compendium - KrishiKosh

TAMIL NADU VETERINARY AND ANIMAL
, SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY
"
,
Summ-e r school .
on
Recent Concepts in Improving Feed Quality-and
the Techniques used in the Eva~ion of
.
Feed-stuff for- Poultry
(23.6.2000 to 13.7.2000)
C'"
t -. - '
.. .
...:
COMPENDIUM
Organised at
Department of Animal Nutrition
and
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
Namakkal-637 001
Sponsored by
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
NEW DELHI-ll0 012.
2000
~~========================~==========~
~
/
TAMIL NADU VBTERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCBS
"UNIVBRSITY
Summer school
on
Recent Concepts in Improving Feed Quality and
,
the Technique~ u.sed in the Evaluation of
Feed-stuff for Poultry
(23.6.2000 to 13.7.2000)
COMPENDIUM
Compiled by
R.Ravi
M.R.Purushothaman
B.Mohan
P.Vasantha Kumar
P.Vasan
D.Chandrasekaran
T.I.Sundaram
A.Natarajan
Organised at
Department of Animal Nutrition
and
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
Namakkal-637 001
Sponsored by
-t
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
NEW DELHI-110 012.
2000
TAMILNADU
VETERINARY AND
.ANIMAL SCIENCES
/
UNIVERSITY
MADHAVARAM MILK COLONY
CHENNAI • 600 051. INDIA.
Telegram
UNIVVET
Phone (0)
0091 ·44 ·5551574
Fax
0091 ·44 ·5551576
Resi
0091 ·44 ·4833136
E·Mail
[email protected]
[email protected]
Website , , : www.tanuvas.com
\
"
'"
FOREWORD
The spectacular growth of
~he
dairy and poultry sectors, have 'placed
India in the
.
first place in milk production and in the fifth place in egg production. From a su_bsidiary to
agriculture, livestock enterprises have emerged as significant contributor to the farmers
well being.
,
The continous rise in the feed cost and the uneconomical prices for the products
have put considerable strain on the livestock and poultry. farmers.
Feed cost alone
constitutes more than 75 percent in the cost of production livestock products.
The
University is focusing to study the opti.mal nutrient requirements, identify ways for the
utilization of unconventional feed resources, assess the quality of feed ingredients and
optimizing the feed formulations.
The effectiveness of the research studies is fully realized only when the knowledge
accrued is taken to the place where it is needed the most.
One such effective means is
organizing training programmes. This training programme "Recent Concepts in Improving
Feed Quality and the Techniques Used in the Evaluation of Feedstuff for Poultry",
sponsored by the ICAR, New Delhi" will be handeled by scientists and industry people who
have in-depth knowledge in the concerned topics, and the proceedings to be brought out with
the articles will be of immense use to the livestock industry.
Place : Chennai - 51
R.PRABAHARAN
Dated : 6-6-2000
'.
TAMIL NADU VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY
Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal - 637 001.
~WEA4:»
Dr. P. Sadasivam, Ph.D.,
Dean.
\._
i!~4J.\
?I~\); ~
>,,~~I
/
MESSAGE
Namakkal the egg basket of Tamil Nadu and the seco,nd largest egg center in this country
has been witnessing tremendous changes in the poultry arena for the last three decades. Nearly
1.2 crores of layer birds and 50 lakhs chicks and growers are housed in this area and the per day
requirement of feed for Iivesotck and 'poultry is around 2000 tonnes costing nearly 375 crores per
annum. The need to upgrade this sector bas lead to the formation of second Veterinary College
in this area which was started in 1985. The different departments of this college have made a
major stride in fulfilling the needs of the poultry sector.
Special mention has to be made to the Department of Animal Nutrition which has
produced P.G. students who achieved top rank in administrative services and more number have
opted for P.G. studies in Animal Nutrition in diff~rent Universities and National institutes. The
research work of this unit has been focussed on exploration of new feed stuff for poultry and
reassessment of nutrient requirement to suit local agro-climatic conditions. These findings have
been efficiently disseminated and are practiced by the farmers in this area to produce feed at low
cost.
The Department of Animal Nutrition, which was hitherto catering to academic pursuit
was assigned to venture into an independent high tech farmer friendly feed analytical and
counseling unit viz., Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory. Since 1994, this unit
has grown from strength to strength and has established a niche among the poultry farmers true
to its academic background and has won the confidence of the poultry farmers not only around
Namakkal but also from the other parts of the country.
It is fitting that the Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Feed Analytical and Quality
Control Laboratory of Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal are conducting the
summer school on "Recent Concepts in Improving Feed Quality and the Techniques
used in the Evaluation of Feed-stufffor Poultry" for faculties belonging to Animal Nutrition,
Livestock Production and Management and Poultry Science discipline from various Agricultural
and Veterinary Universities of the country.
I am sure that summer school sponsored by I.C.A.R. will be successful in imparting the
practical knowledge acquired over years by the faculty of Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal
Sciences University.
TAMIL NADU VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY
Dr.R.Ravi, Ph.D.,
Professor and Head &
Director of Summer School.
Department of Animal Nutrition,
Veterinary College and Research
Institute, Namakkal-637001,
(() Office
: (94286) 66491-3.
: (04286) 32007.
F a x : (04286) '66484.
(() Residence
Feed, which constitutes nearly 70-80% of poultry production, is the major source of
expenditure. The quality of the feed ingredients has been highly variable. The science of feed
quality assessment has developed in recent years and these techniques have played a major
role in achieving the optimum production and improving the efficiency of production.
In recognition of the importance of the feed quality assessment to improve the profitability
of poultry farming, the ICAR has sponsored a Summer School on Recent Concepts in Improving
Feed Quality and the Techniques used in the Evaluation of Feed-stuff for Poultry at the
Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory,
Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal. We are extremely thankful' to ICAR
.
authorities in granting us an opportunity of hosting this summer school.
We are grateful to the Vice-Chancellor, Registrar, Finance Officer of this university and
the Dean of this college for their encouragement and support in running this programme.
Guest lectures by various experts in this and connected fields have been arranged to
highlight the development in the poultry nutrition.
This summer school has attracted participants from different parts of this country. We
wish the experiences gained at this schoo.1 would help the trainees to carry out further research in
improving the knowledge of feed quality assessment. We hope the compendium of the lectures
to be released shall be a· permanent reference materjal.
We acknowledge the help extended by all in the conduct of the summer school.
,
/\,~
Namakkal-1
123.6.2000
(RRAVI)
Director, Summer School
Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal-l.
[Faculty)
Core faculty
/
!partment of Animal Nutrition
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality
Control Laboratory'.,
.
:ofessor and Head
Professor and Head
'.R.Ravi, Ph.D.,
Dr.D.Chandrasekaran, Ph.D.,
:sociate Professor
Assistant Pro(essors
'.M.R.Purushothaman, Pll.D.,
1.Thiru.T.K.Sundaram, M.Sc.,
2.Dr.A.Natarajan, Ph.D., .
:sistant Professors
Dr.B.Mohan, Ph.D.,
Dr.P.Vasantha Kumar, M.V.Sc.,
Dr.P.Vasan, M.V.Sc.,
Co-ordinating faculties
Dr. P.Sadasivam, Ph.p., Dean,VC&RI, Namakkal-1.
Dr. K. Viswanathan, Ph.D., Professor and Head, Department of Poultry Science.
Dr. B. Mohan, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Poultry Science.
Dr. K. Man i, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Poultry Science•
.or. N. Dorairajan, Ph.D., Professor and Head, Department of Microbiology.
Dr.N.Punniamoorthy, Ph.D., Professor a.nd Head, Department of Ph~rmacology.
Dr.V.Ram"esh Saravana Kumar, Ph:D., Associate Professor and Head, Department of Livestock
Production and Management
Dr. P. Mat h i aI ag an, Ph.D., Assistant Professor and Head, Department of Extension.
Dr. M. Safi u lIah, Ph.D., Associate Professor and Head, Department of Animal Husbandry Economics.
I. Dr.S.Selvam, M.V.Sc., Assistant Professor, Department'of Animal Husbandry Economics •
. Dr.M. Amanullah, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy.
In vited faculties
Dr.R.Kadirvel, Ph.D., Dean, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-7.
Dr.O.Narahari, Ph.D., Professor of Poultry Science, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-7.
Dr. George Mathen, Associate Professor of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary Science,
Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, Kerala State.
Dr.R.Balagopal, Ph.D., Associate Professor and Head, Deptof Animal Husbandry, T.N.A.U, Coimbatore. "
Dr.K.S.Ganesan, M.V.Sc., Deputy Manager (Nutrition & Technical Services), Godrej Agrovet Ltd, ~hennai.
Dr.J.Moses, Varsha Multi Tech, Bangalore-60.
ICONTENTS I
-
51.
/
Page
Particulars
""-
No.
No.
"'
01
Role of Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal, in the'
development of poultry:industry at Namakkal (Or.P.Sadasivam)
02
Quality of drinking water and its role in poultry
(Or.V.Ramesh Saravana Kumar)
-
1
,
10
--.--
An over view of feeding management in commercial poultry farm
(Dr.K.Viswanathan)
14
04
Feeding practices in commercial poultry farms (Dr.S.Mohan, P.Sc.)
20
05
Selection and processing of poultry feed (Dr.R.Ravi)
06
Unconventional feed resou'rces for poulfry (Dr.R.Ravi)
34
07
Marine protein resources and their feeding value for poultry
(Or.S.Mohan, ANN)
38
Fats and oils.- their quality assessment for poultry
(Dr. M. R. Purushothaman)·
43
103
I
I
I
23
I
\ 08
09
---
Reassessment of the nutrient requirement of poultry
.- .(Or.M.R.Purushothaman)
.
_.
-
46
10 Antibiotic feed additives and their residues in poultry production
(Dr. N. PUliniamoorthy)
49
Enzyme supplementation to improve nutrient utilization in poultry
(Or.O. Chandrasekaran)
55
12
Nutritional factors to improve feed efficiency in chicken (Dr.O.Narahari)
65
13
Techniques to evaluate the protein quality of feed ingredients
used for chicken ration by invitro methods (Dr.S.Mohan, ANN)
78
Mycotoxins scenario in feed ingredients and feed used for
poultry in Namakkal (Dr. O.Chandrasekaran)
81
11
14
-
15
Rapid technique ,to identify & quantify aflatoxins in feed (Dr.A.Natarajan)
87
16
Fluorimetric method of mycotoxin analysis (Dr.K.Mani,and Dr.Moorthy)
90
.
"-
17
Estimation of ~itamins using HPLC (Thiru. T.K.Sundaram)
,
94
18
Common adulterants ,/contaminants in feed
stuffs and their testing
,
(Dr.A.Natarajan).
97
Modified method of estimating the multimycotoxins In feed I
raw materials (Dr:A.Natarajan)
101
Quantification of trace minerals by colorimetric methods
(Thiru. T.K.Sundaram)
104
/
Relationship between egg and, feed prices of Namakkal
poultry market - ~n economic approach (Dr.Mohammed Safiullah)
113
22
Computer application in livestock irtdustry (Dr.S.Selvam)
117
23
Communication Skills (Dr.P.Mathialagan)
123
24
Recycling of poultry manure (M.Mol1amed Amanullah )
131
25
Pre and post harvest strategies to prevent grain loss during storage
(M.Mohamed Amanullah )
13~
26
M.V.Sc., and Ph.D., Thesis works
140
27
Tests carried out in Animal. Feed Analytical and Quality
Control Laboratory
141
A glimpse of feed manufacturers, hatcheries, chemicals and
glassware suppliers (Dr.J.Ramesh, Dr.Rajavelu and Dr.Ramesh Kumar)
142
19
20
21
28
RO·LE OF VETERINARY COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
NAMAKKAL, IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POUJ..,TRY INDUSTRY AT
NAMAKKAL
Dr. P.SADASIVAM, Ph.D., " ,
DEAN,
... ,
VETERINARY COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
NAMAKKAL 637 001.
Namakkal is the second ,largest poultry pocket in India with a. population of 50 lakhs chicks and
growers and around 1.25 crore layer birds. On an average 85 lakhs eggs costing nearly 1.15 crores are
being produced daily in this area anQ marketed in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and also exported to Gulf
countries and Maldives. The layer population in Namakkal area alone requires approximately 1625
I
tonnes of compounded feesI/day amounting to Rs.l.lO crores / day. Besides this, there are more than
200 trading agencies involved in the supply of inputs like chicks, medicines, vaccines, equipment,
cages, purchase of manure and spent hens. The turnover in poultry industry alone contributes nearly
2.5 to 2.75 crore per day.
Considering the excellent growth of
po~ltry
industry in this area to cater the day to day
scieritific needs of the farmers.
1. M.V.Sc., programmes in 8 disciplines related Poultry Science was initiated in the year1993.
2. Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory was started during 1994.
3. Center of Advanced Studies in Poultry Science, funded byI.C.A.R, New Delhi was
established in the year 1995.
4. Experimental Agrometerology Advisory Services funded by Department of Science and
Technology, Govt.ofIndia, is functioning since 1996.
LTRY
M.V.Sc. & Ph.D. THESIS WORKS CARRIED OUT ON rou
L 637001
NAMAKKA .
AT VETERINARY COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE!.-o
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
DEPARTMENTS
M.V.Sc.
thesis
completed
pOn.D.
tllesis
con !pleted
13
2
7
6
21
1
Animal Nutrition
Livestock Production &
Management
Preventive Medicine
Poultry Science
Microbiology
Parasitology
Pathology
TOTAL
2
3
2
4
14
19
5
17
88
SALIENT RESEARCH FINDINGS
l.DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL NUTRITION
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
TITLE
Efficiency of Silicates in
binding aflatoxin in the
ration of broilers.
Effect of various lev~lo of
availabl~ Phosphorus in
relation with calcium on
egg production & egg
shell quality in
commercial white
leghorn layers.
Utilization of Soap Stock
as an energy source in
Broiler ration.
YEAR RECOMMENDATION
STUDENT
Hydrated Sodium
Calcium Aluminium
Silicates (HSCAS) 0.5% addition to 0.25
ppm of Aflatoxin .B1,
diet was effective.
1996
P.Vasan
-
S.Sengathir
1997
V.Murugesan
1997
Study on the occurrence
M.Pauline
of Ochratoxin A in
Felicita Suganthi
sunflower oil cake and
its detoxification.
Feeding value of squilla
meal as a replacement for
B.Mohan
fish meal in chicken
rations.
2
1998
1999
0.3% available
phosphorus with 3.5%
calcium was found to
optimum for better egg
pToduction
Cheap energy source.
TME-6700 Kcal.
Inclusion level- 1.5%
in broiler finisher
4% aqueous Ammonia
spray is effective upto a
level of 2 ppm of
ochratoxin in the diet
Availability (DM basis)
- 57,942 tonnes/annum
(Karnataka, Gujarat
Maharashtra, T.Nadu,
Goa)
Squilla meal can
replace a)100% offish
meal in growers,
b) 25% in layers.
Presently used to a
value of 2.5.lakhs/day
2.DEPARTMENT ·OF POULTRY SCIENCE
S.No
1
2
3
4
-5"':-"":"-
6
TITLE
Commercial \
chicken egg •
preservation
under field
condition
Effects of water
from different
sources on the
egg production
and egg quality
characteristics of
commercial white
leghorn layers
Effect of acidic
and alkaline
drinking water on
egg production
and egg. qualities
on commercial
layers
Relationship of
dietary. Sodium
and Potassium
levels to wet
droppings in
commercial
layers
Effect of using
Probiotics on
production
performance
&immune status
in ·commercial
broilers
A study on·
counteraction of
aflatoxicosis by
yeast culture in
broiler chicken
Effect of copper
& garlic
supplementation
on serum and
meat cholesterol
in broilers
STUDENT
R.Kathiresan
YEAR
1995
/
R.Mathivanan
P. Veeramani
1995
Borewell water lIad lesser impurities than
open well water source except for sulphate
and total dissolved solids.
1996
Birds provided with 0.5% Lactic acid in
drinking water has resulted in higher body
weight with lower feed consumption,
higher dressing percentage with better
feed efficiency.
(
P. Shamsudeen
Sachin Krishna
Darekar
RECOMMENDATION
Experimental egg storage room at the
farm level had resolved better inte~nal egg
qualities.
Oil spraying p(.?ved to be the best,
followed by H202, immersing with lime
" dJpping(Sodium
water and water glass
silicate)
."
1996
1996
R.Richard
Churchill
1996
K.Premkumar
1999
3
The highest level of Potassium (1.22%)
followed by highest level of sodium
(0.42 %) in feed significantly increased
water consumption fecal moisture &
improved the shell thickness.
Dietary addition of Lactobacilli (0.01 &
0.02%) had significant effect on the HI
titre values of broilers at 14th, 21 st & 28th
day of post vaccination .against Ranikhet
disease and showed higher profit margin
per kilogram of body weight
The adverse effect of aflatoxin on
production parameters, relative organ
weight, serum biochemistry and immunity
was encountered by yeast culture
(Sacchromyces cervisiae at 0.1 &.O.:z% .in
feed)
The dietary supplementation of copper at
150 or 250 ppm., garlic at 0.5 or 1 % &
their combinations significantly reduced
the serum, breast & thigh meat cholesterol
of broilers.
3.DEPARTMENT OF PARASITOLOGY
S.No
1
2
3
4
TITLE
Studies on
Tapeworm
infection in
,
chickens.
STUDENT
S. Gomathinayagam
Immunization &
immune status of
Eimeria necatrix
N. Sundar
infection in
chicken.
Studies on current
status of
T. Anna
coccidiosis in
local commercial
poultry farms
Comparative
efficacy of
anthelmintics
against cestodes
in chicken
RVelusamy
~
.'
YEAR RECOMM1~NDATION
Clllsantel lI.i. 32 mglkg on
1999
alternative days &
Albendozole at 20 mglKg
for 3 consequetive days
were found to be effective
against R cesticillus
infection.
Coccidiosis due to
E. necatrix was found to
1999
cause temporary
depression in HI titre for
R.D vaccination•
.Prevalence of coccidiosis is
more in deep litter system
1995
(56.28%) than caged birds
(29.16%). Stress factors
serve as pre disposing
factors
Fenbendazole at the dose
rate of 60 mglkg body
1998
weight for 3 days was
found to remove all the
worms and was cost
effective
4.DEPARTMENT OF PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
S.No
1
TITLE
Studies on the
efficacy of an
inactivated
vaccine against
hydropericardium
syndrome in
broilers
A comparative
study on immune
status of birds
using inactivated!
live run vaccines
STUDENT
K. Govindarajan
YEAR
1998
,
C.Padmanaban
1997
RECOMMENDATION
Single dose of 0.5 ml of
inactivated vaccine against
BPS was safe and potent on
10th day of age. 83% birds
were protected within one
week after vaccination &
thereafter all the birds
survived the challen2e
Immune response was greater
and equal with inactivated oil
immersion and combination of
five intermediate and
inactivated oil emulsion
vaccines in comparison to live
vaccines.
I
5.DEPARTMENT OFLIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEIItfENT
TITLE
The relationship of
intake of sodium ,
chloride, calcium,
phosphorus with the
egg shell breakage in
layers under field
conditions
S.No
1
STUDENT
YEAR
M.Murugan
1997
RECOMMENDATION
The Eggshell qu~mcy
, , was
affected by dietary Cah:ium,
and Sodium chloride. '
6.DEPARTMENT OF PATHOLOGY
STUDENT
TITLE
Study of
Cyclopiazonic acid G.A.Balasub~
Ramanian
toxicity in
Japanese Quails
Fumonisin toxicity
S.Piramana~
in broilers
yagam -
S.No
1
2
3
.
ffiD associated
with aflatoxicosis
4
YEAR RECOMMENDATION
Cyclopiazonic acid toxicity
1996
caused erythrocytopenia
1999
C. Theophilus
Anandkumar
1996
D.Basheer
Ahmed
1999
R.Ravisankar
1999
Pathology of
-
- Citrinin
5
mycotoxicosis in
broiler chicken
Sequential
Pathology of
Hydropericardium
syndrome in
Broilers
I
22% offield sample were
positive for Fumonisin HI. It
•
causes hypovitaminosis in
broilers
Marked pathological changes
in lymphoid organs, kidney &
liver in IBD & Aflatoxin group
indicated additive effect.
Citrinin causes Anemia, and
marked pathology in kidney
and liver.
HPS produced maximum
affect at 3 to 5 days post
infection and showed recovery
from 10 days post infection.
7.DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY
S.No
1
TITLE
Studies on Bursal
derived Killed ffiD
vaccine
STUDENT
M. Mahesh
YEAR
1996
5
RECOMMENDATION
Bursal derived oil emulsion vaccine
provided higher immune response
and better protection than chick
embryo derived oil emulsion
vaccine.
2
3
4
5
6
Studies on
epidemiological
markers of E.coli
with special
reference to its
source of infection
& control measures
Study on Fowl
Cholera under field
conditions
Bacterial load of
Poultry feed & feed
ingredients
Vaccine &
vaccination against
Ranikhet disease
under field
conditions
Studies on Egg
drop syndrome in
Poultry
S.Sivakumar
1996
S, Saravanan
1997
S.Sathya
Narayanan
1997
K.Shoba
1998
HirakKumar
Mukhopadhya
1996
"_
The efficacy of quaternary
ammonium compounds as water
sanitizer Wf. s si'gnificant when
compa.red to clalorine and iodine to
contrul Keol; infection.
ELISA is the test of choice to
analyse the antibody response to
fowl cholera. The cost analysis of the .
vaccines revealed that fermenter
type vaccines are cheaper and
afforded higher protection.
The presence of E. coli, Salmonella
sps and Clostridium perfringens in
feed and feed ingredients of poultry
were characterised as l!atho2enic.
No correlation between N.D.
vaccination and the H.I titre below 8
weks of age, between H.I titre and
egg production. Vaccination with
inactivated vaccine before the point
of lay is recommended for sustain~d
antibo~ level.
Drop in egg production in
commercial farms in Namakkal was
found to be mostly due to New castle
disease followed by Infectious
bronchitis virus and EDS76.
Concurrent infection with E. Coli,
aflatoxicosis and Pasteurella
mal(o.£id~...,w~rt.:_also_noJked for the _.
drop.
"
TAMIL NADU STATE COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
STUDENTS RESEARCH PROJECTS
S.No
Year·
No. of Projects
1.
1995-1996
2
2.
1996-1997
2
3.
1997-1998
5
4.
1998-1999
4*
5.
1999-2000
4
Funding Agency
TNSCST
TNSCST
TNSCST
TNSCST
TNSCST
,
* First prize at state level for the best project (1998-99)
Title
: Evaluation of production performance of spent chicken after forced moulting
Students: V.Thavasiappan and P.Kathiravan (Final year)
Guide
: Dr.B.Mohan, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Animal Nutrition
'"',
/
ANIMAL FEED ANALITICAL AND QUALI1Y CONTROL LABORATORY
OBJECTIVES
•
To analyse feed ingredients/compounded feed for proximate composition, minerals,
mycotoxins,and send the results in 24 to 48 hours.
•
To inform the results of mycotoxirt contamination on the same day telephonically / telegraphically.
•
To run the laboratory on cost effective basis.
MYCOTOXINS ANALYZED
fir
Aflatoxins: B 1, B2, Gl, G2
fir
Citrinin
fir
Cyclopiazonicacid
... Fumonisins
... Ochratoxin
... Oosporein
... Patulin
__._---_._
..... -"Sterigmatocystin
... Trichothecenes: T2, DON, DAC
ACHIEVEMENTS
Year
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
No. of
Analysis
Receipts
lIn lakhs)
Expenditure
J..ln lakhs)
7173
14188
19072
19025
21674
3.67
7.80
9.60
11.25
14.09
2.50
5.18
8.88
9.89
12.29
'EXPERIMENTAL AGROMETEOROLOGICAL ADVISOH.Y SERVICES - Since 1996
.... Funded by National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecas~ing. Department of Science and
Technology, Govt. Oflndia .
.... To record daily weather parametrrs at Namakkal and send it to NCMRWF New Delhi
... 'To get weather forecasts for Namakkal area from NCMRWF twice a week
.... To disseminate the forecasts to poultry farmers through telephone!AIRlPost. With suitable advises
on Nutrition, Management and Disease control
.... To get the feedback and analyse the impact.
CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDIES IN POULTRY SCIENCE
The Center of advance studies in Poultry Science at Veterinary College and Research Institute
is the only CAS center for poultry science in the entire nation. It is fully funded b~
I.C.A.R, and was started during April 1995.
Na~akkal
Achievements
l.Trainer Training Programme conducted
SI.No
I'· -
2
3
4
5
6
Title
. Recent concepts in poultry feed analysis
and quality control
Recent concepts in poultry disease
diagnosis and bio security of commercial
poultry Farm
Advanced managemental techniques in
•
commercial layer production
Current trends in nutritional standards
and feeding methods in commercial
chicken production
Commercial poultry farm management
and disease control technique
National!
State Level
Period
Nos~
National
03.03.97 to
22.03.97
22.07.98 to
05.08.98
6
National
National
National
National
Recent developments in feed quality
assessment and feeding of commercial
chicken
National
8
11
02.12.98 to
19.12.98
07.07.99 to
27.07.99
08
18.11.99 to
17.12.99
6
10.05.2000
to
30.05.2000
16
15
2.Trainings Proposed:
Title
Nationall
State Level
Period
(Proposed)
I
Current trends for sustaining Poultry
flock health and economIC production
/
performance
National
06.09.2000
to
26.09.2000
2
Emerging concepts In commercial
Poultry housing land management
National
07.02.2001 '
to
27.02.2001
SI.No
"-
3. Teaching and Laboratory Manu'als prepared at CAS of Poultry Science
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
't)
g)
'Manual on poultry management
Manual on poultry disease management
Practical guide on poultry management
Practical manual on poultry management
Practical manual on poultry breeding, feeding and technology
Manual on analytical techniques in Feed.
Manual on recent concepts in poultry disease diagnosis and bio security of commercial
poultry farm
Manual on advanced managemental techniques in commercial layer production,
Manual on current trends 'in nutritional standards and feeding methods in commercial
production.
Manual on commercial poultry farm management disease control techniques
Manual on recent developments in feed quality assessment and feeding of commercial
chicken
I
h)
i)
j)
k)
4.Booklets/Pamphlets prepared in Tamil Language and distributed to Poultry farming
community
.- 1. ~..vaccination schedule for a commercial poultry fai1n.
2. Tur.key and Emu farming
3. Summer management of layers
4. Nutritive value of eggs
5. Preservation of eggs
******
QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER AND ITS ROLE IN POULTRY
PRODUCTION
Dr.V. Ramesh Saravana Kumar, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Livestock Production and Management
Veternary College and Research Institute
Namakkal-1
The development of livestock and Poultry rearing could not be considered
without water supply. Animals are less exacting than human being when it comes to the quality
of drinking water, but unless really fresh water is available in sufficient quantity. It will b~
usable if its salinity does not lead to functional problems and if it does not contain germs and
parasites.
Mineralization is measured by the weighi of dry residue per litre obtained b)
evaporation at 1100 to 1800 C. Conductivity increases rapidly with the content of dissolvec
salts and it gives an idea of chemical purity of water.. Ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite gives ar
indication of the amount of biological degradation of organic material in the water. From
I
nutritional point of view, the ions Ca ++, Mg++, Na+, S04- - , CC , C03 - - and often the
ions Fe +++, Fe++ and dissolved CO2 are involved. Alkaline earth metal content is expressed a:
degrees of hardness, which tells upon the capacity of water to fomi lather.
Table. 1 Water quality as a function of chemical composition
Suspect
Pure
Drinkable
Nitrites
Nil
Nil
Traces
Nil.
Traces
..Nitrates
Nil.
Ammonia
Nil
Nil
Upto 0.002
<0.001
OI"g_anic material
0.001-0.003
0.003-0.004
<0.027
0.027-0.066
0.066-0.165
Nach
<300
> 30°
< 6°
Degree of hardness
Table.2 Characteristics of water according to degree of hardness
Poor
Measurable
Measurable.
Above 0.002
> 0.004
Above 0.165
> 50°
.
Degree of hardness
Characteristics of water
0_6°
Very sweet
6-12°
Sweet
12-18°
Moderately sweet
18-25°
Slightly sweet
25-50°
Hard
Above 50°
Very hard
(One degree of hardness corresponds to 10 mg of lime dIssolved per litre)
From
~utritional. point of view, it is consid~red that dr~nk~g water sh~uld have less ~hanl
1 g of dry reSIdue per htre. Between 1 and 2 gm, the water IS saId to be salIne and the ammal
should accustomed to it. Waters containing bicarbonates of soda are perfectly agreeable to
10
animals where as waters containing sodium carbonate cause diarrhoea at concentrations ab~ve
2 g per iiter. Waters containing sodium sulphates have the same effect at concentrations above
4 g per liter.
Water containing calcium carbonate is more dangerous for the equipment than the
I
animals. Generally it is agreed that drinking water should have less than
30,
hardness but this
"
value is often exceeded.
Microbial quality of water
Ground water, particularly open well water often carries pathogenic microbes.
The total bacterial count, total coliform count and fungal count will provide indirect information
on the microbiological quality of water.
Drinking water can be the vector of viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases. For
those caused by viruses and bacteria water is only a vehicle; contamination can originate just as
much from domestic animal as from wild animals. In the transmission of parasitic diseases,
J
water, as regards the wet mud around the drinking troughs, plays an active role since it allows
development of infectious stage of parasitic eggs.
The significance of various coliform organisms in water has been a subject of
considerable study. Cpllectively, the coliforms are referred to as indicator organisms because
they indicate the presence of human or animal faeces. All types of colifrom organisms may
occur in faeces.
The Genera Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Escherichia usually·
represent the majority of isolations made ,from raw and treated municipal water supplies. The
==-presence of large number -of coliform orgariisiiis of same type in water from a well, from 11 tap
suggests that such multiplication has occurred. Industrial waste containing high concentrations
of bacterial nutrients are capable of promoting large after growth of coliforms.
Poultry production
Chicks that have ample clean air, water and food will grow at a profitable rate.
Chicks can loose 98% of their body fat or 50% of body protein and still survive: But a 10% loss
in body water will results in ser~ous physiological illness and a 20% loss will result in death.
Although intermittent watering / restricted watering may be successful some times, but such
programmes have never been successful in broiler production.
One of the basic necessities of poultry industry is adequate supply of pure and
WhOlesome water, as it is one of the biosecurity components. But this is often neglected, ·leading
to great disastrous situations in terms of water borne illness and poor production. The geological
11
I
quality of water gepends on meteorological, geological, pedological and topographic;
conditions.
The quality of ground water is often under thnmt due
;'J
a variety of pollutic
caused by the entry of ,industrial effiuents ,domestic sewage, agricultural land washings, et,
into the sub-soil. Various physico-chemical properties of water quality are colour, turbidity, pI
total dissolved solids, total hardness, nitrites, nitrates, phosphates and some of the trace elemen
such as iron, copper, zinc, fluoride and certain heavy metals like lead, arsenic) and cadmium.
Table. 3 Acceptable limits for drinking water criteria in poultry
Property
Bacteria
Upper limit
o cfu/ml
Nitrate
20 ppm
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
Not known
Not known
600 ppm
Magnesium
Manganese
125ppm
0.05ppm
Iron
Aluminum
Zinc -Sodium
Hardness
PH
25 ppm
Not known
~5~.Qppm
50 ppm
110 ppm
8
Comm"ents
Presence of some bacteria may not cause
Problems. Coliforms indicate faecal condemnations
At 3 to 20 ppm adverse effect occurs. Above 20
ppm
performance declines
For humans, upper limit is 0.1 ppm
Not established
May improve feed conversion and body weight gai
but decreases livability
At this level has laxative effect
May form black deposits on equipment and
Promotes leaking
Water has metallic taste, stains the equipment
For humans upper limit is 0.05 ppm
Water has bitteLtaste
Causes diarrhoea
Interferes with disinfectants, biological and medicat
pH of 6.4 is the lower limit
Cfu - colony forming unit; ppm - parts per million parts
12
'fable 4. Guideline for poultry for the suitability of water with different concentration oftotai
dissolved salts (TDS).
TDS ppm
'Less than 1,000
'1000-2000
3000-4000
5000-6000
7000-10000
More than 10000
Comments
These water should 'present no serious burden to any class of poultry
These )Vater should ,be satisfactory for all classes of poultry. They
may cause
\-.
watery droppings (especially at the higher levels)'but should no
"'- ,
affect health or performance
These are poor waters for poultry, often causing watery droppings,
increased mortality and decreased growth_(especially in turkey)
These are not acceptable waters for poultry and almost always cause
some type of problem,. Especially at upper limits, where decreased
growth and production or increased mortality probably will occur.
These waters are unfit for poultry but may be suitable for other
Livestock
These waters should not be used for any livestock or poultry
REFERENCES
Lenore, S., Arnold, E., and Rhodes, R., 1 . Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Waste Water. American Public He(l).th Association Washington DC.
NRC., 1994. Nutrient requirements of Poultry. 9th Edn. National Academic Press,
Washington DC.
Pagot, 1. 1992. Animal Production in the Tropics. Macmillan eta., London-P.
Pattison, M ., 1993. The Health of Poultry. Longman Scientific and technical Publications
13
AN OVER VIEW OF FEEDING MANAGEMENT IN COMMERCIAL
POULTRY FARM
Dr. K. Viswanathan, Ph.D.,
Professor and Head,
. Department of Poultry Science,
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
Namakkal- 637 001.
The primary purpose of raising poultry is to transform feed into meat and egg.
Hence the conversion of feed to these products must be done efficiently and economically.
Feeding poultry is more critical than that of farm animals with regard to
number of factors. This is so because the birds are quite different from four' footed animals;
.
their digestion is more rapid, their respiration and circulation are faster, their body
temperaturt; is 8° to I oOP (about 106 F) higher, they are more active, they are more sensitive
0
to environmental influences, they grow at a rapid rate and they mature at an earlier age.
Unlike large and small ruminants as they are called as converters poultry species being
monogastrics remain as competitors obviously covering the major share of grains from the use
and consumption of human beings.
Free choice feeding system
Here the birds are given chance to select their own feed since feed ingredients are
made available separately. The birds are given opportunity to consume low, medium and high
percentage of protein and energy ingredients to meet their requirements.
Mash feeding
In this system, grains, oilcakes, vitamins and mineral supplements are ground
and mixed to satisfy the requirement of~irds. This system of feeding is used extensively now.
In field, readymade poultry concentrate ~e available which contains mixture of various grains
and oil cakes and these concentrates can be used for manufacture of mash feed.
!
Advantage:
I. Best suited for any type of feeder
2. Selective feeding of any ingredients are avoided
3. Uniform mixing of micronutrients can be done
4. Well adopted if feeder space is limited ,
Disadvantage:
1. Dustiness
2. Adhering to the comer of the feeders
14
Wet mash feeding
Wet feeding are used to increase the feed consumption since wet mash are more
palatable than dry mash. It is practiced in summer season. During wet mash feeding fungus
problem will be more if the feeder are not cleaned properly every day.
/
Pellet feeding
"-. ...
Bulky, low-density. mashes produce poor results because chick~ens are to
,
consume sufficient amount of mash to satisfy their energy
requir~ments.
Pelleting these feed
greatly increase their density, there by causing marked improvement in production simply
I
because the chickens are capable of consuming sufficient amount of pellet feed to meet their
energy and other requirements.
Pellet binders used for the preparation are
1. Bentonites
2. Hemicellulose
3. Guar meal
4. Molasses
These are included at the rate of2.5% of the diet. The ground mash is mixed with any
one of the above binders and is compressed mechanically to form pellets
Advantage:
1. No wastage (even if wasted it can be picked out)
2. No dustiness
3. Rejecting particular feed ingredient is minimized when feed
ingredients are changed
4. Toxins get destroyed during processing
5. Digestibility of feed get increased during processing
Disadvantage:
1. Cost of pellet ~eed production is comparatively more
2. The time of pellet feeding is only l/Sth of mash feeding and
the resulting time is used for vices
3. Some of the nutrients get lost during processing
Crumbled feeding
The crumbled feeds are prepared by breaking the pellets into small pieces. The
crumbled feeds are ideal for starting chicken, broilers, ducks and turkeys.
15
Feed Additives
1. Nutrient feed additives - like vitamins, minerals, trace '((lements, amino
acids, fermentation by products and unidelltifiec growth promoters are
added to the commercial poultry feed to pr.)vide est.ential nutrient to the
birds.
~
2. Non nutrient feed .additives - like antibiotics, probiotics, coccidiostats,
antioxidants, enzymes, hormones, pigments antifungals etc., are added to
the poultry feed to improve the quality of feed.
Among the feed additives, probiotics and enzyme preparations are more extensively
used in commercial poultry feed.
Probiotics:
Parker (1974) first used the term probiotic and Lactqbacilli is the most commonly used
probiotic bacteria in poultry. In commercial poultry feed Lactobacillus spore powders are
added for growth stimulation, better digestibility, higher feed conversion and to reduce stress
during any infection. Buttermilk is the most commonly available rich source of Lactobacillus
and this can be given by adding buttermilk into the drinking water of birds.
In commercial feed formulation. Feed additives are added to an extent that will increase the
nutritive value of the feed and decrease the feed cost for production of poultry meat and eggs.
Enzyme usage in poultry
The enzyme in a soluble or free form must be considered as wasteful because
enzymes can not be recovered at the end of the reaction. This is also a problem in use of
_. ~~nzym~s in poultry nutrition because of its wastage in litter material. Top avoid this wastage
enzymes can be immobilized in two ways.
1. Physical method : Enzymes can be
a~sorbed
into an insoluble matrix,
entrapped within a gel or encapsulated within a microcapsule.
2. Chemical method: Enzymes can be covalentaly attached to a solid support
or cross-linked. This type of immobilized enzymes can not be used in
poultry feed.
Enzyme like all organic materials are gradually used up and therefore must be
continuously synthesized by the living cells. Enzymes retain their catalytic activity even when
they are extracted from the cell. Crude fibre forms a coat over the digestible nutrients and·
form insulation against digestive enzymes and delays the digestive process. The wall of the,
16
i
cell is composed of variety of polymers of which cellulose and pectin comprise the maximum.
Lignin provides further structural support to cell wall. Fibre degrading enzymes not only
Improve feed efficiency but also make the bird to obtain extra energy. Tannin interferes with
protein and dry matter digestibility either by inhibiting the proteolytic and other,enzymes or by
\
fanning indigestible complexes with dietary protein.
"-
...
By incorporating the enzymes like cellulose arid 'lignase there will be definite
improvement of the digestibility of fibre in poultry feed. Protease inhibitor and amylase
inhibitor are present in soyabean and wheat respectively. Hence a combination of proteases
and amylases will improve utilization of these ingredients in a feed mixture.
Addition ofLactic acid producing bacteria assist in maintaining the optimum
environment for the enzymes to act in the digestive system by acidification and stimulation of
enzymes action at low pH.
Addition of yeast cells increases the rate of cellulose degradation. Live yeast
"
cells proliferate in the gut, releases a number of enzymes including phytase, which help in
breakdown of phytin phosphorus. Live yeast increases tile popUlation of cellulolytic bacteria
thus releasing more energy from crude fibre.
Phase feeding
In the case of broilers, 8 wee,ks period is divided into two phases and the feeds
are provided as broiler starter and broiler finisher feed.
In layers, the feeds are provided by dividing into three phases such as chick,
grower and layer. Now, laying phase is further divided into three as follows
."= - -:! ...
Phase I : is considered to be as the time for the onset of egg production until
pass the time of maximum egg production, about 36 weeks of age.
Phase II : is the period between 36 to 52 weeks of age, a period of high but
decreasing egg production.
Phase III : is from about 52 weeks to the end of production cycle~ in some
cases 6 - 8 weeks beyond 72 weeks of age. During phase three egg production continues to
decline while egg weight increases slightly.
Phase feeding programme adjusts the daily nutrient intake according to expected requirement
fo
.
r matntenance and egg production.
Restricted feeding
Most broiler chickens are given unlimited access to feed, or at most, have
limited
a~cess
during brief periods of darkness. It is generally assumed that the faster birds
reach marl\et weight, the better the feed conversion will be since the ma',ntenance requirement
should be reduced. While this usually true, there may be some potential for modifying the
growth pattern of the bird in f~vour of an even greater reduction in maintenance requirement.
If broiler growth rate could be reduced during early life, and it is followed by compensatory
growth so as to achieve the same market weight for age, then maintenance requirements must
be reduced - implying improved feed efficiency.
This concept raises the question of
restricted feeding and lor reduced nutrient intake during early life. If it is accepted that feed
conversion in its classical sense (digestibility, metabolizability
~tc.)
has improved little over
years, then' improvements that we continue to see in feed utilization must be associated with
the reduction in maintenance requirement.
In order to allow potential for compensatory growth, while maintaining Carcass
quality, some means of maintaining the correct balance of amino acids to energy must be
achieved.
This is best accommodated by physical feed restriction, or diet dilution, using
conventional type diets. There is current interest in diet dilution of in broilers as a means of
controlling fat deposition, since it is assumed that fat cell numbers increased most rapidly in
the very young bird. (Cherry et al., 1984).
Controlling fat cell growth at this' age may
therefore plays an upper limit on sub'sequ;ent fatness of the bird.
Improvements in feed
efficiency with such systems are claimed to be related to production of leaner birds, although
such early qualitative feed restriction does imply compensatory growth. The broiler chickens
fed with conventional starter diets to 4 times, the conventional starter was reintroduced,
followed by regular broiler and finisher diets. The broiler chicken appears able to benefi1
from a period of "under nutrition " in that subsequently
compensa~ory
growth results in nc
overall loss of market weight, and is likely associated with improved feed utilization.
18
· Some Research findings related to this topic
1. Broilers provided with 0.5 lactic acid in drinking water had significantly higher dressing
perc~ntage and lesser percentage weight of intestine.
2. The groups supplemented with '0.02 and 0.01 % combination of
lac~illi
recorded
higher profit margin per kg live weight and per kg dressed meat respeCtively.., Whereas,
overall performance and economics were favourable for the inclusion of"" 0.1 %
Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the broiler diet as better body weight and livability were the
advantages.
3. Dietary supplementation of lactobacillus sporogenes had significantly include the immune
status against Ranikhet disease in broilers when tested at 28 and 49 days of age post
vaccination.
4. Inclusion of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (0.1 and 0.2 %) in aflatoxin (1 ppm) treated diet
significantly counteracted the toxic effects of aflatoxin on body weight, feed consumption
and feed efficiency.
****
1n
FEEDING PRACTICES IN COMMERCIAL POULTRY FARMS
Dr. B. Mohan, M.V.Sc., Ph.D.,
.Associate Professor,
Department of Poultry Science,
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
~
Namakkal-637 001.
i
The major objective of poultry production is to efficiently and economically convert
relatively unpalatable and unattractive feed stuffs into nutritious, palatable and attractive food
for humans. Optimally balanced diets using least cost, available ingredients are specifically
formulated for a variety of types and ages of poultry.
Feeding practices in chick and grower:
In general for laying chicken two diets are sufficient from hatching until point of lay~
a starter feed for the first six to eight weeks
~d
grower feed thereafter. The success of a table
egg production
enterprise depends to a very large extent, on the quality of pullets at housing.
,
A quality pullet can be defined, as one of optimum body weight and condition required for
optimum performance in the laying house. April, May and June hatches had the lowest
production per hen housed. This was probably due to lighter pullets grown in hot weather.
Flock. uniformity is very important in obtaining optimum performance and the greatest
profitability. In situation where uniformity is a problem, grower should sort out all the
sma~l
birds and pen them separately at about 5 weeks.
The house temperature is one of the most important factors affecting feed
consumption. There is a change in feed consumption as house temperature increase or
:decrease, but the relationship is not constant at various house' temperatures. The influence of
temperature on the nutrient requirements of replacement pullets has not been widely
investigated. Some researchers concluded that protein requirement as percentage of diet was
increased in a hot environment. The metabolic studies showed that protein deposition in the
growing pullet was not influenced by temperature and that protein anabolism was relatively
independent of environmental temperature. In general, however, pullet growth can be
improved at high temperature by increasing nutrient density. Increasing dietary protein
increased body weight initially, but at 140 days of age, body weights
wer~
not affected by
dietary protein. High protein or nutrient dense rearing feeds increased body weights of pullets
reared under high temperatures and decreased the time taken by the pullet to reach
maturity.
20
sexu~l
:
Nqrmally a starter is fed upto 8 weeks of age and the change from starter to the
grower takes place during 56 -63 day period. If body weights are not upto those specified by
the breeder then feed change should be postponed and the starter is continued until standard
weight for age is reached. Usually, a starter is not fed beyond the lOth wee!, of age.
/
Several methods have been suggested for increasing feed consump,tion in growing
.'-...._
.
pullets. Feeding crumbled feeds has been shown to help. These feeds are eaten,.faster and
digested more easily than mash. However, the quality of the crumble should be checked for
to'o much dust. Feed consumption can be encouraged by increasing the frequency of feeding
and by stirring the feed between feedings, spraying the feed with water can help. encourage
eating, but care needs to be taken to avoid mould growth.
Feeding practices in layers:
Just as with the growing pullets, house temperature is one of the most important
factors affecting feed consumption in laying hens. It has long been suggested that feed for
hen~
should contain more protein in hot
we~ther
than in cold weather. Since a, major
problem in rearing pullets in hot climates is obtaining acceptable body weights at housing, the
laying
use of pre lay ration is recommended'during the 2-3 weeks prior to the first egg, the liver and
reproductive system increase in size in preparation for egg production. At the same time,
calcium reserves are being built up to meet the demand for shell formation. The specification
for a pre lay ration which is usually similar to a layer ration except for a 2.0-2.5 per cent level
of total calcium. Such a ration is usually fed until 5 per cent production is reached and helps
pullets to attain the desired body weight at this early stage of production. Protein and
amino,!cid.requirements are greatest from the onset of production upto peak egg mass. This is
the period when body weight, egg weight and egg numbers are all increasing. The attainment
of adequate egg size is one of the problems of the egg industry. If satisfactory egg size is not
attained with 19 per cent protein in the ration, the levels of the most critical amino acids
should be checked, particularly that of methionine. The best way of correcting a methionine
limitation i,s by adding a feed grade form of methionine. Small egg size can be due to low
energy intake as well as low protein and amino acid intake', 'The use of fat in layer rations has
been shown to be helpful not only because of its energy contribution, but also it can increase
the linoleic acid level. Which shou'ld be over 1.2 per .cent in the ration. If separate feeding of
calcium is not feasible, then atleast 50 per cent of the calcium in the feed should be in
.
.
granUlar form rather than all in powder form. It is important not to over fed phosphorus since
it has been shown that excessive levels are detrimental to egg shell quality, particularly in hot
summer.
Feeding pr~_~ti~es in broilers :
Fpr broilers protein levels recommended are 1-2 per cent lower than what is normal1~
used in th~, ~emperate regions. Energy levels have been also adjusted to \ protein levels, bu
kept higher than those currently used. The optimum level has been inc~:eased to 0.6 per cen
versus 0.4 per cent normally~ recommended in the temperate regions. Levels of certain amine
acids have been raised higher than those normally used at that protein level. Normally the
starter is fed for the first 4 weeks of life to strait run chicks, and the finisher is used from
l
weeks to market (7 weeks of age). Providing adequate levels oeeach. nutrient and a gOO(
balance of these nutrients is a prerequisite to successful feeding. Using feed with: good qualit;
ingredients is a second prerequisite and using only fresh feed is the third prerequisite. It i:
very import.ant to order fresh feed, preferably once a week, where deterioration is more rapi(
and fat tend to go rancid quickly.
Broilers are usually fed either crumbles or pellets. The broiler starter is provided a:
crumbles, while finisher ration is provided as pellets. Crumbles and pellets tend to reduce fee(
wastage and improve feeo efficiency. Broilers are normally fed ad libitum. However in recen
years, intermittent feeding programs have been used on modern, well managed broiler farms
When intermittent feeding is used 20-30 per cent more feeder and drinker space is provided
Fast growth rate in the modern broiler has not been without its problems. It has contributed tc
increased mortality due to heart attacks, increased leg problems and increased inCidence
0
ascites. By restricting feed and lor nutrient intake early in life, it has been possible to reduci
some of these problems. Body fat an undesirable component in the modern broiler can also b!
r~duced
by feed and lor nutrient restriction. Several methods have been used to reduce ver:
rapid growth rate in the early life of the broiler. One method is by altering the lightinl
pr9grame, and another is by actual feed restriction and the third is by reducing energy and I
protein content of the diet by adding to it extra fibre.
****
')')
0
SELECTION AND PROCESSING OF POULTRY FEED
Dr. R. Ravi, Ph.D.,
Professor and Head,
Department of Animal Nutrition,
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
Namakkal- 637 001
The demand of feed is directly proportional to the growth of poultry industry. The
anticipated annual growth is 10' to 12% fo~ cOminercial layers and 20 to ~5% for broilers.
Around 5 million tones (per annum) of compounded feed is currently produced for poultry. It
is projected that the total production of poultry feeds will be over 17.5 millipn tonnes by the
year 2010 AD.
I. SELEC~ION :
On the arrival of ingredients, representative sampling is done for assessing the quality
of materials.
Sampling:
Sampling is a function in the feed manufacturing industry as stated by Gehrt(1976),
"No analysis can be better than the sample from which it was made". Some of the decisions
affected are as follows.
1. The selection of an ingredient for a feed formula,
2. The selection of a supplier for an ingredient.
3. The acceptance or rejection of a shipment of an ingredient. ..
- -A.,...,...The status of a process in control or not in control.
5. The status of a product - does it meets its specification and guarantee or not?
6. Should an official report be challenged?
7. .Are all guaranteed items stable for the required period ..
A prerequisite to intelligent sampling is some knowledge of the product.
(Poundston~, 1962)
Kinds of Samples:
1. Check sample
2. Composite sample
3. Discrete sample
4. Duplicate sample
23
5. O~cial sample
"
6. Purchasing sample
7. R~feree sample
C'
8. Reference sample
9. Retained sample
10. Standard
sampl~
11. Working sample.
Requirements of sampling system:
1. Adequate education and thorough
in~truction
of the personnel involved m
sampling is important.
2. The equipment selected for the sampling is important.
Tools of sampling:
1. ·Probe
2. Divider or other
3. Bag triers
4. Bag probe
5. Compartmental probe
6. Pelican sampler
7. Bomb sampler
8. Automated or mechanized sampler.
The following precautions and directions shall be observed whIle sampling.
1. Samples shall be taken in a protected place not exposed to damp air, dust or
soot.
2. The sampling instrument shall be clean and dry when used.
3. Precautions shall be taken to protect the samples, the material being sampled, the
.sampling instrument and the containers for samples from adventitious
contamination.
4. The samples shall be placed in clean and dry glass containers and sealed air tight
with a stopper or a suitable closer.
5. The number of bags to be selected from the lot shall depend on the size of the lot .
Number of bags to be selected for sampling ( BIS, 1992)
Number of bags
Lot size
to be selected
/
Upto 50
5
51 to 100
8
"
101 t0300
13
301t0500
22
501 and
abov~
32
,~
Draw equal quantities of the material with an appropriate sampling instrument at the
top, bottom and the sides of each bag. The total quantity of the material drawn from each bag
shall be not less than 1 kg. Mix all the portions of the material drawn from the same bag
thoroughly. Take out about 1.5 kg of material and divide into three parts. One of these
.
"
samples shall be for the purchase!, another for the vendor and the third for the reference. The
,
samples shall be transferred
immedi~tely
to clean and dry' sample containers, sealed air tight
and labeled.
The
fe~d
ingredients are carefully inspected at the time of purchase and the following
points are generally considered for on ~he spot appraisal of raw materials.
8.
Mois*ure:
The moisture content of the ingredients should not exceed 10 - 12%. If the moisture
levens niore7the material has to be dried before storage. Cominonly sun drying is followed in
OUf
country. The moisture content of samples can be estimated quickly by moisture meter or
by using NIR (Near infra red reflectance) moisture analyzer.
The relationship between moisture content and possible biological activity for an oil
free materi~l at a temperature of25 - 35 0 C is given below.
1. Upto 8% moistUre
No significant biological activity
2.
Insect infestation is possible
8 -12% moisture
3. 12 -18% moisture
Insect infestation + mould growth possible
4. 18 - 24% moisture
Insect infestation +mould and bacterial growth possible
5. Above 24% moisture
Bacterial growth and seed germination possible.
25
b.
Pres~nce
of impurity:
Some times a grain may contain other related edible grains and,llts presence may be
intentional or unintentional. The presence of such grains in the bulk is ~alled impurity.
Presence of barley or oat grains in wheat is common impurity and it iE difficult to separate
these grains during screening procedure. The presence of seeds of weeds mayor may not
I
-
injuries for the health and production of birds. Seeds of beans and peas in cereals is an
impurity but not toxic. Hdwever, the presence of harmful legumes like, lathyrus, wild pea and
lupins, if present at less than 1%, the lot may be accepted for purchase. Some weeds may be
highly detrimental and the permissible limits i of some toxic seeds in cereal grains are given
\
below.
Name of the weed
Maximum permissible limit
Agrostemmagithago
50 - 55 seeds per kg
Dhatura seed
10 per kg
Castor seed
less than 0.1%
Croton seed
should be absent
Ergot infested grains
15 per kg
c. Detection of extraneous particles:
Some time considerable amount of grits of stone and gravels remains unscreened in
the grain lot. As such grits may not be harmful but definitely cause problems in feed grinding.
d. Fungal infestation :
- It is risky .to _store_ grains. containing live fungal infestation. In case of fungal
infestation, the grain should be tested for the level of mycotoxins particularly the aflatoxins.
e. Insect infestation :
Th~
lot of grain selected for purchase should be free from live or dead insects and their
eggs. There should not be any weevil ed, touched or germ eaten grains in the bulk. The grain
godown and stores should be made insect free by suitable treatments before storage. The
grains stored in godown should be periodically inspected for the appearance of insects.
Various degree or levels of insect damage of food grains have been accepted for
feeding pOUltry. For the determination of the extent of insect damage, tru:ee touched and genu
eaten grains are equated with one weeviled grain. On the basis of the percentage of
discoloured and weeviled grains, maize can be classified into five groups for the purpose of
physical quality assessment.
26
Grading of maize and other grains on the basis of insect damage
Grade
--
. Percentage pf discoloured damaged and
No.
touched
grains in representative samples
.
/
1
Less than 5
2
5.1 to 10
.~
",
I
3
10.1 to 15
4
15.1 to 20
Rejected
More· than 20
,
Some times due to unfavourable climate or careless storage or some other reason,
large quantity of grains get damaged and declared unfit for human consumption. Such
damaged grains are available at a much cheaper rate than the wholesome grain's and damage
upto certain extent has been found useful for feeding poultry after mixing ~ith other feed
ingredients. The utility of such, grains is detertnined on the basis of the percentage of sound
I
grains provided it is free from fungal infestations and toxic preservatives.
Grading of substandard grains for animal feeding
Sound grains (%)
Fit (or ihe class of animal
1. More than 70.1
Cattle and' buffalo feed
2. 55.1 to 70.1
Poultry feed
3. 30.1 to 55,0
Industrial uses
4. Less than 30.0
Manure
f. Detection of Adulterants :
The commonly found adulterants are given below
Name of the ingredient
Adulterants
Protein supplements
Urea
Fish meal
Sand, Silica, Urea, Leather meal
Rice polish
Flour of broken rice
Deoiled rice bran
Sand, Silica
Groundnut cake
Mahua seed cake, urea
The adulterants can be detected by physical or microscopical examination or by
laboratory tests.
27
.?
g. D~~eCtion of anti-nutritional' factors~ ,
.
Soy~bean
meal samples have to be checked for urease activity in order to confirm
the destruction of trypsin inhibitor and other heat labi Ie anti··nutritional factors
present in it.
l
o. STORAGE:
The storage of feed ingredients is advantageously utilized for the procurement of raw
materials during the harvesting season when the price is low and the ingredients are sound
and wholesome. During lean period the availability is less and the quality may not be
upto the mark. Further the price per unit also will be ~ore.
Feed storage is a technology because it requires skill for providing protection to feed
ingredients against the damage caused by moisture, insect infestation, dampness, rodents and
fungal infestation. Among various methods of storage, bag storage of feed ingredients and
processed feed is most popular method used by almost all class of producers, suppliers and
consumers.
Advantages of bag storage:
1. Loading, unloading and stacking of bags is convenient.
2. Definite quantity of materials may be filled and packed in the bags.
3. Bags are easily available in different size and at reasonable price even at remote places.
4. Empty bags need little space for storage.
S. Bags can be easily inspected by shifting, i{suspected for insect irifeslation! other damages"
6. Porosity in bags facilitates fumigation.
Following points should be considered for proper stacking offilled bags in the godown.:
1. Bags should be stacked away from the walls and atleast 50 em space should be left
between the wall and the stack to facilitate inspection.
2. Bags should be stacked on wooden planks or steel base and the space
between the floor and surface of the plat form should be 5-7 em
for better aeration, cleaning and fumigation etc.
3. Passage for the movement ofperson(s) should be provided at a distance of 4-5
meters in the stacks.
4. The bags are stacked in crisscross! block system.
s.
Treatments for the control of insects, rodents and fungi should be done before
hermetically sealing the godown.. Hermetic sealing of godown is helpful in quick
depletion of oxygen due to respiration resulting in anaerobic interllal environment
the insects are killed and the stock becomes insect. free. This method may be
,,\
.
used for long term feed storage in dry climate of warm countries.
\.._
6. The height of stack is determined on the basis of height of godown, the faci1i!y for
lifting the bag and the ingredients to 'be stored.
Fumigation :
Volatile toxic chemicals are used for the eUrrililation of insects and' their larvae from
the storage godowris which are known as fumigants. The feed stock in unsealed stores should
inspected at the interval of 15 days for checking insect infestation. The necessity of
fumigation is determined on the basis of the intensity of the insect infestation. About 1 kg of
representative sample is weighed, sieved, spread in a flat container and examined for the
I
presence of insects.
SI.No.
Insect count" per kg
Class of feed
Operation needed
1
Insects and larvae
Clear or free
No treatment is required
Few
Immediate fumigation
Heavy
is required
Intensified and long duration
I
2
are absent
Maximum 2 live
insects present
3
3 or more live insects
fumigation is required
NB*·
Immediate treatments should be done and insects number should not be allowed to
increase to 8 in primary grains and 4 in processed feeds. The insecis count include live and
dead insects as well as major and minor insects.
(Source: Pathak, N.N. (1997) Text book of Feed Processing Technology,
. pp: 114)..
. Fumigation is done in an air tight condition for a defmite period. Some commonly
Used fumigants are aluminium
phosphide, Ethylene di- bromide, Ethylene 4i
chloride, carbon tetra chloride and methyi bromide.
29
Details of information on use of some fumigants are given below.
Dosage
. Fumigant
\
Aluminium Phosphide
2 tablets of
1
3 gms each
I
Exposure
Tolerance limit Remarks
period
(ppm)
7 days
0.05
3 ml/q
,
in
grains
per 100 q
Ethylene
.
fooj
0.01
Suitable for all
m food grains
milled grains
25 ppm
7 days
Suitable for whol€
grains and, not fo]
di-bromide (EDB)
,
milled grains moisl
grains or· oil seeds
55 ml/q
36-48 hours
Free
from . Fpr all 'Storage
DiChloridecarbontetra
residue
after
chloride (EDCT)
aeration
Ethylene
Methyl bromide
-
22 gms per 48 hours
:For all feed grains
Sq.M
(Source: Pathak, N.N.(1997) Text book of Feed processmg Technology pp:l16).
Surface treatment:
Organophosphorus compounds such as Malathion and Diclorvos are used for
application on the floor, walls and other exposed surface and never mixed with food grains.
-~
'Precautions to be adopted during chemicattreatment :
1. Face mask should be used to avoid inhalation.
2. Fumigated grains should be properly aerated for sufficient time before use.
3. The instructions given on the leaf let supplied by the manufacturer must be read
thoroughly before use, All instructions must be followed strictly. .
Rodents control:
Rats, mouse and· bandicoots cause considerable damage to grains. The following
rodenticides are used to control rodents. Alfa naphthyl thio urea (ANTU ) , zinc phosphide,
aluminium phosphide, thallium sulphate, arsenic tri oxide, barium carbonate, .sodium fluoro
acetate etc. Among this zinc phosphide is the most commonly used rodenticide'in India.
30
--Fungal control:
Fungal damage of feeds occurs only when moisture exceeds 12% in the tropical
countries. Drying ?f food grains and meals to reduce moisture content below 10% is a
practical approach for fungal control. Mixing of propionic acid or calcium propionate at the
/
rate of 2.5 kg per tonne can check the growth of many fungi. Inactivation of fuQgal toxins in
,
,
feeds is perhaps not feasible for practical uses.
Storage losses :
I
Storage losses are observed in sunflower oil cake and deoiled rice bran to the
maximum extent of two percent on storage.
DI. PROCESSING:
The objective of feed processing is' to make the feeding economical and poultry
,
.
production a viable enterprise. The various reasons for processing the feed ingredients may be
enumerated as follows.
1. To improve the feeding value. i. e. the voluntary feed intake, digestibility
/
and feed utilization efficiency can be improved.
2. To increase keeping quality and storage period.
3. Reduction in bulkiness.
4. RemovaVneutralization of harmful constituents.
5. To reduce feed wastage and feed refusal.
6. To ensure balanced intake of nutrients.
Types of feeds :
.. _,
The feeds are manufactured in the form of mash, pellets' or crumbles.
Feed grinding:
The process of disintegration in the shape and size of material's with
t~e
help of
inechanical devices is known as grinding. The equipment used for grinding are known as
grinders/mills. There are mainly two types a.Hammer mill and b. Roller mill
~~.
a.Hammer mill :
This is most commonly used mill by the compounded feed industry. The hammer mill
process feed with the aid of rotating metal bars (Hammers) that blow the ground product
through a metal screen. The size of the product is controlled by changing the screen size.
Usually 3 to 4 mm sieve is used for chicks and grower mash and 6mm seive is used for layer
mash.
b. Roller mill:
Roller mills act on grain by compressing it between two smootb of corrugated rolle~
.
.
~
that can be screwed together to produce smaller and smaller ,,particles, With grailis such a~
maize, or sorghum the product can r~ge in size from cracked gl'ain to a rather fine powder.
t
Feed mixing: .
Feed ingredients generally are mixed together in a mixer in the proper ratios td
provide a nutritionally balanced mixture. There are two types of batch mixers namely'
Horizontal type and Vertical type.
Horizontal types of mixers are commonly used in the feed industry. Horizontal mixers
can accommodate ingredients differing in particle size, density. and texture. For most efficient
mixing usually the ingredients used in the largest amount is added first and then ingredients
. that make up a smaller proportion of final diet are added in descending order of their
contribution to the total diet. When fat is added in the diet, all other constituents are mixed
first and the fat is added last and the final diet is mixed again. The duration of mixing varies
between 5 and 7 minutes and the efficiency of mixing is scrutinized by using grain
separators/sieves (as per BIS specifications) and also by micro-nutrient tracers. Usually the
premixes are prepared using
.
.
blen~ers
and the commonly used ingredient for preparing
.
premIxes IS maIze.
Pelleting of feeds;
The processing of densification of feeds in the cylindrical shape is known as pell~ting:
The advantages of pelleting are
1. Density of feeds is increased, .
2. Voluntary feed intake is more,
3. Less palatable and unconventional feeds can be incorporated in the diet
4. Intake of balanced feed is assured,
5. Gelatinization of starch due to heat increases digestibility,
6. Transportation becomes easier and Feed wastage is reduced.
However increased cost of production renders this process uneconomical and not
gaining popularity for feeding of pOUltry.
Crumbles:
The pelleted feeds are broken down to crumbles. The crumbles are mainly fed to
~roilers. The use of crumbles is limited due to higher cost of production.
32
Stor~ge of. ~rocessed f~eds: )
The i>rocessed feeds can be stored foi? to 10 days with out affecting the
keeping quality. Beyond which the quality gets deteriorated due to the ab ;orption of moisture
and development of fungi. When fat or ojl is added in the diet, antioxidauts such as vitamin E,
BHT, BHA or santhoquinol is .added at the rate of 0.5 to 1% of the diet depending~n the
moisture content of feed to improve the keeping quality
\ . . . ..
****
',-I
UNCONVENTIONAL FEED RESOURCI~S FOR POULTRY
~
Dr. R. Ravi. Ph.D.,
Professor and Head,
Department of Animal Nutrition
"
Veterin~ College and Research Institute; Namakkal.
Introduction
Feed is the major cost item in any system of poultry production and the feed
bud~et
accounts for nearly 60 -70% of its total cost in ititensive system of production. The need to
explore
alt~rnative
feed ingredients has recently gained much attention because of rising costs
.
of conventional feedstuffs. More over, the ever growing poultry
industry increases the
.
requirement of feed ingredients for poultry feed prodllction. Large quantities Qf agroindustrial by-products are produced annually and generaliy go waste because of lack of
knowledge concerning the nutritive value. The feeding value of some of the newer feed
resources available locally in large quantities are discussed in this paper.
In poultry feed, maize forms an important constitute because of its high energy anc
xanthophyll content. The' present availability of maize and cereals for poultry feeding is 2.:
million tonnes which is 25 per cent deficit. To support the present annual growth rate of 10 12 % layers and 20 - 22 % broilers, the requirements for maize has to be improved by {
times by 2015. However it should be noted that between 1992 - 96
1.
_
.. 2.
The production growth rate of maize is static.
The area u.nd~r maize cultivation has not improved (5.9 Vs 6.02 million hectares).
3.
The productivity in kg per hectare has not improved.
4.
Major portion of maize is diverted to starch producing industry.
The above situation likely to cause escalation in the price of maize. The alternate fa]
maize, commonly used in this area is sorghum, and lor ragi. The availability of these
millet~
are seasonal and they are traded at 10 and 25 per cent respectively. less than maize price.
In addition to the above constraints, the poultry farmer& in this region are at
i
disadvantages position as they have to spent Rs.0.30 to Rs.l.O I Kg. for transport as majo:
percent of maize is purchased from far off places. Owing to these factors, efforts have beet
directed to exploit the use of locally available ingredients for poultry. Some of the work:
carried out in the Department of Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College and Research Institute
Namakkal, are discussed.
Little millet, rice waste, wheat waste have been attempted
t(
replace maize and tapioca leaf meal and tapioca rind to replace deoiled rice bran an(
sunflower cake combinations.
Little millet
Little millet (P6Inicu11f miliare) which is av~ilable to an extent ctf 0.1 million tonnes
annually in Tamilnadu :especially in close proximity to poultry prodaction (Season and crop
report Government of Tamilnadu) posses nutritive value similar to thai of maize, except for
/
higher crude fibre, ADF, cellulose and lignin owing to the presence of
ili."z thick hull,
the
whole grains has low ME than ground grains (2.07 Vs 2.88 Kcal /g). The IOw"ME_! GE ratio
of little millets than maize (0.6 4 Vs 0.29) suggests that it is rich in NSP. The gr~ns had
'
.
I
tannin content of 0.15% which is well below the tolerance level for poultry.
.
~
Biological trial
I
with broilers revealed little millets could be used upto 30% replacing 75% maize in an isocaloric and
isonitrogenous diet.
.
Incorporation
of autoclaved little millets improved feed• ir
_
conversion with. diet containing 40% little millets whereas autoclaving did not improve
of the diet or digestibility of nutrient except for phosphorus.
energy content
Addition of
multi enzymes or yeast improved performance, and balance of P. In egg type pullets, little
,
millet could be included \~P., ~o 30%; addition of enzymes or yeast permitted the inclusion at
40% level without any ad~~se effect on laying performance, carcass yield and egg quality
except for reduction in intensity of yolk colour (purushothaman, 1994).
Wheat waste
"
Wheat waste is estimated to be available to a tune of 8.5 million toones annually (Rao,
1992). Wheat waste available in this region was contamin~ted with 4.6% millets, 9.4%
mustard, 9.5% Amaranthus etc. The CP, CF and TA were higher and available carbohydrate
and TME were lower than maize. Replacement of wheat waste with maize in isocaloric and
isonitrogenous cockerel diet at 30% was beneficial 'whereas at 40%, feed efficiency was
adversely affected. Wheat waste when stored upto 6 month~, contained very low level of uri~
acid / 0.30 mg %) (Senthil Murugan 1995).
Rice waste
Rice waste is estimated to be available more than 5 million tonnes annually and the
nutritive value is reported to be comparable to maize. Total replacement of rice waste for
.
I
maIze in isocaloric arid isonitrogenous diet in chick, grower and iayer diet have been
attempted and the results were found to be comparable to maize - based diet.
Tapioca leaf meal
Tamil Nadu is the second largest producer of tapioca in the country and in this state
Namakkal and its surroundings produces 80% of the tapioca. Nearly 33,000 hectares of land
in Salem District is used for tapioca cultivation. The two major by product of this tapioca viz
t
.
"
aploca leaf meal and tapioca rind' is presently burnt in the field.
Tapioca leaf meal is
available to the extend of 4.6 tonnes per hectare (Ravindran and -Rajaguru, 1988) and this lea:
.
.
'
meal possess 20% CP ; is high in CF (20.8%), cellulose (20.8%) ; Ligllin '(5.7%), The ME il
1.914 kcaVg with moderate level ofHCN (1881 mg/kg.) and talmL-i (; .. 7g/kg).' Tapioca lea:
meal was evaluated in mash and pelleted form in egger type chick and grower ration replacin~
DORB and SF combination (.66:34). The result suggests that tapioca leaf meal at 10% level it
mash or 20% in pellet form can be used in chick and grower ration without any adverse effec
on production performance.
Cassava peel meal
•
Cassava peel meal (CPM) which constitute 20% of the tuber is available to the extenc
.
of 0.3 million tonnes annually. It is very low in CP (2.9%) high in CF (12.8%) cellulose
.
(16.9%) and lignin (4.6%). The ME of cassava' peel meal is 2.595 KcallKg.
Cassava pee
meal when used on an isocaloric and isonitrogenous replacem'ent basis, it could be used up tc
10% level in cockerel ration or up to 5% level in broiler ration.
Gliricidia leaf meal
Oliricidia leaf meal (GLM) contained (%) 18.60 crude protein, 3.11 ether extrac~~
12.09 crude fibre; 56.72 NFE, 9.48 total ash, 1.62 calcium, 0.18 phosphorus, 4128 kcal. grOSSi
energy, 1960 Kcal.TME, 35.80 ppm HCN and 16.30 ppm tannins respectively. Two!
biological trials were conducted using cockerels (0-10 weeks) and broilers (0-8 weeks). Ini
cockerel trial, addition of GLM at 10, 15 & 20 % levels resulted in significantly lowered!
weight gain and feed consumption. However, 5% level did not affect weight gain/feed intake~
significantly. Feed efficiency did not differ significantly among various treatment groups.
.
In1
.~
broiler trail, upto "5% GLM inclusion in the ration did not affect feed intake! weight gaiIi-:- poor
feed efficiency was recorded in 10% GLM group. Blo<ld parameters & Slaughter data showed
!
no significant variation
Exploiting the use of agro-industrial waste which are locally available in plenty
.
an4
l
::::::: ::~::::::::p::::::~:i:~o:~-:t::::e· of feed enzymes shall play l;.~
1
Reference :
1. Purushothaman,M.R. and S.Thirumalai 1995. Replacing maize with millets in grower and
l
layer diets. Indian lPoult. Sci. 30(3) 251-254.
2. Purushothaman,M.R. andS.Thirumalai 1995. Feeding value of millet in chick diet. IndialD
Vet. 1.72 (7) 705-708.
3. Purushothaman,M.R.
.
and R.NatanamI995. Feeding value of little millet for egg typl
chicken. Indian J. Poult. Sci.30 (3) 199-204.
36
4. purushothaman,M.R. and R.Natanam1996. Chemical composition lmd nutritive value of '
little millet (Paniclim miliare) . Indian Vet. J. 73 (4) 410-413.
R.NatanamI997: Feeding value of little millet (Panicum
5. purushothaman ,M.Rand
.
sumatrense) for broilers. Indian J. Anim. Sci.67 (1 )80-81.
,J
!
6. purushothaman;M.R. and S.Thirumalai 1997. Replacement of maize wit!_l rice waste in
\
layers. Indian 1. Anim. Sci 67 (9) 829-830.
"',
,
7. purushothaman,M.R. and R.Natanam 1998. Effect ofautodaving and sup~lementati?n of
enzyme or yeast culture on feeding value of little millet for broilers Indian J:,_ Anim. Sci.
j
16 (1) 19-23.
8. Sankaravinayagam, V.B., R.Ra\l~and\ M.R.Purushothaman, 1999. Tapioca leaf meal for
egg- type grower ration. Indian J. Poult Sci,. 34 (1) 42-45.
9. Sankaravinayagam, V.B., R.Ravi and M.R.Purushothaman, 1999. Tapioca leaf meal for
egg- type chicks. Indian 1. Anim Sci. 69 (8) 641-642.
10 Elancheziall, R. Ravi and M.R.Purushothaman 1999 Utilization of cassava peel-meal
,
as a feed for male layer,chicks. IncJian J Anim. Sci. 69 (9) 742-743.
II. Elanchezian, N, R.Ravi and M.R.Purushothaman 1999 Utilization of cassava peel- .
meal as a feed ingredient in broiler ration. Indian 1. Poult. Sci. 34 (2) 255-258.
12 Ravindran, V. and AS.B. Rajaguru 1988. Effect of stem pruning on cassava root yield
and leaf growth Sri Lankan Joum,al ofAgri. Sci. 25 (2) : 32.
13 Meenaloc~ani, V. 1999. Utilization of Gliricidia leaf meal as a feed for poultry,
M.V.Sc thesis submitted to Tamilnadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University,
Chennai:~--
*****
37
MARINE PROTEIN RESOURCES AND THEIR FEEDING VALUE FOE
POULTRY
"',
.
/
Dr.B.Mohan. Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Animal Nutrition,.
Veterinary College and Research Instltute,
. Namakkal-637 001.
I
~
Among the various livestock enterprises the growth in broiler and layer chicken
industry in India over the last two decades is noteworthy. Parallel to this growth the demand
for feed ingredients chiefly cereals, oilcakes and animal protein feedstuff like fishmeal and
meat meal are also on the rise. Simultaneously scien~i.$ts are also on the lookout for alternate
feed ingredients to narrow this gap.
On the other hand over the last 10 years the m;age of com-soya diet for broilers instead
of rations with fishmeal has gained much importaI\ce in India and is being practiced. In .layer
ration also the .usage of fishmeal has also fallen to a level of 3-5% from 6-8%. Farmers and
feed manufactures attribute the escalating cost of fishmeal and microbial contamination in
fishmeal as chief factor that hinders its usage in chicken feed.
In spite of all these factors many a times the perfomiance of broilers and layers fed
with good quality sterilised fish meal seem to be cost effective and better than the synthetic all
vegetable protein diet due to the better amino acid availability, mineral balance, vitamins and
other animal protein factors present in fish meal.
-
. -- - "Keeping -in view of the benefits of fishmeal and
otb~r
marine protein
resour~es
available to a level of 2.38 million tonnes over the vast coastline of 7,517 km in India,
evaluation of the marine protein resources for poultry is undertaken in this department.
Fish meal is legally defmed as " the product obtained by processing whole or part of
fish from which part of the oil may have been removed and to which fish solubles may have
. been re-added. Fish solubles are the stablished products composed of press juice obtained
during manufacture of fishmeal from which much of the fish oil and some of the water have
been removed."
In India most of the human inedible fishes and part of the edible fishes are sun dried
over sea sand or nets and then fmely ground to a size of 5-7mm and used as fish meal in
pOUltry feeds. The price of the fish meal is fixed based on its protein content .The normal cost
of 4nsterilised fish meal works out from Rs.2 - 2.25/unit (One protein unit
protein) and for sterilised fish meal it ranges from Rs 2.25 to 2.50/unit .
= 10
% Crude
St~tewise
Marine
protein
resources
Fin fish
Mantis
shrimp
Prawn
head waste
Cuttle fish
Squid
Clam meat
Crabs
Sergestid
shrimll
Mussel
meat
Total
Gujarat
34,000
13,964
availability of marine protein sources for
feeding(tonnes/annum).
Mahar
astra
Goa
33,732
10,400
8,455
3,812
Kama ,Kerala
taka
Orissa
23,545
14,760
32,447
3,762
'6,382
3,256
J~oultry
l---
Am}hr:i
Pl"ade~11
3,090
2,440
and prawn
Tamil
Nadu
Total
34,942
1,76,593
57,942
'1~~48
"
8,200
6,300
1,261
500
4,023
800
6,271
545
50S
16
2,557
28,000
-
-
311
341
275
3,022
3,229
3,159
42
38
1
16
1,322
-,
-
87,790
-
158
1,196
20,000
78
48
3,880 . . . , .,31,235.
-
1,769
-
3-;936
6,977
3,687
6,046
48,000
775
-
-I
1;459
-
-
-
-
-
770
5
-
-
71,786
13,654
39,732
23,911
37095
13,625
47,598
476
..
3,35,191
Source: Ahamad All.S, C.P.Rangasamy, D,Naryanasamy and C.Gopal,. Manne protem resources availability lU IndIa as raw
materials for prawn feeds. ClBA BULLETIN.No.9,March 1995,Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture
(I.C.A.R), 141 ,Marshall's Road, Egmore, Chennai 600 008.
Processing of fish meal
l.Unsterilised fish meal
Whole fish namely Oil mathi, Kilathi (leather jacket), defleshed fishes, crustaceans
like Squilla, PrawI1 head meal are usually dried over sea sands, rocks or over fish nets. Drying
over sea sand causes contamination of fish with sand and silica. Fresh fishes are usually dried
for 3 to 5 days so as to reduce their moisture content to 8 to 10 %. Varieties of fishes based on
their proximate composition are mixed in a different ratios to arrive at 40 to 45 % crude
protein and later they are finely ground to a mesh size of 5 to 7mm using high-speed
pulverizes. The ground fish meals are usually packed in gunny bags and stacked over planks
in a well-ventilated area. Fish meals with oil contents ranging from 6 to 8 % or high moisture
content (above 15 %) should not be stored for longer time since such fish meals are prone for
auto-oxidation and combustion.
t. Sterilized fish meal
Fresh fishes are compressed to remove the oil content and the residual flesh and other
components of the fish are dried in' cylindrical drums by blowing hot air over the material.
The fishes are heated to a temperature of 90 to 110°C for a maximum period of 5 to 10
minutes. During this process the moisture content is reduced to less than 8 to 10%. The dried
material is directly ground using pulverisers to a size of 4-5mm and than packed in 50 kg bags
39
-,
; sterilised fish meal. The bacterial contamination in sterilised fishraeal is comparatively
,
Iwer than unsterilised fishmeal. Sterilised fishmeal are used for bn:edet flocks, broilers,
/
lick and growers to a level of 5{7% in their rations.
!uality of marine protein su~plements
The protein contents of various marine protein supplements range from about 30% to
O%,and'commercial fish meals contain 40-45% crude protein. The oil and protein present
in
sh meal also contribute metabolisable energy to a level of 2300-2500 Kcal. A good quality
sh when processed as 'fish meal contains about 4-5% calcium and 2-2.5% phosphorus in
:idition to other vital trace minerals like Iron, Copper, Zinc,:Iodine etc. Fish meal is also a
Dod source of Vitamin B 12. Care should be taken to analyze and check the sand & silica
naximum S%) and salt (maximum 3%) contamination in fish meals.
Table 2
Proximate composition and insoluble ash calcium and phosphorus
.
content of marine supplements (0/0 DM)
~utrients
Squilla meal
Fish Meal
Shrimp Meal
Squid
Meal
ry matter
94.24
-
89.00
82.38
93.26
rude protein
itrogen free
38.37
18.67
33.97
11.94
40.68
13.00
61.77
0.75
69.19
4.84
5.40
32.72
8.12
8.07
1.74
Mohan
(1999)
13.92
1.86
38.31
2.73
6.64
36.95
10.91
10.92
4.75
Verma &
Banja et al
(1996)
10.83
7.66
18.99
-
~tract
rude fiber
:her extract
::>tal ash
cid isoluble ash
alcium
losphorus
eferences
7.28
1.72
Ravinder
Reddy
el al.(997)
40
6.32
1.78
Rosenfeld
11.58
20.19
2.45
3.43
Rulan
et al.(1997) et al.
(1979)
Table3.
Amino acid composition of squiJIa meal, fish meal and soya bean meal (g/16gN)
S.No
.
Squilla
/
Amino acids
Protein
Meal
.
~'ish
Meal
2
3
4
'"
Tryrosine
8
9
10
II
12
1"ry~toj)_han
I3
14
Available Lysine
Aspartic acid
5
6
7
-
Phenylalanine
Histidine
Isoleucine
.
Leucine
Methionine
Methionine + Cystine
Valine
Arginine
Lysine
Threonine
References
"-
7.30
-
5.20
7.00
-
J
3.60
5.00
-
7.10
3.20
0.80
-
-
Mathew
etal
,
c
2.64
2.35
l.20
3.32
5.05
1.02
3.51
2.30
1.48
4.04
6.13
.' 1.86
3.55
2.37
3.45
2.79
0.65
2.38
6.31
4.31
5.57
6.74
4.38
0.82
4.79
7.21
5.69
Mohan
Ravinder Reddy et al.
Mohan
N.R.C
(1999)
(1997)
(1999)
(1994)
7.30
7.10
S.20
7.00
0.91
3.60
5.00
0.80
429
3.20
-
I
Soyabean
meal
1-.....
,~
I
meal
-
-
,
\
2.04
3.62
5.52
8.25
2.25
-
5.01
2.05'
4.90
4.34
2.66
4.45
7.70
l.41
2.91
4.70
7.12
6.11
3.90
1.68
-
7.21
(1982)
Usage of fish meal in chicken feeds.
Fish meal is one amonR the complete diet for chicken supplying a balanced level of
-
.
.
amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. But its high cost and demand in the availability during
the monsoon season (June to September) paves way for finding alternate protein sources.
Normally fish meal is included to a level of 5-7% in the diet of chicken. Care should be taken
to check sand and silica and salt contamination. High sand & silica contaminated fish meals
When inciu~ed in the ration may cause mortality in chicks and growers and salt toxicity results
in ascites in young chicks and wet dropping in layers. Fish meal is also supplemented by top
dressing over the n~rmal ration, during incidence of poor growth in growers or during drop in
egg Production in layers d~e to unknown etiology. Care should be taken during usage of
unsterilised fish meal which may pose bacterial contamination especially in growing chicks.
41
REFERENCES
1. Ahamad AIi.S, C.P.RangasamY, D,Naryanasamy and C.Gop21,. Maline protein
resources availability in In1ia as raw.materials for prawn feeds. CrnA
BULLETIN.No.9,March 1995,Central Institute of Brackishwater
Aquaculture (I.C.AR),141,Marshall's Road, Egmore, Chennai 600 008.
2. Hulan,H.W,F.G.Proud foot and C.G.Zarkadas, 1979.The nutritional value and
quality of squid (Illex illecebrosus) meal as source of dietary protein for broiler
chicken.Br.J.Nutr.,41: 163-173.
3. Mathew,P.T.,ALekshmy Nair and.P.V.Prabhu,1982;Squilla Protein: Chemical .
Composition and nutritive value. Fish. Technol., 19:97~ 100.
4. Mohan.B. Feeding value of Squilla meal as a replacement for fish meal·in chicken
ration,1999. Ph.D, thesis work submitted to Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal
Sciences University,Chennai-51.
5. N.R.C.1994.Nutrient Requireme~ts of Poultry. 9th revised Ed.,National Academy'
Press,Washington,D.C.p 155.
6. Ravinder Reddy,V.,V.Ravindra Reddy and S.Qudratullah,1997.Utilisation of Squill a
meal (a novel animal protein source) by broilers.Br.Poult.Sci.38:263-288.
7. Rosenfeld, DJ.,AG.Gernat,J.D.Marcano,J.G.Murillo,G,H.Lopez and J.AFlores~. .
1997. The effect of using different levels of shrimp meal in broiler diets.
Poult. Sci., 76:581-587.
8. Verma,S.V.S. and S.K.Bhanja,1996.Metabolisable energy offish and meat meal for
POUltry. Int.J.Anim. Sci., 11 :305-308.
*****
42
FATS AND OILS-l1HEIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT FOR POULTRY
Dr.M.R.Purushothaman,Ph.D
Associate Professpr' (NA,W»
\
~ Department of Animal Nutrition
Veterinary College and Research Institute, 'Namakkal
,I
The inclusion of fats and oils in poultry diets especially for high perfo~ance broiler's
,
diets are steadily increasing. To achieve }Jetter feed· efficiency, feed formulator 'att"'empt to
include fatloil to represent approximately 20-25% of the total energy. For iefficient feed
formulation the assessment of its nutritive "alue is very important. Some of the test that are to
be carried to study the nutritive value and their significantly are discussed below:
MO,st fats and oils have similar gross energy values but their available energy
concentrations vary widely. Much of the variation appears to be associated with chemical
composition and structure. In addition, composition of the basal diets, age of the birds and
inclusion levels also influence the available energy of fats and oils.
,
'
Following are the factor of chemical composition of fats and oils which affect nutritive
value:
1. Acid values
2.Iodine value
3. Peroxide value .
4. Saponification number 5. Non elutable material and 6. Unsaponificable matter
1. Acid value:
it is the measure of propc;>rtion of free fatty acid (FF A). From acid
value the FFA can be calculated by the formula:
FFA (g/ Kg) =
acid value I 1.9.
The
amount of FF A in various fats and oils varie~ from 0 to 900 giKg. The ab~orbabi1ity or
appar~nt~
fat availability is,
r~duced
or the AME
of the, fat· is lower when the FFA
concentration and this effect is more pronounced at early age than as the age of chicks
advances.
2. Iodine value: it is the measure of degree of saturation of fat or oils. As the iodine
value of the fat or ~il increases or, saturation increases the apparent availability of fat and
apparent metabolisable energy decrea,ses. The following are the correlation of AME and TME
with iodine value:
AME (K cal I g)
=
4.34 + 0,0571 X
TME (K call g)
=
5.50 + 0.0560 X where X= iodine value.
Synergist effect ofsaturated and unsaturated fatty acid:
In addition, to the higher absorption of unsaturated fatty acids, the synergism
phenomena between saturated and unsaturated fatty acid is important factor in determining
the nutritive value of fats. Dietary energy of a mixture of relatively saturated and unsaturated
i~ over and above that which would be predicted from the value fi)r the two individual fat, this
is due to the fact that unsaturated fatty acids promote absorption ufthe :,aturate4 fatty acids.
3~ Peroxide value: it is the measure of peroxides present in
tit, oils and fats.~Peroxide
value is sensitive indicators of the early stage of oxidative deteri,~ratio~. Though peroxide and
hydro peroxide are tasteless, their presences are indicator of flavour deterioration.
4. Saponification number : is a measure of chain length of fatty acids in fats and
oils. It is defined as the amount of (mg) of alkali required to saponify a known quantity (lg)
of sample. Progressive reduction in both absorption and subsqent AME value of fats with
increased chain length or increase in saponification number.
5. Non elutable materials: these includes moisture, impurities, unsaponifiable matter
and total oxidised and polymerised fatty acids. It is quantjfied with Gas liquid chromatograph.
Glycerol also is estimated in the non elutable material but this contributes energy. So glycerol
as to substract from ·the non elutable.materials to obtain the non nutritive elutable material. As
the level of non nutritive elutable materials in fats and oils increases the AME of the fat or oil
~ecfeases.
6~ Unsaponific~ble matter: this include sterols, squalene and tocopherols along with
contaminants like polyethylene and pesticides residues. It is normally less in vegetable oil and
is .considerably higher in fat. The nutritive value ofunsaponificable matter is considerably low
due to its poor digestibility.
Fatty acid profile:
this can be done with Gas liquid chromatograph or by High
performance liquid chromatograph. They provide information on the ratio of saturated and
~ _u!l~~,:!rate.d
fatty acig, the co~centration of essential fatty acids and conce~ation long,
medium and short fatty acids.
Composition of basal diet and nutritive value of oils or fats:
The nutritive value of fat and oils varies with the composition of·the .basal diets. For
eg: for com based diets greater TME value of tallow was recorded than for wheat based diets.
Age of the birds: in· young bird the ability to assimilate dietary fat is impaired by the
deficiency in bile production, During this period of growth "fat which emulsify readily are
digested to a greater than fat with a higher melting point like tallow. Normally the AME
ana
TME of fat or oils for older birds are higher than for the young birds
Level of inclusion: fats or ·oils are utilized more efficiently at lower levels of inclusion.
As the levels of fats in the diets increases the AME value of fat decreases .
•U
Carcass and abdomi!lal f~t characteristics as influenced by the fats or oils:
Fat deposition is primarily controlled by the calorie: protein ra':ion of '.he diets. Higher ratio
Increases the degree of fat deposition. In addition, the type cf fat ul.ed in the diet has an
influence of.the degree of saturation of the carcass fat ie. Use uf fat b1.ving higher degree of
./
saturated fatty acid like tallow increases the saturated carcass fat or the saturated fatty acids
and oleic acid levels decreases with increase in dietary poly unsaturated fatty acids.
Similar fatty acid composition of the diets has significant effect on
t~e
fatty acid
composition of the egg yolk especially linoleic and linolenic acid contents. Supplementation
of layer diet with coconut oil or animal fats which are rich in saturated fatty acid resulted in
higher levels of yolk cholesterol.
The quality assessment of fats or oils with the above tests and knowledge of the type _
of the fats or oils that are used shall be an effective tool to maximizes the profitability of the
poultry enterprises.
Chemical composition of fats and oils used in poultry feed
Type of fat or oil
Acid value
Iodine value
Saponification
ME (K cal /g)
(g /Kg)
(g/100g)
number (mg/g)
Upt03 weeks
Tallow
33.2
69
Tallow acid oil
114
45
0.5-1.3
55
Rice bran oil
75
85-115
Palm acid oil
716
48-56
Lard
190
I
Above 3 weeks
8.5
7.4
,
193
196
7.6
8.4
7.8
8.1
7.1
7.3
.-
.'
Soyabean acid oil
428
128
*******.
180
.
':!!"I
.REASSESSl\1ENT OF THE NUTRIENT REQUIREr~ENT OF POULTRV
Dr.M.R.Purushothaman, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor
.
Department of Animal Nutrition,
Veterinary crllege and Research Institute, Nama.kla.l-l.
Maximising the profit margin has been the main objective in any enterprises including
poultry. Feed is the major expenses in poultry enterprises and any attempt to reduce the feed
bir~
cost is likely to improve the profit margin, this could be best achieved by providing the
with optimum nutrient. Through different standard have prescribed the different nutrients
requirement for different classes of poultry, The applicability of any standard is variable with
.
.
the strain of the bird, climatic condition and other environmental condition. In an attempt to:
an~
study the nutrient requirement under the local climatic condition, crude protein
.
.
.
pho$phorous requirment of poultry were undertaken in the Department of Animal Nutrition,:
j
. Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal.
.~
;
The study of crude protein need for poultry is usually expressed as calorie : protein~
.
~
ratio and is assumed that the amino acid profile is balance according to the requirement. Tb~
protein nutrition· of pullet is vital for. optimum attainment of body weight at maturity an~
optimum production performance. Leeson and Summers (1989) suggest that leghorn pullet~
showed optimum growth when the· total CP intake up to 140 days of age is lkg. It should1
~
. noticed that under the local condition feed intake during the chick stage «()'8 weeks) is1.5
arid grower stage (9-20 weeks) 5.S kgs and BIS -1992 specification is 20 and 16%
respectively. Which means the protein intake is 1.18 kgs (0 ..18. kgs. excess). In ordet: to
Cl
asses~
the CP requirement of the pullet during the growth phase under the local agro climat~G
condition a trial was initiated with a isocaloric diet containing protein, lysine and methioni~e
as fer BIS 1992 speCification (as c~ntrol) and with diet containing 1 or 2% less than contrOl
with or without lysine and methionine supplementation.
The results revealed that .
1. Chick between 0 to 8 weeks of age could be maintained with 18% CP, 0.8% LysiPj
0.34% methionine at a calorie: protein 143 : 1
2. Grower could be maintained with 15% CP, 0.62% lysine, 0.31 % methionine and: P of 164: 1'.
3. The level of total Nitrogen, uric acid Nitrogen excretion were lowered and N-balance V!
better as the level of CP in the diet was reduced from the BIS specificatiori (BandesWar
1998).
The higher level of proteins not only increases the cost of the rations but
1
increases Ammonical Nitrogen emission in poultry sheds and environment especially un~
46
-
the Namakkal conditions where the summer temperature is 40°C."lncrea:>ing the level of CP is
harmful and it leads to heat stress as protein is the most inefficie ntly util ized nutrient, Hence,
to make up the amino acid, lysine and methi~nine, attempts shOllld noiITJe directed to increase
the protein but rather to supplement the first limiting amino acid.
In recent year it has been observed that the coSt of phosphorus source viz~CP has
increased by two folds and the pattern of changing recommendations of NRC for Pliosp,horus
for laying hens over the 40 years (Roland 1986) suggested decreasing levels of dietary
.ohosphorus. The optimum dietary phosphorus requirement should ensure"better sHells,
"
decrease feed cost arid reduce the levels of phosphorus in effluents.
Study on varying levels of available phosphorus (0.2, 0.3,0.4 arid O.S%y at calcium
level 0(3.5% for layers has "suggested that ~ "
1.
0.2% available phosphorus was not sufficient for layer, as it increased feed consumption,
reduced tirbial ash siginificantly which may not be able to support layer for proloonged
period.
2.
0.5 % available phosphorus was very high to the birds because it reduced the shell
thickness and egg specific gravity. /
3.
0.3% available phosphorus was better than 0.4% available phosphorus.
4.
Available phosphorus arid calcium should be 1:11.
The second method of reducing the cost is by the use of unconventional source of
phosphorus. The commonly available phosphorus source viz. Super phosphate was used to
replace 50% of DCP in cockerel and broiler ration. Super phosphate Was found to contain
8.2% p and Fl-1.8%. Fifty per cent replacement of super phosphate with DCP was found to
produce optimum production performance with no change in serum calcium arid phosphorus,
tibia calcium and phosphorus.
The third method is to increase the availability of organic phosphorus by the use of
enzymes phytase. This method not only reduces the inclusion of inorganic phosphorus arid
Cost but also reduces the environmental pollution of phosphorus.
The enzymes phytase
catalYses phytic acid to orthophosphate, inosital, and other phosphoric inosital intermediates.
PhYtase is commercially prepared from culture of Aspergillus ficuum and A. niger. Phytate,
apart from reducing phosphorus availability is also known to form complex with protein and
~nseqUentlY
reduces their availability. they also reduce the activity of pepsin, trypsin and
pha amYlase.
47
Reference:
1. Leeson, S. and lD.· Summers 1989. Response of leghorn pull ~ts t ) protein and e9-ergy in
the diet when used in regular a hot-cyclic environments. POllttry ~;cience 68·: 546
2.
BIS 1?92 . Requirement for,~chicken feeds IS: 1374 - 1992. Manak Bhavan, 19, Bhadur
Zafar Marg, New Delhi - 110 002.
3. Bandeswaran, 1998. Lysine and· methionine suplementation in isocaloric and low protein
diets on the performance of white leghorn acid, M.V.Sc thesis submitted to Tamilnadu
Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai.
4. Roland, D.A. SR 19886. Egg shell quality iii Calcium and Phosphorus requirement of
commercial leghorns. World is Poultry Science 1. 42: 154.
5.
Sengathir, S. 1997. Effect of various levels of available phosphorus in relation ith calcium'(
egg production and egg shell quality in commercial WL layer :. M.V.Sc thesis submitted to Tamiq
Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai.
6. Karunakaran, P. 1996 Formulation of cheap mineral mixture for chicks and broilers and
fin~
its efficiency, M.V.Sc thesis submitted to Tamilnadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences Universitj,
\.
Chennai.
****.*
_'
ANTIBIOTIC FEED ADDITIVES AND THEIR RE:,IqUES IN
POULTRY PRODUCTION
Dr.N. Punniamurthy, Ph.D.,
Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology
Veterinary College & Research Institute
~,....
,
N'amakkal-637 001
Antibiotics are extracellular secondary metabolites, elaborated by fullgi and some
bacteria; for their own protection. Apart from the natural antibiotics, synthetic compounds
such as sulphonamides, trimethoprim, furazolidones and fluroquinolones are also referred to
as antibiotics .
The use of antibiotics in prophylaxis and as feed additive growth promoters may result
in antibiotic drug residue in meat, milk or eggs. Hence there is a growing concern over the
unintentional antibiotic residues. All foods of animal I poultry origin are viewed by many with
apprehension that they may have some deleterious substance(s).
Growth and development:
Growth means increase in cell number, size and I or deposition of substances within
cells. The emphasis in animal I poultry production has shifted from promoting maximum
growth to altering the efficiency and composition of growth and enhancement of lean tissue
gr?wth i.e. protein accretion. The synthesis of muscle protein produces a higher rate of gain"
since muscle has a higher moisture content (upto 75%); 1.0. g of protein holds 3.0. g ofwa,t,er.
Fat is deposited in animals body, free of water. In fact it replaces tissue water. The deposition
..... of 1.4 g offat replaces 0.4 g of water and the actual gain is only I.e g. Hence, partitioning of
~
.~
nutrients between muscle and fat is of specific interest in livestock and poultry production.
Role of antibiotics in animal agriculture:
First introduced in the 1950s in animal! poultry production, the antibiotics have been
Primarily intended for three purposes (1) growth promotion, to improve feed efficiency
(20-50 g per tonne of feed)
(2) prevention of common infectious diseases in the respective
species (50-200 g per tonne of feed) (3) treatment of specific diseases(antibio~ic chemotherapy)
the dose V~ing with the animal , disease status, the drug preparation and
the route of
adm' .
be tnlstration proposed (Walton, 1988). Penicillins and tetracyclines were the first antibiotics to
uSed. Now a 'wide range of substances such as aminoglycosides, cephalosporins,
'-tlpho na .d
.
.
.'
(Ii
nu es, tnmethoprim, furazolidones, fluoroquinolones and the ionophores are used
ayS, 199 1).
49
, , Antibiotics as growth promoters:
Growth promoters have antibacterial and I or parasitic activity. 'The mechanism by
which antibiotics bring about improved performance in growth and lor feed efficiency is not
very clear but they may involve more than one mechanism(s)
(1)T11inning of the mucous
membrane of the gut, facilitating better absorption (2)Altering the gut motility to enhance better
assimilation.(3)Producing favoJrable conditions to beneficial microbes in the gut of the animal,
most likely by destroying harmful bacteria and (4) Repartitioning proteins to muscle accretion
probably by suppressing monokines ( a transient immune suppresslon?). Klasing and Johnstone
(1991) in the context of monokines in growth of chicken particularly indicated the negative role
played by monokines which repartition the nutrients towards maximizing immuno-competence
of the animallbird thereby impairing growth of the ingividuaL It is suggested that antibiotics
favour growth by decreasing the microbe-host interactions and decreasing the degree of activity
of the immune system.
For monogastric animals, there is strong evidence that growth promoters act locally
in the gastro intestinal tract. The flora stabilizing effect and reduction of potentially hazardous
micro-organisms lead to reduced waste of nutrients, reduced toxin formation, especially of
ammonia and amines and therefore to a higher level of metabollc well-being. It is expected that
the improved absorPtion leads to improved liver function, both resulting in an increase in liver
'protein synthesis and nutrient retention~ It is suggested that the higher metabolic well-being may
favourably alter the endocrine regulation systems, in terms of the growth response. (Klasing and
Johnstone, 1991; Gropp and Birzer, 1992).
The three general modes of action for antibiotics may be summed up to (a) Metabolic effect
(on rate or pattern of metabolism) (b) Nutrient sparing effect and (c) Disease control effect.
However, none of the above mechanisms has been elucidated fully; nevertheless, it is evident
that only young growing birds I animals are responsive to antibiotic mediated growth promotion;
that too under poor sanitary .conditions and not in birds / animals reared in cleaner environment
In fact prolonged use of antibiotics actually decreased growth response in chicken (Klasing and
Johnstone, 1991).
Antibiotic residues in foods of animal origin:
Concern over antibiotic residues in edible foods of animal origin is two fold (1)
Potential threat to direct toxicity in humans (2) Whether the low levels of antibiotic exposure
would result in alteration of micro-flora, cause disease and the possible development of resistant
strains compromising antibiotic therapy in humans (piddock, 1993)
50
An important concern of veterinary toxicology is the possible
tr~nsmission
of harmful
substances from milk, meat' and eggs to'. humans. The probable direct toxicity of the drugs
.
include,
,
penicillins
(allergy),cholramphenicoi
(bone
marr,)w
toxicity),
gentamicin
(nephrotoxicity) ; while tsulphameth¥ine, oxytetracyclines and fi lrazoli~ ones, e suspected to
be carcinogens . and oxytetracycline has been reported to react with nitrite to yield'(carcinogenic)
,
nitros~inine. Apart from the parent compounds, their metabolites ~ay be more toxic, ill certain
cases. However, there is very
.
little~ direct
eyidence implicating direct toxicity due to antibiotic
,
drug residues in foods of animal origin (Walton, 1988; Woodward, 1991).
The indirect effects being the possibility of transfer of antibiotic- resistant bacteria
to . .
humans via foods of animal origin, from animals treated with antibiotics or infected by resistant
bacteria and the probable transfer of the resistance factor (R) from non-pathogenic bacteria to
other bacteria which will lead to widespread resistance. The instances are serious as the
antibiotic.s used in animal production are also used in human treatment, despite a general but
vague understanding. that there should be a distinction between drugs used in veterinary and
human healthcare systems (Piddock, 1993; Threlfall et al.,1994).
Antibiotic resistant bacteria:
There are"three 'possible routes by which the indiscriminate use of antibiotics could
pose a risk to human health': (1) Antibiotic resistant bacteria pathogenic to human are selected;
contaminated food stuffs leading to an infection that requires antibiotics and therapy ill humans
is untreatable. (2) Antibiotic resistant bacteria non pathogenic to human are selected in the
animal, again due to the possible contamination, the hacteria ingested transfer resistance to other
bacteria "in the human gut (3) Antibiotic residues in animal products allows the selection of .
antibiotic resistant bacteria in the consumer offoods (Threlfall et aI .. , 1994).
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics can be encoded on the chromosome or on a
transmissible extra-chromosomal DNA element such as plasmid. Resistance in bacterial
population can spread from person to person by bacteria through plasmids and from plasmid to
plasmid ( or chromosomes) by transposons. While chromosomal resistance is transferred only' to
daughter progeny, the plasmid mediated resistance can be transferred to other species of bacteria
by process~s as simple as bacterial conjugation, transduction and transformation. The transfer of
resistant genes between bacteria of the same species and of different species
is of fundame~t~l
Importance to. the spread .of resistance to antibiotics. The resistance to ciprofioxacin is
chromosomally integrated, whereas the resistance to gentamicinlapramycin and trimethoprim are '
plasmid mediated.
'
(
~
51
}
.
In addition to the above it has now been demonstrated that DNA encoding antibioti(
.
resistant genes can contaminate naturally occurring semisynt J~C antibiotic preparation
providing another route for selection and transfer of antibiotic Nsist 1) Ice, Spread of resistanl
~rganisms
may occur among the animals and between anima] E an~ man. They have alS(
suggested the possibility of a different route of entry or different culture medium for the ingestec;
bacteria, for example, b~ w~y of nasal passage to sputum to the GI tract. Fluroquinolone-resistari
.
.
Salmonella and Camphylobacter have been isolated from animals, feedstuffs and man ( Piddock
1993).
Multiple drug resistance:
The increase in the incidence of both resistant and multiple resiStant S.typhimurium
OT 104 ofR type ACSUT (resistant to ampicil1~n, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, streptomycin,
sulpha and tetracycline) and its prevalence in all' food animals is reported to be a serious
proposition. Salmonella enteridites PT4 is associated ~ith poultry and pOUltry prod\lcts (Threlfall
et al., 1994).
A~tibiotics
.
into the environment:
All antibiotics are xenqbiotic compounds which in their unchanged form or
metabolized state, are excreted from the animal I bird into the environment. Most antibiotics used
:
as growth .promoters are poorly absorbed from. the gut of the bird; it is quite natural that a .~
substantial portion of these antibiotics are excreted into the environment in an activ~ form.
Moreover the practice of spreading manure in agriculture and other disposal methods ,
are likely to introduce antibiotics into the environment. If the antibiotics persist longer in the soil
es.pecially at lower temperatures,
gr~.at.~r tile pot~!ltjal. to
affect the bacterial.population of the soil
which may lead to selection of resistant microbial population. Limited information is available
regarding the prevalence and persistence of manure-borne antibiotics in soil. It is reported that .
the antibiotics introduced in the soil, persist for varying lengths of time ranging from less than a
day to several weeks or longer (Addison, 1984).
.Regulation of the levels of the antibiotic-residues:
The safety evaluation of various types of antibiotics is dependent on the concept of
MRL (maximum residue level) for the protection of the consumers.
. Following the cessation of administration of an antibiotic to an arumal or flock, a
specific period of time must elapse to enable the antibiotic to be cleared from the animals' tissues
or products before the same are passed for hUrruln consumption. This period is defined as the
withdrawal period which 'is in fact based on the value ofMRL (Woodward, 1991)..
52
. The MRL values for the antibiotics employed in veterimuy field are fixed based on the
following parameters: (l) The no-observed effect level (NOEL) is generally taken as the dose, in
both the to~icological and microbiological studies, at which and be low wtich adverse effects do
not occur, with reference to the most sensitive effects in the most sensitive species. (2) The
/
acceptable daily intake (ADI) is derived from NOEL' by dividing this bY'a suitable. safety factor.
""
,
.
This safety
factor (SF) is usually 100 (10 for animal-human variation x 10 for ,human
- human
.
.
variation).The safety factor, might irivolve pharmaco-kinetic factors reducing the errors· of
extrapolation.
The toxicity studies can give only an idea and can never be used to declare a particular
chemical lantibiotic to be absolutely safe. And it is also important to recognise that the ADI is
intended to cover the potential risks arising from life time exposure as a result of daily intake of
the substance. This implies that NOEL is always derived for long term studies- but it is not the
case. The safety factor is an arbitrary value (Woodward, 1991).
Adherence to withdrawal periods:
Contamination of the foods of animal origin is rarely intentional and generally result
from
failur~
ichicken,
to observe the withdrawal time and discard time, in food producing .animals
specified for various antibiotics. In Vandresser and Witcke's study (1989),
streptomycin, penicillin, sulphamethazine and oxytetracycline were the four most common
antibiotics found in contaminated tissues, with sulphamethazine being the most commonly found
sulpha in animal tissues. Long acting formulations of penicillins and tetracyclines were reported
.
.
~o be more likely associated with residue problems; injectables were more likely to be associated
with residue problems than' feed additives and boluses. The most frequently cited reaSons for
violative residues has been stated to be the failure to observe correct withdrawal time for the
drugs.
The withdrawal periods are periodically (frequently) revised lamended. However, it is
important to realize that the end point for determining withdrawal times is a legal and not a
biological concept and therefore controlled by regulatory and not medical practices. Some drugs
IUay have zero tolerance (no residue is permitted, because the drug is carcinogenic), negligible as
temporary t.olerances (valid until ~rther revision).While prescribing veterinary products with no
specific recommendations on ~ithdrawal periods , the following withdrawal
periods are
considered to be saf~ : milk-7 days, eggs-7 days, meat (including muscle, fat and liver) from
pOUltry and mammals-28 days .The issue of withdrawal periods is the least understood and
apparently difficult to implement with many small holdings of poultry, scattered around (Riviere
and Spoo; 1995).
53
Detection of antibiotic residues in foods' of animal origin:
Tests employed for detection must not only overcome the challenges of isolation from
complex:food matrix but also to meet the requirements to equal or e'reed the tolerance levels
. set by regulatory agencies (Moats and Medina, 1996). Accoruing to FDA guidelines for ::
approval of analYti£al ~ethods for residue analysis
methods must be able to determine ~
:
-~~
residues at the safe or tolerance levels· as well as at one-half or twice the tolerance level .
(Woodward, 1991), 'Chromatographic and electrophoretic separations are more effectively ~
used for quantitation. While, thin layer chromatography is an inexpensive niethod, liquid
'!
.~
chromatography (LC) appears to be the generally preferred technique-which frequently ~
requires iittle sample preparation.
Reference
Addison,lB. 1984. Antibiotics in sediments and run~offwaters from feed lots. In: Residue
rcveiws, 92: 1-28.
Gropp. J.M and D.R.T.Birzer,1992. In: Farm animals and the Environment, Ed. Cilve
Phillips and 'David Piggins, CAB international, Wallingford, UK.
Hays V.W., 1991.Effects of antibiotics. In:Growth and regulation in Farm animals.
Advances in meat Research Vol.7 Eds. A.M. Pearson and T.R, Dutson Elsevier Applied
Science, New york
Klasing, K.C. arid BJ Johnstone, 1991. Monokines in growth and development. Poultry
Science 70: 1781-1789
' .
Moats.W.A. and M.B.Medina 1996.Veterinary drug residues :Food safety.ACS symposium
series, ACS, washington, DC.
Piddock, LJ.v.. 1993, Does the use ofantiinicrobial ....... compromise antimicrobial.
chemotherapy. J.Antimicrob Chemother 38: 1-3.
Prescbtt,J.F. and J.D.Baggot 1993. Antimicrobial therapy in Veterinary Medicine. Iowa
State University Press! Ames.
Riviere, J.E and J.W Spoo,1995 .Chemical residues in tissues of food animals. In:
Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Ed. H.Richard Adams. Iowa State
University Press / Ames.
ThrelfaII, EJ., J.A. Frost, L.R.Ward and B.Rowe, 1994. Veterinary Record, 134, 577.
Van Dresser, W.R. and lR.Wilcke,1989. Drug residues in food animals. JAVMA. 202(10):
1700-1710.
Walton,J.R .. 1988 Antibiotic resistance: an overview. Vet. Rec. 122,249-251
Woodward, K.N. 1991. Use and regulatory control of veterinary drugs in food production.
In; Food.contamin.ants: Sources and surveillance pp 99-108 Ed.C.S. Creaser and
R.Purchase ,Royal Society of Chemistry,London.
54
ENZYME
SUPPLEMENTATION -TO
.
. . IMPROVE NUTRIENT
UTILIZATION IN POULTRY
Dr.D.Chandrasekaran,Ph.D.,
..
Professor and Head
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory
.""" "Veterinary College and Research Institute
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Namakkal -637 002 '
...
The main objective of the nutritionists is to improve the nutritive value of the feed to
exploit the genetic potential of the birds to the maximum. The genetic potential of the bird has
been improved to such an extent that it behaves like a machine, any slight alteration in the
nutrient balance in the feed or the environment, affects the production. Hence maintaining the
quality of the feed is of utmost importance, for this, selecting the raw material based on the
quality should be carefully done. But with our experience in Namakkal, we have found that
the quality of rqW material is declining continuously.
Quality of raw materials
The data on the crude protein and ct:Ude fibre content of som~ of the common
feed ingredients analyzed in this laboratory since 1994 is given in table 1.
Table 1. Crude protein and crude fibre (%ADB) content of some common feed
ingredients.
Feed
Ingredient
Crude protein
Mean
Crude fibre
Range
Mean
Range
Min.
Max.
13.58
6.07
27.74
52.14
6.66
2.63
9.68
22.14
34.9
27.56
19.65
34.25
36.49
30.08
38.64
10.99
9.35
15.27
Fish meal
37.4
22.59
58.65
-
Meat meal
56.74
41.19
75.85
-
-
Min.
Max.
40.81
30.15
47.05
Soya meal
45.18
33.07
Sunflower meal
26.77
Rapeseed meal
Groundnut
meal
-
The wide variation in the crude protein and crude fibre contents in the most commonly
us ed .ingredIents
.
.
.
....C'.
WIth whIch the Iarmer and the nutritionists have to
mdIcates
the constramts
~
h
in the future, hence
ormulate the ration. The situation cannot be expected to c ange
enh .
. hI
t .ents should he probed,
ancmg the ways to effectively utilize the unavrula e nu n
55
..
--
....
....
-~-
---~
...... .
The feed ingred~ents contain two important unavailable nutrients, which are at present
...
considered as anti-nutritional factors for poultry, they are: .
I
1. Non-starch polysaccharides
2. Phytate
Non-starch polysacchari'des~
Earlier these were generally termed as crude fibre, but it has become archaic due to the
defects in the estimation technique, it is now termed as
non-~tarch
polysaccharides (NSP).
The NSPs are the cell wall constituents; broadly categorized into three main patterns (Smits
and Annison, 1996).
1. Fibrillar polysaccharides (Cellulose)
2. Matrix polysaccharides (Hemicellulose and' pectin)
3. Encrusting substances (Lignin)
Cellulose
The fibrous component of the cell wall, is a polymer of D-glucose, joined together by.
BI -4 glucosidic linkages.
Similarly, p-glucans found in certain cereals like wheat, barley etc.
are polyglycans with p 1-4 glucosidic linkages, but they ,also contain branches of
131-3
linkages.
Hemicellulose
A heterogeneous polysaccharide of glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose and galactose.
Xyloglucan is predominant in the hemicellulose. It consists of a chain of 13 1-4 linked D·:
glucose units with terminal branches of a 1-6 linked xylose units. It also .c~!1tains.
"-'
-
.
i
arabinoxylans, arabinogalactan, galactomannans and rhamnogalacturans (pectic substances).
.j
Lignin
A high molecular weight amorphous polymer of phenyl propane derivatives. It is
non carbohydrate compoun~, linked with cellulose and hemicellulose.
The NSP contents, in terms of neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibr~
(ADF) and lignin, of some of the commonly used feed ingredients are given in Table 2. Th
hemicellulose and cellulose were calculated based on the NDF, ADF and lignin contents. Thl
j
NDF represents most of the NSPs of the ingredient except some soluble NSPs like pectins. j
~
56
Table 2. The NSP (glkg) content of common feed ingredients. (McDonald et ai, 1995; *NRC
,1994)
NDF
ADF
Maize
117
28
DeoiJed rice
451
275
176
205
70
107
57
50
47
10
Wheat
124
30
94
20
10
Ground nut
180
146
34
136
10
Rapeseed meal
295
206
89
186
20
Soya meal
125
91
34
81
10
Sunflower'
320
260
60
170
90
Ingre~ients
Hemicellulose Cellulose Lignin*
89
10
18
\
bran
..
Sorghum
I
meal
meal*
The NDF content of the common feed ingredients indicates that even in maize
which is the best utili~ed energy source by the birds, is about 12%, whereas deoiled rice bran
contains about 45%. Among the oil seed meals, sunflower meal and rapeseed meal contained
nearly 30%. This indi<;ates
that..considerable amount of nutrients are unavailable to the non-ruminants due to the lack of
the needed enzymes to digest them.
The monosaccharide composition of the NSPs is given in Table 3. Though the
pentose sugars and uronic acid are not utilized as efficiently by non-ruminants as ruminants,
the hexose component, which can be utilized by the birds, is present in considerable amount.
Maize, wheat and sorghum contain nearly 4% of these units in the NSP's. Compared to the
cereals, the oil seed meals contain higher amount of these utilizable monosaccharides; it
ranges from 12.7% in soya to 14.3% in sunflower meal. The values quoted for some oil cakes
may be low compared to the quality of ingredients in India, as the amount of glucose in sun
flower meal given in Table 3 is only 8.9%, whereas the cellulose content alone (Table 2)
cOIlles to 17%.
57
Table 3. Major composition ofNSPs (on %DMB) in different feed stuffs (Classen, 1996)
Feedstuff
Maize
Glucose Uronic'acid
Arabinose
Xylose
Mannose
Galactose
1.9
2.4
0.2
0.4
2.6
0.6
0.1
0.2
2.1
l.3
1
, 0.9
Wheat
3.3
4.8
traces
0.3
2.8
0.2
Rapeseed meal
4.3
1.7
0.2
1.6
5.8
4.6
2
1.8
0.6
2.9
6.7
2.5 .
Sunflower meal
2.3
3.8
1
1
8.9
3.4
Rice Bran
0.4
0.32
0.03
0.17
0.08
5
Sorghum
Soya meal
,
Whatever be the variation of the NSP content of the feed ingredients in the reports, in our
preliminary investigations it was found that the cellulose content of the layer mash at
Namakkal ranged from 8 to 10% and the hemicellulose rang~d from 7 to 10%. The level of
pectin was calculated to be around 2%. This indicates that nearly 17 to 22% of the feed is
totally unavailable except for a small fraction broken down by the microbes in the
intestines. Thetotal glucose or its,equivalent bound in cellulose, hemicellulose (assumed as
50%) approximately comes to 15%. The total energy in the bound form comes to ,about 560
to 570 kcaVkg.
Phytate
About two thirds of the phosphorus in plant ingredients are in the form of salts of:
phytic acid (Simons et ai, 1990). It is an hexophosphori~ ester of myoinositol , thej
..j
availability of phytate phosphorus w~~ reported to range from zero (Nelson, 1976) to a~
maximum of 56% (Edwards, 1983) which can be considered as mostly unavailable to non-:
•
ruminants. The level of phytate phosphorus in feedstuffs depends on the part of the plant'l
oil seeds and cereal bypro ducts contain higher amounts compared to cereals (Ravindran et al'.l
1995). The phytate phosphorus and phytic acid content of some common feed ingredients are
j
given in Table 4.
58
.,
T~~le,4. The total and Phytate phosphorus and phytic acid content (%DM) of some common
feed ingredients (Tyagi et ai, 1998; Ravindran et ai, 1995)
Ingredient
Total P/
Phytate P
Phytic acid
Maize
0,37- 0.47
0.21- 0.33
0.74 -1.17
Sorghum
0.27-0.32
0.20-0.24
0.71-1.31
Wheat
0.4 - 0.49
0.24 - 0.37
0.85 - 1.31
Broken rice
0.10 - 0.21
0.09 - 0.10
0.30 - 0.33
0.31
0.23
0.82
Deoiled rice bran
1.63 - 1.83
i.33 - 1.60
4.71 - 5.61
Wheat bran
1.08 - 1.19 0.74 - 0.87
2.62 - 3.08
Ground nut meal
0.56 - 0.91
0.39 - 0.54
1.38 -1.91
Soya bean meal
0.81 - 1.03
0.51 - 0.64
1.81-2;29
Sunflower meal
0.88 - 0.91
0.45 - 0.46
1.61 - 1.63
Rape seed meal
1.19
0.7
-
Bajra
Anti- nutritive effects ofNSPs
The soluble NSPs especially the pentosans and pectic substances in the diet were
found to increase the viscosity of the gut contents (Bedford et ai, 1991; Choct and Annison,
1992). The increase in viscosity decreased the solubilization of fat and hydrolysis of fat and
prQlein. The digestibility of the fat was more affected than protein (Fenglar and Marquardt,
1988; Choct and Annison, 1992) and among fat the depression was more pronounced in
saturated fats (Antoniou et ai, 1980). The increase in thickness of the unstirred water layer
adjacent to the. mucosa due to increase in viscosity, decreased the uptake of end products of
fat and protein digestion (Smits and Annison, 1996).
Therefore affecting the energy
utilization.
Anti.. nutritive effects of Phytate
Phytate, a reactive anion, forms stable complexes with minerals like calcium, zinc,
copper etc. in the gut thereby reducing their solubility and availability (Erdman, 1979). Th~
hindi'ng of calcium by phytate reduced the activities of a amylase (Deshpan~e and Cheryan,
19 84), pepsin (Deshpande and Cheryan, 1984) ~d trypsin (Singh and Krikorian, 1982;
CaldWell, 1992), affecting the digestibilities of starch and· protein, since calcium is essential
for the activity and stability of these enzymes. Further, at low pH, phytate being negatively
charged and protem
. b'
.. Iy charged &'.orms
l'nsoluble complexes with proteins
emg posItIve
"
59
(Cheryan, 1980) and at high pH, both phytate and proteins are negatively charged and
multivalent cations like calcium are involved in forming phytate protein complexes (Odell :
and de Boland, 1976), still lowering the digestibility of the proteins.
Role of enzymes· in overcoming the ill effects of NSPs and Phytate
Bhatt et al (1991) obs~rved a linear increase in the digestibilities of crude protein,
I
crude fibre, ether extract and NFE in broilers with an .increase in level of enzyme
supplementation. Similarly, Friesen et al (1992) observed that addition of crude cellulase
preparation to the diet of broilers containing barley, oats or rye significantly increased· the
apparent digestibilities of protein and lipid. Addition of endo-xylanases also improved the
-.
weight gain, feed efficiency, digestibilities of organic matter, crude fat, crude fibre and NFE
in broilers fed with diet containing added animal fat' and not in the group fed with diet
containing ·added soya oil (Langhout et ai, 1997), and supplementation of either protease or u
galactosidase to a semi purified soya diet was found to improve the feed intake and weight
gain and nitrogen retention in chicks and the TME of soya bean meal (Ghazi et ai, 1997a and
b). Allen et ai, (1997) observed a reduction of viscosity in the ileal contents apart from
improvement in feed efficiency. Significant positive interaction between xylanase and crude,
fat and protein digestibilities and increased deposition of vitamins A and E were reported by
Danicke et ai, (1997).
The enzyme phytase, a normal constituent of .common feed stuffs like 'soya, i
rape seed meal, corn, wheat etc. (Guenter, 1996), help in degrading the phytate to a. certain:
extent, but the activity of vegetable phytases are limited as they act only at a narrow pH range
(Anon, 1998). Microbial phytase are a good source for hydrolysing phytate '( Nelson~el ai,
1971). Several w.orkers have used phytase and reported about the enhanced availability of;
phosphorus (Simons et ai, 1990; Broz et ai, 1994; Sebastian et ai, 1996; Kornegay et ai, :}-.•
1996), caldum (Simons et ai, 1990; Schoner et ai, 1991; Sebastian et ai, 1996), zinc (Yi et ai, ~
1996a; Sebastian etal, 1996), copper (Aoyagi and Baker, 1995; Sebastian et ai, 1996),and o(,
amino acids in chicks (Sebastian et ai, 1997) and turkey (Yi et ai, 1996b). Further, increase in
protein digestibility in pigs ( Morz et ai, 1994), and nitrogen retention in chickens ( Van
1
der.~
]
Klis et ai, 1991; Farrel et ai, 1993) was also observed.
Use of enzymes in improving the quality of feed
Renewed interest on the role of enzymes in improving the nutritive value of the feed
started in the early nineties and the evaluation work has been intensified since th~n. Apart
from overcoming the ill effects of the of NSPs and phytate, enzymes have been found to.
60
enhance the performance, iIi terms of weight gain , feed efficiency (Friesen et ai, 1992;
Brenes et ai, 1993a and b; Benabdeljelil, 1997; Langhout et ai, 1997), reduced weights cif
digestive organs and liver (Brenes et ai,
reduction in the cost of feed.
1993~,
Svihus et ai, 1997) in broiler chicks and
,
/
.
Practical. experience in using enzymes for commercial layers
...
A mixture of two commercial enzymes @ 500glton of feed was used in the trial. The
approximate energy contribution of this cocktail mixture was calculated t~ be about 70
kcal/kg of feed. This was based on the total NSP degrading enzymes and an effective
digestion period of 120 min. in the bird. The phytase content of the enzyme mixture was 604
units/kg of feed, the expected release of phosphorus was calculated to be 0.22% on the
assumption that the phytate phosphorus release would be 0.000031g/min.lunit and an
efficiency factor of70% (Van der Klis er ai, 1991). A flock of 9688 layers at 45 weeks of age
in a commercial layer farm was divided into two halves, one group (6126 birds) was fed with
layer mash containing 17% crude protein, 2500
kc~
ofMElkg, 3.75% calcium and 0.4%
available phosphorus. The other group (3562 birds) was fed with a layer mash containing
16.5% crude protein, 2430 kcal of MElkg, 3.5% calcium and 0.18% available phosphorus
along with 500 g/ton of the ,enzyme cocktail. The trial was continued for 30 days. The feed
intake, egg prQductidn, egg breakage and mortality were recorded and the results are given in
Table 5.
Table 5. Feed intake, egg production, egg breakage in commercial layers fed with or without
enzymes
SI.No
Treatment Feed
intake
Breakage Mortality
Egg
production
(gld)
(%HD)
(%)
(%)
1
- Enzyme
111.08
85.1
0.35
0.03
2
+ Enzyme
110.98
86.2
0.32
0.03
There waS no difference in the feed intake, egg production, breakage or mortality. The
feed cost was reduced by Rs. O. 12/kg of feed including the cost of the enzymes and the feed
cost per egg produced ~as reduced by 1.55 paise, with the rise in price
pho.sphate the benefits will be still more.
61
of di-calcium
Benefits of using enzymes
"'
1. Enhances nutrient availability by digesting hitherto indigestible nutrients, also' enhancing
the capabilities of local enzymes by reducing the viscosity
2. Releases bound minerals, Prevents further binding there by reducing the need for
supplementation
I
3. Reduces moisture content of the excreta
4. Reduction in faecal volume and nutrient content, there by improving farm hygiene
5. Reduction in feed cost
Characteristics of an effective enzyme
1. Should be able to function,at a pH range between 2 and
7
2. Should be able to withstand high temperatures of processing
3. Should have a good keeping quality after mixing in the feed
4, Should have optimal potency to be able to digest the target nutrient within a shortest period
of time
5. Should be economical
Conclusions
The use of enzymes is gaining'moment\lm day by day. There are a number of
questions to be answered for proper utilization of the enzymes.
1. The NSP content of the commonly used feed stuffs along with their individual.
monosaccharides have to be estimated
2. The potency of each enzyme should be known and their presentation should be in a uniform
and a commonly understandable unit.
3. The exact mode of action in the various parts of the gut should be studied.
4.A simple technique should be evolved to evaluate the potency of each commercial enzyme
preparation so that the farmers can test the potency before they purchase it.
References
Allen, C,M., McCracken, K.J. and Bedford, M.R (1997) Effect of fat type, rate of inclusion
and enzyme supplementation on diet metabolizability a~d broiler performance, British
Poultry Science, 38: S25 - 26.
Antoniou, T. And Marquardt, RR and Misir, R (1980) The utilization of rye by growing
chicks, as influenced by calcium, vitamin D3 and fat type and level, Poultry Science 59:
758 - 769.
62
Aoyagi,S. an~ Baker,D. (1995) Effect of microbial phytase and L25-dihydroxycholecalciferol on
dietary copper utilization in chicks. Poultry Science. 74: 121- 136.
Bedford,M.R, Classen, H.L. and Campbell, G.L. (1991). The effect of pelleting , salt and
pentosonase on the viscosity of the intestinal contents and the performance of broilers fed
rye. Poultry Science, 70: 1521 - 1522.
Classen, L.Henry. (1996). Enzymes in 'action, Feed Mix Enzymes Special Issue; 12 - 16.
Benabdeljelil, K. (1997) Influence of an enzyme mixture added to barley bas~'p diets on broiler
" ...
performance, Indian Journal of Poultry Science 32: 1 - 13.
Bhatt, R S. Sharma,Manoj and Katoch, B. S. (1991) Effect of diet with fibre degrading 'enzyme on
performance and nutrient utilization in broilers Indian JOurbal of Animal Nutrition, 8: 135 138.
Brenes, A, Marquardt, RR, Guenter, W. and Rotter, B.A. (1993) Effect of enzyme
supplementation on the nutritional value of raw, autoclaved and dehulled lupins (lupinus
a/bus) in chicken diet, Poultry Science 72: 2281 - 2293.
Broz, J., Oldale,P., Perrin-Voltz, AH., RycQ,en, G.,Schulze, l and Sin\moes Nunes, C. (1994)
Effect of Supplemental Phytase on performance and phosphorus utilization in broiler
chickens fed a low phosphorus diet without addition of inorganic phosphates. British
Poultry Science, 35: 273 - 280.
Caldwell, RA (1992)Effect of calcium and phytic acid on the activation of trypsinogen and
stability of trypsin. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 40: 43 - 46.
Cheryan,M. (1980) Phytic acid interactions in food systems. CRC. Critical Reviews. in Food
/
Science and Nutrition 13 :297 - 302.
Choct, M. and Annison,G. (1992) Thejnhibition of nutrient digestion by wheat pentosans, British
Journal of Nutrition 67: 123 - 132.
Danicke, S., Simon, 0., Jeroch, H. and Bedforcl, M. (1997) Interactions between dietary fat type
and xylanase supplementation when rye based diets are fed to broiler chickens 2.
Performance, nutrient digestibility and the fat-soluble vitamin status of livers, British
Poultry Science, 38: 546 - 556.
Deshpande, S.S. and Cheryan;M. (1984) Effects phytic acid divalent cations, and their interactions
on alpha amylase activity. J<?urnal of Food Science 49: 516' - 519.
Edwards, H.M. Jr. (1983) Phosphorus 1. Effect of breed strain on utilization of sub optimal levels
of phosphorus in the ration. Poultry Science 62: 77 - 84.
Erdlllan, J. W.Jr. (1979) Oil seed phytates .nutritional implications. Joumal of American Oil
"
-Chemists Society: 56: 736 - 741.
Farrell, D.J., Martin, E., Preez, ll, Bongarts, M., Sudaman, A and Thomson, E. (1993) The
beneficial effects of microbial phytase in diets of broiler chickens and ducklings. Journal of
Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 69: 278 - 286.
.
Fenglar,A.I., and Marquardt, RR (1988). Water soluble pentosans from rye: n. Effects on rate of
dialysis nd on the retention of nutrients by chick. Cereal Chemistry 65: 298 - 302.
Friesen, O.D. Guenter, W., Marquardt, RRand Rotter, B.A. (1992) The effect of enzyme
supplementation on the apparent metabolizable energy and nutrient digestibilities of wheat
barley oats and rye for the young broiler chick Poultry Science 71: 1710 - 1721.
Ghazi, S., Rooke, J.A, Galbraith, H. and Morgan, A (1997a) Effect of adding protease and alpha
galactosidase enzymes to soyabean meal on nitrogen retention and true metabolizable
energy in broilers, British poultry Science 38: S28.
Ghazi, S., Rooke, J.A, Galbraith, H. and Morgan, A. (1997b) Effect of feeding growing chicks
semi-purified diets containing soyabean meal and different amounts of protease and alpha G
galac~osidase enzymes, British poultry Science 38: S29 - 30.
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10:1-15.
63
Kornegay, E.T., Denboe, D.M., Yi, Z. and Ravindran,V. (1996) Response to graded levels of
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f
P:546 - 5,50 '
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.
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'
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Yi, Z., Kornegay, KT. and Denbow, DM(1996b) Supplemental microbial phytase improves the
zinc utilization in broilers. Poultry Science, 75: 979 - 990.
64
-
- --
------~
NUTRITIONAL FACTORS TO IMPROVE
FEED EFFICIENCY IN CHICKEN
/
Dr.D. Narahari,Ph.D.,
Professor of Poultry Science,
Madras Veterinary College,
Chennai - 600 007, INDIA
Feed efficiency (FE) is an important economic trait in poultry;' because feed is th~
largest single item of expenditure in 'poultry production. It is the efficiency at which the feed
is converted into meat or eggs. It is also called as feed conversion efficiency, (F.C.E) and
feed conversion ratio (F.C.R.).
FE IN BROILERS:
In broiler chicken the FE is calculated ,using the formula,
Feed Consumed (Kg)
FE=
Body Weight (Kg)
This value will be usually below 2 under commercial field conditions. Lower the
value, better wiU be the FE and vice versa.
•
The FE value in broilers varies with the age at which the broilers are sold. As
the marketing age of broilers increases, the FE also increases, i.e., it wiil
-,
become poorer. For example, if broilers are reared upto 6,7 and 8 weeks of
age, they may record an average FE of 1.8, 1.9 and 2.0, respectively.
•
Similarly, if male and female broilers are reared separately from day - old to
disposal, the males will record lower (better) FE than females; due to faster
growth rate in the former.
•
Fast growing hybrid broilers will record better FE than slow growing varieties.
•
Feeding high energy feeds with balanced nutrients, results in better FE.
Some times FE in broilers is also expressed as weight gain for each Kg of feed
Consumed, Therefore it will be always less then one.
65
-
~E
IN LAYERS:
\
In layers, the FE is expressed both as Kgs of feed consumed to produce one dozen
~ggs
as well as Kgs of feed consumed per Kg egg mass.
Kgs of feed Consumed
FE =
---------------------------iDozens of eggs produced
This value will be usually 1.5 to 1.6 in a well maintained young flock. The rate of egg
>roduction
mainly influences this trait, followed by feed intake. Higher rate of, egg
>roduction associated with lower level of feed intake results in better (lower) FE. This method
)f expressing FE is most commonly used in countries where eggs are not sold on weight or
;veight grade basis.
The other measure of FE in layers take~ into account the egg weight (mass) also.
Feed Consumed in Kgs
FE =
-----------------------------Kgs of eggs produced
Usually this value will be 2.2 to 2.3, Besides the rate of egg production and feed
;onsumption, the egg weight also influences this FE. This type of FE will be useful in places
;vhere the eggs are sold on weight basis or ,~old under various weight grades.
ffE IN BREEDERS:
~n
the breeding stock the FE may be calculated based on the Kgs of feed
consum~d
)er dozen. hatching eggs; including the feed consumed by the males.
Kgs of feed Consumed
FE=
Dozens of hatching eggs produced
[he FE in broiler' and egg - type breeders will be around 3.80 and 2.00, respectively.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FE:
Several factors will influence the FE; some of which are already discussed. These
factors can be broadly classified as nutritional factors and non-nutritional factors.
The non-nutritional factors influencing the FE are breed, gender, housing system,
feeder space and design, feeding system and management, health status of the birds, rate of
passage of feed in the gut, age of the birds, debeaking, environmental temperature, growth
66
rate, rate of egg production, mortality and morbidity, lighting programme, egg weight and so
on. These factors are not discussed here, due to want of time.
NUTRITIONAL FACTORS:
The nutritional factors influencing the FE are;
1.
2.
<
•
Energy level in the feed
Fat/ oil supplementation
3.
Crude protein and amino acid levels in the feed
4.
Micro-nutrients balance in the feed
5.
Presence of anti-nutrients in the feed
6.
Mycotoxins and microbial contamination of the feed
7.
Feed ingredients quality
8.
Interaction of nutrients and non-nutrients
9.
Performance enhancers and other non-nutrient feed supplements in the feed
10.
Multi-enzyme supplementation
11.
Feed processing techniques
12.
Feed .palatability and flavour
1.
ENERGY LEVEL IN THE FEED:
Birds will consume feed primarily to satisfy their energy needs. The energy needs
vary with body weight, age, growth rate, egg mass per day and. the ambient
temperature. The feed intake in birds is inversely proportional to the ME level in the
feed. Hence the FE will be better (lower) with high energy diets (Table 1). Howeyer,
too high dietary energy level leads to very low feed intake as
we~l
as sub-optimal
intake of other nutrients, resulting in poor growth rate and egg production. Therefore
a good feed shall have a proper balance of energy and other nutrients for optimal FE.
Optimal ME for best FE is higher than the optimal ME for best growt1;1 rate and egg
production. If the ideal levels of various amino acids and other nutrients in the feed
are fixed, based on per unit of mega calorie of ME, then it will be possible to achieve
ideal FE and growth rate/egg production. Suggested optimal nutrient requirements of
chicken in tropics for each megacolorie ofMElKg diet are summarised in Table 2.
67
TABLE 1: PERFORMANCE OF BROILERS FED MASH OR PELLETS WITH
'"
VARIED M E LEVELS
"
ME level Form of feed
(KCal/Kg)
I
~
Mash
Pellet
Mash
Pellet
2500
2700
Mash
Pellet
2900
Avg. wt. gain!
Day (g)
Avg. feed
consumption!
day (g)
% Mortality
(0-6 wks)
35.3
38.2
81.9
84.8
2.32
2.22
4.6
6.3
36.1
39.0
79.4
83.8
2.20
2.15
6.3
38.8
39.5
78.9
79.4
80.1
2.03
2.01
2.18
8.2
10.9
82.7
2.13
36.7
38.9
Mean for Mash
Mean for Pellets
FE
8.2!
6.37
8.47
TABLE 2: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF CHICKEN IN TROPICS FOR EACH
MEGACALORIE OF ME/KG DIET
Broiler
Starter
2.85
8.07
Broiler
finisher
3.00
Chick
2.65
2.50
2.50
6.67
7.55
6.40
7.20
Breeder
hen
2.55
6.67
% Arginine
0.44
0.35
0.33
0.28
0.27
% Histidine
0.12
0.:37
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.08
% Jsoleucine
0.28
0.24
0.23
0.20
0.26
0.26
% Leucine
0.42
0.36
0.41
0.34
0.33
0.32
% Lysine
0.42
0.34
0.33
0.24
0.28
% Methionine
0.18
0.15
0.11
0.10
0.13
0.27
0.12
Nutrient
M. E.(M.Cal./Kg)
% Crude Protein
% Phenylalanine
0.25
0.22
% Threonine
0.28
% Tryptophan
Grower
Layer
0.18
0.20
0.20
0.25
0.22
0.26
0.23
0.19
0.19
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.06
% Valine
0.32
0.27
0.23
0.21
0.28
0.27
% Linoleic acid
0.35
0.33
0.38
0.40
0.40
0.50
% Calcium
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.40
1.20
1.18
% Non-Phytate
0.17
0.16
0.19
0.18
0.20
0.20
32
21
30
34
20
20
23
14
25
30
35
35
Vit. A (LU.)
3510
3020
2400
4000
4000
Vit. D3 (I. C. U.)
560
3333
533'
453
240
640
640
l
;
I
·1
j
~
.~
~
~
:;•
i
~
j
1
.~
Phosphorus .
Manganese (mg)
Zinc (mg)
68
L_
J
~
-
2.
FAT/OIL SUPPLEMENTATION:
In broiler feeds, it has become mandatory to supplement oil or fat, to increase the "ME
level in the feed, resulting in lower feed, consumption and better F E.
•
Lipids produces les~er metabollc heat (BMR), resulting in better FE, especially
during summer.
•
\...
\
"
Oil supplementation also reduces dustiness of feed; thereby 're,duces feed
wastage and imp(Oves FE.
•
Fats and oils enhance palatability and flavour of the feed.
•
Digestion of lipids takes longer time than digestion of carbohydrates and
proteins. This results in longer retention of feed in the gut, better digestion and
absorption of other nutrients, ultimately leading to better FE.
•
Oil supplementation may not be benificial in layers; because it leads to fat
deposition and will not improve egg production.
•
Linoleic acid in oils is needed to improve the yolk and egg size; but beyond
1.25% dietary level ,it is also not benifical and converted into body fat.
•
In broiler feeds, the amino acids and other nutrient levels also must be optimal,
in fat supplemented high energy diets; otherwise growth rate will be affected,
leading to poor FE; even though the feed intake is low.
•
Oils and fats are having extracaloric effect, leading to better FE.
•
Oils have higher calorific value than fats. But along with oils, especially rice
bran oil, anti-oxidants have to be added to the feed, to prevent rancidity.
3.
PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID LEVELS IN THE FEED:
The amino acid profile of the feed is the most important factor determining the
growth rate and FE. Since the utilisation of the dietary amino acids for growth and
egg production are limited only to the extent of the least available essential amino acid
(EAA) the nutritionist should take care of balancing all the essential amino acids to
100%. Beyond 100% requirement of EAA is also not good; because it will be under
utilized for energy or fat deposition.
If the dietary availability of the 10 EAA in 2 different diets are in the range of 60 to
120% in one feed and 80 to 90% in another feed, these 2 feeds, for· growth will be utilized
only up to 60 and 80%, respectively. Hence the latter feed is superior to the former feed,
eventhough none of the EAA are upto 100% level in this feed.
-
69
Based on this concept, the EAA levels in the feed can be expressed as
unit~
or % for
each unit or 100% of lysine as shown in table 3.
r ABLE 3: RECOMMENDED LEVELS OF EAA IN THE DIETS ASSUMING LYSINE
L,EVEL AS 1.00.
\.mino acid
.
Broiler
Starter
l.00
_ysme
Rel~tive
Broiler
finisher
-
levels in different feeds
Chicl<
Grower
Layer
l.00
l.00
l.00
Meat- type
breeder
hen
l.00
l.08
l.38
1.02
1.05
0.31
0.37
0.24
0.27
0;71
0.83
0.94
0.96
1.29
1.42
1.20
1.19
0.35
0.42
0.44
0.45
0.64
0.75
0.69
0.74
0.80
0.95
0.69
0.70
0.20
0.23
0.23
0.25
0.73
0,87
1.02
0.98
L
1.00
....
l.14
v-ginine
0.32
Iistidine
0.73
;oleucine
l.10
0.32
1.09
1.09-
1ethionine
0.42
0.40
0.65
0.73
hreonine
0.18
yptophan
--- ..
0.73
,eti<:;me
henylalanine
--
._"..
_.-
0.18
-
--
--
0.65
0.74
.
-
--
_-
--
_-
-
_.-
0.82
aline
0.82
,
-'-~
--
_. -...
MICRO-NUTRIENT BALANCE IN TOE FEED:
. c -
.Micro-nutrients like -trace minerals ang vitamins plays vital role in various body
~tabolic,
enzyme and biochemical reactions, ultimately leading to better growth rate, egg
)duction and FE.
Deficiency or imbalance of any of these micro-nutrients results in
ficiency diseases, metabolic disorders, poor growth rate, egg production, hatchability and
Among micro-nutrients the nutrients, which have to be additionally taken care of for
timal growth rate, egg production and feed efficiency are manganese, zinc, vit. A, D 3 , E and
:::omplex group of vitamins.
All these micro-nutrients must be present in proper ratio for optimal FE. Excess of
tain nutrients, not only increase the feed cost; but also interferes with the utilisation of
er nutrients; thereby affect the performance of the birds.
70
I
5.
ANTI-NUTRIENTS AND NATURALLY OCCURRING TOXICANTS:
Several naturally occurring toxicants and anti-nutrients are present in feedstuffs of
plant origin; especially legumes. These toxicants in feedstuffs have to be detoxified, before
mixing in feed, to improve their nutritional value as shown in Table:4.
TABLE 4: DETOXIFICATION PROCEDURES TO REDUCE THE
ANTI-NUTRIENTS IN FEEDSTUFFS
Anti-nutrients
Amylase inhibitor
Beta_glucans
Chymotrypsin inhibitor
Cynogenetic glycosides
(HCN)
ChI orogenic acid
Feedstuffs
Wheat, rye, beans
Barley
Soya, peas, beans
Perarubber, chick pea, yam
tapioca
Sunflower, safflower
Cyclopropene fatty acids
Erucic acid
Glucosinolate compounds
Gossypol
Cotton seed, kopok
Mustard & rape seed meal
Mustard and rapeseed meal
Cotton seed meal
Haemagglutinins
Castor, Soya, potatoes,
wheat germ
Ackee plum, Jack fruit
seeds
Lathyrus bean, grass pea
Linseed
Soyabean
.Subabul
,-
Hypoglycin - A
Lathyrogens
Linatine
Lipoxygenase
. _Mimosine
Niacytin
Oxalates
Pentosans
P'!_l)ain inhibitor
Phytates
S'!_l)onins
Solanine
Tannins
Thiaminase
Trypsin inhibitor
Maize, wheat bran
Spinach, beet root, sesame
oil meal
Wheat
Soya, peas, blans
Rice bran, legumes husk
Alfalfa, peas, soya
Potato
Sorghum, tamarind seeds,
tapioca, sal seed
Fish, beans, linseed, cotton
seed
Soya, beans, peas
71
Detoxification. p_rocedure
Heat treatment
Enzyme supplementation
Heat treatment
Water washing, during and
storage
Choline & multi - enzyme
supplementation
Solvent extraction
Solvent extraction
Iodine supplementation
Calcium hydroxide and iron
supp lementation
Heat treatment
Riboflavin supplementation
Water soaking
Water/heat treatment
Roasting
Water treatment and ferrous
sulphate supplementation
Niacin supplementation
Additional calcium
supplementation
Xylanase supplementation
Water and heat treatment
Phytase and vit D3
supplementation
Water soaking
Deskining
Water soaking, decortication,
salt/alkali treatment
Thiamine supplementation,
heat treatment
Heat treatment
Moreover, high fibre levels in certain feedstuffs like sunflower, safflower, cotton
see~,
rice bran, can be reduced by decortication, dehulling and enzyme supplementation.
The feed ingredients must be free from these toxicants, before mixing feed or during
feed processing. The most commonly used soya bean meal contains as many as 10 naturally
occurring toxicants; which
have~to be destroyed by dehulling, heat treatment etc., to improve
its nutritional value.
6.
MYCOTOXINS AND MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION:
Mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins contaminated feeds and feedstuffs will drastically
reduce the growth rate and egg production and increases, the mortality in chicken, leading to
poor FE. Therefore all feed ingredients, espe9ially maize and peanut cake must be screened
against mycotoxins, before mixing in feed. OtherWise the feed has to be supplemented with
toxin binders like Hydrated sodium calcium alumino silicates (HSCAS), activated charcoal,
mannan oligosacharides
adsorbing other nutrients.
(MOS) or their combinations, to adsorb the toxins; without
Microbial contamination, especially with salmonella, E-coli
(source: poor quality feedstuffs of animal origin), must be avoided.
7.
FEED INGREDIENTS QUALITY:
Only good feedstuffs will produce good quality feed. Best feed formulation and feed
supplements can not substitute or compensate the poor feedstuffs' quality. For best growth
rate, egg production and feed efficiency, the feedstuffs must be concentrated sources of "all
nutrients and energy, low in fibre, free from mycotoxins and naturally occurring toxicants,
palatable, fresh and low in moisture content. High energy feedstuffs give better FE; provided
the compounded feed is balanced with rest of the nutrients.
Unlike the common belief the research has proved that millets, rice polish, broken rice
md their combinations in broiler diets, resulted in better growth rate and FE than maize, as
hown in Table 5.
72
TABLE 5: PERFORMANCE OF BROILER FED DIFFERENT' SOURCES OF
ENERGY
/
Treatment
Dailyavg.
weight gain
(g)
1ontrol (Maize based diet)
. 25% maize + 75% broken rice
50% ~ize + 50% rice polish
100% Pearl millet (bajra)
I
39.7
43.6
42.7
44.8
50% f?xtail millet (Thenai) + 50% maize 40.1
33% Tamarind kernels + 67% maize
43.4
Daily avg. feed
consumption
(g)
89.7 92.0
89.7
98.1
90.2
FE
' % mo.rtality
(0-6 wks)
I
92.8
2:26
2:11
2.10
2.19
2.25
3.3
(7
2.14
3.7
3.6
2.7
2.2
The above results have clearly indicated the superiority of other energy sources over
maize; probably due to better amino acids and other nutrient profile. Moreover, maize in
tropical countJ;ies is more prone for mycotoxins than other grains.
8.
INTERACTION OF NUTRIENTS AND NON-NUTRIENTS:
Synergism and antagonism exist between various nutrients and non-nutrients as
detailed in Table - 6 resulting in variations in the performance of the birds .
.-
~
~
~
TABLE 6: SYNERGISM AND ANTAGONISM BETWEEN VARIOUS NUTRIENTS
AND NON -NUTRIENTS
Component
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Glycine
Lysine
Valine
Niacin
Sodium
Calcium
-COpper
~elenium
!hytic acid
Zinc
Synergism
Cystine, betaine, choline, inorganic
S04
Tyrosine
Serine
--
---
Antagonism
--
Arginine
Leucine, Isoleucine
--
--
Tryptophan
-Vit. D3,Ca : P ratio, high protein
feed, lactic acid
Iron
Vit. E
-EDTA
73
Potassium
Magnesium,
oxalates,
Zinc, Manganese
Molybdenum, Zinc
Arsenic
Zinc, Iron
Calcium ,phytic acid
:holine
B12, folic acid, Betaine, Methionine
~hiamine
---
litamin K
onophor
:occidiostats
High dietary fat
Amprolium, Thiaminase
Dicoumarol, sulfa drugs
Tiamutin, Tylosine
--
I
.
In addition to the above synergism and antagonism, all toxicants also act as
Lntagonists.
Therefore, the nutritionist shall take care of all these factors, during feed
ormulation, selection of feedstuffs and supplements; for optimal performance and FE.
I.
PEIU'ORMANCE ENHANCERS:
Besides nutritionally balancing the feed ,the feed shall have certain non-nutrient feed
supplements, called as performance enhancers for optimal results. Commonly used
performance enhancers are anti-microbials, Direct Feed Microbials (DFM), arsenicals,
herbal preparations, appetisers, flavouring agents etc.
Anti-microbial drugs like antibiotics iiJ-nd furazolidone compounds brings growth
)romotion, by suppressing the growth of harmful microbes; which will compete with the host
or nutrients and also produce diseases in chicken. Now, many countries have banned the use
)f this group of performance enhancers, because the drug residues in meat and eggs, will
levelop drug resistant bacteria in humans consuming it. Hence to prevent this sort of drug
esistance complications, the anti-microbial drugs must be divided into 2 categories namely;
lrugs used ~s performance enhancers and drugs used for therapeutic use. These 2 shall not be
nterchanged.
DFM are fast gaining popularity as pe'rformance enhancers; replacing anti-microbials.
3akers yeast and several species Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Aspergillus, Clostridium,
1acillus etc. are grown as biotechnology products and used as performance enhancers. They
"'ill act on competitive exclusion basis and produce favourable gut atmosphere for optimal
lutrient absorption. For optimal results, the DFM choose must be able processing conditions
'pelleting temp etc.) and develop probiosis.
Arsenicals like, 3-Nitro-4-hydroxy phenyl-arsonilic acid act as a mild anti-microbial
and anabolic agent.
It also helps in better utilisation of lipids.
Hence arsenical
supplementation will be more beneficial in fat supplemente9 feeds.
Herbal preparations will imprg:ve appetite, stimulates liver, protect the birds from
mycotoxins and thereby enhance the performance of the birds.
"
,
"
Normally the feed contains 1 or 2 performance enhancers for better perfonna.nce at
lowest FE. Besides performance enhancers coccidiosta.ts, toxin binders,
antioxida~ts
(for high
oil feed), flavouring agents, pigments etc. are also added to the feed, to serve specific
purposes.
10.
MULTI - ENZYME ,SUPPLEMENTATION:
Chicken's digestive system is not secreting enzymes to digest non-starch
polysaccharides (NSP), phytates and other complex compounds in the feed; which forms
nearly 20% of the total biomass. If this 20% of the non-available nutrients are made available
to the birds by enzyme supplementation, the FE can be improved by 15-20%. Proper enzyme
supplementation will;
•
Increase the M E content of the feed
e
Improve the bio-availability of amino acids
•
Enhance the availability of phosphorus, zinc and manganese
•
Improve the growth rate, egg production and FE (Table 7).
•
Reduce the excretion of phytate phosphoru,s, NSP and other waste materials
and thereby reduce the environment pollution.
•
..
Multi-enzymes with Phytase supplementation may not be much beneficial with
conventional feedstuffs like maize, Soya and fish. But feeds with rice polish,
rice bran, sunflower, rapeseed meal, will give good results.
•
The enzyme must be stable, active and available at the right dose for optimal
results.
•
It must be able to withstand the processing temperature (pelleting); otherwise
the feed shall not be pelleted or avoid unstable enzyme supplementation to
pelleted feeds.
o
If pelleting has to be done, apply enzymes by post -pelleting spraying, using
liquid enzymes and special sprayers.
•
In future specific liquid multi - enzymes supplementation, suitable for the type
of feed ingredients and applied by post - pellet spraying, will be the best
method to improve the FE.
rABLE 7: EFFECT OF MULTI-ENZYME SUPPLEMENTATION ON BROILER
\ND LAYER PERFORMANCE
~
Treatment
ROlLERS (0-6 wks)
mtrol - no enzymes:
ulti-enzymes
pplementation
~YERS (66 -78 wks)
18% N.P.P. + No
lytase
~9% N.P.P. + 500 UIK
lytase
~% N.P.P + 1000 UIKg
lytase
'WP
=
Avg. body Avg. daily
wt. gain/, feed consum
day(g)
ptionlbird (g
% Egg
FE
Production
(w/w)
%,
Shell
Mortality Thicknes
(mm)
40.0
89.2
---
2.23
5.4
---
42.1
88.4
---
2.10
5.2
---
--
108.6
78.4
2.33
.1.78
0.327
--
108,0
78.1
2.33
2.00
0.326
--
107.1
78.9
2.30
1.89
0.326
.
Non-Phytate Phosphorus
l1. FEED PROCESSING TECHNIQUES:
Feed processing techniques like grinding, mixing steam pelleting, extruding, post Jelleting vitamins + enzyme spraying, stQrage will greately influence the performance of the
Jirds, including FE.
Improper mixing leads to poor performance of the birds. Pelleting, extrusion, cooking
:!tc. generate sufficient heat, not only to destroy heat labile harmful
substances~
but also
vitamins and enzymes. Therefore the processing temperature and duration must be controllecC
for optimal results.
Crumbles and pellet feeding of broilers will improve feed efficiency and growth rate
(Table - 1). However, it is not advantageous in egg - type chicken. This improvement in
performance might be due to lesser wastage of feed, more uniform distribution of nutrients in
each pellet and better utilisation of ME.
At the same time, pelleting may destroy certain nutrients and supplemental enzymes.
Therefore for best results in broilers, the pelleted feed must be subjected to post - pellet
spraying of liquid vitamins and enzymes.
12. FEED PALATABILITY AND FLAVOUR:
Fat and molasses supplcimentation and even ~elleting will improve the feed
palatability and flavour and thereby increase the feed consumption, resulting in better overall
performance. They also reduce dustiness, resulting in better F E. Palatability and flavour
enhancing feed supplements are available in the market; which will be mostly useful in
broilers and with unpalatable, unconventional feedstuffs.
~,
CONCLUSIONS:
In order to improve the FE and other economic traits in chicken, by dietary ,means;
•
Select good quality feedstuffs, free from all toxins.
•
Use high energy feeds, especially in broilers
•
Increase the nutrient density in the feed.
•
Ensure thorough mixing of feed.
•
Fix various nutrient levels, as units per megacalorie of MElKg feed, during
feed formulation.
•
Fix essential amino acid levels, as units per unit of lysine.
•
In case of broiler diets, incorporate fat, oil or oil rich feedstuffs like sunflower
seeds, extruded full fat Soya, rice polishing, maize germ meal para - rubber
kernels etc.
•
Avoid feed wastage.
•
Intermittant feeding (along with lighting programme) 1 hour feeding + 3 hours
rest results in better F E.
•
Feed broilers with crumbles and pellets prepared by post - pellet spraying of
liquid vitamins and enzymes.
•
Use stable enzyme - cocktail having N.S.P. digesting enzymes and phytase.
•
Use only reliable feed supplements of high bio-availability.
•
Avoid all sorts of antagonism among nutrients and non-nutrients in the feed.
-00000-
TECHNIQUES TO EVALUATE THE PROTEIN QUALITY OF FEED
INGREDIENTS USED FOR CHICKEN RATION BY [NV/FRO
METHODS
Dr. B. MOHAN, M.V.Sc.,Pb.D.,
lAssistant Professor,
Department of Animal Nutrition,
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
Namakkal - 637 002.
It is a common knowledge that dietary crude protein level will affect growth,
weight gain and egg production in poultry. Hence the level of crude protein in the ration is
formulated based on the crude protein content of various feed ingredients. Inspite of
satisfying the crude protein content iin the diet as per' the specification, the expected
.
weight gain or egg production is not achieved on many occasions. One of the main limiting
factors is found to be the quality of protein which is more limiting than the quantity alone.
Based on these problems a few invitro techniques were standardised to asses the quality of
protein in feed ingredients by
I.Urease activity to assess under-cooking of soyabean meal.
2.Quick test to identify leather meal in meat meal.
3.Protein solubility in potassium hydroxide to indicate over processing of soyabean meal
and other plant proteins.
4.Estimation of chitin in fish meal to check its adulteration with other marine crustaceans.
-Urease 'activity test:
The measurement of urease activity based on change in pH
IS
the most commonly used
invitro test for assessing quality of soyabean meal. Determining the activity of the urease
enzyme Will indirectly indicate whether trypsin inhibitor is present, as both of these proteins
.
are denatured and in activated during heating. This assay, however is useful only for detecting
under-cooking of soyabean meal because the urease activity rapidly decreases to zero as
soyabean meal is heated.
UREASE ACTIVITY (Qualitative):
Principle:
Method adapted from Gold Kist. The urease enzyme activity of soya bean is measured
qualitatively by the conversion of urea to ammoma gas in the presence of phenol red
indicator.
Reagents:
1. Sodium hydroxide O.IN
2. Sulphuric acid O. 1N
3. Urea phenol red solution: Dissolve 0.I4g of phenol red in 7ml O.IN sodium
hydroxide and 35ml of distille9 water. Dissolve 21g of urea (reagent grade) in
300ml of distilled water. Mix these two solutions together and titrate to'amber
''-
color with O.IN sulfuric acid.
Procedure:
1. Adjust the urea phenol red solution to amber color with O.IN sulphuric .acid.
2. Place one teaspoon of well-mixed standard soyabean meals (1,3,5,7,9,11% ofraw
. soyabean meal) and test sample soyabean meal into a series of petri dishes. Put the
test sample in the middle dish.
3. Add 5-8 drops of amber-colored phenol red solution. Swirl gently to spread' samples
evenly wetted in the dishes.
4. Let them stand for 5 minutes and compare the t~st soyabean meal sample with the
standard soyabean meal samples.
Scale Reading:
No 1. Slightly
active~
Few scattered red purple particles.
No 2. Moderately active: Surface app~ars to be approximately 25% covered with red
purple parti:cies.
No 3. Active:
Surface appears to be approximately 50% covered with red
purple particles.
No 4. Very active:
Surface appears to approximately 75% covered with red purple
particles.
No 5. Overcooked:
No visible red purple color develops after 5 minutes. Allow the
sample to stand for an additional 25 minutes. If no colored
particles appear, the soyabean meal is overcooked.
Quick test for Leather Meal:
To boost the crude protein content in fish meal and meat meal, leather meal is
usuall~
mixed and adultered.
Reagents:
1.
Ammonium molybdate solution- Dissolve 5g of ammonium molybdate in 100ml
distilled water and pour into 35ml of concentrated nitric acid.
Procedure:
. up brown to black test samp Ie partlC
. 1es an d place in petri dish.
PIck
'70
Add 3-5 drops of ammonium molybdate and let it stand for 5-10 minutes."
Leather meal will give no color change.
/
Meat and bone meal gives a greenish yellow color.
PROTEIN SOLUBILITY IN POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE.
It is a invitro assay to indicate over-processing of plant protein namely soyabean,
sunflower oil cake and animal proteins like fish meal and meat meal.
Analytical procedure: Approximately 1.Sg of soyabeans is placed in a 250ml beaker and
75ml of 0.2% KOH (w/v; 0.0.36 N) is added. The mixture is stirred for 20 minutes at '22°C.
Approximately 50ml of the liquid is then collected and centrifuged at 1250Xg for 10 minut~s.
A 15mI aliquot
of the supernatant is collected and analysed, for N 'content by the Kjeldahl
.
.
method. Soluble protein is then calculated as percentage 'of the total protein in the original
sample of soyabeans meal.
CHITIN ESTIMATION TECHNIQUE:
Chitin is a fibrous compound (n-acetyl glucosamine ) present in marine crustaceans
and insects. Of late many cheap marine crustaceans like squiUa , ,and their by products like
prawn head wastes are mixed with fishmeal and sold in the market and thus fetching a higher
price. Hence to identify the level of adulteration of marine crustaceans in true fish meal the
simplest method is to estimate the chitin. content in the fishmeal since true fish meal will be
free of chitin.
Chitin content of fish meal is estimated as per the procedure given below.
Deproteinization: Two grams of finely ground fish meal is mixed with 100 ml of3% sodium
hydroxide and is boiled 'for 10min.The solution is cooled and filtered.The residue is made
free of alkali after washing in distilled water.
Demineralisation: This procedure is performed to remove the calcium carbonate .The
residue is treated with 100 ml of 4% hydrochloric acid for 2 h at room temperature. Later,
.
the clear solution is filtered and the residues is washed free of chlorides and then rinsed with
alcohol and dried at 100 ° C for 2 h. The final residue obtained is chitin.
REFERENCES
1. Araba ,M. and N.M.Dale, 1990.Evaluation of protein solubility as an indicator of over
processing soyabean meal.Poult.Sci.,69:76-83.
2. Madhavan,P.,K.G.Ramachandran Nair. T.K. Tankappan,P.v. prabhu and
K.Gopakumar, 1986.Production of chitin and chitosan.Central Institute of Fisheries
Technology,Cochin.
*****
NlYCOTOXINS SCENARIO IN FEED INGREDIENTS AND FEED USED FOR
POULTRY IN NAMAKKAL
Dr. D.Chandrasekaran Ph.D.,
Professor and Head .
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
Veterinary Hospital Campus, Trichy Road,
Namakkal- 637001.
Fungal contamination of foods and feeds is not a new phenomenon; it has
bee~
well established
since biblical times. Mycotoxin is derived from the word myco meaning fungi.· Mycotoxins are
secondary metabolites produced by a wide range of fungi, mainly mold. There are more than one
hundred species of molds that produce mycotoxins; the three most important species are Aspergillus,
Penicillium and Fusarium. Nearly three hundred types of mycotoxins have been recorded so far.
Livestock and birds consuming feeds contaminated with mycotoxins suffer from mycotoxicosis,
though the problem has been known for several centuries, until the early sixties it was mainly thought.
in terms of toxicity to animals and birds and the consequent ec;onomic loss (Cheeke and Shull, 1985).
Classification of mycotoxins based on their biological effects:
Ingestion mycotoxin contaminated feed by livestock and poultry cause variable effects which
ranges from drop in production, depression in growth rate to mortality, depending on the intensity of
the contamination. The toxic effects of these mycotoxins vary according to the type of toxin. Based on
the biological effects to the livestock and poultry the' toxins have been Classified below (adapted form
Cheeke and Shull, 1985).
Hepatotoxins:- Aflatoxin, Sporidesmin, RubratoxinB, Sterigmatocystin, Tricothecenes, Ochratoxin A,
PhomposinA, Cyclopiazonic Acid
Nephrotoxins:- OchratoxinA, Citrinin, Aflatoxin, Oosporin, Cyc1opiazonic Acid, Sterigmatocystin
Neurotoxins:- Trichothecenes (vomitoxin, satratoxin), Salframine, PenitremA, Ergot alkaloids, Ochratoxin A
Genitoxins:Oermitoxins:-
Zearalenone, Ergot alkaloids, Aflatoxins (mostly ruminants)
12,13-Epoxytrichothecenes ( T2 toxin, nivalenol)
Carcinogens: - Aflatoxin, Sterigmatocystin, Luteoskyrin, Patulin, and Penicilic acid, T2, OchratoxinA and
Citrinin
Teratogenes:- Aflatoxin. Ochratoxin
hnmunosuppressents:- Aflatoxin, T2, Ochratoxin, Citrinin, Oosporin
nematological agents:- Aflatoxin, Trichothecenes.
01
Mycotoxins Recorded in Nainakkal
flatoxin:. Aflatoxin is the most prevalent of all the mycotoxins; A total of 233"86 s~mples Were
reened in this laboratory from May 1994 to December 1999 for the contamination of aflatoxins, of
hich 65% were oilcakes, 23% were feed and 12% were cereals. Nearly 80% of these were found to
~
~
positive for aflatoxins. The bulk of the positive samples were de-oiled groundnut cake (DOGNq
ld maize.
iI Cakes: Among the oil cakes DOGNC was the major component. Invariably all the DOGNC
mples (99.3%) were found to be contaminated, in S2.0% of the samples the level was below lOry
Ib, but in 47.3% samples it ranged between 100 and 50Q'ppb and 5.4% of the samples the level was
ove SOOppb.
In 68.3 % of the sunflower cake (SFOC) sam~les the level ranged from 1 to 20 ppb"~
aile 10.8% samples were found to be negative. In 18.1% of the SFOC·samples the level was
tween 21 and 100ppb, only in 2.6% of the samples the level exceeded 100ppb. Soyabean meal
BM) was the third predominant oil cake subjected for aflatoxin analysis, 72.2% of the meal screened
~re
negative for aflatoxins. Further, 26.2% recorded below 20ppb of AFTB 1, and in only 0.3% of the
mples the level exceeded 100ppb. Reviewing the influence of season on the toxin contamination it.
I
lS
found that 43.2% of DOGNC, 41.3% of SFOC and 26.3% of SBM positive for the presence of
·TB 1 were in the non-rainy season.
~reals: Maize was the predominant cereal screened (78.7%), nearly 36.3% of the maize sample~~
~re
negative and in 31.9% the level of AFTB1 was below 20ppb. In 18.4% of the maize samples the:
:.
reI ranged between 21 and 100ppb, 11.9% of the samples the level was between 101 and SOO ppb, .~~
.~:
~%
samples the level was above SOOppb,
studying
the influence of the s~ason it was JO).ln9
that
- - of the
--......._ -'
.
.
... ...
~
~
' - '
-,~
~
_
arly 30.5% of the maize samples tested in the non-rainy season were found to be contaminated ~t,~
"TBI. Among the other cereals tested 70.2% contained below 20ppb of AFTB1, 8.2%
.
tween 21 and 100ppb and only 0.7% contained above 100ppb of AFTBI.
contain~~
-!i-....
'~l'
eds: Only 8.5% of the feed samples screened were negative for AFTBI. In S7.6% of the sam~l~
~ level was below 20ppb.
In 29.1% of the samples the level ranged from 21 to 100ppb, in 6.35% ~k
~ samples it was between 100 and 500ppb, in 0.3% it was above SOOppb. The effect of the seas~f,:
.'J.
lowed the pattern of the cereals and oil cakes it was nearly 39.1% positive for AFTB 1 during t~~:
.~
.
n-rainy season.
ycotoxins other than aflatoxins
>~
.
A 2-Dimensional thin layer chromatographic method was modified and standardized in t~I~'
loratory from an earlier procedure( Tapia, 1985). Quantification of ochratoxin A (OA),
ci~rinin, 1i~'
:in, zearaienone, sterigmatocystin, aflatoxins was done. A total of 4131 samples were received ~o~
tlysis between April.1997 and December 1998. While 2407 samples were oil cakes, 140S sample
82
were feed and 319 were cereals. OA,. citrinin and aflatoxin were the mycotoxins predominantly
observed iIi the feed ingredients and feeds.
Ochratoxin: Seventy eight per cent of SFOC samples were found to be contaminated with OA.
/
While 55.3% samples contained up to 100 ppb, 22.8% contained levels higher than,100ppb and 63.6%
"-
samples of SFOC were co-contaminated with AFTBI. Of the 1405 feed samples, '138 ~amples were
positive for OA. In 63 samples, both OA. and AFTB 1 were found to eo-occur up to 20ppb level and in
48 samples they co-occur at higher levels (21 to 200 ppb). Very little contaminatio~ was observed in
SBM and rapeseed meal.
Citrinin: Among the cereals, maize was predominantly contaminated both with citrinin and AFTB 1.
While 45 maize samples out of 229 were positive for citrinin, 22 contained AFTB 1 also. Citrinin was
present in 171 feed samples and all of them were contaminated with AFTB 1. Among these, 53 samples
contained above 50ppb of citrinin and 21-50ppb of AFTBl, 5 bajra samples were contaminated with
citrinin (100 - 200ppb) out of 11 samples received for analysis. Only 6 SBM samples were found to
have citrinin and all the samples were negative for AFTB 1.
Zearalenone: Out of 79 jowar samples received, 37 jowar samples contained zearalenone ranging
from 1 to 2 ppm level. Out of 11
b~jra
samples, 8 were positive for zearalenone (0.5 to 1ppm).
Emerging new toxins: Apart from the above mentioned toxins the presence of cyclo piazonic
acid~
oosporin,
patulin,
deoxynivalenol (DON), diactoxyscirpernol (DAS),
fumonisins
and
sterigmatocystin have also been recorded occasionally. Further, presence of toxins different from those
mentioned above have been suspected due to the fact that mortality has been recorded in birds showing
hepatitis and nephritis even though the feed was free from the above mentioned
mycotoxins. Several new fluorescent spots are encountered in the analysis of multimycotoxins and
Some are consi stently seen in the feeds obtained from farms with a history of feed related problems,
indicating the possibility of new toxins.
The results of the various screening process indicates that the mycotoxin contamination of the feed
ingredients has reached an alarming level, where even in dry seasons the' feed/ingredients are not free
from mycotoxins. The seriousness of the situation has not been well understood either by the
agricultural farmers or the raw material suppliers or the poultry farmers.
83
latoxin in animal feeds maximum permissible levels in various countries
apted from van Egmond (1991)
stria
.zil
lada
C
nce
ia
tugal
All feeds
Peanut meal (Export)
Livestock feeds
Feed
Ingredients
Peanut meal (Export)
Feed
Ingredient ,
GN derivatives
50
',20
Feed/ingredients
A
~
Tolerance Level (ppb)
Bl
Bl,B2,Gl,G2
50
50
20
50
200
120
20
200
Commodity
Ilntry
permissible level for various commodities for AFTB 1 in most countries is 50ppb or below
~cotoxins
in feed( other than aflatoxins) Tolerance levels in some countries
Ilntry
Toxin
Commodity
Tolerance
Level (ppb)
eden
DON
Ingredient
Feed: swine
cattle & chicken
swme
chicken
4000
400
2000
200
1000
raw materials
4000
Ochratoxin A
DON
A
~ld
reports of mycotoxicosis in poultry at Namakkal
,ed on the test results and interactions with the farmers regarding the effects on the birds,: I
owing observations were made in respect to the various mycotoxins recorded in NamakkaL
J
d for giving these well known facts again-is that these effects were seen even at low Je;~~
~reas, in the literature reports the effects are observed at levels several times above the
!'
I
:lrded here.
atoxin: Hepatitis, Nephritis, Immuno suppression. Even at 20 ppb level affected hatchabiJit,
n at 40 ppb level caused mortality in chicks.
rinin: At 50ppb level caused nephritis in chicks, Immuno suppression, At 40ppb level a,~
.
;;hability and at 50ppb level caused watery droppings in layers.
,
84
Trichothecenes (T2, DON & DAS): Irritant toxin causing oral ulcers and enteritis, anemia, pale~ess
of beak, legs: Cattle are more sensitive - Feed refusal reported, In an episode caused (the feed
contained i ppm of T2toxin): the following effects were observed
a) Shrivel~ng of comb b) Moulting a week after exposure c) Regression of ovaries & oviduct.
Ochratoxin': Immuno suppression. At 50ppb level caused nephritis in chicks. Air sacculitis
At
lOOppb level caused watery droppings in layers; affects egg shell thickness and ca'us~d leathery eggs.
"
At SOppb level affected hatchability
...
Oosporin: Nephritis. Gout and Immuno suppression.
Fumonisins: Pasty vent in chicks.
.
.
Sterigmatocystin: Hepatitis, at 100ppb level caused nephritis in chicks and watery
droppings in growers and layers and Imm(mo suppression.
Zearalenone: Suspected to cause leathery eggs
The observations made here indicates that in the field conditions the effects of the mycotoxins seen '"
even at such low levels could be due to the presence of two or more mycotoxins and their synergistic
effects. Our experiencejustifies the .low permissible levels allowed in some countries.
Mycotoxins in Animal Products:
The major concern in mycotoxicosis is not only the decline in health of the livestock and poultry and
the consequent economic loss to the farmers, but the residues or the metabolites present in the
livestock products affecting the human health.
In general nearly 90% of the aflatoxins absorbed are excreted within 24hr. A small amount is retained
in the tissues for a longer period of time as they are bound to the proteins, the highest residue
concentration was found in the liver. The major concern is the transmission of aflatoxin Ml in the milk
because of its carcinogenicity, as the proportion of the toxin
in liver to that in the feed was 1: 14000
whereas in the milk it was 1:300, which explains the seriousness of the situation. The proportion of the
aflatoxin in the feed :broiler liver was 1: 1200, swine liver 1: 800
and egg. it was 1:2200 (Stoloff, 1980). Similarly the T2 toxin residue in 'the tissues was also reported
(Yoshizawa et al,1981). The tissue: feed ratio in the chicken muscle was 0.014, heart 0.011 and liver
0027 while in swine muscle it was 0.002, heart 0.003 and liver it was 0.011. The presence of
Ochratoxin A as high as 29J..lg in the muscles of chicken collected from a slaughter house was reported
by Elling et al., (1975 ). Kidneys were found to contain the highest levels followed by liver and
tnuscles (Krogh, 1987). Eggs were free of ochratoxins at low levels but were detected when the feed
Contained 10mglkg.
:urrent Needs
. Standardizing a procedure for estimating the currently prevalent mycotoxins in a single run, as th
[1ost important thing is that how fast the results can be passed on to the farmer.
. Simple and economical methods for detoxifying the mycotoxins as rejecting the feed/ingredients i
'j
mpossible for developing countries like India.
References
:heeke,R.P. and Shull,L.R. 1985 Natural Toxicants in Feed and Poisonous Plants.AVI Publishing
:ompany,IN C.Westport Connecticut.
~lling, F., Hald, B., Jacobson, C. and Krogh, P. 1975 Spon~eous nephropathy in poultry associated with
Ichratoxin A. Acta. Patho!. Scand. Sect. A.Patho!. 83:739.
~rogh,P.1987
Ochratoxin in foods. In:P. Krogh(Ed.) Mycotoxins in food. Academic Press, Harcourt Brace
ovanovich, London. Stoloff, L. 1980 Aflatoxin M in milk. J. Food Prot. 43,226.
~apla, O.M. 1985. A quantitative thin layer chromatography method for the analysis of afiatoxins, ochratoxin A
:earalenone, T-2 toxin and sterigmatocystin in foodstuffs. Revista Argentina de Microbiologia. Vol. 17: 183- I
86
fan Egmond, H.P. 1991. Limits and regulations for mycotoxins in raw materials and animal feeds. In
vlycotoxins and Animal Food CRC press, Inc. London.
{oshizawa,T. Mirocha,C.J. Behems, lC. and Swanson, S.P.1981 Metabolic fate ofT-2 toxin in a lactating cow. Food
~osmet. Taxicol. 19,31-39.
86
L
RAPID TECHNIQUE TO IDENTIFY & QUANTIFY AFLATOXINS IN FEED
Dr.A.Natarajan, M.VSe., Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor,
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory,
Veterinary Hospital Campus, Namakkal-l.
\,.
Aflatoxins are a group of structurally related secondary fungal metabqlites that are
carcinogens, hepatoxic, teratogenic and immuno-suppressive. They are produced in a variety
of grains and nuts. The quantity of the aflatoxins present in the feed ingredients should be
known to effectively control the level below the permissible quantity. The method Qf
analyzing aflatoxins ought to be simple, reliable, quick and precise. It should not be timeconsuming and should have repeatability.
The aflatoxim are analyzed based on their
properties. Solubility in organic solvents like chloroform, methanol
~c.
helps in extraction,
while insoluble nature in petroleum ether and hexane affords to separation from interfering
elements. Characteristic fluorescence and absorption under long wave UV light aid detection
f
and fluorescence intensity gives quantification.
Romer's method (Modified)
In the method of detection and quantification of aflatoxins, the following steps are
involved ..
1. Sampling and sample preparation: Adequate sampling i$ extremely important. Sample
should be drawn from as many bags as possible and from different sides of individual bag.
The quantity thus drawn is mixed well, spread and quartered to provide a 250 g analytical
sample. The analytical sample is ground through a 10-mesh screen and mixed well.
Onc~
ground well, a quantity as small as 109 is used for further processing.
2. Extraction: First, a slurry by blending the sample with water is made, followed by
acetone and filtered.
3. Extract purification: Treat with cupric carbonate and ferric gel to eliminate fluorescent
materials other than aflatoxin, washed with acid and alkali and extracted with chloroform
and dried.
4. Detection and estimation: The dried aflatoxin is rediluted with known quantity of
chloroform and spotted in an activated TLC plate with standards and ascertained the
concentration by visual comparison method in an Ultraviolet viewing cabinet.
87
.
.,'
Reagents required:
1.0.2MNaOH
8 g ofNaOH in 1000 ml solution
2"., 0.,41 M FeCh
Dissolve 70 g FeCh to m~e 1 litre solution with DW,
3.0.03
ro H S0
2
';
4
0.3 ml ofe~nc. H2S04 in 1 litre ofDW.
4.0.02MKOH
Dissolve 1.222 g ofKOH and 10 g ofKCI in 1 litre
& l%KCI.
standard flask with distilled water.
I
.
Preparation of activated TLC plate:
_,
T~ prepare 2 plates (IOcm x IOcm or Idem x Scm) of 0.2 mm thickness dissolve 16~
.
..
of silica gel (G) in 35mI of distilled water, apply on the plat.es using applicators and allow it t~
natural dry. Then keep the plates at 105 0 C for'l hour.and cool. Draw lines with- lcm spaCt
such that standards are at the middle of the plate and four sample spots can be applied or
either side of the standard.
Procedure:
1. Take 109 of the sample. Add 40ml of distilled water. Beat it in the mixie for 2 mts.
2. Add 60 ml of acetone and again beat it for two minutes. Contents may slightly be
heated up. High temperature should be avoided.
3. Filter the contents. Take 30 mt of the filterate and add approximately 0.6 g of cupric
carbonate in beaker (A).
4. In another beaker (B), take 34 ml,otO.2 MNaOH + 6 ml of FeCh '(0.41 M) and swirl the '..
contents.
5. Add the contents in the beaker (B) to beaker (A) and again mix it slowly by swirling
movements.
6. Filter the contents through Whatman No.1 filter paper.
7. Take 40 ml of the filterate in a 250 ml separating funnel.
8. Add 40 ml of(0.03 %) H 2 S04 and 10 ml of chloroform. Mix it slowly.
9. Collect the chloroform layer in a 100 Illl beaker, add again 10 ml of chloroform, mix
thoroughly, allow to settle and collect the chloroform in the same 100 ml beaker;
10. In a second separating funnel, take 40 ml of 0.02 M KOH and 1 % KCI mixture.
,
.
,
11. To this, add the collected 20 ml chloroform extract. Mix it slowly and collect the
.
layer through anhydrous sodium sulphate bed drop by drop to. remove
any traces rof
_.
moisture.
,
.
12. Keep the chloroform extract in ail oven at 50°C till it becomes dry.
13. The dry aflatoxin film is rediluted with 0.2 ml chloroform and spotted on the TLC plate
taking exactly 5, 10,20 and 40 J.tl besides the standard spots of5 and 10 J.ll.
88
Calculation:
SxCxD
Aflatoxin content in ppb
x 1000
=
T x 1.714
'f
S is Standard, which compares with the sample in fluorescent intensity,
C is Concentration of the standard,
D is Dilution factor,
. T is Sample which compares with standard in fluorescent intensity and
1,714 is the Effective weight.
Preparation of aflatoxin standard:
Carefully prepare the given aflatoxin in a suitable standard flask with benzene
Acetonitrile (98+2) mixture to give a concentration of lOlli/mi.
Standardize the
concentration of the stock solution using spectrophotometer (Vide AOAC 1990 15th edition
Ch:49 pp 1185-1186).
From this stock solution, prepare aflatoxin solution in benzene:
acetonitrile containing 4 Ill/ml in a suitable flask, which is the working standard.
After
spotting the standards and sample, develop the spots in an unsaturated developing tank
containing chloroform: acetone: water in the ratio of 87: 12: 1. After developing three fourth
of the plate, the plate 'is carefully removed from the tank, dried well and viewed in a UV
cabinet viewer using long wavelength (364 nm).
*****
89
.••
,
t
'
FLUORIMETRIC METHOD OF !\ri:COTOXIN A.N~LYSIS
K. Mani and M. Moorthy
Department of Poultry :;cience,
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
Naniakkal- 637 001.
AFLA TEST
PRINCIPLE:
Samples are mixed with an extraction solution blending' and filtering. The
extraction is then applied to Afla test column 'bound with specific antibodies to
Aflatoxin. At this stage, the aflatoxin binds to the antibody ,on the c;olumh. The column is then
washed with water to get rid of the ifIlmuno-affinity column of impurities. By passing
,
methanol through the column, the Aflatoxin is removed
fro~
solution can then be injected into HPLC system (or) measured in a Fluorimeter.
PROCEDURE:
I. Set up:
1. Calibrate the Fluorimeter.
2, Prepare Afla test developer. (To 0.5 ml of Afla test developer add 4.5 ml of
Purified water and mix well to prepare Afla test developer)
3. Prepare methanol: water (80: 20 by volume) solution.
II. Sample Extraction:
1. Weigh 50 gm of ground sample with 5 gm ofNaCI and place it in a jar.
2. Add, 100 rol methanol: water (80 : 20 ) and mix.
3, Cover the jar and blend it at high speed for on€? minute.
4, Remove the cover from the jar and pour the extract into a folded filter paper.
S. Collect the filtrate in a clean vessel.
III. Extract Dilution:
1, Pipette (or) pour 10 ml filtered extract into a clean vessel.
2. Dilute the extract with 40 ml purified water and mix well.
3. Filter dilute extract through glass microfibre filter.
IV, Column Chromatography:
1: Remove the top cap from the column.
2. Cut bottom 1/8 inch of the end of the top cap with a blade.
3. Replace the cap to the column and fit the column to the glass syringe and
remove bottom cap on column.
90
'
the antibody. This methanol
4. Pass 2 ml filtrated diluted extract (2ml = 0.2 gram sample equivalent)
Completely through Afla test affinity column at a 'rate of about 1 - 2 drops /
second until air comes through the column.
5. Pass 5 ml of purified water/ through the column at the rate of about 2 drops /
~~.
~
.
6. Repeat the above step until air comes through the column.
,
.... '.
7. Elute the affinity column by passing 1 ml ofHPLC grade methanol through
column at a rate of 1-2 drops/second and collect all samples elute in a
glass cuvette.
8. Add 1 ml of Afla test developer to elute in the cuvette. Mix well and place
Cuvette in a calibrated Fluorimeter.
9. Read the Aflatoxin after 60 seconds.
OCHRA TEST
INTRODUCTION:
Ochra test is an immuno-affinity test, which utilizes monoclonal anti- bodies with high
specificity for Ochratoxin A, and negligible reactivity towards Ochratoxin B. This property
makes this test ideal as the cleanup step for HPLC analysis.
PROCEDURE:
1. Set liP:
1. Calibrate the Fluorimeter.
2. Prepare methanol: water (86:20 by volume)' solution every week or
as needed.
3. Prepare mycotoxin wash buffer.
4. Make sure that reagent blank (1.5 ml Ocbra test eluting solution) reads 1.5 ppb less
on a calibrated series 3 or 4 Fluorimeter.
5. Make sure that 2ml of purified water in a cuvette reads 0 ppb on a calibrated
Fluorimeter.
II. Sample Extraction:
1. Weigh 50 gm of feed sample and place in blender jar.
2. Add to the jar 100ml methanol: water (80:20 by volume).
3. Cover the blender jar and blend at higli speed for 1 minute .
. 4. Remove cover from the jar and pour extract into folded filter paper.
5. Collect fi1tered in a dean vessel.
91
III. Extract Dilution:
1. Pipette or pour 10 ml filtered extract into a clean vessel.
2. Dilute extract with 40 ml purified water. Mix well.
3. Filter extract through micro fibre filter and collect filtrate in a clean vessel or
directly into glass syrin~e barrel.
IV. Column Chromatography:
1. Pass 10 ml diluted extract completely through Ochr~ test affinity column at a rate
of about 1 - 2 drops/ second until air comes through column.
2. Pass 10 ml of mycotoxin wash buffer through the column
at a rate of 1 - 2 Drops.!
.
.
~
second.
,
3. Pass 10 ml of purified water .through the column at a rate of 1 '-2 drops! second
until air comes through column.
4. Elute affinity column by p.assing 1.5 ml ochratest eluting solutio)) through column
at a rate of 1-2drop/second and collecting all ofthe sample
".
elut~
t
(1.5 ml) in a glass
.
cuvette.
5. Mix well and place cuvette in a calibrated Fluorimeter.
6. Read Ochratoxin concentration after 60 seconds
. ZEARALA TEST
INTRODUCTION:
. Zearalenone is an estrogenic mycotoxin produced by the fungus Fusarium
graminearum. Zearalenone is unaffected by humidity or heat at temperature upto 30 °C:-The
reagents used for this test shoJ.Ild bring to room temperature before use.
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up:
1. Calibrate Fluorimeter.
2. Prepare methanol: water extraction solution every week or as needed.
3. Prepare Zearala test developer solution fresh every month or as needed.
n. Sample Extraction:
1. Weigh 50gm of ground sample with 5gm salt (NaCI) and place in J>lender jar.
. Add to jar 100ml of methanol: water (80:20).
3. Cover the.blender jar and blend at high speed for 1 minute.·
4. Remove the cover from the jar and pour the extract into fluted filter paper.
5. Collect filtrate in a clean vessel.
92
III. Extract Dilution:
1. Pipette 1ml filtered extract into a 50ml-gradmited cylinder.
2. Dilute extract with 49ml of distilled water. Mix well.
3. Filter the dilute extract through microfibre filter and collect filtrate in a clean vessel.
/
IV. Column Chromatography:
1. Pipette 1ml of filtered dilute extract into glass syringe barrel.
,
..
2. Pass filtered diluted extract completely through affmity column at a rate of about 1
- 2 drops / second until air comes through the column.
3. Pass 5ml of distilled water through the column at a rate of 1 - 2 drops / second.
4. Elute affinity column by passing Iml HPLC grade methanol ~ough column at a
.
.
rate of I - 2 drops/second and collect the entire sample elute
ml in a glass
cuvette.
5. Add 1.0ml of Zearala test developer to elute in the cuvette. Mix well and place
cuvette in a calibrated Fluorimeter.
6. Read Zearalenone concentration after 120 seconds.
*****
93
~
ESTIMATION OF'VITAMINS USING HPLC' \
T .K.Sundaram, M.Sc.,
Assistant Professor (SG),
Animal Feed Analytical & Quality Control Laboratory,
VeterinruY Hospital Campus, Namakkal- 637 001.
Vitamins, widespread, in the fields of foods, pharmaceuticals and clinical chemistry,
n.eed to be analysed to
ascert~n
the op!imum levels. HPLC plays an important role in
analysing these vital factors in low levels.
"
. HPLC is a High Performanc.e Liquid Chromatograph consisting of various
?etectors.
'1. UV- visible spectrophotometric qetector.
.2. Fluorescence detector.
3. Conductivity detector and
4. Refractive index detector.
The principle involved in these estimations is very simple that a specific column
(Stationery phase) has been designed for each type of estimation.
When under set
conditions (Analytical conditions) the sample is injected through a mobile phase which
passes through the column and due to different adsorbing power of different polar
substances~ the more polar substance is very strongly absorbed at the bottQm and less Qol~
substances are least absorbed and elute first. The eluted substances pass through the
detector in. the order of decreasing
polari~y
and the absorbance at. a median A max. is
recorded in. UV-visible spectrophotometric detector and processed in the integrator. The
~ess
polar substances will have less retention time whereas the more polar substances will
be' recorded with different peaks at different retention times, which depend on the degree
.~f polarity of the samples injected. The area under each peak is a quantitative measure of
the amount of that component.
The estimation of vitamins is divided into
1. Water soluble vitamins and
2.
Fat soluble vitamins depending upon the method and analytical conditions.
94
!I
The water soluble vitamins are estimated by Ion exchange chromatography since
these vitamins are ionic. To separate such compounds, it is necessary to make them behave
as non-ionic species with lipophonic characteristics. An organic counter ion added to the
mobile phase farms a reversible ion-pair complex with ionic sample component.
This
complex behaves as an electrically neutral, non-polar lipophilic compound.
Sample ± + counter-ion ± ~ (Sample counter-ion ± ) pair.
The extent to which the sample and the counter ion form an ion-pair complex
I
..
affects the degree of retention by the non-polar stationary phase. The more lipophilic the
ion-pair complex, the greater will be its attraction for, and retention by, the hydrophobic
stationary phase. The technique of ion-pair chromatography enables the chromatographer
to reversibly alter the polarity for the sample components and this technique is otherwise
called as Reversed Phase Chromatography.
There are so many ion-pair reagents identified but for water soluble vitamins 1pentane sulphonic acid sodium salt (SHS) and I-Octane sulphonic acid sodium salt (SOS)
are used as ion pair reagents.
The retention time is found to be longer if I-Octane
sulphonic acid sodium salt is used rather than I-pentane sulphonic acid sodium salt. These
vitamins are quantified by external calibration method in the UV region. The analytical
conditions to be followed are given below:
Stationary Phase: Shim-pack CLCODS(6.0 mm cpx 15 em)
Mobile Phase:
100 mM sodium phosphate
Buffer (PH 2.1)
0.8mMSOS}
-' 9
Acetonitrile
- 1
Temperature
40 CC
Flow rate
1.S-in/lmt
Detector
: UV-2l0nm
Peaks appear in the following order.
1. Nicotinic Acid.
2. Nicotinamide.
3. Pantothenate.
95
4. Pyridoxine.
5. Riboflavin Pho.sphatl6. Thiamine.
7. Caffeine.
8. Folic Acid.
9. Biotin.
10. Riboflavin.
The fat soluble vitamins are selectively separated, in general by reversed phas~
chromatography. But absorption chromatography may sometimes be desirable to separate
isomers and homologues.
The analytical conditions are given below, for vitamin A as acetate and palmitate,
Vitamin E and its acetate and Vitamin K2.
Stationary phase " Zorbax ODS
(4.6 mm rpx 15 em)
Mobile phase
" Methanol.
Temperature
Flow rattt
" 55'C
: 1.5 mllmt.
Detector
" UV 325, 254 nm.
For horoologues of Tocopherol, the analytical conditions are
Stationary Phase " Shim-pack CLe:--,":-"
NH2 ar a Silica Column (6.0 mm rp x 15 em)
Mobile Phase
" n-Hexane 100
Iso-propanol 4
Temperature
40'C
Flow rate
1.5 mllmt.
Detector
" UV297nm.
Remarks:
1. The estimation of water soluble vitamins is so easily affected by ion intensity and pI
that utmost care should be taken to maintain these two factors strictly constant.
Reproducibility and repeatability are grossly affected by ion intensity and pH.
2. All chemicals should be ofHPLC grade manufactured by genuine companies.
3. For preparation of standard solution UV-grade solvents have to be utilized.
96
·
I
COMMON ADULTERANTS /CONTAMINANTS IN FEED STUFFS AND
THEIR TESTING.
Dr. A. Natarajan, M.V.Sc., Ph.D.,
,-Assistant Professor,
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory \."~
Veterinary Hospital Campus,
'.
Trichy Road, Namakkal- 637001.
Introduction:
.Adulterants / contaminants are foreign bodies that
are found in the agricultural/marine
products an~ by-products which could cause harmful· effects to livestock and poultry. Presence
of adulterants and contaminants reduces the nutritive value of the main product. Adulterants
and contaminants might gain entry into the major product naturally (occur in minute quantities)
or during industrial processing (supply of improperly handled raw materials) or by deliberate
addition to.gain extra profit.
Common adulterants of livestock and poultry feed:
Maize:
Cobs, sand and silica, shrunken and broken kernels
Ragi: .
Sand and silica. '
Other cereals:
Sand. and silica.
Fish Meal:
Sand and silica, Salt, Urea.
Meat and Bone Meal: Leather meal, sand and silica, silk worm pupae meal.
Groundnut cake:
-Soya Bean Meal:
Sand and silica, Rape Seed Meal, Hulls, steamed DaRB
Hull, Sand and silica, Urea.
~
-
10-
__
Sunflower Oil Cake: Hulls, Sand And Silica.
OORB:
Sand and Silica, Husk
Calcite:
Magnesium, Sand and Silica.
OCP:
Sand and Silica, fluorine.
Shell Grit:
Sand and Silica.
Rape Seed Meal:
Pongamia globra (Pungam cake)
Rice polish:
Sand and Silica, Rancid oils
Impact of contaminants and adulterants on animal productivity and health:
Sand and Silica:
Ruminants (max)
:4%
Poultry
:2.0%
(max)
Excess of Sand and Silica causes digestive disorders in Ruminants. Excess of sand and
silica in poultry causes loose droppings, poor F.C.R., lowered egg and meat production.
97
!-
Salt:
Poultry
....
.~:
,(max): 0:5 % .
Ruminants (max): 1 %
. Excess of salt cause ill effects in poultry. Ascites, excess water intake, reduced feed
ntake, trembling symptoms are the Common symptoms in poultry. Young are less tolerant than
>Id. Five per cent salt produces limite;d mo~ality at 3 months of age but it will·be very high in
)aby chicks. Ruminants can tolerate upto 5G,(o.
Magnesium
Poultry (max): 0.05%
Ruminants (ma'f:): 2%
Ullder practical conditions an excess of magnesium in poultry is more likely due to the
Ise of dolomitic limestone which depresses growth rate of chickens and reduces egg production
md egg shell thickness. It is a common adult.erantlcontaminant in lime stone powder or calcite
md PCP.
Urea: Ruminants « 0.3 % of the total DM)
The presence of urea in poultry feedlingredients reduces the .true protein level and
nisleads to give false picture about the true protein content. Hence' it becomes mandatory to
~vatuate 'the feeds for urea also. In the case of cattle feeds, urea is normally added at 1 to 1.5%
o increase the nitrogen availability for the rumen microbes. Exceeding 1.5 % of urea may
lrove fatal to the microbes and also to the host. due to ammonia toxicity. Hence the feeds meant
br cattle should also be checked for urea and other NPN materials.
The above a,dulterants/contaminants present in feed/ingredients are qualitatively and
luantitatively estimated. The special analytical methods for quick iests and spot test for the
Iresence_of adulterants are given below.
MAGNESIUM
Test for magnesium sulfate)
?eagents: Solution A - Potassium hydroxide IN.
Solution B - Dissolve 12.7g of iodine and 40g of potassium iodide in 25ml of
distilled Water. Stir and then dilute to 100mI.
)rocedure:
1. ·Mix solution A with an excess amount of solution
a to give a very dark brown color
mixture.
2. Take a small part of the dark brown color mixture and add 2-3 drops of Solution A
until it turns a pale yellow.
3. Moisten the filter paper with this pale yellow solution and then sprinkle with the
sample to be tested.
98
Positive Results:
Magnesium gives YELLOW BROWN SPOTS.
Note: The mixture of Solution A and B deteriorates very quickly and should be
freshly mixed for each test.
SALT
(Sodium Chloride)
1. Silver nitrate solution (5%).
2. Nitric acid solution (1 :2).
3. Ammonium hydroxide solution (1: 1).
4. Standard sodium chloride solution (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 %).
Procedure:
l. Weigh Ig of sample and add 100 ml of distilled water. Stir and filter with Whatman
No.4
2. Pipette 1 ml of standard solution and 8 ml of nitric acid solution. Stir and add 1 ml
of silver nitrate solution.
,
3. Stir and compare the test sample with the standard sample. This test should be read
within 5 minutes.
Positive Results: Salt gives a WIflTE TURBIDITY.
UREA
Reagents:
1. 'Urease solution - Dissolve 0.2 g bfurease powder in 50 ml of distilled water.
2. Standard ,urea solution (0,1,2, ...... 5%)
3. Cresol red indicator (0.1%).
Procedure:
l. Weigh 10 g of test sample and add 100 ml of distilled water. Stir and filter with
Whatman No.4 '
2. Pipette 2 ml of standard solution and test sample into white porcelain spot plates. ,
3. Add 2-3 drops of cresol red indicator and add 2-3 drops ofure'ase solution.
4. Let it stand for 3-5 minutes, if urea is present, it will form a deep red-purple
spreading like a spider's web appearance, in contrast to the yellow color of t4e,
indicator.
5. Compare the test sample with the standard urea sample. This test should be read
within 10-12 minutes.
99
\
HOOFO~HORN
Reagent.~:
,
CJ
0' J~{
.
.
, Idl
,
.2TOQ2 m OHa. VI J.:l 25VIg mUf2~Ctg~JV'J
1.1 GJaciaJ acetic acid (l: I). .
.
.
~d, biup!i;~ bnn ,{blo!1}p '{l''l ~3rnon~1,b H bn!) A nOliulo210 51uixlm 5rlT :~loV1
P/'(Jcedure:
JP.~t !bS5 10} b~xifft vlrli!~J'H
1." For quick test, place 2-'3 particles' of amber color test sample into an evaporating
,
'T..JA~
dish.
'
(b'
Lt"
'h "l:)
~ no ( ..J fflUI .. Oc;.
1
2", Add 5 ml of glacial acetic acid into the evapor~titlg dish [and let. it stand for 60
.lo~c) nOliU Of! ~H61im l~vll7.
, "
minutes.
.1
'
.(S:: () noijul02 bbe Ohli~ .!:
3. If hoof and horn are present, the. test p.articles WIill still t:emru,',n hard and t9ugh.
,
.(1: I) nodu 02 5bIXOlb'(rf mlJlCIommA .f.
Gelatin will be become ~oft and swollen.
.
"~'
"
.laf £.0 ,~.O ,1.0 (0) no;iulot! sbnoltb mui~~,~lBbrT6j2 .f:.'
LEATHER MEAL
nsuJts>rlW dtiw 15t[it bns 1i12 .15t6," b5fli!2tb 101m 00 f bbs bns sIom£210 ~ f rlgi~W ,I
Reagents: ,
.
.
' ,
•
'-'
..' Vi in 100 ml of
1. Ammonium Molybdate solution - Dissolve 5 g of Ammonium Molybd~te
1m I hb£ .b.nB 1i12 .noiJpi02 bbn ~iltin hJl 8 bon nohuJo?, b.16bnl3l?10 1m I ~i1~qi(J .~
.
dlstllled 'Water and pour mto 35 m of concentrated mtnc aCid.
,
.noi1uioo t>161!in l~vliG '10
'ip
Procedure:
bS~J 3d.bluolie. i~~! eidTbl:}hJms~ b1Bbn~la fldl.dliW algml)e 1~~1 ~rh ~lfmrnOO bnB ,i!2 .r.
Pick up brown to acR test sample partiC es ana place In petn dI'Sh.
.
.
,'~~wnirn (. nirltiw
2. Add 3-5 drops of ammonIUm molybdate and let It stand for 5-1 U mInutes.
. ,
.YTI018JIUT 3TIHW B 27Jyi!l .1lB2 :dhJ2.~Jl ~l'/'ili~o(1
3. Leather pleal Wln glve no color change. Meat and bone meal gIVeS a greemsh yellow color.
. .
A3JfU
An overview of adulterants I contaminants encountered in AFAQCL for tbe year 1998-99
I.
High Sand and, Silica: (> I 0 %) : About 344 samples out of the 2162 samples (15.91 %) "~~~jg6\~d
.1:)1Ilw, b~1Iit2jb 10 Jm Oc oj lsbv/oa "S2&SlUl0 g S.p sv10;22(Q - ijortulo2 'J2£5IiJ . i
for the sand and SIlica estImatlOn contamed alarmmg quantltIes.1.11gh sand ~l1d silica problem. was
:'~:d
. fi h
1 c; II
db DORB l'
(q-.?? ...... lS,l (0) noiiulo2
8!nLJ blBbant2 .S:
eVI ent In IS mea 10 owe y
, ca cite ana nce po Ish.
'
; h M
'
(
)
. 'h
",
. ,(Ii;~r.O) loiBoibni b~l i.0251J . ,r.
CP
H.g
agneslUm:· > I % : Rig magneSIUm contamInatlOn was oDserveu In calCIte and D
'. ~~',,\\)'}·.)ml\
,
samples due to dolomitic source.
. rlbJiw 15tmbJ!£ 1it2 .1~tBW b~mj2ib 'to 1m 001 bbB bOB ~lqms2
H Ig :Sa.t: (> 5 %) :
. ' .
High Urea:
10 g or II~i~W .1
-
t>.0\.1 flfifnlBrlW
Total samples received 532
1~FI~W~e1il:niBbol0q
jl5j
:1[86/ oloi f}iqmsa t2~t bOB noi!ui02 bl£bon!21o 1m ~ ~115qi'i
.noitul02 52B51U 10 aq01b £-~ bbs bl1B 10160ibni
b~l (0251010
aq01b t-£ bbA .£
Jliw
li ,tn52~lq 2i B~lU li .251unim c-£ 101 bnB12 ii t~J .P
lotal samples receive 118
fjrli 1~ c~IRg feleoJJ;j'( sel! ~t ~6~tg~0%'j ,50IlB16fJqQ6 dsw '2(1~biq2 6 5jJil gnibB~nq2
5!q1f.mub~1 Q~5b B unp!
.1otnoibni
bs~.n· ~d bl,!ori2 12:51 aidT .sIqm62 B~1U hlBbnsj2 5fb riiiw ~lqmBa 12St selJ ::n.GqmoJ .(
2. Fish Meal
: 11 (>1 %) ,
.2~1uflim
~~
100
s: r-0 r rrirWw
MODIFIED METHOD OF ESTIMATING THE MULTIMYCOTOXINS IN '
FEED I RAW MATERIALS
Dr. A.Natarajan, M.V.Sc., Ph.D.,
~
AS$istant ProfessQr,
,
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Co~trol Laboratory,
Veterinary Hospital Campus,
Namakkal- 637 001.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by specific strains of fungi that grow on
wide range of agricultural commodities like cereals, nuts, soyabeans, by-products and other
crops. Most of the mycotoxins are ideally produced under the conditions prevailing in
..
tropic~l
."
regions like India. Because it is very common that liver and kidney damages, fluctuation
m~gg
production, diarrhoea, reduction in feed intake and subsequent growth retardation, and
impainnent of immune system occur iii poultry flocks due to mycotoxins other than aflatoxin, 'It
becomes inevitable that a single procedure to estimate mycotoxins inCluding aflatoxin was to be
standardized for careful use of the infested feed materials.
The method of Maria 0 Tapia <;has been Suitably modified and standardized in this
laboratory in such a yvay that maximum recovery of more number of toxins iq shortest time was
made possible. In the developed method, the Rf values were' fixed for various mycotoxins so
that the method is <;ommercially applicable.
The multitoxins are extracted with Acetonitrile, potassium chloride and hydrochloric
acid, filtered and defatted wit~ hexane twice. , ~~e. fat fr~e ~xtract is further extracted by
..
-,~-
. ~-
--- -
~-
- .
chloroform, dried and rediluted in high purity chloroform and spotted on a precoated aluminium
sheet (E Merck) 0.25 mm thickness along with known standards. After air dried, developed in
chloroform and acetone o'n one direction and Toluene, Ethyl acetate and formic acid in .the
second direction perpendicular to the first. The plates are dried and quantified under exposure in
long wave UV-light.
Reagents:
1, Acetonitrile
2. Hexane
3. Chloroform
4. Sodium sulphate anhydrous
5. Acetone
6. Toluene
7. Ethyl acetate
101
. 8.' Formic acid
9:' 5 N HCI (Sp. Gr. 1. ~8): 182.3 g HCI or 154.49 ml is dissolved in DW to 1 litre .
. 10. Potassium chloride (4%)::4
gofKCl in 100 ml DW.
11. Sulphuric acid (20 % v/v): 20 ml of suiphuric acid dissolved in DW to 100 ml.
I
1~. Potassium hydroxide (2q %): 20 g QfKOH dissolved to 100 ml.
13. Standard toxins: Aflatoxin, Ochroxin, T2-toxin, Citrinin, Zearelenone and
as working standard.
, Sterigmatocys~in of suital?le conce~tration
,
.
Procedure:
1. Take about 109 of the ground sample, blend at high speed for 3 m with 36 ml of
Acetonitrile, 4 ml of 4 % KCI and 0.8 mi. of 5 N HCl.
2. Filter the extract through filter paper (Whatman No.1)
3. Transfer. 20 ml of filtrate into a 250 ml separating funnel, add 20 ml of water and 20 ml of
hexane, shake well. The hexane layer is discarded.
4, Collect the lower layer and add 20 ml of hexane, shake well and collect the lower layer.
S~ Extract the resulting acetonitrile phase with two 10 ml portions of chloroform.
6. Collect the chloroform layer, dry over anhydrous sodium sulphate.
7: Evaporate to dryness
8. The residue is dissolved in 0.2 ml chloroform
9. Spot 10, 20, 50, and 100 J..lI of the extract on a precoated aluminium sheet (E Merck)
together with standard spots.
:7l().-Pevelop the plate iIi chloroform and acetone (9: 1) in one direction.and toluene, ethyl acetate
and formic acid (5:4: 1) in the second direction perpendicular to the first.
11. The plates are viewed under long and short wavelength. Sterigmatocystin (in small amounts)
and T2-toxin exhibit no fluorescence. Sterigmatocystin is visible as an orange fluorescent
spot in long UV light which.is intensified by spraying the corresponding zone of the plate
with 20 % aqueous KOH.
12. On the same plate spray 20 % H 2S04 at Rf of T2 toxin, dry at 110°C in an hot air oven.
When viewed under long UV light, T 2 toxin fluoresces as light green colour.
..Calculation:
SxCxD
Aflatoxin content in ppb
=
x 1000
TxE
.
102
S is Standard, which compares with the sample in fluorescent intensity,
C is Concentr~tion of the standard,
D is Dilution factor,
T is Sample which compares with standard in fluorescent intensity and
J
E is effective weight, which is 4.900.
\"\ ,
,
"
The Rfvalues as observed by Maria O.Tapia and ourseIfis given
Mycotoxins
,
Eluent 2
Eluent 1
Sterigmatocystin
1.00
(0.98)
0.57
(1.00)
Zearalenone
0.98
(0.93)
0.57
(0.95)
Aflatoxin B 1
0.62
(0.73)
0.22
(0.33)
Aflatoxin B2
0.56
(0.7i)
0.20
(0.28)
Aflatoxin G 1
0.48
(0.68)
0.15
(0.25)
AflatoxinG2
0.40
(0.66)
0.12
(0.20)
T..:2 Toxin
0.40
(0.60)
0.33
(0.38)
Ochratoxin A
0.00
(0.00)
0.46
(0.57)
The modified method is being adopted since 1996 in this laboratory and a number of
agricultural products and by-products have been screened for multimycotoxins ~nd> qui!e ~ large ._
..
.
. '
''Oilumber of feed ingredients were found to contain mU.ltimycotoxins and some of them in
alarming quantities, regularly. The sunflower oil cake was found to contain both aflatoxin and
ochrat9xin almost round the year ~d cereals and other oil cakes during the rainy seasons.
*****
103
QUANTIFICATION OF TRACE MINERALS BY
COLORIMETRIC METHODS
T.K.Sundaram, MSc.
Assistant Professor (SG)
Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory
Veterinary Hospital Campus
- . Road, Namakkal.
Tnchy
,NGANESE:
"
....;:
Manganese is important in the animal body is an activator of many enzyme~ such ~::
rolases and kinases and 'as a constituent· of arginase, pyruvate carboxylase and mangane~~\
~roxide dismutase Deficiency include retarded growth, skeletal abnormalities ataxia of the newborn';
reproduction failure. Mang~nese
through its activation of glycosyl transferases is required for the"
.
.
'
l~tion
of the mucopolysaocharide which forms the organic matrix of bone.
)rt~nt
element in the diet of young chicks, a deficiency leading to 'perosis' or 'slipped tendon' a
br~tion
Manganese is'
of.the leg bone which is not the only factor but·may also be aggravated by high dietary
:es of calcium and phosphorus or a deficiency of chlorine.
Another link between manganese and chlorine deficiencies is shown in fatty infiltration of the
and changes in the ultra structure of the liver.
Manganese deficiency in breeding birds reduces hatchability and shell thickness and causes
retraction in chicks. Other abnormalities associated with deficiency include impaired glucose
ation and a reduced vitamin K- induced blood clotting response. The dietary nutrient levels for
ry is 100mglkg.
[MATION OF MANGANESE
tie qfmeihod: The acid soiuble manganese in animal feed is oxidised to potassium perinanganate
potassium periodate in an acidified sample solution free from organic carbon.
The resultant
r developed is read in a photoelectric colorimeter or spectrophotometer. at 530 nm.
~nt: I.Potassium
permanganate standard solution: 500ppm Mn.
issolve 1.4383g KMn04 (500ppm Mn) in I I of distilled water. Boil for 1 hr and let stand
'ernight. Take O.l2g of sodium oxalate (dried for lh at 105°) in a 500ml beaker and add 250ml
~S04 (5+95) previously boiled and cooled to 27°c. Dissolve and add KMn04 solution to the hot
dium oxalate (at 55°-60°) till the end point. The end point is appearance of faint pink which
q;ists for 30s. .
Irmality =
mt KMn04 x 66.999
104
Transfer aliquot containing 20mg Mn t9 beaker, Add 100ml H20, 15ml H3P04 and 0.3~ KI04
and heat to boiling cool and dilute to one litre and protect from light. Dilute this solution containing
20ppm M~ with H20 (previously boiled with 0.3g KI04) to~'niake c-.onvenient working standards in
range of concentration to be compared.
Procedure:'
"
l. Weigh 5g of sample in
a silica (ca 600°C) cfllcible. Ash it.· Cool and add 5ml tI2S04 and 5ml
RN03 to ash in dish or to ash transferred to beaker with 20-30ml H20.
2. Evaporate to white fumes.
3. IfC is not completely destroyed, add additional portions HN03 boiling after each addition.
4. Cool slightly; transfer to 50 or 100m) volumetric flask, and add diluted H3P04 solution (8+92)
equal to Ih volume of flask (25 or 50ml).
S. Cool dilute to volume, mix and filter or let stand until clear.
6. If SOml flask was used, pippet 25ml clear solution into beaker or 50 or 100ml volumetric flask and
add 15ml H20. If lOOml flask was used, pippet 50ml into
b~er
or IOOml flask and add 30ml
H20.
7. Heat nearly to boiling and with stirring or swirling add 0.3g KI04 for each 15mg Mn present.
8. Keep for 30-60min. At 90-1 OO°e. or until colour development is complete.
9. Cool dilute to measured volume of 50 or· 1OOml and mix.
t
.
10. Compare with standard KMn04 solution in spectrophotometer at 530nm.
. Calculation:
Concentration in J.lg ~ 1000
Mn (in mg/kg)
=---------S.Wx 1000
IRON:
More than 90% of the iron in the, body is combined with proteins, the most important being
haemoglobin which contains about 3.4g/kg of the element.
Deficiency: Chronic iron toxicity results in alimentary disturbances, reduced growth and phosphorous
deficiency.
Sources: Feeds. of animal origin, such as meat, blood and fish meals are excellent sources of iron.
The dietary nutrient level of iron for \ poultry is 80mg/kg.
ESTIMATION OF IRON (WONG'S METHOD)
Outline of method: Iron is determined colorimetrically/ spectrophotometrically making use of the fact
that ferric iron gives a blood red colour with potassium thiocyanate. The resultant colour developed is
read photometrically at 540nm.
105
Rengents:
I. 30% H2S04 solution.
~. 7 % potassium persulphate solution: 7g of potassium persulph~lte is dissolved in glass distilled
water and the solution is made upto 100mi.
;. 40% potassium thiocyanate solution: 40g KSCN is dissolved in 90ml glass distilled water 4ml:
acetone is added and volume is made upto 100ml.
~.
St~ndard
iron solution: 702.2mg FAS is dissolved in 100ml glass distilled water and after addition
of 5ml of 1: 1 HCL, the solution is made upto one litre and mixed thoroughly (0.1
~8'
Fe/ml). The
standard solution is prepared fresh once in 6 months.
Working standard solution (IOllg tolOOllg Fe/ml) is prepared by diluting the above solution
suitably.
Procedure:
1) Take 2g of the sample, slightly heat till smoke ceases and keep it in a muffle furnace at 550°C
in a silica crucible for one hr. and then cool. If the sample is a powder (other than feed), ashing
is not necessary. Take one gram of powder.
2) To this total ash/one g powder, add (1+3) HCI till effervescence ceases and add 5 drops of
0+3) HN03.
3) Heat the contents to boil. Cool and ,filter through Whatman No:42 filter paper and collect the
filtrate in a 100mi volumetric flask.
4) Wash the residue with hot distilled water two or three times and collect the washings also into a
lOOml volumetric flask. Make upto the mark with distilled water.
-5) rake 6.5 ml aliquot into a test tube. Add 1.0 ml of30% H2S04, l.Oml of potassium persulphate
solution and 1.5 ml of 40% KSCN solution. The red colour that develops is measured within
20mts. at 540nm against a reagent blank.
,<
>:
6) Prepare standard solutio.ns with 1O,15,20,25,30,35,40,45,50,55,60,65Ilg Fe/ml and add the
,
reagents as for sample and read the O.D at 540nm against the reagent blank.
7) Prepare a calibration curve and calculate concentration of Fe in the sample.
Calculation:
100 x 1000
Cone. of Fe mg/kg
= Cone. in IlgX-------6.5 x S.W x 1000
S.W = Weight of the sample.
106
corp~K:
Copper
present m certam plasma proteins such as ceruloplasmin which are
IS
~oncemed
with t,he release of iron from the cells into the plasma.
Deficiency: Deficiency of copper impairs the animal's ability to absorb iron, mobilize it from the
tissues and utilize it in haemoglobin synthesis. Copper plays a role in oxygen metabolism and in many
enzyme systems, Copper is necessary for the normal pigmentation of hair, for and wool. Deficiency
'"
leads to poor grov.-th, bone disorder infertility depigmentation of hair an(i'wo~l, gastrointestinal
,
.
disturbances and lesions in the brain stem and spinal cord. The lesions are associated with muscular
incoordination. The dietary nutrient level of copper for poultry is 3.Smg/kg.
ESTIl\'IA nON OF COPPER
Outline of method: Copper forms a complex compound with EDTA, the colour of which is developed
by the addition of sodium diethyl dithiocarbamate which is extracted and estimated colorimetric ally at
440 nm,
Reagents:
1. EDTA solution: EDTA disodium salt 2Sg is dissolved in 500m~ of glass distilled water. ' It is well
shaken (4 to S times) with solid diethyl dithiocarbamate (0.5g) and 100mi of chloroform till the
colour
~isappears.
Ei&ht ml of 0.1% cresol red is .added and the mixture is shaken well and the
EDTA solution is kept in a stoppered bottle.
2. Copper standard: Dissolve 982 mg of CUS04. 5H20 in water and Sml of Cone. H2S04 is. added and
made upto 250ml to give a standard solution of copper of Img Iml.
", 3. 1% sodium diethyl dithiocarbamate in water.
·.Procedure:
1. Take 2g of feed sample in a kjeldahl flask, add 5ml of glass distilled water, 4ml of co~c.H2S04 and
Sml of cone. RN0 3(distilled).
2, The contents are digested covering the flask with a funnel plugged with glass wool.
3. Cone. RN03 is added in drops till a clear digest is obtained.
4. Perchloric acid (one ml) is then added and the digestion is continued for 15-20mts.
5, The digest is then quantitatively transferred to a separating funnel using glass distilled water to
make to SOmt.
6, Sml of EDTA solution is then added and the solution neutra~ized with distilled ammonia (to get a
pink colour).
7. It is cooled and one m} of 1% sodium diethyl dithiocarbamate is added, fonowed by 10ml of
distilled carbon tetrachloride.
107
'I'
'"'
.,
,".
•
1\~""
1 I
~. Tlle'mi"?,ture is, shaken fort exactly 2mts. After the carbon tetrachloride layer separates;, it is,~~-ip~()
, cC;]Qrimetric tube through a plug of cotto~~and the intensity of the colour isreao,at 4.40nm ag~inst a
re~gent blank extracted si~ilarly. For each set of estimation, a reagent blank prepared' by. u.~ng the
sa~e quantity of acid~ etc. is carried throu~h the procedure.
CORper in the sample is calculat1d from a standard curve 5, 10, 15,20,25,30,3~ and 40~W:l~\ ·by
applying the same method.
.
.
'.
1000
:alculation:
Conc. of Cu in mg/kg ~ Conc. in j..tg X
s.w X 1000
W ::= S.ample Weight
OBALT:
In cattle and sheep "pining" bush sic~ness and "washing disease" have beel) recognised for
"
'
any years. These diseases are found to be associated with deficiency of cohaJt. The physiological
nction of cobalt was only well understood when vitamin B 12 was isolated and
WI:I,S
shown to
ntain the e~f?ment. Cobalt is required by microorganisms in the rumen for the synthesis of vitamin
2 and if the element is deficient in the diet then the vitamin cannot be produced in the rumen in
tounts sufficient to satisfy the animal's requirements.
There is evidence that the intestinal
c~oorganisms in non-ruminants also can synthesize vitamin B 12 although in pigs and poultry this
lthesis may be insufficient to meet their requirements. It is common practice to include in pig and
lltry diets some animal protein food rich in vitamin B 12 in preference to including a cobalt salt.
art from the importance of cobalt as a component of vitamin B 12, the element is believed to have
er functions in the .animal body as an activ~ting ion in certain enzyme reactions.
_
•• 1 . _ _
~
"ft,
1
TIMATION OF COBALT
mne of method: Cobalt is isolated from the HCI extract of the sample by passing a current ofH2S,
~red off, boiled off H 2 S by adding nitric acid, the solution is brought to alkaline pH and complexed
1
nitroso-R salt in the presence of spekker acid and sodium acetate and the colour developed is
sured photometrically at 540nm.
gents:
:obalt standard solution: 0.05 mg Co/ml. Dissolve O.2385g COS04 7H2 0 (donot dry, use as
'eceived) in H 2 0 and dilute to one litre, Dilute, if necessary to suitable concentration to prepare
r,tandard curve.
~itroso R salt solution: Dissolve one gram CJO~OHNO(S03Na)2 in H20 and dilute to 500ml.
:pekker acid: Mix 150ml of85% H3P04 and 150ml of H 2S0 4 and dilute to one litre with H 20.
108
4. Sodium acetate solution: Dissolve 500g of CH3COONa.3H20 in water and dilute to one litre with
water.
Experi~ental:
Preparation of standard .curve: To 1,2,3,4,5,6,7;8,9,10, and llml portion of standard cobalt
solution in 100mi volumetric flasks add 2ml spekker acid, 10ml nitroso R salt solution and 10ml
"sodium acetate solution. Prepare blank by using 2m! spekker acid and 1Oml soditim~a~etate solution,
but omitting Nitroso R salt solution. Bring solution to boiling on 'hot plate. Add Sml RN0 3 and boil.
~
1 but $ 2miil. Cool and Dilute to 100ml.
Procedure:
I. Ash 2 g sample at 600°C for 2 hrs.
2. Dissolve in 20ml HCI and 50ml H 20 and boil for 5 mts.
3. Cool and transfer to 250ml volumetric flask and dilute to volume. (Take aliquot containing O.Smg
Co as Beer's law no longer appears to follow, above this amount).
,-
4. Pass brisk current of H2S gas through the solution for 10mts. Filter directly into 100mi volumetric
flask through Whatman No.40 filter paper.
5. Wash with 50ml of 1 % H 2S04 saturated with H 2S.
6: Add 2 sn1all glass beads and boil offH2S (bumping may occur). Shake flasks often.
7. Add 5ml RN0 3 and boil until nitrous fumes no longer appear (Take care, as volume of solution
will be 19W and bumping and spattering may occur. At first indication of this, remove immediately
from hot plate.). Small amount ofRN03 remaining will not affect result.
8. Cool and add 2drops of phenolphthalein and adjust to first faint PInk with 30 % NaOH solution.
--
Immediately add 2ml of Spekker acid followed by 10ml of nitro so R salt solution and 10ml sodium
acetate solution.
9. Bring vigorous boil, carefully add Sml RN03 and boil ~ 1 but s 2mts. Cool and dilute to volume .
.10. Compare colour with standard Co solution in spectrophotometer at S40nm. Read colour within 2
hrs.
Calculation:
Cone. in mg x 250 xlOO
% Co =
----------
1000 x aliquot x sample weight
ZINC:
.
. . . .
Th 1 nts tends to accumulate in the
e e erne
Zmc has been found In every tIssue 1D the antmal body.
bones
rath~r than in the liver, which is the main storage organ of many of the other trace elements.
109
, <:,-
Zn is an activator of several enzyme systems. Zn is included in carbonic anhydrase, pancrratic_h'~ .. .carboxy peptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase alkaline - ,phosphatase . and
thymidine kinase: Among the other physiological functions of Zinc are the production; storage and
secretion of hormones, involvement in the immune systems and electrolyte balance.
Deficiency: Zn deficiency in chicks,causes retarded growth, foot abnormalities, "frizzled" feathers, .
parakeratosis and a bone abnormality ref~rred to as the swollen hock syndrome.
Sources:
Yeast i~, a rich source and Zn is concentrated in the bran and germ of cereal grains.
Animal protein by.products such as meat meal and fish meal are richer sources of the element than .
Dlant protein supplement.
~n
toxicity Zn poisoning' have been reported. Most animals have a high tolerance for this element.
~xcessive
amounts are known to depress food consumption ana may induce copper deficiency.
rhe dietary nutrient levels for poultry is 50mglkg.
~STIMATION
OF ZINC:
)utline of method: The sample is wet oxidised. Pb, Cu, Cd, Bi, Sb, Sn, Hg and Ag metals are
emoved. as sulfides with added Cu as scavenger agent.
Elimination of Co and Ni is also
imllitaneously done by extracting metal complexes of a·nitroso.~·napthol and dimethyl glyoxinie
espectively with chloroform. Zn is extracted as Zn dithizonate with carbon tetrachloride, transfer of
:n to dil HCI and final extraction ofZn dithizonate for colour measurement.
teagents:
Copper sulphate solution: 2mg Culml. Dissolve 8g CuS04,5H20 in H2O and dilute to one litre.
Ammonium citrate solution: Dissolve 22Sg (NRJ)2HC6GS07 in H 20 make alkaline to phenol red
with NH40H (pH7.4 first distinct colQu~ change )and.add 75mlin excess. Dilute to 2 litre .. Extract
this solution immediately before use as follows. Add slight excess dithizone and extract with
carbon -tetrachloride until solvent layer is clear bright green. Remove excess dithizone by repeated'
extraction with chloroform and finally extract once more with carbon tetrachloride. (It is essential
that excess dithizoIie be entirely removed, otherwise Zn will be lost during elimination Co and Ni).
Dimethylglyoxime solution: Dissolve 2g reagent 10ml in ~OH and 200·300ml H 2 0, filter and
dilute to one litre.
oc-nitroso - ~ - napthol solution: Dissolve O.25g in CHCh and dilute to 500ml.
Chloroform: Redistilled.
Diphenylthiocarbazo~e (dithizone) solution: Dissolve O.05g dithizone in 2ml ~OH and 100m
H20 and extract repeatedly with carbon tetrachloride until solvent layer is clear bright .green
Discard solvent layer and filter aqueous portion through washed ashless paper. (This solution i:
llO
best prepared as needed, since it is only moderately stable, even when kept in dark and under
refrigeration) .
Carbon tetrachloride: Redistilled.
Dilute hydrochloric acid: 0.04N
3.4~ml
of sp.gr. 1. 18 HCI is dissolved in 1 litre with H 20.
Zinc standard solution:
,
(i) Stock solution: 500I-lg/ml. Dissolve 0.5g pure granulated Zn in slight excess' pfdil.
HCI and dilute to one litre.
(ii) Working solution: 51-lg/ml. Dilute lOmi stock solution to one litre with O.04N HC!.
trocedure:
Preparation of sample:
Weigh 2Sg of sample into a Kjeldahl digestion flask. (estimated to contain 25-1001lg Zn).
Add HN03 and heat cautiously until first vigorous reaction subsides somewhat, then add 2-5ml
H2 S04.
Continue heating, adding more HN03 in small portions as needed to prevent charring, until
fumes of S03 evolve and solution remains clear and almost colorless.
Add O.Sml of HCI04 and continue heating until it is almost completely removed. Cool, and
dilute to 40ml.
Separation of sulfide group.
To H 2 S04 solution, add 2 drops of methyl red and one ml,ofCuS04 solution and
neutra:tise with NRtOH.
Add enough HCI to make solution ,O.l5N with respect to this acid
(O.Sml excess in SOml solution is satisfactory).
pH of the solution is adjusted to 1.9 - 2.1.
Pass stream ofH2 S into solution until precipitation is complete.
Filter through fine Whatman No.42 filter paper (previously fitted to funnel and washed with HCI
(1 +6), then with distilled water).
Receive filtrate in 2S0ml beaker, and wash flask and filter with 3 or 4 small portion of H 20.
Gently boil filtrate until odour of H 2 S can no longer be detected, then add Sml saturated Br-H20
and continue boiling until Br - free.
t
Cool, neutralize to phenol red with NRtOH, and make slightly acid with HCI (excess ofO.2ml 1+1
HCI).
O. Dilute resultant solution to definite volume. For optimum condition of measurement, solution
Should contain 0.2 - .1.0 I-lg Znlml.
1. Elimination of Nickel and Cobalt.
III
Transfer 20ml
aliquot of prepared solution to 125ml separator, add 5ml ammonium citrate solution,
.
2ml dimethyl glyoxime solution: and 10mi a - nitro so - 13 - napthol solution and shake for 2mts
•
,
'
t
'
Discard solvent layer and extract with lOmI CHCh tq remove residual a - nitro so - 13 - napthol.
Discard solvent layer.
I
12. Isolation and Estimation ofiZinc.
To aqueous phase, following removal ofNi.and Co which, at this point, has pH of 8.0. . 8.2, add 2m)
dithizone solution and 10ml CCl4 and shake for 2 mts.
13. Let phases separate and remove aqueous layer as completely as possible, withdrawing liquid
With pipette attached tO'vacuum line.
14. W~sh' down sides of separator with ca 25ml H 20 and without shaking again draw off aqueous
layer.
15. Add 25ml 0.04N HCI and shake for one min. to transfer Zn to acid aqueous layer. Drain and
Discard solvent with care to dislodge and remove drop that usually floats on surface.
16. To acid solution add 5.0ml ammonium citrate solution and 10.Oml CCl4 (PH of solution at'
this point is 8.9 - 9.0).
17. Determine volume of dithizone to be added ,as follows:
To separator containing 4ml working Zn standard (20J..lg) dilute to 25ml with O.04N HCI, SmI
citrate buffer, and lOml CCI4, add 4ithizone reagent in O.lml increm.ents, shaking briefly .after each
addition until· faint yellow in aqueous phase indicates bare excess of reagent. Multiply volume of.
dithizone solution required by 1.5ml and add this volume (to nearest O.OSml) to all samples. Shake
for 2 mts., Pipette exactly Sml solvent layer into clean, dry test tube, dilute with 10ml CCl4 mix
and determine absorbance at 540nm.
18. Preparation of standard curves:
Prepare series ofsellarators containing 0,5,10,15,20J..l Zn diluted to 25ml with 0.04N HCI add Sml
citrate buffer and proceed as with fmal estimation of Zinc.
,
19. Plot 'A' against conc. and draw smooth curve through points. (Intercept)
Calculation:
Volume made
1000
Cone. of Zine = Cone. in J.lg x ------------ x -----------.
s.w
(in ppm)
*******
112
1000 x Aliquot
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EGG AND FEED PRICES OF NAMAKKAL
POULTRY MARKET - AN ECONOMIC APPROACH
Dr.A.Mohamed Safiullah
/ Associate Professor and Head
Department of Animal Husbandry Economics \. .
Veterinary College and Research Institute
Namakkal- 637001.,
Namakkal is the 'second largest poultry producing center in Indi~. Poultry Industry is
contributing sizable proportion to national livestock income. During the last three decades,
national egg production has increased at the rate of 8.2 percent annually. p'er capita consumption
of egg has also increased nearly four times during 1961-95 even inspite of ever increasing
human population. However, the egg industry suffers very often from various externalities like
price policy, feed availability, market forces on input and product, trade practices, etc. Further
this industry has to meet challenge of price mechanism which highly influences qemand for the
product. Moreover the feed is the major input which determines the cost of production. Further
it contributes nearly 70.73 per cent of total cost and 8l.69 percent of total variable cost of
production (ARE Bulletin 1997). Thus therefore a p.eed arises to make a comparative analysis
on the behaviour and relationship of prices of both egg and poultry feed (iayer mash).
Methodology:
The monthly data on prices of eggs for the period 1986-95 that prevailed in Namakkal
.poultry market were collected from the records o£the·branch officeofNECC (National Egg coordination Committee), Namakkal. Similarly poultry feed (layer mash) prices were collected
from the branch of T APCO (Tamil Nadu Poultry Development Corporation), Namakkal. The
prices at Namakkal were chosen to be represent the ideal poultry market. The trend in the egg
and feed prices for the period 1986-95 was estimated using the exponential growth curves after
careful scrutiny of scatter.
In order to. study the seasonality in prices, seasonal indices were constructed by taking 6
moths centered moving averages. The calculated indices were adjusted to 100 so that the total
seasonal indices for the twelve months add upto exactly 1200. The relationship between prices
of egg and feed were assessed by using the multiple linear regression of the form mentioned
below.
113
Transfer 20ml aliquot of prepared solution to 12Sml separator, add Sml ammonium citrate solutio
•
n,
2ml dimethyl glyoxime solution and 10ml a. - nitroso - ~ . - napthol solution and shake
for
2mt
,s.
,
Discard solvent layer and extract with 10ml CHCb to remove resid\.!al a. - nitro so - ~ - napth6l
Discard solvent layer.
12. Isolation and
Estimation~of Zinc.
,.\
To aqueous phase, following removal ofNiand Co which, at this point, has pH of 8.0-8.2, add 2ml
dithizone solution and 10ml CCl4 and shake for 2 mts.
. 13. Let phases separate and remove aqueous layer as completely as possible, withdrawing liquid
With pipette attached to'vacuum line.
14. W ~sh' qown sides of separator with ca 25 ml H20 and without shaking again draw off aqueous
layer.
. IS. Add 2Sml 0.04N HCI and shake for one min. to transfer Zn to acid aqueous layer. Drain and
Discard solvent with care to dislodge and remove drop that usually floats on surface.
16. To acid solution add 5.0ml ammonium. citrate. solution and 10.0ml CCl4 (pH of solution at·
this point is 8.9 -:- 9.0).
17.
Determi~e
volume of dithizone to be added .as follows:
To separator containing 4ml working Zn standard (20J.1g) dilute to 2Sml with 0.04N HCI, 5ml
citrate buffer, and 10ml CCI4, add dithizone reagent in O.lml increments, shaking briefly .after each
addition until faint yellow in aqueous phase indicates bare excess of reagent. Multiply volume of.
dithizone s~lution required by 1.5ml and add this volume (to nearest O.OSml) to all samples. Shake
for 2 mts .. Pipette exactly Sml solvent layer into clean, dry test tube, dilute with 10ml CCl4 mix
and determine absorbance at S40nm.
18. Preparation of standard curves:
Prepare series of separators containing 0,S,10,lS,20J.1 Zn diluted to 25ml with 0.04N HCI add Sml
citrate buffer and proceed as with final estimation of Zinc.
•
19. Plot' A' against conc. and draw smooth curve through points. (Intercept)
Calculation:
Volume made
1000
Conc. of Zinc = Conc. in J.1g x - - - - - - - - x ----------,
s.w
(in ppm)
*******
112
1000 x Aliquot
.1
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EGG AND FEED PRICES OF NAMAKKAL
.POULTRY MARKET - AN ECONOMIC APPROACH
Dr.A.Mohamed Safiullah
/ Associate Professor and Head
Department of Animal Husbandry Economics
Veterinary College and Research Institute ..
Namakkal- 637001.
Namakkal is the -second largest pOUltry producing center in India. Poultry Industry is;
contributing sizable proportion to national livestock income. During the last three decades,
national egg production has increased at the rate of 8.2 percent annually. Per capita consumption
of egg has also increased nearly four times during 1961-95 even inspite of ever increasing
human population. However, the egg industry suffers very often from various externalities like
price policy, feed availability, market forces on input and product, trade practices, etc. Further
this industry has to meet challenge of price mechanism which highly influences demand for the
product. Moreover the feed is the major input which detennines the cost of production. Further
it contributes nearly 70.73
p~r
cent of total cost and 81.69 percent of total variable cost of
production (ARE Bulletin 1997). Thus therefore a need arises to make a comparative analysis
on the behaviour and relationship of prices of both egg and poultry feed (iayer mash).
Methodology:
The monthly data on prices of eggs for the period 1986-95 that prevailed in Namakkal
poultry market were collected from the records of the branch office ofNECC (National Egg coordination Committee), Namakkal. Similarly poultry feed (layer mash) prices were collected
from the branch of T APCO (Tamil Nadu Poultry Development Corporation), Namakkal. The
prices at Namakkal were chosen to be represent the ideal poultry market. The trend in the egg
and feed prices for the period 1986-95 was estimated using the exponential growth curves after
careful scrutiny of scatter.
In order to. study the seasonality in prices, seasonal indices were constructed by taking 6
moths centered moving averages. The calculated indices were adjusted to 100 so that the total
seasonal indices for the twelve months add upto exactly 1200. The relationship between prices
of egg and feed were assessed by using the multiple linear regression of the form mentioned
below.
113
Where
\
Yt = Price of 100 eggs in rupees in tth month.
Ft = Price of poultry feed (layer mash) per bag (75 Kg) in rupees in tth Il!onth.
Yt - l .= Price of 100 eggs in rupees in t-l th month.
Ft - l = Price of poultry feed (layer mash) per bag (75 Kg) in rupees in t -l th month.
au ..... a3 - parametys to be estimated.
.
Results and Discussion:
Trend Analysis of Egg and Feed Prices: Monthly time series data on feed and egg prices were
processed for the forecasting trend analysis using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method after
taking log. The parameters of trend equation obtained are sho,wn in Table 1.
Table. 1. Parameters of Trend Analysis of Feed and Egg Prices
S.No.
Variable Name
Constant
(A)
2.214
1.
Feed Price
(315.469)
1.634"
2.
Egg Price
(182.107)
'
IndIcates. sIgmficant at one percent level.
Figures in par.entheses indicate 't' statistics.
.
R2
Rate of Change (r)
-
0.004
(38.342)
0.003
(25.265)
0.926
0.845'"
..
The results in Table 1 indicate that the time series data pertaining to annual prices
showed an increasing trend over the reference period with the constant rate of change in their
.
.
respective prices. The rate of change was higher in the case of feed price than the egg price . R2
values of both trends showed a good fit with significant F values.
Seasonal variations:
It is measured by seasonal indices. Seasonal indices of feed prices increased from
January to April as shown in Figure l. There ~as.a fall in May and thereafter started increasing
slowly to reach a peak in August. Again it started decreasing st~eply in Sept~~ber and then
"
"',
.
.
reached a moderate increase till the end of the year. But egg prices started increasing from
February and attained a peak in April. Thereafter it declined to touch a deep down in June. Then
it began to increase till August and maintained a plane till October. Suddenly it witnessed a fall
in November and subsequent slight iIicrease in December and January. In overall c,?mparison of
price indices of egg and feed, egg price indices fluctuate erratically throughout the year than the
feed price. There were uniform ups and downs noticed in feed prices. A little increase in feed
price causes an erratic violent fluctuation in egg prices.
114
Causal Relationship between egg and feed price:
The fitted model to explain the causal relationship between egg and feed price showed
88 percent of variation as the adjusted R2 value was 0.88 (Table 2.) and the goodness of fit was
also confirmed by significant 'F' values. The coefficient of the variable Ft - l was found to be
_.
significant and positive implying that every rupee increase in feed (previous month) price
increases the current egg price by rupee 0.11. This shows the causal relationship which exist
between feed and egg price. It could be inferred that feed price increase during this month would
definitely cause an increase in the next month egg price. Similarly the variable
Yt-l
was also
found to be significant and positive. It implies the current egg price increase has been tickled by
it own last moth price.
Table 2. Causal Relationship between egg and feed prices.
~
Significance
7.152
't'values
3.008
Ft
0.044
0.843
NS
Ytamilnadu veri-l
0.073
8.511
Ft-!
R2- 0.879
0.108
2.178
**
*
F - 279.68
N-1l9
Variables
Coefficients
l-
Intercept
f-...
----
L
115
**
Conclusion:
:.;.:.....
.. j.~..
Th~ price behaviour during 1986-95 indicated that the egg price increased by a greater~=:"
percentage compared to the feed prices. The seasonality in egg prices was more pronounced in
co~parison
to feed price. The current egg price was found to be influenced by its own previous
month price and previous~ feed price. This shows the importance of previous prices of both feed
and egg in the egg price fixation. Therefore it is mandatory to consider both egg and feed prices:'
, ,
while formulating the price policy for making decision on egg price.
References:
Animal Husbandry Economics (AHE) Bulletin (1997) ,on'Economics of Livestock, Enterprises. ::
Safiullah, AM. 1998. An Analysis of Egg and Feed Price. in Namakkal Poultry Market of Tamil'....
Nadu. Indian Journal Agricultural Marketing 12 (1&2):
*****
116
166-~68 ..
COMPUTER APPLICATION IN LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY
Dr.S.Selvam, M.V.Sc.,
, Assistant Professor,
Department of Animal Husbandry ,Economics,
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
...
Namakkal- 637 001
. '
,
Computers have revolutionized many fields and are playing significant role in every sphere of
human life. They are an efficient means of storing, analysing and retrieving data, in addit10ri'to acting
as complex calculators. The invention of silicon chips has decreased the size and cost than earlier
computers and has made them readily available to a wide range of users. Computers are becoming an
indispensable tool for many aspects of scientific and commercial applications.
It is a most efficient machine that must be fed, i.e., programmed, with basic information in
,order to function, The efficiency of the computer is limited by the degree of accuracy of the
information that is programmed and only a trained person can provide this.
Computers have a tremendous potential in agriculture in general and feed industfy'in particular:
To fully understand the pos,sible uses of applications of computers in,the animal nutrition apd feeding
industry, one has to think of all operations, which takes place inside a feed manufacturing ind~stry.
These operations can be divided into 1) Technical, 2) Mechanical and 3) Administrative.
Compu~er
is a valuable supporting machine for a nutritionist, who now can compute complex
.
feed formulations in seconds that would have been impract.icable if they had to be atte~pted without
such a mechanical aid. Computer can resolve the long sequences of calculations in a
n~gligible
amount
. of time and can give series of answer& to each problem depending on limitations that may be set,by the.
K
"~
......
•
•
..",_~_
....
~
compounder in respect of any of the ingredients.
Computer has a role. in an}mal nutrition in the following aspects.
.
1. Computer control of crop and grain drying .
. 2. Use of computers in ration formulation.
3. Use of computer in feeding.
4, Computers can also be used in purchase and inventory maintenance of ingredients.
1. ·COMPUTER CONTROLLED CROP DRYING
Crop drying
re~oves
moisture
fro~
harvested crop residues ,so that it can be stored and .
. handled without spoilage or damage by mould growth, insects or mechanical fracture. Moisture .
Content is critical to the process of pelletising and to the integrity of the finished product.
Typical crop-drying systems include a method to move air, typically fan, a chamber to hold
crop or other product and, possibly a heater to increase the temperature of the drying.
117
A computer-based system for co~tr~l drying includes several components. Sensing t~ansducers·.:.
must supply information about tbe physical variables of the sy~tem. Signal conditioning and'·'
interfacing circuitry make the data compatible
with requiremen,. of the digital computer. The
computer itself must be programmed to read the necessary input data, to perform the desired control
algorithms and to write the output} data. Interfacing and output signal conditioning transform the
computer output into a form appropriate to the controlling actuators.
z. COMPUTER SIMULATION
AND CONTROL OF GRAIN DRYING
The application of the digital computer to the arti,ficial drying of grain is one of the success
ltories of agricultural engineering. Grain drying systems may be divided into those that dry grain in
)atches a~(.l those that dry grain as it flows continuously through equipment. Computer simulation of.
trying i$ valuable· because drying e~eriments are time consuming, expensive and subject to
mcontroUed
varia~ion.
Thus, with aid of computer we can simulate the 'environment inside a graill
Irier and predict at a most acceptable level of precision, its physical performance at a steady rate .
. Il{\TION FORMULATION WITH COMPUTERS
~)
Trail and Error Formulation With The Computers
'he trail and error method is exactly what the term implies. Feeds are interchanged by trail and error .until the right combination js achieved.
Many ration balancing software programs written for the computer allow for trail and error ration "
'I;_'
dancing. Feed mill nutritionists frequently use this technique to enter into computer rations that are "
!ven to them by other nutritionists or by producer. The objective in this case is to confirm the
l~ritive
val?es for ration based on the specific ingredients us~d by the feed manufacture With low
1st.
It does require spedalized program to use this method. Spread sheet programs, for instance, ,
ganize data into rows and columns. Information, such as nutritive values for feed ingredients and.
~t of ingredients are fed into data cells. Simple and complex arithmetic operations can be controlled: '
user and low cost feed with required nutritive value can be formulated.
Line;lt: Programming:
The most common technique for computer formulation of rations is the linear Programming ,:
?) technique. At times, this is referred to as least cost ration formulation.
This designation results '
.
~
m the fact that most LP techniques for ration formulation ·have as their objective minimization o,f ~
,
It.
A few LP programs are in use that solve for maximization of income over feed costs. A livestock}
Iducer and nutritionist should always have in mind that maximizing net profit is the only true .~
118
objective of most ration formolations. A skilled user of LP system will control ration quality by
writing specifications that lead to rations that will maximize profit.
The LP program is a mathematical technique in which i large number of simultaneous
equations are solved in such a way as to meet the minimum and maximum levels of nutrients and
levels of feed ingredients specified by the user at the lowest possible cost. \,
....
Procedure For Use of Linear Programming
...
Before using the LP approach to ration formulation, the user should b.ecome familiar with the
specific software package to be used. It must first be understood that all data. entered into the
computer is directed to files. The necessary data files are generally created in steps as follows:
1. Enter names of available feed ingredients, and the cost of each
2. Enter nutrient values' for feeds
3. Enter ration specifications.
Ration specifications are generally broken into the two parts:
a) Nutrient limits and b) ingredient limits.
In each case, the formulator specifies either a lower limit and/or an upper limit for each item: If
no specification for the particular item is desired, it may be specified a zero or left blank, 'depending on
the circumstances. It 'is also appropriate to list feed-stuffs available, but not currently on hand (with
an
upper limit of zeros)
4. Submit all of the above' information to the matrix building and solving portion of the LP software
package
5~
Examine the solution provided by the computer software
6. Reformulate with LP at periodic intervals.
Changes in ingredient costs, in ingredient availability, and in the needs of birds dictate the need
for reprocessing the ration. The good formulator monitors all these items on a regular' basis. The
software available are LINDO 6.1 and LINGO 6.0
Using electronic spread sheets to balance rations
Another possible method of utilizing a micro computer to balance rations is by usi.ng an
electronic spread sheet program. There are many electronic spread sheet programs on the market
available for micro computer use and some are powerful enough to permit the use of a limited database
to provide information for the balancing of the ration.
To use an electronic spread sheet, one must develop a template, which is a series of formulas
entered on the spread sheet in the appropriate places to perform the mathematical calculations required.
The simplest template would require the operator to enter basic information from prices of the feed
119
iffs being considered. With a little practice, the electronic spread sheet permits the operator to try. .
iny different possible formulations fairly, quickly, thus saving much time compared to making the .
I
c:~ssary calculations by hand.
Imputerized concentrate feeders (Dairy cows)
Computerized feeders offer pot~ntial
~op feed concentrate more precisely and in a manner that
)motes more efficient utilization than when fed in a milking parlor, magnetic or feeding door. Most
I11puterized feeding systems consists of several basic components:
A feeding station consisting of the stall, a feed box where concentrates are deli:vered to the cow, and
an electronic device to identify individual cow in the herd ..
A bin. or bins to stores, and conveyors to deliver concentrate to the fee~ box.
A tag or transponder attached to each cow that permits
th~
,
system to identify'the individual cows;
"
and -,'
A computer to control the feeding unit and storeimport~t inform~tion.
':''0-
. One computer is capable of controlling numerous feeding sections (up to 45 in cow systems). A
"inium daily limit of ~oncentrate each cow may receive is set through an entry at the computer
'board, without having to physically restrain the cow. Many computer' feeders offer dual feed
?ensing capability usually one energy rich concentrate and the other protein rich supplement
Itaining supplemental minerals and vitamins.
Future developments in computerized feeders will likely see the integration of electronic milk
ghing into the same computer, permitting automatic adjustment of concentrate allotments as the
" proceeds through her lactation.
"""'-In- feed industry besides feed -formulation and feeding, computer 'will help in the following
rs:
1. It anticipates raw material shortage and excesses
2. It can forecast raw material prices and best cost of procurement·
3. It aids forward planning in buying of raw materials .
.~~
4. -It remembers previous formulation changes to facilitate fast comparision and instant back
tracing
5. It stores raw material and finished goods, analysis data, target and tolerance values and
performs statistical test limitations in computer formulation.
6. In animal nutrition laboratory computers are used to store the required data.
120
COM~ON ~QOGRAMMES
AVAILABLE FOR FEED FORMULATION
A. Feed unit accounf
This'programme is designedtto tIo all accounting of activities ,·t the animal husbandry feed mill,
which supplies feed to a number of departments. Entries are
~ad~ on a monthly b~si's. I~~eniorj 'of~
ingredients is maintained including purchases and usages for the year to "date.
Cost of each feed'
\..
\
'
pur~hased is calculated and a billing for each department is developed. The computer used is ~DC
•
6500 &nd.progralllming language is COBAL,
B.
F~ed
sheet,
'
It cillculates a feed sheet giving weight of ration ingredients and a cumulative scale reading .for
<
I
cattle, feeders to use on a gaily basis. Input data includes ration composition, dry matter, moisture
II:
,"
1 : . ...
.......
~
~
*
content of each ingredients, batch size wanted and order in which ingredients are to be added to mix~~
.
tru_ck. The programmipg l~guage-used is Fortran.
'
,
C. Telptan ration formulation programme, .
.
.
,It evaluates present ration or formulates' a': new ration. Ration can be balanced only
or
formulated on a least cost basis. Typical nutrient Tequirem¢nts, feed nutrient values and limits'
On
, -,',!
ingredients are stored in a computer. User must indic"afe if he wants use values different than those
desired. Computer used is Telplan computer network and language used is Fortniri.
D. Feed usage and gain projection for feed lots
It predicts feed intake, period and accumulative pay weight gain and expected feed usage after
"
different lengths of time on feed. Computer language used is Fort~.
E. Balance programmes
It calculates different mineral or nutrient balances and expresses billances numerous ways.
Program is changed constantly to 'meet experimenters' needs. Information necessary includes feed
intake, body weights, analysis of feed, urine and faeces. Computer used is
mM 3601165. 'Language
used is Fortran: '
F. Digestion trial calcuJation
It calculates coefficient of digestibilities of proximate analysis 'of nutrients as well as six other
nutrients of program specification. Feed, faeces and urine analysis can be used. Computer used is mM
360/165, language is Fortran.
G. Feed stuff evaluation
It places dollar value on feed based on the price of the soyabeen meal, corn, DCP and
limestone. Computer used is IBM 360/165, language used is Fortran.
121
or "Feed mix" program least cost ration formulation
."
This program is designed for least cost for unit of ration. An optional sol~ion method is
lable for high profit per day for beef cattle. Options are illCludor', for ~tching ~pecifications of an
iog ration, parametric price solutions and parametric solutions fot individual restrictions.
°
lputer used is mM 360/165,
languag~ used is Fortran.
I. Maximum profit for beef gain in feedlot
Thi~
program calculates the most profitable gain for beef cattle in feedlot considering feed
:dient prices, ca~le. prices, labour cost and overhead
cost.
Computer used is mM 360/30,
165and languoage used is LPS and MPS.
'ERNET AND POULTRY PRODUCTION
Intefllet has tran_sformed significantly the ways in which itldividuals and organisations
ions. It is not only being used for communication and accessing the retrie~al information
Irces. It is increasingly being viewed as a powerful tool for monitoring and disseminatiol\,
lnation about the products and services· to the trade world. The nutritionists and farmers can
)ve and equip themselves with the latest information about ingredients available,. cost and
°
:lu~
them in feed formulation.
*****
122
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Dr. P. Mathialagan, Ph.D.,
;". Assistant Professor and Head,
Department of Extension,
Veterinary College and Research.Institute,
Namakkal- 637 001.
...
~he overriding challenge in the current era is to find out w~ys and means to con~ey
. scientific information to the audience in an intelligible style and to motivate. the audience by
whic.h communicated messages are finally accepted and practiced. Coinmuni~ation has been
defined by J. Paul Leagans as a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts,
feelings or. impression in ways that each gains a common und~rstanding of ~he meaning, inte~t
an<l use of messages .
.. COMMUNICATION - ELEMENTS
Any a~t of communication be it a speech at a public meeting, ~ written report, a radio
broadcast or a question from a farmer, includes the following elements:
o
.
s~~r~es.·
.f-.! Messa~e H
Channel
H
iteceiyer
,,
,
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
.L----------~ .
~
______________ JI
Feedback
,.
Any. communicator must consider all the above. elements carefully, as.they .alLcontribute .____ _
to the effectiveness of communication.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
1. Intrapersonal communication: Communication within an individual. (e.g.) thinking; feeling.
2. Interpersonal
communic~tion:
Interpersonal communication most commonly occurs in face
to face situations, where we can see, hear, and even touch the other person or persons.· It
provides' opportunity for immediate feed, back.
Based on the result we can alter our
communication style and structure.
. '3. Mass communication: It is a communication system in which an identical message
IS
originated by an institutional organization and sent to a large number of receivers through
puplic channels. (T.V., Radio, Newspaper, Magazines, Film and Computer networks).
4. Non-verbal communication: Communication without language is known as Non-verbal
communication. It is also known as gestural communication.
. 123
ORGANISA'l'ION COMMUNICATION
In the field, VAS not only treat the animals and communicat'~ scientific information· to
the farmers, they also are involved in administration. Organiut1. nal communication is the
process involving the transmitting of and receiving,of instructions, orders, decision, reports and
requests between the members of the organization.
I
communication are
The different types of organizational
1. Vertical - Either upward or downward, used in communication from head to field
functionaries or ~pward.
2. Horizontal - Communication among peers of same working group.
3. Diagonal - Cuts across organization's chain of command, seen in tactical situation,
civilian unrest etc.
4. Circular - In communication by conference, controversial issues etc.
5. Grape vine - Either serial transmission or rumour.
Mostly it
IS
an informal
communication.
Becoming an effective communicator in interpersonal relationship involves a wide range
of s~ills. Most of the skills required adaptation i.e. moulding our communication behaviour to
fit the circumstances. Good communication does not require only the ability to talk fluently.
·~t
Nor does it require only the ability of saying to what one is being told. Ratlter good
communication requires of the change agent, the ability to make himself or herself understood
clearly and to understand others. In brief effective communication requires the ability and skills
in transmitting information in an intelligible manner, treating the message keeping in view·the
typ~
..9f .audience and
to~
collect- the. response to know whether ·message has reached and
understood in its proper perspective.
Various methods and aids are used in making
communication effective. Some of them are discussed below.
COMMUNICATION DISTORTION
The loss of message during the process of communication is also known as filtering of
information. When a message is transmitted through translation, explanation, simplification
some part of it goes distorted or filtered. Immediately after receiving the message, the receiver
has to interpret the idea of the sender. The exact loss of message or filtration of message or
distortion of information will depend up on the past knowledge, experience, beliefs, attitudes,
etc.
When the idea passes through the mind, some pieces of information are ignored or
filtered out and others are added. Certain beliefs~ ~ikes and dislikes, have programmed certain
behaviour pattern that serves as the basis for an individual's cognitive structure. The expression
124
"Cognitive Structure" refers to a "Set of values, attitudes, acceptance of the bits of information". '
This is what exactly the proces:; of filtration describes.
TYPES QF DISTOaTION
Tnere are four types of distortion
.
a. Leveling: It refers knocking down some of the informition. When the contents of
'
,he message is incomp~tible with the receiver, distortion occur.'" .
b. Sh~rpen~ng: Here, the receiver amplifies and inflates the information.
~.
A5,~imilatio.. :
The r~iver. adds a different meaning that the sender has not perceived
or intended.
\
~.
,Forge.ting: In this case, the li~ener forgets a portion of message and deletion is also
possible.
Distortion happ~n~ at the iQterpretation state of communication. The information reached
m~y
be .selected, edited and
tr~smitted
to others. The director of Veterinary Services who
receives, an information from the Animal Husbandry Secretary, decides and selects
communicate
t~ hi~
wha~
to
subordinates., ,Distortion is a common characteristic feature in which we
/
perceiv~
what we see, hear and read.
An expected result of communication can be achieved only when the message
is heard, ;
. understood, ,believed and acted upon as perceived and intended by the sender. To achieve it, care
must be taken that the information is truly and
relia~ly
transmitted. In real practice, there are
more distortion points through which the information has to pass. Distortion of information,
, th~refore~ is partly a tUnctiQ.n" when a ~an· of communication is wider: It is irrespective. of
whether or not the structure of the ~organ~sation is big or small. '
,
",Distortion
~
rn~y
take
pla~
intentionally in the organisation because of the needs and
~unbition of Certain' membC!rs in' relation to others. The preconceived idea will have'
an eftect on
, the judgement of vllrious membe~s and filtration multiplication occurs when 'it passes through
successive stag~s in the process ~f communication. Sometimes,' an individual position makes
guesses on what bits of informati<,>I) actually the next receiver would like to have.
Interpre~ing,
condensing" precising, summarizing are the possible ways to distort messages.
"
'A 1'YPI,CAL EXAMPLE OF COMMUNICATION DISTORTION
,j
I
OPERATIQN HALLEY'S COMET
,
:
A Colonel issued the following directive to his E~ecutive Officer:
Tomorrow evening at approximately 2000 Halley's Comet will be visible in this area, an
eVent which occurs only once every 7S years. Have the men fall out in the battalion area in
fatigues, and I will explain this rare phenomenon to them.
"
125
i"
In case of rain, we will-not be able to ..see anything, so assemble the men in the theater
and I wiIJ show them films of it.
Executive Officer to Company Commanders:
By order of the Colonel, tomorrow at 2000, Halley's Comet will appear above the
pattalion ~ea. If it rains, fall the mtn out in fatigues, them march to the theater where this rare
phenomenon will take place, something which occurs.only once every 75. years.
Company Commander to Lieutenant:
. By order of the Colonel in fatigues at 2000 tomorrow evening, the -phenomenal Halley's
Comet will appear in the theater. In case of rain, in the battalion area, the Colonel will give
another order, something which occurs once every 75 years.
Lieutenant to Sergeant:
Tomorrow at 2000, the Colonel will appear in the theater with Halley's Comet something' which
happens every 75 years. If it rains, the Colonel will order the Comet into the battalion area'. '
Sergeant to Squad:
When it rains tomorrow at 2000, the phellomenal 75·year·old General Halley,'
accompanied by the Colonel, will drive his Comet through the battalion area theater in fatigues.
EXTENSION TALK
Most of us spend about seven out of every ten working hours communicating with others.
Three·fourth of our communication is done by speech. Speech is 'essential' to some seven out of .
ten jobs in our country. There are countless situations in which we interact with other human
beings and strive to get their valued co·operation and support. Interaction required interpersonal
::ommunication in a variety of ways~ Public speaking is one of the most powerful way through
Nhich we can communication with others.
Qualities of a good speaker
I. Voracious reader 2. Good listener 3. Creative thinker 4. Attractive voice & voice modulation
5. Language fluency
6. Good memory' 7. Group psychology
8. Conviction, Courage,
Confidence & Convincing power 9. Pleasing appearance.
ii)
Planning and Organising a talk
'. Selection of topic 2. Collection offacts 3. Discarding 4. Message- 5. Accuracy 6. Express,
Argue & appeal 7. Inject humour 8. Short speech 9. Visuals 10. Keycards 11. Rehearsal.
iii)
Effe(tive presentation techniques'
.Shed off fear 2. Audience survey 3. Opening sentence & introduction 4. Speak loud & voice
modulation 5. Illustrate 6. Eye contact 7. Speed 8. Pause 9. Natural gestures 10. Respect
audience fatigue 11. Time 12. Conclusion.
126
(iv)
Others
1.Dress 2. 'Physical facilities 3. Mike 4. Stage & audience - distance 5. Distributing hand outs
& tea,
(v)
Don'ts
1,Too many points 2. Irrelevant points 3. Distracting mannerism 4. Begirining nervousness 5.
...
.-
Don't apologies 6. Unnatural gesture 7. Don't memorise or read a script 8. Dori't bit mike 9.
Don't be little local man 10. Don't go late.
GROUP COMMUNICATION
This method is adopted when it is necessary to communicate with a number of people
simultaneou'sly, who are located not far off from the communicator, and reasonably good time is
available for communication to change the attitude of the group. Here group participation and
formation of group opinio,n are important.
They are broadly classified into three groups namely General meeting, lecture and
discussion type of meeting. Debate, symposium, panel,
~orum,
group discussion, brainstorming,
workshop, 'seminar, role playing are all discussion type of meeting which can effectively be used
in a heterogeneous group of participants where information can be
pass~d.on
for consider;ation
and future action.
VISUAL COMMUNICATION
To produce an aid for a learning situation, you must carefully follow the following steps
.:. Analyse the outline of your lecture and define the learning steps (the amount of information
required to lead to a definite conclusion).
•:. Examine each step and decide what has to be supported and reinforced by visual material.
.:. For each step, decide which aid is most suitable.
•:. Having decided on the different methods and materials needed for each learning step, edit 'the
sketches of the different images to achieve a homogeneous presentation.
Visual aid is an instructional or communicating device in which the message can be seen but
not hear. These aids can be used in group and mass communication with the help of facilitators.
There are two types of visual aids: (i) Projected (ii) Non-Projected.
NON-PROJECTED VISUALS
The planning and preparation of visual aids requires time, thought and imagination in:
.:. Selecting the points to be visualized;
.:. Translating ideas into suitably visual forms;
.:. Choosing the most appropriate medium;
.:. Designing layout and choosing colour;
127
.:. Making the aid;
.:. Evaluating its effectiveness and revising for future use.
Flannel Graph: Papers containing the messag'e are prepared with sand paper backing and are
placed on a board covered with flannel or hand woven thick cloth. The flannel graph is well
utilized for teaching different kinds of educational stories. The flannel graph can be of particular
use with illiterates.
Poster: A poster is designfd to make a public announcement of a special idea, and timely
information, It usually includes only a few words with an illustration to catch the attention of the
viewers and to pass a simple message at a glance. It should be attractive, brief, and clear. It is
called the ABC of poster.
Charts: A chart is a visual symbol summarizing or comparing or contrasting or performing other
helpful services in explaining subject matter. Chart should be with bold and simple
lette~ing,
brief words, simple design, colourful (not more than 3 colours) and large enough to be seen.
There are different types of charts namely flip chart, tabular chart, overlay chart, flow chart, pull
chart, stripteaser chart, window chart, tree chart, strip roll up chart.
Flash cards: Flash cards are series of illustrated cards flashed (turned over at short intervals)
before the learners in proper sequence to etnphasize important points in a presentation.
PROJECTED VISUALS
OHP TRANSPARENCIES
Transparencies are an excellent projected visual aids where overhead projectors and electricity
are available .. It is very easy to ,prepare and handle. To make the presentation more interesting,
different types of transparencies can be prepared. According to subject matter and needs one can
select the design. Var,iety of transparent tnaterials can be used a. Acetate Sheet, b. Cellophane
Papers,- c, Used X-:ray films, d. Glasses. Any pen having transparent colour ink can be used.
Specially manufactured O.H.P. pens are available. There are two types, oil based and ~ater
based. Even glass marking pencil and crayons can be used.
Suggestions to make good transparency and its presentation
Have one basic idea in each transparency. Use simple lettering. "Have letter size of 114" height
with sufficient spacing. Use' lines to draw attention. Minimum verbiage should be used. Write
notes or questions on the edges of the mount. Arrange the transparencies in order. Start by
projecting the outline to show what will be presented. Stand by the side of the projector and,
ensure that you are not obstructing the view of the audience. Face the audience. Place the visual
on the OHP table, Switch on the projector (first thin light). Use a pointer (pencil, pen etc.) to
128
dir~ct
attention on_ the transparency. Switch, off the projector when not required. Avoid walking
in front of the projector. The room should be darkened for effective presentation.
PREPARA TION OF SLIDES AND PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES
Slide is a small film (35mm) of glass or other transparent material of 2'-' x 2" or 2.5" x
3,5" size containing a single pictorial or graphic image which is projected by focusing l,ight
through it from electric bulb, petromax or lantern. It is one of the most popular and versatile
•
f
visual media in education. The most commonly used slide of today i~ made on 35mm film for
classroom projection and 120mm for theater projection. There are two types of slides namely
hand made slides and photographic slides.
.Keep th,e slides in order and insert them in a slide carrier in an inverted position. Set the
projector and connect the cord.. Fix the screen. Turn the switch first to 'fan' and then to 'lamp'.
Similarly, at the end put off the lamp first and after the projector get cooled put off the fan.
Focus and centre the image on the screen. Tum the operating knob and adjust the objective lens
to get a sharp image. Now slide synchronizer is available. The room should be darkened for
effective presentation.
MASS COMMUNICATION
This method makes large number of farmers aware of new ideas and technologies, or
altering them to. sudden emergencies. While the amount of detailed information that can be
transmitted by mass media is limited, they will serve as an important and valuable function in
stimulating farmers' interest in new practices. Printed media, radio, television are all examples
of mass communication.
PRINTED MEDIA
To apply this method effectively the education levels and literacy rate of the audience
must be considered. Spoken words are forgotten rapidly. For effective communication, written
methods are useful. Thus, the written methods are used in teaching to provide facts in such a
manner that their attention is attracted, to make them understand, remember arid finally to help
them to take favourable decisions.
in~ormation
Further the written communication reduces the loss of
during transit and in addition it covers large number of people within the short time.
WRITING FOR FARMERS
The writing should be in the spoken form, but the slangs should be removed and not too
stylistic. Avoid other language words as far as possible use apt and common usage words.
Don't use the same words often. Write short sentences. There should be link between one
sentence and the other. Write in active voice and never in passive voice. Don't use words or
sentences, which have double meaning or ambiguity. Don't use double negatives. Positive
129
sentence followed by negative sentence would create interest. Paragraphs should 'be small.
~
There should be continuity from one para to other.
Where there is discontinuity between
paragraphs, use sub heading. Leaflets, folders, pamphlets, bulletins etc. can be used effectively
in this communication.
RADIO: It is one of the quickest
the farmers.
w~y of communicating technical information,
innovations to
Selection of topic, collection of facts, preparing outline, building script and
presentation are important steps in preparation of radio talk.
While presenting rehearse - recheck, pre-record and criticize yourself by listenin_g to the
tape recording. Correct the pronunciations and adjust the length of the script. The first 30
seconds are the critical period to catch the listener's attention.
Be friendly, natural and
:;onversational. Sound enthusiastic. Main and important points should be repeated.
TELEVISION: Presenting a TV Programme is much more difficult than radio programme.
fhe audience will hear you as well as observe you. YQU should show more and talk less. You
::an use a variety of visual aids like specimens, photographs, slides, charts, etc. You can even
:ielJlonstrate new ideas. Rehearsal and self-evaluation will improve your presentation.
COMPUTERS: With the world witnessing a communication revolution, computers play an
mportant role in it. Computers provide various uses like Internet, E-mail, Teletext, Videotext,
feleconferencing, Multimedia etc. which can
aid in faster and better communication.
...
.;
Though communication is taking place from the time man originated, the communication
,kill has to be mastered to give an effective presentation to motivate and make them accept and
)ractise the communicated messages.
With this guideline we can refine and develop our
:ommunication skills to fit the circumstances in which we make a presentation
~EFERENCE
)irectorate of Extension, 1961. Extension Education and Community Development,
Govt, of India, New Delhi.
.
lass, Kenneth, B. and D. Packer Harry, 1995. Preparation of Audio Visual Aids,
Prentice Hall, London.
~ieffer, RE. and L.W, Lochran, 1966. Manual of Audio Visual Techniques, Prentice
.;rHall, London.
.1athiyalagan, Peru., 1997. Animal Husbandry Extension Education, Departmenr~f
Extension
~ducation, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal,
Tamil Nadu, India.
.
~yudu, C.S., 1997. Communication, Himalaya Publishing House.
rella Reddy, M. Audio Visual Aids in Teaching, Training and Extension, Extension Education Institute,
m~a Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad.
*****
RECYCLING OF POULTRY MANUItE
Dr. M. Mohamed AmanulJah Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor
Department of Agronomy
Veterinary College and Research Institute - Namakkal.
"Poultry population is raising every year leaving large amount of '?O'ultzy refuse. "Poultry
population is estimated to be 207.7 million and 18.3 million and the manure availability is 'estimated
to be 5.2 and 0.4 million tonnes in India and Tamil Nadu respectively.
Th~
poultry population in
India and Tamil Nadu is not spread throughout the country or state but it is concentrated in some
pockets only. So, disposal of the manure as soon as the same is removed from the poultry house is a
problem because of the high cost of transport to distant places. Hence, the manure is stored in most
•
,.",
1;0'"
¥
..,'
farms before disposal atleast for a period of one month which leads to loss of nearly 40% N which
reduces the value of the manure.
Land application of Poultry manure for crops have been the traditionally and, still the most
"
important use. But, modern methods of rearing poultry have complicated the problem. Much of the
>
.,
manure now produced contains no litter. Litter is not used when birds are used in cages or slots.
,
.
When poultrylittei is used it absorbs moisture and helps keep the manure friable so a large surface
area is exposed to the air. Manure free. litter on the other hand contains 70-80% moistUre making the
pr~cess of application difficult. At the same time, if stored to reduce the m~i~tbre co~tent, nut~ent
.
16sses occur and handling cost increases. Another problem peculiar to this m~ure is
.
~hat the N is' too
"
quickly available so that, if care is nottaken in applying it, burning occurs.
. . __ . - ----,
In recent years, the problem of animal waste disposal in concentrated areas has been augmented
by confined feeding operations. In addition, increased public consciousness of environmental
pollution has challenged the animal scientists and agricultural scientists to expand and to improve the
disposal system, recycling the waste nutrients effectively, wherever feasible. Hence, for quick
disposal to avoid loss of nutrients and to avoid environment al pollution, the manure can be recycled
in the following ways.
.
..
. l
I. Land application as plant nutrients to crops, 2.En~rgy generation
3. Fish Production and 4. Mushroom production.
Characterisation
of Poultry Manure
.:
Deep litter poultry manur~: During production, the accumulating manure gets mixed with the litter.
Whe~ excreta are added, the litter becomes moist (20-22 %) but remains aerobic. Aerobic fermentatior
occurs with the production of heat and loss of C02 and Ammonia.
131
·iler B9..se Manure: The litter is .changed more frequently and there is less Ammonia loss becau..~
estricted decomposition. This .results in manure richer in N than deep litter manure~ \
.
:e Manure:
This manure contains 70 % mqisture since it is not mixed with litter materials: EnQrmous
.
of Ammonia occurs in this manure if it is n~t used the earliest.
rient content:
,t
Nutrient values of poultry manure vary considerably. The ratio of litter to manure and the moisture
:ent causes considerable variation among manure from different houses.
Nutrient content of Poultry manure
o.
,
I
)
Particulars
Deep Litter
Broiler House
Cage Manure
CIN Ratio
9.5-11.5
9.4-11.2
5.8-7.6
Total N(%)
1.70-2.20
2.40-3.60
3.63-5.30
Total P20S(%)
1.41-1.81
1.56-2.80
1.54-2.90
Total K20(%)
0.93-1.30
1.40-2.31
2.5-2.90
Fe (Ppm)
930-1380
970-1370
970.1450
Zn (Ppm)
90-308
160-315
290-460
Cu(Ppm)
24-42
27-47
80-172
Mn(Pp~)
210-380
190-350
370-590
Ca (%).
0.90-1.10
0.86-1.11
0.80-1.02
Mg(%)
0.45-0.68
0.42-0.65
0.40-0.56
is the most abundant nitrogen compound (40-70 per cent
In fresh poultry excreta, ·uric aCid or urate
,
)tal N) while urea and ammonium are present in small quantities.
s of nutrients on storage
The nutritional value of unprocessed. p~ultry manure deteriorates rapidly. During storage,
;iderable nitrogen losses occur. Deep litter containing 22'· % moisture, when stored in open air,
dly loses its N due to high proteolytic activity. In litter of meat poultry; losses up to 30 per cent are
ld. Hence, immediate processing of poultry manure is essential to prevent rapid decomposition.
132
Limitations on the use
The nitrogen availability is too quick that, if care is not taken, burning occurs. Fresh poultry
manure is difficult to handle because of its high water content and cannot be applied to crops due to
caustic effects on foliage.
Recycling of Poultry manure
1. Land Application
Land is considered the ultimate receptor of all Agricultural wastes. Land application of poultry
manure serves a dual role: First, it alleviates the practical problems associated with build up of
. manure: Second, it fertilises the receiving crops and increases the Soil fertility
Loss of nutrients after application
Nitrogen in poultry manure is present in both organic and inorganic forms that are subject to
volatilisation, denitrification, immobilisation, mineralisation and plant uptake. Immobilisation is
responsible for reducing inorganic N 1-2 weeks following application of manure. Undigested feed and
the litter material are the immobilising agents. Mineralisation occurs quite rapidly following application
of poultry waste. About 40 per cent of Organic N in poultry litter incorporated into the soil get mineralised
'in 90 days. Shortly following application, conditions generally favour volatilisation of the ammoniacal- N .
. Thirty seven per cent of the total - N in surface applied poultry manure volatilises in 11 days.
·Effect of application of Poultry Manure
Soil physical properties: Poultry manure application improves the physical properties of the Soil. It
significantly decreases bulk density and increases total porosity,. infiltration capacity and water holding
capacity.
Nutrient availability: Poultry manure is a better source of all plant nutrients than other manure. It
increases the available N, exchangeable K and decreases the adsorption capacity and increases the
soluble P.
Nutrient uptake: Addition of poultry manure either alone or in combination with N, P and K increases
the uptake ofN, P and K in many crops. Increase in N, P, K, Fe, Mn and Cu contents in crops due to
the application of poultry manure has been reported by many scientists.
Yield of crops: Application of Poultry manure either alone or with FYM in conjunction with mineral
fertilizers helps to increase the yields of many crops mainly due to the ability to supply all the nutrients
required for crop growth.
Quality of crops: Application of poultry manure to vegetables results in the increase of vitamin C,
protein, calcium and ascorbic acid content and a slight decrease in crude fibre.
133
--
dJal effects: Application of Poultry manure to the first crop has significant residual effect on
~eding
crop yield and that also increases the nutrient content of the soil.
essing of poultry manure
Before field application immediate processing of poultry manure is needed to prevent rapid
mposition and loss of nutrients. Thel.e are several commonly practised methods of storing poultry
lTe, each of which could affect the quality of the manure at the time of application.
"Drying" improves the physical characteristics of the poultry manure while achieving acceptable
mservation. But, it is limited by cost and mechanical consideration. Similar work has been
ucted regarding centrifugation, vacuum filtration and Electro-osmosis. All these methods have
en successful, but the economic feasibility has not been conclusively established.
Iposting poultry m~nure
Compo sting, or the controlled biological decomposition of organic waste, has been investigated
method of stabilising poultry manure prior to land application. This process produced a material
s.everal advantages with respect to
handlin~
by reducing volume, mass of dry matter, odours, fly
:;tion and breeding and weed seed viability. The heat generated during composting may also
oy pathogens.
Composting poultry manure and poultry carcasses, with straw as carbon source successfully
mposes the manure and carcasses and produces a stable organIc ma,terial physically and
lically similar to the manure used in composting process.
:ed for Fish
Utilisation of animal waste in fishponds is an old practice in China and other Asian
~cycling ·poultry
wastes in fishponds the mineral rich matter is incorporated" in the form of nianure
!
~ventually
cou~tries.
•
recovered as table fish. The poultry waste applied to fishpond not only serves as a
iser but also consumed directly by the fish and so the" fish yield increases. It also r~sults in higher
lction of micro fauna and flora.
o Ga~~ Production
The anaerobic digestion of organic was~es results in the generation of biogas. For successful
tion poultry manure can be used along with other organic manure.
Incorporation of Poultry manure at 15-20 % level along with cow dung and digested slurry
ases the biogas yield apart from increasing the manurial value of the digested slurry solids which
ither be used as manure for crops or feed for fish.
hstrate for Mushroom Production
The preparation of a substrate through composting is critical for the cultivation of commercial
Ifoom Agaricus bisporlls.
The substrate mixture has to be composted before use. Composts are
134
.
(-
usually based on Horse manure and Cereal straws. These materials are low in protein, contains libOut
0.5 % N for straws apd 0.8-1.0 % for Horse manure. In mushroom composting.other materials. called
Aciiv~tors
are aJways added to increase the Nitrogen content and provide· readily available substrate to
fasten the decomposition of the rel~tively resistant straw. Activators' added to improve the Nitrogen
content includes Poultry. manure, Dried Blood etc. Poultry, manure is by far 'th~ most used activator in
,
"
mushroom composting world wide because of its significance as a source of otg~ic Nitrogen and .
organic Sulphur.
'Conclus~n
Poultry manure can efficiently be used in fishponds as feed for fish, for generation .of energy.
.
I
'
,
a~ong with cowdung and digested slurry~ activator for mushroom production and can be applied to
field crop~,_ as organic manure. But, before field application the same has to J>e composted with straw
for better stability. to conserve the nutrients.
** •• *.
135
PRE AND POST HARVEST STRATEGIES TO PREVENT GRAIN LOSS DURING STORAGE
Dr. M. Mohamed Amanullah,Ph,D.,
Assistant Professor
.
The losses
I
Department of Agronomy
Veterinary College and Research Institute - Namakkal-l.
t,
o~
crop produce
ca~sed
I
year after year by pests and diseases afflictions are quite
,nsiderable. Food grains losses occur during harvesting, threshing, transporting, processing and
)rage. The estimated loss of crop produce during storage is placed around 10 % of the production.
fective control of these biological setbacks in the case of millets especially maize and Sorghum can
Ip to wipe out the marginal deficits in grain needs to which the feed industry is subjected to
hodically..
ctors influencing the Post harvest loss of Grains
Pre harvest factors
eather
Weather prevailing at the time of harvest determines the storage ability of the grains. Grains
vested during dry seasons possess less moisture content whereas the same harvested during rainy
.son or cold season contains high moisture content. Rain at the time of maturity in the field decides
efficiency. of storage. The Alpha Amylase activity of the grains that received rains at maturity is
re which increases the incidence of pests and miroflora at storage.
Neglected pest control in the field
if Pests are not properly controlled in the field during the crop growth the insect infestation
I.'" .
y-~be high during storag~. E.g. Bruchid beetles in pulses. Bruchid beetles are not controUed In the
d, the adults lay eggs on the grains and the eggs that are hatched at the time of storage damages the
lOS.
Field Fungus
Field Fungi (Alternaria, Cladosporium,' Fusarium, Helminthosporium etc,) that damage the
'ns at the time of harvest reduces the storage quality. Field fungi require grain moisture of 25-30 o/c
\row. The damage done by field fungi is done at the time of grains are harvested and no furtheI
lage from them is likely to occur during storage.
cessing
Damage caused to the grains at the time of processing (Shelling and Thrashing) may cause
)Iems at the time of storage by absorbing moisture thus invading the fungus. Generally small grains
,pe injury, where as large seeds are more likely to be damaged.
136
2. Post harvest factors
Relative Humidity
. - Relative Humidity of the atmosphere is an important factor influencing the quality of grail
during storage. If grains are stored,jn places where the reiative humidity is not very high, loss ori t]
,
.
quality will be very low. Relative humidity of 70 % is usually accepted as ~maximal permissible lev
(or storage.
'
. Te~perature
.
..
Temperature of the atmosphere is also very important. Very high temperatur~ often deteriorate
the grain qU3:lity. A temperature 33 0 C is considered ideal for storage~
Seed moisture
Grains lose or gain moisture.depending upon the RH of the atmosphere in which they are
stored since grains are hygroscopic. Each'kind of grain will attain a characteristic moisture content a1
.~
.'
a given RH which is called equilibrium moisture content. Of the various compounds present in the
~
seeds, protein absorbs bulk of water, carbohydrate slightly less and lipids do not absorb water at all.
Higher the seed moisture content, f~ster will be the 4eterioration by 'fungal contamination.
Micro flora
.,
The storage fungi comprise several group Species of the genus Aspergillus and Penicilium. It
believed that these fungi do not cause damage to the grain during storage if the grains are stored in an
atmosphere where Relative Humidity is less than 70 %. The storage fungi do not invade grains to any
large extent before harvest. The fi.mgi can damage the seeds by discoloration of the embryo or the
whole seed, Production of mycotoxin, development ofmustin~ss and c*i!1g,~!!d ~p_tal.decay. __ ..
Non insect pests
Non insect pests like rats, mice, squirrels, birds and mites can cause considerable damage if
conditions are favourable.
Strategies to maintain the quality under storage
Ideal storehouse
An ideal storehouse should have no windows and one door. The' entrance should be 1 m above
the ground. There should be a rat- proof flip around the building at about 1 m height extending out 2C
cm, Such construction makes difficult for rats to enter through the walls unless there are cracks in the
foundation, The storehouse must be rainproof, relatively moisture vapour proof and insect proof. The
should be no cracks in walls or on floors. The grain bags should not be kept directly on the floor, but
on wooden pallets and should be at least 50 cm away from the walls.
137
. storage preventive measures
.
.
'
DUS types of insects arid pests attack the grains during '~torage. In pulses,' insect infestation comes
the field. Insect infestation generally re~ains undet~ted until adults are seen. This oc~urs when
: are internal feeders. By the time these adult insects are detected some grains ate already
1ged. Therefore, to avoid these losses and to keep grains free from insect pests during storage the
wing preventive and remedial measuJes must be adopted.
All storage structures should be thoroughly cleaned, white washed and disinfected with
ual sprays of insecticides such as Malathion 50 E.C (1 ml in 50 ml of water) @ 51itres per 100 m2
Dr Fenitrothion 50 E.C (1 ml in 100 ml of water) before arrival of new produce.
Grains should be cleaned and the moisture content should be reduced preferably it 13 %. 'Most
es of insects do not breed or multiply at such low moisture content.
Application of coconut, mustard and groundnut oils at 0.3 per cent w/w concentration over
e pulse grain provides effective protection for four months against pulse beetles.
For storage prefer~bly new bags *ould be used to avoid insect infestation. If old bags are to be
they must be thoroughly cleaned and treated with either Malathion sprays or fumigants like EDB.
egies during Storage
Grains should be inspected fortnightly. In the event of detection of any living insect or
a~ion,
grains must be fumigated under airtight condition with anyone of the· following fumigants.
Aluminium Phosphide, 2-3 tablets of 3 gm each per tonne of material with an exposure period
r days or 1 tablet per m3 space
Ethylene di bromide (EDB), 32 gm per m3 space with an exposure period of 5-7 days.
-Ethylene dichloride Carbon Tetrachloride (3:1) (EDCT) mixture, 320-480 gm per m sp~ce
.
m exposure of 24-48 hours.
3
~(,
Of all the fumigants, Aluminium Phosphide is the safest. Its repeated application does not
r the grain quality. Maximum of 3 fumigants may be given at an interval of 40-50 days.
After fumigation, storehouse should be aerated and thoroughly cleaned with brush or hard
lsticks to remove all dead and moribund insects. To prevent reinfestation, surface treatment with
hion 50 E.C or Fenitrothion 50 E.C (1 mt in 100 m1 of wat~r) @ 4-5 litres per m2 area or
hion dust 5 % @ 3·4 Kg per 100 m2 should be given. DDVP can also be used for the treatment of
ssing and prestorage sheds because it has fumigant action and it is most suitable against flying
s.
Valor (RH 787) at 2 % as a single dose rodenticide and warfarin 0.025 % as multi dose
ticide can be recommended for the control of house rats and mice. Storehouses should be kept
Intense care should be taken to use these insecticides because they are highly toxic to human
138
Anato~in
in maize
The two fungi that cause Aflatoxin in Maize are Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.
The Aflatoxin content is low at harvest and increase during storage. If wet grains are not dried within
72 hours, aflatoxin contamination is likely to occur. Aflatoxin content in the pre- harvested maize is
relatively low but increases rapidly during the period when the grain is handled',,-before storage.
.
\"
Aspergillus flavus contamination in maize is closely associated with weevil infestation (Sitophilus
zeamais). The weevils carry high concentration of Aspergillus'fl~s spores. Virtually no Aspergillus
\
jlOVIlS
can be seen before harvest in the dry season maize crop.
\
\
. Control of Anatoxin
The safe level of Aflatoxin in maize is 20-80 Ppb. Field and mechanical drying are the most
effective measures for controlling aflQtoxin contamination in maize. If the moisture content of maize is
reduced to .14 % within 72 hours after harvest, the aflotoxin content can be maintained at 16 Ppb and
can be safely stored for a minimum of three months with no increase in Aflatoxin content.
A very high incidence of Aspergillus flavus is normally found in soil samples, in the soil
around the drying yard and storehouses. No Aspergillus flavus is found in atmosphere of maize fields
but high level of spores is present iV the atmosphere in storehouses for maize' storage. Hence, the
surroundings. of .the storehouse should be kept clean and sprayed with fungicides to avoid the
infestation of Aspergillus flavus in the grains stored inside the storehouse.
Three chemicals are effective in controlling the aflatoxin. Sodium bisulphide, ammonia and
propionic acid: ammonium bis propionate at a ratio of 9: 1. Sodium 'bisulphide and ammonia treatments
both result in grain with strong odour; the ammonia treC!tment al~o prqduces.,darker~grain._Tbe-most­
promising reagent is the propionic based fungicide formulation, which '~~~en shown to effectively
control both mold growth (Aspergillus flavus) and aflatoxin formation, while not affecting the physical
qualities of the grain. The cost of the fungicide treCl;tment is offset by higher prices for better quality
gram.
Conclusion
The quality of the grains can be maintained and loss of grains can be minimised under storage and
storage life of the grains can be increased by the following ways.
Drying to remove the excess moisture from the grains within 72 hours after harvesting
Storing dried grains at moisture content of not more than 13.0 %
$toring the grains in an ideal storehouse
Fumigating the storage house with EDD at an interval of 50-60 days.
*************
139
M.V.Se., and Ph.D., Thesis
Carried out at
Department of Animal Nutrition . .~.
Veterinary Coll~ge.and Research Institute,
Namakkal- 637 oot; Tamil Nadu.
SI.No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S!.No
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7 ..
~.
9.
10.
II.
12.
13.
Ph.D. Thesis
Title of the thesis work
Poultry droppings as a feed resource for sheep
Sugarc'.Ule Bagasse pith as a feed for
sheep.
Nutritive value of Samai (Panicum miliare) for
Poultry
Feeding value of squilla meal as a replacement
for fish meal in chicken rations.
Effect of feeding yeast culture (Saccharomyces .
cerevisiae) on rumen fermentation andproduction
performance in sheep
Title of the thesis work
Name of the Scientist
Dr.D. Chandrasekaran
Dr.R.Ravi
1993
1994
Dr.M.R.Purushothaman
1994
Dr.B.Mohan
1999
Dr.A.Natarajan
1999
M. V.Sc., Thesis
Name of the Scientist
Rice waste as a replacer of maize in poultry
ration
. Wheat waste as a replacer of maize in poultry
ration
Formulation of Cheap Mineral Mi$re for
chicks and broilers and finding out its
efficiency.
Use of. Tapioca Leaf Meal in the ration of
Chicks and Growers
Effi~iency of silicates in binding aflatoxin in the
- . ration of broilers
Utilization of Cassava Peel Meal as a feed for
Poultry
Effects of various levels of Available
Phosphorus in relation with Calcium on egg
production and egg shell quality in commercial
,
White Leghorn layers.
Ut~1ization of soapstock as an energy source in
broiler ration
Lysine and methionine supplementation in
isocaloric low protein diets on·the performance
of white leghorn birds
Performance of broiler chicks on varying levels
of dietary protein and energy
A study on the occurrence of Ochratoxin -A in
sunflower cake and its detoxification
Enzyme supplementation on performance of
broilers.
Gliricidia leaf meal as a feed ingredient in
poultry ration
140
Year
Year
Or.K.Ambasankar
1995
Dr.S.Senthil Murugan
1995
Dr.P .Karunakaran
1996
Dr.V.B.Sankaravinayagam
1996
Dr.P.VIisan
1996
-
Dr.N .Elanchezhiail
1997
Dr.S.Sengathir'
1997
Dr.V.Murugesan
1997 .
Dr.C.Bandeswaran
1998
1998
Dr.P.M.Natarajan
.
1998
Dr.M.Pauline Felicita
Suganthi
Dr.A.Bharathidasan
1999
Dr.V.Meenalochani
1999
-
Tests carried out in
ANIMAL FEED ANALYTICAL AND QUAlITY CONTROL LABORATORY
VETERINARY HOSPITAL CAMPUS, TRICHY ROAD, NAMAKKAL - 1
PHONE: (04286) 31693, FAX: (04286) 28693
SL. No.
Analytical cha~es
Rs. P.
Tests
\,.
\
.
0.1
Moisture
30..0.0.'-,
0.2
Crude Protein
40.. DO.
0.3
Crude Fibre
40.. DO.
0.4·
Ether Extract
40..0.0.
0.5
Calcium
40..0.0.
0.6
Phosphorous
40..0.0.
0.7
Total Ash
35. DO.
0.8
Sand and Silica
40.. DO.
0.9
Salt
40..0.0.
10.
Aflatoxin
11
Ochratoxin
60.. DO.
12
T2 Toxin
60..0.0.
13
Citrinin
50.. DO.
14
Stergmatocystin
50.. DO.
15
Formaldehyde
50.. DO.
16
Magnesium
50.. DO.
17
Urea
50.. DO.
18
Copper
60..0.0.
19·
Iron
50.. DO.
20.
Manganese
50.. DO.
21
Zinc
85. DO.
22
Free Fatty Acid
50.. DO.
23
Gross Energy
150.. DO.
24
Complete Analysis (1 to 9)
250.. DO.
25
Soluble Proteins
70..0.0.
26
Multimycotoxins (10. to 14 )
-
.
10.0.. DO.
175. DO.
Note: D.D to be drawn in favour of Professor and Bead, A.F.A.Q.C.L PAYABLEAT
NAMAKKAL.
141
,
~LIMPSE
OF FEED MANUFACTURERS, HATCHEIRIES, CHEMICALS
AND GLASSWARE SUPPLIERS.
T.Rajavetu, J. Ramesh and S. Ram.eshlmmar
II. M.V.Sc, Department of Animal Nutrition,
Veterinary College, and Research Institute, Namakkal.
I. FEED MANUFACTURERS:
l
Name of the Companies
Aishwarya feeds,
39-G, Dr. Sankaran Road,
Gandhi nagar,
Namakkal-637 001.
Annam Feeds Limited,
9, First street, Co-op Colony,
Gandhi Nag_ar, Namakkal.
AVM cattle and poultry feed
Manufacturing Industries,
275, Shanthi nagar, Saibaba colony,
Coimbatore-641 03 8.
Bhor Industries Limited,
Lakshmi feed division,
N-21 III Phase, SIDCO Industrial estate,
HOSlJR-635 126
B. V. Animal Feeds,
Thalavapalayam, Kattuthottam post,
Thanjavore-613 501.
Chinthamani Foods & Feeds Pvt
Limiteo; F~1 T5, Gfeenways Road,
Fairlands, Salem- 636 016.
Kaaveri Bioproteins Private Limited,
18, SIDCO, No.2, Dr. Sankaran Road,
Namakkal-637 002.
Kerala trading corporation,
235, Teppam East bazar,
Virudhunagar-626 001.
Palani Andavar Feeds Private Limited,
52-A, Pudupatti Road,
Namagiripet, Narnakkal-637 406.
Pe Pe Feeds,
PSN Complex first floor
25, Mohanur Road,
Namakkal-637001.
Poineer Feeds Pvt. Ltd,
S. F. No.7/3, Trichy Road,
Pongalur, Tiruppur,
Coimbatore- 641 667.
Phone No.
Off: 31142,23750
Factory: 22543,32650
Fax No.
04286-31316
Off: 04286-30660,33142
Fac:66489,66483
04286-20863
0422-449517,438041
0422-438106
20605,24605.
04286- 21218,21245
Fax: 0428630808
04562-44104
04287-40409
Off: 0428632205,33205.
Fac: 04286-66423
04286-30205
0421-816330
0421-816329
I
142
·12
13
14
\ 15
16
17
18
19
~
20
21
22
23
24
Ponni Enterprises,
114-B, Paramathi Road,
Namakkal-637 001
- R.G. Sundar and Company,
'Erode Feed Producers,
77, Perndurai Road,
Erode- 638 001.
Prakash Feed Mills Pvt. Ltd.,
1. v.L. Towers,
II-B, 117, N.M. Road,
Chennai-600 029.
Selvam Broilers Pvt. Ltd.,
10, Co-op Colony, P.B. No. 18,
Gandhi nagar, Namakkal-637 001.
. Shanthi Feeds,
,
191, main road, Pappampatty Post,
Ondipudanut, ( Via),
Coimbatore- 641 016.
S.K.M. Animal Feeds and Foods
(India) Ltd.,
180, Gandhiji Road, P.B.No. 415,
Erode 638 001.
S.L. T. Animal Feeds Pvt. Ltd.,
32, Srinivasa Rao Street,
Vendipalayam, Erode-638 002.
Shanmugharajeswaran Trading
Company,
204, Teppam, North Bazar, First floor,
P.B. No. 72, Virudhunagar-626 001.
S.S. Foods and Feeds,
18-A-3, Paramathi Road,
RKS Building, Namakkal-637 001
Suguna Poultry Products Ltd,
27, Rajendra Road,
Udumalpet-642 126
The Erode Dist. Co-op Milk Producers
.-Union Limited,
Cattle Feed Plant, Chennimalai Road,
Erode, 638 001
Valarmathi Farms Pvt. Ltd.,
90, Raju Naidu Layout II,
100 Feet Road, Coimbatore 641 012
Vishwa Agro Enterprises Ltd.,
41, Mill Road, Gobichettipalayam,
Erode Dt. 638476
04286-32542,32752
044-3743276,3742097
3740362
04286-32794
04286-31542
,
(j44,3743728
...
04286-33171
0422-834633
0424-255701,258212
0424-256827
0424-257306
04562-44699,44679.
04286-22925
04252-26371,26372
04252-20080
0424-262358
0422-495416
04285-22493,22593
143
04285-22707
II HATCHERIES
S.NO.
1
2
"
.)
4
5
,
6
7
8
-
9
10
II
12
Name of the Hatchery
MIS Balaji Hatcheries Ltd. & V.S.N.
Hatcheries Ltd.,
4-2028, Durga Nagar, Greamspet,
Chitoor - 517 002. Andr~ Pradesh.
MIS Komarla HatcherieS,
172, Kavi Lakshameesha Road,
Vishweshapuram, Bangalore-560 004
Jayadevi Hatcheries,
Paramathi Road,
Konut (PO)
Namakkal- 637 002
Poineer Hatcheries Pvt. Ltd.,
325/1 A,. Trichy road,
Pongalur, Tiruppur-641 667.
Mis Ramachandra Hatcheries,
1-A, Karkana III Street,
. Gugai, Salem 636 006
Selvam Hatcheries Pvt. Ltd.,
No.10 Co- operative colony,
P.B.No.18, Gandhi Nagar,
Namakkal-637 002.
MIS Shanthi Agencies,
191, Main Road,
Papampati Village,
Coimbatore-16
MIS Sriilivasa Hatcheries Limited,
3-5-823, III Floor,
Hyderabad business center,
Old MLA Quarters road,
Hyderguda,
Hyderabad-500 029.
MIS Suguna Agencies,
27, Rajendra Road,
Udumelpet-642 126.
Sun India Hatcheries Private Ltd:,
9, I Street, Cooperative colony,
Gandhi nagar, Mohanur Road,
Namakkal-637 001
Valarmathi Agencies,
56, Ganga Complex,
Raju Naidu Layout, Gandhipuram,
Coimbatore 2.
Venkateshwara Hatcheries Ltd.,
48, Gandhi Nagar, Mohanur road,
Namakka1637002.
Phone No.
Fax No.
"
04286.-32199,67665
20748
04287-465034
0427-465209
04286-32794
04286-33171
- ._04252-26371,26372
04252-20080
04286-32827
04286-20863
04286-20821
-
ill CHEMICAL AND GLASSWARE DISTRIBUTORS
144
S.NO.
NAME OF THE COMPANY
PHONE NO.
FAX NO.
1
E- Merck India Ltd.,
3, Haddows road, Second street,
Chennai-600 006.
Loba Cherne Pvt., Ltd.,
78/80, Babu Genu Road, P.B.No. 2042,
Mumbai 400 002
Modem Scientific Company,
P.B.No. 3811, 12, Grey Town,
Coimbatore-641 018
Premier Scientific suppliers,
36, Bharathiyar Street,
Karur-639 001
Ponmani & Co.,
18, West Bouleward road,
Opp. Ibrahim Park,
Trichy 620 008
Qualigens Fine chemicals,
A division of Glaxo India Ltd.,
Dr. Anne Basent Road,
Mumbai-400 025.
Rea Chern Laboratory Chemicals Pvt.
Ltd.,
293, Ambattur Industrial estate,
Cnennai-600 098
S. d. Fine Chemicals Ltd.,
5, ·G.N.T.Road, Moolakadai,
Chennai-600110.
044-8272458
044-8273341
022- 2011145,2053696
022-206456
0422-380297
0422-380968
2
3:
4.
5
6
7
8
:
0431-700708
0431-700239
022- 4933871
022- 4935358
044-6255138
044-5377664
****
044-5583797
Sri Sathya Sai Press - Namakkal - ® 32090, 34790