vita nuovawomen

The Women in the Middle: Layers of Love in Dante's Vita Nuova
Author(s): P. J. Klemp
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Italica, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Autumn, 1984), pp. 185-194
Published by: American Association of Teachers of Italian
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The Women in the Middle:
Layersof Love in Dante's Vita Nuova
P. J. KLEMP
reasonwhy Dante's contemporaryreaders,like his modem
Oneones,
find his poems difficult is becausehe is a revisionist author
whose later works reinterpretearlierones. In the VitaNuova, for example, we meet a "donna gentile" whose identity is not revealed. The
Convivio then reflects on Dante's earlierwritings, including the Rime
and VitaNuova, and insists that this donnagentile is Filosofia.Finally,
the Purgatorio looks back on all of these works and transformsthe
well-meaning donnainto a vain creature.Dante's acts of revisionist literaryhistory preventus fromdiscussingany of the writingsin isolation.
The Purgatorioblurs and underminesthe VitaNuova, in effect erasing
all of its moral lessons. But the Convivio redefinesour view of the earlier work, teaching us how to readit well. I will examine the Convivio's
instructions about allegory to see how Dante uses them, retrospectively, to reveal a structuralpatternin the VitaNuova. Throughoutthe
VitaNuova, Dante playfullyremindshis readersthat they cannot identify his real love any better than they can comprehendhis book of memory. After he writes his first poem aboutlove ("Aciascun'alma presa"),
he lets his friends read it: "A questo sonetto fue risposto da molti e di
diverse sentenzie."I Dante happily notes that all of his readersmissed
"Loverace giudicio" (III,15).
Flagrant revisionism accounts for many misinterpretations. The
Convivio explains that in much of his early poetry-particularly the
Rime and Vita Nuova-Dante wrote about "la mia condizione sotto
figura d'altre cose."2The early works contain nothing to suggest such
an allegoricalreading,but this does not preventDante fromidentifying
the flaws that turn his readersinto misreaders:
n6 li uditorieranotantobenedisposti,che
avesserosi leggierele fittizieparoleapprese;
ne sarebbedatalorofedea la sentenzavera,
comea la fittizia,per6chedi verosi credea
del tuttoche dispostofossea quelloamore
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P. J. KLEMP
chenon si credevadi questo
[Beatrice],
[Filosofia].
(II.xii.8)
Readersreceive the blame for loving fiction and attending to matters
amatory,while the authorglosses over his partin the revisionism that
misleads us. If, however, we become educablereadersby following his
revisionism, this statement from the Convivio alerts us to the parallel
paths of love and literaryinterpretation.As GiuseppeMazzottaargues,
the Vita Nuova, like the Convivio, is a story of "self-reading":"Dante
suggests-along with the more conventional metaphoric bond between love and poetry-the profoundlinks which connect love and interpretation."3Dante indicates that, as a lover and as a writer,he must
first mislead us in orderto help us discoverthe truth, and this explains
much of his revisionism. The key decoys to lead us astrayin the Vita
Nuova arethe ladies whom Dante pretendsto love in orderto maintain
the secrecy of his love for Beatrice.
He describes the first lady as a "schermo de la veritade"(V, 3); the
second, another "simulato amore," is also a screen or defence (IX,6).
Justas Dante hides his love behind a screen in the VitaNuova, so in the
Convivio he discusses literaryinterpretationin terms of layersor coverings. He describesthe relationshipof the allegoricaland literal levels
as "una veritade ascosa sotto bella menzogna"(II.i.3).It appears,then,
that the Convivio encouragesus to revise ourview of the VitaNuova's
structureby recognizingits parallelswith the fourfoldmethod of interpretation. Because poetry is born of love in the Vita Nuova, Dante's
book of memory-revised by his statements in the Convivioillustrates the correspondencebetween the pattern of the love experience and the pattern of allegoricaldiscourse.
Many episodes in the Vita Nuova seem to be extraneousor confusing unless we recognize the correspondencebetween the four levels of
polysemous writing and the book's four central women (the screenladies, the mortal Beatrice,Filosofia,and the spiritualBeatrice).4Why,
for instance, does Dante bother to introduceany screen-ladies?Scholars have frequently ignored these characters.One critic writes: "We
will skip over the chapters where Dante uses the screen-woman."5
Less extreme, another critical view underestimatestheir importance:
"apparitionsof Amore and of the gentile donna ... arenot to be consideredas having as significant a function in the work as the apparitionsof
Beatrice."6Without the screen-ladies, as I will argue,there can be no
vision of Beatrice. The functions of the screen-ladies will lead to another question: why does Dante's relationshipwith Beatriceproceedso
erratically?They meet at the age of nine (II).She reappearsnine years
later, for no apparent reason, and greets him, whereupon he retreats (III).
And then she shuns him because of nasty rumors (X). They are recon-
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DANTE'S
Vita Nuova
187
ciled beforeher death occurs in ChapterXXVIII,but he eventually finds
another lady, Filosofia. Finally, he has a vision of the spiritualBeatrice
wearing the "vestimenta sanguigne"of their first meeting, "e pareami
giovane in simile etade in quale io prima la vidi" (XXXIX,1).Have we
been going aroundin circles, only to end up at Dante's and Beatrice's
meeting when they were nine years old? No, we have instead learned
that the pattern of the women in Dante's life, like the pattern of fourfold allegorical interpretation,is arrangedin concentric circles. Since
the women offerdifferentkinds of love-simulated, earthly,philosophical, and divine-one layer of love leads to the next only when they are
placed in their properorder.
Sequence is crucial to Dante's view of life andliterature,or what the
Convivio calls matters "naturaleed artificiale"(II.i.12).He repeatedly
uses the words "impossibile ed inrazionale"to characterizethe craftsman who builds an ark beforehe has preparedthe wood, or a house before he has established its foundation (II.i.10-12).Hence an allegorist
attempts the impossible if he presents the allegoricallevel before the
literal, because he must lead his readersfromthe concrete "sobietto"to
the more abstract"forma"(II.i.10).In the same section of the Convivio,
he tells us that "semprelo litterale dee andareinnanzi" for one simple
reason:"perbche in ciascuna cosa che ha dentroe di fuori,&impossibile
venire al dentro se primanon si viene al di fuori"(8-9). If the craftsman
confuses this sequence, his efforts are also irrational:"Ancora,posto
che possibile fosse, sarebbeinrazionale, cio6 fuori d'ordine,e per6 con
molta fatica e con molto erroresi procederebbe"(13). As is well known,
the correct sequence is the literal level, composedof "le parolefittizie"
(3),which contains all other meanings (8);the allegorical,"unaveritade
ascosa sotto bella menzogna" (3);the moral, characterizedby its ability
to teach (5);and, finally, the anagogical,or "sovrasenso,"dealingwith
"le supernecose de l'etternalgloria"(6).7Only when this sequenceis in
its properorder can the allegoricalwriter, and presumablyhis reader,
proceedbeyond fictions towarda heavenly vision.
The narrativeequivalent of this sequence appearsin ChapterV of the
Vita Nuova. Beatricehas alreadyenteredDante's life, inexplicablydisappearedfor nine years, and returned-as "una maravigliosavisione"
(III,3)-to greethim. He promptlyretreatsto the loneliness of his room.
Their relationship remains ambiguous until, in ChapterV, two new
women areintroduced.Sitting in a church,Dante tells us that "io erain
luogo dal quale vedea la mia beatitudine,"Beatrice(V, 1).She is, significantly, an earthly obstacle placed between Dante and the divine "regina de la gloria,"the Madonna,about whom words are being spoken.
Dante's mind lingers on the mortal woman when yet another buffer appears: "nel mezzo di lei [Beatrice] e di me per la retta linea sedea una
gentile donna." With the screen-lady's appearance, the layers of love
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P. J.KLEMP
areassuming their properorder,leadingDante andBeatriceto establish
a love relationship aftera nine-year delay.
This seating arrangementor sequence (Dante, the screen-lady,Beatrice, and the Madonna)helps to explainthe erraticmovement of Chapters II and III,with all of their entrances,greetings,departures,and retreats. To use the language of the Convivio, before the church scene
Dante the author has yet to establish his concrete foundationor subject, which is not merely love, but first the lowest formof love (the "simulato amore" or "simulacra,"if-as Charles S. Singleton arguesAmore's statement in Chapter XII refers to the screen-ladies).8The
layers of love are as importantas the layers of allegory,for a craftsman
would find it impossible and irrationalto begin with the higher love.
His pattern of exposition resembles that of the allegorist,who cannot
begin with the "sovrasenso."One must move fromlayerto layer,eventually recognizing that each layer (exceptthe last), however enticing it
looks initially, can in fact lead to the next. So Dante's earlylove forBeatrice in ChapterII is not only premature,but also impossible and irrational. He must begin at the beginning, so he requiresthe bufferof a
"bellamenzogna"to hide "unaveritade"-that is, a screen-ladyto conceal his love for Beatrice.
When Amore uses an enigmatic analogy taken from geometry, he
endorses the idea of love as a circle to be penetrated:" 'Egotanquam
centrum circuli, cui simili modo se habent circumferentiepartes; tu
autem non sic' " (XII,4). Ifwe recall the Convivio'sexplanationof allegory moving from the outside to the inside, where we find the "sovrasenso" (II.i.9),we recognizeits correspondenceto the patternof the love
experiencein the VitaNuova. Amore,the personifiedessence of love, is
located in the center, and the women's differentloves form concentric
circles around him. Dante's journey will consist of moving from the
outermost circle to the center.Beforethe appearanceof the firstscreenlady, the craftsmanbehind the Vita Nuova shows us the consequences
of moving too quickly to an inner circle of love without first passing
throughthe outer circle. Dante the lover must proceedfrom the lower
(outside)to the higher(inside)kinds of love, froma "simulatoamore"to
a real love-and ultimately to the real love, as Amore later yields to
God. Beforethe layers fall into place in the churchscene, all we find are
Dante's and Beatrice'sabruptentrances and exits, "con molta fatica e
con molto errore."
Although Dante's line of vision in the church scene could potentially extend through two loves (the screen-lady and Beatrice)and arrive at the highest love present (the Madonna),it does not. Filosofiaand
the spiritual Beatrice will later help him make this leap. In church,
however, his vision stops with Beatrice, an earthly love whom he assumes to be the final truth. He is ironically trapped by the very weak-
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DANTE'S
Vita Nuova
189
nesses that the Convivio laterattributesto his readers:a love of matters
amatory and a reluctance to face "la sentenza vera" (II.xii.8).Earthly
love is, at this point, the highest love that he can acknowledge.As his
journey momentarily returns to a series of erraticmovements, Dante
vacillates between two layers of love, simulated and true. One screenlady replaces another (IX-X),and Dante finds himself separatedfrom
Beatrice (IX)or shunned by her (X).These forwardand backwardmovements resemble those of an inexperiencedwriter or readerof allegory
who, like this lover, lacks perspective. Just as a naive writer or reader
might lack a clear vision of the "sovrasenso"to which all his efforts
lead, so the lover in the Vita Nuova lacks an educator(Filosofiawill
arrivelater)and a sincere commitment to the highest love.
In these early parts of the Vita Nuova, Dante briefly mentions-though he does not seem to understand-that Beatrice is linked to
higher levels of reality, just as the allegorical sense is linked to the
moral and anagogical.The famous canzone in ChapterXIX, "Donne
ch'avete intelletto d'amore,"illustrates Dante's limited perspective.
Beatrice,he tells us, is "quantode ben p6 farnatura"(line 49), referring
to the world of the senses in which the lovers live. But she is also "disiata in sommo cielo" (line 29); while this poem's other speakers(the
angel, God, andAmore)all understandwhat this divine perspectiveimplies, Dante the lover does not. They recognize that Beatricewill become a spiritual being. Dante lets them speak, but he continues to focus on Beatrice'sphysical appearance:
Colordi perleha quasi,in formaquale
convenea donnaaver,nonformisura.
(lines 47-48)
Even when he hints at her higherpowers,Dante describesthem in amatory terms that are deeply rootedin a physical being and not in a soul:
De li occhisuoi,comech'ellali mova,
esconospirtid'amoreinflammati,
cheferonli occhia qualcheallorla guati,
e passansi che '1corciascunretrova:
voi le vedeteAmorpintonel viso,
la 'venonpotealcunmirarlafiso.
(lines51-56)
Although the lover does not comprehendthe spiritualsignificanceof
the eyes, a theme to be exploredin the Convivio and Commedia, Beatrice is associated with heavenly beings throughout the Vita Nuova.
While she is alive, however, Dante cannot understandthe hints that
her life has greater significance, for he is incapable of seeing beyond this
earthly layer of love. He lacks an awareness of the corresponding levels
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P. J. KLEMP
of allegory, the moral and anagogical senses, even though outside
sources remind him of Beatrice's connections with the spiritual world.
Homer echoes through his mind: "'Ella non parea figliuola d'uomo
mortale, ma di deo' " (II, 8; the verb here is very important, as we shall
see when Filosofia enters Dante's life). Even people on the street notice:
" 'Questa non e femmina,' " they say, " 'anzi e uno de li bellissimi
angeli del cielo' " (XXVI, 2). Once Dante faces Beatrice's mortality in
Chapter XXIII, his vision begins to improve slightly, as Amore tries to
lead him toward God. As in the church scene, Dante again sees Beatrice
through the veil of another woman. Giovanna, Guido Cavalcanti's
lover, approaches Dante, "E appresso lei, guardando, vidi venire la mirabile Beatrice. Queste donne andaro presso di me cosi l'una appresso
l'altra" (XXIV, 3-4). Although Dante sees no significance in this episode or in the arrangement of the two ladies, Amore does:
"Quellaprimae nominata Primaverasolo per
questa venuta d'oggi;che io mossi lo imponitore
del nome a chiamarlacosi Primavera,cioe prima
verralo die che Beatricesi mosterradopola
imaginazione del suo fedele. E se anche vogli
considerarelo primo nome suo, tanto e quanto
dire 'primaverra,'pero che lo suo nome Giovanna
e da quello Giovanni lo quale precedettela verace
luce, dicendo: 'Egovox clamantis in deserto:
parateviam Domini.' "
(XXIV,4)
When we read Amore's typological analysis, we should remember that
although John leads us to Christ, we must not stop there. For Christ
states that He is in turn the means by which we arrive at a higher love:
"Ego sum via, et veritas, et vita. Nemo venit ad Patrem, nisi per me"
(John 14:6). After listening to Amore's analogy and etymologies, Dante
decides to write a poem but to withhold material that might offend
Cavalcanti. This reaction indicates that Dante has grasped little of
Amore's lesson about symbolic relationships and layers of love.'
When Dante learns of Beatrice's death in Chapter XXVIII,we might
assume that his love for her would progress immediately to the spiritual layer. That it does not is less a sign of his ignorance than of his natural inability to skip levels. As we learn from the Convivio's explanation
of the strict sequence of senses in allegorical discourse, the moral level
must bridge the allegorical and the most difficult "sovrasenso." Dante
shows us that he has the beginnings of knowledge, which will eventually lead to revelation,'1 when he describes Beatrice's departure:
lo segnorede la giustizia chiamoe questa
gentilissima a gloriaresotto la insegnadi
quella reginabenedettavirgoMaria,lo cui
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DANTE'S
Vita Nuova
191
ne le
reverenzia
nomefuein grandissima
paroledi questaBeatricebeata.
(XXVIII,1)
We areimmediately remindedof Mary'searlierrolesin the VitaNuova,
both as a comforter of a distressed Dante (XII)and--more importantly-as "lareginade la gloria,"aboutwhom he andBeatriceheardduring
the church scene (V, 1).When Dante gives furtherthought to Beatrice,
he prematurelytries to interprether existence in anagogicalterms, as a
sign of the highest things: "ella erauno nove, cio6 uno miracolo,la cui
radice,cioe del miracolo, e solamente la mirabileTrinitade"(XXIX,3).
The difficulty Dante experiences in trying to graspthis concept is revealed by the sentence's convolutions andrepetitions,as he repeatedly
pauses and attempts to explain his point ("cioe... cioe").
Even if Dante understood Beatrice'ssymbolic relationship to the
Trinity, his vision is incapableof penetratingthe deeper,divine layers
of love. Just as he will requireMatelda to act as a transition between
Virgil and Beatricein the Commedia, so he needs an intermediaryin
the VitaNuova. Filosofiafills this role, providingfurtherevidence that
Dante the lover is about to exploredeeperlayersof love and the corresponding levels of allegory.His first vision of Filosofiais, significantly,
indirect: "Alloravidi una gentile donna giovane e bella molto, la quale
da una finestra mi riguardava"(XXXV,2). By now, we have grown accustomed to seeing women only throughsomeone or something, with
Giovanna walking and the first screen-lady sitting between Dante and
Beatrice.Also consistent is Dante's behavior,for he reacts as he did to
Beatrice'sgreeting(Il) and rejection(XII):"mi partiodinanzidali occhi
di questa gentile" (XXXV,3). Although he turns away, he does connect
Filosofia with Beatrice:
Avvennepoi che1aovunquequestadonna[Filosofial
mi vedea, si si facea d'unavista pietosa e d'un
colorepalidoquasicomed'amore;ondemoltefiate
dela mianobilissimadonna[Beatrice],
mi ricordava
chedi similecoloresi mostravatuttavia.
(XXXVI,
1)
Later,in the Convivio, Dante revises this event and conveniently forgets the guilt and sorrowthat accompanythis new lady:
Percheio, sentendomilevaredalpensierodel
primoamorea la virtiidi questo,quasi
maravigliandomiapersila boccanel parlarede
la propostacanzone ["Voi,che 'ntendendoil
terzo ciel movete"],mostrandola mia condizione
sotto figurad'altrecose.
(U.xii.8)
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P. J. KLEMP
In the Vita Nuova, we initially hear nothing about Dante being raised
from one love to the next; instead, we hear sighs, groans,and cries of
self-condemnation (XXXVII).He resolves to love Filosofiain Chapter
XXXVIII,a necessary action-though he does not realize it, as in the
Commedia he does not comprehendMatelda'srole-if he is ever to
reach the immortal Beatrice.If we recall Dante's Homeric description
of Beatricein Chapter11(" 'Ellanon pareafigliuolad'uomomortale,ma
di deo' " [italics added]),a statement in the Convivio clearlyindicates
that Filosofiais a higherlove. Dante describesher,without fallingback
on Homer, in these words: "questa donna fu figlia di Dio, regina di
tutto, nobilissima e bellissima Filosofia" (II.xii.9;italics added).We
know that Beatricealso descends from God, but in Dante's estimation
aftertheir first meeting, she merely seemed to have divine origins.Filosofia, on the other hand,does not at first sight seem to be God'sdaughter; she is indeed of heavenly origin, and she will lead Dante to an
awarenessthat Beatricesharesher lineage.
Dante's new love is describedas "savia"(XXXVIII,
1),a word that is
never to my knowledge appliedto Beatricein the Vita Nuova. Hence
we see Filosofia as a representativeof the moral, instructive sense of
allegory, which will lead Dante to the highest sense and highest love.
Forsomeone who has undergonea difficult educationaboutthe layers
of love and allegory,Dante has remarkablylittle empathywith people
who are also looking throughveils to find the highest love. In Chapter
XL, Dante watches many pilgrims pass by on their way to see "quella
imagine benedetta la quale Iesu Cristo lasci6 a noi per essemplo de la
sua bellisima figura"(1).Againwe see the use of layers,forthe pilgrims
cannot see the real Christ, so they turn to an image. Why, Dante wonders naively, are they not thinking about Beatriceand feeling grieffor
her loss? He fails to recognize that, like him, they must approachthe
highest love indirectly.Only througha veil may we approachthe Sonin
this life; only throughthe Son may we reachthe Father.1"
Dante's descriptionof his thought or sign as "lo peregrinospirito"in
the sonnet in ChapterXLI(line 8)is a small sign of his increasedempathy with the pilgrims of the precedingchapter.They share the same
journey, an ascent through various veils or layers toward a vision of
heaven. The ending of the Vita Nuova is wide-open andfilled with anticipation because, while we expect Dante to reachthe highest love or
an awarenessof allegory's"sovrasenso,"this "peregrinospirito"is not
allowed a directvision of God.And even the vision of the immortalBeatrice is, as we have come to expect, indirect:he sees her "perlo suo
splendore"(line 7). Furthermore,when his spirit returnsto convey its
message from heaven, languagebecomes as inadequateas vision:
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Vedelatal,chequando'1mi ridice,
io no lo intendo,si parlasottile
al cordolente,chelo faparlare.
(lines9-11)
Dante decides not to write about Beatriceuntil he can write more nobly. As Mark Musa argues,the Vita Nuova presents "the glory of Beatrice, and the slowly-increasing ability of the lover to understanditwho must confess at the end, however,that he has not trulyunderstood
it."'2The supremethings, a clearawarenessof divine love and the anagogical significance of life, evade him in the end, but the Paradiso'svision of Beatriceand the Trinity awaits him. It is significant,therefore,
that the final vision of the Vita Nuova involves neither Dante nor
screens, but ratherthe "benedettaBeatrice,la qualegloriosamentemira
ne la faccia di colui qui est per omnia secula benedictus" (XLII,3).
OklahomaStateUniversity
NOTES
'La VitaNuova, ed. Michele Barbi,in Le Operedi Dante, Testo Criticodella Societa
Dantesca Italiana(Firenze:R. Bemporad,1921),III,14. All subsequentreferencesto the
Vita Nuova are to this edition. When I referto Dante in this essay, I mean the character
in the Vita Nuova, unless the context clearly points to Dante the author.
211Convivio, ed. G. Busnelli and G. Vandelli, with an Introductionby Michele
Barbi,2nd ed. (Firenze:Felice Le Monnier, 1968), II.xii.8. Futurequotations from the
Convivio are from this edition.
3GiuseppeMazzotta, Dante, Poet of the Desert: History and Allegory in the "Divine Comedy" (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), p. 8. BarbaraNolan
reaches a similar conclusion: "Becausehe is a prophet,the narratormust not only tell
his miraculous story;he must also teach his readershow to interpretanduse his prophecy" ("The Vita Nuova: Dante's Book of Revelation,"Dante Studies, 88 [19701,53).
41consider the two screen-ladies as though they were one character.They perform
identical duties by guardingDante's secret love and by disappearingso he may approach Beatrice. And, following the Convivio's interpretationof the donna gentile, I
referto her as Filosofia. Fordifferentreasons,JamesE. Shawalso arguesfor this identification (TheLady "Philosophy"in the "Convivio"[n.p.:Dante Society of Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 19381,especially pp. 6 and 20).
5RicardoJ.Quinones, Dante Alighieri (Boston:Twayne Publishers,1979),p. 27.
6RobertHollander, "Vita Nuova: Dante's Perceptionsof Beatrice,"Dante Studies,
92 (1974),5.
7RobertHollander discusses the Convivio's textual problems and Dante's statement about the allegoryof poets andof theologians:"Whatis clearandI believe beyond
argument, despite various opinions to the contrary,is that Dante [in Convivio, II.i.31
begins to enumerate and define allegoryin accordwith the four senses of Biblicalexegesis. What is not clear and in my opinion never shall be is whether he intended to
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P. J.KLEMP
make a clear distinction between Scripturalallegory and that of the poets, which he
here invokes for his own canzoni. In my opinion, he did not. Otherwise stated, I find
that Dante has either deliberatelyor confusedly elided the necessarydistinction" (Allegory in Dante's "Commedia" [Princeton:PrincetonUniversity Press, 19691,p. 33).
8CharlesS. Singleton believes that "simulacra"refersto the screen-ladies (An Essay on the "VitaNuova" [BaltimoreandLondon:The JohnsHopkinsUniversity Press,
19491,p. 16). In Dante's "Vita Nuova" (Bloomingtonand London:IndianaUniversity
Press, 1973), Mark Musa develops this interpretationin a way that is relevant to my
argument: ". . . I do not believe that the word simulacra refersspecifically to the lover's use of screen-ladies, though such an allusion may well be includedwithin the referential rangeof this word. In classical Latinthe wordsimulacrum,in its philosophical
application, was used of an imitation as opposed to the original, of an appearanceas
opposed to what is real. Thus, it could apply to any of the attitudes or actions of the
young lover which were only false imitations of what true love forBeatriceshould be"
(p. 113).
9Foran excellent discussion of Dante's typologicalhabit of thought,see RobertHollander's analysis of Purgatorio,XXVII.97-108.Hollandernotes Dante's use of figural
proportions:"Leah:Rachelas Matelda:Beatrice,"which is "deepenedby the additional
proportion,Jacob:Dante"(Allegoryin Dante's "Commedia,"p. 151).The figuralproportion in Chapter XXIV of the Vita Nuova works in the same wayGiovanna:Beatriceas Giovanni:Christ.
1'Singletonaccuratelydescribesthe entire VitaNuova as "theunfoldingof a revelation" (Essay,p. 18). See also Nolan's essay, cited in note 3, for a thoroughdiscussion of
Dante's revelation.
"For extensive considerations of Beatrice'sChristologicalrole in the Vita Nuova,
see Charles S. Singleton, Journeyto Beatrice, Dante Studies 2 (Baltimoreand London:
The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958), pp. 72-85; BernardS. Levy, "Beatrice's
Greeting and Dante's 'Sigh'in the Vita Nuova," Dante Studies, 92 (1974),53-62.
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