Christian Bible History - Jesus Loves You Ministries

Transcription

Christian
Bible History
Revealing the Wonderful Evidence
For the Divine Inspiration,
Faithful Preservation,
And Competent Translation
Of the Christian Bible
Ralph D. Koehler
Jesus Loves You
CHRISTIAN BIBLE HISTORY
Copyright © 2004 by Ralph Denny Koehler
All rights reserved. Updated 2016
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the author.
For a quality paper copy of this book, please contact:
Ralph D. Koehler
PO Box 201
Collingswood, NJ 08108
Please send email to: [email protected]
To access an electronic copy, please visit our Web Site:
http://www.Jesus7777.com
***
Scripture quotations are from the King James Version (KJV) of the Holy
Bible, unless otherwise noted.
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Christian Bible History
Dedication
To my father, Paul Frederick Koehler,
Whom I saw sitting on the side porch reading the Bible;
Who looked up at me and said, quoting the Scriptures,
“Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and
rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal.
But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven,
Where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not
break through nor steal:
For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.”
(Matthew 6:19-21)
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Jesus Loves You
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our heartfelt appreciation to those who
reviewed this manuscript and provided comments. The Lord Jesus
Christ promised, “And whosoever shall give unto one of these little
ones a cup of cold water only in the name of a disciple, verily I say
unto you, he shall in no wise lose his reward” (Matthew 10:42).
“Wonderful… presents thorough scholarship… very edifying to
the LORD Jesus Christ... May it spread throughout the world!”
(Dr. Val Greenfield, Mt. Laurel, NJ)!
“Excellent presentation… would make excellent material for a
seminary course”
(Rev. Dr. L. Owen Johnson, Loris, SC).
“A great blessing to read… very informative”
(Mr. David L. Glasgow, BA in World Missions, Phoenixville,
PA).
“It answers questions… very logical and without pretension…
very helpful”
(Mr. Broderick Koehler, BA in Education, Penns Grove, NJ).
“Amen! Outstanding research... God bless you. A labor of Love”
(Mrs. Doris A. Koehler, BA in Letters, Pennsville, NJ)!
*******
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“I am Jesus whom thou persecutest.
But rise, and stand upon thy feet: for I
have appeared unto thee for this purpose,
to make thee a minister and a witness both
of these things, which thou hast seen,
And of those things in which I will
appear unto thee;
Delivering thee from the people, and
from the Gentiles, unto whom now I send
thee,
To open their eyes, and to turn them
from darkness to light, and from the
power of Satan unto God, that they may
receive forgiveness of sins, and inheritance
among them who are sanctified by faith
that is in me.”
(ACTS 26:15-18)
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Jesus Loves You
Table of Contents
DEDICATION ............................................................................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................. 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................... 6
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................... 11
PREFACE .................................................................................................. 14
A Pilgrim’s Way ..................................................................................................... 16
AN INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 17
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................... 25
INSPIRATION OF THE ETERNAL WORD................................................ 25
Soul, Spirit, and Inspiration .................................................................................... 25
God's Communications with People ...................................................................... 30
God Spoke Directly to People ................................................................................ 31
God Wrote the Ten Commandments ..................................................................... 32
God Spoke Through Prophets ............................................................................... 34
God’s Commandment to Write .............................................................................. 35
God Spoke Through Angelic Messengers ............................................................. 37
The Lord Jesus Christ Spoke the Words of God ................................................... 37
The Lord Jesus Christ Validated the Word ............................................................ 38
The Holy Spirit Reminded & Guided the Authors ................................................... 41
Biblical Truth .......................................................................................................... 42
Alleged Discrepancies ........................................................................................... 45
The Word is Pure ................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................... 65
PROPHECIES FULFILLED ....................................................................... 65
Urim and Thummin ................................................................................................ 77
Old Testament Prophets ........................................................................................ 79
When Messiah Comes........................................................................................... 80
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Prophecies Concerning Jesus Christ .................................................................... 87
Prophecies about Pentecost ................................................................................. 94
Old Testament Prophecies Cited in the NT ........................................................... 95
Prophecies by the Lord Jesus Christ .................................................................. 106
Prophecies by the Disciples ................................................................................ 112
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................. 116
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY ................................................................... 116
Two or Three Witnesses ..................................................................................... 118
The Gospels - Valid Eyewitness Testimonies ..................................................... 139
Importance of the Spoken Word ......................................................................... 140
Eyewitness Testimonies ...................................................................................... 141
Apostles’ Attestations concerning the Scriptures ................................................ 142
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................. 145
THE CHRISTIAN MARTYRS .................................................................. 145
Tribulation ........................................................................................................... 145
Persecution by Imperial Rome ............................................................................ 146
Martyrdom of the Apostles and Disciples ............................................................ 152
Destruction of Manuscripts .................................................................................. 161
Counting the Cost ............................................................................................... 162
Could we…? ........................................................................................................ 163
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................. 164
PRESERVING THE SCRIPTURES ......................................................... 164
History of Writing Materials ................................................................................. 164
A Review of Ancient Writings .............................................................................. 167
Biblical Languages .............................................................................................. 172
Biblical Manuscript Information ........................................................................... 176
Old Testament Preservation ............................................................................... 179
New Testament (NT) Preservation ...................................................................... 195
NT Preservation - Manuscript Antiquity ............................................................... 196
NT Preservation - Manuscripts’ Time Phasing .................................................... 198
NT Preservation - Biblical Manuscript Review .................................................... 200
NT Preservation - Fragmentary Manuscripts ...................................................... 213
NT Preservation - Affordability and Printing ........................................................ 214
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Textual Variations ................................................................................................ 216
The Traditional Text ............................................................................................. 217
The True Word of God ......................................................................................... 221
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................. 223
THE CHRISTIAN CANON........................................................................ 223
Old Testament Canon .......................................................................................... 224
New Testament Canon ........................................................................................ 237
Divine Inspiration ................................................................................................. 237
Some Complications ............................................................................................ 240
Recognizing the Canon ....................................................................................... 242
Review of Christian Canons ................................................................................. 243
Canonical Clarification ......................................................................................... 248
Summary ............................................................................................................. 252
CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................. 253
APOCRYPHA AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHA ............................................... 253
The Old Testament Apocrypha ............................................................................ 253
Pseudepigrapha (or False Writings) .................................................................... 267
Rabbinical Literature ............................................................................................ 270
New Testament Apocrypha .................................................................................. 273
Lost and Fragmentary Apocrypha........................................................................ 274
The Agrapha (or sayings of Jesus) ...................................................................... 275
Categories of the NT Apocrypha .......................................................................... 276
Birth and Childhood Stories ................................................................................. 276
Apocryphal Gospels ............................................................................................. 278
The Pilate Cycle ................................................................................................... 279
Apocryphal ACTS ................................................................................................ 279
Minor Apocryphal ACTS ...................................................................................... 280
Apocryphal Epistles ............................................................................................. 281
Apocryphal Apocalypse ....................................................................................... 281
CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................................. 283
BIBLICAL TRANSLATION ...................................................................... 283
Translation into English ....................................................................................... 288
Translation - King James Version (KJV) .............................................................. 299
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Editions of the King James Bible ........................................................................ 308
Modern English Translations ............................................................................... 312
Modern English Translations - A Review ............................................................ 313
Version Comparison - An Example ..................................................................... 319
One Definite Text ................................................................................................ 321
CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................................. 324
EARLY QUOTATIONS ............................................................................ 324
People Knew the Truth about Jesus Christ ......................................................... 324
Early Christians Quoted the NT Manuscripts ...................................................... 326
Background of Early Christians ........................................................................... 328
Confessions on Biblical Inspiration ..................................................................... 339
Articles of Affirmation and Denial ........................................................................ 345
CHAPTER 10 ........................................................................................... 350
JESUS CITED IN HISTORY .................................................................... 350
Jewish and Pagan References to Christ ............................................................. 350
Regional Darkness – An Apologetic.................................................................... 353
CHAPTER 11 ........................................................................................... 354
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY ................................................................... 354
Biblical Topics Confirmed.................................................................................... 355
The Dead Sea Scrolls ......................................................................................... 367
Khirbet Qumran ................................................................................................... 368
Hiding the Scrolls ................................................................................................ 370
Discovery of the Scrolls ....................................................................................... 372
Reconstruction and Publication .......................................................................... 373
Details on Dating the Scrolls ............................................................................... 376
Precious Biblical Scrolls ...................................................................................... 379
Professional Testimonies on Biblical Archaeology.............................................. 380
TOPICAL SYNOPSIS .............................................................................. 383
Inspiration and Truth ........................................................................................... 385
Prophecies Fulfilled ............................................................................................. 387
Eyewitness Testimony ........................................................................................ 390
The Christian Martyrs .......................................................................................... 392
Preservation of the Scriptures ............................................................................. 394
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Jesus Loves You
The Christian Canon ............................................................................................ 396
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha ......................................................................... 398
Biblical Translation ............................................................................................... 401
Patristic Quotations .............................................................................................. 403
Jesus Cited in History .......................................................................................... 405
Biblical Archaeology ............................................................................................ 407
Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 411
EPILOGUE ............................................................................................... 413
THE GOSPEL MESSAGE ....................................................................... 413
The Quintessential Salvation Message ................................................................ 415
Profession of Faith ............................................................................................... 417
Growing in Christian Maturity ............................................................................... 418
TOPICAL REFERENCES ........................................................................ 421
Apologetics .......................................................................................................... 421
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha ......................................................................... 422
Archaeology ......................................................................................................... 422
Biblical History etc. .............................................................................................. 423
Christian Martyrs .................................................................................................. 428
Prophecy .............................................................................................................. 428
General References and Resources ................................................................... 429
Defending the Traditional Text ............................................................................. 430
Modern Language Bibles ..................................................................................... 431
Supplemental References ................................................................................... 432
INDEX ...................................................................................................... 435
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List of Tables
TABLE 1: SOUL, SPIRIT, AND INSPIRATION ........................................ 26
TABLE 2: RELATIONSHIP OF GOD, SPIRIT, AND SOUL ..................... 28
TABLE 3: THE LORD COMMANDED MEN TO WRITE .......................... 35
TABLE 4: LITERARY DEVICES OF THE BIBLE ..................................... 42
TABLE 5: RESOLVING ALLEGED BIBLICAL DISCREPANCIES .......... 47
TABLE 6: SCRIPTURES CONCERNING THE WORD OF GOD ............. 61
TABLE 7: SUM TOTAL OF PROPHETIC WORDS .................................. 67
TABLE 8: SCRIPTURES ON PROPHETS AND PROPHECY ................. 68
TABLE 9: VERSES ON URIM AND THUMMIN ........................................ 77
TABLE 10: REFERENCES TO OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETS............. 79
TABLE 11: PROPHECIES FORETELLING JESUS’ MINISTRY.............. 89
TABLE 12: RESURRECTION AND ASCENSION SCRIPTURES ............ 91
TABLE 13: OT PROPHECIES FULFILLED IN THE NT ........................... 95
TABLE 14: NT PROPHECIES BY JESUS CHRIST ............................... 107
TABLE 15: PROPHECIES BY THE DISCIPLES .................................... 113
TABLE 16: EYEWITNESS AUTHORS OF THE NT BOOKS ................. 117
TABLE 17: PARALLEL EVENTS - MINISTRY OF JESUS CHRIST...... 119
TABLE 18: APOSTLES’ ATTESTATIONS - NT MANUSCRIPTS ......... 142
TABLE 19: ROMAN PERSECUTIONS AGAINST CHRISTIANS ........... 148
TABLE 20: MARTYRDOM OF THE APOSTLES & DISCIPLES ............ 153
TABLE 21: WRITING MEDIA AND OLDEST ARTIFACTS .................... 165
TABLE 22: EXAMPLES OF ANCIENT WRITTEN ARTIFACTS ............ 168
TABLE 23: OLD TESTAMENT VERSES IN ARAMAIC ......................... 174
TABLE 24: ARAMAIC IN THE NEW TESTAMENT ................................ 175
TABLE 25: SCRIBAL DUTIES - HEBREW MANUSCRIPTS ................. 179
TABLE 26: PRECISE COPYING & VERIFICATION .............................. 182
TABLE 27: OLD TESTAMENT MANUSCRIPTS .................................... 185
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Jesus Loves You
TABLE 28: PRESERVATION OF ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS................ 197
TABLE 29: TIME-PHASED DISTRIBUTION OF MANUSCRIPTS ......... 199
TABLE 30: DELINEATION OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS ................... 200
TABLE 31: LISTING - FRAGMENTARY MANUSCRIPTS ..................... 213
TABLE 32: TRADITIONAL TEXT - BACKGROUND .............................. 218
TABLE 33: BOOKS JOINED BY JOSEPHUS AND TRADITION........... 227
TABLE 34: THE HEBREW BIBLE - BOOKS AND SEQUENCE ............ 229
TABLE 35: OLD TESTAMENT CHRONOLOGY AND NOTES .............. 231
TABLE 36: CRITERIA FOR INCLUSION IN THE NT CANON ............... 242
TABLE 37: OLD AND NT CANONS & COUNCILS ................................ 244
TABLE 38: SUMMARY OF CANONICAL BOOKS ................................. 251
TABLE 39: OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHAL BOOKS ....................... 255
TABLE 40: REASONS - APOCRYPHA ARE NON-CANONICAL .......... 261
TABLE 41: BIBLICAL SIZE STATISTICS............................................... 264
TABLE 42: APOCRYPHA IN THE BIBLE ............................................... 265
TABLE 43: OLD TESTAMENT PSEUDEPIGRAPHA ............................. 268
TABLE 44: OVERVIEW OF THE TALMUD AND MIDRASH .................. 271
TABLE 45: GOD’S CALL TO ALL PEOPLE........................................... 283
TABLE 46: LANGUAGES OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS .................... 285
TABLE 47: LANGUAGES AND TRANSLATION .................................... 286
TABLE 48: BIBLE TRANSLATIONS INTO ENGLISH............................ 289
TABLE 49: RULES FOR THE KJV TRANSLATION .............................. 300
TABLE 50: SELECTED TRANSLATORS OF THE KJV......................... 303
TABLE 51: KJV TRANSLATION ASSIGNMENTS ................................. 304
TABLE 52: EDITIONS OF THE KING JAMES BIBLE ............................ 309
TABLE 53: SUMMARY - MODERN ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS .......... 314
TABLE 54: NUMERICAL SUMMARY OF BIBLE QUOTATIONS .......... 327
TABLE 55: EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITERS ............................................ 328
TABLE 56: CONFESSIONS - INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE .............. 341
TABLE 57: JEWISH & PAGAN REFERENCES TO CHRIST ................. 351
TABLE 58: TOPICS CONFIRMED BY ARCHAEOLOGY....................... 355
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TABLE 59: DEAD SEA SCROLL REFERENCES AND DATES ............ 378
TABLE 60: SOUL-WINNING WISDOM .................................................. 414
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Jesus Loves You
Preface
“And of some have compassion, making a difference.”
(Jude 22)
It was a warm summer’s evening… The lights of the parking lot
cast a moonlight glow, and the air was still and expectant. With
Bible in hand, the Lord’s Evangelist crossed the pavement, and
walked straightway toward an occupied van parked by the curbside.
The young man in the driver’s seat glanced up in greeting, and met
the evangelist’s eyes.
The Evangelist handed a Christian gospel tract to the young man
and said in a friendly manner, “Hi, I’m a servant of the Lord Jesus;
May I ask you a question?” The young man appeared attentive and
nodded yes. The Evangelist then asked a serious question, “If you
were to die tonight, where would you spend eternity?” The young
man seemed to think reflectively, and answered in a downcast tone,
“In the grave and in the ground.” The Evangelist then focused the
discussion toward the Scriptures and asked, “Do you believe that the
Bible is the word of God?” The young man responded with seeming
conviction, “No, men wrote that book, and besides, there are so
many versions.” The Evangelist continued by sharing Scriptures,
concerning the inspiration and eternal nature of the word of God, but
in this case, others interrupted their conversation, and the young man
departed.
On another occasion, in the heart-patient ward of a city hospital,
an elderly man was sitting up in bed. It was past visiting hours, and a
quiet time was settling in. After some conversation about the
patient’s improving health, the Lord’s Evangelist sought opportunity
to discuss spiritual matters, and asked a direct question, “Do you
believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God?” The elderly man
answered in a serious way, “I don’t know.” The Evangelist then
asked, “Do you believe that the Bible is the word of God?” The
elderly man replied assertively, “No, men wrote that book.” The
Evangelist felt a keen sense of compassion, and shared several
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Scriptures from the Bible, concerning the inspiration and
preservation of the word of God, but the elderly man remained
unmoved. Because of his apparent distrust in the authority of the
Bible, this elderly and sick man would not choose to believe that the
Lord Jesus Christ is the Son of God, nor would he call upon the Lord
for salvation. It was a disappointing time.
These are true soul-winning stories, and the above narratives are
excerpts from more extensive and involved conversations. In both
cases, the men believed in God, but did not believe that the Bible
reliably presented the inspired word of God. As a consequence of
their unbelief, they would not exercise faith, nor place their trust in
the saving grace of the Lord Jesus Christ for their own personal
salvation.
As these stories sadly reveal, it seems apparent that a spirit of
unbelief is oppressing too many precious people. In certain
distressing cases, attitudes of skepticism or doubt are rooted in
deceptive information concerning the history of the Bible. Through
such deceptions, people may imagine that God did not inspire the
Bible, or that the Bible has not been reliably preserved or translated.
An important step toward overcoming such unbelief is to present the
objective truth concerning the dependability of the Bible.
Wherefore, the purpose of this book is “to open their eyes” to the
wonderful truth, of the marvelous and objective trustworthiness of
the Christian Bible. This book will also serve to dispel and to drive
out unbelief by presenting factual evidence for the Divine authority
of the Bible. Toward this end, this book provides an evangelistic
review of the Divine inspiration, faithful preservation, and
competent translation of the Christian Bible. Factual evidence is
presented that validates and clearly confirms the Divine inspiration
and accurate transmission of the Bible. This evidence comes from
historical writings, archaeological findings, and the curious topic of
biblical encoding [deferred], among others.
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Jesus Loves You
A Pilgrim’s Way
We are about to experience a fascinating journey into the past.
We will consider ancient manuscripts preserved in glass casements
in university libraries and museums. We will be intrigued by the
eccentric handwriting of foreign languages from ancient times. We
will trace the manuscript restoration process, and sense the fitting-ofpieces into a jigsaw puzzle that has resulted in the wonderful mosaic
of our Bible. Moreover, we will rejoice with scholars as they
translate the ancient words of life into our English language and
much more... This pilgrimage will lead to important discoveries that
will equip us to better serve the Lord Jesus Christ as informed
ambassadors for His Kingdom. Welcome, and be enriched in
knowledge concerning the factual history of the Christian Bible.
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An Introduction
The purpose of this book is “to open their eyes” to clearly
recognize the Divine authority of the Christian Bible. Highly logical
in its organization this book addresses the Divine inspiration, faithful
preservation, and competent translation of the Bible, including
related apologetics. Building precept upon precept a compelling case
is revealed that judiciously illuminates the truth concerning the
reliable preservation and translation of the Scriptures.
Comprehensive in scope numerous specific citations and references
are included that provide a wealth of factual and objective evidence.
Certain key abstractions educed from this study may be enumerated
as follows:
a. Eyewitnesses of the life, ministry, and teaching of the Lord
Jesus Christ wrote the New Testament.
b. The eyewitness authors of the Bible were tortured and
martyred for their testimony, rather than renouncing their beliefs and
writings concerning the Lord Jesus Christ.
c. The fulfillment of numerous biblical prophecies provides
objective and compelling evidence for the supernatural origins of the
ideas within the Bible.
d. Copies of Old Testament scriptures, written in Hebrew, date to
the first century B. C., and precisely vindicate current Hebrew
editions, showing accurate preservation through the centuries.
e. Over five thousand copies of the New Testament scriptures,
written in Greek, date to ancient times, and correlate thought-forthought with current edited versions.
f. The early Christians wrote extensively on biblical topics
providing correlative evidence for the accurate preservation of the
scriptures.
g. Jesus of Nazareth was a historical person as evidenced by
independent non-Christian writings.
h. Archaeological findings consistently validate the historical
accuracy of biblical events and descriptions.
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A tabular summary may serve as a useful mnemonic for the key
thoughts concerning the reliability of the Bible.
Inspiration
Preservation
Translation
Eyewitness testimony
Fulfilled prophecies
Steadfast and faithful martyrs
Old Testament Dead Sea Scrolls
New Testament numerous ancient manuscripts
Early Christian writings
Confirmations through archaeology
Many early languages and versions
Old Latin and the Vulgate
King James Version (KJV)
Modern language versions
The evidence provided within this study provides a firm
foundation for recognizing the Divine inspiration of the Christian
Bible, and promotes an increase in knowledge and assurance,
respecting the faithful preservation and competent translation of the
Scriptures. In an objective sense, the Christian Bible exists, and
stoutly perseveres, as a compelling and magnificent affirmation of
the incontrovertible truth of God’s persistent outreach toward man.
&&&&&&&
This book is organized into topical chapters that are intended to
convey a progression of evidence supporting the Godly authority of
the Bible. When carefully read in sequence, the evidence amasses to
a compelling case evincing the formidable array of objective
evidence, clearly showing the Divine inspiration, faithful
preservation, and competent translation of the Christian Bible.
Considering a dissertation of this length, it will be helpful to
provide an overview of each of the topical chapters, including the
main thematic point(s) followed by a topical outline of the sections
within the chapters. This overview will serve to orient the reader to
the progression of thoughts and evidence that follow, sometimes in
extensive detail, within the chapters.
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Also, please note that the Synopsis at the end of the book
provides an informational summary that also by design corresponds
to the topical chapters in sequence and theme.
Chapter 1 addresses the Divine inspiration of the Bible. The
chapter begins with a study of the esoteric word, inspiration, from a
scriptural perspective. Secondly, the chapter enumerates God’s
methods of communicating with men and provides numerous
scriptural examples. Thirdly, God’s commands to men to write His
words are clearly shown through a listing of the pertinent scriptures.
Fourthly, the nature of the Bible is examined by enumerating the
various literary devices (allegory, hyperbole, etc.) used within the
Bible along with scriptural examples. Fifthly, alleged discrepancies
within the Bible are examined, and shown in every instance to be
subject to reasonable explanations, as evidenced through several
specific examples. And lastly, the beauty of the Word of God is
shared through a listing of scriptures that expound on the truthful
nature and character of the Word of God.
Chapter 2 discusses the subject of Biblical prophecy and its
fulfillment, asserting that fulfilled prophecy provides objective
evidence for the supernatural origination of prophetic scriptures. The
chapter begins by presenting scriptures that express God’s
foreknowledge of human events. Secondly, the ubiquitous
appearance of prophecy throughout the Bible is surveyed, along with
a clear notation of the necessity for supernatural knowledge as the
only plausible explanation for the repeated and precise fulfillment of
Biblical prophecies. Thirdly, specific scriptures addressing prophecy
and prophets are listed, followed by a summary of the Biblical
characteristics of a true and trustworthy prophetic office. Fourthly,
several categories of Biblical prophecies are presented including
prophecies found in the Old Testament and in the New Testament.
Extensive lists of prophetic scriptures are delineated along with
citations of the fulfillment of the prophecies. A unique treatment of
Daniel’s prophecy concerning the timeframe of the cutting-off of the
Messiah is elaborated and should serve as entirely compelling
evidence for the foreknowledge of God as expressed in Scriptures.
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Jesus Loves You
Finally, a summary of Biblical prophecies is provided via a
narrative story, which serves as a capstone for the extensive
foregoing data.
Chapter 3 focuses on the eyewitness character of the New
Testament writings and remarks on the manifest credibility of
eyewitness testimony as shown in the Scriptures. The chapter begins
by identifying the authors of the New Testament books, along with
the dates and locations of the writings. Each author is shown to be a
direct eyewitness of the life and ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Secondly, the Biblical requirement, of two or three witnesses being
in agreement to establish a case, is reviewed by citing the
appropriate Scriptures. Thirdly, the consonance of the Gospels
concerning the ministry and teaching of the Lord Jesus Christ is
shown through an extensive review of over fifty-three episodes
within Scripture. This review cites Scriptures from Matthew, Mark,
Luke, and often John that show practical agreement in describing the
various episodes. This consistent agreement presents compelling
evidence for the unique eyewitness nature of the written accounts of
the Gospels. Fourthly, several Scriptures that directly express the
eyewitness nature of the scriptures are quoted. And lastly, the
Apostles’ attestations concerning the efficacy of their writings, is
shown by our presenting several Scriptures expressing their
perspectives and directives to the churches.
Chapter 4 presents the subject of the Christian martyrs. This
chapter explains that the New Testament authors became martyrs as
a consequence of their faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. Rather than
renounce the Lord Jesus Christ, the authors faithfully endured
martyrdom, which immeasurably advances the credibility of their
witness as retained through their Biblical writings. The chapter
begins by quoting the teachings of the Lord Jesus Christ, which
reveal the expectation that worldly persecution against his disciples
was foreknown. Secondly, the specific cases of the martyrdom of the
Biblical authors are enumerated, supplemented with the martyrdom
stories of several other early Christian disciples. Thirdly, the
persecution by Imperial Rome of the Christians is examined
including descriptive source quotations.
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Fourthly, it is noted that not only were Christian people attacked,
but also innumerable church building, libraries, and precious
Biblical manuscripts were destroyed, through state-sponsored
persecutions, both historically and through the present.
Chapter 5 surveys the topic of Biblical manuscript preservation,
and presents extensive evidence asserting the accurate preservation
and transmission of the Bible. The chapter begins by citing the
Scriptures that declare God’s intention to preserve His word.
Secondly, background information is reviewed including the ancient
timeframe of the mechanisms of writing, ancient examples of
writing, Biblical languages, and textual copying styles. Thirdly, the
preservation of the Old Testament is examined including scribal
responsibilities, copying techniques, and verification methods. In
addition, extant Old Testament manuscripts are surveyed, including
Hebrew and Greek sources. Fourthly, New Testament (NT)
preservation is addressed by covering a range of topics including the
antiquity of the manuscripts and the distribution of manuscript
copies throughout the ages. This section also includes a detailed
review of extant NT manuscripts including manuscript titles, dating,
and descriptive characterizations. Additionally, the numerous
fragmentary NT manuscripts are surveyed. Fifthly, Biblical editorial
efforts are examined including discussions on textual variations and
a review of the editorial efforts supporting the Traditional Text. The
chapter concludes by citing expert opinions concerning the accurate
preservation of the Bible.
Chapter 6 examines the history concerning the establishment of
the Christian canon, where the canon identifies the specific list of
Christian books recognized as Divinely inspired, and therefore
respected as authoritative. Thusly, the Christian canon identifies the
books retained in the Bible. The chapter begins by examining the
history of the Old Testament canon, recognizing that Jewish tradition
closed the canon approximately 435 B. C. corresponding to the
timeframe of the prophet Malachi. It is also emphasized that the
books of the Jewish canon are identical with the books received as
the Christian Old Testament. Secondly, the historical context for the
establishment of the New Testament canon is surveyed including a
review of the criteria for recognizing a book as being Divinely
inspired. Also, the deliberate exclusion of uninspired books from the
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canon is delineated. Thirdly, a historical review of specific canonical
lists is provided, along with notes explaining minor controversies
and clarifications. Fourthly, a list identifying the canonical books
authenticated by various denominations is provided.
Chapter 7 surveys the topic of uninspired or non-canonical
Judaic and Christian writings, and notes the large volume of these
works. The chapter begins by providing an overview of specific
categories of non-canonical Judaic and Christian writings, and cites
the deliberate exclusion of these writings by early Christian councils
from the early Biblical canons. Secondly, the Old Testament
apocrypha are listed and summarized. The retention of these books
in the Roman Catholic Bible is noted along with attendant history.
Thirdly, the Pseudepigrapha, or false writings, are characterized and
referenced. Fourthly, Judaic Rabbinical literature is delineated
including the Talmud and Midrash, and their respective purposes
and subcategories. Lastly, the voluminous New Testament
apocrypha are categorized, and lists of book titles are provided.
Chapter 8 addresses the topic of Biblical translation into foreign
languages, and particularly into English. This chapter presents the
evidence for the high degree of skill and competency applied to the
translation efforts, especially as evidenced in the traditional and
mainstay King James Version. The chapter begins by citing
Scriptures that convey God’s call to all of mankind as a motivation
for language translation. The chapter continues by recognizing that
the translation of Scriptures into numerous languages represents the
progressive fulfillment of the Lord Jesus Christ’s prophecies
concerning the worldwide spread of His word. Secondly, numerical
charts are provided showing the large number of ancient language
versions, and also the vast number of foreign language translations
existing through the year 2000. Thirdly, an overview of the history
of Biblical translation efforts into English is provided, including a
chronological identification of translations with descriptive
explanations. Fourthly, the monumental translation effort resulting in
the King James Version is reviewed in expansive detail. Fifthly,
modern language versions are categorized and surveyed. Lastly, the
epic King James Version is recommended as the “definitive text” for
English speaking people.
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Chapter 9 reveals the abundance of early Christian writings that
freely quote from the New Testament. These ancient and almost
innumerable quotations serve as yet another witness to the faithful
preservation of the Scriptures. The chapter begins by explaining that
the ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ was a public ministry, engaging
the attention of thousands of people. As such, the writings of the
early Christians were subject to evaluation by eyewitnesses of the
ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ, thereby motivating the accuracy of
their writings. Secondly, specific Christians, who quoted from the
New Testament in their writings, are listed along with a quantitative
summary of their citations. Thirdly, a review of early Christian
writers is provided, including references to their works and selected
excerpts. Fourthly, a chronological listing of creeds concerning
Biblical inspiration is presented. And lastly, formal statements from
The Council on Biblical Inerrancy, which convened in 1978, are
enumerated.
Chapter 10 discusses the independent evidence showing that
Jesus of Nazareth was a historical person. The chapter begins by
identifying several early authors, who cite either Jesus or Christians
in their writings. In addition, their specific writings are identified and
verse references are listed. Secondly, specific citations referring to
Jesus are quoted. Lastly, three independent witnesses to the event of
widespread darkness, at the afternoon timeframe of the Lord Jesus
Christ’s crucifixion, are noted.
Chapter 11 outlines the topic of biblical archaeology, showing
that ancient artifacts found in the region of Palestine consistently
vindicate the accuracy of biblical historical accounts. The chapter
begins by examining a significant list of ancient artifacts that attest
to the accuracy of the biblical record. Secondly, the important topic
of the Dead Sea Scrolls is reviewed in detail, including background
information. Moreover, the favorable results of textual comparisons
between the ancient Scrolls and later Hebrew manuscripts are
discussed objectively, revealing the accuracy of the preservation of
the Hebrew manuscripts. Thirdly, several testimonies of
archaeologists are quoted citing the trustworthy historical accuracy
of the Bible.
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Jesus Loves You
Following Chapter 11, this book provides a Topical Synopsis of
each chapter with concluding remarks. Finally, the Epilogue
presents the Gospel message for faithful consideration. This book
also provides a listing of Topical References and an extensive
general Index.
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Chapter 1
Inspiration of the Eternal
Word
“[Jesus said],
The words that I speak unto you, they are spirit, and they are life.”
(John 6:63)
The Christian Bible is composed of sixty-six wonderful books,
including thirty-nine books from the Old Testament and twentyseven books from the New Testament. Forty men wrote these
precious books over a period of sixteen centuries. From an
evangelistic viewpoint, we wholeheartedly believe by faith and are
convinced by facts that each book in the Bible was originally
inspired by God. We further recognize that the Bible has been
faithfully preserved and transmitted through the centuries, and has
been competently translated into our English language. As such
within this chapter, we will review significant evidence that
expounds the Divine inspiration of the Bible.
Soul, Spirit, and Inspiration
The Bible reveals, “But there is a spirit in man: and the
inspiration of the Almighty giveth them understanding” (Job 32:8).
The Hebrew word for inspiration is n’shamah, which more literally
means, vital breath of intelligence. Further, the Bible declares, “All
Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for
doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness:
That the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all
good works” (2 Timothy 3:16, 17). To further explain this concept of
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inspiration, let us examine the meanings of some key words. The
following table provides some helpful definitions from the original
languages (see Strong’s Concordance).
Table 1: Soul, Spirit, and Inspiration
Word / Hebrew / Greek / Definition
Soul
Hebrew: nephesh - inhale, a breathing creature, vitality, heart
Greek: psuche - breath, feeling, sentient, to be aware or to be
finely sensitive in perception or feeling
Definition: Saxon, sawel - to understand. Soul implies a person’s
mental thoughts and emotional feelings
Spirit
Hebrew: ruwach - exhale, wind/breath, even violent exhalation:
life, to perceive or to make of quick understanding
Greek: pneuma - blast of air, breath, rational, life, mind
Definition: Latin, spiro - to breathe. The intelligent, immaterial,
and immortal part of human beings that has the capacity to perceive,
know, think, act, and subsist.
Divine Inspiration
Hebrew: n’shamah - vital blast or breath of intelligence.
Greek: theopneustos - divinely breathed out, or God outbreathed (Comfort p. 29).
Definition: Latin, inspiro - to inhale. The infusion of ideas into
the mind by the Holy Spirit: the conveying into the mind and
understanding of men - ideas, directions, or monitions by
supernatural influences.
&&&&&&&
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It is interesting and revealing to explore the meaning of the
words, soul and spirit, and to relate them to the Godly use of the
word, inspiration. We know from Genesis that, “God created man in
his own image, in the image of God created he him” (Genesis
1:27a). We further recognized that, “The LORD God formed man of
the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of
life; and man became a living soul” (Genesis 2:7). As such, we see
that God breathed into man the breath of life, or spirit, and that man
became a living soul, or a thoughtful and feeling being, whose spirit
was wonderfully formed in the image of God. Moreover the
Scriptures disclose, “My words shall be of the uprightness of my
heart: and my lips shall utter knowledge clearly. The Spirit of God
hath made me, and the breath of the Almighty hath given me life”
(Job 33:3-4).
We also are aware from Scripture that there is a distinction
between the soul and spirit within a man. The Lord Jesus Christ
proclaimed, “And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy
heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy
strength” (Mark 12:30, also Matthew 22:37, Luke 10:12). This is
Jesus’ expansion of the commandment in Deuteronomy 6:5. Here,
we see that the Lord Jesus Christ distinguished between the heart (or
perhaps spirit) and the soul, and also between the mind and one’s
strength.
Let us further consider Scripture to gain a deeper appreciation for
these distinctions made by the Lord Jesus Christ. In Hebrews, the
Bible says, “For the word of God is quick [or alive], and powerful,
and sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the dividing
asunder of the soul and spirit, and of the joints and marrow, and is a
discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart” (Hebrews 4:12).
Within this verse, we can see associations among the words, which
can help our understanding. The following table elucidates or
clarifies these relationships.
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Jesus Loves You
Table 2: Relationship of God, Spirit, and Soul
Soul (framework)  Joints (action)  Thoughts (perception)
Soul perceives, knows, and thinks within the mind, and provides the
framework for life, which enables action. Soul is thought in action.
 Jesus, the Word, divides asunder and discerns 
Spirit (produces life)  Marrow  Intents of the Heart (will)
Spirit expresses the purpose of inner feelings from within the heart
of the inner man, and produces and enables life. Spirit is life that
enables willpower, or the ability to make decisions or choices, and
also to behave in a resolute or determined manner.
God  Jesus - Word  Holy Spirit
Creator, Father - Word became flesh - Comforter & Truth
God is a Spirit (John 4:24).
\\\ The Lord Jesus Christ ///
&&&&&&&
From Hebrews 4:12, we are shown that the Lord Jesus Christ,
who is the Word (John 1:1-10), divides between the soul and spirit,
and between the joints and marrow, for the purpose of discerning or
revealing the thoughts and intents of the heart. In the next verse
Hebrews 4:13, we read, “Neither is there any creature that is not
manifest in his sight: but all things are naked and opened unto the
eyes of him with whom we have to do.” It seems perspicuous or
insightfully apparent, that the Lord Jesus Christ probes
transcendently into our inner man to reveal the intents of our hearts.
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By grace, the Lord Jesus Christ intimated, “Behold, the kingdom
of God is within you” (Luke 17:21), where the kingdom of God is
“righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost” (Romans
14:17).
In Psalm 139:2, the Scriptures declare, “Thou knowest my
downsitting and mine uprising; thou understandest my thought afar
off.” Wherefore, the Lord divides asunder to know our thoughts and
the intents of our hearts, or we might say our innermost feelings and
will. Consequently, we realize that the Lord knows all about us. The
Lord Jesus Christ emphasized, “But the very hairs of your head are
all numbered “ (Matthew 10:30, Luke 12:7).
Furthermore, the Scriptures reveal, “For man looketh on the
outward appearance, but the LORD looketh on the heart” (2 Samuel
16:7). The Lord Jesus Christ is chiefly concerned with the rebirth
and renewal of our inner man. The Scriptures explain, “That he
would grant you according to the riches of his glory, to be
strengthened with might by his Spirit in the inner man. That Christ
may dwell in your hearts by faith; that ye, being rooted and grounded
in love, May be able to comprehend with all saints what is the
breadth, and length, and depth, and height; and to know the love of
Christ, which passeth knowledge, that ye might be filled with the
fullness of God” (Ephesians 16-19). As such, the Lord Jesus Christ
looks into our hearts and knows our spiritual state. He seeks to
reveal himself, and to teach us by his Spirit through our inner man,
with the beautiful intent that we might be “filled with the fullness of
God.” The Lord Jesus Christ declared, “God is a Spirit (John 4:24)”
and he also related, “God is love” (1 John 4:8).
Since the Lord Jesus Christ can probe into our hearts by his
Word in a supernatural way, he also has the ability to communicate
and infuse ideas into our minds, or we might say to inspire our
thoughts. Through the spirit of the inner man, the Lord Jesus Christ
can communicate with our innermost feelings and thoughts.
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As we will survey below, the Lord Jesus Christ has
communicated with men outwardly, and also inwardly. Outward
communications have been direct through audible verbal statements,
miraculous visions, or even in writing, as in the Ten
Commandments. Inward communications have been through the
inner voice of God, or through dreams. Certain men have been
chosen by God to receive his inspiration, and we know that Divine
inspiration always corresponds to the Word, which has been revealed
in the Holy Scriptures. Furthermore, the inspired word always
delineates and promotes righteousness and holy godliness.
Divine inspiration, then, is the infusion of God’s ideas by his
Word and Spirit into the inner heart of chosen men or women for the
purpose of graciously drawing His children toward being reborn,
renewed, and filled with the fullness and holiness of God. Truly, let
us grow in the knowledge of the truth, and earnestly desire to love
God and one another, as the Lord Jesus Christ loved us. Amen.
God's Communications with People
In the Old Testament, God spoke directly to Moses and
commanded him to “write the words of this law” (Deuteronomy
31:24) including the five books of the Pentateuch, namely, Genesis
through Deuteronomy. The remaining Old Testament authors were
inspired through Godly visitations, visions, and dreams. Also of
profound interest is the fact that the New Testament books were
written by the Apostles and friends of the Lord Jesus Christ, and
each of these men were direct eyewitnesses of Christ’s teachings and
ministry. We will expand on these points in the following chapters.
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More specifically concerning inspiration, God has communicated
with men in various ways throughout biblical times. God has
provided His word to his chosen spokesmen, or oracles/prophets,
and has commanded them to record and preserve His word. Through
the Scriptures, or sacred and holy writings, we observe that God has
inspired His word in several ways including:
a. Speaking directly and audibly to men,
b. Writing personally the Ten Commandments,
c. Inspiring his oracles and prophets often by dreams and visions,
d. Sending angels as his messengers, and
e. Ministering through His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, while He
was on Earth and by Jesus’ Spirit after His resurrection and to this
day.
In the following sections, we will review scriptural examples of
God’s communications with men and women. We will usually cite
three examples, among many, in order to firmly establish each case.
Additionally, we will review Scriptures where God commanded men
to write His words for the express purpose of reminding and
communicating with His precious children.
God Spoke Directly to People
The Bible records hundreds of times when God spoke directly
and audibly to men. Many times God spoke to individuals. For
instance, the Bible says, "And God spoke unto Moses, I AM THAT I
AM" (Exodus 3:14a). Further, God said unto Moses, “I am the
LORD who healeth thee” (Exodus 15:26). And again, God spoke
through the prophet Joel saying, “I will pour out my Spirit upon all
flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old
men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions”
(Joel 2:28).
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Jesus Loves You
God also spoke before groups of people. Moses wrote, "And ye
[The children of Israel] said, Behold, the LORD our God hath
shewed us his glory and his greatness, and we have heard his voice
out of the midst of the fire: we have seen this day that God doth talk
with men, and that he liveth" (Deuteronomy 5:24). For a second
example, the Bible says, "And, lo, a [God's] voice from heaven,
saying [before many people], This is my beloved Son [Jesus], in
whom I am well pleased" (Matthew 3:17, Mark 1:11, Luke 3:22). As
a third reference, the Lord Jesus Christ said, "Father, glorify thy
name. Then came there a voice from heaven, saying, I have both
glorified it, and will glorify it again. The people, therefore, that stood
by and heard it, said that it thundered; others said, An angel spoke to
him. Jesus answered, and said, This voice came not because of me,
but for your sakes" (John 12:30). In addition, God, as the Lord Jesus
Christ, appeared to Saul of Tarsus on the Damascus road and spoke
audibly to him. Please see ACTS 9:3 ff.
Many people, both individually and within groups, have heard
God's audible, or auricular voice, and subsequently recorded God's
sayings in writing. The Bible also directly acknowledges that God
has communicated at various times and in diverse ways to people.
Beautifully, the Bible summarizes, “God, who at sundry times and in
diverse manners spake in times past unto the fathers by the prophets,
Hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son, whom he hath
appointed heir of all things, by whom also he made the worlds”
(Hebrews 1:1,2).
God Wrote the Ten Commandments
The Lord personally wrote the Ten Commandments as recorded
in Exodus and Deuteronomy. The Bible records, "And he [God] gave
unto Moses, when he had ceased speaking with him upon Mount
Sinai; two tables of testimony, tables of stone, written with the finger
of God" (Exodus 31:18). Also the Bible emphasizes, "These words
the LORD spake unto all your assembly in the mount out of the
midst of the fire, of the cloud, and of the thick darkness, with a great
voice; and he added no more. And he wrote them in two tables of
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stone, and delivered them unto me" (Deuteronomy 5:22). As a third
citation, the Bible says, "And he wrote on the tables [of stone],
according to the first writing, the Ten Commandments, which the
LORD spake unto you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the
day of the assembly: and the LORD gave them unto me"
(Deuteronomy 10:4).
Again, the Bible informs us that the Ten Commandments were
originally written by God upon tables of stone, and were placed by
Moses into the Ark of the Covenant, about 1350 B. C. For the
Hebrew faithful, the Ark was the most precious of Jewish treasures
for many centuries. King Solomon built the Temple for the LORD in
about 985 B. C., almost 400 years after the time of Moses.
Concerning the placement of the ark in the Temple by Solomon, the
Bible notes, “There was nothing in the ark save the two tables which
Moses put therein at Horeb, when the LORD made a covenant with
the children of Israel, when they came out of Egypt” (2 Chronicles
5:10).
The LORD also provided writing at crucial times to his servants.
Ezekiel wrote, “And when I looked, behold, an hand was sent unto
me; and, lo, a roll of a book was therein; And he spread it before me;
and it was written within and without: and there was written therein
lamentations, and mourning, and woe” (Ezekiel 2:10). As an
amazing sign, the Bible records, “In the same hour came forth the
fingers of a man’s hand, and wrote over against the candlestick upon
the plaister of the wall of the king’s palace: and the king saw the part
of the hand that wrote” (Daniel 5:5 ff). Moreover, the apostle John
revealed, “And the voice which I heard from heaven spake unto me
again, and said, Go and take the little book which is in the hand of
the angel which standeth upon the sea and the earth” (Revelation
10:8 ff). Herein are specific examples of God’s writings.
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Jesus Loves You
God Spoke Through Prophets
The Scriptures clearly show that God has communicated through
his oracles, the prophets. The Bible says, "I [the Lord thy God] have
also spoken by the prophets, and I have multiplied visions, and used
similitudes, by the ministry of the prophets" (Hosea 12:10). The
Bible further reminds, "Remember the former things of old: for I am
God, and there is none else; I am God, and there is none like me.
Declaring the end from the beginning, and from ancient times the
things that are not yet done, saying, My counsel shall stand, and I
will do all my pleasure” (Isaiah 46:9-10). As a further significant
example of the Divine inspiration of prophesy, the Bible says, "For
the prophecy came not at any time by the will of man, but holy men
of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy Ghost" (2 Peter 1:21).
Also, the Lord provided guidance for discerning prophetic truth
and credence. The Bible describes, "And if thou shalt say in thine
heart, How shall we know the word which the Lord hath not spoken?
When a prophet speaketh in the name of the Lord, if the thing follow
not, nor come to pass, that is the thing which the Lord hath not
spoken, but the prophet hath spoken it presumptuously; thou shalt
not be afraid of him" (Deuteronomy 18:21-22).
In 2 Samuel, King David began his last words by saying, “The
Spirit of the LORD spake by me, and his word was in my tongue” (2
Samuel 23:2). The Scriptures show us that God demonstratively
used men to speak to other men. When the men or women of God
prophesied, they often began their revelations with declarative
statements such as, “Thus saith the LORD” (which occurs 359 times
in the Old Testament) or alternatively “The Word of God came to
me saying.” We also observe that the prophets of God were careful
to distinctly identify their statements that were inspired by God from
others that were not. Altogether, in the Old Testament there are
3,008 instances where the writers claim to be speaking or writing the
Word of God.
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Of course, the Lord Jesus Christ being the Lord did not need to
preface his statements of the New Testament to indicate Divine
inspiration, since all of his words were God-breathed i.e., spoken by
the Holy Spirit. However, he frequently provided emphasis by
prefacing his statements or teachings with “Verily, verily, I say unto
thee.”
God’s Commandment to Write
Moreover, the Lord commanded His servants to write His word.
These Old and New Testament prophets and oracles include Moses,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Apostle John, et al. The following
table provides scriptural examples, which clearly show that God
intended his words to be written, remembered, and communicated to
his people.
Table 3: The LORD Commanded Men to Write
And the LORD said unto Moses, Write this for a memorial in a
book.
Exodus 17:14
And the LORD said unto Moses, Write thou these words: for after
the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with thee and with
Israel.
Exodus 34:27
And it shall be, when he [the King] sitteth upon the throne of his
kingdom, that he shall write a copy of this law in a book out of that
which is before the priests the Levites.
And it shall be with him, and he shall read therein all the days of
his life: that he may learn to fear the Lord his God, to keep all the
words of this law and these statutes, to do them.
Deuteronomy 17:18-19
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Moreover the LORD said unto me, Take a great roll; and write
upon it with a man’s pen concerning Mahershalalhashbaz [which
means speeding to the prey].
Isaiah 8:1
Thus speaketh the LORD God of Israel, saying, Write thee all
the words that I have spoken unto thee in a book.
Jeremiah 30:2
[Thus saith the LORD,] And if they be ashamed of all they have
done, shew them the form of the house, and the fashion thereof;
…and write it in their sight, that they may keep the whole form
thereof, and all the ordinances thereof, and do them.
Ezekiel 43:11
And the LORD answered me, and said, Write the vision, and
make it plain upon tables, that he may run that readeth it.
Habakkuk 2:2
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] What thou seest, write in a book,
and send it unto the seven churches which are in Asia.
Revelation 1:11b
And he that sat upon the throne said; Behold, I make all things
new. And he said unto me, Write; for these words are true and
faithful. And he said unto me, It is done. I am Alpha and Omega, the
beginning and the end. I will give unto him that is athirst of the
fountain of the water of life freely.
Revelation 21:5,6
&&&&&&&
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God Spoke Through Angelic Messengers
On several auspicious and momentous occasions, the Lord spoke
to men or women through angelic messengers. For instance, the
Bible says, "But I [an angel of the Lord] will show thee [Daniel] that
which is noted in the Scripture of truth; and there is none that
holdeth with me in these things, but Michael [one of the angels],
your prince" (Daniel 10:21). Another biblically prophetic or
prescient example records, "And the angel, answering, said unto him
[Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist], I am Gabriel, who stands
in the presence of God, and am sent to speak unto thee, and to show
thee these glad tidings" (Luke 1:19). Furthermore the Bible says,
"And the angel [Gabriel] said unto her, Fear not Mary; for thou hast
found favor with God" (Luke 1:30). Most notably, the Lord Jesus
Christ said, "Verily, verily, I say unto you, Hereafter ye shall see
heaven open, and the angels of God ascending and descending upon
the Son of man" (John 1:51).
The Lord Jesus Christ Spoke the Words of God
Truly, a compassionate way that God communicated with men
was through his Son, the Lord Jesus Christ. The Bible says, "In the
beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word
was God. The same was in the beginning with God. (John 1:1,2).
Also the Bible says, "And the Word was made flesh [Jesus] and
dwelt among us... full of grace and truth" (John 1:14). As another
scriptural confirmation, the Lord Jesus Christ said, "For I have given
them [the disciples] the words which thou [the office of the Father]
gavest me; and they have received them" (John 17:8).
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Please note that the word, Jesus, is an English word. In Hebrew,
Jesus’ name is Yeshua (in English letters). Yeshua means in the
Hebrew language, God my Saviour, which is a beautiful and
appropriate name for the Lord. Furthermore, at the root word level,
Yeshua means more literally, to breathe freely. Amen.
Thankfully and wonderfully, God has communicated with men
through various methods culminating with the ministry of the Lord
Jesus Christ. God has chosen to speak directly to people, both
individually and within groups; to personally write the Ten
Commandments; to communicate with His servants through visions
and dreams; to speak to men and women through angels; and most
wonderful of all to minister to us through the Lord Jesus Christ, who
is the Word of God.
Furthermore, God imperatively commanded men to write his
words for the purpose of reminding and communicating broadly and
directly with his people. As such, the writings of the oracles of God
are considered to be Divinely inspired and sacred; and compiled
together, they properly form the Scriptures of the Christian Bible.
The Lord Jesus Christ Validated the Word
The Lord Jesus Christ referred to the Old Testament Scriptures
many times during His ministry, and it is clear from the scriptural
context that Jesus considered the Old Testament to record precisely
the Divinely inspired words of God. Specifically the Lord Jesus
Christ said, "Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the
prophets; I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill. For verily I say
unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no
wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled" (Matthew 5:17-18, Luke
16:17). Also, concerning the Godly relevance of the Scriptures, the
Lord Jesus Christ said, “But all this was done, that the Scriptures of
the prophets might be fulfilled” (Matthew 26:56).
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Moreover, the Bible records, "And beginning at Moses and all
the prophets, he [Jesus] expounded unto them [two of his disciples
on the Emmaus road], in all the [Old Testament] Scriptures, the
things concerning himself" (Luke 24:27).
“Paul, writing to the Galatians, points out that even a single letter of a
single word can alter one of the foundational doctrines of Christianity!
‘Now to Abraham and his seed were the promises made. He saith not,
And to seeds, as of many; but as of one, And to thy seed, which is
Christ’” (Galatians 3:16, Sermon by William Marrion Branham, Catch
the Vision, Voice of God Recordings, December 2003, Jeffersonville, IN
47131).
Clearly, the Lord Jesus Christ sanctioned and viewed the Law,
Psalms, and Prophets as Scripture, for He frequently referred to and
quoted from these Old Testament manuscripts. In fact, the Lord
Jesus Christ exercised the power of the Old Testament scriptures
when Satan came to tempt him in the desert. The Bible says, "Then
was Jesus led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of
the devil. And when he had fasted forty days and forty nights, he was
afterward an hungered. And when the tempter came to him, he said,
If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made
bread. But he answered and said, It is written, Man shall not live by
bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of
God [Deuteronomy 8:3]. Then the devil taketh him up into the holy
city, and setteth him on the pinnacle of the temple, And saith unto
him, If thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down: for it is written,
He shall give his angels charge concerning thee: and in their hands
they shall bear thee up, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a
stone. Jesus said unto him, It is written again, Thou shalt not tempt
the Lord thy God [Deuteronomy 6:16].
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Again the devil taketh him up into an exceeding high mountain,
and shewed him all the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of
them; And saith unto him, All these things will I give thee, if thou
wilt fall down and worship me. Then saith Jesus unto him, Get thee
hence, Satan, for it is written, Thou shalt worship the LORD, thy
God, and him only shalt thou serve [from Deuteronomy 5:13 and
10:20]" (Matthew 4:1-10). Please notice that in all three temptations
the Lord Jesus Christ quoted the Scriptures and emphatically
declared, “It is written.”
Concerning the New Testament, the Lord Jesus Christ made it
clear that His words were spirit and life, and were truthful and
eternal. Because Jesus was the Christ, he expected that his disciples
would receive his words as Divine, and with scriptural authority.
The Lord Jesus Christ explained, “The words that I speak unto
you, they are spirit, and they are life” (John 6:63). Jesus further
declared, “I am the way, the truth, and the life” (John 14:6).
Moreover, Jesus prophesied, “Heaven and earth shall pass away; but
my words shall not pass away” (Matthew 24:35, Mark 13:31, Luke
21:33).
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The Holy Spirit Reminded & Guided the Authors
The Bible indicates that the New Testament books were written
under the guidance and inspiration of the Holy Spirit (or
synonymously, the Holy Ghost). The Lord Jesus Christ foretold,
"But the Comforter, who is the Holy Ghost, whom the Father will
send in my name, he shall teach you all things, and bring all things to
your remembrance, whatever I have said unto you" (John 14:26).
Moreover, the Lord Jesus Christ also foretold, "Howbeit, when he,
the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth; for he
shall not speak of himself, but whatever he shall hear, that shall he
speak; and he will show you things to come" (John 16:13).
Significantly, the Bible teaches, “But the anointing which ye have
received of him abideth in you, and ye need not that any man teach
you: but as the same anointing teacheth you of all things, and is
truth, and is no lie, and even as it hath taught you, ye shall abide in
him [Jesus Christ]“ (1 John 2:27). Therefore, as the Lord Jesus
Christ prophesied, it is the Holy Spirit that reminded, guided,
inspired, and thereby enabled the Bible's authors to accurately record
the words and teachings of God in the Bible.
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Biblical Truth
The Bible is Divinely inspired and therefore presents spiritual
truth. The truth of the Word may at times be presented as factual
information on subjects relating for example to history, but
consistently the Bible’s higher purpose is to express spiritual
wisdom and knowledge. The Bible is not a scientific textbook, or a
history textbook, but rather a spiritual book. Wherefore, the Bible
uses many forms of literary expression, which are figurative,
symbolic, or poetic in nature. As such, the Bible should be read as a
spiritually discerned book that is intended to convey “the way, the
truth, and the life” (John 14:6). The Bible explains, “The word is
plain to them who have understanding, and right to those who have
knowledge” (Proverb 8:9). Examples of biblical literary devices are
reviewed in the following table.
Table 4: Literary Devices of the Bible
Device – Definition / Example(s)
Allegory – figurative expressions or symbolic representations
The Bible says, “Which things are an allegory…“ (Galatians
4:24)
Hyperbole – deliberately exaggerates for the sake of emphasis
“All night I make my bed to swim; I drench my couch with my
tears” (Psalm 6:6).
Metaphor – a comparison in which one thing is said to be like
another
“The LORD is my shepherd” (Psalm 23:1).
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Parables – usually a short story used to illustrate a spiritual attitude
or principle, and which has a hidden, proverbial, or mysterious
presentation and meaning.
The Bible says, “I will open my mouth in a parable: I will utter
dark sayings of old” (Psalm 78:2).
“The disciples came and said unto him [the Lord Jesus Christ],
Why speakest thou unto them [the multitude] in parables? He
answered and said unto them, Because it is given unto you to know
the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, but to them it is not given.
For whosoever hath, to him it shall be given, and he shall have more
abundance: but whosoever hath not. From him shall be taken away
even that he hath. Therefore speak I to them in parables: because
they seeing see not; and hearing they hear not, neither do they
understand. And in them is fulfilled the prophecy of Esaias, which
saith, By hearing ye shall hear, and shall not understand; and seeing
ye shall see, and shall not perceive. For this people’s heart is waxed
gross, and their ears are dull of hearing, and their eyes they have
closed; lest at any time they should see with their eyes, and should
understand with their heart, and should be converted, and I should
heal them. But blessed are your eyes, for they see: and your ears, for
they hear. For verily I say unto you, That many prophets and
righteous men have desired to see those things which ye see, and
have not seen them; and to hear those things which you hear, and
have not heard them” (Matthew 13:10-17, also ACTS 28:25-27).
Personification – attributes or embodies the characteristics of a
living being to a lifeless object
“The sun knows its going down” (Psalm 104:19). “The
mountains skipped like rams, and the little hills like lambs” (Psalm
114:4).
Rhetorical question – asks a question for the purpose of making a
statement or causing an effect
“Who can utter the mighty acts of the LORD, Who can declare
all his praise?” (Psalm 106:2).
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Simile – compares or correlates two unlike things
“Keep me as the apple of your eye” (Psalm 17:8). The Bible
says, “I have also spoken by the prophets, and I have multiplied
visions, and used similitudes, by the ministry of the prophets”
(Hosea 12:10).
&&&&&&&
In order to recognize the inherent truthfulness of the Bible, it is
necessary to acknowledge the supernatural power of God Almighty
as manifested through the ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Numerous passages of Scripture describe the Lord’s miraculous
manifestations and provision. By exercising faith in the creative
power of God, the Bible can and should be read as conveying a
literal record of supernatural events.
For example, concerning the Lord Jesus Christ’s healing
ministry, the Bible says, “Great multitudes followed him, and he
healed them all” (Matthew 12:15). This record of miraculous
healings should be received as eyewitness testimony as written by
Matthew, the author of this Gospel. Again, this passage should be
understood as recording the literal observation of very public
supernatural episodes.
For completeness, it should be noted that disbelieving critics
have argued against the literal accuracy of supernatural biblical
passages. Such skeptical arguments are prejudiced by antisupernatural presuppositions that deny the power of God.
[Dr. Davis observed,] “The problems connected with the size of the
exodus, large military census, and population statistics were considered
and it was concluded that there was no reason why these numbers, even
though large, should not be regarded as actual and dependable. Rejection
of large numbers in the Old Testament was usually characteristic of the
liberal-critical position, not because of statistical impossibility, but
because in many cases it involved miracles which critics, a priori, dismiss
as impossible” (Davis p. 153-4).
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The Bible forewarns and instructs, “For men shall be lovers of
their own selves, covetous, boasters, proud, blasphemers,
disobedient to parents, unthankful, unholy, without natural affection,
trucebreakers, false accusers, incontinent, fierce, despisers of those
that are good, traitors, heady, high-minded, lovers of pleasures more
than lovers of God; Having a form of godliness, but denying the
power thereof: from such turn away” (2 Timothy 3:2-5). Therefore,
the faithful Christian is instructed to turn away from the arguments
of unfaithful critics, who deny the supernatural power of God, as
manifested through miraculous occurrences recorded in traditional
passages of the Bible.
Alleged Discrepancies
Howbeit, certain skeptics and liberal critics have argued against
the core truthfulness of the Bible. These critical writers have
prepared lists of alleged biblical discrepancies including
[unsubstantiated} assertions of the existence of erroneous and
contradictory information. One of their approaches is to identify
scriptures on a particular topic and to suggest alternative scriptures
that appear to present contradictory information. Their obdurate
point is, that if there are apparent errors between or among
Scriptures, then the Divine inspiration and/or faithful preservation of
the Bible may become at least partially questionable.
Moreover, it seems plain that irreverent critics have approached
the Bible with a dogmatic denial of biblical inerrancy. Rather than
respecting the fundamental reliability of the Bible on the spiritual
matters that it addresses, the liberal critical approach involves
skeptically motivated and usually strained searches for potential
inaccuracies. However, we will discredit these critical assertions by
showing below that such alleged inaccuracies are subject to plausible
explanations in every case.
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“The saintly Robert C. Chapman, of Barnstaple, who passed to his
reward in June 1902, at the age of ninety-nine years, being asked his
opinion of the modern criticism, replied thus in a parable: ‘One day, while
walking in the noon-day light of a mid-summer sun, beneath a cloudless
sky, I was accosted by a person wholly a stranger to me, who, with kind,
condescending air, made offer to show me the way. I saw in his hand a
lantern, and in it a lighted, farthing candle. Pity checked my rising
laughter; so, as gravely as I could, I declined his offer, and went on my
way. I was afterwards told that his name was ‘Higher Criticism’’”
(Johnston p. 13).
Notably, there is an objective consolation for the resolute
Christian: for such alleged contradictions and errors in the Bible
(foisted by modern critics upon the unsuspecting public) have been
systematically studied and reasonably explained by highly competent
Christian scholars. Dr. Max Anders summarized, “Stated as plainly
as possible, nothing in the Bible can be demonstrated to be an error
of fact… Any apparent error or contradiction can be explained
credibly” (Anders p. 24-5). Professor Packer noted, “As long as a
consistent Bible-believing scholarship can maintain itself in debate
on [alleged] problem passages, it is sheer triumphalist obscurantism
to say that error in the Bible has been proved. And even if adequate
Bible-believing scholarship were lacking, ‘proved’ would still be too
strong a word, for the various skeptical hypotheses are never the only
ones possible” (Packer p. 106).
Furthermore, Professor John Haley conducted a thorough review
of alleged biblical discrepancies, including even remote and
relatively insignificant topics. Professor Haley documented his
findings in the book, Alleged Discrepancies of the Bible. In the
Preface, he wrote, “I can not but avow, as the issue of my
investigations, the profound conviction that every difficulty and
discrepancy in the Scriptures is, and will yet be seen to be, capable
of a fair and reasonable solution” (Haley p. x). After studiously
reviewing over nine hundred (mostly trivial) topics in his text,
Professor Haley concluded,
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“We have now reviewed carefully, yet of necessity rapidly, the
“discrepancies” of the Bible. We have aimed to include all that are
worthy of even a cursory glance; and we trust that the candid reader will
feel that, in the great majority of cases, we have stated, or at all events
suggested, fair and adequate solutions. When we consider the long
interval of time - from eighteen to thirty-three centuries - which has
elapsed since the several books of Scripture were written; and that during
all but four centuries of this time they have been circulated and
transmitted in manuscript; and the additional fact that our knowledge of
antiquity is exceedingly limited and imperfect, - many minute and
sometimes important, circumstances pertaining to every event having
passed irrecoverably from the memory of mankind, - when these
disadvantages which attend the investigation of the subject are taken into
account, it surely can not be too much to believe, if in any instance the
explanation adduced should seem inadequate, a knowledge of all the
circumstances of the case would supply the missing link, and solve the
supposed discrepancy to the complete satisfaction of every reasonable
mind” (Haley p. 436).
The following table provides a summary of alleged discrepancies
within the Bible. The topics chosen represent some of the better
known and more substantial issues, and furthermore, the expositions
provided tend to illustrate orthodox techniques for supplying
hypothetical solutions or reconciliations. For each topic, the tabular
approach is to overview the subject, present the relevant Scriptures,
and then to recommend explanations that resolve the alleged issue.
Inserted brackets include interpretive comments.
Table 5: Resolving Alleged Biblical Discrepancies
1. Invisibility – God seen by men at times as reconciled to God not
seen by men
God seen by men
“And Joseph called the name of the place Peniel: for I have seen
God [or his manifestation] face to face, and my life is preserved”
(Genesis 32:30).
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Jesus Loves You
“Then went up Moses, and Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and
seventy of the elders of Israel: and they saw the God of Israel
[perhaps within or as the Pillar of Smoke]” (Exodus 24:9-10).
“And the LORD spoke to Moses face to face [intimately, out of
the Pillar of Smoke], as a man speaketh unto his friend. …And I will
take away mine hand, and thou shalt see my back parts: but my face
shall not be seen” (Exodus 33:11,23).
“And Manoah said unto his wife, We shall surely die, because
we have seen God [as an angelic manifestation]” (Judges 13:22).
“In the year that king Uzziah died, I saw also the LORD sitting
upon a throne, high and lifted up, and his train filled the temple [as
in a vision, which the others present evidently did not see]” (Isaiah
6:1).
“I beheld [in a vision] until the thrones were cast down, and the
Ancient of days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the
hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery
flame, and his wheels as burning fire” (Daniel 7:9).
God not seen by men
“And he said thou canst not see my face [or the fullness of my
countenance]; for there shall no man see me, and live” (Exodus
33:20).
“Take ye therefore good heed unto yourselves; for ye saw no
manner of similitude on the day that the LORD spake unto you in
Horeb, out of the midst of the fire” (Deuteronomy 4:15).
“No man hath seen God [in the majesty of His Spirit] at any
time” (John 1:18).
“Ye [the disciples who were present at that time] have neither
heard his voice at any time, nor seen his shape” (John 5:37).
“The King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only wise God, be
honor and glory forever and ever” (1 Timothy 1:17).
“Whom no man hath seen, nor can see [in the fullness of the
Spirit]: to whom be honor and power everlasting” (1 Timothy 6:16).
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Explanation(s)
This is mainly an instance where the context of each passage of
Scripture is germane to its understanding. Moreover, the Lord Jesus
Christ said, “God is a Spirit” (John 4:24). Therefore, it is not
possible for men to see God as a Spirit in His full majesty with their
natural eyes or to hear God’s spiritual voice with their natural ears.
Howbeit, God (or his deputed angel) has appeared in the natural
realm to men in various manifestations including for example the
Burning Bush or as a Pillar of Fire.
In the case of the Prophets, God appeared to them as
manifestations in visions, which they saw with their spiritual eyes. In
certain cases, only the Prophet saw the vision while others present
did not (Isaiah, Daniel, Paul). Consider the case where Elisha prayed
that his servant’s eyes might be opened to see the spiritual vision.
The Bible records, “And Elisha prayed, and said, LORD, I pray thee,
open his eyes, that he may see. And the LORD opened the eyes of
the young man; and he saw: and behold, the mountain was full of
horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha” (2 Kings 6:17, see
also 1 Corinthians 2:14). Therefore, the distinction of context
between the Spiritual and the natural realms with the recognition of
visible Godly manifestations suffices to reconcile the verses.
2. Wisdom – Wisdom is a source of happiness as reconciled to
wisdom as a source of grief
Wisdom as a source of happiness
“Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the man that getteth
understanding… Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her
paths are peace” (Proverb 3:13,17).
“For wisdom is better than rubies; and all the things that may be
desired are not to be compared to it” (Proverb 8:11).
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Wisdom as a cause of sorrow
“For in much wisdom is much grief: and he that increaseth
knowledge increaseth sorrow” (Ecclesiastes 1:18).
“Then said I in my heart, As it happeneth to the fool, so it
happeneth even to me; and why was I then more wise? Then I said in
my heart, that this also is vanity” (Ecclesiastes 2:15).
Explanation(s)
Again, the interpretive context is key to understanding these
Scriptures. Spiritual wisdom leads to happiness or blessedness, but
natural or worldly wisdom leads to heaviness. The Bible says, “For
after that in the [spiritual] wisdom of God the world by [natural]
wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by the foolishness of
preaching to save them that believe” (1 Corinthians 1:21).
3. Destruction of the Earth – The Earth as indestructible as
reconciled to being destructible
Indestructible Earth
“And he built his sanctuary like high places [to endure
indefinitely], like the earth which he hath established for ever”
(Psalm 78:69).
“One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh:
but the earth abideth for ever” (Ecclesiastes 1:4, see also Psalm
104:5). [The lifetime of people is brief compared to the indefinitely
long duration of the earth.]
The Earth will be destroyed
“Of old hast thou laid the foundation of the earth: and the
heavens are the work of thy hands. They shall perish, but thou shalt
endure: yea, all of them shall wax old like a garment” (Psalm
52:25,26).
“Heaven and earth shall pass away: but my words shall not pass
away” (Luke 21:33).
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“The earth also and the works that are therein shall be burned
up” (2 Peter 3:10).
“The earth and the heaven fled away; and there was found no
place for them” (Revelation 20:11).
[Godly spiritual things are truly eternal, whereas earthly things
are temporary. As such, men should regard that which is spiritual
and of everlasting significance. The Lord Jesus Christ said, “Lay not
up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth
corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal: But lay up for
yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth
corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal” (Matthew
6:19,20)].
Explanation(s)
In the two texts concerning the indestructible earth, the Hebrew
word, which is translated as “for ever” is olam. The single word
olam concisely means, an indefinite time, or more literally means, a
very long time, the end of which is hidden from us. Furthermore in
context, the single word olam may not mean eternal or perpetual.
(However, the Hebrew phrase including olam twice in succession
does imply the idea of forever or eternal.) Therefore, in the first texts
the author is using the Earth as a similitude for long-term or
indefinite endurance. Whereas in the later texts, it is clear that the
Earth is not eternal, but that the words of the Lord Jesus Christ shall
not pass away. Wherefore in a literary context there is no
contradiction.
4. Sin and Forgiveness – All sins may be forgiven as reconciled to
unforgivable sin
All sins may be forgiven
“And by him all that believe are justified from all things, from
which ye could not be justified by the law of Moses” (Acts 13:39).
“And the blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us [the born
again believers] from all sin” (1 John 1:7).
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Certain sins may not be forgiven
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] “Wherefore I say unto you, All
manner of sin and blasphemy shall be forgiven unto men: but the
blasphemy against the Holy Ghost shall not be forgiven unto men.
And whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of man, it shall be
forgiven him: but whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost it shall
not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to
come” (Matthew 12:31,32).
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] “Verily I say unto you, All sins
shall be forgiven unto the sons of men, and blasphemies wherewith
soever they shall blaspheme: But he that shall blaspheme against the
Holy Ghost hath never forgiveness, but is in danger of eternal
damnation. Because they [the Scribes] said that he [the Lord Jesus
Christ] hath an unclean spirit” (Mark 3:28-30).
“There is a sin unto death: I do not say that he shall pray for it”
(1 John 5:16).
Explanation(s)
Born again believers can receive forgiveness of sin through
confession and repentance. However, unbelievers, who have not
been spiritually born again, remain in danger of eternal damnation.
The Lord Jesus Christ said, “[Whosoever will] Repent: for the
kingdom of heaven is at hand” (Matthew 4:17). The Bible says, “If
we [the born again believers] confess our sins, he is faithful and just
to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness” (1
John 1:9). As such, forgiveness of sin relates to repentance and
confession, and in this manner all sins may be forgiven to those who
are willing to be spiritually born again.
However, the sin of blasphemy against the Holy Ghost shall not
be forgiven, neither shall he pray for it. In context, the Lord Jesus
Christ was saying that whosoever attributes the out working of a
Divine healing or deliverance miracle to the devil and not to the
Holy Ghost has reached the penultimate expression of blasphemy.
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The implication is that such an expression may reflect a
predestinated seed that refuses to be spiritually born again, and
therefore will not seek forgiveness through repentance and
confession of sins. The Lord Jesus Christ said to the unbelievers,
“Why do ye not understand my speech? even because ye cannot hear
my word. Ye are of your father the devil, and the lusts of your father
ye will do (John 8:43,44).
Nevertheless, ultimately there may be certain mercies of God
deducible from the Lord Jesus Christ’s statements concerning
salvation, “[Jesus said,] And again I say unto you, It is easier for a
camel [or rope] to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man
to enter into the kingdom of God. When the disciples heard it, they
were exceedingly amazed, saying, Who then can be saved? But Jesus
beheld them and said unto them, With men this is impossible; but
with God all things are possible” (see Matthew 19:25-6, Luke
18:26-7). Amen.
5. Treatment of Enemies – Treat enemies kindly as reconciled to
heaping coals of fire on their heads
Treat enemies kindly
[Jesus said,] “Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do
good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use
you, and persecute you” (Matthew 5:44).
“If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with all
men. Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but rather give place
unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith
the Lord. Therefore, if thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst,
give him to drink” (Romans 12:18-20).
Heap coals of fire
“For in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head”
(Romans 12:20).
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Explanation(s)
By showing kindness, it is hoped that the heat of conviction will
affect the thinking of the enemy and bring him to an attitude of
repentance. The phrase, heap coals of fire upon his head, is a
proverbial one. Consider that the disciples on the Emmaus road
shared “Did not our heart burn within us, while he talked with us by
the way, and while he opened to us the scriptures” (Luke 24:32)?
6. List of the Apostles – Reconciling the four lists within Scripture
Lists of the Apostles
There are four lists of the Apostles found in Matthew 10:2-4,
Mark 3:16-19, Luke 6:13-16, and ACTS 1:13. The names found
within the lists are arranged slightly differently, and agree exactly
except in two instances.
Explanation(s)
Lebbeus [brave] surnamed Thaddeus [wise] appears in the
Matthew and Mark lists, but the name of Judas [or Jude, the Greek
form of Judah, which means, praise] the brother of James appears in
the Luke and ACTS lists. Scholars agree that Lebbeus surnamed
Thaddeus is the same person as Judas the brother of James. In the
early Middle East it was common for a man to be referred to by more
than one name, and especially by names that were honorific. As
such, Lebbeus the brave and wise also became known as Judas, who
praises God. In addition, Simon the Canaanite and Simon Zealotes
are the same person. By observation, Simon of the land of Canaan
was also originally of the pseudo-political party of the Zealots. (See
also Dockrey p. 78 for a corresponding tabular listing of the four
instances of the Apostles names found in Scripture.)
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7. Christ’s Genealogy – Reconciling two different forms
Christ’s genealogical lists
The New Testament provides two different lists for the
genealogy of the Lord Jesus Christ. The first list begins the New
Testament in Matthew 1:1-16. The Bible records, “And Jacob begat
Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, who is called
Christ” (Matthew 1:16). The second list is found in Luke 3:23-38.
Here the list begins, “And Jesus himself began to be about thirty
years of age, being (as was supposed) the son of Joseph, which was
the son of Heli” (Luke 3:23). Within the lists, several of the
successors or descendants are different.
Explanation(s)
There are two theories to reconcile the different lists. The first
theory is that both genealogies are Joseph’s. The list in Matthew
presents Joseph as the legal heir to the throne of David, “because he
was of the house and lineage of David” (Luke 2:4). As such,
Matthew’s list includes the successive heirs of the kingdom from
king David to the Lord Jesus Christ, the reputed son of Joseph. The
second list in Luke presents the natural or actual genealogy of
Joseph. Given the Jewish tradition of accounting for families
through paternal descent, this theory addresses both the legal and
actual genealogies of the Lord Jesus Christ.
The second theory asserts that Matthew’s list presents the actual
genealogy of Joseph, which also reflects the legal succession from
king David to the Lord Jesus Christ. Additionally, the second list in
Luke presents the actual genealogy of Mary. This theory accounts for
Jacob being the natural father of Joseph, and also for Joseph being
the son of Heli. Within the Talmud, Mary is referred to as the
daughter of Heli (Haley p. 326). Given that Mary had no brothers,
then she would be an heiress. Wherefore, by Jewish law Mary’s
husband Joseph would also be accounted within Heli’s family, and
therefore would be considered as his legal son. Both theories suffice
to rectify the issue.
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The Bible teacher, Robert D. Johnston, provides an interesting
perspective on the genealogies of the Lord Jesus Christ. “Consider now
the genealogies of Jesus Christ, which are given in two of the Gospels
only, in accordance with the Divine purpose. The clarion note of Matthew
is, ‘Behold thy King’ (Zech. 9:9); that of Mark ‘Behold My Servant’ (Is.
42:1); of Luke, ‘Behold the Man’ (Zech. 6:12); and of John, ‘Behold your
God’ (Is. 40:9). But a servant needs no genealogy, and God, the Eternal
One, has none; hence Mark and John do not give one. Instead, Mark gives
God’s testimonial to His perfect Servant, ‘Thou art My beloved Son in
whom I am well pleased’ (Mark 1:11); while John takes us to the One
who was before all, the Inhabitant of eternity, the mighty God: ‘In the
beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was
God’ (John 1:1). On the other hand, a genealogy is desirable to a man, but
essential to a king, hence Luke and Matthew each give one. Again, these
differ, not in discord, but in complete harmony, for Matthew, tracing the
King, descends by the royal line through Solomon, the king, while Luke,
tracing the Man, ascends by the natural line through Nathan, Solomon’s
elder brother.
Moreover, in Luke’s genealogy are seventy-seven names, with God
at the one end and His Son, Jesus, at the other, thus stamping the perfect
Man with the perfection of Deity. In that of Matthew’s account, forty-two
generations are given, or six times seven... Thus does He bear the stamp
of the perfection of Deity, and the perfection of Humanity, in one and the
same Blessed Person” (Johnston p. 90-1).
8. Acting by Proxy – Reconciling who performed certain acts
Jesus besought by the centurion or by the Jews
In one case, we read of Jesus being besought by a centurion to
heal his servant (Matthew 8:3). In another instance, we read of the
Jews and then friends of the centurion beseeching Jesus to heal the
servant (Luke 7:1-6).
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Explanation(s)
It is possible that two separate occasions are recorded, which
would obviate any issues, however they both occurred in Capernaum
and the details are similar. More likely, the Jews and the friends of
the centurion acted as the centurion’s proxy. In the context of
military authority, a messenger presents a message with the implicit
authority of the commanding officer. Therefore, it is as if the
centurion indirectly besought Jesus. It is further probable that after
sending the forerunners, the centurion came forth personally to talk
with Jesus.
9. Clarifying Names – Reconciling names of relatives
Kish the son of Abiel or of Ner
The Bible says that Kish was the son of Abiel (1 Samuel 9:1,
24:50,51). Alternatively, the Bible says that Ner begat Kish, and
Kish begat Saul (1 Chronicles 8:33, 9:39). It is possible that Ner was
one of the grandfathers of Kish. Perhaps Ner was the father of
Abiel’s wife and that Abiel’s wife was an heiress. Therefore, Kish
may have been the natural son of Abiel, and the legal son descended
from Ner.
10. Resolving Numbers – Reconciling different numbers
Jacob’s family listed with seventy or with seventy-five persons
Jacob’s family including children, grandchildren, and greatgrandchildren amounted to sixty-six people (Genesis 46:26). Adding
Jacob along with Joseph and his two sons, there are seventy people
(Genesis 46:27). However in Acts a total of seventy-five people are
noted. The sixty-six plus the nine wives of the sons of Jacob equals
seventy-five people. Please note that Judas and Simeon’s wives were
dead; Joseph could not be said to call himself, his wife, and his two
sons into Egypt; and that Stephen lists Jacob separately (Acts 7:14).
Therefore, they are not included in the count. As such, there is no
discrepancy.
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11. Moses Father in Law – Reconciling three names
Moses Father in Law is referred to by three names in the
Scriptures
Exodus 2:18 – “And when they came to Reuel their father…”
Exodus 3:1 – “Now Moses kept the flock of Jethro his father in
law, the priest of Midian…”
Numbers 10:29 – “And Moses said unto Hobab, the son of
Raguel the Midianite, Moses’ father in law…”
Explanation
“There is a simple explanation of the seeming discrepancy. First,
the names ‘Reuel’ and ‘Raguel’ are translated from the same Hebrew
word. In other words, they are the same name. Second, the name
‘Jethro’ is not a proper name, but is simply a title of honor, denoting
‘excellency.’ This name is used in the context of him being called
‘the priest of Midian.’ Moses’ father in law’s name was Reuel (or
Raguel) and his title was Jethro” (O Timothy, Volume 19 Issue 11,
2002, Way of Life Literature, P. O. Box 610366, Port Huron MI,
Page 11).
The Hebrew word for Reuel and Raguel is Ruwel, meaning
friend of God (Strong’s Concordance, Hebrew 7467). Also, the
Hebrew word for Jethro is Yithrow, meaning his Excellency.
Interestingly, the root word for Yithrow is Yathar, meaning among
other things, a remnant (Strong’s Concordance, Hebrew 3503 and
3498).
&&&&&&&
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The existence of editorial variations between and among the
biblical texts actually indirectly serves as a valuable witness to the
independent and non-collusive recording of Scripture. Regarding the
implicit value of editorial variations in multiple copies of ancient
texts, Dr. Wordsworth wrote, “These discrepancies being such as
they are found to be, are of inestimable value. They show that there
has been no collusion among our witnesses, and that our manuscript
copies of the Gospels, about five hundred in number, and brought to
us from all parts of the world, have not been mutilated or
interpolated with any sinister design; that they have not been
tampered with by any religious sect for the sake of propagating any
private opinion as the word of God. These discrepancies are, in fact,
evidences of the purity and integrity of the sacred text. They show
that the scriptures which we now hold in our hands in the nineteenth
century, are identical with those which were received by the church
in the first century as written by the Holy Ghost” (Wordsworth p.
xxii, Preface to the Greek Four Gospels).
Concerning the presupposition of attitudes toward the veracity of
Scripture, Professor Packer suggested, “Surely it will be humbler
and wiser to suppose that any present inability on your part or mine
to recognize the Word of God in a particular canonical book, or to
square what it seems to say with other biblical teachings, reflects a
defect in us rather than in it; particularly when (as is invariably the
case) learned and devout men can offer a possible, and usually a
convincing, resolution of the problem that puzzles us” (Packer p.
113).
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Jesus Loves You
The Word is Pure
The Bible includes numerous remarkable verses of Scripture that
describe the righteous attributes of God’s Word. In fact, many of the
verses recorded within the Bible directly declare that the Word is
inspired, eternal, and preserved. Furthermore, the Lord Jesus Christ
emphasized that “the scripture cannot be broken” (John 7:23, John
10:35). The word, broken, used here in the Greek is outhenai, which
more literally means, cannot be destroyed, abolished, or done away
with. Amen.
The importance of the Scriptures was eloquently expressed by
President Abraham Lincoln, who discreetly wrote, “I have but this to
say, the Bible is the best gift God has given to man. All the good the
Saviour gave the world was communicated through this book. But
for it we could not know right from wrong. All things most desirable
for man’s welfare, here and hereafter, are to be found portrayed in it”
(Anders p. 52). Please read through the following table of Scripture
verses and be blessed. May you have a reverent attitude as you
experience the beauty of God’s Word! These Scriptures are
presented in the sequential order that they appear in the Christian
Bible.
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Table 6: Scriptures Concerning the Word of God
Thy word have I hidden in mine heart, that I might not sin
against thee.
Psalm 119:11
Let thy mercies come also unto me, O LORD, even thy salvation,
according to thy word.
Psalm 119:41
Forever, O LORD, thy word is settled in heaven.
Psalm 119:89
Thy word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my path.
Psalm 119:105
Order my steps in thy word, and let not any iniquity have
dominion over me.
Psalm 119:133
My heart standeth in awe of thy word.
Psalm 119:161b
For thou hast magnified thy word above all thy name.
Psalm 138:2
All the words of my mouth are in righteousness; there is nothing
froward or perverse in them.
They are all plain to him that understandeth, and right to those
who find knowledge.
Proverbs 8:8,9
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Every word of God is pure; he is a shield unto those who put
their trust in him.
Add thou not unto his words, lest he reprove thee, and thou be
found a liar.
Proverbs 30:5,6
The grass withereth, the flower fadeth, but the word of our God
shall stand forever.
Isaiah 40:8
So shall my word be that goeth forth out of my mouth; it shall
not return unto me void, but it shall accomplish that which I please,
and it shall prosper in the thing whereto I send it.
Isaiah 55:11
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God,
and the Word was God.
The same was in the beginning with God.
All things were made by him, and without him was not anything
made that was made.
In him was the life; and the life was the light of men.
And the light shineth in the darkness; and the darkness
comprehended it not.
John 1:1-5
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] It is the spirit that giveth life; the
flesh profiteth nothing. The words that I speak unto you, they are
spirit, and they are life.
John 6:63
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] Sanctify them through thy truth; thy
word is truth.
John 17:17
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[Concerning the Gospel,] These [of Berea] were more noble than
those of Thessalonica, in that they received the word with all
readiness of mind, and searched the scriptures daily, whether those
things were so. (Note; Berea means watered, which may be
interpreted spiritually as in the water of the word.)
Acts 17:11
Study to show thyself approved unto God, a workman that
needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth.
2 Timothy 2:15
All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable
for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in
righteousness,
That the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto
all good works.
2 Timothy 3:16,17
For the word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper than
any two-edged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of the
soul and spirit, and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of
the thoughts and intents of the heart.
Hebrews 4:12
And receive with meekness the engrafted word, which is able to
save your souls.
James 1:21b
For we have not followed cunningly devised fables when we
made known unto you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus
Christ, but were eyewitnesses of his majesty.
2 Peter 1:16
&&&&&&&
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Jesus Loves You
The Christian Bible presents the Divinely inspired Word of God.
The glorious Bible is God-breathed to both the outward ears and to
the inner heart of men and women. The Word of God recorded in the
Bible brings Light and Life to precious people.
Through Divine grace, the Holy Bible transmits a legacy of
spiritual Truth through the generations, even to us, who are the
children-to-come (Psalm 22:31). May we be reverent and “receive
with meekness the engrafted Word, which is able to save our souls”
(adapting James 1:21b).
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Chapter 2
Prophecies Fulfilled
“[Jesus said], And he will shew you things to come.”
(John 16:13)
Within the Old and New Testaments, there are recorded over
eighteen hundred prophecies or predictions. Certain prophecies were
fulfilled in Old Testament times, and others were fulfilled in New
Testament times, while yet other prophecies continue to await
fulfillment. It is interesting to note that certain prophecies were
fulfilled promptly while others were fulfilled after long periods of
elapsed time. In some cases, hundreds of years or several generations
transpired between prophecies and their eventual fulfillment.
Through the Old Testament Prophet, Isaiah, God described his
foreknowledge by saying, “Remember the former things of old: for I
am God, and there is none else; I am God, and there is none like me,
things which are not yet done, saying, My counsel shall stand, and I
will do all my pleasure” (Isaiah 46:9,10).
In the following sections, we will review an abundance of
amazing instances of fulfilled prophecies. This evidence is
manifested from the Scriptures and also through historical
documents. Wonderfully, there are a large number of Biblical
prophecies that have been precisely fulfilled. Analysis of such
records shows statistical significance within the context of
probability theory. Essentially, the extensive and inerrant fulfillment
of Biblical prophecy demonstrates predictive and amazingly accurate
knowledge of future outcomes. Detailed investigation of the
particular prophetic circumstances obviates natural explanations for
this phenomenon (including random chance or logical
presuppositions).
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Jesus Loves You
Therefore, the consistent and inerrant fulfillment of biblical
prophecies provides dramatic and essentially immutable evidence for
their supernatural inspiration, and consequently by inference, the
Godly origination of the Scriptures.
Within the Bible, prophecy is a pervasive topic. Prophecies
appear throughout the text and provide a typical means for God’s
admonishments and revelations to man. In fact, most of the Bible’s
authors were prophets. Altogether, prophecy-related Scriptures
comprise over twenty-seven percent of the total text. Specifically, for
example, there are:
a. A total of 1,817 predictions,
b. Covering 737 different topics,
c. Which involve 8,352 verses of Scripture.
As another metric to show the ubiquitous nature of prophecy in
the Bible, consider the number of occurrences of words with
prophecy or seer as their root. Altogether, there are a total of 691
words of this type found in the Bible. The following table provides a
numerical summary.
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Table 7: Sum Total of Prophetic Words
Word
Prophecies
Prophecy
Prophesied
Prophesieth
Prophesy
Prophesyings
Prophet
Prophetess
Prophet’s
Prophets
Total Instances
2
21
50
7
88
1
244
8
2
240
Seer
Seer’s
Seers
21
1
6
Total
691
&&&&&&&
Prophecy supplies an objective and impartial means for
confirming God’s plan for mankind. Within the Bible, Isaiah wrote,
"Behold the former things have come to pass, and new things I
declare; before they spring forth I tell you of them" (Isaiah 42:9).
The following table provides a helpful review of Scriptures
concerning prophecy. They are presented in the order in which they
appear within the Bible. By studying these Scriptures, we can learn
more about the prophetic ministry.
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Jesus Loves You
Table 8: Scriptures on Prophets and Prophecy
And the LORD came down in a cloud, and spake unto him
[Moses], and took of the spirit that was upon him, and gave it unto
the seventy elders: and it came to pass, that, when the spirit rested
upon them, they prophesied, and did not cease.
Numbers 11:25 ff
And he [God] said, Hear now my words: If there be a prophet
among you, I the LORD will make myself known unto him in a
vision, and will speak unto him in a dream.
Numbers 12:6
If there arise among you a prophet, or a dreamer of dreams, and
giveth thee a sign or wonder,
And the sign or the wonder come to pass, whereof he spake unto
thee, saying, Let us go after other gods, which thou hast not known,
and let us serve them;
Thou shalt not hearken unto the words of that prophet, or that
dreamer of dreams: for the LORD your God proveth you, to know
whether ye love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all
your soul.
Ye shall walk after the LORD your God, and fear him, and keep
his commandments, and obey his voice, and ye shall serve him, and
cleave unto him.
And that prophet, or dreamer of dreams, shall be put to death;
because he hath spoken to turn you away from the LORD your God,
which brought you out of the land of Egypt, and redeemed you out of
the house of bondage, to thrust thee out of the way which the LORD
thy God commanded thee to walk in. So shalt thou put evil away
from the midst of thee.
Deuteronomy 13:1-5
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I [the LORD] will raise them up a Prophet from among their
brethren, like unto thee [Moses], and will put my words in his
mouth; and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him.
And it shall come to pass, that whosoever will not hearken unto
my words which he shall speak in my name, I will require it of him.
But the prophet which shall presume to speak a word in my
name, which I have not commanded him to speak, or that shall speak
in the name of other gods, even that prophet shall die.
And if thou shalt say in thine heart, How shall we know the word
which the LORD hath not spoken?
When a prophet speaketh in the name of the LORD, if the thing
follow not, nor come to pass, that is the thing which the LORD hath
not spoken, but the prophet hath spoken it presumptuously: thou
shalt not be afraid of him.
Deuteronomy 18:18,20,22
(Beforetime in Israel, when a man went to inquire of God, thus
he spake, Come, let us go to the seer: for he that is now called a
Prophet was beforetime called a seer.)
1 Samuel 9:9
And when Saul inquired of the LORD, the LORD answered him
not, neither by dreams, nor by Urim, nor by prophets.
1 Samuel 28:6
He [Elisha] took up also the mantle of Elijah that fell from him,
and went back, and stood by the bank of the Jordan;
And he took the mantle of Elijah that fell from him, and smote
the waters, and said, Where is the LORD God of Elijah? And when
he also had smitten the waters, they parted hither and thither: and
Elisha went over.
2 Kings 2:13-14 ff
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Jesus Loves You
He [the LORD] suffered no man to do them wrong: yea, he
reproved kings for their sakes,
Saying, Touch not mine anointed, and do my prophets no
harm.
1 Chronicles 16:22; Psalm 105:15
In a dream, in a vision of the night, when deep sleep falleth
upon men, in the slumberings upon the bed;
Then he openeth the ears of men, and sealeth their instruction.
Job 33:15-16
For a dream cometh through the multitude of business; and a
fool’s voice is known by multitudes of words.
Ecclesiastes 5:3
Then the LORD put forth his hand, and touched my mouth. And
the LORD said unto me, Behold, I have put my words in thy mouth.
Jeremiah 1:9
The prophet that hath a dream, let him tell a dream; and he that
hath my word, let him speak my word faithfully. What is the chaff
to the wheat? saith the LORD.
Is not my word like a fire? Saith the LORD; and like a hammer
that breaketh the rock in pieces?
Jeremiah 23:28
Thus shalt thou say unto the prophet, What hath the LORD
answered thee? and, What hath the LORD spoken?
Jeremiah 23:37
The prophet which prophesieth of peace, when the word of the
prophet shall come to pass, then shall the prophet be known, that the
LORD hath truly sent him.
Jeremiah 28:9
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Mischief shall come upon mischief, and rumour shall be upon
rumour; then shall they seek a vision of the prophet; but the law
shall perish from the priest, and counsel from the ancients.
Ezekiel 7:26
Again the word of the LORD came unto me saying,
Son of man, prophesy, and say, Thus saith the LORD; Say, A
sword, a sword is sharpened, and also furbished:
Ezekiel 21:8,9
Surely the LORD GOD will do nothing, but he revealeth his
secret unto his servants the prophets.
Amos 3:7
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] Beware of false prophets, which
come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravening
wolves.
Ye shall know them by their fruits.
Matthew 7:15,16
But Jesus said unto them, A prophet is not without honour but in
his own country, and among his own kin, and in his own house.
Mark 6:4
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] For false Christs and false prophets
shall rise, and shall show signs and wonders, to seduce, if it were
possible, even the elect.
Mark 13:22
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Jesus Loves You
And he [Jesus] turned him unto his disciples, and said privately,
Blessed are the eyes which see the things that ye see:
For I tell you, that many prophets and kings have desired to see
those things which ye see, and have not seen them; and to hear those
things which ye hear, and have not heard them.
Luke 10:23,24
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] Therefore also said the wisdom of
God, I will send them prophets and apostles, and some of them they
shall slay and persecute:
That the blood of all the prophets, which was shed from the
foundation of the world, may be required of this generation.
Luke 11:49,50
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] Nevertheless I must walk to day,
and to morrow, and the day following: for it cannot be that a prophet
perish out of Jerusalem.
Luke 13:33
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] The law and the prophets were
until John: since that time the kingdom of God is preached, and
every man presseth into it.
Luke 16:16
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] And when he putteth forth his own
sheep, he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him: for they
know his voice.
John 10:4
And it shall come to pass in the last days, saith God, I will pour
out my Spirit upon all flesh: and your sons and your daughters shall
prophesy, and your young men shall see visions and your old men
shall dream dreams:
And on my servants and on my handmaidens I will pour out in
those days of my Spirit; and they shall prophesy.
ACTS 2:17-18 (see also Joel 2:28-9)
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For the gifts and calling of God are without repentance.
Romans 11:29 (see also Numbers 23:19)
For to one is given by the Spirit the word of wisdom; to another
the word of knowledge by the same Spirit;
To another faith by the same Spirit; to another the gifts of
healing by the same Spirit;
To another the working of miracles; to another prophecy; to
another discerning of spirits; to another divers kinds of tongues; to
another the interpretation of tongues:
But all these worketh that one and the selfsame Spirit, dividing
to every man severally as he will.
1 Corinthians 12:8-11
And God hath set some in the church, first apostles, secondarily
prophets, thirdly teachers, after that miracles, then gifts of healings,
helps, governments, diversities of tongues.
Are all apostles? Are all prophets? Are all teachers? Are all
workers of miracles?
Have all the gifts of healing? Do all speak with tongues? Do all
interpret?
But covet earnestly the best gifts: and yet shew I unto you a more
excellent way.
For we know in part, and we prophesy in part.
1 Corinthians 13:9
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Follow after charity, and desire spiritual gifts, but rather that ye
may prophesy…
But he that prophesieth speaketh unto men to edification, and
exhortation, and comfort…
And the spirits of the prophets are subject to the prophets…
Wherefore, brethren, covet to prophesy, and forbid not to speak
in tongues.
1 Corinthians 14:1,3,32, 39
And he gave some, apostles; and some prophets; and some,
evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers;
For the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for
the edifying of the body of Christ.
Ephesians 4:11,12
Quench not the Spirit. Despise not prophesyings.
1 Thessalonians 5:19-20
Jesus Christ the same yesterday, and to day, and forever.
Hebrews 13:8
Beloved, believe not every spirit, but try the spirits whether they
are of God: because many false prophets are gone out into the
world.
1 John 4:1
And the nations were angry, and thy [God’s] wrath is come, and
the time of the dead, that they should be judged, and that shouldest
give reward unto thy servants the prophets, and to thy saints, and
them that fear thy name, small and great; and shouldest destroy them
that destroy the earth.
Revelation 11:18
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And I fell at his feet to worship him. And he said unto me, See
thou do it not: I am thy fellow servant, and of thy brethren that have
the testimony of Jesus: worship God: for the testimony of Jesus is
the spirit of prophecy.
Revelation 19:10
&&&&&&&
The above verses of scripture provide insights into the
characteristics of the prophetic ministry. In summary, it seems that
the Lord may choose to place a spirit of prophecy upon a man or
woman. The Lord may appear to the prophet in a vision and speak to
him or her through a dream. The Lord provides this gift in order to
declare the end from the beginning. Prophecy serves as a sign and a
wonder, and also provides admonishments and warnings: for if you
do this or that, then these consequences will follow.
Moreover, prophecy is intended for edification, exhortation, and
comfort, and is provided as a ministry within the body of Christ.
Also, there is evidently a progression of prophetic maturity: for there
is a spirit of prophecy, a gift of prophecy, a mantle of prophecy, and
the office of a prophet (Randolph p. 115). Further, we are instructed
to try the spirits and to beware of false prophets. But true prophets
will receive their reward. Moreover, the Lord Jesus Christ taught that
we would know them by their fruits.
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Concerning prophecy in Christian life, Rick Joyner wrote, “The
Scriptures are permanent and given so that we can build our lives
upon truth, while prophecy is given for edification and
encouragement, strategically keeping us in the day-to-day will of the
Lord. The quality of any relationship will be determined by the
quality of the communication, and any relationship that does not
have continuing communication is a dying relationship. Prophesy
does help to keep our day-to-day relationship with the Lord fresh,
which is why I believe that the Scripture encourages us to
“especially” seek this gift” (Joyner p. 23). Joyner also wrote,
“Prophecy should not be used to establish doctrine. We were given
the Bible for that, and I believe that the doctrine of the Bible is
complete and must never be added to. However, the Bible itself has
many examples of prophetic experiences given to individuals for the
purpose of illuminating the Scriptures” (Joyner p. 18).
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Urim and Thummin
As an interesting aside, let’s address the words, Urim and
Thummin. The word, Urim, comes from the Hebrew word, Uwriym,
which is the plural for lights. The word, Urim, represents the
oracular (or spokesman of God) brilliancy of the figures of the highpriests breastplate. The word, Thummin, is from the Hebrew word,
Tummiym, which means perfection in the plural sense. Thummin
represents one of the epithets of the objects in the high priest’s
breastplate, which is an emblem of complete truth and perfect
integrity. The following table presents the biblical verses containing
the words, Urim and Thummin.
Table 9: Verses on Urim and Thummin
And thou [Moses] shalt put in the breastplate of judgment the
Urim and the Thummin; and they shall be upon Aaron’s [the
priest’s] heart, when he goeth in before the LORD: and Aaron shall
bear the judgment of the children of Israel upon his heart before the
LORD continually.
Exodus 28:30
And he [Moses] put the breastplate upon him [Aaron]: and he
put in the breastplate the Urim and the Thummin.
Leviticus 8:8
And he [Joshua] shall stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall
ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim before the LORD: at
his word shall they go out, and at his word they shall come in, both
he, and all the children of Israel with him, even all the congregation.
Numbers 27:21
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[Moses blessed and said,] And of Levi he said, Let thy Thummin
and thy Urim be with thy holy one, whom thou didst prove at
Massah, and with whom thou didst strive at the waters of Meribah.
Deuteronomy 33:8
And when Saul inquired of the LORD, the LORD answered him
not, neither by dreams, nor by Urim, nor by prophets.
1 Samuel 28:6
And the Tirshatha [governor] said unto them, that they should
not eat of the most holy things, till there stood up a priest with
Urim and Thummin.
Ezra 2:63, Nehemiah 7:65
&&&&&&&
In Old Testament times, Urim and Thummin were tangible items
that were used to outwardly determine God’s will, via a sign and
wonder. Evidently, the Lord utilized these stones as a mechanism for
communicating his direction (or will) via the high priest to His
chosen people. Furthermore, these items were to be borne by the
high priest continually. They were supplied to Aaron, the high priest,
and were referenced through the time of Nehemiah. In our times, the
Lord Jesus Christ is our Urim and Thummin, or our Light and Truth
(John 14:6).
In the Dead Sea scroll, Tongues of Fire (1Q29, 4Q376), we read
about the priestly use of the Urim and Thummin. It seems that God
would supply answers to questions by causing the appropriate stone
to shine forth with a brilliant light or tongues of fire (see Matthew
3:11, Luke 3:16, ACTS 2:3). We understand, that the Urim and
Thummin were to be worn by the high priest on his right side and
left side. Illuminating the right side indicated a positive response,
and illuminating the left side indicated a negative response.
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The priest would stand before the people prayerfully asking God
for guidance and would display the stones. God would then confirm
or deny by manifesting the tongues of fire through the appropriate
stone. These two oracular stones were consulted for divination
purposes on momentous occasions including, for example,
determining if a prophet was true or false, or to decide military
strategies.
Old Testament Prophets
Within the Old Testament, the later prophets referred to the
writings of the former prophets. Their references show their serious
and astute awareness of the Divine inspiration of these prophetic
writings. The following table provides a list of related scriptural
references.
Table 10: References to Old Testament Prophets
Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the
LORD by the mouth of Jeremiah [25:11] might be fulfilled, the
LORD stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a
proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it in writing also
saying…
Ezra 1:1
Then the prophets, Haggai the prophet, and Zechariah the son of
Iddo, prophesied unto the Jews that were in Judah and Jerusalem in
the name of the God of Israel, even unto them.
Ezra 5:1
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Yet many years didst thou forbear them, and testifieth against
them by the spirit in thy prophets: yet would they not give ear:
therefore gavest thou them into the hand of the people of the land.
Nehemiah 9:30
In the first year of his reign I Daniel understood by books the
number of the years, whereof the word of the LORD came to
Jeremiah the prophet, that he would accomplish seventy years in the
desolation of Jerusalem.
Daniel 9:2
Yea, they made their hearts as an adamant stone, lest they should
hear the law, and the words which the LORD of hosts hath sent in
his spirit by the former prophets: therefore came a great wrath from
the LORD of hosts.
Zechariah 7:12
&&&&&&&
When Messiah Comes
From the Christian perspective, a fascinating and compelling
prophecy within the Bible involves the accurate prediction of the
precise year of the “cutting off” of the Messiah. As recorded in the
Book of Daniel, the angel Gabriel spoke this prophecy to the beloved
Daniel. This is an inspirational topic for careful consideration.
The word, Messiah, means the anointed one, and it appears twice
in the Old Testament (Daniel 9:25-26), and is associated with
prophecy. The Greek form of Messias also appears twice in the New
Testament (John 1:41 and 4:25), referring to the fulfillment of the
Messianic prophecy. The Messiah was foretold to be the great
Deliverer of Israel, and was anticipated by the Jewish faithful.
Within the book of Daniel, the Bible records,
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“[The angel Gabriel said to Daniel,] At the beginning of thy
supplications the commandment came forth, and I am come to shew thee;
for thou art greatly beloved: therefore understand the matter, and consider
the vision.
Seventy weeks are determined upon thy people and upon the holy
city, to finish the transgression, and to make an end of sins, and to make
reconciliation for iniquity, and to bring in everlasting righteousness, and
to seal up the vision and prophecy, and to anoint the most Holy.
Know therefore and understand, that from the going forth of the
commandment to restore and rebuild Jerusalem unto the Messiah the
Prince shall be seven weeks, and threescore and two weeks: the street
shall be built again, and the wall, even in troublous times.
And after threescore and two weeks shall Messiah be cut off, but not
for himself: and the people of the prince that shall come shall destroy the
city and the sanctuary; and the end thereof shall be with a flood, and unto
the end of the war desolations are determined.
And he shall confirm the covenant with many for one week: and in
the midst of the week he shall cause the sacrifice and the oblation to
cease, and for the overspreading of abominations he shall make it
desolate, even until the consummation, and that determined shall be
poured upon the desolate” (Daniel 9:23-27).
We shall consider two scenarios to address the calendar
dimension of the “cutting off” of the Messiah. The first scenario
presumes that the Angel Gabriel conveyed the term, weeks, to imply
360-day years, which reflects an approximate 12-month lunar year.
In this scenario, an adjustment to solar years is computed that places
the “cutting of” of the Messiah in 31 A.D., which is consistent with
the time frame of orthodox Christian opinion. This scenario
presumes that the Lord Jesus Christ was born in 3 B. C.
The second scenario presumes that the Angel conveyed the term,
weeks, to mean actual solar years with 365.25 days per year. In this
scenario, the “cutting off” of the Messiah may have been as early as
38 A. D. This scenario presumes that the Lord Jesus Christ was born
in 4 A. D. [Writing in February 2014, we now realize that the birth
of the Lord Jesus Christ was in 2/1 BC and the Passion and
Resurrection occurred in 34 AD. Please see our new work, Signs of
the Times.]
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360-Day Years
The Old Testament term, weeks, often relates to weeks of years
(e. g., see Genesis 29:27, regarding Jacob twice serving Laban for
seven years, once for each of his daughters’ hands in marriage). In
verse 24, seventy weeks corresponds to 490 years, which equals 70
weeks * 7 years per week, where sabbatical years are measured as
twelve lunar months.
Note the length of the Jewish lunar month was recorded, as early
as 50 A.D., to be 29.53059 days, which is extraordinarily accurate
compared to modern satellite observations of 29.530588 days (see
Satinover p. 264 ff). (All lunar months refer to synodical months
being the time between two successive conjunctions of sun and
moon as seen from the earth.) We now have 29.53059 days per lunar
month, which may be rounded to 360 days to approximate a twelve
lunar month year.
Also, notably, Rev. William Branham referred to the “prophetic
calendar” as requiring 360-day years. Rev. Branham observed that in
Revelation 11:3, the two witnesses would prophesy for a thousand
two hundred and threescore days (or 1,260 days). When divided by
360-day years, we have 1,260 / 360 = 3.5 years. Also insightfully,
3.5 years in this context corresponds to the midst of the week stated
in Daniel 9:27, which serves to confirm the requirement for 360-day
prophetic years (Branham p. 92).
In Daniel Chapter 9, verse twenty-five refers to the “going forth
of the commandment to restore and rebuild Jerusalem.” The specific
decree of king Artaxerxes described in Nehemiah Chapter 2 was
given in 445 B. C. in the month Nissan (March/April), per Scofield
p. 913.
The elapsed time until Messiah shall be cut off sums to 483 years
= ((7 weeks * 7 years per week) + (62 weeks * 7 years per week)).
Threescore equals three times twenty or sixty. Wherefore,
threescore-and-two equals sixty-two. “Cutting off,” as used herein,
implies the rejection by the Jewish leaders of the Lordship of Jesus
as the Christ (or synonymously, the Messiah). As such, Christian
scholars acknowledge, that the cutting off of Messiah, corresponds
to the crucifixion and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ.
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Adjusting to the modern solar calendar of 365.25 days per solar
year, we have 6.97 years of difference relative to the total of 483
years. In this scenario, an adjustment is needed to synchronize our
modern calendar understanding to the times of the Lord Jesus Christ.
This adjustment is computed as 365.25 days in the modern solar
calendar – 360 days in the sabbatical lunar calendar = 5.25 days of
difference per year.
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Therefore, 483 total years * 5.25 days of difference = 2546.25
total days of difference. Converting to years, we have 2546.25 days /
365.25 days per year = 6.97 years.
Wherefore, beginning at the time of the decree to rebuild the wall
of Jerusalem in 445 B. C. until the cutting off of the Messiah may be
computed in the modern calendar to correspond to 31 A. D. We have
483 total years until Messiah shall be cut off, minus 445, being the
year of the decree = 38 A. D. Next, we have the year 38 A. D. minus
6.97 years of difference = 31.03 A. D., which corresponds to the
months March/April, which is the time-frame of Easter, being the
first Sunday, following the first full moon, following the vernal
equinox, which is the time-frame of the resurrection of the Lord
Jesus Christ, as per Josephus p. 548.
Given that Jesus was born circa 3 B. C. (see Dake NT p. 58 and
Scofield p. 992), began his ministry about the age of thirty (Luke
3:23), and ministered for approximately three and a half years before
the crucifixion and resurrection (by orthodox legendary
understanding), we can determine that Jesus was cut off during the
year 31 A. D. Therefore, the book of Daniel predicts with
phenomenal accuracy the year of the cutting off of the Messiah.
Please consider the following illustration.
445 B. C.
Order to rebuild
city wall
~476 years
Predicted Elapsed
Time
~31 A. D.
Jesus’
Resurrection
As a note relating to synchronizing calendars, “In the 708th year
from the foundation of Rome (46 B. C. by Christian reckoning)
Julius Caesar established the Julian Calendar, beginning the year
with January 1st. But it was not until 525 A. D. that Dionysius
Exiguus, a Scythian monk living in Rome, who was confirming the
Easter cycle, originated the system of reckoning time from the birth
of Christ. Gradually this usage spread, being adopted by England by
the Synod of Whitby in 664, until it gained universal acceptance. In
1552 Pope Gregory XIII reformed the Julian calendar. However,
more accurate knowledge shows that the earlier reckonings of the
time of Christ’s birth were in error by several years” (Scofield p.
992-3).
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The year of the Lord Jesus Christ’s birth is estimated primarily
based upon a passage in Luke, which reads “And it came to pass in
those days, that there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus, that
all the world should be taxed. And this taxing was first made when
Cyrenius was governor of Syria” (Luke 2:1-2). According to Dake,
Cyrenius was a Roman counsel in 12 B. C., and was thus qualified to
be a governor. “From 12 B. C. to 4 B. C., the names of governors are
recorded. From 4 B. C. to 4 A. D., the names are not given. It was
during this time that the census took place [so evidently Cyrenius {or
Quirinus} was governor during this time-frame]” (Dake p. NT 58).
Therefore, a birth year for the Lord Jesus Christ of 3 B. C. is
consistent with Luke 2:1-2.
In Luke 3:23, the Bible says, “And Jesus himself began to be
about thirty years of age” when he began his public ministry. This is
consistent with the Mosaic Law described in Numbers, where the
Bible discusses the age limits for ministry and service in the
tabernacle. It says for example, “From thirty years old and upward
even unto fifty years old, everyone who came to do the service of the
ministry, and the service of the burden in the tabernacle of the
congregation, Even those who were numbered of them, were eight
thousand and five hundred and fourscore” (Numbers 4:47-8). For
additional insight concerning the timeframe of the ministry and
crucifixion of the Lord Jesus Christ, Dr. Metzger observed,
“According to Luke 3:1, Jesus was baptized by John in the fifteenth
year of Tiberius Caesar. If one counts from the death of Augustus, this
comes to A.D. 28/29; but if, as some think more probable, one reckons
from the year of the association of Tiberius with Augustus as joint ruler,
the date is A.D. 26/27. Luke goes on to say that Pontius Pilate was
governor of Judea [A. D. 26-36], Herod [Antipas] tetrarch of Galilee [and
Perea from 4 B. C. – 39 A. D.], his brother Philip tetrarch of Ituraea and
Trachonitis [4 B. C. – 34 A. D.], and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene. Pilate
is known from extra-biblical sources, and his name occurs in an
inscription recently discovered at Caesarea. The year of the crucifixion is
uncertain, though the year of 30 [or 31] has a high degree of probability”
(RSV p. 1545, dates of ruler-ship inserted from p. 1550).
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Please note that the timeframes of the rulers also supports the
accuracy of the prophecy presuming that the Angel Gabriel
communicated in units of 360-day years.
365.25 Day Years
If the angel Gabriel had implied 365.25 days per solar year, then
the timeframe of the “cutting off” of the Messiah would compute to
38 A. D. Given that the order to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem was
decreed in 445 B. C. and that the prophecy predicts a total of 483
years of elapsed time, we have 445 B. C. plus 483 years = 38 A. D.
If the Lord Jesus Christ was born in 4 A. D. (the latest estimated
timeframe, given that Cyrenius was governor), began His ministry at
the age of thirty (being baptized within the timeframe of the rulers
cited above), and ministered for 3.5 years, the crucifixion may have
occurred as late as 38 A. D. However, 38 A. D. is later than the
recorded ruler-ship of Pilate, which ended in 36 A. D. (see also Boyd
p. 224). As such, the angel Gabriel probably did not imply a 365.25day solar year in his prophecy.
Therefore, it seems reasonable that the angel Gabriel intended
that the prophecy be understood to require 360-day lunar years.
Addressing lunar years would have been consistent with the
expectation of the priests, who were keenly focused upon accurately
measuring the lunar cycle as a necessary requirement for establishing
solemn feast days unto the LORD.
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Prophecies Concerning Jesus Christ
There are many prophecies, which predict the birth, ministry,
crucifixion, and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ. A review of
selected prophecies and their fulfillment will provide specific
evidence of prophetic veracity and fulfillment.
The Bible predicts that the Lord Jesus Christ would be born of a
virgin in the town of Bethlehem-Ephrathah. The Bible says,
"Therefore the LORD himself shall give you a sign; Behold a virgin
shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel
[God with us]" (Isaiah 7:14). The Bible reveals, "But thou,
Bethlehem Ephrathah, though thou be little among the thousands of
Judah, yet out of thee shall come forth unto me that is to be ruler in
Israel, whose goings forth have been from old, from everlasting"
(Micah 5:2). Please note that the prophecies of Isaiah and Micah
were written over seven hundred years before the birth of Jesus of
Nazareth.
In the Gospel of Luke, the fulfillment of these prophecies is
recorded. The Bible records an epiphany saying, "And the angel
[Gabriel] answered, and said unto her [Mary], The Holy Ghost shall
come upon thee, and the power of the Highest shall overshadow
thee; therefore also that holy thing which shall be born of thee shall
be called the Son of God" (Luke 1:35). This announcement by the
angel to Mary is known as the Annunciation.
The Bible also confirms Bethlehem as the place of the Lord
Jesus Christ’s birth. The Bible records, "And Joseph also went up
from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judea, unto the city of
David, which is called Bethlehem... And she [Mary] brought forth
her first-born son" (Luke 2:4,7a). Joseph traveled to Bethlehem (to
register for taxation) because he was of the house and lineage of
King David, which itself is a fulfillment of prophecy (see 2 Samuel
7:16,17 and Psalm 132:11).
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When the Lord Jesus Christ was an infant, his redemptive
ministry was prophesied. The Bible records, "[And the Holy Ghost
was upon Simeon, and he said of the baby Jesus,] for mine eyes have
seen thy salvation, Which thou hast prepared before the face of all
people; A light to lighten the Gentiles, and the glory of thy people,
Israel" (Luke 2:30-32). Also, the Bible says, "[And Anna was a
prophetess of great age, who served God with fastings and prayers
night and day who,] Gave thanks unto the LORD, and spoke of him
[the baby Jesus] to all those who looked for redemption in
Jerusalem" (Luke 2:37,38).
John the Baptist was the herald of the Lord Jesus Christ, who
spoke the words as prophesied in Isaiah 40:3-5, "I am the voice of
one crying in the wilderness, Make straight the way of the Lord"
(John 1:23). The Lord Jesus Christ said of John the Baptist (in
fulfillment of the prophecy in Malachi 4:5), "And if you will receive
it, this is Elijah, who was to come" (Matthew 11:14). Please note
that Malachi was written approximately 430 years before the birth of
the Lord Jesus Christ. The following table summarizes New
Testament prophecies concerning the ministry of the Lord Jesus
Christ.
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Table 11: Prophecies Foretelling Jesus’ Ministry
Prophecy, Verse(s) / Fulfillment
Zechariah foretells ministry of John the Baptist, Luke 1:67-79 /
Matthew 3
Simeon’s prophecy over the baby Jesus concerning salvation and
light, Luke 2:30-33 / John 1:7 ff
Anna’s prophesied over the baby Jesus concerning redemption, Luke
2:37-38 / Matt. 20:28, Mark 10:45
John the Baptist proclaimed Jesus to be the Lamb of God, John 1:29
/ John. 5:32 ff
&&&&&&&
Significantly, the Lord Jesus Christ began his public ministry by
reading from the prophet Isaiah (61:1,2a). The Lord Jesus Christ
proclaimed, "The Spirit of the LORD is upon me, because the LORD
has anointed me to preach good tidings unto the meek; he hath sent
me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives,
and the opening of the prison to those who are bound; To proclaim
the acceptable year of the LORD" (see Luke 4:18,19a). A review of
the Gospels clearly reveals that the Lord Jesus Christ fulfilled all of
these prophecies concerning his ministry by bringing salvation,
healing, and deliverance to the people.
In the New Testament, many Scriptures address the healing and
deliverance ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. The Bible says, "Great
multitudes followed him, and he healed them all" (Matthew 12:15b).
The Bible also records, "And Jesus went about all the cities and
villages, teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of
the kingdom, and healing every sickness and every disease among
the people" (Matthew 9:35). After performing many miracles of
healing, the Lord Jesus Christ said to the disciples of John the
Baptist, “Go your way, and tell John what things ye have seen and
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heard; how the blind see, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the
deaf hear, the dead are raised, to the poor the gospel is preached.
And blessed is he, whosoever shall not be offended in me” (Luke
7:22-23). Furthermore in the Book of ACTS, as Peter addressed
Cornelius and his guests, he said, "How God anointed Jesus of
Nazareth with the Holy Ghost, and with power; who went about
doing good, and healing all that were oppressed of the devil; for God
was with him. And we are witnesses of all things which he did"
(ACTS 10:38, 39).
There are a remarkable number of prophecies concerning the
grace of God through the sacrificial crucifixion of the Lord Jesus
Christ. For example, Psalm 22 provides a graphic description of the
suffering Saviour and of His death by crucifixion. These verses
depict bones out of joint (v. 14), thirst (v. 15), piercing of hands and
feet (v. 16), dividing garments and casting lots for the vesture (v.
18). All four Gospels including Matthew Chapter 27 record the
fulfillment of these verses concerning the crucifixion of the Lord
Jesus Christ. Psalm 22 was written over 1,000 years before the
crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Please note that crucifixion was a Roman
practice and not an early Jewish form of execution, and that the
Romans did not conquer Palestine until the first century B. C. This is
over nine hundred years after Psalm 22 was written. Clearly, this
provides irresistible proof for the prophetic inspiration of these
Scriptures.
Isaiah Chapter 53 prophesies of the vicarious sacrifice of the
Lord Jesus Christ. The Bible reveals, "But he was wounded for our
transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities; the chastisement of
our peace was upon him, and with his stripes we are healed" (Isaiah
53:5). The entire chapter of Isaiah 53 finds its fulfillment in the
suffering of the Lord Jesus Christ as recorded in each of the Gospels
(Matthew 27, Mark 15, Luke 23, and John 19). Amen.
Truly, the most significant prophecy to be fulfilled in all of
history is the resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ. The Psalmist,
King David, declared under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, "For
thou [God] wilt not leave my soul in hell, neither wilt thou permit
thine Holy One [Jesus] to see corruption" (Psalm 16:10). The Lord
Jesus Christ prophesied, "Because I live, ye shall live also" (John
14:19).
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Moreover, Jesus foretold, “And [the Jewish chief priests and
scribes] shall deliver him [the Son of man] to the Gentiles to mock,
and to scourge, and to crucify him: and the third day he shall rise
again” (Matthew 20:19, Mark 1:34, Luke 18:33).
The Scriptures clearly describe and affirm the eyewitness
testimony concerning the resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ, his
commission to his disciples, and his ascension to heaven. The
following table surveys related Scriptures.
Table 12: Resurrection and Ascension Scriptures
[The angel said to the women] He [Jesus] is not here; for he is
risen, as he said. Come see the place where the Lord lay.
And go quickly and tell his disciples that he is risen from the
dead; and behold, he goeth before you into Galilee; there shall ye see
him: lo, I have told you…
Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a
mountain where Jesus had appointed them.
And when they saw him, they worshipped him: but some
doubted.
And Jesus came and spake unto them, saying, All power is given
unto me in heaven and in earth.
Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost:
Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have
commanded you: and, lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of
the world. Amen.
Matthew 28:6,7,16-20
Afterward he [Jesus] appeared unto the eleven as they sat at
meat, and upbraided them with their unbelief and hardness of heart,
because they believed not them which had seen him after he was
risen.
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And he said unto them, Go ye into all the world, and preach the
gospel to every creature.
He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved; but he that
believeth not shall be damned.
And these signs shall follow them that believe; In my name shall
they cast out devils; they shall speak with new tongues;
They shall take up serpents; and if they drink any deadly thing, it
shall not hurt them; they shall lay hands on the sick, and they shall
recover.
So then after the Lord had spoken unto them, he was received up
into heaven, and sat on the right hand of God.
And they went forth, and preached every where, the Lord
working with them, and confirming the word with signs following.
Amen.
Mark 16:14-20
And as they thus spake, Jesus himself stood in the midst of them,
and saith unto them, Peace be unto you.
But they were terrified and affrighted, and supposed that they
had seen a spirit,
And he said unto them, Why are ye troubled? And why do
thoughts arise in your hearts?
Behold my hands and my feet, that it is I myself: handle me, and
see; for a spirit hath not flesh and bones, as ye see me have.
And when he had thus spoken, he shewed them his hands and his
feet.
And while they yet believed not for joy, and wondered, he said
unto them, Have ye here any meat?
And they gave him a piece of broiled fish, and of an honeycomb.
And he took it and did eat before them.
And he said unto them, These are the words which I spake unto
you, that all things must be fulfilled, which were written in the law
of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms, concerning me.
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Then opened he their understanding, that they might
understand the Scriptures,
And he said unto them, Thus it is written, and thus it behooved
Christ to suffer, and to rise from the dead the third day:
And that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in
his name among all nations, beginning at Jerusalem.
And ye are witnesses of these things.
And, behold, I send the promise of my Father upon you: but tarry
ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be endued with power from on
high.
And he led them out as far as Bethany, and he lifted up his
hands, and blessed them.
And it came to pass, while he blessed them, he was parted from
them, and carried up to heaven.
And they worshipped him, and returned to Jerusalem with great
joy:
And were continually in the temple, praising and blessing God.
Amen.
Luke 24:36-53
And after eight days again his disciples were within, and Thomas
with them: then came Jesus, the doors being shut, and stood in the
midst, and said, Peace be unto you.
Then saith he to Thomas, Reach hither thy finger, and behold my
hands; and reach hither thy hand, and thrust it into my side: and be
not faithless but believing.
And Thomas answered and said unto him, My Lord and my God.
Jesus saith unto him, Thomas, because thou hast seen me, thou
hast believed: blessed are they that have not seen, and yet have
believed.
And many other signs truly did Jesus in the presence of his
disciples, which are not written in this book:
But these are written, that ye might believe that Jesus is the
Christ, the Son of God; and that believing ye might have life through
his name.
John 20:26-31
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The former treatise have I made, O Theophilus, of all that Jesus
began to do and teach,
Until the day in which he was taken up, after that he through the
Holy Ghost had given commandments unto the apostles whom he
had chosen:
To whom also he shewed himself alive after his passion by many
infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days, and speaking of the
things pertaining to the kingdom of God:
And, being assembled together with them, commanded them that
they should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait for the promise of
the Father, which, saith he, ye have heard of me.
For John truly baptized with water; but ye shall be baptized with
the Holy Ghost not many days hence.
ACTS 1:1-5
&&&&&&&
Prophecies about Pentecost
Another beautifully fulfilled prophecy was the outpouring of the
Holy Ghost with power upon the disciples on the day of Pentecost.
After the Lord Jesus Christ’s resurrection, he appeared to his
disciples and said, "But ye shall receive power after the Holy Ghost
is come upon you; and ye shall be witnesses unto me both in
Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the uttermost
part of the earth" (ACTS 1:8). The Bible records, "And when the day
of Pentecost was fully come, they [the 120 disciples] were all with
one accord in one place. And suddenly there came a sound from
heaven like a rushing mighty wind, and it filled all the house where
they were sitting. And there appeared unto them cloven tongues as of
fire, and it sat upon each one of them. And they were all filled with
the Holy Ghost, and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit
gave them utterance" (ACTS 2:1-3).
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And on that day Peter preached, "But this is that which was
spoken through the prophet, Joel [2:28]: And it shall come to pass in
the last days, saith God, I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh; and
your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men
shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams" (ACTS
2:16,17).
Old Testament Prophecies Cited in the NT
There are many fulfilled prophecies that have been documented
in the Scriptures. Remarkably, there are numerous Old Testament
prophecies that were fulfilled through the ministry of the Lord Jesus
Christ, as recorded by eyewitnesses in the New Testament. The
fulfillment of prophecies on this magnitude is a supernatural
phenomenon of an amazing scope. Again, these facts provide
impressive evidence for the Divine inspiration of the Bible. The
following table provides an extensive review of selected Old
Testament prophecies fulfilled or referenced in the New Testament.
They are presented in the order that they appear in the Hebrew Bible.
Verse references that are underlined are statements by the Lord Jesus
Christ.
Table 13: OT Prophecies Fulfilled in the NT
Prophetic Verse(s) / NT Prophecy / Citation / Fulfillment
And I will bless them that bless thee, and curse him that curseth
thee: and in thee shall all families of the earth be blessed.
Seeing that Abraham shall surely become a great and mighty
nation, and all the nations of the earth shall be blessed in him.
Genesis 12:3, 18:18 / ACTS 3:25, Galatians 3:8
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The LORD thy God will raise up unto thee a Prophet from the
midst of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me; unto him ye shall
hearken;
According to all thou desirest of the LORD thy God in Horeb in
the assembly; saying, Let me not hear again the voice of the LORD
my God, neither let me see this great fire any more, that I die not.
And the LORD said unto me, They have well spoken that which
they have spoken.
I will raise them up a Prophet from among their brethren, like
unto thee, and will put my words in his mouth; and he shall speak
unto them all that I shall command him.
And it shall come to pass, that whosoever will not hearken unto
my words which he shall speak in my name, I will require it of him.
Deuteronomy 18:15-19 / ACTS 3:22-23; 7:37
His body shall not remain all night, but thou shalt in any wise
bury him that day; (for he that is hanged is accursed of God;) that thy
land be not defiled, which the LORD thy God giveth thee for an
inheritance.
Deuteronomy 21:23 / John 19:31-42, Galatians 3:13
Rejoice, O ye nations, with his people; for he will avenge the
blood of his servants, and will render vengeance to his adversaries,
and will be merciful unto his land, and to his people.
Deuteronomy 32:43 / Romans 15:10
The LORD hath sworn in truth unto David; he will not turn from
it; Of the fruit of thy body will I set upon thy throne.
2 Samuel 7:12-13, Psalm 132:11 / ACTS 2:30-31
Therefore I will give thanks unto thee, O LORD, among the
heathen, and I will sing praises unto thy name. (Psalm 18:49)
2 Samuel 22:50 / Romans 15:9
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And he said, Go, and tell the people, Hear ye indeed, but
understand not; and see ye indeed, but perceive not.
Make the heart of this people fat, and make their ears heavy, and
shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes, and hear with their ears,
and understand with their heart, and convert, and be healed.
Isaiah 6:9-10 / Matthew 13:14-15, Mark 4:12, Luke 8:10
Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his
name Immanuel [God with us].
Isaiah 7:14 / Matthew 1:21-23, Luke 1:34
And he shall be for a sanctuary; but for a stone of stumbling and
for a rock of offense to both the houses of Israel, for a gin and a
snare to the inhabitants of Jerusalem.
Isaiah 8:14 / ACTS 4:11, 1 Peter 2:7,8
Nevertheless the dimness shall not be such as was in her first
vexation, when at the first he lightly afflicted the land of Zebulun
and the land of Naphtali, and afterward did more grievously afflict
her by the way of the sea beyond Jordan, in Galilee of the nations.
The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light: they
that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the
light shined.
Isaiah 9:1-2 / Matthew 4:14-16
And in that day there shall be a root of Jesse, which shall stand
for an ensign of the people; to it shall the Gentiles seek: and his rest
shall be glorious.
Isaiah 11:10 / Romans 15:12
The eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf
shall be unstopped. Then shall the lame man leap as an hart, and the
tongue of the dumb sing: for in the wilderness shall waters break out,
and streams in the desert.
Isaiah 35:5-6 / Luke 7:22-23, John 7:38
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The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of
the LORD, make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every
valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall be made
low: and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough places
plain: And the glory of the LORD shall be revealed, and all flesh
shall see it together: for the mouth of the LORD hath spoken it.
Isaiah 40:3-5 / Matthew 3:3, Mark 1:3, Luke 3:4-6, John 1:23
Behold my servant, whom I uphold; mine elect, in whom my
soul delighteth; I have put my spirit upon him: he shall bring forth
judgment to the Gentiles.
He shall not cry, nor lift up, nor cause his voice to be heard in the
street.
A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking flax shall he
not quench: he shall bring forth judgment unto truth.
He shall not fail nor be discouraged, till he has set judgment in
the earth: and the isles shall wait for his law.
Isaiah 42:1-4 / Matthew 12:17-20
And he said, It is a light thing that thou shouldest be my servant
to raise up the tribes of Jacob, and to restore the preserved of Israel: I
will also give thee for a light to the Gentiles, that thou mayest be my
salvation unto the ends of the earth.
Thus saith the LORD, the Redeemer of Israel, and his Holy One,
to whom man despiseth, to him whom the nation abhoreth, to a
servant of rulers, Kings shall see and arise, princes shall worship,
because of the LORD that is faithful, and the Holy One of Israel, and
he shall choose thee.
Thus saith the LORD, In an acceptable time have I heard thee,
and in a day of salvation have I helped thee: and I will preserve thee,
and give thee for a covenant of the people, to establish the earth, to
cause to inherit the desolate heritages; (2 Corinthians 2:6)
That thou mayest say to the prisoners, Go forth; to them that are
in darkness, Shew yourselves. They shall feed in the ways, and their
pastures shall be in all high places. (Mark 16:15)
Isaiah 49:6-9 / Luke 24:47, ACTS 13:47
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Who hath believed our report? And to whom is the arm of the
LORD revealed? (John 12:37-41; Romans 10:16)
For he shall grow up before him as a tender plant, and as a root
out of dry ground: he hath no form nor comeliness; and when we
shall see him, there is no beauty that we should desire him. (Isaiah
52:14)
He is despised and rejected of men; a man of sorrows, and
acquainted with grief: and we hid as it were our faces from him; he
was despised, and we esteemed him not. (Matthew 27:30-31)
Surely he hath borne our griefs, and carried our sorrows; yet we
did esteem him stricken, smitten of God and afflicted. (Matthew
8:17)
But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for
our iniquities: the chastisement of our peace was upon him; and with
his stripes we are healed. (1 Peter 2:24)
All we like sheep have gone astray; we have turned every one to
his own way; and the LORD hath laid on him the iniquity of us all.
He was oppressed, and he was afflicted. Yet he opened not his
mouth: he was brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep
before her shearers is dumb, so he opened not his mouth. (Luke
18:32-33)
He was taken from prison and from judgment: and who shall
declare his generation? For he was cut off out of the land of the
living: for the transgression of my people was he stricken. (Matthew
27:50)
And he made his grave with the wicked, and with the rich in his
death; because he had done no violence, neither was any deceit in his
mouth. (Matthew 27:57-60)
Yet it pleased the LORD to bruise him; he hath put him to grief:
when thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin, he shall see his
seed, he shall prolong his days, and the pleasure of the LORD shall
prosper in his hand. (John 1:29)
He shall see the travail of his soul, and shall be satisfied: by his
knowledge shall my righteous servant justify many; for he shall bear
their iniquities. (Romans 5:18-19)
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Therefore will I divide him a portion with the great, and he shall
divide the spoil with the strong; because he hath poured out his soul
unto death: and he was numbered with the transgressors; and he bare
the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors. (Luke
22:37)
Isaiah 53:1-12 / See end-of-verse notes
Sing, O barren, thou that didst not bear; break forth into singing,
and cry aloud, thou that didst not travail with child: for more are the
children of the desolate than the children of the married wife, saith
the LORD.
Isaiah 54:1 / Galatians 4:27
The Spirit of the LORD is upon me; because the LORD hath
anointed me to preach good tidings unto the meek; he hath sent me
to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and
the opening of the prison to them that are bound;
To proclaim the acceptable year of the LORD, and the day of
vengeance of our God; to comfort all that mourn.
Isaiah 61:1-2 / see Luke 4:18-21
A voice was heard in Ramah, lamentation and bitter weeping;
Rachel weeping for her children refused to be comforted for her
children, because they were not.
Jeremiah 31:15 / Matthew 2:16-18
Yet the number of the children of Israel shall be as the sand of
the sea, which cannot be measured nor numbered; and it shall come
to pass, that in the place where it was said unto them, Ye are not my
people, there it shall be said unto them, Ye are the sons of the living
God.
And I will sow her unto me in the earth; and I will have mercy
upon her that had not obtained mercy; and I will say to them which
were not my people, Thou art my people; and they shall say, Thou
art my God.
Hosea 1:10, 2:23 / Romans 9:25-26
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After two days he will revive us: in the third day he will raise us
up, and we shall live in his sight.
Hosea 6:2 / Luke 18:33, 24:21, John 20:1,19, 1 Corinthians 15:4
When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out
of Egypt.
Hosea 11:1 / Matthew 2:15
But thou, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though thou be little among the
thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that
is to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth have been from old, from
everlasting.
Micah 5:2 / Matthew 2:6, John 7:42
And it shall come to pass, that whosoever shall call on the name
of the LORD shall be delivered: for in mount Zion and in Jerusalem
shall be deliverance, as the LORD hath said, and in the remnant
whom the LORD shall call.
Joel 2:32 / ACTS 2:17-20
But in that day will I raise up the tabernacle of David that is
fallen, and close up the breaches thereof; and I will raise up his
ruins, and I will build it as in the days of old.
That they may possess the remnant of Edom, and of all the
heathen, which are called by my name, saith the LORD that doeth
this.
Amos 9:11-12 / ACTS 15:14-18
Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of
Jerusalem: behold, thy king cometh unto thee: he is just, and having
salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of
an ass.
Zechariah 9:9 / Matthew 21:5, John 12:14-15
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And I said unto them, If ye think good, give me my price; and if
not, forbear. So they weighed for my price thirty pieces of silver.
And the LORD said unto me, Cast it unto the potter, a goodly
price that I was prised at of them. And I took the thirty pieces of
silver, and cast them to the potter in the house of the LORD.
Zechariah 11:12-13 / Matthew 27:9-10
Awake, O sword, against my shepherd, and against the man that
is my fellow, saith the LORD of hosts: smite the shepherd, and the
sheep shall be scattered: and I will turn mine hand upon the little
ones.
Zechariah 13:7 / Matthew 26:31, Mark 14:27
Are ye come out, as against a thief, with swords and with staves
to take me?
Zechariah 13:7 / Matthew 26:54-56, Mark 14:48-49
And I will pour upon the house of David, and upon the
inhabitants of Jerusalem, the spirit of grace and of supplications: and
they shall look upon me whom they have pierced, and they shall
mourn for him, as one mourneth for his only son, and shall be in
bitterness for him, as one that is in bitterness for his firstborn.
Zechariah 12:10 / John 19:37, Luke 23:27, John 20:11
And the LORD shall be king over all the earth: in that day shall
there be one LORD, and his name one.
Zechariah 14:9 / 1 Timothy 6:15, Revelation 19:16
Behold, I will send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way
before me: and the LORD whom ye seek, shall suddenly come to his
temple, even the messenger of the covenant, whom ye delight in:
behold he shall come, saith the LORD of hosts.
Malachi 3:1 / Mark 1:2, Luke 7:27
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Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of
the great and dreadful day of the LORD:
And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the
heart of the children to their fathers, lest I come and smite the earth
with a curse.
Malachi 4:5-6 / Matthew 11:14, 17:12, Mark 9:12-13, Luke 1:17
Why do the heathen rage, and the people imagine a vain thing?
The kings of the earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel
together, against the LORD, and against his anointed.
Psalm 2:1-2 / ACTS 4:25-27
I will declare the decree: the LORD hath said unto me, Thou art
my Son; this day have I begotten thee.
Psalm 2:7 / ACTS 13:33, Hebrews 1:5, 5:5
Ask of me, and I shall give thee the heathen for thine inheritance,
and the uttermost parts of the earth for thy possession.
Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron; thou shalt dash them in
pieces like a potter’s vessel.
Psalm 2:8,9 / Revelation 2:27
I have set the LORD always before me: because he is my right
hand, I shall not be moved.
Therefore my heart is glad, and my glory rejoiceth: my flesh also
shall rest in hope.
For thou wilt not leave my soul in hell; neither wilt thou suffer
thine Holy One to see corruption.
Thou wilt show me the path of life: in thy presence is fullness of
joy; at thy right hand there are pleasures forevermore.
Psalm 16:8-11 / John 20:9, ACTS 2:25-31
My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? Why art thou so
far from helping me, and from the words of my roaring? (Matthew
27:46)
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O my God, I cry in the daytime, but thou hearest not; and in the
night season, and am not silent.
But thou art holy, O thou that inhabitest the praises of Israel.
Our fathers trusted in thee: they trusted, and thou didst deliver
them.
They cried unto thee, and were delivered: they trusted in thee,
and were not confounded.
But I am a worm, and no man; a reproach of men, and despised
of the people. (Job 25:6)
All they that see me laugh me to scorn: they shoot out the lip,
they shake the head, saying,
He trusted on the LORD that he would deliver him: let him
deliver him, seeing he delighted in him.
But thou art he that took me out of the womb: thou didst make
me hope when I was upon my mother’s breasts.
I was cast upon thee from the womb: thou art my God from my
mother’s belly.
Be not far from me; for trouble is near; for there is none to help
me.
Many bulls have compassed me: strong bulls of Bashan have
beset me round.
They gaped upon me with their mouths, as a ravening and a
roaring lion.
I am poured out like water, and all my bones are out of joint: my
heart is like wax; it is melted in the midst of my bowels.
My strength is dried up like a potsherd; and my tongue cleaveth
to my jaws; and thou hast brought me into the dust of death. (John
19:28)
For dogs have compassed me: the assembly of the wicked have
enclosed me: they pierced my hands and feet. (John 19:34)
I may tell all my bones: they look and stare upon me.
They part my garments among them, and cast lots for my vesture.
(Matthew 27:35, John 19:24)
Psalm 22:1-18, Isaiah 53:3 ff / Mark 9:12, Luke 18:32, 24:25,46
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He keepeth all his bones: not one of them is broken.
Psalm 34:20 / John 19:36
Lo, I come: in the volume of the book it is written of me.
Psalm 40:6-8 / Hebrews 10:5-9
Yea, mine own familiar friend, in whom I trusted, which did eat
of my bread, hath lifted up his heel against me.
Psalm 41:9 / John 13:18, 17:12
Thou hast ascended on high, thou hast led captivity captive: thou
hast received gifts for men; yea, for the rebellious also, that the
LORD God might dwell among them.
Psalm 68:18 / Ephesians 4:8
For the zeal of thine house hath eaten me up; and the reproaches
of them that reproached thee are fallen upon me.
Psalm 69:9 / John 2:17
They gave me also gall for my meat; and in my thirst they gave
me vinegar to drink.
Psalm 69:21 / Matthew 27:34, John 19:28
I will open my mouth in a parable: I will utter dark sayings of
old.
Psalm 78:2 / Matthew 13:35
Let his days be few; and let another take his office.
Let their habitation be desolate; and let none dwell in their tents.
For they persecute him whom thou hast smitten; and they talk to
the grief of those whom thou hast wounded.
Psalm 109:8, 69:25,26 / ACTS 1:20
He shall be of the seed of David, and yet David called him
LORD.
Psalm 110:1 / Matthew 22:43-44, Mark 12:36
2 Samuel 7:12 / Luke 20:42-43, John 7:42
Micah 5:2
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The LORD said unto my LORD, Sit thou at my right hand, until
I make thine enemies thy footstool.
Psalm 110:1 / Matthew 22:43-44, Mark 12:36, Luke 20:42:43,
ACTS 2:34-35, Hebrews 1:13
The LORD hath sworn, and will not repent, Thou art a priest
forever after the order of Melchizedek.
Psalm 110:4 / Hebrews 5:6 and 7:17,21
O praise the LORD, all ye nations: praise him, all ye people.
Psalm 117:1 / Romans 15:11
The stone which the builders refused is become the head stone of
the corner.
This is the LORD’s doing, it is marvellous in our eyes.
Psalm 118:22-23 / Matthew 21:42, Mark 12:10-11, Luke 20:17
He shall be called a Nazarene (spoken prophecy).
Matthew 2:23
&&&&&&&
Prophecies by the Lord Jesus Christ
In the New Testament, several prophecies by the Lord Jesus
Christ are recorded along with their subsequent fulfillment. These
prophecies provide further evidence for the Godly inspiration of the
New Testament. The following table presents several prophecies by
the Lord Jesus Christ, and the Scriptures citing their fulfillment.
They are shown in the order of their appearance in the New
Testament (NT).
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Table 14: NT Prophecies by Jesus Christ
Prophecy / Verse(s) / Fulfillment
And Jesus, walking by the sea of Galilee, saw two brethren,
Simon called Peter, and Andrew his brother, casting a net into the
sea: for they were fishers.
And he saith unto them, Follow me and I will make you fishers
of men.
Matthew 4:18-19, Mark 1:17 / Matthew 28:19-20, ACTS 2:14 ff
And Jesus said unto them, Can the children of the bride chamber
mourn, as long as the bridegroom is with them? But the days will
come, when the bridegroom shall be taken from them, and then shall
they fast.
Matthew 9:15, Mark 2:20 / Luke 24:50-51, Luke 5:35, ACTS
1:9, 13:2-3, 14:23
[Jesus said,] Verily I say unto you, There be some standing here,
which shall not taste of death, till they see the Son of man coming in
his kingdom [or the kingdom of God come with power, or till they
see the kingdom of God].
Matthew 16:28, Mark 9:1, Luke 9:27 / ACTS 7:56, John via
Revelation
From that time forth began Jesus to shew unto his disciples, how
he must go unto Jerusalem, and suffer many things of the elders and
chief priests and scribes, and be killed, and be raised again the third
day…
And while they abode in Galilee, Jesus said unto them, The Son
of man shall be betrayed into the hands of men;
And they shall kill him, and the third day he shall be raised
again. And they were exceeding sorry…
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[Jesus said,] Behold we go up to Jerusalem [and all things that
are written by the prophets concerning the Son of man shall be
accomplished]; and the Son of man shall be betrayed unto the chief
priests and unto the scribes, and they shall condemn him to death.
And shall deliver him to the Gentiles to mock, and to scourge,
and to crucify him: and the third day he shall rise again.
Matthew 16:21, 17:22, 20:18-19, Mark 8:31, 9:31, 10:32-34,
Luke 9:22,44, 18:31-33 / Matthew 26-28, Mark 14-16, Luke 22-24,
John 18 ff
[Jesus said,] Notwithstanding, lest we should offend them, go
thou to the sea, and cast a hook, and take up the fish that first cometh
up; and when thou hast opened his mouth, thou shalt find a piece of
money: that take, and give unto them for me and thee.
Matthew 17:27 / John 9:46
But Jesus answered and said, Ye know not what ye ask. Are ye
able to drink of the cup that I shall drink of, and to be baptized with
the baptism that I am baptized with? They say unto him, We are
able.
And he saith unto them, Ye shall drink indeed of my cup, and be
baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with: but to sit on my
right hand, and on my left, is not mine to give, but it shall be given
to them for whom it is prepared of my Father.
Matthew 20:22-23, Mark 10:39 / Luke 22:19-20, ACTS 2:1-4
[Jesus said,] Even as the Son of man came not to be ministered
unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
Matthew 20:28, Mark 10:45 / Matthew 27, Mark 15, Luke 23,
John 19
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[Jesus said,] Go into the village over against you, and
straightway ye shall find an ass tied, and a colt [whereon never man
sat] with her: loose them, and bring them unto me.
And if any man say ought unto you, ye shall say, The LORD hath
need of them; and straightway he will send them.
Matthew 21:2-3, Mark 11:2-3, Luke 19:30 / Matthew 21:6-7,
Mark 11:4-6, Luke 19:32-34
Now in the morning as he [Jesus] returned into the city, he
hungered.
And when he saw a fig tree in the way, he came to it, and found
nothing thereon, but leaves only, and said unto it, Let no fruit grow
on thee henceforward forever. And presently the fig tree withered
away.
Matthew 21:18-19, Mark 11:12-14 / MT. 21:19, Mk. 11:20 ff
And Jesus said unto them, See ye not all these things [Temple
buildings]? Verily I say unto you, There shall not be left here one
stone upon another, that shall not be thrown down.
Matthew 24:2, Mark 13:2, Luke 21:6 / Romans attack: 70 A. D.
[Jesus said,] For in that she hath poured this ointment on my
body, she did it for my burial.
Verily I say unto you, Wheresoever this gospel shall be preached
in the whole world, there shall also this, that this woman hath done,
be told for a memorial of her.
Matthew 26:12-13, Mark 14:8, John 12:7 / Matthew 27:57 ff,
Mark 15:42 ff, Luke 23:50 ff, John 19:38 ff
And as they did eat, he [Jesus] said, Verily I say unto you, that
one of you shall betray me.
And they were exceeding sorrowful, and began every one of
them to say, Lord, is it I?
And he answered and said, He that dippeth his hand with me in
the dish, the same shall betray me…
Matthew 26:21, Mark 14:18, Luke 22:21, John 13:21 / Matthew
26:47, Mark 14:43, Luke 22:47, John 18:3-12
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[Jesus said,] But after I am risen again, I will go before you into
Galilee.
Matthew 26:32, Mark 14:28 / Matthew 28:16-17, Mark 16:7,
John 21
Jesus said unto him [Peter], Verily I say unto thee, That this
night, before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice.
Matthew 26:34, Mark 14:30, Luke 22:34, John 13:38 / Matthew
26:69 ff, Mark 14:66-72, Luke 22:56 ff, John 18:15-27
And he [Jesus] said unto her, For this saying go thy way; the
devil is gone out of thy daughter.
And when she was come to her house, she found the devil gone
out, and her daughter laid upon the bed.
Mark 7:29 / Mark 7:30
And he [Jesus] sendeth forth two of his disciples, and saith unto
them, Go ye into the city, and there shall ye meet a man bearing a
pitcher of water; follow him.
And wheresoever he shall go in, say ye to the goodman of the
house, The Master saith, Where is the guestchamber, where I shall
eat the passover with my disciples?
And he will shew you a large upper room furnished and
prepared; there make ready for us.
Mark 14:13, Luke 22:10 / Mark 14:16, Luke 22:13
While he yet spake, there came one from the ruler of the
synagogue’s house, saying to him, Thy daughter is dead; trouble not
the Master.
But when Jesus heard it, he answered him, saying, Fear not:
believe only, and she shall be made whole…
And her spirit came again, and she arose straightway: and he
commanded to give her meat.
Luke 8:49-50 / Luke 8:55
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[Jesus said,] For the days shall come upon thee, that thine
enemies shall cast a trench about thee, and compass thee round, and
keep thee in on every side,
And shall lay thee even with the ground, and thy children within
thee; and they shall not leave in thee one stone upon another;
because thou knewest not the time of thy visitation.
Luke 19:43-44 / Romans siege A. D. 66-70
Note; The Romans did in fact over-turn the very stones of the
temple in Jerusalem in order to extract the gold which had melted
and flowed down between the stones during the burning of the
temple.
[Jesus said,] And, behold, I send the promise of my Father upon
you: but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be endued with
power from on high.
Luke 24:49, John 14:16,23, 16:7 / ACTS 2:1-4
Jesus answered and said unto them, Destroy this temple, and in
three days I will raise it up.
John 2:19-22 / Matthew 28:5-6, Mark 16:6, Luke 24:5-8, John
20:6-9
Then said Martha unto Jesus, Lord, if thou hadst been here, my
brother had not died.
Jesus saith unto her, Thy brother shall rise again…
And when he had thus spoken, he cried with a loud voice,
Lazarus come forth.
And he that was dead came forth, bound hand and foot with
graveclothes: and his face was bound with a napkin. Jesus said,
Loose him, and let him go.
John 12:21-22 / John 12:43-44
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[Jesus said to Peter,] Verily, verily, I say unto thee, When thou
wast young, thou girdest thyself, and walkest wither thou wouldest:
but when thou shalt be old, thou shalt stretch forth thine hand, and
another shall gird thee, and carry thee whither thou wouldest not.
John 21:18 / Peter martyred 64 A. D.
&&&&&&&
Prophecies by the Disciples
Continuing, the Lord Jesus Christ prophesied that the Holy Spirit
would show the disciples things to come. Jesus said, “Howbeit when
he, the Spirit of truth is come, he will guide you into all truth: for he
shall not speak of himself; but whatever he shall hear, that shall he
speak: and he will show you things to come” (John 16:13).
Wherefore, it is appropriate to review the prophecies spoken by the
disciples and their fulfillment. Also significantly, the book of
Revelation testifies of prophetic inspiration. The introduction
records, “The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him
to shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass;
and he sent and signified it by his angel unto his servant John”
(Revelation 1:1). The following table provides a summary.
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Table 15: Prophecies by the Disciples
Prophecy / Verse(s) / Fulfillment
Peter predicts Sapphira’s death.
ACTS 5:9 / ACTS 5:10
Agabus predicts famine.
ACTS 11:28 / ACTS 11:29 ff
Agabus predicts imprisonment of Paul.
ACTS 21:11 / ACTS 21:37 ff
Paul tells Ephesians that they will not see him again.
ACTS 20:25 / Paul is imprisoned.
Paul predicts that false teachers will arise.
ACTS 20:29 / Observed
Paul predicts shipmates will be saved, but the ship will be lost.
ACTS 27:22 / ACTS 27:21ff
John’s prophetic vision recorded in Revelation.
Revelation 1:19 ff / Maranatha
&&&&&&&
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Jesus Loves You
Foremost, many of the prophecies of the Old Testament point
toward the Messiah, the Christ, the Anointed One of God. LeHaye
and Jenkins provide a fictional account of a Jewish Rabbi’s
investigation of the Messianic prophecies within the Scriptures.
Rabbi Ben-Judah’s investigation leads to a glorious revelation that
the Lord Jesus Christ uniquely satisfies the all of the prophetic
requirements, precisely as predicted. LeHaye and Jenkins’ story is
fictional, but the data concerning the prophecies is quite factual.
They wrote,
“[Rabbi Ben-Judah said to a public audience,] Based on our careful
study, we believe there are at least 109 separate and distinct prophecies
Messiah must fulfill. They require a man so unusual and a life so unique
that they eliminate all pretenders… The first qualification of Messiah,
accepted by our scholars from the beginning, is that he should be born of
the seed of a woman, not the seed of a man like all other human beings
(Isaiah 7:14)… Our Messiah must be born of an extremely rare bloodline,
‘the root of Jesse’ King David’s father... Messiah, according to the
prophet Micah, must be born in Bethlehem… One of the prophecies we
Jews do not like and tend to ignore is that Messiah will be rejected by his
own people. Isaiah prophesied, ‘He is despised and rejected by men, a
Man of sorrows and acquainted with grief. And we hid, as it were, our
faces from him; He was despised, and we did not esteem Him’…
[The Rabbi continued,] Isaiah and Malachi predict that Messiah will
be preceded by a forerunner. The Psalmist said Messiah would be
betrayed by a friend. Zechariah said that he would be betrayed for thirty
pieces of silver. He adds that people will look on the one whom they have
pierced. The Psalmist prophesied that people would ‘look and stare at
Me. They divide My garments among them, and for My clothing they cast
lots.’ And later it is prophesied that ‘He guards all His bones; not one of
them is broken.’ Isaiah says ‘They made My grave with the wicked; but
with the rich at His death, because He had done no violence, nor was any
deceit in His mouth.’ The Psalms say He was to be resurrected.
[The Rabbi rhetorically asked, if anyone ever lived up to the
Messianic qualifications.] Was there one born in Bethlehem of a virgin, a
descendant of King David, traced back to our Father Abraham, who was
taken to Egypt, called back to minister in Galilee, preceded by a
forerunner, rejected by God’s own people, betrayed for thirty pieces of
silver, pierced without breaking a bone, buried with the rich, and
resurrected?
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According to one of the greatest of all Hebrew prophets, Daniel,
there would be exactly 483 years between the decree to rebuild the wall
and the city of Jerusalem ‘in troublesome times’ before the Messiah
would be cut off for the sins of the people.
[Ben-Judah looked directly into the camera and said], exactly 483
years after the rebuilding of Jerusalem and its walls, Jesus Christ of
Nazareth offered himself to the nation of Israel. He rode into the city on a
donkey to the rejoicing of the people, just as the prophet Zechariah had
predicted: ‘Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout, O daughter of
Jerusalem! Behold, your King is coming to you; He is just and having
salvation, lowly and riding on a donkey, a colt, the foal of a donkey’
(LeHaye and Jenkins p. 388-396).”
Thankfully, we have a "goodly heritage" (Psalm 16:6). The
wonderful fulfillment of prophecy is a precious gift from God. Time
and again, God has vindicated his Word through the precise
fulfillment of his predictions. We are blessed to have such beautiful
and abundant prophetic evidence for the Divine inspiration of the
Word of God as recorded in the Holy Christian Bible.
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Chapter 3
Eyewitness Testimony
“[Jesus said], And it will turn to you for a testimony.”
(Luke 21:13)
The New Testament is composed of a collection of twenty-seven
distinct books, and each book reflects an eyewitness account of the
ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. Altogether, the apostles including
Matthew, John, Peter, and Paul wrote twenty-two of the books. The
remaining five books were written by Christian disciples. These
disciples were close to an apostle, and under apostolic authority,
including Mark, Luke, James, and Jude. Further, the Scriptures show
that James and Jude were half-brothers of the Lord Jesus Christ, and
therefore clearly knew him intimately (Matthew 13:55, ACTS 1:13,
Galatians 1:19).
Again, these men were eyewitnesses of the life, ministry,
passion, resurrection, and ascension of the Lord Jesus Christ. As
such, their eyewitness testimony forms an irrefragable foundation for
trust in the accuracy of their writings. Observing the extensive and
precise agreement or consonance among their written testimonies
further enhances this trust and builds confidence. The following
table provides information concerning the origination of the New
Testament (NT) books. This information is presented in the order of
the New Testament contents. Please note that Paul’s epistles are
usually arranged in descending order of length.
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Table 16: Eyewitness Authors of the NT Books
Book
Matthew
Mark
Luke
John
ACTS
Eyewitness
Matthew
Mark
Luke
John
Luke
Romans
1 Corinthians
2 Corinthians
Galatians
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
1 Thessalonians
2 Thessalonians
1 Timothy
2 Timothy
Titus
Philemon
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
Paul
55
54
55
49
60
61
60
50
51
62
63
62
60
Corinth
Ephesus
Philippi
Antioch
Rome
Rome
Rome
Corinth
Athens
Macedonia
Rome
Nicopolis
Rome
Hebrews
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 John
3 John
Jude
Paul
James
Peter
Peter
John
John
John
Jude
60s
48
65
66
89
90
91
70
Italy
Jerusalem
Babylon (?)
Rome (?)
Ephesus
Ephesus
Ephesus
Unknown
Revelation
John
93
Patmos
&&&&&&&
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Date
60
59
60
88
61
Place
Antioch
Rome
Caesarea
Ephesus
Rome
Jesus Loves You
(Note; Sir Isaac Newton placed the writings of John the
Revelator to approximately 68-69 A. D., prior to the fall of
Jerusalem to the Romans in 70 A. D.)
The books of the Bible may be categorized as the Gospels
(Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John), the historical book of ACTS, and
the Epistles. Altogether, there are twenty-one Epistles that have been
subdivided into the Pauline (thirteen) and the General (eight). An
epistle is a correspondence, that is intended to be a public and
permanent message, as may be contrasted with a personal letter,
which may be more private and of temporary relevance. In addition,
we have the apocalyptic book of Revelation. The word, revelation, is
derived from Latin, and means an “unveiling.”
Two or Three Witnesses
The Bible states that the testimony of two or three witnesses,
which are in agreement, can be sufficient to establish a case. In the
Law of Moses, the Bible says, “At the mouth [or testimony] of two
witnesses, or at the mouth of three witnesses, shall the matter be
established” (Deuteronomy 18:15). In the New Testament, the Lord
Jesus Christ reaffirmed this tenet by saying, “that in the mouth of
two or three witnesses every word may be established” (Matthew
18:16).
The New Testament can be shown to be objectively true in that it
documents multiple independent eyewitness accounts of the life and
ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ, often in parallel detail.
Comparisons show that the parallel accounts tend to confirm and
supplement one another. In the New Testament, there are over fiftythree events in the life and ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ, that are
documented in three or four of the Gospels including Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John.
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The following table provides a review of numerous parallel
events in the life and ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ, that are
documented in Matthew, Mark, and Luke, and in some cases, John.
This is an extensive list, which shows clear and consistent agreement
or assent, among the eyewitness accounts of the disciples. In general,
the following Scriptures are shown in the order that they appear in
the book of Matthew. In some cases, additional relevant words are
included in brackets from the subsequent gospels to amplify the
meaning.
Table 17: Parallel Events - Ministry of Jesus Christ
Event - Verse(s) /
Matthew / Mark / Luke / John
In those days came John the Baptist, preaching in the wilderness
of Judea.
And saying, Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.
Mt. 3:1-2 / Mk. 1:1-8 / Lk. 3:1-20 / Jn. 1:19 ff
Then cometh Jesus from Galilee to Jordan unto John, to be
baptized of him.
But John forbade him, saying, I have need to be baptized of thee,
and comest thou to me?
And Jesus answering said unto him, Suffer it to be so now: for
thus it becometh us to fulfill all righteousness.
And Jesus, when he was baptized, went up straightway out of the
water: and, lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and he saw the
Spirit of God descending like a dove, and lighting upon him:
And lo a voice from heaven, saying, This is my beloved Son, in
whom I am well pleased.
Mt. 3:13-17 / Mk. 1:9-11 / Lk. 3:21-22 / Jn. 1:32 ff
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Then was Jesus led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be
tempted of the devil.
Mt. 4:1-11 / Mk. 1:12-13 / Lk. 4:1-13
From that time Jesus began to preach, and to say, Repent: for the
kingdom of heaven is at hand.
Mt. 4:12-17 / Mk. 1:14-15 / Lk. 4:14-15
And behold, there came a leper and worshipped him, saying,
Lord, if thou wilt, thou canst make me clean.
And Jesus [had compassion on him and] put forth his hand and
touched him, saying, I will; be thou clean. And immediately his
leprosy was cleansed.
Mt. 8:1-4 / Mk. 1:40-45 / Lk. 5:12-16
And when Jesus was come into Peter’s house, he saw his wife’s
mother laid, and sick of a fever.
And he touched her hand, and the fever left her: and she arose,
and ministered unto them.
When the even was come, they brought unto him many that were
possessed with devils: and he cast out the spirits with his word, and
healed all that were sick.
Mt. 8:14-17 / Mk. 1:29-34 / Lk. 4:38-41
And when he [Jesus] was entered into a ship, his disciples
followed him.
And, behold, there arose a great tempest in the sea, insomuch
that the ship was covered with the waves: but he was asleep.
And his disciples came to him, and awoke him, saying, Lord,
save us: we perish.
And he sayeth unto them, Why are ye fearful, O ye of little faith?
Then he arose, and rebuked the winds and the sea; and there was a
great calm.
But the men marveled, saying, What manner of man is this, that
even the winds and the sea obey him!
Mt. 8:23-27 / Mk. 4:35-41 / Lk. 8:22-25
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And when he was come to the other side into the country of the
Gergesenes, there met him two possessed with devils, coming out of
the tombs, exceeding fierce, so that no man might pass by that way.
And, behold they cried out, saying, What have we to do with
thee, Jesus, thou Son of God? Art thou come hither to torment us
before the time?
And there was a good way off from them an herd of many swine
feeding.
So the devils besought him, saying, If thou cast us out, suffer us
to go away into the herd of swine.
And he said unto them, Go. And when they were come out, they
went into the herd of swine: and, behold, the whole herd of swine
ran violently down a steep place into the sea, and perished in the
waters.
And they that kept them fled, and went their ways into the city,
and told everything, and what was befallen to the possessed of the
devils [for he was sitting at the feet of Jesus, clothed and in his right
mind].
And, behold, the whole city came out to meet Jesus: and when
they saw him, they besought him that he would depart out of their
coasts.
Mt. 8:28-34 / Mk. 4:36-41 / Lk. 8:23-25
And he [Jesus] entered into a ship, and passed over, and came
into his own city.
And, behold, they brought to him a man sick of the palsy, lying
on a bed: and Jesus seeing their faith said unto the sick of the palsy;
Son, be of good cheer; thy sins be forgiven thee.
And, behold, certain of the scribes said within themselves, This
man blasphemeth.
And Jesus knowing their thoughts said, Wherefore think ye evil
in your hearts?
For whether is easier, to say, Thy sins be forgiven thee; or to say,
Arise, and walk?
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Jesus Loves You
But that ye may know that the Son of man hath power on earth to
forgive sins, (then saith he to the sick of the palsy,) Arise, take up
thy bed, and go into the house.
And he arose, and departed to his house.
But when the multitudes saw it, they marveled, and glorified
God, which had given such power unto men.
Mt. 9:1-8 / Mk. 2:1-12 / Lk. 5:17-26
And as Jesus passed forth from thence, he saw a man, named
Matthew, sitting at the receipt of custom: and he saith unto him,
Follow me. And he arose, and followed him.
And it came to pass, as Jesus sat at meat in [Matthew’s] house,
behold, many publicans and sinners came and sat down with him and
his disciples.
And when the Pharisees saw it, they said unto his disciples, Why
eateth your Master with publicans and sinners?
But when Jesus heard that, he said unto them, They that be whole
need not a physician, but they that are sick.
But go ye and learn what that meaneth, I will have mercy, and
not sacrifice: for I am not come to call the righteous, but sinners to
repentance.
Mt. 9:9-13 / Mk. 2:13-17 / Lk. 5:27-32
Then came to him the disciples of John, saying, Why do we and
the Pharisees fast oft, but thy disciples fast not?
And Jesus said unto them, Can the children of the bride chamber
mourn, as long as the bridegroom is with them? But the days will
come, when the bridegroom shall be taken from them, and then shall
they fast.
No man putteth a piece of new cloth unto an old garment, for
that which is put in to fill it up taketh from the garment, and the rent
is made worse.
Neither do men put new wine into old bottles: else the bottles
break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish: but they put
new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved.
Mt. 9:14-17 / Mk. 2:18-22 / Lk. 5:33-39
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While he spake these things unto them, behold, there came a
certain ruler, and worshipped him, saying, My daughter is even now
dead: but come and lay thy hand upon her, and she shall live.
And Jesus arose, and followed him, and so did his disciples.
And, behold, a woman which was diseased with an issue of
blood twelve years, came behind him, and touched the hem of his
garment:
For she said within herself, If I may but touch his garment, I shall
be whole.
But Jesus turned him about, and when he saw her, he said,
Daughter, be of good comfort; thy faith hath made thee whole. And
the woman was made whole from that hour.
And when Jesus came into the ruler’s house, and saw the
minstrels and the people making a noise,
He said unto them, Give place: for the maid is not dead, but
sleepeth. And they laughed him to scorn.
But when the people were put forth, he went in, and took her by
the hand, and the maid arose.
And the fame hereof went abroad into all that land.
Mt. 9:18-26 / Mk. 5:21-43 / Lk. 8:40-56
And when he had called unto him his twelve disciples, he gave
them power against unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to heal all
manner of sickness and all manner of disease.
Now the names of the twelve apostles are these; The first,
Simon, who is called Peter, and Andrew his brother; James, the son
of Zebedee, and John his brother;
Philip, and Bartholomew, Thomas, and Matthew the publican;
James the son of Alphaeus and Lebbaeus, whose surname was
Thaddaeus;
Simon, the Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot, who also betrayed him.
Mt. 10:1-4 / Mk. 3:13-19 / Lk. 6:12-16
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Jesus Loves You
These twelve Jesus sent forth, and commanded them, saying, Go
not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the Samaritans
enter ye not:
But go rather to the lost sheep of the house of Israel.
And as ye go, preach, saying, The kingdom of heaven is at hand.
Heal the sick, cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils:
Freely ye have received, freely give.
Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses,
Nor scrip for your journey, neither two coats, neither shoes [but
sandals], nor yet staves: for the workman is worthy of his meat.
And into whatsoever city or town ye shall enter, inquire who in it
is worthy; and there abide till ye go thence.
And when ye come into a house, salute it.
And if the house be worthy, let your peace come upon it: but if it
be not worthy, let your peace return to you.
And whosoever shall not receive you, nor hear your words, when
ye depart out of that house or city, shake off the dust of your feet [for
a testimony against them].
Verily I say unto you, It shall be more tolerable for the land of
Sodom and Gomorrha in the day of judgment, than for that city.
Mt. 10:5-15 / Mk. 6:7-13 / Lk. 9:1-6
At that time Jesus went on the sabbath day through the corn; and
his disciples were an hungered, and began to pluck the ears of corn,
and to eat.
But when the Pharisees saw it, they said unto him, Behold, thy
disciples do that which is not lawful to do upon the sabbath day.
But he said unto them, Have ye not read what David did, when
he was an hungered, and they that were with him;
How he entered into the house of God, and did eat of the
shewbread, which is not lawful for him to eat, neither for them
which were with him, but only for the priests?
Or have ye not read in the law, how that on the sabbath days the
priests in the temple profane the sabbath, and are blameless?
124
But I say unto you, That in this place is one greater than the
temple.
But if ye had known what this meaneth, I will have mercy, and
not sacrifice, ye would not have condemned the guiltless.
For the Son of man is Lord even of the sabbath day.
Mt. 12:1-8 / Mk. 2:23-28 / Lk. 6:1-5
And when he had departed thence, he went into their synagogue:
And, behold, there was a man which had his [right] hand
withered. And they asked him, saying, Is it lawful to heal on the
sabbath days? That they might accuse him.
And he said unto them, What man shall there be among you, that
shall have one sheep, and if it fall into a pit on the sabbath day, will
he not lay hold on it, and lift it out?
How much then is a man better than a sheep? Wherefore it is
lawful to do well on the sabbath days.
Then he saith to the man, Stretch forth thine hand. And he
stretched it forth; and it was restored whole, like as the other.
Mt. 12:9-14 / Mk. 3:1-6 / Lk. 6:6-11
Then was brought unto him one possessed with a devil, blind and
dumb: and he healed him, insomuch that the blind and dumb both
spake and saw.
And all the people were amazed, and said, Is not this the son of
David?
But when the Pharisees heard it, they said, This fellow doth not
cast out devils, but by Beelzebub the prince of the devils.
And Jesus knew their thoughts, and said unto them, Every
kingdom divided against itself is brought to desolation; and every
city or house divided against itself shall not stand:
And if Satan cast out Satan, he is divided against himself, how
shall then his kingdom stand?
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And if I by Beelzebub cast out devils, by whom do your children
cast them out? Therefore they shall be your judges.
But if I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of
God is come unto you.
Or else how can one enter into a strong man’s house, and spoil
his goods, except he first bind the strong man? And then he will
spoil his house.
He that is not with me is against me; and he that gathereth not
with me scattereth abroad.
Wherefore I say unto you, All manner of sin and blasphemy shall
be forgiven men: but the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost shall not
be forgiven men.
And whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of man, it shall
be forgiven him: but whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost, it
shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world
to come.
Mt. 12:22-32 / Mk. 3:22-29 / Lk. 11:14-23
Then certain of the Pharisees answered, saying, Master, we
would see a sign from thee.
But he answered and said unto them, An evil and adulterous
generation seeketh after a sign; and there shall no sign be given it,
but the sign of the prophet Jonas:
For as Jonas was three days and three nights in the whale’s belly;
so shall the Son of man be three nights in the heart of the earth.
The men of Nineveh shall rise in judgment with this generation,
and shall condemn it: because they repented at the preaching of
Jonas; and, behold, a greater than Jonas is here.
The queen of the south shall rise up in the judgment with this
generation, and shall condemn it: for she came from the uttermost
parts of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon; and, behold, a
greater than Solomon is here.
Mt. 12:38-42 / Mk. 8:11-12 / Lk. 11:29-33
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While he yet talked to the people, behold, his mother and his
brethren stood without, desiring to speak with him.
Then one said unto him, Behold, thy mother and thy brethren
stand without, desiring to speak with thee.
But he answered and said unto him that told him, Who is my
mother? And who are my brethren?
And he stretched forth his hand toward his disciples, and said,
Behold my mother and my brethren!
For whosoever shall do the will of my Father, which is in
heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother.
Mt. 12:46-50 / Mk. 3:31-35 / Lk. 8:19-21
The same day went Jesus out of the house, and sat by the sea
side.
And great multitudes were gathered together unto him, so that he
went into a ship, and sat; and the whole multitude stood on the
shore.
And he spake many things unto them in parables, saying, Behold,
a sower went forth to sow;
And when he sowed, some seeds fell by the way side, and the
fowls came and devoured them up:
Some fell upon stony places, where they had not much earth: and
forthwith they sprung up, because they had no deepness of earth:
And when the sun was up, they were scorched; and because they
had no root, they withered away.
And some fell among thorns; and the thorns sprung up, and
choked them:
But others fell on good ground, and brought forth fruit, some an
hundredfold, some sixtyfold, some thirtyfold.
Who hath ears to hear, let him hear.
And the disciples came, and said unto him, Why speakest thou
unto them in parables?
He answered and said unto them, Because it is given unto you to
know the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, but to them it is not
given.
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For whosoever hath, to him shall be given, and he shall have
more abundance: but whosoever hath not, from him shall be taken
away even that he hath.
Therefore speak I to them in parables; because they seeing see
not; and hearing they hear not, neither do they understand.
And in them is fulfilled the prophecy of Esaias, which saith, By
hearing ye shall hear, and shall not understand; and seeing ye shall
see, and shall not perceive:
For this people’s heart is waxed gross, and their ears are dull of
hearing, and their eyes they have closed; lest at any time they should
see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and should understand
with their heart, and should be converted, and I should heal them.
But blessed are your eyes, for they see: and your ears, for they
hear.
For verily I say unto you, That many prophets and righteous men
have desired to see those things which ye see, and have not seen
them; and to hear those things which ye hear, and have not heard
them.
Hear ye therefore the parable of the sower.
When anyone heareth the word of the kingdom, and
understandeth it not, then cometh the wicked one, and catcheth away
that which was sown in his heart. This is he which received seed by
the way side.
But he that received the seed into stony places, the same is he
that heareth the word, and anon with joy receiveth it.
Yet hath he not root in himself, but dureth for a while: for when
tribulation or persecution ariseth because of the word, by and by he
is offended.
He also that received seed among the thorns is he that heareth the
word; and the care of this world, and the deceitfulness of riches, [and
the lusts of other things] choke the word, and he becometh
unfruitful.
But he that received seed into the good ground is he that heareth
the word [with an honest and good heart], and understandeth it;
which also beareth fruit, and bringeth forth [with patience], some an
hundredfold, some sixty, some thirty.
Mt. 13:1-23 / Mk. 4:1-20 / Lk. 8:4-15
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Another parable put he forth unto them, saying, The kingdom of
heaven is like to a grain of mustard seed, which a man took, and
sowed in his field:
Which indeed is the least of all seeds: but when it is grown, it is
the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of
the air come and lodge in the branches thereof.
Mt. 13:31-32 / Mk. 4:30-32 / Lk. 13:18-19
And it came to pass that when Jesus had finished these parables,
he departed thence.
And when he was come into his own country, he taught them in
their synagogue, insomuch that they were astonished, and said,
Whence hath this man this wisdom, and these mighty works?
Is not this the carpenter’s son? Is not his mother called Mary?
[and is this not Joseph’s son?] And his brethren, James, and Joses,
and Simon, and Judas?
And his sisters, are they not all with us? Whence then hath this
man all these things?
And they were offended in him. But Jesus said unto them, A
prophet is not without honor, save in his own country, [and among
his own kin] and in his own house.
And he did not many mighty works there because of their
unbelief.
Mt. 13:53-58 / Mk. 6:1-6 / Lk. 4:16-30
Presenting the story of John the Baptist’ execution.
Mt. 14:1-12 / Mk. 6:14-29 / Lk. 9:7-9
[And the apostles, when they were returned, told him all that they
had done.]
When Jesus heard of it, he departed thence by ship into a desert
place apart: and when the people had heard thereof, they followed
him on foot out of the cities.
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And Jesus went forth, and saw a great multitude, and was moved
with compassion toward them [because they were as sheep not
having a shepherd: and he began to teach them many things], and he
healed their sick.
And when it was evening, his disciples came to him, saying, This
is a desert place [belonging to the city called Bethsaida, or fishinghouse], and the time is now past; send the multitude away, that they
may go into the villages, and buy themselves victuals.
But Jesus said unto them, They need not depart; give ye them to
eat.
And they said unto him, We have here but five loaves, and two
fishes.
He said, bring them hither to me.
And he commanded the multitude to sit down on the grass [in
companies by fifties], and took the five loaves, and the two fishes,
and looking up to heaven, he blessed, and brake, and gave the loaves
to his disciples, and the disciples to the multitude.
And they did all eat, and were filled: and they took up of the
fragments that remained twelve baskets full [for Jesus said, Gather
up the fragments that remain, that nothing be lost.].
And they that had eaten were about five thousand men, beside
women and children.
[Then those men, when they had seen the miracle that Jesus did,
said, This is of a truth that prophet that should come into the world.]
Mt. 14:13-21 / Mk. 6:30-44 / Lk. 9:10-17 / Jn. 6:1-14
When Jesus came into the coasts of Caesarea Philippi, [by the
wayside while he was praying] he asked his disciples, saying, Whom
do men say that I the Son of man am?
And they said, Some say that thou art John the Baptist: some,
Elias; and others, Jeremias, or one of the old prophets [is risen
again].
He saith unto them, But whom say ye that I am?
And Simon Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son
of the living God.
130
And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art thou, Simon
Barjona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my
Father which is in heaven.
And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock [of
your testimony] I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall
not prevail against it.
And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven
(ACTS 2:38): and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be
bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be
loosed in heaven.
Mt. 16:13-19 / Mk. 8:27-39 / Lk. 9:18-20
Then he charged his disciples that they should tell no man that he
was Jesus the Christ.
From that time forth began Jesus to shew unto his disciples, how
that he must go unto Jerusalem, and [be rejected and] suffer many
things of the elders and chief priests and scribes, and be killed, and
be raised again the third day.
Then Peter took him, and began to rebuke him, saying, Be it far
from thee, Lord: this shall not be unto thee.
But he turned and said unto Peter, Get thee behind me, Satan:
thou art an offense unto me: for thou savourest not the things that be
of God, but those that be of men.
Then Jesus said unto his disciples [and to the others gathered
about], If any man will come after me, let him deny himself, and take
up his cross [daily], and follow me.
For whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and whosoever will
lose his life for my sake [and the gospels] shall find it.
For what is a man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and
lose his own soul? Or what shall a man give in exchange for his
soul?
[Whosoever therefore shall be ashamed of me and of my words
in this adulterous and sinful generation: of him also shall the Son of
man be ashamed.]
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For the Son of man shall come in the glory of his Father with his
angels; and then he shall reward every man according to his works
(John 6:29).
Verily I say unto you, There be some standing here, which shall
not taste of death, till they see the Son of man coming in his
kingdom [or the kingdom of God come with power].
Mt. 16:20-28 / Mk. 8:30-9:1 / Lk. 9:21-27
And after six days Jesus taketh Peter, James, and John his
brother, and bringeth them up into a high mountain apart.
And was transfigured before them: and his face did shine as the
sun, and his raiment was white as the light [as no fuller on earth can
white them].
And behold there appeared unto them Moses and Elias talking
with him [who appeared in glory, and spake of his decease which he
should accomplish at Jerusalem].
Then answered Peter, and said unto Jesus, Lord, it is good for us
to be here: if thou wilt, let us make here three tabernacles; one for
thee, and one for Moses, and one for Elias.
While he yet spake, behold, a bright cloud overshadowed them:
and behold a voice out of the cloud, which said, This is my beloved
Son, in whom I am well pleased; hear ye him.
And when the disciples heard it, they fell on there face, and were
sore afraid.
And Jesus came and touched them, and said, Arise, and be not
afraid.
And when they had lifted up their eyes, they saw no man, save
Jesus only.
Mt. 17:1-8 / Mk. 9:2-8 / Lk. 9:28-36
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And when they were come to the multitude, there came to him a
certain man, kneeling down to him, and saying,
Lord, have mercy on my son: for he is a lunatick [and hath a
dumb spirit], and sore vexed: for ofttimes he falleth into the fire, and
oft into the water.
And I brought him to thy disciples, and they could not cure him.
Then Jesus answered and said, O faithless and perverse
generation, how long shall I be with you? How long shall I suffer
you? Bring him hither to me.
[And Jesus asked the Father, How long is it since this came unto
him? And he said, of a child.
And ofttimes it casts him into the fire, and into the waters, to
destroy him: but if thou canst do any thing, have compassion on us,
and help us.
Jesus said unto him, If thou canst believe, all things are possible
to him that believeth.
And straightway the father of the child cried out, and said with
tears, Lord, I believe; help thou mine unbelief.
When Jesus saw that the people came running together, he
rebuked the foul spirit, saying unto him, Thou dumb and deaf spirit,
I charge thee, come out of him, and enter no more into him.
And the spirit cried, and rent him sore, and came out of him: and
he was as one dead; insomuch that many said, He is dead.
But Jesus took him by the hand, and lifted him up; and he arose.]
And Jesus rebuked the devil; and he departed out of him: and the
child was cured from that very hour.
Mt. 17:14-18 / Mk. 9:17-27 / Lk. 9:37-43
And while they abode in Galilee, Jesus said unto them, The Son
of man shall be betrayed into the hands of men:
And they shall kill him, and the third day he shall be raised
again. And they were exceeding sorry.
Mt. 17:22-23 / Mk. 9:30-32 / Lk. 9:43-45
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At the same time came the disciples unto Jesus, saying, Who is
the greatest in the kingdom of heaven?
And Jesus called a little child unto him, and set him in the midst
of them,
And said, Verily I say unto you, Except ye be converted, and
become as little children, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of
heaven.
Whosoever therefore shall humble himself as this little child, the
same is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven.
And whoso shall receive one such little child in my name
receiveth me.
Mt. 18:1-5 / Mk. 9:33-37 / Lk. 9:46-48
Then were there brought unto him little children, that he should
put his hands on them, and pray: and the disciples rebuked them.
But Jesus said, Suffer little children, and forbid them not, to
come unto me: for of such is the kingdom of heaven [or God].
[Verily I say unto you, Whosoever shall not receive the kingdom
of God as a little child, he shall not enter therein.]
And he laid his hands on them [and blessed them], and departed
thence.
Mt. 19:13-15 / Mk. 10:13-16 / Lk. 18:15-17
And, behold, one came [running and kneeled to him] and said
unto him, Good Master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have
eternal life?
And he said unto him, Why callest thou me good? There is none
good but one, that is, God: but if thou wilt enter into life, keep the
commandments.
He saith unto him, Which? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder,
Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not
bear false witness,
Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy
neighbor as thyself.
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The young man saith unto him, All these things have I kept from
my youth up: what lack I yet?
Jesus [beholding him, loved him and] said unto him, If thou wilt
be perfect, go and sell all that thou hast, and give to the poor, and
thou shalt have treasure in heaven: and come [take up thy cross] and
follow me.
But when the young man heard that saying, he went away
sorrowful: for he had great possessions.
Then said Jesus unto his disciples, Verily I say unto you, That a
rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of heaven.
And again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel [or rope] to go
through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the
kingdom of God.
When his disciples heard it, they were exceedingly amazed,
saying, Who then can be saved?
But Jesus beheld them, and said unto them, With men this is
impossible; but with God all things are possible.
Then answered Peter and said unto him, Behold, we have
forsaken all, and followed thee; what shall we have therefore?
And Jesus said unto them, Verily I say unto you, That ye which
have followed me, in the regeneration when the Son of man shall sit
in the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones,
judging the twelve tribes of Israel.
And every one that hath forsaken houses, or brethren, or sisters,
or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my name’s
sake [and the gospel’s], shall receive an hundredfold [with
persecutions], and shall inherit everlasting life.
But many that are first shall be last, and the last shall be first.
Mt. 19:16-30 / Mk. 10:17-31 / Lk. 18:18-30
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And Jesus going up to Jerusalem took the twelve disciples apart
in the way, and said unto them,
Behold, we go up to Jerusalem [and all things that are written by
the prophets concerning the Son of man shall be accomplished]; and
the Son of man shall be betrayed unto the chief priests and unto the
scribes, and they shall condemn him to death,
And shall deliver him to the Gentiles to mock, and to scourge,
[and to spit upon him], and to crucify him: and the third day he shall
rise again.
Mt. 20:17-19 / Mk. 10:32-34 / Lk. 18:31-34
And, behold, two blind men sitting by the way side, when they
heard that Jesus passed by, cried out, saying, Have mercy on us, O
Lord, thou Son of David.
And the multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their
peace: but they cried the more, saying, Have mercy on us, O Lord,
thou Son of David.
And Jesus stood still, and called them, and said, What will ye
that I shall do unto you?
They said unto him, Lord, that our eyes may be opened.
So Jesus had compassion on them, and touched their eyes [and
said, Go thy way; thy faith hath made thee whole]: and immediately
their eyes received sight, and they followed him.
Mt. 20:29-34 / Mk. 10:46-52 / Lk. 18:35-42
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Triumph through the Resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ
Triumphal entry into Jerusalem
Mt. 21:1-11 / Mk. 11:1-11 / Lk. 19:28-40 / Jn. 12:12 ff
“By what authority doeth…?”
Mt. 21:23-27 / Mk. 11:27-33 / Lk. 20:1-8
Vineyard and tenants parable
Mt. 21:33-46 / Mk. 12:1-12 / Lk. 20:9-19
Render unto Caesar
Mt. 22:15-22 / Mk. 12:13-17 / Lk. 20:20-26
The resurrection
Mt. 22:23-33 / Mk. 12:18-27 / Lk. 20:27-40
David’s son
Mt. 22:41-46 / Mk. 12:35-37 / Lk. 20:41-44
Sermon on the last days
Mt. 24:1-36 / Mk. 13:1-32 / Lk. 21:5-33
Preparing for Passover
Mt. 25:17-20 / Mk. 14:12-17 / Lk. 22:7-14
Gethsemane
Mt. 25:36-46 / Mk. 14:32-42 / Lk. 22:39-46
Passover plot
Mt. 26:1-5 / Mk. 14:1-2 / Lk. 22:1-6
Foretelling of betrayal
Mt. 26:21-25 / Mk. 14:18-21 / Lk. 22:21-23 / Jn. 13:21 ff
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The Lord’s Supper
Mt. 26:26-30 / Mk. 14:22-26 / Lk. 22:14-20
Prediction of Peter’s denial
Mt. 26:31-35 / Mk. 14:27-31 / Lk. 22:31-34 / Jn. 13:36 ff
Arrest of Jesus
Mt. 26:47-56 / Mk. 14:43-50 / Lk. 22:47-53 / Jn. 18:3 ff
Sanhedrin (Peter’s denial)
Mt. 26:57-75 / Mk. 14:53-72 / Lk. 22:54-71 / Jn. 18:13 ff
Jesus before Pilate
Mt. 27:1-14 / Mk. 15:1-5 / Lk. 23:1-5 / Jn. 18:28 ff
Sentencing of Jesus
Mt. 27:15-26 / Mk. 15:6-15 / Lk. 23:17-25 / Jn. 18:39 ff
Crucifixion, Death, and Burial
Mt. 27:32-61 / Mk. 15:21-47 / Lk. 23:26-56 / Jn. 19:2 ff
Resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ
Mt. 28:1-8 / Mk. 16:1-8 / Lk. 24:1-12 / Jn. 20:1 ff
&&&&&&&
The numerous instances and significant agreement among the
New Testament manuscripts concerning the ministry of the Lord
Jesus Christ provide compelling evidence toward establishing the
accurate eyewitness recording of the Gospels.
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The Gospels - Valid Eyewitness Testimonies
An analysis of the parallel gospels provides objective evidence
for the validity of the eyewitness testimonies. Such analysis shows
that the gospels were independently written, and that they reflect the
unique perspective of the eyewitness authors. Alternatively, the
writings show no significant evidence for collaboration among the
authors, much less any secretive or intentional collusion. Often, the
gospels recount the same observed events, but the wording is usually
somewhat divergent and unique.
Again, this investigation reveals that the numerous parallel
accounts in the gospels are similar, but are usually not identical.
Also, the order or sequence of presentation and level of detail vary,
and yet there are no unexplainable contradictions. Therefore, we can
surmise that the gospels did not entirely originate from a single
source of documentation: for we would observe more word-for-word
commonality and more correlation in the sequence of events. We can
also suggest that the authors did not collaborate on their writings,
simply because overall their complete gospels vary significantly in
wording and sequence, and present distinct writing styles.
Perhaps, if the authors had collaborated in a committee effort,
there may have been only one gospel produced, which hypothetically
might have been ratified by a council of the Apostles. However, a
collaborative effort may have been less well received or convincing.
Such collaboration may have diminished the perception of validity,
due to excluding independent testimonies, and moreover, due to an
impression of the possibility of collusion to influence the resulting
gospel account. Thankfully instead, four unique gospel books have
been preserved, which in the context of legal admissibility, are
objectively credible due to the independent eyewitness nature of
their testimonies.
Wherefore, through the gospels, we have more than the two or
three witnesses, that the Lord Jesus Christ cited as required to
establish a matter. The Bible beautifully explains, “Wherefore seeing
we also are compassed about with so great a cloud of witnesses, let
us lay aside every weight, and the sin which doth so easily beset us,
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and let us run with patience the race that is set before us, Looking
unto Jesus, the author and finisher of our faith” (Hebrews 12:1,2).
Furthermore, it is likely that certain Christian stories and sayings
of the Lord Jesus Christ were written and used in worship services
prior to the writing of the gospels, and that the Apostles most likely
knew such writings or may have even composed them. Such [now
lost] writings may have been early lectionaries or Agrapha. As such,
these early writings may account for some of the similarities that we
observe, but overall the significant differences between the gospels
indicate that each book was independently composed. Therefore in
conclusion, it is apparent that the gospels were independently written
by eyewitnesses of the ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ, and
therefore should be received as valid testimony.
Importance of the Spoken Word
We may also note that there are no specific indications that the
Lord Jesus Christ personally wrote any of His teachings nor did He
dictate to a copyist. We also have no indication that His disciples
took written notes during the course of His ministry. It is apparent
that the Lord Jesus Christ did not require, that His disciples record,
in writing, the various gospel accounts during the timeframe of His
ministry.
At one point the Lord Jesus Christ said to John the Baptist’s
disciples, “Go your way, and tell John what you have seen and
heard; how that the blind see, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed,
the deaf hear, the dead are raised, to the poor the gospel is preached.
And blessed is he whosoever shall not be offended in me” (Luke
7:22, 23). From this, we can recognize that the Lord Jesus Christ
placed emphasis on spoken eyewitness testimony to communicate
events, precepts, and teachings concerning His ministry. In general,
reliance on verbal testimony was typical in ancient times. Dr. Carson
wrote, "But the importance of memorization in first-century Jewish
society is undeniable, and we are justified in thinking that this
provides a sufficient basis for the careful and accurate oral
transmission of Gospel material. We have every reason to think,
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then, that the early Christians were both able and willing to hand
down accurately the deeds and words of Jesus (Carson p. 25).
Further, the Lord Jesus Christ commanded His disciples to
preach and to teach, as the means for communicating the gospel. For
instance, Jesus said, “Go ye therefore, and teach all nations”
(Matthew 28:19). Jesus also said, “Go ye into all the world, and
preach the gospel to every creature” (Mark 16:15). Moreover, the
Lord Jesus Christ said, “ye shall be witnesses unto me” (ACTS 1:8).
By these Scriptures, we realize that the Lord Jesus Christ intended
for the gospel to be spread abroad through the spoken word.
Moreover, we know that the Lord Jesus Christ taught that His
words were spirit and life (John 6:63), that His words would not pass
away (Luke 33:3), and that the Holy Spirit (Ghost) would remind
and guide the disciples (John 14:26, 16:13). As such, the Lord Jesus
Christ emphasized the gift of the Holy Spirit as the means for future
communication. Therefore, we may recognize His expectation and
reliance on the Holy Spirit to enable accurate testimonies following
the time of His ministry. The Bible says, “for it is the anointing that
teacheth you of all things, and is truth” (1 John 3:27).
Eyewitness Testimonies
The Gospel of Luke presents as an introduction, "Forasmuch as
many have taken in hand to set forth in order a declaration of those
things which are most surely believed among us, Even as they
delivered them unto us, who from the beginning were eyewitnesses,
and ministers of the word; It seemed good to me also, having had
perfect understanding of all things from the very first [and from
above], to write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus
[which means loved by God], That thou mightest know the certainty
of those things, wherein thou hast been instructed" (Luke 1:1-4).
Also, the Apostle Peter wrote, "For we have not followed cunningly
devised fables when we made known unto you the power and
coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but were eyewitnesses of his
majesty" (2 Peter 1:16).
As a stirring illustration of eyewitness testimony, in the book of
1 John we read, "That which was from the beginning, which we have
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heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked
upon, and our hands have handled, of the Word of life; (For the life
was manifested; and we have seen it, and bear witness; and shew
unto you that eternal life, which was with the Father, and was
manifested unto us;) That which we have seen and heard declare we
unto you, that ye also may have fellowship with us: and truly our
fellowship is with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ. And
these things write we unto you, that your joy may be full" (1 John
1:1-4). Also, in the Gospel of John the Bible declares, "This is the
disciple who testifieth of these things, and we know that his
testimony is true" (John 21:24). Therefore, it is established that the
eyewitness testimonies of the apostles and disciples of the Lord
Jesus Christ provide serious and compelling evidence for the
accurate recording of the Gospel.
Apostles’ Attestations concerning the Scriptures
The New Testament manuscripts contain several verses
indicating that the Apostles considered the New Testament writings
to be important for study and edification. Furthermore, the Apostles
instructed the churches to actively read their epistles and gospels.
The following table summarizes related writings by the Apostles,
which are shown in the order of their appearance in the New
Testament.
Table 18: Apostles’ Attestations - NT Manuscripts
Apostles Attestation / Verse(s)
Paul quoted as Scripture, “The laborer is worthy of his hire” (1
Timothy 5:18). This verse comes from Matthew 10:10 and Luke
10:7. This verse is not found in the Old Testament, which suggests
that Matthew and Luke were in existence and that Paul considered
them to be Scriptures.
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“And when they [the disciples] heard that, they lifted up their
voice to God with one accord, and said, Lord, thou art God, which
hast made heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all that in them is:
Who by the mouth of thy servant David hast said, “Why did the
heathen rage, and the people imagine vain things?” (Acts 4:24-25).
Within this passage, the disciples directly acknowledged the Godly
inspiration of this saying by King David.
But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, even the hidden
wisdom, which God ordained before the world unto our glory:
Which none of the princes of this world knew: for had they known it,
they would not have crucified the Lord of glory. But as it is written,
Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart
of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him.
But God hath revealed them unto us by his Spirit: for the Spirit
searcheth all things, yea, the deep things of God. For what man
knoweth the things of a man, save the spirit of man which is in him?
Even so the things of God knoweth no man, but the Spirit of God.
Now we have received, not the spirit of the world, but the spirit
which is of God; that we might know the things that are freely given
to us of God. Which things we speak, not in the words which man’s
wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost teacheth; comparing
spiritual things with spiritual.
If any man thinks himself to be a prophet, or spiritual, let him
acknowledge that the things that I write unto you are the
commandments of the Lord.
1 Corinthians 14:37
And when this epistle is read among you, cause that it be read
also in the church of the Laodiceans; and that ye likewise read the
epistle from Laodicea.
Colossians 4:16
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For this cause also thank we God without ceasing, because, when
ye received the word of God which ye heard of us, ye received it not
as the word of men, but as it is in truth, the word of God, which
effectually worketh also in you that believe.
1 Thessalonians 2:13
I charge you by the Lord that this epistle be read unto all the holy
brethren.
1 Thessalonians 5:27
Moreover I will endeavor that ye may be able after my decease to
have these things always in remembrance.
2 Peter 1:15
This second epistle, beloved, I now write unto you; in both
which I stir up your pure minds by way of remembrance: That ye
may be mindful of the words which were spoken before by the holy
prophets, and of the commandment of us the apostles of the Lord
and Saviour.
2 Peter 3:1-2
And account that the long-suffering of our Lord is salvation;
even as our beloved brother Paul also according to the wisdom given
unto him hath written unto you; As also in all his epistles, speaking
in them of these things; in which are some things hard to be
understood, which they that are unlearned and unstable wrest, as they
do also the other Scriptures, unto their own destruction.
2 Peter 3:15-16
The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to
shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass; and
he sent and signified it by his angel unto his servant John: Who bare
record of the word of God, and of the testimony of Jesus Christ, and
of all things that he saw. Blessed is he that readeth, and they that
hear the words of this prophecy, and keep those things which are
written therein: for the time is at hand.
Revelation 1:1 ff
&&&&&&&
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Chapter 4
The Christian Martyrs
“[Jesus said], Whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it.”
(Matthew 16:25)
The New Testament was written by Divinely inspired authors,
who were eyewitnesses of the life and ministry of the Lord Jesus
Christ. Furthermore, it is highly significant to recognize that each of
the New Testament authors (except John, the Beloved) endured
persecution and martyrdom for their Christian witness. Rather than
deny Christ, they suffered tribulation because of their testimony
concerning the truth of the Gospel. Such devotion provides profound
evidence for the trustworthiness of their biblical witness.
Tribulation
The Lord Jesus Christ plainly taught his disciples that worldly
tribulation was inevitable. He foretold, "If they have persecuted me,
they will also persecute you" (John 15:20). Furthermore, the Lord
Jesus Christ presaged, "They shall put you out of the synagogues;
yea, the time cometh, that whosoever killeth you will think that he
doeth God service" (John 16:2). The Lord Jesus Christ taught, “And
ye shall be hated of all men for my name’s sake: but he that endureth
to the end shall be saved. But when they persecute you in this city,
flee ye into another: for verily I say unto you, Ye shall not have gone
over the cities of Israel, till the Son of man be come” (Matthew
10:22-23).
Moreover, the Lord admonished, "Whosoever shall confess me
before men, him will I also confess before my Father in heaven. But
whosoever shall deny me before men, him will I deny before my
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Father, who is in heaven" (Matthew 10:32-33). Again, the Bible
reveals, "And they overcame him [the Devil] by the blood of the
Lamb, and by the word of their testimony; and they loved not their
lives unto the death" (Revelation 12:11). As such, enduring
tribulation with a steadfast determination to remain faithful to the
Lord Jesus Christ was of paramount importance to the Christian
Apostles and disciples.
Wondrously, many early Christians retained their testimonies
and professions of faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, despite the morbid
reality of torture and deadly persecution. Only the complete
factualness of the ministry and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ
could account for such steadfast endurance. Historical records
clearly show that countless devout Christian people endured extreme
persecution over a prolonged period of time.
Quite evidently, the Christian martyrs were sincere people, who
honestly followed the Lord Jesus Christ in the integrity of their
hearts. Otherwise, they would have renounced the Lord and spared
themselves great pain and suffering in the natural world. Instead,
many of the Christians sought a heavenly kingdom and spiritual
reward. The Lord Jesus Christ said, “To him that overcometh will I
grant to sit with me in my throne, even as I also overcame, and am
set down with my Father in his throne” (Revelation 3:21).
Persecution by Imperial Rome
The Roman Empire dominated the Mediterranean basin and
beyond during the early centuries of the Christian era. The Roman’s
religion was polytheistic, believing in many (mythical) gods, and at
times required worship of their Emperor. Many of the nations that
Rome conquered were also polytheistic, and adding another Emperor
god was usually not objectionable, especially when compelled under
the force of State violence. However, this was not the case with
Christian people.
Since the Christians were monotheistic, believing in the one true
God, they were unable in true conscience, and therefore were
unwilling, to comply with Roman State requirements to worship and
sacrifice to the Emperor. To the Christian, worship of a Roman
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Emperor would have been hypocritical and blasphemous. In general,
the Christians were model civilians regarding law and order, but the
issue of Emperor worship was entirely incompatible with the
teachings of the Lord Jesus Christ. As a result, regardless of
nationality, race, or position, the Romans came to view devout
Christians as a “rebellious class” of people.
Tragically, certain Roman Emperors viewed the Christian refusal
to worship them as treason against the Roman State. Historical
records show that the Emperor’s issued legal decrees requiring
sacrifice to them, with disobedience being punishable progressively
by loss of rights, imprisonment, torture, and execution.
Consequently, waves of State sponsored persecution were
perpetrated against the Christians.
“Emperor worship can be traced back to the reign of Julius, when in
BC 42 the Senate gave him a place among the Roman gods. The Emperor
Caesar Augustus (BC 29 – AD 14), who was in power at the time of Jesus
was born, prohibited worship of himself in Italy, but the practice spread in
the provinces to become the official religion of Rome. Worship was
offered to his genius, or guardian deity, and he was addressed as ‘lord’.
After his death, his name continued to be honoured, and Nero, who was
his great-grandson, also accepted the title of ‘divine’. Christians who
refused to offer incense on an altar to the divine Emperor were considered
unpatriotic and became a target for persecution” (Hanks p. 6).
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Beginning with Nero, the Roman State became infamous for its
ruthless treatment of Christians. Torture and grisly public executions
became commonplace. Moreover at times, the scope of the violence
was genocidal. For many years, the Romans tortured and executed
literally thousands of Christians every day. Throwing Christian men,
women, and children to the lions, was a common public spectacle in
city amphitheaters. Nevertheless, the blood of the Christian martyrs
served to water the Church, which actually grew in numbers, and by
fleeing persecution, spread to distant lands. The following table
provides a summary of Roman persecutions against the faithful
Christians. This information is organized chronologically and by
Roman Emperor.
Table 19: Roman Persecutions against Christians
Emperor (Years Reigned) / Persecution Years A. D.
Nero (54-68) / 64-8
Nero falsely accused Christians of setting fire to Rome, and
decreed the first government-sponsored persecution of Christians.
Paul may have been martyred at that time.
Domitian (81-96) / c. 95
This was a brief, but brutal persecution against the Christians.
Thousands were martyred in Italy and at Rome including Flavius
Clemens, who was a cousin of the Emperor. Also, his wife, Flavi
Domitilla, was banished. In addition, according to many scholars
(but not according to Sir Isaac Newton) the apostle John was
banished to Patmos during this persecution.
Trajan (98-117) / 98-117
Trajan viewed Christianity as an illegal religion, mainly because
Christians would not participate in Emperor worship. Although
Christians were not sought out, they were often accused and
punished, and too often the accusers had malicious intentions.
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During Trajan’s reign, Simeon was martyred. He was the Bishop
of Jerusalem, and was crucified in 107 A. D. Also Ignatius was taken
to Rome and thrown to the wild beasts. Ignatius was the influential
Bishop of Antioch.
Hadrian (117-138) / 117-138
Hadrian persecuted Christians, but at a comparatively moderate
level. Still many were martyred including Telephorous, who was the
pastor of the Roman church.
Antonius Pius / 138-161
Pius upheld the Roman law to enforce emperor worship, and
persecuted Christians. There were many martyrs including Polycarp.
Marcus Aurelius (161-180) / 165 - Rome, 177 - Lyons and
Vienna (Gaul), 180 – North Africa
Marcus Aurelius encouraged open enmity and violent
persecution of Christians. Thousands of Christians were viciously
tortured, and many were thrown to wild beasts as an entertainment
for the populace.
Septimius Severus (193-211) / 202-211 – Egypt and North
Africa
Severus’ hostility was very deadly especially in Egypt and North
Africa. Christians were tortured and killed daily including Leonidas,
who was the father of Origen. In Carthage, Perpetua, a noble lady,
and her faithful slave, Felicitas were thrown to wild beasts.
Maximinus (235-238) / 235-238
Maximinus persecuted Christian leaders, and many were killed
without mercy. The scholar, Origen escaped by hiding.
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Decius (242-251) / 249-251 – Rome, Antioch, Carthage
The emperor, Decius, issued a decree whereby all who offered
sacrifice to an image of the Emperor were given a letter attesting to
their obedience, called a libellus. Anyone who did not possess such a
letter was liable to torture and execution. Several Christian bishops
were martyred during this time including the bishops of Alexandria,
Carthage, and Rome.
Valerian (253-260) / 257-260 – Rome, Spain, North Africa
The emperor, Valerian issued a decree in 257, which read, “The
most sacred emperors Valerian and his son Gallienus command that
there shall be no meetings [of Christians] in any place, and that they
shall not frequent the cemeteries. If anyone fails to observe this
beneficial precept, he shall be beheaded” (Collins, p. 52).
Diocletian (284-305) / 303-311 Eastern Empire and Africa
By the imperial decree of Diocletian, Christians were
systematically hunted in forests and caves, tortured, and killed. This
persecution was the most severe and lasted for ten years (see
Revelation 2:10 regarding tribulation for ten days). Torture reached
new depths of inhumanity during this time. This was an official
effort to abolish the name of Christ by annihilating Christians. At
one point, there were over two hundred lions kept at the Roman
amphitheater, whose primary diet was Christian people including
men, women, and children.
Lactantius (c. 240-320) was a resident of North Africa, who was
officially summoned to Nicomedia to teach rhetoric. He converted to
Christianity, but lost his position when persecution was again
launched in February 302. He wrote,
“A fit and auspicious day was sought for the accomplishment of this
undertaking, and the festival of the god Terminus, celebrated on the
twenty-third of February was chosen, in preference to all others, to
“terminate,” as it were, the Christian religion.
That day, the harbinger of death arose,
First cause of ill, and long remembered woes,
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Which befell not only the Christians, but also the whole earth. When
the day dawned, in the eighth consulship of Diocletian and the seventh of
Maximian, suddenly, while it was hardly light, the prefect, together with
the chief commanders, tribunes and officers of the treasury, came to the
church in Nicomedia; they forced the doors and searched everywhere for
an image of the god. The Holy Scriptures were found and burnt; the
church was abandoned to general pillage: all was rapine, confusion, and
tumult. That church, situated on rising ground, was within view of the
palace, and Diocletian and Galerius stood on a watchtower disputing long
whether it ought to be set on fire. The sentiment of Diocletian prevailed,
who was afraid that that once so great a blaze had started, some part of
the city might be burnt; for there were many large buildings round the
church. Then Praetorian Guards came in battle array, with axes and other
tools; they were let loose everywhere, and in a few hours, leveled that
very lofty edifice to the ground.
Next day an edict was published, depriving the Christians of all
honors and dignities; ordaining also that, without any distinction of rank
or degree, they should be subject to torture, and that every suit of law
should be received against them; while, on the other hand, they were
debarred from being plaintiffs in questions of wrong, adultery, or theft;
and finally, that they should neither be capable of freedom, nor have any
right of suffrage” (Lactantius On the Deaths of the Persecutors 12-13, as
printed in Stevenson, p. 286).
Catacombs of Rome
One location of Christian burial chambers was at a place called
Kata Kumbas, “at the hollows,” just outside Rome on the Appian
Way. From that name, such burial chambers became known as
catacombs. These underground cemeteries were extensively
expanded and used until the decline of Rome (Collins p. 51). The
inscriptions and artwork found in these cemeteries provide insight
into the early Christian experience: for many of the early martyrs
were interred within the catacombs, and their stories are preserved in
the inscriptions.
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The Christian minister and scholar, John Foxe, wrote in 1563,
"Now let us comprehend the persecutions raised by the Romans
against the Christians in the primitive age of the Church, during the
space of three hundred years. Wherein marvelous it is to see and read
the numbers incredible of Christian innocents that were tormented
and slain. Whose kinds of punishments, although they were diverse,
yet the manner of constancy in all these martyrs was one. And yet,
notwithstanding the sharpness of these so many and sundry torments,
and also the like cruelness of the tormentors, such was the number of
these constant saints that suffered, or rather such was the power of
the Lord in His saints, that, as Jerome saith, 'There is no day in the
whole year unto which the number of five thousand martyrs cannot
be ascribed, except on the first day of January'" (Foxe, p. 11-12).
Martyrdom of the Apostles and Disciples
John Foxe’s writings and various legendary accounts indicate
that all of the Apostles, except John [and Judas Iscariot], died a
martyr's death. The Lord Jesus Christ said, “If any man will come
after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross [daily], and
follow me. For whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and
whosoever will lose his life for my sake [and the gospel’s] shall find
[or save] it” (Matthew 16:25, Mark 8:35, Luke 9:24). Truly, the
apostles obeyed God rather than men. The Bible says, “Then Peter
and the other apostles answered [the threats of the chief priests] and
said, We ought to obey God rather than men” (Acts 5:29).
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The following table summarizes the martyrdom of the Apostles
and disciples. The Apostles are presented in the order listed in
Matthew 10:2, and the Disciples are shown in alphabetical order.
The authors of the New Testament are shown as underlined and in
bold. Please note that all of the authors of the New Testament were
martyred for their faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, except for John,
who was miraculously protected twice from attempts on his life.
Many of the accounts of the Apostle’s martyrdom are legendary, and
are recorded in the various apocryphal books involving the Acts of
the Apostles.
Table 20: Martyrdom of the Apostles & Disciples
Martyr / Estimated Date A. D. / Martyr’s Sacrifice
Eleven Apostles, Matthias, and Paul
Peter / 67
Peter served the Lord in Jerusalem. While ministering in Rome,
he was deprecated and condemned by the emperor, Nero. Legend
indicates that Peter was crucified upside down at his own request,
because he thought that he was unworthy to be crucified in the same
manner as the Lord Jesus Christ. Nero was emperor from 54 through
68 A. D.
Andrew / 80
Andrew, the apostle and brother of Peter, preached through 80 A.
D. to the Scythians, Sogdians, and Sacae. He also preached in the
city of Sebastropolis in Greece. Aegeas, the governor of the
Edessenes, crucified Andrew on an X-shaped cross. Legend
indicates that Andrew was buried in Patrae, a city of Achia.
The following is the traditional account of the martyrdom of the
Apostle Andrew, “Andrew going toward the place, and seeing afar
off the cross prepared, did change neither countenance nor color,
neither did his blood shrink, neither did he fail in his speech, his
body fainted not, neither was his mind molested, nor did his
understanding fail him, as is the manner of men to do, but out of the
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abundance of his heart his mouth did speak, and fervent charity did
appear in his words as kindled sparks; he saith, ‘O cross, most
welcome and long looked for! With a willing mind, joyfully and
desirously, I come to thee, being the scholar of Him which did hang
on thee: because I have always been thy lover, and have coveted to
embrace thee.’”
James / 44
According to Clement, an early Christian, “When James, the son
of Zebedee and Salome, and the brother of John, was brought to the
tribunal seats under Herod Agrippa I of Judea, he that brought him
and was the cause of his trouble, seeing him to be condemned and
that he should suffer death, was in such sort moved therewith in
heart and conscience that as they went to the execution he confessed
himself also, of his own accord, to be a Christian. And so were they
led forth together, where in the way he desired of James to forgive
him what he had done. After that James had a little paused with
himself upon the matter, turning to him he saith ‘Peace be unto thee,
brother;’ and kissed him. And both were beheaded together, A. D.
36.”
John / 101
John was an Apostle and evangelist of the Lord. During the
persecution under Domitian, John was exiled to the Island of
Patmos. At the age of eighty-seven he was released and went to the
city of Ephesus, where he governed the churches of Asia. It was also
recorded that John was tortured by immersion in boiling oil but
amazingly he was unharmed, and at another time he was forced to
drink poison, but again was unharmed. This miraculous story is told
as follows.
“This is John, the apostle of Jesus Christ!” the herald proclaimed
three times. Hearing this, the crowd in the stadium cheered wildly. They
had gathered to see how the last of the twelve apostles who walked with
Jesus would meet death.
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The Roman Emperor stared at the old man. “So you are John, the
Apostle of Love,” he sneered. “Are you ready to die?” Before John could
answer, an officer approached the Emperor and whispered in his ear,
“Perhaps you have heard the saying among the Christians that this John
will not die until their God, Jesus, returns.”
“Yes, I have heard. In fact, everyone in Rome has heard it!” replied
the Emperor. “These Christians are a stubborn and superstitious lot. I will
show them! This man will die – today!”
“How shall we kill him?” the officer asked. “Lions don’t always kill
Christians, and there have been times the fire did not burn their bodies.”
“Cutting off their heads is too noble an end for such as these. That is
reserved for Roman citizens,” said the Emperor. The chief executioner
spoke up, “What about throwing him in a vat of boiling oil? No one could
survive that!” The emperor nodded his agreement. “Prepare the oil!”
As men rushed to fill his order, the herald proclaimed three times,
“John the apostle will be boiled in oil.” The crowd cheered their
approval. They would be witnesses to the death of John the Beloved.
The Roman Emperor snarled at the apostle. “If your Jesus is really a
God, then ask Him to save you!” Then, turning to the executioner, he
commanded, “Take him away.”
The crowd rose to their feet, clapping and shouting as the prisoner
was lowered into the boiling oil. John raised his hands up to heaven,
praying to God. Minutes passed, and John continued to pray. The
cheering of the crowd faded to awed silence. They too had heard it said
that this man would never die. Then the whispering started. “The apostle
is unharmed! It is a miracle. His God has protected him. Jesus has
protected his apostle.”
The Emperor stared at the apostle in the vat of boiling oil. Against all
logic, John was still alive and still praying. The Emperor’s plan had
backfired: Instead of destroying all faith in Jesus Christ, he had actually
helped increase it! Frustrated, he looked at the chief executioner, who
shrank from under his gaze. “Is there no way to destroy this man?” the
Emperor demanded.
But before the executioner could answer, a new cheer from the crowd
drew their attention. John was no longer quietly praying; he had started
loudly and joyfully worshipping Jesus and celebrating his deliverance
from death. The Emperor made a quick decision. “Get this man out of my
sight.”
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When John was miraculously delivered from the vat of boiling oil,
the Emperor gave up trying to kill him. Instead, he banished John to the
rocky island of Patmos. For two years, John lived alone in exile. But the
Lord was with him and during this time, God revealed to him beautiful
scenes and heavenly visions, which he wrote in the book of Revelation.
When Emperor Domitian died in 99 AD, the Roman Senate repealed
his judgments and John was released. He was brought back to Ephesus,
where he had once been the leader of the church. Even there he suffered
persecution and was forced to drink poison. Yet he remained unharmed,
just as Jesus had promised: “If they drink any deadly thing, it shall not
hurt them” (Mark 16:18) [dcTalk p.162-5].
Philip / year unknown
Philip labored much and preached the word of salvation to the
barbarous nations. At length, he suffered in Hierapolis, a city of
Phrygia (or Armenia?) where he was crucified, stoned, and buried,
and his daughters also with him. (This account may pertain to Philip
the Evangelist.)
Bartholomew / year unknown
Bartholomew preached in India and translated the Gospel of
Saint Matthew into the Indian language. In Albinopolis, a city of
greater Armenia, after diverse persecutions, Bartholomew was
beaten down with staves and then crucified. After being trenchantly
excoriated and fulminated, he was brought down from the cross and
beheaded.
Thomas / year unknown
Thomas (called Didymus or twin) preached to the Parthians,
Medes, and Persians, and also to the Carmanians, Hyrcanians,
Bactrians, and Magians. He suffered in Calamnia, a city in India,
being slain with a dart.
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Matthew / 60
Matthew, or Levi the publican, wrote the Gospel of Matthew.
Matthew converted the nation of Ethiopia to the faith and was
acquainted with Candace the Queen. (Perhaps Philip’s baptism of
the Ethiopian Eunuch was a forerunning event.) Matthew also
converted all Egypt, but the time came when Hicanus, the Egyptian
king, sent men to kill Matthew. He was pinned to the ground,
stabbed with a spear, and beheaded.
James / year unknown
James the son of Alphaeus – His story is unknown.
Lebbaeus / 72
Lebbaeus, or Thaddaeus the apostle Jude, was martyred in
Edessa in Persia with Simon the Zealot.
Simon Zealotes / 72
Simon Zealotes, the Zealot or Canaanite, preached in the country
of Africa, and in Britain. He was crucified in Persia, along with Jude.
Matthias / year unknown
The traditional story relates that Matthias was stoned at
Jerusalem and beheaded. Matthias was selected by the Apostles by
lot to replace the son of perdition, Judas Iscariot, as an apostle.
Paul / 66
Paul was the apostle to the Gentiles and labored mightily to bring
many to the Lord Jesus Christ. During the first persecution under
Nero, Paul was condemned. It is recorded that Nero sent two of his
lawyers, named Ferega and Parthemius, to witness and confirm
Paul’s death. Upon hearing Paul teach about Jesus, these lawyers
asked Paul to pray for them, that they might believe, and Paul told
them that shortly after they would believe and be baptized at his
sepulcher. Paul was beheaded with the sword outside of Rome.
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Disciples of Jesus Christ
Mark / 68
Mark, the evangelist, was the first Bishop of Alexandria. He
actively preached and taught the Gospel in Egypt. On Easter
Monday, May 8, 68 A. D., Roman soldiers persecuted Mark by
dragging him with ropes by his feet through the streets and alleys of
Alexandria. He was then burned alive, and was buried in a place
called, Bucolus.
James / 62
James, the half brother of the Lord Jesus Christ, was a just and
righteous man. He did not drink wine or strong drink, nor did he eat
animal food, neither did he cut his hair (like a Nazarite). He was a
man of continual prayer, who prayed earnestly in the kneeling
position. James worshipped God and prayed forgiveness for the
people. He was a true witness for Christ to the Jews and to the
Gentiles.
While in Jerusalem, the Scribes and Pharisees compelled him to
address the people during Passover from the top of the Temple
battlements, with the intention that he should blaspheme the name of
the Lord Jesus Christ. Instead however, James said with a loud voice
before all the people, “Why do you ask me of Jesus the Son of Man?
He sitteth on the right hand of the Most High, and shall come in the
clouds of heaven.” As a result, many believed on the Lord Jesus and
cried, “Hosanna to the Son of David.” The Scribes and Pharisees
then took James and threw him off the high battlements, but James
was not killed by the fall. Rather, he turned and fell on his knees and
prayed, “O Lord God, Father, I beseech thee to forgive them, for they
know not what they do.” The Jews then began to stone him, but
while they were pelting him with stones, a priest said to them,
“Leave off, what do ye? The Just Man prayeth for you.” Then one of
the attackers struck James on the head with a heavy tool and killed
him.
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Luke / 93
Luke went to Greece to evangelize and was martyred there by
being hung from an olive tree in Athens.
Simon / 104
Simon was the brother of Jude and James the younger. These
three were all sons of Mary Cleophas and of Alpheus. Simon was
Bishop of Jerusalem after the Apostle James, and he was crucified in
a city of Egypt in the time of Trajan the emperor. Trajan was
emperor from 98 through 117 A. D.
Stephen / 35
Stephen showed forth the glory of God and gave a mighty
testimony before the Jewish council, but was stoned to death by the
chief council of the Jews, as recorded in ACTS 7:1-60. During the
persecution that arose after Stephen was martyred (ACTS 8:1), about
two thousand Christians were martyred including Nicanor, who was
one of the seven deacons appointed by the Apostles (ACTS 6:5).
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It is significant to recognize that the authors of the New
Testament were persecuted and martyred for their testimony
concerning the Lord Jesus Christ. Not only did their testimony agree,
but they also “loved not their own lives unto the death” (Revelation
12:11). What more could the devout Christians do, than to willingly
sacrifice their own lives to prove the evident reality and truthfulness
of the life and ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ?
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Concerning the utter and gruesome brutality of these early
persecutions against Christians, John Foxe (1516-87), a Protestant
clergyman, perorated, "The tyrants and organs of Satan were not
contented with death only, to bereave the life from the body. The
kinds of death were diverse, and no less horrible than diverse.
Whatsoever the cruelness of man's invention could devise for the
punishment of man's body, was practiced against the Christians stripes and scourgings, drawings, tearings, stonings, plates of iron
laid unto them burning hot, deep dungeons, racks, stranglings in
prisons, the teeth of wild beasts, gridirons, gibbets and gallows,
tossing upon the horns of bulls. Moreover, when they were thus
killed, their bodies were laid in heaps, and dogs there left to keep
them, that no man might come to bury them, neither would any
prayer obtain them to be interred" (Foxe p. 18).
Moreover, concerning the steadfast power of the word of God in
his saints, John Foxe observed, "I doubt not, good reader, but thou
dost right well consider with thyself the marvelous working of God's
mighty power; to see so many emperors confederate together against
the Lord and Christ His anointed, who having the subjection of the
whole world under their dominion, did bend their whole might and
devices to extirpate the name of Christ, and of all Christians.
Wherein, if the power of man could have prevailed, what could they
not do? Or what could they do more than they did? If policy or
devices could have served, what policy was there lacking? If
torments or pains of death could have helped, what cruelty of
torment by man could be invented which was not attempted? If laws,
edicts, proclamations, written not only in tables, but engraven in
brass, could have stood, all this was practiced against the weak
Christians. And yet, notwithstanding, to see how no counsel can
stand against the Lord, note how all these be gone, and yet Christ
and his Church doth stand” (Foxe p. 48). The Bible declares, "There
is no wisdom, nor understanding, nor counsel [that will prevail]
against the LORD" (Proverb 20:31). Moreover, the Bible exhorts,
"No weapon that is formed against thee shall prosper" (Isaiah 54:17).
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Destruction of Manuscripts
It should be noted, however, in the context of the martyrdom of
the Christian disciples, that forces have also conspired to obstruct
and hinder the faithful preservation of the Scriptures. Not only were
the early Christian disciples tortured and executed, but the
unbelievers wrought great persecutions to destroy church buildings
and especially biblical manuscripts. The Romans, Muslims, and
more recently, the Communists have systematically, through the
power of the state and its armies, destroyed large numbers of
churches, libraries, and Bibles (but not all, for there will always be a
faithful remnant).
Roman persecution in the early years of the Christian church was
especially devastating to the preservation of biblical manuscripts.
For example, Diocletian’s Edict in 302 A. D. prompted the
systematic destruction of Scriptures, which resulted in the loss of
untold numbers of ancient biblical manuscripts. The historian,
Eusebius of Caesarea, recounted,
“It was the nineteenth year of the reign of Diocletian, and the month
of Dystrus, or March, as the Romans would call it, in which, as the
festival of the Saviour’s Passion was coming on, an imperial letter was
everywhere promulgated, ordering the razing of the churches to the
ground and the destruction by fire of the Scripture, and proclaiming
that those held in high positions would lose all civil rights, while those in
households, if they persisted in their profession of Christianity, would be
deprived of their liberty. Such was the first document against us. But not
long afterwards we were further visited with other letters, and in them the
order was given that the presidents of the churches should all, in every
place, be first committed to prison, and then afterwards compelled by
every kind of device to sacrifice [to pagan gods]” (via Geisler p. 279).
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Also notably from a Bible history standpoint, the Muslims
destroyed entire Christian libraries and countless biblical
manuscripts throughout the middle-eastern region. It is probable that
many of the earliest biblical manuscripts were destroyed through this
prolonged and destructive Muslim aggression.
[Muslim armies systematically destroyed significant libraries and
resources of knowledge, causing an irretrievable historical loss for
mankind.] “For example, under the Caliph Umar the Muslim soldiers
destroyed the vast libraries of Alexandria and Persia. When the general
asked Umar what he should do with the books, he is said to have replied,
‘Cast them into the rivers. For, if in these books there is guidance, then
we have still better guidance in the Book of God [the Koran]. If, on the
contrary, there is in them that which will lead astray, then may God
protect us from them’” (Pfander, The Balance of Truth, p. 365).
Counting the Cost
A Christian martyr is one who chooses death rather than
renouncing the Lord Jesus Christ or His finished work, who endures
great suffering for the sake of Christ, or who makes great sacrifices
for the advancement of the kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ. Please
note that the word, martyr, is derived from the Greek word, martus,
which literally means, witness, and is also understood to mean,
victim. As such, a martyr is a person who faithfully bears witness
and consequently becomes a victim. The Bible records, “[John]
came for a witness (marturia), to bear witness of the Light, that all
men through him might believe” (John 1:7). The Lord Jesus Christ
declared to his disciples, “But ye shall receive power, after that the
Holy Ghost is come upon you: and ye shall be witnesses (martus)
unto me both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and
unto the uttermost part of the earth" (ACTS 1:8). The Lord Jesus
Christ exhorted, “In the world you shall have tribulation: but be of
good cheer; I have overcome the world” (John 16:33).
Again, thanksgiving to God! The Bible says, "And when he had
opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of them that
were slain for the Word of God, and for the testimony which they
held: And they cried with a loud voice, saying, How long, O Lord,
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holy and true, dost thou not judge and avenge our blood on them that
dwell on the earth? And white robes were given unto every one of
them; and it was said unto them, that they should rest yet for a little
season, until their fellow servants also and their brethren, that should
be killed as they were, should be fulfilled” (Revelation 6:9-11).
The Bible observes, “Mark the perfect man, and behold the
upright: for the end of that man is peace” (Psalm 37:37). Again, the
Bible exhorts, “Precious in the sight of the LORD is the death of his
saints” (Psalm 116:15). Moreover, the Bible declares, “And I heard a
voice from heaven saying unto me, Write, Blessed are the dead
which die in the Lord from henceforth: Yea, saith the Spirit, that
they may rest from their labours; and their works do follow them”
(Revelation 14:13). The testimonies of the multitude of Christian
martyrs stand as serious evidence for their steadfast devotion to the
truth and efficacy of the ministry and grace of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Moreover, the fact that the New Testament authors endured
martyrdom, rather than recant, provides compelling and immutable
evidence for the truth of their witness and biblical writings.
Could we…?
After years of study and contemplation on the subject of the
Christian martyrs, the Christian author, Harold Chadwick, asked a
soul-searching question on Independence Day, July 4, 1997. He
wrote, “Most of all, I marvel at the steadfast faithfulness of so many
men, women, and children who rejoiced that they were counted
worthy to suffer for their Lord, and whose sufferings and deaths gave
witness and strength to the true Church of Christ. Their lives and
deaths continue to haunt me, as does this question: Could we, with
our soft and self-serving modern Christianity, follow their examples
of such courage and love for Christ that we would suffer being
tortured, mutilated, and burned alive rather than recant our faith in
Him?” (Chadwick p. Xviii-xix)
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Chapter 5
Preserving the Scriptures
“This shall be written for the generation to come: And the people
which shall be created shall praise the LORD.”
(Psalm 102:18)
The Christian Bible has been accurately preserved through the
centuries, and the Scriptures clearly testify that it remains God’s
intention to preserve His word. Specifically, the Bible says, “The
words of the LORD are pure words: as silver tried in a furnace of
earth, purified seven times. Thou shalt keep them, O LORD, thou
shalt preserve them from this generation for ever” (Psalm 12:6-7).
Furthermore, we can trace and analyze the history of manuscripts,
and objectively conclude that the word has been faithfully preserved
in written form. Within this chapter, we will review significant
evidence for the accurate recording, preservation, and transmission
of the Christian Bible.
History of Writing Materials
Ancient people produced written records many centuries before
the oldest books of the Old Testament were written. In this section,
we will review associated details. We will also review information
concerning biblical languages.
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Writing was recorded in ancient times on various media.
Through the centuries, improvements in processes and technology
produced less expensive writing materials, and also materials of
higher quality. The following table overviews the primary writing
media utilized and the time frames of the oldest known artifacts.
Table 21: Writing Media and Oldest Artifacts
Primary Writing Media / Time of Oldest Artifacts / Remarks
Clay and Stone / 3500 B. C.
Wood and Leather / 3000 B. C.
Old Testament Scriptures were copied on leather.
Papyrus / 3000 B. C.
New Testament manuscripts were recorded and copied on
papyrus codex in the early centuries A. D.
Vellum & Parchment / 170 B. C.
From the fourth century A. D., vellum was actively used for
copying the Bible.
Paper / 850 A. D.
Early records indicate that the Chinese invented paper by the
second century B. C. Later, it was used in Eastern Turkestan as early
as the fourth century A. D. Arabs acquired the trade secret of paper
making from Chinese captives during the eighth century. Paper was
subsequently introduced into Europe during the tenth century, and
was in widespread use by the thirteenth century.
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As background information, we will review historical
information about various writing media. The main point to
substantiate is that ancient peoples certainly had the knowledge and
means to record God’s revelation on written media.
To begin, we will address the ancient writing media of clay,
wood, and leather. Clay tablets were usually oblong in shape, and
were inscribed when soft and baked in an oven until hard. Clay was
written upon with a sharp implement known as a stylus, which was a
three-sided instrument with a beveled head. Wooden tablets were
also regularly used in ancient times. In Greece, wooden tablets were
usually whitewashed before use, and were often used for royal
proclamations. Further, leather scrolls were actively used in Old
Testament times. In fact, the Jewish Talmud, which is an ancient
code of traditional Jewish laws, required that the Scriptures be
copied on undefiled animal skins or leather.
Papyrus was actively used in ancient times dating remotely to
3000 B. C., and was the primary medium for writing through the
first century A. D. Papyrus was prepared from the stems of a plant
found in abundance along the Nile River in Egypt. Papyrus typically
grows in marshes and is two to three inches in diameter, and grows
from ten to fifteen feet in height. Fibers from the stems of the plant
were meshed together, pressed, dried, and smoothed. Papyrus sheets
were used one at a time, or often were connected into rolls. These
rolls varied in size, but may have averaged thirty feet long and ten
inches wide. Often wooden rollers were attached at each end to
facilitate the rolling process. During the first century A. D., the
papyrus codex became the most popular medium for writing. The
codex refers to papyrus sheets joined together in the modern style of
pages in a book with a backing or stem. The papyrus codex was the
medium used for recording and copying the New Testament
manuscripts in the early centuries A. D.
Vellum refers to an improved process of preparing animal skins
or hides for writing purposes. The words, vellum and parchment, are
used interchangeably today. However, originally vellum referred to
skins prepared from calves (or antelopes), whereas parchment
indicated skins tanned from sheep and goats. Vellum was developed
about 170 B. C. by direction of King Eumenes II of Pergamum in
Asia Minor in response to the restraint on the export of papyrus from
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Egypt by the Egyptian king. Vellum was relatively durable,
especially compared to papyrus. From the fourth century A. D.
through the Middle Ages, vellum was the principal medium for
copying the New Testament. Vellum manuscripts were sometimes
dyed purple and inscribed with gold or silver letters, and oftenincluded elaborate artwork. To this day, vellum documents often
remain beautiful in appearance.
Again, the Chinese produced paper from fibrous materials as
early as the second century B. C. Evidently the Chinese guarded the
process of papermaking as a trade secret. But about 850 A. D.,
certain Arabs captured Chinese prisoners, who were knowledgeable
about paper making, thereby learning the secret process. Gradually,
the use of paper spread, and by the thirteenth century, paper was in
widespread use throughout Europe. Notably, early English
translations of the Bible were produced on paper.
A Review of Ancient Writings
The oldest writings in the Bible are ascribed to Moses and
include the first five books of the Old Testament (per Aristobulus, as
cited by Eusebius, Preparations for the Gospel 13.12, circa 150 B.
C.). These books are referred to as the Pentateuch (or in Hebrew, the
Torah, or literally, the Instruction). (As a note, it has also been
theorized that the book of Job may be four hundred years older than
the Pentateuch.) The book of Genesis was written approximately
1350 B. C. Analysis of archaeological discoveries indicates that
writing was in active use many centuries before the time of Moses
and his writings. Therefore, even in such remotely ancient times, we
can confidently assert that Moses and the author of Job had the
means to record, in writing, God’s revelation to them.
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The following table provides examples of other ancient writings
and their approximate dates. Please note that in Pre-Flood times,
there were large and sophisticated libraries in Mesopotamia
containing sixty thousand or more tablets including dictionaries,
encyclopedias, and books on many subjects. Accordingly, these
findings indicate an early flourishing of literary activity.
Table 22: Examples of Ancient Written Artifacts
Writing / Year B. C.
Library at Sippar / Pre-Flood
The ancient city of Sippar was thirty miles northwest of Babylon.
Interestingly, the name, Sippar, means “Book Town.” Ancient
tradition recalled that Sacred Writings were buried at Sippar before
the Flood in order to preserve them. Altogether, over sixty thousand
tablets have been excavated at this site including an entire library of
thirty thousand tablets. The excavations were accomplished, initially
by Rassam in 1881, and then by Scheil in 1894.
Annipadda’s Foundation Tablet / c. 3800
This tablet forms one of the earliest written records of a
contemporaneous event. It is a marble slab with dimensions of three
by four inches, which was found in 1923 by Dr. C. Whoolley in a
corner stone of a temple in Obeid, four miles west of Ur in Babylon.
The inscription reads, “Annipadda, King of Ur, son of
Messanipadda, has built this for his lady Nin-Kharsag” (MotherGoddess). The tablet is retained in the British Museum.
Ur-Nina’s Family Portrait / c. 3800
This is an ancient portrait of the king of Lagash’s family
including his sons and servants. He was the grandfather of Ennatum.
There is also an inscription, which explains the portrait.
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Libraries at Nippur / 3800
The ancient city of Nippur is situated about fifty miles southeast
of Babylon. Excavations have uncovered over fifty thousand tablets
including a library of over twenty thousand volumes. These artifacts
include archives of kings, large reference cylinders mounted on
revolving stands, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and complete works of
law, literature, religion, and science. Haynes and Hilprecht of the
University of Pennsylvania discovered these treasures between 1888
and 1900.
Jemdet Nasr Pictograph / 3800
This pre-flood city was located twenty-five miles northeast of
Babylon. It was destroyed by fire in 3500 B. C. In 1926, Dr. Stephen
Langdon, of Oxford, discovered Pictographic Inscriptions, which
portrayed evidence of monotheism.
Eannatum’s Stele of the Vultures / c. 3600
This Stele records Eannatum’s victories over the Elamites, and
portrays his use of the phalanx as a battle formation, and the use of
armaments including spears, shields, and helmets.
Stele of Ur-Nammur / c. 3600
This Stele was also known as the Stele of the flying angels. It
was found on the floor of the Hall of Justice in the ancient city of Ur,
and its dimensions are five by ten feet. It depicts the building of the
Ziggurat or holy mound-temple at the city of Ur.
Ebla Tablets in Syria / 2340
Over sixteen thousand inscribed clay tablets were discovered at
the city of Ebla in Syria. Ancient clay tablets were also referred to as
tiles. These tablets reveal that Abraham was a common name.
Weld Dynastic Prism / 2170
This prism is made of baked clay and has been well preserved. It
was obtained during the Weld-Blundell expedition in 1922 at Larsa,
which is about three miles north of Ur. It is on display at the
Ashmolean Museum of Oxford.
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This prism provides the earliest extant outline of world history. It
was written by a scribe named Nur-Ninsubar, and gives a list of
kings from the beginning of mankind up to the scribe’s time, and
includes the legendary ten long-lived pre-flood kings.
Hammurabi’s Code / 2000
Hammurabi was king of Babylon during Abraham’s lifetime. He
is also commonly referred to as Amraphel, king of Shinar,
mentioned in Genesis 14:1. Hammurabi directed that his scribes
codify his laws on stone monuments for display in principal cities. In
1902, de Morgan’s expedition discovered a well-preserved stone of
Hammurabi’s Code in the ruins of Susa. This stone is preserved at
the Louvre Museum in Paris. The stone measures eight feet high,
two feet wide and 1.5 feet thick. It is oval in shape, and is beautifully
engraved. It is written on all sides in the cuneiform writing of the
Semitic Babylonian language. It displays over four thousand lines of
text. This code is an original autograph of the 282 laws dealing with
various aspects of public life. It is a remarkable example of advanced
literary skill at such an ancient time. It is clear from many artifacts
that Abraham lived in a time of great literary activity involving
books, libraries, and schools.
Palestinian Artifacts / 1800
The earliest extant alphabetic script was found at Serabit near
Sinai by Sir Flinders Petrie in 1905. This alphabetic writing predates Moses by four hundred years. Also, at Ras Shamra near
Antioch a significant Temple Library was discovered including a
large number of tablets, dictionaries, and many reference books.
These tablets are written in eight languages including Babylonian,
Hebrew, Egyptian, Hittite, Old Sumerian, and three unknown
languages. A twenty-seven-character alphabet was used. It is clear
from numerous artifacts that alphabetic writing was in regular
use in Palestine during the second millennium B. C.
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Tell el-Amarna Tablets / 1400
These tablets represent part of the royal archives of the Egyptian
kings including Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV. Altogether, there
are over four hundred tablets carved in baked clay. These tablets are
typically 2.5 inches wide; three to nine inches long, and are inscribed
on both sides. They contain royal correspondence written in
Babylonian cuneiform script between the kings of Egypt and the
kings of Palestine and Syria. They were found in 1888 in the ruins of
the city of Amarna, which is located between Memphis and Thebes.
Moses Pentateuch / c. 1350
Ten Commandments on stone tablets / c. 1350
Library of King Ashurbanipal of Assyria / 650
This famous library includes thousands of clay tablets on many
subjects.
The Behistun Rock / 516
Darius, King of Persia, ordered the inscription of his exploits on
a remarkable and isolated rock on Behistun Mountain. The rock rises
1700 feet above the surrounding plain. Darius’ inscriptions were
engraved on a smoothed surface of a cliff four hundred feet above
the road level. The inscriptions were in Persian, Elamite, and
Babylonian. In 1835, Sir Henry Rawlinson discovered the
inscriptions and over a period of four years carefully generated
impressions of the engravings. Subsequent analysis provided the key
to deciphering the Babylonian language, which being a dead
language was unknown in modern times. This enabled erudite
scholars to translate the vast numbers of ancient Babylonian tablets
and engravings that have been discovered in the Babylonian region
over the past 150 years.
Leaden Tablet from Chaidari, near Athens / 350
This is the oldest extant Greek letter, written in an epistolary
form. This tablet shows that the praescript was not part of the
address, but rather the address was printed on the outside after the
thin tablet was folded.
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The Rosetta Stone / 200
The Rosetta Stone depicts a decree by Ptolemy V Epiphanes in
three languages including Greek, Egyptian Demotic, and Egyptian
Hieroglyphic. The Egyptian Hieroglyphic language is the oldest form
of Egyptian picture writing, and the simpler Egyptian Demotic form
of writing came into use about 800 B. C. Both of these older
languages became unused during the times of the Roman occupation,
and were not decipherable to modern men.
The Rosetta Stone was found by M. Boussard, a French scholar,
who accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1799. The Stone was found
in the town of Rosetta, which is on the western-most outlet of the
Nile River. The Rosetta Stone was deciphered by a French Scholar
named Champollion over a four-year period from 1818-1822. As a
result, the mysteries of these ancient Egyptian languages were
revealed. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone sparked international
interest, and indirectly stimulated extensive archaeological
expeditions and investigations.
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Biblical Languages
The Bible was originally written in three languages including
Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. All three languages continue to be
actively used. However, the modern versions differ noticeably from
the ancient versions of biblical times. Hebrew is spoken in the nation
of Israel. Aramaic is spoken in Damascus, Syria. And of course,
Greek is mainly spoken in the land of Greece. However, the Greek
of ancient times is significantly different from the Greek spoken
today, to a similar extent as Old English dialects differ from Modern
English.
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Hebrew is a member of a family of languages, which are known
as Semitic. Semitic languages are classified as Southern (Arabic and
Ethiopic), Eastern (Akkadian), and Northwestern (Aramaic, Syriac,
and Canaanite). Further, the Canaanite branch includes Hebrew,
Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite. The Hebrew language has
progressed through a series of developmental stages including
Biblical, Mishnaic, Rabbinic, Medieval, and Modern dialects.
The Hebrew language is very different from English: for it has
unique sounds and different letters. In fact, Hebrew letters are
borrowed directly from Aramaic letters. Additionally, Hebrew is
written from right-to-left, and vowels were traditionally omitted until
about the ninth century A. D. All books of the Old Testament were
written in Hebrew. However a small percentage, including certain
verses and quotations, were written in Aramaic. The Hebrew
language was referred to in the Old Testament as “the Jews’
language” (Nehemiah 13:24) and as the “language of Canaan”
(Isaiah 19:18). In the New Testament, the Hebrew language is
clearly referred to as the “Hebrew tongue” in five different instances.
Aramaic is a Semitic language that is similar to Hebrew.
Evidently, the Jews of Palestine learned Aramaic while in captivity
and under the authority of the Babylonians, circa 500 B. C. From this
time through the dispersion of the Jews in 70 A. D., Aramaic was a
common language of the people in Palestine. Please note that the
Aramaic texts in the Old Testament Bible are written in the same
script as Hebrew. The following table identifies the Aramaic verses
included in the Old Testament.
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Table 23: Old Testament Verses in Aramaic
Genesis 31:47
And Laban called it Jegarsahadutha [Chaldean - a memorial
mound of stones]; but Jacob called it Galeed [heap of testimony].
Jeremiah 10:11
Thus shall ye say unto them, The gods that have not made the
heavens and the earth, even they shall perish from the earth, and
from under the heavens.
Daniel 2:4b - 7:28
O king, Live forever: …
Ezra 4:8 - 6:18
The decree of King Darius concerning the rebuilding of the
temple
Ezra 7:12 - 26
The letter that king Artaxerxes gave to Ezra the scribe.
&&&&&&&
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A few Aramaic words are also recorded in the New Testament.
The following table identifies the Aramaic words or phrases
included in the New Testament. It seems that these words were
recorded in their original spoken language in order to convey a sense
of compassion or sincerity.
Table 24: Aramaic in the New Testament
Spoken Aramaic / English / Verse(s)
Talitha cumi
Little girl, arise!
Mark 5:41
Ephphatha
Be opened
Mark 7:34
Eli, Eli, lama sabahthani?
My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?
Matthew 27:46, Mark 15:34
Abba
Father
Romans 8:15, Galatians 4:6
Maranatha
Our Lord, come!
1 Corinthians 16:22
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Greek is an Indo-European language that was in common use
during the first century throughout the Roman Empire. At that time,
Greek was the common language of commerce in a similar way that
English is the global language of today. The Greek language has
progressed through five periods of development including Homeric,
Attic, Hellenistic or Koine, Byzantine, and Modern. The Greek of
the first century church was known as Koine (or common) Greek.
The New Testament was originally written in the common or
colloquial Greek language, which greatly facilitated its widespread
publication and dissemination throughout the Roman Empire and
beyond.
Furthermore, analysis of the Greek language used throughout the
New Testament shows that it presents a record of late colloquial
Greek. Specifically, over 99% of the words recorded in the New
Testament were common words. This is apparent since the biblical
words also appear in non-biblical manuscripts dating to the first
century. As such, this first century dating of the text provides
additional evidence for the origination of the New Testament
manuscripts during the apostolic period. Dr. Geisler noted, “The
field of linguistics abounds with evidence that confirms the
contention that the New Testament, known from the second and
third century manuscripts, was the work of first century writers…
The verdict, then, of historical philology based on the contemporary
non-literary texts is that the ’sacred books are so many records of
popular [late colloquial, Koine] Greek, in its various grades’ and
‘taken as a whole the New Testament is a book of the people’”
(Geisler p. 410-11).
Biblical Manuscript Information
Old and New Testament manuscripts were copied in two distinct
Greek styles. The first is known as the unical (or inch high) style,
which refers to writing in all capital letters with little distinction or
separation between words or lines. Early manuscripts copied in this
style are referred to as unicals, or more technically, majuscules. This
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was a more formal style for copying, which was prevalent from the
fourth century through the ninth century A. D.
The second style is known as cursive, or minuscule, which refers
to a smaller and running hand-style, similar to our lower-case letters
and with more distinction between words and letters. The cursive
style became increasingly popular, because it was more compact and
less expensive to produce. Both styles were practiced in the first
century A. D. It is probable that dictated manuscripts were originally
written in the cursive style. Altogether, about 375 unical manuscripts
have been preserved, dating from the fourth through the ninth
centuries, of which about 250 were copied on vellum. In addition,
over 2,900 cursive manuscripts have been preserved in the original
languages. The word, manuscript(s), is often abbreviated MS or ms
for the singular, or as MSS or mss for the plural.
Again, ancient New Testament manuscripts were written in
Greek in a running-hand written style that omitted spaces between
the words and also usually omitted vowels in words of the deity
including God, Son, and Father (as was the Hebrew practice). In
later centuries, the more modern style was gradually used, which
inserted spaces between words and moreover incorporated vowels
into the previously compacted deity words. An illustration of how
the ancient unical style might appear in English follows:
NOMANHASSEENGDATANYTIMETHEONLYBEGOTTENSN
WHICHISINTHEBOSOMOFTHEFTHRHEHATHDECLAREDHIM.
Manuscripts for scriptural books were compiled into Bibles. The
word, Bible, is derived from the Greek word, biblia, which is the
neuter plural of biblion, meaning a collection of books or scrolls.
The earliest use of ta biblia (the books) is noted to be 2 Clement
2:14 (c. 150 A. D.). The word, biblia, was subsequently used in the
fifth century to apply to the entire collection of sacred books, which
at that time was known as the “Library of Divine Revelation.” Later,
John Wycliffe (1380 A. D.) used the word Bible in English, and its
popularity gradually spread.
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In general, ancient collections of manuscripts contained a partial
subset of all the canonical manuscripts. Because manuscripts were
hand-copied, they tended to be large and bulky, in comparison to
today’s more compact printing style. They were also more expensive
to produce and copy. Additionally, prolonged and severe persecution
probably motivated smaller copies, simply because they would be
easier to conceal.
A review of preserved manuscripts indicates that four categories
were generally followed in compiling subsets of the scriptural
manuscripts. These categories included (1) The Four Gospels, (2) the
ACTS and General Epistles, (3) the Pauline Epistles, and (4) the
Book of Revelation. Also, there are cases where the Gospel of Luke
is found compiled together with the book of ACTS. This is sensible
since Luke intended the book of ACTS to follow his Gospel treatise.
As Luke is considered the author of both manuscripts, these books
are known as the Lucan Books. In some cases, the Four Gospels
were compiled to form Volume One, and the remaining books of the
Bible were compiled to form Volume Two.
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Old Testament Preservation
Through the centuries, Old Testament biblical manuscripts were
faithfully preserved through careful copying and verification
procedures. Significantly, reverent and pious men, motivated by
sincere dedication, faithfully labored diligently to copy the Old
Testament manuscripts. Traditionally, the Aaronic priests and
Levites were the custodians of the Law, although scribal
responsibilities seem to have transitioned through the centuries as
outlined in the following table.
Table 25: Scribal Duties - Hebrew Manuscripts
Centuries / Group / Notes
Thirteenth B. C. ff. / Aaronic Priests
Aaronic priests and Levites were responsible for keeping the
Law of Moses (Deuteronomy 31:25-26).
Fifth – Third B. C. / Sopherim (scribes)
The Sopherim were Jewish scholars and custodians who
standardized and preserved the Old Testament text.
Second – First B. C. / Zugoth (pairs)
Evidently pairs of Jewish scholars worked collaboratively to
preserve the text.
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First – Second A. D. / Tannaim (repeaters)
The compositions of the Tannaim are contained in the Midrash
(textual interpretation), Tosefta (addition), and Talmud (instruction).
The Talmud was later divided into Mishnah (repetitions) and
Gemara (matter to be learned). The Talmud was gradually generated
between 100 A. D. through 500.
Fifth – Tenth ff / Masoretes
The Masoretes received the Masora or traditional text from the
Sopherim. This text was preserved in all consonantal letters. The
Masoretes added vowel pointing and pronunciation marks and
codified and recorded the oral criticisms and remarks concerning the
Hebrew text. There were two major centers of Masoretic activity that
operated mostly independently. One was in Babylon and the other
was in Palestine. From the Old Testament perspective, the most
famous Masoretes were the Jewish scholars from Tiberias in Galilee
including Moses ben Asher (along with his son, Aaron) and Moses
ben Naphtali, who flourished in the ninth and tenth centuries.
Generally, the Ben Asher text provides the standard basis for both
the Hebrew Bible of today and also for the Christian Old Testament.
.
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To be a Masoretic biblical scribe required a life-long
commitment. Training began at the age of fourteen and was not
completed until the age of forty. The Masoretic scribes utilized very
rigorous and meticulous procedures as safeguards for ensuring the
precise accuracy of copied manuscripts, including proofreading and
also comparison to other validated exemplar manuscripts. By strict
policy, inaccurate or outdated copies were destroyed by burning or
burial. Moreover, only currently genuine and authentic copies were
permitted for active use within Hebrew society. This helps to
account for the relative rarity or paucity of very ancient Old
Testament manuscripts.
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“To this very day, every Torah scroll of the kind that may be found in
any synagogue the world over is copied by hand from its predecessor,
written out according to unchanging rules, by scribes who undergo an
exacting course of training and preparation. To each of them, the
following warning has been passed down through the ages – we should
hear it as more of a poetic metaphor: ‘Should you perchance omit or add
one single letter from the Torah, you would thereby destroy the whole
universe’” (Satinover p. 4).
More specifically, the Masoretes exercised several verification
checks involving various forms of letter counting and placement.
The following table summarizes their extensive regulations for the
manuscript copying and verification process.
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Table 26: Precise Copying & Verification
Regulations for Biblical Copying (from the Talmud)
a. Manuscripts must be prepared on the skins of clean or
undefiled animals that have been prepared by a Jew.
b. Skins must be fastened together using strings obtained from
clean animals.
c. Skins must be of a definite size (48 to 60 rows by exactly 30
columns) and must be lined before use.
d. Ink must be black and be prepared from a special recipe.
e. An “Authentic” copy must be used as an exemplar. Work from
memory was forbidden.
f. There are precise regulations for spacing between letters,
words, and books.
g. The copyist must wash his whole body and sit in full
ceremonial dress before working.
h. The writer must pronounce each word aloud before copying.
i. Before writing the name of God, the pen must first be washed.
j. When writing the name of God, no interruption is permitted,
not even from a king.
k. Two adjacent letters must not touch.
L. Manuscripts must be stored in a sacred or sacrosanct place.
m. Rolls that do not follow these regulations are condemned and
must be buried or burned.
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Verification Techniques
a. The scribes numbered the verses, words, and letters of each
book, and they used mnemonics to remember the appropriate
numbers. For example, the letter “A” is said to appear 42,376 times,
and the letter “B” must appear 38,218 times in the Old Testament,
and so on. See Menasseh ben Israel’s Conciliator, Volume I p. 250.
b. They noted verses that contained all the letters of the alphabet
and subsets.
c. The scribes calculated the middle verse, middle word, and
middle letter of each book. For example, the middle verse of the
Pentateuch is Leviticus 8:7, and the middle verse of the Hebrew
Bible is Jeremiah 6:7.
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The Jewish scribes, who generated these exact copies during the
first millennium from 500 through 1000 A. D., were known as
Masoretics, and their headquarters were in Tiberias on the Sea of
Galilee. The Hebrew word, Masoreth, means wall or fence, and the
Hebrew word, massora, means tradition. As such, the intention of
the Masoretic scholars was to create a traditional fence of protection
around the Old Testament manuscripts. The preserved Masoretic text
is regularly preferred and is used as the standard basis for the Old
Testament text of today.
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The early Jewish scribes and the Masoretes standardized the
traditional consonantal text by adding vowel pointing and marginal
notes, since previously the Hebrew alphabet had no vowels. Their
purpose was to record and standardize the vocalization or
pronunciation of the consonantal text for reading purposes. Initially,
vowel letters referred to as “mothers of reading” (matres lectionis)
were added. Such letters were consonants used especially to indicate
long vowel sounds. Evidently, these letters were in use before the
Christian era, as the Dead Sea Scrolls reveal. About the fifth century
A. D. and following, the Masoretes developed vowel signs to
identify short vowels. The preserved Masoretic text used today
includes the system developed by the Masoretes in the city of
Tiberias. The vowels, both long and short, are indicated by dots and
dashes placed above or below the consonants. Also, certain
combinations of dots and dashes depict very short sounds known as
half-words. The Masoretic treatment of the divine name is also of
interest.
“In one case the Masoretes did not give the true vocalization. The
divine name (YHWH in Hebrew characters, [known as the
Tetragrammaton]) was probably pronounced ‘Yahweh’, but the name was
regarded as ineffable, too sacred to be pronounced. The Masoretes,
therefore, wrote in the vowel signs of the alternative words adonai
(‘Lord’) or elohim (‘God’) to warn readers to use one of these in its place.
Where the divine name occurs in the Hebrew text, this has been signaled
in The Revised Standard Bible by using capital letters for ‘LORD’ or
‘GOD’, a widely accepted practice” (The Revised English Bible OT
Preface p. xv).
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The Old Testament manuscripts were carefully preserved, and
allusions or references to earlier exemplars are also apparent. The
following table delineates some of the earliest and most notable
Hebrew and Greek Old Testament manuscripts.
Table 27: Old Testament Manuscripts
OT Manuscripts in Hebrew
Manuscript(s) / Date / Comments
Dead Sea Scrolls / c. 60 B. C.
The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in 1947-51. Among the
numerous scrolls, many copies of Old Testament manuscripts were
recovered. In fact, all of the Old Testament books were recovered
with the exception of the book of Esther. It is very significant to note
that many of these ancient copies closely correspond to the ben
Chayyim text of the 1500s, which was the basis for the Textus
Receptus.
Nash Papyrus / c. 150 B. C.
The Nash Papyrus manuscript is the oldest extant Hebrew
witness to the Old Testament manuscripts. It contains the Ten
Commandments (Exodus 20:2-17), part of Deuteronomy 5:6-21, and
also the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4ff). It was apparently a devotional
collection, which was acquired in 1902 in Egypt by W. L. Nash, and
was subsequently donated to the Cambridge University Library.
Cairo Geniza Fragments / c. 450 A. D.
The Cairo Geniza manuscript fragments include biblical texts in
Hebrew and Aramaic and date from the fifth century and following.
They provide a valuable resource for examining the manuscripts that
preceded the standardization work accomplished by the Masoretes in
Tiberias.
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They were discovered near the end of the nineteenth century in
an old synagogue in Cairo, Egypt, which had been Saint Michael’s
Church until 882 A. D. Evidently, the manuscripts were stored in a
storage room known as a genizia. This particular small room had
been walled-off until its recent discovery.
Codex Hillel / c. 600
This Codex was traditionally attributed to Rabbi Hillel ben
Moses ben Hillel. It was considered very accurate and was cited
repeatedly by the early Masoretic scribes. However, it is no longer
extant. In addition, Codex Muda, Codex Jericho, and Codex
Jerushalmi were also referenced by the early Masoretes, but these
manuscripts are also not extant.
Codex Cairensis / 895
This manuscript is attributed to Moses ben Asher and is the
oldest dated extant Masoretic manuscript. It contains the Former
Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and the Latter
Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve Minor Prophets).
However, the remainder of the Old Testament is missing.
Aleppo Codex / c. 925
The original author of the Aleppo Codex was Shelemo ben
Bayaa. However, as cited in the manuscript’s concluding note or
colophon, this Codex was emended by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher,
who was responsible for pointing the text and adding the Masoretic
notes. This manuscript dates from the first half of the tenth century
and contained the entire Old Testament. It was partially damaged in
a fire in 1947, and is retained at the Hebrew University in Israel.
Codex Leningradensis / 1008
Codex Leningradensis is retained in the Leningrad Public
Library. According to a notation on the manuscript, it was copied by
Samuel ben Asher in 1008 A. D. from texts prepared by Aaron ben
Moses Asher c. 1000 A. D. This is an extant witness to the tradition
of the Ben Asher family of texts.
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Due to its availability, this text was used as the basis for the later
Hebrew texts edited by Rudolph Kittel, namely, the (1937) third
edition of the Biblia Hebraica, and its revision of 1967/77 edited by
K. Elliger and W. Rudolf, namely, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia.
Samaritan Pentateuch / pre-1149
The Samaritan Pentateuch dates to about the fourth century B. C.
and contains about six thousand differences from the traditional
Masoretic text. About one thousand of the differences relate to
textual meaning, and the remaining variations are editorial. The most
notable differences are Samaritan sectarian emendations employed to
indicate that the Lord actually selected Mount Gerizim rather than
Mount Zion, and Shechem rather than Jerusalem as His chosen sites
(1 Kings 12:1-19, 25, 2 Chronicles 10, also John 4:5, 39-42).
Where the Samaritan Pentateuch agrees with the Masoretic text,
it may serve as a helpful textual witness. The two oldest extant
copies are codices. The oldest predating 1149 A. D. is presently in
the University Library at Cambridge, England. The other is in the
John Rylands’ Library in Manchester, England and dates to 1211 or
1212 A. D. The standard printed edition of the Samaritan Pentateuch
is in five volumes by A. von Gall, Der Hebraische Pentateuch der
Samaritaner (1914-1918).
Petersburg Codex of the Prophets / 916
The Petersburg Codex manuscript reflects the early Masoretic
tradition and includes Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve (MS
Hebrew B3).
Erfurt Codices
The Erfurt Codices reflect the text of the Masora of the Ben
Naphtali tradition. They are retained in the University Library of
Tubingen (E1, 2, 3).
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Compultensian Polyglot / 1514-17
This Compultensian Polyglot was printed by Cardinal Francisco
Ximenes De Cisneros (1437-1517) at the university town of Alcala,
Spain. A polyglot is an edition that includes multiple columns of text
for comparison purposes. Usually the original language is presented
and various other language translations are shown in adjoining
columns. The massive Compultensian includes Hebrew and Greek,
Aramaic, Targum, and Latin. The Old Testament was printed in
1547 and the New Testament in 1517. This was the first Greek New
Testament to be printed, but Pope Leo X did not give his sanction
for the publication until 1520.
Jacob ben Chayyim / 1524-5
This Masoretic text was edited by the Hebrew Christian, Jacob
ben Chayyim, and was the primary basis for early translations into
English including the King James Bible. It is known as the Second
Rabbinical Bible (1524-25) by Jacob ben Chayyim and has been
published in four volumes by Daniel Bomberg.
OT Manuscripts in Greek
Septuagint (LXX) / 270 B. C.
In 300 B. C., Alexander the Great declared Greek to be the
official language within his empire, and required that Hebrew
children be taught Greek. In order to preserve the Jewish Scriptures
in the official Greek language for their posterity, the Hebrews
motivated a translation from Hebrew into Greek. As such, the
Septuagint was a Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament
and of the apocryphal books (extant at the time), that was performed
in Alexandria, Egypt by seventy (or 72) Jewish scribes.
According to legend, the translation was accomplished in
seventy-two days during the reign of the Egyptian king, Ptolemy II
Philadelphius. However, no ancient copies of the LXX are extant,
and some speculate that the LXX may never have existed.
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Its existence is inferred from indirect sources including the Letter
of Ariteas, John Rylands No. 458, Origen’s Hexapla, and references
by Eusebius and Philo. The following summarizes the evidence for
the existence of the LXX:
a. Letter of Ariteas to Philocartes (c. 130-100 B. C.) - This
document revealed a plan to make an official translation of the
Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament) into Greek. This is the primary
evidence for the existence of the LXX. The Letter calls for six
scholars from each of the twelve tribes of Israel to participate in the
translation. There is some skepticism concerning the validity of the
Letter. For instance, by 270 B. C., the tribes had been intermingled
and scattered, so assembling such a group from the various tribes
may have been quite difficult. Moreover, the tribe of Levi was
responsible for maintenance of the Scriptures. As such, participation
by other tribes in a new translation would have been very unlikely, if
not forbidden. Moreover, certain Apocryphal books, which allegedly
were included in the LXX, were not yet written.
b. Rylands #458 - This manuscript is a small Greek fragment of
the book of Deuteronomy including only chapters 23-28. It dates to
150 B. C., and is the oldest extant Greek manuscript or fragment of
the Old Testament books.
c. Origen’s Hexapla - In the second column of the Hexapla,
Origen included a translation of the Old Testament books in Greek.
The evidence suggests that this is Origen’s own translation, rather
than a copy of the LXX. The pivotal issue is that the Hexapla
included apocryphal books, which were not written until after the
time frame of the legendary LXX.
d. Eusebius and Philo - Both authors make reference to a
Pentateuch translation in Greek. They may have been referring to the
Rylands #458 manuscript.
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Altogether, the evidence for the existence of the LXX is inferred
at best. Biblical analysis by Kenyon and Adams (p. 16-19) has
revealed that the Greek Septuagint text reflects large variations from
the Hebrew text. Substantial differences have been noted in Job
(one-sixth shorter in the Greek), Joshua, 1 Samuel, 1 Kings,
Proverbs, Esther, and Jeremiah. Mainly because of the magnitude of
these divergences, Jewish Biblical scholars during the early centuries
A. D. rejected the Greek Septuagint and prepared new translations.
Aquila / 130 A. D.
Aquila was a proselyte and disciple of Rabbi Akiba. Aquila
generated a very literal translation, which reveals details about the
Hebrew textual base. This translation was in popular use by Jewish
people at the time and was considered official. Today however, only
fragments are extant.
Symmachus / 170 A. D.
Symmachus’ version was considered accurate, and also
communicated well in idiomatic Greek. However, this version
survives only in a few Hexapla fragments. Evidently, Jerome made
considerable use of Symmachus’ translation in the Latin Vulgate
(Kenyon p. 57).
Theodocian / 190 A. D.
Theodocian was a Jewish proselyte, who generated a revision to
an earlier Greek version. This version was widely used, but survives
only in a few early Christian quotations. Theodocian’s renderings of
Ezra-Nehemiah and Daniel were also reflected in subsequent
Christian Old Testament texts.
Hexapla (six-fold) / c. 225 A. D.
The Christian scholar, Origen of Alexandria (185-254 A. D.),
arranged the Old Testament into six parallel versions in order to
facilitate comparison. The versions included the Hebrew text, the
Hebrew transliterated into Greek, Aquila’s version, Symmachus’
version, the Septuagint (or Origen’s translation), and Theodocian’s
version.
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Only a few fragments remain in existence. Jerome used the
Hexapla at Caesarea in his work on the Vulgate. In addition,
Eusebius and Pamphilus published the fifth column in the
fourth/fifth century, Codex Sarravianus (G).
Also, Paul of Tella, a Mesopotamian Bishop, used the fifth
column of the Hexapla at Caesarea in 616-617 A. D. to produce a
translation into Syriac, which is extant. It is known as the SyroHexaplar text, and an eighth century faithful copy, Codex
Mediolanensis, is retained in the Milan museum. The preserved
portions include 2 Kings, Isaiah, the Twelve, Lamentations, and the
poetical books (except Psalms).
Recent Editions
Bishop Kennicott / 1776-1780
Bishop Kennicott published a critical text of the Old Testament
at Oxford. His text was based on 634 Hebrew manuscripts.
De Rossi / 1784-1788
The Italian scholar, De Rossi, published a collection of 825 Old
Testament manuscripts, which were in addition to Bishop
Kennicott’s text.
Kittel and Kahle / 1929-1937
C. D. Ginsberg prepared a critical edition of the Hebrew Bible in
1926 for the British and Foreign Bible Society. Ginsberg’s work was
followed by texts edited by Rudolf Kittel and Paul E. Kahle. The
Kittel-Kahle text was updated in three major revisions, and was the
standard until outdated by the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
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Ellinger and Rudolf / 1967-1977
Karl Ellinger and Wilhelm Rudolf published a new edition of the
Masoretic text that incorporated readings from the Dead Sea Scrolls.
It is entitled, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Also, a complete Small
Edition was published in 1983. This text is considered by nonJewish Hebraists to be the most authoritative edition of the Hebrew
Text of the Old Testament.
&&&&&&&
The Jews maintained a sacred attitude toward the Old Testament
books, which directly contributed toward their faithful preservation.
The Jewish historian, Joseph ben Mattathias, better known as
Flavius Josephus, wrote concerning the Jewish commitment to the
Scriptures. He explained, "During so many ages as have already
passed, no one has been so bold as to either add anything to them
[the sacred books] or take anything from them, or to make any
change in them; but it becomes natural to all Jews, immediately and
from their very birth, to esteem those books to contain Divine
doctrines and to persist in them, and if occasion be, willingly to die
for them" (Josephus against Apion, Book I, Sec 8). Furthermore,
Rabbi Rambsel wrote, “The Jewish sages taught that to change the
word of God would be equivalent to changing the course of the
universe. A Rabbi once suggested to me that if one letter of God’s
Torah were retracted, the whole universe would disappear”
(Rambsel-2, p. 68). Evidently, the Jewish scribes believed that the
accuracy of their copying work was of ultimate importance and
consequence.
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“If the letters of the Ten Utterances by which the earth was created
during the Six Days of creation were to depart from it even for an instant,
G-d forbid, it would revert to naught and absolute nothingness, exactly as
before the Six Days of creation” (Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (17451812), the Alter Rebbe, The Gate to the Understanding of G-d’s Unity,
via Satinover p. 25).
“The Torah has always been viewed by Jews as a map of all
existence through space and time, standing outside and above it. The
physical world is the Torah’s derivative, not the other way around. And it
is, in particular, the letters of the Torah that, in some mysterious way, are
God’s agency for the world’s creation. Thus, in its mission to preserve the
Torah as exactly as it can, by treasuring and preserving every letter,
Israel’s historical purpose is also to preserve and care for the blueprint of
all existence” (Satinover p. 44).
In conclusion, detailed analysis shows that the Old Testament
has been faithfully preserved and protected. After comparing 184
texts of the Hebrew Bible, the scholar, Dr. Wilson, wrote, "The
evidence shows that for 2300 to 3900 years the text of the proper
names in the Hebrew Bible has been transmitted with the most
minute accuracy. That the original scribes should have written them
with such close conformity to correct philological principles is a
wonderful proof of their thorough care and scholarship; further, that
the Hebrew text should have been transmitted by copyists through so
many centuries is a phenomenon unequaled in the history of
literature" (McDowell p. 55). Moreover, comparisons of the quite
ancient Dead Sea Scrolls (c. 70 B. C.) with the Ben Chayyim Old
Testament text (1525 A. D.) show practical correlation, which
clearly demonstrates the trustworthiness of the Old Testament
transmission.
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“Among the three Torahs in use worldwide among the Jews – the
Ashkenazi (in northern and eastern European countries), Sephardi (in
Latin European and some North African countries), and Yemenite (in
Muslim countries) – there are only 9 letter-level variations total in the
entire 300,000-letter text – in other words, a variation of .002 percent.
The dispersions of these three groups go back at least to the Romans and
most likely further, since before the destruction of Jerusalem Jewish
communities existed around the Mediterranean Basin” (Satinover p. 51).
“Different versions of the Torah may therefore be looked at in
another way. The BHS (Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensis) text mentioned
by Mr. Chapman and used by non-Jewish Hebraists is not identical to the
traditional Jewish (Koren) text used by Jews the world over. (Footnote:
The Koren edition of the Masoretic text incorporates the best
understanding of the Jewish scholarly tradition of textual transmission.)
There are some 130-plus differences between them in the entire Five
Books of Moses – not all that much on a proportional basis, but still
significant.
The Jewish sages contend that, over the millennia, they have done an
unusually good job of preserving the text. They do not claim perfection,
however. In fact, an ongoing record of known and suspected errors has
been incorporated directly into the text itself. The act of preserving the
Torah has always been, for them, not merely a scholarly endeavor, but a
sacred one” (Satinover p. 212).
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New Testament (NT) Preservation
Original manuscripts for the New Testament books are known as
autographs or masters. To date, none of the autographs have been
located, and they are presumed to be lost. However, numerous copies
of ancient New Testament books and fragments of books are extant.
In this context, scholars have worked diligently to review and
analyze the great multitude of texts. Through their judicious efforts,
the New Testament has been edited and accurately preserved. As a
consequence, the resultant New Testament text in the original Greek
language forms an accurate and reliable basis for language
translations.
Within this section, information is presented that establishes a
clear case for the faithful transmission of the New Testament text.
Specific points of evidence are reviewed that are intended to evince
and prove the accurate transmission of the New Testament. First, the
overall antiquity of the earliest manuscripts is emphasized. Such
early texts are remarkably proximate to the autographs, and therefore
provide a comparatively reliable basis for editorial efforts. Secondly,
the temporal distribution of extant manuscripts is presented. This
numerical information conveys the broad textual basis that remains
extant for editorial comparison and analysis. Thirdly, several of the
most notable New Testament manuscripts are identified and
reviewed in a tabular format with the intention of describing details
of the textual basis for the resultant New Testament manuscripts.
Fourthly, the editorial efforts that produced the New Testament
resultant texts in the original Greek are disclosed and summarized.
Lastly, expert conclusions on the reliability of the New Testament
transmission are provided.
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Overall, the evidence for the accuracy of the New Testament
transmission is inferred through circumstantial information
concerning the extant manuscripts. Considered collectively, the
evidence presents a compelling case for the faithful preservation and
transmission of the eyewitness records of the New Testament
authors.
NT Preservation - Manuscript Antiquity
Numerous extant New Testament manuscripts are quite ancient
and several are proximate to the period of the eyewitnesses of the
ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. This fact advances serious
credibility toward the accuracy of textual preservation. Additionally,
many New Testament manuscripts are quite ancient, relative to other
non-Christian writings that originated in antiquity. This situation
contributes to the comparative trustworthiness of the New Testament
transmission relative to other non-Christian texts.
The following table summarizes date and time-span information
concerning the New Testament and various ancient pagan
documents. This table includes documents written between 900 B.
C. through 113 A. D. The earliest preserved copies are of the New
Testament, which date to relatively shortly following the times when
written. The earliest copies of most of the remaining documents date
between 850 A. D. through 1100 A. D. In general the difference in
the time-span, between when the non-Christian documents were
written and the dates of their earliest preserved copies, is about one
thousand years. This table also shows the total number of preserved
copies. For the New Testament, over 24,000 total copies have been
preserved in numerous languages. In comparison, Homer’s, Iliad, is
in second place with 643 extant copies.
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Table 28: Preservation of Ancient Manuscripts
Author
(Work)
New Testament
Greek
Hindu
Mahabharata
Homer
Iliad
Sophocles
Herodotus
History
Thucydides
History
Plato
Tetralogies
Aristotle
Poetics etc.
Demosthenes
Caesar
Gallic Wars
Pliny the
Younger
Natural History
Tacitus
Livy
History of
Rome-Complete
Livy
History of
Rome- Partial
Date
40-100
A. D.
1300
B. C.
800
B. C.
496-406
B. C.
480-425
B. C.
460-400
B. C.
427-347
B. C.
384-322
B. C.
300
B. C.
100-44
B. C.
61-113
A. D.
Earliest
Copy
70
A. D.
Unknown
Elapsed
Years
30+
#
Copies
5,366
400
B. C.
1000
A. D.
900
A. D.
900
A. D.
900
A. D.
1100
A. D.
1100
A. D.
900
A. D.
850
A. D.
400
643
1,400
193
1,350
8
1,300
8
1,200
7
1,400
40
1,400
200
1,000
10
750
7
100
A. D.
59-17
A. D.
1100
A. D.
350
A. D.
1,000
20
400
1
59-17
A. D.
950
A. D.
1,000
20
&&&&&&&
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In addition, fragmentary copies of New Testament manuscripts
date to the first century A. D., which is within the same generation as
the eyewitness apostles and disciples, and is within a generation of
the original autographs. Such contemporary copies were perhaps
only one copy-step removed from the original autographs. This
increases the likelihood of accurate preservation and transmission. In
contrast, over one thousand years have elapsed between the
origination and the earliest extant copies of many other ancient nonChristian manuscripts. Therefore, the reliability of the transmission
of non-Christian manuscripts becomes more questionable. Overall,
the temporal proximity of the New Testament manuscripts to the
autographs provides a comparatively early and trustworthy witness,
and therefore contributes convincing evidence toward the faithful
preservation of the Scriptures.
NT Preservation - Manuscripts’ Time Phasing
Thousands of ancient biblical manuscripts have been preserved
in the original Greek and in several other languages. This large
quantity of manuscripts has provided a broad basis for manuscript
review and comparison. Moreover, this broad collection has enabled
an objective assessment of the textual content within the
manuscripts. Such analysis has led to a consensus opinion that the
New Testament manuscripts convey consistent thematic content.
Scholars have attempted to categorize these numerous
manuscripts and also to determine their time of origination. In some
cases, dating of manuscripts cannot be determined with certainty, so
approximations based on inferred evidence are used. Because
opinions vary, slight differences in compiled lists tend to exist. As of
1976, there were a total of 5,366 biblical manuscripts catalogued.
However, the exact dating of approximately 144 of them remains
uncertain. The following table provides a representative summary of
the time-phased distribution of the origination of biblical
manuscripts.
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Table 29: Time-Phased Distribution of Manuscripts
Century
A. D.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Papyri
1
31
20
8
9
13
3
Majuscules
Miniscules
3
16
44
60
29
27
47
18
1
1
1
3
4
22
13
125
436
568
569
535
248
138
44
16
4
&&&&&&&
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Lectionaries
116
143
241
490
398
313
168
194
73
11
Sum/
Century
1
34
37
53
72
46
52
176
286
678
1058
967
848
416
332
117
27
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NT Preservation - Biblical Manuscript Review
Altogether, thousands of ancient biblical manuscripts have been
preserved. The following table provides summary information
concerning several of the more notable manuscripts. They are
reviewed in the chronological order of their origination. This
information helps to characterize the textual basis, especially for the
New Testament.
Table 30: Delineation of Biblical Manuscripts
Manuscript / Identity / Date / Type
1. Oxyrhynchus Papyri / early source
In 1898, Grenfell and Hunt discovered thousands of papyrus
fragments at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. Among the fragments were over
thirty-five manuscripts containing segments of the New Testament.
These manuscripts include P1 (Matthew 1), P5 (John 1, 16), P13
(Hebrews 2-5, 10-12), and P22 (John 15-16).
2. Chester Beatty Papyri / c. 95 and later
In the 1930s, Chester Beatty purchased a number of ancient
biblical fragments from a dealer in Egypt. Three of the manuscripts
are of very early origin including P45 (second century, all four
Gospels and ACTS), P46 (c. 95, almost all of Paul’s epistles and
Hebrews), and P47 (third century, Revelation 9-17). These important
papyri reside in the Beatty Museum near Dublin.
200
3. Greek Vulgate / 150
This was an early compilation of Greek manuscripts that agreed
with the majority of texts extant at the time.
4. Old Latin (Itala) / 157 (original dating 120)
These ancient manuscripts were written in Latin, and tend to
agree with the Traditional or Majority Text. There are over thirtyfive copies that have been preserved from ancient times, not
counting fragments, and they date from the fourth to the thirteenth
centuries. The Old Latin (Itala) manuscripts originated in North
Africa, and were in common use during the time of Tertullian (150
A. D.) and Cyprian (220-258 A. D.). This version was retained and
used by fundamentalist Christian groups for over one thousand years
including the Waldenses, Gauls, Celts, and Albegenses.
Three important manuscripts include an African text, Codex
Bobiensis (k) and two European texts. The European texts include
Codex Vercellensis, which supposedly was written by Eusebius of
Vercelli (d. 370 or 371), and Codex Veronensis, which was of the
same text-type used by Jerome for the Vulgate.
For a description and checklist of Old Latin manuscripts see, Dr.
Bruce Metzger-3, The Early Versions of the New Testament: Their
Origins, Transmission, and Limitations, p. 293; pp. 295-308, 46164.
5. Bodmer Papyri / c. 175 and later
M. Martin Bodmer purchased these manuscripts in the 1950s and
1960s from a dealer in Egypt. Three early manuscripts include P66
(c. 175, almost all of John), P72 (third century, all of 1 and 2 Peter
and Jude), and P75 (c. 200, large parts of Luke 3 through John 15).
Altogether, 104 leaves and fragments of forty other pages are
retained at the Library of World Literature at Culganay, near Geneva.
6. The Gallic (French) Bible / 177
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7. Egyptian (Coptic) / 190
During the second/third centuries, two translations were made
into Egyptian or Coptic dialects including Sahidic and Boharic.
Sahidic is the Coptic dialect of Upper (southern) Egypt. In the
vicinity of Thebes, New Testament translations were accomplished
and are known as Thebaic. Extant Sahidic manuscripts of the
Gospels and ACTS present the traditional text-type. In Lower
(northern) Egypt in the Nile Delta area, the Coptic dialect of Boharic
(Memphic) was used along with Greek. Boharic was in common use
in the city of Alexandria and became the basic dialect of the
Egyptian church. An early extant witness is Papyrus Bodmer III,
which includes portions of the Gospel of John. Additionally, in
Middle Egypt, the Gospel of John has been found dating to the
fourth century. It appears in the Coptic dialect known as Fayumic.
8. Lectionaries / Various / 200 ff / uncial & cursive
Ancient lectionaries, or church service manuals, contained
selected passages of Scripture that were regularly read during early
Christian church services. Ancient Lectionaries are similar to the
responsive readings found in the back of today’s hymnals, and were
regularly used throughout the church year for liturgical purposes.
Usually, lectionaries included Scriptures from the four Gospels, and
sometimes from other New Testament manuscripts. Over 2,200
ancient lections have been preserved.
Lectionaries provide another point of comparison for New
Testament manuscript accuracy and for independent validation. Most
notably, lectionaries consistently include and provide compelling
evidence for the early and ubiquitous church usage of specific
passages of scripture. Examples of scriptures consistently included
in lectionaries include John 7:53 – 8:11 (the story of the woman
taken in the act of adultery) and also Mark 16:9-20 (Jesus’
commandment to ‘Go ye into all of the world and preach the
gospel…’). Please see Burgon-2 chapter 10.
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9. Codex Vaticanus / Codex B / 325 / unical
In 1448, Pope Nicolas V placed Codex Vaticanus in the Vatican
Library at Rome. Its prior history is unknown. In 1890, it was finally
made fully publicly accessible, when photocopies were produced and
made available. It is written entirely in Greek.
The Codex Vaticanus is missing Genesis 1:1-46:27, Psalms 106138, Mark 16:9-20 (although space of an appropriate length was
reserved for this section), and Hebrews 9:14-13:25. Also, missing
are the letters of Timothy and Titus and the book of Revelation.
Codex Vaticanus contains 759 leaves of the finest of ancient vellum.
This manuscript also contains apocryphal books including Jesus ben
Sira, The Wisdom of Solomon, Judith, Tobit, and the Epistle of
Jeremiah. This codex originated in Alexandria, Egypt, and was
evidently a copy of an earlier Egyptian manuscript. Significant
alterations and emendations to the text have been noted.
After carefully examining the Vaticanus manuscript, Professor
John Burgon observed, “The impurity of the text exhibited by these
codices is not a question of opinion but fact… In the Gospels alone,
Codex B (Vaticanus) leaves out words or whole clauses no less than
1,491 times. It bears traces of careless transcriptions on every page”
(Loughran p. 17). Dr. John William Burgon (1813-1888) was a
devoted biblical scholar, who became the Dean of Chichester, and is
historically known as Dean Burgon. He invested many years visiting
various libraries throughout Europe, and personally and thoroughly
examined many ancient biblical manuscripts.
The editors of the Westminster Dictionary of the Bible wrote
concerning the Vaticanus manuscript, “It should be noted, however,
that there is no prominent Biblical MS in which there occur such
gross cases of misspelling, faulty grammar, and omission, as in B”
(Loughran p. 17). Further, Dr. Barry Burton summarized, “Besides
all that - in the gospels alone it [Vaticanus] leaves out 237 words,
452 clauses, and 748 whole sentences, which hundreds of later
copies agree together as having the same words in the same places,
the same clauses in the same places, and the same sentences in the
same places… The Vaticanus was available to the translators of the
King James Bible, but they did not use it because they knew it was
unreliable” (Loughran p. 18).
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10. Sinaitic Codex / Codex Aleph / 340 / unical
In 1844, the scholar and German Count, Lobegott Friedrich
Constantine von Tischendorf (1815-1874), discovered forty-three
ancient parchment leaves of the Old Testament in a wastebasket in
the convent of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai. These parchments were
recovered and deposited in the university library at Leipzig, under
the title of the Codex Frederico-Augustanus, after Tischendorf’s
royal patron the king of Saxony. Much of the Old Testament was
lost, but the surviving portions included apocryphal books, namely,
Tobit, Judith, 1 and 4 Maccabees, Jesus ben Sira, and the Wisdom of
Solomon.
In 1853, Tischendorf continued his search at the convent, but
found nothing. In 1859 by direction of the emperor of Russia,
Tischendorf resumed his search at St. Catherine’s convent for
ancient manuscripts. During his visit, a steward of the monastery
revealed the remaining extant leaves of the originally found
manuscript.
Altogether, this document retains about one half of the Old
Testament and the entire Greek New Testament with minor
exceptions. The Sinaitic Codex also contains two other ancient noncanonical manuscripts including the Epistle of Barnabas and the
Shepherd of Hermas.
The Codex leaves found in 1859 were conveyed to the Emperor
Alexander and were secured in the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg
until 1933. Codex Sinaiticus was sold to the King of England in
1933 (for 100,000 pounds). To date, it is retained in the national
library of the British Museum. It was published in a volume entitled,
Scribes and Correctors of Codex Sinaiticus (London 1938).
This text was also evidently a copy of an earlier Egyptian text,
and shows significant evidence of ineffective copying techniques
and also of deliberate alterations. Apparently, the initial copying
accuracy was quite poor. After a detailed review of the manuscript,
Dean John Burgon observed, “On many occasions 10, 20, 30, 40
words are dropped through very carelessness.
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Letters, words, and even whole sentences are frequently written
twice over, or begun and immediately canceled; while that gross
blunder, whereby a clause is omitted because it happens to end in the
same words as the clause preceding, occurs no less than 115 times in
the New Testament” (Loughran p. 16). Moreover, the deliberate
alterations to the text made it impure to the early Christians, which
explains its apparent lack of prolonged use, and obviated its
constructive use as an exemplar for additional copies. Dr. Burgon
exposed, “On nearly every page of the manuscript there are
corrections and revisions, done by ten different people. Some of
these corrections were made about the same time that it was copied,
but most of them were made in the sixth and seventh centuries”
(Loughran p. 16).
11. Gothic / 350
Ulfilas (or Wulfila, 311-381), a missionary bishop to the Gothic
tribes, was known as the “Apostle to the Goths.” Ulfilas has been
credited with creating a Gothic alphabet and with rendering the
Gothic spoken language into written form. His text reflects the
traditional text-type. There remain five fragmentary manuscripts of
the Gothic version dating to the fifth and sixth centuries. The most
famous is the Codex Agenteus (the silver codex). This was a
beautiful work including leaves of purple parchment and ornate
silver and some gold letters. The remaining manuscripts are
palimpsests, except one leaf of a bilingual Gothic-Latin codex.
These manuscripts provide the oldest extant specimens of Teutonic
literature.
12. Armenian / 354-441
The Armenian translation was begun at Edessa by Mesrop (a
soldier turned missionary who died in 439), and was continued by
his nephew, Khoren. The oldest extant manuscript dates to the ninth
century and reflects the traditional text-type. Of note, Armenia
retains the distinction of being the first nation to embrace
Christianity as its official religion. Also, the Armenian alphabet was
created for the express purpose of Bible transmission.
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13. Latin Vulgate / 385-405
In 382, Damascus, the bishop of Rome, desired to produce a
Bible that would be considered authoritative for Latin speaking
churches. Damascus acquired the services of the noted scholar,
Sophronius Eusebius Hieronymus, for this task, who otherwise
became known as, Saint Jerome.
Jerome (c. 340-420) used Hebrew manuscripts as a basis for his
Old Testament translation into Latin. Jerome did this work while
living in Palestine in the city of Bethlehem from 386 until his death
in 420 A. D. It is reported that Jerome hired a Rabbi to teach him
Hebrew and to assist in the translation work. Jerome also presided
over a monastery during the course of these years.
Furthermore, Jerome primarily used the Old Latin text-type for
his translation of the New Testament. During the seventh century,
Jerome’s translation became known as the Vulgate, meaning
common. Jerome’s Latin Vulgate was used in many churches for
over one thousand years, and formed the basis for early translations
into English and other European languages. Notably, the Vulgate
was the common Latin Bible of the Middle Ages for most Western
churches. Also in 1455, it was the first complete book ever printed
on a printing press.
The complete works of Jerome were compiled by Cassiodorus
(died c. 580) in his monastery at Scylacium in Italy. The earliest
extant manuscript containing Jerome’s Bible in its entirety is the
Codex Amiatinus (c. 715). This codex was copied at the monastery
at Jarrow in Northumbria, England.
In 1546, the Council of Trent declared the Vulgate to be
“authentic.” In their document, “Decree Concerning the Edition, and
the Use, of the Sacred Books,” the synod authors wrote,
“Moreover, the same sacred and holy synod, - considering that no
small utility may accrue to the Church of God, if it be made known which
out of all the Latin editions, now in circulation, of the sacred books, is to
be held as authentic, - ordains and declares, that the said old and vulgate
edition, which, by the lengthened usage of so many ages, has been
approved of in the Church, be, in public lectures, disputations, sermons,
and expositions, held as authentic; and that no one is to dare, or presume
to reject it under any pretext whatever” (Schaff-2 p. 2:28).
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Beginning in 1592 under the direction of Pope Clement VIII
(1592-1605), the Latin Vulgate was edited and adopted as the basis
for subsequent editions of the Bible within the Roman Catholic
Church. Hence in 1604, an updated and authentic Vulgate edition
was published, which is known as the Sixto-Clementine edition. In
1969, the Wurttenbergische Bibelanstadt published the most recent
edition of the Vulgate. This was a critical edition, printed according
to the ancient manuscripts and without punctuation. Roman Catholic
and Protestant scholars oversaw the effort.
14. Sinaitic Syriac / pre-400
The Sinaitic Syriac manuscript was discovered in 1892 at Saint
Catherine’s Monastery on Mount Sinai. Altogether, this manuscript
includes the Gospels, but about one-fourth of it is not readable.
Moreover, analysis indicates that it was copied from a second
century manuscript, which makes it a valuable witness. This
manuscript is written in the Syriac language.
15. The Peshitta / 430 (originated 170)
The Peshitta represents the common Syriac manuscript family.
The word, Peshitta, means simple or common, and may have
indicated that the text was not annotated (as in the Syro-Hexaplar
version). Rabbula, the bishop of Edessa, from 411-435 A. D.
directed a revision to the Old Syriac version to align with the Greek
manuscripts that were in common use in Constantinople
(Byzantium). Rabbula further directed that a copy of the Peshitta be
provided to every church in his diocese, which led to widespread
distribution and perpetuation. Notably, the Peshitta remains the
standard Christian Bible in the Assyrian churches.
The Peshitta is the earliest extant translation from Hebrew into
Syriac, and it represents the earliest extant Christian translation of
the Old Testament. The Peshitta also provides a very early
translation of the Greek New Testament into Syriac.
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Extant manuscripts date to the fifth century, and over 350 copies
have been preserved. The oldest copies do not contain 2 John, 3
John, 2 Peter, Jude, and Revelation. However, in 508 A. D. an
updated revision was prepared that included these books.
Apparently, this update was a revision of the whole Bible (that was
prepared by the rural bishop Polycarp, as directed by Zenaia
(Philoxenus), the Jacobite bishop of Mabbug (Hieropolis) in eastern
Syria). It is known as the Philoxenian Syriac version.
In 1957, George Lamsa completed a translation of the Peshitta in
English entitled, The Holy Bible from Ancient Eastern Manuscripts.
Lamsa’s work was based on a fifth century manuscript known as the
Mortimer-McCawler ms that is retained at the Ambrosin library in
Milan. Since the Syriac Peshitta reflects the Aramaic that was
spoken in Jesus’ time, it is insightful to examine certain idioms
toward discerning clearer meanings. Specifically, Lamsa discovered
some interesting variant translations. In Matthew 19:24, the
manuscript reads, “It is easier for a rope [gamla, is the same Aramaic
word meaning rope or camel, depending on the context] to go
through the eye of a needle.” Also, in Matthew 27:46, the manuscript
records, “My God, My God, for this I was spared!”
16. Alexandrian Codex / Codex A / 450 / unical
In 1078 A. D., the Alexandrian Codex was given to the Patriarch
of Alexandria in Egypt. Since it was an early manuscript from
Alexandria, it was so named. In 1627, Cyril Lucar, the Patriarch of
Constantinople (a high official in the Greek Church), presented this
document to the British Ambassador to Turkey, Sir Thomas Roe. In
1624, it was taken to England to be presented to King James I.
However, King James died before the presentation, and the
manuscript was subsequently presented to King Charles I in 1627. It
currently resides in the National Library of the British Museum.
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This document is missing ten leaves from the Old Testament.
Also, thirty leaves are missing from the New Testament including
twenty-five leaves from the beginning of Matthew, two leaves from
John, and three leaves from 2 Corinthians. This manuscript contains
several apocryphal books including Tobit, Judith, Maccabees, Jesus
Ben Sira, Epistle of Jeremiah, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, and the
Psalms of Solomon (where The Psalms of Solomon appears as a title
only).
17. Curetonian Syriac / 450
This manuscript is written in the Syriac language, and is an early
witness to the traditional text-type. It is named after Dr. William
Cureton of the British Museum, who in 1858 showed that this
manuscript was of an earlier type than the common Syriac
manuscripts. The Curetonian Syriac and the Sinaitic Syriac were
known as “The Gospel of the Separated Ones” which is indicative of
the separation of the four Gospels, as contrasted with the then
popular Diatessaron, which merged the Gospels into an assimilated
text.
18. Ephraem Manuscript / Codex C / 475 / unical
Constantine Tischendorf published the Ephraem Manuscript in
1845, and it is currently preserved in the National Library in Paris. It
is named, Ephraem, after the surface pastoral or hermeneutical
writings of the man, Ephraemi, who was a Syrian theological
scholar. Although much is missing from the Old Testament, almost
all of the New Testament has been preserved. Altogether, there are
145 leaves from every book except 2 Thessalonians and 2 John.
This document is a palimpsest rescriptus (rewritten). The word,
palimpsest, is a Greek term, which means scraped or rubbed again.
In ancient times, due to limitations in writing materials, it was
sometimes the practice to essentially erase or scrap-off original
writing and to write over the originals with new writing. In this case,
the original writing of the Scriptures remained sufficiently legible to
be restored and published.
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19. Codex Bezae / Codex D / 475 / unical
In 1581, the reformer, Theodore Beza (1519-1605), presented
Codex Bezae to the University of Cambridge in England, where it is
preserved. Beza found the manuscript in the monastery of St.
Irenaeus at Lyons, France in 1562. It is written in both Latin (left)
and Greek (right) with the texts facing each other on opposite sides
of the leaves. This document contains the Gospels and Acts through
22:29, with a portion of 3 John in Latin.
“No one can pretend fully to understand the character of this Codex
who has not been at the pains to collate every word of it with attention.
Such an one will discover that it omits in the Gospels alone no less than
3,704 words; adds to the genuine text 2,213; substitutes 2,121; transposes
3,471; and modifies 1,772. By the time he has made this discovery his
esteem for Codex D will, it is presumed, have experienced serious
modification. The total of 13,281 deflections from the Received Text is a
formidable objection to explain away. Even Dr. Hort writes of ‘the
prodigious amount of error which D contains’” (Burgon-3 p. 176).
“[Codex D] reveals to close observation frequent indications of an
attempt, not to supply a faithful representation of the very words of Holy
Scripture and nothing more than those words, but to interpret, to
illustrate, - in a word, to be a Targum. Of course, such a design or
tendency is absolutely fatal to the accuracy of the transcriber. Yet the
habit is too strongly marked upon the pages of Codex D to admit any
doubt whether it existed or not” (Burgon-3 p. 188).
20. Codex Washingtonianus I / Codex W / c. 475
This manuscript contains all four Gospels and is retained in the
Smithsonian Institute in Washington, D. C. There is an interesting
uninspired insertion following Mark 16:14. It reads,
“And they excused themselves, saying, ‘This age of lawlessness and
unbelief is under Satan, who does not allow the truth and power of God to
prevail over the unclean things of the spirits. Therefore reveal thy
righteousness now’ – thus they spoke to Christ. And Christ replied to
them, ‘The term of years for Satan’s power has been fulfilled, but other
terrible things draw near. And for those who have sinned I was delivered
over to death, that they may return to the incorruptible glory of
righteousness which is in heaven’” (Metzger-2 The Text of the New
Testament p. 54).
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21. Ethiopic / 550
Missionaries from Tyre evangelized Ethiopia beginning in the
fourth century, and this early translation was accomplished during
succeeding generations and was completed during the seventh
century. The Ethiopic manuscripts are of the traditional text-type.
Extant copies date to the thirteenth century and are from late sources.
22. Codex Laudianus 35 / c. 600
This codex contains the Book of ACTS in both Greek and Latin,
arranged in very short lines of one to three words. It is the earliest
known manuscript containing ACTS 8:37, which reads, “And Philip
said, If thou believest with all thine heart, thou mayest [be baptized
in water]. And he [the Ethiopian Eunuch] answered and said, I
believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God.”
23. Codex Boernerianus / 850
Codex Boernerianus contains Paul’s epistles in Greek with a
literal Latin translation between the lines (interlinear). It is possibly
of Irish origin.
24. Queen of the Cursives / Codex 33 / 850 / cursive
This manuscript is very similar to the Vaticanus Codex. It
contains the entire New Testament except Revelation and is now
retained at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. The euphemism,
Queen of the Cursives, has been applied to Codex 33, but under
astute examination this codex differs significantly from the
traditional text and has been shown to be inaccurate in its variant
readings.
25. Arabic Translations / c. 930
Arabic translations were prepared from Greek, and from Syriac,
Coptic, and Latin sources. The earliest translation appears to result
from a translation of the Old Syriac into Arabic and may date to the
seventh century. An early Old Testament translation is credited to
the Jewish scholar, Saadia Gaon (c. 930).
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26. Slavonic Versions / c. 950
During the middle of the ninth century, a Moravian empire was
founded in east central Europe. Rostislav was the founder of the
kingdom, and Christianity became the religion of the empire.
Initially, Latin was used for the church liturgy, but the people
throughout that region spoke one native language, namely Slavonic.
Rostislav desired that the Bible be translated into the Slavonic
language and requested help from Emperor Michael III. The
Emperor assigned two monks that were brothers and natives of
Thessalonica to the task. They traveled from Byzantium to Moravia
for the translation ministry. Their names were Methodius and
Constantinus, who became known as “The Apostles to the Slavs.”
Constantinus upon entering the Monastery changed his name to
Cyril, and he remains better known by that name.
The brothers developed an alphabet known as Cyrillic, which
includes thirty-six letters. This alphabet is still used in the Bulgarian,
Russian, Serbo-Croatian, and Ukrainian languages. Their translation
is known as Old Church Slavonic, and it represents the traditional
text-type.
27. Caesarean - Manuscript 61 / c. 1490
This manuscript contains the entire New Testament, and it is the
first Greek manuscript found containing 1 John 5:7, which reads,
“For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word,
and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one.” Noting this sole
instance of a Greek reference, Erasmus included the verse in his
edition of the Greek New Testament in 1522. Please note that 1 John
5:7 also appears in Latin manuscripts dating from the fourth century
attributed to either Priscillian or to his follower Bishop Instantius.
The earliest extant references to 1 John 5:7 are found in Cyprian’s
writings circa 258 and in Augustine’s works dating to circa 400 A.
D.
&&&&&&&
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NT Preservation - Fragmentary Manuscripts
In addition to the examples of major manuscripts reviewed
above, there are numerous fragmentary and briefer manuscripts
dating to the second and third centuries. These fragments serve as an
early and important witness. The following table provides a succinct
summary.
Table 31: Listing - Fragmentary Manuscripts
Manuscript
P52
P66
(Bodmer 2)
P87
P77
P45
(Beatty 1)
P32
P90
P4/64/67
P1
P13
P27
P75
(Bodmer 14)
O189
P48
P5
P9
P12
P15
P16
P18
P20
P22
P23
Circa
Year(s)
117-138
125-150
Contents
John 18:31-33, 37-38
Most of John
125
150
150
A few verses of Philemon
A few verses of Matthew 23
Portions of all four Gospels and ACTS
175
175
200
200
200
200
200
Portions of Titus 1 and 2
Portions of John 18
Portions of Matthew and Luke
Matthew 1
Hebrews 2-5; 10-12
Portions of Romans 8
Most of Luke and John
200
220
Portions of ACTS 5
Portions of ACTS 23
200+
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
John 1; 16; 20
1 John 4
Hebrews 1
1 Corinthians 7
Philemon 3; 4
Revelation 1
James 2
John 15-16
James 1
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P28
P29
P30
P37
P38
P39
P40
P47
P49
P53
P65
P69
P70
P72
P78
P80
P92
O162
O171
O220
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
John 6
ACTS 26
1 Thessalonians 4-5, 2 Thessalonians 1
Matthew 26
ACTS 13; 19
John 8
Romans 1-4; 6; 9
Revelation 9-17
Ephesians 4-5
Matthew 25, ACTS 9
1 Thessalonians 1-2
Luke 22
Matthew 2-3; 11-12; 24
1 and 2 Peter, Jude
Jude
John 3
Ephesians 1, 2 Thessalonians 1
John 2
Matthew 10, Luke 22
Romans 4-5
&&&&&&&
NT Preservation - Affordability and Printing
Concerning biblical affordability, in 1272 under the reign of
Edward I of England a complete hand-written Latin Bible cost about
thirty-six pounds, and required on average 9.5 months of labor for a
scribe to manually copy and produce. Please note that the average
wage for a workingman at that time was 1.5 pennies per day, or at
most about 450 pence per year. Given one hundred pence per pound,
the average working man would need to work for eight years to
afford a complete Bible. Obviously, the price of an entire Bible was
beyond the reach of the common man. Until the invention of
printing, only the organized churches, university libraries, royalty,
and the rich could afford to possess complete Bibles.
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In 1454, Johannes Gutenberg (1396–1468) of Mainz in the
Rhineland of Germany invented movable type for the printing press.
Gutenberg was born into a noble family in Mainz, and his early
training was as a goldsmith. In 1428, he moved to Strasbourg for
political reasons, where he remained for twenty years before
returning to Mainz. Gutenberg had the unique idea of utilizing
techniques of metalworking including casting, punch cutting, and
stamping for the mass production of books. The oldest surviving
printed book is The Bible in 42 lines, which was printed in 1456 and
credited to Gutenberg. Gutenberg’s invention of printing enabled the
Bible to be broadly circulated at a more affordable cost, and clearly
was a great stimulus and facilitator of the Christian reformation.
“Religious truth is captive in a small number of little manuscripts,
which guard the common treasures, instead of expanding them. Let us
break the seal that binds these holy things; let us give wings to truth, that
it may fly with the Word, no longer prepared at vast expense, but
multitudes everlastingly by a machine, which never wearies to every soul
which enters life” (Johann Gutenberg – via www.e-sword.net).
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Textual Variations
Nearly all of the extant Greek manuscripts reflect the Traditional
Text of the Bible. Analyzed collectively these manuscripts provide a
broad and firm foundation for editorial efforts. However, there are a
few (partially corrupt) manuscripts that reflect slight variants in their
readings. The vast majority of variations reflect editorial differences
involving word order and spelling. Less often words or phrases may
be omitted or included (depending on the reference point). Actually
quite rarely (less than one percent) are passages altered that may
effect the meaning or content of a particular passage of Scripture,
and this is perceived usually through omission. In the few cases
where the meaning appears changed, there are typically other
passages of Scripture that convey the same doctrinal point that
seemed to be changed or omitted in the specific instance. Among
Christian scholars however, there is a clear consensus that even the
most noticeable manuscript variations are not sufficiently significant
to alter any tenet of the Christian faith.
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The Traditional Text
The Traditional Text of the Bible has been actively read
throughout Christendom for nearly two thousand years. Altogether,
more than 4,561 ancient Greek manuscripts have been catalogued
that represent the conventional reading of the Bible. The Traditional
Text also corresponds closely to the ancient Syriac and Old Latin
versions. Furthermore, the Traditional Text is consistently quoted
throughout the extant Lectionaries. The Traditional Text manuscripts
are quite old, numerous, and well preserved. Early manuscript
examples of the Traditional Text include, among many others:
a. P45, P46, P47 from the Chester Beatty collection, which date
to circa 95 A. D.,
b. P52 from the Ryland’s collection, which dates to 117 A. D.,
c. Peshitta (Syriac), dating to 150 A. D., and
d. Old Latin, dating from 157 A. D.
Foremost, the Traditional Text represents the long-established
and time-honored textual basis for Christian faith and practice in
both the Eastern and Western Christian churches. Specific churches
that have customarily relied on the Traditional Text include the
Syrian Church, the Waldensian Church of northern Italy, the Gallic
Church of southern France, the Celtic Church of Scotland and
Ireland, and the Greek Catholic Church. In addition, the Traditional
Text formed the primary textual basis for important translations into
German and English including Martin Luther’s German Translation
and the classic King James Version.
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Furthermore, the Traditional Text reflects a very early and literal
text-type. It properly incorporates scriptures respecting crucial
doctrinal tenets including the deity of the Lord Jesus Christ, the
blood atonement through Christ’s finished work on the cross at
Calvary, and the literal bodily resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Therefore, scholars have historically and consistently chosen to
respect and utilize the Traditional Text as the primary basis for
language translations. The following table provides a summary of
the editorial efforts leading to the establishment of the Textus
Receptus, which is an early representation of the Traditional Text.
Table 32: Traditional Text - Background
Editor / Year(s)
Lucian of Antioch / c. 250-312
Lucian of Antioch was a strong advocate of a pure and literal
biblical text. He labored for precise preservation of the Scriptures,
and steadfastly opposed philosophical alterations. This text became
the standard for the Eastern Church and formed the basis for the
Antiochan/Byzantine text, which in turn became the early and
primary basis for the Traditional Text.
Desiderius Erasmus / 1466-1536
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam was a Dutch Augustinian
monk and scholar, who was a professor of Greek at Cambridge
University. Notably, he was a leader of the literary and critical
schools of the Reformation. Erasmus published the New Testament
in Greek on March 1, 1516, and dedicated the printed manuscript to
Pope Leo X. Johann Froben of Basle in Switzerland printed the text.
Erasmus’ text was the first complete Greek publication following the
invention of printing, and it was widely circulated. Erasmus’
compilation was based on manuscripts from the Traditional Text.
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Altogether, Erasmus published five editions of the Greek New
Testament in 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, and 1535. For his first edition
of 1516, Erasmus primarily used two Greek manuscripts from the
university library in Basle. One manuscript included the Gospels,
and the other included the Acts and Epistles. Both of the manuscripts
dated to about the twelfth century and were of the Traditional
Byzantine text-type. Additionally, Erasmus compared these Basle
University manuscripts with two or three other Greek manuscripts.
As a result, he made editorial updates in the margins and also
between the lines to provide instructions for the printers. For the
Book of Revelation, Erasmus had one Greek copy, which he had
borrowed from his friend, Reuchlin. Since this copy was missing the
final leaf, which would have contained the final six verses, Erasmus
translated the Latin Vulgate into Greek to supply the missing
portion. In addition, it seems that Erasmus used the Latin Vulgate as
a basis for further editions to his Greek text of Revelation.
Erasmus’ second edition was published in 1519. Its primary
purpose was to correct previous printing errors. Further, one
additional manuscript was used for editorial review. Notably, Martin
Luther (1483-1546) used this second edition as the primary basis for
his historic German translation. Both of the first two editions were
diglots including Greek and Latin texts. In 1522, Erasmus published
his third edition, which included for the first time the controversial
verse, 1 John 5:7. This edition formed the Greek basis, along with
Latin and German texts, for the early English translations of Tyndale
and also those of Coverdale between 1535-1541.
In
1527, Erasmus published his fourth edition, which
incorporated readings from the Complutensian Polyglot. Apparently,
Erasmus first saw this Polyglot just following his third edition. His
fifth and final publication was in 1535. Please note that Erasmus’
editions formed an early editorial basis for manuscript text-types
eventually known as the Textus Receptus.
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Erasmus desired to provide the Bible to “the farmer, the tailor,
the traveler, the Turk, the masons, and the prostitutes and the
pimps.” Erasmus wrote, “Our hope is in the mercy of God and the
merits of Christ… [who] nailed our sins on the cross, and sealed our
redemption with his blood.” He also wrote, “The way to enter
Paradise is the way of the penitent thief, say simply, Thy will be
done. The world to me is crucified and I to the world.”
Robert Estienne (Stephanus) / published 1546-51
Robert Estienne was the royal printer of Paris. His name,
Estienne, is French and when Latinized he became known as
Stephanus. Stephanus published four editions of the Greek New
Testament dating 1546, 1549, 1550, and 1551. His third edition was
published in 1550, and was based upon Erasmus’ fourth (1527) and
fifth (1535) editions. Moreover, Stephanus consulted fifteen
additional manuscripts and included notations for variant readings in
the margins of his text. In his fourth edition of 1551, Stephanus
included the modern verse divisions, which have been preserved
through the present. His fourth edition became ascendant in England
and was used as the primary Greek textual basis for both the Geneva
Bibles of 1557 and 1560 and moreover the King James Bible of
1611.
Theodore De Beze (Beza) / published 1565-98
Theodore Beza (1519-1605) published several editions of the
Greek New Testament. Four editions were printed in folio, meaning
a sheet of paper was folded over once, thereby presenting four
separate pages of the book. These editions were published in 1565,
1582, 1588, and 1598. In his edition of 1582, Beza incorporated
selected readings from two manuscripts including Codex Beza (D)
and Codex Claromantanus (D2). Beza also published five editions in
octavo, meaning that a page was folded such that eight separate
pages were produced. These editions were printed in 1565, 1567,
1580, 1590, and 1604. Notably, it is Beza’s edition of 1598 and
Stephanus edition of 1551, which were used as the primary Greek
textual sources by the King James Bible translators.
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Elzevir brothers / published 1624-41
Bonaventure Elzevir and his nephew, Andrew, published three
editions of the Greek New Testament in 1624, 1633, and 1641 at
their publishing company in the university city of Leiden (or Leyden)
in Holland. They closely followed the work of Beza, who in turn
followed the textual standard set by Erasmus. In the preface to their
1633 edition, the Elzevir brothers wrote in Latin, “Textum ergo
habes, nunc ab omnibus receptum.” In English this phrase reads,
“According to the text now held from the volume received…” From
this phrase the title Textus Receptus or Received Text was generated.
It became very popular and was even retrofit to refer to earlier
editions of the Greek New Testament.
Hodges and Farstad / published 1982, second edition 1985
Zane Hodges and Arthur Farstad co-edited a recent edition of the
Traditional Text entitled, The Greek New Testament, According to
the Majority Text. Professor Hodges advocated the assertion that the
original reading of the texts would reasonably be expected to
produce the majority of extant manuscript copies representing the
original reading. To support his assertion, he used numerical
methods to explain the relatively high likelihood that the large
majority of the extant texts that are of the same text-type do in fact
represent a clear witness to the originals.
&&&&&&&
The True Word of God
The Bible includes strict instructions that the word of God is not
to be modified or altered by any means or in any way. In the Old
Testament, the LORD said unto Moses, “Ye shall not add to the
word which I command you, neither shall you diminish ought from
it, that ye may keep the commandments of the LORD your God
which I command you” (Deuteronomy 4:2).
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In addition, the New Testament Scriptures provided a stern
warning to anyone who would consider deliberately altering the
book of Revelation, which is placed as the concluding book in the
Bible. The Bible admonishes, "For I testify unto every man that
heareth the words of the prophecy of this book, If any man shall add
unto these things, God shall add unto him the plagues that are
written in this book: And if any man shall take away from the words
of this book of the prophecy, God shall take away his part out of the
book of life, and out of the holy city, and from the things which are
written in this book" (Revelation 22:18-19). Therefore, the early
Christians were forewarned and recognized that it was their Godly
duty to be reverent concerning the Scriptures and to faithfully and
accurately preserve the biblical manuscripts.
Overall, the traditional biblical text presents the truth of the
Gospel, and is a trustworthy witness for matters of Christian faith
and practice. Dr. Frederic Kenyon, the Director of the British
Museum for twenty-one years, wrote in 1940, "The interval then
between the dates of the original composition and the earliest extant
evidence becomes so small as to be in fact negligible, and the last
foundation for any doubt that the Scriptures have come down to us
substantially as they were written has now been removed. Both the
authenticity and the general integrity of the books of the New
Testament may be regarded as finally established.” Dr. Kenyon
continued, “The Christian can take the whole Bible in his hand and
say without fear or hesitation that he holds in it the true word of
God, handed down without essential loss from generation to
generation throughout the centuries” (Kenyon p. 41, 55).
Additionally, Drs. Geisler and Nix wrote, “The sixty-six books of
the Protestant Bible known today are the entire and complete canon
of inspired Scripture, handed down through the centuries without
substantial loss or any doctrinal variation” (Geisler p. 603).
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Chapter 6
The Christian Canon
“[Jesus said], Verily, verily, I say unto you,
He that believeth on me hath everlasting life.”
(John 6:47)
The Christian canon was recognized and documented by early
Christians, whose chief purpose was to identify an authorized and
authenticated list of books for use in the Christian church.
Essentially, the canonical books were selected because they were
affirmed to be Scriptures that were Divinely inspired and established
authoritatively by God. Dr. E. Young commented,
“When the Word of God was written, it became Scripture, and as it
had been spoken by God, it possessed His absolute authority. Therefore,
it was the Word of God and was canonical. That which determines the
canonicity of a book, therefore, is the fact that the book is inspired of
God” (Young p. 156).
As such, through the course of history, the list of canonical
books formed the basis and direction for the Christian Bible. The
following review concerning the establishment of the Christian
canon provides further evidence for the reliable preservation of the
Bible.
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Old Testament Canon
Through the ages, Jewish scribes diligently preserved the Old
Testament books. These precious books were carefully selected and
ratified as authentic and Divinely inspired by Judaic tradition and
through religious practice. Moreover, they were considered
foundational to the New Testament and were readily incorporated
into the Christian canon, or list of standard authorized books.
The title, Old Testament, comes from the Scriptures, as does the
title, New Testament. Please consider the following verses and note
the prophetic progression from the old to the new covenant or
testament:
a. And he [Moses] took the book of the [old] covenant, and read
in the audience of the people: and they said, All that the LORD hath
said will we do, and be obedient (Exodus 24:7).
b. Behold, the days come saith the LORD, that I will make a new
covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah: Not
according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day
that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt;
which my covenant they brake, although I was a husband unto them,
saith the LORD: But this shall be the covenant that I will make with
the house of Israel; After those days, saith the LORD, I will put my
law in their inward parts, and write it in their hearts; and I will be
their God, and they shall be my people. And they shall teach no more
every man his neighbour, and every man his brother, saying, Know
the LORD: for they shall all know me, from the least of them unto
the greatest of them, saith the LORD: for I will forgive their iniquity,
and will remember their sin no more (Jeremiah 31:31-34).
c. After the same manner also he [Jesus] took the cup, when he
had supped, saying, This cup is the new testament in my blood: this
do ye, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance of me (1 Corinthians
11:25).
224
d. For unto this day remaineth the same vail untaken away in the
reading of the old testament; which vail is done away with Christ (2
Corinthians 3:14).
e. In that he saith, a new covenant, he hath made the first old.
Now that which decayeth and waxeth old is ready to vanish away
(Hebrews 8:8-13).
The word testament in Greek is diatheke, which may also mean
covenant. So in a sense we have the Old Covenant (or Testament)
books and also the New Covenant (or Testament) books. Apparently,
in the later half of the second century, Tertullian rendered diatheke
into Latin by instrumentum (a legal document) and also by
testamentum, and it is the later translation that transitioned into
common usage through modern times.
Jewish tradition indicates that Ezra was responsible for
collecting and compiling the Old Testament Scriptures
approximately 458 B. C. This is the same Ezra who authored the
book of Ezra, which is the fifteenth book of the Old Testament. Ezra
accomplished this work upon returning to Jerusalem from captivity
in Babylon. Furthermore, Ezra’s work prepared the framework for
the Old Testament canon. The Jewish historian, Josephus Flavius,
who was born in Jerusalem in 37 A. D., identified the period of the
Old Testament as being from Moses to the Persian king Artaxerxes I
Longimanus. King Artaxerxes was king during the time of Ezra,
Nehemiah, and Malachi (464-423 B. C.). Therefore, this evidence
from Josephus indicates the closure of the Old Testament canon as
properly being within the time frame of the book of Malachi. In
addition as another historical reference, Cyril of Jerusalem wrote in
315 A. D. of the twenty-two books of the Old Testament, which
provides further evidence for Old Testament canonicity.
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Jesus Loves You
Josephus explained during the first century, “We have not 10,000
books among us, disagreeing with and contradicting one another, but
only twenty-two books which contain the records of all the past
times, and are justly believed to be divine. Five of these are by
Moses, and contain his laws and traditions of the origin of mankind
until his death. …From the death of Moses till the reign of
Artaxerxes, king of Persia, who reigned after Xerxes, the prophets
who succeeded Moses wrote down what happened in their times in
thirteen books; and the remaining four books contain hymns to God
and precepts for the conduct of human life” (Josephus, Against
Apion I. 8).
Please note that the twenty-two books mentioned by Josephus
correspond directly to the thirty-nine books in our modern Old
Testament. It is surmised that Josephus combined and thereby
reduced the number of total books to twenty-two, in order to
correspond to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. The
following table exhibits this mapping.
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Table 33: Books Joined by Josephus and Tradition
Ruth joined to Judges
Lamentations joined to Jeremiah
Twelve Minor Prophets combined into one book
1 and 2 Samuel joined into Samuel
1 and 2 Kings joined into Kings
1 and 2 Chronicles joined into Chronicles
Ezra joined to Nehemiah.
&&&&&&&
The Old Testament canon was effectively closed following the
ministry of the prophets Haggai (festive), Zechariah (Memory of
God), and Malachi (God’s Messenger) c. 433 B. C. According to
rabbinical tradition, the Holy Spirit of prophecy ceased to be with
Israel following the death of the latter prophets including Malachi
and his contemporaries. As a result, later writings including the
apocrypha were not considered to be Divinely inspired, and
therefore, were not serious candidates for inclusion of the Jewish
canon. Please review the following rabbinical statements concerning
the cessation of prophecy (see Geisler p. 206):
a. “With the death of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi the latter
prophets, the Holy Spirit ceased out of Israel” (Tos. Sotah 13.2:
baraita in Bab. Toma 9b, Bab. Sotah 48b and Bab. Sanhedrin 11a).
b. “Until then [the coming of Alexander the Great and the end of
the empire of the Persians] the prophets prophesied through the Holy
Spirit. From then on, ‘incline thine ear and hear the words of the
wise’” (Seder Olam Rabbah 30, quoting Proverb 22:17).
c. “Rab Samuel bar Inia said, in the name of Rab Aha, ‘The
Second Temple lacked five things which the First Temple possessed,
namely, the fire, the ark, the Urim and Thummin, the oil of anointing
and the Holy Spirit [of prophecy]’” (Jer. Taanith 2.1; Jer. Makkoth
2.4-8; Bab. Yoma 21b).
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d. “Rabbi Abdimi of Haifa said, ‘Since the day when the Temple
was destroyed, prophecy has been taken from the prophets and given
to the wise’” (Bab. Baba Bathra 12a).
e. “Rabbi Johanan said, ‘Since the Temple was destroyed,
prophecy has been taken from prophets and given to fools and
children’” (Bab. Baba Bathra 12b).
Ezra organized the Old Testament in three sections including the
Torah (the Law or Pentateuch), Nevim (the Prophets), and The
Ketuvim (the Holy Writings). The Jews refer to the Hebrew Bible as
the TANAKH, which is a word derived phonetically from the three
divisions: Torah - Nevim - Ketuvim = TaNaKh.
The TANAKH, or Hebrew Bible, is organized and sequenced
differently than our Christian Old Testament, however each
individual book is identically the same. The Hebrew Bible is
organized mainly into topical categories, whereas the Christian Old
Testament is arranged in a more chronological order with the nonhistorical books arranged in descending order of size. For instance,
in the Christian Old Testament, the book of Ruth appears
immediately after Judges, since it records events that occurred “in
the days when the judges ruled” (Ruth 1:1). In addition, the work of
the chronicler appears in the historical progression of Chronicles,
Ezra, and Nehemiah. The Christian arrangement seems to have
originated with the legendary Septuagint (LXX) c. 250 B. C. The
following table provides a listing of the canonical order of the
Hebrew Bible.
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Table 34: The Hebrew Bible - Books and Sequence
The Law (Torah)
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
The Prophets (Nevim)
Former Prophets, namely:
Joshua, Judges, Samuel (I and II), Kings (I and II)
Latter Prophets, namely:
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, The Twelve (Minor Prophets)
The Writings (Ketuvim);
Also known as Hagiographa (or Holy Writings)
One roll of Poetical Books (emeth or Truth) / Job, Psalms,
Proverbs
Five Rolls (Megilloth) / Song of Songs (or Solomon or
Canticles), Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, Ecclesiastes
One roll of Historical Books / Daniel, Ezra - Nehemiah,
Chronicles (I and II)
&&&&&&&
As a note, each of the books of the Five Rolls was read at one of the
annual Jewish festivals as follows:
a. Feast of Passover, allegorically referring to the Exodus - Song of
Songs
b. Pentecost, celebrating the Harvest - Ruth
c. Feast of Purim, commemorating deliverance from Haman - Esther
d. Feast of Tabernacles, most joyous feast - Ecclesiastes
e. Ninth of Ab, recalling the destruction of Jerusalem - Lamentations
(In remembrance of the destruction of the Temple by the Babylonians)
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Jesus Loves You
The Lord Jesus Christ bore witness to the inspiration and
organization of the Hebrew Bible. Jesus said to his disciples after his
resurrection, “that all things must be fulfilled, which were written in
the Law of Moses, and the Prophets, and the Psalms, concerning me”
(Luke 24:44). In this verse, the Lord Jesus Christ referred to the
three major sections of the Hebrew Bible and their respective order.
Additionally, the Lord Jesus Christ indirectly referred to the order of
the books of the Hebrew Bible. Jesus said, “… from the blood of
Abel to the blood of Zechariah, which perished between the altar and
the temple” (Luke 11:51, Matthew 23:35). Abel was the first martyr
(Genesis 4:8), and Zechariah was the last martyr to be named in the
Hebrew Bible (II Chronicles 24:21). This reference spans all the
books of the Hebrew Bible from the first book, Genesis, through to
the last book, Chronicles.
The three-fold classification of the Hebrew Bible was also given
in the Babylonian Talmud including the Law (five books), Prophets
(eight books), and the Writings (eleven books). This arrangement
began possibly as early as 200 B. C. and became the orthodox and
accepted form by 400 A. D. In addition, Philo made early reference
to the three-fold classification, c. 40 A. D. Philo wrote,
“In each house there is a consecrated room which is called a
sanctuary or closet and closeted in this they are initiated into the
mysteries of the sanctified life. They take nothing into it, either drink or
food or any of the other things necessary for the needs of the body, but
[1] laws and [2] oracles delivered through the mouth of prophets, [3] and
psalms and anything else which fosters and perfects knowledge and piety”
(Colson p. 127).
It is important to emphasize that the books of the Hebrew Bible
are the same as the books of the Christian Old Testament. Only the
order of appearance or inclusion of some of the books has changed.
(Subsequent insertions of apocryphal manuscripts will be discussed
in the next chapter.)
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The Old Testament manuscripts were written over a period
spanning one thousand years. The following table summarizes Old
Testament chronology and reviews relevant historical notes.
Table 35: Old Testament Chronology and Notes
Estimated
Year B. C.
Pre – 1450
1450 B. C.
Book(s)
Job
Pentateuch
Author
Job
Moses
Author’s
Name
Interpreted
Persecuted
Drawn Out
The five books of the Pentateuch, or Law, include Genesis
(beginnings), Exodus (going out), Leviticus (for Levites), Numbers
(distribute), and Deuteronomy (repeats the Law). Note that Ezra
probably wrote the last chapter of Deuteronomy. At Moses
command, the original scrolls, as written by Moses, were placed “in
the side of the Ark of the Covenant of the LORD your God”
(Deuteronomy 31:26).
c. 1390
B. C.
Joshua
Joshua
God My
Saviour
Moses commanded Joshua, “This book of the law shall not
depart out of thy mouth; but thou shalt meditate therein day and
night, that thou mayest observe to do according to all that is written
therein: for then thou shalt make thy way prosperous, and then thou
shalt have good success” (Joshua 1:8). Joshua kept the books of the
Law with the Ark at Shiloh (peace), which was his capital following
the conquest of Palestine. The Ark remained at Shiloh for three
hundred years, until captured by the Philistines (Joshua 18:1, 1
Samuel 5:1 ff), but the Ark was soon returned to Kirjath-Jearim (1
Samuel 7:1,2). From there, David brought the Ark to Jerusalem (2
Samuel 6:1 ff). Later, Solomon placed the Ark in the newly built
Temple (2 Chronicles 5:2-10).
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From the canonical scriptures, it is not known exactly what
became of the Ark after Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem and
the Temple in 586 B. C. However, in the apocryphal book of 2
Maccabees, the prophet Jeremiah is reported to have hidden the tent,
the Ark, and the altar of incense in a cave.
“One finds in the records that Jeremiah the prophet ordered those
who were being deported to take some of the fire, as has been told, and
that the prophet after giving them the law instructed those who were being
deported not to forget the commandments of the Lord, nor to be led astray
in their thoughts upon seeing the gold and silver statues and their
adornment. And with other similar words he exhorted them that the law
should not depart from their hearts.
It was also in the writing that the prophet, having received an oracle,
ordered that the tent and the ark should follow him, and that he went out
to the mountain [Mount Nebo, Deuteronomy 32:49] where Moses had
gone up and had seen the inheritance of God. And Jeremiah came and
found a cave, and he brought there the tent and the ark and the altar of
incense, and he sealed up the entrance. Some of those who followed him
came up to mark the way, but could not find it. When Jeremiah learned of
it, he rebuked them and declared: ‘The place shall be unknown until God
gathers his people together again and shows his mercy. And then the Lord
will disclose these things, and the glory of the Lord and the cloud will
appear, as they were shown in the case of Moses, and as Solomon asked
that the place should be specially consecrated’” (2 Maccabees 2:1-8 RSV
p. [265]).
1000 B. C.
1055-1015
1015-975
Judges
Samuel (?)
Ruth
Psalms
Unknown
David et al
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of
Solomon
Solomon et al
Solomon
Solomon
1 & 2 Samuel
Unknown
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c. 14001091
Beauty
WellBeloved
Peaceful
Preacher
Song of
Songs or
Canticles
God hath
heard
It is surmised that the original or autograph scrolls of the Law
were dispersed and lost by this time. Evidently, Samuel, David, and
the Levites distributed copies of the Law throughout Israel.
900 B. C.
585 (?)
Obadiah
Obadiah
Joel
Joel
Servant of
God
Jehovah is
God
Samaria was made the capital of the Northern Kingdom.
Apparently, copies of the Law were brought to the Northern
Kingdom during Elijah’s ministry.
800 B. C.
784-725
Jonah
Amos
Jonah
Amos
Hosea
Hosea
Dove
To Bear a
Weighty
Load
Help or
The Lord
Saves
Assyrians capture Samaria c. 722-1, and Judah invaded by
Sennacherib in 701.
750-698
Micah
Micah
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God-Like or
Who is like
God?
Jesus Loves You
700 B. C.
740-680
Isaiah
Isaiah
Salvation of
Jehovah
Revival occurs under Hezekiah. By order of Sargon II, copies of
the Law were provided by an Israelite priest to the Samaritans (2
Kings 17:22-28).
726-698
Nahum
Nahum
641-610
Zephaniah
Zephaniah
Habakkuk
Habakkuk
Comfort of
God
The Lord
Protects
Embrace
Revival occurs under Josiah. Daniel was taken hostage to
Babylon. Copy of the Book of the Law recovered during Temple
repair, and copies were distributed to the people under Josiah’s
reform (2 Chronicles 34:6-9, 21).
628-586
Jeremiah
Jeremiah
Exalted
Jerusalem fell in 586 to Nebuchadnezzar. Copies of Law etc.
were taken to Babylon.
600 B. C.
Lamentations
1 & 2 Kings
Jeremiah
Ezra or
Jeremiah
Ezekiel and others were taken captive.
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Weepings
Historical
1015 - 588
587
Ezekiel
Ezekiel
604-534
Daniel
Daniel
520-518
Zechariah
Zechariah
Haggai
Haggai
Strength of
God
Judgment of
God
The Lord
Remembers
Festive
Cyrus captures Babylon. Jewish returnees rebuild the Temple.
500 B. C.
458
445-433
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Help
Consolation
Star
Copies of Scriptures brought back from Babylon. Ezra returns to
Jerusalem. Nehemiah rebuilds the walls of the city.
c. 445-433
458 ff
Malachi
Malachi
1&2
Chronicles
Ezra (?)
&&&&&&&
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God’s
Messenger
Covers 3500
years
Jesus Loves You
Upon returning from captivity in Babylon, the Jews primary
conversational language was Chaldaic or Aramaic, rather than their
heritage of Hebrew. At that time, the Aramaic language was referred
to as the Syrian Tongue. In order to communicate with the people,
oral translations from Hebrew into Syrian were prepared, which
were known as “targums” or translations. Actually, these translations
were more like paraphrases. Later, these oral translations were
written, and thankfully have been preserved. Two of the major
targums include the Onkelos Targum and the Targum of Jonathan
ben Uzziel. Both of these targums were written and issued from the
Jewish school at Babylon during the second century A. D. Although
not inspired or canonical, these works are old and useful for
comparison purposes among other ancient Old Testament
manuscripts.
The Old Testament was extensively quoted in the New
Testament, and this fact contributed to the readiness of the Christian
church to incorporate the Old Testament into the Christian canon.
Paul Little noted, “The New Testament contains thirty-eight
references to Isaiah 53 and twenty-four references to Psalm 22”
(Little p. 61). Furthermore, Dr. Leach wrote, "There are in the New
Testament 190 references to the five books of Moses; 101 references
to the book of Psalms; 104 references to the book of Isaiah; and
thirty references to the Minor Prophets. There are in the New
Testament some 639 references to the Old. These 639 references are
spread over the entire New Testament, for all the Gospels and all but
three of the Epistles contain quotations from or references to the Old
Testament in some shape. [Therefore] We may with safety conclude
that the Old Testament we have is the same which the Lord Himself
used" (Leach p. 68, 69).
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New Testament Canon
As mentioned above, the canon refers to an authorized list of
Divinely inspired Christian books. As such, the canon became the
basis for the collection of books, which later became known as the
Holy Christian Bible. The word, canon, derives from the Hebrew
word, qaneh (pronounced kawneh), which originally meant cane or
measuring reed (Ezekiel 40:3, 42:16). It later came to mean rule or
standard. The word, canon, was applied to the Scriptures by
Amphilochius, about 360 A. D., and was increasingly referred to by
Christian bishops in the fourth century, and regularly thereafter.
The title, New Testament, refers to the Lord Jesus Christ’s
statement at the Last Supper, "For this is the blood of the new
testament, which is shed for many for the remission of sins"
(Matthew 26:28, Mark 14:24). Subsequently, the Apostle Paul
emphasized, “[God] Who also hath made us able ministers of the
new testament; not of the letter, but of the spirit: for the letter
killeth, but the spirit giveth life” (2 Corinthians 3:6a).
Divine Inspiration
The books of the New Testament canon were Divinely inspired
by God, and very importantly were written by an Apostle or by a
disciple who was close to and studied under an Apostle. Their
canonical writings were prophetic and powerfully presented the
words of salvation and of eternal life through Jesus Christ, the Lord.
The original authors and the disciples certainly ascribed Godly
authority to their writings, and expected and exhorted their active
use in the Christian Churches. In a real sense, they knew first-hand
the Lord Jesus Christ, who is the Word of Life, and therefore
considered themselves to be the recorders of Divine truth as spoken
by Jesus.
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However, in God’s providence, the Apostles evidently did not
prepare or authenticate a composite list or canon of Divinely inspired
New Testament books. As a result following the Apostles decease,
the early Christian Church did not have apostolic documented
guidance in this area of biblical canonicity. In addition, there is no
conclusive evidence that the Apostles compiled a complete
collection of manuscripts into a Bible during their lifetimes, namely,
a New Testament Bible that contained all of the twenty-seven books
of the New Testament. Of course, such a biblical collection might
have served as an exemplar for use in the Churches, and also served
indirectly as a definition of the canon. Therefore, being devoid of
explicit Apostolic organized and documented direction, it became
incumbent upon the succeeding Christian Church to eventually
recognize the Divinely inspired books of the New Testament canon.
It is interesting to speculate or hypothesize concerning the
reasons that the Apostles did not provide documented guidance for
the New Testament canon to the early Church. Some reasons or
observations might include:
a. The Lord Jesus Christ did not expressly command his disciples
to write a canon.
b. The Lord Jesus Christ did command his disciples to witness,
preach, and teach. As such, there was an early reliance on the spoken
word, especially during the lifetimes of the Apostles.
c. The Apostles and disciples may have lived in expectation of
the Lord Jesus Christ’s imminent return, which might have reduced
or deferred their perception of the need for written guidance to serve
their posterity.
d. The New Testament manuscripts emerged incrementally over
a period of many years, namely from c. 48 through 93 A. D.
Moreover, the Apostle John wrote during the years’ c. 88 through 93
A. D., which per legend was after the other Apostles were martyred.
In addition, the full revelation of the Lord Jesus Christ was not
completed until the Apostle John saw the Revelation on the Island of
Patmos circa A. D. 93. As a result, it would have been incumbent
upon the Apostle John to write or to complete an apostolic New
Testament canon.
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e. Most likely, the Apostles including John believed in the Lord
Jesus Christ’s power to preserve his Word and to guide the new
Church, apart from a formal list or canon that the Apostles might
prepare.
f. Another consideration may involve the avoidance of craven
images. If the Apostles had generated a canon or a master Bible
exemplar, the early Church may have been tempted to venerate the
physical items, which would clearly be antithetical to Christ’s
teaching. It is relevant to note that there are no extant
contemporaneous images of the Lord Jesus Christ: for evidently, the
Lord never posed for a painting or for a sculpture, nor was any
produced. Furthermore, the individual autographs or original New
Testament manuscripts are presumed lost. Therefore, it seems that
the Lord Jesus Christ did not choose to preserve physical items, but
rather spiritual truths. Lest the people become ensnared as became
the case with the “brasen serpent” (2 Kings 18:4).
Likewise, Professor Haley wrote, “Suppose the original text of
the holy volume had been miraculously transmitted, in the very
hand-writing of the authors, and perfect in every letter and figure.
The world would have gone mad over it. Idolatry the most
stupendous would have accumulated around it. Crusades more
bloody and disastrous than those for the recovery of the holy
sepulchre, would have been conducted for its possession. It would
have ensanguined and darkened the whole history of the Christian
religion. Men would have worshipped the letter in flagrant
opposition to the spirit of the sacred book. Doubtless with a view to
counteract this tendency to idolatry and formalism, the scriptures are
given to us in their present condition. Our attention is thereby
diverted from the external and formal features to the internal and
essential elements of scripture” (Haley p. 37-38).
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Jesus Loves You
Some Complications
During the early years of Christianity, the apostolic witness was
clearly sufficient to identify Divinely inspired manuscripts.
However, after the apostles decease, the process of recognizing the
canon became more complex and protracted. Certain factors further
complicated the situation including Roman persecution,
geographical separation or isolation (notwithstanding the
accessibility provided by Roman roads), and the emergence of
popular apocryphal or heretical writings.
Foremost, the Roman Empire hindered the dissemination of the
Apostles inspired books among the Christian faithful for over 225
years. Often by imperial decree, Christian sacred writings were
confiscated and destroyed on an Empire-wide basis. Anyone
apprehended with a biblical manuscript was potentially subject to
torture or execution. It was a dangerous situation to possess or copy
biblical manuscripts. This period extended from the times of the
Apostles until the alleged conversion of Emperor Constantine c. 313
A. D. at which time Christianity became a legal religion, via the
Edict of Milan.
This long-term and systematic persecution by the Romans had
many adverse effects upon Christian communications. For example,
the Romans strictly prohibited the possession or copying of biblical
manuscripts, which clearly limited their circulation, and they also
effectively banned the assembling of Christian councils or synods.
As a result, there were serious constraints on Church
communication, especially concerning central themes like the
definition of the canon.
Further, as Christianity spread geographically, congregations of
Christians were comparatively isolated for long periods of time,
which exacerbated efforts to harmonize Christian theology and
doctrine. Moreover, over sixty New Testament apocryphal
manuscripts were written during the early centuries that contended
for the attention of the Christian faithful.
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These difficulties forcefully persisted until Emperor Constantine
legalized the Christian religion. With the comparative emancipation
and freedom permitted by Emperor Constantine and his successors,
it became possible for Christian leaders to assemble in councils and
to eventually recognize the Divinely inspired books of the New
Testament canon.
As background, the Emperor Constantine (b. 274) was the son of
Constantius and his concubine, Helena. Notably, Helena was a
Christian. However, Constantine arose to power through murder,
deception, and battle. Altogether, he murdered his son, second wife,
nephew, and brother-in-law in order to attain access to the throne. In
312, Constantine sought to seize sole control of the western Empire.
His main opponent was Maxientius, who was fortified within Rome
with a larger and fresher army. The day before the decisive battle,
Constantine allegedly saw a vision within the sun of the sign of the
cross, and heard a voice which said, ‘In this sign, you will conquer.’
Constantine ordered his officers to substitute the sign of the Imperial
Eagle with the sign of the Cross. Constantine prayed fervently to his
new God, and the following morning launched a skillful attack.
Maxientius and his army attempted to reposition themselves from
Rome to Saxa Rubra, nine miles north of Rome, which was a better
strategic position for defense. However, Constantine’s forces
intercepted and surrounded Maxientius’ army. In the resulting
confusion at the Milvian Bridge, Maxientius drowned by the weight
of his armor in the Tiber River. Constantine’s forces became
victorious, and he became the undisputed Emperor in the west. Soon
thereafter in 313, Constantine made an agreement concerning
religious freedom with his eastern rival Licinius, which is known as
the Edict of Milan.
“We have long considered that freedom of worship should not be
denied. Rather, each man’s thoughts and desire should be granted him,
thus enabling him to have regard for spiritual things as he himself may
choose. This is why we have given orders that everyone should be
allowed to have his own beliefs and worship as he wishes” (De Rosa p.
36).
Later in 380 A. D., Christianity became the established religion
of the Roman Empire.
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Recognizing the Canon
The Christian canon for the New Testament was gradually
recognized over a number of years by diverse church leaders, and
was later ratified and affirmed through church councils after rigorous
and sometimes contentious investigation. As time progressed, the
criteria for selection were dynamically clarified and eventually
indirectly accepted. Also of importance, this selection process
resulted in the deliberate exclusion of uninspired apocryphal books
and heretical writings. The following table summarizes the resulting
criteria for including a book in the New Testament canon. Overall,
the objective was to verify the evidence for the Divine inspiration of
the manuscript.
Table 36: Criteria for Inclusion in the NT Canon
Affirmed and recognized as Divinely inspired by God (sufficient
criterion).
Originally written by an apostle or someone close to an apostle
with a testimony of signs and wonders.
Known to be prophetic.
Written within the apostolic period.
Harmonized with apostolic verbal tradition.
Actively read and used in the churches.
Referred to by early church leaders as genuine and authentic.
Presented Christian truth or met the orthodox rule-of-faith.
&&&&&&&
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Professor Gundry wrote, "The canon of the New Testament
consists, then, of the authoritative record and interpretation of God's
self-revelation through Jesus Christ - an interpretive record
predictively authenticated by Jesus himself, whose view of his own
words and deeds, now written and expounded by the apostles and
their associates, did not fall behind his view of the Old Testament as
God's word. The closing of the canon by limiting it to apostolic
books arose out of a recognition that God's revelation in Christ needs
no improvement" (Gundry p. 88).
Review of Christian Canons
During the first four centuries A. D., at least six canons, or lists
of books, were independently compiled. They included the Marcion
(circa 140), Muratorian (c. 170), Barococcio (c. 206), Apostolic (c.
300), Cheltenham (c. 360), and Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 367).
The Athanasius Canon included all of the twenty-seven New
Testament books that were brought forward into the King James
Bible. It is interesting to note the significant commonality among
these lists: for all of the books identified in the earlier lists were
retained in the subsequent lists. Additionally, there were several
Christian councils convened that reviewed the authenticity of the
New Testament (NT) books. The following table summarizes related
information.
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Table 37: Old and NT Canons & Councils
Canon / Year A. D.
Jamnia / 90-140
After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A. D., the Jews
established a rabbinical academy of learning or synod at Jamnia (or
Jabneh), near Joppa, in order to teach and preserve the Jewish
religion and heritage. The original founder was Johana ben Zakkai,
who was succeeded by Gamaliel II. The leaders of this group later
became known as the Tannaim. Through a process of rabbinical
didactic debate, the Jews identified their sacred books. They noted
each of the books of our Old Testament as sacred, and excluded the
apocryphal books. We are aware of this process through the
Mishnah, which is a compilation of early rabbinical oral tradition
recorded by Jehuda ha-Nasi, circa 180 A. D.
Marcion / 140
Marcion prepared an early partial list of manuscripts including
Luke and ten of the Epistles of Paul.
Muratorian / 170
The Muratorian list is missing Hebrews, James, and I & II Peter
possibly due to damage to the list. In 1740 A. D. in the Ambrosian
Library in Milan, Italy, the Italian archaeologist, Antonio Muratori,
discovered a list of canonical books dating to the seventh century,
but probably originated much earlier. This fragment shows a clear
reliance on apostolic authority for inclusion in the list. Although this
manuscript is written in Latin, it is surmised to have originated in
Greek. We note that Greek was the primary language of Christianity
through the third century.
Barococcio / 206
The Barococcio list contained all twenty-six books except
Revelation.
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Origen / 250
Origen referenced twenty-one books. He disputed Hebrews,
James, II Peter, II & III John, Jude, Shepherd of Hermas, Letter of
Barnabas, Teaching of Twelve (Didache), and The Gospel of the
Hebrews.
Eusebius / 300
Eusebius included twenty-one books. He disputed Hebrews,
James, II Peter, II & III John, and Jude. He further deliberately
excluded the Shepherd of Hermas, Letter of Barnabas, Teaching of
the Twelve (Didache), Gospel of the Hebrews, Revelation of Peter,
and ACTS of Peter.
Apostolic / 300
The Apostolic list contained all twenty-six books except
Revelation.
Cheltenham / 360
The Cheltenham list is missing Hebrews, James, and Jude. It also
questioned II Peter and II & III John.
Athanasius / 367
Althanasius (c. 295-373), the bishop of Alexandria, in his thirtyninth Festal (Easter) epistle to all Christendom (which was required
by the Council of Nicea in 325 A. D. to announce the date of Easter)
became the first to finalize the list of all of the twenty-seven books
included in the New Testament. Althanasius has been called the
Father of Orthodoxy, and we note that he was bishop at Alexandria
for forty-five years. Althanasius wrote in his epistle, “These are the
fountains of salvation that they who thirst may be satisfied with the
living words they contain. In these alone is proclaimed the teaching
of godliness. No person is to add to these, neither can he take any
from these.” He was also the first bishop to call this sacred collection
the canon.
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Althanasius unambiguously listed all twenty-seven books as
canonical, saying, “Again it is not tedious to speak of the books of
the New Testament. These are, the four gospels, according to
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Afterwards, the Acts of the
Apostles and the Epistles (called Catholic), seven, viz. of James,
one; of Peter, two; of John, three; after these, one of Jude. In
addition, there are fourteen Epistles of Paul, written in this order.
The first, to the Romans; then two to the Corinthians; after these, to
the Galatians; next, to the Ephesians; then to the Philippians; then to
the Colossians; after these, two to the Thessalonians, and that to the
Hebrews; and again, two to Timothy; one to Titus; and lastly, that to
Philemon. And besides, the Revelation of John” (Althanasius,
Letters, number 39 (Easter 367), paragraph 5).
Council / Year A. D.
Nicea / 325-340
The Council of Nicea questioned James, 2 Peter, 2 & 3 John, and
Jude.
Hippo / 393
This Council of Hippo affirmed all twenty-seven books of the
New Testament.
Carthage / 397
This Third Council (of four) of Carthage in North Africa ratified
the list of twenty-seven books as published by Althanasius. They
considered the books to constitute the second body of sacred
literature, with the Old Testament being the first.
Carthage / 419
In 419 A. D., the decrees from the Third Council of Carthage
were sent to Pope Boniface in Rome for his information. The
correspondence read, “Let this be made known also to our brother,
and fellow presbyter Boniface, or to other bishops of those parts, for
the purpose of confirming that Canon, because we have received
from our fathers that those books must be read in the church.”
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Toledo / 663
This Council of Toledo reaffirmed the Canon, and especially
required the use of the book of Revelation in the church.
Recent Councils / Year A. D.
Trent / 1546
The Roman Catholic Council of Trent involved fifty-three
prelates, who pronounced as authentic the sixty-six books of the
Bible along with fourteen apocryphal books (as listed and elaborated
in the chapter concerning the Apocrypha). Of note, there were no
historical scholars participating in the council’s deliberations.
Furthermore, even Catholic scholars had advised against the
authenticity of the Apocrypha. Nevertheless, the Council’s
concluding warning was, “If however anyone does not receive the
entire books [including the Apocrypha] with all their parts as they
are accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church… let him be
anathema [accursed].”
Thirty-Nine Articles / 1562
The Church of England officially specified the list of Old
Testament books in Article Nine, and deliberately excluded the
apocrypha. However, they did indicate that the apocrypha may be
read for examples of life and for instruction, but were not to be used
for establishing doctrine. Specifically, in the sixth of the Thirty-Nine
articles published in 1562, the Church of England referred to the
apocrypha as books, which the “Church doth read for example of life
and instruction of manners: but yet doth it not apply them to
establish any doctrine.”
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Westminster Assembly / 1647
The Westminster Assembly was a Puritan council influenced by
Calvanistic churches, who documented the Westminster Confession
of Faith. Within this Confession, the books of the Bible were
identified. They included all sixty-six books of the Protestant Bible,
and deliberately excluded the apocryphal books. This list remains
foundational to the Presbyterian denomination. Their creed declares,
“the books, commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine
inspiration, are not part of the canon of Scripture, and therefore are
of no authority in the Church of God, or to be any otherwise
approved or made use of than other human writings.”
&&&&&&&
Canonical Clarification
A few people in the early church for various seemingly incidental
reasons disputed the inspiration of seven of the twenty-seven books,
which were subsequently resoundingly included in the New
Testament canon. In general, the basis for debate involved relatively
minor points, which were readily clarified and accepted by the
majority of Christians. Keep in mind that over sixty apocryphal
books from the New Testament period were written and circulated
by the second and third centuries A. D., and that many of the books
were written under the assumed name of an Apostle. As such,
authenticating a book as inspired was a careful proceeding. The
following provides a brief review of the early canonical discussions
or disputations:
a. Hebrews - The identity of the author of Hebrews was thought
to be the Apostle Paul, but controversy remains, since the manuscript
does not specifically identify its author. However, in the Eastern
Church, Hebrews was readily accepted because it was considered
Pauline.
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b. James - This book contained doctrinal points concerning faith
and works, which needed to be interpreted, harmonized, and
reconciled to other Scriptures (see Luther’s Works, 35:396-7,
Mulenberg, 1960).
c. Jude – This Epistle included brief allusions that seemed to
indirectly refer to Pseudepigraphal books. Specifically, Jude 1:9 may
allude to a lost ending of the Testament of Moses, and Jude 1:14
alludes to 1 Enoch 1:9.
“Yet Michael the archangel, when contending with the devil he
disputed about the body of Moses, durst not bring a railing accusation,
but said, The Lord rebuke thee” (Jude 1:9).
“Jude 9 refers to the story of the dispute between Michael and Satan
for the body of Moses, an account that does not appear in our text [being
the Pseudepigraphal work, Testament of Moses]. That the episode was
contained in the lost ending of the Testament of Moses or in a cognate
work, properly called the Assumption of Moses, is possible; but our
present information does not warrant any positive conclusion”
(Charlesworth Volume 1 p. 924).
“And Enoch also, the seventh from Adam, prophesied of these,
saying, Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thousands of his saints” (Jude
1:14).
“And to all the righteous he will grant peace. He will preserve the
elect, and kindness shall be upon them. They shall all belong to God and
they shall prosper and be blessed; and the light of God shall shine upon
them. Behold, he will arrive with ten million of the holy ones in order to
execute judgment upon all” (1 Enoch 1:8-9, see Charlesworth Volume 1
p. 14).
Because of the potential to draw references from the uninspired
Pseudepigrapha, a few individuals expressed reservations concerning
the authenticity of the book of Jude. However, Jude never directly
referred to the Pseudepigrapha, and certainly did not refer to any
Pseudepigraphal books as Divinely inspired. Only related
information is conveyed.
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d. 2 Peter - Authorship was initially questioned on the basis of
differing writing styles between 1 Peter and 2 Peter. In 1 Peter,
Sylvanus served as Peter’s amanuensis and probably influenced the
style of writing (1 Peter 5:12). In 2 Peter, the Apostle Peter actually
wrote the epistle in his own personal style (1 Peter 1:1).
Consequently, it has a somewhat different writing style than 1 Peter,
which again was transcribed by Sylvanus. The time lapse, different
occasion, and the scribal work of Sylvanus were upon consideration
found to adequately account for the writing style differences.
e. 2 & 3 John - These letters were thought to be a more private
correspondence, and some ascribed them to John the Elder.
f. Revelation – Although recognizing its inspiration through the
authorship of the Apostle John, certain early Christians awaited
vindication of this book through end-time eschatological fulfillment.
The author, Dr. Barker summarized, "The fact that substantially
the whole church came to recognize the same twenty-seven books
[of the New Testament] as canonical is remarkable when it is
remembered that the result was not contrived. All that the several
churches throughout the empire could do was to witness to their own
experience with the documents and share whatever knowledge they
might have about their origin and character. When consideration is
given to the diversity of cultural backgrounds and in orientation to
the essentials of the Christian faith within the churches, their
common agreement about which books belonged to the New
Testament serves to suggest that this final decision did not originate
solely at the human level” (Barker p. 29).
As noted, the major Christian denominations agree on the
canonicity of the sacred books of the Bible including the standard
thirty-nine books of the Old Testament and the twenty-seven books
of the New Testament. The Protestant denominations respect these
sixty-six books as inspired by God, and view the remaining
apocryphal books as non-canonical, or not inspired by God. The
Catholic Church also views the sixty-six books of the Bible as
inspired by God and refers to them as protocanonical, or from the
beginning considered as inspired.
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In addition, the Catholic Church views fifteen apocryphal books
as inspired, referring to them as deuterocanonical. This category of
deuterocanonical refers to the Catholic Church’s recognition of the
book’s canonicity as occurring later in time. Sixtus of Sienna
introduced this Catholic distinction between the books in 1566.
Furthermore, additional apocryphal books are variously respected by
other churches and are often retained in biblical appendices.
Table 38: Summary of Canonical Books
Protestant / 39 Old Testament / 27 New Testament
Catholic Protocanonical / 39 Old Testament / 27 New Testament
Catholic Deuterocanonical (added later) / adds 15 Old
Testament apocryphal books
Catholic non-canonical, but often retained in an appendix to the
Catholic Bible, including the Prayer of Manasseh and 1 and 2 Esdras
Eastern Orthodox Church views as canonical all of the Catholic
protocanonical and deuterocanonical books, and adds as inspired 1
Esdras, Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh, and 3 Maccabees, while
4 Maccabees is retained as an appendix.
Russian Orthodox Church, Slavonic Bibles, retain the same
Catholic protocanonical and deuterocanonical books, and add as
inspired 1 and 2 Esdras, Psalm 151, and 3 Maccabees.
Note: the above references to the books of Esdras are based on
the titles identified in the King James Version. Please see the
following chapter for a listing of the specific deuterocanonical
books.
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Summary
The Old Testament canon was received by the early Christian
church directly from Judaic tradition as ratified and documented
through the Jewish council of Jamnia (c. 90-140 A. D.).
Furthermore, Jewish orthodoxy did not view the Old Testament
apocryphal books as inspired, and therefore their exclusion from all
of the early Christian canons was appropriate.
The New Testament canon was recognized through a gradual
process of church consensus. Apostolic authority was the main
criterion for respecting a book as being Divinely inspired. Also, the
churches were careful to identify and exclude uninspired books. In
367 A. D., Althanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, published the
canonical list of the twenty-seven books of the New Testament,
which has been followed by orthodox Christianity ever since. His list
was ratified at the Council of Carthage in 397 A. D. and subsequent
councils. Therefore, the deliberate and careful process for
establishing the Christian canon provides further evidence for the
accurate and faithful preservation of the Bible.
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Chapter 7
Apocrypha and
Pseudepigrapha
“[Jesus said], Sanctify them through thy truth: thy word is truth.”
(John 17:17)
Within the context of Judaism and Christianity, there exists a
significant volume of ancient extra-biblical writings. Although not
Divinely inspired or canonical, many of these writings provide
useful historical information, which serve to augment our knowledge
of biblical cultures and settings. Furthermore, certain writings
present Godly prayers and extraordinary stories. Such writings may
be categorized as Old Testament Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha,
Rabbinical writings, and New Testament Apocrypha. An overview
of extra-biblical writings will enhance our circumspection
concerning Christian Bible history. (However, please be forewarned
that the apocryphal excerpts provided within this chapter are not
Divinely inspired, and should merely be read for incidental or
supplementary information, rather than for spiritual guidance.)
The Old Testament Apocrypha
The word apocrypha is derived from a Greek word, apokruphos,
which means hidden or of doubtful or unknown origin. Apocrypha is
plural, and apocryphon is singular. Jerome first recorded the word,
apocrypha, in this context in the fourth century A. D. Specifically
Jerome used the word, apocrypha, to designate non-canonical books.
The apocryphal books considered in this section pertain to the Old
Testament. Altogether, there are a total of fifteen Old Testament
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apocryphal books, and in general, these books were written between
the second century B. C. and the second century A. D. (However, in
many early editions of the apocrypha, the Letter of Jeremiah is
incorporated as the final chapter of the Book of Baruch, resulting in
a total of fourteen books.)
The Old Testament apocryphal books were included in the
Septuagint, which was an early (legendary and non-extant)
translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek.
Subsequently, the Septuagint formed the basis for early translations
from Greek into Latin. As a result, the early Latin Old Testaments
included the apocrypha by assimilation. Based on this tradition, the
subsequent Latin translation accomplished by Jerome, known as the
Latin Vulgate, retained the apocrypha. However, Jerome steadfastly
denied that the apocryphal books were inspired Scriptures. In fact,
Jerome translated only a few of the apocryphal books, and the
remainder were translated and included in the Latin Vulgate only
after his death. Along with the apocryphal books that Jerome
translated, Jerome included notes intended to distinguish or separate
the apocrypha from the inspired canonical Scriptures, and essentially
to relegate the apocrypha to non-canonical status.
Largely, as a result of the tradition of the Latin Vulgate, the
Roman Catholic Bible of today retains fifteen of the Old Testament
apocryphal books. Of note, on April 8, 1546, in the Fourth Session
of the Council of Trent, fifty-three prelates of the Roman Catholic
Church pronounced the same fifteen Old Testament apocryphal
books as “authentic” or deuterocanonical. The following table
provides a summary of information concerning the Old Testament
apocryphal books.
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Table 39: Old Testament Apocryphal Books
Book / Catholic Bible Disposition / Estimated Date
I Esdras / Non-Canonical / 150 B. C.
This book is also known as Third Esdras. The title, I Esdras, is
used in the Catholic Bible, but it refers directly to the Hebrew book
of Ezra. Many details and accounts in this book are considered
invalid, because they are not consistently supported by the canonical
books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and 2 Chronicles. I Esdras presents the
story of the restoration of the Jews to Palestine after the Babylonian
exile. It also records that there were 5,469 holy vessels, which
Nebuchadnezzar took from the Jewish temple. Perhaps the most
edifying theme of this book is summarized, “Great is Truth, and
mighty above all things” (4:41).
1 Maccabees / Separate Book / 100 B. C.
The book of 1 Maccabees provides historical information
concerning the Jewish revolt against Syrian oppression in the second
century B. C. The Hebrew title, Maccabeus, means the Hammer,
which was the honorific name given to Judas who led the revolt.
This is the story of the Jewish brothers, Judas, Jonathan, and Simon,
and their heroic exploits in leading the rebellion against the Syrians.
2 Maccabees / Separate Book / 100 B. C.
The book of 2 Maccabees provides a parallel account of the
victories of the Jews in their revolt against Syrian oppression, but
this book is considered to be more legendary, and intones a more
theological perspective. This book also presents the first known
statement of the controversial doctrine that a sin offering and prayer
can make atonement for the sins of the dead. [Of course this notion
is not supported within the inspired canonical scriptures.]
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“On the next day, as by that time it had become necessary, Judas and
his men went to take up the bodies of the fallen [in combat] and to bring
them back to lie with their kinsmen in the sepulchers of their fathers… He
also took up a collection, man by man, to the amount of two thousand
drachmas of silver, and sent it to Jerusalem to provide for a sin offering.
In doing this he acted very well and honorably, taking account of the
resurrection. For if he were not expecting that those who would have
fallen would rise again, it would have been superfluous and foolish to
pray for the dead. But if he was looking to the splendid reward that is laid
up for those who fall asleep in godliness, it was a holy and pious thought.
Therefore he made atonement for the dead, that they might be delivered
from their sin” (2 Maccabees 12:39-45 RSV p. [287]).
Judith / Separate Book / 150 B. C.
Judith is the story of a fictitious Jewish widow who heroically
saves her people from an enemy siege. In this story, Judith enters the
enemy camp, charms their general, secretly executes him, and makes
her escape. Her heroism inspires the Jews, who arise and become
victorious in battle over the leaderless enemy. It emphasizes strict
observance of the Law of God, and reflects the belief that God will
defend his people, if they observe his Law, and that otherwise he
will allow their foes to prevail and inflict deserved punishments. The
book of Judith relates fealty to God’s mercy and inclination for
deliverance. Judith was probably written during the time of the
Syrian revolt and was clearly intended to encourage heroism and
patriotism.
Additions to Esther / Joined to Esther / 100 B. C.
This book contains expansions to the book of Esther, which were
probably retained by oral tradition. Also, it contains long prayers
attributed to Esther and Mordecai, along with letters supposedly
written by the Babylonian king, Artaxerxes.
Prayer of Azariah / Added to Daniel / 100 B. C.
The Prayer of Azariah is a folk-tale written about 100 B. C. It
definitely was not part of the original Hebrew book of Daniel.
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Song - Three Young Men / Added to Daniel / 100 B. C.
The Song of the Three Young Men was inserted following
Daniel 3:23. It was never part of the original Hebrew book of Daniel.
Further, it borrows repeatedly from Psalm 148, and thirty-two times
it includes the refrain, “Sing praise to him and greatly exalt him
forever.”
Susanna / Added to Daniel / 100 B. C.
Susanna is a folk tale that was added as Chapter 13 to the book
of Daniel. However, it was never part of the Hebrew book of Daniel.
This book is an exhortation for audacious courage intended to evoke
righteous judgment in the face of deliberate deception by
government magistrates.
It tells the story of Susanna who was the beautiful wife of a
leading Jew in Babylon. When two Jewish magistrates attempt to
seduce her, Susanna cries out for help. To cover their wrongdoing,
the magistrates threaten her and then falsely accuse her of having an
affair with another man. Susanna is prosecuted and tried by the same
magistrates and sentenced to death. However, a sagacious young
man named Daniel interrupts the proceedings and separately crossexamines the two accusers and finds that their testimonies do not
agree. Daniel exposes their lies, causing Susanna to be saved, and
the two transgressing magistrates are executed instead.
Bel and the Dragon / Added to Daniel / 100 B. C.
Bel and the Dragon is a legendary story that was added as
Chapter 14 to the book of Daniel. These stories are purely Jewish
fiction.
Allegedly Prophetic
Baruch / Separate Book / 100 A. D.
The Catholic Bible includes the Letter of Jeremiah with Baruch.
This book was written after 70 A. D. and it misrepresents itself as
being written in 582 B. C. by Baruch, who was a friend of Jeremiah,
the Prophet.
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It seems to interpret the events of the destruction of Jerusalem in
70 A. D. by the Romans, and urges the Jews not to revolt against the
Roman emperor.
Letter of Jeremiah / Separate Book
The Letter of Jeremiah is sometimes included as the last chapter
of Baruch. This is a brief notation on the vanities of idolatry
instructing the faithful to avoid idolatry. When invited to seek other
gods, this reply is instructed, “Thus shall ye say unto them, ‘The
gods who did not make the heavens and the earth shall perish from
the earth and from under the heavens”’(Jeremiah 11:10).
Prayer of Manasseh / Separate Book / 200 B. C.
The Prayer of Manasseh was probably written in the second
century B. C. It is the fictitious prayer of King Manasseh reflecting
the period of his captivity in Babylon. It is thought to be motivated
by 2 Chronicles 33:19, “His prayer also, and how God was entreated
by him, … behold they are written in the sayings of the seers.” This
book presents the theme that even the worst offenders against God’s
law may seek divine pardon through true repentance.
II Esdras / Non-Canonical / 100 B. C.
This book is also known as IV Esdras. The title, II Esdras, is
used in the Roman Catholic Bible, but it refers directly to the
Hebrew book of Nehemiah. This is a collection of materials written
between 100 B. C. and 200 A. D. II Esdras is an apocalyptic book
containing seven visions. The word, apocalypsis, means a revealing.
This book exhorts, “The Most High has you in remembrance, and
the Mighty One has never forgotten you in your struggle” (12:47). In
this book, the author seeks to justify the ways of God to man.
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Ethical
Ecclesiasticus / Separate Book / 180 B. C.
This aphoristic book, Ecclesiasticus, is also known as, “The
Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach.” It was written by a Palestinian
Jew and is the longest book in the apocrypha. The book is selfattributing, “Instruction in understanding and knowledge I have
written in this book, Jesus the son of Sirach, son of Eleazar, of
Jerusalem, who out of his heart poured forth wisdom” (RSV 50:27 p.
[196]).
Written in the style of the Proverbs or maxims, Ecclesiasticus is
considered in part to reflect a lofty, hierophant, level of religious
Wisdom, relating to practical ethics and general conduct, with a
focus toward reverencing the LORD. Ecclesiasticus also presents
practical advice. For instance, “Prepare what you have to say, and
thus you will be heard; bind together your instruction, and make your
answer” (RSV 33:4 p. [170]).
Notably, Ecclesiasticus refers to doctrinally sensitive points,
which reduced its acceptability for canonical status among certain
Christians. For example, “Water extinguishes a blazing fire: so
almsgiving atones for sin” (RSV 3:30 p. [133]). Also, “Give to the
good man, but do not help the sinner (RSV 12:7 p. [143]). In
addition, “Any iniquity is insignificant compared to a wife’s
iniquity” (RSV 25:19 p. [161]). Further, “If she [the wife] does not
go as you direct, separate her from yourself” (RSV 25:26 p. [161]).
Wisdom of Solomon / Separate Book / 40 A. D.
The Wisdom of Solomon was written in Alexandria in the first
century A. D. reflecting ancient Jewish philosophy. It was intended
to contend against skepticism, materialism, and idolatry. The
Wisdom of Solomon asserts that true happiness does not consist, as
many Jews supposed, in having many children and living to a grand
old age, but rather in being humble amid prosperity, and in willingly
and cheerfully giving assistance to the poor.
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Note; various titles are noted across different Bibles identifying
the canonical books of Ezra and Nehemiah and also for the
apocryphal books of I Esdras and II Esdras (Latin Apocalypse).
These titles are shown in the King James Version and also in the
Revised Standard Version. Alternative titles for these same books
appear in the Latin Vulgate and in the Russian Bible, among other
Bibles and variations. For example, the Latin Vulgate identifies the
Book of Ezra as I Esdras, the Book of Nehemiah as II Esdras, the
apocryphal book of I Esdras as III Esdras, and the Latin apocalypse
or II Esdras as IV Esdras. Please see the RSV, appendix p. 334, for a
detailed tabular listing of the variant names correlated with specific
Bibles.
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The Old Testament apocryphal books should not be compiled
with the Divinely inspired Scriptures of the Bible, but rather should
be considered separately and as supplemental. Early writings clearly
show that the Old Testament apocrypha were never included in the
Jewish orthodox canon of Scriptures. Consequently, church leaders
deliberately excluded the Old Testament apocrypha from the early
Christian canons. Even so, the apocrypha do provide useful
historical information, and they convey the sentiments and thoughts
of their authors, who were thoughtful men of their times.
Furthermore, their writings are often highly reverent toward the
LORD and have a righteous tone, and as such can be edifying to
believers. Howbeit, the following table summarizes and proffers
reasons explaining why the apocrypha are not Divinely inspired, and
therefore are non-canonical.
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Table 40: Reasons - Apocrypha are Non-Canonical
1. Jewish tradition excluded the apocrypha.
The Old Testament apocryphal books were never part of the
TANAKH, which is the orthodox Hebrew Bible, or the Jewish
orthodox canon.
The Jewish people or orthodox clergy never accepted them as
inspired Scripture (although certain apocryphal books were respected
for their devoutness more than others). As discussed further above,
the Jewish historian, Josephus, writing in the first century A. D.,
recorded that the Old Testament canon concluded in the times of
Malachi or about 400 B. C., and he further identified the specific
books that were considered as Scripture. This provides further
evidence for the closing of the Old Testament canon prior to the
origination of the apocryphal writings. Additionally, none of the
apocryphal books were written in Hebrew, which was the language
of the Old Testament, but rather were originally written in Greek.
2. Jesus and his apostles and disciples did not extensively
refer to the apocrypha.
Within the canonical New Testament books, 639 references are
made to the Hebrew Bible or our Old Testament spanning
approximately twenty-four (of the thirty-nine) books, but only a few
indirect allusions are made to the Old Testament apocryphal
writings.
3. Early Christians did not accept the apocrypha as
Scripture.
Early Christian writers adamantly opposed inclusion of the
apocrypha in the canon. These writers included in chronological
order Philo, Josephus, Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Althanasius, and
Jerome (who translated the Latin Vulgate).
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4. All of the early Christian canons and councils did not
include the apocryphal writings as canonical.
This includes the early Jewish academy of Jamnia in 90 A. D.
and subsequent Christian canons and councils. At the rabbinical
academy at Jamnia, the Jewish Rabbis identified the thirty-nine
books of the Old Testament as sacred, and excluded the apocrypha.
Their deliberations were simply an act to ratify what was already a
recognized tradition within Judaism.
5. The Old Testament apocryphal books do not meet
accuracy criteria for inclusion in the Christian canons.
The apocrypha contain certain historical errors and
contradictions, causing the books to be recognized as fictional. For
example, in Judith 1:1, Holfernes is described as being the general of
Nebuchadnezzar, who ruled over the Assyrians in the great city of
Nineveh. Actually, Holfernes was a Persian general, and
Nebuchadnezzar was the king of the Babylonians in Babylon.
“The author of the book of Judith, in complete disregard of history,
represents him [Nebuchadnezzar] as flourishing after the exile (4.3; 5.19).
Some scholars believe that the historical confusion of the book, of which
this is but one example, is deliberate, intended to stamp the work
unmistakably as fiction” (RSV p. [76]).
“Since the rebellion of the northern tribes against Jerusalem (1 Kings
12.19-20) occurred about 922 B. C., Tobit could not have been still a
young man, or even born, when it happened. Such chronological, and
other historical, difficulties make it clear that the story is fiction” (RSV p.
[63]).
&&&&&&&
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Although not Divinely inspired Scriptures, the Old Testament
apocryphal books remain quite useful. They help us to better
understand the political, cultural, and religious background of the
contemporaries of the Lord Jesus Christ, and they provide helpful
historical information. They serve as a bridge from the close of the
Old Testament canon through the four hundred years to the times of
the ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. The apocrypha have also had a
pervasive influence upon artistic people through the centuries
including painters, sculptors, poets, and composers. Most notably,
the heroine, Susanna, has often been depicted in paintings and has
even been the theme of an opera.
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Altogether, the Apocrypha comprise a voluminous body of
writings. In fact, the Old Testament apocrypha are almost as large as
the New Testament. The following table provides a comparative
numerical summary of manuscript sizes. The data is based upon the
King James Version.
Table 41: Biblical Size Statistics
# Of Books
# Of Chapters
Average
Chapters Per
Book
# Of Verses
Average Verses
Per Chapter
# Of Words
Average Words
Per Verse
Old
Testament
New
Testament
39
929
23.8
27
260
9.6
OT
Apocrypha
15
183
12.2
23,214
24.9
7,959
30.6
6,081
33.2
592,439
25.5
181,253
22.8
152,185
25.0
&&&&&&&
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Due to the early Latin tradition, the Old Testament apocrypha
were typically included in Christian Bibles from early church times
through the early 1800s. In Latin Vulgate Bibles, along with those
translated from it, the apocrypha were interspersed within the
canonical Old Testament, as described in the above table. This
practice continues in Roman Catholic Bibles of today. Historically,
in several other Bibles, the apocrypha were segregated into a
separate section placed between the Old Testament and the New
Testament. Usually this intermediate section was labeled as
apocryphal, with the intent of making a distinction between the
inspired Scriptures and the uninspired apocrypha. Beginning in the
1600s, some Protestant Bibles were printed without the apocrypha,
and by the middle of the 1800s nearly all Protestant Bibles excluded
the apocryphal books. The following table provides a summary of
the disposition of the apocryphal books in Christian Bibles.
Table 42: Apocrypha in the Bible
Bibles and Forums / Dates
Catholic Bibles / Various
As discussed above, the Catholic Bible has retained the
apocryphal writings (interspersed within the Old Testament books)
from the times of the Old Latin versions and the Latin Vulgate
through the present.
Early reprint of the Geneva Bible / 1599
Although the apocryphal books remained in the Table of
Contents, the actual apocryphal books were omitted from the
printings. This was the earliest English Bible distribution that
excluded the apocrypha.
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Synod of Dort / 1618
At this gathering, certain members of the reformed church
advocated the omission of the apocrypha from Christian Bibles.
However, the Synod of Dort recommended that the apocrypha be
moved to the back-end of the Bible and be duly noted as being
uninspired, and further that explanatory notes be added to address
specific cases of divergence from the inspired Scriptures.
Reprint of the King James Bible / 1626 and following
The original King James printing in 1611 included the apocrypha
as an intermediate section between the Old Testament and the New
Testament. This section was simply titled, “The Apocrypha.”
Beginning at least as early as 1626, printings of the King James
Bible were distributed that excluded the apocrypha. The earliest
extant copies excluding the apocrypha date to 1626, 1629, 1630, and
1633.
Reprint of the Geneva Bible / 1640
This printing excluded the apocrypha altogether. An editorial
remark was inserted between Malachi and Matthew, citing the
deliberate exclusion of the apocryphal books. The exclusion of the
apocrypha was primarily motivated by the intention to separate
Divinely inspired Scripture from uninspired writings. However,
exclusion of the apocrypha was also motivated by economy. Namely,
by excluding the apocrypha, Bibles would require many fewer pages
and thereby be less bulky and expensive.
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London Bible Society / 1827
In 1827, after extensive debate over a period of years, the
London Bible Society adopted a law that forbade circulation of the
apocrypha. The Society exerted significant influence over
commercial Bible publication due to their generous sponsorship, and
as a consequence, most publishers subsequently ceased including the
apocrypha in their Bible publications. Moreover, the American Bible
Society and other organizations that sponsored Bible printings also
followed suit and excluded support for apocryphal publications.
Today as a result, virtually all non-Catholic Bibles exclude the
apocrypha.
&&&&&&&
Pseudepigrapha (or False Writings)
According to early Christian writers, Old Testament books
tended to be categorized into four groups that differentiated the
relative canonical acceptability of the writings. The four categories
included:
a. Homologoumena (agreement) – books accepted as canonical
by virtually everyone.
b. Antilegomena (spoken against) – books that at one time or
another were disputed by some, usually a small minority.
c. Pseudepigrapha (false writings) – books rejected from being
canonical by virtually everyone.
d. Apocrypha (hidden or secret) – books that were accepted by
some.
Within this section, we will review the category of ancient books
known as Pseudepigrapha, or more literally, false writings. The
Pseudepigrapha are primarily of Jewish origin, but early Christians
also generated some books of this category. Most of the books were
originated between 200 B. C. and 200 A. D.
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However, the earliest extant copies of several books date to later
times, but apparently are based upon earlier traditional accounts.
As a general characteristic, many of the Pseudepigrapha are
attributed to great figures of the Old Testament, but in each instance
the actual authors were merely using a pseudonym. Attributing
authorship to a legendary or heroic figure was commonplace in the
ancient world and served to attract attention to the literary work.
Also characteristic of the Judeo/Christian Pseudepigrapha is their
(illegitimate or exaggerated) claim to present or contain God’s word
or message. In fact, the Pseudepigrapha were not included in the
early orthodox Jewish or Christian canons, simply because they did
not meet the necessary criteria for being considered Divinely
inspired.
Altogether, the Pseudepigrapha are quite lengthy and total to
well-over one thousand pages. During the ninth century, Photus
listed over 280 pseudepigraphal writings, and more have been
discovered to date. The following table provides a list of sixty-three
extant pseudepigraphal manuscripts that tend to be more broadly
known (see Charlesworth).
Table 43: Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
Apocalypse of Abraham
Apocalypse of Adam
Testament of Adam
Life of Adam and Eve
Ahiqar
Letter of Aristeas
Aristeas the Exegete
Aristobulus
Artapanus
2 Baruch
3 Baruch
4 Baruch
Cleodemus Malchus
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Apocalypse of Daniel
More Psalms of David / Psalm 151 is included in the Greek
Bible.
Demetrius the Chronographer
Eldad and Modad
Apocalypse of Elijah
1 Enoch (see 1:9) / New Testament reference - see Jude 1:14 ff
2 Enoch
3 Enoch
Eupolemus
Pseudo-Eupolemus
Apocryphon of Ezekiel
Ezekiel the Tragedian
Fourth Book of Ezra
Greek Apocalypse of Ezra
Questions of Ezra
Revelation of Ezra
Vision of Ezra
Fragments of Pseudo-Greek Poets
Pseudo-Hecataeus
Hellenistic Synagogal Prayers
Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
Ladder of Jacob
Prayer of Jacob
Jannes and Jambres / New Testament allusion –
(see 2 Timothy 3:8)
Testament of Job
Joseph and Aseneth
History of Joseph
Prayer of Joseph
Jubilees
3 Maccabees / canonical in the Eastern Orthodox Church
4 Maccabees / included in the Greek Bible
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Prayer of Manasseh
Syriac Menander
Testament of Moses / New Testament reference – (see Jude 1:9)
Orphica
Philo the Epic Poet
Pseudo-Philo
Pseudo-Phocylides
The Lives of the Prophets
History of the Rechabites
Apocalypse of Sedrach
Treatise of Shem
Sibylline Oracles
Odes of Solomon
Psalms of Solomon
Testament of Solomon
Theodotus
Testament of the Three Patriarchs
Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs
Apocalypse of Zephaniah
&&&&&&&
Rabbinical Literature
In ancient times, the Jewish people generated a large body of
civil and religious writings, which have been carefully preserved and
transmitted through the centuries. These writing may be generally
categorized as the Talmud and the Midrash. The following table
provides an overview.
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Table 44: Overview of the Talmud and Midrash
Item / Dates
Talmud / 300 B. C. – 500 A. D.
The Talmud (instruction, teaching) developed as a body of
Hebrew canonical and civil law that was based upon the Torah.
Fundamentally, the Talmud presents related opinions and decisions
of Jewish teachers that often provide supplemental instruction
relative to the Jewish Law or Torah. The Talmudic writings may be
categorized as the Mishnah and the Gemara.
Mishnah / c. 300 B. C. – 200 A. D.
The Mishnah (explanation, repetition, and teaching) was
completed approximately 200 A. D. It contributes a synopsis of all of
the oral laws prepared from the time of Moses. The Torah is
recognized as the First Law, and the Mishnah is considered the
Second Law. The Mishnah is written in Hebrew, and propounds
traditions and explanations of the oral law. In general, the Mishnah
provides a concise statement of the Jewish secondary laws
(Halacha) as derived from Scriptures.
Gemara / c. 200 A. D. – 500 A. D.
The Gemara (to accomplish, complete, and learn) provides an
expanded commentary on the Mishnah. Two traditions have been
preserved including the Palestinian Gemara (c. 200 A. D.) and the
more authoritative and lengthier Babylonian Gemara (c. 500 A. D.).
The Gemara was written in Aramaic, instead of Hebrew.
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Midrash / c. 100 B. C. – 300 A. D.
The Midrash (textual interpretation and study) provides
authoritative and traditional commentaries or expositions on the Old
Testament Scriptures arranged according to the sequence of biblical
verses. It is written in Hebrew and Aramaic. The Midrashim (plural)
are organized into two major categories including the Halakah
(procedure) and the Haggada (declaration, explanation). The
Halakah provides a further expansion of the Torah, and the Haggada
presents commentaries on the entire Old Testament and also includes
the Jewish ritual of the Seder.
Note; The Jewish rabbinical literature refers almost exclusively
to the Old Testament Scriptures, and very rarely references
apocryphal or pseudepigraphal writings.
&&&&&&&
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New Testament Apocrypha
New Testament apocryphal books have the characteristics of
being written during the Christian era and addressing Christian
topics, as contrasted with Old Testament events or episodes. Often
these New Testament apocryphal books were written under an
assumed name of an Apostle, seeking to attract attention as in the
ancient manner. However, the early Christian churches clearly
recognized that these specific writings were not Divinely inspired,
and therefore excluded them from the orthodox Biblical canon.
Essentially, the New Testament apocryphal books may be considered
legendary biblical stories, apparently reflecting oral traditional
accounts.
As a cautionary note, certain non-orthodox writers have
erroneously referred to the New Testament apocrypha (or a subset
thereof) as The Lost Books of the Bible. Books with related titles can
be found in contemporary bookstores. Howbeit, the canonical books
of the Bible have consistently been explicitly known, and have never
been lost in the sense of identification. Furthermore, it is misguiding
to refer to the New Testament apocryphal books as being biblical,
simply because orthodox Christianity never received them as
Divinely inspired. The Bible warns, “Let no man deceive you by any
means” (2 Thessalonians 2:3). Also, the Bible says, “Cease, my son,
to hear the instruction that causeth to err from the words of
knowledge” (Proverb 19:27). The New Testament apocrypha are not
lost books of the Bible. Rather, the New Testament apocrypha are at
best historical works of supplemental interest that are of man-made
origin.
The New Testament apocryphal books were written during the
first few centuries A. D. Perhaps partially due to their non-canonical
status, they were subject to significant and sometimes frequent
revisions including alterations, additions, and abridgments. In many
cases, copies of the same apocryphal works exist, but appear to have
noticeably changed over the years. Early versions differ from later
versions even to the extent of having different titles. Sometimes the
writings were expanded or embellished and sometimes shortened. In
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other cases, significant revisions in wording are apparent. We note
this to increase awareness of the existence and extent of variations in
the New Testament apocryphal extant texts.
Historically, lists of apocryphal books were prepared primarily to
distinguish them from canonical books. In the sixth century, the
“Decretum Gelasianum” was published which listed sixty-one New
Testament apocryphal books. It is speculated (based upon analysis
of the similarity of the Latin style to the Greek) that this Latin decree
contained information prepared much earlier in Greek. Altogether,
the New Testament apocryphal books are quite extensive and total
well over one thousand pages.
Lost and Fragmentary Apocrypha
Preservation of the apocryphal books has been inconsistent
compared with the canonical books. Some books have been lost, and
we are aware of them only by reference from early Christian
writings. For several other apocryphal books, only fragments of the
manuscripts have been preserved. The following listing provides a
summary of the lost apocryphal books that are known through
references.
The Gospel according to the Hebrews
The Gospel of the Nazaraeans
The Gospel of the Ebionites
The Gospel of the Egyptians
The Traditions of Matthias
The Preaching of Peter
As mentioned above, certain apocryphal works exist today in
only fragmentary form, and in general, most of these fragments are
brief, being less than one full page. The following list identifies the
apocryphal fragments.
Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 840
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Papyrus Cairensis 10735
Papyrus Egerton 3
The Strasbourg Fragment
Papyrus Berolinensis 11710
The Fayyum Fragment
Papyrus Merton 31
The Agrapha (or sayings of Jesus)
Along with the apocryphal books, there exists another category
of writings known as the Agrapha. These are purported to be sayings
of the Lord Jesus Christ that are not found in the canonical gospels.
This is an inappropriate label for these writings, because in some
cases actual quotations of the Lord Jesus Christ from the New
Testament canonical gospels are recorded accurately in agraphal
writings. The issue involves sorting out the accurate from the
inaccurate or uninspired. The following provides a summary of
agraphal sources.
Agrapha in the Talmud
Agrapha in Islamic sources
Agrapha inserted in certain New Testament manuscripts
Agrapha in Patristic quotations
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Categories of the NT Apocrypha
It appears that many of the apocryphal books were written to
supplement the New Testament canonical text. Where there are
apparent gaps in the gospel biographical narrative for example,
apocryphal books seem to have been written to address them.
Notable categories include the background of Mary with emphasis
on the virgin birth, the childhood miracles and wisdom of Jesus,
Christ’s ministry and passion, the ministry of the Apostles, various
epistles, and apocalyptic literature. For our review purposes, the
apocryphal books may be categorized in a biographical progression
as follows:
Birth and childhood gospels,
Ministry and passion,
Pontius Pilate texts,
ACTS of the Apostles (apocryphal),
Apocryphal epistles, and
Apocryphal apocalypses.
In the following sections, we will briefly overview the various
books within these categories and provide a listing of their titles.
Birth and Childhood Stories
Within the canonical gospels, little is written regarding the
childhood of the Lord Jesus Christ. We read of his birth, escape into
Egypt while a small child, his discourse with the doctors in the
temple at the age of twelve, and the start of his public ministry later
at about the age of thirty. Apparently, these biographical gaps in the
biblical story of Jesus’ life provided an avenue for apocryphal
literature to bridge.
In the early Christian era, various “gospels” were written that
presented miraculous stories about the childhood of the Lord Jesus
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Christ. These stories ascribe miraculous and Divine power to Jesus
from a very early age. For example, they contain stories involving
miracles of healing, the raising of the dead, curses upon adversaries,
and amazing wisdom, among others. One curious story involves the
Lord Jesus Christ forming or sculpting twelve sparrows out of mud,
and then speaking to them to go. The story tells that these creations
of the Lord Jesus Christ came to life, sang, and flew away. Also of
interest, several stories are common among the various books, which
may indicate a common original source or verbal tradition.
In addition, many of these books emphasize the virginity of
Mary. Apparently, this was an important doctrinal tenet among
certain people. Not only did Mary conceive as a virgin, as reported in
the canonical gospels, but these apocryphal books also indicate that
Mary delivered the baby Jesus and miraculously retained her
virginity. In fact, they imply that Mary never subsequently knew her
husband Joseph. The four brothers and at least two sisters of the
Lord Jesus Christ specifically identified in Matthew 13:55, are
considered to be either siblings from a prior marriage by Joseph
(according to the apocrypha) or cousins (according to Jerome and
Roman Catholic tradition). The following list identifies birth and
childhood apocrypha.
The Protoevangelism of James
The Infancy Gospel of Thomas
The Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew
The Arabic Infancy Gospel
Arundel 404
The History of Joseph the Carpenter
The Armenian Infancy Gospel
Liber de Infantia Salvatoris
The Gospel of the Birth of Mary
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Apocryphal Gospels
The apocryphal gospels tend to reflect the canonical gospels, but
insert additional details and interactions. Evidently in many cases,
verbal traditions were handed down, which formed the basis for
these apocryphal books.
The Gospel of Thomas / 150 A. D.
This gospel contains 114 sayings attributed to the Lord Jesus
Christ. Many correspond closely to the canonical gospels, but some
sayings are noticeably different and are questionable.
The ‘Secret’ Gospel of Mark / unknown
This gospel provides a brief story of the Lord Jesus Christ raising
a rich young man from the dead, and then teaching him the mysteries
of the kingdom of God. This story seems to parallel the story of
Lazarus being raised from the dead.
The Gospel of Peter / 150
This narrative begins with the sentencing of the Lord Jesus
Christ by Pilate and Herod and describes His crucifixion and
resurrection in detail.
The Gospel of Gamaliel
This story describes Pilate conducting an on-site examination of
the evidence of the resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Supernatural wonders manifest at the site.
Coptic Narratives
The Gospel According to the Hebrews / 65-100
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The Pilate Cycle
Within these books, the details of the trial of the Lord Jesus
Christ are amplified. They also include examinations by Pilate and
the Jews concerning the resurrection, teachings, and ascension of the
Lord Jesus Christ. Many of the specific descriptions resemble a court
log in the sense that they document who said what and in what
sequence. The following list presents the texts of the Pilate Cycle.
The Gospel of Nicodemus / 550 A. D.
The ACTS of Pilate
Christ’s Descent into Hell
The Letter of Pilate to Claudius
Paradosis Pilati
Anaphora Pilati
Vindicta Salvatoris
Mors Pilati
The Narrative of Joseph of Arimathaea
The Letters of Pilate and Herod
The Letter of Tiberius to Pilate
Apocryphal ACTS
The apocryphal ACTS provide narrative descriptions of the
journeys, preaching, and miracles of many of the apostles. Although
not inspired, these books provide our primary source of information
about the ministry of the dispersed apostles. Many of these books
originated during the second century A. D., and evidently reflect the
verbal tradition as received by the authors. By comparing
manuscripts, it seems apparent that in some cases certain doctrinally
motivated alterations were incorporated in later copies. As such, the
books should be viewed with reserve and caution. Nevertheless,
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these books present many devout prayers and Godly exhortations,
along with testimonies of wondrous miracles. The following list
identifies the apocryphal ACTS books.
The ACTS of Andrew
The ACTS of John
The ACTS of Paul / 190 A. D.
The ACTS of Peter
The Pseudo-Clementine Literature
The ACTS of Thomas
The ACTS of Paul and Thecia / 170 A. D.
Didache or Teaching of the Twelve / 120-150 A. D.
Minor Apocryphal ACTS
There are other apocryphal ACTS books that are briefer, being
usually less than a couple of pages in length. The following list
identifies the Minor Apocryphal ACTS texts.
The ACTS of Philip
The Passion of Bartholomew
The Passion of Matthew
The ACTS of Barnabas
The ACTS of Xanthippe and Polyxena
Pseudo-Abdias
Oriental ACTS
The Epistle of Pseudo-Titus
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Apocryphal Epistles
The following list presents several of the apocryphal epistles
along with known dates or time frames of their composition. Of
special note the Letter of Lentulus provides a verbal portrait of the
Lord Jesus Christ including a description of his physical appearance,
expressions, and demeanor. It is suggested that the Letter of Lentulus
had a major influence upon early Christian artists.
The Letters of Christ and Abgar
The Letter of Lentulus
The Epistle to the Laodiceans / Fourth century A. D.
The Correspondence of Paul and Seneca
The Epistle to the Alexandrians
Epistle of Pseudo-Barnabas / 70-79 A. D.
Epistle to the Corinthians / 95-97 A. D. by Clement of Rome
Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians / 108 A. D. by Poycarp
The Seven Epistles of Ignatius / 110-117 A. D. by Ignatius
Ancient Homily or the Second Epistle of Clement / 120-140 A.
D.
Apocryphal Apocalypse
The extensive books of the apocryphal Apocalypse provide
detailed expositions on the after-life, heaven, and hell. Many of these
writings are rhapsodies of epic scope. Notably, the apocalypse of
Peter is the earliest extant apocryphal book that describes heaven and
hell. The following list identifies the Apocryphal Apocalypse along
with known estimated dates.
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The Apocalypse of Peter / 132-5 A. D.
The Apocalypse of Paul
The Apocalypse of Thomas / c. 450 A. D.
The Questions of Bartholomew
The Letter of James
The Apocalypse of Elias (Elijah)
The Apocalypse of Stephen
The Apocalypse of John
The Apocalypse of Bartholomew
The Apocalypse of Zechariah
5 and 6 Ezra
The Book of Elchasai
The Apocalypses of the Virgin
The Assumption of the Virgin
Shepherd of Hermas / 115-140 A. D.
&&&&&&&
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Chapter 8
Biblical Translation
“[Jesus said], Heaven and earth shall pass away,
But my words shall not pass away.”
(Luke 21:33)
By examining the Scriptures, it becomes apparent that God
desires to save and to bless all people, even whosoever will. The
following table presents seven merciful Scriptures relating to God’s
universal outreach to people and earnest call to everyone.
Table 45: God’s Call to All People
[The Lord Jesus Christ said,] Go ye into all the world and preach
the gospel to every creature.
Mark 16:15
[Jesus said,] For God so loved the world, that he gave his only
begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but
have everlasting life.
John 3:16
[Jesus said,] Verily, verily, I say unto you, He that believeth on
me hath everlasting life.
John 6:47
For there is no respect of persons with God…
Romans 2:11
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For whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be
saved.
Romans 10:13
[God] is long-suffering toward us, not willing that any should
perish, but that all should come to repentance.
2 Peter 3:9
I [God] will give unto him that is athirst of the fountain of the
water of life freely.
Revelation 21:6
&&&&&&&
In order to communicate His message with all people, it is
apparent that God desires to provide His word in the various native
languages throughout the world. For example, the scriptural word,
whosoever (Romans 10:13), is intended to be inclusive of all people
and reflects a universal invitation to mankind. Reviewed in context,
it is evident that God seeks to save and to bless people from all
nations including people representing all spoken languages. In the
Psalms the Bible proclaims, "There is no speech nor language where
his [God's] voice is not heard" (Psalm 19:2, see also Acts 10:35 and
Revelation 5:8-10). In the book of Romans, Paul explains, "[The
Gentiles] show the work of the law written in their hearts, their
conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts the meanwhile
accusing or else excusing one another" (Romans 2:15). The Bible
explains that God's spiritual laws, concerning good and evil, are
innately knowable within the heart of mankind.
Foremost, in the book of ACTS, we read, "And when the day of
Pentecost was fully come... they [the disciples] were all filled with
gave them utterance. ...And every man [from over fifteen different
nations] heard them speak in his own language" (ACTS 2:1,4,6).
Wonderfully, God gave the outpouring of the Holy Ghost at
Pentecost with a supernatural gift that enabled the disciples to preach
to a multitude of people in fifteen foreign languages. Certainly the
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language translation miracle at Pentecost emphasizes God's intention
to communicate with diverse people and language groups.
Progressively over the centuries, God has enabled his written
word to be competently translated from the original Hebrew and
Greek into many languages, and such translation efforts have greatly
facilitated the spread of God's word throughout the world.
Altogether, there are over 24,000 ancient biblical manuscripts in
various languages that are extant. The following table identifies the
ancient manuscript languages and the approximate number of known
preserved copies.
Table 46: Languages of Biblical Manuscripts
Manuscript
Language
Greek
Latin Vulgate
Ethiopic
Slavic
Armenian
Syriac Peshitta
Boharic
Arabic
Old Latin
Anglo Saxon
Gothic
Sogdian
Old Syriac
Persian
Frankish
# Of Extant Copies –
Partial and Complete
5,309
8,000+
2,000+
4,101
2,587
350+
100
75
35
7
6
3
2
2
1
&&&&&&&
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Biblical translation is an ongoing process devoted to making the
Bible available in a multitude of languages worldwide. Through the
year 2000, the entire Bible has appeared in more than 240 languages
and dialects. Furthermore, one or more whole books of the Bible
have been translated into more than 739 additional languages. Of
special note, the British and Foreign Bible Society has sponsored the
translation of Biblical books into 782 languages. For a detailed
listing, please see the reference for Darlow.
The following tables provide related language information.
Please see Catch the Vision, via Voice of God Recordings, from
Jeffersonville, Indiana, dated December 2003.
Table 47: Languages and Translation
6,800 Languages spoken around the world
3,700 Number of languages into which the New Testament
has been translated as of December 2003
100 Number of languages needed to reach 95% of the
world
10 Number of languages to reach 50% of the world’s
population
Top ten languages of the world, based on population.
Chinese (Mandarin) 844
million
English
437
million
Hindi
388
million
Spanish
331
million
Russian
291
million
Arabic
192
million
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Bengali
181
million
171
million
138
million
124
million
Portuguese
Malay
Japanese
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This multitude of language translations of the Bible stands as
unique, when compared to any other book in existence. No other
book has been translated as frequently and broadly as the Bible. The
Lord Jesus Christ said to his disciples, "Ye shall be witnesses unto
me both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the
uttermost part of the earth" (ACTS 1:8b). The widespread translation
and publication of the Bible stands as a progressive fulfillment of
this prophecy of the Lord Jesus Christ. Amen.
Translation into English
In this section, highlights of the translation process into the
English language will be reviewed. For well over one thousand
years, the Latin Vulgate was the primary Bible used within English
speaking churches. The exclusive utilization of the Latin Vulgate
within England was a requirement imposed by the Roman Catholic
Church. The Roman Church sought to standardize biblical usage
throughout its sphere of ecclesiastical control, which for many
centuries included England. However, beginning in the sixth century,
English Bible translations began to appear for portions of the Bible,
including initially the Psalms and later the Gospels. From the
thirteenth through the sixteenth centuries, English translations for the
entire Bible were generated, culminating with the classic King James
Version in 1611, which is widely respected as the definitive text for
the English speaking world. By the middle of the sixteenth century,
the English churches were actively using English Bibles, and the
Latin Vulgate was retained only in strictly Roman Catholic settings.
The following table provides a chronological summary of Bible
translations into English.
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Table 48: Bible Translations into English
Translator(s) / Estimated Date(s) / Title
Early Partial Bible Translations
1. Aldham, Bishop of Sherborne / 640-709 / Fifty Psalms
Aldham was the first Bishop of Sherborne in Dorset in southern
England. He is credited with generating the first translation of the
Psalter into Old English shortly after 700 A. D.
2. Bede, famous scholar / 672-735 / St. John's Gospel
The venerable Bede was a saintly monk, scholar, mathematician,
and theologian. He lived at Jarrow-on-the-Tyne in Northumbria. He
wrote the Ecclesiastical History of England for which he became
known as the Father of English church history. Moreover, Bede
translated Saint John’s Gospel into Anglo-Saxon, completing the
work at the last hours of his life. The story is recorded that as Bede
dictated the translation of the last verse of the Gospel of John to a
devoted scribe, he reposed, chanted a “Gloria,” and gave up the
ghost. Regrettably, this translation has not been preserved.
3. Caedmon / Died 681 / Parts of Bible
The story of Caedmon is recorded in the Venerable Bede’s
Ecclesiastical History (4, 24). Caedmon was a laborer and servant at
a monastery at Whitby in Yorkshire (Northumbria), who arranged
stories of the Bible in verse form, mainly for the instruction of
children. These stories ranged from creation to the mighty Acts of
the Apostles. According to legend, an angel appeared to Caedmon
and instructed and empowered him to “sing for me about created
things.” Caedmon was blessed with singing praises unto God in
words that he had not heard before. Through inspiration, he sang,
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“Now we must praise the Maker of the Celestial Kingdom, the power
and counsel of the Creator, the deeds of the Father of Glory, how he,
since he is the Eternal God, was the beginning of all wonders, who first,
Omnipotent Guardian of the human kind, made for the sons of men
Heaven for their roof, and then the earth” (Hoare p. 27).
4. Egbert / fl. c. 700 / Gospels
Egbert of Northumbria became the Archbishop of York shortly
before the death of Bede (d. 735). Egbert was the first to translate the
Gospels into English circa 705.
5. King Alfred the Great / 849-901 / Various
King Alfred reigned from 871–899 and led his people into
religious reform. King Alfred is credited with translating Bede’s
Ecclesiastical History from Latin into Anglo-Saxon. He also
translated the Ten Commandments, Exodus 21-23, ACTS 15:23-29,
and a negative form of the Golden Rule. Furthermore, King Alfred
included parts of the Ten Commandments into the laws of England.
6. Lindisfarne Gospels / fl. c. 950 / Gospels
The Lindisfarne Gospels were first prepared in Latin during the
seventh century by Eadfirth, Bishop of Lindisfarne (698-721). The
Lindisfarne Gospels remain a consummate example of Irish scribal
art (comparable to the Book of Kells). Eadfirth was the successor of
Aidan as Abbot. This is the same Eadfirth to whom Aldhelm of
Malmesbury wrote when he was an English student in Ireland
concerning Irish indulgence with respect to pagan literature (Cahill
p. 203). Subsequently, Aldred included an interlinear translation in
the Northumbrian dialect between the lines of the Latin Lindisfarne
Gospels.
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7. Aelfric, Archbishop of Canterbury / 1000 / Portions of
Bible
Abbot Aelfric of Eynsham, Oxfordshire (Wessex) lived from c.
955–1020. Abbot Aelfric generated idiomatic translations from the
Latin including the Pentateuch, some historical books of the Old
Testament, and the Psalms. Aelfric also referenced the Wessex
Gospels in his homilies. The Wessex Gospels originated before his
time and establish the earliest extant Old English version of the
Gospels.
8. Ormin / c. 1200
Ormin (or Orm) was an Augustinian monk who wrote a poetical
paraphrase of the gospels and ACTS, and he also prepared a
commentary. His work was called the Ormulum, and is preserved in
only one manuscript of approximately 20,000 lines, which may be
the autograph. Orm wrote of his endeavor, “If anyone wants to know
why I have done this deed, I have done it so that all young Christian
folk may depend upon the Gospel only, and may follow with all their
might its holy teaching, in thought, in word and deed” (Hoare p. 40).
9. Langston, Archbishop of Canterbury / 1227 / Portions of
Bible
Stephen Langston was a professor at the University of Paris and
later became Archbishop of Canterbury. Some credit Langston with
developing chapter divisions for the Bible.
Note: Chapter and verse divisions in the Bible were a relatively
late development. Chapter divisions were first introduced into the
Latin Vulgate and are variously attributed to Lanfranc, Archbishop
of Canterbury (died 1089), to Stephen Langston, Archbishop of
Canterbury (died 1228), or to Hugo de Sancto Caro (Hugo
Cardinalis) of the thirteenth century.
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Verse numbers were first included in the fourth edition of the
Greek New Testament issued at Geneva in 1551 by Robert Etienne
(Stephanus), a Parisian printer, and in the Athias Hebrew Old
Testament of 1559-1561. In 1555, Stephanus included his verse
markings into a Latin Vulgate edition, from which they have been
preserved through the present. William Whittingham of Oxford has
been credited with introducing Stephanus’ verses into the English
New Testament in 1557. The Geneva Bible of 1560 was the first
complete (Old and New Testament) English Bible to incorporate the
modern chapter and verse divisions.
10. Shoreham and Rolle / 1300s / Psalms
William Shoreham translated the Psalter into a Kentish
(southern) dialect of English circa 1320. Further, Richard Rolle,
“The Hermit of Hampole,” translated the Psalter from the Vulgate
into a North English dialect circa 1320-1340. Rolle’s edition
included verse-by-verse commentary and was widely circulated.
Both Shoreham and Rolle’s editions presented metrical prose, and
therefore were called Psalters. These Psalters were popular and
influential when John Wycliffe was a young man.
Complete Bible Translations
1. John Wycliffe (c. 1320-1384) / 1380 / Entire Bible in English
Dr. John Wycliffe was assisted by competent associates,
including Nicholas de Hereford, who completed the Old Testament
translation. The New Testament was published in 1380 and the Old
Testament in 1388. This was a handwritten manuscript translated
primarily from the Latin Vulgate that enjoyed widespread
circulation. In 1397, John Purvey (c. 1353-1428), a close friend and
associate of Wycliffe’s, corrected and revised the Wycliffe version,
and it was this updated version that was to be the primary English
Bible until the sixteenth century. Purvey’s update was known as the
Later Wycliffe version. It replaced many of the former Latinate
expressions with the native English idiom, and removed Jerome’s
traditional prefaces and replaced them with an extensive prologue.
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Dr. Wycliffe was a professor at Oxford and also served as the
Chaplain to the King of England beginning circa 1366. He was an
expert orator and a master of debate, who advocated the Scriptures
as the only law of the church. Through his steadfast devotion to the
Bible and his great logical reasoning prowess, Dr. Wycliffe
articulated truthful Christian doctrines that launched the process
toward English spiritual reformation. For this, he is remembered as
“The Morning Star of the Reformation.” Dr. Hoare noted,
“The readiest key to Wycliffe’s career is to be found in his
conviction, - a conviction which grew deeper as his life went on, - that the
Papal claims are incompatible with what he felt to be the moral truth of
things, incompatible with the instinct of patriotism, and finally, with the
paramount authority of the inspired Book which was his spiritual charter”
(Hoare p. 71).
In addition, Dr. Wycliffe’s students and followers carried forth
the written word of God to the people of England and abroad. Their
public preaching greatly informed and empowered the common
people, and was a catalyst for spiritual liberation. These public
preachers became known as the Lollards. (Incidentally, the term,
Lollards, originally was a disparaging term disrespecting the
preachers spiritual zeal.)
2. William Tyndale / 1526 / Entire English Bible
While studying at Cambridge, William Tyndale (c. 1492–1536)
was influenced by Erasmus. Tyndale also studied at Oxford from
which he graduated in 1515. He attained fluency in seven languages.
Tyndale used Erasmus’ third edition of the Greek New Testament as
the initial basis for his English translation. Additionally, he was
influenced by Wycliffe’s translation as well as Martin Luther’s.
Tyndale’s New Testament was initially printed in Cologne during
February 1526. The Pentateuch was printed first at Marburg in 1530,
and Jonah was printed at Antwerp in 1531. The entire Bible was
updated and printed in 1535. This was the first complete translation
into English from a Greek text.
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It was printed in quantity in the city of Worms in Germany, and
over fifteen thousand copies, in six editions, were smuggled into
England between the years 1526 and 1530.
Tyndale’s 1535 translation was a work of art. It was a handsome
folio volume prepared in large, clear type, containing 158
illustrations. The artistry and appearance of the illustrations were
magnificent. Their beauty and grandeur were commensurate with the
Bible’s wonderful message. Note: For a survey of medieval Biblical
illustrations, please see The MASTER LIBRARY, which contains over
fifteen hundred biblical illustrations with commentary (Foundation
Press).
It was Tyndale’s desire that every English plowboy would be
able to read and recite the Scriptures in the English language. For
this reason, he labored diligently and endured heavy persecution to
prepare the requisite translation. For his devotion to the truth of the
Word, William Tyndale was martyred on October 6, 1536 at the
fortress of Vilvorde in Flanders. His final words were very poignant
and prophetic, “Lord, open the king of England’s eyes.” William
Tyndale’s translation into English was significant and formed an
influential foundation for subsequent revisions.
[From William Tyndale’s Prologue to the first printed English New
Testament] “I have here translated, brethren and sisters most dear and
tenderly beloved in Christ, the New Testament for your spiritual edifying,
consolation and solace, exhortynge instantly and besechynge those that
are better sene in the tongues than I, and that have higher gifts of grace to
interpret the sense of Scripture, and meaning of the Spirit, than I, to
consider and ponder my labor, and that with a spirit of meekness. And if
they perceive in any places that I have not attained the very sense of the
tongue, or meaning of the Scripture, or have not given the right English
word, that they put to their hands to amend it, remembering that so is their
duty to do. For we have not received the gifts of God for ourselves only,
or for to hide them; but for to bestow them unto the honoring of God and
Christ and edifying of the congregation, which is the body of Christ” (via
The Living Bible, preface).
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3. Miles Coverdale (1488-1569) / 1535 / Miles Coverdale Bible
Miles Coverdale served as an assistant and proofreader to
William Tyndale while he was in Antwerp, Germany during 1534.
The Coverdale Bible was derived primarily from the work of
William Tyndale with some revisions drawn from the work of
Martin Luther in German. Note: that Martin Luther’s New
Testament was published in 1522, and the Old Testament in 1534.
Coverdale’s Bible was a translation of the entire Bible, and
represented the completion of what Tyndale had begun. Miles
Coverdale also introduced chapter summaries and some new
expressions into the text. Further, Coverdale separated the
Apocrypha from the other Old Testament books. The Coverdale
Bible was first published in 1535 and was reprinted twice in 1537,
once in 1550, and again in 1553.
4. John Rogers / 1537 / Matthew’s Bible
The Matthew’s Bible was the first Bible issued with the king’s
license, and it was derived mainly from the prior work of William
Tyndale and Miles Coverdale. This Bible was printed in Hamburg by
the king’s printer, John Rogers (c. 1500-1555), and was dedicated to
King Henry VIII. Published under John Rogers’ pen name of
Thomas Matthew, Rogers combined the Tyndale and Coverdale Old
Testaments with the 1535 revision of Tyndale’s New Testament to
create another version. Rogers also included copious notes and
references within his edition that were favorable to the reformation.
Please note that John Rogers was the first martyr under the reign of
Queen Mary.
5. Richard Taverner / 1539 / Taverner’s Bible
Richard Taverner (1505-1575) generated an update to Matthew’s
Bible in 1539. Taverner improved the translation including a more
accurate rendering of the Greek article. His work was soon
supplanted by the royal appointment of the Great Bible.
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6. Royal Authority / April 1539 / The Great Bible
The Great Bible was prepared as a revision to the Matthew’s
Bible. It was updated under the leadership of Miles Coverdale, who
was Tyndale’s former associate. Royal approval for the effort was
provided by Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556), the first Protestant
Archbishop of Canterbury, and by Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485–
1540), who was Protestant Lord Chancellor under Henry VIII (1509–
1547). It was referred to as the Great Bible due to its large size and
high cost. The Great Bible measured “more than fifteen inches long
and nine inches wide” (Paine p. 9). It was first printed in 1538, and a
second edition was prepared in 1540. Thomas Cranmer provided a
Preface to the second edition, and one of the significant notes reads,
“This is the Byble apoynted to the use of the churches” (Geisler p.
553). Cranmer’s Preface was included in all subsequent editions, and
thereby the Great Bible became known as Cranmer’s Bible.
Altogether, the Great Bible was edited and printed in 1538, 1540,
1541, 1549, and 1553. With royal authority, it rapidly became the
prominent Bible in the English churches. Notably, King Henry VIII
required that each church must purchase a Bible immediately, or the
price would double each month. He also directed that the Bible must
be continuously available to the public and that a reader must be
hired to read to the common people.
7. Exiles in Geneva / 1560 / Geneva Bible
The Geneva Bible was translated by Protestant scholars, who
fled from England to Geneva, Switzerland during the intolerant reign
of the staunch Roman Catholic, Mary Tudor (reigned 1553-1558).
At that time, Geneva was known as the Holy City of the Alps. The
translation was accomplished through a committee effort, being the
first of its kind. Led by John Knox, other contributors included
Theodore Beza, William Whittingham (who was married to John
Calvin’s sister), Anthony Gilby, Thomas Sampson, and others of the
Calvinistic doctrine.
The Geneva Bible was considered an improvement over previous
versions. Selected features included:
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a. The Old Testament followed the original Hebrew more closely
than predecessor translations.
b. Overall, it was based on Tyndale’s translation, but included
variants from the editio regia of Stephanus (1550) and also updates
based on Beza’s Latin version of 1556.
c. Annotations were included, but were less controversial and
volatile than Tyndale’s original notes.
d. The Geneva Bible was printed in “Roman” type, which was
more legible to Englishmen than the Gothic.
e. It was also printed in a smaller quarto page format, which
made the Bible less bulky and more affordable.
f. The Geneva Bible was the first to reflect verses throughout the
whole Bible.
g. In addition, italicized words were included to reflect English
idioms.
The Geneva Bible was completed in 1560, and underwent over
140 editions through 1644. Overall, the Geneva Bible included
commentary and illustrations supportive of the views of John Calvin
and of the Reformation, which was the primary reason for its
popularity in England.
The Geneva Bible was the mainstay Bible of the family, whereas
the Great Bible was required in the churches. Notably, the Geneva
Bible was referenced and used by William Shakespeare, John
Bunyon (who wrote Pilgrim’s Progress), and the Pilgrims who
journeyed to America.
8. Archbishop Parker / 1568 / The Bishops Bible
The Bishops Bible included commentary supportive of the
Anglican Church, which at that time was not fully supportive of the
Reformation. By royal direction, it was used by the clergy and in the
Anglican churches from 1568 through 1611, but its final printing
was in 1602. Notwithstanding, the Geneva Bible remained in
popular use by English lay people.
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9. Two Colleges / 1589, 1610 / Rheims-Douay Bible
The Rheims-Douay Bible was the first Roman Catholic edition
of the Bible in English. It was not translated from the original
languages, but rather was translated from the Latin Vulgate. This
Bible reflected Latinized idioms of speech, and consequently was
not fully characteristic of normal English idioms. Moreover, it
included copious notes that were indicative of the determinations of
the Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1546-1563). The New
Testament was translated at the College of Rheims in France, and the
Old Testament was translated at the College of Douay. Gregory
Martin, educated at Oxford University, led the New Testament
translation team.
The original Rheims-Douay version was based upon an
unofficial Louvian Vulgate dating to 1547, and was updated to
reflect the Sixtine-Clementine Vulgate of 1592. The second edition
was published in 1749/50 by Dr. Richard Challoner, Bishop of
London. Dr. Challoner’s second edition remained the foundational
Roman Catholic English Bible for over two hundred years.
10. King James the First, Et Al / 1611 / King James Version
&&&&&&&
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Translation - King James Version (KJV)
On Monday, January 16, 1604, King James I of England and VI
of Scotland called and conducted a conference to discuss religious
toleration and invited participation from various English religious
parties. This conference was largely in response to the Puritan
initiated Millenary Petition. This Petition was presented to King
James as he was traveling from Edinburgh to London to begin his
reign. It is known as the Millenary Petition since it included at least
one thousand signatures from concerned religious people. The
petition was prepared by the Puritans and presented various
grievances related to religious intolerance.
The conference called by King James became known as the
Hampton Court Conference. At the conference, Dr. John Reynolds,
President of Corpus Christi College at Oxford (a Puritan leader)
suggested that a new translation be directed. King James welcomed
the idea and actively directed the proceedings. His primary
requirement was to prohibit commentary or interpretive notes within
the translation. King James’ overall purpose was to avoid the
incorporation of any particular viewpoint or controversial doctrine.
England needed an impartial and nonpartisan translation that could
help to remedy the serious divisions among its religious factions,
including the Presbyterians in Scotland and the Episcopalians in
England. Furthermore, King James was fluent in French, Greek, and
Latin, and was educated in Italian and Spanish. Perhaps his language
prowess further predisposed him toward directing a translation
effort. Moreover, King James was adamant for the preservation of
the (inherited) rights of Kings to rule as sovereign.
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“James’ real reason for objecting to the Geneva Bible [which was the
Bible actively in use in England at that time] was rooted in his need to
feel secure on his new throne. Some of the marginal notes in the Geneva
version had wording which disturbed him: they seemed to scoff at kings.
If the Bible threatened him, it must be changed. Away with all marginal
notes! And indeed if you read them in the fat Geneva volume you will
find many based on dogma now outworn. James may have had some right
on his side; he was far from witless” (Paine p. 10).
The rules for the translation’s preparations and proceedings were
composed by the powers of Church and state, and evidently by
reference were directed by the King. The following table quotes the
directives.
Table 49: Rules for the KJV Translation
“1. The ordinary Bible read in church, commonly called the
Bishop’s Bible, to be followed and as little altered as the truth of the
original will permit. (However in practice, the translators regularly
preferred Tyndale’s text as a basis for the KJV.)
2. The names of the prophets and the holy writers with the other
names of the text to be retained as nigh as may be, according as they
were vulgarly [or commonly] used.
3. The old ecclesiastical words to be kept, viz. the word “church”
not to be translated “congregation.” (The Greek word can be
translated either way.)
4. When a word hath diverse significations, that to be kept which
hath been most commonly used by most of the ancient fathers.
5. The division of the chapters to be altered either not at all or as
little as may be.
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6. No marginal notes at all to be affixed, but only for the
explanation of the Hebrew or Greek words, which cannot without
some circumlocution be so briefly and fitly expressed in the text.
7. Such quotations of places to be marginally set down as shall
serve for the fit reference of one scripture to another.
8. Every particular man of each company to take the same
chapter or chapters, and having translated or amended them severally
by himself, where he thinketh good, all to meet together to confer
when they have done, and agree for their parts what shall stand.
9. As any one company hath dispatched any one book in this
manner they shall send it to the rest, to be considered of seriously
and judiciously, for His Majesty is very careful in this point.
10. If any company upon the review of the book so sent doubt or
differ upon any place, to send them word thereof with the place, and
withal send the reasons; to which if they consent not, the difference
to be compounded at the general meeting which is to be of the chief
persons of each company at the end of the work. (Thus in the end
they all had to agree enough to let all readings pass.)
11. When any place of special obscurity be doubted of, letters to
be directed by authority to send to any learned man in the land for
his judgment of such a place.
12. Letters to be sent from every bishop to the rest of his clergy,
admonishing them of his translation in hand, and to move and charge
as many as being skillful in the tongues and having taken pains in
that way, to send his particular observations to the company, either at
Westminster, Cambridge, or Oxford. (This indicates that many
[scholars] must have aided in the work.)
13. The directors of each company to be the deans of
Westminster and Chester for that place, and the King’s professors in
the Hebrew or Greek in either university.
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14. These translations to be used when they agree better with the
text than the Bishop’s Bible – Tyndale’s, Matthew’s, Coverdale’s,
Witchurch’s (Great Bible), Geneva.
15. Besides the said directors before mentioned, three or four of
the most ancient and grave divines in either of the universities, not
employed in translating, to be assigned by the vice-chancellor, upon
conference with the rest of the heads, to be overseers of the
translation, as well Hebrew as Greek, for the better observation of
the fourth rule specified” (See Paine p. 70-71).
&&&&&&&
The translation was started in 1607 and was accomplished by a
committee of more than forty-eight scholars and devoutly Christian
men, representing diverse English parties. These men were selected
as the most learned Englishmen of their time.
“Thus the translation would have the help of ‘all our principal
learned men within this our kingdom’” (Paine p. 13).
They were experts in language studies, and many were ordained
ministers. Their translation was conducted at a time when language
scholarship was flourishing in England. Many thousands studied the
sacred literature with great zeal, and it was also a time when the
English language was, in retrospect, at the epitome of its
development. The following table identifies in alphabetical order
several notable contributors to the King James Bible translation.
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Table 50: Selected Translators of the KJV
Dr. Lancelot Andrews, Presiding - Bishop of Winchester, fluent in
fifteen languages (Paine p. 20)
Dr. William Bedwell - Eminent Oriental scholar and author
Dr. Lawrence Chaderton - Lawyer, and powerful and popular
preacher
Dr. Francis Dilligham - Participated in public debate in Greek,
author
Professor John Harding - Royal Professor of Hebrew
Dr. Thomas Harrison - Vice-Master of Trinity College in Cambridge
Dr. Richard Kilby - University Professor of Hebrew
Dr. John Laifield - Specialized in architectural translation
Dr. Edward Lively - Known as one of the best linguists in the world
Dr. John Overall - Expert in the writings of the early church fathers
Dr. John Reynolds - Master of the Scriptures and in public debate
Dr. Hadrian Saravia - Evangelist who established Elizabeth College
Dr. Henry Saville - Greek and mathematical tutor to the King’s
family, who possessed a number of rare Greek manuscripts obtained
during his European travels
Dr. Miles Smith - Wrote the original preface to the KJV and edited
the entire translation
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Dr. Robert Tighe - Excellent textuary and proficient linguist
&&&&&&&
The translators were divided into six working companies with
two at Westminster, two at Oxford, and two at Cambridge. Each
group was assigned certain books to translate, and each translated
book was required to be submitted for review by the other groups.
Appointed delegates from each of the six companies were assigned
to arbitrate issues.
The two companies at Westminster met and revised Genesis
through 2 Kings, and Romans through Jude. The two companies at
Oxford met to revise Isaiah through Malachi, the four gospels,
ACTS, and the Apocalypse. Also, the two companies at Cambridge
met to revise 1 Chronicles through Ecclesiastes, and the Apocrypha.
The following table identifies the specific assignments.
Table 51: KJV Translation Assignments
The Westminster Groups:
Old Testament – Genesis through Kings, inclusive
Lancelot Andrewes, William Bedwell, Francis Burleigh, Richard
Clarke, Jeffrey King, John Layfield, John Overall, Hadrian Saravia,
Robert Tigue, Richard Thomson
New Testament – Romans through Jude, inclusive
William Barlow, William Dakins, Roger Fenton, Ralph
Hutchinson, Michael Rabbett, Thomas Sanderson, John Spenser
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The Oxford Groups:
Old Testament – Isaiah through Malachi, inclusive
Richard Brett, Daniel Featley (born Fairclough), John Harding,
Thomas Holland, Richard Kilby, John Rainolds, Miles Smith (final
editor)
New Testament – Gospels, Acts, Apocalypse
George Abbot, John Aglionby, John Harmer, Leonard Hutton,
John Perin, Thomas Ravis, Henry Savile, Giles Thomson
The Cambridge Groups:
Old Testament – 1 Chronicles through Ecclesiastes, inclusive
Roger Andrewes, Andrew Bing, Laurence Chaderton, Francis
Dillingham, Thomas Harrison, Edward Lively, John Richardson,
Robert Spalding
Apocrypha
John Bois, William Branthwaite, Andrew Downes, John Duport,
Jeremy Radcliffe, Samuel Ward, Robert Ward
Final Editors: Dr. Miles Smith and Dr. Thomas Bilson, Bishop of
Winchester
These are the forty-eight scholars listed in the British Museum.
Others who participated include: William Thorne, Richard Edes,
George Ryves, William Eyre, James Montague, Arthur Lake,
Nicholas Love, Ralph Ravens, and Thomas Sparke.
&&&&&&&
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The primary textual basis for the translation included Erasmus’
Greek New Testament, Tyndale’s translation, and the Greek Vulgate.
For the Old Testament, the translators primarily relied upon the
standard edition of the Ben Chayyim Masoretic Text, which was
named after the Hebrew Christian, Jacob ben Chayyim, under whose
editorship it was printed in 1524-5. Chayyim’s text was essentially a
recension of the text of the Masorite, Ben Asher, who flourished c.
920 A. D.
“What ancient-language text did they [the KJV translators] work
with? They had the Complutensian Polyglot of 1517, published at
Complutum, now Alcala de Henares, Spain, and they had the Antwerp
Polyglot, 1569-72. These gave Hebrew and Greek texts with versions in
other tongues added. Of course they had the Latin Vulgate, though that
was suspect because it was popish. With some fragments of early scrolls,
they had countless comments by the early church fathers and ancient
scholars. Often they referred to St. Chrysostom (347-407 A. D.), whose
work Sir Henry Savile had begun to edit, with help from Andrew Downes
and John Bois. Another reference authority was the Geneva scholar,
Theodore Beza (1519-1605)” (Paine p. 77).
“Miles Smith, as final editor [a Puritan sympathizer], protested that
after he and [Bishop Thomas] Bilson had finished, Bishop Bancroft made
fourteen more changes. ‘He is so potent there is no contradicting him,’
said Smith, and cited as an example of Bancroft’s bias his insistence on
using ‘the glorious word bishopric’ even for Judas, in Acts 1:20: ‘His
bishopric let another take.’
The fact that Smith was the one to protest Bancroft’s amendments
suggests that he stood alone against both Bishops Bilson and Bancroft in
such matters as the importance of bishoprics” (Paine p. 128).
Bishop Bancroft (as acting Archbishop of Canterbury, the
highest ranking churchman in England appointed by the King) was
assigned by King James to oversee the translation effort, and
evidently to ensure that the sovereignty of kings and their appointed
bishops was strongly manifested in the translation. It was not in King
James interests to permit the scriptures to reflect a more
congregational tone as advocated by the Puritans and others.
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King James did not want congregations to democratically select
their own leaders, but rather insisted upon the divine right of Kings
to ultimately control the church through the appointment of
bishoprics. As such, King James apparently ensured, through his
appointment of Bishop Bancroft as the final editorial review
authority for the translated manuscript, that certain key scriptures
were translated to reflect the King’s preferences.
Nevertheless, after two years and nine months the work was
completed and sent to the printing presses. The King James Version
of 1611 was dedicated to the King, and retained the printer’s
prefatory note, “Appointed to be read in Churches.” The initial
printing was accomplished at London by Robert Barker, who was the
“Printer to the Kings most Excellent Maiestie.” Moreover, it was
published in the same format as the Geneva Bible, which contributed
to its early acceptance. The King James (“Authorized”) Version
straightway supplanted the Bishop’s Bible in the churches and was
used by the clergy. In time it became popular with the people, and
eventually supplanted the Geneva Bible as the mainstay Bible of the
family.
The Authorized King James Version is treasured by the Englishspeaking world as the foundational Protestant Bible in the English
language. It is a literary masterpiece that has been in worldwide
circulation for centuries. Its poetic rhythms, gracious style, and
majestic language are an enduring monument to English prose and
artistry. Literally millions of copies have been printed through our
current time, and it is probable that each year, the King James Bible
is the most printed, distributed, and read book in the entire world.
Dr. F. William Farber [wrote], “It [the KJV] lives in the ear like a
music that can never be forgotten, like the sound of church bells, which
the convert hardly knows how he can forego. Its felicities often seem to
be almost things rather than mere words. It is part of the national mind
and the anchor of national seriousness. The memory of the dead passes
into it. The potent traditions of childhood are stereotyped into its verses.
The power of all the grief(s) and trials of a man is hidden beneath its
words. It is the representative of his best moments; and all that there has
been about him of soft, and gentle, and pure, and penitent, and good
speaks to him for ever out of his English Bible” (Paine p. viii).
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Sir Frederick Kenyon added his verdict, “It is the simple truth that, as
literature, the English Authorized Version is superior to the original
Greek. It was the good fortune of the English nation that its Bible was
produced at a time when the genius of the language for noble prose was at
its height, and when a natural sense of style was not infected by selfconscious scholarship. The beauty of the language commended the
teaching of the sacred books and made them dear to the heart of the
people, while it made an indelible and enduring impression alike on
literature and on popular speech” (The Story of the Bible, London, 1936).
Editions of the King James Bible
The King James Bible was edited and reprinted through the years
primarily to correct minor scribal and printing errors. Please keep in
mind that printing in 1611 was accomplished by manually setting
each page, and was a relatively primitive and laborious process
certainly by today’s standards. For a book of the Bible’s magnitude,
printing errors were inevitable, even with diligent checking.
In general, the updated editions were accomplished in two
phases. The first phase mainly focused on correcting obvious
printing errors, and was prepared in two steps in 1629 and 1638. The
second phase focused primarily on updating spelling to the standards
of the 1700s, and was accomplished in two printings in 1762 and
1769. The following table provides a summary of the editions of the
Authorized King James Version (KJV) Bible.
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Table 52: Editions of the King James Bible
Year A. D. / Location
1611 / Oxford
In 1611, there were two printings by the same printers, both of
which are not extant. These printings were in Gothic (Germanic)
type, which was in common use at that time. Gothic type resembles
the hand-drawn manuscript letters of the Middle Ages, and appears
quite different from the Roman type, with which we are more
familiar. Although these early printings appear different to the
modern viewer, they transpose directly into the more familiar Roman
type. The meanings of the words are not altered by changes in these
type sets.
In addition to the shape or appearance of the letters, certain
Gothic letters differ from Roman letters. For example, the Gothic s
looks like the Roman s when used as a capital letter or at the end of a
word. However, when used as a lower case s at the beginning or
within a word, the Gothic letter looks like f. For instance, the Roman
also becomes the Gothic alfo, and set becomes fet. A second
difference involves the interchange of u and v. The Gothic v looks
like a Roman u, and the Roman u looks like the Gothic v. That is the
historical reason why w is called double-u instead of double-v. For
instance, in the 1611 edition, love is loue, us is vs, and ever is euer.
Thirdly, the Gothic j looks like a Roman i. Therefore, Jesus looks
like Iefus, and joy becomes ioy.
1629 / Cambridge
The Cambridge edition corrected minor printing errors. The
work was reviewed by Dr. Samuel Ward and John Bois, who worked
on the original translation team. This edition and following editions
and printings were generated using Roman type.
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1638 / Cambridge
The Cambridge 1638 edition reinstated overlooked words and
clauses in the 1611 edition and corrected other printing errors.
Altogether, there were approximately 288 textual corrections, but
none of them altered the meaning of any Christian doctrine or tenet.
1762 / Cambridge
The Cambridge 1762 edition primarily focused on updating the
spelling of words and replacing certain antique words like “sith.” Dr.
Paris of Cambridge prepared this edition. Prior to the 1700s, there
was no standard for spelling in English. An author simply spelled
words according to his sense of phonetics. In general, the letter e was
often added to the end of words, such as feare, darke, and beare.
Also, double vowels were in common use, such as mee, bee, and
mooued, which are now me, be, and moved. The double vowels
emphasized the long sound. More often double consonants were
used. Examples include ranne, euill, ftarres, which today are ran,
evil, and stars.
1769 / Oxford
The Oxford 1769 edition included further spelling changes and
replaced additional antiquated words. It was prepared by Dr. Blayney
of Oxford, and remains the standard form of the KJV to this day.
Altogether, from the 1611 original through the 1769 edition, there
were a total of four hundred textual changes (not including printing
mistakes or spelling updates). All of the changes were the result of
scribal errors, and none are of doctrinal significance.
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The following list provides representative examples of the
textual printing corrections.
Year
1613
1616
1617
1629
1629
1629
1629
1629
1629
1629
1629
1638
1638
1638
1638
1638
1743
1762
1762
1769
Original
thy right doeth
which was of our father’s
Seek good
requite good
this book of the covenant
chief rulers
For the king
had appointed
The cormorant
The crowned
which was a Jew
the city
this thing
And Parbar
For this cause
a fiery furnace
now and ever
the wayes side
shalt have remained
Achzib, nor Helbath,
nor Aphik
returned
Correction
thy right hand doeth
which was our fathers
Seek God
requite me good
the book of this covenant
chief ruler
for so the king
had appointed
But the cormorant
Thy crowned
which was a Jewess
the city of the
Damascenes
this thing also
At Parbar
And for this cause
a burning fiery furnace
Both now and ever
the way side
ye shall have remained
of Achzib, nor of Helbath,
nor of Aphik
turned
&&&&&&&
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The classic King James Version (KJV) Bible continues to serve
the Christian world in a mighty and Godly way. Its beautiful use of
biblical English emotes a reverent attitude among many Christians,
and clearly the KJV has been successfully used for centuries to lead
millions of precious people to the Lord Jesus Christ. As such for
many Christians and churches, the KJV remains the mainstay
English translation for daily use, and it is relied upon as the standard
resource for addressing matters of faith and practice. Furthermore,
the KJV forms the traditional English baseline against which modern
language versions may be compared.
Modern English Translations
Increasingly through the 1800s, primarily academic people
worked to generate modernized English translations, often for
copyright and profit. Essentially, their technical reasons involved the
use of a slightly edited Greek textual basis for the translations, and
moreover, to present the Scriptures in modernized English prose.
The textual basis for modern language translations has been
drawn from various biblical manuscripts and edited texts. In some
cases, the Majority or Traditional Text has been used as the textual
baseline and in others the Minority Text has formed the primary
basis. A more recent trend involves reasoned eclecticism, where
editors select from variant readings in accordance with prioritized
guidelines. As a regular practice, modern translations include notes
and bracketed words to annotate selected variant readings. Overall,
the variant readings impact only a small percentage of the biblical
words and are primarily editorial in nature.
Whereupon, the primary motive for revised translations was
ostensibly to provide the Bible in a modernized English style. The
traditional King James Version (KJV) uses a style of sixteenth
century English that is not entirely in current use. KJV words such as
howbeit, thee, thine, and peradventure are retained only within
biblical contexts. Also, many words in the KJV have an “eth” suffix
appended to them, including asketh, seeketh, and findeth, which are
readily recognizable, but are no longer in general usage.
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Additionally, there are certain words whose common meaning has
changed through the centuries. For example, the KJV word to suffer
nowadays means to permit, and the KJV word to prevent means to
precede. Furthermore, the KJV word to rent means to tear, and the
KJV word meet means appropriate.
Altogether, these points of grammar and currency of vocabulary
are minor in nature, and do not directly effect the meaning of any
tenet or doctrine of the Christian faith. Nevertheless, modern
scholars have generated translations using contemporary language
styles and idioms, which in their opinion ameliorate or improve the
readability of the biblical text. Of course, readability is largely a
matter of the reader’s experience and preference. Many Christian’s
remain of the conviction that the traditional King James text has a
sacred tone and should be studied and respected as is.
Debatably, modern translations may be easier to read because of
their popular wording, but they are not necessarily easier to
understand. Words such as baptism, redemption, and salvation are
biblical words, which are usually unfamiliar to the uninitiated. As
such, explanation of the meaning of unclear words is indicated. So
whether it’s the KJV or a modern translation, expanding
comprehension of biblical vocabulary should be an integral part of
the Christians’ maturing experience.
Modern English Translations - A Review
Over the past three hundred years, numerous translations of the
Bible have been produced and published. These translations vary in
their approach and style, and some are closer to the KJV style, while
others appear quite different. Some translations are word-for-word or
literal translations from the original languages, while others are
sense-for-sense translations or transliterations. Further, there are
translations that appear as paraphrases in paragraph form, and may
include substantial rearrangements to the order of the original text.
There are also some popular abridgements. In addition, certain
modern translations are not really translations, but rather are more
intended toward interpretation or commentary, and as such may
reflect the editors’ opinions. It is important to know the distinction.
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Of course, each of these newer translations incorporates a more
modern style of colloquial speech and idiom. In addition, modern
translations usually include preface materials that describe the
approach and style that the translators and editors used. This may
help prospective readers to assess the usefulness of the translation
for their purposes.
Altogether, there are over 1,100 translations and modern speech
versions of the Bible or major portions of the Bible extant in
English. Most date to the 1600s or later. Please see Geisler and Nix,
p. 605 for a comprehensive listing. The following table provides a
representative summary of modern translations in the chronological
order of their publication.
Table 53: Summary - Modern English Translations
Translator(s), Year, Title, / Remarks
1. British Committee, 1885, English Revised Version
In 1870, at the Convocation of the Province of Canterbury, a
motion was passed to undertake an updated translation of the
English Bible. Notably, the Oxford and Cambridge University
presses funded the translation, with the stipulation that they would
have exclusive copyrights to the resultant version. Two British
companies were formed to prepare the translation that had twentyseven members each. One committee was assigned to the Old
Testament, and one committee was assigned to the New Testament.
The members were chosen from various denominations and included
Westcott, Hort, Lightfoot, Trench, and Davidson, who were notable
Bible scholars. Additionally, two American committees were formed
who reviewed the in-progress translations and provided detailed
suggestions. The translators worked for fifteen years, and the
completed English Revised Version was published in 1885.
2. American Committee, 1901, American Standard Version
The American committees that reviewed the English Revised
Version continued to work after the English Version was published.
Essentially, the Americans modified the wording to more closely
reflect American idioms of speech. They also adjusted word order
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and spelling to closer reflect the American usage. This was a wordfor-word translation from the Greek. As such, its English
presentation received some criticism for its unnatural style. The
chairman of this committee was Philip Schaff.
3. About 30 people, 1902,
The Twentieth Century New Testament
The Twentieth Century New Testament was translated by over
thirty people and was published in 1902. It used the Westcott and
Hort recommendations as its textual basis. It was a concerted early
attempt to translate the Bible into current English.
4. Richard Weymouth, 1903,
The New Testament in Modern Speech
Richard Weymouth was a classical scholar and prolific writer,
who first prepared a Greek text known as the Resultant Greek
Testament. Weymouth used his own Resultant Greek Testament as
the basis for his translation. Weymouth’s work was revised in 1924
by James Robertson, and it is Robertson’s edition that has been
preserved.
5. James Moffat, 1924, The Bible: A New Translation
James Moffat was a talented scholar, who authored numerous
books and articles on various Christian subjects. He was a Professor
at Union Theological Seminary in New York. His translation of the
New Testament was completed in 1913, and the Old Testament was
completed in 1924. Moffat used simple and direct phrasing in a
modernized English style. However as a translator (as contrasted
with a commentator), Moffat took excessive liberties in adjusting
and rearranging the text.
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6. Edgar Goodspeed, 1927,
The Complete Bible: An American Translation
Professor Goodspeed was of the University of Chicago. He used
the Westcott and Hort recommended texts as his basis for
translation, and his translation is rendered in modern American
idiom. Also, the Old Testament portion was completed by J. Powers
Smith and others.
7. Council of Religious Education, 1952,
Revised Standard Version
In 1929, the International Council of Religious Education
accepted the copyright of the American Standard Version from the
Thomas Nelson Publishing Company. In 1936, the council funded
the start of work on a new translation. The translators utilized the
latest discovered Greek texts and the latest information on the
meaning of Greek word usage in biblical times. Their intention was
to preserve the literary style and tenor of the King James Bible. Nine
Scholars including Edgar Goodspeed and James Moffat worked for
many years and met over 145 days. The Revised Standard Version
(RSV) New Testament was published in 1948, and the Old
Testament along with the New Testament was published in 1952.
Note: The Vaticanus and the Sinaiticus (Minority Text) were used as
the basis for about 90% of the alterations included within the RSV.
8. J. Phillips, 1958, New Testament in Modern Speech
The Phillips’ translation divides the subject matter into small
parts for the purpose of sensible organization. Phillips’ translation is
presented as a paraphrase of the original text.
9. Lockman Foundation, 1965, The Amplified Bible
The Amplified Bible was published as a single volume in 1965
by the Lockman Foundation of La Habra, California. It was a
committee effort that expanded upon the translation through the
insertion of in-line words and phrases and included features of
commentary.
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10. Dominican Biblical School et al, 1966, The Jerusalem
Bible
The Jerusalem Bible was the first complete Catholic Bible to be
translated into English from the original languages. It was published
in England in 1966, and was largely derived from a prior French
translation. It is an interpretive translation that includes numerous
study notes.
11. American Bible Society, 1976, The Good News Bible
This Good News Bible is unique in that it uses a simple
vocabulary, short sentence style, and paragraph format. It is
primarily useful for those at elementary reading levels, or as an
introductory text. This effort was sponsored by the American Bible
Society and was directed by Robert G. Bratcher.
12. Kubo, Specht, et al, 1970, The New American Bible
This is the first American Catholic Bible to be translated from
the original languages. In the prefatory material, the Vatican II
Constitution is included, denoting the Roman Catholic position
concerning the joint authority of sacred tradition, Sacred Scripture,
and Holy Mother Church.
“But the task of authentically interpreting the word of God, whether
written or handed on, has been entrusted exclusively to the living office of
the Church, whose authority is exercised in the name of Jesus Christ…
It is clear, therefore, that sacred tradition, Sacred Scripture, and the
teaching authority of the [Holy Mother] Church, in accord with God’s
most wise design, are so linked and joined together that one cannot stand
without the others, and that all together and each in its own way under the
action of the Holy Spirit contributes effectively to the salvation of souls…
For all that has been said about the way of interpreting Scripture is
subject finally to the judgment of the Church, which carries out the divine
commission and ministry of guarding and interpreting the word of God…
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And should the opportunity arise and the Church authorities approve,
if these translations are produced in cooperation with separated brethren
as well, all Christians will be able to use them…
Sacred theology rests on the written word of God, together with
sacred tradition, as its primary and perpetual foundation” (New American
Bible Preface p. 11-15).
13. Group of Protestant Scholars, 1970, The New English
Bible
The New English Bible was prepared from an eclectic array of
Greek and Hebrew texts. It is a sense-for-sense translation rather
than a word-for-word translation, as it attempts to present the Bible
in idioms of contemporary speech. Also, it is very divergent from the
traditional texts and trends toward including commentary. The
Oxford and Cambridge University presses funded this project and
hold the copyright for the version.
14. Lockman Foundation, 1971,
The New American Standard Bible
This Bible was translated under the sponsorship of the Lockman
Foundation of California. The original motivation of this translation
was to modernize the American Standard Version of 1901. This is a
modern language version.
15. International scholars, 1978, The New International
Version
The New International Version (NIV) translation was performed
by a committee of international English scholars. Their intention was
to provide an easily readable translation that would be a paraphrase
of the original text. This is one of the most popular Bibles in use
today. It is published by the International Bible Society.
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16. New King James Version, 1984, NKJV
The New King James Version is not really a KJV at all, but is
rather an entirely new translation. It differs from the Authorized
King James Version (KJV) in over 60,000 places and includes many
readings incorporated from the Revised Standard Version and from
the New American Standard Version. For example, in the first
chapter of John, 88% of the verses have been altered with 83% of the
differences coming mainly from the RSV.
17. Jewish Publication Society, 1985, TANAKH
An American Jewish committee worked for twenty-five years to
prepare a modern English translation of the complete Hebrew Old
Testament. It is entitled TANAKH: A New Translation of THE HOLY
SCRIPTURES According to the Traditional Hebrew Text.
&&&&&&&
Version Comparison - An Example
Through the centuries, the written English language has changed
substantially in appearance and spelling. The following example
highlights the trend toward our modernized English spelling and
prose. This verse from 1 Corinthians 10:13 is presented from eight
different English translations that were produced over a period of six
hundred years.
Wycliffe, 1382
temptacioun take not zou’ but mannes temptacioun’ for god is
trewe whiche schal not suffre zou to be temptid aboue that that ze
moun’ but he schal make with temptacioun also puruyaunce that ze
moun suffre.
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Tyndale, 1526
There hath none other temptacioon taken you’ but soche as
followeth the nature of man. But God is faythfull’ which shall not
suffer you to be tempted above youre strength: but shall in the
myddes of the temptacion make awaye to escape out.
Cranmer, 1539
Ther hath none other temptacyon taken you, but soche as
followeth the nature of man. But God is faythfull whych shall not
suffer you to be tempted aboue youre strength: but shall in the
myddes of the temptacion make a waye, that ye may be able to beare
it.
Geneva, 1560
There hath none other tentation taken you, but such as
appartayneth to man: but God is faithful, which shal not suffer you to
be tempted aboue your stengthe: but shal in the middes of the
tentation make away, that ye may be able to beare it.
Rheims-Duoay, 1582
Let not tentation apprehend you, but humane, and God is
faithful, vvho vvil not suffer you to be tempted aboue that vvhich
you are able: abut vvil make also vvith tentation issue, that you may
be able to susteine.
Authorized King James Version, 1611
There hath no temptation taken you, but such as is common to
man: but God [is] faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted
aboue that you are able: but wil with the temptation also make a way
to escape, that ye may bee able to beare it.
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American Standard Revised, 1901
There hath no temptation taken you but such as man can bear:
but God is faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted above that
ye are able; but will with the temptation make also the way of
escape, that ye may be able to endure it.
Concordant Version, 1976
No trial has taken you except what is human. Now faithful is
God, Who will not be leaving you to be tried above what you are
able, but, together with the trial, will be making the sequel also, to
enable you to undergo it.
One Definite Text
As noted, numerous modern English Bible translations and
paraphrases have been produced, and certain modern translations
(e.g., RSV and NIV) have become very popular. However, the texts
of most modern English Bibles vary notably from the original
languages and also from each other, and the trend is toward
increasing alterations. Essentially, most modern English Bibles
would be more accurately categorized as editorial interpretations
rather than direct translations from the original languages. This is the
case simply because most modern translations present variant
readings that clearly differ from the oldest, most numerous, and
traditional texts in the original languages. A consequence, of this
growing variation in the modern English texts, is a trend toward
increasing confusion among people concerning the reliability of the
Scriptures as translated into English. Such confusion can lead to
skepticism concerning the competency of biblical translations into
the English language.
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It would certainly be a blessing if Christians could unite in the
use of a common Bible especially in local church services and also
for memorization purposes. For example, usage of the same Bible
would synchronize the Scriptures read by the Pastor within sermons
with the scriptural text used by members of the congregation. Such
an arrangement would help focus people’s attention and would
clearly facilitate teaching. Moreover, the requirement for one definite
text has been emphasized historically. In 1529 Dr. Martin Luther, the
famous reformer, taught in The Short Catechism,
“First, the preacher must above all things beware of and avoid the
use of various and different texts and forms of the Commandments, Lord's
Prayer, Belief, Sacrament, etc.; he must take one form and keep to it, and
consistently teach the same, year after year. For the young and simple folk
must be taught one definite text and version, else they will easily become
confused, if today we teach thus and next year thus, as though we wanted
to improve it, and so all our labor and toil is lost.
This was clearly seen by the worthy fathers, who used the Lord’s
Prayer, the Belief, and the Ten Commandments, all in one form.
Therefore we must always teach the young and simple folk in such a
manner that we do not alter one syllable, or preach tomorrow differently
from today.
Therefore choose whatever form thou wilt, and ever keep to it. But if
thou preachest to scholars or wise men, thou mayest show thy skill, and
vary these articles, and twist them as subtly as thou canst. But with the
young keep always to one form, and teach them first of all these articles,
namely, the Ten Commandments, the Belief, the Lord’s Prayer, etc.,
according to the text, word for word, so that they repeat them and learn
them by heart” (Bettenson p. 202-3).
The question then becomes, Which Bible should be selected as
the one definite text for English speaking people? With regard to the
foregoing, this treatise concludes that the King James Version most
accurately presents the Scriptures, and therefore should serve as the
definitive text for Christian people. Foremost, the King James
Version was translated from the oldest, traditional, and by far the
most numerous texts in the original languages.
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Also by design, the King James Version was competently
translated by a non-partisan and relatively impartial committee of
forty-eight men, who were devout Christians and highly skilled
academics. In addition, the King James Version has served well as
the traditional text of the Protestant church for nearly four hundred
years. Wherefore, it is recommended that the King James Bible be
retained and established as the standard Bible for Christian
instruction, study, and memorization, and furthermore that the King
James Version be respected as authoritative relative to establishing
doctrinal perspectives concerning Christian faith and practice.
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Chapter 9
Early Quotations
“Great multitudes followed him, and he healed them all.”
(Matthew 12:15)
In this chapter, we will review evidence relating the broad public
awareness of the ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. This pubic view
provided a broad base of witnesses for expressing and verifying the
truth of the gospel message. In addition, early Christian writings
have been well preserved and provide a watershed of knowledge
concerning early church times. Also within this Chapter, several
“Confessions” on the Divine inspiration of Scriptures are included.
Various Christian writers and organizations have expressed these
confessions, dating from ancient times through more recent
centuries.
People Knew the Truth about Jesus Christ
Thousands of people directly witnessed and experienced the life
and ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. The Bible says, "Great
multitudes followed him, and he healed them all" (Matthew 12:15).
Please recall that the Lord Jesus Christ miraculously fed four
thousand men plus women and children (Matthew 15:38, Mark 8:9),
and at another time five thousand men plus women and children
(Matthew 14:21, Mark 6:44, Luke 9:14, John 6:10). Historical
records clearly indicate that the Lord Jesus Christ ministered openly
and publicly to thousands of people.
Moreover, hundreds of people were witnesses of the resurrection
of the Lord Jesus Christ. Specifically, the Bible says, "For I delivered
unto you first of all that which I received, that Christ died for our
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sins according to the Scriptures; And that he was buried, and that he
rose again the third day according to the Scriptures; And that he was
seen of Cephas, then of the twelve. After that, he was seen of above
five hundred brethren at once, of whom the greater part remain
unto this present time, but some have fallen asleep. After that, he
was seen of James; then, of all the apostles. And last of all he was
seen of me also, as one born out of due time" (1 Corinthians 15:3-8).
Furthermore, extant manuscript evidence clearly shows that the
ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ was broadly published in early
church times. As previously described, the Apostles verbal tradition
was considered authoritative. Over time, the eyewitnesses of the
ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ wrote the original New Testament
manuscripts, and subsequent copies were carefully produced and
widely distributed. Additionally, numerous translations and
associated copies were generated and distributed in several foreign
languages. Moreover, many Christians quoted the Bible extensively
in letters, as will be reviewed below. Altogether, there were
thousands of people who knew the truth, respecting the ministry of
the Lord Jesus Christ, and there were numerous manuscripts in broad
circulation that reflected the ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. These
manuscripts spanned several languages and were widely distributed
in early church times.
This pervasive and pellucid understanding concerning the Lord
Jesus Christ persevered in the face of the most severe persecution by
the Romans. The truth about the Lord Jesus Christ was known,
expressed, and remembered by many people. Consequently,
fallacious teachings regarding the Lord Jesus Christ were
recognizable by the eyewitness apostles and disciples of His
ministry. Objectively, the foundation of the truth, as documented in
the New Testament Scriptures, and as testified by the multitude of
eyewitnesses, served as a basis to expose false teaching and heresy.
When asked by the high priest of his doctrine, the Lord Jesus
Christ said, "I spoke openly to the world; I ever taught in the
synagogue, and in the temple, where the Jews always resort; and in
secret have I said nothing. Why asketh thou me? Ask them who
heard me, what I have said unto them; behold, they know what I
have said" (John 18:20,21). In addition, Paul, when giving his
testimony before King Agrippa, said, “For the king knoweth of these
things, before whom also I speak freely: for I am persuaded that none
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of these things are hidden from him; for this thing was not done in a
corner” (ACTS 26:26). Most assuredly, the testimony of the apostles
and of the disciples, coupled with the documentation of the New
Testament manuscripts, and the multitude of Christian letters served
to accurately communicate the truth of the gospel message to
multitudes of people in the early centuries.
Early Christians Quoted the NT Manuscripts
Many early Christians had a great zeal for the word of God, and
some became prolific writers, who regularly and extensively referred
to and quoted the New Testament manuscripts in their writings.
Their writings included letters, sermon notes, commentaries, and
books. Prolific authors that quoted from the New Testament during
early church times include Justin Martyr, Tatian, Irenaeus, Clement
of Alexandria, Origen, Cyprian, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Papias,
Eusebius of Caesarea, and Jerome, among others. Altogether, these
men penned over 36,000 quotations or allusions that can serve to
confirm the New Testament manuscripts. The following table
provides a numerical summary.
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Table 54: Numerical Summary of Bible Quotations
Century
A.D.
Author
Justin Martyr
Second
Irenaeus
Clement of Alexandria
Origen
Tertullian
Hippolytus
Eusebius of Caesarea
Second
Second
Third
Third
Fourth
Fourth
Total
Total
Quotations
And Allusions
330 quotations
266 allusions
1,189
2,406
17,922
7,258
1,378
5,176
36,289
&&&&&&&
Dr. Grant Jeffrey observed, "Historians have recovered almost
one hundred thousand manuscripts and letters from the first few
centuries of this era that were composed by Christian writers. Their
love and devotion to the inspired Scriptures was so overwhelming
that these letters contain an enormous number of direct quotations
from the New Testament. ...These numerous letters by the early
Christians contain an astonishing 98 percent of the New Testament"
(Jeffrey p. 22). As further confirmation, Professor Leach recorded
the findings of Sir David Dalrymple, whose research found that the
entire New Testament was quoted by the early Christians in their
letters with the exception of only eleven verses. Sir Dalrymple
reported, “Look at those books. You remember the question about
the New Testament and the Fathers? That question aroused my
curiosity, and as I possessed all the existing works of the Fathers of
the second and third centuries, I commenced to search, and up to this
time I have found the entire New Testament, except eleven verses”
(Leach p. 35-6).
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Background of Early Christians
The writings of the early Christians provide a valuable resource
for our historical study. Their writings include quotations and
allusions to Scriptures that provide another opportunity for
comparison and correlation. By examining these early writings,
scholars have been enabled to determine with greater certitude the
most accurate readings of the ancient biblical manuscripts. In
addition, the Christian writings convey useful information,
describing the historical setting of the early church. The following
table provides an overview of several Christian writers and some of
their key thoughts and manuscript contributions.
Table 55: Early Christian Writers
Person / Year(s)
Papias, 80-160
Papias was an early Christian, who was a pupil of John, bishop
of Hierapolis. His writings indicate a preference for oral testimony
over documentation. Papias wrote, “For I did not account it that the
things from the books were to me so much profit as the things from a
living and remaining voice.” Papias was martyred at about the same
time as Polycarp. Additionally, he wrote An Explanation of the
Lord’s Discourses, which was extant through the thirteenth century.
Only fragments of his quotations remain today in the extant writings
of Irenaeus and Eusebius. Papias, Polycarp, and Ignatius form a
connecting link between the apostolic age and the early church.
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Polycarp, 110
Polycarp was the disciple of the apostle John and became the
bishop of Smyrna. Polycarp emphasized that oral tradition was more
highly revered than documents for determining the accuracy of
doctrine. Polycarp wrote The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians
during 110 A. D., which recommends careful study of Paul’s
epistles. Before being publicly martyred, Polycarp was exhorted to
recant, but he replied, “Eighty and six years have I served Christ and
he has done me nothing but good; how then could I curse Him, my
Lord and Saviour?”
Clement, 95
Clement served as the bishop of Rome, and was a companion of
the apostles, Paul and Peter, and also may have been acquainted with
John. He emphasized authority through succession from the apostles,
and also used inspiration as a criterion for inclusion of sacred books
in the Canon. The Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians was written
in 95 A. D. This Epistle presents beautiful exhortations to humility
and emphasizes the literal bodily resurrection of the Lord Jesus
Christ. It was actively read in the churches through the fourth
century. The traditional account is that Clement was banished to
work in the mines and was martyred during the third year of the
emperor Trajan. Of note, he may be the Clement mentioned in
Philippians 4:3.
Ignatius, d. 111
Ignatius was a pupil of John and became the bishop of Antioch.
He was surnamed, Theophorous, “The Bearer of God.” Ignatius
declared that the local bishop was the center of church unity, and
was responsible for administering the sacraments. Ignatius was
known to say frequently, “The crucified Christ is my only and entire
love.” He also said, “As the world hates the Christians, so God loves
them.”
Ignatius was martyred in Rome under the reign of the Emperor
Trajan (98-117 A. D.) in the year 111 A. D. Seven of his letters to
churches have been preserved including epistles to the Ephesians,
Magnesians, Trallians, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans, Romans, and to
Polycarp.
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Ignatius wrote these epistles while traveling under guard through
Asia Minor on his way to martyrdom. His epistles rejoice at the
prospect of his pending martyrdom, and exhort the church to unity
and to sound doctrine. He wrote to the church at Rome,
“O that I were already with the beasts, which are ready to devour me!
Now only I begin to be a disciple of Christ. I regard neither things
visible nor invisible, at which the world is amazed. It is sufficient for me
if I but become a partaker of Christ. Let the devil and evil men afflict me
with all manner of pain and torment, with fire and with cross, with
fighting against wild beasts, with scattering of the members of my body;
all this I esteem very little, if I but enjoy Christ… May the wild beasts be
eager to rush upon me. If they be unwilling, I will compel them. Come,
crowds of wild beasts; come, tearings and manglings, wracking of bones
and hacking of limbs; come, cruel tortures of the devil; only let me attain
unto Christ."
Justin Martyr, 90-165
Justin Martyr established a school in Rome and studiously
contended for the Christian faith, especially against Marcion at about
150 A. D. He also made numerous references in his writings to a
book known as the Memoirs of the Apostles. This may be an early
reference to the Gospel books. Justin Martyr was martyred in 165 A.
D. under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Martyr wrote, “There is no
race of men where prayers are not offered up in the name of Jesus.”
Three of his works are extant including:
a. Apology I, which was a defense of Christianity sent to the
Emperor Antonious Pius sometime between 138 and 160 A. D.,
b. Apology II, which was a second defense sent to the Roman
Senate between 144 and 160 A. D., and
c. Dialogue with Trypho, which reviewed a series of debates
with a Jew named, Trypho, wherein Martyr presented proof from the
Old Testament that Jesus Christ was the Messiah.
Justin Martyred described early Christian worship practices in
his writings. He wrote,
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“On Sunday a meeting is held of all who live in the cities and
villages, and a section is read from the memoirs of the apostles and the
writings of the Prophets, as long as time permits. When the reading is
finished, the president, in a discourse, gives the admonition and
exhortation to imitate these noble things. After this we all arise and offer
a common prayer. At the close of the prayer, as we have before described,
bread and wine and thanks for them according to his ability, and the
congregation answers, ‘Amen.’ Then the consecrated elements are
distributed to each one and partaken of, and are carried by the deacons to
the houses of the absent. The wealthy and the willing then give
contributions according to their freewill; and this collection is deposited
with the president, who therewith supplies orphans, widows, prisoners,
strangers, and all who are in want (see Bettenson p. 66-7).”
Tatian, c. 110-172
Tatian was an influential student of Justin Martyr. After the
martyrdom of Justin Martyr in 165 A. D., Tatian became the teacher
at the school in Rome. In 172 A. D., Tatian left the Roman Church
and went to the East, where he became a leader of the Encratites.
This group focused on self-control, strict discipline, and stern logic.
For example, they abolished marriage, drinking wine, and eating
meat.
Tatian was a firm advocate of the four Gospels, and his greatest
work was the Diatessaron, which was a consolidation of the four
Gospels into one. Over 200 copies of the Diatessaron were recorded
as found in Syria in the fifth century, which indicates that it was in
popular use. However, in the fifth century, Theodoret, bishop of
Cyrus in upper Syria, banned the use of the Diatessaron and
introduced the separated Gospels into the Syrian region. The
Diatessaron was referenced by Eusebius and survives in only two
Arabic translations. Tatian was also the author of the Oratio, which
presented an early defense of the Christian faith and a condemnation
of pagan philosophies.
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Marcion, 145
Marcion was a shipbuilder from Sinope of the province of
Pontus. Tradition records that his father was the bishop of Sinope. In
145 A. D., Marcion traveled to Rome, where he became a very
influential Christian and a prolific writer. Like the apostle Paul,
Marcion emphasized that a true relationship with the Lord Jesus
Christ was based on faith, and not on strict adherence to the Old
Testament Law. Marcion was also the first to earnestly contend for a
defined collection of sacred writings, and he became the first to
specify a list of sacred (or canonical) books.
Basilides, c. 117-138
Basilides was one of the leaders of the Gnostic movement.
Others leaders included Valentinus, Heracleon, and Prolemaeus. The
Gnostics were influenced by the written traditions of Greek
philosophy (including Stoic, Platonist, Neo-Pythagorean, and NeoPlatonic elements), and taught that salvation was through
knowledge, rather than faith. They relied on the allegorical method
of interpretation as followed by Philo, the Jew, who interpreted the
Old Testament. We derive our modern word philosophy from the
name of Philo. We mention these Gnostic writers simply because
they were prolific writers and made numerous references and
quotations of the Scriptures.
Aristides, 125, 137
Aristides was a philosopher from Athens who wrote to the
Roman emperors appealing for protection to the Christians. He
wrote, Defense of Christianity, to the emperor Hadrian in 125 A. D.,
and provided an update to Antonius in 137 A. D. His tribute
includes, “Blessed is the race of Christians above all men, because of
their true and noble creed, and their pure and benevolent lives.”
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Montanus
Montanus was a minister in Phrygia, who preached high moral
values and that the return of the Lord Jesus Christ was imminent.
Moreover, he taught that God alone called ministers through the
empowerment of the Holy Spirit, as contrasted with human
ordination. Montanus emphasized the gift of prophecy, and the
importance of continuing revelation.
Tertullian, 185
Tertullian (c. 160-220) was a Presbyter from Carthage in North
Africa, who propounded apostolic authority as necessary for
selecting sacred Scriptures. In The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Tertullian’s
position was explained,
“Apostles have the Holy Spirit properly, who have him fully, in the
operations of prophecy, and the efficacy of [healing] virtues, and the
evidence of tongues; not particularly, as all others have. Thus he attached
the Holy Spirit’s authority to that form [of advice] to which he willed us
rather to attend; and forthwith it became not an advice of the Holy Spirit,
but, in consideration of His majesty, a precept (see Bettenson p. 70-1).”
Tertullian was the first to write a body of Christian literature in
Latin, and he also wrote in Greek. Tertullian steadfastly reproved
what he considered to be compromise and worldliness in the Old
Catholic church.
Irenaeus, c. 130 – c. 202
Irenaeus was raised in Smyrna, and was a student of Polycarp
and Papias. He traveled widely and became Bishop of Lyons in
Gaul. He too died as a martyr for Christ. Irenaeus wrote in obstinate
opposition to Marcion and the Gnostics, and moreover required
apostolic authority for selecting sacred Scriptures. He clearly
advocated plenary or complete inspiration of the Scriptures. Irenaeus
explained,
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“For the Lord of all gave the power of the Gospel to his apostles,
through whom we have come to know the truth, that is, the teaching of the
Son of God… This Gospel they first preached. Afterwards, by the will of
God, they handed it down to us in the Scriptures, to be ‘the pillar and
ground’ of our faith” (Irenaeus Against Heresies, in The Library of
Christian Classics, p. 24-25.).
On his reminiscence of his teacher Polycarp, Irenaeus wrote,
“I remember well the place in which the holy Polycarp sat and spoke.
I remember the discourses he delivered to the people, and how he
described his relations with John, the apostle, and others who had been
with the Lord; how he recited the sayings of Christ and the miracles he
wrought; how he received his teachings from eyewitnesses who had seen
the Word of Life, agreeing in every way with the Scriptures (see
Bettenson p. 69).”
Irenaeus’ greatest work was Against Heresies, which was written
in Gaul c. 185. It was a Christian defense against Gnosticism and
other “heresies.”
Clement of Alexandria, c. 150 – c. 215
As noted, Clement became the head of the Catechetical School in
Alexandria shortly before 200 A. D. His primary works included
Exhortations to the Heathen, Pedagogues (which contains the
earliest extant hymn of the Church), and Stromata (miscellaneous
writings).
Hippolytus, 200
Hippolytus (c. 170-236) was a disciple of Irenaeus, who
advocated the inspiration of the Scriptures. He lived in or near Rome
and wrote in Greek. In his Contra Noetum, Hippolytus discerned,
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“The Law and the Prophets were from God, who in giving them
compelled his messenger to speak by the Holy Spirit, that receiving the
inspiration of the Father’s power they may announce the Father’s counsel
and will. In these men therefore the Word found a fitting abode and spoke
of Himself; for even then He became as His own herald, shewing the
Word who was about to appear in the world… [Concerning the New
Testament writers, he continues] These blessed men… having been
perfected by the Spirit of Prophecy, and worthily honoured by the Word
Himself, were brought to an inner harmony like instruments, having the
Word within them, as it were to strike the notes, by Him they were
moved, and announced that which God wished. For they did not speak of
their own power (be well assured), nor proclaim that which they wished
themselves, but first they were rightly endowed with wisdom by the
Word, and afterwards well foretaught of the future by visions, and then,
when thus assured, they spake that which was [revealed] to them alone by
God.”
Cyprian, 250
Cyprian of Carthage (c. 195 or 200 – 258) wrote twelve treatises
and some eighty-one letters in Latin. His quotations of the biblical
manuscripts were more careful and accurate than many of his
contemporaries. Cyprian’s quotations seem to follow the traditional
Old Latin k text-type.
Lucian of Antioch, 250-312
Lucian is remembered for his work in defending and preserving
the traditional received text of the New Testament books. His work
formed the basis for the traditional Majority Text, which was copied
and propagated broadly throughout Christendom.
Lucian also founded an influential college at Antioch, which is
the city where the disciples were first called Christians (ACTS
11:26). His school taught that Scripture was inspired by God, and
was to be studied literally (as contrasted with allegorically, as was
the common philosophical practice). In addition, Lucian steadfastly
opposed Alexandrian and Roman policies that exalted tradition
(Justin Martyr) and humanistic philosophies (Origen). Lucian further
opposed the Roman and Alexandrian compact to make Sunday the
prominent day of worship, as contrasted with the Sabbath (or
Saturday).
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Moreover, Lucian opposed the Roman pronouncement that
Easter was to be celebrated on Sunday, rather than on the Sabbath.
Alexandria supported this observance, while the eastern churches did
not. Such differences precipitated the serious split between the
Eastern and the Western churches.
Cyril of Jerusalem, c. 315-386
Cyril wrote a series of lectures in Greek entitled, Twenty-three
Catecheses, which he ministered to candidates for Christian baptism.
He was elected bishop of Jerusalem (350) and was esteemed for his
knowledge of Scripture. In his work, Of the Divine Scriptures, Cyril
wrote, “With regard to the divine and saving mysteries of faith no
doctrine, however trivial, may be taught without the backing of the
divine Scriptures… For our saving faith derives its force, not by
capricious reasonings, but from what may be proved out of the
Bible.”
John Chrysostom, c. 345-407
John Chrysostom was born in Antioch and later became
Patriarch of Constantinople. His works are representative of the
theological perspectives of the Syrian School at Antioch. John
Chrysostom was a great expository preacher, who preached to
multitudes of people in the church of St. Sophia. Moreover, he was
an avid reformer and as a result was banished by the king, and later
died in exile.
Chrysostom wrote several Greek commentaries including works
on Matthew, John, Acts, Hebrews, and all of Paul’s Epistles. He also
wrote over six hundred exegetical homilies that included numerous
scriptural quotations and allusions.
John Chrysostom taught that the primary author of the Scriptures
was the Holy Spirit. He considered the Holy Spirit as giving the
content, and the prophet (in cooperation with the Holy Spirit) as
giving the suitable expression and form. Such teaching formed the
basis for the literal approach to hermeneutics practiced at the
Syrian School at Antioch.
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Ambrose of Milan, 340-397
Ambrose was born into an aristocratic family and became bishop
of Milan. He wrote in Latin, but his works were based on Greek
sources. His text-type followed the Old Latin as seen in d and g and
also in the Latin side of Codex Boernerianus. It was this text-type
that was probably used by Jerome in his revision. Ambrose is known
as the spiritual father of Augustine in deference to his ministry role
in Augustine’s life.
Augustine of Hippo Regius, c. 365-430
Augustine became Bishop of Hippo in North Africa. He was a
devoted scholar and theologian, and his prolific writings profoundly
influenced the doctrines of the Roman church through the Middle
Ages. Augustine wrote many extant works in Latin. His most famous
books include The City of God and also The Confessions. His texttype was primarily based on the Old Latin, but later shifted to use of
Jerome’s Vulgate.
Concerning the inspiration of Scripture in his Harmony of the
Gospels (1.35.54), Augustine wrote,
“When they write what He [Jesus] has taught and said, it should not
be asserted that he did not write it, since the members only put down what
they had come to know at the dictation [dictis] of the Head. Therefore,
whatever He wanted us to read concerning His words and deeds, He
commanded His disciples, His hands, to write. Hence, one cannot but
receive what he reads in the Gospels, though written by the disciples, as
though it were written by the very hand of the Lord Himself.”
At his death on August 28, 430, he exclaimed, “Oh, Lord, shall I
die at all? Shall I die at all? Yes! Why, then, oh Lord, if ever, why
not now?”
&&&&&&&
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The writings of the early Christians show that their compositions
demonstrate an in-depth knowledge of the New Testament writings.
For instance in his Epistle to the Philippians, Polycarp wrote,
"Wherefore girding up the loins of your mind, serve the Lord with
fear, and in truth; laying aside all empty and vain speech, and the
error of many, believing in him that raised up our Lord Jesus Christ
from the dead, and hath given him glory. …But he that raised up
Christ from the dead shall also raise up us in like manner, if we do
his will, and walk according to his commandments, and love those
things which he loved" (Leach p. 50).
Further, Dr. Leach wrote concerning Clement's Epistle to the
Corinthians,
"In its doctrine, the style in which it is written, and its general
thought, it is unquestionably based upon the New Testament.” Professor
Leach continued, "Here, then, is another and most valuable link in the
chain of evidence, which shows that our New Testament came from the
disciples and Apostles of our Lord. It confirms me in the faith that my
New Testament is the same in substance which the church in the first
century possessed" (Leach p. 45).
As another example of biblical inspiration, Irenaeus wrote in 112
A. D.,
"By his own blood then the Lord redeemed us, and gave his life for
our life, his flesh for our flesh; and he poured out the Spirit of the Father
to bring about the union and communion of God and man, bringing down
God to men through the Spirit while raising man to God through his
incarnation, and in his advent surely and truly giving us incorruption
through the communion which we have with God" (Bettenson p. 31).
Scholars have diligently labored to identify and document the
multitude of biblical quotations from early church times. Dr. Jaganay
recorded,
"Of the considerable volume of unpublished material that Dean John
Burgon left when he died, of special note is his index of New Testament
citations by the church fathers of antiquity. It consists of sixteen thick
volumes to be found in the British museum, and contains 86,489
quotations" (McDowell p. 52).
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This is an astonishingly large number of scriptural quotations
dating to early church times. Professor Leach concluded,
"I do not know of anything ancient for which there is fuller and
clearer evidence of authenticity than that our New Testament came from
the disciples and their friends in the First Century of the Christian era"
(Leach p. 58).
The extensive quotations and references to the New Testament
Scriptures by the early Christians enable independent correlation to
the Scriptures. Further, they indicate the deep esteem and reverence
that these authors had for the Word, and show the widespread
awareness and usage of the Scriptures. Wherefore, the extensive
quotations of the Scriptures by the early Christian authors provide
objective and immutable evidence for the reliable preservation of the
Bible.
Confessions on Biblical Inspiration
In addition to the early Christian witnesses to the inspiration of
the canonical manuscripts, there has been an ongoing continuity of
orthodox opinion concerning the Divine inspiration and authority of
Scripture. Moreover, central to the Christian ecumenical creed is an
essential recognition of the veracity of the tenets expressed in the
Christian Scriptures for matters of faith and practice, especially as
they relate to doctrinal perspectives. Dean John William Burgon
eloquently expressed and “skillfully propounded” (Waite p. 2) the
profound importance of recognizing the Divine inspiration of the
Scriptures.
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“No laborious inductions here, - fallacious because imperfect;
imperfect because human: but a direct message from the presencechamber of the LORD of Heaven and Earth, - decisive because inspired;
infallible because Divine. The express Revelation of the Eternal is that
whereon Theological Science builds her fabric of imperishable Truth:
that fabric which, while other modes change, shift, and at last become
superseded, shines out, - yea, and to the very end of Time will shine out, unconscious of decay, incapable of improvement, far, far beyond the
reach of fashion: a thing unchanged, because in its very nature it is
unchangeable” (Burgon-4 p. 49-50)!
“The Bible (be persuaded) is the very utterance of the Eternal; - as
much GOD’S Word, as if high Heaven were open, and we heard GOD
speaking to us with human voice. Every book of it is inspired alike; and is
inspired entirely. Inspiration is not a difference of degree, but of kind.
The Apocryphal books are not one atom more inspired than Bacon’s
essays. But the Bible, from the Alpha to the Omega of it, is filled to
overflowing with the Holy Spirit of GOD: the Books of it, and the
sentences of it, and the words of it, and the syllables of it, - aye, and the
very letters of it” (Burgon-4 p. 76).
“Some here present may remember my repeated and unequivocal
assertion that Holy Scripture is inspired from the Alpha to the Omega of
it; - not some parts more, some parts less, but all equally, and all to
overflowing; - that we hold it to be, not generally inspired, but
particularly; that we see not how with logical consistency we can avoid
believing the words as well as the sentences of it; the syllables as well as
the words; the letters as well as the syllables; every ‘jot’ and every ‘ tittle’
of it, (to use our LORD’S expression,) to be divinely inspired: and
further, that until the contrary has been proved, we shall maintain that no
misapprehension or misstatement, no error or blot of any kind, can
possibly exist within its pages: - that we hold the Bible to be as much the
Word of GOD, as if GOD spoke to us therein with human lips; - and that,
as the very utterance of the HOLY GHOST, we cannot but think that it
must be absolute, faultless, unerring, supreme” (Burgon-4 p. 93-4).
“And while you read the Bible, read it believing that you are reading
an inspired Book: - not a Book inspired in parts only, but a Book inspired
in every part: - not a Book unequally inspired, but all inspired equally: not a Book generally inspired, - the substance indeed given by the Spirit,
but the words left to the option of the writers; but the words of it, as well
as the matter of it, all – all given by GOD. As it is written, - ‘Man shall
not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the
mouth of GOD’” (Burgon-4 p. 114-5).
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“I believe God, all His Words, [I] believe that every part of His
Word is Divinely Inspired” (William Marrion Branham, The Spoken
Word – Why Little Bethlehem? Jeffersonville, IN: Voice of God
Recordings Vol. 19 No. 13B, December 28, 1958, p. 22).
The following table provides a review of representative
confessions concerning the doctrine of scriptural inspiration.
Through these writings, it is clearly evident that orthodox
Christianity absolutely confesses the Divine inspiration of the
Christian Bible.
Table 56: Confessions - Inspiration of Scripture
Martin Luther, c. 1521, Lutheran
Luther wrote, “And the Scriptures, although they too are written
by men, are neither of men nor from men but from God.” He also
emphasized, “Nothing but God’s Word alone should be preached in
Christendom.”
Ulrich Zwingli, 1523, Evangelical Reformed
For the Reformed Church, in the Sixty-seven Articles, Zwingli
professed, “The articles and opinions below I, Ulrich Zwingli,
confess to having preached to the worthy city of Zurich as based
upon Scriptures which are called inspired by God, and I offer to
protect and conquer with the said articles, and where I have not now
correctly understood said Scriptures I shall allow myself to be taught
better, but only from said Scripture.”
The Gallican Confession, 1559, Calvanism
The works of John Calvin influenced this confession in France. It
states, “We believe that the Word contained in these [canonical]
books has proceeded from God, and receives its authority from him
alone, and not from men.”
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Profession of the Tridentine Faith, 1564, Roman Catholic
The Roman Catholic Church has long viewed Scripture as
inspired by God. However, Catholic teaching emphasizes the role of
interpretation of Scripture as residing solely within the church
government. In Article III, this profession required initiates to assert,
“I also admit the Holy Scriptures, according to that sense which our
holy mother Church has held and also does hold, to which it belongs
to judge of the true sense and interpretation of Scriptures; neither
will I ever take and interpret them otherwise than according to the
unanimous consent of the Fathers.”
Book of Concord, 1584, Lutheran
Lutherans “believe, confess, and teach that the only rule and
norm, according to which all doctrines ought to be esteemed and
judged, is not other than the prophetic and apostolic writings both of
the Old and New Testament.”
The Belgic Confession, c. 1618, Remonstrants
The confession records in Article V, “that this Word of God was
not sent nor delivered by the will of man, but that holy men of God
spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost, as the apostle Peter
saith. And that afterwards God, from a special care which he has for
us and for our salvation, commanded his servants, the Prophets and
Apostles, to commit his revealed Word to writing; and he himself
wrote with his own finger the two tables of the law. Therefore we
call such writings holy and divine scriptures.”
The Westminster Confession of Faith, 1647, Church of England
For the state Church of England in Article I, we read, “The
authority of Scripture, for which it ought to be believed and obeyed,
depending not on the testimony of any man or church, but wholly
upon God (who is truth itself), and the Author thereof; and therefore
it is to be received, because it is the word of God.”
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Article IX states, “The infallible rule and interpretation of
Scripture is Scripture itself.” In Article X, we read, “The Supreme
Judge, by which all controversies of religion are to be determined,
and all decrees of councils, opinions of ancient writers, doctrines of
men, and private spirits, are to be examined, and in whose sentence
we are to rest, can be no other but the Holy Spirit speaking in the
Scriptures.”
Charles Hodge, 1797-1878, American Reformed
Charles Hodge in his, Systematic Theology, wrote, “From these
statements it appears that Protestants hold, (1.) That the Scriptures of
the Old and New Testaments are the Word of God, written under the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and are therefore infallible, and of
divine authority in all things pertaining to faith and practice, and
consequently free from all error whether of doctrine, fact, or precept.
(2.) That they contain all the extant supernatural revelations of God
designed to be a rule of faith and practice to his Church. (3.) That
they are sufficiently perspicuous to be understood by the people, in
the use of ordinary means and by the aid of the Holy Spirit, in all
things necessary to faith or practice, without the need of any
infallible interpreter.”
John Wesley, 1784, Methodist
In the Articles, which were adopted by the American Methodists,
John Wesley wrote, “The Holy Scriptures contain all things
necessary to salvation; so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor
may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man that it
should be believed as an article of faith, or thought to be requisite or
necessary to salvation. In the name of the Holy Scriptures we do
understand those canonical books of the Old and New Testament of
whose authority was never any doubt in the church.”
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Protestant Episcopal Church in America, 1801, Episcopal
The confession, Of the Sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for
Salvation, affirms that “Holy Scripture containeth all things
necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor
may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that should
be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or
necessary for salvation.”
A Statement of the Baptist Faith and Message, 1925, Baptist
“We believe that the Holy Bible was written by men divinely
inspired, and is a perfect treasure of heavenly instruction; that it has
God as its author, salvation for its end, and truth without any mixture
of error for its matter; that it reveals the principles by which God
will judge us; and therefore is, and shall remain to the end of the
world, the true center of Christian union, and the supreme standard
by which all human conduct, creeds, and opinions shall be tried.”
International Council on Biblical Inerrancy, 1978, Evangelical
In the Council’s, A Short Statement, they attest that:
1. God, who is Himself Truth and speaks the truth only, has
inspired Holy Scripture in order thereby to reveal Himself to lost
mankind through Jesus Christ as Creator and Lord, redeemer and
Judge. Holy Scripture is God’s witness to Himself.
2. Holy Scripture, being God’s own Word, written by men
prepared and superintended by His Spirit, is of infallible divine
authority in all matters upon which it touches: it is believed, as
God’s instruction, in all that it affirms; obeyed, as God’s command,
in all that it requires; embraced, as God’s pledge, in all that it
promises.
3. The Holy Spirit, Scripture’s divine Author, both authenticates
it to us by His inward witness and opens our minds to understand its
meaning.
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4. Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without
error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God’s
acts in creation, about events of world history, and about its own
literary origins under God, than in its witness to God’s saving grace
in individual lives.
&&&&&&&
In 1978 the International Council on Biblical Inerrancy convened
in Chicago and prepared The Chicago Statement. This document
provides a thorough representation of the contemporary evangelical
view of the plenary inspiration, infallibility, and inerrancy of the
Christian Bible. Plenary inspiration implies that all of canonical
Scripture is inspired. It conveys the characteristics of completeness
or wholeness of revelation. Infallibility bespeaks the complete
truthfulness and trustworthiness of Scripture. Conversely,
infallibility indicates that there is no falsehood in precept within the
Scriptures. Inerrancy implies the precise accuracy and reliability of
the written Scriptures, especially in the autographs. Alternatively,
inerrancy indicates that there are no errors or mistakes within the
text.
The Chicago Statement includes articles that strongly affirm the
orthodox perspective of Divine inspiration. Additionally, the
Statement includes articles that deny various liberal and neoorthodox views, which have emerged in recent times. The Chicago
Statement was endorsed by nearly three hundred scholars, who
represented nearly every major evangelical organization in America
and several foreign countries (see Packer p. 137 ff).
Articles of Affirmation and Denial
Article I
We affirm that the Holy Scriptures are to be received as the
authoritative Word of God.
We deny that the Scriptures receive their authority from the
Church, tradition, or any other human source.
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Article II
We affirm that the Scriptures are the supreme written norm by
which God binds the conscience, and that the authority of the Church
is subordinate to that of Scripture.
We deny that Church creeds, councils, or declarations have
authority greater than or equal to the authority of the Bible.
Article III
We affirm that the written Word in its entirety is revelation given
by God.
We deny that the Bible is merely a witness to revelation, or only
becomes revelation in encounter, or depends on the responses of
men for its validity.
Article IV
We affirm that God who made mankind in His image has used
language as a means of revelation.
We deny that human language is so limited by our creatureliness
that it is rendered inadequate as a vehicle for divine revelation. We
further deny that the corruption of human culture and language
through sin has thwarted God’s work of inspiration.
Article V
We affirm that God’s revelation in the Holy Scriptures is
progressive.
We deny that later revelation, which may fulfill earlier
revelation, ever corrects or contradicts it. We further deny that
normative revelation has been given since the completion of New
Testament writings.
Article VI
We affirm that the whole of Scripture and all its parts, down to
the very words of the original, were given by divine inspiration.
We deny that the inspiration of Scripture can rightly be affirmed
of the whole without the parts, or of some parts but not the whole.
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Article VII
We affirm that inspiration was the work in which God by His
Spirit, through human writers, gave us His Word. The origin of
Scripture is divine. The mode of divine inspiration remains largely a
mystery to us.
We deny that inspiration can be reduced to human insight, or to
heightened states of consciousness of any kind.
Article VIII
We affirm that God in His Work of inspiration utilized the
distinctive personalities and literary styles of the writers whom He
had chosen and prepared.
We deny that God, in causing these writers to use the very words
that He chose, overrode their personalities.
Article IX
We affirm that Inspiration, though not conferring omniscience,
guaranteed true and trustworthy utterance on all matters of which the
Bible’s authors were moved to speak and write.
We deny that the finitude or fallenness of these writers, by
necessity or otherwise, introduced distortion or falsehood into God’s
Word.
Article X
We affirm that inspiration, strictly speaking, applies only to the
autographic text of Scripture, which in the providence of God can be
ascertained from available manuscripts with great accuracy. We
further affirm that copies and translations of Scripture are the Word
of God to the extent that they faithfully represent the original.
Article XI
We affirm that Scripture, having been given by divine
inspiration, is infallible, so that, far from misleading us, it is true and
reliable in all the matters it addresses.
We deny that it is possible for the Bible to be at the same time
infallible and errant in its assertions. Infallibility and inerrancy may
be distinguished, but not separated.
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Article XII
We affirm that Scripture in its entirety is inerrant, being free
from all falsehood, fraud, or deceit.
We deny that Biblical infallibility and inerrancy are limited to
spiritual, religious, or redemptive themes, exclusive of assertions in
the fields of history and science. We further deny that scientific
hypothesis about earth history may properly be used to overturn the
teaching of Scripture on creation and the flood.
Article XIII
We affirm the propriety of using inerrancy as a theological term
with reference to the complete truthfulness of Scripture.
We deny that it is proper to evaluate Scripture according to
standards of truth and error that are alien to its usage or purpose. We
further deny that inerrancy is negated by Biblical phenomena such as
a lack of modern technical precision, irregularities of grammar or
spelling, observational descriptions of nature, the reporting of
falsehoods, the use of hyperbole and round numbers, the topical
arrangement of material, variant selections of material in parallel
accounts, or the use of free citations.
Article XIV
We affirm the unity and internal consistency of Scripture.
We deny that alleged errors and discrepancies that have not yet
been resolved vitiate the truth claims of the Bible.
Article XV
We affirm that the doctrine of inerrancy is grounded in the
teaching of the Bible about inspiration.
We deny that Jesus’ teaching about Scripture may be dismissed
by appeals to accommodation or to any natural limitation of His
humanity.
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Article XVI
We affirm that the doctrine of inerrancy has been integral to the
Church’s faith throughout its history.
We deny that inerrancy is a doctrine invented by Scholastic
Protestantism, or is a reactionary position postulated in response to
negative higher criticism.
Article XVII
We affirm that the Holy Spirit bears witness to the Scriptures,
assuring believers of the truthfulness of God’s written Word.
We deny that the witness of the Holy Spirit operates in isolation
from or against Scripture.
Article XVIII
We affirm that the text of the Scripture is to be interpreted by
grammatico-historical exegesis, taking account of its literary forms
and devices, and that Scripture is to interpret Scripture.
We deny the legitimacy of any treatment of the text or quest for
sources lying behind it that leads to relativizing, dehistoricizing, or
discounting its teaching, or rejecting its claims to authorship.
Article XIX
We affirm that a confession of the full authority, infallibility, and
inerrancy of Scripture is vital to a sound understanding of the whole
of Christian faith. We further affirm that such confession should lead
to increasing conformity to the image of Christ.
We deny that such confession is necessary to salvation.
However, we further deny that inerrancy can be rejected without
grave consequences, both to the individual and to the Church.
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Chapter 10
Jesus Cited in History
“[Jesus said], Verily, verily, I say unto you, Before Abraham was,
I am.”
(John 8:58)
There are at least five Jewish and five pagan extant sources,
dating to the first two centuries A. D., that refer directly to the Lord
Jesus Christ or to Christians. These documents independently
validate the fact that Jesus of Nazareth was a historical person,
thereby contributing to the evidence for the accuracy of biblical
accounts.
Jewish and Pagan References to Christ
The authors of these books include Flavius Josephus, the authors
of the Babylonian Talmud, Plinius Secundus who was known as
Pliny (The Younger), Cornelius Tacitus, Mara bar Serapion, and
Suetonius. Selected examples of these writings are provided below.
Their writings provide some interesting perspectives on the author's
attitudes toward Christians. The following table provides an
overview of early reference sources concerning the Lord Jesus
Christ.
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Table 57: Jewish & Pagan References to Christ
Author(s)
Flavius Josephus
Babylonian
Talmud
Pliny
(The Younger)
Tacitus
Mara
bar Serapion
Suetonius
Date A. D.
93
70-200
Source
Jewish Antiquities
18.63-64, and 20.200
Sanhedrin 43a
c. 110
Letter to Trajan
116
Second
Century
120
Annals 15.44
Syriac Manuscript 14.658
Life of Claudius 25.4
Life of Nero 16.2
&&&&&&&
In 93 A. D., the Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus, wrote,
"Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to
call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such
men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of
the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ; and when Pilate,
at the suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned him to
the cross [on A. D. 33, April 3], those that loved him at the first did not
forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the
divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful
things concerning him; and the tribe of Christians, so named from him,
are not extinct at this day" (Josephus p. 548).
Also the Roman historian, Cornelius Tacitus, wrote about 116 A.
D.,
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"But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the Emperor [Nero], and
the propitiation of the Gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the
conflagration [or the burning of Rome] was the result of an order.
Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and
inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their
abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus [or Christ],
from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during
the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius
Pilate... Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with
the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to
crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly
illumination, when daylight had expired" (Tacitus p. 344).
As another instance of pagan writings, the Roman ruler, Pliny
(the Younger), wrote about 110 A. D.,
"But they [accused Christians] declared that the sum of their guilt or
error had amounted only to this, that on an appointed day they had been
accustomed to meet before daybreak; and to recite a hymn antiphonally to
Christ, as to a god, and to bind themselves by an oath, not for the
commission of any crime but to abstain from theft, robbery, adultery and
breach of faith, and not to deny a deposit when it is claimed. After the
conclusion of the ceremony it was their custom to depart and to meet
again to take food" (Bettenson p. 4).
These and other examples of ancient writings provide
independent proof that Jesus of Nazareth was a real historical
person. Concerning the impression that the Lord Jesus Christ made
upon the unbelievers, the Bible records, “Then came the officers to
the chief priests and Pharisees; and they said unto them, Why have
ye not brought him [Jesus]? The officers answered, Never man
spake like this man” (John 7:46).
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Regional Darkness – An Apologetic
We also have an interesting example of how historians referred
to a supernatural event in the Bible. Concerning the crucifixion of
the Lord Jesus Christ, the Bible says, "Now from the sixth hour there
was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour" (Matthew 27:45,
Luke 24:44). This darkness occurred during the time when the Lord
Jesus Christ was suffering on the cross and just prior to his natural
death. This darkness must have been a supernatural event: for we
know from the Scriptures and from the writings of Josephus, that the
Lord Jesus Christ was crucified at the time of Passover. Now the
Jewish priests prudently and carefully calculated Passover. It
coincided with the first full moon following the Vernal Equinox,
where the Vernal Equinox is the first day of spring.
So given that there was a full moon, we know that a lunar eclipse
of the earth could not have caused the darkness. A lunar eclipse is
suggested because it would be the only natural explanation for such
widespread darkness. No wonder the Bible records, "Now when the
centurion saw what was done, he glorified God, saying, Certainly
this was a righteous man" (Luke 24:47, Mark 15:39).
Observations about this phenomenon of darkness over the land
were recorded by historians including Thallus in 52 A. D., Phlegon,
and Julius Africanus in 220 A. D., whose writings have been
preserved. The writings of Thallus are considered contemporary with
the times of the ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. They serve as an
independent confirmation of the supernatural event of darkness over
the land during the timeframe of the crucifixion of the Lord Jesus
Christ.
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Chapter 11
Biblical Archaeology
“[Jesus said], Destroy this temple, and in three days
I will raise it up.”
(John 2:19)
Archaeology (the study of old things) has been a focus of
classical studies for many centuries, and significant archaeological
excavations in the middle-eastern region (including Israel) continue
through the present time. The arid climate has facilitated the
preservation of artifacts including the relatively impervious and long
lasting pottery of ancient times. Also, ancient burial customs sought
to achieve long-term preservation of the body and its accessories.
Furthermore, it was customary in ancient times to inscribe writings
upon rock or metal surfaces for the purpose of establishing
permanent monuments. Sometimes, these monuments were huge in
size. Moreover, the numerous tells or ruin heaps of ancient
abandoned settlements throughout the Middle East provide a
stratified view into the past. Dr. Nelson Glueck wrote, “The lure of
archaeology is in reaching back to the realms of our physical and
spiritual ancestors and walking with them through both the darkness
and light of their days toward a future, which has become part of our
own present” (Glueck p. 29).
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Biblical Topics Confirmed
Remarkably, numerous artifacts and monuments relevant to
biblical history have been discovered, and many of these artifacts
retain inscriptions of writings that confirm biblical history. It is truly
remarkable how archaeology has consistently vindicated historical
information in the Bible. As such, the findings of archaeology serve
to increase confidence in the accurate recording and preservation of
the Bible. The following table summarizes several biblical topics
that have been verified through archaeological findings.
Table 58: Topics Confirmed by Archaeology
The Garden and the fall of man
Many ancient traditions include significant parallels to the
Genesis account. A brief summary follows:
Babylonian - Adapa (Adam) was the seed of mankind and the
wise man of Eridu (Eden). He was blameless, but then offended the
gods, and became mortal. The food for life he ate not. Also, sickness
he imposed on the people, and the gods said that he shall not rest.
Chinese - recalled a tradition of a happy age, when men had an
abundance of food, and were surrounded by peaceful animals.
Greek - recalled that the first men lived in a golden age,
communed with the gods, lived free from evil and trouble, and were
naked.
Hindoo - recalled in the first age that man was free from evil and
disease, received all his wishes, and lived long.
Persian - recalled that the first parents were innocent and
virtuous, and lived in a garden, where there was a Tree of
Immortality, until an evil spirit in the form of a Serpent appeared.
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In addition, there are two ancient seals that provide clear
depictions of the Adam and Eve story. In the “Temptation Seal,”
there is a Tree in the middle, a man on the right, and a woman on the
left picking fruit. Behind the woman is a serpent standing erect as if
speaking with her. This seal was found among ancient Babylonian
tablets, and is retained in the British Museum.
The second seal is known as the “Adam and Eve” Seal. It depicts
a naked man and a naked woman walking as if devastated followed
closely by an erect serpent. This seal has been dated to 3500 B. C.
and was found in 1932 by Dr. E. Speiser near the bottom of the Tepe
Gawre Mound, which is twelve miles north of Nineveh. It is retained
at the University Museum at Philadelphia.
The Flood and the Ark
Ancient traditions from every branch of the human race recall
that there was a great deluge that destroyed all mankind except one
family, which in turn repopulated the earth. Numerous ancient
written artifacts confirm these traditions. Furthermore, many of the
details of the Genesis account appear in the various traditions.
Elements include extensive wickedness, God speaking to a righteous
man who built a large ship, the deluge, the preservation of a family
of eight people and numerous types of animals in the ship, the
settling of the ship on a mountain, the sending out of birds, the
building of an altar, and sacrificing.
In addition, archaeologists have made astonishing discoveries of
very thick layers of solid water-laid clay at several sites of ancient
cities in the Babylon region. The thickness of the sediment exceeds
eight feet in many places, clearly indicating the results of an
inundation of massive proportions. Evidently, the waters must have
been at a very great depth and remained for a long period of time.
Also, no relics of human occupation have been found in the flood
deposits. Moreover, these clay layers appear between the strata of
ancient inhabited cities, and have been clearly dated to the times of
Noah. Furthermore, the civilizations found beneath the flood layer
were observed to be strikingly different or divergent from the one
immediately above the flood deposits, indicating a sudden
discontinuity in the cultural history.
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The Tower of Babel
Genesis 11:1 indicates that early in history mankind had “one
language and one speech.” Modern linguistic theory suggests that all
modern languages derived from a common origin, which tends to
support the biblical story. Also, in southern Babylon gigantic manmade towers of sun-dried bricks have been discovered, which are
known as mountaintops or ziggurats. These temples were built in
successive stages with outside staircases, and with a shrine at the
top. Over two-dozen have been discovered to date in the Babylonian
region. The traditional site of the Tower of Babel is at Borsippa,
which is ten miles southwest from the city of Babylon. A Babylonian
tablet found by G. Smith reads, “The building of this illustrious
tower offended the gods. In a night they threw down what they had
built. They scattered them abroad, and made strange their speech.”
Size of Nineveh
Archaeological excavations have shown that the ancient city of
greater Nineveh had a radius ranging from thirty to sixty miles,
which agrees with the text of Jonah, “Now Nineveh was an
exceeding great city of three days journey” (Jonah 3:3).
Existence of ancient cities
Archaeology has shown the existence of ancient cities (founded
along ridges near ancient water springs) in Abraham’s lifetime,
including Beersheba, Bethel, Dothan, Gerar, Jerusalem (Salem), and
Shechem.
Sodom and Gomorrah
The Valley of Siddim was a fertile and populous area in 2056 B.
C. This ancient valley of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah
presently exists at the southern end of the Dead Sea, and is currently
covered in water of an average depth of ten feet. Archaeology has
shown that about 2056 B. C., the salt and free-sulfur in this area
were miraculously mingled, and caused violent explosions. These
explosions hurled the burning salt and sulfur high into the air,
causing it to literally rain fire and brimstone. Also, there are many
salt pillars still extant in the region.
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Famine in Egypt
An ancient Egyptian inscription (c. 100 B. C.) describes a sevenyear famine in the days of Zoser of the Third Dynasty, which
correlates with the story of Joseph found in Genesis.
Joseph’s Tomb at Shechem
The patriarch, Joseph, died in Egypt and was embalmed there
(Genesis 50:25-26). In accordance with his request, his remains were
transported and buried at Shechem many generations later (Joshua
24:32). In 1957, Joseph’s tomb was opened and inside the tomb his
body was found mummified according to Egyptian customs. Also,
other relevant items were found including a sword of the type worn
by Egyptian officials.
The Jews exodus from Egypt
Jews in the wilderness following the exodus from Egypt
The hills of Ammon, Moab, and Gilead were densely populated
during the time of Israel’s sojourn in the wilderness. Archaeological
excavations have revealed hundreds of ancient fortified cities in
these regions.
The Golden Calf
“In June 1990 archaeology professor Lawrence Stager of Harvard
University uncovered a small calf at the site of the ancient Philistine city
of Ashkelon. The tiny, well-preserved figure was about four and a half
inches in length and height. Its body was made of bronze, and its legs and
head were silver. The find apparently dates to about 1550 B. C. and
indicates that calf-worship was common in Canaan as well as in Egypt
even prior to the time of Moses” (Wolf p. 127).
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The Walls of Jericho
Joshua 6:20 describes how the walls of the city of Jericho
miraculously fell outward and flat, which enabled the Hebrews to
successfully attack and conquer the city. During excavations at
Jericho from 1926 through 1936, Dr. John Garstang, director of the
British School of Archaeology, and his team discovered that the
remnants of the walls show that they had actually fallen outward and
flat during 1400 B. C. This is contrary to normal siege operations,
which would result in the walls falling inward. There is also
evidence that the walls may have been shaken down by an
earthquake. Further, the city was destroyed by fire with the most
completely burned buildings appearing near the wall areas. Once
again, the evidence confirmed the biblical story. In addition, a large
quantity of grain and foodstuffs was uncovered and found to be
undisturbed, which is consistent with God’s command to Israel not
to take of the spoil.
Jerusalem as a capital
The status of Jerusalem as a capital city during the time of the
Hebrew invasion was documented in the Tell el-Amarna Tablets.
King Hezekiah’s water supply tunnel
The water supply tunnel was constructed circa 800 B. C. (2
Kings 20:20) and remains today. This rock-hewn conduit extends
from the Gihon Spring to the Siloam Reservoir, and is 1,777 feet
long. Its dimensions are an average height of six feet by 2.5 feet, and
its descent is seven feet.
In 1880, the Siloam inscription was discovered, which is a sixline inscription written in classical Hebrew. It was discovered about
nineteen feet from the Siloam end of the aqueduct, and recounts the
initial meeting of the workmen who were digging toward each other
from both directions. It is retained at the Constantinople Museum,
and it records,
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“The tunnel is completed. This is the story of the tunnel. While the
stonecutters were lifting up the pick, each toward his neighbor (from
opposite ends), and while they were yet three cubits apart, there was
heard a voice of one calling to another; and after that pick struck against
pick; and the waters flowed from the Spring to the Pool, 1200 cubits, and
100 cubits was the height of the rock above.”
The Life of King David
In 1993, an inscription was found on a victory stele, which
referred to the “House of David” and further identified David as the
“King of Israel.” This ancient stele corresponds to the defeat of Israel
by the King of Damascus per 1 Kings 15:20.
Further excavations at Tell Bit Mirsim and at Megiddo have
uncovered sling stones that averaged four inches and weighed over
two pounds. Modern shepherds have demonstrated that slings can
propel large stones at velocities over 100 M. P. H., and can be
thrown almost 200 yards. The Bible records that men could sling
stones to an accuracy within a hair’s breadth, “Among all this people
there were seven hundred chosen men lefthanded; every one could
sling stones at an hair breadth, and not miss” (Judges 20:16). Indeed,
it seems that David’s sling was a very lethal weapon.
David’s men gained entrance to Jerusalem through a gutter or
watercourse when they seized the city from the Jebusites (2 Samuel
5:8). Warren of the Palestinian Expedition found the ancient
watercourse in 1866. It is a narrow sloping tunnel with stair steps
carved through solid rock. It extends from the top of the spring of
Gihon on the east base of the hill into the city. This course provided
access through the walls of Jerusalem, which were twenty-four feet
thick and had previously proved impregnable.
The existence of the tribe of the Hittites
The Hittites are referenced over fifty times in the Bible. In 1906,
their capital city was discovered about ninety miles east of Ankara,
the capital of Turkey.
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Shishak’s Invasion of Israel
In the book of Chronicles, we read of Shishak’s invasion of
Judah and Israel during the fifth year of Rehaboam’s reign.
Archaeology shows that Shishak is Sheshonk I of Egypt, who was
the founder of the twenty-second dynasty (c. 945-924 B. C.).
Findings in Egypt and at Megiddo, independently list the conquered
cities. On the south wall of the Temple of Amon in Karnak,
Shishak’s own record of his conquests are depicted including his
presentation of 156 Palestinian cities to his god, Amon.
The Moabite Stone
The Moabite Stone attests that Omri, King of Israel (c. 880-874
B. C.), conquered northern Moab as described in 1 Kings. This stone
was discovered in 1868, and was originally erected by King Mesha
of Moab at Dibon, twenty miles east of the Dead Sea. The stone is
blue basalt and measures four feet high by two feet wide by fourteen
inches thick. The stone is currently a treasure at the Louvre in Paris.
The inscription of Mesha reads,
“I, Mesha, king of Moab, made this monument to Chemosh (god of
Moab), to commemorate deliverance from Israel. My father reigned over
Moab thirty years, and I reigned after my father. Omri, king of Israel,
oppressed Moab many days, and his son (Ahab) after him. But I warred
against the king of Israel, and drove him out, and took his cities, Medeba,
Ataroth, Nebo, and Jahaz, which he built while he waged war against me.
I destroyed his cities and devoted the spoil to Chemosh, and the women
and girls to Ashtar. I built Qorhah with prisoners from Israel.”
Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser
This black stone measures seven feet high and was found in the
ruins of the palace of Shalmaneser near Nineveh. The Obelisk is
covered with inscriptions including the depiction of Jehu, the Jewish
king, kneeling in subjection before the Assyrian king Shalmaneser
III.
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The inscription reads, “The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri, silver,
gold, bowls of gold, chalices of gold, cups of gold, vases of gold,
lead, scepter for the king, and spear shafts, I have received.” The
Obelisk was found by Layard between 1845-9, and is retained in the
British Museum.
The Monolith Inscription of Shalmaneser III (859-824 B. C.)
This inscription records the battle between Assyria and the
Syrian-Palestinian coalition at Qarqar, north of Hamath in 853 B. C.
This story is also recorded in 1 Kings.
Sennacherib’s Prism
King Sennacherib recorded his account of the conquest of Judah
on a clay prism, which is retained at the Oriental Institute Museum
in Chicago. The inscription reads,
“As for Hezekiah, king of Judah, who had not submitted to my yoke,
forty-six of his fortified cities, and smaller cities without number, with my
battering rams, engines, mines, breaches, and axes, I besieged and
captured. 200,150 people, small and great, male and female, and horses,
mules, asses, camels, oxen, sheep, without number, I took as booty.
Hezekiah himself I shut up like a caged bird in Jerusalem, his royal city. I
built a line of forts against him, and turned back everyone who came forth
out of his city gate. His cities which I captured I gave to the king of
Ashdod, king of Ekron, and king of Gaza.”
This account confirms that Jerusalem was not taken at that time.
King Jehoiachin’s Food Receipt
An ancient receipt lists Jehoiachin and his five sons as recipients
of food rations while in captivity at Babylon including oil, barley,
and other foods. This is consistent with the biblical description of the
Evilmerodach, King of Babylon, elevating Jehoiachin, the King of
Judah, from prison to a throne of authority, and allocating to him a
daily allowance of food (2 Kings 25:27-30).
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Esarhaddon’s annals
There is an ancient cuneiform cylinder retained in the British
Museum, which recounts the deportation of the Israelites to Babylon
and the settlement of colonists in their place.
Code of Hammurabi
Shushan was the winter capital of Persia. The palace had three
courts with many rooms that were decorated with warriors, winged
bulls, and griffins. The famous Code of Hammurabi was found at
this site.
“Students of the ancient Near East are well aware of the existence of
other law codes that bear some resemblance to the biblical laws. Several
are older than the Scriptures, such as the Sumerian code of Ur-Nammu
(twenty-first century), the code of Bilalama of Eshnunna written in
Akkadian (twentieth century), and most famous of all, the Akkadian code
of King Hammurabi of Babylon (eighteenth century). Other important
discoveries were the Hittite code from Asia Minor, going back to the
sixteenth century, and the Middle Assyrian laws, found on clay tablets
dated in the reign of King Tiglath-Pileser I (1115-1077 B. C.) but perhaps
as much as three hundred years older” (Wolf p. 154).
Sargon’s Inscription
In Isaiah 20:1 the Bible says, “In the year that Tartan came unto
Ashdod, (when Sargon the king of Assyria sent him,) and fought
against Ashdod, and took it.” This Scripture refers to Sargon as king
of Assyria. In 1842, Botta discovered Sargon’s palace in the ruins of
Korsabad, on the northern side of Nineveh.
Among the numerous royal artifacts an inscription was found
that confirms Isaiah’s record. It reads, “Azuri, king of Ashdod,
planned in his heart not to pay tribute. In my anger I marched against
Ashdod with my usual bodyguard. I conquered Ashdod, and Gath. I
took their treasures and their people. I settled in them people from
the lands of the east. I took tribute from Philistia, Edom, and Moab.”
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Lachish Ostraca
The Lachish Ostraca include twenty-one Hebrew inscribed
tablets that provide similar information to the times of Jeremiah
prior to the conquest of the cities of Lachish, Azekah, and Jerusalem
in 589-586 B. C. The Wellcome Archaeological Expedition at the
city of Lachish found the Ostraca tablets in 1935. The tablets contain
messages from an outpost of Lachish addressed to the Captain of the
Guard. They confirm many names and details of the biblical
accounts of Nebuchadnezzar’s attacks against the city. The ruins also
confirm destruction of the city by fire.
Ostraca are shards or debris found in rubbish heaps that contain
inscriptions of historical interest. Please see Deissman, p. 50 for a
list of several other sources of Egyptian, Coptic, and Greek ostraca.
Notably in Wilken’s Greek Ostraca, some 1,624 specimens are
listed.
Stable at Bethlehem
Jerome and Paulinus of Nola indicated that the site of Jesus’
birth was marked during the reign of Hadrian (117-138 A. D.). The
birth site is identified as a cave, which was used as a stable. It is
thought to remain below the current site of the “Church of the
Nativity” in Bethlehem.
Synagogue at Capernaum
In 1975, the site of the synagogue at Capernaum was excavated
and clearly showed the foundation of a first century synagogue. The
findings of pottery from the first century confirmed the dating.
Peter’s House at Capernaum
Excavations have shown that Peter’s house was near the
synagogue at Capernaum, and had a roof of tiles as described in
Mark 2:4, concerning the lowering of the paralytic man.
Jacob’s Well at Sychar
Writings of early Christians exactly identified the site of the well
at the city of Sychar referred to in John 4:11. Potable water can still
be drawn from this well.
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Pool of Siloam
This pool was built under King Hezekiah circa 800 B. C. (2
Kings 20:20). It is the site where Jesus healed the man blind from
birth (John 9:7), and is well known today.
Pool of Bethesda
The existence of the pool was only known from the New
Testament, but in 1888, the pool was discovered in the northeast
quarter of the city of Jerusalem.
Tomb of Lazarus in Bethany
Eusebius, writing in 330 A. D. identified the site of Lazarus’
tomb. It is on the eastern slope of Mount Olivet about two miles
from Jerusalem. The burial chamber is eight feet square and has a
five-foot entranceway.
The existence of the court where Jesus was tried
John 19:13 mentions the court (or Pavement, but in the Hebrew,
Gabbatha) where the Lord Jesus Christ was tried by Pontius Pilate.
Its existence was thought by some to be a myth. However, recent
archaeological findings have shown that the court was in the Tower
of Antonia, the Roman military headquarters, which was destroyed
during the siege of Jerusalem in 66-70 A. D.
The accuracy of the Gospel of Luke and the Book of ACTS
Research has shown that the specific details of these books are
completely accurate. After extensive investigation, Sir William
Ramsey concluded that the books were fully correct relative to
details involving the location of ports and cities associated with the
travels of Paul as described by Luke.
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Ancient biblical papyri
In 1895, Flinders Petrie discovered ancient sheets of papyri in
excavations in central Egypt. Two of his students, Grenfeld and Hunt
of Oxford, conducted an organized search for such ancient
manuscripts in the area of Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. Many manuscripts
were found in rubbish heaps, while others were found stuffed in
mummy cases and in embalmed crocodile bodies. Altogether over
10,000 manuscripts were discovered with some dating to 2000 B. C.
Some of the findings included biblical books and fragments. The
Chester Beatty Collection retains several of these biblical books
including Genesis, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, Daniel, Esther, and about one-third of Revelation. Also, ten
of Paul’s epistles are included in the collection dating from about
200 A. D. including Romans, I & II Corinthians, Galatians,
Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, I & II Thessalonians, and
Hebrews.
Countless Ancient Ruins
Throughout the biblical region, numerous ancient ruins and
artifacts are preserved, and many of the sites remain open and
available for public visits by tourists and others. Such abundant and
tangible evidence truly emphasizes the fully historical foundation of
the Bible and Christianity.
&&&&&&&
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The Dead Sea Scrolls
One of the most extraordinary finds in the history of archaeology
involved the recent discovery of hundreds of ancient scrolls in the
Dead Sea area of Palestine. Many of these scrolls were Old
Testament manuscripts dating to the first century B. C. Also, among
the findings were apocryphal books, pseudepigraphal writings, and
some previously unknown manuscripts of the Jewish
intertestamental era. Incidentally, several phylacteries were also
discovered.
Remarkably, the biblical manuscripts date to over one thousand
years earlier than the latest previously known extant copies. Of
startling significance, the thematic content of these truly ancient
manuscripts exactly matched the same books dating to the tenth
century and later. These findings educe a convincing testimony to
the accuracy of the preservation of the Old Testament manuscripts.
The following sections provide an informational overview
concerning the Dead Sea scrolls. First, the site of Khirbet Qumran is
examined, due to its proximity to the location of the major scroll
findings. Secondly, the nature of the scrolls as a library collection
and the reasons for their concealment are surmised. Thirdly, an
overview of the history of scroll discoveries is presented. Fourthly,
an expose on the process of scroll reconstruction and publication is
itemized along with mention of the famous Cooper Scroll.
Fifthly, the methods for dating the scrolls are reviewed. Sixthly,
interesting and rare excerpts from the scrolls are presented. And
seventh and most importantly, the intrinsic value of the scrolls for
establishing the accurate preservation of the Old Testament
manuscripts is determined.
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Khirbet Qumran
There are ancient ruins of a settlement known as Khirbet
Qumran, which means the “ruins of Qumran.” Scholars usually refer
to this site simply as Qumran. This settlement is located about eight
miles south of Jericho on the west side of the Jordan River, toward
the northwest end of the Dead Sea in the land of Palestine. It is
within walking distance of Jericho and is accessible from Jerusalem.
Archaeology has shown that the settlement at Qumran was
inhabited by three (or four) distinguishable occupations. The original
inhabitants lived at Qumran beginning in the seventh century B. C.
After a long hiatus, the second Jewish occupation occurred
beginning about 135 B. C. and continued intermittently through
approximately 70 A. D. The third occupation was by Roman soldiers
from 70 through 73 A. D.
The second occupation of Qumran from 135 B. C. onward was
motivated by Jewish military reasons. The Hasmonean dynasty
during their expansion built a line of forts, extending from Nablus
southward to Masada, in order to protect their eastern border along
the Jordan River and southward. The Qumran site is situated in the
middle of this line of fortresses. Its purpose was to protect the sea
routes and to defend against attacks on Jerusalem and the Jewish
heartland. Qumran was a significant fortress intended to support a
Jewish military garrison. It was built upon a promontory overlooking
the Dead Sea, and evidently a docking moor existed along the coast.
It was situated such that it provided a communications line-of-sight
to the great Jewish fort of Machaerus located approximately twenty
miles toward the southeast across the Dead Sea. (Herod the Great
rebuilt Machaerus, and Herod’s son, Antipas, murdered John the
Baptist there.) At Qumran, there are clear remnants of surrounding
defensive walls and of a large observation tower that was powerfully
reinforced to withstand military attack.
Analysis of the ruins of the settlement at Qumran shows that the
site could accommodate a large military garrison on a sustained
basis. Of note, there are remains of significant stone waterways and
cisterns that would have ensured year-round water supplies to the
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inhabitants. The run-off of seasonal rainfall during the rainy season
was carefully diverted and collected into large stone cisterns, which
were built underground to minimize evaporation. These cisterns
were designed to retain water throughout the annual dry season,
which usually lasted for eight months. The cisterns had a capacity of
1,127 cubic meters, which would be adequate to accommodate
approximately 750 people during the eight-month dry season (Golb
p. 9).
Approximately 70 A. D., Roman troops led by Lucilius Bassus
attacked and seized the Jewish fort of Qumran. There is evidence
that the Romans mined under the walls and set the underpinnings on
fire, causing the walls to collapse into the mining tunnels. The
Roman soldiers then fought their way into the fort. Evidently, the
Romans killed a large number of Jewish defenders. There is also
evidence of specific rooms being burned and of second floor rooms
collapsing.
Moreover, there is a large cemetery containing over 1200 graves
located near the walls of the fort. The graves are arranged in nearly
perfect symmetry with women and children separated from men, and
each grave is marked with round head stones as was the custom used
by the Romans to mark the graves of conquered people. Also, the
graves are at the same level of stratification. These factors indicate
that the graves were dug at the same time. Partial excavations of the
graves reveal that people had been killed by violence, and some of
the corpses showed evidence of being burned. In addition, the graves
begin only thirty-five meters from the walls of the fort, which is
closer than the minimum of fifty meters required by Jewish law for
proximity of a graveyard from any habitation. The evidence clearly
indicates that the Romans buried the vanquished Jewish defenders of
Qumran in the nearby cemetery.
Apparently, the Romans maintained a presence at the Qumran
fort for the duration of the Jewish Revolt, which ended with the fall
of the mountaintop fort of Masada. The Roman occupation would
have been necessary to police the sea and the adjacent shore. During
73 A. D., the Romans ended their military occupation of Qumran,
and the site has not been inhabited since.
The fort at Qumran is thought to have been isolated, and did not
support a surrounding community. There are no significant artifacts
that show evidence of numerous temporary tents or huts in the
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surrounding area. Also, there are no traces of connecting paths that
lead into the settlement, as would be expected if there were
surrounding habitats. Moreover, there is no evidence of paths
connecting the settlement of Qumran with the caves that have been
discovered in the nearby hills. Therefore, the inhabitants of Qumran
did not regularly use the nearby caves for any protracted purpose.
The site of Qumran is significant simply because of its proximity to
the location of the findings of the Dead Sea scrolls.
Hiding the Scrolls
The Jewish people rebelled against the Roman occupation during
the period of 66 through 73 A. D. This is known as the First Jewish
Revolt. A Second Jewish Revolt against the Romans was led by Bar
Kokhba during 132 through 135 A. D. Bar Kokhba’s revolt was
brutally suppressed with over 500,000 Jewish warriors being slain in
a three day battle. In contemporary manuscripts Bar Kokhba’s name
appears as Simeon ben Kozibah. Notably, his followers regarded Bar
Kokhba as the Messiah.
In the First Revolt, the Roman army systematically defeated the
resisting Jewish forces in a general pattern ranging from northwest
toward southeast. The city of Jerusalem fell to the Romans in 70 A.
D., and the Temple library was reportedly burned. As the Romans
advanced, Jewish patriots acted to collect and hide certain libraries
of manuscripts in order to preserve them from destruction. There is
also evidence that treasures from the Temple in Jerusalem were also
hidden during this time. In general, these items were secreted in the
Judean wilderness west of the Dead Sea. Based on historical
discoveries, the libraries of manuscripts were concealed inside caves
found within cliffs or escarpments that were located along wadis. A
wadi is a riverbed or creek bed that is dry except during the rainy
season. Many of the manuscripts were stored within the caves in clay
jars, and others were wrapped in leather pouches.
The scrolls that have been discovered to date are generally
recognized as manuscripts from libraries. Altogether, over eight
hundred manuscripts have been found in the Dead Sea area dating to
the Jewish intertestamental times.
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The reasons for identifying the scrolls as library manuscripts are
deduced from circumstantial evidence. The primary evidence
includes:
a. Of the over eight hundred manuscripts found, few if any are
identified as autographs. Rather, they mainly appear to be copies,
sometimes two or more steps removed from the originals. Clearly
copies of manuscripts are found in libraries, whereas original
writings such as bill receipts, deeds, or legal documents would not
be as representative of library holdings.
b. Also of the eight hundred manuscripts, over five hundred
different handwriting styles have been recognized. Numerous
handwriting styles indicate that the scrolls were collected from many
different sources, which would be representative again of library
holdings. In contrast, the vast variety in handwriting styles obviates
any tenable insinuation that the scrolls emanated from a centralized
scriptorium at Qumran.
c. Moreover, the thematic content of the scrolls indicates a
broadly diverse collection of thoughts arising in the Jewish
intertestamental period. The breadth and variation in content argues
for a diversity of sources as would be suggestive of a library.
Although certain sectarian scrolls are noteworthy, they form a small
subset of the thematic ideas found in the broader set of scroll
discoveries.
The early Jewish patriots never recovered their scrolls, many of
which remained hidden for nearly two thousand years.
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Discovery of the Scrolls
In the land of Palestine, scroll discoveries occurred during the
third and ninth centuries. Notably, in the third century, Origen
mentioned using Hebrew and Greek manuscripts that had been found
in a jar in a cave near Jericho. This find occurred during the reign of
Antonius Severus (Caracalla) who ruled from 211 through 217 A. D.
Later, in the ninth century, Nestorian Patriarch, Timothy I of
Seleucia, officiating in Baghdad, referred to a large number of
Hebrew manuscripts also found in a cave near Jericho. This was
recorded in a letter addressed to Sergius, Metropolitan of Elam. This
was a famous discovery of its time that drew the attention of many
scholarly Jews. Howbeit, perhaps the greatest archaeological find of
all time was to await discovery for yet another one thousand years.
In 1946, a Bedouin boy, named Muhammad adh-Dhib, was
searching for a lost goat in the hill area of the Wadi Qumran. As he
came upon a cave, he threw a stone through the cave opening and
heard the sound of breaking clay. He climbed into the cave to
investigate and discovered clay jars that contained very oldappearing scrolls. The boy shared his findings with his family and
tribe. The Bedouin of the Ta’amireh tribe began to collect the old
scrolls and looked for potential buyers.
Originally, there were seven well-preserved scrolls that were sold
in two lots. Mar Athanasius Samuel, the Syrian Metropolitan of
Jerusalem, purchased four scrolls, and Professor Eliezer Y. Sukenik
of the Hebrew University purchased the three remaining scrolls.
After determining that the scrolls were over 2,000 years old, a public
announcement was excitedly made of their existence on April 11,
1948. In 1955, Professor Sukenik sold his scrolls to the state of Israel
for $250,000. In addition, Althanasius Samuel sold his scrolls to
Yigael Yadin, Professor Sukenik’s son, in New York.
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Notably, the seven original scrolls have been reunited, and today
they are a treasured display at the Shrine of the Book museum in
Jerusalem. The seven scrolls provide nearly intact and legible copies
of the following books:
a. Character of a Jewish Sectarian Association (Manual of
Discipline),
b. Tales of the Patriarchs,
c. Thanksgiving Psalms (or Hodayot),
d. A Commentary (or Pesher) of Habakkuk,
e. The War Scroll, and
f. Two copies of the book of Isaiah.
Discoveries of scrolls in nearby caves continued from 1946
through about 1956. Altogether, 870 separate scrolls were recovered.
There may have been over one thousand originally. Over the long
expanse of time, the vast majority of the scrolls deteriorated and
decayed into small fragments. In the fourth cave for example,
approximately fifteen thousand fragments were unearthed. The
scrolls were found distributed among eleven caves with some to the
north and some to the south of Qumran in relatively well-concealed
locations.
Reconstruction and Publication
The process of reconstruction, deciphering, and publication of
the remaining decayed and fragmented scrolls was a prolonged and
tedious process. With permission from the government of Jordan,
the scrolls were initially placed under the authority of Arab officials
in Jerusalem. Following the war in 1967, control of the scrolls
shifted to the Israeli Department of Antiquities, where it remains.
During these years, a team of international scholars was assembled
and retained, who worked to prepare the scrolls for photography and
publication.
By direction of the controlling authorities, access to the scrolls
was generally constrained to the assigned scholars and their students.
Because of this questionable policy, public and independent
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scholarly access to the scrolls was routinely denied for over forty
years. Publications by the assigned scholars were submitted
incrementally along with commentaries. However, progress was
perceived as slow, and controversies over manuscript commentaries
and origins were protracted. Full public access was not ostensibly
provided until 1991 through the publication of the majority of scroll
photographs.
The Dead Sea Scrolls were written with carbon-based ink on
animal skins or papyrus. They were written from right-to-left, and
with almost no punctuation. Additionally, the scrolls are written in
several languages and about six scripts, or manuscript styles. The
vast majority of scrolls are written in Hebrew, with about one-sixth
in Aramaic, and a small number in Greek. The main script used is
known as Jewish Script, and certain manuscripts appear with
beautiful ornate letters, while others appear more informal and less
legible. In addition, over one hundred opisthographs were found
among the scrolls. These are scrolls, which have writing on both
sides. This was not the normal practice for scroll preparation for the
general market. Usually, scholars prepared opisthographs for private
study.
Another important discovery was the Copper Scroll (3Q15). This
scroll is written on copper in a nonliterary Hebrew idiom that is
datable to the first century A. D. It appears to be a genuine
autograph. Evidently, this scroll contains a list of the Jerusalem
Temple treasures, along with a description of their hiding places in
the Judean wilderness. Since the Copper Scroll was found hidden
along with the Qumran scrolls, it is further suggestive that the scrolls
were originally collected from Jerusalem.
Altogether, there are sixty-five caches of treasure listed on the
Copper Scroll, which would amount to over two million dollars in
today’s value. Most of the treasures listed are gold and silver along
with a few caches of priestly garments and accessories. This is
considered to be an authentic list, however recent excavations at
certain hiding places have not discovered any treasure. It is
presumed that the treasure was recovered long ago. The following is
an instance of the concise style of this treasure list. For The sixtyfifth cache, we read,
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“In the dry well that is at the north of Kohlit, with an opening on the
north and graves by its mouth: a copy of this inventory list, with
explanations and measurements and full detail for each and every hidden
item.”
Reconstructing thousands of scroll fragments into coherent
manuscripts resembled the process of solving a very complex jigsaw
puzzle. The official team of scholars worked at the Palestine
Archaeological Museum. Their approach was to display the
fragments on tables under glass, and to carefully examine and match
fragments with isolated groupings. Handwriting analysis was the
primary criterion for sorting the fragments. Hundreds of different
scribes had unique handwriting, which was the most apparent and
distinguishing feature. Most of the sorting was accomplished this
way. In addition, the skin on which the scrolls were inscribed was a
second important technique. Animal skins vary in thickness and
color, and each one is unique. However, variations in the rate of
decay complicated this technique. Also, the scrolls inscribed on
papyrus were sorted based on the patterns of the plant fibers. In
recent years, DNA analysis has been attempted, which can be used to
identify specific animal skins. This advanced technique may help to
associate some remaining very tiny fragments.
With the fragments assembled, the work of the scholars
continued in a methodical way. The primary steps involved
photography, unique numbering for identification, specific
reconstruction, scale drawing, transcription, and translation. An
overview of these main steps is provided here.
a. Photographs were taken using infrared light. Over time, the
ink on many the fragments became dim and in some cases invisible
to the naked eye. More recently, enhancements in electronic cameras
and computer image-processing technology are enabling even better
renderings.
b. Each manuscript was uniquely identified. The identification
scheme involved identifying the cave where found and sequentially
numbering the findings within the cave. For example, 4Q241 means
Cave 4 of Q(umran) fragment number 241.
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c. Scholars next worked with the photographs and attempted to
rejoin the fragments as in solving a jigsaw puzzle. Usually
transparencies were used with magnification for this process.
Patterns of decay and damage to the scrolls were also considered to
help with difficult cases.
d. Next, scale drawings were prepared showing proposed
relationships among the fragments. Please note that in many cases
substantial portions of the scrolls have decayed to vanishing or have
been lost. Consequently, there are often significant gaps in the
reconstruction. Determining the widths of the columns helps in such
cases.
e. The scholars then proceeded to make a typed transcription of
the reconstructed manuscript in the original language, usually
Hebrew or Aramaic. Detailed standardized notes were included
concerning the arrangement of the fragments and other missing
portions or uncertainties.
f. The preceding work enabled the scholars to then prepare a
translation of the scroll for publication.
To date, all fragments have been cataloged, photographed, and
published. In addition, most scrolls have been completed through
translation. Furthermore, detailed reviews and iterative analysis are
ongoing.
Details on Dating the Scrolls
None of the Dead Sea Scrolls specifically date themselves
deliberately or internally. As such, various techniques have been
used to determine their approximate age. The process for dating the
Dead Sea Scrolls has involved textual analysis and scientific
methods including paleography, Carbon-14 dating, and analysis of
references to historical individuals.
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Paleography is the study of ancient writing. By closely
examining the shapes of letters and comparing among manuscripts,
scholars are able to approximate the dates of manuscripts often
within twenty-five to one hundred years of their actual origin. This
approach has been proven to be reliably accurate, and in fact this was
the method used to initially date the four scrolls obtained by Dr.
Sukenik in 1948. Concerning the entire collection, this technique
dates a few scrolls to the second century B. C., most scrolls to the
first century B. C., and a smaller number to the first century A. D.
Carbon-14 dating can indicate the general age of organic matter.
In 1950, linen scroll covers from Cave 1 were examined by Dr. W.
F. Libby of the University of Chicago and showed an age of 1,917
years with a ten percent variant, thereby dating the scrolls between
approximately 168 B. C. and 233 A. D. Further, more advanced tests
were conducted on the manuscript texts by the Swiss at the Institut
fur Mittelenergiephysik in Zurich during 1991 and again at the
University of Arizona in 1994. The more recent findings narrowed
the date between the second century B. C. and the first century A. D.
As such, Carbon-14 dating tended to confirm the results of
paleography analysis in most cases.
In addition, selected texts from Cave 4 identify historic people by
name. These references serve to validate the first century B. C.
dating. The specific references are listed in the following table.
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Table 59: Dead Sea Scroll References and Dates
King Alexander Jannaeus
103-76 B. C.
Syrian King Demetrius Eukairos
Queen Salome Alexandra
King John Hyrcanus II
Roman general Aemilius Scaurus
Roman Invasion of Israel
95-78 B. C.
76-67 B. C.
63-40 B. C.
65-63 B. C.
63 B. C.
&&&&&&&
One final consideration for dating the scrolls involves external
archaeological evidence. For example, pottery, earthen articles, and
ornaments discovered at the Qumran site date from the late
Hellenistic and early Roman periods (200 B. C. – 100 A. D.).
Additionally, several hundred coins were found in jars also dating to
the same Greco-Roman period.
Also of note, numerous Jewish phylacteries (Hebrew, tefillin)
were discovered in the Dead Sea finds. Phylacteries were small
capsules containing Scriptures that were usually bound by leather
thongs to the forehead and arm. The Scriptural texts usually
contained readings from Exodus 13:1-16, Deuteronomy 6:4-9, and
11:13-21. This was in literal fulfillment of the commandment, “And
thou shalt bind them [these words that I command you this day] as a
sign upon your hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thine
eyes” (Deuteronomy 6:8. See also Exodus 13:9 and Deuteronomy
11:18). Observant Jews continue this practice through the present.
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Precious Biblical Scrolls
Most significantly, about one-quarter of the total Dead Sea
manuscripts are copies of the Hebrew Bible, which is the Christian
Old Testament. Multiple copies of each book of the Hebrew Bible
have been recovered, with the exception of the book of Esther.
Remarkably, many of the Scroll texts exactly match the traditional
Old Testament readings as preserved in the more recent Masoretic
text. However, some of the Scroll texts appear as editions with
variant readings. In some cases, there are rearrangements as in
certain scrolls of the Psalms. Yet in other texts, interpretations or
commentary are inserted.
The Dead Sea Scrolls for the traditional Hebrew Bible date from
circa 60 B. C. through 20 A. D., and they are by far the oldest extant
manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible. Consequently, the Dead Sea Scroll
Hebrew Bible manuscripts are a valuable treasure for mankind. The
Hebrew Bible textual basis used for the King James translation dates
to the Jacob ben Chayyim text of 1524 A. D., which was preserved
through the Masoretic tradition. As such, there are approximately
1,500 years of elapsed time between the Dead Sea Scrolls and the
Chayyim texts.
Scholars have compared the ancient Dead Sea Scroll manuscripts
with the ben Chayyim text. Their findings show that the manuscripts
match with high precision. In the five major books of the Law
including Genesis through Deuteronomy, scholars found texts that
contain differences in only 169 letters, and none of these differences
changed the meaning of a single word. Moreover, they found
99.94% of selected manuscripts to be identical.
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In addition in the book of Isaiah, over ninety-five percent of the
texts compared matched exactly with only minor editorial
differences being noted, and moreover none of the differences
impacted the meaning of any of the thematic content. Truly, this is a
remarkable confirmation of the accurate preservation of God’s word
through the millennia.
Professional Testimonies on Biblical Archaeology
Dr. Nelson Glueck, a noted Jewish archaeologist of Hebrew
Union College, worked extensively on archaeological excavations in
the land of Palestine. Dr. Glueck observed, "As a matter of fact,
however, it may be stated categorically that no archeological
discovery has ever controverted a Biblical reference. Scores of
archaeological findings have been made which confirm in clear
outline or in exact detail historical statements in the Bible. And, by
the same token, proper evaluation of biblical descriptions has often
led to amazing discoveries. They form tesserae in the vast mosaic of
the Bible's almost incredibly correct historical memory" (Glueck p.
31). He further wrote, “[The Bible’s] historical memories and
descriptions and sometimes exact references to particular places are
of inestimable value to the scholar” (Glueck p. 30). Elsewhere he
recorded, “Above all, however, the demonstration of the existence of
these ores in large quantities in the Wadi Arabah, underscores once
again the amazing accuracy of the historical memory of the Bible.
Every syllable of the hitherto enigmatic description of the Bible of
the Promised Land as being, among other things, a land ‘whose
stones are iron and out of whose hills thou canst dig copper’
(Deuteronomy 8:9, also see 1 Chronicles 4:12-14), has now been
proven to be literally correct” (Glueck p. 157). For another example,
Dr. Glueck wrote of his discovery of the remains of the famous site
of Ezion-geber or Elath, “Coupled with that was our belief in the
complete reliability of the Biblical statement that Ezion-geber ‘is
beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of Edom’ (1
Kings 9:26)” (Glueck p. 159).
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Another respected scholar, Dr. J. Kinnaman noted, "Of the
hundreds of thousands of artifacts found by the archaeologists, not
one has ever been discovered that contradicts or denies one word,
phrase, clause, or sentence of the Bible, but always confirms and
verifies the facts of the biblical record" (Jeffrey p. 70). Concerning
ongoing archeological discoveries, Dr. William Foxwell Albright of
Johns Hopkins University wrote, “Discovery after discovery has
established the accuracy of innumerable details and has brought
increased recognition to the Bible as a source of history” (Jeffrey-2
p. 214). Dr. Albright also concluded, “There can be no doubt that
archaeology has confirmed the substantial historicity of Old
Testament tradition” (Albright p. 121). Further, Dr. Morris observed,
"It must be extremely significant that, in view of the great mass of
corroborative evidence regarding the Biblical history of these
periods, there exists today not one unquestionable find of
archaeology that proves the Bible to be in error at any point" (Morris
p. 240). And again, Dr. Keith Schoville concluded, “It is important
to realize that archaeological excavations have produced ample
evidence to prove unequivocally that the Bible is not a pious forgery.
Thus far, no historical statement in the Bible has proven false on the
basis of evidence retrieved through archaeological research”
(Schoville p. 156).
In addition, biblical historical information has significantly
contributed to our knowledge of history and has led to important
archaeological discoveries and confirmations. Professor Unger
summarized, "Old Testament archaeology has rediscovered whole
nations, resurrected important peoples, and in a most astonishing
manner filled in historical gaps, adding immeasurably to the
knowledge of biblical backgrounds" (McDowell p. 66).
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Again, Dr. Millar Burrows of Yale University acknowledged,
“On the whole… archaeological work has unquestionably
strengthened confidence in the reliability of the scriptural record.
More than one archaeologist has found his respect for the Bible
increased by the experience of excavation in Palestine. Archaeology
has in many cases refuted the views of modern critics. It has shown,
in a number of instances, that these views rest on false assumptions,
and on unreal and artificial schemes of historical development. This
is a real contribution and not to be minimized” (Burrows p. 91-92).
Truly, the historical accuracy of the Bible has been verified through
numerous archaeological discoveries. These facts serve as
convincing evidence for the accurate recording and reliable
preservation of the Christian Bible.
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Topical Synopsis
“Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and
keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man.”
(Ecclesiastes 12:13)
The foregoing chapters present an evangelistic review of the
Divine inspiration, faithful preservation, and competent translation
of the Christian Bible, along with related apologetics. Through
systematic analysis of this study, it is concluded that the Bible
faithfully presents the Divinely inspired word of God. The evidence
examined clearly shows that there are objective and compelling
reasons to recognize the Godly authority of the Bible. Some of the
key abstractions or précis from this work are summarized as follows.
a. The Lord God Almighty directly communicated and breathed
into the spirit and thoughts of anointed and appointed oracles the
words that compose the Bible.
b. The fulfillment of numerous biblical prophecies provides
objective and unequivocal evidence for the supernatural origination
of the Bible.
c. The authors of the Bible were direct eyewitnesses of God’s
ministry, which strongly validates the credibility of their written
biblical accounts.
d. The authors of the Bible were persecuted, tortured, and
martyred for their ardent and earnest faithfulness, which presents
serious confirmation of the facticity and determination of their
witness.
e. Although the original autographs of the biblical manuscripts
are presumed lost, there exists an enormous number of biblical
manuscript copies that have been preserved from ancient times, and
comparisons among the manuscripts show practical correlation.
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f. Multiple ancient biblical manuscript copies have formed the
basis for editing and generating resultant Hebrew and Greek texts,
which have been used as the basis for translation into multiple
languages including English.
g. The early Christians frequently quoted from the biblical
manuscripts, and their writings provide an independent confirmation
of the accuracy of manuscript preservation.
h. The Christian Canon includes manuscripts carefully
recognized as being inspired by God, and deliberately excludes
manuscripts officiated and recognized as not being inspired.
i. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha include useful writings,
but they are not inspired, and definitely should be separated from the
canonical Scriptures.
j. The Lord Jesus Christ was a historical personage, as evidenced
through various and relatively impartial ancient non-Christian
writings.
k. Archaeological findings consistently validate the historical
accuracy of biblical events and descriptions.
This study provides a firm foundation for recognizing the Divine
inspiration of the Christian Bible and should promote an increase in
assurance and confidence concerning the faithful preservation and
competent translation of the Word. In an objective sense, the Bible
stands as an affirmation of the incontrovertible truth of God’s
persistent outreach toward man. Through the words of the Bible, the
Lord Jesus Christ desires to inform and instruct mankind, and
ultimately, to achieve reconciliation and a blessed relationship with
His spiritual children.
The following sections provide a summary of the primary points
described in the foregoing chapters. Each section corresponds to
each of the chapters in order. The main points from each chapter are
summarized and in many cases selected text is repeated. Given a
work of this length, providing a concise summary may serve as a
useful review and future reference.
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Inspiration and Truth
The Bible presents the Divinely inspired word of God and as
such expresses spiritual truth. The Divine inspiration of the Bible is
evidenced primarily through the testimony of the Bible itself, and
through respect for its sacred tone and enduring themes. Notably the
Bible declares, “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is
profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in
righteousness: That the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly
furnished unto all good works” (2 Timothy 3:16,17). Through the
Scriptures, it is evident that God has inspired his word using various
methods including:
a. Speaking directly and audibly to men,
b. Writing personally the Ten Commandments,
c. Inspiring his oracles and prophets often by dreams and visions,
d. Sending angels as his messengers, and
e. Ministering through his Son, Jesus Christ, while he was on
Earth and by Jesus’ Spirit after his resurrection and to this day.
Moreover, there are many instances of Scripture where the Lord
commanded His prophets to write His inspired words in a book, and
to read it to the people for their admonition and edification.
Furthermore, the numerous profound testimonies of accurately
fulfilled prophecy and of supernatural signs and wonders following
the word, have served to confirm the witness of the inspired
writings.
In addition, the Lord Jesus Christ referred to the Old Testament
Scriptures many times during his ministry, and it is clear from the
scriptural context that the Lord Jesus Christ considered the Old
Testament to precisely record the Divinely inspired words of God.
Specifically the Lord Jesus Christ said, "Think not that I am come to
destroy the law, or the prophets; I am not come to destroy, but to
fulfill. For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot
or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled"
(Matthew 5:17-18, Luke 16:17).
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Also concerning the Godly relevance of the Scriptures, the Lord
Jesus Christ said, “But all this was done, that the Scriptures of the
prophets might be fulfilled” (Matthew 26:56). Moreover, the Bible
records, "And beginning at Moses and all the prophets, he [Jesus]
expounded unto them [two of his disciples on the Emmaus road], in
all the [Old Testament] Scriptures, the things concerning himself"
(Luke 24:27).
Also foremost, the Bible implies that the New Testament books
were written under the guidance and inspiration of the Holy Ghost.
The Lord Jesus Christ foretold, "But the Comforter, who is the Holy
Ghost, whom the Father will send in my name, he shall teach you all
things, and bring all things to your remembrance, whatever I have
said unto you" (John 14:26). Moreover, the Lord Jesus Christ also
foretold, "Howbeit, when he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will
guide you into all truth; for he shall not speak of himself, but
whatever he shall hear, that shall he speak; and he will show you
things to come" (John 16:13).
The Bible is Divinely inspired and therefore presents spiritual
truth. The truth of the word may at times be presented as factual
information on subjects relating, for example, to history, but
consistently the Bible’s higher purpose is to express spiritual
wisdom and knowledge. The Bible is not a scientific textbook, or a
history textbook, but rather a spiritual book. Wherefore, the Bible
uses many forms of literary expression, which are figurative,
symbolic, or poetic in nature. As such, the Bible should be read as a
spiritually discerned book that is intended to convey “the way, the
truth, and the life” (John 14:6). The Bible explains, “The word is
plain to them who have understanding, and right to those who have
knowledge” (Proverb 8:9).
Alleged discrepancies in the Bible may be faithfully explained,
and in no case obviate the truth of the Scriptures. Alleged
contradictions in the Bible have been thoroughly studied and
reasonably explained. Dr. Max Anders summarized, “Stated as
plainly as possible, nothing in the Bible can be demonstrated to be
an error of fact… Any apparent error or contradiction can be
explained credibly” (Anders p. 24-5).
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Concerning the presupposition of attitudes toward the veracity of
Scripture, Professor Packer suggested, “Surely it will be humbler
and wiser to suppose that any present inability on your part or mine
to recognize the Word of God in a particular canonical book, or to
square what it seems to say with other biblical teachings, reflects a
defect in us rather than in it; particularly when (as is invariably the
case) learned and devout men can offer a possible, and usually a
convincing, resolution of the problem that puzzles us” (Packer p.
113).
Prophecies Fulfilled
The Bible presents over eighteen hundred prophesies that have
been accurately fulfilled, as evidenced by subsequent Scriptures and
in many cases by historical writings. The accurate fulfillment of
Biblical prophecy stands as objective evidence for the Divine
inspiration of the Bible.
Through the Prophet, Isaiah, God described His prophetic
foreknowledge by saying, “Remember the former things of old: for I
am God, and there is none else; I am God, and there is none like me,
things which are not yet done, saying, My counsel shall stand, and I
will do all my pleasure” (Isaiah 46:9,10). Isaiah also wrote, "Behold
the former things have come to pass, and new things I declare;
before they spring forth I tell you of them" (Isaiah 42:9).
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One of the most compelling instances of fulfilled prophecy
involves the entirely accurate prediction of the year that Messiah
[Jesus] would be cut off [or crucified and resurrected]. Within the
book of Daniel, specific information is prophesied and recorded over
four hundred years in advance of the actual occurrence. Please see
Daniel 9:23-27, which may be summarized as follows.
445 B. C.
~476 years
Order to rebuild Predicted Elapsed Time
city wall
~31 A. D.
Jesus’
Resurrection
Additionally, there are many prophecies, which predict the birth,
ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Furthermore when the Lord Jesus Christ was an infant, his
redemptive ministry was prophesied. The Bible records, "[And the
Holy Ghost was upon Simeon, and he said of the baby Jesus,] for
mine eyes have seen thy salvation, Which thou hast prepared before
the face of all people; A light to lighten the Gentiles, and the glory of
thy people, Israel" (Luke 2:30-32).
Significantly, the Lord Jesus Christ began his public ministry by
reading from the prophet Isaiah (61:1,2a). The Lord Jesus
proclaimed, "The Spirit of the LORD is upon me, because the LORD
has anointed me to preach good tidings unto the meek; he hath sent
me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives,
and the opening of the prison to those who are bound; To proclaim
the acceptable year of the LORD" (see Luke 4:18,19a). A review of
the Gospels clearly reveals that the Lord Jesus Christ fulfilled all of
these prophecies concerning his ministry by bringing salvation,
healing, and deliverance to the people. The Bible says, "Great
multitudes followed him, and he healed them all" (Matthew 12:15b).
Truly, the most significant prophecy to be fulfilled in all of
history is the resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ. The Psalmist,
King David, declared under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, "For
thou [God] wilt not leave my soul in hell, neither wilt thou permit
thine Holy One [Jesus] to see corruption" (Psalm 16:10). The Lord
Jesus Christ prophesied, "Because I live, ye shall live also" (John
14:19). Moreover, Jesus foretold, “And [the Jewish chief priests and
scribes] shall deliver him [the Son of man] to the Gentiles to mock,
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and to scourge, and to crucify him: and the third day he shall rise
again” (Matthew 20:19, Mark 1:34, Luke 18:33). The Scriptures
clearly affirm the eyewitness testimony concerning the literal bodily
resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ, his commission to his
disciples, and his ascension into heaven.
Another beautifully fulfilled prophecy was the outpouring of the
Holy Ghost with power upon the disciples on the day of Pentecost.
After the Lord Jesus Christ’s resurrection, he appeared to his
disciples and said, "But ye shall receive power after the Holy Ghost
is come upon you; and ye shall be witnesses unto me both in
Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the uttermost
part of the earth" (ACTS 1:8). The Bible records, "And when the day
of Pentecost was fully come, they [the 120 disciples] were all with
one accord in one place. And suddenly there came a sound from
heaven like a rushing mighty wind, and it filled all the house where
they were sitting. And there appeared unto them cloven tongues as of
fire, and it sat upon each one of them. And they were all filled with
gave them utterance" (ACTS 2:1-3). And on that day Peter preached,
"But this is that which was spoken through the prophet, Joel [2:28]:
And it shall come to pass in the last days, saith God, I will pour out
my Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall
prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men
shall dream dreams" (ACTS 2:16,17).
The extensive and inerrant fulfillment of Biblical prophecy
demonstrates amazingly accurate knowledge of future outcomes.
Detailed investigation of the particular prophetic circumstances
obviates natural explanations for this phenomenon. Therefore, the
consistent and inerrant fulfillment of biblical prophecies provides
dramatic and immutable evidence for the supernatural inspiration of
the Bible.
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Eyewitness Testimony
An important attribute for the Godly authority of the Bible
involves the nature of the eyewitness testimony that the Bible
evinces. Essentially, eyewitnesses of the ministry of the Lord Jesus
Christ wrote the New Testament. Reviewed severally, the various
Gospel accounts show remarkable consonance concerning the
ministry and teachings of the Lord Jesus Christ. As such, the written
testimonies of the Bible provide profound evidence for the
independent eyewitness nature of the accounts preserved in the
Bible.
Furthermore, the words of the Lord Jesus Christ clearly show
that he expected that his disciples would be witnesses of his ministry
in word and deed. The Lord Jesus Christ also taught that his
disciples would be guided by the Holy Ghost in their times of
testimony. In addition, the Apostles directed that their writings be
read in the churches.
To recap, the New Testament is composed of a collection of
twenty-seven distinct books, and each book reflects an eyewitness
account of the ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. Altogether, the
apostles including Matthew, John, Peter, and Paul wrote twenty-two
of the books. Christian disciples wrote the remaining five books.
These disciples were close to an apostle, and under apostolic
authority, including Mark, Luke, James, and Jude. Further, the
Scriptures show that James and Jude were half-brothers of the Lord
Jesus Christ, and therefore clearly knew him intimately (Matthew
13:55, ACTS 1:13, Galatians 1:19).
The Bible states that the testimony of two or three witnesses,
which are in agreement, can be sufficient to establish a case. In the
Law of Moses, the Bible says, “At the mouth [or testimony] of two
witnesses, or at the mouth of three witnesses, shall the matter be
established” (Deuteronomy 18:15). In the New Testament, the Lord
Jesus Christ reaffirmed this tenet by saying, “that in the mouth of
two or three witnesses every word may be established” (Matthew
18:16).
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The New Testament has been shown to be objectively true, in
that it documents multiple independent eyewitness accounts of the
life and ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ, often in parallel detail.
Comparisons show that the parallel accounts tend to confirm and
supplement one another. In the New Testament, there are over fiftythree events in the life and ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ, that are
documented in three or four of the Gospels including Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John. Through the Gospels, we have more than the
two or three witnesses, that the Lord Jesus Christ cited as required to
establish a matter. Therefore, it is apparent that the gospels were
independently written by eyewitnesses of the ministry of the Lord
Jesus Christ, and therefore should be received as valid testimony.
The Gospel of Luke presents as an introduction, "Forasmuch as
many have taken in hand to set forth in order a declaration of those
things which are most surely believed among us, Even as they
delivered them unto us, who from the beginning were eyewitnesses,
and ministers of the word; It seemed good to me also, having had
perfect understanding of all things from the very first [and from
above], to write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus [loved
by God], That thou mightest know the certainty of those things,
wherein thou hast been instructed" (Luke 1:1-4). Also, the Apostle
Peter wrote, "For we have not followed cunningly devised fables
when we made known unto you the power and coming of our Lord
Jesus Christ, but were eyewitnesses of his majesty" (2 Peter 1:16).
As a stirring illustration of eyewitness testimony, in the book of
1 John we read, "That which was from the beginning, which we have
heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked
upon, and our hands have handled, of the Word of life; (For the life
was manifested; and we have seen it, and bear witness; and shew
unto you that eternal life, which was with the Father, and was
manifested unto us;) That which we have seen and heard declare we
unto you, that ye also may have fellowship with us: and truly our
fellowship is with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ. And
these things write we unto you, that your joy may be full" (1 John
1:1-4).
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Therefore, it is established that the eyewitness testimonies of the
apostles and disciples of the Lord Jesus Christ provide serious and
compelling evidence for the accurate recording of the Gospel.
The Christian Martyrs
The New Testament was written by inspired authors, who were
eyewitnesses of the life and ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Furthermore, it is highly significant to recognize that each of the
New Testament authors endured persecution and martyrdom for their
Christian witness (except John). Rather than deny the Lord Jesus
Christ, they suffered tribulation because of their testimony
concerning the truth of the Gospel. Such devotion provides profound
evidence for the trustworthiness of their biblical witness.
The Lord Jesus Christ plainly taught his disciples that worldly
persecution would follow. He foretold, "If they have persecuted me,
they will also persecute you" (John 15:20). Furthermore, the Lord
Jesus Christ presaged, "They shall put you out of the synagogues;
yea, the time cometh, that whosoever killeth you will think that he
doeth God service" (John 16:2). The Lord Jesus Christ said, “If any
man will come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross
[daily], and follow me. For whosoever will save his life shall lose it:
and whosoever will lose his life for my sake [and the gospel’s] shall
find [or save] it” (Matthew 16:25, Mark 8:35, Luke 9:24).
Wondrously, many early Christians retained their testimonies
and professions of faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, despite the morbid
expectation of torture and deadly persecution. Only the complete
factualness of the ministry and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ
could account for such steadfast endurance. Historical records
clearly show that countless devout Christian people endured extreme
persecution over a prolonged period of time.
Beginning with Nero, the Roman State became infamous for its
ruthless treatment of Christians. Torture and grisly public executions
became commonplace. Moreover at times, the scope of the violence
was genocidal. For many years, the Romans tortured and executed
literally thousands of Christians every day. Throwing Christian men,
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women, and children to the lions, was a common public spectacle in
city amphitheaters. Nevertheless, the blood of the Christian martyrs
served to water the Church, which actually grew in numbers, and
through the necessity of fleeing persecution, actually spread to
distant lands.
The Christian minister and scholar, John Foxe, wrote in 1563,
"Now let us comprehend the persecutions raised by the Romans
against the Christians in the primitive age of the Church, during the space
of three hundred years. Wherein marvelous it is to see and read the
numbers incredible of Christian innocents that were tormented and slain.
Whose kinds of punishments, although they were diverse, yet the manner
of constancy in all these martyrs was one. And yet, notwithstanding the
sharpness of these so many and sundry torments, and also the like
cruelness of the tormentors, such was the number of these constant saints
that suffered, or rather such was the power of the Lord in His saints, that,
as Jerome saith, 'There is no day in the whole year unto which the number
of five thousand martyrs cannot be ascribed, except on the first day of
January'" (Foxe, p. 11-12).
In addition, it should be noted, that forces have conspired to
obstruct and hinder the faithful preservation of the Scriptures. Not
only were the early Christian disciples tortured and executed, but the
unbelievers also wrought great persecutions to destroy church
buildings and especially biblical manuscripts. The Romans,
Muslims, and more recently, the Communists have systematically,
through the power of the state and its armies, destroyed large
numbers of Christian churches, libraries, and Bibles.
The testimonies of the multitude of Christian martyrs stand as
serious evidence for their steadfast devotion to the truth and efficacy
of the ministry and grace of the Lord Jesus Christ. Moreover, the fact
that the New Testament authors endured martyrdom, rather than
recant, provides compelling and unshakeable evidence for the truth
of their witness and biblical writings.
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Preservation of the Scriptures
The Christian Bible has been accurately preserved through the
centuries, and the Scriptures clearly testify that it remains God’s
intention to preserve his word. Specifically, the Bible says, “The
words of the LORD are pure words: as silver tried in a furnace of
earth, purified seven times. Thou shalt keep them, O LORD, thou
shalt preserve them from this generation for ever” (Psalm 12:6-7).
Proof of the accurate preservation of Scriptures involves analysis
and characterization of the ancient extant Biblical manuscripts. By
factually showing that Biblical manuscripts are quite ancient,
numerous, and compare favorably, a compelling case is established
for the accuracy of Biblical manuscript preservation.
Through the centuries, Old Testament biblical manuscripts were
faithfully preserved through careful copying and numerical
verification procedures. Significantly, reverent men faithfully
labored to copy the Old Testament manuscripts. Traditionally, the
Aaronic priests and Levites were the custodians of the Law, although
scribal responsibility seems to have transitioned through the
centuries.
Detailed analysis shows that the Old Testament has been
faithfully preserved and protected. After comparing 184 texts of the
Hebrew Bible, Dr. Wilson, wrote, "The evidence shows that for
2300 to 3900 years the text of the proper names in the Hebrew Bible
has been transmitted with the most minute accuracy. That the
original scribes should have written them with such close conformity
to correct philological principles is a wonderful proof of their
thorough care and scholarship; further, that the Hebrew text should
have been transmitted by copyists through so many centuries is a
phenomenon unequaled in the history of literature" (McDowell p.
55). Moreover, comparisons of the quite ancient Dead Sea Scrolls (c.
70 B. C.) with the Ben Chayyim Old Testament text (1525 A. D.)
show practical correlation, which clearly demonstrates the
trustworthiness of the Old Testament transmission through the
centuries.
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Numerous extant New Testament manuscripts are quite ancient
and several are proximate to the period of the eyewitnesses of the
ministry of the Lord Jesus Christ. Additionally, fragmentary copies
of New Testament manuscripts date to the first century A. D., which
is within the same generation as the eyewitness apostles and
disciples, and is within a generation of the original autographs. Such
contemporary copies were perhaps only one copy-step removed from
the original autographs. This increases the likelihood of accurate
preservation and transmission. Overall, the temporal proximity of
the New Testament manuscripts to the autographs provides a
comparatively early and trustworthy witness, and therefore
contributes convincing evidence for the faithful preservation of the
Scriptures.
Furthermore, thousands of ancient biblical manuscripts have
been preserved in the original Greek and in several other languages.
This large quantity of manuscripts (over 5,366 in Greek) has
provided a broad basis for manuscript review and comparison.
Moreover, this broad collection has enabled an objective assessment
of the textual content within the manuscripts. Such analysis has led
to a consensus opinion that the New Testament manuscripts convey
consistent thematic content.
The vast preponderance of biblical manuscripts generally match
in textual detail, and collectively these manuscripts provide a broad
and firm foundation for editorial efforts. However, there are certain
manuscripts that reflect variants in their readings. The majority of
variations typically reflect editorial differences involving word order
and spelling. Less often words or phrases may be omitted or
included (depending on the reference point). Actually quite rarely are
passages altered that may effect the meaning or content of a
particular passage of Scripture, and this is perceived usually through
omission. In the cases where the meaning appears changed, there are
consistently other passages of Scripture that convey the same point
that seemed to be changed or omitted in the specific instance.
Among Christian scholars however, there is a clear consensus that
even the most noticeable manuscript variations are not significant
enough to alter any tenet of the Christian faith.
Historically, biblical editing essentially involved ancient
manuscript comparisons and analysis of differences. Multiple Greek
manuscript copies were consulted and compared, and detailed notes
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were documented. The task was then to cite specific differences or
variant readings between and among the texts. In addition, foreign
language translations were often consulted, especially including the
Latin Vulgate. Through this analytical process, editors made
decisions concerning wording, word order, inclusion or omission,
etc. As a result of such editorial efforts, slightly different renderings
of New Testament Greek texts were annotated through the course of
time. But again, it should be emphasized that the various edited
Greek texts are essentially the same in terms of content and meaning.
Even the most noticeable variations do not alter any of the
fundamental doctrines or tenets of the Christian faith.
Overall, the received biblical text presents the truth of the
Gospel, and is a trustworthy witness for matters of Christian faith
and practice. Dr. Frederic Kenyon, the Director of the British
Museum for twenty-one years, wrote in 1940, "The interval then
between the dates of the original composition and the earliest extant
evidence becomes so small as to be in fact negligible, and the last
foundation for any doubt that the Scriptures have come down to us
substantially as they were written has now been removed. Both the
authenticity and the general integrity of the books of the New
Testament may be regarded as finally established.” Dr. Kenyon
continued, “The Christian can take the whole Bible in his hand and
say without fear or hesitation that he holds in it the true word of
God, handed down without essential loss from generation to
generation throughout the centuries” (Kenyon p. 41, 55).
The Christian Canon
The Christian canon was recognized and documented by early
Christians, whose chief purpose was to identify an authorized and
authenticated list of books for use in the Christian church.
Essentially, the canonical books were selected because they were
affirmed to be Scriptures that were Divinely inspired and established
authoritatively by God.
Through the ages, Jewish scribes diligently preserved the Old
Testament books. These precious books were carefully selected and
ratified as authentic and Divinely inspired by Judaic tradition and
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through religious practice. Moreover, they were considered
foundational to the New Testament and were readily incorporated
into the Christian canon.
Jewish tradition indicates that Ezra was responsible for
collecting and compiling the Old Testament Scriptures
approximately 458 B. C. This is the same Ezra who authored the
book of Ezra, which is the fifteenth book of the Old Testament. Ezra
accomplished this work upon returning to Jerusalem from captivity
in Babylon. Furthermore, Ezra’s work prepared the framework for
the Old Testament canon. The Jewish historian, Josephus Flavius,
who was born in Jerusalem in 37 A. D., identified the period of the
Old Testament as being from Moses to the Persian king Artaxerxes I
Longimanus. King Artaxerxes was king during the time of Ezra,
Nehemiah, and Malachi (464-423 B. C.). Therefore, this evidence
from Josephus indicates the closure of the Old Testament canon as
properly being within the time frame of the book of Malachi.
It is important to emphasize that the books of the Hebrew Bible
are the same as the books of the Christian Old Testament. Only the
order of appearance or inclusion of some of the books has changed.
The Christian canon for the New Testament was gradually
recognized over a number of years by diverse church leaders, and
was later ratified and affirmed through church councils, after
rigorous and sometimes contentious investigation. Also of
importance, this selection process resulted in the deliberate exclusion
of uninspired apocryphal books and heretical writings. The following
list summarizes the resulting criteria for including a book in the New
Testament canon. Overall, the objective was to verify the evidence
for the Divine inspiration of the manuscript:
Affirmed and recognized as Divinely inspired by God (sufficient
criterion),
Originally written by an apostle or someone close to an apostle
with a testimony of signs and wonders,
Known to be prophetic,
Written within the apostolic period,
Harmonized with apostolic verbal tradition,
Actively read and used in the churches,
Referred to by early church leaders as genuine and authentic, and
Presented Christian truth or met the orthodox rule-of-faith.
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To reiterate, the Old Testament canon was received by the early
Christian church directly from Judaic tradition as ratified and
documented through the Jewish council of Jamnia (c. 90-140 A. D.).
Furthermore, Jewish orthodoxy did not view the Old Testament
apocryphal books as inspired, and therefore their exclusion from all
of the early Christian canons was appropriate.
The New Testament canon was established through a gradual
process of church consensus. Apostolic authority was the main
criterion for recognizing a book as being Divinely inspired. Also, the
churches were careful to identify and exclude uninspired books. In
367 A. D., Althanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, published the
canonical list of the twenty-seven books of the New Testament,
which has been followed by orthodox Christianity ever since. His list
was ratified at the Council of Carthage in 397 A. D. and subsequent
councils. Therefore, the deliberate and careful process for
establishing the Christian canon provides further evidence for the
accurate and faithful preservation of the Bible.
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
Within the context of Judaism and Christianity, there exists a
significant volume of ancient extra-biblical writings. Although not
Divinely inspired or canonical, many of these writings provide
useful historical information, which serve to augment our knowledge
of biblical cultures and settings. Furthermore, certain writings
present Godly prayers and extraordinary stories. Such writings may
be categorized as Old Testament Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha,
Rabbinical writings, and New Testament Apocrypha.
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There are fifteen books categorized as Old Testament
apocrypha. These books were written from approximately 200 B. C.
through 200 A. D. Of note, Orthodox Judaism never considered
these writings to be inspired by God, but rather of secular origin.
Furthermore, Judaism of today does not consider the Old Testament
apocrypha to be canonical. In addition, early Christian councils
consistently excluded the Old Testament apocrypha from their
Biblical canons.
Nonetheless, fifteen of these writings were included in the texts
of Old Latin translations of the Hebrew Bible, and were
subsequently brought forward into the influential Latin Vulgate. As a
result of the tradition of the Latin Vulgate, the Roman Catholic
Church has retained the Old Testament apocryphal books within
their Bible, and even has categorized them as “authentic.”
Alternatively since the 1800s, Protestant Bibles have consistently
excluded the Old Testament apocryphal books from their Bible
publications, recognizing the secular origin of the books as conveyed
by Judaic tradition.
The Pseudepigrapha, or false writings, were written during the
period from 200 B. C. through approximately 200 A. D. The
Pseudepigrapha present legendary stories, usually involving Old
Testament heroes or events. Often, authorship is attributed to a great
figure of the Old Testament, but in practice the real author was
evoking a pseudonym. During the ninth century, Photus listed over
280 pseudepigraphal writings, and more have been discovered to
date.
In ancient times, the Jewish people generated a large body of
civil and religious writings, which have been carefully preserved and
transmitted through the centuries. These Rabbinical writings may
be generally categorized as the Talmud (300 B. C. – 500 A. D.) and
the Midrash (100 B. C. – 300 A. D.).
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The Talmud (instruction, teaching) developed as a body of
Hebrew canonical and civil law that was based upon the Torah.
Fundamentally, the Talmud presents related opinions and decisions
of Jewish teachers that often provide supplemental instruction
relative to the Jewish Law or Torah. The Talmudic writings may be
categorized as the Mishnah and the Gemara.
The Mishnah (explanation, repetition, and teaching) was
completed approximately 200 A. D. It contributes a synopsis of all of
the oral laws prepared from the time of Moses. The Torah is
recognized as the First Law, and the Mishnah is considered the
Second Law. The Mishnah is written in Hebrew, and propounds
traditions and explanations of the oral law. In general, the Mishnah
provides a concise statement of the Jewish secondary laws
(Halacha) as derived from Scriptures.
The Gemara (to accomplish, complete, and learn) provides an
expanded commentary on the Mishnah. Two traditions have been
preserved including the Palestinian Gemara (c. 200 A. D.) and the
more authoritative and lengthier Babylonian Gemara (c. 500 A. D.).
The Gemara was written in Aramaic, instead of Hebrew.
The Midrash (textual interpretation and study) provides
authoritative and traditional commentaries or expositions on the Old
Testament Scriptures arranged according to the sequence of biblical
verses. It is written in Hebrew and Aramaic. The Midrashim (plural)
are organized into two major categories including the Halakah
(procedure) and the Haggada (declaration, explanation). The
Halakah provides a further expansion of the Torah, and the Haggada
presents commentaries on the entire Old Testament and also includes
the Jewish ritual of the Seder.
New Testament apocryphal books have the characteristics of
being written during the Christian era and addressing Christian
topics, as contrasted with Old Testament events or episodes. Often
these New Testament apocryphal books were written under an
assumed name of an Apostle, seeking to attract attention as in the
ancient manner. However, the early Christian churches clearly
recognized that these specific writings were not Divinely inspired,
and therefore excluded them from the orthodox Biblical canons.
Essentially, the New Testament apocryphal books may be considered
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legendary biblical stories, apparently reflecting oral traditional
accounts.
Historically, lists of apocryphal books were prepared primarily to
distinguish them from canonical books. In the sixth century, the
“Decretum Gelasianum” was published which listed sixty-one
apocryphal books. Altogether, the New Testament apocryphal books
are quite extensive and total well over one thousand pages.
Biblical Translation
Progressively over the centuries, the Lord Jesus Christ has
enabled his Divinely inspired and faithfully preserved word to be
competently translated from the original Hebrew and Greek into
many languages. These ongoing translation efforts have greatly
facilitated the spread of His word throughout the world. Altogether,
there are over 24,000 ancient biblical manuscripts in various
languages that are extant.
From a historical perspective, the Latin Vulgate was the primary
Bible used within English speaking churches. The exclusive
utilization of the Latin Vulgate within England was a requirement
imposed by the Roman Catholic Church. The Roman’s sought to
standardize biblical usage throughout their sphere of ecclesiastical
control, which for many centuries included England. However,
beginning in the sixth century, English Bible translations began to
appear for portions of the Bible, including initially the Psalms and
later the Gospels. From the thirteenth through the sixteenth
centuries, English translations for the entire Bible were generated,
culminating with the classic King James Version in 1611, which
remains widely respected as the definitive text for the English
speaking world. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the English
churches were actively using English Bibles, and the Latin Vulgate
was retained only in strictly Roman Catholic settings.
The Authorized King James Version is treasured by the Englishspeaking world as the foundational Protestant Bible in the English
language. It is a literary masterpiece that has been in worldwide
circulation for centuries. Its poetic rhythms, gracious style, and
majestic language are an enduring monument to English prose and
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artistry. Literally millions of copies have been printed through our
current time, and it is probable that each year, the King James Bible
is the most printed, distributed, and read book in the entire world.
As such for many Christians and churches, the King James
Version remains the mainstay English translation for daily use, and it
is relied upon as the standard resource for addressing matters of faith
and practice. Furthermore, the King James Version forms the
traditional baseline against which modern language versions may be
compared.
Over the past two hundred years, numerous English translations
of the Bible have been produced and published. These modern
translations vary in their approach and style, and some are closer to
the King James Version style, while others appear quite different.
Some translations are word-for-word or literal translations from the
original languages, while others are sense-for-sense translations or
transliterations. Further, there are translations that appear as
paraphrases in paragraph form, and may include substantial
rearrangements to the order of the original text. There are also some
popular abridgements. In addition, certain modern translations are
not really translations, but rather are more intended toward
interpretation or commentary, and as such may reflect the editors’
opinions. It is important to know the distinction. Of course, each of
these newer translations incorporates a more modern style of
colloquial speech and idiom. Additionally, modern translations
usually include prefatory materials that describe the approach and
style that the translators and editors used. This may help prospective
readers to assess the usefulness of the translation for their purposes.
With regard to the foregoing, this treatise concludes that the
King James Version most accurately presents the Scriptures, and
therefore should serve as the definitive text for Christian people.
Foremost, the King James Version was translated from the
traditional and by far the most numerous texts in the original
languages. Also by design, the King James Version was competently
translated by a non-partisan and relatively impartial committee of
forty-eight men, who were devout Christians and highly skilled
academics. In addition, the King James Version has served well as
the traditional text of the Protestant church for nearly four hundred
years.
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Wherefore, it is recommended that the King James Bible be
retained and established as the standard Bible for Christian
instruction, study, and memorization, and furthermore that the King
James Version be respected as authoritative relative to establishing
doctrinal perspectives concerning Christian faith and practice.
Patristic Quotations
Many early Christians had a great zeal for the word of God, and
became prolific writers, who extensively quoted the New Testament
manuscripts in their writings. Their writings included letters, sermon
notes, commentaries, and books. Prolific authors that quoted from
the New Testament during early church times include Justin Martyr,
Tatian, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Cyprian,
Tertullian, Hippolytus, Papias, Eusebius of Caesarea, and Jerome,
among others. Altogether, these men documented over 36,000
quotations or allusions that can serve to confirm the New Testament
manuscripts. Dr. Grant Jeffrey observed,
"Historians have recovered almost one hundred thousand
manuscripts and letters from the first few centuries of this era that were
composed by Christian writers. Their love and devotion to the inspired
Scriptures was so overwhelming that these letters contain an enormous
number of direct quotations from the New Testament. ...These numerous
letters by the early Christians contain an astonishing 98 percent of the
New Testament" (Jeffrey p. 22).
The writings of the early Christians provide a valuable resource
for historical study. Their writings include quotations and allusions
to Scriptures that provide another opportunity for comparison and
correlation. By examining these early writings, scholars have been
enabled to determine with greater certitude the most accurate
readings of the ancient biblical manuscripts. In addition, the
Christian writings convey useful information, describing the
historical setting of the early church.
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Scholars have diligently labored to identify and document the
multitude of biblical quotations from early church times. Dr. Jaganay
recorded,
"Of the considerable volume of unpublished material that Dean John
Burgon left when he died, of special note is his index of New Testament
citations by the church fathers of antiquity. It consists of sixteen thick
volumes to be found in the British museum, and contains 86,489
quotations" (McDowell p. 52).
The extensive quotations and references to the New Testament
Scriptures by the early Christians enable independent correlation of
the Scriptures. Further, they indicate the deep esteem and reverence
that these authors had for the word, and show the widespread
awareness and usage of the Scriptures. Wherefore, the extensive
quotations of the Scriptures by the early Christian authors provide
objective and immutable evidence for the reliable preservation of the
Bible.
In addition to the early Christian witnesses to the inspiration of
the canonical manuscripts, there has been a continuity of orthodox
opinion concerning the Divine inspiration and authority of Scripture.
Moreover, central to the Christian ecumenical creed is an essential
recognition of the veracity of the tenets expressed in the Christian
Scriptures for matters of faith and practice, especially as they relate
to doctrinal perspectives.
Consistent with orthodox opinion, the evangelical International
Council on Biblical Inerrancy convened in 1978 and documented its
beliefs. In the Council’s, A Short Statement, they attest that:
1. God, who is Himself Truth and speaks the truth only, has
inspired Holy Scripture in order thereby to reveal Himself to lost
mankind through Jesus Christ as Creator and Lord, redeemer and
Judge. Holy Scripture is God’s witness to Himself.
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2. Holy Scripture, being God’s own Word, written by men
prepared and superintended by His Spirit, is of infallible divine
authority in all matters upon which it touches: it is believed, as
God’s instruction, in all that it affirms; obeyed, as God’s command,
in all that it requires; embraced, as God’s pledge, in all that it
promises.
3. The Holy Spirit, Scripture’s divine Author, both authenticates
it to us by His inward witness and opens our minds to understand its
meaning.
4. Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without
error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God’s
acts in creation, about events of world history, and about its own
literary origins under God, than in its witness to God’s saving grace
in individual lives.
Jesus Cited in History
There are at least five Jewish and also five pagan extant writings,
dating to the first two centuries A. D., that refer directly to the Lord
Jesus Christ or to Christians. These ancient documents
independently validate the fact that Jesus of Nazareth was a
historical person, thereby contributing to the evidence for the
accuracy of biblical accounts.
The authors of these books include Flavius Josephus, the authors
of the Babylonian Talmud, Plinius Secundus who was known as
Pliny (The Younger), Cornelius Tacitus, Mara bar Serapion, and
Suetonius. Selected examples of these writings are provided below.
They provide some interesting perspectives on the author's attitudes
toward Christians. In 93 A. D., the Jewish historian, Flavius
Josephus, wrote,
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"Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to
call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such
men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of
the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ; and when Pilate,
at the suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned him to
the cross [on A. D. 33, April 3], those that loved him at the first did not
forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the
divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful
things concerning him; and the tribe of Christians, so named from him,
are not extinct at this day" (Josephus p. 548).
Also the Roman historian, Cornelius Tacitus, wrote about 116 A.
D.,
"But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the Emperor [Nero], and
the propitiation of the Gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the
conflagration [or the burning of Rome] was the result of an order.
Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and
inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their
abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus [or Christ],
from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during
the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius
Pilate... Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with
the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to
crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly
illumination, when daylight had expired" (Tacitus p. 344).
As another instance of pagan writings, the Roman ruler, Pliny
(the Younger), wrote about 110 A. D.,
"But they [accused Christians] declared that the sum of their guilt or
error had amounted only to this, that on an appointed day they had been
accustomed to meet before daybreak; and to recite a hymn antiphonally to
Christ, as to a god, and to bind themselves by an oath, not for the
commission of any crime but to abstain from theft, robbery, adultery and
breach of faith, and not to deny a deposit when it is claimed. After the
conclusion of the ceremony it was their custom to depart and to meet
again to take food" (Bettenson p. 4).
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These and other examples of ancient writings provide
independent proof that Jesus of Nazareth was a real historical
person. Concerning the impression that the Lord Jesus Christ made
upon the unbelievers, the Bible records, “Then came the officers to
the chief priests and Pharisees; and they said unto them, Why have
ye not brought him [Jesus]? The officers answered, Never man
spake like this man” (John 7:46).
Biblical Archaeology
Numerous ancient artifacts and monuments have been
discovered that confirm the historical accuracy of the Bible. It is
truly remarkable how archaeology has consistently vindicated
historical information in the Bible. As such, the findings of
archaeology serve to increase confidence in the accurate recording
and preservation of the Bible.
For instance, one of the most extraordinary finds in the history of
archaeology involves the recent discovery of hundreds of ancient
scrolls in the Dead Sea area of Palestine. The Dead Sea Scrolls for
the traditional Hebrew Bible date from circa 60 B. C. through 20 A.
D. They are by far the oldest extant manuscripts of the Hebrew
Bible.
Scholars have compared the ancient Dead Sea Scroll manuscripts
with the authoritative ben Chayyim text of the 1500s. Their findings
show that the manuscripts match with high precision. In the five
major books of the Law including Genesis through Deuteronomy,
scholars found texts that contain differences in only 169 letters, and
none of these differences changed the meaning of a single word!
Moreover, they found 99.94% of selected manuscripts to be
identical. Additionally in the book of Isaiah, over ninety-five percent
of the texts compared matched exactly with only minor editorial
differences. Moreover, none of the differences impacted the meaning
of any of the thematic content. The Dead Sea Scrolls provide a
tangible confirmation of the accurate preservation of God’s word
through the millennia.
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Dr. Nelson Glueck, a noted Jewish archaeologist of Hebrew
Union College, worked extensively on archaeological excavations in
the land of Palestine. Dr. Glueck observed, "As a matter of fact,
however, it may be stated categorically that no archeological
discovery has ever controverted a Biblical reference. Scores of
archaeological findings have been made which confirm in clear
outline or in exact detail historical statements in the Bible. And, by
the same token, proper evaluation of biblical descriptions has often
led to amazing discoveries. They form tesserae in the vast mosaic of
the Bible's almost incredibly correct historical memory" (Glueck p.
31).
Another respected scholar, Dr. J. Kinnaman noted, "Of the
hundreds of thousands of artifacts found by the archaeologists, not
one has ever been discovered that contradicts or denies one word,
phrase, clause, or sentence of the Bible, but always confirms and
verifies the facts of the biblical record" (Jeffrey p. 70). Concerning
ongoing archeological discoveries, Dr. William Foxwell Albright of
Johns Hopkins University wrote, “Discovery after discovery has
established the accuracy of innumerable details and has brought
increased recognition to the Bible as a source of history” (Jeffrey-2
p. 214). Dr. Albright also concluded, “There can be no doubt that
archaeology has confirmed the substantial historicity of Old
Testament tradition” (Albright p. 121).
Further, Dr. Morris observed, "It must be extremely significant
that, in view of the great mass of corroborative evidence regarding
the Biblical history of these periods, there exists today not one
unquestionable find of archaeology that proves the Bible to be in
error at any point" (Morris p. 240). And again, Dr. Keith Schoville
concluded, “It is important to realize that archaeological excavations
have produced ample evidence to prove unequivocally that the Bible
is not a pious forgery. Thus far, no historical statement in the Bible
has proven false on the basis of evidence retrieved through
archaeological research” (Schoville p. 156).
In addition, biblical historical information has significantly
contributed to our knowledge of history and has led to important
archaeological discoveries and confirmations. Professor Unger
summarized, "Old Testament archaeology has rediscovered whole
nations, resurrected important peoples, and in a most astonishing
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manner filled in historical gaps, adding immeasurably to the
knowledge of biblical backgrounds" (McDowell p. 66).
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Again, Dr. Millar Burrows of Yale University acknowledged,
“On the whole… archaeological work has unquestionably
strengthened confidence in the reliability of the scriptural record.
More than one archaeologist has found his respect for the Bible
increased by the experience of excavation in Palestine. Archaeology
has in many cases refuted the views of modern critics. It has shown,
in a number of instances, that these views rest on false assumptions,
and on unreal and artificial schemes of historical development. This
is a real contribution and not to be minimized” (Burrows p. 91-92).
The historical accuracy of the Bible has been verified through
numerous archaeological discoveries. These facts serve as
convincing evidence for the accurate recording and reliable
preservation of the Christian Bible.
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Conclusion
The Lord Jesus Christ said, “I will not leave you comfortless: I
will come to you” (John 14:18). The Lord Jesus Christ said that His
words are spirit and life, even inspired and God breathed. The Lord
Jesus Christ has taken care to preserve even jots and tittles within the
Bible, and has promised to preserve His word from this generation
forever. The Lord Jesus Christ has spoken His word in many
languages, as evidenced on the Day of Pentecost. The Lord Jesus
Christ speaks to the hearts of His disciples in all languages.
Wherefore, the Bible exists, today, as progressive fulfillment of
the prophetic and resolute will of the Lord Jesus Christ. His words
are Divinely inspired, His words have been faithfully preserved, and
His words have been translated into our mother tongues. Through
His gracious faithfulness, the Lord Jesus Christ comforts us and
speaks to His children through His manifest and tangible word, the
Bible.
The truth of the word of God stands as its own supreme witness.
It is the truth of the word of God that makes men free. The testimony
of the Christian Bible reveals the depths of men’s hearts, bringing
light and life. Through the words of the Bible, truth is resonating
through the ages. The sacredness of the Scriptures, witnesses to its
Divine authorship.
Howbeit, the enemy of righteousness seeks to cast doubt upon
the intrinsic trustworthiness of the Bible. Uninformed people are
assaulted with deceptive information, concerning the origination,
preservation, and translation of the Scriptures. But, there is hope and
victory: for the Lord Jesus Christ has come that He might destroy the
deceptive works of the enemy.
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To combat this attack from the enemy of God, this book offers
incisive evidence showing the objective truth of Bible history.
Inspiration is God breathed into the hearts of men. Ancient preserved
copies of the manuscripts clearly show that the Bible has been
preserved with the utmost of care. Even the translation of the Bible,
into a multitude of languages, witnesses to God’s loving provision
and outreach.
The foregoing chapters compile significant evidence showing the
Divine inspiration, faithful preservation, and competent translation
of the Christian Bible. Objective research shines light upon the
darkness of ignorance, and dispels deception. The truth of this
abundant evidence should open the eyes of searching people to the
firm reality of the inherent trustworthiness of the Christian Bible.
Through the Truth of the Word of God in the Bible, hearts shall be
turned to the Light of the Almighty, even to the Lord Jesus Christ.
Amen.
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Epilogue
The Gospel Message
“For after that in the wisdom of God the world by wisdom knew not
God, It pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them
that believe.”
(1 Corinthians 1:21)
The Lord Jesus Christ brought a message of love and hope for
the world. The Lord Jesus Christ brought redeeming power for
whosoever would receive him as Lord and Saviour. The Lord Jesus
Christ said that He came “to give his life to be a ransom for many”
(Matthew 20:28; Mark 10:45). Through His blood atonement, the
Lord Jesus Christ provided the way to forgiveness and precious
salvation. Through His sacrificial love, the Lord Jesus Christ
justified “such as should be saved” (ACTS 2:47). Christians are
thankful that their sins have been forgiven and that they have been
set free by the blood of the Lamb. Consequently, Christians need not
fear the Judgment Day.
In turn, a recurring theme throughout the Biblical Scriptures is a
call for men and women to be reconciled to the Lord Jesus Christ.
The faithful are often exhorted to preach and share the word with
compassion. The following table presents some of the notable
Scriptures that motivate Christian evangelism. It is followed by a
loving rendition of the Christian salvation message.
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Table 60: Soul-Winning Wisdom
Let the redeemed of the LORD say so, whom he hath redeemed from
the hand of the enemy.
Psalm 107:2
They that sow in tears shall reap in joy. He that goeth forth and
weepeth, bearing precious seed, shall doubtless come again with
rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with him.
Psalm 126:5,6
The fruit of the righteous is a tree of life; and he that winneth souls is
wise.
Proverb 11:30
A true witness delivereth souls, but a deceitful witness speaketh lies.
Proverb 14:25
Multitudes, multitudes in the valley of decision: For the day of the
LORD is near in the valley of decision.
Joel 3:14
[Jesus said,] And the lord said unto the servant, Go out into the
highways and hedges, and compel them to come in, that my house
may be filled.
Luke 14:23
Let him know that he who converteth the sinner from the error of his
way shall save a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins.
James 5:20
And of some have compassion, making a difference; And others
save with fear, pulling them out of the fire, hating even the garment
spotted by the flesh.
Jude 22,23
&&&&&&&
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The Quintessential Salvation Message
Dear friend, May I ask you a question? If you were to die tonight,
where would you spend eternity? This is a solemn question intended
to evoke serious reflection concerning your relationship with the
Lord Jesus Christ. As a foundation, we affirm and recognize that our
current and future blessings depend upon our faith and trust in His
finished work. Through the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, a way has
been made to realize the truth concerning salvation.
To establish a basis for discussion, do you believe that the Bible
presents the inspired word of God? An affirmative answer is
important since the Bible provides the foundation for discussing the
teachings of the Lord Jesus Christ. The Bible declares, "Forever Oh
Lord, Thy word is settled in heaven" (Psalm 119:89). The Lord Jesus
Christ also prophesied, "Heaven and earth shall pass away, but my
words shall not pass away" (Luke 21:33). And wonderfully the Bible
assures us, "These things have I written unto you that believe on the
name of the Son of God; that ye may know that ye have eternal life"
(1 John 5:13). The Bible clearly explains that we can know for
certain and have a confident assurance of eternal life through the
Lord Jesus Christ.
The Bible finds no man excusable: for it clearly declares, "For all
have sinned and come short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:23).
Again, the Bible plainly explains, "Whatever is not of faith is sin"
(Romans 14:23). In addition, the Bible brings conviction by
asserting, “To him that knoweth to do good, and doeth it not, to him
it is sin” (James 4:17). Truly, that's why we are all in need of the
Saviour, even the Lord Jesus Christ, including each one of us
throughout the whole world.
The Bible says, "Christ Jesus came into the world to save
sinners" (1 Timothy 1:15). He came for you and for me, and for all
people throughout the entire world, yes even to show us “the way,
the truth, and the life” (John 14:6).
When the Lord Jesus Christ first came preaching, he exhorted,
“Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand” (Matthew 4:17). He
further admonished, "Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish"
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Jesus Loves You
(Luke 13:3). We need to be willing to turn from a worldly way to a
Godly way. It's a decision or choice that we make in our minds and
hearts to turn toward God. The Lord Jesus Christ explained that we
need to recognize our need for serious change and that we need to be
willing to start a new life.
Have you heard of the Judgment Day? The Bible says, “It is
appointed unto men once to die, but after this the judgment”
(Hebrews 9:27). The Bible reveals, "And I saw the dead, small and
great, stand before God, and the books were opened and another
book was opened which is the book of life. And the dead were
judged out of the books according to their works. And death and
Hell were cast into the lake of fire. This is the second death… And
whosoever's name was not found written in the book of life was cast
into the lake of fire" (Revelation 20:11-15). So there is a Book of
life, and we should earnestly desire that our names be kept in it. The
Bible further presages, “So then every one of us shall give account of
himself to God” (Romans 14:12).
The Lord Jesus Christ made it clear that radical deliverance is
needed. He explained, "Verily, verily, I say unto thee, except a man
be born again he can not see the kingdom of God" (John 3:3). The
Lord Jesus Christ further gloriously revealed, "God is a Spirit; and
they that worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth" (John
4:24). The Bible also explains, "Therefore, if any man be in Christ,
he is a new creature; old things are passed away; behold, all things
are become new" (2 Corinthians 5:17). Concisely stated, we need a
new start with a new heart.
May I ask you this question? Do you believe that the Lord Jesus
Christ shed his blood to wash away your sins? The Bible plainly
confirms, "The blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all
sin. If we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is
not in us. If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us
our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness" (1 John 1:7-9).
May I ask you this question? Do you believe that the Lord Jesus
Christ rose bodily from the dead and went up into heaven? The Lord
Jesus Christ foretold, "I will not leave you comfortless: I will come
to you… because I live, ye shall live also" (John 14:18-19). The
Bible triumphantly declares, "He is risen" (Matthew 28:6). Glory to
God!
416
Now when the Bible talks about salvation, it says this, "If thou
shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shalt believe in
thine heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be
saved. For with the heart, man believeth unto righteousness; and
with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. For the Scripture
saith, Whosoever believeth in him shall not be ashamed… For
whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved"
(Romans 10:9-13). The Bible exhorts, "Oh come, let us worship and
bow down, let us kneel before the Lord our maker" (Psalm 95:6).
Profession of Faith
At this time, you are invited to pray to the Lord Jesus Christ for
his mercy and salvation: for “now is the acceptable time; behold,
now is the day of salvation” (2 Corinthians 6:2). It's between you and
the Lord, and what matters is that you genuinely mean it in your
heart. The Bible beautifully summarizes, “For by grace are ye saved
through faith” (Ephesians 2:8). If you sincerely believe the following
words, please earnestly pray…
Heavenly Father, Lord Jesus, I know that I'm a sinner in
your sight, but I'm willing to turn from my way to your way. I
repent. I believe that the Lord Jesus Christ shed his blood to
wash away my sins. I believe that the Lord Jesus Christ rose
bodily from the dead, and ascended into heaven. Dear Lord
Jesus Christ, I ask you to save my soul, and to make me born
again, and to keep my name in the book of life, and to baptize
me with the Holy Ghost, and to guide me into all truth. In Jesus’
name I humbly pray. Amen.
417
Jesus Loves You
Praise the Lord! The Bible rejoices, "There is joy in the presence
of the angels of God over one sinner who repenteth" (Luke 15:10).
The Lord Jesus Christ declared, "My Father who gave them to me is
greater than all, and no man is able to pluck them out of my Father's
hand. I and my Father are one" (John 10:29-30). When you're in
God's hand, no one can pull you out.
Growing in Christian Maturity
May I share four thoughts to help strengthen and reinforce your
faith?
Number one – As soon as practical, make a written record of
your profession of faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. It will be a
reminder and reinforcement to you in times to come. Also, please
think about how close do you want to be to the Lord. The Bible
instructs, "Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you" (James
4:8).
Number two - Pray, and ask the Lord to provide you with
direction for your life. The Lord Jesus Christ reassured, "I will pray
the Father, and he shall give you another Comforter that he may
abide with you forever, even the Spirit of truth" (John 14:16), also
called the Spirit of Christ (Romans 8:9; 1 Peter 1:11). The Holy
Ghost, the Spirit of truth comes into our lives and guides us into all
truth. The Bible encourages, "Trust in the LORD with all thine heart,
and lean not to thine own understanding. In all thy ways
acknowledge him and he shall direct thy paths" (Proverbs 3:5,6). So
we'll write it down, draw near, and pray for direction.
Number three - Read your Bible, or listen to a recording of the
Bible. The classic King James Bible should serve as your definitive
text. The Lord Jesus Christ said, "Sanctify them through thy truth thy
word is truth" (John 17:17). I suggest you begin reading with the
book of John: for John is "the disciple whom Jesus loved" (John
21:20). This amazing Gospel includes Jesus’ teachings about peace
and being born again. The book of John begins, "In the beginning
was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
The same was in the beginning with God" (John 1:1,2).
418
The Bible provides our spiritual food. As an illustration, please
consider how long can you go without eating physical food? After a
couple of days, we become very hungry. It should be the same with
the word of God. We need to nourish our minds and our hearts with
the word of God everyday. The Lord Jesus Christ said, "I am the
bread of life" (John 6:35), and he also taught, "The words that I
speak unto you, they are spirit, and they are life" (John 6:63). So
we'll write it down, pray for direction, and study our Bibles.
And Number four - Tell someone whom you love. Share this
experience with someone, namely that you called on the Lord Jesus
Christ to save you and to make you born again. The Lord Jesus
Christ said, "Whosoever will confess me before men, him will I also
confess before my Father, who is in heaven" (Matthew 10:32). May
the Lord Jesus Christ be magnified!
As you walk with the Lord Jesus Christ, please seek fellowship
with other Christians. Diligently seek to find a Bible-based Christcentered church that you can regularly attend, where you may grow
in the nurture and admonition of the Lord Jesus Christ. By Biblebased, we mean a church that recognizes the Divine inspiration of
the Bible, and regularly uses the King James Bible. The Bible says,
“Let us not forsake the assembling of ourselves together” (Hebrews
10:25). The Lord Jesus Christ said, "Ask, and it shall be given unto
you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and the door shall be opened
unto you" (Matthew 7:7).
Moreover, Dear friend, you should seek to be baptized in water:
for even Jesus was baptized “to fulfill all righteousness” (Matthew
3:15). The Lord Jesus Christ gave the apostle Peter the keys of the
kingdom of heaven, which he preached to the people on the day of
Pentecost. Peter exhorted, “Repent, and be baptized every one of
you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye
shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost” (ACTS 2:38). Furthermore,
the Lord Jesus Christ commanded his disciples, “Go ye into all the
world and preach the gospel to every creature. He who believeth and
is baptized shall be saved, but he who believeth not shall be
damned” (Mark 16:15-16).
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Jesus Loves You
May you be encouraged! The LORD spoke unto Joshua and said,
“Be strong and of a good courage” (Joshua 1:6), and the Lord Jesus
Christ said to his disciples, “Be of good cheer; for I have overcome
the world” (John 16:33). The Bible says, "Follow peace with all
men, and holiness, without which no man shall see the Lord"
(Hebrews 12:14). Moreover, the Bible enjoins, "The fruit of the
Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith,
meekness, temperance; against such there is no law" (Galatians
5:22,23).
The Lord Jesus Christ loves you. He has a plan for your life, and
He desires that you grow in Christian maturity. Moreover, the Lord
Jesus Christ has said, “I will never leave thee nor forsake thee”
(Hebrews 13:5). May the Kingdom of God expand within you as you
hear the Word of God and obey it! Walk in the Spirit! Best of all the
Lord Jesus Christ taught, "This is my commandment, that ye love
one another as I have loved you. Greater love hath no man than this,
that he lay down his life for his friends" (John 15:12-13). The Lord
Jesus Christ emphasized, “By this shall all men know that ye are my
disciples, if ye have love one to another” (John 13:35). With great
compassion and mercy, the Lord Jesus Christ said to a repentant and
sorrowful sinner, "Thy faith hath saved thee, go in peace" (Luke
7:50).
May the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with thy spirit my
beloved! By the authority of the name of the Lord Jesus Christ we
humbly pray. Amen and amen.
420
Topical References
“And what doth the LORD require of thee, but to do justly,
And to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God.”
(Micah 6:8)
References within the above tome are listed below. They are
organized by topical categories to facilitate referencing and
identification. Within each category the references are presented in
alphabetical order by author. These categories include Apologetics,
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, Archaeology, Biblical History etc.,
Christian Martyrs, Prophecy, General References, Defending the
King James Version, Modern Language Bibles, and Supplemental
References.
Apologetics
1. Haley, John W. Alleged Discrepancies of the Bible. New
Kensington, PA: Whitaker House, 1992.
2. Little, Paul E. Know Why You Believe. Colorado Springs, CO:
Chariot Victor Publishing, 1999.
3. McDowell, Josh. Evidence that Demands a Verdict. San
Bernardino, CA: Here's Life Publishers, 1992.
421
Jesus Loves You
4. Torrey, R. Our Bible: Ten Reasons Why I Believe that the
Bible is the Word of God. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1898.
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
1. Charlesworth, J. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha –
Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments Volume I and II. New York,
NY: Doubleday, 1983.
2. Elliot, J. Dr. The Apocryphal New Testament. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press, 1993.
3. Golb, Norman Dr. Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The
Search for the Secret of Qumran. New York, NY: Scribner, 1995.
4. May, H., Metzger Bruce Dr. The New Oxford Annotated Bible
with the Apocrypha – Revised Standard Version. New York, NY:
5. Metzger, Bruce Dr. An Introduction to the Apocrypha. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1957.
6. Wise, M., Abegg, M., Cook, E. The Dead Sea Scrolls - A New
Translation. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins, 1996.
Archaeology
1. Glueck, Nelson Dr. Rivers in the Desert. New York, NY:
Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1959.
422
2. Unger, Merrill. The Unger’s Bible Handbook. Chicago, IL:
The Moody Bible Institute, 1998.
Biblical History etc.
1. Abrams, Cooper. How We Got the Bible. Bible Truth
Organization, www.bible-truth.org/howwegot.html, 1999.
2. Anders, Max. The Bible in Twelve Lessons. Nashville, TN:
Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995.
3. Bettenson, H. Documents of the Christian Church. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press, 1967.
4. Bible Basics. New Testament Origins. Netministries.org/
Bbasics/BBNOrig.html, 1996.
5. Branham, Rev. William Marrion. Seventy Weeks – Daniel.
Jeffersonville, IN: Voice of God Recordings, 1996.
6. Cahill, Thomas. How the IRISH SAVED Civilization. New
York, NY: Nan A. Talese Doubleday, 1995.
This book presents, “The untold story of Ireland’s heroic role from
the fall of Rome to the rise of medieval Europe.” It asserts that Irish
religious scholasticism as initiated by Saint Patrick provided a very
needed bridge of textual preservation especially of classical literature
during the fifth and sixth centuries. At a time when “Barbarians” were
overrunning Europe and burning libraries and books, the Irish, being an
outlying nation, had for a time the opportunity and zeal to copy and
preserve classical texts, most importantly including the Bible (e. g., the
Lindisfarne Gospels). Further, their evangelistic outreaches into Europe,
following the subsidence of the Barbarian advance, propagated the spread
of biblical scholasticism during early medieval times. As a result of their
evangelism, several (over seventy) monasteries and libraries were
founded throughout Europe.
423
Jesus Loves You
7. Carson, D., Moo, D., Morris, L. An Introduction to the New
Testament. MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.
424
8. Collins, Michael Dr., Price, Matthew. The Story of
Christianity. New York, NY: DK Publishing, 1999.
The authors present a beautifully illustrated history of Christianity.
Many prints with informative inscriptions are provided, averaging about
two/three per page. The narrative is a concise synopsis of the history of
Christianity providing on average three pages per era or century. There is
an attempt to balance perspectives involving Eastern Orthodox,
Independent, Roman Catholic, and Orthodox Protestant viewpoints. It is a
worthwhile survey, and visually pleasant.
9. Comfort, P. The Origin of the Bible. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale
House Publishers, 1992.
10. Concordant, How We Got Our Bible. Santa Clarita, CA:
Concordant Publishing Concern, 1998.
11. Connolly, Ken. The Indestructible Book - The Story of the
Bible – Video Series. Chandler, AZ: Bridgestone Multimedia Group,
1997.
12. Davis, Dr. John J. Biblical Numerology: A Basic Study of the
Use of Numbers in the Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book
House, 1968.
13. Elliott, E. New Testament Synthesis. Newburgh, IN: Trinity
Theological Seminary (Cassettes 1-16), 1996.
14. Foundation Press. The MASTER LIBRARY. Cleveland, Ohio:
The Foundation Press, 1923.
15. Geisler, Norman Dr., Nix, William Dr. A General
Introduction to the Bible. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1986.
Geisler and Nix provide a classic overview of the Bible in a scholarly
yet highly readable manner. The major categories addressed include
biblical inspiration, the canon, manuscript transmission, and translation.
Several elaborate tables beautifully categorize information and are a
major contribution to the field.
425
Jesus Loves You
16. Gometz, R. An Abbreviated History on How We Got the
Bible. Austin, TX: Witness Box Ministries, 1993.
17. Gundry, R. A Survey of the New Testament. Grand Rapids,
MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994.
18. Guthrie, D. New Testament Introduction. Downers Grove,
IL: Intervarsity Press, 1990.
19. Halley, H. Halley’s Bible Handbook. Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1965.
20. Hayford, Jack Rev. Walk Where Jesus Walked (Video).
Ventura, CA: Gospel Light, 1996.
21. House, H. Chronological and Background Charts of the New
Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1981.
22. Jeffrey, Grant Dr. The Signature of God. Toronto, Ontario:
Frontier Research Publications, 1996.
23. Jeffrey-2, Grant Dr. The Handwriting of God. Toronto,
Ontario: Frontier Research Publications, 1997.
24. Johnston, Robert D. Numbers in the Bible: God’s Design in
Biblical Numerology. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1990.
25. Josephus, Flavius. The Works of Josephus. Philadelphia, PA:
David McKay Publisher, c. 1890.
26. Leach, Charles Prof. Our Bible: How We Got It. Chicago, IL:
Moody Press, 1898.
27. LeHaye, Tim Dr. Jenkins, Jerry. Tribulation Force. Wheaton,
IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1996.
426
28. Lightfoot, Neal Dr. How We Got the Bible. Grand Rapids,
MI: Baker Book House, 1988.
29. Montgomery, John Dr. Faith Founded on Fact. Newburgh,
IN: Trinity Press, 1978.
30. Montgomery, John Dr. Where is History Going. Newburgh,
IN: Trinity Press, 1996.
31. Muncaster, Bruce. The Bible - General Analysis. Mission
Viejo, CA: Strong Basis to Believe, 1996.
32. Rambsel, Yacov Rabbi. His Name Is Jesus. Toronto, Ontario:
Frontier Research Publications, 1997.
33. Rambsel, Yacov Rabbi. YESHUA. Toronto, Ontario: Frontier
Research Publications, 1996.
34. Rogers, J. How We Got the Bible. Gainesville, FL: The
Forerunner, 1991.
35. Satinover, Dr. Jeffrey. Cracking the Bible Code: The Real
Story of the Stunning Discovery of Hidden Knowledge in the First
Five Books of the Bible. New York, NY: Harper-Collins Publishers
Inc., 1997.
36. Smith, T. How We Got Our Bible. Macon, GA: Smyth &
Helwys Publishing, 1994.
37. Smyth, P. How We Got Our Bible. New York, NY: James
and Pott Co.
38. Sper, D. Can I Really Trust the Bible? Grand Rapids, MI:
RBC Ministries, 1986.
39. Tacitus. The Annals of Tacitus, Philadelphia, PA: The
Franklin Library, 1982.
427
Jesus Loves You
40. Voice of God Recordings. Catch the Vision. Jeffersonville,
IN: Voice of God Recordings, Inc., December 2003.
41. Wolf, Dr. Herbert M. An Introduction to the Old Testament
Pentateuch. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1991.
Christian Martyrs
1. dcTalk and Voice of the Martyrs. Jesus Freaks. Tulsa, OK:
Albury Publishing, 1999.
2. Foxe, John. Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Springdale, PA: Whitaker
House, 1981.
3. Foxe, John (Prepared by Berry, G.). Foxe’s Book of Martyrs.
Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1997.
4. Foxe, John (Edited by Harold Chadwick). The New Foxe’s
Book of Martyrs. North Brunswick, NJ: Bridge-Logos Publishers,
1997.
5. Hanks, Geoffrey. 70 Great Christians: The Story of the
Christian Church. Geanies House, Scotland: Christian Focus
Publications Limited, reprinted 2000.
Prophecy
1. Joyner-2, Rick. Shadows of Things to Come. Nashville, TN:
Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2001.
2. Joyner, Rick. The Call. Charlotte, NC: Morning Star
Publications, 1999.
428
3. Randolph, Larry. User Friendly Prophecy. Shippensburg, PA:
Destiny Image Publishers, 1998.
General References and Resources
1. Authorized King James Version, The Holy Bible. Grand
Rapids, MI: Word Publishers, 1986.
2. Boyd, J. Boyd’s Bible Dictionary. Holman Bible Publishers,
1996.
3. Conner, Kevin J. Interpreting the Symbols and Types.
Portland, OR: Bible Temple Publishing, 1992.
4. Dake, Feinings. Dake's Annotated
Lawrenceville, GA: Dake Bible Sales, 1991.
Reference
Bible.
5. Dockrey, Karen and Godwin, Johnnie & Phyllis. The Student
Bible Dictionary. Uhrichsville, OH: Barbour Publishing, 2000.
6. Ferguson, B., Wright, D., Packer, J. New Dictionary of
Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 1988.
7. Scofield, C. The New Scofield Reference Bible. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press, 1967.
8. Strong, J. The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the
Bible. Atlanta, GA: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995.
9. Webster, Noah 1828. American Dictionary of the English
Language. San Francisco, CA: Foundation for American Christian
Education, 1996.
429
Jesus Loves You
10. Wigram. The New Englishman’s Hebrew Concordance.
Hendrickson Publishers, 1984.
Defending the Traditional Text
1. Burgon, Dean. Revision Revised. Published by the Dean
Burgon Society, Box 354, Collingswood, NJ 08108, USA Tel: 609854-4452. (Quote p. 319, 350, and 365)
2. Burgon-2, Dean John William. The Last Twelve Verses of
Mark. Published by Bible for Today, 900 Park Avenue,
Collingswood, NJ.
3. Burgon-3, Dean John William. The Traditional Text of the
Holy Gospels. Published by the Dean Burgon Society, Box 354,
Collingswood, NJ 08108, USA Tel: 609-854-4452. (Quote p. 319,
350, and 365)
4. Burgon-4, Dean John William. Inspiration and Interpretation.
Published by the Dean Burgon Society, Box 354, Collingswood, NJ
08108, USA Tel: 609-854-4452. (Quote p. 319, 350, and 365)
5. Loughran, D. Versions of the Bible. Stewarton, Scotland:
Stewarton Bible School, 1998.
6. Paine, Gustavus S. The Men Behind the KJV. Grand Rapids,
IL: Baker Book House, 1959.
430
7. Waite, Rev. Dr. David A. A Brief Summary of Inspiration and
Interpretation. Collingswood, NJ: The Bible for Today, 900 Park
Avenue, Collingswood, NJ 08108, 1999.
Modern Language Bibles
1. Good News for Modern Man: The New Testament - Today’s
English Version. New York, NY: American Bible Society, 1971.
2. Holy Bible: New International Version. Colorado Springs,
CO: International Bible Society, 1984.
3. New American Bible: Saint Joseph MEDIUM SIZE Edition.
New York, NY: Catholic Book Publishing Company, 1970.
4. (RSV) Revised Standard Version: The New Oxford Annotated
Bible with the Apocrypha – Expanded Edition. New York, NY:
5. The Amplified Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan
Publishing House and the Lockman Foundation, 1987.
6. The Living Bible: Paraphrased – Special Crusade Edition for
the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale
House Publishers, 1972.
7. The Modern Language Bible: The New Berkeley Version.
Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1959.
“With expectant joy and acknowledgment of our Father’s sustaining
grace we surrender the results of our endeavors to the readers of the
Bible, supremely grateful to Him who first inspired its contents. We pray
that this version may be instrumental in the fulfillment of God’s purpose,
a translation of His teachings into Christ-like living. This will most amply
reward our labors” (The Modern Language Bible, Preface, by Gerrit
Verkuyl, Ph.D. D.D., 1959).
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Jesus Loves You
8. The Revised English Bible with the Apocrypha. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Supplemental References
1. Albright, W. F. Dr. “Archaeology and the Religion of Israel”
in Howard F. Vos, An Introduction to Bible Archaeology. Chicago:
Moody Press, date unknown.
2. Archer, Gleason. Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties. Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1982.
3. Bede, Venerable. Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation.
Cambridge University: UK, 1881.
4. Burrows, Millar Dr. “What Mean These Stones” in Vos, An
Introduction to Bible Archaeology. Chicago: Moody Press, date
unknown.
5. Colson, F. H. Philo. (A translation) Volume 9. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University, 1941.
6. Darlow, T. Moule, H. Historical Catalogue of the Printed
Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign
Bible Society.
7. Deissmann, Gustav Adolf. Light from the Ancient East.
Translated by L. Strachan. New York, NY: Harper, 1923.
8. Hoare, H. W. The Evolution of the English Bible. Second
edition. London: Murray, 1902.
9. Hodges, Zane C. The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:538:11). Bibliotheca Sacra 163 (1979): 318-32.
432
10. Kenyon, Sir Frederic G, Adams A. The Text of the Greek
Bible Third Edition. London: Gerald Duckworth, 1975.
11. Kenyon, Sir Frederic G. Our Bible and the Ancient
Manuscripts. New York, NY: Harper and Brothers, 1958.
12. Metzger, Bruce Dr. Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An
Introduction to Greek Paleography. New York, NY: Oxford
University, 1981.
13. Metzger-2, Bruce Dr. The Text of the New Testament: Its
Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration. New York, NY: Oxford
University, 1964.
14. Metzger-3, Bruce Dr. The Early Versions of the New
Testament: Their Origins, Transmission, and Limitations. (Please
see p. 293; pp. 295-308, 461-64 for a checklist of Old Latin
manuscripts) Oxford: Clarendon, 1977.
15. Morris, H. The Bible and Modern Science. Chicago, IL:
Moody Press, 1956.
16. Schaff, Philip. Companion to the Greek Testament and the
English Version. Third edition, New York: Harper, 1883.
17. Schaff-2, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Seven
volumes. Fifth edition. New York: Scribner, 1910.
18. Schaff, Philip, Wace, Henry, Editors. The Nicene and PostNicene Fathers. Twelve Volumes. Second Series. 1890-95. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952.
19. Schoville, Keith N. Biblical Archaeology in Focus. Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1978.
20. Stevenson, J. A New Eusebius: Documents Illustrative of the
History of the Church to A. D. 337. London: SPCK, 1957.
433
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21. Warfield, Benjamin B. An Introduction to Textual Criticism
of the New Testament, London, 1886.
22. Young, E. Y. “The Canon of the Old Testament,” in
Revelation and the Bible, ed. C. F. Henry. Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Baker Book House, 1956.
434
INDEX
106, 107, 108, 111, 113,
116, 118, 131, 141, 159,
162, 178, 200, 202, 211,
245, 276, 279, 280, 281,
284, 288, 290, 291, 304,
326, 335, 365, 389, 390,
419
adonai, 184
Aelfric, 291
Agrapha, 140, 275
Albegenses, 201
Albright, 381, 408, 432
Aldham, 289
Aleppo Codex, 186
Alexandria, 150, 158, 162,
188, 190, 202, 203, 208,
243, 245, 252, 259, 326,
334, 336, 398, 403
Alexandrian Codex, 208
Allegory, 42
Althanasius, 245, 246, 252,
261, 398
Amarna, 171, 359
American Bible Society, 267,
317
American Standard Version,
314, 316, 318, 319
Amos, 101
Amphilochius, 237
Anders, 46, 60, 386, 423
Andrew, 107, 123, 153, 221,
280
1
1 Corinthians, 73, 74, 101,
143, 175, 224, 319, 325
1 Esdras, 255
1 John, 29, 41, 141, 142, 212,
391
1 Maccabees, 255
1 Peter, 97, 99, 250
1 Thessalonians, 74, 144
1 Timothy, 102, 142, 415
2
2 Corinthians, 98, 209, 225,
237, 416, 417
2 Esdras, 258
2 Maccabees, 255
2 Peter, 34, 63, 141, 144, 201,
208, 246, 250, 284, 391
2 Samuel, 34, 231
2 Thessalonians, 209, 273
2 Timothy, 25, 63, 269, 385
3
3 John, 208
A
Abegg, 422
Abilene, 85
Abrams, 423
ACTS, 32, 72, 78, 90, 94, 95,
96, 97, 98, 101, 103, 105,
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Jesus Loves You
angel, 32, 33, 37, 87, 91, 112,
144, 289
Annipadda, 168
Annunciation, 87
Antilegomena, 267
Antioch, 149, 170, 218, 329,
335, 336
Antipas, 85, 368
apocrypha, 227, 247, 253,
254, 259, 260, 261, 262,
263, 264, 265, 266, 267,
277
Apocrypha, 248, 253, 261,
264, 265, 266, 267, 273,
277, 295, 304, 384, 398,
399, 400, 421, 422
apostles, 30, 72, 73, 74, 94,
116, 123, 129, 142, 144,
152, 154, 157, 198, 240,
243, 261, 279, 325, 326,
329, 331, 334, 390, 392,
395
Apostolic, 243, 245, 252, 398
Aquila, 190
Arabic translations, 211, 331
Aramaic, 172, 173, 174, 175,
185, 188, 208, 236, 271,
272, 374, 376, 400
Archer, 432
Aristobulus, 167, 268
Ark, 33, 231, 356
Armenian, 205, 277
Artaxerxes, 174, 225, 226,
256, 397
Ashkelon, 358
Ashkenazi, 194
Augustus, 85, 147
B
Babylon, 168, 169, 170, 180,
225, 234, 235, 236, 257,
258, 262, 356, 357, 362,
363, 397
baptized, 92, 94, 108, 119,
157, 211, 419
Barker, 250, 307
Barococcio, 243, 244
Bartholomew, 123, 156, 280,
282
Baruch, 209, 257, 258, 268
Beatty, 200, 217, 366
Bede, 289, 290, 432
Behistun, 171
Bel and the Dragon, 257
Bethlehem-Ephrathah, 87
Bettenson, 322, 338, 352, 406,
423
Beza, 210, 220, 221, 296, 297
Bible, 1, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
25, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37,
38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46,
47, 60, 64, 66, 67, 87, 88,
89, 90, 94, 95, 118, 139,
141, 142, 146, 152, 160,
162, 163, 164, 165, 167,
172, 173, 177, 178, 180,
183, 188, 189, 191, 193,
201, 203, 205, 206, 207,
208, 212, 214, 215, 220,
221, 222, 223, 228, 229,
230, 237, 238, 239, 243,
247, 248, 252, 254, 255,
257, 258, 261, 265, 266,
267, 269, 270, 273, 283,
284, 286, 288, 289, 291,
292, 293, 294, 295, 296,
436
297, 298, 302, 307, 308,
309, 312, 313, 314, 315,
316, 317, 318, 322, 324,
325, 327, 336, 339, 341,
344, 345, 346, 347, 348,
353, 355, 360, 363, 366,
379, 380, 381, 382, 383,
384, 386, 388, 389, 390,
394, 396, 397, 398, 401,
402, 404, 407, 408, 410,
415, 416, 417, 418, 419,
420, 421, 422, 423, 425,
426, 427, 429, 430, 432,
433
Biblia Hebraica
Stuttgartensia, 187, 192
Bilalama of Eshnunna, 363
Bodmer, 201, 202
Boharic, 202
Boussard, 172
Boyd, 86, 429
Branham, 39, 82, 341, 423
Burgon, 202, 203, 204, 210,
338, 339, 340, 404, 430
Burrows, 382, 410, 432
Burton, 203
Carson, 140, 424
Carthage, 149, 150, 246, 252,
333, 335, 398
Cassiodorus, 206
catacombs, 151
Catholic, 207, 217, 246, 247,
254, 255, 257, 258, 265,
267, 277, 298, 317, 333,
342, 425
Chadwick, 163, 428
Challoner, 298
Chapman, 46
Charlesworth, 249, 268, 422
Chayyim, 185, 188, 193, 306,
379, 394
Chronicles, 33, 70, 187, 227,
228, 229, 230, 231, 234,
255, 258, 304, 361
Chrysostom, 306, 336
Clement, 177, 207, 281, 326,
329, 334, 338, 403
Codex Bezae, 210
Codex Boernerianus, 211, 337
Codex Leningradensis, 186
Codex Sinaiticus, 204
Codex Vaticanus, 203
Collins, 150, 151, 425
Colossians, 143, 246, 366
Colson, 230, 432
Compultensian Polyglot, 188
Conner, 429
Connolly, 425
Cook, 422
Coptic, 202, 211, 278, 364
Council of Trent, 206, 254,
298
covenant, 33, 35, 98, 102,
224, 225
Coverdale, 219, 295, 296
C
Caedmon, 289
Caesar, 137
Caesarea, 85, 117, 130, 161,
191, 326, 327, 403
Cahill, 290, 423
Cairo Geniza, 185
canon, 222, 223, 224, 225,
227, 236, 237, 238, 239,
240, 241, 242, 243, 245,
248, 252, 260, 261, 263,
396, 397, 398, 425
437
Jesus Loves You
Cranmer, 296, 320
Curetonian Syriac, 209
cursive, 177, 202, 211
Cyprian, 201, 326, 335, 403
Egypt, 33, 68, 101, 149, 157,
158, 159, 166, 167, 171,
172, 185, 186, 188, 200,
201, 202, 203, 208, 224,
276, 358, 361, 366
Egyptian Hieroglyphic, 172
Ellinger, 192
Elliot, 422
elohim, 184
Elzevir, 221
Ephesians, 29, 74, 105, 113,
246, 329, 366, 417
Ephesus, 154, 156
Ephraem Manuscript, 209
Epistles, 118, 178, 219, 236,
244, 246, 281, 336
Erasmus, 212, 218, 219, 220,
221, 293, 306
Erfurt Codices, 187
Esther, 185, 190, 229, 256,
366, 379
Ethiopia, 157, 211
Ethiopic manuscripts, 211
Eumenes II, 166
Eusebius, 161, 167, 189, 191,
201, 206, 245, 326, 328,
331, 365, 403
Exodus, 31, 32, 35, 77, 185,
224, 229, 231, 290
eyewitness, 116, 118, 119,
138, 139, 140, 141, 196,
198, 325, 390, 391, 395
Ezekiel, 33, 35, 36, 71, 186,
187, 229, 234, 237, 269,
366
Ezra, 78, 79, 174, 190, 225,
227, 228, 229, 231, 235,
255, 269, 282, 397
D
Dake, 84, 85, 429
Daniel, 33, 35, 37, 80, 174,
188, 190, 229, 234, 256,
257, 269, 366
Darlow, 286, 432
De Rossi, 191
Dead Sea Scrolls, 184, 185,
191, 192, 367, 374, 376,
379, 407, 422
Decius, 150
Decretum Gelasianum, 274,
401
Deissmann, 432
deuterocanonical, 251, 254
Deuteronomy, 27, 30, 32, 34,
35, 39, 68, 69, 78, 96, 118,
179, 185, 189, 221, 229,
231, 366, 379, 390, 407
Diocletian, 150, 151, 161
Dockrey, 429
dream, 31, 68, 70, 72, 75, 95,
389
E
Eannatum, 169
Easter, 245, 246, 336
Eastern Orthodox, 251, 269,
425
Ebla, 169
Ecclesiastes, 70, 229, 304
Ecclesiasticus, 259
Egbert, 290
438
355, 364, 372, 374, 384,
395, 401, 433
Gundry, 243, 426
Gutenberg, 215
Guthrie, 426
F
Fayumic, 202
Felicitas, 149
Foxe, 152, 160, 393, 428
G
H
Gabriel, 37, 87
Galatians, 42, 95, 96, 100,
116, 175, 246, 366, 390,
420
Galilee, 87, 91, 97, 107, 110,
119, 133, 180, 183
Geisler, 161, 176, 210, 222,
227, 296, 314, 425
Gemara, 180, 271, 400
Genesis, 27, 30, 95, 167, 170,
174, 203, 229, 230, 231,
304, 355, 356, 357, 358,
366, 379, 407
Geneva, 201, 220, 265, 266,
292, 296, 297, 307, 320
Ginsberg, 191
Glueck, 354, 380, 408, 422
Godwin, 54
Golb, 369, 422
Gometz, 426
Goodspeed, 316
Greek, 26, 60, 162, 171, 172,
176, 177, 185, 188, 189,
190, 195, 198, 201, 202,
203, 204, 207, 208, 209,
210, 211, 212, 217, 218,
219, 220, 221, 225, 244,
253, 254, 261, 269, 285,
292, 293, 295, 299, 303,
306, 312, 315, 316, 318,
332, 333, 334, 336, 337,
Habakkuk, 36, 373
Hadrian, 149, 303, 332, 364
Haggada, 272, 400
Haggai, 79, 227
Halacha, 271, 400
Halakah, 272, 400
Haley, 46, 47, 55, 239, 421
Halley, 426
Hammurabi, 170, 363
Hampton Court, 299
Hanks, 428
Hayford, 426
Hebrew, 25, 26, 33, 38, 77,
95, 167, 170, 172, 173, 177,
179, 180, 183, 184, 185,
186, 187, 188, 189, 190,
191, 192, 193, 206, 207,
226, 227, 228, 229, 230,
236, 237, 254, 255, 256,
257, 258, 261, 271, 272,
285, 292, 297, 303, 306,
318, 319, 359, 364, 365,
372, 374, 376, 379, 384,
394, 397, 400, 401, 407,
430
Hebrews, 27, 28, 32, 63, 74,
103, 105, 106, 140, 188,
200, 203, 225, 244, 245,
246, 248, 274, 278, 336,
359, 366, 419, 420
heresies, 334
Hexapla, 189, 190, 191
439
Jesus Loves You
Hippo, 246, 337
Hoare, 290, 291, 293, 432
Hodges, 221, 432
Holy Ghost, 34, 41, 87, 88,
90, 91, 94, 126, 141, 143,
162, 212, 284, 342, 386,
388, 389, 417, 418, 419
Holy Mother Church, 317
Homer, 196
Homologoumena, 267
Hort, 314, 315, 316
Hosea, 34, 44, 100, 101
Hunt, 200, 366
Hyperbole, 42
244, 245, 246, 249, 264,
266, 277, 282, 298, 299,
302, 307, 308, 309, 312,
315, 316, 319, 320, 323,
325, 379, 390, 401, 403,
414, 415, 418, 419, 427,
429
Jamnia, 244, 252, 262, 398
Jeremiah, 35, 36, 70, 79, 80,
100, 174, 183, 186, 187,
190, 203, 209, 224, 227,
229, 257, 258, 364, 366
Jerome, 152, 190, 191, 201,
206, 253, 254, 261, 277,
292, 326, 337, 364, 393,
403
Jesus, 4, 14, 15, 16, 25, 27,
28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36,
37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 60, 62,
63, 65, 71, 72, 74, 75, 78,
87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,
94, 95, 106, 107, 108, 109,
110, 111, 112, 116, 118,
119, 120, 121, 122, 123,
124, 125, 127, 129, 130,
131, 132, 133, 134, 135,
136, 138, 139, 140, 141,
142, 144, 145, 146, 147,
152, 153, 154, 155, 156,
157, 158, 159, 162, 163,
196, 202, 203, 204, 208,
209, 211, 218, 223, 224,
230, 237, 238, 239, 243,
253, 259, 261, 263, 275,
276, 277, 278, 279, 281,
283, 288, 309, 312, 324,
325, 330, 332, 333, 337,
338, 344, 348, 350, 351,
352, 353, 354, 364, 365,
I
I Esdras, 255, 260
Ignatius, 149, 281, 328, 329
II Esdras, 260
inerrant, 65, 348, 389
infallible, 94, 343, 344, 347,
405
Inspiration, 1, 25, 26, 30,
237, 339, 341, 347, 397,
404
inspiro, 26
Isaiah, 34, 35, 36, 62, 65, 67,
87, 88, 89, 90, 97, 98, 99,
100, 104, 160, 173, 186,
187, 191, 229, 236, 269,
304, 363, 366, 373, 380,
387, 388, 407
Ituraea, 85
J
James, 63, 116, 123, 129, 132,
154, 157, 158, 159, 188,
203, 208, 217, 220, 243,
440
384, 385, 386, 388, 389,
390, 391, 392, 393, 395,
404, 405, 406, 407, 414,
415, 416, 417, 418, 419,
420, 426, 427, 428
Jethro, 58
Job, 25, 27, 70, 104, 167, 190,
229, 269
Joel, 31, 95, 101, 389, 414
John, 25, 29, 32, 33, 35, 37,
40, 41, 42, 46, 60, 62, 65,
72, 74, 78, 88, 89, 90, 93,
94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102,
103, 104, 105, 107, 108,
109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
116, 118, 119, 122, 123,
129, 130, 132, 140, 141,
144, 145, 148, 152, 153,
154, 155, 156, 160,꿸162,
177, 187, 189, 200, 201,
202, 203, 204, 208, 209,
210, 212, 219, 223, 238,
239, 245, 246, 250, 253,
280, 282, 283, 289, 292,
295, 296, 297, 299, 303,
309, 319, 324, 325, 328,
329, 334, 336, 338, 341,
343, 350, 354, 359, 364,
365, 378, 386, 388, 390,
391, 392, 393, 404, 415,
416, 418, 419, 420, 421,
427, 432
John the Baptist, 88
Johnston, 46
Jonah, 293, 357
Josephus, 84, 192, 225, 226,
227, 261, 350, 351, 353,
397, 405, 406, 426
Joshua, 77, 186, 190, 229,
231, 358, 359, 420
Joyner, 76, 428
Jude, 14, 116, 157, 159, 201,
208, 245, 246, 249, 269,
270, 304, 390, 414
Judges, 186, 227, 228, 229
Judith, 203, 204, 209, 256,
262
Justin Martyr, 326, 330, 331,
335, 403
K
Kennicott, 191
Kenyon, 190, 222, 396, 433
Sir Frederick, 308
Ketuvim, 228, 229
King Alfred, 290
Kings, 69, 98, 186, 187, 190,
191, 227, 229, 234, 239,
304, 307, 359, 360, 361,
362, 365
Kittel-Kahle, 191
Koren, 194
L
Lactantius, 150
Lamentations, 191, 227, 229
Lamsa, 208
Langston, 291
Latin Vulgate, 190, 206, 207,
219, 254, 261, 265, 291,
292, 298, 396
Leach, 236, 327, 338, 339,
426
Lebbaeus, 123, 157
lectionaries, 140, 202
Lectionaries, 202
441
Jesus Loves You
LeHaye, 114, 115, 426
Leonidas, 149
Letter of Ariteas, 189
Letter of Jeremiah, 258
libellus, 150
Lightfoot, 314, 427
Lincoln, 60
Lindisfarne Gospels, 290, 423
Little, 175, 236, 341, 421
Lollards, 293
London Bible Society, 267
Longimanus, 225, 397
Lord Jesus Christ, 415, 416,
417, 419, 420
Loughran, 203, 205, 430
Lucian of Antioch, 218
Luke, 27, 29, 32, 37, 38, 40,
72, 78, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,
93, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101,
102, 103, 104, 105, 106,
107, 108, 109, 110, 111,
116, 118, 119, 140, 141,
142, 152, 159, 178, 201,
230, 244, 246, 283, 324,
353, 365, 385, 388, 389,
390, 391, 392, 414, 415,
416, 418, 420
Luther, 217, 219, 249, 293,
295, 322, 341
Lysanias, 85
Mark, 27, 32, 40, 71, 89, 90,
91, 92, 97, 98, 102, 103,
104, 105, 106, 107, 108,
109, 110, 111, 116, 118,
119, 141, 152, 156, 158,
163, 175, 202, 203, 210,
237, 246, 278, 283, 324,
353, 364, 389, 390, 391,
392, 419, 430
martyr, 152, 162, 230, 295,
333
Mary, 37, 87, 129, 159, 276,
277, 295, 296
Masoretes, 180, 181, 184,
185, 186
Matthew, 4, 27, 29, 32, 38, 40,
43, 71, 78, 88, 89, 90, 91,
97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102,
103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
108, 109, 110, 111, 116,
118, 119, 122, 123, 141,
142, 145, 146, 152, 153,
156, 157, 175, 200, 208,
209, 230, 237, 246, 266,
277, 280, 295, 296, 324,
336, 353, 385, 388, 389,
390, 391, 392, 415, 416,
419, 425
Matthias, 153, 157, 274
Maximim, 149
McDowell, 193, 338, 381,
394, 404, 409, 421
Metaphor, 42
Metzger, 85, 201, 210, 422,
433
Micah, 87, 101, 105, 421
Michael, 37, 186, 212, 425
Midrash, 180, 270, 271, 272,
399, 400
M
Majority Text, 201, 217, 218,
221, 312, 335
Malachi, 88, 102, 103, 225,
227, 261, 266, 304, 397
Marcion, 243, 244, 330, 332,
333
Marcus Aurelius, 149, 330
442
Millenary Petition, 299
Minority Text, 312, 316
miracles, 73, 89, 276, 277,
279, 334
Mishnah, 180, 244, 271, 400
modern criticism, 46
Moffat, 315, 316
Montgomery, 427
Moo, 424
Moravia, 212
Morris, 381, 408, 424, 433
Moses, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 39,
68, 69, 77, 78, 92, 118, 132,
167, 170, 171, 179, 180,
186, 221, 224, 225, 226,
230, 231, 236, 270, 271,
386, 390, 397, 400
Moses ben Naphatli, 180
Mount Nebo, 232
Muncaster, 427
Muratori, 244
165, 166, 167, 173, 175,
176, 177, 188, 195, 196,
198, 200, 201, 202, 204,
205, 206, 207, 209, 211,
212, 218, 219, 220, 221,
222, 224, 236, 237, 238,
239, 241, 242, 243, 244,
245, 246, 248, 250, 252,
261, 264, 265, 266, 269,
270, 273, 274, 275, 276,
292, 293, 295, 298, 306,
314, 315, 316, 325, 326,
327, 335, 338, 339, 342,
343, 346, 365, 386, 389,
390, 391, 392, 393, 395,
396, 397, 398, 401, 403,
404, 422, 423, 424, 425,
426, 433, 434
Nicanor, 159
Nicea, 245, 246
Nicene, 333, 433
Nippur, 169
Nur-Ninsubar, 170
N
n’shamah, 25, 26
Nash Papyrus, 185
Nazareth, 87, 90, 350, 352,
405, 407
Nehemiah, 78, 80, 173, 190,
225, 227, 228, 229, 235,
255, 258, 397
nephesh, 26
Nero, 148, 157, 352, 406
Nevim, 228, 229
New International Version,
318
New Testament, 25, 30, 35,
40, 41, 65, 88, 89, 95, 106,
107, 116, 117, 118, 138,
142, 145, 153, 159, 163,
O
Old Latin (Itala), 201
Old Testament, 25, 30, 34, 38,
39, 65, 78, 79, 95, 142, 164,
165, 166, 167, 173, 174,
179, 180, 183, 185, 186,
188, 189, 190, 191, 192,
193, 204, 206, 207, 209,
211, 221, 224, 225, 226,
227, 228, 230, 231, 236,
243, 244, 246, 247, 252,
253, 254, 255, 260, 261,
262, 263, 264, 265, 266,
267, 268, 272, 291, 292,
295, 297, 298, 306, 314,
443
Jesus Loves You
315, 316, 319, 330, 332,
379, 381, 385, 387, 394,
396, 397, 398, 400, 408,
422
Origen, 149, 189, 190, 245,
261, 326, 335, 372, 403
Ormin, 291
orthodox, 47, 230, 242, 252,
260, 261, 268, 273, 339,
341, 345, 397, 398, 400,
404
Oxyrhynchus, 200, 274, 366
Peshitta, 207, 208, 217
Peter, 90, 95, 107, 110, 112,
113, 116, 120, 123, 130,
131, 132, 135, 138, 141,
152, 153, 244, 245, 246,
250, 274, 278, 280, 281,
282, 329, 342, 364, 389,
390, 391, 419
Petersburg Codex, 187
Philemon, 246
Philip, 123, 156, 157, 211,
280, 315, 433
Philippians, 246, 281, 329,
338, 366
Philistine, 358
Philo, 189, 230, 261, 270, 332
Photus, 268, 399
pneuma, 26
Polycarp, 149, 208, 281, 328,
329, 333, 334, 338
Pontius Pilate, 85, 276, 352,
365, 406
Prayer of Azariah, 256
Prayer of Manasseh, 258, 270
Preservation, 1, 179, 195,
196, 197, 198, 200, 213,
214, 274, 394
prophecy, 34, 43, 65, 66, 67,
73, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 94,
106, 115, 128, 144, 222,
227, 228, 288, 333, 388,
389
prophet, 31, 34, 65, 68, 69, 70,
71, 72, 75, 79, 80, 89, 95,
103, 126, 129, 130, 143,
336, 387, 388, 389
Protocanonical, 251
Proverb, 42, 160, 227, 386,
414
P
Packer, 429
Paine, 296, 300, 302, 303,
306, 307, 430
palimpsest, 209
Pamphilus, 191
papyrus, 165, 166, 200, 374,
375
Parables, 43
parchment, 166, 204, 205
Passover, 137, 158, 229, 353
Patmos, 117, 148, 154, 156,
238, 329
Paul, 113, 116, 142, 144, 148,
153, 157, 191, 200, 211,
237, 244, 246, 248, 280,
281, 282, 325, 329, 332,
336, 365, 366, 390
Pentateuch, 30, 167, 171, 183,
187, 189, 228, 231, 291,
293
Pentecost, 94, 229, 284, 389,
419
Perpetua, 149
Persia, 162
Personification, 43
444
Proverbs, 61, 62, 190, 229,
259, 418
Psalms, 39, 191, 203, 209,
229, 230, 236, 269, 270,
284, 289, 291, 292, 373,
379
Pseudepigrapha, 250, 253,
267, 268, 384, 398, 421,
422
psuche, 26
Ptolemy V Epiphanes, 172
246, 258, 283, 284, 304,
325, 329, 366, 369, 392,
393, 415, 416, 417
Rosetta Stone, 172
RSV, 85, 232, 256, 259, 260,
262, 316, 319, 321, 431
Rudolf, 187, 191, 192
Ruth, 227, 228, 229
ruwach, 26
Rylands #458, 189
S
R
Sahidic, 202
Samaritan Pentateuch, 187
Samuel, 29, 34, 69, 78, 87, 96,
105, 186, 190, 227, 229,
231, 233, 309, 360, 372
Satinover, 427
Saul of Tarsus, 32
sawel, 26
Schaff, 206, 315, 433
Schoville, 381, 408, 433
Scofield, 82, 84, 429
Semitic, 170, 173
Sephardi, 194
Septuagint, 188, 190, 228, 254
Shelemo ben Bayaa, 186
Shoreham, 292
Simeon, 88, 89, 149, 388
Simile, 44
similitudes, 34, 44
Simon, 107, 123, 129, 130,
131, 157, 159, 255
Simon Zelotes, 157
Sinaitic Syriac, 207, 209
Sippar, 168
Sixto-Clementine, 207
Smith, 303, 305, 306, 316,
357, 427
Rabbi Akiba, 190
Rabbula, 207
Rambsel, 192, 427
Randolph, 75, 429
resurrection, 31, 87, 90, 91,
94, 116, 137, 146, 230, 278,
279, 324, 329, 385, 388,
389, 392
Revelation, 33, 36, 74, 75,
102, 103, 107, 112, 113,
118, 144, 146, 150, 156,
159, 163, 177, 178, 200,
203, 208, 211, 219, 222,
238, 244, 245, 246, 247,
250, 269, 284, 366, 416
Revised English Bible, 184
Revised Standard Version,
316, 319, 422
Reynolds, 299, 303
Rheims-Douay, 298
Rhetorical question, 43
Robertson, 315
Rogers, 295, 427
Romans, 73, 90, 96, 97, 99,
100, 106, 109, 111, 147,
148, 152, 161, 175, 240,
445
Jesus Loves You
Smyth, 427
Song of the Three Young
Men, 257
Sopherim, 179, 180
Soul, 25, 26, 28
Sper, 427
Spirit, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
31, 34, 39, 41, 72, 73, 74,
89, 94, 100, 112, 119, 120,
126, 141, 143, 163, 227,
284, 333, 335, 336, 338,
343, 344, 347, 349, 385,
386, 388, 389, 405, 416,
418, 420
spiro, 26
St. Catherine, 204
Stager, 358
Stephanus, 220, 292, 297
Stephen, 159, 169, 282, 291
Stevenson, 151, 433
supernatural, 17, 26, 29, 66,
95, 284, 343, 353, 383, 389
Susanna, 257, 263
Symmachus, 190
Synod of Dort, 266
Syro-Hexaplar, 191, 207
Ten Commandments, 30, 31,
32, 33, 38, 171, 185, 290,
322, 385
Tertullian, 201, 225, 326, 333,
403
testimony, 32, 75, 116, 118,
124, 131, 140, 141, 144,
145, 146, 159, 162, 174,
242, 325, 328, 342, 390,
391, 392, 397
Tetragrammaton, 184
Thaddaeus, 123, 157
Theodocian, 190
theopneustos, 26
Thirty-Nine Articles, 247
Thomas, 93, 123, 156, 208,
277, 278, 280, 282, 295,
296, 303, 316, 423, 429
Thummin, 77, 78, 227
Tiberius Caesar, 85
Tiglath-Pileser I, 363
Tischendorf, 204, 209
Titus, 203, 246, 280
Toledo, 247
tongues of fire, 78
Torah, 167, 192, 228, 229,
271, 272, 400
Torrey, 422
Trachonitis, 85
Trajan, 148, 159, 329, 351
Translation, 1, 217, 283, 288,
315, 316, 319, 401, 422
Trent, 247
tribulation, 128, 145, 146,
150, 162, 392
Tyndale, 219, 293, 294, 295,
296, 297, 306, 320, 425
T
Tacitus, 197, 350, 351, 352,
405, 406, 427
Talmud, 166, 180, 182, 230,
270, 271, 275, 350, 399,
400, 405
Tanakh, 228, 261
Tannaim, 180, 244
Targum, 188, 236
Taverner, 295
Telephorous, 149
446
Wigram, 430
Wilson, 193, 394
Wisdom of Solomon, 203,
204, 209, 259
Wise, 422
Wolf, 358, 363, 428
Wycliffe, 177, 292, 293, 319
U
Ulfilas, 205
Unger, 381, 408, 423
unical, 176, 177, 202, 203,
204, 208, 209, 210
Urim, 69, 77, 78, 227
Ur-Nammu, 363
X
V
Ximenes De Cisneros, 188
Valerian, 150
Vatican II, 317
vellum, 165, 166, 177, 203
Verkuyl, 431
Y
Yemenite, 194
Yeshua, 38
YHWH, 184
W
Z
Waite, 339, 431
Waldenses, 201
Warfield, 434
Webster, 429
Westcott, 314, 315, 316
Westminster Assembly, 248
Weymouth, 315
Zacharias, 37
Zechariah, 79, 80, 89, 101,
102, 227, 230, 282
Zephaniah, 270
Ziggurat, 169
Zugoth, 179
447

Christian Bible History - Jesus Loves You Ministries

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