Classic Drag - yavanika.org

Classic Drag: The Greek Creation of Female Parts
Author(s): Sue-Ellen Case
Source: Theatre Journal, Vol. 37, No. 3, Staging Gender (Oct., 1985), pp. 317-327
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3206851 .
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Classic Drag:
The Greek Creation of Female Parts
Sue-Ellen Case
Froma feminist
perspective,the initialobservationsabout the historyof theatre
noted theabsencesof womenwithinthe tradition.Since traditionalscholarshiphas
focused on evidence relatedto writtentexts,the absence of women playwrights
becamecentralto earlyfeminist
The factthattherewas no significant
investigations.
numberof extanttextswrittenby womenforthestageuntiltheseventeenth
century
ofthetheatre.
produceda ratherastoundingsenseofabsencein theclassicaltraditions
The silenceof women'svoices in thesetraditions
led feminist
historianswho wereinterestedin womenplaywrights
to concentrate
on periodsin whichtheydid emerge:
theseventeenth
primarily
centuryin England,thenineteenth
centuryin America,and
the twentieth
centuryin Europeand America.These studiesproduceda numberof
new anthologiesof plays by women and biographiesof women playwrights
that
began to appear in theearlyseventies.
Work on the classicalperiodsbecame possibleby studyingthe image of women
withinplayswritten
thebeginning
to thistypeoftexby men.Many scholarsattribute
tual discoveryto the popular book by Kate MillettentitledSexual Politics(1970).
Millett'sbook illustrateda way to recognizeand interpret
theimagesof womenin
male literature
as misogynistic.
Sexual Politicsoffereda way to read againsttextsby
thenobecomingaware oftheirgenderedbias and, as thetitlesuggests,to foreground
tionthatartis notdistinct
frompolitics.WhileMillett'sbook concentrated
on describing the imagesof women,otherearlyworkssuch as JudithFetterly'sThe Resisting
Readerarticulateda postureforresisting
readingtextsby men as theywereconvenread.
to
outlined
read
tionally
Fetterly
ways
againsttextsto discoverthe feminist
subtextlatentin suchsubversions.Workson imagesofwomenstillpredominate
in the
feministcriticismof historicaltexts.Numerousre-visionsof Aeschylusand Shakeas beingone
speareare currently
beingproduced.The imagesare commonlyidentified
of two basic types:positiveroles,whichdepictwomen as independent,
intelligent,
Sue-EllenCase is an AssistantProfessor
Seattle.She has published
ofDrama at theUniversity
of Washington,
and itsrelation
anddramatic
totheatre
criticism.
Case hasbeenselected
as
widelyonfeminist
theory
history
Professor
thenextCoeditor
ofTheatre Journal.
317
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318
/
TI,October1985
and evenheroicand a surplusofmisogynistic
rolescommonlyidentified
as theBitch,
theWitch,theVamp,or theVirgin/Goddess.
Theserolesreflect
ofthe
theperspective
historians
playwrightor of the theatricaltraditionon women. Originally,feminist
used thesetheatrical
imagesof womenas evidenceof thekindof livesactual women
mighthave lived in theperiod. For example,what the charactersand situationsof
Medea or Phaedramighttellus about thelivesofpowerfulwomenin Greece.Thisapproach was usefulbecause traditionalsocio-economichistoriestend to exhibitthe
In theseventies,groundbreaking
same absenceofwomenas does theliterature.
work
on womenin historywas done in bothrealms:thesocio-historical
evidenceidentified
in theatricaltexts,and thepublicationof newly-collated
documentson laws, social
on womenin history.Thisworkenabledfeminist
practices,and economicrestrictions
to producea newkindofculturalanalysis,whichis based on the
criticsand historians
interplayof culturalphenomena,suchas plays,theatrepractice,and socio-economic
evidence,to discoverthenatureof women'slivesin theclassicalperiods.
ofartwithpoliticalprojects,as wellas thecomYet thediscoveryofthecomplicity
of
traditional
with
the
led to new discoverieswhichreverse
patriarchy
plicity
history
of thesedocuments.The feministcriticmay no longer
the originalinterpretations
believethattheportrayalofwomenin classicalplaysby menrelatesto thelivesofaccriticmayassumethattheimagesofwomenin these
tualwomen.Instead,thefeminist
fiction
of
constructed
a
women
by thepatriarchy.This assumption
plays represent
in
within
classical
thedivisionbetweenprivate
a
central
cultures:
originates
practice
and publiclife.The publiclifebecomesprivilegedin theclassicalplays and histories,
invisible.The newfeminist
whiletheprivateliferemainsrelatively
analysesprovethat
of
the
life
is
the
thisdivisionis gender-specific,
i.e.,
public
property menand women
are relegatedto the invisibleprivatesphere.The resultof the suppressionof actual
of thegender
womenin theclassicalworldcreatedtheinventionof a representation
"Woman"withintheculture.This"Woman"appearedon thestage,in themyths,and
the patriarchalvalues attachedto the genderof
in the plastic arts, representing
theexperiences,
"Woman"whilesuppressing
stories,feelings,and fantasiesof actual
dividesthis"Woman"as
to
cultural
fictions
these
women.' The newfeminist
approach
thatthereis littleconnection
fictionfromhistoricalwomen,insisting
a male-produced
of this
betweenthe two categories.Withintheatrepractice,the clearestillustration
divisionis in thetraditionof theall-malestage."Woman"was playedby male actors
in drag,whileactualwomenwerebannedfromthestage.The classicalactingpractice
The classical
ofthefictionalgendercreatedby thepatriarchy.
revealstheconstruction
in
now
allies
can
be
as
the
conventions
and
theatrical
projectof supregarded
plays
with
of
them
the
masks
women
and
actual
patriarchalproduction.
replacing
pressing
asknownas theatreis traditionally
The beginningof the activityand literature
signedto theplays and practicesof theAthenianfestivalsof Dionysos in sixthand
fifthcenturyB.C. Our notionsof plays, acting,physicaltheatrespace, costume,
mask,and relationofplay to audiencebeginwiththeseAthenianfestivals.In thesixth
cenin theseceremonies,
but by thefifth
century,bothwomenand menparticipated
1See Teresa de Lauretis,Alice Doesn't: Feminism,Semiotics,Cinema (Bloomington:Indiana UniversityPress,1984), fora thoroughdevelopmentof the conceptof "Woman."
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319 / THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS
tury,when theceremonieswere becomingwhat is knownas theatre,womendisappeared fromthe practice.Scholarsdo not recordany evidenceforspecificlaws or
womento appearin thesongsand dances,noris thereany evidence
codes forbidding
forthespecificdate or occasionof thebeginningof theiromission.MargareteBieber,
on thishistory,merelynotesthatitwas partof"Atticmorality"
a recognizedauthority
which"banishedwomenfrompubliclife."2This implies,then,thatthereasonforthis
practicemust be soughtin the emergingculturalcodes of Athens,ratherthan in
specificpoliticalor theatricalpractices.Three elementsof Athenianculturehelp to
understandthe emergingtheatricalpractice:the new economicpractices,the new
of all of these
culturalprojectand thenew genealogyof thegods. The intersection
in thetextof The Oresteia.
elementswill be theatrically
legitimatized
Amongthenew economicpractices,theriseof thefamilyunitradicallyalteredthe
role of women in Greekpubliclife.Ironically,theimportantrole womenbegan to
assume withinthe familyunitwas the cause of theirremovalfrompubliclife.The
of personalwealth.
familyunitbecamethenew siteforthecreationand transmission
With the rise of the polis, the large networkinherentin aristocraciesgave way to
singlefamilies.The riseof metalsas commoditiesand the small-scalecultivationof
land made itpossibleforindividualsto controltheirown wealth.Yetwhileownership
becamemoreindividualand locatedwithinthefamilyunit,itwas limitedto themale
to limitedconditionsof ownershipand exchange.For
gender.Womenwererestricted
in the absence of a
into inheritance
transactions
women
could
enter
only
example,
male and women were not allowed to barterfor propertyover one medimnos
(bushel).Withinthisnew economy,womenbecamea mediumof exchangeand marof ownership.3In fact,the word formarriage,ekdosis,
riagebecame an institution
and in thecase of
meantloan - womenwereloaned to theirhusbandsby theirfathers,
a divorce,theywere returnedto theirfathers.
Withthischangein the organizationof wealthcame a concomitantchangein the
organizationof politicalunits.The oikos, or household,became thebasic unitfor
Citizenshipwas dependentupon familylines- a son was grantedcitizencitizenship.*
ship onlyifhis parentswerecitizens,but withouta son theparentscould not retain
and
theircitizenship.This new conditionfor citizenshipled to the strictdefinition
assumeda new moral/legal
regulationof thesex lifeof thewoman. The mother/wife
dimensionfor the legitimacyand securityof heirs and, by extension,political
in thepollis.Clear linesof reproduction
werevital to thepolis, making
membership
At the
adulterya crimeagainstsociety,ratherthana signof personaltransgression.
same timethatthehouseholdbecame controlledby needs of thestate,its activities
became totallyseparatefromthosewhichwereconsideredthebusinessof thestate,
2MargareteBieber, The Historyof the Greek and Roman Theatre(Princeton:PrincetonUniversity
Press, 1939), p. 9.
in Women:Notes on the'PoliticalEconomy'ofSex,"in Towardan An3 See Gayle Rubin,"The Traffic
thropologyof Women,ed. Rayna R. Reiter(New York: MonthlyReviewPress,1975) fora discussionof
women as a mediumof exchangethroughthe institution
of marriageand kinshiplaws.
4MarilynArthur,"'Liberated'Women: The Classical Era,"in BecomingVisible:Womenin European
History,eds. RenateBridenthaland Claudia Koonz (Boston: HoughtonMifflin,1977), pp. 67-68.
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320
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TJ,October1985
themarkof thecitizen,or theactivitiesof publiclife.Nancy Hartsock,in herbook
Money,Sex and Power,describesit thisway: theGreeksdefinedthehouseholdas a
private,apoliticalspace fromthepublic,politicalspace ofthepolis. "The resultwas a
of politicsand politicalpoweras activitiesthatoccurredin a masculine
theorization
or soul,"
arenacharacterized
by freedomfromnecessarylabor,dominanceofintellect
whilethedomesticspace was definedby necessarylabor and as a place wherebodily
needsweredominant.-SinceAthenianwomenwereconfinedto thehouse (explicitly
in thelaws of Solon), theywereremovedfromthepubliclifeof theintellectand the
and concomitant
sexsoul and confinedto theworldof domesticlabor,childbearing,
ual activities.Actual womendisappearedfromthepubliclifeof thepolis, lost their
economic and legal powers and became objects of exchange. Withinthe socioin theDionsyian
thattheirparticipation
economiclifeof thepolis,it is notsurprising
in theireventualexclusionfrom
to privatepractices,resulting
festivalswas restricted
thestage.
Alongsidethesenew legal and economicpracticescame new culturalinstitutions.
new religions,new myths,and the practiceof
Athenscreatednew architecture,
becameallied withthesuppressionof womenby
theatre.These culturalinstitutions
creatingthenew genderrole of "Woman"thatwould privilegethemasculinegender
one. At base, thenewculturalcategoriesofgenderwereconand oppressthefeminine
and polarity.6"Woman"appearedas theopposite
structedas categoriesof difference
of man. This move can bestbe seenin thenew mythsand architectural
depictionsof
theamazons.The imageofamazonsis centralto thefemalegenderconflatedwiththe
fromthe Greek male citizen.The amazons,
outsiderand with polar differences
dangerousbut defeated,reversethe "natural"genderroles. They are warriorswho
forcemen to do "women's"work,such as childrearing,whilethewomengo offto
war.7The amazons also embodyothermythsof genderreversal- theykeep female
babies and dispose of the male ones, while the customwas to dispose of female
babies.8Moreover,theword"amazon"(no breast)tiessuchpracticesto a biological,
of the
specificto the female. The new architecture
secondarysex characteristic
Acropolis,theciviccenterof Athens,displaysthedownfallof theamazons and the
riseofAthena.Centralto thenew politicalorder,then,is thedemiseof thesewomen
who would defycorrectgenderassociationsand theriseof a womanwho would enforcethenewimageof"Woman"in thepolis.Thisdemiseoftheold imagesofwomen
and theriseof Athenaare centralthemesin The Oresteia.
contextforthiscreationof
The genealogyofthegodsprovidesthemytho-historical
thenew"Woman."The historyof thegods explainswhygendersare opposite,locked
femaleone. The mythof
and whythemale gendermustdefeattheformer
in conflict,
thefirstearth-mother-goddess,
Gaia, is a storyofthedangersofherwomb- thestory
5Nancy Hartsock,Money, Sex and Power: Toward a FeministHistoricalMaterialism(New York:
Longman,1983), p. 187.
of MichiganPress,1982), p. 2.
6 Page duBois, Centaursand Amazons (Ann Arbor: University
7WilliamBlake Tyrell,Amazons: A Study in AthenianMythmaking(Baltimore:The JohnsHopkins
UniversityPress, 1984), p. 47.
sTyrell,p. 55.
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321
/ THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS
of herchildrenis one ofmurdersand castrations.It concludeswiththefinalconquest
and
by Zeus, who swallowshiswifeMetisin orderto gainherpowerofreproduction
theend ofthedangersofthewomb,for
thengivesbirthto Athena.Athenarepresents
and female-identification),
has no sexshe has no mother(breakingwithmatriarchal
the
allies
herself
with
the
remains
a
defeats
amazons,
reignofZeus
uality(she
virgin),
and Apollo, and therebybringsorderto Athens.About thissame time,Dionysos,a
new god, appears in Athensand usurpstherole of fertility
and sexualitywhichthe
earlierfemalegoddesseshad retained.This male usurpationof femalefertility
will
laterbe idealizedby Plato in hisfamousmidwifemetaphor,whiletheassimilationof
femalesexualitywillbe usurpedby boys in thesocial practiceofmale homosexuality
(also lateridealizedby Plato). The genealogyofthegods thusdividesfemalesexuality
frompower, assimilatingfemalesexualityin the figureof Dionysos and isolating
powerin theimageof themotherless
virgin,Athena.
The riseofdrama,withintheAthenianstatefestivalsdedicatedto thecelebration
of
of gender
Dionysos, places theatresecurelywithinthisnew patriarchalinstitution
wars. Theatremustbe gender-specific
to themale and enactthesuppressionof actual
of thenew "Woman."The maenads(thefemale
womenas well as therepresentation
celebrantsof theDionysianfestivals)mustdance intooblivion,whilethesatyrs(the
male celebrants)mustbecome thefirstchorusesof thedrama. "The singerArion is
said to have givento thesingersof thedithyramb. .. thecostumeofthesatyrs.The
someoneotherthanoneselfgrewout of thisecstasyand led to
practiceofrepresenting
themimicart of theactors."9In otherwords,thepowerof representation
was given
- theactor
only to themale celebrants.The inventionof actingwas gender-specific
was the satyr.The gender-specific
qualityof the actor in the satyrplay was even
underscored
by hiswearingof theleatherphallus.Yet in orderto dramatizethebattle
of thegenders,thefemalemustsomehowbe represented:
themale actorwould need
to perform
thefemalerole.Thoughscholarsand theatrehistorians
nevermentionthis
strangephenomenonin more than passingremarks,Bieberdoes note one specific
ofwomen:on thevases, themaenads
problemformale actorsin theirrepresentation
seemto be in a stateofecstasy- to playmaenads,themaleactorsneededthecomprehensionof thereligiousemotionfeltby thesewomen.1'Yet a morecentralproblem
emerges:how does one depicta woman? How does themale actor signalto theaudiencethathe is a woman7Alongwiththefemalecostumeof theshortertunicand the
femalemask withlongerhair,he mighthave indicatedthroughgesture,movement,
and vocal intonationthatthecharacterwas female.In considering
thisportrayal,it is
importantto rememberthatthenotionof thefemalederivedfromthemale pointof
theperspectiveof her
view, whichremainedalien to femaleexperienceand reflected
genderedopposite.This vocabularyofgesturesinitiatedtheimageof"Woman"as she
is seen on thestage- institutionalized
throughpatriarchalcultureand represented
by
male-originated
signsof herappropriategenderbehavior.Moreover,thepracticeof
male actorsplayingwomenprobablyencouragedthecreationof femaleroleswhich
lentthemselvesto generalization
and stereotype.The depictionand developmentof
femalecharactersin thewrittentextsmusthave accommodatedthepracticeof their
9Bieber,p. 1.
10Bieber,p. 9.
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TJ,October1985
wereformalized
and masked,thecrossrepresentation
onstage.Thoughall characters
gendercastingfor female charactersdistinguishedthem in kind from the male
characters.
A subtextualmessagewas deliveredaboutthenatureofthefemalegender,
of themale.
itsbehavior,appearance,and formaldistancefromtherepresentation
The Atheniantheatrepracticecreateda politicaland aestheticarena forritualized
The elevaand codifiedgenderbehavior,linkingit to civicprivilegesand restrictions.
element
tionofthisgenderprincipleto theterm"classic"canonizesitas a paradigmatic
of thehistoryof theatre,connotingtheexpulsionof womenfromthecanon and the
ideal. The etymologyof "classic,"connotingclass,indicatesthatthisexpulsionis also
relatedto the economicand legal privilegesof the "firstclass"- a class to which
womenweredeniedadmittance.The consonanceof aestheticcriteriawitheconomic
ones becomes clear in the termitself.In each of the cultureswhichhas produced
"classics"forthestage(not only theAthenian,but theRoman and theElizabethan)
womenweredeniedaccess to thestageand to legal and economicenfranchisement.
These same productionvalues are embeddedin the textsof theseperiods. Female
charactersare derivedfromtheabsenceof actual womenon thestageand fromthe
reasons for theirabsence. Each culturewhich valorizesthe reproductionof those
in thesamepatriarchalsubtextwhichcreatedthose
"classic"textsactivelyparticipates
as "Woman."Thoughwe cannotexaminea productionoftheGreek
femalecharacters
classics,we can examineone of the"classic"textsproducedfortheDionysianfestivals
within
and reproducedin thehistoryof theatrical
productions,
history,and criticism
culture.The trilogyof The Oresteiaexhibitsall of thethemes
our own contemporary
and practicesdiscussedabove. Moreover,itselevatedpositionin thecanon illustrates
thedefeatof theold
its lastingvalue. A feminist
readingof The Oresteiaillustrates
of
"Woman"
as
on
the
nature
matriarchal
portrayed thestage,theriseof
genealogy,
of
women.
of
actual
the
and
the
Athena,
suppression
legacy
The Oresteia
criticsand historianshave analyzedThe Oresteiaas a textcentralto
Many feminist
ofmisogyny.Simonede Beauvoirand Kate Millettdescribeitas the
theformalization
ofa patriarchaltakeover.NancyHartsockarguesthatitassociates
mythicalrendering
thefemalegenderwithsexualityand nature,thoseforcesthatmustbe tamedin outside activitiesand withinthe innerpersonforthe survivalof the polis. Hartsock
describesThe Oresteiawithinthe dramaticfestivalsthatare themselvesassociated
chariotrace,is a contest.It
withmalegenderactivities.The drama,likethefour-horse
formalizesagons (contests)and the notion of winnersand losers. The festivals
associatetheheroicideal of valor in battlewiththepeacetimeideal of rhetoricaland
The subjectofthedramais thesubjectofwar- themalewardramaticcompetition.'2
of gender,thedramaticdice
riorhero.When thisagon is inscribedwiththeconflicts
heroto win. The Oresteiaenactsthe"battleof
are loaded forthesamegender-specific
thesexes,"usingAthenianculturaland politicalcodes to prescribethatwomenmust
lose thebattle.
11Hartsock, p. 192.
12Hartsock, p. 198.
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323 / THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS
Earlyin thefirstplay of thetrilogy,
Agamemnon,thechorusof old menexplicates
within
dramatic
situation
the
perspectiveof male-female
problems.The old men
the
describea promiscuouswoman (Helen) as the cause of the Trojan war in which
Agamemnonis presently
engagedand theytellof thewar fleetlaunchedby Agamemof
non'ssacrificeofhisvirgin-daughter
Iphigenia.The Trojanwar and therelationship
in
and
with
conflicts
are
embedded
Agamemnon Clytemnestra alreadyfraught
gender
roles.ThenthechoruspreparestheaudiencefortheentranceofClytemnestra
by linkof character.They suggestthatsteadyresolveand
inggenderwithcertainattributes
of
of
are
whentheyreferto themale (inner)strength
intensity purpose gender-specific
this
Within
context
a
man.
(line
enters,
Clytemnestra 10).13
Clytemnestra
playedby
Afters/he speaks,thechoruscongratulates
likea man and dismisses
herforthinking
of theend of thewar as just"likea womanto takerapturebefore
herannouncement
fact"(line483). These linespresumecertaingenderroles regardingthejudgmentof
evidenceand decision-making.
Withinthetheatrepractice,theyalso play witha certain level of ironysince a man in drag plays a woman who "thinkslike a man."
is themale. The notionof female,likethenotionof the
Clearly,theprimaryreferent
is introduced
as a figureofthatdisrupamazon,disruptsthemaleorder.Clytemnestra
tion.The absenceof themale kinghas providedherwith"unnatural"
politicalpower.
In his absence,she has takena male lover.By thisact, she disruptsthegendercode of
femalesexuality,forthetradition
was thatwomenwereto remainmonogamouseven
liaisonas dangerous.Yetwhen
duringtenyearwars.The chorustreatsClytemnestra's
Agamemnonenterswithhis sexual war booty, Cassandra,theimplicationof social
disruptionis not in the text. In fact, the dramaticpathos of the drama favors
of womenas evidencedby his rape of Cassandra
Agamemnon,despitehis treatment
or his murderof Iphigenia.
Cassandra providesthe Athenianimage of the woman in thepublic arena (even
thoughshe is played by a man). She has certainprivilegesof belonging(she is the
priestessof Apollo whichassuresher of sexualliaisonswithcitizensof ranksuch as
Agamemnon),butshedoes nothave theprivilegeofeffective
publicspeechbecauseof
her priorrefusalto be violatedby Apollo. Cassandra'sentrance,as an outsider,as
and expelledfromeffective
Agamemnon'sbooty, mute to Clytemnestra
dialogue,
even portrayedby a male actor,projectsthestrength
of themisogynyembeddedin
the Athenianpatriarchalorder. What remainsin the play is only Clytemnestra's
murderof Agamemnonand hercompletevilification.
At theend, thechorusmourns
as
one
who
to
had
for
a
war
a woman and thenbe killedby one
Agamemnon
fight
(lines1453-1454).
The thirdplay, The Eumenides,decidesthewinnerof thebattleof thesexeswithin
the play, withinAthens,and withinthe genealogyof the gods. From a feminist
perspective,it is ironic that this play dramatizesthe so-called beginningsof
democracy.Moreover,withintheatrehistory,The Eumenidesis oftenmarkedas the
ofreasonand
play ofthenew orderofcivilizationwhichcreatedourwesterntradition
fairplay. This may be an accuratedescription,
forit does make thedecidinggender
13 All citationsof The Oresteia are fromAeschylus, The Oresteia in Complete Greek Tragedies,
Aeschylus,eds. David Greene,RichmondLattimore(Chicago: Chicago UniversityPress,1960).
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324
/
TI, October1985
judgmentsof Atheniancultureand condemnswomen to theirsubservientrole in
Westerncivilization.The play restsupon a new genealogyof thegods. It openswith
the old order,the vile goddesses,the Eumenides.They createan ugly,frightening
of theearlierCthonicfemalereligions.The maskscreatedforthem
characterization
werefamousfortheirdisgusting
appearance.An extantremarkaboutthemstatesthat
anecdote
intomiscarriages"
women
Eumenides
horrified
4 - an interesting
"Aeschylus'
foritsgenderand sexualconnotations.The Eumenideshave arrivedin Athens,while
pursuingOrestesto revengehis murderof his mother.Theydescribetheirroleas the
ofmatricide(line210). Orestesappealsto Apollo forhelpand Athenaappunishment
a trial,exhibitingAthenianmethodsof
to
solve
the problem.She institutes
pears
decision
is to setOrestesfree.This conclufor
his
The
to
Orestes
murder.
justice, try
of misogyny,
forit restsupon
for
rationalization
evidence
the
sion is damning
public
not
but
mother
is
the
the
line
as
male.
The
parent, thenurseof
establishing parental
the child. The parentis definedas he who mounts(lines 658-661). Athena is the
supremeproofof thisfactbecauseshe had no motherand was begatby themale god
Zeus (lines734-738). The Eumenidesare confinedto a cave and theirfunctionis no
longerto revengematricide,but to presideover marriages.Thus, thetrilogywhich
beganwiththeend of theTrojan war and proceededthroughthehouse of Agamemnon endswiththeinstitution
of democracydecidingtheroleofgenderand thedefinitionofprocreation.This endingcan be seenas paradigmaticof futureplot structures
in theWesternplaywriting
tradition.A majorityofplayswillconcludevariouskinds
of marriage.The
of civic,historical,and psychologicalproblemswiththeinstitution
in
conclusion.
this
is
inscribed
for
women
propergenderrole
The feminist
readerof The Oresteiadiscoversthatshe mustread againstthetext,
its internalsenseof pathos and conclusion,but also thehistorical
not
only
resisting
withintheatrehistory.
and culturalcodes whichsurroundit, includingits treatment
rather
readerfeelsmay be forIphigeniaand Clytemnestra
The pathos thefeminist
woman in
than for Agamemnon.She may perceiveAthena as a male-identified
alliancewiththemale networkof powerratherthanas a hero of Athens.She definitelyfeelsexcludedfromtheconventionsof thestage,bewilderedby theconvention
ofcross-gender
castingwhichis onlypracticedin termsoffemalecharacters.Mimesis
readerwill decide thatthefemaleroles
is not possibleforher. Perhapsthefeminist
havenothingto do withwomen,thattheserolesshouldbe playedby men,as fantasies
ofa patriarchal
of"Woman"as "Other"thanmen,disruptions
societywhichillustrates
readermightbecomeperitsfearand loathingofthefemaleparts.In fact,thefeminist
Cassandraor Phaedra are
suaded thattheAthenianroles of Medea, Clytemnestra,
readermightconcludethatwomenneed
properlyplayedas dragroles.The feminist
withthem.Moreover,thefeminist
notrelateto theserolesor evenattemptto identify
about theexperience
historianmightconcludethattheserolescontainno information
scholarmustrecognize
thefeminist
ofrealwomenin theclassicalworld.Nevertheless,
in thiskindofculturalclimateand thattheAthenianexperience
thattheatreoriginated
will continueto provide a certainparadigmof theatricalpracticefor the rest of
14Sir ArthurPickard-Cambridge,
The DramaticFestivalsofAthens(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1968),
p. 265.
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325
/ THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS
Westerntheatrical/cultural
history.By linkingpractice,text,and culturalpracticein
ofhow thehegemonicstructure
of
thisnew way, she mayenhanceherunderstanding
in Athens.
patriarchalpracticewas instituted
Aristotle
The legacyof theGreeksto theatrehistorydoes not end withthetheatrepractice
and textsof Athens.The processknownas theatrewas firstand lastinglyarticulated
by Aristotlein his Poetics.This textis stilltaughtin theatreclassesas thedefinitive
sourceof thenatureof classicaltragedy.Based on theGreekpracticeas we have consideredit and on thekindoftextsproducedforit, ThePoeticsexpandsthepatriarchal
prejudiceagainstwomento thenatureofthedramaticexperienceand to theroleofthe
audience.
on womencan be deducedfromseveralofhiscriteriaregardAristotle's
perspective
of
dramatic
characterin chapter15. The Goldentranslation
reads:"First
the
nature
ing
and foremost,
charactershouldbe good . . . goodnessis possibleforeach class ofindividuals.For,botha womanand a slavehave theirparticularvirtueseventhoughthe
to a man, and thelatteris completelyignoble"(lines2-8).1formerof theseis inferior
it
in
the
"In connectionwiththecharacters... firstand
as
reads
Else
translation,
Or,
most important,thattheybe good . . . but goodnessexistsin each class of people:
thereis in factsuch a thingas a good woman and such a thingas a good slave,
and theother,as a class,is worthless"
althoughno doubtone oftheseclassesis inferior
for the tragiccharacterwith a
his
(lines 54a16-24).16Aristotlebegins
prescription
In
to
be
moralimperative. order
tragic,one mustbe good. The absenceof themale in
his discussionillustratesthatthe male citizenis the standardof good, but thatthis
qualitymay evenbe foundin others.Aristotlerelatesgoodnessto class,butmoreimportantly,he relatesclass to gender.Slaves, as a class, are comparableto women,a
gender.The class hierarchy,as he suggestsit, puts themale citizenon top, women
(citizens)on the nextinferiorlevel and slaves on the bottom.Althoughslaves are
capable ofgoodness,theyare notthesubjectsof tragedybecausetheyare "ignoble"or
FromthepracticeofGreektragedy,we knowthatitis theprovinceof the
"worthless."
royal houses. Women seem to inhabitan ambiguousstation.Though theymay be
potentialsubjectsof the tragedy,Aristotleimpliesthattheywould be inferiorto a
male subject.
Goodness is only thefirstqualityof a dramaticcharacterwithinThe Poetics.Apactionsappropriate
propriateactionis thesecond- thetragiccharactermustperform
to his character.As Else notes in his commentary,
is not reallya
"Appropriateness
separateprinciplebut a corollaryto Aristotle'shierarchicalview of goodness"(line
458). Thus, appropriatenessof action is a quality of the noble character,as is
to the actionsof braveryand the
goodness. Aristotlemakes thispoint in reference
- actionsappropriateto thetragiccharacter.The Elsetranslafunctions
ofintelligence
tionreads:"forit is possibleforthecharacterto be brave (manly)but not fitting
to a
15
All Golden citationsfromLeon Golden, Aristotle'sPoetics (EnglewoodCliffs:Prentice-Hall,1968).
16All Else citationsfromGerald F. Else, Aristotle'sPoetics: The Argument(Cambridge: Harvard
UniversityPress, 1963).
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326
/
TI, October1985
woman (not by virtueof being brave or clever) (lines 54a24-26). In the Golden
"forit is possiblefora personto be manlyin termsof character,but it is
translation:
notappropriatefora womanto exhibiteitherthisqualityor theintellectual
cleverness
thatis associatedwithmen."Else translates"brave"and "manly"as interchangeable
thatthemalegenderand braveryare one and thesame. Thattranslaterms,indicating
tion also indicatesthat a characteris determinedby gender,and that the tragic
characteris suitedto themale gender,whichconnotesbravery.It is not appropriate
fora woman to be manly:to be brave and clever.The Golden translationdoes not
cleverness."Clearly,clevernessis a
mentionbravery,but does mention"intellectual
for
the
but unavailableto women.
character,
necessary
tragic
gender-specific
quality
Manliness,whichconnotesbraveryto some, is anotherappropriatequalitywhich
does not residein theclass of women.Aristotle'sassumptionsrestupon theintersecIn bothrealms,womenare theouttionof social realityand aestheticprescriptions.
siders.They functiononly to providethe limitsof the male subject,whichhelp to
fromhim, which highlighthis
completehis outline,or theyillustratedifferences
there
no qualitiesascribedto them,
invisible
are
Once
women
are
more,
qualities.
thefocuson themale
which
the
and theirinvisibility
empty
organizes
provides
space
action
In
of
insofar
as theymighthelp
this
are
only
way, they subjects tragic
subject.
to definethemale character.
of character,however,women'sexclusionfromintellecBeyondtherequirements
tualclevernessmayalso excludethemfromtheentireexperienceof thedrama,art,or
to thepleasureoflearnmimesis.In chapter4, Aristotlelinkstheact ofrepresentation
ing,bothfortheartistand thosewho view theart:"helearnshisfirstlessonsthrough
because in theirviewingthey
imitation"and "peopleenjoyseeingthereproductions:
what class each objectbelongsto" (lines48b15-17).
findtheyare learning,inferring
The pleasureofmimesisis didacticand learningis linkedto theenjoyment/reception
to themale, the enjoymentof art
of its product.Since clevernessis gender-specific
withinhisprovince.Historiansare uncertainabout thecomposition
maybe restricted
to citizens,itis
of theGreektheatreaudience.Some reasonthatsinceitwas restricted
quitepossiblethatno womenwereincluded.OthersreasonthatsinceEuripidesjests
evidenceof
about womenin theaudiencein some of his plays, thesejestsconstitute
women'spresence.Yet othersreasonthatEuripides'toneof ironyin all thathe wrote
rules out any of his statementsas admissibleevidence.Judgingfromthe genderspecificqualityof Athenianpracticeand Aristotle'sthoughtson tragedy,it would
seemappropriatethatwomenwerenotin theaudience.Or, in thecontextof chapter
membersoftheaudience.In otherwords,notonlyis the
4, thattheywouldbe inferior
he maybe theexclusiverecipmalethesubjectoftheatrepracticeand tragiccharacter,
ientof thetheatricalexperience.
in Aristotle's
ofthought,
Moreover,thefunction
system,is to enablecorrectchoices
is to teachaudiencesabout
ofpity,fear,and recognition
(lines50b5-13). The function
correctchoicesand to stimulatetheirpleasurefromthe recognition.Not only are
womenexcludedfromtheclevernessrequiredto perceivethesechoices,but theyare
in Aristotle's
This idea is clearlyarticulated
excludedfromthepowersofdeliberation.
Politics:"theslave has no deliberative
facultyat all; thewomanhas, but it is without
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327
/ THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS
17 It is possibleto conclude,then,thatwomenhave no needto learnabout
authority."
thedramahas no
choices,sincetheyare withouttheauthorityof choice; therefore,
functionforthemand theyare excludedfromthepleasureof watchingit. Moreover,
dialoguewould also seemto be outsidetheirrealm- forwithoutauthority,
speaking
is inappropriate,
as we see in thepassage whichfollowstheabove quotationin the
Politics: "the courage of a man is shown in commanding,but of a woman in
obeying. . . as thepoet says 'Silenceis a woman'sglory',but thisis not equally the
gloryof a man."18Excludedfromthecategoriesof tragiccharacter,fromcleverness,
fromtheauthorityof deliberation,and fromdialogue,womenseem to be excluded
fromthedramaticexperience.The dramais notappropriateto theclass of thegender
women."
withtheclass called"women"findsherselfreading
The feminist
reader,identifying
againstthistext.In fact,she discoversthatshe is not even intendedto be a readerof
thistext.Whateverangershe mightfeelin readingAristotle'sinsultsor whateverpity
withtheexcludedwomenin thisclassicalera seemsinapshe mightfeelin identifying
finds
of thistextualworld.At thispoint,thefeminist
propriatewithintheexclusivity
herselfto be definedas one withoutthenecessarycriteriaforthestudyor thepractice
of the drama. The prominenceof The Poeticswithinthe historyof thedrama and
withinthe studyof the historyof the drama, makes the exclusionof the feminist
readereven morecomprehensive.
The feminist
readercan, however,discoverthemethodologyand assumptionsof
patriarchalproduction.She can begin to comprehendthe alliance of theatrewith
patriarchalprejudice.The studyof itsdevelopmentmay informthefeminist
analysis
of contemporarytheatre,providingit with choices forfutureaction which might
make thefictionof "Woman"appear in thesetexts.The feminist
theatrepractitioner
how
come
to
a
new
of
to
classic
the
Greekplays. For
may
understanding
reproduce
rather
than
text
such
as
a
as
a
example,
considering
Lysistrata good play forwomen,
she mightview it as a male drag show, with burlesquejokes about breastsand
directormaycasta man
phallusesplayingwellwithinthedragtradition.The feminist
in therole of Medea, underscoring
thepatriarchalprejudicesof ownership/jealousy
and childrenas male-identified
concerns.The feminist
actor may no longerregard
theserolesas desirableforhercareer.Overall,thefeminist
and scholars
practitioners
may decide thatsuchplays do not belongin thecanon- thattheyare not centralto
thestudyand practiceof theatre.
17MaryLefkowitzand Maureen B. Fant, Women'sLife in Greece and Rome (Baltimore:The Johns
Hopkins UniversityPress, 1982), p. 64.
18Lefkowitzand Fant,p. 64.
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