
phenomenon would be: “A genre of American music that originated in New Orleans circa 1900
characterized by strong, prominent meter, improvisation, distinctive tone colors and performance
techniques, and dotted or syncopated rhythmic patterns.”15
Jazz music was the first hymn of a clearly defined American juvenile culture. When
rebelling against the horrors of the mechanized war and the puritan morality of the nineteenth
century, young Americans were constantly exposed to this new style by listening and dancing to
jazz and blues. There was a rebellion against their parent’s old-fashioned views. Young women
known as “flappers” shocked their parents by cutting their hair and wearing shorter dresses. The
epoch suffered a drastic change in which adolescents rebelled against the normal and acceptable
rules. It was a time when radio and record players were widely available in all the stores.
Popularity of this genre began to grow and it was not only heard in New Orleans, but also in
dance halls and homes becoming a staple of the American airwaves,.
Being one of the unique and original ways of art in the United States, Jazz was born in
New Orleans, Louisiana, around 1900. The position of the city in terms of being like a threshold
between the United States and the Caribbean, socially stratified in the strong aftertaste of the
colonial French culture, encouraged the formation of a dissimilar and distinctive cultural music.
Jazz arose from the confluence of diverse musical traditions of New Orleans, such as ragtime,
military bands, rhythms of different carnival parades and funeral processions, French and Italian
opera, Mexican and Caribbean music, Tin Pan Alley songs, and traditions of the Afro American
singing based on sacred and secular characters.
Early Jazz is often referred to as “Hot Jazz” and sometimes “Dixieland music”. It
incorporated some aspects of ragtime such as the fast and spirited nature of it, the use of
trumpets, trombones, drums, saxophones, clarinets, banjos, and either a bass or a tuba. There was
15
(1998, 11). The Definition of Jazz. A passion for Jazz. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://www.apassion4jazz.net/jazz.html
12
also a focus on improvisation as opposed to written arrangements. Some other pieces included
collective improvisation, and other featured soloists.
During the 1700s music had an important role in the African American culture. The roots
of jazz can be traced back to the times of slavery where some of the slave work songs were
created in the form of “call-and-response”, this meant that the leader called out a line and the rest
of the workers responded to that call.
America being known as the “land of opportunity” during the 1800s became the haven for
immigrants; thousands of Europeans arrived in search of fortune and a better life. This situation
brought a variety of musical traditions such as Irish gigs, German waltzes and French Quadriles.
The African American composer Scott Joplin introduced “ragtime”, which combined new
Europeans styles with the rhythmic and melodic music of the black community.
New Orleans is considered today as the place where everything originated. It played a
significant role in the evolution of jazz in the 20th century, and let musical traditions blend when
new settlers continued arriving. African American exponents merged European musical tradition
with such music as blues, ragtime, and marching bands to create a unique style of music, jazz.
In the 1920s African Americans brought the sounds of jazz and blues in cities like
Chicago and New York, where an unprepared crowd of listeners marvelled to the beats of a
sound never heard before.
In the 1930s a new style of jazz emerged known as “Big Band Swing”. It became the most
popular genre between 1930 and 1940. It has a highly energetic beat and a swing to make people
enjoy, celebrate and dance every night. It presupposed a moment in which the life of people
changed drastically as they felt free to express emotions and feelings.
13
1.3 Iconic performers in American popular music
1.3.1
Hip Hop, Masters of the Genre
The art of music has been constantly blessed and nurtured by outstanding performers that
with style, grace and talent have changed the way the world of music relates with the people over
and over again. American popular music has survived even the worst of hardships, that of time
and technology. Each and every one of the following genres has coped to the daunting tasks of
their time, incorporating new sounds and changing their lexicon.
When referring to iconic characters or famous exponents of the hip hop culture, it turns
out complicated to trace the actual founding fathers of this music genre; there is plenty of
information concerning to who, where, how and why hip hop was born. At the beginning, hip hop
did not aim for fame or the recognition of individuals; benefits and admirers were not in the mind
of the precursors of this culture; their only intention was to express the thoughts of a population
who was being forsaken by society; the purpose was to unify the dispossessed in a general cause,
giving them something to believe in, something worth living for.
One of the most remarkable founders of this culture is Clive Campbell, better regarded as
Kool DJ Herc; he was Master of Ceremonies (MC) and started with the phenomenon of
“turntablism” which according to Gary Altunian, an audio industry veteran, is “a technique that
uses the record player as a musical instrument by using methods such as beatmatching and
scratching.”16 This technique attempted to create street music from diverse styles. At the end of
the sixties, Kool DJ Herc moved into New York, taking with him the Jamaican tradition of
Toasting, which consisted of rhyming over the rhythm of reggae musical instruments.
Another first artist who deserves recognition as “Godfather”, a well-deserved nickname
people gave to him, is Afrika Bambaataa (see appendix 1). A whole paper or report could be
written about the life, skills, and pivotal contributions of this well-renowned DJ from the South
Bronx made to this
16
Altunian. G. (2011, 05). Turnablism. About.com. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://stereos.about.com/od/glossaryofdjterms/g/turntablism.htm
14
subculture. His participation and leadership to guide social movements in South Africa as well as
New York, brought peace against the gangs’ unfair practices, being this issue one of the most
transcendental aspects of his life and career. The admiration people felt towards Afrika
Bambaataa was something he did not waste. The creation of the “Zulu Nation” was a successful
attempt to turn the lives and feelings of their peers into something positive. According to Afrika
Bambaataa’s biography blog, he “decided to use his leadership to turn those involved in the gang
life into something more positive to the community. This began the development of what later
became known as the Universal Zulu Nation, a group of socially & politically aware rappers, Bboys, graffiti artists and other people involved in Hip Hop culture.”17 As it can be realized, hip
hop became a social movement and a subcultural trend due to the noble actions and positive
desires of the ones responsible of its creation. The well-intentioned aims they so eagerly pursued,
cemented the basis of what nowadays continues spreading all over the globe, every time with
more strength and supporters.
Stardom is something every artist aims at, no matter the music style you are into; it would
always be the highest dream to reach fame and admiration for what you love doing. Attaining
recognition is something worth striving for; many time artists go against their music principles or
modify what they once believed in for something more commercial, something that can fulfill the
new listeners’ likes. Even though this can be an everyday situation, there are artists who reached
stardom with no need of betraying their beliefs. One remarkable group for the message of its
music is Public Enemy. Nadra Kareem Nittle, an Occidental writer who has made publications
about race, religion and politics, among others, states that “By tackling racism head on in songs
such as “Burn Hollywood Burn,” “911 Is a Joke” and “By the Time I Get to Arizona,” rap outfit
Public Enemy emerged during the late 1980s as one of the most politically charged music groups
in history.”18 It is appreciable how the songs titles are charged with a socio-political message that
clearly demonstrates the condemnatory opinion they have towards society.
17
(2008). Afrika Bambaataa. hiphop.sh. Retrieved 09, 2012, from http://hiphop.sh/afrika
18
(2005, 07). Una corta historia de la Cultura Hip Hop, el Rap, Turntablism y Graffiti. Cultura del Hip Hop.
Retreieved 09, 2012, from http://www.hhgroups.com/editorial-hiphop
15
The record industry exerts an amazing and sometimes destructive power; that of
“amnesia”, demonstrating to people the undeniable proof that some artists’ lifespan is most of the
time previously-established, is something which the hip hop crew Last Poets had to experience.
As history tells, the members got together to develop a never-seen-before hip hop, saving some of
the musical influences from the sixties which inspired them, such as Trane and Sun Ra (Jazz);
they also took their inspiration from poets and even political organizations such as the Black
Panthers, a “Community-based, non-profit research, education, and advocacy center dedicated to
fostering progressive social change,” 19 according to the definition provided by their official
webpage. The fact of improvising, repeating rhymes, trading words, applying diverse voices to
their music for the amusement of the audience, left a legacy that would prevail in the minds of
those who were acquainted with the subjects and purposes of their music.
The hip hop movement saves an enthralling history in many aspects; sometimes the
weirdest situation can spark the best outcomes. The DJ Grand Wizard Theodore is said to be the
discoverer of the “scratching” technique, skill currently used by most of the hip hop performers.
During an interview made to the artist he told the hilarious story which led him to the discovery
of this hip hop technique. Grand Wizard Theodore confessed that one day he was listening to
music when his mother hit his door threatening him that either he turned the music down or she
would strangle him; while at the same time he was been scolded and threatened, he kept the
earphones on his head and stopped the vinyl; it was that precise moment which made him start
bringing it forward and backwards; the product was so appealing that he began to experiment
with it for a couple of months until he dominated this new technique, and presented it as the
scratching people know nowadays.
Another important piece of information which contributes to the history and birth of hip
hop is what Joseph Saddler, better known as DJ Grandmaster Flash, gave to it. This rapper from
the Bronx is responsible for crucial components which finished with what in that time were the
limits of Djing.
19
B. (2010). The Original Vision and History of the Black Panther Party. Blackpanther.org. Retrieved 09, 2012,
from http://www.blackpanther.org/index.html
16
According to the biography on his official website, DJ Grandmaster Flash “invented the
Quick Mix Theory, which included techniques such as the double-back, back-door, back-spin,
and phasing. This allowed a DJ to make music by touching the record and gauging its
revolutions to make his own beat and his own music. Flash’s template grew to include cuttin’,
which, in turn, spawned scratching, transforming, the Clock Theory and the like.”20 In fact, these
techniques made Djing gain so much admiration inside the hip hop world, making DJs
prestigious. In the nineties they realized that they could go beyond that limited position, that their
talent was unique and that they deserved the corresponding appreciation. Many DJs decided that
besides creating beats for rappers in presentations or battles, they would create records which
would include their music and nothing else.
Indubitably the hip hop culture is recognized by the lyrics and the rhythm of the
scratching, however, this music genre would not be the same without the rhythm and steps of the
dance which is a remarkable component of this movement. Breakdance is an acrobatic dance
developed by James Brown at the end of the sixties with his song “Get on the Good Foot”; in
those times “the break”, as it is popularly known, was not the same as today; there were not so
many movements, albeit, it seemed hallucinating the speed that a breaker’s legs could acquire
and the complexity of the movements they performed, which ended up being called “Floor
Rock.”
This style persisted approximately until 1977, but at the beginning of the eighties the band
“Rock Steady Crew” was formed. This new Break group had a rhythm that impressed the mob; it
not only worked with the Floor Rock of James Brown but included the current head spins and
other floor movements people got astounded with. These skillful steps were rapidly spread
worldwide; all over Europe, Asia and Latin America, people were impacted by this recently
created dance, which was sparking the desire of the youth to perform the complicated movements
that made this dance stunning.
Another important component of the hip hop culture besides dancing and music is art. The
term “Graffiti”, brought from Italy when men painted walls or even before when hieroglyphics in
20
(2011). Pioneering the Dj Industry. Grand Master. Retrieved 09, 2012, from http://grandmasterflash.com/bio/
17
the caves and marks on stone were made, is the term applied to comprise all kinds of images
whose purpose is visual communication, that is, to portray a vivid message with a general
comprehension. Graffiti inscriptions have been found not only in Greece or Rome, but in
catacombs or runes from other cultures such as Vikings and Maya, or in ancient civilizations like
Constantinople and Pompeii.
Indisputably, every new art, movement or fashion has its precursors and place of birth.
This phenomenon of protest on the walls commenced in the mid-sixties in Philadelphia. In 1998
ERIC, (a.k.a. DEAL CIA) a former graffiti artist, lecturer, and an acknowledged authority on
graffiti history said that “The writers who are credited with the first conscious bombing effort are
CORNBREAD and COOL EARL. They wrote their names all over the city gaining attention from
the community and local press. It is unclear whether this concept made its way to New York City
via deliberate efforts or if was a spontaneous occurrence.”21
As it has been expounded, the hip hop movement found its origins in the south of the
Bronx, New York, among the population of immigrants whose lifestyle made them raise their
voice; nonetheless, graffiti art started in the neighboring state, in the city of Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania. CORNBREAD and COOL EARL, graffiti artists, began writing their names on the
walls for no apparent reason, but with significant reverberations; this activity was later named
“tagging” (which consisted mostly of writing names on walls or even objects); this art evolved
considerably in matters of styles and purposes, and in the sixties it was still appreciable in
thousands of cities all over the world.
Graffiti as a means of visual communication was later used as a political protest, or to
attack any other aspect of society people did not concord with, such as nicknames and social
messages, evolving in time with more colors and shapes; this expressive form of art began to
cover the walls of the neighborhoods seeking for people´s attention.
21
ERIC aka DEAL CIA, (1998). Davey D's Hip Hop Corner. History of Graffiti. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://www.daveyd.com/historyofgraf.html
18
Having mentioned some of the precursors and iconic characters who are part of the
historical roots of the hip hop subculture, it is transcendental now to make the corresponding
allusion to some of the current recognized exponents who gained fame and fortune based on their
talent for taking part in the hip hop movement.
Rivalry had to deal with any business, being hip hop not the exception. One of the most
controversial and recalled disputes in the trade was the one between the East Coast, making
reference to the East Coast of the United States of America, also designated the “New York rap”
and the West Coast, making allusion to the West Coast of the United States of America, which
dominated in matters of broadcasting and sales. The core reason of this dispute was that it was a
universally accepted truth to claim that all the different elements of the hip hop culture appeared
first in the East Coast, especially New York; the West Coast argued that many of these
components appeared simultaneously in both edges; this theory is hardly believed since the
general agreement traces the origins of hip hop to the East Coast.
It is realized that day by day the division of both sides is slowly dissolving, however both
parts possess key aspects which will never let both sides be regarded as the same. The East Coast
rap remarked by its lyrical dexterity, multi-syllabic rhymes, continuous flow and even metaphors
in its lyrics, differentiates from the ones perceived in the rhythm and structures of the old school
hip hop; artists in the East Coast definitely altered the general conception of hip hop.
In “About” web page, Henry Adaso says that East Coast hip hop has demarked stages;he
signals that “East coast hip-hop has undergone a series of musical surgeries, from the lyrical
subgenre that gave yield to Rakim and Nas, to the conscious approach made famous by Public
Enemy and Beastie Boys, and later the mafioso rap blueprint popularized by Kool G Rap,
Raekwon and AZ, and now back to the lyrical.”22 As it is perceived, hip hop in the East Coast
went through a process of transformation, from its origin in the seventies to its outcome in the
nineties, indisputably giving it the recognition and fame it owns.
22
Adaso, H. (2009). East Coast Hip-Hop. Rap/Hip-Hop. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://rap.about.com/od/genresstyles/p/EastCoastRap.htm
19
On the west side, though, “gangsta rap” appears as the crux among the West Coast rap
features. They brought the “Gangsta” lifestyle to the forefront of the hip hop subculture. The
West Coast rap had influences from icons such as Grandmaster Flash and Afrika Bambaataa;
however, it had funkier features and much more melodic rhymes; yet, as it was mentioned before,
its main characteristic was the portrayal of the living conditions of a gangster in the United
States.
The West Coast rappers are tenacious when standing up for the recognition they deserve
as core region in the roots of hip hop. Gregory "G.Bone" Everett, founder of Ultra Wave
Productions- West Coast Hip-Hop Historian, executive producer and first assistant director in TV
series and films, states that “Most research and documentaries begin West Coast Hip Hop in the
late 80s’ with Ice T and the group known for pioneering “Gangsta’ rap” NWA (Niggas Wit
Attitude) then jumps into the 90’s with Death Row and Tupac.”23 (see appendix 1)
With this comment, he makes reference to the disturbing lack of knowledge regarding
West Coast hip hop. West Coast hip hop historians want to spread the truth about how in the late
fifties and sixties, black people started gathering in exclusive clubs with the purpose of enjoying
their music and dances, and inspiring the birth of hip hop, especially Djing; there was another
sort of DJ, not the one any club hires, but the renegade; the one who could turn a common night
into the wildest party ever witnessed, and who marks the beats MCs follow to sing their lyrics.
Times have changed and it is undeniable that the same has happened with the music
industry, which from one moment to another started giving more relevance to the industrial
aspect than to the musical one. A big alteration which has impacted the most, is the renewed
principles and purposes behind the birth of new idols, or the composition of new hits. These
different perspectives have transformed the expressive art of hip hop into a profitable business,
which struggles to survive in an every time more competitive industry.
23
Everette, G. (2009, 07). The Secret History of West Coast Hip Hop. West Coast Pioneers. Retrieved 09, 2012,
from http://westcoastpioneers.com/articles/secret-history-of-west-coast-hip-hop.html
20
Three artists who are verifiable evidence of the wealthy business hip hop represents are
Jay Z, 50 Cents and DMX. The first one of these three rappers is considered one of the most
talented and successful rappers of all times. Besides being a rapper, Jay Z is a producer, a
business man and in specific occasions a Hollywood actor. Jay Z possesses a tremendous fortune;
he has been awarded with fifteen Grammy awards and he even owns a NBA basketball team, the
Brooklyn Nets. He was acknowledged the wealthiest rapper in the world by the “Forbes”
magazine in the year 2010; it is estimated that his fortune exceeds the $990 million dollars.
Although everything in his life gives the impression of a dream come true, his childhood was, as
for many other rappers, a hazardous time. Forsaken by his father when he was thirteen;
responsible for shooting his brother for stealing jewelry; having deserted from high school; even
confessing in one of his songs that he was involved in drug dealing, this rapper found the exit
door to his situation with the co-operation of other rappers like Busta Rhymes and Notorious
B.I.G; he achieved the recognition every child in these conditions wishes, finding the purpose for
his life; he found the art and business which turned himself into one of the most acclaimed rap
artists of all times.
If 50 cents is to be mentioned, then G-Unit (see appendix 1) should be included as part of
the discussion. G-Unit is a rap crew led by 50 Cents together with Lloyd Banks and Tony Yayo.
G-Unit was part of a record company with the same name, which also worked with other artists
like Shawty Lo, Hot Rod and Mobb Deep, among others. There is not much clear information
about this group since it was more an organization than a musical group; G-Unit is mostly
regarded as a record company rather than a hip hop group. Many rappers had a negative opinion
regarding 50 cents and many of them in several occasions “exchanged opinions” with him; this
conflict led even to the creation of a group called G-Unot, which was a clear provocation towards
50 Cents and his arrogant attitude; it is even said that many unknown rappers from his
neighborhood joined the G-Unot group, blaming 50 Cents of throwing them into oblivion when
he became famous. Although they went through a complicated path, this group is considered
dominant of the hip hop movement, their album “Beg for Mercy” released in the 2003, sold over
six million copies.
21
Curtis James Jackson III, better known as 50 cents, is a rapper, stockholder, actor and
business man. His albums “Get Rich or Die Tryin” (2003) and “The massacre” (2005) made him
reach the stardom; his albums were ranked in the Billboard magazine between the first fifty best
albums of the decade. This rapper was not excluded from the dangers of a perilous life in the
streets. Being denied by his father, after her mother passed away when he was just eight years
old, 50 was compelled to a life in the streets; his grandparents were his support in his life, but he
spent most of his childhood and adolescence out in his neighborhood. It was not too much time
before he was involved in the drugs business which started as an epidemic in the eighties in New
York. At the age of eighteen, having a considerable criminal record, he reconsidered everything
and desisted from all the felonies he was into. In 2000, he was victim of a shooting in which nine
bullets hurt him, in some way this this did not make him relinquish his objective; he kept on
working on his music, releasing his album “Guess Who’s Back” (2002) . In the year 2003 he was
discovered by the rapper Eminem whose help and Dr. Dre´s, made him become one of the most
famed rappers worldwide. He is currently working in his last single “Street King Immortal”
which will be released in November 2012.
Many are the precursors, artists, contributors, legends and people involved in the hip hop
music genre, it is impossible to name and give them the proper recognition to all the ones who
opted for a life away from the normal and decided to express their feelings and thoughts in this
art. Iconic legends that will always remain in the registers of hip hop history are characters like
Dr. Dre whose talent as a rapper and producer made him become a mighty name in the hip hop
industry. Another current legend can be that of Eminem, whose childhood, lifestyle, music
content and most of all skin color, made him a recognizable idol among rappers. DMX is another
one whose adolescence, continuous convictions, music content, popularity and successful singles
made of him a well-regarded rapper of the East Coast.
The Latino influences are also known in the hip hop movement, as it is the case of the hip
hop group Cypress Hill, whose Latino influence, direct content and styles variation make of them
a unique component of the hip hop history from the West Coast. On this side of the United States
another significant legend of the hip hop subculture can be found: Snoop Dog or Snoop Doggy
Dogg among many other nicknames this rapper has. He is a substantial figure of the hip hop
movement; being involved in drug dealing and having a brief conviction, this artist became a
22
successful rapper, actor and producer, attracting thousands of followers that admire his hip hop
style and lyrics.
As it can be acknowledged, many things can be said about hip hop, that is, many places to
be recalled, many situations to be pointed out, many people to be praised, and many albums and
songs to be remembered. Hip hop history saves fascinating landmarks and emotions beyond the
common comprehension; a subculture is what hip hop represents today, sounding stronger than
ever all over the world. It is unquestionable the transformation it has suffered through time,
nevertheless, its history and aims continue struggling in society, creating doors where they only
saw walls. From an enjoyable skill, hip hop became in one of the most popular music genres all
over the world, attracting millions of followers whose lives are conducted by the characteristic
beats and enthralling features hip hop encompasses.
1.3.2 Groundbreaking performers of Rhythm and Blues.
The genre has rejoiced with the participation of various exponents that changed and
marked Rhythm and Blues forever. The following are the names and biographies of the most
recognizable performers of R&B.
Louis Jordan: Saxophonist, vocalist and band leader, was born in New York. “Jordan
(who had inherited a band in 1938) shrank down the size of swing's orchestras, emphasized the
dance rhythm (the "shuffle"), sharpened the sax and trumpet counterpoint, and sang the hardship
of black life in a detached (almost ironic) tone.”24
Muddy Waters (see appendix 2): “Mississippi guitarist who reached Chicago in 1945,
coined an influential style at the electric guitar that upgraded the archaic forms to the amplified
sound but also nurtured a group of talents including guitarists as Jimmy Rogers and Theodore
"Hound Dog" Taylor”25
24
Scaruffi, P. (2003, 11). Rhythm'n'Blues. A brief history of Rhythm'n'Blues. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
25
i.b.
23
Dinah Washington (see appendix 2): “(real name Ruth Lee Jones), the profane
counterpart to Mahalia Jackson, worked out a charismatic and thundering synthesis of gospel,
blues, jazz and pop singing, a dramatic monologue venting her existential neurosis that forged
the archetype for the "soul ballad". After moving from Alabama to Chicago in 1927, she became
a gospel singer in a female choir and a jazz singer in Lionel Hampton's big band.”26
The Dominoes (see appendix 2): “Billy Ward's Dominoes, based in Harlem, broke with
the orthodox style of Ravens and Orioles, and pioneered the style with Sixty Minute Man (1951),
a song of sexual innuendos delivered by the bass voice, and one of the first songs to use the
expression "rock'n'roll"27
“Los Angeles bluesman Aaron "T-Bone" Walker who, as a boy in his native Texas, had
accompanied Blind Lemon Jefferson and had emerged as a guitarist in the medicine shows of Ida
Cox and Ma Rainey, imported mellow jazz phrasing into the blues guitar (as Lonnie Johnson had
already done), and decisevely adopted the electric amplification of the instrument, which, in turn,
redefined the guitar as a dominant solo voice. T-Bone Blues (june 1940) and Mean Old World
(july 1942) were recorded by swing orchestras. His fusion of deep-toned moaning rural blues
and jubilant urban jump-blues, which is the raison d'etre of Call It Stormy Monday (september
1947) and T-Bone Shuffle (november 1947), take or leave the jazzy horns, but caused him a
stylistic imbalance that culminated with the proto-psychedelic Strollin' With Bone (april
1950).”28
Of course black musicians were not the only ones to dive into this popular genre, to create
precious works. From early beginnings white artists found this genre appealing to their senses
and decided to intervene and create sounds of their own. Of course their lexical background had
to be similar to that of black musicians; in fact most of the white artists came from typically
black neighborhoods and southern states that witnessed the birth of the genre.
26
27
i.b.
28
i.b.
24
“Another fusion of blues and jazz was conceived in Los Angeles by a white bandleader,
Johnny "Otis" Veliotes, whose combo emerged with their noir instrumental version of Earle
Hagen's Harlem Nocturne (1945) and stormed the charts with Double Crossing Blues (1950) and
Mistrustrin' Blues (1950); it was basically a shrunk-down version of the big-bands of swing, the
epitome of all future rhythm'n'blues combos (guitar, piano, two saxes, drums, bass, vocalist). The
musicians of his orchestra set the standard for the "solo" personality, indulging in spectacular
interjections and elegant phrasing. Besides writing Every Beat Of My Heart (1951) and Roll
With Me Henry (1955), Otis rode the wave of rock'n'roll with Willie and the Hand Jive (1958).”29
“Another pioneer of the electric guitar, Lowell Fulson was also a guttural and soulful
shouter who left a mark on the West Coast sound with Three O'Clock Blues (1946), Trouble
Blues (1947), Blue Shadows (1950), Reconsider Baby (1954).”30
“Jump-blues vocalist Amos Milburn delivered the explosive Chicken Shack Boogie
(1948), besides Roomin' House Boogie (1949), Let's Rock Awhile (1950), three premonitions of
rock'n'roll, and One Bourbon One Scotch One Beer (1953), one of the most anthemic drinking
songs of all times.”31
“Roy Milton crooned like a white pop singer in RM Blues (1945), the first "gold" record
of rhythm'n'blues and another important step in the mutation of the boogie rhythm into
rock'n'roll.”32
“Charles Brown, the pianist who most closely resembled Nat King Cole, was a member of
a similar trio, the Three Blazers, when he intoned Drifting Blues (1945), the first anthem of
existential frustration, and Merry Christmas Baby (1949), while on his own he magnified Jessie
Mae Robinson's Black Night (1951) and Leiber & Stoller's Hard Times (1951). In the age of
boogie-woogie, he was, instead, the ultimate specialist of the crying blues, a master of the
suicidal mood.”33
29
30
i.b.
31
i.b.
32
i.b.
33
i.b.
25
These individual characters of R&B had plenty of success, mostly because each one of
them introduced new attractiveness to the genre, each and every time new albums were launched.
For instance, the new compelling titles that caught the audience’s attention or the metaphorical
lyrics with a clever use of the language, giving meaning to uncommon aspects of life and taboo
topics of conversation. This was the case of R&B which slowly began to accept the formation of
bands that were faithful to the roots of R&B, and that seemed to be closer to the sounds of gospel
or jazz. “A number of vocal groups remained closer to gospel than to pop and jazz. The main
"rhythm'n'gospel" groups were: Dominoes, Midnighters, Five Royales, Drifters.”
“The Five Royales, from North Carolina, delivered the jubilant melodies and complex
arrangements of Baby Don't Do It (1952), Help Me Somebody (1953), Laundromat Blues (1956).
They relied on Lowman Pauling's compositional skills (he penned both Think in 1957 and
Dedicated To The One I Love in 1958, both highly influential) and on his inventive guitar style.
He virtually invented guitar distortion and feedback on 1958's The Slummer The Slum, and was
perhaps the first guitarist to employ the "fuzztone". They bridged the gap between the black vocal
groups and the first rock bands.”34
“The erotic and visceral Midnighters, from Detroit, propelled by a driving rhythm of
guitar, bass and drums, shocked the world of religious music with the obscene lyrics sung by
Hank Ballard in Get It (1953) and especially Work With Me Annie (1954), which began one of
the first teenage sagas of popular music. Teardrops On Your Letter (1958) was, de facto, already
soul music. It was backed with The Twist (1959), Ballard's most famous invention (a revision of
his Is Your Love For Real which was in turn a variation on the Drifters' Whatcha Gonna Do). It
was the beginning of a new career, highlighted by the dance novelties Finger Poppin' Time
(1960) and Let's Go (1960).”35
34
35
i.b.
26
“Clyde McPhatter moved to the Drifters, based in New York, and continued his gospelpop mission with Jesse Stone's Money Honey (1953), his own Honey Love (1954), and Ahmet
Ertegun's boogie Whatcha Gonna Do (1954). The new Drifters of 1959 were a completely
different group, led by baritone Ben King, whose sophisticated vocals highlighted There Goes My
Baby (1959), Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller's first experiment mixing Latin percussions and
strings, as well as Doc Pomus & Mort Schuman's diptych This Magic Moment (1960) and Save
The Last Dance For Me (1960). The third season of the Drifters, with King replaced by Rudy
Lewis, yielded Gerry Goffin & Carole King's Up On The Roof (1962), Mann & Weil's On
Broadway (1963), and finally, with Johnny Moore replacing the late Rudy Lewis, Artie Resnick &
Kenny Young's Under The Boardwalk (1964), arranged by Bert Berns with Latin percussions and
strings. These hits, all produced by Leiber & Stoller, and including Ben King's solo Spanish
Harlem (1961), also a Leiber/Stoller composition, and Stand By Me (1961), his secular version
of a traditional gospel tune, were innovative and influenced both soul, pop and rock music.”36
1.3.3 Influential Jazz Artists
Some influential performers have marked this music style, distinguishing both remarked
exponents: Nat “King” Cole and Louis Armstrong. (see appendix 3)
Indubitably, one of the most significant figures in American history was Louis Armstrong
also known as “Satchmo” or “Pops”, an influential jazz trumpet player and singer who was born
and raised in New Orleans. His virtuosic abilities on the trumpet made him attributable for the
recognition of the trumpet as a solo instrument in jazz music. His songs and style had influenced
people like Frank Sinatra and Bing Crosby while his trumpet playing had inspired the likes of
Miles Davis, and Dizzy Gillespie.
Even though Louis Armstrong was better known for his trumpet playing, he was also a
talented jazz singer. His style was characterized by a warm and raspy voice that delighted
36
27
audiences. Having into account some of these features and the joy he brought to the music, he is
considered the father of modern jazz.
Furthermore, another important singer of jazz music was Nat “King” Cole. He originally
started working as a jazz pianist, but became exposed to fame in 1943 as a connoted jazz singer,
performing “Straighten up and fly right”. Some of his inspirations were the African American
folk music tradition and early forms of rock n´roll, with which he won popularity among a large
audience.
One characteristic phrase of Charles Parker (see appendix 3), a major exponent of jazz
music was "Don't play the saxophone. Let it play you". He played in the Missouri nightclub scene
with local jazz and blues bands. In the year 1945 he led his own group, while performing with
Dizzy Gillespie on the side. In 1949, Parker made his European debut. In 1955, he gave his last
performance.
Known as a legendary jazz musician, Charles Christopher Parker Jr. was born on August
29, 1929, in Kansas City, Kansas. His father was an African-American stage entertainer, and his
mother, was a maid-chairwoman of Native-American heritage. Charles discovered his own talent
for music when taking lessons at public schools. As a teenager he played the baritone horn in the
school band and by the time he was 15, he went for the alto saxophone. He also began playing
with bands on the local club scene. In 1935, he was so fond of the sax that he decided to drop out
of school in pursuit of a full-time musical career.
From the year 1935 to 1939, Charles performed with several bands, including Buster
Professor Smith in 1937, and pianist Jay McShann in 1938, with whom he went on tour around
Chicago and New York.
A crucial year for Parker was 1945, year he was believed to have reached a mature stage
as a musician. He had the opportunity to become the leader of his own group and launched a sixweek nightclub tour of Hollywood with his colleague Dizzy Gillepsie. They were able to create a
complete new style of jazz music, known as bop or bebop.
28
Being part of the music business, John Birks Gillespie, better known as Dizzy Gillespie,
played an important role in the era of Be-Bop in the American jazz tradition. Born on Cheraw,
South Carolina, he was the youngest from a family of nine children. His musical beginnings
started with the piano at the age of four when he received a connoted music scholarship. He
admitted that one of his influences in his early career was the style of the music trumpeter Roy
Eldridge.
Mario Bauza, the Godfather of Afro-Cuban jazz paid special attention to the particular
style Dizzy began to cultivate when he joined Calloway in 1939. Even though Gillespie was
noticed for his on and off-stage clowning, he endured as one of the founding fathers of the AfroCuban or Latin jazz tradition.
“His playing showcases the importance of intelligence. His rhythmic sophistication was
unequaled. He was a master of harmony and fascinated with studying it. He took in all the music
of his youth, from Roy Eldridge to Duke Ellington, and developed a unique style built on complex
rhythm and harmony balanced with wit.”37
It is clearly demonstrated that being a jazz musician was not a common and simple task to
do. One of the most feasible features of Dizzy was his quick mind which led him to create an
endless flow of ideas at unusually fast tempi. Besides having a natural talent to play the trumpet
he was also really renowned for his generous way to share his knowledge with other musicians of
the epoch.
The road to language proficiency for African-Americans was spiced with the desire to
express or to communicate their surrounding the daily injustices, or as Lawrence Lewis expresses
“songs served the dual purpose of not only preserving communal values and solidarity but also
providing occasions for the individual to transcend, at least symbolically, the inevitable
37
(2012, 02). Prez Fest 2012 Celebrating Dizzy Gillespie at Saint Peter’s Church Sunday, March 4th. All-about Jazz.
Retrieved 09, 2012, from http://news.allaboutjazz.com/news
29
restrictions of his environment and his society by permitting him to express deeply held feelings
which ordinarily could not be verbalized”38 (p.175)
Whether Lewis argument is accepted or not, ought to depend on a real understanding of
African-American musical and literary antecedents. If for example, Lewis contention is embraced
and music is regarded as the key to expression and self-awareness, music’s expressive forebears
must be considered.
The conditions early given, surprisingly acclimatized the development of the American
English language and the important role African-Americans would undertake as pioneers of
several musical genres and other art forms. The cadence and the lexicon of those born and raised
in the southern states, differed from the more verbalized and straightforward English of the north;
differences that could only inspire even more curiosity towards a “decadent culture” that began to
show off on stages just how little they cared to be part of an ever growing minority.
To sum up, history and time unveil in a not so distant era the manner in which a different
kind of people, stigmatized for the color of their skin, arise in a compelling demonstration of
resilience and true grit. They suffered unprecedented acts of violence in an inhospitable land that
was simply too far away from home. In this land, surrounded by a foreign language which they
did not understand, the newly converted Americans had to struggle and plea to survive. The
language played tricks on them, confusing and causing a gap between those that stood in power
and those who lived to serve, that gap would ultimately shape the manner in which the American
English language would be used and appreciated today.
38
R. Rubin (2001) American Popular Music: New Approaches to the Twentieth Century, edited by University of
Massachusetts
30
II Influences in Language and Society
2.1 Hip hop with no boundaries
The current characteristics of almost every aspect of the society are rooted in previous
actions or events that in some degree alter the previous functioning of the world. Wars, inspiring
speeches, revolutionary characters, endless riots, etc. are responsible for abrupt alterations that
have shaped societies in previous decades. Currently, most twists are not that extremist, sparked
by chaos or unbearable situations, nonetheless, changes occur and that is something people ought
to be aware of.
Every day, every minute, things are slightly modified. It is claimed that variations are
always positive, that everything happens for a reason and that esteeming outcomes is an attitude
every person needs to develop, evidencing a general understanding among people, especially
those concerning something new and beyond the bounds of possibility.
31
Albeit a general agreement is never attainable as there are movements whose power
disdains people’s opinions; once something appears, no one knows neither the permanence nor
the impact it will have in society. Music styles may be one of the many breakthroughs that are
born to prevail in time; without previous warning, a music genre can be found at the zenith of its
lifespan and suddenly at its nadir.
Societies are changing, so do their languages; perhaps one the variations which
demonstrates the best of these continuous alterations is the increasing number of lexical terms
which are coined and that come to be part of regular conversations. American dictionaries have
grown considerably; over the past twenty and thirty years the levels of growth have been higher
than ever. English, obviously, is not any other language; it applies for purposes such as scientific,
economic and political, among others as no any other language does; hence it is unquestionable
the extent of the importance that societies all over the world bestow to this language. Besides the
increasing amount of lexis for transcendental reasons, there is one aspect which becomes the core
cause of the massive increment of the English language data, that is, the terms people are
compelled to understand for several reasons; the words representing contemporary culture, the
preferences of the youth; and the colloquial language youngsters are internalizing as part of their
natural speech.
During the sixties and seventies the streets of New York broke out in social decay,
violence and diverse felonies; young kids were being dragged into this obscure world from which
you only get out inside a coffin. To escape the traumatic experiences they were facing,
youngsters and multi-ethnic kids sighted the solution, combining the elements of rapping,
breakdancing, djing and graffiti as an alternative to combat the hopelessness in their
neighborhood; this social evolution and variation of the common lifestyle of several regions of
the United States started something that nowadays no one has been able to stop.
Hip hop is a movement which came to subsist till the point of becoming a subculture.
Performed by many famed artists in many regions of the globe, supported and imitated by
thousands of youngsters and adults all over the world, hip hop´s range increases day by day with
every new artist, video, single, or expression that comes to be part of the stunning history of hip
32
hop. Therefore, music should be conceived as the reflection of social change, creating new
mindsets and reflecting the reality of an era.
Worth considering, it is possible that one of the greatest impacts of hip hop subculture is
its ability to attract people from diverse cultures, principles, races, etc. as a sort of exit door; hip
hop provides people the never-given opportunity of expressing themselves as individuals, and
more importantly, to join in a common collective cause that seeks social recognition through
artistic expression. Although hip hop culture was given birth in the United States, it has not just
influenced the American English. Several nations have sort of hip hop communities which having
adopted the characteristics of this culture, have the responsibility of employing the new words in
their colloquial speech. The effect of hip hop gains so much power that its influence impacts not
just the English language but the use and components of other languages.
The fact that something lies in a museum, does not imply it is dead or thrown into
oblivion. The most famed portraits of Rock and Roll Hall at the Hall of Fame, or the history
preserved in museums and galleries, aim not to remember what it was once, but what lives in
society nowadays. The appeal that hip hop exerts has no precedents and that is something many
people question.
American popular music cannot be mentioned without making allusion to African
Americans. In American Popular music history there are few white iconic characters who are
always recalled and mentioned when talking about “the best” of music history, however, there is
a countless list of famous black characters who did not achieve to be the protagonists of the
recording labels in the History of American Popular music history.
An aspect in which hip hop’s influence is clearly perceived besides clothing, walking and
behaving is language variant. The contributions hip hop has done to the English language are
undeniably appreciable. At the beginning, hip hop informed its listeners about foreseeable
liberation moves which only the cultural group of the ones immersed in it could acknowledge.
Nowadays the youth adapt many of the different words and expressions which rappers apply in
their countless singles, yet, these alterations go beyond the songs’ context. Variations come to be
part of the non-standard English language that natives employ, a sort of dialect that is
denominated “slang.”
33
The Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary defines slang as “very informal words and
expressions that are more common in spoken language, especially used by a particular group of
people, for example, children, criminals, soldiers, etc.”39 The use of these words is intended to be
designated to a specific and restricted group of people who share principles, beliefs or who
perform a similar activity or conduct; however, it has to be acknowledged that the slang hip hop
possesses, disrupts this conception as expressions are heard among diverse groups of different
genders, race and age.
There are many aspects of the English language in which hip hop has had numerous
reverberations and the popular “Urban dictionary” provides a wide range of features the English
language slang possesses.
Along with it, a sort of “alternative pronunciation” has developed in lyrics, with
repercussions in every-day speech. Rappers employ it mostly with the purpose of fitting the
rhymes by altering, shortening or changing the sound of a word. Some examples to be perceived
are: aight, aite, aw-ite - all right; biatch - bitch; dis - this "I love dis."; flava - flavor; mo' - more "I
can't stand it no mo."; 'sup - what's up.
Another characteristic which has shaped ordinary conversations among youngsters are the
“conjoined words” which are combined as a way of easing the pronunciation and obviously
reducing the amount of syllables so that rhymes fit properly. Some examples of this linking habit
are: busta - snitch, "You's a busta." fugly - fucking ugly, "She looks fugly." hella - hell of "He's
hella cool." It is sort of hilarious to picture people communicating using these expressions, yet, it
is a reality that every language faces when it is immersed within an art form.
“Partial words” is another component of the English slang that alters the normal names
people use when referring to specific lexis. A section of a word is applied instead of telling the
full name. Some examples of this modification are: cuz - short for because; feds - short for
Federal Agents, making allusion to cops or other law enforcement agencies; po' - poor "He's too
po' to afford a house."; sitch – situation.
39
slang. (n.d.) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2011). Retrieved 09, 2012 from
http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/slang
34
The “replacement suffix” is seriously a radical alteration of words whose suffixes are
removed and replaced by another which has no relation with the word in question. Some
examples which plainly exemplify this are: bizzle – bitch; fizzle - can be female or fuck ; nizzle nigga; rizzle-real; shiznit-shit; shizzle – sure. As mentioned, the suffixes are substituted by
another one with no connection at all.
One of the principal components of every language are verbs and evidently hip hop
variations have rushed over these section of the language, contributing with a considerable range
of words which are applied in every-day conversations. Some of these somewhat coined words
are: bail - leave "I'm gonna bail."; be - are, am, is - usually refers to location "I be over here." or
"He be sleeping right now."; busta move - to act quickly, or to perform a dance move; chillin' relaxing. "We chillin' at State and 3rd."; diss - to show disrespect; gank - to steal "He ganked my
ride."; lunchin' - behaving erratically; scrap - to fight "We scrapped in the back yard." As
perceived, plenty are the words existent nowadays, which are coming to be part of the English
language through the influence of the hip hop subculture.
Some more specific areas of the English language lexis in which hip hop has introduced
variants are for example anatomy, with words such as “booty” to refer to the buttocks, especially
female, and “guns” as a way to mention the muscular arms. Brands and Commercial Trademarks
is another section of the language in which hip hop possesses expressions to refer to particular
products like luxury cars with words such as “Benz” or “Lex” which stand for Mercedes Benz
and Lexus.
Drugs, guns and gang terms are unquestionably another domain in which hip hop slang
makes presence An extense range of words to make allusion to drugs are for example: dime,
dimebag, dimesack, sawbuck - a ten dollar "bag" of illicit drugs; ice - crystalized
methamphetamine, ice cream, dream catcher; mac – blunt; nick, nickel, nickelbag, nickelsack, - a
five dollar "bag" of illicit drugs; yayo, yay – cocaine; weed - buda, shwag, mota, bud, mary jane,
dodo, green, fire, smoke, peace stick, watar, bluntos; hydro - dro, dodo, banga, ganja, dank,
sticky; elbow - LB (lb.) pound of illicit drugs; dub - a twenty dollar "bag" of illicit drugs; quarter
- a twenty five dollar "bag" of illicit drugs; eight ball - an eight ounce "bag" of illicit drugs;
among others. Since gangs are an important aspect inside the hip hop subculture, terms are not
few to consider. Words such as: gangsta - member of a street gang: playa - someone who is not
35
monogamous / someone who's really in, someone who's got a lot of respect; playa hata - one who
has ill feelings towards the actions of a playa / someone with no respect, wanksta; thug - hard
core gangster; wanksta - fake ass gangsta; P.H.D. - pimping hoes daily; noassatall - no ass at all;
chillax - chilling while relaxing; white girl - cocaine, coke, yayo, blow,the shit. Gangs are not
exempt of conflicts and continuous confrontations, hence, guns are another area in which many
terms have been introduced as a way of communicating without disclosing information about
their intentions. Terms employed are for instance: cap – bullet; nine, nina - 9mm handgun; piece
– gun; strapped up - holding a gun; K - ak 47; pump – shotgun; heat – gun; biscuit – gun; 4
pounda - 40 caliber gun; 44 - 44 caliber gun, among some others.
In the “hood” there are also recognized words to speak about specific places, for
example: the word “crib” stands for your place of birth, “bodega” is employed to refer to a corner
store and “hood” is used to name the neighborhood you live and by which you stand up for.
Certain “concepts” are also employed in colloquial speech, some noticeable examples
are: benjamins - refers to 100 dollar bills after the American president Benjamin Franklin, whose
face is on them. "It's all about the benjamins".bling bling - expensive jewelry or other expensive
material possessions, refers to the imaginary sound of glistening metal or other shiny surfaces.
"bling bling" added to Oxford Dictionary in the 2003; dime - a very attractive woman, a "ten" on
a scale of one-to-ten; fly - appealing "She is so fly."; the shit - awesome, great. "That man is the
shit.”; tight - attractive "Your car is tight."; wack - not to one's liking. "This relationship is totally
wack." It is out of question that for a person out of the context these words would sound
completely alien to them.
In the context of relationships, other terms can be found when referring to the people
and their relation, some examples of these words are: * boo - boy/girlfriend, beau; boyz - gang
friends; brurva - a male acquaintance; crew - one's good friends (similar to boyz); haps – mother;
hoodrat - girl with loose morals; homie, homey, homeboy – friend; jigga - acquaintance, alternate
of "nigga"; peeps - people, acquantainces; shorty - girl, or girl on the side
36
For the “Miscellaneous” area, which according to Collins English Dictionary means:
“consisting of members or elements of different kinds; of mixed character”40 some words are
used such as: jakes – cops; jonx – belongings; junk - stuff, belongings, male or female genitals;
shit - stuff, belongings. "Get away from my shit."; lowckin - checking out the scene, among
others.
Indubitably, a section of the language in which colloquial speech gains force is in
phrases; in this part there are many expressions which are applied in many situations in a familiar
context for the ones participating in the conversation, and a few examples of these terms are: da
bomb - the bomb, i.e. cool, appealing, or popular; my bad - my mistake; off the hook, off the
chain - unbelievable, outrageous, wild, etc.; peace out - good bye; rise up, foo - bring it on;
school ya - to teach a lesson, to win a confrontation; sku me - excuse me; whas goin' down? –
What are we doin` tonight?; what tha dilly yo? - What is going on?; what up? - Hello, how are
you?; among some other words.
As presented, there are many areas of the English language in which variations and
altered words can be easily appreciated. It turns out conclusively that this tendency to add new
words and expressions to the English language (and of course to any other language) will persist
for a long time as globalization and technology keep on advancing, providing a continuous
cultural clash that came to subsist; the limits of any language are unthinkable; no one has the
expertise in stating which the final data of a language will be by the end of a decade, year or even
month; moreover, it is necessary to have in mind that day after day new words will be enforced
by youngsters who, influenced by the hip hop lyrics and other international influences, need and
want to use them in their daily interaction with peers . Examples of some of the previously
mentioned variations can be found in the following lyrics Stoned Is The Way Of The Walk
performed by Cypress Hill.
40
Retrieved from miscellaneous. (n.d.). Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition.
Retrieved October 16, 2012, from Dictionary.com website
37
"Stoned Is The Way Of The Walk"
[Chorus]
“Stoned is the way of the Walk,
Stoned is the way of the Walk,
[Verse 1: B-real]
Well, it's the Alley Cat puffin' on a hootie rat,
Some think I'm a criminal,
But, yo I ain't all of that,
Hit'cha with the baseball bat,
An' ya wanna ill though,
Wanna mess around ,
You get fucked on the hill bro,
Kick it like a steel toe, real slow,
Hits from the bong ,
Make me feel like Cheech,
And I'm kickin' it wit' Chong,
Just like Cheech & Chong frontin' with "Ice Cream",
Cypress Hill is here to give you a nice dream,
Speak it like a rolla', and you know it's rolled tightly,
I'm like the funky beat, so, why ya tryin' ta fight me,
Pigs often site me, that's not polite G,
And any hour of the day ya know I might be,
Harassed by a pig real fast,
They wanna Rodney King me,
Always tryin'a crown my ass,
Ain't got no class(Sen Dog: No Class)
I hit they' ass like the buddah thats stinkey,
They wanna' scruff but, they' just so rinky-dinky,
I'm the freaka, the one who freaks the funk,
Sen gotts the Philly, an' he's gonna light the blunt,
38
Sippin' curfew makes me go koo-koo,
somthin' like loco then turn in to this loocoo,
Binggin the beta,yea, now the funk is risen,
Got the beta bass and the nasal highzen,
As I kick atrip, it comin' straight from my siness,
Crazy nasal vocals, cannot make the hotties loco,
I rimemba sista Maggie, breast were kinda saggy,
Used to sell me buddah outta fucked up little,
Honeyd up a twenty even when I had no money,
She said "Pay me back with some latin dick Sonnie"
Well I neva' went out, and I don' thnk I'm gonna,
Just for some buddah, she wanted me ta bone her,
Deminin', Ya think ya meanin',
I got somethin' for the hoes ta be skeamin' on,
I'm the Buddah-Real take a trip ta hoota'ville,
I'll throw ya out the door, of my big blue Siville,
Then light another joint,
This ain't no exploition (poin't),
Cause we are the ones stonein' in the ways of the mastas,
Stoned is the walk,
Stoned is the walk,
Stoned is the walk,
Stoned is the walk,
[Sen- Dog]
Hit they, hit they ass,
[B-Real]
make the buddah get stinkey
Wooooo, Woooo
(Alas, Cap'in there's a ship in sight,
39
Huhu, Blast 'em!)
Stoned is the walk”41
Schooling is the socially-accepted manner in which true education is conceived under a
designed curriculum, which operates as a standardized imperative dogma. For almost two
centuries is has been surmised that there is no way someone can attain a proper academic level
but immersed in the educational system, inside a classroom with a teacher in front providing the
knowledge learners lack. Clearly this conception will prevail for a long time as schooling
provides the contents and information that learners are to be taught imperatively as stated in the
national curriculum of any country.
But, is there any aspect that has been disregarded by educators? What about the
knowledge and skills students develop through free interaction? Schools nowadays encourage
competitiveness and individualism where there must be always a winner. Talking to classmates is
considered cheating and rejecting an activity means revelry and a disrespectful attitude, yet, as
grown-ups, people do not do the same; they make decisions and generate preferences based on
personal interests, interests that at a certain level were oppressed in childhood when more
freedom should be given to kids.
No matter how much time, research or improvements academics devote to better the
school system, there will always exist the education which lies on the individual under an
autonomous and self-managed learning. Interaction with peers and preferences in diverse aspects
generate along with social skills an emotional development, notwithstanding how much
structured the school system might be; nonetheless, there are aspects of life acquired out of the
school context, through likes and the free interaction that youngsters cope with everyday.
41
(2012). Cypress Hill Lyrics. Azlyrics. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/cypresshill/stonedisthewayofthewalk.html
40
A recent study carried out during a visit to the University of Minnesota, proved that there
is a noticeable difference between the ones who feel this keenness for hip hop and those who are
not fond of it. The study was applied to 168 undergraduate students and consisted on collecting
information on the knowledge they had to define more than 60 African-American English words;
their music preferences, their social ties with Afro-Americans and what they knew about AfricanAmericans were also included as part of the survey. The results showed that the ones who listen
to hip hop have a better understanding of the African-American English than the others who
shared a similar academic level but did not listen to hip hop frequently. This study was carried
out by a linguistics professor Paula Chesley from the university of Alberta, Canada, whose
initiative to develop the investigation started by a curious situation she experienced while
observing her younger family, which lived in a mainly white community.
“I realized that they would use a lot of vocabulary items from African-American English
and they’re living in these communities that are 97 per cent white,” Chelsey said. “But they
would listen to a lot of hip-hop music, so I wondered if they were picking up on these from hiphop music because it is really quite omnipresent in the US.”42
Actually, if this argument is to be pondered, it could be stated that people have more
lyrics in their consciousness than anything else, for songs which amuse people remain in their
minds not by memorizing through a tedious and repetitive torture, but for the internalization of
the words through enjoyment.
People could argue that this means nothing as those words youngsters employ are not part
of the academically-established English language which lies on the generally-accepted
dictionaries; nonetheless, is there anyone capable of limiting what forms are not part of a
language? Of course there are linguists and experts whose job consists of noticing any alteration a
language experiences, but it also needs to be considered that it is not strictly necessary the
approval of a group of academics to accept variations as appropriate; dialects emerge not from
important summons or conclaves where people read and analyze statistics, but from what
42
Black, K. (2012, 01). Hip-hop teaches youth a new vocabulary. The Gateway. Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://thegatewayonline.ca/article/view/hip_hop_research
41
happens in every corner of a community. As long as a considerable group of people accept
changes, and share a better understanding of the new wording, then the natural lexical evolution
in societies will be accepted.
The acceptance and comprehension of these continuous and noticeable changes in the
English language enhanced mostly by youngsters since the twenty-fist century is charged with
alterations which advance faster than ever before; people who, for several reasons, are not
updated with the variations of the lexicon and where they are rooted in, will never understand the
unlimited range and relevance these variations are gaining as societies grow and evolve.“When I
talk about this research to people over 40, they don’t get it really. It’s a huge part of present day
North American youth culture.”43
In conclusion, the history of the cultural changes that societies experience is undeniable
and the participation in the genre discussion is crucial for this; a subculture has emerged with a
strength that increases, shaping the lifestyle of many people who have become victims of the
impact and appeal that hip hop sparks. It results crucial to embrace the variations that languages
constantly suffer; evidently it is not a mystery that languages evolve; the influences and the
contributions should be present. Music genres such as hip hop provide a varied range of lexis that
the English language can dare to encompass. Youngsters all over the world are molding the
future in many aspects, even language; no one can establish the limits of this as it is a process
which the structured system does not have under control; as it takes place naturally and without
warning.
2.2 The use of Metaphors and Hyperbole in Rhythm and Blues
R&B is regarded as one of the major exponents in American Popular Music; it is also a
genre with a full range of language variations; from lexis to slang, from grammar to word stress,
R&B always stood out for its powerful songs and a clever use of emphasis, along with lyrics and
titles of double meaning.
43
Black, K. (2012, 01). Hip-hop teaches youth a new vocabulary. The Gateway. Retrieved 10, 2012, from
42
Quickly the exponents of the genre understood that they had to exploit their language and
captivate white audiences in the United States, and then the world into shocking reactions that
could only benefit their pockets. It seems that they had all the necessary implements to do so; the
myths surrounding black male stamina and sexual prowess allowed them to “play” with their
song titles, teasing listeners and cover readers everywhere. Besides, their entire history of life in
The States influenced the manner in which they were destined to use the English language; their
tones of voice had lower and deeper registers, and their elevated sense of music acquired by tribal
ancestry that regarded music as a way to communicate with gods and heal illnesses, provided
African-Americans with a trained ear for melody like no other.
Furthermore, this conceptual use of the language had the purpose to give songwriters and
performers the freedom to express their beliefs not constrained by a set of boundaries anymore. It
turned their situation around, empowering them into taking advantage of a very common white
fear towards their “cultural-degradation” and for the first time in American History they had
something to say out loud without any visible fear of consequence. Of course, this white fear was
projected on protecting the American youth into learning the ways of the African-American
culture.
Most of the R&B artists and bands since the late 50s had a considerable amount of
success, and were therefore very influential. The words they used were echoed constantly on the
streets and the radios, and the clothing they wore began to be observed as a distinctive type of
fashion that separated them from any other type of musical genre; finally, the messages conveyed
through their music also started to be heard with closer attention.
Society began to feel inclined to use the expressions and figures of speech from the songs
as the artists inclining popularity simmered with confidence. It is not that the expressions were just
popular or “catchy” but they were also used on important parts of very successful songs. Hence,
the songs served merely as a channel to deliver well thought ideas of love, sexuality, racial and
gender hierarchies.
The latter unchained what (Mark Anthony, 2001) referred to as some meaningful social
status towards black women; the effects from the intense curiosity towards black male sexual
43
prowess affected both men and women as one became subject to myths and hearsay, and the other
began to place themselves in the subjective position of controlling and enjoying their sexuality,
again providing them with an alternative space of empowerment. (p. 130 - 131)
As a matter of fact, personal and intimate experiences nurtured the creative genius within
each and every R&B artists. (Mark Anthony, 2001) Not once but many times during the post-Civil
Rights era, this began to publicly affect the relationship of black men and women which were
becoming increasingly contentious. So far, the public eye had ignored… the ills of black family
and community. An illness that began to be treated through R&B music now by female star artists
who recognized the ability of black women to critique and even undermine black male sexuality.
(p. 131)
In other words, Rhythm and Blues suffered a transformation by passing through a stage
of social problems that rocketed many female artists into stardom, like Aretha Franklin or Marlena
Shaw who were looking to publicly treat “issues of sexuality, misogyny, patriarchy, and violence
that were silenced because of the logical responses of blacks to segregation, which included not
“airing dirty laundry.”44 (p. 131).
Surely, the genre which had influenced millions of young Americans began to take a
positive more communitarian twist as the transformation continued to address the issues of
unemployment, education, and equality.
Artists like Salt-n-Pepa were “well known for their safe-sex recordings, public-service
announcements, and support of feminist causes such as the Aint Nothing But a She Thing Project,
which raises awareness about and money for reserach on breast cancer on behalf of the Shirley
Divers Foundation for Women.”45 (p. 133)
44
Rachel Rubin and Jeffrey Melnick, (2001) New Approaches to the Twentieth Century: American Popular Music,
edited by University of Massachusetts Press.
45
i.b.
44
Even though Salt-n-Pepa were highly regarded as “Hip-Hops feminist voice” they
embraced during times of change the necessity of returning something back to the communities
which had given so much support and power to their music genre.
“The recording industry and “cover” artists such as Pat Boone exploited parental and
societal fears of black culture for their own financial gain. But black artists also exploited these
fears by manipulating language, context, and time in order to challenge the controls placed on
their expression and engage in forms of play.”46 (p. 129)
Right after slavery the fear white men had towards black men began to grow. “It was then
that the myth of the black man’s sexuality, the myth of the black as a sexual monster, as a threat
to pure white womanhood, began to gain force”47 (p. 129)
The following is a list of recordings which simply celebrate the well-thought use of language
of the “black male sexual prowess and stamina” through a series of metaphors:
•
Sixty-Minute Man “recorded by the Dominoes in 1951, which documented the sexual
longevity of lead bass singer Bill Brown, who was nicknamed “lovin’ Dan, the sixtyminute man”48 (p.129-130)
•
Big Long Slidin’ Thing “recorded by Dinah Washington in 1954, exploits the myth of
black male size through the ambiguities of language at the expense of her absent
trombone player”49 (p.130)
•
Big Ten-inch Record “recorded by Moose Jackson and the Tiny Bradshaw Orchestra in
1952, is another example of the ways in which artists invoked the myths of black male
sexuality to undercut them.”50 (p. 130)
46
47
i.b.
48
i.b.
49
i.b.
50
i.b.
45
The song largely achieves its narrative goal because of Jackson’s brilliant timing in the
rendering of the song’s lyrics. The simple pause that Jackson places between “big ten-inch” and
“record” in the song’s chorus emphasizes the songs ambiguous meanings.
The latter serves as an example of how the 50s began to be influenced by this kind of
metaphorical concept that compared in double meaning black and white sexual prowess. Mid to
late 1960s would dramatically change the reality of black sexual politics with the apparition of
the Civil Rights movement and of course the Black Power movements that with no doubt
strengthened the black community.
It became a time of change and evolution, where almost every aspect of their life began to
drastically twist and turn. At the verge of a pitfall the black community experienced the
apparition of leaders, musicians and athletes that made their color proud and beautiful, “Black is
beautiful” began to be heard and said. Their lives acquired higher relevance and their voices, no
longer silenced, started to be heard in manifestations and rallies all around the country, marching
and expressing in unison their rejects towards war, racism, poverty, etc.
The extent to which the African-American people have influenced the English language
knows no boundaries, and today they are recognized for their clever use of slang, lexicon and
metaphors, besides the exquisite and elegant more formal use of it. Of course, it is simply a
matter of where to look into. Somehow it became evident how by not quite saying what they had
to say, they said it all. No one supposes that they were lying by telling the truth, or on the
contrary telling the truth through lies; regardless of the lyrics and titles of the pre-Civil Rights
era, African-Americans were not at all comfortable with what they had to say, especially because
of how they said it.
Surely, the use of the English language that molds and adapts to each and every
individual, led singers and band artists to say everything they had on their minds at the time, and
more. Stumbling into an unexpected solution, metaphors unleashed an exaggerated use of the
language, later adapting hyperboles to emphasize their statements of love, labor, sex, wealth, etc.
46
By definition, a metaphor is the expression of an understanding of one concept in terms of
another concept, where there is some similarity or correlation between the two” in other words
“A metaphor is the understanding itself of one concept in terms of another (Lakoff, G. 1987,
388)
Looking into unforeseen concepts and objects, a musician would make good use of an
instrument or a popular record to engage with the already eager audience that had been waiting
for the next hit along with the scandalous lyric or the provocative title.
Paul Brandt author of (Sexual Life in Ancient Greece) said “Don’t tell me the sky’s the
limit when there are footprints on the moon.”51 Apparently, the not so sudden success various
black artists were experiencing all over the United States, inspired others into adventuring on
uncharted waters, without fear of ridicule, failure or stigmatization. Whether some may stand still
today reluctant to the fact that African-American resilience and creativity stimulated an
unforeseen revolution of the arts and the language, is at this point completely ignorable.
Of course love was another important topic, and although most of the artists were
consumed in toying with the audience, with cavalier and burlesque lyrics, others believed in
something more romantic like the wonderful Etta James, often referred to as “The Matriarch of
R&B” who sang “At Last”, a song almost entirely constructed with metaphors and released in the
year 1960.
“At Last”
“At last, my love has come along
My lonely days are over
And life is like a song
Oh, yeah, at last
The skies above are blue
My heart was wrapped up in clovers
51
Brandt, P. (2011, 10). Sky is the Limit. Wikipedia. Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky%27s_the_Limit
47
The night I looked at youI found a dream that I could speak to
A dream that I can call my own
I found a thrill to rest my cheek to A thrill that I have never known
Oh, yeah when you smile, you smile
Oh, and then the spell was cast
And here we are in heaven
For you are mine
At last” 52
On the other hand, we have a tool of no modest exaggeration that accompanied with
striking beats and sense of humor served the genre quite well. The hyperbole, generally confused
with the metaphor itself, is used in R&B since the early beginnings of the genre by great
performers like Johnny Cash or Stevie Wonder.
“A hyperbole is a type of figurative language. It is often confused with a simile or a
metaphor because it often compares two objects. The difference is a hyperbole is an
exaggeration. For example: His feet were as big as a barge. It looks like a simile. It is comparing
foot size to the size of a barge. Everyone knows that a barge is approximately 700 feet long.”53
Some examples of hyperbole are:
52
•
I nearly died laughing
•
I was hopping mad
•
I tried a thousand times
(2010, 08). At last. Metrolyrics. Retrieved10, 2012, from http://www.metrolyrics.com/at-last-lyrics-etta-
james.html
53
(2010, 05). Hyperbole. Harris Middle School . Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://volweb.utk.edu/school/bedford/harrisms/index.htm
48
Some examples of hyperbole in R&B songs are:
•
“Oh I never gonna give you up
I'm never, ever gonna stop
All the things I feel about you girl
I just can't live without you”54
Barry White "Never, Never Gonna Give You Up"
•
“Oh no darling
No wind, no rain
Nor winter storm
can't stop me baby
no no baby
Cause you are my goal
If you're ever in trouble
I'll be there on the double
just send for me
oh baby!”55
Marvin Gaye “Ain’t no mountain high enough”
54
(2007, 05). Never never Gonna Give you up. Oldielyrics. Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://www.oldielyrics.com/lyrics/barry_white/never_never_gonna_give_you_up.html
55
(2004). Aint No Mountain High Enough. STlyrics. Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://www.stlyrics.com/songs/g/gayemarvin14982/aintnomountainhighenough400404.html
49
“I've got so much honey the bees envy me.
I've got a sweeter song than the birds in the trees.
I guess you'd say
What can make me feel this way?
My girl (my girl, my girl)
Talkin' 'bout my girl (my girl).”56
The Temptations “My Girl”
“Stay on the scene like a Sex Machine.
You gotta have the feeling
sure as you're born.
Get it together
right on
right on”57
James Brown “Get Up (sex machine)”
56
(2003). My Girl . STlyrics. Retrieved 10, 2012, from http://www.stlyrics.com/lyrics/thebigchill/mygirl.htm
57
(2007). Get Up (Sex Machine). Coveralia musica. Retrieved 10, 2012, from http://www.coveralia.com/letras/get-
up-%28sex-machine%29-james-brown.php
50
The following lyric portrays a perfect example of how the figure of speech could
catapult a song into stardom; the song is Stevie Wonder's creation.
"Rocket Love"
“I longed for you since I was born
A woman sensitive and warm
And that you were
With pride and strength no one would test
But yet have feminine finesse
And so much more
You took me riding in your rocket, gave me a star
But at a half a mile from heaven you dropped me back
down to this cold, cold world
Took me riding in your rocket, gave me a star
But at a half a mile from heaven you dropped me back
down to this cold, cold world” 58
Notice how beautifully the hyperbole of the bridge wraps up the message into a striking
finale. This is but one example out of thousands that demonstrate how the African-American
artists became nothing less than masters of the language. In spite of all the hardships and
separatists views to which they were submitted, no one could have prevented them from learning
the English language.
58
(2010, 03). Hotter Than July. Rocket Lyrics. Retrieved 10, 2012, from http://www.lyricsdepot.com/stevie-
wonder/rocket-love.html
51
The overwhelming number of examples of African-American language expertise is
surprisingly not surprising. The roots of their evolution in America were influenced, like no
other, by their socio-cultural history on West Africa, where most of them carried out multiple
tasks and became handy men and women.
In fact, other eligible slaves were proven to be ineffective to work under harsh
conditions and they provided no other perceptible “to the minds of the masters”, or knowledge
applicable in their field of labour. History documents state that “The Indians of the West Indies
were simple food gatherers and had not reached the stage where they were learning to keep
animals and grow crops. When forced to sacrifice their freedom and to work all day under harsh
discipline, many simply grew sick and died. Others, sometimes whole tribes, committed
suicide.”59
In general terms, many people have asked themselves on different occasions why the
African slaves were somehow “chosen” to become the working force on hot-driven American
plantations, being the common response that they were simply a race that reunited the physical
qualities that most indigenous Americans or imported white slaves did not have.
Nonetheless, the reasons why they became the focus of slavery are far less superficial
than the one commonly given. In fact, it is known that “Africans made better slave labourers
than the Indians of the West Indies and North America because they came from a much more
advanced type of society and were often skilled artisans.”60
So, regardless of their physical superiority and leaving aside the fact that they were also
“more immune to European diseases than indigenous Americans or imported white slaves”61,
African slaves paid the price of being in fact clever and handy in the tasks of growing crops and
keeping animals.
It appears to be that their noticeably different skin color was more than a reason to fear
and subjugate them, and the violent behavior was considered valid to slave trade and use.
59
Retrieved from: http://www.bristolandslavery.4t.com/whyafrican.htm
i.b.
61
i.b.
60
52
Consequently, the influence on language and the surrounding society began with the
simplest of dreams, to be free. Chapter one has already stated how small circles of slaves
gathered through songs, making powerful statements against the cruelty of slavery and the
possibility of retribution.
“No More”
“No more peck o´ corn for me, No more, no more;
No more peck o´ corn for me, many thousand go.
No more driver´s lash for me.
No more pint o´ salt for me.
No more hundred lash for me.
No more mistress´ call for me.”62 (p. 175)
It is quite hard to identify the hyperbole in the song “No More” considering that it was
not impossible for the slaves to be whipped a hundred times, or to be denied even the least
required ration of food and fresh water to survive. It is therefore a possible waste of time to look
into early slave songs for hyperboles or metaphors; simple comparisons and early beginnings of
double meaning are most often found in songs that address the issue of slavery more directly.
Taking all in consideration, the never ending process of influence a music genre
withstands with society is permanent and cyclical. Society will always attempt to affect the
musical genre of their predilection and music will continue to deliver new terminology to be
applied in every day informal communication.
The evolution of R&B as a genre that exploited metaphors and hyperboles is closely
related to the messages hidden between lines present in the late 50s and early 60s, when the
struggle for equality and the apparition of myths surrounding male genitalia were the focus of
62
53
lyrics and inspiration. It is nonetheless a genre that presented incredible signs of growth copping
with the socio-cultural context of each decade, facing the pre and post-Civil Rights movement and
raising consciousness towards the difficulties African Americans faced every day. R&B is not just
a genre that entertains and sounds good, but it is also a movement of people towards a specific
goal of equality and freedom.
2.3 The role of Jazz in society
More than being an influence in terms of lexis, grammar, or speech itself, Jazz has had a
fundamental role in how the different music genres have evolved through the decades. Not only
in the aspects adopted by other music styles, but also in distinctive features that are related
exclusively to rhythm and dissimilar melodies.
Through time Jazz has changed and has influenced some other musical types that whether
they want it or not present a main and feasible characteristic of jazz. That leverage has led the
arousal of something different, but still having tones in common with some types of jazz.
During the most famous epoch Jazz was considered to be a popular music style, but
viewed as a destructive power that had a negative influence on people’s behavior. According to
many people, the youth was being corrupted and influenced by jazz music, leading them to dance
in ways that were never seen before; even at some point, it was considered obscene and
jitterbugging. Nowadays, people see this style of music as mild when comparing the types of
music the youth are listening today. Jazz has come to play a huge part in challenging the social
norm, helping bring about a more open-minded society.
“The 1920’s was also a huge step for women’s rights and it seems that Jazz had a lot to
do with the newfound liberal mindset of the women during this decade. The whole flapper girl
style of dress was heavily related to the Jazz scene. The style seemed to inspire people to
challenge the social norms because Jazz itself challenges the social norms of music.”63
63
Westphal, P., Jazz and its influence on America. Hub Pages, Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://paulwestphal.hubpages.com/hub/Jazz-and-its-influence-on-America
54
Times began to change and women were taking a stand, refusing any kind of privilege
that men had. Jazz music had the effect of loosening people up and it provoked a good feeling of
fun. During the 1920s jazz music shaped the mentality of the decade. If Jazz hadn’t existed,
society and history would not have had a key progress in terms of social equality.
“Torches of Freedom would have probably never existed if it wasn’t for the liberal
mindset that was perpetuated by Jazz music. If it wasn’t for the women’s rights movement we
probably would not have had a Civil Rights movement.”64
The multiple variations of Jazz pulled people out of their comfort zone as jazz evolved
through the decades. Even in the 1960s, free jazz brought a change, abandoning the complete
idea of a key or tonal center in order to achieve an unbound form of musical expression. People
debate between music and the concept of noise since in some styles there is no real form or meter
in music. Because of music, jazz style musical innovation was set to warp speed.
Having into account all the negative remarks about early jazz, it can be said that it carried
on shaping the American society for the sake of all Americans. It promoted and influenced
people on a lot of social issues in order to react and manifest their beliefs. When jazz appeared,
everyone acknowledged what music was.
Music has been considered a mathematical proportion rather than an imitation of beauty.
That is one reason why nowadays people give rise to new and enthralling ways of making music,
broadening their mind and their way of thinking outside the box.
Throughout the 1920s, jazz music unfolded into an essential part of American popular
culture. A close examination in terms of different aspects can be made in order to establish the
effects of jazz upon society. In the literary world, jazz played a pivotal function which could be
seen through the genesis of the genre of jazz poetry. Fashion was also another aspect that marked
the supremacy of jazz in popular culture. As mentioned before, social movements were furthered
by jazz music since it provided a way of rebellion against the so standardized society of those
64
Westphal, P., Jazz and its influence on America. Hub Pages, Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://paulwestphal.hubpages.com/hub/Jazz-and-its-influence-on-America
55
days such as the Women’s Liberation Movement. The status of African Americans increased due
to the popularity this genre had, positioning them in a higher level in the community.
Nowadays Jazz poetry together with music are the most intense and distinctive forms of
art. During the 1920s, these two forms amalgamated, and the new genre of jazz poetry was
created. The Harlem Renaissance and the effect of African American writers and intellectuals
substantiated the erudite and spiritual appeal of jazz music.
In the course of the same period jazz exerted influence on fashion in which hem lines rose
and bodices were dropped. Men’s pants hung loosely and women’s hair was cut short. Jazz
shaped these new fashion trends and many more.
It has been clearly stated that jazz music has had social effects in society. African
Americans played a far-reaching role in the development of this style of music. Jazz pivots on the
exploitation of black jazz musicians by whites in the music industry, and looks at whether black
musicians benefited from their innovations or not. Lots of African American musicians have
faced similar social circumstances as those of past jazz performers and as a result, the importance
of the African American culture is still being ignored.
Notwithstanding the negative social circumstances that Afro-Americans have coped with,
some blacks gained respect, stardom, and acknowledgement for being the inventors of jazz
music.
The poet Hans Christian Andersen states that “Where words fail, music speaks”, a quote
that is exceedingly expressed in jazz music. During the decade of 1920, jazz went through a rise
in popularity when the music started to spread through the multiple recordings. Some black jazz
musicians believed that they were pulled off economically and that they did not get full
recognition and compensation for being the inventors of jazz as part of the African American
culture. Moreover, some people today oppose to the idea that jazz was invented by blacks. They
say that Jazz music became more of a commodity than an art and that the highest achievers were
white.
56
“Music is essential to the African American experience in the United States. Faced with
racism, discrimination, and segregation, blacks have always found comfort and a sense of peace
in their music. Music continues to be a means by which the anger, grief, compassion and desire
for change is transformed into positive energy for blacks (Dawson, 2001).”65
All in all, jazz is one of the most influential music genres that not only has added new
forms of beats into music but also has changed the lifestyle of people, influencing other music
genres that were never thought to have mastery from jazz. More than language variations, jazz
has affected the way people behave and the means by which they express their opinions or rebel
against the structured minds of the population.
65
Philipp, The Social Effects of Jazz, York College, Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://www.york.cuny.edu/academics/writings-program/the-york-scholar-1/volume-6.1-fall-2009/the-social-effectsof-jazz
57
III American English Language in Chile
Non-native English speakers are found all around the world and “now outnumber native
ones 3 to 1. In Asia alone, Newsweek says, the number of English users has topped 350 million –
roughly the combined populations of the United States, the UK and Canada. There are more
Chinese children studying English – about 100 million – than there are Britons (that’s nearly
twice as many).”66
The globalization of the English language occurred shortly after the appearance of the
mass media communications that broadcast to unfathomable destinies in English. It is not
reckless to say that both world wars and other types of military conflicts (as mentioned in
chapter 2) were also strong forerunners that fomented the use of the English language in places
like Korea, Japan, Russia, Vietnam, Cuba, Panama, Colombia, Chile, etc. Religious and political
differences mixed with the invasive elements of the mass media cornered the world into listening
to a language that spoke to them directly with the famous “I want you”, and that had obvious
ambassadors in Latin America.
66
Hobson, N. (2005,03). The Globalization of English, WebProNews, Retrieved 10,2012, from
http://www.webpronews-com/the-globalization-of-english-2005-03
58
3.1 Early beginnings
To give an account on how people in Chile started speaking English, it is necessary to
look back into the past at iconic characters of television and cinema, as well as politicians, artists
and immigrants that somehow managed to introduce the foreign language in a country well
known for its low population and all time centralist government.
The origins of the English language in Chile must be traced to the first settlements which
took place in Chile at the beginning of the twentieth century. The British immigration makes
reference to the arrival of English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish people to the Chilean territory
between 1840 and 1914. The cities which were mainly occupied by these immigrants were
Valparaiso, Santiago, Temuco, Viña del Mar, The Chiloé Island and Punta Arenas, amongst
others. Currently the number of Chileans with foreign ancestry ascends to an astonishing
700.000, becoming the Latin American country with the greatest number of British descendants.
In the first decades after the Chilean independence, several British trades started partaking
in the coasts of Chile, specifically in Valparaiso. Between 1840 and 1845 Chile became the main
supplier of provisions to California during the gold fever; it is in this period when the British
immigrations to Chile increased enormously. The geographical location of the port of Valparaiso
gave it the importance it had as it was an obligatory stop for the Australian and North American
ships whose destiny was California. By 1890 Valparaiso had a population of 190.000 inhabitants
of whom 25.000 were British and other 25.000 came from diverse European nations.
With the opening of the Panama and Suez canals, Valparaiso´s prosperity got to an end,
reason why many English traders decided to emigrate to Santiago, New Zealand and Australia.
The English colony had also transcendence in the northern region of Chile during the peak
of the saltpeter industry; in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua, John Thomas North, “the king of
saltpeter” was the main businessman of the Chilean niter, however, as it happened in Valparaiso,
many abandoned the country with the end of the saltpeter’s zenith during the 1930s.
In the streets of Valparaíso it was an every-day situation for people to hear conversations
in English; the English ladies were there every day to buy their silk dresses, to get their lotions
59
and ointments brought straight from England, or to finish getting their favorite British magazines
before getting back to their houses.
One of the most remarkable English customs was drinking tea. English people suffered
when they were invited to drink “mate”. The mere idea of sharing a straw with many others
repulsed them. The Chilean population understood that and they decided to adopt this British
tradition. Drinking mate came to be considered a sign of impoliteness and lack of hygiene. This
was not the only aspect which found its place among the Chilean population. The foundation of
the Union club, the South Pacific Mail, cigarettes Capstan and West Minister Turkish being
smoked in bars while people played billiard, were some of the habits people carried out and were
becoming part of the Chilean culture. Schooling was also influenced by the British immigrants;
British teachers and sports such as cricket, golf, rugby and football came to shape not just the
education, but the way Chileans in Valparaiso lived. Soon after, the oldest Chilean football team
Santiago Wanderers, still existent, was founded by Chileans under the British influence.
Famous and important people in the Chilean history such as the ex-president Patricio
Aylwin and the founding father of Chile Bernardo O’Higgins are descendants of British
immigrants.
The history of Chile will without a doubt interfere in the manner, speed and channels in
which the English language spreads through the country. One obvious source of influence is, as
already mentioned the mass media, which has enabled the immediate transmission of information
with a level of connectivity never seen before. With television Chilean families got accustomed
to watching programs performed by Chilean actors and/or celebrities, following a format not far
from those being used in North America. American talk shows and early morning matinees with
huge impact on viewers were copied by Chilean TV producers, recreating almost exactly the
North American vision and targeting the Chilean population.
The Universidad de Chile Television, broadcast the first matinee called “Canal 11 al
despertar.” On April the 21st of 1980, the University decided to broadcast a matinee that would
change the manner in which families in Chile had breakfast. The anchorman called Jorge
Rencoret, moderated guests invited to talk about several topics like music, fitness, cooking and
gardening.
60
The same was already happening in The United States since 1952, with The Today Show,
where the NBC anchorman of 1981, Tom Brokaw, gave way to the friendly discussion of current
affairs, providing at the same time a space for weather reports, music, and also cooking. This is
how the American culture began to be of interest for television producers in Chile who saw the
opportunity to innovate the way people were starting to perceive television.
“News Talk” evolved in the United States, which meant that it also evolved in other parts
of the world, becoming closer to the now called “host”, who for the sake of the program created a
connection between him and the guests coming to his/her conversational show. Most of the times
the guests would be asked an opinion on current matters that may or may not be within his/her
area of expertise.
Talent shows were beginning to make their own way in the Chilean television, and
everything began with the program “¿Cuánto Vale el Show?”, a format created to give an
opportunity to unknown talents to shine in the screens of television. Of course, this was adapted
again from a North American program that did exactly the same. Somehow the path to conquer
Chileans attention and interest started with the continuous copying of television and radio
programs that were originally thought and crafted in the United States of America. Hence when
the movie stars, musicians and artists started appearing on stage, dancing, singing and talking in
English, they were treated like true icons.
Still today, some people remember Clark Gable’s famous line on (Gone with the Wind)
“Frankly, my dear, I don’t give a damn”. Therefore, things like remembering movie lines or a
song’s lyric became something quite natural and understandable amongst Chileans regardless the
age. Unconsciously they had been already taught the American ways of entertainment, which led
to the obvious adoration of Hollywood’s emergent and classic stars.
Americans have not only shaped the way people around the world behave but also have
become real ambassadors of the English language all over the globe. Long before the television
became an absolute referent of social tendencies of the worldwide population, the seventh art
boosted the guidelines of what would be an incipient mass culture. And Chile was not immune to
this influence. From the beginning of the twentieth century, the American cinema began to mold
61
the behaviors and customs of local population, becoming a powerful tool in terms of
consumerism and sociability. “Hollywood fue un referente no sólo por las populares películas y
estrellas asociadas a las mismas, sino por el impacto que éstas generaron en diversos ámbitos
sociales y culturales. (…) hubo modas, peinados, bailes, música, gustos arquitectónicos y formas
de sociabilidad que fueron adoptadas por distintos sectores de la sociedad chilena producto de
la popularización alcanzada a través de las películas.”67
The leverage of American cinema goes beyond the frontiers since the overthrow of
European cinematography after the First World War. The United States in its expansionist zeal,
obtained back then the global importance in the movie scene, leaving behind the damaged
industry of the old continent. That is how the generation of a certain local devotion for the
cinema coming from Hollywood took place; a fervor that found its apogee with the visits to Chile
of movie stars such as Tyrone Power, Clark Gable or Walt Disney.
The different mechanisms used by Hollywood in order to consolidate the irruption of the
American cinema in the twentieth century positioned the cinema as one the most noticed cultural
industries of the twentieth century along with the North American government, which through
the Commerce and State departments helped to establish the hegemony of their industry in virtue
of the detriment of the European cinema.
From its early beginnings, Hollywood became the new referent of modernity to the
medium class, replacing gradually the European style of the nineteenth century and setting the
basis of the Americanization process of local society. The filmic industry took advantage of
World War One. Hollywood elaborated an aggressive commercial strategy that had the support of
Washington and its diplomatic networks, and which Woodrow Wilson called “the pacific
conquest of the world”. Cinema was an undeniable showcase to export American culture and
lifestyle to the remote corners of the planet. Some of the best ambassadors of the United States
were the actors from the star system such as Douglas Fairbanks and Greta Garbo, among others.
67
Zuñiga, L. (2012,09). Libro registra las huellas que Hollywood dejó en Chile. La Tercera. Retrieved 10,2012, from
http://www.diario.latercera.com/2012/09/08/01/contenido/cultura-entretencion/30-117946-9-libro-registra-lashuellas-que-Hollywood-dejo-en-chile.shtml
62
The historic circumstances of the Second World War made Hollywood and The United
States government establish alliances to take advantage of movies, with ends that escaped from
the strictly commercial side to ideological ideas. The existence of an incipient mass culture
facilitated the diffusion of ideas, referents and representations in the Chilean society, especially in
the emergent medium classes.
In Chile, the Hollywood project was embraced by medium classes, who in the formation
of a mass culture appraised the modernity of the “American style” (the skyscrapers, cars, music,
and female emancipation). The rejection came from the most conservative sectors, generally
bound to the Catholic church, who saw their traditional values threatened and tried, through
censorship and propaganda, to avoid that movies “debauched the Chilean society”. Nonetheless,
American cinema knew how to adapt to the adverse international circumstances by incorporating
the sensibilities of the market. "Se buscaba, a través de los recursos de la entretención, el
fortalecimiento de la solidaridad y entendimiento hemisférico con el fin de generar una actitud
positiva de los pueblos latinoamericanos hacia Estados Unidos”68
That platform was seized by the agitated political context of the decades of 1930 and
1940; the crisis of capitalism and Hitler’s advancement stopped Hollywood from being a mere
supportive instrument to commerce and begin acting as a diplomatic tool of Washington.
Franklin D. Roosevelt under the Good Neighbor Policy, aimed to maintain a hemispheric pacific
alliance with Latin America and then during World War II, tried to win the “battle for the minds
and hearts” of the Latin American countries, avoiding them to line up with the Axis.
Hollywood cinema had an influence on the way of dressing, socializing, consuming
products, sorting out music, and thinking. The success of this issue and the right exploitation of a
“star system” made the films be a powerful propagandistic instrument, strengthening the business
of the country around the world.
68
(2012,09). Libro analiza el impacto cultural y politco de Hollywood en Chiñe. Pontificia Universidad Catolica de
Chile. Retrieved 10,2012, from http://uc.cl/es/la-universidad/noticias/8115-libro-analiza-el-impacto-cultural-ypolitico-de-hollywood-en-chile
63
The visit of Walt Disney to Latin America, including Chile, was a trip with political
interests. The main purpose was to persuade people through entertainment resources to generate a
positive attitude towards the United States.
Several ambassadors and television programs have set the boundaries of how the English
language came into Latin America and Chile itself. Sábado Gigante is a Spanish language
television show that mixes a variety of contests, human-interest stories and live entertainment.
This program marked the precedent of mixing two cultures: American and Latin American
culture. Americans have been immersed in the Latin America reality since 1962 with host Mario
Kreutzberger; at the same time with the influence Don Francisco has had in the United States,
Chileans were exposed to the English language through the different Anglo guests that the show
continuously had every Saturday. With this new culture, Chilean citizens began to become
interested in the American lifestyle as well as culture; musicians and actors played a pivotal role
in accomplishing this task.
Chile has had lots of influences from the American culture, from the mass media and from
the significant performers that have brought the American style and language into Chile; there are
still some far-reaching historical facts that have prevented Chile for adopting and incorporating
the English language.
“Chile is located along the southwestern coast of South America, with Argentina to the
east, Bolivia to the northeast, and Peru to the north. There is very little research about the
language of Chile and the role that English has in the country. This is likely because of the
linguistic perception of South America as the "forgotten continent" (Friedrich & Berns, 83)”69
Looking at the historical background of Chile, it is necessary to analyze some possible
reasons why Chile has not taken the ownership of the English language. One of the most feasible
causes might be that the bonds with The United States of America have not been great during the
past thirty five years. Salvador Allende, a Marxist physician and member of Chile’s Socialist
Party fought against the pressure of the CIA that commanded by the United States spent millions
campaigning against Allende, mostly through the radio and the printing press. Despite pressure
69
Covell, J. (2006,07). The Role of the English Language in Chile. Yahoo Voices. Retrieved 10,2012, from
http://voices.yahoo.com/the-role-english-language-chile-53555.html?cat=37
64
from the United States government, the Chilean Congress kept on with tradition and had a runoff
vote between the two lead candidates, in which Allende won convincingly. Once more, the
American forces, now led by President Richard Nixon implemented fear and economic sanctions
in opposition to Chile so as to encourage Allende’s resignation, his overthrow or his defeat in the
impending election of 1976.
The United States intervened once again in 1973 with a military coup designed to
overthrow Allende. Armed forces attacked the presidential palace, leading to Allende’s suicide
and General Pinochet's control of the country. President Clinton released some important CIA
documents concerning the military coup, establishing the first time the United States Government
claimed any responsibility for the events that happened in Chile in 1973.
All in all, the English language seems to be an unavoidable force in the world for
promoting and increasing international communication. Countries all over the globe have adopted
the English language, easily or with a bit of difficulty, having into account all the feasible
benefits a potential lingua franca has, but preferably the immense economic upside this carries.
The English language has had a small role in Chile because of the relations with The United
States; however, with the time passing by, English has tried to insert itself in the society, and the
usage of the English language as a second language is just a matter of time.
3.2 The Forbidden English
As non-native speakers, Chileans have to overcome certain obstacles to fully understand
the second language. Even though these difficulties impose no real threat (to the already
globalization of the language), they slow down the population growth in number of bilingual
speakers. This situation accompanied by an educational system that provides little importance to
the English subject (something regular in most of South American Countries) fosters an informal
use and a misconception of the language.
During the extent of this chapter several cases of forbidden English will be addressed. The
Spanglish versions of certain words, the slang and vulgar English as well as the most common
mistakes will be exposed.
65
The English writer and composer Anthony Burgess once said “It is one thing to use
language; it is quite another to understand how it works”70 (p. 5). With this line the artifex of the
novel A Clockwork Orange, summarizes the reality of a South American population that ignores
at times completely the functioning of the English language. The matter seems to acquire higher
relevance as it has been measured and proven how English users (non-native) increase their
chances of receiving better wages and hence, better lifestyles.
Somehow the fact that less than 1% of the population in Chile speaks fluent English
affects everyone. The English language is and will continue to be the language businessmen must
use to engage in good business, so what happens when there is no one to do good business with?
“English has become the common linguistic denominator. Whether you’re a Korean
executive on business in Shanghai, a German Eurocrat hammering out laws in Brussels or a
Brazilian biochemist at a conference in Sweden, you’re probably speaking English. And as the
world adopts an international brand of English, it’s native speakers who have the most to lose.
Cambridge dons who insist on speaking the Queen’s English could be met with giggles – or blank
stares. British or American business execs who jabber on in their own idiomatic patois, without
understanding how English is used by non-natives, might lose out on deals.”71
A prepared country is capable of coping with threats differently; the threat of illiteracy is
later replaced by the threat of monolingual masses, unable to communicate to the outside world,
unable to project efficiently on high-demand business. What is more, the misplacement of
concepts is overwhelming and at times so ridicule that it can inspire laughter, without avoiding
the fact that there is nothing funny in confusing hot-dog with completo, and thus saying the taxi is
hot-dog…
Certainly some people like to play with words creating new terms; the problem is that this
new “concept” from the way it is pronounced to its definition, starts to be massive and of
common use and knowledge. An eleven year old boy or girl with no higher comprehension of the
English language, that is to say with no real formation of the language, might easily adopt
70
71
Retrieved from: The Oxford Guide to English Usage
Hobson,
N.
(2005,03).
The
Globalization
of
English.
http://webpronews.com/the-globalization-of-english-2005-03
66
WebProNews.
Retrieved
10,2012,
from
Spanglish versions of the lexicon and thus contribute to the expansion of a misconception that
creative as it may be, is erroneous. Facebook, Whatssap, Twitter, Msn, and other social networks
have been used as channels to post the following examples of Spanglish:
•
AISCRIM: Ice cream. Helado
•
BIPEAR: To call on a beeper/to beep. “Llamar al bíper”
•
LANDEAR: To land, to obtain. Conseguir, obtener
•
PANA: Derivation of partner: pal, friend, brother, homey. Also used outside the
US
•
REP: Representative, associate, employee. Empleado, representante
•
CHATEAR: to chat. - in Spanish "hablar en línea".
•
FAXEAR: to send a fax. -the correct Spanish way to say it is "te lo mando POR
fax; mándamelo POR fax", since fax is an object not a verb.
•
ESCANEAR: to scan something.- the correct Spanish word would be "digitalizar"
•
CORNFLEICS (corn flakes): is used for all kind of cereals. - The correct word is
“cereal”.
•
SUETER: sweater
•
ACCESAR: from the English word "access”
•
JONRON: home run
•
BISTEK: beef steak
It is important to remark that “not all Spanglish words are always written, many appear
as they are pronounced.”72 Since most of the Spanglish versions are not written it seems that the
only thing that has to be done to convert a word into Spanglish is simply to pronounce it like one
would in its own native language, disregarding the original intonation and phonemes.
72
(2012,03). Spanglish words. Ask Kids. Retrieved 10,2012, from
http://www.askkids.com/resource/Spanglish_Words.html
67
In cities like Miami, New York and Los Angeles it is very common to hear the Spanglish
versions of English words. The fact that the immigrant number of inhabitants in The United
States has become an ever growing figure, is affecting them as native speakers as well. How or
why this sort of embracement of the mother tongue started is mind-boggling and leaves more
questions unanswered than anything.
According to Carla Power, a Newsweek Magazine journalist, “With native speakers a
shrinking minority of the world’s Anglophones, there’s a growing sense that students should stop
trying to emulate Brighton or Boston English, and embrace their own local versions. Researchers
are starting to study non-native speakers’ “mistakes” – “She look very sad,” for example – as
structured grammars. In a generation’s time, teachers might no longer be correcting students for
saying “a book who” or “a person which.”73
With slang lexicon the plot thickens, owing to the fact that slang has different branches
that go from the sexual slang to the gangster slang. All of which affect directly Latin countries
that are continuously exposed to the more vulgar and informal English portrayed through songs
(mostly rap and hip-hop) and PG13-17 rated movies.
The following is a list of sexual slang, very popular amongst youngsters:
•
Faggot- bundle of wood
•
Gay- Bright, Colourful, happy, etc.
•
Queer- Odd
•
Twatt- Two small towns in the Shetland and Orkney Islands
•
Cock- Chicken
•
Ass- Donkey
The gangster or ghetto slang has also found its way very easily during the last two
decades in Latin countries. In Chile specifically, artists like 50-cent, Jay-z, Usher and Snoop Dog,
73
Power, C. (2005,03). Not the Queen’s English. The Daily Beast. Retrieved 10,2012, from
http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2005/03/06/not-the-queen-s-english.html.
68
have greatly influenced young minds with their style and swagger. But considering the several
and enormous grammatical mistakes and huge pronunciations errors their songs contain, it
becomes increasingly important to wisely differentiate the right from the wrong.
Numerous English programs have been created in order to counterattack the leading
misconception of English in the country. The government along with the Ministry of Education
are becoming aware of this inappropriate use of the English language that serves no good
purpose. The English learned through songs and movies does not suffice the extent of the
communicative situations found in the real world in the English speaking countries. In other
words, a person cannot fully survive only with Spanglish, slang and informal knowledge.
Nonetheless, more and more teenagers are trapped in the vortex of informality, as it is
somehow more appealing to them and easier to learn. Not many of them in Chile know how to
say “Berenjena” in English, but most of them know how to say “fuck or damn”, the equivalent to
“maldita sea” in Spanish. It is not just the teenagers alone who are erroneously misplacing
words; venerable institutions in Chile are also widely affected by their ignorance in the subject.
The Chilean navy offers the opportunity to young cadets to go around the world, serving the
country while visiting places they would never fathom to exist. But, imagine how others view
them as they become unavailable to communicate even the simplest of ideas.
3.3 Current Chilean domain of The English Language
Chilean Education can be divided in three periods from 1973 to 1980 which can be
denominated by many as the destruction of the education system and all the organizations and
components of it, the second period from 1980 to 1990 can be recalled as the period of the
changes, in which The State gave up its responsibility for education passing it to the town halls
creating the continuously-judged subsided system, which clearly sparked a sort of financial
interests, detrimental for the future purpose of education; and it also altered the teaching statute.
The third period can be referred as the one from 1990 till now, in which democratic governments
made several curricular adjustments, even though, following the lineaments of the LOCE, a law
69
written during the dictatorship; at the same time the following governments have adhered and
supported the economic model which has caused the flaws that education until possesses.
Education has been and will be for a long time, a subject matter in the political arena of
debate in Latin America, predominantly among the Chilean population. Chileans have witnessed
during the last years a considerable number of the Chilean inhabitants raising their voice and
demanding passionately to the executive power significant improvements and a greater
investment in education.
Giving a deeper look to what the Chilean education actually needs, other aspects have to
be taken into consideration. It has never been heard any complaint against the productive and
consumer-aimed purpose of education, about the harmful conditioning that takes place inside
classrooms or how memorization is prioritized over imagination, among other problems.
As it is stated in the article “Revelando el lado oculto de la enseñanza del inglés” written
by Dr. Claudio Heraldo Díaz Larenas and Dr. María Inés Solar Rodríguez, “los cambios
trascendentales en la calidad de la enseñanza universitaria no ocurrirán, si no hay cambios en la
concepción que tienen los docentes universitarios sobre la enseñanza.”74 How we are teaching
and for which purpose we are doing it are discussions which actually should be constantly given
with the purpose of seeking solutions that would certainly generate significant changes in matters
of education.
English teaching is, for the Ministry of Education, a constant priority to be reinforced in
the educative establishments. The effect of globalization has been overbearing with regard to the
imperative need of getting acquainted with English and managing, one of the languages with the
greatest relevance worldwide; it cannot be forgotten that English is one of the six languages
utilized in the United Nations. Foreign companies are attracted to Chile owing to its political and
economic stability and this interest is increasing every day, thus, it is crucial to recognize the
74
Dr. Claudio Heraldo Díaz Larenas y la Dra. María Inés Solar Rodríguez (2011), Revelando el lado oculto de
la enseñanza del inglés en un contexto universitario: la mirada de un grupo de docentes de inglés, Perspectiva
Educacional, Vol.50. n°2
70
setbacks that jeopardize the English level enhancement that would lead to a better positioning in
the global rank.
When tourists come to Chile, they get appalled by the incapacity that taxi drivers, waiters
and salespeople have to even speak a few words in English; it can be thought that there is a
complicity since foreigners do not speak Spanish or do not have the intention of leaving it;
however, two things must be regarded, first: it must be kept in mind that the English language
comes from one of the most powerful nations in the world, thus, it is a communicative tool that
provides opportunities that other languages do not; secondly, despite the lack of English domain,
Chile continues doing the greatest efforts to strengthen the connection with foreign people.
Currently, Chile is a country which strives for attracting more and more tourists; the fact that less
than a 2% of the working force speaks English in an acceptable manner is alarming. In an article
published in 2007 in the magazine “Business Chile”, a reference is made to this permanent flaw
that Chile has concerning the English domain.
According to Michael Grasty, president of the AmCham Education Committee, “estamos
perdiendo oportunidades… hay empresas extranjeras que vienen acá en busca de profesionales,
pero que tienen que irse, porque no logran encontrar empleados que puedan hablar inglés.”75
Evidently, this demonstrates the productive purpose that education possesses in Chile; the need
for increasing the academic management of the English language in Chile becomes
transcendental owing to the existent global demand.
It is not surprising that European countries head the ranking with advanced and highlyadvanced knowledge in English, followed by Asian countries like Malaysia, Hong Kong and
South Korea. On the contrary, in Latin America the knowledge of English is extremely low, with
exceptions like Argentina and Mexico which show a regular development. The 2011 Education
First Inform (EF EPI) offers unquestionable evidence why Latin America is the region with less
English abilities. The answer is that many times these countries have international relationships
75
Dowling, J. (2007, 10). La Enseñanza del Inglés en Chile: Una Asignatura Pendiente. Business Chile. Retrieved
10, 2012, from http://www.businesschile.cl
71
(commerce, diplomacy, tourism) with their peers in the region, whom they share Castilian with as
their official language; the need for developing a lingua franca like English has not been
prioritized.
Unquestionably, the need for improving the English language management in an everyday more globalized world is present not just in Chile, but in all the sought-after regions of Latin
America where foreign companies struggle day after day for establishing and profiting, due to the
prosperous economic conditions and the abundance of primary resources. There is an increasing
positioning of foreign corporations all over the Southern continent; hence, workers in this part of
the globe are compelled to become qualified in matters of English language communication.
Notwithstanding, this situation is perceived all over Latin America, but this necessity
intensifies when referring to Chile. In the magazine “Business Chile”, Joëlle Uzarski (2007), in
charge of the regional English teaching programs of the North American Embassy, states that “no
veo a los padres y empleadores exigiendo (el dominio del) inglés como lo hacen en Uruguay o en
Brasil”, adding that“el dominio del inglés en Chile es por mucho el más bajo de los países donde
trabajo.”76 Taking this into account, it becomes evident that Chile is a country in which real and
immediate reforms are required in the English language education. With such a progressive
economy, together with being witnesses of a technological race that knows no limits, it turns out
imperative for the productive purpose of education that Chilean people become updated with
regard to the dominant language behind the globalization process.
The scanty amount of English speakers is affecting the diversification of the Chilean
economy based on natural resources, affirms Gratsy. “Necesitamos reinventarnos para ser
competitivos en la industria de servicios, pero una de nuestras mayores desventajas es que no
hablamos inglés.”77 The problem starts in schools. In 2004 a diagnose test taken by the Ministry
of Education, with assistance of the Cambridge University of the United Kingdom concluded that
just a small portion of those finishing school had more or less a basic English domain. Why is it
76
77
i.b.
72
that only a small amount of the Chilean population speak English, being a country which holds a
wide net of free commerce trades and has besides, tight economic and political bonds with
countries like the United States, Canada and Great Britain? The possible response would be the
lack of interest, a shortage of qualified professors and very few opportunities for students to
practice English. Sergio Bitar, Minister of Education in Chile between the years 2003 and 2005,
and who was at the head of the initiatives to promote the English teaching in all education levels
states. “La gente no ve el inglés como algo que es necesario en sus propias vidas... tenemos que
hacer más que un esfuerzo para generar la convicción de que aprender inglés los llevará a una
mejor vida.”78
The deficient English level that Chileans have is not a mystery, but the situation seems to
be more complicated. Since Chile was accepted as a member of the Organization for the
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 2010 and whose mission is “to promote
policies that will improve the economic and social well-being of people around the world.”79 Its
participation as an active member compels Chile to improve in many aspects. Chile´s aspiration
of being more competitive beyond the limits of Latin America and to compare itself with the
developed countries, implies that the country must increment its efforts in the communicative
area.
Looking at schools, it can be seen that huge efforts are being made to better the current
Chilean situation. In 2004, the Ministry of Education released the program “Inglés Abre Puertas”
Program that delivers diagnostic tests, professional development for English teachers and
monetary support in schools. The annual budget quintuplicated from US$1 million in 2004 to
US$5 million currently; this amount duplicates with the Governmental Innovation for the
Competiveness Fund’s contributions (US$3 million) and US$2 million of subsidies and
donations. The program emphasizes the use of modern technology including internet courses and
interactive software, which turn out to be really motivational for students, comments Tony
Adams, Director of international relationships of the Chilean-British University of Culture, who
78
79
(2012,). OECD. About the OECD. Retrieved 10, 2012, from http://www.oecd.org/about/
73
adds that ““aún se tiende a considerar el inglés como una materia escolar en lugar de como un
idioma vivo para fines comunicativos.”80
In fact, the program focuses in the classroom as a costly-efficient way of teaching
English, yet this is fortunately changing. In 2008 planning courses were offered to sixty town hall
administratrors of education from different regions of the country; they travel to Finland,
Norway, Poland and Austria where the English language teaching has been implemented
successfully. However, it is soon yet to evaluate properly this program’s results.
Chileans are realizing every time that without English their opportunities are limited. An
example of the growing interest that Chileans have for the English language is that in 2006 sixhundred high school students participated in the National English Debates and in 2007 this
number grew to two-thousand. The Ministry of Education assures that they are prepared to aid
those who wish to learn.
The students who showed the highest potential were invited to summer courses carried
out by the Pontifical Catholic University. Thanks to this model, the quantity of English hours that
a student normally has can be triplicated.
In one of its latest efforts for increasing the English level of children since the beginning
of their educative process, the Ministry of Education will be carrying out a voluntary evaluation
for English teachers with the purpose of getting a real perception of the knowledge and expertise
these professionals have regarding the English language and the corresponding teaching skills,
this evaluation would demonstrate which the strengths and weaknesses that every professional
possesses are, in order to provide the proper training with the objective of reverting this issue.
The Minister of Education Harald Beyer stated that those who get the highest levels in
this exam, superior or upper-intermediate, will be given the possibility of getting a certification
through an additional exam so as to get the chance of going abroad. These professionals will be
80
74
considered as those who possess the best competences as English teachers. This is clearly a
motivator for those whose commitment and vocation is education, besides, it is a good system to
identify the highly-qualified teachers who will clearly have the responsibility of making the
greatest effort to revert the current situation that affects Chile in matters of English, which
according to the testimonies and information presented is certainly worrying and demands a
speedy and thorough intervention.
More than bigger financial resources, achieving a better English language level requests a
strong commitment from the teachers, students, parents, universities and employers. The Ministry
programs are helping better the quality of the English which is taught in state schools. It is
believed and expected that those who finish school in 2019 would have a fluency level known as
“autonomous” which clearly until this moment has not been achieved, since only 1,4% of the
population speaks English fluently. Companies are demanding immediate solutions to this
situation which they qualify as outrageous. Clearly this is a current concern, and the opportunities
being lost are countless; it must be understood that something must be done to sort it out; Chile
needs to remain apt for the competitive world out there.
To conclude, it can be mentioned that education has become a core priority in Chile to
revert the flaws of society; developing countries which belong to the OECD show high standards
in the social development aspect and refer to education as the key for progress and participation
in the globalization process. The necessity for improving the English level is evident and cannot
be obviated; moreover, solutions should be sought and implemented immediately due to
tremendous possibilities are being lost day after day as workers do not have the proper English
level that foreign companies demand so eagerly. Paradoxically, education is the solution and at
the same time responsible for the deficient English language domain that Chilean people possess.
Hopefully, new programs, educative reforms, greater investment and any other positive ideas will
be the responses people need to solve this current problem and attain an appropriate level of
English.
75
IV Methodological Framework
4.1 Epistemological approach
As the theory and information reviewed throughout the research must be evaluated and
analyzed, it is necessary to determine the approach to utilize based on the outcome that is
expected to get and the conclusions which will define the relevance of this research. It is
important to consider the positive and negative aspects the approaches might have; before
analyzing the information every feature must be taken into account in order to develop a
correctly-oriented analysis.
The first approach to consider is the “quantitative approach”, an inquiry into an
identified problem to prove the validity of the information presented; this approach is based on
testing a theory, measured with numbers, and analyzed through statistics and comparison charts.
The main goal of a quantitative method is to conclude whether the predictive generalizations of a
theory hold true.
By contrast, a study based upon a “qualitative process” of inquiry has the objective of
comprehending a social or human problem from diverse perspectives. The qualitative research is
76
conducted in a real and natural setting and involves a process of building a complex and complete
view of the phenomenon in discussion.
Some of the characteristic features and noticeable differences qualitative and quantitative
approaches possess must be presented to demonstrate the most common conceptions about these
two types of analyses.
Qualitative
Quantitative
Soft
Hard
Flexible
Fixed
Subjective
Objective
Political
Value-free
Case study
Survey
Speculative
Hypothesis testing
Grounded
Abstract
(Halfpenny, 1979: 799)
This comparison of features might suggest the superiority of quantitative research since,
for example, it is value-free. The fact is that quantitative research reports nothing but reality,
whereas qualitative research might be influenced by the political values of the researchers.
Arguably, people might assert that value freedom in social sciences is unpleasant or unfeasible.
Another debate can arise concerning “flexibility”. For some people the questioned flexibility can
encourage researchers’ innovation and creativity. For others, it is nothing but a lack of structure
even seriousness. In a context different to the social science community, the debate around the
idea of quantitative research as the most valid approach is almost inexistent.
4.1.1 Quantitative approach
Governments rely on the quantitative research as the research replicates in its own
departments and agencies (Cicourel, 1964:36). Quick answers are required in a world in which
information has so much value and it turns out necessary to provide assertive answers based on
reliable variables. Similarly, many research funding agencies call qualitative researchers
77
‘journalists or soft scientists’ whose work is ‘termed unscientific, or only exploratory, or entirely
personal and full of bias’ (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994: 4).
By the end of the twentieth century, it was thought that the unquestionable reliability that
was given to quantitative research was under threat. An anecdotic situation took place in the
British general election of 1992; the failure of surveys to reflect the next political results made
the audience a bit skeptical about the previously-presented statistics. Companies argued that the
results were just demonstrating voters’ intentions before voting day; they never expected to
predict the final results.
Albeit the flaws and impreciseness that statistics might have in occasions, it must be
acknowledged that there is more than one alternative when deciding for a quantitative analysis.
Statistics or surveys are part of the quantitative method, but there are other alternatives which
need to be known.
Method
Social survey
Features
Random samples Measured variables
Advantages
Representative Tests hypotheses
Experiment
Experimental stimulus and control
group not exposed to stimulus
Precise measurement
Official statistics Analysis of previously collected data
Large datasets
‘Structured’
observation
Observations recorded on
predetermined ‘schedule’
Reliability of observations
Content
analysis
Predetermined categories used to
count content of mass media products
Reliability of measures
(Bryman, 1988: 11–12)
Quantitative research is … a genre which uses a special language … [similar] to the ways
in which scientists talk about how they investigate the natural order – variables, control,
measurement, experiment. (Bryman, 1988: 12)
78
An argument which supports the quantitative approach without condemning the
qualitative one, but arguing that the outcome will never be precise must be considered. A
research topic which might appear in a newspaper: “how are dysfunctional families conditioning
the permanence of their children in school? is presented as a matter of discussion and example.
The news explained that the issue would be evaluated by means of qualitative interviews. The
almost spontaneous question quantitative supporters put forward is: “How can qualitative
interviews help to address the topic at hand?” The situation here is not that families are
unwilling to refer to their family conditions or that their situation makes them unavailable for a
study like this, not at all, the existent concern is that this analysis (as any other) attempts to
respond to a specific case (social issue) thus, they might make reference to their life with certain
flexibility, highlighting what they consider more relevant for the research and discarding other
aspects. In other words, the interviewer will be inviting a retrospective “rewriting of history”
(Garfinkel, 1967) with an uncertain relevance on the casual problem the research is intended to
deal with.
It is not objective to disregard the significant information that might be collected from a
qualitative study, the intention is to explain why a qualitative study employed for such
investigation will be addressing a different issue. On the contrary, utilizing a quantitative
approach would be more pertinent to the research question stated at the beginning (permanence
of children in school.) Quantitative studies can be applied in a more extensive range of inquiries
enabling inference to be thought for wider populations. Furthermore, a quantitative study like a
“survey” possesses standardized and reliable components to support the facts the study is
concerned with. For example before interviewing people about their lives in relation to children
dropping out of school, a quantitative researcher would begin asking for school registers.
The informative value that quantitative research provides to societies is undeniable;
statistics, surveys and any numeric data have a transcendental place in societies development;
department and agencies of governments base most of their decisions for social progress on this
approach, however, there are incontrovertible critiques done to quantitative research in matters of
specific features such as the lack of proximity with the context in which the study is carried out,
79
as well as the priority given to measurable data that might mean the omission of detrimental
aspects quantitative researchers do not see as relevant.
Some of the critiques done towards the quantitative approach are worth considering since
the success or failure of an entire investigation may depend on the type of analysis selected at the
moment of scanning the information. Again, the appraisals do not aim to shatter the whole idea of
the quantitative study, they are just back-up ideas that could be relevant at the moment of making
the best choice. Thus,
A quantitative research can amount to a ‘quick fix’, involving little or no contact with
people or the ‘field’.
Statistical correlations may be based upon ‘variables’ that, in the context of naturally
occurring interaction, are arbitrarily defined.
Speculation about the meaning of correlations can involve the very common-sense
processes of reasoning that science tries to avoid (Cicourel, 1964: 14, 21).
The pursuit of ‘measurable’ phenomena can mean that unperceived values creep into
research by simply taking on board highly problematic and unreliable concepts such as
‘discrimination’ or ‘empathy’.
While it is important to test hypotheses, a purely statistical logic can make the
development of hypotheses a trivial matter and fail to help in generating hypotheses from
data (Glaser and Strauss, 1967)
Sometimes this leads critics to state that quantitative research obviates the dissimilarities
between the social and natural world by failing to comprehend the truth of social life. This
critique is mostly referred to the critic who designates quantitative research as “positivistic”
(e.g. Filmer et al., 1972)
80
4.1.2 Qualitative approach
Qualitative research is a type of scientific study that looks for the accomplishment of
certain tasks such as:
•
Seek answers to a question
•
Utilize a predefined set of procedures to answer the question
•
Collect evidence
•
Generate findings that were not determined in advance
•
Produce findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study
•
Understand a given research problem or topic from the perspectives of the local
population it involves.
In comparison to quantitative research, qualitative studies generally focus on a much
smaller sample, do not isolate variables, and results are almost by definition impossible to
reproduce. Rather than isolated variables, the qualitative approach tries to analyze a wider range
of related processes or geneses. Instead of testing a hypothesis, this research engages in a much
more dialectic procedure when analyzing the data collected and rechecking the questions asked.
In the process of the research things can be modified and sometimes the questions established
bring up new questions that were not thought at the beginning; flexibility here plays a pivotal role
as the importance is given to the success of the research no matter all the necessary alterations
researchers can compell to start over. Generalizations are not appropriate in a qualitative
research; nothing is taken for granted just by means of one applied study. Accuracy is
fundamental, hence, the conception that societies are dissimilar and that every day things change,
is always present in the minds of those who place reliance on this study.
Qualitative researchers suggest that it is quite irresponsible to believe that quantitative
researches are the only possible way of proving the validity from field research. A number of
practices thought for quantitative research may be ineffective to qualitative studies. These
encompasses the supposition that social science research gets validity only if based on
experimental data, statistics, randomly selected samples of population and that the information is
the only based on generalizable facts.
81
This type of study focuses attention on the crucial nature of social issues. When getting
information, data, appraisals, etc., researchers do not mistake this as a general truth; they know
that the information they have gathered refers to specific circumstances for a brief period of time
and that it is associated to the population studied plus a restricted range of spread. A qualitative
researcher knows that the lifespan of their study lasts for a short time. An appropriate example is,
for instance, that referring to attitudes when answering a survey; are they considered? Do all
people have a similar reaction to any topic? Might the attitude be a variable worth considering? it
is not the aim to assert that surveys or statistics are unreliable or that they may be biased, the idea
is to explain that there are areas of the society in which statistics, as an example of quantitative
studies, lose relevance and lack coherence.
The main strength of the qualitative study is the analysis of phenomena which are at times
limited or even unavailable for the quantitative researchers. The problem with quantitative
investigators is that they are totally focused and worried about comparing variables and this leads
them to accept the satisfaction of a merely operational definition of the case in question, but not
what the analyzed situation or case is.
The following figure illustrates better the argument that quantitative researchers obviate
the studied phenomenon by focusing merely on the results. The instruments and the recollected
data are the main concern on behalf of the investigators; the reverberation might be that the
phenomenon remains misunderstood.
THE MISSING PHENOMENON
input
[the phenomenon]
outputs
THE PHENOMENON REAPPEARS
whats?
the phenomenon
82
hows?
4.2 Kind of research
Specialists suggest a series of definitions that emphasize lots of elements and
proportionate a clear idea about the basic considerations for the selection of the design of
investigation. Armau (1986) gives a definition for an investigation design as an “assignation
procedure to subjects under the experimental conditions, and the selection of appropriate statistics
analysis techniques”. For Kerlinger (1999) “The investigation design is the structured plan of the
conceived investigation so as to obtain answers to the research questions”.
The investigation carried out corresponds to a quasi experimental research since it has lots
of the main characteristics of the design of the research. The word “quasi” means almost, so quasi
experimental means an almost real experiment. This kind of study occurs when there is no an
effective control of the selected variables.
A quasi experimental design is a mixture of procedures or strategies of investigation
oriented to the evaluation of the impact of the treatment in those contexts where the assignation
of the subjects is not at random.
Some of the advantages of this type of research are that it has a major flexibility than the
experimental design allowing the study of certain phenomena that are not covered in an
experimental plan. Moreover, this research approximates to a univocal explanation between two
variables.
There are two main features of this investigation design:
•
Lack of control over the variables. This means that there is no control referring to
the time and the people of the investigation.
•
There is no control with the selection of the subjects which is regularly presented
in the social studies. In the case of this investigation the people were not chosen,
the only requirement was to be from the United States of America. This gave way
to a wide range of ages, different level of studies and people from three different
regions of the United States. (see appendix 5)
83
The researcher must be in charge of those variables that the design does not control,
minimizing its effect. These designs can be really useful if it is taken into account that all
experiments are imperfect and that for obtaining validity, the experimenter must be conscious of
those imperfections at the moment of interpreting, analyzing and drawing conclusions.
The intended purpose or objective of applying a quasi-experimental research is to capture
longer periods of time and a sufficient number of events to control the several threats to validate
it. The questionnaire provided tried to collect information compressing a long period of time,
since the influences of music in the use of people’s language has been present since they were
born and might have changed with the course of time.
The desirable hope of the design is that it will give stable and reliable findings,
incorporating the effects of time itself. Almost all quasi experiments are by nature somehow
creative, unusual and they also attribute causes. Through this kind of investigation some
statistical baselines are obtained; at the same time, some interventions done tend to occur
naturally.
4.3 Process to Collect Information.
The process to collect information appeared to be a daunting task at first. Selecting the
most appropriate instrument (see appendix 6) that would serve the purpose of the investigation
well was mindboggling. Nonetheless, it became evident that a questionnaire would obtain
unobservable data easily with measurable results.
Considering the fact that the thesis is centered on the American English Usage through
American Popular Music, it would not be feasible to measure the level of knowledge outside the
United States of America. Therefore the subjects of the questionnaire have to be Native
Americans, in other words people born and raised in The United States. The type of questionnaire
chosen is denominated as self-administered, which means that it is provided directly to the
respondents who of course should answer. No middlemen would be necessary as the subjects
received the questionnaire via email. Obviously, this way of application is inappropriate for
people with reading difficulties or for children who are not yet at school age.
There are many things to consider at the moment of designing a self-administered
questionnaire, for instance questions must be very clear and comprehensible or else they could be
84
misunderstood. The instructions are as important as the questions, and they need to be clear to
people to whom they are addressed. It is very important to thank the respondent for taking the
time to answer the questionnaire; this is a matter of delicacy and respect towards the subjects who
invested time in answering the questions.
According to the Field of Epidemiology Manual, “Self-administrated questionnaires have
the advantages to be cheap and easy to administer. They preserve confidentiality and can be
completed at the respondent's convenience without the influence of the interviewer. However,
self-administrated questionnaires can result in low response rates, because people feel less
motivated to respond. Questions can be misunderstood easily without the help of an interviewer.
In addition, there can be a considerable time lag between the first sending of the questionnaire
and the collection of all questionnaires, particularly if questionnaires are sent out by mail.”81
As stated above, self-administered questionnaires can fail to achieve the goal of the
investigator if there is even the slightest confusion with the instructions or questions, or if by the
end of the recollection there isn’t enough data to measure; regardless of the number of
questionnaires sent abroad, no one can assure that the necessary amount of responses will be
obtained.
Self-administered questionnaires which are sent electronically are not the best option if an
investigator needs immediate feedback; in fact, if the person answering has any doubt there is no
way to clarify it right away. Therefore, the instrument is elaborated under a rigorous procedure
that contemplates three steps:
•
Step number one: Select the universe of the questionnaire, which in other words will the
subjects answering the instrument. In this case the subjects are Native Americans who
will have access to the questionnaire via email, Facebook and surveymonkey.com.
•
Step number two: Elaborate the first version of the questionnaire. At this point, mistakes
concerning the order of the questions or the relevance of others are dully corrected.
•
Step number three: Modify the first version to obtain the final version of the
questionnaire to be sent to the networks already mentioned above.
81
Brenner, V. (2012,11). Types of Questionnaires. Field Epidemiology Manual. Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://wiki.ecdc.europa.eu/fem/w/fem/types-of-questionnaires.aspx
85
Up next, the skeleton of the interview:
•
Heading: American Popular Music, A short Interview
•
Personal Information: Name, Surname, Place and date of Birth, Level of studies.
•
Number of Open questions: Two (Questions 1 and 3)
•
Number of Multiple Choice questions: Five
The heading of the questionnaire is American Popular Music, A Short Interview. The
layout of the instrument begins with a series of questions asking for personal information, such
as: name, surname, place and date of birth, and level of studies. This first series of questions will
become very useful to compare answers from people having very different backgrounds.
Needless to say, the answers provided through this instrument are strictly confidential and will be
used only for academic purposes.
It is relevant for the investigation to observe the level of study of the subjects; their
academic backgrounds as well as their places and dates of birth will influence immensely on the
answers they provide. Firstly, it is upmost important to know the musical preference of the
subjects by asking them the genre they like the most: Jazz, Rhythm and Blues, Hip-Hop, or the
option “Other”. After the selection of the genre they like the most, the subjects select the genre
that has been more influential in their lives.
Question number two, Which of the following genres have influenced you the most? It
aimed at recollecting information of the most influential genres and the aspects the subjects
considered to have influenced them. The incorporation of new genres, not contemplated in the
thesis such as Pop music and Rock and Roll, seems to be necessary as not many of the
respondents will have previous knowledge of Jazz or Rhythm and Blues. Having in mind the fact
that many would have answered the option “other” if these two genres had not been provided.
Now that it is possible to make a connection between Pop and Rock and Jazz and R&B, more
than one aspect can be chosen.
86
The aspects provided as choices for the question are:
•
Use of abbreviations
•
Informal speech
•
Concept of success
•
Clothing
•
Musical Interest
•
Political ideas
Question number three contains the second and last open question of the instrument. After
asking, Do you think that Popular Music has influenced American Language Usage Positively or
Negatively? and presented in the form of multiple choice, it is necessary to know the reasons
behind why the subject chose one or the other. The data obtained at this point offers an
opportunity to learn what Native Americans feel and think about their own moment in linguistic
history as an influence of the customs and musical backgrounds.
Question number four is also a multiple choice question intended to measure first of all
the subjects’ musical knowledge, and his/her opinion on who the greatest artist on each of the
genres offered is. All through a scale of 1 to 4, 1 being the least influential and 4 being the most.
Finally the instrument finishes with chunks of Jazz, R&B and Hip-Hop, which the
subjects must identify. The lyrics of each genre are very different from one another, but still there
may be confusions as to what genre these excerpts belong to.
87
4.4 Scenario and characteristics of the subjects under investigation
The subjects under investigation are people from the United States of America whose
ages range from 17 to 60 years old, being this an asset as they produced a huge variety of
opinions due to the different epochs they belong to.
Table N° 1 Personal information of the participants
1
2
3
4
5
6
NAME
Ellen Vanderloo
Cheyen Schenck
Jessi Miller
Paige Thomson
Molly Kelley
Crissa Stephens
7
Mackenzie Midles
8
9
10
11
Barbara Ward
Jet Richardson
Carrie Becker
Amy Anderson
12
Sarah Mellen
13
Luke Prottsman
14
Alisha Mayfield
15
Amber Gilles
16
Chantel Mazone
17
Tony
18 Melanie Landon-Hays
19
Hakeem Bashir
20
A.S
21
Caitlyn Scales
22
Molly
23
Rob Weiss
24
Deirdre Murphy
STATE
FOWA, USA
Richland, WA
Spokane, WA
Tacoma, WA
Iowa
Iowa falls
Olympia,
Washington
Athens,
Tenneessee
WA
IA
WI
DATE OF BIRTH
07/03/1952
02/13/1991
07/09/1990
06/19/91
06/11/1984
08-09-1982
LEVEL OF STUDIES
post secondary
post secondary
post secondary
post secondary
post secondary
post secondary
05/10/1990
College
10/29/1995
01/15/1983
08/20/1970
04-07-1982
KS
IA
IA
IA
TX
IA
IA
WA
IL
WA
IL
IA
TX
04-01-1983
06/28/1977
08/31/1981
12/27/1981
09/15/1989
10/14/1978
11/28/1974
08-10-1986
10/28/1981
03/29/1985
09/18/1980
1982
03/13/1980
post secondary
university, bachelors degree
college degree
b.a. family services
post graduate, bachelor
degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
completed a PhD
PhD
bachelor's degree
PhD student
MS
PhD in progress
Master’s in progress
88
Tables organized according to their levels of study
Table N° 2 Participants with Post-secondary education.
NAME
Sarah Mellen
Luke Prottsman
Alisha Mayfield
Amber Gilles
Chantel Mazone
Tony
A.S
Amy Anderson
Jet Richardson
STATE
KS
IA
IA
IA
TX
IA
IL
WI
WA
DATE OF
BIRTH
04-01-1983
06/28/1977
08/31/1981
12/27/1981
09/15/1989
10/14/1978
10/28/1981
04-07-1982
01/15/1983
LEVEL OF STUDIES
post graduate, bachelor degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
bachelor's degree
b.a. family services
university, bachelors degree
Table N° 3 participants with PhD degree.
NAME
Melanie Landon-Hays
Hakeem Bashir
Caitlyn Scales
STATE
IA
WA
WA
DATE OF
BIRTH
11/28/1974
08-10-1986
03/29/1985
LEVEL OF STUDIES
completed a PhD
PhD
PhD student
DATE OF
BIRTH
LEVEL OF STUDIES
05/10/1990
08/20/1970
college
college degree
DATE OF
BIRTH
03/13/1980
09/18/1980
LEVEL OF STUDIES
Master’s in progress
MS
Table N° 4 Participants with College degree.
NAME
Mackenzie Midles
Carrie Becker
STATE
Olympia,
Washington
IA
Table N° 5 Participants with Master’s degree.
NAME
Deirdre Murphy
Molly
STATE
TX
IL
89
Table N° 6 Participants with Doctorate in Progress.
NAME
Rob Weiss
DATE OF
BIRTH
1982
STATE
IA
LEVEL OF STUDIES
doctorate in progress
Tables organized according to the decades the subjects were born in
Table N° 7 participants born in the 50’s.
NAME
Ellen Vanderloo
STATE
FOWA, USA
DATE OF BIRTH
07/03/1952
STATE
IA
IA
IA
IA
DATE OF BIRTH
10/14/1978
11/28/1974
06/28/1977
08/20/1970
STATE
WA
IL
WA
IL
IA
TX
IA
IA
TX
WI
KS
WA
Iowa
Iowa falls
DATE OF BIRTH
08-10-1986
10/28/1981
03/29/1985
09/18/1980
1982
03/13/1980
08/31/1981
12/27/1981
09/15/1989
04-07-1982
04-01-1983
01/15/1983
06/11/1984
08-09-1982
Table N° 8 Participants born in the 70’s.
NAME
Tony
Melanie Landon-Hays
Luke Prottsman
Carrie Becker
NAME
Hakeem Bashir
A.S
Caitlyn Scales
Molly
Rob Weiss
Deirdre Murphy
Alisha Mayfield
Amber Gilles
Chantel Mazone
Amy Anderson
Sarah Mellen
Jet Richardson
Molly Kelley
Crissa Stephens
90
NAME
Mackenzie Midles
Barbara Ward
Cheyen Schenck
Jessi Miller
Paige Thomson
STATE
Olympia, Washington
Athens, Tenneessee
Richland, WA
Spokane, WA
Tacoma, WA
DATE OF BIRTH
05/10/1990
10/29/1995
02/13/1991
07/09/1990
06/19/91
Tables organized according to the regions of the United States the subjects live
in.
Table N° 11 Participants born and raised in the Mid-West region of the United States.
NAME
Ellen Vanderloo
Molly Kelley
Crissa Stephens
Carrie Becker
Amy Anderson
Luke Prottsman
Alisha Mayfield
Amber Gilles
Tony
Melanie Landon-Hays
A.S
Molly
Rob Weiss
Barbara Ward
STATE
IOWA, USA
Iowa
Iowa falls
IA
WI
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IL
IL
IA
Athens, Tenneessee
Table N° 12 Participants born and raised in the South region of the United States.
NAME
Deirdre Murphy
Chantel Mazone
Sarah Mellen
STATE
TX
TX
KS
91
Table N° 13 Participants born and raised in the West region of the United States.
NAME
Cheyen Schenck
Jessi Miller
Paige Thomson
Mackenzie Midles
Jet Richardson
Hakeem Bashir
Caitlyn Scales
STATE
Richland, WA
Spokane, WA
Tacoma, WA
Olympia, Washington
WA
WA
WA
The following map shows the states of Washington, Iowa, Wisconsin, Kansas, Texas,
Illinois and Tennessee which are going to be under investigation and analysis. The regions of the
United States covered were the South, Mid-West and the West.
4.5 Limitations of the study
92
4.5 Limitations of the study
Some of the limitations that this investigation had were obviously set on the distance
between the interviewer and the interviewee since it would have been easier to collect the
information if the researchers had lived in the places where the survey was carried out. Owing to
this fact, it was necessary to ask for assistance to people who had the will to spread the survey to
other volunteers or subjects of study, dedicating themselves some minutes to answer the
questions placed in the instrument.
Besides the distance problem, another setback faced were the limited sources of
information. The people who distributed the instrument in The United States, could not select the
people willing to answer the survey; as it was emailed through different networks. This research
demanded to have a considerate number of people to be given the relevance it deserves, that is
why the subjects were not chosen with precise specifications (age, region, levels of study, etc.);
the only precondition for them was to be North Americans. This lack of requirements for the
population partaking in the study had some reverberations that might have conditioned the results
of the study.
The age range of the participants is too wide with ages fluctuating between 17
and 60 years old, constraining immediately the preciseness of the study; as the
differences of age are not calibrated, there are age groups more constituted than
others.
The regions of the participants belonged to could mean another drawback as
well. Even though there is a considerable number of people from the South and
Midwest regions of United States, the people from the West cannot be discarded
as they represent a substantial amount for the total of participants. Disregarding
them would mean a perilous reduction of participants in our investigation.
The same situation is experienced when noticing the different levels of study the
participants have. There are cases of people with post-secondary studies and
some others with PhD degree. The difference among the levels of study in the
subjects complicates the conclusions that might be grasped.
93
Another important limitation to be contemplated from this research is that once the results
are received there is no chance of immediate feedback from the interviewee, if by any chance
they did not understand a question, or they simply refused to answer one or more questions; there
is no time to neither remake the instrument nor finding more subjects. Not-answered questions or
almost incomplete interviews would demand more thinking time at the moment of scrutinizing
the responses and writing the results.
94
V Analysis of the information
Nine people out of twenty-four that answered the questionnaire have a Bachelor’s
degree; they represent a 38% of the total population. Bachelor’s degree level education is
therefore the most common amongst the respondents. Meanwhile, Post-secondary level education
with seven respondents out of twenty-four, represents a 29% of the total population. Continuing
with the pie chart analysis, both Masters with an 8% and College levels of education also with an
8% represent the 16% of the total population with two respondents each. Three PhD’s represent
13% of the population and finally one respondent with a Doctorate in progress represents a 4% of
the population.
L_v_ls of stu^y
4%
8%
29%
Post Secondary
13%
College
Bachelor's degree
PhD
8%
Masters
Doctorate in progress
38%
95
The different ages of the subjects are represented through the decades in which they
were born. Most of them were born in the 80’s, fourteen out of twenty four to be exact, and they
represent a 58% of the population. Five subjects were born during the 90’s and they represent a
21% of the population. Only four respondents were born during the 70’s and they represent a
17% of the total population who answered the questionnaire. Just one person who answered the
questionnaire was born during the 50’s, and this person represents 4% of the population.
D_][^_s of Birth
4%
21%
17%
50's
70's
80's
90's
58%
96
Analyzing the regions the respondents live in, it is possible to see how the Mid-west
with fourteen people (Wyoming 1, Tennessee 1, Illinois 2, Iowa 10) living in the states
previously mentioned, represent an astonishing 58% of the total population. Whereas seven
people from the Western Region, exemplified by the State of Washington, denote 29% of the
population. Finally, the Southern Region incarnated by the States of Texas (2) and Kansas (1)
sum up 13% of the total population.
R_gions
13%
29%
South
Mid-West
West
58%
97
Up next the results of the analysis from the instrument sent to Native Americans in the
United States are displayed through a series of pie charts. Moreover, the corresponding
qualitative appraisals are given so as to clarify the respondents’ views and choices.
Question N° 1
Which of the following genres do you like the most?
G_nr_s pr_f_r_n]_
13%
8%
Hip Hop
4%
Jazz
Rhythm and Blues
Other
75%
The pie chart shows how 75% of the total population chose the option “Other” as the
genre they like the most; eighteen respondents out of twenty four did not identify themselves with
Hip-hop, Jazz or R&B. It may be argued that owing to the large percentage of subjects born
between the 80’s (58%) and the 90’s (21%), there is no real connection with the genres provided
in the question; whereas with pop or rock or even electronic music responses could have been
more voted. Moreover, the lack of knowledge concerning the roots of the current musical styles
might have conditioned the responses. Little they might know that in fact R&B paved the way for
genres like Pop and Rock music.
98
Question N° 2
Which of the following genres have influenced you the most?
It
turns
J[zz
out
conspicuous to acknowledge
the low level of responses on
4%
each of the genres provided;
both Jazz and R&B had but
one
vote
influential
as
the
genres,
most
Influenced
each
Not influenced
representing a 4% of the total
population. Again the common
96%
denominator of the ages of the
subjects and the ignorance
Rhythm [n^ Blu_s
concerning the roots of the
genres
in
question,
4%
have
determined the results of this
question. Surprisingly two of
the
youngest
subjects
Influenced
to
Not influenced
answer the instrument, were
the ones to choose Jazz and
R&B respectively.
96%
99
Hip-hop had eight votes as the genre that influences the most, in comparison with Jazz
and R&B, meaning that 33% of the total population relate themselves with this upcoming
movement, mostly because of the depth of the lyrics and the appealing beats that provide a
perfect rhythm for dancing.
Hip Hop
33%
Influenced
Not influenced
77%
Ro]k
In this question the participants
were given the freedom to select more
37%
than one option, since it could not be
Influenced
assumed that they would be in fact
influenced just by one genre. This caused
Not influenced
63%
a great deal of analysis considering that
the subjects could have chosen all the
given options. After the first revision of
the instrument’s design it was considered
appropriate to modify question number
two, as the Native Americans would not
give a positive response to the three main
genres of the thesis.
100
Rock and Pop music
Pop
have a similar number of
followers
within
the
total
population. It was evidenced
that Rock Music was given
nine votes, representing 37.5%
37%
of the population and the same
Influenced
happened with Pop music.
Not influenced
63%
Through this sample,
the argument that people in the
United States would react in
favor
of
these
Oth_r
alternative
genres such as Rock and Pop
instead of three main genres of
the thesis would be proven.
41%
Influenced
Not influenced
59%
The option “Other” was the most popular with ten votes, representing a 42% of the
population. Revising the reasons and comments on behalf of the subjects, many showed their
preference towards other variations and genres that stood out for their classical features. In fact,
folk and classical rock were given as reasons why they chose the option “Other”.
101
The following pie charts illustrate how the genres have influenced the American culture
and language. Once again, the subject had the opportunity and/or freedom to opt for more than
one alternative.
Us_ of [\\r_vi[tions
Con]_pt of su]]_ss
25%
41%
Influence present
No influence
59%
Influence present
No influence
75%
Within the six options provided in the instrument, the use of abbreviations and the
concept of success were the least chosen as the aspects to influence American culture and
language. The use of abbreviations gathered a total of six votes representing 25% of the
population. The concept of success on the other hand obtained ten votes, resulting in 42% of the
participants’ choice. It turned out surprising that the use of abbreviations got the least number of
votes, considering the fact that one of hip-hop’s major language variations would be that of
contractions and abbreviations. Furthermore, bearing in mind that hip-hop converted into the
most detrimental genre of the original three selected genres for the study (hip-hop, jazz and
R&B), it could have been expected a higher amount of voters inclined to choose the use of
abbreviations. The concept of success demonstrates the power of imagery and technology in the
media, as the subjects have repeatedly reborn what the artist presents as an irrefutable proof of
what a successful life includes. Fast cars, fancy clothing and luxurious homes are considered the
features of prestige.
102
Musi][l Int_r_sts
45%
Inform[l sp__]h
Influence
present
45%
No influence
No influence
55%
Influence
present
55%
Both musical interests and informal speech had a total of eleven votes each, representing
46% of the population that regarded them as the third most influential aspects of the American
language and culture. Musical interests gain relevance amongst the population since there is a
tendency to select genres which are rooted in similar music styles that possess characteristics
present in their favorite styles. Slight variations in musical styles are commonly seen, and once
someone gets captivated by a specific musical genre, this person will wish to expand its
repertoire, remaining faithful to the style that mesmerized him/her from the beginning. It is very
common to modify colloquial conversations of the English Language, disregarding rules of
grammar and stress to create unforgettable lyrics. Such has been the case of early R&B artists
that embraced their African culture and stood proud to offer a totally different range of notes and
songs. Furthermore, looking deeper into the characteristics of the subject who chose “Informal
Speech”, it is observed that six out of ten votes correspond to Americans born and raised in the
State of Iowa, where many consider the best American English is spoken. It is therefore feasible
to expect of Iowans a higher degree of formal use of the language.
103
Politi][l I^_[s
45%
Influence
present
Clothing
No influence
55%
33%
Influence present
No influence
67%
An astonishing 67% of the population stated that music has got to the point of changing
the manner in which people dress. It can be surmised that people have the desire of standing up
for their favorite music genres in any possible sense. Sixteen votes demonstrate the common
belief that music has become something beyond rhythms and songs, and that music styles are
acquiring the power to alter the life of their followers completely. It can even be concluded that
today it is very common to identify the musical preferences of a complete stranger just by
looking closely at their garments.
From the beginning of R&B and Hip-hop, the artists used music as a channel to criticize
and oppose to the societal current issues. 54% of the population represented by thirteen votes
states that the option “political ideas” is the second most influent characteristic in the American
language and culture. The inconclusive inquiry here is whether the icons are the ones
brainwashing people’s minds or that the power of lyrics has reached an unstoppable point.
104
Question N° 3
Do you think that popular music has influenced American language usage, positively or
negatively?
Influ_n]_
41%
Positively
Negatively
59%
Many subjects believe that the American Popular Music has undermined the language by
incorporating an excessive amount slang and jargon in the use of the language. 58% of the
population agrees on the fact that the influence on language is negative and it is evidenced by
fourteen votes. On the other hand 42% believe that the influence has been positive, as more ways
to express old ideas and concepts have aroused. The idea that the English language is not entirely
permissive to convey every day notions and conversations, is the reason why ten voters decided
to select the “positively” option as an influence on the English Language.
105
Question N°4
On a scale from 1 to 4, rank the artist you consider to be the most influential and the least
influential on each genre (4 being the least, 1 being the most)
S]ott Joplin
Ch[rl_s P[rk_r
13%
17%
13%
1
2
13%
8%
1
2
13%
33%
3
4
4
37%
20%
3
33%
no ranking
Dizzy Gill_spi_
no ranking
Louis @rmstrong
4%
1
17%
25%
17%
1
2
2
3
37%
17%
4
17%
58%
no ranking
8%
3
no ranking
The artists mentioned above are the representatives of Jazz music and have been chosen to
measure the level of knowledge of the subjects who participated in this research. Louis
Armstrong stands out amongst his fellow colleagues in Jazz music as the top icon of the genre
with fourteen votes, being this a 58% of acceptance. The least voted were Dizzy Gillespie with
one vote and Scott Joplin with two votes. 1% of the population believes that Dizzy is the most
influential artist and 8% of the respondents believe that Scott should be considered the most
influential artist. Charles Parker on the other hand summoned four votes as the most influential
artist, which comprises 17% of the population. However, it was evidenced on the instruments,
specifically in question Nº 4 (artists ranking), that many of the people polled did not know who
the artists were, and therefore because of the lack of knowledge there were blank spaces left.
106
Din[h W[shington
Th_ Domino_s
8%
1
25%
25%
8%
2
29%
21%
3
8%
1
3
4
4
no ranking
21%
34%
Mu^^y W[t_rs
17%
12%
no ranking
13%
1
25%
2
50%
21%
P[t Boon_
1
4%
2
17%
3
4
17%
2
no ranking
8%
37%
3
4
no ranking
Muddy Waters is highly regarded amongst three of his colleagues as the all-time
representative of R&B. It is observable after carrying out the instrument that he obtained twelve
votes out of twenty four, summing up a 50% of acceptance from the total population. The rest are
far behind with three votes for Pat Boone, representing a 12.5% of the population, and two votes
for each, the Dominoes and Dinah Washington both standing for 8% of the respondents. The
personal information of the beings gives the possibility to make the research reflect on the answer
for this item as 7% out of ten of the population who live in the State of Iowa and that chose
Waters; they represent a 70% of the total population of Iowans that responded to the instrument.
Furthermore, 57% of the respondents from Washington also acknowledged Waters as the icon of
R&B. Besides the regional preference towards this artist, it is important to mention that the epoch
this artist was at his zenith, is strictly related to the respondents, who opted for him since he is the
most contemporary in relation with the ages of the respondents.
107
Tup[] Sh[kur
G-Unit
17%
4% 4%
4%
1
8%
2
37%
3
2
4
25%
3
no ranking
4
80%
21%
no ranking
@frik[ B[m\[[t[[
G. Wiz[r^ Th_o^or_
4%
8%
1
25%
2
29%
21%
3
17%
2
3
17%
4
25%
1
21%
no ranking
4
29%
no ranking
There is no surprise when noticing the results of this section of the study. Indubitably with
nineteen votes which represent a stupefying 79% of the total of the responses, Tupac Shakur
stands as the iconic character of the hip hop movement. Tupac’s colleagues in this musical style
share a similar percentage which shows their popularity, but always under the shadow of “2-pac”.
Afrika Bambaataa obtained two votes which stands for an 8% of the total of the respondents and
Grand Wizard Theodore gets one of the twenty-four highest votes which only mean a 4% of the
population sample. Even though G. Wizard Theodore and Afrika Bambaataa are considered the
founding fathers of the hip hop subculture, their epoch has been gone for a long time and the age
of the participants does not fit in their time; moreover, the name of Tupac Shakur has prevailed in
time no matter the years of his death. It might also be argued that most of the participants
responded owing to the slight notion they might have about this musical style, and not necessarily
because they were acquainted with the artists of this genre.
108
Question N° 5
Read the following excerpts and identify the corresponding genre they belong to
Hip Hop
50 cents God gave me style
excerpt, is filled with contractions, such
as ain’t; I´m; I’ve. Slang and rhyme are
also present in this part of the song. It is
therefore believed that these sorts of
language variations may have given
clues to the respondents so as to identify
the proper genre. In this case Hip-hop
obtained twenty-one correct choices out
of twenty-four interpreted as 87.5% of
the population. Besides, the content of
the lyrics might have helped the
participants to infer the genre it belongs
to.
12,50%
Correct
Incorrect
87,50%
J[zz
Jazz and R&B on the other hand,
obtained a considerable amount of
nineteen votes, each representing a 79%
of the respondents population. Though
both lyrics might appear highly different
from one another to the investigators,
five subjects out of twenty-four, which
represent a 21% of the population, failed
to identify the obvious dissimilarities of
lexicon, cadence and early use of
abbreviations.
21%
Correct
Incorrect
79%
Rhythm [n^ \lu_s
In the excerpt chosen for R&B,
the song by Dinah Washington “Big
long slidin’ thing” contains a not
humble amount of informal use of the
English language such as honky-tonk,
piece o’ junk, you’ll know. On the
contrary, Jazz naturally possesses a more
elegant and formal use of the language.
Such is the case of Frank Sinatra “What
a Wonderful world”
21%
Correct
Incorrect
79%
109
CONCLUSION
In order to identify the motifs and the evolution of any given culture, it is necessary to
breeze through the books of history, interview scholars and witnesses’ of history itself if possible
and finally to observe the roots of that evolution in the nation’s youth and their promising future.
But, to recognize the evolution of language in a specific area and the cultural implications behind
its usage will prove to be a different tale.
The latter has become plausible by looking deep into one of its premium art expressions.
Although this by itself might become a daunting task, history always unveils with a certain
amount of grace the finest hour of many art forms which should be measured by the extent of
their persuasion, social content, life span, and relevance.
Many art forms have molded and entertained the minds of North Americans. From time to
time, their “love crush” is replaced by a higher degree of satisfaction found on yet another artistic
expression. These new forms of art achieve on occasions such a high degree of cultural
interweavement that they become a part of society itself. Movie stars, architects, painters, writers,
musicians, designers, etc. all share a common goal. That goal is multi-objective; one of them is to
celebrate the freedom of expression, the other to foment a creative future, and yet the noblest goal
of the arts is meant to perpetuate the folklore and culture so that it is not forgotten in the pages of
history.
The United States of America has proven to be very gifted in the art of movie making;
they are born story tellers, with tall tales to spread and a unique history flooded in civil rights
movement that has catalyzed many forms of art, from the early poems of independence by the
founding fathers, to the songs of freedom inspired in fields of cotton and tobacco. And yet,
nothing could ever communicate better the sentiment inside the hearts of North Americans, be
them from the Southern or the Northern states, than music.
American Popular Music is depicted in early forms of Jazz and R&B, and although Hiphop found its way into the minds of young Americans in the late 70’s, it has greatly influenced
the concepts of success and sexuality like no other genre. Early artists from each of the genres
110
mentioned, captured a ray of light and offered to an expectant crowd (that grew in number) the
opportunity to relate themselves with something bigger than their lives and routines.
True expressions of art are timeless and boundless; such has been proven throughout this
thesis. The effects of American Popular Music in the American society are not bounded to their
country alone; it is in fact observable as well as measurable how Spanish speaking countries like
Chile, are continuously teaching the foreign language in a common effort to keep up with today’s
demands.
Recognized as the international language of the world, English is highly regarded in
circles of business and power to communicate political and economic resolutions in a multilanguage world order. Failing to cope with today’s demands could lead to the inexorable
underdevelopment of the society. Even though Chile is leading several programs destined to
teach young minds and adults a second language, the still low rates of a bilingual education could
be interpreted by many as a stern warning of things to come.
Music is naturally appealing to Latin men and women; the salsa and merengue, even the
famous bachata or the Brazilian Lambada are and will continue being part of our Latin identity,
an identity that is also continuously learning to sing in English and to enjoy tunes of Pop, Rock or
Rap. It is by choice and not by submission that a person chooses to translate the lyrics of his/her
favorite song, and at times to study English by itself just to have a better grasp of what his/her
beloved artists are saying. This power to move the masses must not be attributed to the
performers alone; they are the channels that carry through inspiration the message of music and
language evolution. The need to make sense and to mention the unmentionable, is greatly gaining
way into the new century.
Even though this form of art is highly appreciated in The United States carrying concepts
of history like no other art form, almost all of the subjects under investigation demonstrated a
clear tendency towards more current and trendy genres, showing a lack of knowledge towards
specific aspects of the American Popular Music.
111
The instruments applied on American ground, to Native Americans were destined to
measure the connection between the subject and American popular music, and the effects of
music on their lives and contexts. After much thought and analysis, it is safe to say that the sociocultural implications behind the usage of an evolving language are both positive and negative. On
one hand people are growing with the language itself, altering it and contributing to its ever
growing nature. On the other hand, as new generations tend to receive new information from an
altered language, they are forgetting the relevance carried within the roots of musical expression,
its formality and preciseness, leaving aside a part of history each time they feel inclined to listen
to the new up and coming pop singer, instead of Frank Sinatra, Ray Charles or Bob Dylan.
To conclude, South American countries have been greatly influenced by The United
States of America. The English language has spread in society through the mass media
communications, which are in charge of carrying the American wit and recreation to the homes,
radios and cinemas in the forms of music, movies and other art forms. As the language evolves,
changes and adapts to current modifications inside the North American community, it is just true
that users around the world are also modifying and greatly influencing in the construction of this
popular language. Through music, the limit of expression is non-existent and though, the
American Popular Music has survived countless challenges imposed by time and space, molding
the American culture and language, the changes are far from ending.
112
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following is a list of resources that are recommended for further reading in matters of
American Popular Music understanding, the influences in American language and culture:
1. Hip-hop America by Nelson George.
2. American Music in the Twentieth Century by Kyle Gann.
3. The English Language, An Owner’s Manual by Lee Thomas and Stephen Tchudi.
4. Watching English Change by Laurie Bauer.
5. Garners Modern American Usage by Bryan A. Garner.
6. American English by Walt Wolfram and Natalie Schilling-Estes.
7. Right, Wrong, and Risky, A Dictionary of Todays American English Usage by Mark
Davidson.
8. American Popular Music, New Approaches to the Twentieth Century by Rachel Rubin
and Jeffrey Paul Melnick.
113
IMPLICATIONS
The research meant a deeper understanding of the North American culture and its musical
genres. It was imperative to trace the origins of the selected rhythms and to collect information
about particular features that each style possesses.
It was important not just to gather information and present it, but to be able to analyze and
generate conclusions about the new evidence we ran across every time.
Before opting for this research, it was necessary to understand that many times people
have appraisals concerning diverse subjects; the information might have been accurate in a
certain degree, however, it was crucial to corroborate and strengthen any piece of information.
There are many sources of information and versions of similar data. It was important for
the quality of the final document to carry a thorough analysis of the information to be included in
the thesis.
114
LIST OF REFERENCES
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http://stereos.about.com/od/glossaryofdjterms/g/turntablism.htm
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky%27s_the_Limit
- Cook, D. (1985). The History of Hip Hop. Davey D's Hip Hop Corner. Retrieved 09, 2012, de
http://hiphopandpolitics.wordpress.com
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from http://voices.yahoo.com/the-role-english-language-chile-53555.html?cat=37
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http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/cypresshill/stonedisthewayofthewalk.html
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http://www.daveyd.com/historyofgraf.html
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09, 2012, de http://westcoastpioneers.com/articles/secret-history-of-west-coast-hip-hop.html
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http://hiphophistory.indiegroup.com/
- (2010, 03). Hotter Than July. Rocket Lyrics. Recuperado 10, 2012, de
http://www.lyricsdepot.com/stevie-wonder/rocket-love.html
- Philipp’s, The Social Effects of Jazz. York College. Retrieved 10, 2012, from
http://www.york.cuny.edu/academics/writing-program/the-york-scholar-1/volume-6.1-fall-2009/thesocial-effects-of-jazz
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- (2011). Pioneering the Dj Industry. Grand Master. Retrieved 09, 2012, from
http://grandmasterflash.com/bio/
- (2012, 02). Prez Fest 2012 Celebrating Dizzy Gillespie at Saint Peter’s Church Sunday, March 4th. Allabout Jazz. Recuperado 09, 2012, de http://news.allaboutjazz.com/news
- Rachel Rubin and Jeffrey Melnick, (2001) New Approaches to the Twentieth Century: American
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http://rhythmofblues.blogspot.com/2007/11/rhythm-of-blues-history.html
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Online Dictionaries
- Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition. Retrieved from Dictionary.com
website
- Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2011). Retrieved from
http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com
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http://www.thefreedictionary.com/testify
116
Tupac Amaru Shakur (1971-1996)
117
118
119
Appendix 2: Rhythm and Blues major exponents
120
121
122
Appendix 3: Jazz major exponents
123
124
125
Appendix 4: Map of the United States
The 50 states of the United States of America
126
Appendix 5: Division of the United States
Division among the different states of the United States
127
Appendix 6: Survey
NAME:
SURNAME:
PLACE OF BIRTH:
_________________________________
DATE OF BIRTH:
D/D
M/M
Y /Y
LEVEL OF STUDIES:
ELEMENTARY MIDDLE
HIGH-SCHOOL POST-SECONDARY
1. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING GENRES DO YOU LIKE THE MOST?
JAZZ
RHYTHM AND BLUES HIP-HOP
OTHER
WHY?
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING MUSIC GENRES HAVE INFLUENCED YOU THE MOST?
JAZZ
RHYTHM AND BLUES HIP-HOP
ROCK MUSIC
POP MUSIC
OTHER
PLEASE DETAIL HOW THE GENRE(S) HAS(HAVE) INFLUENCED AMERICAN CULTURE AND
LANGUAGE BY USING ONE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING ITEMS:
USE OF ABBREVIATIONS
INFORMAL SPEECH
CONCEPT OF SUCCESS
CLOTHING
MUSICAL
POLITICAL IDEAS
128
INTERESTS
3. DO YOU THINK THAT POPULAR MUSIC HAS INFLUENCED AMERICAN LANGUAGE USAGE:
POSITIVELY
NEGATIVELY
WHY?
________________________________________________________________________
4. ON A SCALE FROM 1 TO 4, RANK THE ARTIST YOU CONSIDER TO BE THE MOST INFLUENTIAL
AND THE LEAST INFLUENTIAL ON EACH GENRE (4 BEING THE LEAST, 1 BEING THE MOST)
JAZZ
RHYTHM AND BLUES
HIP-HOP
CHARLIE PARKER
PAT BOONE
G-UNIT
LOUIS ARMSTRONG
MUDDY WATERS
TUPAC SHAKUR
SCOTT JOPLIN
DINAH WASHINGTON
GRAND WIZARD THEODORE
DIZZY GILLESPI
THE DOMINOES
AFRIK BAMBAATAA
5. READ THE FOLLOWING EXCERPTS AND IDENTIFY THE CORRESPONDING GENRE THEY
BELONG TO.
A: (HIP-HOP) B: (RHYTHM AND BLUES) C. (JAZZ)
I've been in every bar,
Been in every honky-tonk,
Been tryin' to find my daddy
With that broke down piece o' junk!
Ask everyone to help me,
Cried, "Help me if you can;
you'll lnow my daddy,
He's that trombone playin' man!
Where is my daddy?
Tell me where is my daddy
With that big long slidin' thing?".
I see skies of blue..... clouds of white
Bright blessed days....dark sacred nights
And I think to myself.....what a wonderful
world.
The colors of a rainbow.....so pretty...in
the sky
Are also on the faces.....of people...going
by
I see friends shaking
ands.....sayin.. how do you do
They're really sayin......i love you.
129
I'm the diamond in the dirt, that
ain't been found
I'm the underground king and I
ain't been crowned
when I rhyme, something special
happen every time
I'm the greatest, something like
Ali in his prime
I walk the block with the bundles
I've been knocked on the humble

Appendix 1: Hip Hop major exponents

Transcription

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