Untitled - Page under construction

Ismini Kavallari
Au th o r : Ism in i Ka va lla r i
e - m a il: ika va l@ g m a il.co m
Te xt Ed ito r : Je n iffe r Ne lso n
P r od u ctio n Su p e r viso r : Pla to n M a llia gkas
New Perspectives
in Literacy and Education
© 2 0 1 5 , Ism in i Ka va lla r i
© 2 0 1 5 , Ca r p e L ib r u m
A l l r i g h t s r e se r ve d . M a y n o t b e r e p r o d u ce d i n any form
with o u t p e r m issio n fr o m th e p u b lisher.
ISBN 9 7 8 - 6 1 8 - 8 1 2 4 4 - 8 - 6
Carpe Librum
To my beloved parents,
Demetrios and Aggeliki,
who have shaped my life
in a meaningful way.
Tabel of Contents
About the author
11
Introduction
12
PART 1
Educational Research
Engaging Values in Research Methodologies
13
Introduction
14
Discussions:
16
Value-Free Social Research
16
Paradigms: Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology 18
Facts and Values
22
Other sources of bias in the conduct of research
23
Quantitative and qualitative approaches
24
Etic and emic approaches
25
Praxis: A Review of Methdologies
of Two Selected Papers
26
Jennie Jahnke’s “Student perceptions of the impact
of online discussion forum participation on learning
outcomes.”
The research and its methodology 27
Critique of the Methodology
29
Zaffar Ahmed Shaikh’s “Usage, Acceptance, Adoption,
and Diffusion of Information & Communication Technologies
in Higher Education: A Measurement of Critical Factors.”
The Research Methodology
32
Critique of the Methodology
34
Conclusions
38
References
40
PART 2
Web 2.0 and Learning Literacy:
Processes, Barriers and Enablers
43
‘Towards a Framework for Assessing
Literacy Learning Through New Technology:
Processes, Barriers and Enablers in the Use
of the Web 2.0’.
Background and Problem of the Study
45
Literature Review, Research
Approach and Outline of the Study
The Social Orientation to Learning
The Characteristics of Communities of Practice
Situated Learning
Autonomous and Ideological Models of Literacy
The Use of Web 2.0 in Education
The Use of Web 2.0 in Lower Secondary Schools
in Greece
Factors affecting Web 2.0 Practices:
Barriers and Enablers
Web 2.0 and Learning Literacy:
Skills and Social Practices
A Conceptual Framework for Assessing
the Use of Technology for Learning Literacy
Concluding Remarks
References
PART 3
Practice-Based Research
The Case Study and Survey Methods
in Learner Autonomy
‘A Critical Decision on the Use
of Research Methodologies:
Case Study and Survey Methods.’
Introduction
The Case Study
Key Approaches for Case Study Methods
Application of the Case Study
Different Types of Case Studies
Strengths of Case Studies
Weaknesses of Case Studies
Summary
The Survey Method
Design or Construction of a Questionnaire
Distribution to Respondents
Strengths of Questionnaire
Weaknesses of Questionnaires
47
49
50
53
55
59
62
64
66
69
71
75
77
80
81
82
84
85
87
88
89
90
92
The Structured Interview
Strengths of Structured Interviews
Weaknesses of Structured Interviews
Summary
The Application and Use of Research Methods
in Learner Autonomy: An Aspect of New Literacies
Definition of Learner Autonomy
Theoretical Concepts of Learner Autonomy
Principles of Learner Autonomy in Greece Issues Preventing Autonomous
Learning in Greek Students
Importance of Autonomy in
the Curriculum and EFL Settings
The Characteristics of an Autonomous Learner
Promoting Learner Autonomy in Classrooms
Conclusion
References
PART 4
Approaches to Education Policy
An examination of the policy area
of exclusion in UK schools
Policy Analysis of Educational
Exclusion: Policy Drivers and Levers in UK schools
Introduction
Why pupils might be excluded
Race
Socio-economic status. Intelligence and opportunity
The effects of exclusion
How best to manage excluded pupils
Conclusion
References
PART 5
Literacy and Language in Contemporary Society
Digital Literacy through Computer Games and its Impact on Literacy in Learning Introduction
93
94
95
96
96
97
98
99
100
102
104
109
111
111
113
115
120
123
125
130
133
135
139
141
I. Review of Related Literature:
Learning Made Possible through the Internet
Modern Technology and Effective Teaching
Perspectives on How Digital
Literacies Enhance Learning
Effective Virtual Learning through Video Games
II. Video Games as an Effective
Instrument for Situated Learning
Participation is Key in Video Games Situated Learning
Identifying Educational Games
that Effectively Promote Learning
Computer Video Games Can Promote
Curriculum-Based Learning Computer Games Can Holistically
Improve Reading and Writing Literacies Contextualizing Situated Learning In and Out of School
IV. Conclusion
References
PART 6
Intercultural Sensitivity of EFL Teachers: Research Methods and Design
Intercultural Sensitivity of EFL Teachers:
Research Methods and Design
CHAPTER 1 – BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Theoretical framework 1.3 Objectives of the study
1.4 Statement of the problems 1.5 Statement of the hypothesis
1.6 Scopes and Limitations
1.7 Research approach/es
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview of cultural concept and cultural differences
2.2. The concept of Interculturalism
2.3 Intercultural Sensitivity and Communication
Competence in teaching
2.4 The DMIS measure
143
146
148
149
152
153
154
155
156
158
160
163
169
171
171
173
177
178
179
179
180
181
181
183
185
188
CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGN
3.1 Methodology: mixed qualitative
and quantitative approaches
3.1.1 Using focus group
and sample in qualitative phenomenological method 3.1.2 Adopting quantitative central tendencies
and variations analyses 3.2 Data collection and analysis
3.3 Research design/framework
3.4 Ethical considerations
References
190
190
191
194
194
195
196
198
About the author
Ismini Kavallari is now an appointed State teacher of English at the secondary education in Achaia prefecture (Western
Greece). She has been involved in teaching English as a Foreign Language, continuous research and academic writing for
the last twelve years.
In her free time she writes articles on Teacher Development,
Language Literacy and Intercultural Education. She has also
worked as an ESP (English for Specific Purposes) teacher and
an Adult Trainer. Her main interest always remains helping colleagues reach their full potential. She sees new technologies
as a learning tool and a great communication tool which has
engaged her in dialogue with her peers.
She has attended numerous workshops and teacher development courses but her main qualifications are an M.A. in
Educational Studies, University of Sheffield-UK, an M.A. in Applied Linguistics and TEFL, University of Portsmouth-UK, and a
B.A. in English language and literature, National Capodistrian
University of Athens.
But she still and always feels like a novice and considers
herself to be a lifelong learner. Her centre is her work and she
runs it without compromises and with great pride.
[ 11 ]
INTRODUCTION
This book brings together six unpublished papers that have
been produced under supervision while a research student at
the University of Sheffield; and where the quality of such papers is appropriate to MA level research in educational studies.
This series of papers presents a flavour of educational themes
that continue to provoke debate within the educational field.
They focus on contemporary debates in literacy, processes in
educational research and approaches to educational policy.
The book is an attempt to disseminate discussions and praxis
in the evolving field of educational research.
PART 1
Educational Research
Engaging Values in Research Methodologies
Introduction
Pierre Bourdieu once declared that “the will to know is driven
by a special kind of will to power” (Bourdieu, 1988, p. xiii). The
researcher is inextricably situated in a web of intellectual struggle. He pits his ideas against those of others. And in this field of
intellectual practice, he issues forth his person forged from his
education and his training matrices of formation that have been
internalized in his scholarship and form a habitus that structures his efforts to know. This in turn is reinforced or structured
by his own scholarly actions. Bourdieu’s habitus may be regarded, therefore, both as a platform from which, among other
scholarships, his research can be launched and as a delimiting framework that limits the researcher as social actor (Ortner,
2005).
It was Bourdieu, perhaps more than any other contemporary
sociologist, who lay down the subjectivist issue as a primary
concern for present research, although it was Max Weber who
has usually been attributed with the introduction of the concept
of value-free social research. Weber was quoted to have said,
“Statements of facts are one thing, statements of value another,
and any confusing of the two is impermissible” (Dahrendorf,
1987, p. 577). This statement is usually thought of as the origins of the value-free debate in social science research which
launched a severe rift in social scientific approaches to the
[ 14 ]
study of human behavior in societies. Ever since it was allegedly uttered, the approximation of objectivity in social research
has become a major concern. This is particularly true in the
field of social anthropology where the dominant methodology
has become qualitative particularly with regard to constructivist
or interpretive ontological or epistemological positions.
It was Bourdieu, however, who redefined the parameters of
the debate with his forceful point that since sociology and social science are symbolic enterprises, they are laden with symbolic power as all symbolic systems embody power relations.
Subsequently, since all practices are interested (i.e. driven by
interest), intellectual practices – including research – are interested (Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992). Bourdieu’s answer to
the question of objectivity is called reflexive sociology, which he
also posits as ultimately a moral quest “to associate the pursuit
of the universal with a constant struggle for the universalization
of the privileged conditions of existence which render the pursuit of the universal possible” (Bourdieu, 1989, p. 110).
This paper ventures into this question of objectivity in the
study of society. This concern shall be addressed through, first,
an examination of the literature on the debate and, second, a
review of two peer-reviewed research articles in the field of information and communications technology. The first of these
articles is “Student perceptions of the impact of online discussion forum participation on learning outcomes” (Jahnke, 2010).
The second is “Usage, Acceptance, Adoption, and Diffusion of
Information & Communication Technologies in Higher Education: A Measurement of Critical Factors” (Shaikh, 2009). These
articles admittedly were randomly chosen from typical examples
of social research being done in the field of information technology, displaying the characteristics of being, at the same time,
[ 15 ]
assessment-driven yet critical and advocative. However, it later appeared to this writer that as typical examples of even the
most scholarly of texts, value-freedom is difficult to attain and
researchers-authors operate within fields that necessarily reflect
their own positions and biases. The full texts of these articles are
located at the Appendix of this paper.
The positionality of this writer is essentially Bourdieuian,
that is, researchers cannot escape the habitus of their own intellectual fields but they must constantly be conscious of their
particular interested stances in order to have results that are
objective without being objectivist. In other words, the sociology
of information technology need necessarily be reflexive.
Discussions:
Value-Free Social Research
Social scientists have always been cautioned as early as their
formative years to be value-free in the conduct of research. At
the very onset, it must be made clear however that, as the stuff
of social research is human behavior in society, values are already intrinsic in the field of sociological study. Social values
are social facts. Social behavior is normative behavior. They
are a product of cultural prescriptions and social expectations.
Thus, any research done on social milieus is value-laden research.
However, Weber did not mean that social research must
never involve itself with social values as social facts. What he
did mean was that if social values must indeed be studied as
social facts, then the researcher must approach the focus of his
attention as an objective observer. The researcher, while in the
process of researching, must suspend all of his personal value
[ 16 ]
judgements and approach his topic without the biases of his own
ideologies, preferences and cultural positions. This is what value
neutrality means in research. When he suspends his own biases
and conducts research without advocating particular values, the
researcher contributes to the attainment of true knowledge, one
that speaks for itself without being influenced by one strand of
philosophy or another. Otherwise, the research becomes unscientific being merely propaganda passed off as science (Dahrendorf, 1968).
Value-free research would therefore be expected to free
the researcher from the limitations of his or her own cultural,
national and institutional biases. Through the researcher’s internalization of the value-free principle, he or she could have a
greater freedom to pursue questions and issues that disinterest
the agitator or the demagogue. By freeing the inquirer from the
confines of his or her own moral compulsion, it could contribute to the growth of intellectual freedom since it would give the
researcher an avenue of escape – at least during the research
– from the inhibiting effect of the moral confines of his/her own
society (Gouldner, 2009).
This is in theory. In practice, things are not what they appear to be. Values affect any research at any phase in its conduct from its very inception all the way to its re-examination and
evaluation after publication. Gunnar Myrdal puts it succinctly
albeit in a different context, “Chaos does not organize itself into
cosmos. We need viewpoints (to accomplish order)” (Miller &
Howell, 1960, p. 661).
Research itself is carried out to search for truth. This makes
it a value-guided enterprise since truth, in the same way as
order, or justice, or fairness, is a value term. It is also a value
goal. The conduct of research, therefore, is a value imperative.
[ 17 ]
Moreover, research is carried out within paradigms. Such viewpoints guide the formulation of hypothesis – which becomes,
thus, value-laden.
Indeed, Weber himself is ambivalent on this point. Weber
believed that a social scientist must declare out in the open his
values, aims and ends once he embarked on a social inquiry,
but once this had been accomplished, then he or she could proceed to a value-free investigation into the most effective ways
possible of accomplishing these purposes. In other words, a
value-free methodology could be adopted to accomplish the
aims of an objective research (Lassman & Speirs, 1994).
Much later, however, Weber is interpreted to have believed
that although values do not rest on any form of ultimate foundation, “it was possible and indeed necessary to argue for them
because the tensions between competing values are essential in order to prevent cultural stagnation” (Lassman & Speirs,
1994, p. xxiv). And Weber did so as frequently as he could when
dealing with the problems of Germany in his time. He used his
social science to critique what he thought were processes that
hindered his country’s progress and interests in dealing with
the rest of Europe (Portis, 1986).
Paradigms: Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology
A scientist is guided by a paradigm, which is a set of first principles or ultimates – the basic beliefs that guide action. These
have been theorized to be subject to shifts as the scientific world
reorganizes its orientations about the world (Kuhn, 1970). The
concept of paradigm underscores the idea that even scientists
including those in the physical and natural sciences, work within
a particular framework for perceiving and looking at the world.
[ 18 ]
This immediately presupposes a privileged position, which is in
itself a bias. Shifting paradigms, therefore, mean a shifting of biases from one perspective to another. This is underscored even
more so when we note that paradigmatic beliefs are basic in the
sense that they must be accepted simply on faith because they
cannot ultimately be proven to be true (Guba & Lincoln, 1998).
Consider also that paradigms are human constructions in
that they are products of thinking and reasoning. For example, the positivist paradigm emerged from the enlightenment
constructions of reason as the ultimate consideration for truth,
something that they counterposed against the superstition of
the middle ages. The critical theoretical paradigm also emerged
as a dialectic to the supposed rational objectivity of the enlightenment, as thinkers realized that not all of reality was subject to
the rationalizing, calculating sciences of the enlightenment. As
the enlightenment exposed the errors of traditional conceptions
of knowledge, critical theory also exposed the errors and missuppositions of the enlightenment – most notably that it created
its own mythological stances and attitudes from its false and
erroneous assumptions of objectivity (Horkheimer & Adorno,
1990; Horkheimer, 1947).
Paradigms have three major components: ontology, epistemology and methodology. For each of these components, issues of objectivity arise, more so when paradigms compete for
acceptability and legitimacy and even when they appear to be
complementary. Their implications in the value-free debate will
be discussed below.
The ontological question focuses on the form and nature
of reality. For positivists, there is a real world out there waiting
to be discovered. For constructivists, reality is a construct produced by local and specific experiences and meanings. Guba
[ 19 ]
and Lincoln (1998) explain that “if a ‘real’ world is assumed,
then what could be known about it is ‘how things really are’ and
‘how things really work.’ Then only those questions that relate
to matters of ‘real’ existence and ‘real’ action are permissible;
other questions such as those concerning matters of aesthetic
or moral significance, fall outside the realm of legitimate scientific inquiry” (p. 201).
The epistemological question stems from the ontological
one. If there is a real world out there, for example, as positivists
say, then how do we know what this real world is? What is the
relationship between us as researchers and the real knowable
world? Again from Guba and Lincoln (1998), “if a ‘real’ reality
is assumed, then the posture of the knower must be one of objective detachment or value freedom in order to discover ‘how
things really are’ and ‘how things really work’” (p. 201).
The methodological question also emerges subsequent to
ontology and epistemology. How we gain knowledge about the
world is presupposed by our basic stance of what the world is
and our relationship toward that world.
Note, however, that if paradigms are basic belief orientations, the ontological, epistemological and methodological
stances we adopt are themselves preconditioned choices that
are already attached to the specific paradigm that we choose
for ourselves. Choosing the positivist paradigm necessitates
the adoption of the realist ontology, the objectivist epistemology, and the primarily quantitative methodology as well. We cannot choose a realist ontology and a subjectivist or transactional
epistemology, as this is the epistemological stance required or
consistent with the critical theory paradigm. We cannot also be
positivist and apply hermeneutical or interpretive methodologies to acquire our data. Neither could we change paradigmatic
[ 20 ]
frameworks from one research work to another. As a pair of political scientists say, ontology and epistemology “are a skin and
not a sweater. They cannot be put on and taken off whenever
the researcher sees fit. In our view all students … should recognize and acknowledge their own ontological and epistemological positions and be able to defend these positions against
critique from other positions” (Marsh & Furlong, 2002, p. 17).
The search for one’s ontology starts from the time of our
training in social research. As we were introduced to the various theories and perspectives that could be employed in our
disciplines, we began to weigh for ourselves which paradigms
we are in conformity with. Our choices become solidified with
further readings, research, and as we do our own writing in the
social sciences. At first, we tried ontologies and epistemologies as if they were indeed sweaters but later on we started to
favor one paradigm over the others, as we became more convinced of its greater validity and reliability relative to the other
paradigms. The sweater became moulded to our research consciousness and we began to use it more and more often, until
it becomes as our own skin. The moment we did this, we privileged it over the others. By doing so, we chose a lens through
which we wanted to view reality. In Bourdieuian terms, they
eventually comprise our habitus (Brubaker, 2000).
In summary, therefore, when we choose paradigms we
choose a particular human constructed perspective from which
to view the world. This means that even as we adopt a positivist paradigm, the realist ontology, the objectivist epistemology
and the quantitative methodology are choices made over and
above other alternatives and no matter how we defend them as
objective and value-free, they remain choices valued over others. This means that there are really no objective or value free
[ 21 ]
approaches to social research, just privileged positions from
which we choose to understand reality as we think reality is
and how it should be known. The scientist cannot be separated
from his science, and if his science is a construct chosen over
other constructs, then the scientist himself cannot escape a
particular bias, the bias of his chosen paradigm.
Facts and Values
Nonetheless, the question on the basic level of the debate remains. If fact be fact, then no matter what methodologies are
used, it will be revealed as fact. The problem with this assertion
is precisely what critical theory noted as the major flaw in positivism, which it considered as traditional theory.
Horkheimer, as early as 1937, had described traditional
theory (and its methodologies) as any view that makes three
basic assumptions, to wit (a) that, ontologically, the world is
an ensemble of objective and observable facts that the knower
passively registers; (b) that, epistemologically, knowledge consists of propositions that are formulated so as to correspond to
these facts and hence can be regarded as true; and (c) that,
methodologically, these propositions may be joined in such a
way that their systematic interrelations form a seamless logical
or mathematical relation of necessity with one another (Wiggershaus, 1994).
His critique of traditional theory still stands out as the basic wellspring of critique against the hitherto status of fact in
scientific inquiry. In his seminal essay, “Traditional and Critical
Theory,” Horkheimer said, against the ontological stance of traditional theory, that science tags a fact as relevant by virtue of a
predefined notion of what constitutes a fact. Calling something
a fact therefore implies a value judgement, conferring on the al[ 22 ]
leged fact a certain significance or relevance for the scientist’s
own project.
Secondly, and against traditional theory’s epistemological
stance, Horkheimer said that propositions are not value-neutral
expressions of fact but are constructed within an entire social
discursive framework that provides its theoretical meaning.
Propositions are thus inseparable from the pre-theoretical discourse that defined its construction. The proposition, for example, that a user’s knowledge is a function of his or her computer
use time comes out of the general context of computer technology. It cannot exist outside of this discursive framework.
Finally, the assertion of traditional theory that several propositions could be woven into a seamless thread of reality obscures the actual tensions and controversies inherent in the
growth of knowledge and moreover produces a false impression that what has been produced is ‘reality’ that cannot be
attacked from non-mathematical perspectives (Surber, 1998).
In other words, we do not regard reality the way it is. We only
make up our vision of reality and our perception of the world in
general according to how the world is reflected in our subjective
natures. There is, therefore, no purely objective world which
we are bound to regard as representing reality. There is only
a changing, mutating world of symbols where meanings are
always based on the interaction between people who impose
such meanings over things.
Other sources of bias in the conduct of research
The choice of a subject of study, the hypotheses that are tested,
and even the measures we use to approximate our variables
are all sources of bias. Which is more objective or value free, for
example, a four-point Likert scale or a five-point one? In either
[ 23 ]
choice, we justify the existence of artificial divisions of a continuum (Senn, 1971). The definition of the variables that we use
in our research paradigms may have important implications particularly in methodology. Whose definitions are we really using?
The structures of a class, for example, may have a hand in the
conceptualization of these definitions, as a dominant group may
have had a hand in imposing its own interpretations of reality
over others while claiming objectivity for itself. This means that
our choice of concepts and their measurements may reinforce
value judgements and social biases (Alford & Friedland, 1985).
Quantitative and qualitative approaches
The choice between what methodology to use is a value judgement. Whichever approach is chosen therefore may not be
value free and there are certain issues of objectivity leveled
against it.
Quantitative approaches are usually designed within theoretical frameworks that specify the variables that are hypothetically related to the study’s purposes. This is of course faulty
since the variables that are preselected for the framework are
picked from among a list of all possible covariates considered
beforehand by the researcher when he conceived of the research project. The selection of the variables means the exclusion of other variables that may have the same or even more
effect on the phenomenon being studied.
Such exclusionary designs may, of course, enhance scientific rigor since they attempt to approximate laboratory conditions where other variables are kept constant (ceteris paribus)
while the effect of a preselected variable is measured scientifi-
[ 24 ]
cally, either as an individual variable or in conjunction with the
other preselected variables in multivariate analysis. However,
the stripping of other variables may also detract from the contextual relevance of the study, and its results therefore may
no longer be generalizable or useful for policy development or
decision making.
Quantitative designs are also faulty for privileging the mathematical relationship of variables over the social meaning of their
relationships, which is really another form of bias. Furthermore,
quantitative designs favor the use of metatheory over local contextualizations of theory such that the theoretical conclusions
would be grossly inapplicable to specific contexts and cases.
Qualitative designs, on the other hand, privilege the constructivist, interpretive paradigms. They are often critiqued for
their lack of objectivity and their corresponding over-reliance
on subjective sources of data. As such, they have been categorized into the ‘soft’ sciences; their findings are not utilized
for general societal purposes, being meant only to discover
particulars rather than generalizable and thus, policy-friendly
patterns and discoveries.The output of qualitative researchers
has been described as unscientific, merely exploratory, entirely
personal, and full of bias (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998).
Etic and emic approaches
The etic approach to research consists of an outsider bringing
his or her supposed objectivity to the investigation of a social
phenomenon experienced by a society of which he or she is not
a member (Jardine, 2004). This operates on the assumption
that an insider cannot acquire the necessary objective stance
[ 25 ]
needed to truthfully assess the affairs of his or her own society.
Nonetheless, the objectivity of the outside observer may also
be colored by his or her own socio-cultural values no matter
how much the investigator tries to distance these from the research. It should always be remembered that the scientist’s ontological and epistemological stances are skin and not sweaters to be removed at any time. Thus, the results of the etic
investigation may be of little or no practical value at all in relation to the needs and concerns of the communities or groups
being studied.
The emic (insider) perspective has the advantage of being
able to provide this meaning within the lived experience of the
investigator that he or she shares with the society being studied. The results of the investigation may be richer and deeper in
terms of meanings and symbols. However, there is always the
tendency to commit the fallacy of presenting subjective views
as reality. Values are always present in emic research as the investigator privileges the values and meanings of the observed
and studied groups of people over his or her own as a scientist.
Praxis: A Review of Methdologies
of Two Selected Papers
It is time now to look at the selected research papers and critique their methodologies in accordance with the extended theoretical discussions presented above. These two papers are
similar in the sense that they are applied researches of existing
social conditions and both are in the field of ICT-enhanced education. Both have also utilized the emic approach to research,
the authors being insiders of their respective cultures and social groups. Jahnke is involved in e-teaching and policy devel-
[ 26 ]
opment of e-learning in the University of Queensland in Australia, and Shaikh is a professor of Information Technology in the
University of Pakistan and an IT-policy consultant in Pakistan.
However, the selected papers are also a study in contrasts.
One employed the qualitative approach, while the other utilized
a mixed methods (i.e. a qualitative-quantitative) approach to research. They are, therefore, useful in explicating and illustrating
the biases of each approach and exposing the myths of valuefree research methodologies and methods.
Jennie Jahnke’s “Student perceptions of the impact
of online discussion forum participation on learning
outcomes.”
The research and its methodology
Jennie Jahnke’s paper evaluated the way an Australian school
utilized an online discussion forum to support students in an
International Baccalaureate Diploma Program in enhancing
research skills and developing skills for lifelong learning. It targeted in particular how such an online program could help students develop skills to write the Extended Essay, a compulsory
4,000 word required paper for the completion of the program.
The methodology of Jahnke thus focused on getting data
about and from a discussion forum which she herself created
at the topic refining stage of the Extended Essay process.
This was open to its members for two weeks on a twenty-four
hour a day, seven days a week mode. The discussion forum
was meant to help students with their Extended Essays and
to initiate discussions from open-ended questions that were
[ 27 ]
first asked regarding students’ views on the various essay topics. Online help was then structured into subject related and
general helpline areas within the forum, which was expected
to generate lively discussions meant to help the participants
hone the research and writing skills necessary to complete
the Essay. Jahnke herself was the Coordinator of the Extended Essay Program at the school. Her job was primarily “to
(monitor) the progress of the students throughout the writing
process as well as (to conduct) training sessions in research
skills for staff and students” (p. 28).
Jahnke designed a Grounded Theory in the research. Data
was gathered from the digital discourses of students posted in
the online forum and counter-examined against transcripts of
oral interviews with participants designed to capture their experiences in the forum. A theoretical sampling was used to select
seven out of the thirty-three forum participants for the oral interviews. Three out of seven interviewees were males and the rest
were females, a distribution that reflected the gender ratio in
the school, which was incidentally a one-to-one laptop school.
The standard procedures for ensuring adherence to research ethical standards including the seeking of permission
from the school authorities, the eliciting of consent from both
students and their parents, and the requisite assurances of
confidentiality were followed. Pseudonyms were used to protect the respondents’ identities although the voice recordings
of the interviews were published in an online symposium “as
part of the author’s University Master’s course requirements”
(p. 28). The author described the interview process, thus, “Interviews were conducted face to face at the school and were
recorded either on audiotape or directly onto a computer using podcasting software. The interviews were approximately 20
[ 28 ]
minutes in length, were transcribed verbatim and students were
able to read the transcriptions as a member checking process.
Additional verification was provided by triangulation through
use of data sources from interviews and forum posts” (p. 28).
However, “Students viewed their archived forum posts before answering interview questions to stimulate recall interactions and to assist in reflection. Respondents were initially
asked an open-ended question about the impact of ICT on
learning in general. Subsequent questions related to describing the way they participated in the forums, the value of the
forum in refining the essay topic, and the way in which students
supported each other. The students also had the opportunity
to reflect on the concept of learning communities and to give
suggestions for subsequent forums” (p. 28-29). Open and axial
coding were used in categorizing and subsequently analyzing
the interview transcripts.
Critique of the Methodology
Jahnke’s methodology is basically a qualitative design, and
thus opens itself to critique from the positivist position. We start
from the basic paradigmatic stance. Jahnke’s research may
be seen as biased on the basis that her grounded theory approach assumed that the reality of ICT-enhanced learning in
the academy may be reflected primarily in the views of the participants to the online discussion forum themselves. Qualitative
approaches are critiqued for their reliance on constructed concepts and Jahnke’s research would be no exception. Open and
axial coding depend on constructed categories where meanings, and the relationships between meanings, are established
by the researcher who reflects upon her judgement of her own
[ 29 ]
readings of the interview transcripts. Categories devised from
grounded theory coding are therefore subjective creations of
the researcher and are thus laden with meanings that are often formed during her training with regard to the methodology.
There are still unresolved issues on whether or not a coder unconsciously projects her own set of categories and previously
formed mental constructs upon the data she perceives from the
interview transcripts.
Discussion forum participants have already invested their
time and their efforts in the forum, posting their questions and
reading answers to these questions in a two-week period within
which they could log in at any time. This means that they have
already chosen to use the forum in order to accomplish their
Extended Essay requirement.
The research is biased, therefore, in the sense that the respondents have already chosen to utilize whatever help the online forum would be able to give them, and since the success of
the forum would be the key to the formulation of a well-written
Extended Essay, they would be expected to make the forum successful. The comparison model would have the respondents pit
the effect of the forum in which they were the participants to a
situation where they would not have been participants to the forum, a very clear case of bias in favor of the forum.
A better way would be an experimental design where the
experiences of a control group composed of Extended Essay
writers using traditional (i.e. non-ICT) help or skills development programs would be compared to the experimental group
of online discussion forum participants. The basis of the comparison would be a pre-test, post-test design that would enable
a comparison of writing skills as reflected in the scores on the
[ 30 ]
respondents’ pre-Extended Essay essays and their final scores
on the Extended Essay.
It should be noted also that the author was herself the coordinator of the training program for the Extended Essay Program
of the school and she was in charge of the development of research training programs for the school. This would be another
potential source of bias. A researcher, investigating a training
program that she herself designed, would be subjected to her
own value systems and targets.
Furthermore, the findings of the study were to be utilized for
the author’s master’s thesis. This should have warning bells
ringing right at the onset. Such an investigator would either focus on discovering the glitches of her training design, so that it
could be improved by introducing an embedded slant against
the design, or else focus on the functionalities of the design so
that it can be further pursued and adopted as an official training program or design. Either way cannot be value-free. At any
rate, the choice of subjects for the study already reflect a bias
in favor of the ICT-enhanced learning program.
I also note certain inconsistencies in methods. The data
gathering process supposedly ensured anonymity of the respondents. However, the voice transcripts were published online for the author’s own research for her master’s degree. This
would imperil anonymity and confidentiality, as the very same
technology being studied for its effects in learning enhancement can and actually is being used, in all of its state-of-the-art
refinement to identify people by their voices. Again, this would
militate against the value-free principle.
Finally, there is the flaw in Jahnke’s triangulation scheme
where she lets the students review first their online posts before
they are interviewed for the validation part. This, in my view, de-
[ 31 ]
fies the very purpose of triangulation where separate sources
are made to elicit data that are thereafter compared for establishing the validity and reliability of the results of the research. I
would expect information elicited from student respondents to
be compared with information elicited from other stakeholders
for this. Yet it was the students’ postings on the online discussion forum that were compared with the same students’ responses from the interviews. In sum, the research methodology
utilized in this paper could be used as illustration that methodology and methods can never be value-free and impartial.
Zaffar Ahmed Shaikh’s “Usage, Acceptance,
Adoption, and Diffusion of Information
& Communication Technologies in Higher
Education: A Measurement of Critical Factors.”
The Research Methodology
This research was conducted in Pakistan. In this research, the
zone of proximal development (ZPD) gap (defined as gap between what an individual can perform on his own and what he
is capable of performing with peer/expert help) among various
groups of stakeholders in Pakistan’s higher education (HE)
sector was measured to understand the difference between the
actual state (of various matters under discussion in this study)
and the required state of matters in the country. The concepts
selected for the research included ICT use, demand & supply of
ICTs, rely on ICTs and help provided by ICTs, and the results of
this evaluation were considered in terms of the confidence level
of university personnel in using ICTs in their job-related tasks. A
[ 32 ]
Delphi design was used to gather data from respondents from
around the country.
The research used the Z test to measure difference in perceptions of participants of any two categories regarding preselected collective issues (numbering thirteen in all) under discussion in this study. The one-way ANOVA was used to test for
significant differences in the means of more than two groups
for data to be analyzed using perspectives of similarities and
differences on the collective issues using data of Round-1 and
Round-2 of the Delphi study.
For this study, a 35-item questionnaire instrument developed
for Delphi study conducted in Pakistan by Shaikh & Ahmed
(2009) was chosen as the data-gathering tool. The questionnaire was supposedly based on a diverse set of issues concerning information and communications technology (ICT) use
in Higher Education (HE), ICT-related problems & challenges,
demand & supply of ICTs, causes of deprived standard of HE,
and suggestions for ICT-enhanced HE.
Four hypotheses were proposed in the study:
H1. There is no significant ZPD gap in issues regarding
common/educational ICT tools/application that Faculty/Students/Staff use in their diverse set of job-related tasks.
H2. There is no significant ZPD gap in selected issues such
as reliance on ICTs, help by ICTs, use of ICTs, ICT demand and
supply, and problem of attitude in HEIs of Pakistan.
H3. There is no significant difference in perceptions of Delphi participants regarding any of the collective issues under discussion in this study, both category-wise and round-wise.
H4. There is no significant difference in perceptions of Delphi participants regarding any of the collective issues under discussion in this study, at an overall level.
[ 33 ]
Shaikh used the normative Delphi method through electronic survey research in order to measure expert views of participants regarding how effectively ICTs can be integrated in
HEs of Pakistan. The Delphi questionnaire instrument was sent
to participants through emails. The research group consisted
of 30 personnel (both male and female) from five categories,
namely Faculty members, Students, Parents, Administrative
staff, and ICT policy makers.
Critique of the Methodology
The methodology employed by Shaikh is a mixed methods approach. It starts with a qualitative design, that is the two-round
Deplhi strategy, and subjects the results of the Delphi in each
round and subsequently for both rounds to a quantitative analysis, i.e. the z-tests and ANOVA.
Again, as with Jahnke’s approach, Shaikh conducted his investigation in the emic manner, as a Pakistani educator dedicated to the improvement of ICT-enhanced modes of teaching
in the Higher Educational (HE) institutions in his own country.
Shaikh was also a technology expert, being a Lecturer in Computer Science at the Department of Computer Science at the Pakistani government-owned Islamia Science College at Sukkur.
The choice of his research topic thus reflected his inclinations
and preferences, an indicator that the research was not free of
values. It was aimed at something good and valuable – the enhancement of education.
The background of the author thus played a large role in
the selection of his “collective issues” and in the selection of
the variables for his theoretical framework. These were all ITrelated issues and concerns (reliance on ICTs, help by ICTs,
[ 34 ]
use of ICTs, ICT demand and supply, and problem of attitude
in HEIs), as if Pakistani culture, particularly its religion and beliefs on technology, as well as the various regional and local
worldviews and beliefs, do not figure in his paradigm except as
qualifying the end results and findings of the research.
The choice of his respondents (i.e. Faculty members, Students, Parents, Administrative staff, and ICT policy makers) also
reflect a bias against local leaders, religious authorities, and
non-IT sector participants who expectedly would play a significant role in the acceptance, maintenance and sustanability of
ICT-programs in the country. Of course, the respondents, being
all from the educational and ICT policy-making sector, would be
expected to lean towards the adoption of ICT in HEs all over
the country. It is likely that this bias in the choice of respondents
would aready stem from the basic ontological and epistemological positions of the author.
The Delphi method targets key respondents in a series
of group discussions where discourses generated in the first
round are sifted through, and from these consensual themes
are gleaned. These are subsequently referred back to the discussion groups for validation and further refinement. It is a
qualitative approach and much has been said in critique about
it, particularly with regard to the choice of participants for the
Delphi discussions. Delphis usually target those respondents
for whom and from whom consensual decisions are generated.
They usually are the influential persons, chosen for their knowledge of the subject to be discussed.
The selection of Delphi respondents is, therefore, highly dependent on the subjective disposition of the Delphi researcher,
and the nature of the Delphi – the formation of agreed upon
concepts at each succeeding group discussion – privileges con-
[ 35 ]
sensus rather than disagreements. Delphis usually frown at contrasts and attempt to eliminate them in order to arrive at consensual perceptions about a particular phenomenon which, in this
case, is the status if ICT in HEs in Pakistan. This alone underscores the high value-ladenness of the data-gathering method.
Why the results of the Delphi per stakeholder group are
compared via the z-test and the ANOVA are intriguing to say
the least. But this may reflect the bias of the researcher, himself being a hard scientist in the mathematical and technological field, to use quantitative methods to establish the solidity of his findings. But the z-test and the ANOVA are used
to determine basically whether or not the grouped differences
within the stakeholder groups are outweighed by the differences between two stakeholder groups (in the case of the
z-test) or among several stakeholder groups (in the case of
the one-way ANOVA).
The question thus begs itself: Why compare group differences in these manners when the Delphi was meant to eliminate within group differences in the first place? This is why I
posit that the quantitative design was added mainly to satisfy
the author’s preferences for mathematical quantitative approaches even as he employed the qualitative approach to
simplify the gathering of his data over a national scope. Perhaps the full utilization of the quantitative approach through a
national survey required more significant logistical outlays not
covered by his grant? One can only speculate that if indeed this
were the case, it would illustrate just how much the economic
and the political conditions within which the researcher and his
research operate would affect both, to the detriment of objectivity and value-freedom.
I submit also that the Delphi would not work as effectively
[ 36 ]
as expected if the questionnaires were administered, answered
and collected by e-mail. Several conditions would prevail which
would affect the objectivity of the methodology:
First, the use of e-mail effectively excludes stakeholders
whose voices are necessary in the formulation of a national
ICT policy in higher education. Consider parents without internet connectivity but whose children are taking up bachelor’s
degrees or even postgraduate studies in Pakistani universities and colleges. Government officials who let their staff and
secretaries answer their email for them should also be considered. And how about students themselves who would want
to have their voices heard about ICT but who do not have the
means to get wired onto the world wide web? The exclusionary effect of the method used to gather primary data therefore
admits of several avenues by which bias and values could
enter the research design.
Second, the use of e-mail precludes the in-depth discussions and consensus formation required by Delphi. Should the
problematic issue of participant exclusion as discussed above
be sufficiently addressed, how then could e-mail deliver on the
discursive requisite? A more suitable vehicle would have been
the online discussion forum similar to Jahnke’s model in the
previously critiqued article. But this would entail a 24-hour a
day, 7 days a week online architecture which might lead to more
exclusions and a much more limited respondent group. There
would be therefore the great danger that the Delphi consensus
in the first and second rounds, if done in this design, would
be limited to the author’s preconceived categorical consensus
statements rather than derived from the discursive participation
of the discussants. But perhaps this was why the z-test and the
[ 37 ]
ANOVA were given applicability, as the Delphi results approximated more quantitative rather than qualitative data.
tional and technological models so as to design ways for their
ultimate improvement and development.
Conclusions
The above discussions, therefore, illustrate to the best of my
capabilities the proposition that no methodology or method
could be said to be value-free and objective.
This paper started out with a discussion of the theoretical
arguments defending this stance. Methodologies and methods
are necessitated by the researcher’s own peculiar philosophical
orientations about the world, whether this be the social or the
natural world. This basic philosophical orientation determines
how she or he frames the research design. The researcher’s
choice of methods and methodology is necessitated, and perhaps even dictated, by his or her ontological and epistemological position. And since ontologies and epistemologies are human constructions that are established within the framework
of prevailing social structures and worldviews, the resultant or
subsequent methodological approaches are also laden with the
value judgements and preferences inherent in each particular
paradigm.
The paper considered two research articles published in
peer-reviewed journals and their methodologies as illustrations
of the proposition. Both in the field of ICT-enhanced learning
and teaching, the methodologies employed in the articles reveal that even as researchers religiously adhere to the rigorous prescription required by their research training, implicitly,
their works are ultimately value-laden, dedicated to the pursuit
of goals predetermined to be valuable and necessary. Thus,
research should seek to discover the flaws in existing educa-
[ 38 ]
[ 39 ]
References
Horkheimer, M. (1947). The eclipse of reason. New York: Oxford University Press.
Alford, R. R., & Friedland, R. (1985). Powers of theory: Capitalism,
the state, and democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1988). Homo Academicus. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1989). The Corporatism of the Universal: The Role of
Intellectuals in the Modern World. Telos 81, Fall, 99-110.
Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. (1992). An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Boudon, R. (2005). The Social Sciences and Two Types of Relativism. Journal of Classical Sociology, 5(2), 157-174.
Brubaker, R. (2000). Social Theory as Habitus. In D. Robbins (ed.),
Pierre Bourdieu (pp. 33-53). London: Sage Publications.
Dahrendorf, R. (1968). Essays in the theory of society. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul PLC.
Dahrendorf, R. (1987). Max Weber and modern social science. In
lW. J. Mommsen, & J. Osterhammel (Eds.), Max Weber and
His Contemporaries (pp. 567-588). London: The German
Historical Institute.
Gouldner, A. (2009, June 25). HeinOnline Law Journal Library. Retrieved November 4, 2010, fromHeinOnline: http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=he
in.journals/socprob9&div=28&id=&page=
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1998). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The
Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues
(pp. 195-220). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
[ 40 ]
Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. (1990). The dialectics of enlightenment. New York: Continuum.
Jahnke, J. (2010). Student perceptions of the impact of online discussion forum participation on learning outcomes. Journal
of Learning Design, 3 (2), 27-34.
Jardine, N. (2004). Etics and Emics (Not to mention anemics and
emetics) in the History of the Sciences, History of Science,
xlii, 261-278.
Kuhn, T. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lassman, P., & Speirs, R. (1994). Weber: Political writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Marsh, D., & Furlong, P. (2002). A skin, not a sweater; Ontology and
epistemology in political science. In D. Marsh, & G. Stoker
(Eds.), Theory and Methods in Political Sciences (pp. 1741). New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
Miller, A. S., & Howell, R. F. (1960). The myth of neutrality in constitutional adjudication. The University of Chicago Law Review,
27 (4), 661-695.
Ortner, S. (2005). Subjectivity and Cultural Critique. Anthropological
Theory, 5 (31), 31-52.
Portis, E. B. (1986). Max Weber and political commitment: Science,
politics and personality. Philadephia: Temple University
Press.
Senn, P. R. (1971). Social sciences and its methodology. Boston:
Holbrooke Press.
Shaikh, Z. A. (2009). Usage, acceptance, adoption, and diffusion of
information & communication technologies in higher educa-
[ 41 ]
tion: A Measurement of Critical Factors. Journal of Information Technology Impact, 9 (2), 63-80.
Shaikh, Z., & Ahmed Z. (2009). ICT for shaping the future of higher
education in Pakistan. Frontiers in Education: Computer
Sciences & Computer Engineering (pp. 26-45). Las Vegas,
Nevada: WorldCompoFECO9 Conference.
Surber, J. P. (1998). Culture and critique: An introduction to the critical discourses of cultural studies. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Wiggershaus, R. (1994). The Frankfurt school: Its history, theories
and political significance. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
PART 2
Web 2.0 and Learning Literacy:
Processes, Barriers and Enablers
[ 42 ]
‘TowardsaFrameworkforAssessingLiteracyLearning
Through New Technology: Processes, Barriers and
Enablers in the Use of the Web 2.0’.
Background and Problem of the Study
As developments in IT continue to bring more and more innovations in life, the educational sector is increasingly under pressure to use new technologies to facilitate teaching and learning.
Davies and Merchant (2009) aptly expound on this idea saying
that pedagogical strategies, resources, activities and tasks are
chosen according to how they are deemed appropriate to learners, where technology (i.e. different tools employed) is used to
determine the scope of the meanings of schooled literacy. Technology, in this sense, shapes both teaching and learning, or what
may be called learning literacy.
A most recent example of a new technology that has been
shaping learning literacy is the Web 2.0, which is associated
with web applications that facilitate interactive learning. While
the Web 2.0 has been used as a new teaching tool, its impact,
after some years of use, still needs to be studied. Some of the
research needs on the impact of web materials might include
evaluations to compare different types of learning materials,
surveys of current practices in formal and informal settings,
analysis of web resources in terms of learning design and usability, analysis of user interaction in online community forums,
and, above all, developmental investigation into the potential of
integration and exploitation of elements of the Web 2.0 philosophy such as collaboration, sharing and production.
Through this paper, I try to contribute to the literature on
learning literacy in the context of the Web 2.0 technology by
[ 45 ]
looking at how experiences in the use of the Web 2.0 may
be re-shaping teaching and learning and may be setting new
boundaries in learning literacy. At the same time, I hope to examine factors which may facilitate or hinder the use of this new
technology.
In her study of the Flickr host website, a Web 2.0 site,
Davies (2006) conceived of the so-called ‘third space/affinity
space’ which describes how teaching and learning as reciprocal partnerships are achieved in a multimodal environment.
She calls on the need to develop an approach that looks at
learning literacy in new ways. While learning literacy has been
defined in different ways, Hannon (2000) noted that the usual
ways of defining literacy stem basically from two conceptions.
Literacy may be seen as a skill, or literacy may be seen as a social practice. A better conception of literacy, he says, would be
to reconcile the two since neither is sufficient for understanding literacy in education. I share this conception of literacy in
this paper. By definition, literacy in education should be seen in
terms of experiences in the acquisition of skills and experiences in social practices. In the context of Web 2.0 technology, this
type of literacy is achieved through Web 2.0’s ability to provide
an environment for the development of partnership in teaching
and learning processes.
There is a general consensus that IT-based technologies
could be applied to the development of educational tools.
Writing in the area of knowledge management systems, Boss
(2003) argued that a well-designed IT-based system should incorporate necessary processes, tools and techniques, although
little is known about how to effectively integrate activities and
enabling technology in facilitating knowledge management. He
suggested that a comprehensive framework that guides the de-
[ 46 ]
sign of knowledge management systems is necessary. I tend
to think that designing knowledge management systems in the
educational sector has similar needs. A proper understanding
of how technology may be used for the benefit of education and
the development of learning literacy can also be facilitated by
such a framework, which integrates, as Boss suggested, processes and enabling technology.
Therefore my aim in this paper is to develop a conceptual
framework, which may be used in assessing the impact of new
technology on learning literacy by drawing from corroborative
literature in the use of Web 2.0. Such a framework can assist
the educational sector to identify teaching practices associated
with enabling and hindering factors that affect them and connect them with learning literacy.
Three elements served as the starting point for this research: First is the idea that the Web 2.0 creates new processes in teaching. Second is the idea that certain factors affect the
success of the way processes generated by the use of Web 2.0
affect learning. Third is the idea that the impact of the use of
Web 2.0 in learning may be measured in terms of new literacy,
defined as skills and social practices.
Literature Review, ResearchApproach and Outline of
the Study
The Social Orientation to Learning
The concept that intensive participation in a community of practice leads to effective learning has been considered for some
time. The traditional idea is that learning and education is limited
to an individual’s capacity; that learning “has a beginning and an
[ 47 ]
end; that it is best separated from the rest of our activities; and
that it is the result of teaching” (Wenger, 1998, p. 3).
These concepts of learning were improved on by Lave and
Wenger (1991) in the late 1980s to the early 1990s proposing
a model of situated learning that presents learning that takes
place in a community of practice through the process of engagement. Lave (1993) mentions that: “Learning is ubiquitous
in ongoing activity, though often unrecognized as such” (p. 5).
Lave and Wenger’s main argument is that communities of
practice are universal and that we are commonly drawn into a
variety of such communities, as exemplified by work, school,
home, or in leisure. Collective learning takes place in a shared
sphere of human venture; where a concern or a certain goal is
shared, and learning to accomplish the goal together occurs
through frequent interaction (Wenger, 2006). Wenger (1998)
further mentions that:
Over time, this collective learning results in practices
that reflect both the pursuit of our enterprises and the
attendant social relations. These practices are thus the
property of a kind of community created over time by the
sustained pursuit of a shared enterprise. It makes sense,
therefore to call these kinds of communities communities
of practice (p. 45).
These learning communities vary from situation to situation
wherein some are recognized as formal communities and some
are informal and more fluid.
[ 48 ]
The Characteristics of Communities of Practice
Wenger (2006) identified three important elements for a community of practice to be recognized as such. These traits include:
The domain. This refers to the focus of interest or shared interest between members of the community that implies a commitment and a motivation to overcome issues in that domain. The
competence of a member of the group is valued and shared
within the group; outsiders may or may not recognize the expertise within the group.
The community. Joint activities, discussions and sharing
knowledge and information among members of the group are
held in order to pursue their interests in the domain. Such interactions are important for members of the community albeit
often they perform individually.
The practice. Members of a community of practice share common resources, tools, experiences and strategies for addressing problems. Achieving a pool of resources involves time and
constant interaction developing over time a shared inventory
for the community’s practice.
A community of practice, therefore, involves more than
technical knowledge or skills related with carrying out tasks.
Members are concerned with developing relationships through
time (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 98) and communities are formed
around issues that are relevant to people (Wenger, 1998).
These communities, being organized around a particular area
of knowledge and activity, provide the members a sense of collective endeavor and personality. For a community of practice to
effectively function, it needs to engender and allocate a shared
collection of thoughts, obligations and recollections. There is a
[ 49 ]
constant need to improve various assets that somehow bear
the community’s gathered knowledge.
Communities of practice evolve into self-organizing systems
through constant interaction. The benefits involved include the
generation of an associational life, as presented in cooperation,
and the ability to overcome more complex activities.
Situated Learning
Instead of viewing learning as the attainment of knowledge,
Lave and Wenger (1991) have placed learning in social relationships or conditions of co-participation. Learners attaining
structures or models to understand the world are not sufficient;
they have to be involved in structured frameworks of participation in a community of practice. According to Wenger (1998),
participation refers not just to local events of engagement in certain activities with certain people, but to a
more encompassing process of being active participants
in the practices of social communities and constructing
identities in relation to these communities (p.4).
Such a theory can be exemplified by various apprenticeships wherein individuals observe and learn at the periphery at
first and then gain skill and competence to be more involved in
carrying out the tasks of that particular community. They move
up from reasonable side-line involvement to ‘full participation’
(Lave & Wenger,1991, p. 37). Figure 1 shows the description of
Wenger’s communities of learning, the sources of knowledge
being shared within them and the relationship between these.
[ 50 ]
Figure 1. Wenger’s elements of communities
of learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991)
Therefore, learning is not viewed as the achievement of knowledge by individuals so much as a process of social participation. The nature of the learning situation impacts considerably
on the method. Lave and Wenger (1991, p.29) further state
that learners must interact with known practitioners in the community. It is only through this method that beginners can acquire the needed knowledge and skills necessary for them to
advance to the next stage of their development. This interaction between the newcomers and old-timers relative to their activities, knowledge and practice, and even identities, are what
Lave and Wenger (1991) call “Legitimate peripheral participation.” Thus, the learner’s motivation to learn is also embedded
in a socio-cultural perspective. There is, therefore, a concern
with personality, on learning how to speak, act and get along in
ways that are relevant or meaningful to the community. Furthermore, through a relational view of the person and learning an
understanding emerges that “increasing participation in com-
[ 51 ]
munities of practice concerns the whole person acting in the
world” (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 49).
Situated learning is an approach that requires more than
just experiential or learning-by-doing methods; instead, individuals become full participants in learning and generate meaning.
This direction has the specific advantage of raising awareness
of the need to appreciate knowledge and learning in context.
However, situated learning depends on two factors:
• Speaking of knowledge that is de-contextualized, abstract
or general is considered nonsensical; however, learning still
takes place within unrelated contexts or experiences.
• New knowledge and learning are properly conceived as being located in communities of practice (Tennant, 1997, p.77).
Doubts regarding the above factors include situations where
the community of practice is feeble or displays power relationships that critically hinder access and participation. There is a
possibility of romanticizing communities of practice. The concern for the forms of learning involving communities of practice
share a common aspect with Ivan Illich’s advocacy of learning
webs and informal education. Ivan Illich began his observations
with a macro-analysis of the weakening effects of institutions
such as schooling (Smith, 2003).
These concepts have been adapted within organizational
development circles, where the apprenticeship model presented associations with important customs of thinking about
organizational training and development. The growing interest
in ‘the learning organization’ raised the awareness of those associated with organizational development about the importance
of informal networks and groupings. Lave and Wenger’s works
[ 52 ]
regarding communities of practice proved to be a useful addition to concepts of learning. Their research has led the belief
that communities of practice should be recognized as valuable assets; that organizational development and the benefits
of achieving overall value are not necessarily dependent on
individual members of a community of practice. Additionally,
Lesser and Storck (2001) posit that the social capital in communities of practice leads to behavioral change and promotes
organizational effectiveness and performance.
Formal education institutions are not yet willing to apply
these ideas simply because they bring into question the direction and practices that have long been applied in education.
On the other hand, studies on how institutional learning could
accommodate Lave and Wenger’s concepts have been done.
The emergence of communities of practice within schooling
has been observed, and studies are being done on how these
can be enhanced. Such is the case of using Web 2.0 in the
classroom setting today.
Autonomous and Ideological Models of Literacy
In Street’s book, Literacy in Theory and Practice (1984), he
questioned the view that literacy is autonomous, arguing that
the construction of literacy is an ideological construct; not a set
of de-contextualized or unrelated skills that are transferable in
numerous backgrounds. He proposed that literacy or learning
always takes place within social and political contexts, influenced by power relations. Motivated by Street’s work, a shift
in academic methods took place from practising singular entity
learning to being aware of multiple literacies.
New Literacy Studies or NLS was initiated and the clarifica-
[ 53 ]
tion of what should be recognized as learning and literacy was
undertaken. The realization that learning takes place among different groups of people has occurred; the consideration of different learning methods affected by factors such as time, place,
power relations, social values or even politics has enabled a
deeper understanding of how learning should be approached.
NLS, concerned with socio-cultural theory, distinguished
factors such as economics, power, tradition and societal values that have an impact on how learning is constructed. Sociocultural theory, therefore, aids in uncovering the belief about
vernacular learning’s inferiority which is not a precise description, since learning is constructed because of societal demands
(Filipek, 2010).
Barton (1994) established the concept of understanding
learning methods as a way to better understand motivations and
rationales of local learning practices based on social practices.
Barton primarily explained learning practices as methods by
which a culture draws upon a learning experience. With learning
considered as an essential part of social practices, Barton and
Hamilton (1998) have extended his original definition.
Barton and Hamilton (1998) assert that learning activities
are not generally directly observable because they involve tacit
aspects such as attitudes, values, feelings, and relationships.
Learning approaches have been said to also include awareness, creation, and communication of literacy, as well as how
people bring meaning to literacy. Although they recognize that
literacy methods are internal to the individual, approaches also
include social processes that link individuals and comprise collective cognitions characterized by principles and social identities created by social rules. Barton and Hamilton suggest that
instead of understanding learning as a set of properties innate
[ 54 ]
within a person, a deeper understanding should be given to the
relationships between people, teams, cultures and societies.
The Use of Web 2.0 in Education
The use of the Internet as well as Internet applications for education has so far not fully encompassed all the educational and
learning needs of students and educators. However, it has been
used as a tool to facilitate group learning and active learning activities in a group setting. These tools enable the initiation of an
educational evolution that will lead to dramatic changes where
a point will come when education will not be complete without
them. Looking at computer applications in the business world,
these have become integral parts of everyday operational activities; whereas in education, these applications are currently seen
as add-ons. It is high time, especially with the promulgation of
globalization and the development of global workers, that computer applications in education be viewed as vital tools in the
learning process.
The use of Web 2.0 has been regarded as a process of
learning transformation by educational institutions. Web 2.0
has, for education, potentially groundbreaking implications.
However, Selwyn (2007) brings forward several doubts about
using Web 2.0 applications. Social networking sites such as
Facebook and Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games
(MMORPGs) like Second Life have been observed being used
by educators based on their appeal to students (Selwyn, 2007).
The following factors are presented by Selwyn regarding the
importance of Web 2.0 in education:
[ 55 ]
• Rigorous and carefully conducted research regading Web
2.0 use and the associated sites and applications is inadequate.
• Informal learning does not easily fit into formal educational
goals.
• Despite the widespread use of Web 2.0 applications, there
is still a limited prevalence of online activity applications in the
everyday digital lives of learners.
• Homogeneity of users.
• E-safety issues.
Selwyn (2007) points out that using Web 2.0 applications
must be adequately reviewed prior to importing them into educational use. Although students may use the applications in
school, it should be considered that their online behavior and
use in school is not the same at home. Still, despite the risks in
e-safety, students rarely open up to adults about their experiences with it. The best method therefore in using Web 2.0 applications is to re-establish the need for the learner voice and
his or her co-construction of new learning tools. These would
raise concerns regarding the extent of the learner’s use of informal tools in a formal learning environment so as to understand which are viewed as motivational, understandable and
engaging tools; to understand what applications are viewed as
unacceptable for the learning environment; and to overcome
e-safety risks without restraining the learning potential of ICTs
(Selwyn, 2007).
Although Web 2.0 applications have been deemed as important educational tools, educational institutions must be made
aware of how these applications and their uses must fit into
educational goals; difficulty can be experienced in transferring
essential attributes such as trust, transparency, initiative and
self-organization into various current institutional contexts. Ap-
[ 56 ]
plications should maintain and preserve the values of learning
– trust, transparency, initiative and self-organization – and still
impart these to students (Rollett, Lux, Strohmaier, Dosinger, &
Tochtermann, 2007).
Vasudevan (2010) examined the context of literacy learning
using new media and noted that new technology may be understood as the digital turn. Thus, what may distinguish technological processes in Web 2.0 is digitalization.
Web 2.0 provides an informal manner of learning that promotes educational networking between students and teachers and can act as a real-time, 24/7 educational development
tool. Collaboration in real time takes place; there is an ease in
searching and connecting with other individuals with the same
interests and goals. Web 2.0 provides the opportunity for a hitor-miss approach in organizing and sharing content (Hargadon,
2010).
Hargadon (2010) has listed the characteristics that Web 2.0
building blocks include:
Profile page. A short e-portfolio or resume of the participant.
Friending. The group or learning community to which the individual is associated with.
Forums. These are discussion threads found within a community of learning that can easily be followed, read and discussed
further.
Photo, video, audio and document uploads. Resources collectively used by members of the group are easily shared.
Directory. A listing of members of a group that can be easily
searched and ‘friended’ in order to be accepted into it.
Event Calendars. Milestones, meetings and personal and educational development forums are scheduled herein.
Groups. These are smaller versions of networks that can pro-
[ 57 ]
vide a way for individuals to join them for as long as interests
are similar.
Chat. These can provide a meaningful and informal way of socializing with another individual from a distance.
The Web 2.0 has been developed as a term to connote web
applications that facilitate interactive, user-centered designs
in the use of the World Wide Web. A site that uses Web 2.0
technology allows users to interact with each other and to collaborate in a shared environment on the Internet, serving as a
kind of social media. The term was developed to distinguish
a new experience on the Internet, where consumers of usergenerated content interact in a virtual community versus the old
way where users go to websites as passive viewers of website
content. Among the more familiar examples of Web 2.0 are social networking sites, blogs, wikis, and photo or video sharing
sites (O’Reilly, 2005).
The early Internet and the World Wide Web, or Web for
short, is generally described as one-directional. This means
that people using early versions of the Web can only view the
contents of a website, much like reading a newspaper or watching a TV news program. The ability to change what was written
as dictated by the moment and based on users’ understanding
was not yet available. On the other hand, Web 2.0, as the name
implies, is the next step in the development of how people use
the Web. “The new Web 2.0 is a bi-directional collaboration in
which users are able to interact with and provide information
to central sites, and to see that information collated and made
available to others” (Goodchild, 2007). Thus, aside from accessing information and editing contents at will, the interactive
nature of Web 2.0 gave power to the users to even control the
software applications embedded in the website. This participa-
[ 58 ]
tory aspect is a rich avenue for people to obtain updated content, scalability, free expression, and enhance the experience
of information technology and to eventually improve human
knowledge.
The Use of Web 2.0 in Lower Secondary Schools
in Greece
I have chosen to use the case of Greek lower secondary schools
because I am an EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teacher
in a state lower-secondary educational institution (Gymnasio). I
have been working in Greek public junior secondary schools in
the region of Western Greece for almost ten years. The gathering of data regarding my actual experiences as a teacher in
the use of Web 2.0, therefore, would be greatly facilitated if I
concentrated on an institutional context familiar to me.
Based on the CIA World Fact Book (2011), Greece has a
literacy rate of 96%, and a 4% of GDP expenditure on education. Internet hosts in the country were at 2.574 million in 2010
and Internet users were at 4.971 million in 2009 (CIA, 2011).
Gathered from the Ministry of National Education and Religious
Affairs (2011), the main objective of Lower Secondary Education, or Gymnasio, is to encourage the complete development
of students based on their abilities and age (12-15 year olds),
linked to the corresponding demands of life.
Greek lower secondary schools have been trying to upgrade
teaching through the conscious use of technological innovations for the past many years (Collis, 1996). Since the 1990s,
Collis noted that the government has been at the top of the use
of technology in education and noted that Greece was an ex-
[ 59 ]
ception to the trend in many countries of insufficient computer
use in lower secondary schools. This trend has continued until
today (Polydorides, Georgakakos, & Zavoudakis, 2006).
Although the use of new technology for educational purposes has been accepted in Greece, it can be observed that
many schools still exhibit a limited use of Web 2.0 technology
for teaching in their institutions. This was also the observation
in a study made by Polydorides, Georgakakos, & Zavoudakis
(2006) on the use of computers in Greek secondary schools.
Their study noted that no organized plans have really been set
in this area in the educational sector as a whole, and said that
the content of informatics in Greek schools is still charactrerized by the instruction of programming with an emphasis on
paper and pencil exercises. The replacement of this approach
by adoption of an integrated approach using the computer in
the curriculum should be the goal of new educational policy.
Grounded on my professional experience, the Internet has
significantly improved my abilities to become current with the
social as well as learning activities of my students. I consider
the Internet as the best vehicle for knowledge sharing among
educators. I have benefited from the informal exchange of information with my colleagues, as knowledge flows through the
Internet in personal everyday tasks as well as in teaching material. However, the IT support to Greek teachers is lagging behind. This lack of support sometimes affects the flow of knowledge in the secondary school sector.
Through the use of Web 2.0 technology I have been allowed
an easier and more systematic collection of electronic information, which helps me to follow a smoother workflow, and to be
more innovative in my teaching tasks. As long as the Internet is
available, my students and I occupy ourselves online by doing
[ 60 ]
social networking for educational purposes or by doing information research. We often visit websites and networking sites
devoted to educational purposes. As far as teacher-student
relations are concerned, blogging allows my students and me
to collaborate with each other online to discuss educational issues or exchange information on the school subject. This provides students with critical feedback to works they have posted
or even suggestions that they link to other websites or pieces of
information online. In the context of my classrooms, the Wikis
also provide a collaborative website which is valuable for research purposes. Used in the right way as an online database,
the Wikis provide my students with some research help for
their assignments as they can be accessed for homework and
are available 24 hours. As with blogging, students seem to be
highly motivated to podcast because it is relevant to their socalled world. The podcast provides a handy way to download
and play educational files that are available on the Internet, because students carry their pods with them everywhere and at
all times. The YouTube video sharing site is also another useful site for my students. Projects are often done by students
and posted on YouTube, such as short videos on a topic that
classmates may view and comment on. But students are even
more excited by the use of social networking such as Facebook
and My Space. They see in profiling the possibility to “market”
themselves through posts as well as maintain directories with
their contacts and classmates. Especially during after-school
hours, social networking is the Web 2.0 technology most used
by students as they get some rest. Nevertheless, these periods may also be very productive because knowledge can be
shared through networking.
All these real life experiences correspond to the points iden-
[ 61 ]
tified by KM Magazine (2004), which noted that Web 2.0 allow
knowledge workers to become better at capturing, sharing and
using knowledge and at maximizing their personal effectiveness in the social aspect of their job.
Factors affecting Web 2.0 Practices: Barriers
and Enablers
Honan (2009) studied the obstacles confronting the use of web
technology in the classroom and concluded that at present,
teachers who work with digital texts at any level have to contend with many obstacles. Some of these obstacles are material in nature such as technological hardware or software, but
the more important obstacles come by way of normative and
conventional currents that have to be surpassed each time
innovative practices are forwarded. She called them barriers
which affect the use of Web 2.0 technology negatively.
Such a barrier lies in the lack of awareness or direction
among teachers and students, as well as educational institutions as a whole, with regard to the use of Web 2.0 for educational purposes. Thus, teachers have to be made aware, first
of all, of their knowledge worker roles. They have to learn the
value of Web 2.0 technology by understanding knowledge work
itself. Teacher preparation was also suggested by Russell et al.
(2003). At the same time, efforts from the Greek government
have been made to support teachers in this area. Tsoukalas
(2009) corroborates this in a study of the efforts of the Greek
Ministry of Education concerning technological processes in
the educational sector.
However, a more serious obstacle lies in the fact that
[ 62 ]
some students may be careless and irresponsible in their
practices related to Web 2.0 technology. An example of such
a barrier is the rampant use of Wikis for cut-and-paste purposes. Because it has become so easy to copy information
from the Internet, students end up being irresponsible in the
data they copy from the web. In the area of blogging, students
also exhibit the same kind of irresponsibility. There are times
when students post inappropriate materials in blogs, wikis and
podcasts shared in class.
The other set of factors, which affects the use of Web 2.0 for
educational purposes, are those that more positively influence
the use of Web 2.0. Once again, the first set of factors, which
help foster the use of Web 2.0 practices, are of a technological
nature. The availability of new web tools determine to a great
extent the value of Web 2.0 practices. The development of new
Internet browsers is considered the most important factor enabling Web 2.0 processes. In effect, these browsers have made
the use of the Web much easier. The operations that the new
browsers now allow have increased in scope. Above all, new
browsers allow much more opportunity for interactivity and they
give teachers more opportunities to participate in activities with
others, including students.
The second enabler could be the combined innovations
of new website designs. Users share experiences on Web
2.0 websites actively, encouraging participation. For example, whereas websites before were limited to allowing users
to download content, new website designs now rely on users
uploading content. Because of this, it has become much easier
to put content on the Web. It was noted that if only because
of this fact, teachers are encouraged to make use of Web 2.0
[ 63 ]
for teaching purposes. These new website designs are userfriendly by providing an interface that is easy to use.
The third enabler can be the new type of social networking
made available through Web 2.0. The easier networking sites
become, the more people are encouraged to go online. Since
websites have become more interactive and easy to use, teachers have been encouraged to use such sites like Facebook not
just purely for social networking but to use networking for learning purposes as well. A very rich online environment that offers
many resources has created ways for people to share more
and more information.
All the afore-mentioned are supported by the study of AlKhalifa (2008), who concluded his investigation of factors which
may have led to the growth of Web 2.0 with the observation that
technological innovations may have been the main factor which
has enabled the use of Web 2.0, but it is the development of
new human capabilities and attitudes which really enable the
use of any technology.
Web 2.0 and Learning Literacy:
Skills and Social Practices
Moursund (2003) referred to a different type of learning, wherein students are allowed to work and present results maturely
in undertaking school tasks. This type of learning is known as
project-based learning which requires a new set of skills representing new literacy.
Pollard (2008) saw in skills what can be called new literacy.
They are the ultimate building blocks of personal knowledge
management. Personal knowledge management focuses on
activities of individual knowledge workers. It tries to provide
[ 64 ]
ways by which individuals can assess their own work as individuals and in collaboration with others, and to see how they
can work more effectively.
Regarding learning literacy in terms of social practices, what
may really be unique in the use of Web 2.0 technology is the
way learning has been made a social activity through virtual
communities. In terms of literacy, this requires and brings out
new social practices. For example, when doing research on
the Internet, search engines have come to encourage the exchange of files. In the process, communities of shared interests
are built around these exchanges. Research activities become
learning activities because of Web 2.0 practices. Web tools also
allow users to find more information facilitated by the uploading
and editing of different people. Social interactions contribute to
literacy in this way. Knowledge also grows through these social networks. Uploading and downloading information ceases
to be about the simple exchange of files, but more about the
shared and collaborative editing and exchanging of ideas leading to social interaction. Lastly, exchange of identities is also
facilitated by Web 2.0 practices. People exchange information
about themselves by writing in web pages creating new social
spaces.
Lee and Berry (2011) support these findings in their study
that concluded that Web technology should provide a collaborative medium so that it can be a place where people can meet,
read and write. At the same time, such experiences correspond
to learning literacy conceived as skill and social practice by Hanon (2000).
[ 65 ]
A Conceptual Framework for Assessing
the Use of Technology for Learning Literacy
As far as practice in the use of Web 2.0 is concerned, certain
processes have been identified for both teachers and students.
Some practices facilitate teaching processes while some practices facilitate learning processes. Processes, therefore, should
be seen from both the point of view of teachers and students, or
in terms of teaching and learning respectively. These processes are affected by certain influencing factors. Thus, there is a
need to identify such factors while focusing concretely on factors that hinder processes and factors that facilitate such processes. Influencing factors, therefore, have to be seen in terms
of whether they become barriers or enablers. Barriers affect
processes negatively while enablers affect them in a positive
way. The way processes and influencing factors are managed
eventually determine how they will affect success in learning.
Since new skills are required, given Web 2.0 technology,
literacy should be measured in terms of these new skills. But
significantly, at the same time, Web 2.0 technology has given
birth to another aspect of literacy not covered in traditional conceptions of literacy. This lies in the area of social practices significantly identified as part of new learning literacy.
Acknowledgement of the importance of technology use in
the case of Web 2.0 has to be more actively promoted, starting
with efforts to research teaching and learning processes as well
as factors that serve as barriers or enablers. The possibilities
and opportunities offered by Web 2.0 to improve learning literacy may be seen in relation to these processes and influencing factors.
Based on these observations, a conceptual framework for
[ 66 ]
assessing the use of technology in teaching and measuring its
impact in learning literacy is developed below.
Figure 2: A Conceptual Framework for Assessing the
Use of Technology in Learning Literacy
The framework suggests that in assessing the use of technology in learning literacy, new processes which are developed
because of new technology should be identified. These processes should always be seen in their two faces: processes
in teaching and processes in learning. These processes affect
learning literacy. But in the same manner, literacy should also
be conceptualized in terms of new skills and social practices,
which represent new demands coming from the technology itself. These two aspects are the two faces of literacy. The way
processes impact on learning literacy, however, have to be
considered by looking at intervening factors which influence
the way processes developed from new technology actually
affect learning literacy. The influencing factors also possess
two faces in terms of barriers and enablers. The implication of
these factors is that barriers have to be minimized or eliminated
[ 67 ]
while enablers have to be maximized or promoted. All these elements should be present in the analysis of the use of technology, although a particular element may become an analytical
focus at one time.
The model indicates the interplay between processes, technologies and learning literacy. The processes refer to the tacit
and explicit technological knowledge that consists of sets of
practices in teaching and learning. To integrate technological
factors into the teaching and learning processes and implement
the process environment, educational organizations must provide and support technical functions through the treatment of
barriers or enablers that will minimize threats and maximize opportunities. This can be done through the deployment of proper
technological applications.
The considerations in learning literacy in relation to Web
2.0 made in this paper may have shown that assessments of
literacy cannot be made in terms of traditional conceptions of
literacy, nor by paying attention simply to technology and corresponding tools. Literacy should be seen in terms of new teaching and learning processes as well as new demands for skills
and social practices. Assessing the learning potentials of new
technology requires much more than just seeing how to use
new technological tools. Teachers may have the primary task
of familiarizing themselves with the tools so that they may be
translated into practices. Such practices have to be presented
to students with the conscious aim of seeing what may happen. Thus practices should be seen in terms of teaching as
well as learning. This means seeing them from the point of view
of teachers as well as students. Teachers may start with considerations regarding what is practical in the classroom but, in
the process, the teacher evolves into a researcher and social
[ 68 ]
networker. The same happens with the student; he starts as a
learner and evolves to being a knowledge contributor and social networker as well.
The choice and use of technology in learning cannot be
done separately from teaching and learning practices, nor without considering their impact on learning literacy. Teachers may
determine what and whether technology should be used for instruction, but this cannot be an arbitrary decision or activity. It
should require some conscious planning. The introduction of
technology into the classroom does not automatically ensure
integration of the teacher’s needs, the students’ needs and success in the ultimate aim of achieving learning literacy.
Concluding Remarks
In this paper, I have proposed a model which emphasizes the
interplay between teaching and learning processes, technical
factors in terms of barriers and enablers, and a conception of
learning literacy shaped by new demands for skills and social
practices. In this model I draw from corroborative literature that
serves to validate, support, substantiate, back up or uphold the
data gathered from my actual experiences as a teacher introducing new technology by way of Web 2.0 in my educational
environment. Thus, my hope is that my model carries some
empirical basis and is theoretically grounded.
I see at this conceptual framework as an attempt to utilize
the knowledge I have gained in my study of Web 2.0 learning
technology. I dare say that I also want to contribute to helping teachers and even educational institutions identify their IT
needs, and to plan for the use of technology in their institutions.
Lastly, this model represents an attempt, on my part, to ven-
[ 69 ]
ture into theorizing about learning literacy. I can see that my
proposed model is far from complete and is just a conceptual
framework for further action.
References
Al-Khalifa, H.S. (2008). Exploring the factors of online engagement
in the era of Web 2.0. Innovations in Information Technology, 204-207.
Barton, B., & Hamilton, M. (1998). Local literacies: reading and writing in one community. London: Routledge.
Barton, D. (1994). Literacy: An introduction to the ecology of written
language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Boss, R. (2003). Knowledge management-enabled health care management systems: capabilities, infrastructure and decisionsupport. Expert Systems with Applications , 24(1), 59-71.
CIA (2011). The World Fact Book. Retrieved February 17, 2011, from
cia.gov: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/index.html
Collis, B. (1996). Children and computers in schools. New York:
Routledge.
Davies, J. (2006). Affinities and beyond! Developing ways of seeing
in online spaces. E-learning and Digital Media, 3(2), 217234.
Davies, J., & Merchant, G. (2009). Education and Web 2.0. In J.
Davies, & G. Merchant, Web 2.0 for Schools: Learning and
Social Particpation (pp. 1-11). New York: Peter Lang.
Filipek, J. (2010, Fall). An Ethnographic Case Study of the Literacy
Events and Literacy Practices of One Family with a Child
with a Learning Disability. Retrieved April 5, 2011, from repository.library.ualberta.ca: http://repository.library.ualberta.
ca/dspace/bitstream/10048/1448/1/Filipek_Jacqueline_
Fall2010.pdf
Goodchild, M. (2007). Citizens as voluntary sensors: Spatial data
[ 70 ]
[ 71 ]
infrastructure in the world of web 2.0. International Journal
of artificial intelligence. Retrieved February 4, 2011, from
of Spatial Data Infrastructure Research, 2, 24-32.
uoregon.edu: http://uoregon.edu/%7emoursund/Books/AI-
Hannon, P. (2000). Chapter 3. In P. Hannon, Reflecting on literacy in
education (pp. 30-43). London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Hargadon, S. (2010). Educational networking: The important role
Web 2.0 will play in education. Elluminate.
Honan, E. (2009). Fighting the rip: using digitial texts in classrooms.
English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 8 (3), 21-35.
Book/index.htm
O’Reilly, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0. Retrieved March 8, 2011, from
O’Reilly blog: http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/
news/2005/09/30/wjat-is-web-2.0.html
Pollard, D. (2008). PKM: A bottom-up approach to knowledge management. Information Today, 95-114.
KM Magazine. (2004). Personal knowledge management. Retrieved
Polydorides, G., Georgakakos, S., & Zavoudakis, A. (2006). Greek
March 8, 2011, from KM Magazine: http://www.kmmaga-
schools and computer education. Cross National Policies
zine.com
and Practices on Computers in Education , 1, 223-247.
Lave, J. (1993). The practice of learning. In S. Chaiklin, & J. Lave,
Rollett, H., Lux, M., Strohmaier, M., Dosinger, G., & Tochtermann,
Understanding Practice: Perspectives on Activity and Con-
K. (2007). The Web 2.0 way of learning with technologies.
text. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
International Journal of Learning Technology , 3(1), 87-107.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: legitimate periph-
Russell, M., Bebell, D., O’Dwyer, L., & O’Connor, K. (2003). Examin-
eral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ing teacher technology use: Implications for preservice and
Lee, S., & Berry, M. (2011). Effective e-learning through collabo-
inservice teacher preparation. Journal of Teacher Educa-
ration. Retrieved January 17, 2011, from Coming of Age:
tion, 54 (4), 297-310.
An Introduction to the New World Wide Web:http://open-
Selwyn, N. (2007). Web 2.0 applications as alternative environments
sourceschools.org.uk/files/Effective%20e-Learning%20
for informal learning - a critical review. Session 6 - Alterna-
through%20collaboration.pdf
tive learning environments in practice: using ICT to change
Lesser, E. L., & Storck, J. (2001). Communities of practice and organizational performance. IBM Systems Journal 40(4) .
Mills, K. (2010). A Review of the “Digital Turn” in the New LIteracy
Studies. London: Sage Publication.
MNERA. (2011). Basic organization of the educational system in
Greece. Retrieved April 5, 2011, from etwinning.net: http://
www.etwinning.net/shared/data/etwinning/country_focus/
greece_education_system_en.pdf
Moursund, D. (2003). Brief introduction to educational implications
[ 72 ]
impact and outcomes. Seoul: OECD-KERIS.
Smith, M. K. (2003). Communities of practice. Retrieved April 5,
2011, from The Encyclopedia of informal education: http://
www.infed.org/biblio/communities_of_practice.htm
Street, B. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tennant, M. (1997). Psychology and Adult Learning (2nd ed.), London: Routledge.
Tsoukalas, S. (2009). The impact of a Greek governmental initiative
[ 73 ]
towards lifelong e-learning. Journal of Information Technology Support , 9 (1), 47-62.
Vasudevan, L. (2010). Education remix: New media, literacies and
the emerging digital geographies. Digital Culture and Education , 2 (1), 62-82.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice. Learning, meaning and
identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wenger, E. (2006, June). Communities of practice: A brief introduction. Retrieved April 5, 2011, from ewenger.com: http://www.
ewenger.com/theory/index.htm
PART 3
Practice-Based Research
The Case Study and Survey Methods
in Learner Autonomy
[ 74 ]
‘A Critical Decision on the Use of Research
Methodologies: Case Study and Survey Methods.’
Introduction
As an English as a Foreign Language educator to State Junior High School students in Western Greece, I have been exposed to different teaching and literacy guides that are deemed
effective, more inclusive and empowering to the continuously
changing trends and attitudes of students. Students today, due
to innovations in communication, technology and media, are
approached differently in teaching; traditional methods are no
longer adequate. They are observed to be more independent
and seek a more participative teaching environment infused with
new media and technology. Additionally, new meanings to what
an “educated person” is, the differences in the old-fashioned
language learning system, and educators’ mounting trepidation
about their roles in the learning and teaching process have been
predominantly significant within the ever-changing experience of
education (Benson, 2002). The intensification of principles that
focus on the information age, globalization, and the knowledgebased economy have led scholastic experts to become more
open to autonomy-related thoughts than before (Benson, 2001).
In the late 1960s, humanistic expectations initiated by political
instability and cultural disagreements within Europe have led to
early academic researches related to autonomy (Gremmo and
Riley, cited in Benson, 2006).
Changes in social, political and cultural environments have
promoted the continuance of research, making this process a
key to progress in almost if not all human endeavours. There-
[ 77 ]
fore, for the educational system to progress, the development
and use of research is of importance. Relevant studies through
the application of different scientific methods, can be aimed to
produce solutions to current problems in education (Wellington, 2005). For my research to gain social importance, I should
primarily focus on a problem or a phenomenon that needs to
be addressed or evaluated, to be able to lay down the correct
methodologies that aim to provide understanding of the root
cause of a problem or the basis of a phenomenon. Wellington (2005) further stressed the significance of research and
the right choice of research methodologies in order to address
issues in need of confrontation and resolution; however, due
to the social and behavioural constructs included in education
today, the main focus of research would be the end-result or
explanation gathered through the frequencies of occurrences
through the preferred method used by the researcher.
Education, as mentioned by Dewey, is the manner by which
the endurance of an individual, a society, culture, religion and
norms is safe guarded. The measures of education involve
authoritative as well as self-governing structures that necessitate continuous congruence and evaluation on the side of the
teacher. Progressive – or liberal – education inspires the freedom of participation and knowledge-sharing. It is a teacher’s
obligation, therefore, to increasingly establish topics in a way
that mirrors the student’s background, by giving to him/her
knowledge experiences that would enable, rather than subdue,
the student’s prospect for future development, increasing the
student’s conceivable contribution to the social order in the future (Dewey, 2001).
The different modifications taking place in the 20th century
concerning social, cultural, psychological and political facets
[ 78 ]
lead to tasking the teachers with providing the students options regarding their learning inclinations in line with the rapidly
changing future. In this age of the Internet and globalization,
English is now being viewed as an international language.
In language education, primarily in EFL (English as a Foreign Language), there has been a shift of focus from the teacher to the student; from emphasis on how to progress teaching
methods to an all-encompassing concern on how individual
students would go through education successfully (Gremmo &
Riley, 1995). Language teaching has evolved to a more communicative tactic, that is learner-centred (Yang, 1998). Benson
(2006) has noted the necessity for learner independence as
required by the modernizations that have become astoundingly substantial over the last thirty years. These circumstances
have given rise to an increasing awareness of learner autonomy: self-access structures, self-directed learning approaches
and self-determining learning in second language learning publications have proliferated. These show that learner autonomy
must be recognized as important in EFL settings.
On the other hand, English language teachers, such as I,
struggle with developing the means of stimulating or encouraging learner autonomy in the classroom (Littlewood, 1997).
Consequently, we have to familiarize ourselves with autonomous skills from teacher preparations and trainings to be able
to take an optimistic attitude towards rising learner autonomy
in our students.
These and other trends in learning are a few of the concerns that EFL teachers are facing; I am constantly challenged with addressing learner attitudes and behaviours
that are easily swayed by social, political, cultural and psychological changes. Recognizing the importance of re-
[ 79 ]
search in the field of education is highly needed to come
abreast with current and effective methods of education.
The Case Study
researches produce theories that are particularly appropriate
for the focus of the study; theory building does not depend on
past literature or earlier empirical evidence (Eisenhardt, 1989).
Key Approaches for Case Study Methods
One research method is the case study. Yin defines the case
study research method as “... an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context”
(as cited in Davies, 2005, p.7). It is utilized explore issues with
limited available theory or unclear measurements, to describe
effects of specific events or interventions and to explain an
event (Kohn, 1997). According to Abercrombie, Hill and Turner
(1984), a case study is:
The detailed examination of a single example of a class
of phenomena; a case study cannot provide reliable information about the broader class, but it may be useful
in the preliminary stages of an investigation since it provides hypotheses, which may be tested systematically
with a larger number of cases (p. 34).
De Vaus (2001) mentions that the case study is considered
a research design that ensures the substantiation of proof in
giving light to the focus of the research as clearly as possible. Case studies are considered as data collection methods,
through participant observations and ethnographies, that are
not limited to qualitative data alone (De Vaus, 2001). Yin (1981)
mentions that the goal of case studies is to establish parameters that can be applied to all research wherein a single, relevant case can be deemed acceptable (Yin, 2005). Case study
[ 80 ]
Although the methods used by these authors are different,
Stake (1995) and Yin (2005) emphasize that the focus of the
study is well-explored, revealing the essence of the problem or
phenomenon; “There is a recognition of the importance of the
subjective human creation of meaning but this doesn’t reject
outright some notion of objectivity. Pluralism, not relativism, is
stressed with focus on the circular dynamic tension of subject
and object” (Miller & Crabtree, 1999, p. 10).
Constructivism is established on the principle of a construction of reality through social interaction; where the case
study approach presents a close collaboration between the
researcher and the participant and is seen as an advantage
(Miller & Crabtree, 1999). Through the sharing of experiences
and stories of the participants, awareness is raised regarding
their choice of action (Lather, 1992).
Application of the Case Study
Yin (2005) mentions that a case study design should be deliberated when: (a) the aim of the research is to solve “how” and
“why” questions; (b) manipulation of the behavior of the participants involved in the study could not be done; (c) contextual
conditions are described with the thought that these are important to the phenomenon being studied; or (d) the limitations
concerning the phenomenon and framework are vague. These
[ 81 ]
premises have also been discussed in an earlier study by Miles
and Huberman (1994).
Exploratory
This case study type would be used if the
phenomenon being studied has no clear,
uniformed set of results (Yin, 2005).
Different Types of Case Studies
Descriptive
The aim of this type would be to describe
a phenomenon or occurrence and the environment or context within which it has taken
place (Yin, 2005).
Multiple-case
studies
The multiple case studies allow for the exploration and comparison between different
cases or situations, with the aim of searching for similarities or differences of such a
phenomenon between cases; these are often aimed at supporting or disproving an existing theory (Yin, 2005).
Intrinsic
The aim of this approach is to understand a
case exhibiting a particular trait of interest in
its entirety; the case is not a commonplace
occurrence and the purpose of the study is
not to construct a new theory, although this
could be the end result (Stake, 1995).
Instrumental
The aim of using this type of case study is to
make use of different cases as instruments
or tools to support and bring more insight
into, or to develop an existing theory (Stake,
1995).
Once the aim of a research has been determined (the answers
being sought are best determined through a qualitative case
study), and boundaries regarding the parameters have been
determined, consideration regarding the type of case study
should be decided. The overall study purpose should guide the
research, with the aim of describing, exploring or comparing
between cases. Yin (2005) mentions that case studies could
reflect descriptive, explanatory or exploratory aims that could
be presented through single, holistic and multiple case studies;
whereas Stake (1995) views case studies as instrumental, collective or intrinsic in nature.
Type of
Case Study
Explanatory
Explanation
I would use this type of case study if the aim
of my research is to explain apparent causal
links in a real-life phenomenon that could
not be determined through scientific experimental methods such as surveys or questionnaires. The results of this should be able
to associate the application of a program or
approach with the effects (Yin, 2005).
[ 82 ]
[ 83 ]
Collective
Collective case studies are comparable in
characteristics and depiction to multiple
case studies (Yin, 2005).
Strengths of Case Studies
Case study researches present various advantages:
• They help bring light to better understand complex interrelationships. Case studies are undertaken under severely
restricted focus. One of the main objectives for restricting
the scope of the research is to expedite the formulation of
comprehensive and in-depth understanding of what is to be
studied. Additionally, case studies can engage with complexity.
• Case studies provide explanations to real-life phenomena.
Although most social research simplifies a phenomenon
being investigated, case studies strongly relate to the experiences of the participants being observed, retaining the
real events and experiences compared to other types of research.
• Case studies present an avenue to explore the unusual and
the unexplored. Due to the above-mentioned advantages,
case study research can expose substantial issues that
were unforeseen at the start of the research.
• Multiple case studies can raise awareness regarding the
significance or prevalence of distinctive events. The presentation of idiosyncratic versus common experiences can be
[ 84 ]
presented through the comparison of different cases, bringing light to the significance of such phenomena.
• Processes involved in causal relationships are explained
through case studies. Most traditional studies of fundamental relationships are grounded upon statistical correlation.
The depth and involvedness of case study data can present the ways in which such correlated features impact each
other.
• Case studies can significantly lead to the development of
existing concepts and theories. Existing theories can be
examined in current complex realities, and the fruitfulness
of the data can benefit the production of new concepts.
Though profuse description can be valued in its own right,
case study research actually validates its significance when
new or revised concepts emerge.
Weaknesses of Case Studies
Understanding the weaknesses of case study research balances the examination of the fruitfulness of the research. Such
weaknesses include:
• Too much supporting data leads to difficult analysis. An example of this weakness is presented in Triumphs and Tears
by Hodkinson, et. al. (1996) where some participants’ experiences and stories were given more weight than others.
Issues across experiences that have been related are often
analyzed, leaving the aim of the research unanswered.
• The attempt to bring case study research on a larger scale
would be very expensive. Gathering the stories of participants regarding their experiences as well as analyzing the
[ 85 ]
•
•
•
•
•
data, involve the extensive use of resources; trying to save
on such would lead to the decreased value and credibility of
the research.
Representing a complex phenomenon in simple terms is
difficult. The problem of properly representing a problem
or a phenomenon, especially in social or educational backgrounds, is often experienced in the case study method.
The main obstacle is experienced in presenting accessible
and realistic images of complex experiences in writing. Writing is principally a non-deviating communication form, with
a beginning, middle and end; but much of what case study
research divulges does not fall along such a pattern. There
are numerous unlike means of presenting a similar group of
issues, each one of which is delicately different in its style
and importance.
Numerical representation of the data is not often rendered.
By definition, case studies are not typical research methods. Often, samples are small and idiosyncratic and data
are generally non-numerical; generalizing the probability of
the data occurring in larger populations is not feasible. This
trait of case study research often renders the findings unsubstantial for many researchers.
Case studies are not generalizable to some extent. The results of case studies may be applicable to a certain population but could not be true across a larger and more general population. This is attributed to the type of data that
are gathered, which is mainly non-numerical and based on
experiences.
Doubt regarding the objectivity of the researcher is raised.
Case studies are often easily dismissed especially when the
issues raised within are not appreciated.
[ 86 ]
• Due to the intense focus included in case study research, a
large number of pertinent and appropriate questions are left
unanswered.
Summary
The case study method, being an empirical inquiry, justifies
itself as an effective research method since it provides “real
life” measurable data extracted from large samples, which often produce results that are statistically significant. This is even
more so when case studies exhibit these characteristics: (a)
the method of research and concept can be applied elsewhere
from the original site of the study, (b) the findings gathered are
similar in other settings, and (c) the findings offer provisional
truths. With data gathered from a detailed and holistic investigation, I may be able to formulate generalizations with regard to
emerging trends and contribute to an improved understanding
of the changes in the society over a certain period of time.
Various contexts have been established to appraise the
thoroughness or measure the reliability of qualitative data collected in case study research such as those by Guba (1981),
Lincoln & Guba (1985); and approaches for instituting credibility, transferability, constancy, and conformability have been
offered by authors such as Krefting (1991) and Sandelowski
(1986, 1993). Additionally, general guidelines for analytically reviewing qualitative research have also been published by Forchuk & Roberts (1993), Mays & Pope (2000) (as cited in Baxter
and Jack, 2008, p. 555).
The case study research does not only involve conducting
a research on an individual or an event; this approach has the
capacity to address complex situations through simple revela-
[ 87 ]
tions. Answers that address how and why questions are encouraged, giving light to the influence of the environment or
context that a phenomenon takes place in. I see that case study
research is a good opportunity for me to gather insight into a
case or event, having the option to gather data from different
sources and compare these to bring more light into the focus
of the research.
based questionnaires, such as Davis (1999) (as cited in Fox,
Murray, & Warm, 2003, p. 167).
As a teacher that uses Web-based programs in school, this
method seems to be highly practical as it enables me to distribute questions to a large number of students in a limited period
of time.
Design or Construction of a Questionnaire
The Survey Method
A questionnaire is a data collection instrument filled out by research participants that is often printed on paper but currently
also being spread via the Web. Questionnaires are often referred to as survey instruments, but it must be pointed out that
the actual questionnaire is not the survey; survey relates to the
process of using the questionnaire as a data collection method. A structured interview refers to the process wherein the
researcher asks scripted questions to the participants and records the answers through face-to-face communication. These
methods are the most commonly used approaches in gathering information since they are easy to prepare, distribute and
collect. Numerous questionnaires can be distributed across a
large number of the population and, despite incidences of incomplete answers or unreturned questionnaires, an appropriate sample to support the research can be attained.
Survey research has dramatically changed through the years;
paper and pencil forms are often replaced with telephone, and
now internet or Web-based surveys. Several researchers have
explored the advantages of doing research through the Internet
using electronic mail, such as Smith (1997) and through Web-
[ 88 ]
Listed herein are some common principles that need to be followed in constructing a questionnaire:
• Research objectives should be considered consistent in formulating a questionnaire.
• The demographic, cultural, educational, behavioral, communication styles and other characteristics of the potential
participants should be considered in order to make an understandable survey form.
• Familiar language instead of jargons should be used.
• Questions should be precise, clear and short to be more
understandable and less stressful to the participant.
• Avoid the use of loaded or leading questions that influence
the participants emotionally or sway them to the researcher’s preferences.
• Do not use double-barreled questions or questions that include more than two issues; these make the question confusing and unclear.
• Avoid using double negatives.
• Decide whether open-ended or close-ended questions are
more appropriate in gaining answers.
[ 89 ]
• For close-ended questions, mutually exclusive and exhaustive answers should be provided.
• There are different types of response categories that can
be applied for close-ended questions that should be considered, such as numerical rating scales, fully anchored rating
scales, checklists, rankings and semantic differentials.
• Abstract constructs measured by multiple items, such as the
use of the Likert Scale, are encouraged so as to lead to
higher reliability and validity of results.
• Multiple methods in measuring abstract constructs are encouraged in order to prevent the occurrence of artifact responses to a single method.
• Preventing response sets, or inclining respondents to reply in
a specific direction without giving much thought to the content
of the question, though rewarding, should be done cautiously.
• A questionnaire should be easy to use, have an easy flow,
contain clear directions, and filter questions embedded within it should be easy to follow.
• The questionnaire should be tested before being sent out
to the population to expose problem areas and allow for improvement.
Distribution to Respondents
For simple questionnaire distribution, such as to small areas
like the classroom or within an organization, distribution of survey forms to respondents is fairly easy. However, for internetbased distribution, the following considerations are raised (Fox,
Murray, & Warm, 2003; Moayeri, 2010):
• Recruitment of respondents: Potential respondents are offered the opportunity to participate in research.
[ 90 ]
• Time span of the research: Surveys in the internet need not
be managed manually; however, gathering the appropriate
sample should be stressed to be able to retrieve more than
the right amount needed to lead to a valid and reliable result.
• Technical issues: Internet-related issues such as down-time,
web crashes and link problems, and triggered responses
without recorded answers.
• Sampling: Web-based questionnaires are only made available to Web users; this alone poses a problem in gathering
authentic data across several populations.
• Authenticity of answers: There is always the possibility that
individuals not targeted by the study have submitted answers, and that respondents did not answer truthfully. Additionally, multiple submissions by a single individual could
have been made.
• Response rates: Internet users have different internet behavior and use; therefore, response rates vary depending
on these individual attitudes.
• Data input and analysis: The use of different technical applications such as web browsers, system platforms, and webpage designs affect the design, appeal and reliability of the
Web-based questionnaire greatly.
• Ethical considerations: Issues concerning the formulation
of discussion groups based on the distribution and completion of questionnaires, keeping the respondents’ anonymity,
data security, and other information-sensitive traits of the
questionnaire should be upheld. Additionally, most internetbased respondents look forward to having acknowledgement and feedback regarding the surveys they have participated in; therefore, the researcher should go the additional
mile in presenting results across different populations.
[ 91 ]
Strengths of Questionnaire
• An efficient tool in measuring attitudes and eliciting other
content from the research participants.
• Inexpensive and cost effective.
• Questionnaires can give information about the participants’
internal meanings and ways of thinking.
• Questionnaires can be given to probability samples.
• There is a quick turnaround.
• Questionnaires can be applied simultaneously to groups.
• There is a high perception of anonymity by the participant.
• Well-constructed and validated questionnaires exhibit a
moderately high measurement validity and reliability.
• Closed-ended items present the exact evidence desired by
the researcher.
• Detailed information from research participants can be gathered through the use of open-ended questions.
• Data analysis is more easily applied to close-ended questions.
• The questionnaire is a useful tool in exploring and confirming similar situations in different populations.
• Response frequency for some questionnaires may tend to
be low, especially for mail and email questionnaires.
• The verbal ability of the respondents may be challenged by
open-ended questions making the answers unclear.
• Similar to case studies, open-ended items lead to an analysis that can be time-consuming.
• Validation needs to be applied on the measures used.
The Structured Interview
Face-to-face interviews are effective in collecting data since
people tend to express their views more fully compared with
just writing them. In a structured interview, pre-listed questions,
like those in the questionnaire, are asked, and the answers
of the participants are listed by the researcher. Interviewees
are more likely to participate with an affective interviewer, and
the interaction provides the environment for the researcher to
investigate, clarify answers and provide feedback (Kamler &
Comber, 2008).
Since structured interviews require personal contact between the interviewer and the subject, the success of gathering
information is affected by the following factors:
Weaknesses of Questionnaires
• Questionnaires should usually be short; therefore, the issues needed to be raised are limited.
• Reactive effects, or the propensity of respondents to answer
what is socially accepted or desirable, may happen.
• Some items may not be answered.
• The respondents may lack information or knowledge regarding some questions.
[ 92 ]
• Physical and Verbal Cues – such as physical appearance,
gestures, expressions, posture, voice quality, eye contact
and movement of the interviewer can affect the answers of
the interviewee. Furthermore, these cues from the subject
can also affect the perception of the interviewee.
• Inference and observation – inferences are often representative of reasonable guesses made by the interviewee;
observation, on the other hand, should be the main goal.
[ 93 ]
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Interviewers should only record what the interviewee says
and not what is inferred.
Discrimination – Three common errors in this area include
the acceptance of only bipolar opposites, the inability to accept that people and things change over time, as well as the
grouping together of events, people and situations.
Language – meanings of words or the manner by which they
are expressed are often different between people, more so
between cultures. Time should be allotted in explaining what
is meant or heard to gather the correct responses.
Bias – these influences by the interviewer should be set
aside by the interviewer to gain a valid response.
Attitudes – the participants in the interview present individual
preferences related to face-to-face communication that include
self-confidence, the fear of being judged, and anonymity.
Capture – note-taking, audio or video recording may not be
appropriate for different individuals being interviewed.
Planning – an agenda for the interview should be scheduled
and contingency plans made in case of unforeseen problems.
Interview management – this involves the process of conducting the interview such as the vocalization of the question, the eliciting of the response, the setting of the interview,
interview structure and sequence. Ineffective interview management could lead to a potential waste of resources for
both the interviewer and interviewee.
Strengths of Structured Interviews
• Structured interviews can measure the attitudes of the respondents and can offer the researcher other issues that
are of interest.
[ 94 ]
• The opportunity to probe and ask follow-up questions is present.
• Compared to a printed form, an interview can give in-depth
information.
• The participants can clarify their meanings and methods of
thinking with regard to their answers.
• Closed-ended questions in interviews can give exact information.
• Structured interviews provide immediate turnaround.
• Well constructed and tested interview protocols exhibit a
moderately high measurement validity and reliability.
• Effectively structured interviews can be used with other
probability samples.
• Comparatively high response rates are frequently within
reach.
• Beneficial for investigation along with corroboration.
Weaknesses of Structured Interviews
• The resources involved, such as expenses and time, for
person-to-person interviews are higher.
• The occurrences of reactive effects are higher.
• Investigator effects, where interviewers may alter or distort
the data due to personal biases or preconceptions, as well
as interviewing skills, may take place.
• The chances of interviewees not recalling important information may happen.
• Perceived secrecy and anonymity by the interviewees may
be low.
• For open-ended questions, data analysis can be time consuming.
• Validation of measures needs to be applied.
[ 95 ]
Summary
The survey method could be used in collecting definitive answers to clear and exact questions that I require answers to.
Survey research demands that similar standards across different research methods be applied; and that emphasis should
always be maintained with regard to the main objective of the
research. Although it is the most practical method being used,
the distribution of questionnaires should not be utilized only as
an easy option in fulfilling research needs.
The Application and Use of Research Methods in
Learner Autonomy: An Aspect of New Literacies
Definition of Learner Autonomy
Learner autonomy can not be exactly defined. This is due to
the difficulty that arises from two basic theories: (1) that there
are degrees of autonomy (Nunan, 1996) and (2) that the characteristics of autonomous learners are various, such as the
students’ age, progression of learning and their own perception
of what their immediate learning needs are (Little, 1991, p 4).
Therefore, the definition of learner autonomy is varied.
Here are some well-used definitions of learner autonomy:
Autonomy is an adapting skill that permits learners to build up
supportive structures within themselves rather than having them
instituted around them (Trim, 1976, cited in Esch, 1996); the
capacity to control one’s own learning (Holec, 1981); a faculty
– for withdrawal, fundamental consideration, decision-making
and self-regulating action (Little, 1990); the circumstance where
a student is wholly accountable for all the elections concerned
[ 96 ]
with his/her learning and the progression involved in carrying out
those decisions (Dickinson, 1993); the alacrity to take control of
an individual’s own learning based on his own necessities and
commitments (Dam, 1995); and the recognition of the rights of
students inside educational systems (Benson, 2001).
Up to now, Holec’s definition of learner autonomy (1981)
is that which is most widely used and cited. But, his explanation only grants what the skills of autonomous learners are,
and not how they are able to learn autonomously. Dickinson
(1993) has presented learner autonomy as a situation; whereas
all other definitions refer to learner autonomy as an ability or
skill. Combining these definitions would illustrate that learners
placed in conditions where they have the opportunity to make
preferences about their own learning process will exhibit various autonomous qualities. On the other hand, this freedom in
making choices for learning may not essentially result in learners developing their own autonomy unless they are inclined to
show autonomous propensities. This enhances the statement
that learner autonomy is more a matter of learners doing things
not alone, but for themselves (Little, 2007).
Theoretical Concepts of Learner Autonomy
The proposal that learners have the authority and right to learn
for themselves is noted as an important element in learner autonomy (Smith, 2008). The basis of learner autonomy, therefore, is that if students are involved in decision-making processes concerning their own language aptitude, they are apt
to be more eager about learning (Littlejohn, 1985) resulting in
a more focused and purposeful group of students (Little, 1991).
[ 97 ]
Chan (2001) has presented evidence that “increasing the level
of learner control will increase the level of self-determination,
thereby increasing overall motivation in the development of
learner authority” (p. 506). It is therefore the responsibility of the
teacher to facilitate a classroom environment where autonomy
is acknowledged (Barfield, 2001).
Huang (2005, p 205) has presented crucial issues regarding
learner autonomy: autonomy should be analyzed from several
standpoints, such as technological, psychological, socio-cultural
and political (Benson, 1997); learner autonomy is a multidimensional capacity, which could “take different forms for different individuals and even for the same individual in different contexts
or at different times” (Benson, 2001, p. 47); autonomy is the student’s and educator’s right (Benson, 2000); autonomy has different degrees (Nunan, 1996); the improvement of autonomy shows
collaboration and interdependence instead of learners working
alone (Little, 1996); the idea of autonomy can contain different
meanings that are suitable to any context (Benson, 2001).
Principles of Learner Autonomy in Greece
Greece is a country located in Southern Europe along the Aegean, Ionian and Mediterranean Seas, located between Turkey
and Albania. As of July 2011, the total population is 10,760,136
with 0-14 year-olds at 14.2% and 15-64 year-olds at 66.2%
of the population. The literacy rate of the population aged 15
years and over is 96%. As of 2009, there are 4.971 million Internet users in the country. 99% of the population speak Greek
and only 1% speaks other languages including English and
French (CIA, 2011).
[ 98 ]
Issues Preventing Autonomous Learning in Greek
Students
The difficulties being experienced for EFL students in Greece
are mainly due to:
• Conceptual Levels – agreement regarding the standardization and translation of vocabulary from Greek to English
terms, especially with regards to Greek cultural heritage, is
difficult to achieve.
• Individual Levels of Teachers – the lack of teacher training
regarding the English language (Sifakis & Sougari, 2005), as
well as their job satisfaction and motivation (Karavas, 2010)
create difficulty in transferring proper knowledge to students.
Importance of Autonomy in the Curriculum and EFL
Settings
Learner autonomy in an EFL setting would further metacognitive awareness of the following features: student’s self-awareness, learning process responsiveness, subject matter mindfulness and a deeper social awareness. The self-sufficiency in
class would eventually lead to a more sovereign and improved
quality of life within the classroom environment (Chuck, 2004).
The Characteristics of an Autonomous Learner
Breen and Mann (1997) have listed the anticipated criteria of
autonomous language students: Autonomous learners perceive and realize what they need to learn, how they will learn
[ 99 ]
this, and recognize the resources available as something they
can take control of. They present a genuine relationship with
the language they are learning and present an honest desire
to learn it. They have an optimistic sense of self that is not
destabilized by any actual or implicit detrimental assessments
of themselves or their output. They are able to pause and reflect upon their existing learning undertakings and make choices about what learning phases to take next. They are alert and
adjustable to change and are imaginative. They have the ability
to learn irrespective of the location they are in; they participate
and make use of the situation they find themselves in tactically.
They can balance the strategic meeting of their own wants and
respond to the necessities and wants of other group members.
The autonomous learner takes on a proactive part in the
learning process, producing ideas and availing himself/herself
of learning prospects, rather than merely responding to different
incitements of the educator. This falls within the theory of constructivism. Learning to the autonomous learner is the result of
self-initiated interaction with his/her society, and with the world.
It would be sound to conclude that autonomous learners are
good language learners as well, however, it is helpful to know
that the premise behind capacity in autonomous learners is that
they are not autonomous at all times. Motivational and affective
factors, such as mood, psychological and environmental factors affect a learner’s aptitude.
Promoting Learner Autonomy in Classrooms
Promoting learner activities, especially in the EFL setting, is
gaining importance. Brajcich (2000) has presented different
useful methods in promoting learner autonomy.
[ 100 ]
1. Encourage students to be inter-reliant and to work cooperatively; the less students rely on their educator, the more autonomy is established.
2. Request students to maintain a journal of their learning experiences. Through practice, they may become extra mindful of
their learning inclinations and start to decide on new techniques
of becoming more autonomous learners.
3. Clarify teacher/student roles from the start. Probing students
to give their views on the issue of roles could be advantageous.
4. Advance slowly from interdependence to independence. Offer the students time to change to new learning tactics and do
not anticipate too much too soon.
5. Provide the students with tasks to do outside the classroom.
Such tasks may intensify the motivation to learn.
6. Give students non-classroom responsibilities to accomplish
(writing instructions, notices, etc. on the board for the teacher).
7. Let the students plan lessons or materials to be used in class.
8. Teach students how to utilize the school’s resource centres:
school library, language lab, and others.
9. Highlight the significance of peer-editing, improvements, and
follow-up questioning in the classroom.
10. Embolden the students to use only English in class. Tell the
students that this is an opportunity for them to use only English,
and few opportunities like this exist for them. Part of the role
of the language educator is to generate an atmosphere where
students sense they should communicate in the objective language and feel at ease in doing so.
11. Stress fluency instead of exactitude.
12. Do tolerate students using reference books, such as dictionaries in class.
[ 101 ]
Conclusion
There are different ways a teacher can motivate and facilitate
autonomous learning through learner training in class. It must
be kept in mind, though, that improving autonomous learning abilities is not about making students work independently.
Instead the goal is to assist students in developing skills that
convert them into becoming good learners, so that they take
responsibility for learning and are able to apply these skills in
any new learning situation (Mynard & Sorflaten, 2003). Learner
autonomy does not appear unexpectedly from the learner but
is developed from the learner’s communication with the society
to which he belongs (Cotterall, 1999). Teachers and educators
therefore have to be patient and allow the development of autonomous learning in their students. They should enable the
time-dependent process for learners to know how to be responsible for their own education through methods and techniques.
In line with research, education is finely intertwined with
the social and cultural norms of the environment; therefore,
innovations to existing education theories should always include methods that are not solely scientific in nature but also
exhibit social characteristics. In this case, I feel that a qualitative form of research weighs greater than a quantitative form;
albeit quantitative methods can be used to support my qualitative goals. For any research endeavor that I would intend to
pursue in my field, I feel that the case study method, supported
by the survey method in research, would address the issues
raised regarding new literacies, such as autonomous learning
concerns with regard to EFL in Greece. There should always
be an interaction between me and my students, researcher and
[ 102 ]
subjects, to further improve and evaluate methods of teaching
that can be applied to the current and even future situations.
Case studies, regarding the students’ preferences in learning EFL, through the application of projects such as diaries
or journals, social networks in the Web, Web-based projects
and film-making are but a few methods that can be applied to
observe and elucidate student reactions. The survey method
provides the chance for me to get straight answers to exact
questions that arise in the process.
[ 103 ]
References
Breen, M. P., & Mann, S. (1997). Shooting arrows at the sun: Perspectives on a pedagogy for autonomy. In P. Benson, &
Abercrombie, N., Hill, S., & Turner, B. S. (1994). Dictionary of sociology (3rd ed.). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Barfield, A. (2001). Exploring and Defining Teacher Autonomy: A Collaborative Discussion. In A. S. Mackenzie & E. McCafferty
(Eds.) Developing Autonomy: Proceedings of the JALT CUE
Conference 2001 (pp. 217-222). Tokyo: The Japan Association for Language Teaching College and University Educators Special Interest Group.
Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology:
Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers.
The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544-559.
Benson, P. (2006). Learner autonomy 8: Insider perspectives on autonomy in language teaching and learning. Dublin: Authentik.
Benson, P. (2002). Autonomy and communication. In P. Benson, &
S. Toogood (Eds.) Learner autonomy 7: Challenges to research and practice (pp. 10-28). Dublin: Authentik.
Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning. London: Longman.
Benson, P. (2000). Autonomy as a learners’ and teachers’ right. In
B. Sinclair, I. McGrath, & T. Lamb (Eds.) Learner autonomy,
teacher autonomy: Future directions (pp. 111-117). London:
Longman.
Brajcich, J. (2000). Encouraging learner autonomy in your classes. In
The Language Teacher Online. Retrieved January 17, 2011
from:
http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2000/03/
brajcich
[ 104 ]
P. Voller (Eds.) Autonomy and independence in language
learning (pp. 132-149). London: Longman.
Chan, V. (2001). Readiness for learner autonomy: What do our learners tell us? Teaching in Higher Education, 6(4), 505-519.
Chuck, J. Y. (2004). Promoting learner autonomy in the EFL classroom: The exploratory Practice way. Independent Learning
Conference 2003 (pp. 1 - 17). Independent Learning.
CIA (2011). Greece. Retrieved July 8, 2011, from: https://www.cia.
gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gr.html
CIA (2011). South America: Chile. Retrieved July 8, 2011, from:
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
geos/ci.html
Cotterall, S. (1999). Key variables in language learning: what do
learners believe about them? System, 27(4), 493-515.
Dam, L. (1995). Learner autonomy 3: From theory to classroom practice. Dublin: Authentik.
Davies, M. (2005). Case Study Analysis and Case Study Method.
Retrieved June 15, 2011, from: http://themirs.net/Research/
Comprehensive%20Guideline%20by%20Dr%20Martin%20
Devis.pdf
De Vaus, D. (2001). Research design in social research. Sage Publications.
Dewey, J. (2001). Democracy and education. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Dickinson, L. (1993). Talking shop: Aspects of autonomous learning. An interview with Leslie Dickinson. ELT Journal, 47(4),
330 - 336.
[ 105 ]
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building Theories From Case Study Re-
Kohn, L. T. (1997). Methods in Case Study Analysis. Retrieved June
search. Academy of Management. The Academy of Man-
15, 2011, from: http://webanketa.com/direct/upload/books/
agement Review, 14(4), 532-550.
en/methods_in_case_study_analysis_by_linda_t_kohn.pdf
Esch, E. (1996). Promoting learner autonomy: Criteria for the selec-
Lather, P. (1992). Critical frames in educational research: Feminist
tion of appropriate methods. In R. Pemberton, et al (Eds.)
and post-structural perspectives. Theory into Practice,
Taking control: Autonomy in language learning (pp. 35-48).
31(2), 87-99.
Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Fox, J., Murray, C., & Warm, A. (2003). Conducting research using
web-based questionnaires: pratical, methodological and
ethical considerations. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 6(2), 167-180.
Gremmo, M. J., & Riley, P. (1995). Autonomy, self-direction and self
access in language teaching and learning: The history of an
idea. System, 23(2), 151 - 164.
Hodkinson, P., Sparkes, A. C., & Hodkinson, H. (1996). Triumphs
and tears: Young People, Markets and the Transition from
School to Work. London: David Fulton Publishers.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning. Oxford:
Pergamon.
Little, D. (2007). Language Learner Autonomy: Some Fundamental
Considerations Revisited. Innovation in Language Learning
& Teaching, 1(1), 14-29.
Little, D. (1996). The politics of learner autonomy. Learning Learning,
2(4), 7-10.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Little, D. (1990). Autonomy in language learning. In I. Gathercole
(ed.) Autonomy in language learning (pp. 7-15). London:
CILT.
Littlejohn, A. (1985). Learner choice in language study. ELT Journal,
39(4), 253 - 261.
Littlewood, W. (1997). Self-access: Why do we want it and what can it
Huang, J. (2005). Teacher autonomy in language learning: A review
do. In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.) Autonomy and Independ-
of the research. In K.R. Katyal, H.C. Lam, & X.J. Ding (Eds.)
ence in language learning (pp. 79 - 92). London: Longman.
Research Studies in Education (Volume 3) (pp. 203-218).
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis:
Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.
Kamler, B., & Comber, B. (2008). Making a Difference: Early career
English teachers research their practice. Changing English,
15(1), 65-76.
An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Miller, W. L., & Crabtree, B. F. (1999). Clinical research: A Multimethod Typology and Qualitative Roadmap. In B. F. Crabtree &
Karavas, E. (2010). How Satisfied are Greek EFL Teachers with their
W. L. Miller (Eds.) Doing Qualitative Research in Primary
Work? Investigating the Motivation and Job Satisfaction
Care: Multiple Strategies (2nd ed.), (pp. 163-177). Newbury
Levels of Greek EFL Teachers. Porta Linguarum, 14, 59-78.
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
[ 106 ]
[ 107 ]
Moayeri, M. (2010). Collecting online data with usability testing software. Prism, 7(3).
Mynard, J., & Sorflaten, R. (2003). Learner independence in your
classroom. Teachers, Learners and Curriculum, 1(1), 34-38.
Nunan, D. (1996). Towards autonomous learning: Some theoretical,
empirical and practical issues. In R. Pemberton, et al (Eds.)
Taking control: Autonomy in language learning (pp. 13-26).
Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Sifakis, N. C., & Sougari, A. M. (2005). Pronunciation issues and EIL
pedagogy in the periphery: A survey of Greek state school
teachers’ beliefs. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 467-488.
PART 4
Smith, R. C. (2008). Learner autonomy (Key concepts in ELT). ELT
Journal, 62 (4), 395-397.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand
Approaches to Education Policy
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Wellington, J. (2005). Framing the Research. In J. Wellington, A. M.
Bathmaker, C. Hunt, G. McCulloch, & P. Sikes (Eds.) Succeeding with your Doctorate. London: Sage.
Yang, N. D. (1998). Exploring a new role for teachers: Promoting
learner autonomy. System, 26(1), 127-135.
Yin, R. K. (1981). The Case Study Crisis: Some Answers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(1), 58-65.
Yin, R. K. (2005). Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Third
Edition, Applied Social Research Methods Series, Vol 5.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
[ 108 ]
An examination of the policy area
of exclusion in UK schools
Policy Analysis of Educational Exclusion: Policy
Drivers and Levers in UK schools
Introduction
The 2010 White Paper entitled ‘The Importance of Teaching’
(Department for Education, 2010) focused on a number of key
issues within the education system. One such issue which was
seen as an area where improvement was needed was ‘Behaviour’. There is significant debate surrounding the issue of
misbehaviour within schools, of poorly disciplined and unruly
students and the further problems that can result from that. The
executive summary encapsulates the issues that were found,
and begins to set the issues in a wider context:
The greatest concern voiced by new teachers and a very
common reason experienced teachers cite for leaving
the profession is poor pupil behaviour. We know that
a minority of pupils can cause serious disruption in the
classroom. The number of serious physical assaults on
teachers has risen. And poorly disciplined children cause
misery for other pupils by bullying them and disrupting
learning. It is vital that we restore the authority of teachers and head teachers. And it is crucial that we protect
them from false allegations of excessive use of force or
inappropriate contact. Unless we act more good people
will leave the profession – without good discipline teachers cannot teach and pupils cannot learn. (Department
for Education, 2010, pp. 9)
[ 111 ]
A variety of policy actions have been suggested and put
in place in order to attempt to assist with these issues, and
to manage poor behaviour in schools. An important element
of these measures is exclusion. Exclusion as a consequence
and as a means of behaviour management has been an issue
which has, over the years, been a source of much debate, scrutiny and careful consideration. The reasons why pupils might
be excluded, the effects of the exclusion, and how best to manage excluded pupils are all key issues both historically and currently. A consideration of these issues can draw together an
analysis of the White Paper suggestions, the policy that has
come from it and, indeed, how policies of individual teachers
and schools have affected exclusion rates as a result.
This study aims to examine the issue of misbehaviour in
schools, and the resulting exclusion of students. It begins by
addressing potential reasons for misbehaviour and exclusion,
and draws particularly on the fact that there are disproportionate rates of exclusion for certain minority groups. It is identified
that by understanding the reasons for the exclusion of certain
factions and individuals from the school community, we may
better understand how to engage in interventions that prevent
such drastic action being taken.
From there, the study goes on to examine the effects of exclusion on the groups excluded, identifying in particular the potential for future societal exclusion. It then examines the literature in order to identify the solutions that have been forwarded
to reduce exclusion rates, and engages in the critical assessment of these proposals.
The study can therefore be identified as having the following
aims:
[ 112 ]
• To identify the reasons for exclusion from schools, with particular focus on the over-representation of ethnic minorities,
boys, low attainment students and students from lower socio-economic backgrounds.
• To examine the role that theories of race play in explaining whether exclusion is attributable to inherent institutional
racism as a result of the structure of society and education
within it.
• To critically assess the concept of pedagogical research
and methods of understanding in an attempt to understand
why there is still such a diversity of opinion in relation to the
‘causes’ of the problem.
• To examine the implications of school exclusion on social
exclusion and experiences in later life.
• To identify how educational policy might be developed in
light of greater understanding of the issue.
Why pupils might be excluded
The question of why students might be excluded may seem
straightforward – ‘because their behaviour warrants it’. However, unsurprisingly, the issue is not this straightforward. In particular, the fact that there is a significant over-representation of
certain populations in exclusion groups indicate that the question is not so straightforward. Thus, it might be broken down
into two more specific lines of enquiry. The first of these are:
‘why are certain factions of society more likely to behave in a
way that warrants exclusion?’. This question assumes the ‘justness’ of exclusions and the presence of negative behaviours in
all cases of exclusion, which may not necessarily be the case.
The second question that therefore needs to be asked is ‘In
[ 113 ]
what ways does the system assume or imply negative behaviours in these groups, and why?’. Thus the question of ‘why
pupils are excluded’ is really more ‘why they behave in a way
that results in exclusion, and whether they are really acting in
that way at all’.
The paragraph above made assertions regarding the overrepresentation of certain factions of society in those excluded
from school. This is a statement worthy of more consideration and evidential backing. In the Department for Education’s
2009/10 report on annual school exclusion statistics it was
found that ‘The permanent exclusion rate for boys was approximately four times higher than that for girls. The fixed period
exclusion rate for boys was almost three times higher than that
for girls.’ (Department for Education, 2011). In relation to race,
evidence presented by Osler (2002), the DfES (2003, 2004,
2006), Wright et al (2005) and Weekes-Bernard (2010) indicate
that there is a significant over-representation of Afro-Carribean
heritage children in exclusion rates. That boys and certain minority groups (particularly African Caribbean children and those
in social care are identified as significant) are statistically more
likely to be excluded from school is potentially significant. Correlation between sex and race and exclusion rates are established. Other factors for which there are identified correlations
are that of special educational needs and lower exclusion
(DfES, 2011,) and socio-economic status and exclusion (Corwyn and Bradley, 2002, Propper and Rigg, 2007). These areas
therefore constitute the headings around which the following
section is structured.
Before engaging in an assessment of the literature in each
of these sections, it is worth briefly discussing the issue of research methodologies in general, and the approach that this
[ 114 ]
study takes towards them. It is identified that there is often an
instinctual tendency towards the imposition of a causal link wherever correlation is identified. This section strongly attempts to
avoid such mistakes, and also engages critically with literature in
instances where assertions of causation are made. However, it is
also recognised that it is counter-productive to be overly sceptical of the methodologies adopted. Quantitative data utilised in
non-positivist studies is criticised for implying causation when
it merely proves correlation. Conversely, qualitative research is
criticised for its inevitable methodological weaknesses regarding a lack of universalizability and the inherent researcher bias
present. It is right to be cautious of conclusions reached, but their
value must not be dismissed out of hand simply because the
research paradigm adopted is not perfect.
Race
The body of literature pertaining to the issue of race and various social inequalities is vast indeed, and limitations of space
preclude exhaustive investigation, though an overview of pedagogical race-related theories can be examined. In particular, the
question of whether ‘difference’ objectively exists or is merely
constructed is significant.
One framework of assessment that has gained attention in
the last decade and a half is that of Critical Race Theory. Ladson-Billings (1995) initially proposed that the issue of exclusion
within education and the role of race within it should be viewed
according to the ‘CRT’ that had become an integral element
of criminal justice and penology analysis. Ladson-Billings’ approach to the issue of race is founded upon three key principles:
[ 115 ]
1. Race continues to be a significant factor in determining
inequity in the United States.
2. U.S. (for this, we can substitute Western) society is based
on property rights.
3. The intersection of race and property creates an analytic
tool through which we can understand social (and, consequently, school) inequity.
The first point is supported by the authors through an assessment of empirical data, which need not be examined here
since it both pertains to the US educational system and is 17
years out of date. It can however be substituted with the data
identified at the opening of this chapter, which indicates a severe over-representation of ethnic minorities – and in particular,
children of Afro-Caribbean heritage – in the exclusion rates of
UK schools.
The second proposition is that ‘traditional civil rights approaches to solving inequality have depended on the “rightness” of democracy while ignoring the structural inequality
of capitalism’. In societies in which the native population was
originally white, the legal, social and political system evolved
to protect the property of white people, and therefore inherently
promote the values and traditions of a white population. This
concept can be carried forward into education, where education
is conceived of as a form of intellectual property – a finite and
limited resource that must be hoarded to the exclusion of others. Of course, the argument is not that this constitutes the explicit intention of those who dictate educational policy, or those
who deliver education ‘on-the-ground’. Instead, the argument
is centrally that continued inequality in this area constitutes a
‘hangover’ from the days in which resources were scarce and
were to be hoarded to the exclusion of other groups. There is
[ 116 ]
thus an inherently ‘white’ bias in the setup and content of educational delivery.
The implications of this theory are that exclusion within UK
schools may be attributable to the fact that the school system
is inherently aligned with the prioritization of ‘whites’ over minorities, through the promotion of values that those of alternate
backgrounds do not align with. However, what is not rendered
completely clear is the question of whether the exclusion of
minorities is attributable to a) a system built around trying to
exclude them, or b) the reaction of non-whites to a system that
was not built to accommodate them. In other words, are exclusions of minorities based upon the injust actions of white aggressors who are societally programmed to assume fault and
bad behaviour on the part of the minority student?
There are significant criticisms to be leveled at this theory.
The central criticism is that it presupposes a notion of ‘difference’ – an inherent ‘way of being’ for black people that differs
from that of white people. Thus, whilst the statement that society is aligned along capitalist, property-driven lines, the assertion that society seeks to exclude African Americans from property acquisition through the promotion of ‘white’ ideals is questioned. CRT can be seen as a direct contrast to a liberal ‘colour
blindness’ attitude – supporting the recognition of difference
whilst rejecting a value hierarchy as a result of that difference.
Ladson-Billings’ evidence base for this presupposition of difference is the presence of ‘alternative voices’ and counter-stories.
The value afforded to narrative over empirical data is questionable. Furthermore, it never really seeks to identify the source
of this ‘differentness’. Is it a cultural concept that evolved apart
from of the influence of whites? Is it inherent in the DNA of a
race – are people of a certain race drawn to a certain way of be-
[ 117 ]
ing by virtue of their very nature? Or is it an identity imposed by
whites as a source of differentiation and then embraced by nonwhites as their own? It seems unlikely that proponents of a CRT
framework for race accept race as a purely social construct, for
this constitutes the basis of a colour blind attitude that CRT proponents reject. This issue is never really explored – instead, the
existence of it is ‘proven’ by the presence of non-whites that assert its existence and this in itself is considered sufficient upon
which to base a theory of property appropriation. Thus, it might
be said that the theory fails to truly get to the roots of the race
issue – they classify today’s race issues as residual from days
of property acquisition, but they never explore why there was
an initial instinct to unify under the banner of colour and race,
rather than along other lines that might have better achieved
acquisition of scarce resources.
It is further arguable that the underlying mentality of the
theory prevents further dialogue. It forwards the promotion of
an ‘us’ and ‘them’ mentality in which whites are precluded from
understanding the experience due to a lack of ‘being’. It rejects
any research carried out by whites as lacking the experiential
element required to understand the inherent differences between the two groups by assuming a position stating that the
exclusion of minorities from mainstream society by the whites
is a inherent and unavoidable ‘reaction’ to differentness rather
than a socially constructed source of differentness. From a personal perspective, this attitude can be understood to a certain
degree. I find it impossible to fully comprehend and internalise
the feelings that might be felt by groups from specific minorities,
despite my experience of minority treatment as a foreign citizen
in the UK. Research attempts to allow the researcher to understand as fully as possible the experiences of others – to ‘put
[ 118 ]
themselves in their shoes’ – when this is, of course, impossible.
However, to reject attempts to do this can lead to the assertion
that those who have experience of a concept are automatically
expert in the area, whilst those outside are not. Ladson-Billings’
(1995, 2006) research imbues those of non-white background
with the status of expert merely by virtue of ‘being’, but this is
misguided.
Nonetheless, despite a questionable methodology for determining the existence of an inherent difference and the reaction
of Whites as a mode of controlling resources, the theory holds
some persuasive elements. However, even if taken as a solid
basis for understanding the possible existence of inherent racism in schools due to underlying difference, the path forward is
not clear. As will be seen in the assessment below, males are
also underperforming and over-represented in exclusion rates,
and there is a significant body of evidence suggesting this is
attributable to inherent differences in learning styles. But what
does this mean? At what level, or at how many levels, can we
divide the system and tailor it to offer the delivery of education
in a way that suits girls or boys, or individual racial factions? As
part of a multi-cultural society, there has to lie a compromise
in the middle. It may well be argued that this compromise falls
towards the ‘white’ end of the spectrum, and that this could
be changed. However, the segregation of groups completely
according to their needs is seen as counter-productive to the
promotion of an effectively integrated society.
For these reasons, CRT as it is proposed in the literature
is rejected to a certain degree as the explanation, and to a full
degree as the answer. However, the CRT can be re-framed to
explain the over-representation of ethnic minorities in the exclusion population, by referring to the correlation between lower
[ 119 ]
socio-economic circumstances and ethnic minority groups.
This point will be expanded upon in greater detail below, with
reference to the idea that a white-orientated society has resulted in the acquisition of property (actual property, not the intellectual property considered by Ladson-Billings) by whites, leading to the reduction of socio-economic status for non-whites,
which in turn leads to the reduction of performance in schools.
Thus, what will be asserted is that whilst there is a correlation
between all three elements - race, socio-economic status and
school performance - there is only causation between race and
socio-economic status, and socio-economic status and school
performance, but not a direct causal link between race and
school performance. This point is largely supported by Kingdon
et al (2010). Whilst the authors do not imbue the concept of
race and behaviour with considerations of property acquisition
and the subjugation of non-whites into lower socio-economic
groups, they do explore the basic concept that the issue of race
is not central to the issue of behaviour, but merely has correlational association with lower-economic status, and it is that
which is the central cause of misbehaviour and resulting exclusion. In order to make this assertion, it is necessary to examine the idea that socio-economic status has a causal link with
school performance and explain why this might be the case.
Socio-economic status.
The socio-economic circumstances of students are considered to be an important factor in their being disaffected with
schooling and exhibiting behaviour that may ultimately lead to
exclusion (Osler, 1997, 2002). Issues such as living below the
poverty line, high levels of family unemployment and single par-
[ 120 ]
ent families are all seen as significant. The lack of productive
role models and the inability of single parents (usually mothers) to discipline their children further contributes to an overall
lack of stability and establishment of boundaries which facilitate accepted behaviour within a school environment. Osler’s
‘Exclusion from school and racial equality’ (1997), the Social
Exclusion Unit’s report (1998), and more recently the Eastman
report (2011), speak of the importance of a supportive home
environment and strong, co-operative relationship between the
parents and school, citing these as areas where improvements
could be made to reduce the exclusion rate. Such a set-up is
difficult to achieve in broken, struggling homes. Such issues
would largely affect boys and girls similarly, though it is worth
noting that single mothers may find disciplining sons more difficult than daughters due to their physical challenge (Sewell,
1997, pp.55).
The Osler study utilises a comprehensive research strategy
that examines both correlation (through empirical quantitative data), and attempts to identify causation through qualitative research taken from students and teachers. However, its
sampling research can be criticised in the sense that it uses
case study schools in which exclusion rates are already low,
and generates assumptions that these exclusion rates are low
because of actions taken by the schools, rather than inherent socio-economic factors pertaining to the geography of the
schools. Its statements regarding the reason for low socio-economic status resulting in exclusion must therefore be viewed
with some caution.
More recent research – such as that undertaken by Propper and Rigg (2007) – utilises more rigorous methodologies
to grade levels of socio-economic status and investigate the
[ 121 ]
causal relationship between lower socio-economic status and
poor behaviour (leading to exclusion). Their methodology is entirely quantitative. They seek to examine the impact of particular elements of lifestyle associated with socio-economic status,
including the mental health of the mother and her relationship
with her partner, and the early diet of the child; all of which are
areas that show a variation across the spectrum of socio-economic status, with lower socio-economic status demonstrating
correlation with higher mental health issues, more broken relationships and poorer diet. For all of these areas, they identify little explanation of differing school outcomes. Instead, the
main areas of correlation that they find are a link between material quality of the home environment and performance, and
maternal smoking during pregnancy and performance. Both of
these factors also were correlated to socio-economic status,
with those from lower backgrounds generally having a poorer
material environment and higher rates of maternal smoking.
The Propper and Rigg study is beneficial because it seeks
to more specifically examine the precise issues within the field
of low socio-economic status, and their impact upon exclusion
rates. Their implications, however, are that wider social change
– raising economic status, reducing maternal smoking and improving quality of homes – is the only thing that can be done
to address the needs of this group. Whilst it is readily acknowledged that there is a strong likelihood that wider social change
will have positive knock-on implications for exclusion rates, it
practically requires a society-wide overhaul in social and economic policy, which is an unrealistic prospect at present. Whilst
research should not be so narrow as to limit exploration to a
range that consists exclusively of what we can change, it is
beneficial to at least keep this in mind. Therefore, whilst Prop-
[ 122 ]
per and Rigg’s assertions may be significant causes of exclusion, investigation into other reasons for exclusion – reasons
that could be altered through educational policy and practice
change rather than some wider concept of socio-economic realignment – should constitute a focus of pedagogical research.
It is for this reason – the need to focus on elements that can
be changed by schools and school policy – that the CRT theories proposed above relating to property acquisition – whilst interesting, give little practical insight on a suitable path forward.
The idea was asserted above in the consideration of race that
non-whites fall into lower socio-economic groups because of
white acquisition of property. It was then asserted in the following section on ‘socio-economic status’ that presence in lower
socio-economic groups correlates with behaviours such as maternal smoking and poorer material environments, and that this
correlates with poor behaviour and resulting exclusion. Even if
all of this is true, it does not help in the development of an educational policy to counter these elements, short of reconstructing system from the ground up to redistribute wealth equally
amongst all races and classes.
Such an assertion is not meant to indicate that any action is
futile, as a result of the problems being societally ingrained and
unalterable by individual educational policies. Instead, it merely
forwards the idea that we must reframe and reduce these wider
social inequalities into component parts that have the potential
to be addressed by educational policy.
Intelligence and opportunity
Another source of frustration for students is a feeling of personal inadequacy. When students do poorly, they fail to see the
[ 123 ]
purpose of working hard and well, leaving room for the poor
behaviour that can ultimately lead to exclusion. Gillborn and
Youdell (2000) cite streaming by ability in schools as a key
problem here, with students being pigeon-holed into groups
of ‘failure’ and ‘success’ before they even start. Those in the
lower streams feel that they are written off and so do not try;
the subsequent feeling of worthlessness is of huge detriment
to the child. As a child in Gilborn and Youdell’s ethnographic
sample put it, ‘They only do revision for the higher people…
we don’t even get a chance’ (Gillborn & Youdell, 2000, pp.176).
One can certainly relate the 2009/10 findings that ‘Pupils with
SEN (Special Educational Needs) are around eight times more
likely to be permanently excluded than those pupils with no
SEN to this issue’ (Department for Education, 2011). Indeed,
Gillborn and Youdell (2000) suggest that it is teacher reaction
to poor attainment that causes feelings of personal inadequacy
and resentment which build up and eventually erupt in an angry incident worthy of exclusion. Students in this study felt that
teachers only wanted to help those in the class identified as
being clever, and that any effort made by others was not valued
in the same way. There was a feeling that they were beyond
help. Beck and Earl argue that this set-up within education is
a result of achievement targets set by the government to get
children to achieve a minimum of 5 A* - C grades at GCSE.
Helping those who do not seem capable of doing so is not a
good use of the teachers’ time – teachers who are already under immense pressure due to large class sizes. Another effect
of such imposed pressures means that overworked, tired and
stressed teachers (Sewell, 1997) often seek the relatively easy
option of avoiding classroom conflict; sorting out problems of
discipline ‘can be a difficult, time-consuming and delicate mat-
[ 124 ]
ter’. As Cullingford summarises, ‘disliking [teachers] is the final
outcome of disaffection’ (Cullingford, 1999, pp. 95).
The effects of exclusion
A German proverb provides perhaps one of the most telling insights and, indeed, warnings that can now be applied by way of
answering the question of the effect of students being excluded
from school:
‘Those who get lost at school will
never find their way through life’.
The issue of school exclusion has long been seen as key by
government, researchers, teachers and parents for this reason.
Those pupils who are excluded from school struggle later in life
in a way which is often of great detriment not only to the student
themselves but to society as a whole, with excluded children
having a ‘significantly higher likelihood of becoming a teenage
parent, being unemployed or homeless later in life, or ending
up in prison’ (Social Exclusion Unit report, 1988). That this was
23 years ago makes it a significant starting point from which
to consider a long background and history to the issue of the
effects of exclusion; to see whether over that time trends have
altered, and perhaps, therefore, to see if there is any particular
change that we might be able to attribute that alteration to.
One of the (many) impacts that a child being excluded from
school can have is for the parents and the family of that child.
This is not insignificant: indeed, issues at home can often be
cited (as has been seen) as a reason for the child having prob-
[ 125 ]
lems at school. Putting still more pressure on these perhaps
already difficult circumstances – or creating a situation where a
child has to be exposed to them more frequently – is indeed a
situation that can create a great deal of problems.
Another relatively obvious impact of exclusion from school
is the future educational attainment of the child concerned and,
indeed, their future employment prospects. Cusworth (2009)
cites a number of extremely illuminating statistics. She writes
that ‘looking first at the impact on education attainment and progression, it is clear that permanent exclusion from school is often associated with long periods without education, educational
under-attainment and reduced employment opportunities. She
cites a DFES report (2005) that ‘shows that only 20 per cent of
pupils who had been excluded in Years 10 or 11 achieved 5 or
more GCSE passes at grade C or above compared with 58 per
cent of those who had not been excluded’ (DFES, 2005, cited
in Cusworth, 2009, pp.118). Indeed, she notably goes on to
point out that this already shocking statistic does not take into
account those children who had been excluded before they entered year 10. She also suggests that ‘young people excluded
from school are also more likely not to be in education, employment or training in young adulthood, and if in employment there
is a tendency for it to be low paid and insecure’ (Cusworth,
2009, pp.118). Issues that started with exclusion from school,
then, were exacerbated throughout adulthood.
One of the main issues of the impact of being excluded from
school is arguably criminality. Indeed, Cullingford (1999) in the
very title of his text on exclusion notes that this is a part of the
‘development of young criminals’. This is one of the main issues due to the fact that this does not just have an impact on
the individual (as it might if that individual was, for example, un-
[ 126 ]
employed, or in a job which did not have a high wage, or good
prospects): it impacts the victim, the police force, the justice
system. It can, of course, cost life. There have been a number
of reports into this issue. In 2001, a group of researchers of the
‘Research Development and Statistics Directorate’ published a
report entitled ‘The independent effects of permanent exclusion
from school on the offending careers of young people’ (Berridge
et al., 2001). The report concluded that there was a connection
between exclusion and offending. Berridge et al. (2001) found
that ‘of the 343 young people in the overall sample, 224 (65 per
cent) were found to have been cautioned or convicted of a criminal offence at some time in their lives’. This may not necessarily have been to do exclusively with their exclusion from school.
As Berridge et al. (2001) further qualify, that was not the only
distinguishing factor: ‘more males committed offenses (nearly
three-quarters had done so) than females (just under one-half
had been convicted or cautioned)…those from ethnic minority backgrounds were slightly less likely to commit offences…
there was evidence of some variation between different ethnic
groups. A higher proportion of African-Carribbeans and Bangladeshis had committed crimes than Africans, those of mixed
parentage and from other ethnic backgrounds’ (Berridge et al.,
2001, pp. 45). While these further statistics should of course
not be disregarded, Berridge et al.’s (2001) consideration of
what happens to individual students after they were excluded
– and indeed through asking them directly – might help us to
see how the immediate impact of exclusion on pupils can lead
ultimately to a criminal record. This could be legitimately considered a (potential) effect of exclusion from school. Some of
the quotations from the students that were involved in Berridge
et al.’s (2001) report are particularly significant: they directly
[ 127 ]
relate to the experiences of students who have been excluded
and can therefore be seen as an insight that explores the very
direct impact of exclusion and allows an analysis of what might
happen as a result of this:
‘I did a lot of housework. Used to help my mum all
the time. There was nothing else to do. I watched
a lot of daytime television as well.’ (Kamir)
‘It was just boring. I was just bored, bored, bored.
Kind of depressed. Missing out on better things.’
(Hilary) (Berridge et al., 2001, pp.40)
When students are at school, they are occupied for a large
amount of time, students fell into a pattern of boredom, ‘hung
out’ with dubious crowds, in dubious areas and in this way become embroiled in a life of crime. Berridge et al. (2001) found
a number of types of crime and reasons behind it that can all
be attributed to exclusion. A case study of a specific teenager,
Ryan, is one of those cited; ‘his offending began when he was
truanting but became more serious following permanent exclusion. Ryan’s mother attributes this to the fact that during this
period Ryan spent most of his time out of the house and on the
streets instead of in school.’ (Berridge et al., 2001, pp.50).
The issue of crime as both a cause and an effect of exclusion is highly significant. It is a cycle which is very hard for an
individual to break out of, as once they have a criminal record,
it becomes still more difficult for them to get a job that will allow
them to break free, both in terms of their time, psychology, and
finances. The impact of exclusion on crime and of an individual’s propensity to commit crime continues; we have considered
[ 128 ]
detailed case studies from 1988 (Social Exclusion Report) and
2001 (Berridge et al.) and still the issue continues. The Youth
Justice Board, which carries out an annual Youth Crime Survey,
has repeatedly linked exclusion to crime in a causal way (cited
in Cusworth, 2009, pp.118).
In order to pull all of the suggested impacts of exclusion
into one current setting that brings all of the discussion into the
same context as the White Paper (Department for Education,
2010), it is important to consider a 2010 report carried out by
The Prince’s Trust entitled ‘The Cost of Exclusion’. This not only
illuminates some of the current effects of young people’s exclusion from school, but it also serves to illustrate what the wider
cost is and why excluding children from school is not something
that should be approached lightly. Consequences should be
considered in detail, and extremely carefully. There is a massive personal cost, as we have seen and as the Prince’s Trust
report emotively states – ‘at The Prince’s Trust we also see the
devastating effect on individuals and communities. Every day
at The Trust we meet another young person who has grown up
without a positive adult role model or has left school without
any hope they will find a job’ (The Prince’s Trust, 2010). This is
also a massive wider cost, literally. In the current context of a
recession, this should not be overlooked. The following figures
are extremely sobering:
• There is a cost to the taxpayer of £22 million a week in terms
of Jobseeker’s Allowance. On top of this, there is the cost
to the economy of lost productivity. A conservative estimate
for this is approximately the same amount per week again.
An upper bound figure for lost productivity is £133 million,
[ 129 ]
making the upper estimate for youth unemployment £155
million a week.
• The cost of youth crime is a further £23 million a week. This
is £1.2 billion a year (The sum takes into account the cost of
imprisoning children and young people, which is estimated
at £587 million for 2008).
• The cost for educational underachievement is estimated at
£22 billion for a generation (The Prince’s Trust, 2010).
How best to manage excluded pupils
We have considered the potential causes of exclusion, as
well as the potential impact. These are extremely important issues and should provide the background for any consideration
of how best to manage excluded pupils. In the White Paper
that was originally cited, and was the catalyst to examine all
of these issues surrounding exclusion from school, there were
a number of proposed recommendations that have ultimately
been incorporated into legislative policy.
Of course, the specific policies that deal with excluded children ‘on the ground’ are subject to a great deal of variation, dependent on the situation, the teachers, the parents, the school,
the Local Education Authority and the resources that are available to assist those children who have been excluded.
I have reviewed research and statistics providing a stark
warning that once a child is excluded, their prospects are lessened in the most serious of ways, with a strong link having been
drawn between exclusion and involvement in crime. Therefore,
it seems urgent that national policy deal with excluded pupils in
the manner set forth in various pieces of legislation (the Educa-
[ 130 ]
tion Act 1996; Children, Schools and Families Act 2010), which
state that excluded children need to be given provision and access to some form of full-time suitable education. Indeed, an
article published by the Department for Education placed even
more importance on this as an issue, stating that ‘At the time
of the White Paper, the provisions in section 3 had not been
commenced. The Department has now made a Commencement Order (SI 2011, No 1100) which will bring this duty into
force with effect from 1 September 2011. From this date, local authorities must ensure that all children who fall within the
scope of section 19 of the 1996 Act receive suitable full-time
education’ (Department for Education, 2011). Indeed, there is
strong anecdotal evidence that being in some form of education – ‘alternative educational provision’ – is extremely beneficial. This was considered at length by Berridge et al., 2001,
after they had considered, and as we have seen, the impact of
exclusion for children who are not given some form of education after their exclusion from mainstream school. Berridge et
al. (2001, pp.43) considered the ‘exclusion programme’ which
was in existence at that time, within their geographical area of
concern. Indeed, it is the quotations from the users of this facility that are most telling: It’s better, when it’s one-to-one you can
learn more.’ (Ali) Similarly, John commented: ‘You felt you were
someone, you felt important. Sheila (project worker) was the
only one who ever cared.’ (Berridge et al., 2001, pp.43)
Indeed, it is not difficult to justify the following elements of the
White Paper ‘The Importance of Teaching’, and to insist on the
implementation of previous legislation (as seen) regarding full
time alternatives to mainstream schooling. The White Paper
(Department of Education, 2010) states:
[ 131 ]
‘Ensure that all children being educated in alternative
provision get a full-time education.
seem, to make removing problem students easier. It stated the
intention of the Government to:
Improve the quality of alternative provision by giving existing providers more autonomy and encouraging new
providers – including new alternative provision Free
Schools.
Pilot a new approach to permanent exclusions where
schools have the power, money and responsibility to secure alternative provision for excluded pupils’ (Department for Education, 2010, pp.25)
‘Increase the authority of teachers to discipline pupils by
strengthening their power to search pupils, issue detentions and use force where necessary.
Change the current system of independent appeal panels for exclusions so that they take less time and ensure
that pupils who have committed a serious offence cannot
be re-instated’ (Department for Education, 2010, pp.25).
Conclusion
However, whilst the provision of independent education has
been identified by authors such as Berridge (2001) as beneficial in affecting more effective outcomes for these students, it
is resource inefficient. Whilst it solves the problem (to a limited
extent) of excluded students becoming socially excluded later
as a result of a lack of education), it can more effectively be
classed as a reactionary solution to the problem of misbehaving students, and does not address the underlying issues that
result in their initial exclusion from school.
We have seen that disaffection or disengagement with
schools is a massive trigger for the kind of behaviour that can
result in exclusion. This is particularly exacerbated in particular
cases where exclusion rates are disproportionate, such as with
certain ethnic minority groups, and with boys. It might perhaps
be suggested that getting to the root of some of these issues
could prevent at least some cases getting to the point of exclusion. The White Paper on ‘The Importance of Teaching’ promised to allow teachers to get tough on behaviour and, it would
[ 132 ]
We have seen throughout the discussion of exclusion questions about what causes misbehaviour or creates circumstances that lead to exclusion. If, for instance, the theory of inherent
difference forwarded by Ladson Billings is accepted, and nonwhite children were engaged within school and asked to learn
in ways that were appropriate to them, perhaps they would be
more interested, would see the value of education, and would
want to learn. Perhaps if those children in the ‘at risk’ groups
had role models that they could relate to, they would have a
different model on which to base their behaviour. Perhaps if
teachers had a better understanding of the cultures and issues
facing the students who they were teaching, they would be better placed to effectively deal with their behaviour, to understand
why they behaved as they did and to understand and encourage them. As we have seen, it is important to consider how to
deal with students who have been excluded from school, but it
is also crucial that the focus isn’t on making it easy to exclude
problem students, but in making an effort not to let a child get to
[ 133 ]
that point. As the study identified, an understanding of the underlying issues causing misbehaviour and/or perception of misbehaviour is vital in formulating effective policy help to re-align
school systems to better accommodate these groups. However,
as has also been seen – methodological difficulties mean that
ascertaining the reasons for misbehaviour and/or perception of
misbehaviour resulting in exclusion is incredibly complex and
subject to much debate. Moreover, in many cases, the answers
are ‘too large’ to be addressed by policy change in education
alone. As a result, no definite conclusions can be reached in
the course of this study. Instead, the study calls for greater research in the area, with careful methodological construction,
that focuses upon identifying elements that have the potential
to be changed, rather than on established elements that are
‘too wide’ in implication for use in an educational setting.
References
Berridge, D., Brodie, I., Pitts, J., Porteous, D., & Tarling, R. (2001).
The Independent Effects of Permanent Exclusion from
School on the Offending Careers of Young People. Research, Development and Statistics Directorate. London:
Home Office.
Children, Schools and Families Act 2010 (UK). Retrieved January 19,
2012, from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/26/
contents
Corwyn, R. F., & Bradley, R. H. (2002). Stability of maternal socioemotional investment in young children. Parenting: Science
and Practice, 2: 27-46.
Cullingford, C. (1999). The causes of exclusion: home, school and
the development of young criminals. Routledge.
Cusworth, L. (2009). The impact of parental employment: young
people, well-being and educational achievement. Ashgate
Publishing.
Department for Education (DfE) (2010). The Importance of Teaching:
Schools White Paper. Retrieved January 19, 2012, from:
http://www.education.gov.uk/schools/toolsandinitiatives/
schoolswhitepaper/b0068570/the-importance-of-teaching/
Department for Education (DfE) (2011). Pupils in alternative provision - right to full-time education for non-excluded pupils.
Retrieved January 19, 2012, from: http://www.education.
gov.uk/schools/pupilsupport/inclusionandlearnersupport/
a0077448/pupils-in-alternative-provision-right-to-full-timeeducation-for-non-excluded-pupils
Department for Education (2011). DfE: Permanent and Fixed Period
Exclusions from Schools and Exclusion Appeals in Eng-
[ 134 ]
[ 135 ]
land, 2009/10. Uk Statistics Authority. Retrieved January
19, 2012, from: http://www.education.gov.uk/rsgateway/DB/
SFR/s001016/sfr17-2011.pdf
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2003b). Minority Ethnic
Attainment and Participation in Education and Training: The
Evidence. Research topic paper RTP01-03. London: DfES.
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2004). Permanent Exclusions from Schools and Exclusion Appeals, England
2002/2003 (Provisional). London: DfES.
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) Report (2005). Cited in
Cusworth, L. (2009). The impact of parental employment:
young people, well-being and educational achievement.
Ashgate Publishing.
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2006). Getting it, getting it right: Exclusion of Black Pupils: Priority Review. DfES
Publications.
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2011). Special Educational Needs Information Act: An Analysis: 2011.
The Education Act 1996 (UK). Retrieved January 19, 2012, from:
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1996/56/contents
The Education Act 2002 (UK). Retrieved January 19, 2012, from:
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2002/32/contents
Education and Inspections Act 2006 (UK). Retrieved January 19, 2012,
from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/40/contents
Eastman, A. (2011). No Excuses: a review of educational Exclusion.
London: Centre for Social Justice.
Gillborn, D., & Youdell, D. (2000). Rationing education: policy, practice, reform, and equity. Open University Press.
Ladson-Billings, G.J. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teachers College Record, 97: 47-68.
Ladson-Billings, G.J., & Tate, W. (2006). Education research in the
public interest: Social justice, action, and policy. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Osler, A. (1997). Exclusion from School and Racial Equality: research report. UK Commission for Racial Equality.
Osler, A., Street, C., Lall, M., & Vincent, C. (2002). Not a Problem? Girls
and School Exclusion. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Propper, C., & Rigg, J. (2007). Socio-Economic Status and Child Behaviour: Evidence from a contemporary UK cohort. Centre
for Analysis of Social Exclusion (CASE) paper 125, LSE.
Sewell, T. (1997). Black masculinities and schooling: How black boys
survive modern schooling. Trentham Books.
Social Exclusion Unit (1998). Bringing Britain Together: A National
Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal. HMSO.
The Prince’s Trust (2010). The Cost of Exclusion: Counting the
cost of youth disadvantage in the UK. Retrieved January
19, 2012, from: http://www.princes-trust.org.uk/about_the_
trust/in_your_region/scotland/news/2010/cost_of_exclusion_2010/report_form.aspx
Weekes-Bernard, D. (2010). Did they Get it Right?: A re-examination
of school exclusions and race equality. London: Runnymede Trust.
Wright, C., Standen, P., John, G., German, G., & Patel, T. (2005).
School exclusion and transition into adulthood in AfricanCaribbean communities. Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Kingdon, G., & Cassen, R. (2010). Ethnicity and low achievement
Youth Crime Survey (2004; 2005). Cited in Cusworth, L. (2009). The
in British Schools. British Educational Research Journal,
impact of parental employment: young people, well-being
36(3): 403-433.
and educational achievement. Ashgate Publishing.
[ 136 ]
[ 137 ]
PART 5
Literacy and Language in Contemporary Society
Digital Literacy through Computer Games
and its Impact on Literacy in Learning
Introduction
Modern technology, involving computers and other related facilities, has added a new dimension to the meaning of literacy.
This paper discusses how in the process of its emergence and
evolution, modern technology, particularly in the form of computer video games, has added a new dimension on the meaning of literacy. The reason for choosing this topic is both theoretical and practical.
On the theoretical side, this paper draws from the positive
insights of the so-called New Literacy Studies (NLS). The NLS
provides a new and powerful concept of literacy, “focusing not
so much on acquisition of skills, as in dominant approaches,
but rather on what it means to think of literacy as a social practice” (Street, 2003, p. 77). The NLS stresses the importance of
going beyond the set of skills that could be learned inside the
classroom (Pahl & Rowsell, 2012, p. 4). It extends the concept
of literacy from simply formal classroom education to a more
elaborate socially ‘situated’ and ‘contextualized’ learning process (Street, 1997, p. 79).
Also as a practical consideration, it is essential to elaborate
on the situational and hence positive effect of modern technology, particularly in the case of computer video games, on
education, as proven in various studies (Krutka, 2006; Rich,
2008; Dondlinger, 2007; Gee & Levine, 2009). As a teacher in
a junior secondary school in Western Greece, I have personally witnessed how computer video games have contributed
positively in the literacy of children, and particularly, how they
have enhanced their analytical skills as a result of playing these
computer games.
Likewise, it is worth-noting how some of my students who
[ 141 ]
actively use social spaces and play more collaborative games
are the ones who have the more analytical as well as innova-
I. Review of Related Literature:
Learning Made Possible through the Internet
tive thinking inside the classroom. How can one explain this?
I believe that this is because computer video games can also
be an effective means for learning. Learning, as claimed by
many, should not only be confined to specific points in curricula as taught in schools, but also should be extended toward
the more relevant process of applying the reading and writing
skills learned inside the classroom in other situations, i.e., in
computer video games (Gee, 2004). This then makes literacy’s
concept highly situated or contextualized, meaning that literacy
is not limited to classroom materials, but rather also occurs in
other places, like at home, so that it can be acquired and expressed in multiple worlds, modalities and contexts, as in the
case when one plays computer video games (Williams, 2008).
The possibility of enhancing learning and hence literacy
therefore draws itself from situated learning theory, which
stresses the idea that learning is made possible not only
through the materials or texts used, but more importantly by
the event, situation or context in which those materials or texts
are interpreted and learned by the students (Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Handley et al, 2007). In turn, situated learning is one
wherein literacy takes a social dimension, meaning that literacy
transpires in a context where the learners relate not only with
themselves, but also in their relation to others. Situated literacy
is one which is being referred to as a ‘new kind of literacy’ which
is the very subject of NLS (Street, 1997).
[ 142 ]
We are living in an age where the use of modern technology
has indeed transformed the way different kinds of human social
activities are conducted. In the field of education, modern technologies have allowed faster and more innovative ways of delivering teaching materials through the use of various computer
tools such as animations, simulations, pictures, and charts.
This process not only facilitates learning but also makes possible ‘collaborative’ and ‘interactive’ learning, both via networking
and intra-classroom channels (Davies & Merchant, 2009, p. 7).
Davies & Merchant (2009) explained that the use of computers
in this case has also created the so-called ‘virtual classroom’,
which makes possible classroom teaching online. Davies &
Merchant (2009) also discussed ‘Web 2.0’ as an example of
the use of technology and its benefit in classrooms.
In this sense modern technology has improved literacy,
since literacy is one of the principal means by which education
is being carried out (Hannon, 2000, p. 8). Literacy helps to interpret, communicate and hence, teach ideas. In effect, through
the use of modern media in literacy, deriving and conveying
the meaning of ideas through the use of written language allows two people, even those who are separated by space, to
communicate and make fuller use of shared cultural resources
while interacting more fully (Hannon, 2000, p. 9). McGinnis,
Goodstein-Stolzenberg, & Saliani (2007, p. 284) used the concept of ‘digital literacy’ to refer to the literacy practice of using
online social media in order to establish ‘global’ or ‘transnational’ interaction, communication and even affinities amongst
people, particularly youth.
[ 143 ]
Positive developments in education and hence on new
forms of literacy coincided with the very emergence of the socalled worldwide web or the Internet. Using electronic mail,
Internet users can easily type a recipient’s computer address
and simply send messages which are received instantly, making this online facility an effective channel by which educational
communication is promptly possible (LaMorte & Lilly, 2011).
In Greece, about 46.9% or 5.043.550 of the 10.760.136
population are active users of the Internet (Internet World Stats,
2011b). The Greek Department of Communication and Mass
Media reported that about half of Greek youth (aged 15-29)
are online (Kapsomenakis, 2005). It should be added that education (7.8% of the survey) is one of the main reasons why
Greeks use the Internet, as indicated in a study conducted by
V-Project Research Consulting, a leading Greek research company based in Athens (Kapsomenakis, 2005).
In her study of the Flickr host website, Davies (2006) conceived of the so-called ‘third space/affinity space’ which describes how teaching and learning as reciprocal partnerships
are achieved in a multimodal environment. She calls on the
need to develop an approach that looks at learning literacy in
new ways. By definition, literacy in education should be seen
in terms of experiences in the acquisition of skills, and experiences in social practices. I share this conception of literacy. In
the context of modern technology, this type of literacy attempts
to provide an environment for developing partnerships in teaching and learning processes. This is what I constantly witness in
my school in Western Greece. I have observed that the more
technologically knowledgeable teachers are, the more effectively education is being delivered.
The beneficial use of technology in education also coincides
[ 144 ]
with the growth of new online software or applications such as:
the “Curious George Learns Phonics” learning software, specifically for kindergarten to first grade students; the “Reader Rabbit’s Math” for children ages 4 -6 as well as the “Rollercoaster
Tycoon” for general ages (Krutka, 2006). Such educational
programs not only promote improved reading skills, but also
enhanced math problem-solving skills, spatial relation skills,
as well as hand and eye coordination skills (Krutka, 2006). In
turn, online educational software and applications have brought
about the rise of distance learning service providers such as
Academic Systems, Intelligent Education, NovaNet, eHarcourt
ChildU, and Boxer Math (Clark, 2001, p 7).
Online learning has also made possible effective, interactive communication in virtual classroom sessions (Kussmaul et
al., 1996). For students, images and texts, sent and received
through online communications, push their motivation to learn
their courses, because complex materials are made easier to
understand, while the pressure that they get from the usual
classroom setup is decreased (Kussmaul et al., 1996).
Another benefit of the use of online educational software or
applications is its ability to facilitate the link and communication
between teachers and students who are most of the time separated by time and space (Kussmaul et. al., 1996). There are
instances, for example, when a teacher would find it hard to accommodate students from different sections or school locations
who might want to take up the same course or subject – which
they might have missed. An online teaching session (which is
possible through virtual classroom sessions), can be an effective substitute for the usual classroom setup in this particular
situation.
Online teaching that involves real-time video and voice
[ 145 ]
capabilities readily allows the conduct of classes, and hence
learning, at the most convenient time and manner for both
teachers and students (Howell et al, 2003). A virtual classroom
can easily be set up for a time when the teacher can be free
and easily commit.
Modern Technology and Effective Teaching
Hannon (2000, p. 8) explains that modern technology is indeed
an effective tool for enhancing the delivery of education through
improved literacy. I have always believed that through modern
technology, children are able to improve their reading and writing skills. For instance, “some children’s earliest writing experiences today are with computers, using keyboards and making
marks on screen with all the power of word processing software
for amending text and printing out perfect hard copy” (Hannon,
2000, p. 20). Fletcher (1991) proved in his study that teaching
through modern technology can reduce overall teaching time.
In effect, through the use of modern technology, deriving and
conveying the meaning of ideas through the use of written language allows two people, who normally involve the teacher and
the learner, to communicate effectively and make full use of
shared cultural resources (Hannon, 2000, p. 9).
Davies (2006, p. 218) noted that digital literacy practised
online, creates a sort of ‘third space’ which allows a new learning experience, by making people engage with one another
through the sharing of ideas and discourses, and in the process learn new things. In a sense, the concept of ‘third space’
is somehow similar to what Maybin (2007, p. 6) calls ‘unofficial literacy’, where communication and learning, particularly of
[ 146 ]
young people, are closely embedded in their own or ‘local’ negotiations of relationship and identity and that they collaborate
with one another given their fragmentary knowledge.
An example of the third space literacy is with online social
networking sites such as Flickr, where people post their photos and interactively discuss, collaborate and share their own
views, opinions, perceptions and comments about a particular
aspect of each of those photos, i.e. the theme, the background,
the lighting, etc. (Davies, 2006). In some cases, participants
on social networking sites not only read and make comments
but also create and operate their own interactive sites through
specific computer platforms or applications. Another example is
NewLits.org (www.newlits.org), which is currently being utilized
particularly by educators to facilitate adult literacy education
across the United States and elsewhere (Knobel & Lankshear,
2009, p. 632).
Social networking sites in this case become not only channels for learning through interpretation but also for teaching
through the conveyance of knowledge. Individuals acquire
and express their own ideas about a particular subject matter through social networking sites. In this sense, the concept
of literacy practice using digital means allows social network
practitioners not only to assimilate new kinds of knowledge and
experiences so that these add to their own ‘knowledge funds,’
but also to make their own kinds of interpretations of these, and
to convey them embedded with pedagogical values (Davies,
2006, p. 223). In fact, educational blogs (edublogs) are said to
rise daily, and learning platforms used in order to create blogs
have become common place, so that educators often use such
social networking facilities as part of their teaching instruments
(Merchant, 2009).
[ 147 ]
Perspectives on How Digital Literacies Enhance
Learning
The New Literacy Studies (NLS) provides a focal perspective
on the importance of situating or contextualizing literacy in a
particular setup (Pahl & Rowsell, 2012). According to the NLS,
literacy is not only confined to formal classroom learning but
goes outside of it to take into consideration the situation, culture, context and the interplay of social interaction factors that
affect the understanding and interpretation of a particular subject matter (Pahl & Rowsell, 2012). The emergence of new avenues for effective learning and even teaching through the use
of modern technologies has also led to studies and new perspectives on the issue. Crucial to this is the common notion that
modern technologies offer new ways for enhancing literacy.
Technology can adapt or ‘situate’ itself to a particular individual or culture. Street (1997, p. 79) for instance highlights
the distinction between an ‘ideological model’ and ‘autonomous
model’ of literacy. The ‘ideological model’ of literacy points to
the concept of literacy as being culturally sensitive and that it
adapts to a specific social context or situation (Street, 1997).
This is in contrast with the ‘autonomous model’ of literacy,
which proposes that literacy consists of universal technical or
autonomous skills which are acquired and taught in school, and
hence are common everywhere, and independent or autonomous of any given situation or context (Street, 1997).
As for these new ways of delivering education and enhancing literacy through the use of modern technologies, the term
“Web 2.0” was coined in 2005 to refer to the emergence of
computer applications and their corresponding use to transform the processes and ways by which education is provided
[ 148 ]
to learners (Davies & Merchant, 2009, p.2). To a certain extent,
the concept of Web 2.0 was an evolution from the previous
‘Web 1.0’, which involved a more shallow engagement with the
web and was ‘often characterized in terms of a proliferation of
banal or frivolous publication commixed with misinformation’
(Merchant, 2009, p. 10). The idea of Web 2.0 hence presents
people in general interacting and strengthening their involvement with one another so that participation, networking and collaboration are actively encouraged through the use of computer
applications (Davies & Merchant, 2009). Web 2.0 supporters
also emphasize the important role of such a phenomenon in
education (Merchant, 2009).
Effective Virtual Learning through Video Games
The role of video games in education has recently been acknowledged in various educational literatures (Gee, 2010; Gajendra, Sun & Ye, 2010; Prebble, 2012; Duncan, 2010). Gee
(2010, p. 2) for instance, talked about video games like SWAT4
or Civilization 4, being instrumental in learning because they
lead to understanding and ability to apply one’s knowledge in a
specific situation – which is what is referred to as “situated understanding”. Gajendra, Sun and Ye (2010) noted that the use
of Second Life, an online, virtual world, electronic environment,
and others like ActiveWorlds, Whyville, HiPiHi and Entropia,
create many learning opportunities through players’ imaginative analysis, evaluation and creation of particular situations,
that require cognitive skills and strategy.
Duncan (2010) described the video game Zelda, which
features a digital space in which participants are free to work
[ 149 ]
through the designs and redesigns of elaborate game metanarratives. Participants are forced to pay particular attention to
details and hence to understand how they can achieve the objective of the game (that is, to save the land Hyrule and its princess Zelda from the machinations of the evil sorcerer Ganon).
In the course of the game, through automated simulations and
using avatars or controlled animation agents, players –who in
this case become learners– not only view what they learn but
also understand or find solutions to what they see or hear in
the game (Duncan, 2010). Gamers then are ‘taught’ not only
the “what” and the “which”, but also the “how” and “why” of the
subject matter they are presented with (Gee, 2010).
Connelly (2010, p. 3) called for ‘a stop to the practice of
demonizing new media literacies as a potential social problem’
and rather use this new model of literacies to foster students’
interpretive skills, challenging them to think what may be possible to go beyond the conventional procedures of learning. It will
be noted that many young people today are engaged in long
hours of playing difficult video games which require complex
thinking and problem-solving (Gee & Levine, 2009). Playing
video games orients and familiarizes players, who are generally young, to various kinds of information ranging from culture,
history and even geography.
For instance, Civilization and Rise of Nations bring players
to think about history, the development of nations across time,
and their civilizations (Gee & Levine, 2009). Also games like
SimCity, The Sims and Animal Crossing force players to create
knowledge about how to build cities and communities, while
Age of Mythology requires players to have knowledge about
mythologies across the world, particularly Greek, Egyptian, and
Norse mythologies (Gee & Levine, 2009). In all these, players
[ 150 ]
are made to develop the tactical and strategic thinking required
for intellectual maturity by learning how to set goals, and at the
same time to monitor, control and regulate their cognition and
behaviour (Azevedo, 2007).
Jenkins et al. (2009) noted that video games – over and
above the traditional skills of research, technical knowledge,
and critical analysis taught inside the classroom – create new
kinds of literacy skills, involving Play (i.e. the ability to experiment with one’s surroundings while doing problem-solving);
Performance (i.e. the ability to adopt alternative identities for
new performance and discovery); Simulation (i.e. the ability to
interpret and create dynamic models of real-world happenings);
Appropriation (i.e. the ability to meaningfully combine resources from media content); Multitasking (i.e. the ability to maximize
the utilization of resources); Distributed Cognition (i.e the ability to use and interact meaningfully with tools thereby expanding mental capacities); Collective Intelligence (i.e. the ability to
collaborate with others by comparing notes and knowledge for
the achievement of common goals); Judgment (i.e. the ability
to evaluate and assess the relevance of different information
sources); Transmedia Navigation (i.e the ability to follow the
pattern or flow of stories and information from different perspectives); Networking (i.e the ability to look for, collate, organize and disseminate information); Negotiation (i.e, the ability to
travel across different communities, admiring and respecting
multiple points of views, beliefs or norms).
[ 151 ]
II. Video Games as an Effective Instrument for
Situated Learning
they learn. In video games, learners are players who get to
learn what they practise in a situation they are in.
Following the Situated Learning theory, video games can be
considered important learning channels through which true-tolife experiences in virtual reality transpire with player-learners.
The Situated Learning paradigm speaks of learning or acquisition of knowledge, not solely determined by the ‘objective’
process of acquisition of knowledge, but rather by the ‘setup’
defining that process of acquiring knowledge, such as the
place, arrangement and facilities that comprise the learning set
(Handley et al, 2007). Learning, from its very nomenclature, is
based on situations and not solely on the materials being provided by educators to learners. This means that for students to
learn, they have to accomplish learning not only from what is
known but also from what is practised (Handley et al., 2007).
In online games, virtual worlds are where learning happens
and it is where situational learning is made possible. In Second
Life, for example, the player learns by designing virtual buildings and becoming a “landowner,” or creating and “becoming
just about anything one can imagine” through avatars (Hayes,
2006).
Key constructs of the situated learning paradigm include
identification, participation and practice (Handley et al., 2007).
This means that: firstly, in situated learning, learners attempt
to identify with the situation in which they learn through experience; secondly, they become participants in a specific situational reality and they tend to move and act in that given reality;
and thirdly, given the situation, they practise what they intend
to learn in the process (Handley et al., 2007). In other words,
in situated learning, learners become part of a situation, where
Participation is Key in Video Games Situated Learning
[ 152 ]
Participation is an important component of situated learning,
whereby in a given context, the learners tend to interact with
other learners (Sole & Edmondson, 2001). It is here that situated learning is made different from ‘de-contextualized’ objective
knowledge learning, which in a sense is conceiving a learning
process based purely on materials, rather than the context or
situation in which it takes place (Handley et al., 2007). Hence,
in situated learning, knowledge acquisition is determined both
by the materials being provided and by the context in which
those materials are being delivered to students.
In learning, discourse could not be possible with only one
individual. Interaction is important so that learners have to communicate with each other, enriching the learning experience by
sharing and communicating their respective identities (Handley
et al., 2007). Through discourse, participants learn each others’
ways. Barton & Hamilton (1998) noted that it is through discourse that participants become aware of and learn about the
culture and language of others who participate in the same discussion. In the New Literacy Studies, these learning discourses
become the learners’ very venue of exchange of ideas, and
hence understanding of each other (Handley et al., 2007).
Through learning discourse, people who know each other
can create their own discourse communities (Barton & Hamilton, 1998). Such participative discourse in turn brings about
different forms of literacies among participants (Barton & Ham-
[ 153 ]
ilton, 1998). In the case of computer video games, participative
practices bring about literacies for the players.
Identifying Educational Games that Effectively
Promote Learning
To effectively promote learning, computer video games that truly lead to learning must be differentiated from those that do not.
Dondlinger (2007) explained that some computer games are
truly educational games because they have educational content and they go out of the usual action patterns. Video games
that do not effectively lead to learning are sometimes referred
to as ‘edutainments’, or those which are limited to ‘skill and
drill’ linear progressions where possibilities for alternatives in
the scheme of the game are zero (Dondlinger, 2007).
‘Edutainments’ are limited to presenting the same action
patterns over and over again, and do not have capabilities for
‘strategizing, hypothesis testing, or problem-solving’, which require higher order thinking (Dondlinger, 2007, p. 22). ‘Edutainments’ do not bring about complete learning as they only promote rote memorization or simple comprehension (Dondlinger,
2007).
Computer games that bring one to effective learning are
those that involve the following distinctive ingredients such as:
a system of ‘rewards and goals’ that motivate players, a ‘narrative context’ which puts one into a particular activity and establishes rules of engagement, ‘learning content’ that is essential
and relevant to the narrative plot, and ‘interactive cues’ that
move one to learn through feedback (Dondlinger, 2007, p. 22).
When provided ‘rewards and goals’ content in computer
[ 154 ]
games, learners are motivated to increase their achievements
(Dondlinger, 2007). One may imagine Rise of Nations, where
one of the objectives is to build one’s territory, including cities.
Here, players develop their strategic skills of thinking and acting on how to remove all obstacles just to achieve this objective
(Gee & Levine, 2009). In the process, players are motivated to
strive hard to achieve their objectives (Dondlinger, 2007). With
such motivation, players increase and, hence, improve their
own performance (Jenkins et al., 2009).
With narrative content, computer games can put one into
a particular progressive narration of events, wherein playerlearners must constantly watch and monitor in order for them
to strategically arrive at more advanced stages of the game
(Dondlinger, 2007). In this way, some distinctively designed
educational computer games can bring a sort of active-learner
rather than passive-learner stance to learning. To be considered educational and of pedagogical value, the design of computer games must involve an active-learner scheme in its progression (Dondlinger, 2007). As understood, the active-learner
approach tends to promote participatory learning as opposed to
the monolithic learning of traditional, teacher-limited or teacherdriven communication and delivery of learning materials, which
does not allow much collaboration from students (Fletcher,
2003).
ComputerVideoGamesCanPromoteCurriculum-Based
Learning
While learner-centered learning is being given attention, more
importantly in computer games, curriculum-based learning can
[ 155 ]
essentially be promoted. Here learning environments are given
attention for how these can situate and contextualize learning
(Dondlinger, 2007). Therefore, if game-based learning is curriculum-based, the design of games must also be student-centered to
result in effective learning (Dondlinger, 2007; Mayer, 2003). Traditional teaching seeks to adopt a teaching approach that strives
to become student­-centered, which is important to truly develop
the skills and talents of students (Mayer, 2003). But it is through
a curriculum-based approach to teaching that learning becomes
student-centered. To develop good educational games, they must
possess contents or materials (or curricula) that will address the
needs of the students (Dondlinger, 2007). In the same manner,
while putting stress on curriculum or material educational contents, teaching and hence learning becomes situational and contextual to students (Dondlinger, 2007; Mayer, 2003).
This is why, with computer games putting stress on learning contents, players as students can develop their capabilities
of assimilating materials even faster. It should be noted that
computer games’ learning contents have undergone continuous development and innovations in gaming software throughout the years (Gee, 2010; Gajendra, Sun & Ye, 2010). It is also
worthnoting that the computer gaming systems including online
learning applications, where teaching is founded, have been
made more ”user-friendly” or more responsive to the needs of
students (Dondlinger, 2007; Fletcher, 2003).
ComputerGamesCanHolisticallyImproveReadingand
Writing Literacies
While computer games have not abandoned their being student-centered tools for learning, it will be noted that computer
[ 156 ]
games have ultimately improved the reading and writing skills
of their users (Rich, 2008). This is inevitable since by simply
playing games, players become immersed in reading texts and
in writing to communicate within the game. One may consider,
for instance, the case of a certain “Mr. Haarsma”, who wrote
his first science fiction novel which was a game at the same
time – where he not only wrote about the fictional planetary
system Orbis, but he also challenged players to describe and
write about it within the video game (Rich, 2008).
Mr. Haarsma not only produced a fictional world to be read
as a novel by readers, but he also placed the readers in a position to play with it (Rich, 2008). It is not only Mr. Haarsma
who inspired children to read books, but increasingly, authors,
teachers, librarians and publishers have utilized this fast-paced,
image-laden world to create games and draw children to read
(Rich, 2008).
By letting children play, they become engaged in language
reading and writing literacy. This is because in computer
games, there are essentially texts included in the graphics. To
be able to advance through a particular game, the player must
read, write and communicate with his or her co-participants in
the game. Up to a certain extent, not only are they driven to
develop their skills through reading texts, in the process of playing games they are also ‘forced’ to assimilate, or construct and
process information, that they read or receive from the games.
Gee (2004, p. 21) explained that there are many different
ways by which reading and writing can be practised and that
each way is connected to a historically “changing set of discursive practices” over time. What this means is that discursive practices are evolving through time as a result of changing circumstances. In the same manner, as children try to de-
[ 157 ]
velop their reading and writing skills, these skills must adapt
to the dynamics of the times that the children-learners are in
(Alberti, 2008). Through discursive practices well-adjusted to
tcontemporary life, children are able to develop literacies that
are attuned to what they see and experience in the present.
In a sense again, this assertion is very much linked to Situated Learning Theory wherein effective learning must be wellsituated or well-placed in a given context (Handley et al., 2007).
In a globalised context, cross-border collaboration among
institutions or organizations has been intensified, as there is
a freer flow of commodities, knowledge, and information, resulting in an increase in technological progress (Held et al.,
1999). In many cases, communication now happens not simply
between citizens of the same country but between citizens of
different countries. The implication of this is clear: new modes
of communication must be adopted. Teaching of reading and
writing literacy henceforth must make use of a language that is
understandable by all cultures. Gee (2004) seems to suggest
that such a universal language may be the product of frequent
transactions among cultures, i.e. virtual cultures.
ContextualizingSituatedLearningInandOutofSchool
The importance of situated learning and the applicability of its
propositions to computer video games as channels of learning
have been discussed in previous sections. Situated learning
takes into consideration not only the materials used in the delivery of education to students, but also the context and situation where those materials are being delivered (Handley et al.,
2007). It is necessary to look at this context because delivery
of materials can be effective only if, for instance, facilities for
[ 158 ]
learning are made convenient for both teacher and students.
Also, if learning materials are motivating and interesting in the
context for learners, then this can facilitate and hence speed up
the learning process for students – just like in the case of using
computer video games in learning.
Another crucial proposition in the situated learning model
is the necessity that learners be connected with other learners
or with other individuals within the ambit where learning is a
process (Davies & Merchant, 2009; Davies, 2006). This means
that in a situated learning setup, learners get to understand the
meanings of pedagogical materials by interacting with other
learners.
If learning is situated and learners get to understand pedagogical materials by interacting with ‘other individuals’, as in the
case of computer video games, this then implies that learning
can be achieved not only inside but also outside the school or
classroom setup. This is probably one of the greatest advantages that the use of computer video games can offer, that is,
it can ‘situate’ learning both inside and outside classroom contexts (Williams, 2005). In fact, learning should not be limited to
the classroom, because there are other kinds of knowledge that
can be derived outside the classroom.
For instance, part of most primary and secondary school
activities is done outside the classroom, i.e, children’s learning through field trips or class visits to museums (Hook, 1999).
Children tend to derive some meaning from what they see in
the excursions – particularly when the contents of excursions
are relevant to syllabi and schools’ teaching programs (Hook,
1999). This then enhances students’ learning opportunities as
they get to understand different cultures and have a ‘feel’ of it in
a real sense (Hook, 1999; Lave, 1991).
[ 159 ]
Likewise, so-called out-of-class children’s literacy including
printed genres such as comic books, magazines, as well as
fiction novels have now been made more complex, yet pedagogically powerful, through technology-based facilities such
as computer games (Williams, 2005). At home, children most
of the time, are immersed in reading and writing while playing
games, helping them improve their reading and writing competencies and skills while enhancing their knowledge and experiences as well (Williams, 2005).
Situated learning through video games are also said to be
a product of collaborative or interactive effort on the part of the
learners. Collaborative learning actually draws from both cognition and interpretative theoretical views (Lave, 1991). In the former view, cognitive processes, representations and problemsolving are not undertaken by the individual himself or herself
alone in the process of cognitive learning, but also by other
individuals, with whom such an individual relates (Lave, 1991).
In the latter view, what is highlighted is the need for interacting
with other individuals in order to assign and derive meanings
from words, and it is only through this process that learners
can fully communicate the meaning of words or texts to others (Lave, 1991). Inside classrooms, the complete meaning of
words cannot be fully achieved, so that learning outside classrooms in interaction with other individuals is necessary in order
for learners to be able to use and express words appropriately.
IV. Conclusion
In this paper, it was discussed that technology-based education,
through the use of various media, particularly the computer and
its related facilities has changed the ways by which education
[ 160 ]
is delivered to students. The rise of technology starting with
computer software and the Internet, has made delivery and acquisition of knowledge easier and faster for both teachers and
students. In this sense, it could readily be argued that technology has indeed aided both teaching and learning of students.
The Internet has paved the way for a closer and more interactive relationship between individuals even from different nations around the world. With the Internet, virtual or digital space
has been created where communication, and even affinities
among people, particularly youth, have been facilitated for people around the world. This has made possible the provision of
online education, particularly the many educational software and
platforms that have come into reality in this age of the computer.
Computer technology has also made possible learning
through the use of video games. With such games, it is claimed
that players as students tend to develop many kinds of skills, including analytical reading and writing skills as well as problemsolving skills. Through computer video games as an alternative
learning channel, players become motivated and challenged.
They find computer games-based learning not only interesting
and easier to perform than learning inside classroom, but also
challenging since they have to constantly look into whether
they are achieving their game’s specific objectives.
It is here that computer video games can be said to be beneficial when it comes to situated learning. Students can learn
while being in the proper context of both individual cognitive acquisition of knowledge and active interaction with other individuals. With computer video games, situated learning is achieved
not simply by looking at materials being delivered to students,
but also by considering the context and situation where these
materials are delivered.
[ 161 ]
This paper has been crucial particularly to how I had earlier
conceived of literacy. Through the paper’s discussion, I, in the
same manner, was able to know how literacy should be practised by children. In future teachings I intend to allow and create
more situations for students’ learning so that they not only learn
the formal components of learning (i.e., specific books for each
subject) but also the situational and hence social context.
References
Alberti, J. (2008). The game of reading and writing: How video games
reframe our understanding of literacy. Computers and Composition, 25, 258–269.
Azevedo, R. (2007). Understanding the complex nature of self-regulatory processes in learning with computer-based learning
environments: an introduction. Metacognition and Learning,
2, 57–65. doi 10.1007/s11409-007-9018-5
Barton, D., & Hamilton, M. (1998). Local literacies, reading and writing in one community. London: Routledge.
Clark, T. (2001). Virtual Schools: Trends and Issues. A study of virtual schools in the United States. Western Illinois University. Retrieved April 12, 2012, from: http://www.wested.org/
online_pubs/virtualschools.pdf
Connelly, J. (2010). Critical visual literacy: Inside virtual world barbiegirls.com. Hong Kong Baptist University. Retrieved April
17, 2012, from http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/
uploads/2010/06/Connelly-paper.pdf
Davies, J. (2006). Affinities and beyond! Developing ways of seeing
in online spaces. E-learning- Special Issue: Digital Interfaces, 3(2), 217-234. Retrieved April 12, 2012, from: http://
www.wwwords.co.uk/elea/
Davies, J., & Merchant, G. (2009). Education and web 2.0. In J.
Davies & G. Merchant (Eds.) Web 2.0 for Schools: Learning
and Social Participation (pp. 1-11). New York: Peter Lang.
Dondlinger, M.J. (2007). Educational video game design: A review
of the literature. Journal of Applied Educational Technology,
4(1), 21-31.
Duncan, S.C. (2010). Gamers as Designers: a framework for investigating design in gaming affinity spaces. E–Learning and
[ 162 ]
[ 163 ]
Digital Media, 7(1). Retrieved April 17, 2012, from: http://
dx.doi.org/10.2304/elea.2010.7.1.21
Fletcher, J. D. (1991). Effectiveness and cost of interactive videodisc
instruction. Machine Mediated Learning, 3, 361–385.
Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & Perraton, J. (1999). Global
transformations. Stanford CA: University Press.
Hook, C. (1999). Making a school excursion a learning experience
2: The Australian Museum, Paper Presented at the “Musing
Fletcher, J. D. (2003) Evidence for learning from technology-assisted
On Learning” Seminar. Sydney: Australian Museum. Re-
instruction. In O’Neil, H. F., & Perez, R. S. (Eds.) Technol-
trieved April 17, 2012, from http://australianmuseum.net.au/
ogy applications in education: A learning view (pp. 79-97).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gajendra, S., Sun W. & Ye, Q. (2010). Second life: A strong communication tool in social networking and business. Information
Technology Journal, 9(3), 524-534.
Gee, J. P., & Levine, M. H. (2009). Welcome to our virtual worlds.
Educational Leadership, 66(6), 48-52.
Gee, J. P. (2010). Science, literacy, and video games: Situated learning. In Rodriguez, A. J. (Eds.) Science Education as a Pathway to Teaching Language Literacy (pp. 1-13). Rotterdam:
Sense Publishers. Retrieved April 17, 2012, from: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/i2techscie/pdf_3/GeeSituated_Science.rev.
pdf
Gee, J. P. (2004). What video games have to teach us about learning
and literacy. NY: Palgrave/Macmillan.
Handley, K., Clark, T., Fincham, R., & Sturdy, A. (2007). Researching situated learning: participation, identity and practices in
client-management consultant relationships. Management
Learning, 38(2), 173-191.
Hannon, P. (2000). Reflecting on literacy in education. London: Routledge/Falmer.
Hayes, E. R. (2006). Situated learning in virtual worlds: The learning
Uploads/Documents/2012/paper7.pdf
Howell, S.L., Williams, P.B., & Lindsay, N. K. (2003). Thirty-two
trends affecting distance education: An informed foundation
for strategic planning. Online Journal of Distance Learning
Administration, 6 (3). Retrieved April 12, 2012, from: http://
www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall63/howell63.html
Internet World Stats (2011b). Internet usage in Europe. Miniwatts
Marketing Group. Retrieved April 17, 2012, from: http://
www.internetworldstats.com/stats4.htm
Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K., & Robison, A.
J. (2009). Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
Kapsomenakis, N. (2005). Greek internet usage statistics. Multilingual Search. Retrieved April 17, 2012, from: http://
www.multilingual-search.com/greek-internet-usage-statistics/13/06/2005/
Knobel, M., & Lankshear, C. (2009). Wikis, digital literacies, and professional growth. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,
52(7), 631-634. doi:10.1598/JAAL.52.7.8
Krutka, J. (2006). The benefits of educational software. Ezine Articles. Retrieved April 17, 2012, from: http://ezinearticles.
com/?The-Benefits-of-Educational-Software&id=328535
ecology of Second Life, Proceedings of 2006 Adult Educa-
Kussmaul, C., Dunn, J., Bagley, M., & Watnik M. (1996). Using
tion Research Conference. Retrieved from: http://www.adul-
technology in education, when and why, not how. College
terc.org/Proceedings/2006/Proceedings/Hayes.pdf
Teaching, 44 (4), 123-126.
[ 164 ]
[ 165 ]
LaMorte, C., & Lilly, J. (2011). Computers: History and development.
Street, B. V. (1995). Social literacies: critical approaches to literacy in
Retrieved April 17, 2012, from: http://www.dia.eui.upm.es/
development, ethnography, and education. London: Long-
asignatu/sis_op1/comp_hd/comp_hd.htm
man.
Lave, J. (1991). Chapter 4, Situating learning in communities of practice. In Resnick, L., Levine, J. & Teasley, S. (Eds.) Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition (pp. 63-82). Retrieved
April 17, 2012, from: http://www.udel.edu/educ/whitson/
files/Lave,%20Situating%20learning%20in%20communities%20of%20practice.pdf
Maybin, J. (2007). Literacy under and over the desk: oppositions and
heterogeneity. Language and Education, 21(6), 515–530.
Mayer, R. E. (2003). Theories of learning and their application to
technology. In O’Neil, H. F., & Perez, R. S. (Eds.) Technology applications in education: A learning view (pp. 127-157).
Street, B. V. (1997). The implications of the ‘New Literacy Studies’ for
literacy education. English in Education, 31(3), 45-59.
Street, B. V. (2003). What’s «new» in New Literacy Studies? Critical
approaches to literacy in theory and practice. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 5(2), 77-91.
Williams, B. T. (2005). Leading double lives: Literacy and technology
in and out of school. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,
48(8), 702-706.
Williams, B. T. (2008). “Tomorrow will not be like today”: Literacy and
identity in a world of multiliteracies. Journal of Adolescent &
Adult Literacy, 5(1), 682–686.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McGinnis, T., Goodstein-Stolzenberg, A., & Saliani, E. C. (2007). “indnpride”: Online spaces of transnational youth as sites of
creative and sophisticated literacy and identity work. Linguistics and Education, 18, 283–304.
Merchant, G. H. (2009). Web 2.0, new literacies, and the idea of
learning through participation. English teaching: practice
and critique, 8 (3), 8-20.
Pahl, K., & Rowsell, J. (2012). Literacy and education: Understanding the New Literacy Studies in the Classroom. (2nd ed.)
London: Sage.
Prebble, L. (2012). Gaming is an art form just like theatre. The
Guardian. Retrieved April 17, 2012, from: http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/feb/12/lucy-prebble-computergames-playwright
Rich, M. (2008, October 6). The future of reading: Using video games
as bait to hook readers. The New York Times.
[ 166 ]
[ 167 ]
PART 6
Intercultural Sensitivity of EFL Teachers:
Research Methods and Design
Intercultural Sensitivity of EFL Teachers:
Research Methods and Design
CHAPTER 1 – BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
For the past several decades, the world has been characterized by a trend towards globalization, which has heightened
transactions among nations. Globalization has presented a
condition of increasingly integrated global economy marked by
freer trade of commodities as well as flow of labor and capital
(Merriam-Webster, 2011). Although this description applies to
a rather limited ‘economic’ scope of globalization, the idea of
freer movement of both human and non-human capitals is important to highlight in this study.
Truly, freer movement of human and non-human capital has
brought to the fore issues such as migration, health, trade, and
culture (Friedman, 2004). Nations are forced to address the related concern of diversity between different people of the world
because people can move faster today. Globalization has not
only increased international interconnectedness among nations
creating a ‘global village’, but also the necessity for people of
one cultural background to adapt and communicate with other
people of different cultural backgrounds (Markovic, 2012).
Figures from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) showed that the number of
international students around the world rose by more than 75%
to 3.43 million since 2000 (Coughlan, 2011). Likewise in 2011,
the Institute of International Education or IEE (2011) indicated
that the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, France, and China are the
[ 171 ]
top five host destinations of international students (IEE, 2011).
Greece is on the 15th spot, serving as host for 3,700 international students during the period, representing an increase of
2 percent from the previous period (Coughlan, 2011). Students
mostly from Balkan countries migrate to Greece to study, which
signals the need to really develop intercultural competence
among teachers, especially high school language teachers. In
general, intercultural competence is understood as teachers’
ability to effectively communicate with their students from other
cultural backgrounds (Spinthourakis & Karatzia-Stavlioti, 2006,
p. 491; Wolfgang et al., 2001).
There is a need to develop a pedagogical language practice that is culturally sensitive and that respects, recognizes,
accepts and integrates different cultures within the whole educational spectrum (Chen & Starosta, 2000, p. 4; Spinthourakis,
& Karatzia-Stavlioti, 2006; Hammer et al., 2003; Greenholtz,
2000). ‘Intercultural sensitivity’ is necessary in order to develop
teachers’ intercultural communication capability, as the effects
of globalization are now widely seen in the field of education.
For teachers, intercultural communication competence allows
them to effectively deliver their lessons to students from other
cultural backgrounds (Bennett & Bennett, 2001; Wolfgang et
al., 2001; Makri, 2003).
Intercultural communication competence among teachers
refers also to their ability to be able to adopt culturally responsive pedagogy and overcome conditions of cultural difference
when teaching (Siwatu, 2007). It allows them to recognize students of other cultures, hence, producing in them students who
do not withhold themselves from effectively communicating and
competing in their highly globalized and competitive classroom
environment (Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007, p.3). Bennett &
[ 172 ]
Bennett (2001, p. 7) explained that intercultural communication
is a result of individual or community development when knowledge, attitude and behavior work together for the best intellectual formation of students from diverse cultural backgrounds.
In short, intercultural communication competence is a result of
teachers’ effective sensitivity to the distinct cultures of students
who come from other places and the ability to allow them to
relate and communicate effectively with other students from
distinct cultural backgrounds.
In Greece, various efforts to promote intercultural sensitivity
at a policy level have been undertaken, particularly on the part
of the Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs and
the Pedagogical Institute (Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007). The
Greek Constitution also provides for equality before the law and
the right of all children to attend compulsory education without
prejudice on the financial or social condition of their parents
(Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007). More particularly, the Ministry
of National Education and Religious Affairs has been working
on enhancing intercultural communication competence among
school teachers, thereby promoting respect for cultural diversity and creating a pedagogical system that is ‘less ethnocentric’
in nature (Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007). All these efforts in
turn create an ideal situation in learning, based on ‘interculturalism’ that promotes inclusiveness rather than ‘exclusivity’
among students (Coulby, 2006).
1.2 Theoretical framework
Since this research is essentially about cultural differences, it is
important to have a foundational knowledge about culture and
its differences among individuals. Tylor (1871) first provided a
[ 173 ]
clear definition of culture. According to him, culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of the society” (Tylor, 1871, p.1). This definition is
similar to a more concise meaning of culture provided by Hatch
(1985, p. 178) who referred to culture as a ‘way of life’, consisting of different patterns of thoughts and actions among groups
of people that are passed from one generation to another.
What is worthy to note in these definitions is the idea of
culture being common among groups of people. In this sense,
culture is about things (what people have), thoughts (what they
think) and actions (what they do) being possessed by individuals belonging to a particular group (Ferraro & Andreatta, 2010).
Culture hence can be distinguished between or among groups
of persons and the distinction is in most cases based on nationality (Ferraro & Andreatta, 2010).
Culture is generally identifiable to a specific nationality (Scarborough, 1998). People belonging to a specific geographical location or national boundary share common knowledge and patterns of behavior (Peoples & Bailey, 2012). In the process, people in that location develop their own ‘cultural identity’ (Peoples &
Bailey, 2012; Scarborough, 1998). Although national boundaries
bind people within a specific cultural identity, such a view is countered by those who support the idea of intra-cultural diversity. Intra-cultural diversity is the difference between subcultures within
a culture and could be based on differences in religious, political,
economic, kinship, ecological systems and other social dimensions (Fetterman, 1998). The concept of intra-cultural diversity is
important in social research since it helps the researcher to not
just see a specific culture as ‘one’ culture but rather a culture of
various perspectives (Fetterman, 1998).
[ 174 ]
For people from different locations with different cultural
identities, their distinct culture presents them with difficulties in
adapting to a newfound culture. Students, for instance, who migrate to another country have their own difficulties in adapting
to the ways of host country’s people (Zhou & Todman, 2009).
Teachers, for their part, have their duty to facilitate this process
of cultural adaptation (Spinthourakis, & Karatzia-Stavlioti, 2006).
Teachers, particularly English as a Foreign Language (EFL) inservice teachers, should be culturally sensitive to the needs of
their students. They must be able to understand how cultural
barriers, such as language, beliefs, and behaviors, can affect either positively or negatively the way lessons are provided inside
classrooms or in any other situation of learning (Ditton, 2007).
Intercultural sensitivity, which is teachers’ capacity to provide culturally sensitive education, requires that they successfully go through Bennett’s (1986) stages of development model
of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS) consisting of: 1) three ethnocentric stages, such as the Denial, Defense, Minimization stages; and 2) three ethnorelative stages, such as the Acceptance,
Adaptation, and Integration stages (Paige et al., 2003; Dong
et al., 2008). The first three “ethnocentric” stages describe an
individual’s behavior whereby he or she considers his or her
own culture as central and superior to reality so that other cultures are found to ‘lack substance or significance’ (Greenholtz,
2000). The “ethnorelative” stages refer to an individual’s behavior whereby he or she realizes that his or her own culture
is merely one of many equally valid views of reality around the
world, enabling him or her to acknowledge integration of other
cultural views into his or her own culture (Greenholtz, 2000).
The “ethnorelative” stages are valid affirmations since they pro-
[ 175 ]
vide appropriate grounds for intercultural sensitivity for any individual, including teachers.
This study is anchored on the DMIS which delineates how
teachers, particularly EFL in-service high school teachers, can
be considered interculturally sensitive as well as communication competent by overcoming ethnocentric behavior towards
ethnorelative behavior. But the extent to which teachers would
possess intercultural sensitivity and intercultural communication
competence would depend upon their manner of teaching, which
incidentally is going to be the main focus of this research. Such
manner of teaching will be examined through the lens of DMIS.
One way of examining EFL in-service Greek teachers’ manner of teaching through DMIS is to determine whether they
have remained ethnocentric in their manner of teaching. What
specific teaching practices have the teachers adopted (or have
not adopted) to recognize, respect and accept the cultural orientations of their students? Are they using only local events or
instances as examples in classroom discussion? Do they view
their culture as the central or superior culture when they are in
the classroom?
Dong et al. (2008) explained that on the one hand ethnocentrism may promote patriotism and preservation of one’s cultural identity. On the other hand, ethnocentrism may also create
misunderstandings and reduced manifestations of intercultural
willingness to communicate (Dong et al., 2008). Hence, one
may also ask: how many times in a single classroom session
have teachers translated specific teaching materials into the local language of their students in order to help them a) become
more interested, and b) understand lessons while attending
classroom discussions?
[ 176 ]
The overall conceptual framework or design for this study is
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 – Conceptual Framework
1.3 Objectives of the study
This study intends to investigate the factors and conditions
by which EFL in-service high school teachers in the western
Greek region teach their students English as a Foreign Language lessons – that affect their capacity for intercultural sensitivity as well as intercultural communication competence. In
other words, adopting Bennett’s DMIS model, this study seeks
to determine the circumstances surrounding the manner by
which EFL in-service high school teachers, particularly those
from prefectures of Achaia, Ileia, and Aetoloakarnania in the
western Greek region, deliver lessons to their students from
various cultural backgrounds. Secondly, after identifying the
factors and conditions that characterize EFL teachers’ manner of teaching to their ‘multi-cultural’ students, this study will
proceed with investigating whether EFL in-service teachers in
the western Greek region have surpassed their ethnocentric
[ 177 ]
behavior towards ethnorelativist behavior, to be considered not
only as interculturally sensitive but also interculturally-communication-competent in teaching EFL to their students.
At a more theoretical level, this paper, particularly its findings, would be valuable in identifying pedagogical factors and
conditions that either lead to or deviate from an ideal interculturally sensitive and communication-competent EFL teaching.
This paper hence is a valuable contribution not only to the literature about culturally anchored teaching practices but also
on other subjects related to cultural difference, cultural adaptation and intercultural education. On a more practical level, this
paper intends to provide policymakers direction as to how they
can tackle the problem of ethnocentrism among teachers, particularly those in the western Greek region.
1.4 Statement of the problems
The general problem posed in this study is: What are the factors
and conditions that shape culturally sensitive language teaching practices, leading to intercultural sensitivity and intercultural
communication competence among EFL in-service teachers in
Greek high schools?
From this general question, this study intends to pursue
specific sub-questions about wetern Greek High schools such
as: 1) What are the factors and conditions affecting teachers’
delivery of EFL subject to their students that contribute to their
ethnocentric behavior; 2) What are the positive factors and conditions in teachers’ delivery of EFL subject to their students that
contribute to their ethnorelativist behavior; 3) Do the majority of
the western Greek region’s high schools teachers demonstrate
[ 178 ]
successful ethnorelativism and hence intercultural sensitivity
and communication competence when teaching EFL subject
to the students?
1.5 Statement of the hypothesis
The DMIS model highlights the stages that teachers, particularly high school teachers, undergo in order to become interculturally sensitive and communication-competent in their
process of educating students. With factors and conditions that
effectively lead to successful ethnorelativism, teachers become
interculturally sensitive and communication-competent, and
well-disposed to integrate and adapt to the cultural differences
of students from other cultural backgrounds. Using the DMIS
model, this research will not only identify the factors and conditions describing the intercultural modes of teaching EFL inservice teachers in Greek high schools, but also in the process
determining whether teachers in general displayed an ethnocentric or ethnorelative mentality.
1.6 Scopes and Limitations
The research is limited to the study of EFL in-service high
school teachers in the western Greek prefectures of Achaia, Ileia, and Aetoloakarnania. The selection of this area of study for
this research is due to the fact that I am also an EFL in-service
high school teacher, giving classes in the area of Achaia in the
western Greek region. The paper is also a static analysis of the
pedagogical factors and conditions that affect intercultural sensitivity as well as intercultural communication competence of
[ 179 ]
teachers. Hence, the study is not conducted over a long period
of time but rather within a specific period of time.
1.7 Research approach/es
This research adopts a two-prong approach in seeking to find
answers to the problems under consideration in the study. Using both qualitative and quantitative approaches, this research
is intended to discuss and consolidate an understanding of the
factors and conditions that either do or do not lead to intercultural sensitivity and communication-competence of EFL in-service
teachers in the western Greek region. Through a qualitative approach, this paper intends to create a sort of meta-analysis of
current literature in line with the study’s arguments. Likewise,
through the use of quantitative analysis, this paper intends to
substantiate the arguments as analyzed and discussed in this
research.
Both research approaches are expected to bring about a
resolution to the problems being undertaken in the investigation.
Qualitative and quantitative approaches, particularly through
descriptive technique combined with methods of survey and
questionnaires, will be used to determine whether in general
EFL in-service teachers in the western region of Greece have
demonstrated a significant degree of intercultural sensitivity in
the practice of their profession.
Combining qualitative and quantitative methods allows a
more definitive and concrete description of the problems to be
tackled in the research (Thomas et al., 2011). By establishing
an appropriate connection between theory and practice through
the use of both approaches, problems and issues pertaining to
[ 180 ]
intercultural sensitivity in the case of EFL in-service teachers
become more verified. Qualitative and quantitative analytical
and descriptive analyses besides allow elaborative and more
comprehensive discussions on answers and arguments about
intercultural sensitivity.
Qualitative and quantitative approaches in this research
are intended to strengthen the arguments under consideration
in this study. In turn, through qualitative and quantitative approaches, investigation follows a more scientific method of first
solving the problems, then establishing a hypothesis at the beginning part of the study, and finally laying down points to provide the answers and proof of them as the discussion moves
on (Kothari, 2004). In sum, combining qualitative and quantitative approaches is intended to make the investigation of this
research in-depth, providing the reader with a more substantial
understanding of the topic being tackled in the study.
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview of cultural concept and cultural
differences
Culture is a ‘way of life’, consisting of things, ideas, and patterns of behavior, common to individuals belonging to a particular group (Hatch, 1985; Ferraro & Andreatta, 2010). Culture
is a shared system, consisting of ‘hidden codes’ of behavior
and conduct common among groups of individuals (Hall & Hall,
1990). Culture conveys non-verbal messages which are used
by humans to communicate between each other most of the
time (Hall & Hall, 1990). Scarborough (1998) refers to core values as the common denominator among people pertaining to
[ 181 ]
the same culture. The same core values ‘govern the fundamental beliefs, attitudes and acceptable behavior’ that the members of a particular cultural group hold most deeply and widely
(Scarborough, 1998).
In Greece, annual net migration reached 154,004 in 2010
(Trading Economics, 2012). Migration includes parents who
migrate to work or their children who study in the country. The
number of students of migrating parents in Greece reached
138,193, comprising about 9.5% of the total school population
in 2010 (Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007). As expected, migrating children in Greece have to adjust to their new environment.
The adjustments that they have to make in order to adapt to
their newfound culture are well documented (see Zhou & Todman, 2009 for example).
Without effective support, migrant students find it hard to adjust to the new culture they are faced with. In most cases, they
find mental and emotional hardships (Triandafyllidou & Gropas,
2007). In the end, their studies suffer to the detriment not only
of their own selves and their family but also to the society as a
whole. One of the visible consequences of failed education is
unemployment.
A large number of immigrant students in Greece have experienced school failure for not being able to complete either junior
high school (gymnasium) or senior high school (lyceum) due to
a lack of language proficiency and to adaptation problems (Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007; Nikolaou, 2000; Bombas, 2001).
This failure in education has either forced them to work in subpar job positions or become jobless in their lives.
Authorities have adopted various means to deal with this
problem. Greek authorities have, for instance, established reception, support and intercultural (also referred to as cross-cul-
[ 182 ]
tural) schools as special categories of schools, specifically for
students who have little or no knowledge of Greek (Paleologou,
2004). Reception and support classes were the main initiatives
of Ministerial Act of the Ministry of Education while intercultural
schools were introduced with the enactment of Law 2413/96
(Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007; Maniatis, 2012). A total of 26
intercultural schools have been established across Greece following the enactment of the law representing about 17% of
the total 15,174 state schools prior to high schools in Greece
(Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007). As for reception and support
classes, there were about 548 with 7,863 foreign students and
127 with 1,663 students enrolled respectively for the school
year 2002-2003 (Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007).
2.2. The concept of Interculturalism
In dealing with intercultural concerns, various distinct approaches can be adopted not only by school authorities, but also by
teachers. One approach may be based on the Cultural Universalism theory, which underscores the existence of common
ground between cultures (Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007). Another approach may put emphasis on cultural relativism while
underscoring the differences between cultures (Triandafyllidou
& Gropas, 2007). The other approach is based on the ethics of
justice aimed at providing the conditions for individuals’ equal
social participation within a multicultural society (Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007).
Makri (2003, p. 5) defines interculturalism as a democratic
approach of dealing with people of other cultures, by promoting
‘dialectical’ communication with them. Dialectical is taken in this
sense as a more logical understanding of cultural reality. When
[ 183 ]
applied to education, international organizations, such as the
UNESCO and the European Union, refer to interculturalism as
any school program’s spirit of promoting equal opportunities for
everyone (Makri, 2003).
Interculturalism in education has an emancipatory and transforming character by not disregarding the needs of students
from different cultural backgrounds but rather by strengthening
and enriching their cultural identity (Maniatis, 2012). Interculturalism in education is a complete approach, underscoring the
need for cooperation and understanding, through proper communication between the different cultural groups (Makri, 2003).
Intercultural education considers cultural diversity and respects
the opportunity of people to express themselves given their
own cultural particularities (Makri, 2003). Intercultural approach
to education promotes mutual interaction between people of
different cultural traditions (Maniatis, 2012).
The intercultural model as an approach to education was
initiated in Europe during the 80’s. The model follows the principles of equality, mutual understanding, solidarity, empathy,
tolerance, and respect in the midst of cultural differences, while
doing away with ethnic and racial prejudices (Makri, 2003). In
Greece, it was in 1996 that an intercultural approach to education was given due consideration with the enactment of Law
2413/96 on Greek Education Abroad, Intercultural Education,
and Other Provisions (Maniatis, 2012). Through Law 2413/96,
the term ‘intercultural’ was first introduced in official language,
and multiculturalism and diversity of culture in education was
acknowledged (Maniatis, 2012).
However, the concept of interculturalism should be distinguished from multiculturalism, in the sense that the latter involves the retention of the concept of structure, and the domi-
[ 184 ]
nant and superior culture vis-à-vis a subordinate and inferior
culture (Makri, 2003; Maniatis, 2012). Multicultural existence
in this sense presupposes merely an elimination of threat and
hence cohesion among multicultural structural setups of education. Likewise, multiculturalism plainly recognizes differences in
culture but does not go beyond to look after the needs of those
in other cultural backgrounds.
The concept of interculturalism is also distinguished from
a plain ‘assimilation’ approach wherein individuals, particularly
in the case of children of different cultural backgrounds, are
required to comply with the prevailing culture of the majority
and forget their own particularities (Maniatis, 2012). The children in the assimilation approach are also required to learn the
language (as their own native language is deliberately ignored)
and the culture in order to be able to take part and act well
with people of the dominant culture (Maniatis, 2012). Also in the
process of assimilation, children are considered a burden for
the state as they hinder the evolution of other children and the
procedure of education (Maniatis, 2012). In fact some Greek
parents are influenced and affected by racial prejudices and
xenophobic attitudes, since they do not like the presence of foreign children at school because they think that these children
are responsible for a delay in progress and, to a large extent,
for violations and the phenomena of violence at school.
2.3 Intercultural Sensitivity and Communication
Competence in teaching
In education, interculturalism involves intercultural communication competence. This requires that teachers, particularly in
[ 185 ]
teaching language to students, i.e., in the case of EFL teachers, have intercultural sensitivity, referring to their affective
desire to motivate themselves to understand, recognize and
accept differences among cultures (Chen & Starosta, 2000,
p. 4). Likewise, intercultural communication requires a need
for intercultural adroitness which is one’s behavioral ability to
achieve communication goals in intercultural interaction (Chen
& Starosta, 2000, p. 4).
EFL teachers are expected to develop intercultural awareness, in order to develop intercultural communication competence (Chen & Starosta, 2000). Intercultural awareness refers
to the intellectual cognitive ability of teachers to understand
and adjust to different cultural setups or backgrounds that affect the students’ way of thinking and acting (Chen & Starosta,
2000). For Siwatu (2007), intercultural communication competence is a function of teachers’ efficacy and refers to their ability
to do away with conditions of cultural biases and prejudices
when teaching. Intercultural communication competence in this
sense can be equated to the ability of teachers to understand,
accept, relate, develop interest, adapt and integrate to the diverse cultures of their students or trainees – all of which are
traits considered to inculcate ‘ethnorelativism’ on the part of the
teachers (Hammer et al., 2003; Greenholtz, 2000).
Teachers in this age of globalization should be culturally
sensitive to the different cultural backgrounds of their students
(Spinthourakis & Karatzia-Stavlioti, 2006, p. 491). Also, teachers should recognize that cultural barriers, such as language
incapacity, different beliefs, and behaviors, as well as distinct
ways, are obstacle to the students’ ability to participate in student life and perform “normal” classroom taks, and can affect
negatively their effort to learn their lessons inside the class-
[ 186 ]
room, or in any situation of learning for that matter (Ditton,
2007). Spencer-Oatey & Xiong (2006) noted that migrating
students have to cope with adaptations both psychological (migrants’ desire for physical and psychological well-being) and
socio-cultural (migrants’ effort to ‘fit in’ to the new situation or
environment that they are in).
Teachers should be able to effectively handle the cultural
heterogeneity of their class and assist foreign pupils with their
difficulties (Makri, 2003). They have to know how to treat with
sensitivity the cultural needs of their students, espousing the
principles of equal treatment in education (Makri, 2003). At
some point, teachers have to maintain constant communication with their parents (Makri, 2003). This is to relate to them
not only the performance and progress of their children, but
also the prospects or possibilities available in order to enhance
their learning.
Teachers should also employ classroom language that
is suited for learning. They should be able to distinguish the
structure of the language they are using inside their classrooms
vis-à-vis the nationalities of their students (Friedlander, 2011).
Teachers should be able to recognize that words in language
are expressions of thoughts and thoughts can be expressed
in many ways (Friedlander, 2011). Their language should be
culturally neutral so as to accommodate the learning of foreign
students, even if such foreign students have already attended
reception, support, or intercultural schools previously. An expression of emotions or feelings may be different from one nation to another.
As for EFL teachers, they should be able to explain to their
students the difference in language structures from one culture
to another. For example, teachers should be able to explain
[ 187 ]
to some students, i.e. Hindi or Muslim students, that English
greetings are rather related to time of day, and not as a reflection of religious identity. Such an explanation will allow students
to avoid the possibility of literally translating from one language
to another (Friedlander, 2011).
Appropriate language used in teaching can also serve to
motivate teachers, as language is a means for extrinsic motivation (Friedlander, 2011). Hence, language has specific levels
of complexity whose selection in use would depend on particular situations. Language used in different primary grade levels,
for instance, would be different from language used at the high
school level.
ity. The less extreme form of ethnocentrism, a defense against
2.4 The DMIS measure
the sense that individuals in these stages can now ‘completely
Bennett (1986) first introduced the development model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS). The model is designed to measure the stages that individuals belonging to a particular culture
would go through in their relation with other individuals belonging to another culture. The stages include: denial of difference,
defense against difference, minimization of difference, acceptance of difference, adaptation of difference, and integration of
difference (Paige et al., 2003).
The first three stages are referred to as ‘ethnocentric’ stages, in the sense that individuals in these stages are still in a
condition of ‘incomplete’ acceptance of the culture of other people and integration with their own. Ethnocentrism could be, in
its most extreme form, a denial of difference, which is described
by an isolationist attitude wherein an individual ‘isolates’ his or
her culture and considers it as the only one that exists – hence,
other cultures are just considered ‘naive’ expressions of real-
with their own. The milder form of ethnorelativism, an accept-
difference, describes an individual’s attitude of recognizing the
existence of other cultures, but likewise labelling such cultures
as inferior to his or her own. The third, which is the most subtle form of ethnocentrism, the minimization of difference, is a
step towards an individual’s acceptance of cultural difference,
although the emphasis is on the similarity among humans, so
that cultural difference can just be minimized, without the hope
of integrating the ‘foreign’ culture with the individual’s own culture.
The next three stages are referred to as ‘ethnorelativist’, in
accept’, relate with, and integrate the culture of other people
[ 188 ]
ance of difference, shows that an individual sees culture as
relative and hence not different nor unequal to his or her own.
The more ‘integrative’ form of ethnorelativism, adaptation of difference, is when the individual not only accepts the relativity
between his or her culture and cultures of other individuals, but
also tries to make some effort to understand, learn and adapt to
the principles of those ‘other’ cultures. The fuller and more ‘integrative’ form of ethnorelativism, the integration of difference, is
when an individual now is able to integrate other cultures with
his or her own by facilitating not only constructive contact with
them, but also by adapting and accepting identity from those
other cultures.
[ 189 ]
CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGN
3.1 Methodology: mixed qualitative and quantitative
approaches
This research will employ both qualitative and quantitative approaches in order to substantiate its arguments and findings.
Likewise, both descriptive and analytical methods are going to
be used in proceeding with both approaches in the study. Using descriptive method, this research intends to ‘identify’ and
‘describe’ the important issues and discussions that surround
the topic on intercultural sensitivity and communication competence in education. In the case of the analytical method, this
study would like to evaluate all available information about the
topic by asking how and why specific phenomena may have
contributed or not to the practice of intercultural sensitivity and
communication competence particularly in the case of EFL inservice teachers (Thomas et al., 2011). This procedure then
provides richer understanding of the topic being tackled in the
research (Currall et al., 1999).
Through descriptive method, observation in the case of
qualitative research will allow for a more comprehensive, interactive, sustained, and intimate analysis of the individual ‘subject’ or ‘subjects’ (i.e. teachers under consideration) in relation
to the topic being tackled in the study. Through analytical method, experiments in the case of quantitative research will make
possible the use of statistical procedure to determine ‘with precision’ the strengths and significance of variables (Currall et al.,
1999, p.7). Through statistical techniques, determining central
tendencies and scattered-ness of the sample in the population
distribution shall provide support for specific arguments in the
[ 190 ]
study, i.e. whether or not a majority of the western Greek region’s high school EFL in-service teachers have demonstrated
successful ethnorelativism and hence intercultural sensitivity
and communication competence when teaching EFL to their
students.
3.1.1 Using focus group and sample in qualitative
phenomenological method
Use of focus group. I propose to adopt phenomenology when
dealing with the qualitative procedure of answering the questions in the study. Phenomenology is a research method in
which researchers try to derive the essence or basic underlying
structure, e.g., loneliness, anger, love, etc., of a human experience, making it the object of the study (Merriam, 2009). Specifically, phenomenological method will be used in dealing with
the intercultural practices of EFL in-service teachers in Greek
high schools, and in obtaining data and information about them
in the study.
A focus group, which includes a number of individuals, such
as the EFL in-service high school teachers from the prefectures
of Achaia, Ileia, and Aetoloakarnania in the western Greek region, is called together in an informal assembly to help explain
the relationship between given ‘stimulus’ and ‘effect’ and will
be helpful in ascertaining and verifying the understanding of an
event or circumstance in the study “by obtaining target people’s
interpretation of it” (Vaughn et al., 1999, p. 6). The event or
circumstance, whose understanding will be verified and ascertained, will be the factors and conditions underlying the mode
[ 191 ]
of teaching by the EFL teachers that may or may not have led
them to intercultural sensitivity and intercultural communication
competence.
The use of a focus group is expected to provide a natural and more relaxed way of getting important information from
people (Vaughn et al., 1999). In a typical phenomenological approach through the use of a focus group, the researcher brackets in a particular phenomenon, and performs analysis on the
relevant experiences of a specific group of people, which in
this case, are the EFL in-service high school teachers from the
three prefectures of Achaia, Ileia, and Aetoloakarnania located
in the western Greek region (Creswell, 2003, p.60). Phenomenological analysis in turn becomes effective in research when
the researcher gets a feel of the experiences of the group of
the participants, while reading and reviewing all specific information about a phenomenon and pulling out or segregating
important statements from this information to validate claims
(Creswell, 2003).
A phenomenological approach through interview will be used
in cross–reviewing or –analyzing the experiences of EFL in-service high school teachers in the three prefectures in the western
Greek region, while adopting a modified Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) concept, in order to determine their intercultural sensitivity practice (Spinthourakis & Karatzia-Stavlioti,
2006, p. 493; Hammer et al., 2003; Chen & Starosta, 2000).
Use of sample. The purpose of the qualitative method in this
study is not only to choose or identify specific groups of people
who either possess characteristics or live in circumstances relevant to the social condition being studied (i.e. teachers), but
also to establish a representative sample drawn from a population (Creswell, 2003). The sample in turn shall be the basis
[ 192 ]
for survey questionnaires and hence statistical experimentation,
whose findings shall also form part of the arguments in the study
(Thomas, 2003; Creswell, 2003). In conducting the sampling
procedure, purposive and cluster sampling techniques will be
adopted.
On one hand, purposive sampling allows the selection of individuals (i.e. EFL teachers) who have their own experiences of
the phenomenon (i.e. teaching students with other cultural backgrounds) under study in this research (Gliner & Morgan, 2000).
On the other hand, cluster or area sampling allows a selection of
samples based on geographical considerations, such as for this
research, the three prefectures of Achaia, Ileia, and Aetoloakarnania in the western Greek region. Selection of the sample’s location in this research is based on proximity with the researcher.
Survey questionnaires shall be provided to the selected
sample in the study. Questionnaires shall be formulated according to the IDI measurement of intercultural sensitivity. However, such questionnaires shall be modified to identify factors
and conditions in the teaching methodologies of the teachers
in the three prefectures that either did or did not lead to their
intercultural sensitivity and communication competence.
The IDI is a quantitative elaboration of the previous Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), in which Bennett (1986) identified six key variables to measure the development process of individuals toward intercultural competence
(Hammer et al, 2003). In this study, specific items for these
variables or stages of IDI will be modified and identified in the
questionnaires to be provided to the participants in the survey
and the interview. In turn, qualitative analysis will be used to
substantiate the statistical findings in the qualitative portion of
the research.
[ 193 ]
3.1.2 Adopting quantitative central tendencies
and variations analyses
For the quantitative portion of this research, I will be employing
statistical techniques to determine and test the findings in the
questionnaires in the study. The quantitative approach, which
will employ numeric or statistical verification, will serve as a tool
for analysing and discussing patterns of relationship and significance of variables. It will be used to arrive at an objective understanding about whether or not a majority of EFL in-service high
school teachers in the western Greek region have demonstrated
successful ethnorelativism and hence intercultural sensitivity
and communication competence (Bellini & Rumrill, 2009).
An advantage of using a quantitative approach in this research is that the vast amount of information or data collected
could be aggregated, summarized, and analyzed to provide
key information and answers to the questions in the research
(Bellini & Rumrill, 2009). Statistical testing serves to strengthen
the findings in the qualitative analysis. Besides the use of a
focus group which is usually the “first step in a research study,”
quantitative techniques are needed to refine and further explain
the qualitative findings (Vaughn et al., 1999, p. 6).
first two problems as discussed in the preceding section of this
paper. The interview will be done in an unstructured manner,
where there will be no ‘concrete’ questions, but rather ‘guide’
questions to offer direction in the process of conducting the interview (Daymon & Holloway, 2011).
Survey questionnaires will also be distributed to the EFL inservice high school teachers from three of the western Greek
region’s prefectures. The survey questionnaires will be the
main basis for determining the answer/s to the third problem
as discussed in the first part of this paper. The answer to the
third question shall help in finding out whether or not a majority
of western Greek region’s EFL in-service high school teachers
have demonstrated successful ethnorelativism, and hence intercultural sensitivity and communication competence practice
in teaching EFL to their students.
3.3 Research design/framework
The design/framework for this research, shown in Figure 4 below,
illustrates the procedure on how the whole study will be conducted,
by using a combination of qualitative and quantitative research.
3.2 Data collection and analysis
This study will extensively use primary data derived from interview and questionnaire-survey techniques, as well as secondary supporting materials that will be derived from sources such
as books, journals, pertinent database agencies and appropriate data-generating organizations. The interview using focus
groups will be the main basis for determining the answers to the
[ 194 ]
Figure 4 – Research Design
[ 195 ]
With qualitative and quantitative approaches, this research first
and foremost shall follow a scientific mode for conducting research. Research problems will first be formulated, and corresponding hypotheses shall be stated. Likewise, descriptive
and analytical methods shall be employed once the qualitative
survey (using interview with focus groups and survey through
questionnaires) and quantitative statistical analysis (using statistical testing of central tendencies and deviations) have been
conducted and results derived. From the findings, corresponding elaborations and conclusions will be derived.
Participants will be advised that their participation is voluntary.
Non-participation will have no adverse impact on their present
careers or situations, particularly on their being EFL in-service
high school teachers.
Participants will also be advised that they are free to withdraw, without any unwanted consequences, from the interview
or survey in strict deference of their own individual rights. Finally, information relating to individuals (i.e., teachers or students)
or institutions (schools) involved in the interview will be treated
with confidentiality in the study, and copyrighted materials shall
be properly acknowledged.
3.4 Ethical considerations
Any possible ethical issues that may arise from the study would
mainly come from the collection and use of data, information,
and materials as well as findings in the study. Therefore, I will
make sure that all these shall not in any way prejudice the individuals or institutions that will be involved in the study. All
participants in the survey and interview shall be informed beforehand and be given complete orientation about the objective
expectations, relevance and purpose of the interview. Focus
group participants will be provided a document indicating that
all interview processes and information derived shall be used
objectively and be subject to strict confidentiality.
Participants who will voluntarily share information shall be
included in the sample groups, so that trust and confidence,
proper disclosure, and awareness will be observed in the research process. In the conduct of research, I will also maintain
utmost respect for the participants’ rights and dignity. No offensive language shall be adopted in any of the questionnaires.
[ 196 ]
[ 197 ]
References
Coulby, D. (2006). Intercultural education: theory and practice. Intercultural Education, 17(3), 245 – 257. doi:
Bellini, J. L. & Rumrill, Jr., P.D. (2009). Research in rehabilitation
counseling: A guide to design, methodology, and utilization
(2nd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher LTD.
Bennett, M. J. (1986). A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 10(2), 179-196.
Bennett, J. M. & Bennett M. J. (2001). Developing intercultural sensitivity: An integrative approach to global and domestic diversity. Proceedings from The Diversity Symposium 2001.
Portland Oregon, The Intercultural Communication Institute.
Bennett, J. M. (1993). Cultural marginality: Identity issues in intercultural training. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (2nd ed., pp. 109-135). Yarmouth, ME:
Intercultural Press.
Bombas, L. (2001). Linguistic and non-linguistic issues of ‘our foreign
students’: The opinion of school principals as an opportunity
for reflection and dialogue. Paper presented at the 4th Annual Convention of Intercultural Education. Patras, Greece.
Bouzakis, S., & Koustourakis, G. (2002). The Comparative Argument
in the Case of the Greek Educational Reform in 1997-1998.
Comparative Education 38(2), 155-169.
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale. Paper presented at
the annual meeting of the National Communication Association. Seattle Washington.
Coughlan, S. (2011). Record numbers of international students. BBC
News. Retrieved 3 July 2012 from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/
news/business-12671198
[ 198 ]
10.1080/14675980600840274
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Quantitative, Qualitative,
and Mixed Methods Approaches. California: Sage Publications.
Currall, S.C., Hammer, T.H., Baggett, L.S., & Doniger, G.M. (1999).
Combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies to
study group processes: An illustrative study of a corporate
board of directors. Organizational Research Methods, 2(9),
5-36.
Daymon, C., & Holloway, I. (2011). Qualitative research methods in
public relations and marketing communications. Routledge:
New York.
Dimakos, I., & Tasiopoulou, K. (2003). Attitudes towards Migrants:
what do Greek students think about their immigrant classmates? Intercultural Education, 14(3), 307-316.
Ditton, M. (2007). Intercultural qualitative research and Ph. D. Students. Intercultural Education, 18(1), 41–52.
Dong, Q., Day, K. D., & Collaco, C. M. (2008). Overcoming ethnocentrism through developing intercultural communication sensitivity and multiculturalism. Human Communication, 11(1),
27–38.
Ferraro, G., & Andreatta, S. (2010). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective. California: Cengage Learning.
Fetterman, D. M. (1998). Ethnography. In L. Bickman, & D. J. Rog
(Eds.), Handbook of applied social research methods (pp.
473-504). California: Sage Publications, Inc.
Friedlander, P. (2011). Learning languages as expressions of cultures. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 8,
300–311.
[ 199 ]
Friedman, J. (2004). Globalization, transnationalization, and migration: Ideologies and realities of global transformation. In J.
Symposium on Current social science research in Modern
Greece. University of Athens.
Friedman, & S. Randeria (Eds.), Worlds on the move: Glo-
Maniatis, P. (2012). Critical intercultural education. Necessities and
balization, migration and cultural security (pp. 63-73). Lon-
prerequisites for its development in Greece. Journal for Crit-
don: I.B. Tauris & Co., Ltd.
ical Education Policy Studies, 10 (1), 156-167.
Gliner, J.A., & Morgan, G.A. (2000). Research Methods in Applied
Markovic, M. R. (2012). Impact of globalization on organizational cul-
Settings: An Integrated Approach to Design and Analysis.
ture, behavior, and gender role. North Carolina: Information
Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Age Publishing, Inc.
Greenholtz, J. (2000). Assessing Cross-cultural Competence in
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
Transnational Education: The Intercultural Development In-
implementation. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ventory. Higher Education in Europe, 25(3), 411-416.
Hall, E. T., & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding cultural differences.
Maine: Intercultural Press, Inc.
Merriam-Webster (2011). Definition of Globalization. www.merriamwebster.com. Retrieved 3 July, 2012, from: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/globalization
Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J., & Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring
Nikolaou, G. (2000). Integration and education of foreign students
intercultural sensitivity: The intercultural development in-
in primary schools: From ‘homogeneity’ to multiculturalism.
ventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27,
421–443.
Athens: Ellinika Grammata.
Paige, R. M., Jacobs-Cassuto, M., Yershova, Y. A. & DeJaeghere,
Hatch, E. (1985). Culture. In A. & J. Kuper (Eds.), The Social Science
Encyclopedia (pp. 178-181). London: Routledge.
International Educational Exchange or IEE (2011). Study abroad by
U.S. students rose in 2009/10 with more students going to
J. (2003). Assessing intercultural sensitivity: an empirical
analysis of the Hammer and Bennett Intercultural Development Inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 467–486.
less traditional destinations. www.iie.org. Retrieved 3 July
Paleologou, N. (2004). Intercultural Education & Practice in Greece:
2012, from: http://www.iie.org/en/Who-We-Are/News-and-
Needs for Bilingual Intercultural Programmes. Intercultural
Events/Press-Center/Press-Releases/2011/2011-11-14Open-Doors-Study-Abroad
Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques.
New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers.
Makri, V. (2003, June 21). Intercultural and multicultural education
policy in Greece. Paper Presented at the London School
of Economics and Political Science Hellenic Observatory
[ 200 ]
Education, 15(3), 317-329.
Peoples, J., & Bailey, G. (2012). Humanity: An introduction to cultural
anthropology. California: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Scarborough, J. (1998). The origins of cultural differences and their
impact on management. New Hampshire: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Siwatu, K. O. (2007). Preservice teachers’ culturally responsive
[ 201 ]
teaching self-efficacy and outcome expectancy beliefs.
at the 2001 IAICS (International Association for Intercultural
Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 1086–1101.
Communication Studies) biannual meeting. Hong Kong.
Spencer-Oatey, H., & Xiong, Z. (2006). Chinese students’ psycho-
Zhou, Y., & Todman, J. (2009). Patterns of adaptation of Chinese
logical and sociocultural adjustments to Britain: An empiri-
postgraduate students in the United Kingdom. Journal of
cal study. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 19(1), 37-53.
Studies in International Education, 13 (4), 467-486.
Spinthourakis, J. A., & Karatzia-Stavlioti, E. (2006). Assessing and
developing teacher’s multicultural competence as a dimension of global citizenship. In A. Ross (Eds.), Citizenship education: Europe and the World (pp 491-500). London: CiCe.
Thomas, R. M. (2003). Blending qualitative and quantitative research
methods in theses and dissertations. California: Corwin
Press.
Thomas, J.R., Nelson, J.K., & Silverman, S. (2011). Research methods in physical Activity. Illinois: Human Kinetics.
Trading Economics (2012). Net migration in Greece. www.tradingeconomics.com. Retrieved 3 July, 2012, from: http://www.
tradingeconomics.com/greece/net-migration-wb-data.html
Triandafyllidou, A., & Gropas, R. (2007, November 22). Greek education policy and the challenge of migration: An intercultural
view of assimilation. Paper prepared for EMILIE Project.
European Commission Research DG.
Tylor, E. B. (1871). Primitive culture: Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy and religion, language, art
and custom (2nd ed.). London: Murray.
Vaughn, S., Schumm., J.S., & Sinagub, J. (1999). Focus group Interviews in education and Psychology. California: Sage Publications.
Wolfgang, F., Antje, M., & Chen, G. M. (2001). Measuring intercultural sensitivity in different cultural context. Paper presented
[ 202 ]
[ 203 ]