Tennessee 4-H Jr. High Wildlife Manual

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
THE UNIVERISITY OF TENNESSEE
PB1687
Tennessee 4-H Jr. High
Wildlife Manual
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Wildlife Ecology and Management
3
Habitat Management
7
Wildlife Management Methods
11
Backyard Wildlife Management
16
Reptiles and Amphibians
19
Fish Management
23
Forest Management
27
Glossary
31
AUTHORS
Craig Harper, Assistant Professor,
Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
The University of Tennessee
Tom Hill, Professor,
Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
The University of Tennessee
Jim Byford, Dean,
School of Agriculture and Applied Sciences
The University of Tennessee, Martin
RY
W
I
A special thanks goes to the
Tennessee Wildlife Resources
Agency for providing financial
support and personnel assistance in
carrying out the various programs in
the overall 4-H wildlife program.
L IF E
FORE
T
LD
S
David Mercker, Extension Associate,
Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries
The University of Tennessee
FI
S HE RIES
2
WILDLIFE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
W
populations. Carrying capacity depends on a number of
things, such as habitat quality, predation and
competition.
ildlife management is the art and science of
making land produce and sustain more
wildlife than nature would normally produce. However,
in order to manage wildlife, we need to understand the
ecological principles that apply to wildlife; that is, the
interaction of wildlife with the living and non-living
components of the surrounding environment, or
ecosystem. Ecosystems are comprised of living
communities (plants and animals) and the non-living
environment (soil, water, minerals and air) with which
communities interact.
Traditionally, wildlife management has concentrated on
1) conservation of wildlife through game laws, 2) restocking when necessary (using wild-trapped animals)
and 3) habitat improvement. When wildlife populations
begin to decline, people generally think and act in the
order listed above. This is unfortunate, because the third
item is often more important than the first two. If
suitable habitat to support wildlife is lacking, protection
and re-stocking will not protect or restore populations.
Cover
The only way to sustain larger
populations is to increase the
carrying capacity. Habitat
management is the primary
method of increasing carrying
capacity. By managing for
additional food, cover and
water on a given area, more
individuals are able to sustain
themselves, providing there is
adequate space.
Food
Humans have the ability to alter the environment and
control the density of other organisms. So, it is
important that we know the effect of our activities on the
environment and understand the response of wildlife to
these activities.
Water
Habitat is made up of four primary components: food,
cover, water and space. All these things have to be
present to support wildlife populations in a given area.
The component in shortest supply is called the limiting
factor, because it is limiting the population on that
particular tract of land. As populations increase beyond
the carrying capacity, nature quickly reduces their
numbers, often through starvation,
disease, predation or a
Wildlife
combination of factors.
Food provides energy, which is
continually transferred through ecosystems by way of
food chains. Energy transfer begins with the sun’s
energy being fixed by green plants (or producers). This
is accomplished through photosynthesis and by using
nutrients in the soil. Green plants are eaten by
herbivores (such as rabbits and deer) and herbivores
may be eaten by predators (such as great-horned owls
and bobcats). Predators may be carnivores or
omnivores. Carnivores are meat-eaters (such as
wolves) and omnivores are animals that eat both plants
and animals (e.g., black bears, humans). At each step in
a food chain, a considerable amount of energy is lost.
Managing wildlife starts successfully with land
management, or what wildlife biologists call habitat
management. Land has the ability to support only a
certain number of animals. This limit is termed the
carrying capacity and it is nature’s way of regulating
A food pyramid can be used to show the steps of a food
chain. Plants capture about 1 percent of the solar energy
that reaches their leaves. Herbivores keep about 10
percent of the energy from the plants and carnivores
keep about 10 percent of the energy from herbivores.
3
Thus, 100 pounds of forage will produce 10 pounds of
beef, which in turn will produce 1 pound of flesh on a
person.
1000 calories
HUMANS
CATTLE - BEEF
990 calories lost
to the environment
10 calories
plant matter available
as food
PLANT MATERIAL - GRASS, HAY
All food chains end with waste products of live animals,
dead plant parts and dead animals. Decomposers (e.g.,
bacteria and fungi) consume these products, break down
the remaining material and release the nutrients back
into the system to be used again by plants to begin a new
food chain.
9 calories lost
to the environment
The amount of food and cover on a given area changes
over time. Succession is the orderly, predictable series
of changes in plant species composition on a given area
over time. This is a very important principle, since all
wildlife species are best adapted to a particular
successional stage year-round or during specific seasons.
The same tools that destroy habitat are used to restore
and manage it, setting back succession. These include
the chainsaw, plow, disc, bushhog, fire, herbicides and
grazing. Consider a piece of land that has been cleared
bare. It is reasonable to expect the following changes in
plant composition over time.
1 calorie
available
as food
1st year: Ragweed, panic grass, foxtail
2nd year: Goldenrod, broomsedge
3rd year: Dewberry, blackberry
4th year: Sassafras, sumac, elderberry
5th year: Pine, redcedar, cherry, elm
Plant and animal
materials are broken
down by fungi and
micro-organisms,
decomposing these
materials to be reused.
With these plant changes come changes in the associated
wildlife community.
The flow of energy decreases with
each step in a food chain
Wildlife management objectives change with plant
succession. Wildlife managers first determine their
management objective and then work toward the stage
of succession best suited for the species to be managed.
However, since wildlife managers rarely manage for
only one species, it is desirable to manage for several
different successional stages and habitat types on a given
piece of property. This way, many wildlife species
benefit.
4
Wildlife
Change
with
Succession
White-tailed Deer
Wild Turkey
Ruffed Grouse
Ruffled
Community Type Bare Field
An ecotone is where two or more successional stages (or
two or more habitat types) meet and is a very important
area for wildlife. This area is commonly called an edge.
The reason many species of wildlife are found near
edges is because this is where most resources are
concentrated. For species with small home ranges (such
as quail and rabbits), it is important that all of the
resources needed to survive are in close proximity to one
another. This reduces the need to travel far, which also
reduces the risk of predation. Predators (such as foxes
and red-tailed hawks) like edges as well because that is
where prey can be found.
A: Poor Interspersion
(one covey)
Some people think predators are bad; that they reduce
game populations and take away individual game
animals that could be hunted. Some also think if
predators could be removed, game would be abundant.
That is not true. In fact, predation performs a necessary
function by reducing surplus animals the habitat cannot
support. If not reduced by predation, the population
eventually would be reduced by some other means (such
as starvation and disease). Often, before the population
is reduced, the habitat is severely damaged.
For example, many years ago, wildlife managers in the
Kaibab National Forest of Arizona wanted to increase
the deer population. A bounty was placed on mountain
lions and essentially all of the mountain lions in the area
were killed. Then, deer became so numerous they
depleted their food resources and most of them died of
starvation. This demonstrates the importance of
predation in maintaining healthy habitats and wildlife
populations.
B: Good Interspersion
(six coveys)
INTERSPERSION OF TYPES - RELATION TO MOBILITY &
DENSITY OF QUAIL (same types and same total area of each)
5
Predation is not just game being killed by foxes,
mountain lions or wolves. For example, the turkey poult
feeding on grasshoppers is just as much a predator as a
great-horned owl killing a grouse.
The lesson here is that all of our native wildlife species
perform a critical role in the balance of our natural
world. This role is called a niche.
In the absence of natural predators, it is up to man to
regulate and manage our wildlife populations through
habitat management and hunting. Hunters not only help
manage game populations, they also provide the
majority of the funding used to pay wildlife managers
and biologists through the sale of hunting licenses and
with tax money levied on the sale of firearms and
ammunition. In addition, this money is used to manage
and protect wildlife habitat.
REFERENCES
Leopold, A. 1933. Game Management. Scribner, New
York. 481 pages.
Robinson, W. L., and E. G. Bolen. 1989. Wildlife
Ecology Management. Macmillan, New York.
574 pages.
6
HABITAT MANAGEMENT
M
anaging habitats (or habitat types) is the
primary method of managing wildlife. If the
habitat is not suitable, wildlife will not flourish (or in
some cases, survive) in that area. Wildlife managers
spend a great deal of their time manipulating land to
ensure suitable habitat is available for various wildlife
species. In this chapter, you will learn about some of the
techniques used in managing habitats. Keep in mind,
however, that no one technique is going to create
favorable habitat conditions for all species, or even for
one species during the entire year. It is essential that a
variety of habitats and successional stages be present,
and usually well interspersed, for a variety of wildlife
species to flourish.
growth provides lots of food—leaves, twigs and soft
mast (such as blackberries, blueberries and
huckleberries). Insects and other invertebrates (such as
spiders and snails) are attracted to the new growth and
are fed upon by wild turkey and ruffed grouse poults,
songbirds and salamanders.
Quality habitat should offer adequate food, cover, water
and space. Habitats are managed to increase those
components that are lacking. The following practices are
used to enhance the habitat for many wildlife species.
A timber harvest is especially important for wildlife
where there are large tracts of unbroken forest with little
early successional habitat. Typically, timber harvests
should be 10-40 acres, but this can vary according to
species being managed, surrounding land-use practices
and size of forest tract being managed.
The lush natural growth following a timber harvest
operation is normally quite dense for a few years until
the trees grow large enough to shade others out. During
this time, these “thick” areas provide excellent cover for
many species, including white-tailed deer, ruffed grouse,
black bears, rabbits, bobcats, foxes and several species
of songbirds.
MANAGING FORESTS FOR WILDLIFE
Timber Harvest
Forests can be managed for wildlife through timber
harvest. Clearcut, shelterwood and group selection are
three commonly used methods to regenerate (or start
anew) forest stands. While the primary objective may be
regeneration of the forest, many species of wildlife
benefit when the trees are removed. By removing trees,
more sunlight is allowed into the forest, which
stimulates lush growth on the forest floor. This new
Thinning
Thinning undesirable trees from a stand can improve
habitat for wildlife as well. Thinning forest stands for
wildlife removes trees that are not beneficial to wildlife
(such as sweetgum, winged elm, maples, ashes and
yellow poplar), while others (such as oaks, hickories,
American beech, black cherry, persimmon and
mulberry) provide important seed and fruit crops used
7
lives. You should NEVER attempt burn by yourself or
without experienced personnel present. If you wish to
use prescribed fire, contact the Tennessee Division of
Forestry or the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency
and they will conduct the burn for you.
by many wildlife species.
Thinning out “weed” trees
allows the remaining trees to
grow larger and produce
more food. So, it is possible
for many forests to produce
more food for wildlife with
fewer trees! The increased
sunlight coming in to the
forest floor stimulates fresh
growth of forbs and grasses,
providing additional food
for wildlife, and the
structure many birds require
to nest.
Firebreaks are lanes of bare ground established around
the perimeter of an area to be burned. They help keep
the fire from spreading into an area that is not to be
burned. Firebreaks are usually created by plowing or
discing or with a bulldozer. After a burn, firebreaks can
be planted or left alone. If left alone, forbs (weeds) and
grasses beneficial to wildlife should germinate from the
seed bank. If planted, wildlife managers use wildlifefriendly seed mixtures that provide forage and/or seed
for many species. Seeds planted are listed under Food
Plots.
Snags usually contain cavities,
which are used by many visitors
Wildlife managers sometimes kill trees that need to be
removed by girdling them (cutting a circle through the
bark around the tree) and spraying herbicide in the
girdle. These trees are left standing (snags) to provide
cavities used by birds and mammals for nesting, roosting
and denning. Sometimes the trees to be removed are not
cut all the way through, but just enough to fell the tree,
leaving a hinge connecting the stem to the would-be
stump (hinge-cutting). By doing this, the tree is knocked
over, but remains alive, providing excellent cover at
ground level for wildlife.
MANAGING FIELDS FOR WILDLIFE
Old Field Management
Old fields are those that have been left fallow
(unplanted) and allowed to grow up in various native
forbs (weeds) and grasses. These fields can be havens
for many species of wildlife (such as rabbits, quail, deer,
field mice, reptiles, hawks and foxes), especially if the
fields are managed correctly. The various forbs found
growing in old fields can be particularly important.
Forbs comprise approximately 70 percent of a deer’s
diet during spring and fall. Seeds from various forbs are
the main component in a quail’s diet during fall and
winter, providing the nutrition necessary to survive until
spring. Native warm-season grasses (NWSG), such as
broomsedge, big and little bluestem, indiangrass and
switchgrass, are often found in old fields and provide
preferred nesting habitat for bobwhites and offer cover
for many other species. Unfortunately, many old fields
in Tennessee were planted to fescue at some time in the
past. Fescue is an exotic, non-native grass that does not
provide habitat for wildlife. Fescue grows very thick at
the ground level, preventing quail and wild turkey
chicks and young rabbits from traveling through the
field. Also, fescue tends to grow in solid stands, not
allowing native forbs and grasses to germinate and grow.
Fescue offers poor forage for deer and rabbits and does
not harbor as many invertebrates for quail and turkeys to
feed upon. Thus, wildlife managers spray and kill fescue
with herbicides to allow growth of other grasses and
forbs.
Prescribed Fire
Perhaps the single-most important tool used to improve
wildlife habitat is prescribed fire (or controlled
burning). PRESCRIBED FIRE IS NOT A WILDFIRE
AND THE RESULTS ARE DRAMATICALLY
DIFFERENT. Prescribed fire is used to decrease the
amount of fuel (dead leaves, sticks and limbs) on the
forest floor and stimulate growth of forbs and grasses.
Not only does this promote increased food and nesting
cover for wildlife, it also reduces the chance of wildfire,
which could destroy the forest. The benefits of
prescribed fire are best realized after a stand has been
thinned. Debris left from the thinning is burned, along
with the leaf litter layer, allowing seeds in the seed bank
(seeds found in the top layer of soil) to germinate.
Prescribed fire is “controlled” by burning only under
desired conditions (i.e., correct temperatures, humidity,
days after a rain and wind speed) and with the use of
firebreaks. Burning when it’s too dry, when the wind is
blowing too hard and without fire breaks can lead to
uncontrolled wildfires that can destroy property and
If left alone, old fields eventually become forests and
wildlife needing old field habitat will diminish. That is
8
why wildlife managers continually set back succession
in old fields. This is best accomplished with prescribed
fire as discussed earlier. Burning fields every year
promotes annual forbs and grasses. Burning every two
or three years promotes perennial forbs and grasses.
Burning every three to five years promotes perennial
forbs and grasses and allows some woody succession to
get started. Old fields of all three types should be present
to provide various food and cover requirements for
wildlife.
Food Plots
Planting food plots is another way wildlife managers
improve available nutrition and increase the carrying
capacity of a piece of property. There are many different
types of food plots. Wildlife managers decide what to
plant based on the site conditions (such as soil and
topography) and wildlife to be managed. Just like the
forbs growing in an old field, food plots provide forage
and/or seed and, in some circumstances, cover as well.
Good forage plantings include: clovers, alfalfa, greens
(such as rape and turnips),
lablab, oats, wheat, rye and
ryegrass. Good seed
producers include: corn,
milo (grain sorghum),
millets and sunflowers.
Wildlife managers often disc strips through fields just to
promote forbs and grasses. Sometimes strips are disced
on a three-year rotation. This way, both annual and
perennial food and cover is available each year.
Bushhogging is another way wildlife managers set back
succession in old fields. Bushhogging should be done in
late winter, just prior to spring green-up. This way, more
cover is available throughout winter and nests and
young are not disturbed or destroyed during spring and
summer.
Some plantings provide both forage and seed: cowpeas,
soybeans and buckwheat. NEVER plant fescue or
orchardgrass in a wildlife food plot. These grasses
chokeout desirable plantings and leave wildlife with no
food or desirable cover.
Fields larger than one or two acres are often broken up
into smaller fields by establishing hedgerows. The best
hedgerows are planted to trees and shrubs that produce
soft mast (such as persimmon, crabapple, hawthorn and
wild plum) and evergreen cover (such as pines and
eastern redcedar). By establishing hedgerows, travel
lanes are created across the field and the amount of edge
is increased. This allows wildlife managers to better
intersperse food and cover resources on the property
being managed. Small fruit-bearing trees and shrubs are
also planted along the edge of fields and woods to create
a soft edge—where the transition between woods and
field is gradual—providing increased food and cover in
close proximity to one another. Hinge-cutting is also
used at the edge of fields and woods to establish a soft
edge.
Wildlife managers typically plant several small food
plots (<2 acres) instead of fewer larger food plots. This
improves habitat for more animals if the food plots are
spread out evenly over the management area. Food plots
should be planted next to good cover, such as a bramble
thicket, dense stand of young pines or a brushy
fencerow. Never plant your food plots within site of a
road. This only increases the chances of poaching.
9
Bottomland
hardwoods are
also flooded in the
fall for similar
reasons. Mallards,
wood ducks and
black ducks really
like these areas.
Where the water
level is
manipulated, these
areas are called
greentree reservoirs.
They are flooded during fall and winter, but left dry in
the spring and summer to keep the trees from dying.
MANAGING WETLANDS FOR WILDLIFE
Wetlands are habitats with standing water or wet
soils during part of most years. Wetlands are very
important because they improve water quality, provide
flood control and are needed by many wildlife species
(such as waterfowl and other wetland birds; many
turtles, frogs, and salamanders; otters, mink and
beavers). Unfortunately, most of our wetlands have been
drained; Tennessee has lost 60 percent of its original
wetlands. It is critical that we conserve our wetlands for
generations to come.
Not all wetlands are alike. Some are open water, some
are marshy and some contain brush or trees. All,
however, provide habitat for wildlife. As with
terrestrial habitats, the vegetative community
determines which wildlife species use the area.
Wooded wetlands mimic some of the best wetlands of
all—beaver ponds. Over time, however, vegetation
within beaver ponds can thin and die out, depending on
the depth and duration of flooding, as well as the
vegetation present. Wildlife managers fluctuate the
water level in beaver ponds for the same reasons listed
above, using a Clemson beaver pond leveler. This device
allows wildlife managers to adjust the water level so the
appropriate amount of vegetation and water remains in
the wetland during the appropriate seasons.
Manipulating the water level is the main way wetlands
are managed for wildlife. Again, the seeds present in the
seed bank are very important in providing food and
cover. Wildlife managers often draw down the water
level using some type of water control device just before
spring. This allows weed seeds in the seed bank to
germinate and grow. Many of these seeds are valuable
foods for wildlife. Later, the water level is gradually
brought back up, flooding the vegetation so it can be
used by wetland wildlife.
REFERENCES
Harper, C. A. 2000. Planting chart for wildlife food
plots in Tennessee, SP 550-A. University of Tennessee
Agricultural Extension Service, P.O. Box 1071,
Knoxville, TN 37901. No charge.
In some areas, crops (particularly corn, milo and millet),
or crop residue, are flooded in the fall to provide feeding
habitat and loafing sites for migrating and wintering
ducks and other wetland birds (such as sandpipers).
Crop residue isn’t the only food available. Aquatic
invertebrates are important food resources for many of
these birds.
Elbow and stand pipe are optional.
Needed only to manage water level if
maintaining pond is an objective.
Kenyon, I. 2000. Beyond the food patch: a guide to
providing bobwhite quail habitat, Publication 00-01.
Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, P.O.
Box 11104, Richmond, VA 23230. No charge.
ildlife management has made many advances over the
years. Today, wildlife biologists and managers use
intake device
8” diameter PVC pipe
beaver dam
20’
1” rebar
6’ long
water flow
T-joint tilted with a drain plug may replace elbow
pond side
The Clemson beaver pond leveler is used to manage water levels in beaver ponds.
10
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT METHODS
W
ildlife management has made many advances
over the years. Today, wildlife biologists and
managers usedetailed techniques and equipment in
studying relationships between wildlife species and their
habitat. At the same time, biologists still rely on older
methods in their wildlife management programs.
ADULT
Here we will take a look at various techniques used by
biologists to solve research and management problems.
While the techniques are interesting, the most important
thing to realize is what they can tell you.
IMMATURE
Central tail feathers of juvenile wild turkeys are longer than
those on either side. Tail fan of adults is even.
Several techniques for aging animals have been
developed over the years. The most common way to age
birds is by looking at the feather characteristics. The
presence, length and coloration of certain feathers can be
used to determine the age of many birds. Most evident is
the age of young birds, or juveniles, as they undergo
their first few molts.
AGING TECHNIQUES
The ability to age animals is important for wildlife
managers. By aging several animals of the same species
from an area, biologists can learn some important things
about the population in that area. For example, by aging
deer killed by hunters each year, biologists learn about
the age structure of the herd. A deer harvest containing
80 percent bucks 11/2 years old indicates few bucks are
attaining maturity and the social status of the herd may
not be healthy.
Most mammals can be aged by inspecting their teeth.
Inspecting the amount of wear on teeth is a commonly
used method to age white-tailed deer. Counting the
annual growth rings in teeth (similar to growth rings
found in a tree) is another way biologists age mammals
(such as black bears). Other methods of determining the
Primary coverts
(outer surface of wings)
Primary coverts
(outer surface of wings)
IMMATURE
ADULT
Aging quail by wings.
Left:
Primary coverts
in adults are
uniform
in color.
Right:
Primary coverts
in young quail have
light-colored tips.
11
age of mammals include eye lens weight and the length
of certain bones. No one technique is useful for all
species, so biologists rely on a variety of techniques.
Some mammals have antlers, such as white-tailed deer,
elk and moose. Antlers are grown and shed annually
(once every year). Animals with antlers cannot be aged
by antler characteristics—so you cannot tell the age of a
deer by the number of points on its rack. Some
mammals have horns, such as wild goats and sheep.
Horns grow continuously and are not shed. Animals with
horns can be aged by the ridges on their horns.
SEXING TECHNIQUES
Most folks can tell a male cardinal from a female by his
bright red plumage. And most people can distinguish a
male mallard (drake) from a female (suzie) by his bright
green head and white neck band.
JUVENILE
Also, it is quite easy to tell a buck deer from a doe
during most seasons of the year by his antlers.
However, the sexes of many wildlife species are difficult
to distinguish from one another. It takes an expert to
distinguish a male Canada goose from a female, or a
male woodcock from a female.
ADULT
Barring on outer primaries of juvenile does not reach end of
feather. Adult primary feather is rounded at tip, while it is sharp
on juvenile turkeys.
PRE MOLARS
1st
2nd
The most common method to determine sex among
birds is also by feather characteristics. As with age
determination, the sex of many birds can be determined
by the presence, length and coloration of certain
feathers. Most often, male birds are more colorful than
females. Drab coloration in females serves as
camouflage during the nesting period. Other methods
used to determine sex of some species of birds include
the shape of droppings, cloacal exam, length of bill,
presence of certain structures (such as spurs, beard and
ruff) and the size of the bird.
MOLARS
3rd
1st
2nd
3rd
Deer is 11/2 years old or less if third premolar has three cusps.
MOLARS
PRE MOLARS
1st
2nd
3rd
1st
2nd
3rd
MALE
FEMALE
Breast feathers of male wild turkeys (left) are black-tipped;
whereas those of females are buff-tipped (right).
Deer is 21/2 years old or older if third premolar
has only two cusps.
12
10th
primary
9th
primary
10th
primary
9th
primary
IMMATURE
SUBADULT
SUMMER BORN
MALE
FEMALE
ADULT
IMMATURE
SPRING BORN
ADULT
ADULT
Sex & age criteria for squirrels:
A. Age may be determined by examination of the ventral
(lower) surface of the tail. Left: juvenile, the shorter
secondary hairs are absent on the lower side of the
tailbone. Center: subadult, short appressed hairs are
present on the lower third of the tailbone.
B. Mastology of the female squirrel. Left: juvenile, with
nipples minute and barely discernible. Right: lacating
adult, nipples pigmented black with most of hair worn off.
C. Scrotal measurements of male squirrels. Left: summer
born, the testes are abdominal and the skin is just beginning to pigment. Center: spring born, the testes are large
and the scrotum is pigmented but heavily furred. Right:
adult has shed most of the fur from the scrotum.
Outer primaries of female woodcock are wider
than those of a male.
In mammals, the most common sexing technique is to
examine the reproductive organs. Sometimes this is not
possible. Other clues biologists use to determine sex of
mammals include the presence of antlers, urination
posture and the presence of young.
One of the oldest management tools for many species
has been to harvest only one sex (males) during the
hunting season. For years, hunters in Tennessee were
able to kill male deer (bucks) only, which allowed the
population to grow. Hunting gobblers only also enabled
wild turkey numbers to rebound. Waterfowl hunters are
still allowed a larger bag limit of certain duck species
(such as mallards) if they harvest drakes only. Hunters
can tell the difference between the sexes of these
species, and the removal of a certain number of males
does not hurt reproduction of the population.
In recent years, however, populations of some wildlife
species have increased dramatically and, as a result,
exceed the carrying capacity of the habitat in certain
areas. The white-tailed deer is a good example. Today, in
some areas of Tennessee, deer populations have grown
to the point that the habitat cannot support them. It is the
responsibility of people to keep wildlife populations in
check. To do this, female deer (does) have to be
harvested as well as males. Hence, hunters are allowed
to kill does in these areas to reduce the number of
females and help improve habitat conditions. As a result,
either-sex hunts have enabled the TWRA to better
manage the deer population in Tennessee.
LEFT: Typical gobbler droppings
RIGHT: Typical hen droppings
Dropping shapes indicate sex of the wild turkey.
13
Trapping has enabled the Tennessee Wildlife Resources
Agency (TWRA) to capture and relocate some species
(such as deer and turkeys) into other areas of where their
numbers were low but the habitat has since been
restored. This has allowed those species to increase in
number in all areas of Tennessee.
CAPTURE TECHNIQUES
Capturing animals is extremely important for wildlife
biologists when learning about the behavior of many
wildlife species and the habitats they use. Trapping
animals is also essential in cases where wildlife is
damaging property or otherwise causing problems.
Researchers sometimes put radio transmitters on trapped
animals to monitor the animal’s movements, behavior
and habits. This is the main way biologists find out how
large an animal’s home range is and which habitats it
prefers.
Capture techniques (trapping) vary widely. There are
kill-traps, live traps, snares, pit falls and many other
types of traps. Traps are designed to work on a variety of
species in a variety of habitats. Some commonly used
traps are: conibear trap, leghold trap, snap trap, snare,
box/cage (or live) trap and glue board.
Trapping (or otherwise capturing) animals can be
important when estimating the number of animals in a
population. For example, biologists may capture animals
repeatedly and see how many recaptures they get. They
then use calculations to estimate the number of animals
in an area.
Other traps are specialized for certain species and
habitats. For example, the rocket net has been used
successfully to capture turkeys, waterfowl and deer. The
dart gun has been effective in immobilizing large
animals such as deer, bear and elk so they may be
tagged, measured and/or transported.
One way managers are “capturing” animals to estimate
populations (such as white-tailed deer) is with infraredtriggered cameras. By placing these cameras in areas
used by wildlife, managers are able to get pictures of
certain animals and estimate how many are in the area.
Other methods used to estimate trends in animal
populations include track counts, roadside counts, pellet
counts, flush counts and call counts.
Trapping is one tool wildlife biologists use to remove or
control nuisance animals in a wildlife damage
management program. Managing wildlife damage may
involve any of several strategies to reduce or eliminate
conflicts between wildlife and humans. These strategies
might include:
Leghold trap used to catch various mammals.
• trapping—a raccoon that keeps getting in trashcans
or eating corn in the garden.
• habitat modification—mowing and picking up debris
around the shed to make the area less attractive to mice
so fewer snakes use the area.
• exclusion—putting up a fence to keep deer, dogs,
rabbits or groundhogs out of the garden, OR sealing
holes leading into the attic to keep bats and squirrels
out.
Conibear trap set for beaver.
14
• frightening agents—some animals can be frightened
by sound or sight using noise makers or decoys of
predators.
• repellents—substances that repel animals by smell or
taste are used to keep animals from eating things in the
garden.
• shooting and toxicants—many nuisance animals can
be killed by shooting or using poison baits.
The first step wildlife biologists use in solving a wildlife
damage problem is to identify the problem animal(s).
This helps minimize danger to non-target species. Often,
it is necessary to use two or more strategies at the same
time to solve the problem effectively and efficiently.
REFERENCES
Bookout, T.A.(editor). 1994. Research and
management techniques for wildlife and habitats.
The Wildlife Society. Bethesda, MD. 740 pages.
15
BACKYARD WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
O
Interspersion is best described as the arrangement of
habitats. A mixture of habitats arranged in a patchwork
mosaic provides good interspersion. You can make your
yard and surrounding area more attractive for wildlife by
arranging different habitats close to one another. For
example, an island of wildflowers or shrubbery in your
yard increases interspersion and breaks up the yard of
grass, making the area attractive to more wildlife
species.
bserving wildlife in your own backyard is
enjoyable and convenient. It is comfortable to
sit in your easy chair or out on your patio and learn to
identify songbirds and other wildlife species. In some
areas, excellent wildlife habitat exists and viewing
opportunities are abundant. However there are usually
several ways to improve wildlife habitat around your
home.
WILDLIFE NEEDS
Wildlife need four basic requirements: food, cover,
water and space. Considering these requirements, look
around your home and determine what is lacking.
WHAT SHOULD YOU PLANT?
It is important to realize that not all wildlife species have
the same habitat requirements. Thus, it makes sense that
a variety of habitats and vegetative species benefits
more wildlife species. Remember, increased plant
diversity leads to increased animal diversity, where
diversity is the number of species, not the number of
individuals.
DRAW A MAP
One of the first steps toward improving wildlife habitat
in your backyard is to draw a map. Include property
boundaries, your house, driveway, fence, shed,
shrubbery, trees, etc. You can step off distances to get a
rough check of scale on your map. By looking at the
“holes” present and the arrangement of vegetation, you
can get a good idea of what is lacking and where it is
needed.
When deciding what to plant, consider what you have
already and keep in mind the year-round needs of
wildlife. Trees, shrubs, and vines that produce both soft
mast and hard mast are important. Soft mast includes
soft, fleshy fruits (such as cherries, persimmons,
mulberries, grapes, blackberries, blueberries, apples,
plums) and is important during summer and fall. Hard
mast (such as acorns and nuts) is important during fall
and winter when animals are looking for high-energy
food.
Herbaceous plants (forbs and grasses) are also
used by wildlife. Many wildflowers (such as
bergamot, jewelweed, cardinal flower and
evening primrose) are planted specifically
to attract hummingbirds and butterflies.
House
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
This is where the fun begins! Every area is unique, but
most backyards need more wildlife-friendly plants
arranged with increased edge and interspersion.
Herbaceous plants also provide
forage and seed for wildlife.
Establish these plants along the
border of woods and fields to
increase the amount of
edge.
Edge is where two or more habitats come together.
Generally, this is where most wildlife species are found
because it is probably close to food AND cover.
16
STRUCTURES FOR WILDLIFE
In addition to landscaping, there are several other things
you can do around your home to provide food, water and
cover for wildlife.
Not an entrance hole,
but a screened vent.
Poplar or pine
Create a brushpile for wildlife. Brushpiles are magnets
for lots of birds, small mammals and reptiles. To
construct a brushpile for wildlife, place the largest limbs
(or logs) on the bottom and pile the smaller brush on
top. This provides more dens and crevices for wildlife
under the protection of brushy cover.
3'
Shingle roofing
Bats enter
and exit
here
4" x 4"
rough-cut
oak.
12 - 16
ft. long.
Leave that dead tree standing! Dead, standing trees are
called snags. Snags are great places for birds and
mammals to nest, den, roost, perch and feed upon the
many insects present. Unless the snag presents a
potential hazard around your home, play area or
other structural property, let it stand and watch
what happens. You will be amazed at how
many wildlife residents and users it
receives.
Screened
vent
1/2" to 3/4"
in diameter
Cut top of
4" x 4" post
Slightly
rounded
post corners
Additional
cuts could
be made
to increase
roosting
area.
3/4" wood
spacer
attached
with
lug bolts.
A great way to provide additional food
and nesting habitat for wildlife is to
erect feeders and nest boxes. The most
common feeders and nest boxes are for
birds; however, many roost/nest box
designs are available for mammals (such
as bats and squirrels).
2 1/2 - 3 ft
in ground
You can cater to the species you want by using
selective feeder designs and seeds. Most birds eagerly
take black-oil sunflower seeds and white proso millet.
Some prefer specific seeds (such as the American
goldfinch, which likes thistle seed). Other foods you
might try include peanut butter squeezed into in pine
“Rocket box” bat houses.
17
cones, fruit, nuts, suet cakes and jelly. Put out several
types of foods—part of the fun is finding out who eats
what!
CONCLUSION
Improving wildlife habitat around your home can be a
rewarding experience. The effort you put forth in your
own backyard can make a big difference for wildlife.
Remember, see what you have now, realize what is
lacking, and supply those things needed by “filling in
the holes” and creating more edge.
Beware of cats around your feeders, as they may kill the
birds and mammals you are trying to attract. House cats
kill hundreds of thousands of birds and small mammals
while roaming around outside each year. For this reason,
cats should be kept indoors—that is the only way to
keep them from killing wildlife. House cats are NOT
natural predators in our ecosystems (they are exotic—
brought to North America from Asia and Africa). All
feral cats should be reported to your local animal shelter
for immediate capture and removal.
REFERENCES
Gardening with wildlife. National Wildlife Federation,
1412 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
Improving your backyard wildlife habitat, PB 1633.
University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension
Service, P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN 37901.
Another type of feeder is for hummingbirds.
Hummingbirds like nectar, and you can make your own
by using four parts water to one part sugar. Boil water
before mixing to dissolve sugar well.
Henderson, C. 1987. Landscaping for wildlife.
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Nongame
Wildlife Program. St. Paul, Minnesota.
Henderson, C. 1995. Wild about birds. Minnesota
Department of Natural Resources, Nongame Wildlife
Program. St. Paul, Minnesota.
Woodworking for Wildlife in Tennessee. Tennessee
Wildlife Resources Agency (800) 262-6704. No charge.
Water is an essential component of wildlife habitat,
providing refreshment for thirsty animals and a place to
splash and cool off. It is easy to provide water around
your house by erecting a birdbath. It is important to keep
the water in birdbaths fresh. Some folks even build
small ponds in their backyards for wildlife to use.
18
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
R
Salamanders are
creatures of moist
habitats and some
spend all their life in
water. They have no
scales on their skin or
claws on their toes, of which
they have only four on their front feet (as compared to
lizards, which have five). Young salamanders have gills
for breathing and some species retain these into
adulthood. Most salamanders, however, lose their gills
and live in moist areas, such as under a log in the woods
or near a creek. The skin must be kept moist for
breathing because oxygen is taken in through the wet,
slimy surface.
eptiles and amphibians are cold-blooded
vertebrates (that means they have backbones)
that hibernate below the frost line in winter. Their roles
in life may not seem spectacular, but both groups are
beneficial to humans and essential to nature’s scheme.
AMPHIBIANS
Amphibians differ from reptiles in several important
ways. Their skin is smooth, not scaled. Those with feet
do not have claws like reptiles. Their jelly-coated eggs,
laid in water, hatch into larvae with gills.
Frogs & Toads
Frogs include the group of amphibians able to hop, leap
or jump. Like other amphibians, they lay their eggs in
water. Their larvae have tails and gills, but no legs. As
the larvae continue to develop, they lose their gills and
tails, but develop legs. Most male frogs have large vocal
sacs to call mates.
REPTILES
Reptiles, unlike amphibians, have closed scales (with the
exception of soft-shelled turtles) and can live in much
drier areas. Reptiles with feet have claws.
Turtles
Toads are sometimes
called frogs, but they
differ from frogs in that
most have relatively
dry, warty skin and
they hop to get
around. Most other
frogs have moist,
smooth skin and they leap.
You cannot get warts from
touching toads, but their skin-gland secretions can be
irritating to mucous membranes.
The skeleton of turtles is a bony box, with the backbone
and flattened ribs firmly fused together. The top part,
covered with horny scales, is called the carapace and
the underside is the plastron. Turtles have no teeth, but
can tear food and eat with their sharp, hooked beaks.
Turtles (even water turtles) lay their soft-shelled eggs on
land in a shallow hole. We have 21 kinds of turtles in
Tennessee.
The scutes of a turtle’s shell.
nucal
gular
marginals
numeral
pectoral
Tree frogs have suction discs on the ends of their toes,
which enable them to climb bushes, weeds or grass. True
frogs are long-legged, narrow-waisted and rather
smooth-skinned. They have fingers free and toes joined
by webs. There are 21 kinds of frogs in Tennessee.
Salamanders
Tennessee has 48 kinds of salamanders. Salamanders
have the same general appearance as lizards, with tails
and well-developed legs. They are very different,
though. Lizards are closely related to snakes, while
salamanders are more closely related to frogs.
marginals
costals
vertebrals
CARAPACE (upper shell)
19
femoral
abdominal
anal
PLASTRON (lower shell)
NORTHERN COPPERHEAD
(Adistrodon contortri mokasen)
This snake is very similar to the southern copperhead,
but darker colored with wider crossbands on its back.
Average length: 30 inches; record—53 inches.
Lizards
There are 10 kinds of lizards in Tennessee and none of
them are venomous. They are scaled and all but one
have feet with claws. The slender glass lizard has no feet
and almost looks like a snake, except it has external ear
openings and movable eyelids, which all lizards have,
but snakes don’t have. Lizards are able to lose their tail
when caught and grow a new one later. They mostly eat
insects and reproduce by laying eggs.
Snakes
WESTERN COTTONMOUTH
(Akistrodon piscivorous leucostoma)
The venom of this snake affects blood cells and tissue
and causes swelling and discoloration. This snake is
found in swamps and low areas of West Tennessee. Its
belly is dark brown or black. Dark crossbands may be
evident on its back and are uniform or with dusky
centers. Many specimens are plain black or dark brown
with little or no trace of markings. Young are strongly
and brightly patterned and the tip of their tail is yellow.
Average length: 30 - 40 inches long; record—54 inches.
Snakes are cold-blooded, limbless vertebrates lacking
external ear openings and eyelids. Snakes are covered
with scales and are not slimy. Since their temperature is
close to that of surrounding objects, they sometimes feel
cool to the touch. All snakes eat other animals. Prey
includes earthworms, insects, eggs, frogs, lizards, fish,
birds, mice and other snakes. Snakes do not chew their
food, but swallow it whole. Some snakes lay eggs while
other give birth to their young. Snakes hibernate during
the winter and shed their skin when they grow too large
for it.
Of the 45 species and subspecies of snakes in Tennessee,
only six are venomous. The other 39 contain absolutely
NO POISON. And no one county in Tennessee contains
all six of the poisonous snakes. The six are described
below and found only in the part of Tennessee shown on
the map.
TIMBER RATTLESNAKE
(Crotalus horridus horridus)
This snake is highly venomous. Its coloration is
variable, from yellow to olive to blackish. Timber
rattlesnakes have black jagged crossbands and a rustybrown stripe down the center of the back. Its tail is
velvet black. Average length: 36 - 60 inches;
record –74 1/2 inches.
SOUTHERN COPPERHEAD
(Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix)
The venom of this snake affects blood cells and tissue,
causing swelling and discoloration. Coloration is hazel
brown above, with large crossbands of chestnut brown.
Bands are narrow on top of the back and broad on the
sides, giving the appearance of an hourglass when
viewed from above. Young copperheads have a yellowtipped tail. Average length is about 30 inches;
record—52 inches.
20
1. Each has a pit between the eye and nostril.
2. Each has a vertical, slit-like pupil (the black part of
the eye).
3. On the underside of the tail (that portion of the body
from the anus toward the end of the snake),
the scales go all the way across the tail (except
sometimes at the very tip of the tail where some
scales may be divided).
CANEBRAKE RATTLESNAKE
(Crotalus horridus atricaudatus)
Coloration of this snake is gray or pinkish-gray with
sooty black bands and a reddish stripe down the top of
the back. It lives in low-lying areas, such as areas where
patches of cane grow (hence its name “canebrake”).
Canebrakes are highly venomous. Average length:
42 - 60 inches; record—74 1/2 inches.
POISONOUS
1.
2.
WESTERN PYGMY RATTLESNAKE
(Sistrurus miliarius streckeri)
Pygmy rattlesnakes have a tiny rattle and skinny tail. Its
coloration is light, usually pale grayish brown. One or
two conspicuous rows of dark spots are located on each
side of the body and it has nine prominent scales on top
of the head. Average length: 15-20 inches long;
record—25 1/8 inches.
3.
anal plate
rattles
anal plate
scales toward the tip are sometimes divided
All six of the venomous snakes in Tennessee belong to a
group called pit vipers—so named because of a pit
located between the nostril and eye, one on each side of
the head. These pits are used to detect odors and sense
heat. The venom of pit vipers is primarily hemotoxic,
which means it affects the blood system. The other type
of snake venom is primarily neurotoxic (affecting the
nervous system), but no wild snakes in Tennessee have
neurotoxic venom. Fangs of pit vipers are long and
hollow with openings in the back near the tip.
The following characteristics hold true for all
non-venomous snakes in Tennessee:
4. There is no pit or indention between the nostril and
the eye.
5. The pupil of the eye is always round.
6. On the underside of the tail (that portion of the body
from the anus toward the tip of the snake), the
scales are divided in two rows down the tail.
NON-POISONOUS
The best way to lose fear of snakes is to learn to identify
the six kinds of venomous snakes and learn them well.
Learn to identify characteristics of venomous snakes as
opposed to characteristics of nonvenomous snakes. The
following are characteristics that always hold true for all
six of the venomous snakes in Tennessee:
5.
6.
21
4.
anal plate
Venomous snakes have venom for two reasons: 1) to kill
prey for food and, 2) protect themselves. They catch
prey by striking and injecting venom as it passes by.
After it dies, they casually track it down with nose,
tongue and pits. They will not bite anything except food
unless surprised or cornered.
REFERENCES
Conant, R. and J. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to the
reptiles and amphibians, 3rd edition. Riverside
Press. Cambridge, MA 450 pp. Available from most
bookstores for about $17.
Wildlife of Tennessee. Tennessee Wildlife Resources
Agency, Ellington Agricultural Center, Nashville, TN
37220. No charge.
Only three percent of all snakes found in the United
States are venomous. Only 10 percent of the species of
snakes found in the United States are venomous. The
venom from venomous snakes varies in potency
depending upon such factors as species, size, condition
of the snake and length of time since it last fed. The
effect of a snakebite also varies according to the size and
sensitivity of the victim, as well as the site and
effectiveness of the bite. Contrary to popular belief, few
snakebite victims die within the first few hours. About
70 percent of the fatalities occur six to 48 hours after
bitten. Only 0.2 percent (2 out of 1,000) of the people
bitten by venomous snakes die from the bite.
Approximately 6,500 to 7,000 cases of snakebite occur
in the United States each year. Of these, only 10 to 12
result in death. All pit vipers in Tennessee are venomous
and should not be handled by anyone without
experience. They do NOT make good pets and if kept in
captivity, snakes are a source of danger to everyone
around—not to mention, it is illegal to keep wild snakes
in captivity.
22
FISH MANAGEMENT
W
hy manage a fish pond? Fertilized ponds
produce four times as many pounds of fish as
unfertilized ponds.
There are six basic steps involved in establishing and
maintaining a good fish pond. Follow these steps and
you will catch more, better-quality fish.
Ponds with balanced bass:bluegill ratios yield more
pounds of catchable-sized fish than ponds with
unbalanced ratios—even if they both contain the same
number of pounds of fish. A pond’s fish population is
balanced when both predator and prey spawn every year,
while predators control the numbers of prey so there is
an adequate food supply, and both types of fish grow to
harvestable sizes.
Step 1: Construction
It is a waste of time and effort to build a pond
improperly. The first step in successful pond
management is proper construction. One consideration is
the pond-watershed ratio. (A pond’s watershed is the
land area around the pond that catches rainfall draining
into the pond.)
CONTROL
GATE
Ponds without aquatic weeds tend to have better
balanced bass:bluegill ratios, do not harbor as many
mosquitoes (because fish can get to them better) and are
easier to fish than ponds containing weeds.
STR
EAM
SPILLWAY
TRICKLE TUBE
Large streams should be diverted around fish ponds to
prevent fertilizer nutrients and lime from washing away.
The plant cover on the watershed should be maintained
in grass, shrubs and trees. The pond-watershed ratio
should be adequate to maintain water levels but not too
large that fertilizer nutrients and lime wash downstream.
Each surface acre of pond should have a watershed of 10
- 20 acres of pastureland or 30 - 35 acres of woodland. If
the watershed is too large, a diversion ditch should be
constructed around a portion of the pond to prevent
excessive overflow during heavy rains.
Shallow pond edges
allow dense aquatic vegetation to
grow, which can prevent large fish form
preying on small fish and lead to an unbalanced
fish population.
Pond edges should be at least 2 feet deep to discourage
growth of water weeds around the pond’s edge.
Other factors to consider in pond construction include
the emergency spillway, drainpipe and dam. Advice
concerning proper pond construction is available from
the U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service.
23
Step 2: Eradication
Step 3: Stocking
It is important that a managed fish pond contain the
proper ratio of recommended fish species. Successful
fish ponds contain a balanced fish population with
enough predator fish (bass) to keep prey fish (bluegill)
under control. If there are too many bluegill (or other
prey species), the population becomes unbalanced
quickly and excess numbers of little bluegill limit the
food supply—not leaving enough for them to reach
catchable size. These thousands of tiny bluegill also
prohibit successful bass reproduction. Further, bluegill
are unable to secure enough food to enable them to
produce eggs. Thus, a pond should have all sizes of fish,
including fingerlings, intermediates and adult-sized.
The recommended stocking rate by the Tennessee
Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) in properly
fertilized ponds is 500 bream per acre stocked in the fall.
Bream is a term used to describe several species of fish
in the sunfish family. The 500 bream for farm pond
stocking may be composed of bluegills only or may be
divided into 375 bluegills and 125 shellcrackers
(redear). The following spring, 100 largemouth bass
fingerlings per acre should be stocked. If catfish are
desired in combination with bass and bream, 50 - 100
channel catfish may be stocked per acre.
Channel catfish are not likely to reproduce successfully
in bass-bream ponds. It is important that no other
species of catfish be stocked, as most of them will
reproduce in bass-bream ponds and soon compete with
the bass and bream.
The following species should be used when stocking
warmwater farm ponds for good fishing.
LARGEMOUTH BASS
fins separated
dark, longitudinal stripe
upper jaw extends
behind eye
BLUEGILL
body sometimes
shows crossbars
dark spot with
no margin
For these reasons, it is important that the pond be free of
all fish before the prescribed number of fish of the right
species is stocked. Rotenone is the fish toxicant
recommended to kill all fish from the pond before
stocking. This toxicant (in concentrations recommended
to kill fish) is not harmful to either
human or livestock. It kills fish by
constricting the capillaries in their
gills so oxygen cannot pass
through and the fish suffocate.
The killed fish should not
be used for food;
however, livestock can
safely drink water from
the treated pond.
REDEAR SUNFISH
dark spot with
margin of scarlet
body without
spots or bars
pectoral fin long
and pointed
CHANNEL CATFISH
upper lobe longer
eyes nearer upper than
lower surface of head
24-29 rays
spotted
24
rounded edge
IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT ONLY
RECOMMENDED SPECIES BE STOCKED AT
RECOMMENDED LEVELS.
18”
Fingerling fish for stocking purposes are available
through the TWRA. TWRA is now charging $100 per
acre for bass and bream for pond stocking. Channel
catfish fingerlings and Chinese grass carp can be bought
from private hatcheries. Consult the TWRA, Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) or your county
Extension agent for application forms.
jar lid
Another reason for fertilizing is to control submerged
aquatic weeds. Fertilizer nutrients stimulate a plankton
bloom, which makes the water appear greenish. A
plankton bloom is composed of millions of microscopic
plants and animals suspended in water thriving on the
fertilizer nutrients. When the bloom is heavy enough, it
prevents sunlight from reaching submerged weeds and
they cannot grow.
Step 4: Fertilization
Fertilizing ponds increases the fish yield by making
more food available. In an unfertilized pond with a
balanced fish population, you can expect 50 - 100
pounds of fish harvest per acre. Once fertilized, a food
chain is started—fertilizer provides nutrients for
plankton (microscopic plants and animals); plankton
Fertilizer should be applied anytime in warm weather
when a white disc (secchi disc) on the end of a stick can
be seen 18 inches deep or deeper. To make a secchi disc,
nail a paint-can lid to the end of a stick and cut a notch
18" from the jar lid.
sunlight
When fertilizing ponds, 40 pounds of 20-20-5 fertilizer
per acre is recommended per treatment. This means you
should apply eight pounds of nitrogen, eight pounds of
phosphorus, and two pounds of potash to each surface
acre of water. 20-20-5 is made especially for farm
pond use.
plankton
prevents
weeds
clear water
allows weeds
notch
provides food for insects (and other small pond
animals); insects provide food for small fish; small fish
provide food for larger fish; larger fish are harvested to
provide food for people. In a properly fertilized pond,
you can expect 150-200 pounds of fish harvest per acre.
Some ponds need liming with agricultural limestone.
Liming makes the fertilizer nutrients more readily
available. Mud from the bottom of the pond should be
analyzed to get a recommendation on the amount of
lime needed.
Food pyramid in a fish pond.
25
3. Be sure to spread the harvest over the entire fishing
season. The pond can be thrown out of balance
quickly if the annual harvest is made in a short time.
Also, mixed strings (both bass and bream) should be
harvested. A good harvest ratio is 4 - 5 pounds of
bream for each pound of bass.
Step 5: Weed control
Pond weeds may provide excessive cover for bream so
bass cannot adequately control their numbers. Bream
soon overpopulate and fishing success for harvestablesize fish suffers.
Water weeds are divided into three groups:
submersed -
bottom-rooted with stems and leaves
underwater.
emergent -
bottom-rooted with leaves on the water
surface or above.
floating -
Another consideration in successful pond management
is to maintain cover in the watershed. A poorly
maintained watershed (without plant cover) is subject to
erosion, causing silt and muddy water to collect in the
pond. Over a period of time, silt can fill in a pond.
Muddy water is unattractive, harmful to pond fish and
interferes with photosynthesis. Good plant cover on the
watershed will stop erosion. If the watershed is eroding,
plant cover can be improved by discing, fertilizing and
seeding grass, legumes and/or trees.
not bottom-rooted and floating freely on
the surface. Fertilization does not
control these.
emergent
floating
submersed
bream
Excessive pond weeds can be controlled mechanically or
with herbicides. Chinese grass carp stocked at 15 per
acre provide biological weed control.
Step 6: Proper fish harvest
There are three things to remember in harvesting fish
from a well-managed fish pond:
bass
1. Don’t start fishing until the bass that were stocked
have spawned. This is around June the year
after stocking. When you can see or seine young bass
reproduction, it’s time to go fishing.
REFERENCES
2. Don’t over-fish. When a new pond is first opened to
fishing, fish bite readily and you can get big
catches in a short time. But removing too many fish
too quickly upsets the preferred balance between bass
and bream. Do not remove more than 150 pounds of
bream and 30 bass per acre during the first year of
fishing. In following years, 150 pounds of bream and
all bass over 12 inches may be harvested. All bass
under this size should be returned to the pond to grow,
as they keep the small bream under control. Catfish
may be removed as desired as they reach harvestable
size.
Managing small fishing ponds and lakes in
Tennessee. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency,
Ellington Agricultural Center, P.O. Box 40747,
Nashville, TN 37220.
Farm pond renovation, PB 1103. University of
Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service,
P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN 37901. No charge.
Management of farm fish ponds in Tennessee,
PB 1231. University of Tennessee Agricultural
Extension Service, P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN
37901. No charge.
26
FOREST MANAGEMENT
A
forest is more than just land covered with trees.
It’s a community of trees and associated
organisms (plants, wildlife, insects, etc.), which use
oxygen, water and nutrients to mature and reproduce.
Forest ecology is the study of the interaction between
forest organisms. A forester is an expert in managing
the forest. The practice of managing the forest is called
forestry.
the atmosphere through transpiration. Water then
accumulates once again and falls back to the earth as
rain, dew or snow.
Carbon Cycle
Forests serve as a carbon sink, collecting carbon from
the air and turning it into leaves, roots and wood. After
dying, trees and other forest plants decompose and
release carbon back into the air and water, completing
the cycle.
As you walk through a forest, it may appear motionless
and not changing, but it is always changing. A complex
mix of cycles is constantly working. If you look
carefully, you can see the changes. For example, weather
can change considerably from day to day, but over a
year’s time the daily changes fit into a cycle of spring,
summer, fall and winter. Trees continuously cycle with
forest succession. Plant communities change and are
replaced as the forest matures. As the plant communities
change, so does the wildlife community. Wildlife
populations are influenced by stand age, food and cover
availability, disturbance and competition. There are
other cycles in the forest as well.
Nutrient Cycle
Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are
macronutrients important to trees. P and K are derived
from dissolved bedrock and are picked up by tree roots.
N comes from the air. Leaves and roots are rich in
nutrients; wood is not.
TREE IDENTIFICATION
Dendrology is the study of tree identification and
classification. Dendrology begins by determining
whether a specimen is coniferous or deciduous.
Hydrologic (water) Cycle
Coniferous trees are cone-bearing evergreens with
green needles or scales present during winter.
Forests play an important part in the hydrologic cycle.
As leaves fall, they act like a giant sponge and help
recharge soil moisture, making water available for plants
and animals. Excess water is carried to streams and
eventually finds the ocean. Living leaves return water to
CONIFEROUS
NEEDLES
SCALES
Singular
Example:
Redcedar
Example:
Frasier Fir
27
Bundles
Example:
Shortleaf Pine
Deciduous trees have broad leaves that turn colors in
fall and drop off the tree, only to grow again each
spring.
DECIDUOUS
OPPOSITE
ARRANGEMENT
ALTERNATE
ARRANGEMENT
Alternate:
a single leaf
at each node
Opposite:
2 leaves at
each node
Trees produce fruit called mast. Mast can be hard or soft
and is a vital food source for wildlife. Examples include:
Hard Mast
Oaks (acorns)
Hickory (nuts)
American Beech (nuts)
Soft Mast
Persimmon
Cherry
Crabapple
Mulberry
LEAF TYPE
SIMPLE
• Simple leaf has one blade
with a petiole;
• Compound leaf is several smaller
leaflets (blades) each attaching to
a rachis, which is attached to the
twig.
COMPOUND
leaflets
petiole
rachis
blade
Example:
Sycamore
28
Example:
White Ash
Examples of operations that occur within each of the
three phases include:
FOREST PRODUCTS
Forests produce many goods and services. Some of these
are extracted from the forest, such as timber for wood
products or wildlife through hunting. Other uses are
non-consumptive, such as hiking, camping and
photography.
Young Stand
• natural regeneration – forests will regenerate
naturally without planting; new trees grow from seeds,
root sprouts and stumps
• site preparation – preparing the land for forest
establishment; methods used may include clearing the
site, vegetation control with herbicides and prescribed
burning
• tree planting – usually done when establishing pines;
either by hand with tools or by machine
• weed control – sometimes necessary for initial
survival and growth of seedlings
Every year, through wood products, each of the earth’s
inhabitants uses on average a tree that measures 18
inches in diameter and 100 feet tall. Included in these
products could be plywood, furniture, books, toilet
paper, pencils, clothespins, cereal boxes, landscape
mulch and more.
The United States is the world’s largest consumer of
wood products, consuming 3.5 times the world’s
average. But as a nation, we still continue to grow 30 –
40 percent more wood than is harvested.
Middle-aged Stand
• thinning – reduces tree density and competition
between individual trees, which increases growth rate;
increase the amount of sunlight reaching the ground
and stimulates growth of ground vegetation, providing
wildlife habitat and food
• prescribed burning – intentional, controlled ground
fires set to accomplish a specific objective, such as
stimulate herbaceous growth for wildlife, remove
debris or create a favorable seed bed
THE FOREST MANAGEMENT TRIANGLE
Forest management practices designed to satisfy timber
production goals fall into one of three phases. Each
phase is like the legs of a triangle. They are 1)
establishment 2) intermediate operations and 3) final
harvest. The range of practices used over the life of a
forest is called the silvicultural system. Silviculture is
the art and science of producing and tending a forest. It
links the three phases together into a logical sequence to
meet your goals.
FINAL
HARVEST
HARVESTING MATURE TREES
Clearcut timber management
Clearcutting is a regeneration
method where all trees are
harvested at once on a tract of
land. This creates early
successional growth. The
increase in woody sprouts
and herbaceous growth
that result from sunlight
reaching the forest floor
is beneficial to wildlife.
Generally, the tree
species or wildlife
community that is
clearcut method
being managed
determines the size of the area cut. Species that do not
favor early succession should be provided an
unharvested tract nearby. Many wildlife species prefer
the edge between woods and clearcut openings. Several
(4-5 per acre) den trees or snags (standing dead trees)
should be left standing in harvested areas. Deer, bears,
turkeys, rabbits, grouse, woodcock and songbirds all
benefit from clearcuts during various parts of the year.
ESTABLISHMENT
INTERMEDIATE OPERATIONS
29
Selective cut timber management
MEASURING THE FOREST
When using this regeneration
method, only a few selected
trees in the stand are cut at a
time. Stands managed this
way have trees of three or
more ages. Some folks
think this method “looks
better” than other
methods, but it is very
difficult to manage and
is not necessarily the
best method for many
forestry and wildlife
selective cut
management objectives. Often,
this strategy results in high-grading, where the best
trees are removed and the poor-quality stems are left
standing. This reduces the value of the forest from both
a forestry and wildlife perspective. If conducted with
wildlife in mind, selective cuts allow timber harvest
while protecting the mast producing ability of the stand
by primarily cutting trees that do not produce mast (such
as maples, poplar, sweetgum, ashes and elms).
It is often necessary to measure the forest to make forest
management decisions. The practice of forest
measurement is called biometrics. Foresters estimate
the amount of board feet in a tree using a Biltmore
stick. A prism is used to learn about forest stocking (or
density of trees). Other characteristics, such as the sun’s
radiation, precipitation, carbon and mast production, can
also be measured. By measuring the forest, we can find
out how healthy it is and determine its potential uses for
wildlife and us.
BILTMORE STICK
Group selection
This regeneration method
creates small clearcuts
throughout the forest stand
like a checkerboard. The
process is repeated on 1020 year intervals, resulting
in a series of even-aged
stands within an unevenaged forest.
INCREMENT BORER
REFERENCES
Forest practices guidelines for Tennessee, PB 1523.
University of Tennessee Agricultural
Extension Service, P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN
37901.
Behind the wall of green. Tennessee Department of
Agriculture, Forestry Division. Ellington
Agriculture Center, Box 40627, Melrose Station,
Nashville, TN 37204.
group selection
30
exotic – non-native; imported from some other area
feral – refers to normally domestic animals that have
escaped and gone wild
firebreak – a strip of land that has been plowed, disced
or bulldozed to expose bare ground, thus limiting
the spread of fire
food chain – the step-by-step passage of food and
energy through an ecosystem
food plots – patches of food planted specifically for
wildlife to feed on
forbs – broad-leaved herbaceous plants; many are
commonly referred to as grasses
forest – a community of trees and associated plants and
animals
forest ecology – the study of the interaction of the living
and nonliving parts of a forest
forester – a trained professional who manages a forest
forestry – the science, art and practice of managing
forests
greentree reservoirs – a forested area flooded in the
winter and drained before spring—managed in such a
way so the trees are not killed from flooding
group selection – a forestry practice that cuts small
groups of trees
habitat – the physical and biological surroundings of an
organism
habitat management – the science, art and practice of
managing habitats for various wildlife species
herbivore – a plant eater
high-grading – the degrading practice of cutting only
the best-quality trees and leaving the rest
home range – the area where an animal spends the
majority of its life
horn – a structure protruding from the skulls of goats,
sheep, antelope, cows, bison and rhinos; occurs in
both sexes; not shed
hunting – the art of pursuing game for food or sport; a
necessary practice to manage several species of
wildlife successfully
interspersion – the mixture of habitats in a patchwork
pattern
invertebrates – animals without backbones (such as
beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, spiders and snails)
land-use practices – the way an area is being managed
or used (such as different types of agriculture and
forestry)
limiting factor – the factor needed for survival (such as
food, cover, water or space) that is in least supply
macronutrients – a chemical element necessary in large
amounts (such as nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium)
GLOSSARY
antlers – a pair of bony structures protruding from the
skull of deer, elk, moose and caribou; grown and
shed annually; on males only (except caribou)
aquatic – pertaining to water or wet environments
aquatic invertebrates – invertebrates associated with
and found in aquatic habitats
Biltmore stick – a calibrated stick used to measure trees
biometrics – field of study where measurements are
taken on biological systems
board foot – a piece of wood 1 inch thick by 12 inches
wide by 1 inch long
bramble – any of the species of blackberries and
raspberries
bushhog – a rotary mower mounted behind a tractor;
primarily used to mow brushy, overgrown areas
carapace – the upper part of a turtle’s shell
carbon – an element of all living or formally living
things
carnivore – a meat-eater
carrying capacity – the maximum population an area
can hold without causing damage such as overbrowsing; usually measured in number of animals per
unit area
clearcut – a forestry practice that cuts all trees in a stand
at one time
communities – the living components of an ecosystem;
the animal community and the plant community
together form the biotic community
conifer – a cone-bearing tree (e.g., pine, cedar, spruce,
fir, hemlock)
conservation – the wise use of something; biologists act
to conserve our natural resources
dart gun – a specialized gun used to immobilize
animals by shooting a dart containing a drug
deciduous tree – a tree that loses its leaves each year in
autumn
dendrology – the identification and classification of
trees
diversity – being distinct (or different) in kind;
represented by different species
early successional habitat – habitats that have been
disturbed recently; vegetation usually represented by
grasses and forbs
ecosystems – an area where living components (such as
animals and trees) interact with nonliving
components (such as soil, air, water and sunlight)
ecotone – the area where two or more habitats blend
together
edge – the contact zone where two habitats come
together; may be hard or soft; a hard edge is distinct;
a soft edge is gradual
31
rocket net – a trap net that is propelled by canisters of
gun-powder charges
Secchi disc – a circular disc, usually quartered in black
and white, used to monitor water clarity by
lowering it in the water and measuring the depth at
which it disappears
seed bank – seeds present in the top few inches of soil,
waiting for optimum conditions to germinate and
grow
shelterwood – a timber harvest technique where part of
the existing stand is removed; then, once the
regeneration is established, the rest of the stand
(called the overwood) is removed
silviculture – the applied science of reproducing and
managing a forest
snags – dead, standing trees
soft mast – fleshy fruits from trees, shrubs and brambles
(such as persimmons, mulberries, cherries,
grapes, blueberries and blackberries)
succession – the predictable, orderly change of
vegetative growth following a disturbance
suet – animal fat; commonly cooked and melted down
with various seeds, cornmeal and/or fruit added as
a high-energy bird food in fall/winter
terrestrial – of, or pertaining to, land—as opposed to
water
thinning – a silvicultural operation where a certain
number or percentage of trees are removed from the
forest to allow increased sunlight into the stand and
help the remaining trees grow faster
transpiration – evaporation of water from plant leaves
wetland – an area with standing water or wet soils
during part of most years; critical for many wildlife
species
wildlife management – the art and science of managing
wild animals and the habitats necessary for their
existence
mast – fruit from brambles, shrubs and trees; may be
hard (such as acorns, beechnuts, hickory nuts) or
soft (such as persimmons, grapes, mulberries, apples
and plums)
native warm-season grasses – those grasses occurring
naturally, which grow during the summer and are
dormant in winter; examples for Tennessee include
broomsedge, big bluestem, little bluestem,
indiangrass, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass
niche – the functional role of an organism in the area
where it lives
photosynthesis – the chemical reaction in green plants
where solar energy converts carbon dioxide and
water into oxygen and sugars
pit viper – a venomous snake that has facial pits
between the eye and nostril; includes copperheads,
cottonmouths and rattlesnakes
plastron – the lower shell of a turtle
poaching – the illegal kill of wildlife
poult – a young turkey, grouse or quail
predator – an organism that depends of killing another
animal for food
prescribed fire – the use of fire as a management tool
for improving plant and animal communities
preservation – to protect from harm; in natural
resources management, preservation implies
protection without management, even if it is
detrimental to the plant or animal community; see
conservation
prey – an organism killed and eaten by a predator
prism – a small piece of glass that is cut in a particular
way and used to tally trees in a forest
producer – represents the base trophic level—green
plants
regenerate – to start a forest stand anew
regeneration – young trees occurring from seed, sprouts
or roots after a timber harvest
regeneration method – one of many types of timber
harvest techniques (such as clearcutting or
shelterwood)
32
NOTES
33
NOTES
34
NOTES
35
H
H
H
H
PB1687-2M-11/01
E12-4915-00-008-02
The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race,
religion, color, national origin, sex, age, disability or veteran status and is an Equal Opportunity Employer. COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914.
Agricultural Extension Service, Charles L. Norman, Dean
36