regional symposium on wheat and triticale

REGIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON WHEAT AND TRITICALE GISENYI,
RWANDA
JUNE
7-14, 1980
REGIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
WHEAT AND TRITICALE
GISENYI, Rwanda June 7·14, 1980 .
Organized by the Institute of
Agronomical Studies, Rwanda.
Sponsored by International Development
Development Research Center (lDRC) of
Canada.
REGIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON WHEAT AND TRITICALE GISENYI,
RWANDA
JUNE
7-14, 1980
REGIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON WHEAT AND TRITICALE TABLE OF CONTENTS Pl\GE
c'lloverture c'lu sympo :' 1 urn pi1r 1e Mi
l'J\griculture e t de l'Elevage d e RWClndn.
Ih :, cour~~
ni~~tr c
de
1
Synthesis
4
Le Culture du Ble. C. Ntambabazi.
8
Wheat and Triticale Research in East and Southern
African Region. G. Kingma.
16
Main Wheat and Triticale Diseases in East and Central
Africa. R. Raemaekers.
33
I.e Hle au Rwanda: Historique et Situation Actuelle.
R. Goeteyn.
41
Resultats de Recherche sur le Ble et le Triticale a
l'I.S.A.R. au Rwanda. C. Ntambabazi.
53
Production of Improved Seeds in Rwanda. R. Paquay.
59
L'amelioration et Ie Production du Ble et du Triticale
au Burundi. J.J. Schalbroeck.
68
Programme du Ble au Zaire. N. Kassongo.
76
Uganda Wheat Production. E. Rubaihayo.
86
Wheat and Triticale Research in Kenya. M.H.A. Mulamula
& M.W. Oggema.
88
Regional Variety Evaluation: CIMMYT Wheat Program in
Kenya. G. Kingma.
93
Malawi Country Report. G.Y. Mkamanga.
111
Wheat and Triticale in Tanzania. R. Ndondi.
126
Wheat and Triticale in Zambia. R. Raemaekers.
1 28
Triticale: A New Crop. B. Skovmand. F. Zillinsky &
A. Hernandez Munoz.
130
Recent Improvements in Triticale Quality at CH'1MYT­
MEXICO. B. Skovmand & A. Amaya.
136
Cloture du Symposium par Son Excellence le Ministre de
l'Agriculture et de l'Elevage.
14 2
Participants au Symposium Regional sur le Ble et le
Triticale a Gisenyi, Rwanda.
144
Itineraire Journee Excursion 12/6/1980.
147
Editors Note
The regional Symposium of wheat and Triticale held in
Rwanda in 1980 brought together French speaking and English
speaking wheat and triticale workers in Africa. Their pre­
sentations have been edited to a minimum in order to maintain
each contributor's identity as much as possible. Summaries
of the French presentations have also been kept to a minimum,
so some of the Regional papers in English cover the same
subject matter as the country reports.
DISCOURS D'OVERTURE DU SYMPOSIUM PAR
LE MINISTRE DE L'AGRICULTURE
ET DE L'ELEVAGE
Monsieur Ie Prefet,
Mesdames, Messieurs,
L'honneur m'echoit de pouvoir m'adresser a cette
assemblee qui regroupe une partie des sommites afri­
caines de la Recherche Agronomique.
La solution des probl~mes alimentaires que connait
la plupart des pays que vous representez exige une
ingeniosite et une capacite innovatrice que seules les
personnes de votre niveau poss~dent.
Le but de ce symposium qui durera trois jours doit
etre, pensons-nous, de passer en revue la situation de
la culture du ble, d'echanger toutes les informations
resultant des experiences des uns et des autres et de
tirer des conclusions realistes, susceptibles de renfor­
cer Ie developpement de cette culture dans notre re­
gion.
Nous n'ignorons pas les handicaps rencontres par
les scientifiques africains pour mener a bien leur
recherche mais ce symposium peut etre considere comme
un premier pas pour faire sauter l'enclavement scienti­
fique dont souffre la plupart des Institutions Natio­
nales chargees de la recherche scientifique.
Compte tenu du fait que tout progr~s en general
et que les progr~s agricoles en particulier, depassent
souvent Ie cadre des fronti~res de chaque pays, il vous
appartient a l'issu des travaux de ce symposium d'ela­
borer et d'entreprendre sans tarder un programme regio­
nal d'amelioration du ble et du triticale.
Cette strategie nous permettra de cooperer plus
etroitement, d'eviter des doubles emplois, de profiter
des travaux des autres, et d'etendre l'environment
scientifique aussi bien dans Ie temps que dans l'espace
et d'eviter les recherches en vase clos.
Nous en convenons que Ie succ~s d'un tel programme
n'est pas seulement une affaire des chercheurs mais
depend aussi d'une certaine volonte politique des pays
concernes.
Mais il vous revient d'apporter la preuve que ces
innovations regionales sont faisables techniquement si
la sagesse politique y etait.
La deuxieme conference des Nations Unies sur la
Science et la Techni~ue au service du developpement
tenue a Vienne du 20 au 31 aout 1979 a demontre claire­
ment combien il etait urgent pour les pays en developpe­
ment d'encourager la cooperation scientifique et tech­
nique horizontale pour palier a l'absence du transfert
vertical que les pays developpes qui detiennent a eux
seuls plus de 95% des activites de recherche n'etaient
pas pret a favoriser.
C'est pourquoi nous saluons les efforts entrepris
par des Institutions et Centres Internationaux pour
soutenir les programmes nationaux et regionaux de
recherche agronomi~ue.
La contribution de ces Institutions et Centres
comme le CIMMYT ou le C.R.D.I. pour le sujet sur lequel
vous vous pencherez durant les 3 jours doit etre
quadruple a l'echelle de notre zone:
1. Favoriser la formation des chercheurs et entrai­
ner ceux qui sont deja occupes dans la recherc4e.
2. Organiser des rencontres des chercheurs afri­
cains qui travaillent sur l'amelioration du ble.
3. Inciter la collaboration entre les chercheurs
d'une meme zone ecologique en vue de creer des programm­
es regionaux.
4. Mettre enfin a la disposition de ces programmes
un nombre suffisant de consultants de haut niveau.
Mesdames et Messieurs, si meme le ble est une
introduction dans l'agriculture de certains pays,
cette culture a pris une importance alimentaire et
economique au cours de ces dernieres annees.
Les besoins en ble v~nt croissant et l'Afrique
importe des dizaines de millions de Tonnes de ble par
an et le remede est d'intensifier la culture du ble en
milieu rural.
La reussite probable de la culture du ble au
niveau des paysans dependra des resultats de vos tra­
vaux de recherche.
C'est dire combien vos responsabilites sont enor­
mes puisque votre genie createur interesse le secteur
agricole qui dans certains pays occupe la majorite de
la population.
Vous etes parmi ceux qui tiennent la cle pour
lever le defi lance a l'humanite entiere
savoir "Pas
de Paix Sans Pain".
a
-
2 ­
Nous vous remercions de votre attention et vous
souhaitons au nom du gouvernement rwandais un sejour
ageable dans notre pays.
Vive la Cooperation internationale et interregion­
ale.
Je vous remercie.
-
3 ­
SYNTHESIS INTRODUCTION
A symposium on wheat and triticale research for the
East and South African Region was held in Rwanda June 7 to
14, 1980. About 50 participants from Burundi, Kenya, Malawi,
Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia and CIMMYT-Mexico
attended. The symposium was organized by the Institute of
Agronomical Studies in Rwanda. Sponsor was the International
Development Research Center (IDRC) in Canada. The objective
of the symposium was to give exposure to the potential of
wheat and triticale production and to strengthen regional
cooperation among wheat researchers.
A technical overview showed that worldwide wheat pro­
duction increased greatly during the past 20 years. This is
true because there is more yield per hectare. Total hectare­
age, on the other hand, has not increased. World average
yield is now nearly 2 tons per hectare.
Wheat is less than 100 years old in the region. At­
tempts to fit wheat into new soil and climate situations are
underway. Resea'rch problems such as disease resistance and
soil fertility have been identified as important limiting
factors. Temperature and rainfall restrictions are also
problems for wheat and triticale.
Country Program Reviews
Rwanda -- Wheat production in Rwanda began 60 years ago
with a dependence on imported varieties from Kenya. The crop
grows best in high areas in north Rwanda and on the mountain
ridge that separates the Nile and Zaire watersheds. Wheat is
found on the north slopes of volcanoes in the northwest.
Characteristics: Non-fertilized small fields located on
slopes, hand sown, hand weeded, hand
harvested, carried out in bundles,
dried, hand threshed and consumed at
home.
Varieties: Many mixtures.
Research: Several locations.
A. B. Disease screening and adaptation.
Agronomic tests: date of planting,
fertilizer and variety trials.
In recent years there has been close
cooperation with other wheat programs in
the region.
- 4 ­
Limitations: Fertilizer availability to achieve
higher yields.
Seed distribution to all farmers.
Weed control.
Stationary threshers.
Government price support for triticale
and wheat.
Expansion of wheat and triticale hectareage is the
first way to raise total production. Soil limitations must
be overcome by liming and fertilizers.
Burundi and Zaire -- These country wheat reports show
similarities with Rwanda. High altitude areas are also the
important wheat production sites. Nights are cool. Wheat is
a small farmer's crop.
In Burundi, heavily leached soils are used to find new
varieties with tolerance to acid soils and aluminum toxici­
ty. "Rusticity" is a key factor, as long as farmers are not
fertilizing. Yields are low in Burundi and fertilizer for
food crops is a necessity.
Wheat and triticale agronomic research has seen yields
increase from 500 to 3,000 kilograms per hectare. Triticale
is high yielder. Search for resistance to rusts, in addition
to tolerance to aluminum toxicity, is underway. Romany, a
bread wheat, is used as a check. Bread making quality can be
improved only by use of new varieties.
zaire -- In Zaire, emphasis is placed on studies of
advanced variety introductions and tests in the eastern
highlands of Kivu Province.
Germplasm of recent origin is identified. Germplasm ex­
change is important. Stripe rust is severe and stem rust is
found late in the season. Seed provision is a major bot­
tleneck.
Uganda -- Wheat research has depended on introductions
of new germplasm from other countries. Evaluation is limited
as conditions have been difficult.
Wheat research concentrates on small farmers, but
recent emphasis has been to encourage large estate owners to
fit wheat into rotation with cash crops such as tobacco.
Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia -- A second group of country
reports includes Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia, where large­
scale wheat production is prevalent.
These countries have the following aspects in common:
1. Their governments have fixed wheat prices.
Kenya is the first country in the world to have
determined a triticale buying price.
- 5 ­
2. Research work is carried out at several stations.
Harvesting of plots is by threshing equipment.
3. Seed production for many varieties occurs at the
same time. Kenya and Tanzania produce at least 10
wheats and Zambia more than five.
4. Agronomic studies have taken place.
Seed rates, planting dates, timely land prepara­
tion, and soil deficiencies have been defined.
Diseases
Following the country reviews, the symposium concen­
trated on how the main diseases affect wheat and triticale.
A large amount of disease resistance is present among the
triticales, especially to common wheat diseases. There is
much variation among triticale lines for quality character­
istics. Progress was reported in improved seed quality and
development of bread baking methods.
Transfer of diseases when wheats and other cereals are
sent from country to country was discussed. Quarantine is
often less restrictive for wheat and triticale than for
other crops.
Another discussion centered on the relatively short
life of varieties, 4 to 5 years. Cooperation among breeders,
two plantings per year and mUltiple location tests are
designed to speed the flow of new varieties.
A concern was expressed as to the risk of losing
valuable genes when several varieties are screened at one
site. The risk exists, but is alleviated if the same materials
are distributed to several locations. Each test site selects
and discards material for certain characters; therefore seed
stock is different.
A final point related to importance of good weed
control, not only by spraying or hand weeding but good land
preparation and use of clea n seed.
Synthesis of work meeting held at Gisenyi
The following recommendations were made by participants
at the symposium:
1. Strengthening of horizontal cooperation among
countries within the region:
a. by free exchange of information and material;
b. by recipr ocal visits to neighboring countries;
c. by establishing a regional training center in
Kenya;
d. by increasing visits of the East-African CIMMYT
representative to the national programs.
_ 6 _
2. Conservation and collection of old wheat land
races.
3. Increasing of level and quality of research:
a. by setting up structured national wheat research
programs with more defined objectives. Introductions
of new material will need to fit easily and ef­
ficiently into the programs.
b. by finding appropriate means to encourage stability
and continuity of research personnel.
4. Editing of a regional newsletter on wheat and
triticale:
a. The East-African CIMMYT representative would act as
editor.
b. All wheat and triticale specialists of the region
are invited to contribute to the newsletter.
5. Strengthening the regional CIMMYT program by ap­
propriate staffing.
- 7 ­
1./\
ClJ L T URED U T\ LE
(c. Ntambabazi)
1. ORIGINE ET EXTENSION DU BLE
1.1. ORIGINE.
Le ble est une des cultures les plus ancestrales du
globe. II est connu en Asie (Moyen-Orient), vraisemblablement
entre 10000 et 15000 ans avant Jesus-Christ. Certaines
decouvertes temoignent aussi que Ie ble existait deja
depuis les temps prehistoriques en Asie, en Afrique et en
Europe a l'age de la pierre taillee; depuis lors, il y a
7000 ans jusqu'a notre ~re. (P.M, Zhuskovskyi, 1970; B.V.
Goulaev, 1975).
.
1.2. EXTENSION.
A l'~re actuelle, Ie ble est repandu un peu partout
dans Ie monde, en Asie, Afrique, Europe, Ameriques et Australie.
Les grands cultivateurs du ble sont essentiellement les
pays d'Europe, Amerique du Nord et l'Union Sovietique qui
representent les 90 %
de toutes les etendues occupees par
Ie ble dans Ie monde.
2.
IMPORTANCE DE LA CULTURE DU BLE.
Apr~s la culture du riz, Ie ble occupe la 2ieme place
dans l'alimnetation humaine. Le ble est un aliment national
de base dans 43 pays. II nourrit un milliard de personnes, a
peu pr~s 1/3 de la population mondiale et on estime que les
70 %
de l'humanite mangent du pain. II est aussi utilise
dans l'alimentation des animaux sous forme de concentres,
sons et foins.
Le ble est une culture vivrlere tres riche en mati~res
nutritives. Un kg de pain de ble contient 2000 - 2500
calories. Dans un grain sec de ble, on obtient entre 11-26%
d'albumen, 63-68% d'amidon et a peu pres 2% de matiere
g rasse. II est egalement riche en vitamines et en elements
mineraux, tr~s utiles pour la vie humaine.
Comme nourriture, on utilise la farine, extraite de
grains pour la panification des pains, biscuits, gateaux;
pour la fabrication des macaronis, spaghettis et pour la
preparation de differentes pates et d'autres aliments speciaux.
Chaque annee, les superficies occupees par la culture
de ble sont approximativement estimables a 300 millions
d'hectares, avec les productions moyennes annuelles de 200
millions de tonnes. En 1972, Ie ble a ete seme sur 213.5
millions d'hectares et les productions realisees furent
347.6 millions de tonnes de grains; ce qui correspond a un
rendement moyen de 15.8 - 18.5 Q/ha (FAO, 1972).
- 8 ­
En 1977, la production s'est élevée à 413 millions de
tonnes de blé; ceci fut le premier record enregistré.
Compte tenu de sa valeur nutritive et économique,
l'importance du blé est très considérable. C'est pourquoi,
le blé est constamment réclamé sur le marché mondial; sa
production a peine à suivre sa consommation et son prix
subit beaucoup de fluctuations.
3. PRESENTATION DE LA PLANTE.
3.1. ASPECT GENERAL.
Le blé est une plante herbacée, annuelle et son appareil
végétatif comprend des racines, tiges et feuilles. Il forme
des or~anes de réproduction et organes de dissémination.
3.2. SYSTEMATIQ.UE.
Le blé appartient à la classe des Monocotylédones, à
l'ordre des Peales, à la famille des Peaceae de Barnhart
"1895" (= Gramineae de Jussien, "1789"), à la tribu des
Triticeae de Dumort (= Hordeae), à la sous-tribu des Triticineae
et au genre des Triticum.
En production, seulement deux espèces Triticum aestivum
L. Em. TheIl (T T. Vulgare Will) èt Triticum durum, sont
practiquées dans le milieu agricole.
4. DESCRIPTION BOTANIQ.UE.
4.1. SYSTEME RADICULAIRE.
La plante du blé émet deux types de racines: racines
germinales (seminales) et racines adventives (coronales).
Les racines germinales surgissent initialement de
l'embryon et elles sont produites peu après la germination,
par la jeune plante. Elles naissent en groupe de cinq racines,
un radicule et une paire de racines latérales, cylindriques,
uniformes en diamètre, ramifiées en branches fibreuses et
très fines. Elles jouent un rôle de support pour la jeune
plante et aident partiellement l'ensemble du système radiculaire
à accomplir les fonctions vitales pour la survie de la
plante. Néanmoins, elles restent fonctionnelles toute la vie
de la plant, si elles ne sont pas détruites par maladies ou
autres ennuis (Mémoire C. NTAMBABAZI, 1976).
Les racines adventives se forment à une certaine hauteur
du germe, à la base de la tige principale et des tiges
secondaires de plante. Elles sont nées dans la zone à
structure cohérente des premiers noeuds trés serrés et des
entrenoeuds très courts. Elles sont regroupées en verticilles
et émettent de petites ramifications en branches fibreuses.
-
9
­
Les racines adventives commencent à se développer deux
semaines après la levée de la plante. Elles croissent
extensivement au moment de la floraison. Leur développement
se termine à la fin de l'épisison (K.Z. Quisemberry et L.P.
Reitz,1967).
4.2. TIGES.
Les tiges du blé sont appelées IIChaumes ll • Ceux-ci sont
dressés, cylindriques, articulés et généralement lisses. Ils
comportent des noeuds toujours pleins et des entrenoeuds
souvent creux, sans parenchyme (moëlle) à l'intérieur. Ils
portent des feuilles.
On compte cinq ou sept noeuds par chaume. Au niveau
variétal, certains blés ont des entrenoeuds solides, pleins
jusqu'au centre de leur paille. Les dimensions des entrenoeuds
diffèrent. Ils sont successivement longs de bas en haut;
l'entrenoeud le plus long (pènduncule) es celui qui sépare
le chaume de l'axe de l'inflorescence (épi).
Le blé émet des branches latérales ou talles. Les
talles surgissent auxiliairement des bourgeons des premiers
noeuds de l'axe principal de la plante et forment un noeud
de tallage, qui produit éventuellement les autres talles du
second et de plusieurs rangs. Le tallage est caractéristique
chez les blés. Les talles peuvent être homogènes ou hétérogènes,
en croissance et en fertilité. On distingue deux types de
talles; talles fertiles et talles stériles.
La hauteur des blés dépend principalement des caractères
génétiques des variétés, et dans une moindre mesure, de
l'influence des conditions environmentales. Il existe des
variétés de taille naine, courte, moyenne et haute dont la
hauteur varie entre 0,40 et 1,80 m jusqu'à 2 m.
En période de croissance, les chaumes ont une couleur
verte. Ils deviennent blancs, crèmes, jaunâtres ou blond­
dorés en maturité.
4.3. FEUILLES.
L'appareil foliaire du blé apparait au moment de la
germination. La première feuille (coléoptile) surgit en
forme d'une plumule cylindrique, creuse et surmontée par un
apex avec une petite ouverture à sa pointe.
La plumule porte deux ou trois feuilles rudimentaires
enroulées ensemble, en un stick. La première feuille verte
sort finalement à travers la petite ouverture de la plumule.
Ensuite, la seconde feuille sort en passant par le
côte latéral de la première feuille; ainsi, toutes les
feuilles apparaissent l'une après l'autre. La hauteur du
coléoptile correspond à la profondeur du semis.
- 10 ­
Les feuilles de blé sont altérnées sur le chaume en
0
deux rangées, en un angle de 180 d'une feuille à l'autre.
Chaque feuille consiste en gaine, limbe, ligule avec una
paire d'auricules, à la base
du limbe.
4.4 INFLORESCENCE.
L'inflorescence du blé est un épi, constitué d'une axe
sinueux ou rachis encoché, à petits noeuds et entronoeuds
courts. Chaque entrenoeud est plus ou moins convexe d'un
côte et légèrement Concave de l'autre. Il est restreint à sa
base et élargi au sommet.
L'épi comprend les unités florales appelées épillets.
Un épillet est constitué par deux bractées ou glumes stériles
qui recèlent cinq fleurons, tenus sur un petit axe ou rachéole.
Les épillets sont sessiles et altérnés en deux rangs sur le
rachis. Un fleuron comporte deux glumelles florales, un
lemme (glumelle inférieurs) et un paléole (glumelle supérieure)
qui renferment les organes sexuels, trois étamines et un
pistil en deux lodicules (glumellules).
Le pistil est fait d'une avaire biloculaire, couvert de
petits poils au sommet et surmonté par deux styles aux
stigmates velues.
Chacune des étamines est constituée d'un fil cylindrique
à petit diamètre, d'une anthère biloculaire, large et sagittale.
Les jeunes étamines sont vertes. A leur maturité, elles
deviennent jaunes et à l'anthèse, elles s'épanouissent et
prennent une couleur blanche après la pollinisation.
Les blés diffèrent par structure et par forme des épis.
Il existe:
-des blés aux épis glabres ou barbus, sans et avec
des arêtes;
-des blés aux épis compacts ou épars;
-des épis ramifiés ou simples, etc ...
4.5 GRAINE.
La graine du blé est un caryopse, petit, dur et indéhiscent.
Elle est constituée d'un germe ou embryon et d'un endosperme.
Sa forme est ovée, ovale ou élliptique et sa surface est
lisse, sauf sur son point terminal où la graine est couverte
d'une petite tourfee de duvet.
Le tégument de la graine peut-être blanc, brun-rougâtre
et peut encore varier entre les couleurs blanc, rouge et
brun. L'expression de la couleur dépend de la texture de
l'endosperme. Les grains durs sont plus sombres, (brun­
rougâtre) que ceux qui sont tendres et paraissent clairs
(blancs).
Deux parties de la graine se diffèrent en forme. La
partie dorsale, celle qui se développe en face du lemme
(glumelle florale inférieure) es bombée, tandis que la
-
Il ­
partie ventrale ou celle formée en face du paléole (glumelle
florale supérieure) est traversé par una cannelure longitudinale
ou limite de deux loges soudés de la graine.
5. GENETIQUE.
5.1. GROUPES GENETIQUES DES BLES.
Du genre Triticum, les espèces connues sont essentiellement
reparties en trois groupes génétiques, Diploïdes, Tetraploïdes,
Hexaploïdes en fonction du nombre de leurs chromosomes
correspondant respectivement à 2n=14, 2n=28, 2n=42 chromosomes.
Les formules respectives de la constitution génétique des
espèces inclues dans chaque groupe sont conventionnelement
désignées AA, AABB, AABBDD génomes.
5.2. DESCRIPTION DES ESPECES CULTIVEES.
S eulement, quatre espèces et leurs sous-espèces sont
cultivées parmi les quatre groupes mentionnés:
Groupes Especes et
sous-espèces
Di;Eloïdes T. Monococcum
2 . TetraEloïdes: T. Tuq!;idum
T. Dicoccum ssp
T. Durum ssp T. Turdigum ssp
T. Polonicum ssp
T. Persicum ssp
T. Timo;Eheevi 3 . Hexa;Eloïdes T. Aestivum
T. Spelta ssp T. Macha ssp T. Vulgare ssp
T. Vavilovi ssp
T. Compactum ssp
T.Sphaerococcum ssp
T. Zhukovskli l.
Nom
collectif
Einkorn
Emmer
Emmer Durum
Rivet
Polish
Persian
Spelt
Mache
Vulgare
Vavilovi
Club
Chromosomes
2 n-14
AA
2 n-28
AABB
2 n-28
AAGG
2 n-42
AAB BDD
2 n-42
AAAAG G
Deux espéces T. Timopheevi (2 n=28) et T. Zhukovskyii
(2 n=42) sont des amphiploïdes, nés des croisements entre
les formes parentales aux génomes AA et GG.
A la classification génétique des blés en trois groupes
naturels, un quatrié~e groupe des Octoploïdes. constitué par
le matériel des blés synthétiques (triticales) vient s'y
ajouter. Les triticales s'obtiennent des croisements entre
les différentes espèces des trois groupes du triticum (AA,
- 12 ­
Génome
BB, DD) et le seigle (RR). Les triticales Octoploïdes sont
donc des polyploïdes (AABBDDRR), crées à la base des croisements
entre Triticum Hexaploïdes (AABBDD) et le seigle (RR).
6.
CONDITIONS ECOLOGIQUES.
Les blés sont divisés en deux groupes écologiques,
blés d'été et blés d'hiver. La différence entre les deux
groupes est fonction de la température et de l'humidité.
Blés d'hiver exigent les températures basses, en 0
dessous de 0 . , pour leur hibernation. Ils sont semés à la
veille de la saison d'hivernage. Leur levée apparait vers la
fin de la saison. L'accumulation de la forte humidité leur
permet de bien croître et de se développer. Ce sont les blés
adaptables aux conditions des zones tempérées.
- Blés d'été n'hibernent pas; tels qu'ils sont appelés,
croissent et se développent dans les conditions chaudes,
pendant le printemps et la saison ~èche. Ils s'accommendent
aux températures élevées, durant toui leur cycle végétatif.
Malgré cette différence écologique, tout blé est exigeant
en lumière. Cést une culture de journée courte en photopériodicité.
D'une façon génerale, les blés se rapportent aux mêmes
conditions écoclimatiques pour bien végéter et produire.
- Sols: Les blés exigent les sols bien structurés,
aérés, riches en éléments nutritifs, organiques et minéraux.
Ils ne supportent pas les sols acides. Il est souhaitable
que les sols aient un PH-1 - 1.5.
- Températures: Les températures optimales du sol
0
,.
.
L a temperature
,.
varlent
entre 8 -1 2 C., pour la bonne levee.
0
de l'atmosphère de 16-20 C. est favorable pour la croissance
de la plante. Pour la formation et la maturité des graines,
la plante a besoin de température élevées de 20-24°c. en
moyenne.
- Humidité: L' humidité relative optimale du sol et de
l'air doit être de 10-80%.
- Pluviosité: Dans les conditions non irriguées, les
précipitations moyennes annuelles de 800 à l 200 mm son
favorables pour la culture de blé. Dans les irrigations, la
distribution de la quantité totale d'eau, en différentes
étapes correspond à 5-1% d'eau après le semis jusqu/à
le levée; 15-20% d'eau pendant le tallage, 55% en
période d'epiaison, 20% en maturité laiteuse et 3-5%
en maturité pateuse de la graine.
- 13 ­
CONCURRENCE AUTRE. La présence de mauvaises herbes est intolérable pour la
culture du blé. Le blé exige des champs propres. La haute
production s'obtient en monoculture.
L'association du blé avec les autres cultures n'est pas
encore étudiée. En rotation, il convient que les antécédents
culturaux du blé soient des légumineuses.
- 14 ­
7. BIBLIOGRAPHIE.
1. Zhukovskyi, P.M.
Germplasm international des plantes
pour la sélection, Edition "Science",
L., 1970.
2. Goulaev, B.V.
Elément de sélection des cultures.
Edition "Epi". Moscou, 1975.
3. Troupin, Georges
Syllabus de la flore du Rwanda.
Spermatophyte. Publication nO 8.
"I.N.R.S." Butare, 1971.
4. Ntambabazi, C.
Mémoire de Diplôme au titre
d'Ingénieur-Agronome. Scti@ma bioma­
thématique d'un modèle idéal de
variété de blé d'été pour une zone
écologique bien déterminée.
Krasnodar (U~SS), 1976.
5. Van den Abeele et Vandenput: .
Les principales cultures du Congo Belge.
3ème édition "Ministère des Colonies"
Belgique, 1956,
6. Quisemberry, K.S. et Reiztz, L . P.:
Wheat and Wheat Improvement, U. S .A., 1967.
7. CIMMYT Wheat Training Course:
Breeding (Mexico).
Par NTAMBABAZI, C.I.S.A.R.-TAMIRA, 1980.
- 15 ­
WHEAT AND TRITICALE RESEARCH IN THE EAST
AND SOUTHERN AFRICAN REGION
by Gerbrand Kingma
Introduction
Wheat and triticale research has focused on coopera­
tive work among the Ministries of Agriculture in various
national programs, universities, development projects and
the Regional Wheat and Triticale Program in East and South­
ern Africa. This regional program has been sponsored by the
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in
Mexico since late 1975.
World Wheat Development During the Past Twenty Years
Worldwide wheat hectareage has increased by only 12
per cent during the past 20 years. Two hundred and twenty
six million hectares of wheat were harvested in 1979/80.
This figure is a mere 23 million hectare increase over the
203 million hectares planted to wheat in 1960/61. Wheat
production was higher once during this period when 232
million hectares were harvested in 1976/77.
However, a great increase has occurred in yields per
hectare. In 1960/61 average yields for wheat were 1.18 tons
per hectare. Yields steadily rose to 1.85 t/ha, or 60 per
cent, by 1979/80. The highest average yield for the period
was reported for 1978/79 when nearly 2 t/ha (1.98 t/ha) were
harvested. In that record season world wheat production was
447.3 million tons.
During the same 20 years, total utilization of wheat
increased dramatically from 236.3 million tons to 436 mil­
lion tons. Wheat is the major food grain in international
trade. In 1960/61 a total of 42 million tons were traded
while the projected trade for 1979/80 was 81 million, nearly
double the 1960 levels. For 1979/80 over 10,000 million
dollars were paid to export-wheat farmers using the wheat
price, US $125 per ton, paid to United States farmers in
April 1980 ($3.40/bushel). Long distance shipping can bring
the price above US $200 per ton.
In Table 1 wheat import needs for several African
countries are estimated for 1979/80 1 to total 969,000
metric tons. It is estimated that total population in East
and South Africa will reach 300 million people by the year
2000 2. Population growth of these dimensions accounts for
growth estimates of wheat and wheat products imports. An
additional growth factor must be considered. Although urban
population varies greatly from country to country--2 per
- 16 ­
cent in Burundi, 36 per cent in Zambia, average for East
Africa 12 per cent--it is estimated to be growing rapidly as
is the case in many regions of the world 3.
One estimate is that the urban population will double
during the next 20 years. With increasing urbanization, food
patterns also change in favor of wheat. For example, wheat
demand is estimated to rise fourfold in the area south of
the Sahara. In 1977 production in this area (including the
Republic of South Africa and Ethiopia) was estimated at 3
million tons. Wheat imports for 1980 were nearly 1 million
tons. If the region works to be self-sufficient in wheat, a
production target of 16 million tons of wheat per year must
be reached by the year 2000.
Countries listed in Table 1 have an estimated 896,500
planted to wheat, with Ethiopia accounting for two
thirds of the area. In 1979 South Africa reported 1.9 mil­
lion hectares with an average yield of 1.05 tons. Total
production in South Africa in 1979/80 was 2 million tons.
South African wheat exports (most distributed within the
region) numbered 230,000 tons.
he~tares
Estimates from South Africa indicate that by 2000 the
republic will have wheat demand for 5.2 million tons. Total
population is expected to reach 51 million by 2000. If the
region has similar food patterns as South Africa, wheat
demand could total 30 million tons--over 10 million tons
above the current estimate of 16-20 million tons.
Only 3 million hectares are planted to wheat in East
and South Africa. Therefore, the task to produce more wheat
per hectare becomes crucial as available land suitable for
wheat production is limited. Temperature requirements for
wheat and triticale limit cropping seasons to the cool
periods which are often the dry months as well. These re­
strictions result in increased use of irrigation and subse­
quent demands for greater capital.
East and Southern African Region
Wheat is a newcomer in most countries of the region.
With the exception of the Sudanese, Ethiopian and Somalian
highlands, wheat was introduced at the turn of the century
by missionaries and settlers. In the far south wheat has
been cultivated for only three to four centuries.
Most wheat land under discussion is located in alti­
tudes above 1,500 meters. Wheat and barley are grown near
the Equator above 3,000 m. Most wheat is rainfed due to the
ecology of the land. Traditional areas, such as the Ethiopian
highlands, are the most common rainfed areas, but recently
cultivated lands are rainfed as well.
- 17 ­
Irrigated wheat is being tested in lower elevations
during the coolest months in Somalia, Zambia, Botswana and
the Lowveld areas in Zimbabwe. Total hectareage is limited
to below 50,000 hectares. The highlands in the region cover
greater areas; Ethiopia has more than 600,000 hectares under
wheat.
A preliminary summary of wheat hectareages, research
stations and varieties is found in Table 1.
Botswana
In Botswana wheat is grown mostly by large-scale
farmers on the border with South Africa and along the Limpopo
River. It fits in with the rotation of maize and peanuts.
Wheat is planted in years with above average rainfall, but
it is usually during these periods that the land is fallow.
However, irrigation is possible near the Limpopo River where
wheat grows successfully. Optimum planting dates have yet to
be determined, largely because of highly variable and gener­
ally low rainfall on the edges of the Kalahari Desert. There
is also risk of frost damage. Seed is available and adequate
from neighboring South Africa. A potential seed production
area is being explored in the north in the Okavango Plains
near Maun.
Burundi
The high altitude areas of Burundi are suitable for
wheat as far as rainfall and temperatures are concerned.
Land use patterns, soil acidity and technology levels,
however, are serious constraints to rapid wheat expansion.
Wheat research is part of a research program including
several highland crops. Crosses of Brazilian and locally
selected wheats have been used. But small fields generally
are planted with a mixture of susceptible varieties. Intro­
ductions from neighboring countries have been evaluated. In
recent years, regional yield trials have shown good yields
and disease resistance considering the low pH soils and
aluminium toxicity symptoms. Triticale has had higher yields
than Romany, a promising bread wheat.
Ethiopia
Traditionally durum wheats and barley have been grown
in the highlands. Many local varieties are available, and
these are well adapted to growing conditions. Soil problems
include water logging and acidity. Most land preparation is
done by hand. Improved varieties of bread wheat, durum,
triticale and barley are available. These are cultivated in
the most advanced agricultural areas. Seed supply and other
farming inputs are particular constraints in these areas.
- 18 ­
A network of research stations exists where investiga­
tions of diverse growing conditions take place. Research is
reviewed annually by an interdisciplinary team of crop
scientists. The Institute of Agricultural Research is organiz­
ing countrywide variety trials with a crop coordinator for
each program.
Variety trials have resulted in the release of several
new selections of bread wheat and durums. Bread wheats
received from Kenya have yielded well. Durums are beginning
to be adopted by farmers. Earlier planting dates and methods
of selecting good quality seed are being recommended and
accepted by farmers.
Most land planted to barley consists of mixtures that
are nonetheless able to yield under stress. Newly released
varieties include crosses with Holetta mix and Kenya Re­
search. Barley diseases such as scald are severe. Good
screening work has been accomplished, and newly released
varieties are resistant or tolerant.
Triticale is known to yield better than wheat and
durum. However, questions remain as to its utilization.
Researchers are currently awaiting evaluations in human
nutrition being carried out in other countries before grow­
ing triticale on a large scale basis in Ethiopia.
Seed production has been taken up by recently estab­
lished state seed farms. Seed quality control and production
of sufficient quantities are being tested.
Kenya
Kenyan wheat requirements were met previously by local
production. Many varieties are used on a limited scale to
reduce vulnerability to stem rust and stripe rust.
Yields average 1,500 kilograms per hectare. Triticale
and durum varieties are available but not widely grown.
Barley is cultivated mainly as a commercial crop for Kenya
Breweries.
During recent years wheat hectareage has been decreas­
ing as land ownership changes. Large farms are partly sub­
divided, and wheat is being replaced by other crops such as
maize.
However, wheat demand is rising steadily and creating
a dependency on imported wheat.
Commercial acceptance of triticale by wheat millers is
increasing and the government has stimulated triticale
production by purchasing triticale from farmers. It is hoped
that triticale will be adopted in areas where wheat yields
are low due to drought or poor soil fertility.
-
19 ­
Kenya Seed Company is providing quality seed of more
than 20 varieties of wheat, barley and durum, and is now
mUltiplying triticale seed as well. Recently the Kenyan and
Canadian governments signed an agreement to intensify wheat
cooperation and increase the number of Kenyans trained in
small grains research work.
Lesotho
Good wheat lands in Lesotho are similar to neighboring
areas of South Africa. Leading wheat varieties perform well
in low elevations which are cold and require winter wheats.
In high altitudes spring wheats are grown during the summer
season. Problems exist because trained researchers are
scarce and often working on several crops. Some government
projects include wheat, especially in the highlands. Varie­
ties from regional programs in South Africa and Kenya are
tested.
Crop production in Lesotho needs to be improved as
yields are low. Land use patterns are one complicating
factor as land improvement is not promoted. High stocking
rates encourage soil erosion and good crop stands are
completely grazed after harvest. This, in addition to the
fact that there is no personal land ownership beyond one
season, makes soil improvement difficult.
Madagascar
Wheat is a minor crop in Madagascar which must fit in
rotation with the main food crop, rice. Many river valleys
in the central highlands where rice is normally grown have
proved to be good fields for wheat in the cold season.
Hovever, more adequate land preparation and soil fertility
are necessary before economic results can be obtained.
Diseases occur especially when soil improvement has been
inadequate. Foliar diseases and rusts present a particular
concern for plant quarantine officers. This has slowed
variety introduction. In the early 1970s a small crossing
program started. Romany, Tobari and Kenyan wheats have been
intercrossed.
A new wheat mill has been proposed which could stimulate
further interest in wheat production. Price policies and a
socialized marketing system have severely reduced local
wheat production. Seed is being produced on a very small
scale by research stations. Quality is difficult to maintain.
Malawi
Wheat is grown in the High Kirk area and in northern
Malawi during the cool period from April to September.
Kenyan varieties do well and K. Nyati has been found promis­
ing. A combination of cool temperatures and adequate moisture
is not easily found, which has been the main limitation for
further expansion.
- 20 ­
Irrigated wheat has been tested and good yields were
obtained. Diseases are usually limited.
As wheat is one of the import food crops, the country
has set as a priority target an increase in production. In
addition, triticale has shown excellent performance and may
be suited for the hill areas. Wheat is currently being
fitted into rotations at some estates where irrigation is
used during the cool season.
Mozambigue
The University of Maputo and the Mozambique Institute
of Agronomic Investigation have been evaluating wheat varie­
ties for several years. Tests indicate that Inia is a reliable
high yielder. In recent cooperative trials, yields of 4 t/ha
have been reported. Mozambique is importing over 100,000
tons of wheat per year. Although maize, beans and wheat are
replacing cotton and sugar cane, wheat hectareage is still
limited. There is a severe shortage of local manpower.
Rwanda
Wheat and triticale research has continued, especially
in northern Rwanda.
Variety trials of the Kenyan regional program have
shown good results. Triticale had good yields at the Rwerere
research station near Uganda.
Top yielders during three 1977/78 seasons were:
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
1977B
Tcl 74
Tcl 65
K. Fahari
K. Kifaru
K. Nyoka
1978A
Tcl 74
Tcl 65
K. Mamba
K. Fahari
K. Nyati
1978B
Tcl 74
Tcl 65
K. Mamba
K. Paka
K. Nyati
Yields of 4 t/ha were reported for K. Nyoka, K. Tembo and
K. Fahari (bread wheats), and the triticales Bacum and T65 during
the second African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial (ACWYT).
Performances of K. Fahari (locally tested as K. Jubilee)
and K. Nyoka are encouraging as yields were 25 per cent
higher than Norteno and the check variety. Stripe rust on K.
Fahari was 10 per cent while for Norteno it was 80 per cent.
Triticales were found to be completely clean of stripe rust.
Triticale 65 has been released along with Moshi, a variety
received from Tanzania in 1976.
-
21 ­
In 1978 repeated screening for disease and yield based
on single rows showed the following superior entries in the
first Screening Nursery African Cooperative Wheat Yield
Trial (SNACWYT):
Tcl:
BW:
1
6
9
3
33
35
43
47
53
Triticale 74
BeaverArmadillo
MIA
Rahum
Cinnamonst 45 x 10149L1A
74CT 301-6
X 2148-4N-2M-2Y-IM-OY
X 2148INIMOY
Maya 74=Cno-Gallo
Pavon 76
DZI-Tob 66 (Nad-LR64.)
FAO 24117-Nr.70
Alondra
CM 8399-D-4M-3Y-IM-IY-OY
CM167-05-A-IM-IY-6M-OY
SE 513-2S-IS-OS
CMII1683-A-IY-IM-2Y-OM
In the preliminary yield data, Maya 74 and Pavon 76
appeared to yield at the same level as the best triticales.
Entries 43 and 53 were also among the best yielders in North
Kivu, Zaire. In Burundi, entries 35, 43 and 47 were selected.
In 1978 and 1979 the second ACWYT entries were tested
for yield. In 1978B and 1979B K. Nyoka had the highest yield
among the bread wheats. Among the triticales T65 was the
high yielder. In 1978 stripe rust was again reported. The
following varieties were recommended for release from earlier
trials:
BW:
Tcl:
Amazonas
K 66619 like K. Paka
Bajio
Moshi
Tcl 65
Some YR in Tamira
The wheat and triticale screening program includes
disease exposure during several seasons before a line can be
selected to enter a yield test. Similarly tests are repeated
four seasons. This procedure can be intensified by discarding
many entries that show yellow rust at Tamira, a key location
for this fungus.
Seed production is increasing in northern Rwanda with
Romany and Norteno. Production takes place in small seed
centers which distribute seed to the hill areas. The program,
however, is slow and often ineffective. Yields are below 1
t/ha and farmers have not benefited fully from improved
seed.
Fertilizers are showing response and further results
can be expected when an European Economic Community funded
project gets underway.
A wheat mill is planned for southern Rwanda. Wheat or
triticale will be identified for this area.
- 22 ­
Somalia
Wheat trials from CIMMYT-Mexico, the Near East and
Kenya have been received and tested with varying results.
Delays in seed transfer due to frequent staff changes and
adverse climatic conditions have contributed to difficulties.
Cooperative programs between the United Nations,
united States universities and the Somalian government have
included wheat tests at the Agricultural Research Institute
at Afgoi, near Mogadishu on the coast.
Climatic data have been accumulated for Afgoi during
the past 25 years. Precipitation has averaged 548.3 mm per
year with heaviest rains in May and November. Highest tempera­
tures occur between May and November. Average monthly day
temperatures reach 30°C and above during this period. Average
night termperatures range between 18.4°C in July and August
and 20.4°C in May. Since night temperatures are high, wheat
can head out within 5 weeks (when plants are short).
Rainfall at Hargeisa (located to the north on a spur
of the Rift Valley highlands system) averages 420 mm per
year, with most rain falling in May, August and September.
As it is located in the highlands, temperatures are more
moderate.
Attempts are being made to identify optimal wheat
growing areas. High-temperature tolerant types are required,
and varieties from Sudan, southern Pakistan and West Africa
should be among the first to be tested.
Swaziland
Commercial wheat production is practically absent in
Swaziland. At Malkerns Research Station a few wheat trials
have been carried out annually since 1976-77 in order to
test newly developed germplasm.
Wheat diseases are severe, especially leaf rust. In
the early 1970s heavy losses were attributed to diseases and
birds. Wheat varieties from South Africa are screened as
well as varieties from Kenyan regional tests.
Tanzania
Wheat production and research continue in northern and
southern Tanzania. Wheat areas are located near Arusha in
the north. Older wheat growing districts are situated on the
slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro and near Ngorongoro. Newer wheat
lands can be found near Mbulu to the southwest of Arusha. In
southern Tanzania, wheat testing is concentrated near Mbeya
and Njombe where a large-scale production area has been
developed. Although moisture is limited in the north, in the
southern highlands it is generally abundant.
- 23 ­
Wheat Research in Northern Tanzania
A handbook on ~anzanian wheat production became avail­
able to farmers in 1978. This guide to mechanized wheat
growing was based on wheat studies conducted in the northern
region.
Management practices to utilize rainfall (500-750 mm)
are of key importance. Tillage allowing infiltration, weed
control, seeding depth to speed up germination, and early
seeding time are also practiced. Attempts are being made to
keep soil erosion to a minimum by having a proper direction
on the slopes and using a chisel plow that leaves the soil
surface in open clods. Planting time varies with the rains.
February is the best planting month for new wheat areas
(which assures harvesting during a dry season).
Seeds of recommended varieties are available. The
Tanzania Seed Company is selling seven well adapted wheats
as identified from trials in the northern region. Seed
multiplication at the Arusha Foundation Seed Farm included
the following wheat varieties in 1979:
Kwecha, Joli, Kozi, Nyati, Mbuni, Trophy, Kororo and
Tai
Pedigrees of the new varieties are:
Kozi
=
Joli
=
Tob66/3/SPRC 527-67/CI 8154/2 Frocor
(K6648-6)
Trophy/K6106-6A (K6793-6)
Wheat is evaluated from early generation introductions
to final stage of release at the Lyamungu Agricultural Re­
search Institute. In 1978 three varieties were put in head
row plots for checking and bulking of breeder's seed. These
included Joli, Mbuni T26-73 and a sister line T23-73. All
were obtained from the cross Trophy x K6106-1. In 1979 two
Alondra selections went through the head row program. These
are promising in northern Tanzania, and show resistance to
Septoria nodorum, leaf rust and stripe rust.
In the 1978 advanced trials, the Alondra lines competed
well with established varieties such as Tai (K4500-2 =
W3697), Mbuni and Joli. They are tested under the numbers W
6022 and W 6021 (9th IBSWN 209 and 208).
Wheat Research in Southern Tanzania
Variety evaluation has been the most active aspect of
wheat studies at Uyole Agricultural Center in southern
Tanzania. Resistance to foliar and ear diseases such as
Septoria, Fusarium and Helminthosporium is of importance. In
1979 trials of the northern research group were grown with
good results. Alondra and Kororo appeared to perform well.
-
24 ­
In southern Tanzania triticale has outyielded wheat in
many tests. Introductions from CIMMYT-Mexico were grown in
1979 at the Tanganyika Wattle Company in Njombe and the
Uyole center.
The relatively long season triticales fit well into
local cropping patterns, and their general disease resistance
makes them a good crop for southern Tanzania. In spite of
such advantages yields were heavily reduced in 1979 when
early plantings of beagle triticale were severely attacked
by Fusarium graminearum after a long wet season.
Fortunately introduced screening nurseries showed
variability for the complex of foliar diseases. At Uyole
some 200 plants were selected from the Tenth International
Triticale Screening Nursery (ITSN) with very low levels of
disease. Many triticale trials are planned as new varieties
and agronomic practices need to be evaluated.
Two important commercial bread wheat varieties in
southern Tanzania include Tai and K6290-17. These varieties
yield well, and recent tests in northern Zambia have identi­
fied these.same varieties as tolerant to prevailing diseases
and climatic conditions. Planting time is of considerable
importance. Early plantings often yield low due to heavy
Septoria or Helminthosporium attacks. Fusarium is prevalent
in triticale. Certain varieties such as K6290-17 respond
well to these attacks. Planted in mid-March this variety
yielded 2,737 kg/ha at Njombe.
Barleys are of interest in Tanzania as malt must be
imported. Contracts with Tanzania Breweries, similar to
those in Kenya, are foreseen. A new barley, Amani, was
increased in 1979, but leaf rust resistance was poor and it
has no foliar disease resistance. New introductions are
being evaluated both in northern and southern Tanzania.
US anda
Wheat production in Uganda is not a large enterprise.
High altitude areas in southwest Uganda and on the slopes of
Mount Elgon have proven good wheat growing districts. In
south Uganda growing conditions are similar to those in
north Rwanda. Yield trial results are similar--triticales
yield dramatically higher than bread wheat. Large commercial
wheat growing is carried out near the Kenya border at Mount
Elgon. High yielding Kenyan varieties are obtained for this
area.
Wheat tests carried out with introduced materials
the Near East have shown good results in Karamoja north
Mount Elgon. A good yielding variety, 7C-Onx Inia-BMan,
identified during 1976 and 1977 trials. The variety has
named Cuckoo in Mexico and Haramoun in Lebanon.
- 25 ­
from
of
was
been
Two lines originally from Pakistan (with selection
work carried out in Lebanon) yielded well in drier parts of
Uganda such as Karamoja and near Fort Portal. These included:
Chenab 70 (HD832-5-7 x Y50-Cno/ON) PK6218-6K-1IK-OL
Choti Lerma - Inia,
PK6073-14K-IK-OL
Further tests and seed multiplication are planned.
Certain areas of Uganda are suitable for growing wheat on a
small-holders' scale. Other areas are available for large­
scale, mechanized wheat production.
Zaire
Eastern Zaire has high areas suitable for wheat growing.
Wheat selected from Kenyan introductions have been cultivated
in parts of the country since the 1920s. In the Kivu region
local acceptance of these wheats has been good. A small mill
was built where mixtures of locally produced wheat flour and
imported flour are baked into biscuits.
Triticales and bread wheats from the African Coopera­
tive Wheat Yield Trial screening nursery were planted in
Ndihira in 1978, and the best were yield-tested in 1979.
Stripe rust and stem rust eliminated many entries, but
Musala, Alondra and several triticales fared well.
Future evaluation of additional introductions is
planned. Triticale should be suitable for high altitude
wheat growers. It can most likely be sold to local mills for
biscuits.
Zambia
The main food is maize, but wheat consumption is in­
creasing rapidly.
The government has stimulated considerable research
work for increased wheat production in order to avoid a
foreign currency drain for wheat.
a) Irrigated Wheat
Prior to 1979 practically all of Zambia's wheat was
grown during the dry cold season under irrigation. More
farmers would grow wheat and some large-scale, non-wheat
growers might switch to wheat if prices were substantially
higher.
Wheat was grown in 1978 in a program financed by the
Common Market Fund at Mpongwe. About 200 hectares were
planted in 1979. This program is geared at making Zambia
self-sufficient in wheat production.
- 26 ­
b) Rainfed Wheat
About 500 hectares were planted to wheat in the northern
province during the 1979 rainy season (December to May).
Yields were low because high temperatures caused soils to
leach out. Research was carried out in 1979 in an attempt to
obtain economic yields.
The Zambian Canadian Wheat Project has gathered infor­
mation and techniques which show that wheat is viable in the
northern province at altitudes of 1,500 m.
c) Variety Identification
Wheat varieties are easily identified for irrigated
areas because of their damp, cool night requirements. Wheat
research results from other countries are being tested.
Varieties from Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, CIMMYT-Mexico, India and
Pakistan are available to wheat growers. Currently grown
varieties include Emu, Jupateco 73, Mexipak, Zambesi, and
Tokwe.
Rust resistance is essential for both irrigated and
rainfed wheat. Stem rust has caused considerable damage to
varieties selected from recent introductions. Powdery mildew
is also an important disease in irrigated wheat. Farmers use
overhead sprinkler systems which keep the crop humid. This
is an ideal environment for growth of powdery mildew. Emu,
however, appears to combine rust and mildew resistance
needed in irrigated areas.
Helminthosporium and Fusarium resistance or tolerance
are more urgent than rust resistance for rainfed wheat.
Helminthosporium sativum destroyed rainfed wheat at lower
altitudes during the warm humid season.
Two varieties obtained from Tanzania are ready for
release. Both show rust resistance and are fairly tolerant
to foliar disease attacks. They also yield well under agronomic
conditions of northern Zambia. These varieties were identi­
fied from crosses made in Kenya in late 1960s. They are
K6290-17, a sister line of Kenya Nyati, and K4S00-2, tested
as W 3697 and known as Enkoy "S" in Ethiopia. Both crosses
have been grown in the East African Region, especially under
rainfed conditions.
d) Disease Screening
Thousands of introductions are screened annually in
order to find replacements for released varieties. Severe
Helminthosporium conditions near Lusaka have been good
testing grounds to identify wheats with different levels of
resistance and tolerance. These have been crossed with good
varieties and also sent to CIMMYT-Mexico for more intensive
crossing and evaluation.
- 27 ­
Promising combinations with H. sativum and P. graminis
resistance include:
Dougga/Sonora Kalyan/Alondra Kavkaz/3/CC-Inia/Cno/El.Gau-Son64 Kavkaz/Kalyan-Bluebird Jupateco 73 - Alondra "S" PEL 73280 - Atr(Tzpp x IRN46-Cno67/Protor) PAT 19-Veery Maringa (Kavkaz-Ti/Tob-Cfn x Bb) Aldan - CNT 8 Aldan/Ti 71-Pci x Kavkaz - Ti 71 Kal-Bb x Aldan/Jacui Bananaquit-CNT 8 Brazilian, Russian and Mexican wheats are found in the
parentages of these lines. Further selection and yield
testing will determine which of these combinations are
useful for commercial production.
e) Agronomy Tests
Agronomic testing was conducted in the northern pro­
vince near Mbala to determine the most economic cultural
practices. Wheat is scheduled to be produced on newly broken
bush land. Results of several of the agronomic treatments
carried out on this land have been unclear, which points to
the need for careful land preparation.
Perspectives
Wheat and triticale comprise small hectareages in most
countries in the region. There is a need to carry out addi­
tional tests in certain areas. The flood of new germplasm
which has been generated in international breeding programs
must be screened for local adaptation.
Resistance to stripe and stem rust continues to be
important in many countries due largely to high altitudes.
Small hillside fields are low-yielding. Attempts to raise
yields should be given highest priority.
Good land preparation is important in order to better
utilize quality seeds. Strong wheat stands can help to con­
trol the weeding problem which is a major bottleneck in the
hills. Urgent work is needed to improve agronomic conditions
of wheat and triticale fields. Agronomic practices appear to
be more limiting than plant characteristics when harvests
are below 1,000 kg/ha.
There exists a serious gap between potential yields of
available varieties and farmers' yields. This is true in
many rainfed areas around the world, but seems particularly
severe in East Africa. For example, Kenya's average wheat
yield is below 1.5 t/ha while new varieties can yield above
4 t/ha.
-
28 ­
Key factors to low yield performances include moisture
use and soil moisture conservation. Soil deficiencies,
especially leached soils, also limit wheat yields. CIMMYT is
considering posting a regional agronomist in East Africa to
heighten agronomic research activities in the area. Regional
fertilizer trials may highlight requirements for nitrogen,
phosphorous and other nutritional factors.
A number of stations throughout the region have proven
effective in raising disease resistance levels. Rust-resistance
breeding has been a major concern in Kenya for half a century.
In cooperation with Canadian pathologists, it has and will
continue to receive much attention. Foliar disease resistance
is important when wheat/triticales are grown at lower alti­
tudes, or during warm humid seasons. Progress has been made
in Zambia and Tanzania in identifying varieties with higher
tolerance to Helminthosporium, Septoria, Fusarium and others.
In Ethiopia, rust and foliar disease in wheat, durums,
triticales and barleys are important in several locations.
Screening results in Ethiopia will be useful to other countries
in the region as well. Cooperative nurseries with advanced
germplasm from these test sites will distribute materials
throughout East and Southern Africa.
Another problem is lack of information about disease
occurrence and damage. A nursery system monitoring grain
diseases in the Near East and North Africa is being used as
a guide by the plant pathologist organizing these nurseries.
More detailed race studies in stripe and stem rust are being
carried out.
Adapting wheat and triticale into environments less
suited for temperate crops is a slow process. Progress can
be made with disease tolerance. Some scientists predict that
basic biological questions must be solved before success can
be achieved. Crosses of tropical grasses with wheat have
been suggested. CIMMYT has a wide crossing program in Mexico
where combinations of wheat-barley, sorghum-maize, agropyron­
wheat, and rye-durum are being attempted with various degrees
of success. Basic studies could be conducted anywhere in the
world. Regional field testing in conjunction with these
studies is needed. Tolerance to high soil temperatures, air
temperature fluctuations, short duration of cool periods,
disease resistance and desiccation under dry winds could be
evaluated in such field tests. They form an essential link
in the study of wheat suitable for warm, humid climates.
There remain important economic questions about the
extent to which certain African countries should grow these
temperate crops. Self-sufficiency in food crops such as
wheat may not be the best target if land, fertilizer and
energy costs are too high. These resources may be better
used on adapted crops which provide better returns.
-
29 ­
More intensive cropping is one way of increasing wheat
production. Zimbabwe has developed 35,000 hectares of wheat
in rotation with tobacco, cotton and other crops. Similarly
Zambia is growing wheat in the cool season under irrigation.
Malawi is beginning to intensify wheat rotation under irriga­
tion. Wheat is one of the few cash crops that grows well
during the cool season. A major bottleneck to increased
production, however, is the large capital investments which
expansion requires.
Wheat is being grown in rice paddies in Madagascar.
Residual moisture or some irrigation water are provided to
wheat during the cold season. with land preparation im­
mediately following the rice crop, good yields can be obtained.
This also appears a potential area of expansion in Malawi.
But these means of increased wheat production depend
on adding to existing wheat lands. Wheat yields per hectare
must also be increased. Poor stands on weedy hillsides must
be reduced. Organic matter must be built up in areas with
leached lateritic soils. Land in Burundi is being developed
on a small-scale from grazing to cropping land. Regional
agronomic studies require identification of soil/plant
conditions common in each country. These studies must help
to increase yields of the aluminium toxicity soils where
wheat is now yielding 1/2 t/ha or less.
Nurseries with good indicator varieties of different
species are needed in addition to laboratory work on soils
to identify potential wheat or triticale areas.
Many countries in the region have difficulty multi­
plying seeds after superior varieties are identified. Why is
it so difficult to organize a good seed mUltiplication pro­
gram? A problem is finding seed growers who have enough
capital to produce and sell seed. Farmers must be convinced
that quality seed will give them additional monetary benefits.
A final area that needs further development is govern­
ment support in building a seed industry, assuring fertilizer
at reasonable prices and providing markets for grain. Mills
used to process imported wheat should be used to handle
locally produced wheat.
- 30 ­
Table 1: Preliminary Summary of Wheat Hectareage, Research Programs
and Varieties in the East and Southern African Region (1979/80)
country
Botswana
Bururrli
Wheat Import
Wheat Research
Hectareage Needs
Ha metric tons
500 7,000
15.000
Gabarone, ARS Sebe lc
Gcxxl Hope
15.000
Kisozi, (ISABU)
Munanira
Improved ~"hea t
varieties
Punjab, Inia
10-180-54-29
Romany
Ethiopia
600,000
120.000
Kenya
100,000
85.000
Njoro, M::>lo
Afr. Mayo, K. Ntmgu
BOunty, K. Leopard
K. Fahari, K. Tembo
13.000 Maseru
Machache, Tsaba Bosiu
Tsaba-Tsek-a
Scheepers
K. Sokkies Bella, Beta, Inia. lesotho
80,000
Holetta, Debre zeit
Kolumsa
_Ehkoy, Marnb:l
Kanga,
Republic of
Mcrlagascar
1,000
70.000 Antsirabe
Tobar i, Romany, FE
Malawi
1,000
10.000 Lilongwe, Tsangano
Hill
K. Nyati
r-bzambique
6,000
125.000 Rwanda
5,000
15.000 University Maputo
Lichinga Xaixai
Rwerere, (ISAR)
Inia, Brochis
t-prteib, Cesar
Romany
Somalia
Little
80.000 Hargaisa, Afgoi
SWazilarrl
v. Little
10.000 Malkems
Tanzania
55,000
65.000 Lyamungu, Basuto
Njombe, r1beya
Ugarrla
1,000
15.000 Kararroja Kabale
Zaire
3,000
171.000 Rwirira
Kenyan
Zambia
2,000
150.000 University, Mt. Makulu
ZarrCan.
Jupateco, Elnu
rvExipak, Sonora
35,000
10.000 Salisbury
Gwebe, Torim
- 31 ­
rvExicani=Anza
K450Q-2 = Tai
W3503-Trophy
6290-17=K. Nyati 's'
REFERENCES 1. Reference tables on wheat, corn and total coarse grain
supply - distribution for individual countries 1980.
Foreign Agriculture Circular FG 5-80. 127p. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service.
2. World population data sheet. 1978. 5 p.
3. Nigris, M., and A. Coccia. 1973. The impact of urbanization
on food demand. In Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural
Economics and Statistics, Vol. 22, No.9.
- 32 ­
MAIN WHEAT AND TRITICALE DISEASES
IN EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA
by R. Raemaekers
Introduction
Records exist on diagnosis and control of diseases of
cereals and other food crops. These records refer mostly to
epidemics, such as the late blight potato epidemic which
occurred in Ireland.
Epidemics of ergot occurred during the Middle Ages in
Europe, thereby killing thousands of people. Epidemics of
stem and yellow rust were recorded at the turn of the centu­
ry in Europe, the United States and Canada, due to the
occurrence of new virulent rust races. Most recently a leaf
rust epidemic significantly reduced wheat yields in Mexico.
Information on epidemics in East and Central Africa is
not plentiful. This is partly because occurrence of epi­
demics is less here than in Europe or the United States
where more cropping takes place. In addition, fewer records
have been kept in this region.
Severe epidemics occur occasionally, but plant diseases
cause crop losses annually. On average, about 10 per cent of
the global wheat crop is lost annually due to diseases.
Total loss caused by diseases is several times total produc­
tion in Africa. Importance of certain diseases has changed
due to development of new resistant cultivars and efficient
seed treatment. For example, smut diseases can be controlled
chemically by seed treatment. Ergot has nearly disappeared
due to changes from rye to wheat and development of re­
sistant cultivars. But new cultivation methods and new
cultivars also have brought new diseases, for example,
Septoria and Fusarium.
Wheat and Triticale Diseases Common in East and Central
Africa
Rusts
Rusts are the major diseases of both wheat and triticale,
including stem or black rust (P. graminis), leaf or brown
rust (P. recondita) and yellow or stripe rust (P. striiformis
syn. P. glumarum).
These diseases cause distinct field symptoms and usual­
ly can be recognized in the field as such.
Rusts are highly specialized fungi classified according
to host adaptation in specialized forms. For example, ~
-
33 ­
graminis f.sp. tritici or P. graminis f.sp. secale are stem
rusts of wheat that do not infect rye.
These are further specialized into physiological forms
or races which do not differ morphologically but mainly in
pathogenicity. Races are identified by inoculating certain
varieties and observing responses. Such a fixed set of
varieties is named a differential set. The same races simi­
larly infect different varieties of the differential set.
New races occur frequently as a result of mutations in
nature. There is a need to develop new wheat cultivars which
are resistant to all and new races.
Rusts have a complex life cycle with two alternate
hosts. They produce different types of spores, most im­
portant of which is the urediospore produced in the pustules
on the wheat plant. In mild climates, like that in Rwanda,
rust cycles are incomplete and new infections from urediospores
occur. Urediospores survive on volunteer plants or grasses
even in the absence of wheat crops. Damage caused by rust
fungi is particularly severe if infections occur before or
during flowering. When this occurs foliage is destroyed,
photosynthesis and grain production reduced (lower than
1,000 grain weight; fewer grains per head and fewer heads
per plant).
Stem Rust and Leaf Rust
Two spores can be seen in the field - the reddish
urediospore, which reinfects the same plant or others, and
the teliospore which is present in the black pustules on
maturing wheat. The teliospore is not harmful in the local
climate.
Stem rust infects all parts of the wheat and triticale
plants: leaves, leaf sheaths, stems and heads. Severe infec­
tions result in shriveled grain and occasionally stem break
occurs. Leaf rust mainly infects leaves and leaf sheaths.
Early infections may cause severe losses.
Distinguishing between stem and leaf rust at the begin­
ning of an infection is not easy because at this time the
two diseases occur only on the leaves. Stem rust pustules
are normally dark red, elliptically shaped and occurring on
both sides of the leaf. The epidermis usually breaks when
the pustule develops. Leaf rust pustules are rounder, lighter
in color and develop on the upper side of the leaf without
much rupture of the epidermis. A microscopic examination may
be necessary to identify rusts at early stages of infection.
Water and temperatures 20°C and
good rust development. Control is by
Chemical control of stem rust is not
it is feasible but more advisable is
varieties.
- 34 ­
above are necessary for
resistant cultivars.
possible. For leaf rust
the use of resistant
Stripe Rust
Stripe rust occurs in cooler climates than where leaf
and stem rust develop. The name stripe rust comes from the
linear arrangement of the pustules on the leaf surface,
which later become striped. New infections occur by urediospores.
Leaves, leaf sheaths, glumes and awns are infected. Stripe
rust occurs between 5 and 15°C. Over 15°C the urediospore
dies off.
Late plantings are less affected by stripe rust due to
higher temperatures which occur at these times. On the other
hand, late plantings are more infected by leaf or stem rust
because the disease spreads from neighboring crops while
temperature is not a limiting factor.
Control of stripe rust is by resistant cultivars. Ef­
fective chemical control measures also exist.
Leaf Spot Diseases
Septoria Diseases
The two common Septoria diseases are glume blotch
caused by S. nodorum and speckled leaf blotch produced by S.
tritici. Both fungi infect leaves and heads.
Foliar symptoms include irregularly to oval-shaped
lesions which may join together and kill part of a leaf or
entire leaves. The fruiting bodies of the fungus (Pycnidia)
can be seen in the dead tissue as black or brown dots. Two
black dots of the secondary fungus Epicoccum sp. are identi­
fied wrongly at times as Septoria pycnidia. Glumes, when in­
fected, have a purplish appearance that later turns brown.
Infected stems, nodes -and necks also display a brown dis­
coloration. pycnidia are present in dead- tissue.
S. nodorum and S. tritici have different pycnidia and
spores, and can be distinguished easily under the micro­
scope.
Septoria infections occur in wet windy weather at about
20°C. Rain is necessary for spore release. Unlike rust
spores, the Septoria spores are not carried far by wind.
Septoria survives on straw, volunteer plants and in the
case of S. nodorum on seed.
Control is by means of resistant cultivars, use of seed
treatment and fungicide applications.
Helminthosporium Diseases
Two Helminthosporium diseases are common on wheat and
triticale, spot blotch caused by H. sativum and yellow leaf
-
35 ­
spot or tan spot produced by H. tritici-repentis. Field
distinction is not easy. Depending on local environmental
conditions, symptoms can change and H. sativum thereby be
mistaken for H. tritici-repentis. A microscopic identifica­
tion is then necessary. Infections are also wrongly identi­
fied as Septoria since similar discolorations are caused by
both diseases on foliage, heads and stems.
H. sativum is a major problem on rainfed wheat in
Zambia. It is particularly destructive on foliage, heads and
stems. H. sativum can kill entire plants which wipes out the
yield.
The disease also infects lower plant parts and causes
root and crown rots. It produces "black point" on the grain,
a dark discoloration of the embryo. It can spread over the
entire kernel which is shriveled badly as a result.
Helminthosporium diseases survive on crop residues, in
soil, on seed and grasses.
Exact optimal temperatures are not known, but for
H. sativum are probably between 17 and 26°C -- the average
minimum and maximum temperatures during the Zambian rainy
season. Optimum temperatures for H. tritici-repentis are
slightly lower.
Control of Helminthosporium diseases is by resistant
cultivars. Some chemicals are effective when infection
pressure is not too high.
Powdery Mildew
Powdery mildew is recognized by a white cottony growth
on the leaf surface. Leaves turn necrotic at infection site.
The head is also infected. Yields are reduced significantly
when infections are severe. The growth carries fungus spores
which are blown by wind onto other wheat plants and other
crops. Black dots appear within the white growth late in the
season. These are the fruiting bodies (cleistothecia) through
which the fungus survives adverse conditions. Powdery mildew
also survives on volunteer plants.
Unlike other fungi, powdery mildew does not need free
water to infect plants. Only appropriate temperatures and RH
are required for development. The optimum temperature is
20°C. Powdery mildew dies if temperatures climb above 25°C.
The ideal RH is between 85 and 100 per cent, conditions
which often exist within the wheat microclimate. Control of
powdery mildew is by resistant cultivars and chemicals,
either applied as a seed dressing or a foliar spray at first
signs of infection.
- 36 ­
Fusarium Diseases
Fusarium causes scab or head blight, damping-off and
crown and root rot. There are a complex of Fusarium spp. All
must be identified by microscopic examination.
Scab is recognized in the field by the appearance of
white heads, although this symptom has other causes too.
Infected spikelets become white and florets sterile if
infected during flowering. Shriveled seed is produced with
later infections. A salmon-colored fungal growth is observed
at the infection site in warm and humid conditions. Some
species associated with scab are F. oxysporum, F. equisoti,
F. acuminatum, F. avenaceum, F. graminearum and F. tricinctum.
F. culmorum has not been discovered in Zambia although this
fungus is often mentioned as the cause of scab.
Scab differs from other head infections by its systemic
infection of the head which does not occur with Helminthosporium
or Septoria. Spike lets above the infection site die off and
turn white if the rachis becomes infected with Fusarium.
Scab infections not only reduce yields but Fusarium spp
produces mycotoxins which are harmful to humans and animals.
Triticales, especially late maturing cultivars, are
susceptible to scab (one of the major diseases of this
crop) •
Damping-off and root rot require laboratory analysis
since other pathogens might be involved. Fusarium diseases
are difficult to control by chemicals. A seed dressing may
prevent damping-off and reduce root rots. Head blight is
controlled exclusively by resistant cultivars.
Bacterial Diseases
Bacterial diseases are difficult to identify and often
confused with infections such as Helminthosporium, Septoria
or melanism because of similar symptoms. These diseases
often occur simultaneously. In moist conditions bacteria
infect leaves, heads, awns and stems.
Xanthomenas translucens causes black chaff and bacterial
stripe on the leaves.
Initial symptoms are small watersoaked spots which
develop into stripes and then blotches. Bacterial exudate is
not always visible on the leaves. Infection starts on the
glumes as small brown stripes which expand into darker
lesions.
Basal glume rot is caused by Pseudomonas atrofaciens
and starts in the lower parts of the glumes, often extending
into rachis and seed. Bacterial blight (P. syringae) in­
fects plants from the boot stage onwards, when pale necrotic
lesions become visible on the flag leaf as if burned by a
chemical.
- 37 ­
Since bacterial diseases often accompany others, effect
on yield and plant growth is less known. They undoubtedly
cause significant crop losses. Control is by resistant
cultivars and rotation.
Virus Diseases
Many virus diseases occur on wheat and triticale but
little research has been conducted on these in East and
Central Africa.
Virus-like symptoms occur as a yellowing, mottling or
stunting, with white and yellow streaks. These end in necrosis
and sometimes death of the plants.
Viruses are usually transmitted by insects and mites,
but also mechanically. Control is by resistant cultivars or
selection of a planting date when insect populations are
low. Control of insect vectors should also be considered.
Nematodes
Nematode symptoms are often attributed to other factors
or occur with other disorders.
A main symptom is the yellowing of young three to four
week old plants. Plants cease to grow and appear as if they
are short of nitrogen. Nematode damage occurs in patches and
never in a uniform way. An underground symptom is stubby
root, when root hairs are cut off and uptake of water and
nutrients is reduced or stopped altogether.
Amount of yield reduction depends on nematode popula­
tions and numbers. Plants do not head and may die off with
severe infestations.
The nematode species of concern belong to the ecto­
parasitic group. The main species in Zambia are Paratrichodorus
sp., Longidorus sp. and Xiphinema sp.
Insects
The American bollworm (Heliothis armigera) is the most
common insect in Zambia and other countries in the region.
It only attacks the head during the filling stage by boring
into and feeding on individual grains. The bollworm attacks
tomatoes, beans, peas, cotton and maize. Control is by in­
secticides. Crop losses are not exactly known, but are
estimated as high as 15 to 20 per cent.
Another insect that infests wheat crops in the region
is the leaf skeletonizer (Epilachna sp.). A black larvae
eats away the epidermis. This Epilachna is a different
species from that which attacks eggplants and potatoes.
Termites that cut off plants at soil level and aphids which
live on foliage are also common pests.
-
38 ­
The edible grasshopper (Homorocoryphys nitidulus) also
severely damages wheat crops. Little grain is produced if
infestations occur before heading.
Deficiencies
Copper and boron deficiency occur in the region. Copper
deficiency is severe in Kenya. Boron deficiency has only
recently been detected in Zambia where it causes sterility
of the head. It may be mistaken for frost damage.
- 39 ­
Table 1: Annual Regional Quantity Losses of Wheat (in 1,000 Tons)
Losses
Total
Weeds
18,257
Losses due to:
6,469
4,831
Insect
8,266
1,789
15,001
Potential
3,522
2,326
7,277
3,982
Actual
71,880
716
4,136
1,530
Region
53,622
17,894
3,588
1,226
11,545
Diseases
N. & C. America
13,063
76,019
1,226
4,276
Pests
S. America
61,016
10,213
5,131
Production
Europe
6,230
2,138
Production
Africa
42,759
57,116
31,214
22,581
23,432
Asia
22,670
9,763
5,025
3,500
11,865
8,787
2,094
85,573
1,240
232,545
4,882
1,884
34,438
1,585
175,425
97,632
1,047
33,341
675
74,200
20,937
17,794
13,780
USSR
15,912
351,114
10,280
China
266,537
Oceania
Total
Source: Cramer, H.H. 1967/1. Plant protection and world crop production. Farbenfabriken
BAYER AG - Leverkusen.
0
"<l'
LE BLE AU RWANDA: HISTORIQUE ET SITUATION ACTUELLE
R. Goeteyn (ISAR)
1.
Historiq,ue.
Le blé fut introduit au Rwanda au debut de notre siècle,
initialement seulement dans les missions. Ces premières
tentatives sont décrites comme peu prometteuses.
A partir des années 1930, des efforts importants furent
donnés par l'I.N.E.A.C. pour la propagation de la culture du
Froment dans les régions d'altitude du Kivu et du Rwanda-Urundi.
On visait un triple but:
- une meilleure utilisation des hautes terres
aider à l'amélioration de l'alimentation et du niveau
de vie des populations des régions de haute altitude
- produire sur place des quantités importantes de blé en
yue de la production de farine à grande échelle
Dorénavant, pour les habitants de ces régions, il
était obligatoire d'emblaver une partie de leur terrain en blé,
comme ailleurs, on était obligé de consacrer une partie de
son champ au café.
La production alimentait d'abord la minoterie du Katanga,
mais à partir de la fin des années 1940, avec la construction de
la minoterie de l'ETIRU, tout le blé fut moulu sur place, sauf
une partie de la r~gion de Butare-Gikongoro, qui partait vers
Urundi, vu la proximité d'une minoterie à Kayanza.
A cette époque, la production au Rwanda fut déjà bien
importante: jusquà 4 000 tonnes par an étaient livrées à la
minoterie par les producteurs Rwandais. Il faut dire qu'à
ce moment la consommation locale était probablement plus
faible que maintenant, vu l'installation récente de la culture.
En 1950, (voir le tableau No.l), le nombre d'hectares de
blé au Rwanda-Urundi fut estim~ ~ 16 500 ha pour une production
de 3 500 tonnes, soit un rendement de 800 kg/ha. Dans les
années 50, ce niveau s'est maintenu plus ou moins, sauf vers la
fin des années 50, à cause de la concurrence par l'orge.
Après 1960, la superficie e~ froment a diminué fortement
mais n'a pas disparu complètement. Apparemment, la population
avait tout de même acquit un certain intérêt pour cette culture.
En plus l'importance de la fabrication du pain allait grandissant ce
qui jouait sans doute favorablement sur le prix du blé.
En ce qui concerne les travaux d'amélioration sur le blé, c'est la station de Kisozi au Burundi qui devenait le centre pour le Rwanda-Urundi à partir de 1935. Cette station disposait déjà à ce moment d'une importante collection et en 1937, on y dèmarra avec la sélection. Ces travaux ont abouti au début des années 1950 à la création d'importantes variétés, qui présentatient à la - 41 ­
fois de la résistance aux rouilles et une bonne valeur boulangère,
notamment 130-1-77 et 10-180-54-29. Cette dernière fut même
multipliée et diffusée jusqu'à la fin des années 60. Ces variétés
remplaçaient les anciennes, multipliées auparavan~par la même
station, dont les plus importantes était la lignée 1513 de Rabat
(appelée Maroko) et Kisapu.
2. Situation actuelle.
2.1. Actuellement le blé occupe au Rwanda environ 5 000 ha
(voir le tableau No. 1 pour les derniers dix ans). Ces
hectares sont repartis très irréguliérement sur les dix
préfectures (voir tableau No. 2). Cette répartition
suit bien sur de près le relief du pays puisque
1
culture est limitée aux ré ions de haute altitude,
(on peut dire de 2 000 m à 2 500 ID • La majorité des
champs de blé sont situés en préfecture de Ruhengeri
et notamment dans la région agricole du Buberuka, qui
se prolonge un peu en préfecture de Byumba.
Malgré la présence d'une région de haute altitude en
préfecture du Gisenyi, relativement peu de froment y est cultivé
à cause de la forêt sur la crête et le climat un peu trop humide en
région de lave.
En préfecture de Gikongoro, il y a égalemennt la fôret de
montagne, mais d'autre part le sol est souvent trop infertile pour
y permettre la culture du blé.
2.2 Les conditions olimati ues de ces
son caractérisées
par une température moyenne assez
moin que l8°C.)
et une pluviosité importante et régulière, (tableau No. 3).
D'après la classification de Koppen ces régions d'altitude
se classent dans les climats tempérés.
2.3. Le blé peut-êt~e semé aussi bien en première saison qu'en
deuxième saison.
En première saison, qui dure de Septembre à Janvier, le
meilleur moment est début à mi-Octobre. Ainsi la récolte
peut se faire encore fin Janvier à mi-Février, c'est à dire
pendant la petite saison sèche. Si semé plus tard (Novembre),
très souvent la récolte doit se faire au début de la grande
saison de pluie ce qui pose tout de même de grands inconvénients.
Ce problème est plus facile à éviter en deuxième saison
(Mars à Août). Si semé début Mars la culture murit en
pleine saison sèche (Juillet) et la récolte peut se faire
dans les meilleures conditions. Le semis en Avril permet encore
la récolte au mois d'Août, qui est en grande partie encore
un mois seo aussi, mais la culture peut alors souffrir de
la sécheresse si la saison sèche commence tôt (c'est à
dire mi-Mai parfois). Le paysan Rwandais a tendance à semer
tard son froment, notamment en Novembre-Décembre pour la
première saison et Avril-Mai en deuxième saison, ce qui
donne souvent ces problèmes à la récolte.
-
42 ­
Les rendements de la deuxième saison peuvent être aussi
bons qu'en première saison, si semé à temps, donc si la
culture ne doit pas manquer trop d'eau. Il faut dire pourtant
que si les pluies se prolongent en Juin, le blé souffrira
plus des maladies (rouilles principalement) et de
verse. En général tout de même, c'est en premlere saison
qu'on peut obtenir les rendements les plus élevés.
2.4. Pour l'ensemble du pays, les rendements moyens sont de
l'ordre de 800 kg/ha en moyenne. En station, des rendements
de l 500 à 2 000 kg/ha sont obtenus régulièrement et dans
les meilleures conditions même plus que 4 000 kg/ha. La
densité utilisée couramment se situe autour de 100 kg/ha.
Sur sol maigre on aurait sans doute avantage à semer plus
dense. Le paysan lui-même reste généralement au dessous de
100 kg/ha. En milieu rural, le semis se fait uniquement
à la volée.
2.5. Le nombre de variétés, utilisées en réalité, n'est pas très
bien connu, para l'ISAR et le Service Officiel de
multiplication (S.S.S.). Les variétés suivantes furent
diffusées depuis 1960: 130-1-11, 10-180-54-29, toutes les
deux sélections de Kisozi, Roman~ (introduction du Kenya),
Norteno (Mexique) et maintenant
661-19 (Tanzanie) et
Amazonas (Equateur). L~ variété Romany est sans doute
encore le mieux représentée à cause de ses bonnes
performances dans les sols médiocres.
A côté des variétés diffusées ces dernières années, il doit
y avoir sûrement encore plusieurs autres types plus anciens
comme Maroko, Kisapu, ou peut être des lignées venant
d'Uganda, (culture sur flanc Muhabura et vente à Ruhengeri).
2.6 Concernant l'utilisation du blé actuellement, on peut
mentionner la consommation locale sous forme de pâte (farine
cuite dans une quantité d'eau), souvent mélangé au sorgho ou
mais. On l'utilise égalemenat pour la préparation des boissons,
également en mélange avec sorgho ou mais.
Les quantité~ vendues à la minoterie de Ruhengeri ne sont
pas très importantes (voir tablau No.4). Les besoins en
farine de qualité du pays sont pourtant nettement plus
grands. Il s'en suit que le Rwanda dépend largement de
l'extérieur pour son approvisionnement en blé et farine.
Les dernières dix années, une quantité d'environ 4 000
tonnes/an fut envoyé au Rwanda (tableau No.4).
2.1 Un grand effort sera nécessaire si l'on veut augmenter la
production de telle façon que le pays pourra satisfaire
ses propres besoins, estimés à 15.000 tonnes/an, mais on
a des raisons valables pour croire que ce défi pourra être
vaincu, vu les grandes étendues de hautes terres disponibles
et vu le climat bien favorable pour cette culture.
-
43 ­
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
- Les cultures principales du Congo Belge. Van den Abeele
- Céréales d'altitude - Bruyère (INEAC)
- Une nouvelle variété du froment en Urundi. BI-V 1956 3 185
Bruyere R. (INEAC)
Amélioration de la culture du froment en région de Beni-Lubero. Coûteaux (INEAC) Culture du blé dans les missions. (1911) des pères blancs d'Afrique (Katanga). (INEAC)
- Rapport Minagri
- Rapport ETIRU
- Rapport Climate
- Rapports ISAR
R. GOETEYN
- 44 ­
Tableau 1.
Superficies et productions
Années
Superficie
ha
Production
tonnes
Rw-Vr 1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
21.000
16.500
13.100
15.100
14.260
14.727
14.486
14.900
13.500
8.100
8.800
8.856
9.763
9.495
Rwanda 1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1878
1979
2.173 812 565 125 375 131 953 1.390
1.372
2.554
3.300
3.406
2.734
3.602
4.313
5.288
744 321 480 100 300 621 810 1.251
1.235
2.298
2.380
2.793
2.303
3.008
3.692
3.657
1.
- 45 ­
Rudt
kg/ha
710
818
618
583
621
663
655
802
395
850
800
800
850
950
900
900
900
721
820
840
830
850
690
Prix moyen
F/kg
8
8
8
Il 10 10 12 14 16 19 19.8 Tableau 2:
Préfecture
R~PARTITION
DES EMBLAVURES EN 1978
Superficie
Pourcentage
(ha)
du total
396
4
7
0.1
2.226
42.1
334
6.3
Kigali
6
0.1
Kibuye
56
1.1
Butare
Byumba
Cyangugu
Gikongoro
Gitarama
Gisenyi
Kibungo
Ruhengeri
TOTAL
2.266
43.0
5.288
100.0
-
46 ­
( %)
Tableau 3:
Conditions Climatologiques
Nbre
Années
P
Rwerere
( 15)
1203
Gikongoro
(
6)
TM
Tm
15,5
20,6
10,6
1402
17,1
22,8
11,4
3)
1806
15,6
21,6
9,7
Rwankeri
(26)
1267
Kabaya
(15 )
1405
Kivaly
T
P:
Précipitation annuelle en mm
T:
Température moyenne annuelle
TM:
Moyenne annuelle température maximale
Tm:
Moyenne annuelle temperature minimale
-
47 ­
Tableau 4. Importations et achats bl~ local par ETIRU
70 à 79 en tonnes
Années
Extérieur Rwanda
Total
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
778
3.070
3.503
2.169
1.849
1.662
3.888
4.708
4.555
3.352
223
218
67
741
456
39
382
310
333
175
1.001
3.288
3.570
2.910
2.305
1.701
4.270
5.018
4.888
3.527
29.534 2.943
32.478
TOTAL
Prix officiel of achats: 15F/kg
Prix marchè: 20F/kg
Rendement farine: 68 à 70%
- 48 ­
Tableau 1:
Superficies etPrqductions
Année
Superficie
(ha)
Rwanda-
1949
21 000 14 900 Urundi 1950 16 500 13 100 13 500 8 100 15 100 14 260 8 800 8 856 14 121 14 486 9 163 9 495 663 2 113 812 1 144 802 3 21 480 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 Rwanda 1963 1964 Production
(Tonnes)
Rendement
(kg/ha)
Prix
(Fr/kg)
110 818 618 583 621 655 1966 565 125 100 395 850 800 1961 315 300 800 8
1968 131 621 850 8
1969 810 950 900 8
1910 1911 953 1 390 1 312 Il
900 10 1912 2 554 1 235 2 298 1913 1914 3 300
3 406
2 134
3 602
4 313
2 380 121 820 840 10 830 16 3 692 850 3 651 690 19 1 9. 8 1965 1915 1916 1911 1918 5 288 1 251 2 193 2 303 3 008 -
49 ­
900 12 14 Tableau 2:
Préfecture
Repartition Superficies 1978
% Total
Nbre/ha
Butare
Byumba
396
7,0
4
0,1
2.226
42,1
334
6,3
Kigoll
6
0,1
Kibuye
~6
1.1
2.266
43,0
5.288
#100,0
Cyanguan
Gikongoro
O'Varama
Gisenyi
Kibungo
Ruhengeri
Total
- 50 ­
Tableau 3: Conditions climatologiques
Station
Nombre
d'annpees
P
T
d'observations (*)
(* )
20.6
10.6
22.8
11.4
21.6
9.7
1203
1402
15.5
17.1
3
1806
15.6
Rwankeri
26
1267
Kabaya
15
1405
Gikongoro
Kitabi
(* )
P:
précipitations annuelles
T:
témpérature moyenne annuelle - (oC)
TM:
moyenne annualle des températures maxima (oC)
moyenne annuelle des températures minima (oC)
Tm:
- 51 ­
Tm
(* )
15
6
Rwerere
TM
(mm)
Tableau
4:
Annee
Importations et achat de bl~ local par l'ETIRU
Importations
(Tonnes)
Achats
locaux
(Tonnes)
Total
(Tonnes)
1970
778
223
1001
1971
3070
218
3288
1972
3503
67
3570
1973
2169
741
2910
1974
1849
456
2305
1975
1662
39
1701
1976
3888
382
4270
1977
4708
310
5018
1978
4555
333
4888
1979
3352
---.U.2.
29534
2943
3527
32478'
TOTAL
Prix officiel d'achat: 15 F/kg
Prix
march~:
Prix farine:
Rendement farine:
20 F/kg
55 F/kg
68 a-. 70%
-
52 -
­
RESULTATS DE RECHERCHE SUR LE BLE ET LE TRITICALE A L'I.S.A.R. AU RWANDA - CALIXTE NTAMBABAZI
1.
SYSTtME DE SELECTION SUIVI A L'I.S.A.R.
Le système eet basé sur une sélection massale dont le
matériel de sélection utilisé provient des pays étrangers,
Institutions Scientifiques et Centres de Recherches Agronomiques
Internationaux.
Le schéma du système consiste en essais de triage,
(collection), essais comparatifs, essais techniques culturales,
multiplications et diffusions:
- Essais de triage: Il comporte deux pépinières, une pépinière
de nouvelles introductions et une pépinière de vieux matériel en
stock permanent, pour le Froment et le Triticale séparés. L'essai
de triage est un essai de comportement et d'observation sur les
caractéristiques agronomiques, productivité, durée végétative,
résistance aux maladies et à la verse. Les plantes dont la
performance est mauvaise subissent une élimination. Le bon
matériel est maintenu en stock permanent. L'essai de triage dure
une ou deux saisons pour des observations préliminaires sur les
nouvelles introductions.
- Essais comparatifs: L'observation sur rendement est faite dans
les essais comparatifs avec le meilleur matériel choisi en
essai de triage. L'essai comparatif comporte seize variétés
au maximum, pour une compétition de production, durant une
période experimentales de quatre répétitions (2 ans). Les
variétés en essai comparatif son étudiées au niveaus d'une
ou de plusieurs localités, dans de conditions environnementales
différentes, en vue de déterminer l'élasticité de leur adaptation.
- Essais techniques culturales: Ceux-ci son faits dans l'etude
des techniques culturales, de~sité de semis, date de semis et
application de fumure; propres aux conditions climatiques de
la region.
- Multiplications: Les variétés élites sortant des essais
comparatifs son mises en multiplication pour le test final
sur leur production; sur des superficies à grande échelle.
C'est après la multiplication que la décision de leur diffusion
est prise en définitif.
- Diffusions: Le matériel est proposé à la diffusion quand
il répond aux exigences de certification. Ces exigences sont
essentiellement basées sur: résistance aux maladies, production
de 3-4 T/ha dans les champs expérimentaux, absence de verse
et durée végétative moyenne de + 120 jours.
- 53 ­
2.
R~SULTAT
DE RECHERCHE 77 - 80.
2.1. ESSAI COMPARATIF DE FROMENT.
C'est une essai multilocal installé en deux stations de
L'ISAR, à Tamira et à Rwerere en période 77B-79A. L'essais
comprend quinze variétés dont le témoin Romany.
a.
Données.
-altitude
-précipitations Moy
-tO maxima
-tO minima
-tO moyenne
-sols
Station de Rwerere
Station de Tamira
2.060 m
1. 166 mm
14.6 _24.7°C.
moyenne 22.4°c
1.0 - 11.4°c.
14.5°C.
Kaolisols latéri­
tiques humifères
2.400 m
1.200 mm
0
14.0-23.5 C
moyenne 18.6 C
7.0 - 10.0 ° C.
13.5 ° C.
Sols de lave, très peu
profond et sans
structure (cendres)
°
-deux saisons
culturales
1ère saison A = Mars-Avril / Juillet-Août
2ème saison B = Sep-Octobre / Février-Mars
-densité de semis
100 kg/ha
-écartement de semis: 0 1 20 ID X semis continu.
b.
Résultats de l'essai.
Variétés
Rendements moyens, kg/ha
Station
de Rwerere
1.
2.
3.
4.
5•
6.
78.
9.
10.
Il.
12.
13.
14.
15.
6648-1
Amazonas
6651-19
Ruminahui
2473
2773
6824-1
2373
Nape
6106-5
Cayambe 73
Trophy
Roman;y: (T)
Atacazo
Gagliardo
3710
3586
3124
2982
2928
2948
2973
2865
2211
2550
2068
2688
1985
Station
de Tamira
1632
1225
1291
1237
1164
1138
1092
1189
1678
1143
1367
602
1141
l8b2
8b4"
1301
1393
-
Production
%
moyenne,kg/ha: Témoin
54 ­
2536
2405
2207
2109
2046
2043
2032
2027
1944
1846
1717
1645
1563
162
154
141
135
131
131
130
130
124
118
110
105
100
ï363
87
1347
86
c.
Anallse de la variance.
2652 kg/ha
Production moyenne à Rwerere
1192 kg/ha
Production moyenne à Tamira
1922 kg/ha
Production moyenne générale
30.41%
Coefficient de variation
Plus petite différence significative, Po.05
Plus petite différence significative, Po.Ol
257 kg/ha
339 kg/ha
-Commentaire: -D'après Dunnett, les 9 premières variétés sont
significativement supérieures au témoin Romany.
Les variétés 6106-5, Cayambe 73, Trophy son
significativement égales au témoin Romany, mais
Atacazo et Gagliardo lui sont inférieures.
-Les rendements moyens obtenus dans la station de
Tamira sont moins intéressants que ceus enregistrés
dans la station de Rwerere.
2.2. ESSAI COMPARATIF DE FROMENT ET DE TRITICALE (ACWYT Ist).
C'est un premier essai en collaboration avec l'Afrique de
l'Est, dans le cadre du programme régional ACWYT (African
Cooperative for Wheat Yield Trial), L'essai comprend 16
variétés don~ 13 froments, 1 Durum et 2 triticales en provenance
du Kenya. Il a été installé en station de l'ISAR-Rwerere en
période 77B-79A.
a.
Résultats de l'e;;sai.
Variétés
Rendements moyens, kg/ha
Moyenne, kg/ha
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Il.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
T-74
T-65
Kenya Jubilée
Kenya Kifaru
Kenya Paka
Kenya Nyoka
Kenya Nangu
TroEhl (T)
Kenya Mamba
Bounty
Kenya Tembo
Kenya Kiboko
Kenya Nymati
Africa Mayo
Kenya Kanga
Durum 87
3573
3392
3084
2981
2751
2746
2727
2662
2599
2560
2495
2495
2310
2234
2204
1919
- 55 ­
%
Témoin
134
127
116
112
103
103
102
100
98
96
94
94
87
84
83
72
b.
Analyse de la variance.
- Production moyenne générale: 2670 kg/ha
- Coefficient de variation: 19.1 0/0
Plus petite différence significative. PO.05
Plus petite différence significative. PO.Ol
357 kg/ha
471 kg/ha
-Commentaire: D'après Duncan, les deux triticales T-74 et T­
75 sont égales; T-65 est égale à la variété
Kenya Jubilée qui, elle-même est égale à Kenya
Kifaru, Kenya Paka, Kenya Nyoka, Kenya Nangu,
Trophy, Kenya Mamba et Bounty.
D.après le test Dunnett (PO.Ol), deux triticales
surpassent nettement le témoin Trophy. Les 12
premières variétes semblent être plus interessantes
au point de vue rendement.
2.3
ESSAI COMPARATIF DE TRITICALE 78-80.
Il comprend 15 variétés dont Moshi prise en témoin. L'essai
est encore en cours. Il est effectué dans quatre localités de
Rwerere, Tamira (Stations expérimentales de l'ISAR), Kinigi et
Ruhunde (Hors-Stations de L'ISAR). Le tableau ci-dessous montre
les résultats partiels, seulement obtenus à Rwerere, Tamira et
Kinigi, au cotirs de l'année 1979.
a.
Résultats de l'essai.
Variétés
Rendements moyens, kg/ha
Moyenne
kg/ha
%
Témoin
Rwerere : Tamira : Kinigi
1. S-130
2. Beagle
3. 618-44
4. T-48
5. s-6
6. 615-3
7. 613-18
8. s-490
9. Yoco"R"
10.T-50
11.Navojoa''S''
12.Arabian
13.Yoco
14.Moshi (T)
15.T-65
2545
2281
2756
2998
1849
2548
1501
1922
2492
2004
2861
2820
1831
300~
2480
2200
1837
1878
2511
978
1808
2518
1982
1511
1505
1774
1839
890
948
2421
-
56 . ­
4495
4373
4081
3350
3735
4426
4576
3410
3124
3934
2889
2562
2829
2452
24"b7
3173
2951
2891
2742
2698
2651
2628
2617
2533
2483
2418
2385
2166
2115
1945
150
139
137
130
127
125
124
124
120
117
114
113
102
100
92
-Commentaire:
Production
Production
Production
Production
moyenne
moyenne
moyenne
moyenne
à Rwerere
à Tamira
à Kinigi
générale
2389
1777
3513
2560
kg/ha
kg/ha
kg/ha
kg/ha
Le rendement des 15 variétés mises en compétitions, en trois
emplacements est différent selon la localité.
Les conditions de Kinigi son visiblement plus favorables que
celles des autres localités. Tamira et Rwerere présentent une
production inférieure à celle de Kinigi. Les faibles rendements
obtenus à Tamira sont essentiellment dus à la germination des
graines, encore sur les épis dans les champs et à la verse.
PROBL~MES
3.
RENCONTR~S.
3.1. TRITICALE.
- perte des graines due aux petites dimensions des bractées.
- moissures et germination des graines encore sur les épis
dans le champ.
- tardivité et verse de la grande majorité des triticales
introduits.
taille très haute donnant accés à la verse et gênant la récolte.
- inclinaison des épis, influençant la maturité hétérogène de
l'épi.
- très mauvaise qualité de la graine.
- tallage abondant et hétérogène en croissance et en fertilité.
- cas fréquent de septoiriose sur les épis (Septoria nodurum).
- cas de rouilles mais très peu importants.
3.2. FROMENT.
-
4.
attaque des rouilles, surtout la rouille jaune (Puccinia
striiformis) et la rouille noire (Puccinia graminis).
apparition de la septoriose (Septoria nodurum) sur les épis.
dégâts importants causés par les oiseaux.
tardivité et verse.
N/B/: Un petit nombre de Durums que nous avons sont tardifs
et présentent l'infection de rouille noire.
CONCLUSIONS ET PERSPECTIVES.
- L'ISAR conduit ses activités de recherche à la base d'une
sélection massale; avec le matériel de sélection qu'il reçoit
de l'étranger. Enfin, pour des raisons économiques d'équipement,
très cher que l'Institut ne peut pas se procurer, l'ISAR ne peut
faire de la recherche fondamentale. Il est alors souhaitable et
indispensable qu'il fasse de nombreuses introductions; celles-ci
devraient être systématiques et réguliéres.
-
57 ­
_ Les introduction systématiques impliquent l'importation de
semences en fonction des besoins en matériel de sélection
productif, précoce, résistant aux maladies et à la verse.
- Le triticale semble être le plus intéressant que le
froment aussi bien au point de vue production qu'au point de vue
résistance aux maladies et oiseaux. C'est une culture d'avenir;
néanmoins, l'obtention des triticales à graines de bonne performance
s'Ï-mpose, afin que cette culture puisse entrer dans le circuit
agricole du pays et être utilisée dans l'alimentation nationales.
Par NTAMBABAZI C.•
I.S.A.R. - TAMIRA
- 1980 - .
- 58 :... PRODUCTION OF IMPROVED SEEDS IN RWANDA
by R. paquay
Introduction
Although seed multiplication is carried out over a
relatively short period of time, it is dependent on several
conditions:
Agricultural structure of a country. Agricultural policy approach to farmers -- either one of compulsion (coercion) or one considering farmers interests in new developments. Rwandan Seed Multiplication Situation
Agricultural policy in Rwanda is geared towards farmers'
interest in new crop developments.
Presently a project is underway on multiplication and
distribution of improved seeds. Success of this project is
strongly connected with and dependent on extension service
results.
Functioning of the Multiplication Project
In Table 1, a schematic outline of the seed multiplica­
tion project (the Service des Semences Selectionnés or SSS)
is presented.
The SSS receives only a small quantity of seed from the
ISAR research stations. Whenever possible seed from ISAR is
complimented by seed purchased directly from abroad. A first
multiplication is therefore required before seeds can be
distributed on a large scale. This multiplication is con­
ducted by SSS specialized multiplication centers. Multiplied
seed is subsequently distributed to communities, munici­
palities and special projects throughout the country.
The extension service is active at the community level
where multiplication also serves as a demonstration. Agri­
cultural societies provide farmer clients to the extension
service. Land is occupied by small farmers and a high popu­
lation density makes large-scale enterprise impossible. An
indirect distribution (diffusion) of new seeds -- one in
which farmers themselves distribute seeds -- is starting.
The SSS will, however, continue with direct seed distribution.
In addition, the SSS will buy back selected seed crops from
the communities and resell seed.
-
59 ­
An Example of Multiplication of a New Wheat Variety
For a schematic outline of this example see Table 2.
Season 9/1979: first multiplication.
Two hundred and fifty kilograms of seed from ISAR were
multiplied at the SSS multiplication center at Ruhunde (2.35
hectares). About 5 tons of seed were harvested.
Season 3/1980: multiplication - extension - diffusion.
During this season seed was distributed to SSS multi­
plication centers at Ruhunde, in northern Rwanda, and Mutura
(0.50 ha) in northwest Rwanda.
Farmers are involved in the multiplication-diffusion
phase as weIl. In the region of Ruhunde 34 farmers received
about 20 kgs of seed each. A cooperative in the same region
received 500 kgs in total. As part of extension efforts, the
SSS (cadre and trainees) regularly visited farmers, and
superior farmers were provided certificates of good farming
as an example to the rest. Farmers were assured a higher
purchase price than that for commercial seed for consumption.
Training included information about seed rate, sowing
in a line and along contours. Instead of contracts, the
extension service and the SSS worked with farmers on a trust
and mutual interest basis. In the prefecture of Gikongoro
(south), a FAO cooperative project assigned 3,500 kgs of
seed to farmers (about 5 kgs per farmer). The same sensi­
tivity training was initiated there as weIl.
In order to repurchase seed from farmers, the SSS first
selects fields with suitable seed. Seeds are graded and
farmers receive a higher price than for normal consumption
seed. In August, 1980, about 5,000 kgs were repurchased from
Ruhunde and about 10,000 kgs from Gikongoro. The impact of
indirect distribution of appreciated varieties is difficult
to estimate, but results have been judged superior to the
direct distribution by SSS.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Method
Advantages:
The method works fast by directly multiplying
large quantities of seed.
The combination of multiplication and extension of
other cultural practices is unique.
Multiplication with farmers is economical.
A good infrastructure is not required.
The method is adapted to the Rwandan agricultural
organization.
- 60 ­
Disadvantages:
There is a risk of losing a certain percentage of seed due to mixing. An organization in the rural areas is required as weIl as knowledge about the environment. The phytosanitary control is less effective. Conclusion
The success of this method can only be guaranteed if
farmers:
See a clear yield increase. Are assured of financial gains. Are regularly visited. - 61 ­
SYMPOSIUM REGIONAL SUR LE BLE ET LE TRITICALE
Gisenyi (Rwanda)II-13/06/1980
PRODUCTION DE SEMENCES SELECTIONNES AU RWANDA
PAR R.
PAQUAY, Chef du Project Semences Selectionnees
Sommaire
1.
1.1.
1. 2.
Situation de la multiplication au Rwanda
Vulgarisation et multiplication
Description du Service Semences Selectionnees
2.
Multiplication des semences
Depart de l'ISAR
Multiplication proprement dite:
2.1.
2.2.
3.5.
-Societes
-Paysans mUltipl icateurs
Exemple de la multiplication d'une nouvelle variete de
ble au Rwanda
Saison 9/1979
Saison 3/1980
Organisation des rachats
Resultats acquis et esperes
Avantages et inconvenients de la methode
4.
Conclusion
3.
3.1.
3.2.
3•3•
3.4.
Introduction
Si toute mUltiplication doit-§tre rapide elle est
toutefois conditionnee par:
- la structure agricole du pays
- la politique agricole suivie soit coercition ou
sensibilisation
1. SITUATION DE LA MULTIPLICATION AU RWANDA.
-
1.1. Politique agricole de sensibilisation
/
Presence d'un project de multiplication et diffusion des
semences
Vulgarisation et mUltiplication
La mUltiplication-diffusion est liee aux resultats de la
vulgarisation, elle. doi t d' abord attendre les resul tats de
la vulgarisation.
-
62 ­
l .2.
ct Semences Sélectionnées (SSS)
SSS Multiplication et conditionnement
CCDA Vulgarisation et Multiplication (complément)
PAYSANS Diffusion indirecte
2.
MULTIPLICATION DES SEMENCES.
2.1
Départ de l'ISAR
Très peu de semences
Si possible complément par achat extérieur
2.2.
Multiplication proprement dite.
2.2.1.
Société de semences.
Milieu rural sensibilisé, présence de sociétés
agricoles et grosses explications (fermiers)
Clientèle assurée
2.2.2.
Paysans multiplicateurs.
Forte densité de population, pas de terre disponible
Vulgarisation et multiplication combinée (ex.
pdt en Europe)
B.P. 538
KIGALI
1.
UBWOKO BW'IMBUTO:
Norteno
6661-19
2.
INGERO TUZINHINGAHO:
INGANO ZITERWA ZEGERANYE KU MIRONGO
ITANDUKANIJWE NA CM 20
3.
ILITONDERWA:
INGANO ZIREGERANA TUKABONA UKO
TUZIBAGARA ZIGAKURA NEZA
BITYO UMUSARURO UKIYONGERA
Impsoméca 2294-80
-
63 -
LES SEMENCES SELECTIONNEES ET LES
! ~.tl'~ÇW,f ~
CULTURALES
"DE LA STATION DE RECHERCHES AUX PAYSANS"
1.
S.
A.
Trois stations de recherches
culture économiques
arbres fruitiers et
cultures potagères
R.
Multiplication des semences
selectionnées
5 centres de multiplication
5 pépinières
l bureau de vente
S. S. S.
Service
Semences
Sélectionnées
PROJECTS
C.
D.
D.
Démonstration, multiplication et diffusion à l'échelon de la commune. Réalisation intégrale par la commune et les paysans. "Chez eux et par eux" 143 centres communaux. A.
Centre
Communal de
Demonstration
Agricole
Autres
Méthodes de
Vulgarisation
Tâche d'huile (ou diffusion)
vers l'ensemble des paysans
para échange, vente, commerce
et par gratification.
800.000 paysans.
ENSEMBLE
des
PAYSANS
-
64 ­
3.
EXAMPLE DE MULTIPLICATION D'UNE NOUVELLE VARIETE DE BLE.
"Example concret"
3.1.
Saison 9/1979
DEpart de l'ISAR: 250 kgs de blE
Multiplication au SSS Ruhunde: 2.35 hectares
Rendement: 2 145 kgs à l'hectare
3.2.
Saison 3/1980.
3.2.1.
Multiplication SSS
Ruhunde 2.35 ha (nord)
Mutura 0.50 ha (Nord-W)
3.2.2.
Multiplication diffusion.
3.2.2.1.
REgion de Ruhunde (Nord) - paysa~s: nombre et quantitE remise, 34 paysans pour 700 kgs (- 20 kgs)
- coopErative: l pour 500 kgs
- sensibilisation:
visite cadre et stagiaires SSS
moniteur en charge (visite hebdomadaire)
papillon technique (certification niveau paysans)
promesse prix de rachat superleur
densitE au semis, semis en lignes en cours
3.2.2.2.
PrEfecture de Gikongoro (Sud) Collaboration projec~ FAO
- paysans: nombre et quantitE remise. 3 500 kgs à - 5 kgs
par paysan
- sensibilisation:
personnel de cadre - affectation de l agronome
visite et reunion - choix des secteurs de rachat
promesse de rachat
3.3.
Organisation des rachats. - choix des champs - triag eau rachat - prix supérieur pour semences 3•4•
REsultats acquis et espérés. Départ 250 kgs en 9/79 on a en 3/80: - multiplié au project SSS 2.85 ha dans 2 centres (Ruhunde et Mutura)
- diffusé: (pour rachat) - l 200 kgs à Ruhunde
- 3 500 kgs à Gikongoro
"Paysans multiplicateurs"
Rachat espEré en août 80:
Ruhunde
+
5 000 kgs
Gikongoro + 10 000 kgs
- 65 ­
Diffusion indirecte: Si la variété est appréciée cette
diffusion se fait directement et le résultat est
incalculable mais supérieur à la diffusion directe.
3. 5 Advantages et inconvénients de la méthode.
Advantages.
- rapidité car on multiplie directement
quantités
- combinaison de la multiplication avec
d'autres méthodes culturales
la multiplication par les paysans est
- ne nécessite pas d'infrastructure
- s'adapte à l'organisation agricole du
de grosses
la vulgarisation
la plus économique
Rwanda
3.5.2. Inconvénients.
- danger de pérte d'un certain pourcentage par mélange
- demande une organisation dans le milieu rural et la
connaissance de ce milieu - contrôle sanitaire moins efficace 4. CONCLUSION.
Le succès de la méthode est garanti si le paysan
- voit une augmentation sensible de rendement
- trouve un intérêt financier dans l'operation
- est suivi régulièrement
- 66 ­
S CHE M A DE LA MULTIPLICATION - DIFFUSION l . S. A. R. (+ achats exteriéurs eventuels) S.
S.
S.
Première
Multiplication
Par PROJ"ECTS
spécifiques
Complément
multiplication
R A CHA T
ENSEMBLE DES PAYSANS
Echange et diffusion
indirecte
-
67 ­
par PAYSANS
multiplicateurs
L'amelioration et la production du
bl~
et du triticale au
~urundi.
par Ir. J.J. Schalbroeck, ISABU
Introduction.
L'am~lioration du bl~ et du triticale est menée à la
Station de Recherches Agronomiques de Ksozi. Situ~e à 2150
m d'altitude dans le Mugamba, r~gion naturelle des haute
sommets de la crête Zaïre-Nil (Lat 30 33' sud-Long 290 41'
est), elle fut crée en 1929 et demeura Station Exp~rimentale
du Gouvernement jusqu'en 1949 avant d'être reprise par
l'INEAC.
Depuis 1962, elle fait partie de l'Institut des Sciences
Agronomiques du Burundi (ISABU). La sélection du blé y
commença en 1937 et celle du triticale en 1976.
Trois centres de l'ISABU participent régulièrement à la
conduite d'essais multilocaux supervis~s par la Station de
Kosozi. Il s'agit du Centre Zootechnique de la Luvyironza
(1850 m) et des Centre Agricoles de Munanira (2200 m) et de
Nyakararo (2250 m).
La culture du blé, réserv~e aux r~gions d'altitude
à 1900 m de la crête Zaïre-Nil s'~tend sur environ
13.000 ha. La superficie des champs varie de 10 à 20 ares et
les rendements y atteignent 500 à 800 kg/ha.
sup~rieure
Les champs de blé sont g~néralement ensemenc~s de la
mi-mars à la mi-avril et la récolte a lieu au mois d'août
pendant la saison sèche. Quelques agriculteurs sèment cependant
le bl~ au mois d'octobre.
La production actuelle du blé peut être estim~e à 7000
tonnes et est quasi entièrement consomm~e para la population
rurale sous forme de pâte, les besoins urbains étant assur~s
para l'importation de farine. Celle-ci s'~levant entre 7000
et 8000 tonnes par an et constituent une importante sortie
de devises un project d'intensification de la culture du bl~
a ~té décidé. Il d~butera en 1981 et sera financé par le
Gouvernement du Burundi, le Fonds Européen de D~veloppement
et l'USAID. L'objectif visé est de dégager un surplus commercialisable
de blé afin d'alimenter une minoterie actuellement en construction
et possédant deux lignes de mouture, l'une destinée au blé
et d'une capacit~ de 9000 T/an, l'autre au mais et d/une
capacité de 6000 T/an.
1.
Caract~ristiques
physiques de la région à blé du Burundi.
1. Topographie
La crête Zaire-Nil est un ensemble montagneux et accident~ qui prend naissance à Bururi au sud et se prolonge au delà de la frontière rwandaise au nord. - 68 ­
La crête se situe en général à une altitude supérieure
à 1800 m pour atteindre 2500 m et plus dans sa partie
la plus élevée. Le flanc oriental de la crête s'atténue
progressivement en pente douce vers les hautes plateaux
de l'intérieur du Burundi tandis que le flanc occidental
descend brusquement vers le graben ' africain (lac Tanganike
et plaine de la Ruzizi). Ses pentes sont raides et
dépassent souvent 25%.
2.
Climatologie
Le climat de la crête est pluvieux et frais,
peut être classé parmi les climats CW de Koppen.
il
2.1 Pluviométrie
La saison des pluies s'étale de septembre à fin
mai. Elle est suivie d'une saison sèche de 3 mois (juin
à fin août) ou le total mensuel des précipitations est
inférieur à 60 mm. La hauteur moyenne des pluies enregistrées
annuellement varie de 1398 mm à Luvyironza (1850 m) à
1803 mm à Rwegura (2400 m). Les pluies sont d'origine
orographique, elles arrosent plus fortement le flanc
occidental de la crête à pente abrupte. Les altitudes
ente 1800 ~t 2000 m sont généralement comprises dans
l'isohyète de 1500 mm.
Tableau 1.
Hauteur des
pré~ipitations
moyennes (en mm)
par mois et par an
LUVYIRONZA
KISOZI
MUNANIRA
NYAKARARO
(1850 m)
(2150 m)
(2200 m)
(2250 m)
RWEGURA
(2405 m)
J
118.4
112.1
140.1
183.0
211.0
F
190.0
166.3
141.4
185.5
196.0
M
194.9
211. 0
210.1
241.9
223.4
A
194.3
220.1
288.1
294.6
312.8
M
10.8
121.2
139.9
131.1
161. 4
J
10.1
15.1
14.4
24.3
42.8
J
8.5
5.5
8.5
3.5
9.5
A
11. 2
13.8
20.1
20.2
36.2
S
48.8
61. 2
99.3
18.1
82.4
C
108.9
122.5
150.1
131.4
159.1
N
119.0
189.9
199.3
199.0
214.1
D
202.0
192.3
153.3
225.9
152.6
1391.5
1491. 6
1512.4
1119.8
1862.5
TOT
- 69 ­
2.2. Température
Le tableau ci-dessous donne:
-
la
la
la
la
la
moyenne annuelle de
moyenne annuelle de
température maximum
température minimum
moyenne annuelle de
Tableu 3:
O
la T maximum journalière
O
la T maximum journalière
absolue annuelle
absolue annuelle
O
la T moyenne journalière
(TM)
(Tm)
(TA)
(Ta)
(Tw) .
Températures
LUVYIRONZA
KISOZI
MUNANIRA
NYAKARARO
(1850 m)
(2150 m)
(2200 m)
(2250 m)
(2405 m)
TM
27.8
21. 3
20.7
20.2
19.3
Tm
14.3
10.4
13.0
9.1
10.6
TA
31.8
24.6
24.4
23.8
23.0
Ta
8.0
5.4
10.2
3.6
7.4
Tw
21. 2
15.8
16.9
14.7
15.0
RWEGURA
3.
Pédologie
La crête Zaïre-Nil est principalement constituée de
ferrisols intergrades om anthropiques et de ferralsols. La
capacité d'èchange et le taux de saturation de ces sols
sont faibles. Ils sont acides et la libération d'aluminium y
provoque souvent des phénomènes de toxicité.
II.
Historique de la sélection du blé au Burundi
Les premières introductions à la Station de Recherches
Agronomiques de Kisozi datent de 1931. Il s'agissait de
variétés originaires de France (Bon Moulin, Hâtif Inversable),
du Canada (Marquis) et du Kenya (K. Governor et K. Standard).
Toutes ces variétés furent très sensibles à Puccinia graminis.
Dès 1935, on procéda à de nouvelles introductions mais
la sélection proprement dite ne commença qu'en 1937. Les
différentes étapes de l'amélioration sont reprises ci­
dessous:
A.
Sélection généalogique de 1937 à 1942.
Il
s'agissait de sélections effectuées dans des
variétés originaires d'Europe, d'Amerique du Nord
(U.S.A. et Canada) et d'Afrique (Maroc, Kenya, Afrique
du Sud). Pendant cette période, près de 3000 lignées
-
70 ­
J'urent soumises il des tests de résistance à. Puccinia. graminis
dès 1939 J c.':) pl' C III i ers es:.; a j !.; mu l t i 10 cau x r u r e n t
counduits :.l.U I\ul'uudi ct au Ilwando...
Les meilleures lign~es issues de cette s~lection
et diffusées en milieu rural soit individuellement soit
en mélange sont les suivantes:
1. Trois lignées (6336, 0381 et 0397) provenant du bl~
tendre 1513 originaire du Maroc et multipli~es chez les
agriculteurs sous le nom de lign~es Maroko.
2. Huit lignées issues du blé colombien Sabanero et
ayant données les variétés:
- Kisabi, m~lange des lignes 624 et 625
- Kisaba, m~lange des lignes 670, 672, 675 et 678
- Kisame, mélange du Kisaba et des lignes SBB 5 et
SBB 41
3. La lignée Kisabu issue d'une variété originaire du
Kenya.
4. La lignée Kiska sélectionn~e dans l'acquisition C
10864 du Kenya. Ces lignées dont la production
dépassait de 40 à 100 celle des blés locaux et
dont certaines ~taient très tolérantes à Puccinia graminis,
permirent l'extension de la culture du blé au
Rwanda et au Burundi. Leur mauvaise valeur boulan g ère
justifie cependant un programme d'hybridation.
l~ t;
B. Amélioration par hybridation de 1942 à 1968.
Hybridations de 1942 à 1943.
Elles furent effectuées entre des lignées provenant de
la sélection généalogique afin de conserver les qualit~s
dejà obtenues (précocité, haut rendement, résistance
aux rouilles) et des variétés connues pour leur bonne
valeur boulangère dont des blés Manitoba. Aucune lign~e
issue de ces croisements ne fut proposée à la diffusion.
Hybridations de 1944.
Parmi les descendances des croisements effectués
en 1944, deux lignées aussi productives que la vari~té
Kisapu mais de valeur boulangère supérieure furent
retenues. Il s'agit des lignées (100)-93-54 et (130)-1­
77 diffusées respectivement de 1949 à 1953 et de 1953 à
1972 et d'origine suivante:
(100) - 93
54 = Sabanero (SBB 5) x N'joro
(2327-2).
(130) l
77 = Sabanero (SBB 41)
x N'joro (2327-2).
Toutefois, la farine provenant de ces blés nécessitait
encore des mélanges avec des farines de blés de force
étrangers.
- 71 ­
Hybridations de 1958 et 1959.
Ces croisements avaient pour but principal l'obtention
de bl~s de qualit~ sup~rieure pour la panification et ne
n~cessitant plus le m~lange avec de la farine import~e.
Sur plus de 5000 lign~es cr~~es i partir du meilleur
mat~riel de la Station et de vari~t~s ~trangères réput~es
pour leur bonne valeur boulangère seule la lign~e
10.180 - 54 - 29 fut retenue et diffus~e de 1968 i
1978. Elle provient du croisement suivant:
(100) - 93 - 54 x (Kota x Webster).
Hybridations de 1959 et 1968.
De nouveaux croisements furent effectues en 1959 entre
la lign~e (130) - l - 77 et la vari~t~ br~silienne Bage
et en 1968 entre la lign~e 10.180 - 54 - 29 et plusieurs
lign~es créés i la Station de Kisozi. Toutes les lignées
provenant de ces croisement furent toutefois très
sensibles à Puccinia striiformis et donnèrent des
rendements inférieurs à ceux des dernières acquisitions
~trangères. Elles furen~ abandonn~es.
C.
Etude des sélections
~trangères.
Pendant de nombreuses années, la Station de
Recherches Agronomiques de Kisozi cr~e donc les vari~t~s
à diffuser au Burundi car les vari~t~s ~trangères
disponibles ~taient peu adapt~es aux conditions ~cologiques
de l'Afrique Centrale. Cependant l'obtention de vari~t~s
de plus en plus int~reBsantes dans d'autres pays d'Afrique
et la création du Centre International pour l'Amelioration
du Mais et du Blé (CIMMYT) nous obligèrent à revoir
notre Programme. Depuis une douzaine d'ann~es la cr~ation
de nouvelles lign~es a ét~ abandonn~e au profit de
l'étude d'acquisitions ~trangères.
En 1977, les r~sultats d'une vingtaine d'essais
multilocaux confirmèrent la sup~riorit~ de la variét~
Romany, cr~~e au Kenya (NPBS) et diffus~e au Burundi
depuis 1978.
Principales
lign~es
Lign~es
et
aux
vari~t~s
diffus~es
vari~t~s
c24, C25
C70, C72, C75, C78
C330, C381, C387
Kisabi
Kisaba
SBB 5
SBB 41
Kisame
Kisapu
Kiska
(100) - 93 - 54
(130) 1 - 77
10.180 - 54 - 29
Romany
-
P~riode
au Burundi depuis 1939.
de diffusion
1939 1939 1939 1943 1943 1945
1945
1946
1946 1949 1949 1953 1960 depuis
72 ­
1943
1943
1946
1944
1945
1953
1953
1953
1972
1978
1978
III.
Programme actuel de l'amélioration du blé et du triticale.
Les premières introductions de Triticale au Burundi
datent de 1975. Il s'agissait d'une quinzaine de variétés
créées au CIMMYT. Suite aux résultats encourageants
obtenus avec le triticale sur des terres peu fertiles
et très acides, une attention de plus en plus grande a
été accordée à la sélection de blé et de triticale sont
de même importance: dans les essais de 1980 figurent
192 variétés de blé et 197 variétés de triticale. La
première diffusion de triticale au Burundi est prévue
pour 1981.
1.
Principaux critères de sélection.
1. Rendement
Bien que les variétés recherchées doivent
présente~ un potentiel de production élevé, elles
ne sont retenues que dans la mesure où elles
résistant suffisamment à la sécheresse et donnent
des rendements acceptables dans des conditions de
sol défavorables. Ceci est essentiel lorsqu'on
sait que la majorité des champs de blé ensemencés
aU mois d'avril ne reçoivent que 250 à 400 mm de
pluie et qu'aucune fumure n'y est apportée.
2. Résistance aux ~aladies
La rouille constitue la principale maladie
cryptogamique du blé au Burundi. Toutes les sélections
sont testées pour leur résistance à Puccinia striiformis
( r 0 u i Il e j au ne), P. r e con dit a tri tic i (r 0 u i Il e
brune) et P. graminis) rouille noire). De ces trois
rouilles, la plus dommageable semble être la
rouille jaune, très répandue dans les régions
supérieures à 2100 m d'altitude où elle occasionne
d'importants dègâts aux épis. A partir de 1980,
toutes les cotations de maladie seront établies à
l'aide des échelles mises au point au CI MMYT et
qui tiennent compte à la fois de l'importance de
l'infection et du type de réponse de la variété à
l'infection.
3. Caractéristigues organoleptiques et technologiques
Les variétés de blé et de triticale présentant
des caractéristiques agronomiques intéressantes
sont proposées à quelques agriculteurs pour des
tests de dégustation. En ce qui concerne les
caractéristiques technologiques, seules les meilleures
variétés de blé sont envoyées à l'étranger pour en
déterminer la valeur boulangère. Actuellement, un
laboratoire d'analyses est en cours d'aménagement
à la Station de Kisozi et permetera dans un proche
avenir de d'eterminer les qualités des farines à
l'aide de l'alvéographe, du farinographe, du test
de Zeleny et de l'indice de chute de Hagberg.
-
73 ­
4.
Schema de selection
1. Pepinières de triage
Ces essais ont principalement pour objet
l'étude de la résistance des dernières acquisitions
aux attaques de rouille. Toutefois, lorsque
la quantité de semences est suffisante pour
la conduite de deux essais, ceux-ci sont
menés sur sol fertile avec apport d'engrais
et sur sol pauvre et très acide sans fumure
minérale ce qui permet également de connaître
le comportement des acquisitions à l'égard
de conditions de sol défavorables. L'essai
effectué dans de bonnes conditions de sol
permet, grâce à un meilleur développement
végétatif des variétés, de mieux étudier leur
résistance aux maladies ainsi que d'autres
caracteristiques variétales telles que le
cycle végetatif, la hauteur des chaumes et
éventuellement la résistance à la verse
lorsque les conditions atmosphériques ont été
de nature à la provoquer en plein champ.
Deux types de pépinières sont normalement
semées chaque annèe: celles dont le protocole
experimental est établi par l'ISADU et regroupant
des variétés d'origines diverses et celles
qui sont menées en collaboration avec le
CIMMYT (SNACWYT et Preliminary Triticale).
La conduite de ces pépinières est un des
points les plus délicats de la sélection car
elles doivent per~ettre l'élimination sur
base des observations de deux campagnes de
toutes les variétés présentant des défauts
majeurs. Chaque année, le CIMMYT peut nous
fournir au moins 500 variétés de blé et de
triticale mais sans essais adéquats permettant
l'élimination rapide des non-valeurs, l'introduction
annuelle d'un nombre considérable de variétés
paralyserait rapidement les travaux de sélection.
Dès l'année prochaine, trois ou quatre pépinières
de résistance aux maladies et aux sols
acides regroupant les mêmes acquisitions mais
d'un nombre restreint seront ~conduites; Si la
méthode s'avère suffisamment précise pour
éliminer rapidement les non-valeurs, la
Station de Kisozi participera régulièrement
aux épreuves internationales de triage telles
les IBWSN (Internatioal Bread Wheat Screening
Nursery) et les ITSN (International Triticale
Screening Nursery).
2. Essais comparatifs précis à Kisozi
Deux types d'essais précis sont également
conduits chaque année à la Station de Kisozi:
ceux dont le protocole expérimental est établi
par l'ISABU et ceux qui sont menés en
- 74 ­
collabpration avec le CIMMYT tel l'ACWYT
(African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial). Les
essais ISABU regroupent les melleures veriétés
pr~venent des pépinières de triage et de
l'ACWYT de l'année antérieure. Ils sont, en
général, répétés de deux à quatre fois au
cours de la même saison dans différentes
conditions de sol et de climat. Seules les
variétés ayant des caractéristiques agronomiques
et technologiques intéressantes sont retenues
pour la conduite des essais multilocaux.
3. Essais multilocaux
Les essais multilocaux ne comparent, en
général, pas plus de huit variétés et sont
conduits dans quatre sites différents: Luvyironza
(1850 m), Kisozi (2150 m), Munanira (2200 m)
et Hyakararo (2250 m). Dans chaque site,
l'essai est répété avec et sans apport d'engrais
et à des dates de semis différentes. Cette
méthode permet d'obtenir une vingtaine d'essais
situés dans autant d'environnements différents.
Ce nombre élevé d'essais permet non
seulement de mettre en évidence l'interaction
existant entre les variétés et les environnements
mais aussi d'étudier la stabilité du rendement
à l'aide des paramètres définis par Eberhart
et Russel (1). Ces paramètres sont le coefficient
de régression de la droite donnant les rendement
d'une variété pour divers indices d'environnement
et la déviation para rapport à cette droite
de régression. La variété la plus stable est
celle qui présent un coëfficient de régression
égal à l'unité (b=l) et une variance des
écarts par rapport à sa droite de régression
no~ significativement différente de zéro
(S d=O).
(1) Eberhart (S.A.), Russell (W.A.), 1968 - Stability
parameters for comparing varieties -
36-40.
- 75 ­
Crop Science,
6,
PROGRAMME DU BLE AU ZAIRE
PAR N. KASSONGO, MIDEMA
Sommaire
-Deux étapes importantes
1. Historique du blé,
2. Relance de la culture du ble au Zaïre
II.
Historique du ble au Zaïre
-
Introduction au Zaïre vers les annés 1920 par les
chercheurs Belges.
- Après 1960, toute la recherche sur le blé fut abandonnée,
la raison était le départ des chercheurs Belges.
III. Rèlance de la culture du ble au Zaïre
- Depuis l'année 1979.
- Le Département de l'Agriculture sollicita le concours de la minoterie de Matadi (Midema) pour s'occuper de la recherche et de la production du blé dans la région Mora-est du pays (Mora-Kivu). - Les objectifs assignés à la Midema sont:
1. Identifier une meilleure variété du blé,
2. Constituer un nmoyau de production de semences
de bonne qualité,
3. Assurer la diffusion de ces semences dans les
milieux paysans.
4. Acheter les productions résultant de ces semences
5. Assurer la production de la farine au blé pour
toute la région-est du Zaïre.
- Eu égard à la dégénereiscence manifestée par les variétés selectionneés par les chercheurs Belges à l'époque. - Le problème de rèlance avait commencé par les nouvelles introductions. - La Midema a essayé dans ce cas de collaborer avec les
autres organismes internationaux spècialisés dans la
recherche et dans la production du blé et plus principalement:
- Le CIMMYT (Centre International pour L'Amelioration
du Maïs et du blé) base au Mexique.
- Et le CIMMYT/Est Afrique base au Kenya.
- De ces deux organismes, nous avions reçu en 1979 les
différents essais internationaux suivants:
a. 8th ITSN 76-77.
b. lrst SNACWYT et
c. Une tonne de semences de la variété Kenya SWARA.
- De ces deux essais les meilleurs variétés ont été retenues et devraient faire l'objet de notre essai variétal local. - A ces essais internationaux, nous avions ajouté les essais locaux suivants: - 76 ­
-
-
-
-
-
a. Essai dates de semis.
b. Essai densités (écartement)
c. Essai doses des produites d'emrobage des semences et
d. Essai variétal.
Les trois premiers essais étant conduites avec la
variété Kenya Swara, les rendements ont été trop faibles
et n'ont permis aucune analyse.
Dans l'essai variétal par contre certaines variétés se
sont révélées meilleures soit du point de vue de leur
résistance à la rouille jaune (Puccinia striiformis) la
principale maladie qui sévit dans la région soit du
points de vue de leur rendement.
Em ce qui concerne la résistance à la rouille, les
variétés Dz-l, Alondra et Sajame dans les blés, Camel
pato, Mapache et Rahum dans les triticales se sont
révélées les meilleures.
En ce qui concerne les rendements, les triticales
Beaver Armadillo, Triticale 74 et Beagle, les blés Dz­
l, Alondra et Musala ont été les meilleures à Mdihira.
Tandis que les triticales Maya l
Armadillo, Beagle, et
Camel pato, ainsi que les blés Alondra, Pichihuila et
Sajame ont été les meilleures à Kipese.
Les rendements à Mdihira sont de l'ordre de 1500 à 2900
kg/ha, tandis qu'à Kipese, ils sont de l'ordre de 1400
à 3700 kg/ha.
En 1980, les nouvelles introductions de blé et triticale
ont été faites, il s'agit de:
1. 4th ACWYT
2. Preliminary TCL
Du Kenya
3. 3th SNACWYT
4. 13th IBWSN 79-78
Du Mexique
5. llth ITSN 79-78
6. 9 variétés du blé tendre en provenance de Kenya
Seed Company.
Nous signalerons également nos essais locaux pour 1980:
1. Essai densité
2. Bay tan treatments
3. Essai de rotation
4. Essai variétal.
Tous ces essais nous conduiront un jour à trouver une
meilleure variété à utiliser en multiplication au
Zaïre.
- 77 ­
PROGRAME DU BLE AU ZAIRE
Par N. KASSONGO MIDEMA
DISTINGU~S
MESDAMES ET MESSIEURS
INVIT~S
A l'occasion du symposium organisé par l'ISAR, il est
pour nous un agréable plaisir de vous présenter le rapport du
programme de blé et triticale tel qu'il est réalisé au
Zaïre.
Dans ce rapport nous vous parlerons d'abord de l'historique
du blé au Zaïre.
Ensuite, nous parlerons du programme de relance de la
culture du blé au Zaïre.
HISTORIQUE DU
BL~
AU ZAIRE
Le blé a été introduit au Zaïre vers les années 1920
par les chercheurs Belges qui travaillaient sur cette culture
dans la région du nord Kivu.
A cette époque-la les diférentes introductions et
essais ont été réalisés par ces différents chercheurs dans
les stations de l'nera N'dihira, sur tout dans les CAPSA
(centres agricoles pour la production des semences acrées à
Luhotu et Kipese).
Ces travaux de recherche avaient donné des résultats
escomptés en leur temps.
Mais, lors de l'accession du Zaïre a sa souveraineté
internationale, vers les années 1960, après le départ de ces
chercheurs Belges, toute la recherche sur la culture du blé
dans la région fut abandonnée.
RELANCE DE LA CULTURE DE
BL~
AU ZAIRE
La culture du blé a été relancée dans la région a
partir de l'année 1979 en ce moment la, le département de
l'agriculture du Zaïre avait solicité la minoterie de Matadi
(Midema) pour s'occuper de la recherche et de la production
du blé au Zaïre.
Les objectifs nous assignés se résument comme ceci:
1.
Identifier une meilleure variété de blé.
2. Constituer un noyau de production de semences de bonne
qualité.
3. Assurer la diffusion de ces semences dans les milieux
payeans.
4. Acheter les productions résultant de ces semences.
5. Assurer la production de la farine de blé pour toute la
région est du Zaïre.
-
78 ­
Les variétés laissées par les chercheurs Belges étant
donc en dégénerescence, nous avons trouvé logique de commencer
cet programme de relance par l'introduction de nouvelles
variétés de blé afin d'en retenir celles qui devraient avoir
de bonnes performances dans la région.
C'est ainsi que la Midema faisa appel a la collabora­
tion de deux organismes internationaux specialisés dans la
production du blé, nous citerons CIMMYT (Centre Internatio­
nal pour l'amélioration du mais et du blé basé au Mexique en
Ameriqueldu Nord) et le programme tropical du blé pour les
régions est-africaines basé au Kenya.
De ces deux organismes, differents essais internatio­
naux nous ont été envoyés, ces essais constituaient ainsi un
point de départ pour la relance de la culture du blé au
Zaïre.
Du CIMMYT, nous avions re~u au cours de l'anée 1979, la
pépinière internationale de triticale 76/77 (8th ITSN 76(7)
cela constituant une introduction d'environ 300 familles de
triticale.
Alors que au cours de la même année, nous recevions du
Kenya le 3ème essai de rendement de blé pour les cooperants
africains 1978 (3th SNACWYT, 19(8) avec environ 350 variétés
de blé et du triticale et une tonne de semences de la variété
Kenya swaran en provenance de la compagnie kenyanne de la
production des semences certifiées.
De ces différents essais re~us, nous avions du retenir
certaines variétés jugées comme meilleures constituant le
premier essai local le plus important qui a été l'essai
variétal, ainsi que les trois autres essais locaux installés
dans nos deux sites dont l'une a 2190 m et l'autre a environ
2400 m d'altitude.
Il
1)
2)
3)
4)
s'agissait donc de: Essai dates de semis. Essai des densités. Essai des doses d'enrobage des semences. Essai variétal. A. ESSAI DATES DE SEMIS.
Cet essai, qui était évidement d'une grande importance
dans la mesure ou il devrait nous donner une idée sur la
meilleure date de semis du blé dans la région a été ainsi
abandonnée, étant donné que la plupart des semences des
différentes dates n'ont donné aucun rendement.
-
79 ­
Cela est attribué a la mauvaise variété (Kenya swaran)
qui y a été utilisée. Cette variété étant trop susceptible a
la rouille jaune la principale maladie qui sévit dans la
région.
B. ESSAI
~CARTEMENT.
Cet essai consistant a trouver le meilleur écartement
que nous devrions utiliser dans la culture du blé comportait
6 écartements allant de 15 cm a 40 cm.
~tant donné les rendements trop faibles donnés par les
différents écartements, cet essai n'a fait l'objet d'aucune
analyse.
Nous l'avons ainsi reconduit a la saison de mars 1980
pour un deuxième essai densité avec la variété Alondra.
C. ESSAI D'ENROBAGE
Cet essai avait pour but de savoir si les produits en­
robés aux semences avant le semis avait un certain effet
bénéfique sur l'incidence de la rouille et le rendement de
blé.
Mais pour les mêmes raisons que les deux essais pré­
cédents, aucune analyse n'a été faite sur cet essai.
D. ESSAI
VARI~TAL
Ce fut le plus important de toute la série des essais
installés lors de la campagne de septembre 1979, cet essai
comportait 17 traitements (variétés) dont sept de triticale,
six de blé tendre issu du 3è essai du blé pour les coopérants
africains 78 (3th SNACWYT 78), et bien sûr celles qui avaient
donné plus de 1500 kg/ha, lors de la campagne de mars 1979.
Nous y avons également ajouté trois families de triti­
cale venues de Mexique de la (8è pépinière internationale de
triticale 76/77) dans ce cas celles qui avaient doné environ
3000 kg/ha, auxquelles nous avions ajouté rentes rouilles et
qui par dessus le marché avait donné des rendements trop
faibles).
Les résultats de cet essai du point de vue résistance a
des maladies plus principalement à des rouilles montrent que
la plupart des variétés ont été susceptibles a la rouille
sauf parmi les blés des variétés Dz-l Alondra et Sajame et
parmi les triticales nous pouvors citer des variétés Camel,
Pato, Beagle, Mapache, Rahum.
- 80 ­
A la lumière de ces résultats, le triticale s'est avéré
de loin supérieur au blè du point de vue rèsistance aux
rouilles et rendement.
Ainsi pour le. centre de Ndihira les variètès Beaver Ar­
madillo, Triticale 74 et Beagle se sont bien comportées
avec les rendements respectivement de 1876 kilo, 2837 et
2723 kilo à l'hectare, sans engrais.
Dans le Centre de Kipese par contre les triticales Maya
I-Armadillo, Beagle et CMLPato ont donnés respectivement
3660 kilo, 3528 kilo et 3486 kilo à l'hectare, tandis que le
blé Alondra, Pichihuila et Sajame ont done respectivement
les rendements de 1864 kilo, 1431 kilo et 1400 kilo a l'hectare
sans engrais.
Ces rendements a notre avis donnent une certaine bonne
performance de ces variétés dans la région, il ne nous
restera qu'à examiner plus profondément d'autres facteurs de
sélection comme la résistance aux maladies, la hauteur de
plants et la précocité pour retenir la variété la plus
méritante.
Pourtant une constation nous vient a l'espirit montrant
une supériorité de rendement manifeste pour la même variété
dans nos deux sites en faveur du site le plus élévé en
altitude.
Continuant nos efforts dans la recherche de la meilleure
variété, nous avions pu installer pour la campagne de mars
1980, les essais internationnaux suivants:
1. 4è Essai du blé pour les coopérants africains 1978 (avec
15 variétés + un Temoin).
2. Essai prèliminaire du Triticale (avec 104 variétés).
3. 3è essai du blé pour les coopérants africains (avec
136 variétés en provenance du Kenya.
4. 13è pépinière internationale du blé tendre 79-80
(580 variétés).
5. llè pépinière de triticale 79-80 (avec 328 familles)
en provenance du Mexique.
Ainsi que les échantillons de 9 variétés de blé tendre
en provenance de la compagnie kenyanne
de la production des
semences améliorées.
En plus de ces essais internationaux, nous avons pu installer les esssais locaux suivants: - 81 ­
1. Essai densités avec
50 kg/ha, 100 kg/ha et 200 kg/ha.
2. Essai de traitement preventif de semences avec un
produit fongique 'Baytan' avec trois doses différents:
Baytan, 100 gr Baytan (250 ml d'H 0 par 100 kg de
2
semences), 200 gr Baytan (500 ml d'eau/100 kg de semences)
et 400 gr Baytan (1000 ml d'H 0/100 kg de semences).
2
3. Essai varietal comportant 6 variétés dont:
- 9 de Kenya Seed Company
- Le Triticale 65
4 variétés de blé tendre et 2 de triticale qui se
sont révélées les meilleures dans le région.
- Les premières observations faites dans l'essai variétal
après 45 jours le semis révèlement ce qui suit : parmis
des neuf variétés Africa Mayo s'est montrée résistante
à la rouille jaune alors que les autres se sont avérées
très susceptibles à cette maladie.
- Ex. parmi des autres variétés de blé la résistance est
manifestée par les variétés Sajame, Musala et Alondra.
- Par contre la variété Kenya Niboro s'est révélé très
précoce .
- Car étant déjà en floraison 45 jours après le semis.
- En ce qui concerne les triticales, les variétés Beaver
Armadillo, CML-Pato et Triticale 65 se sont montrées
résistantes a la rouille jaune.
- Quant au 4è essai de blé pour les coopérants africains
nous envoyé par CIMMYT/Kenya, les constatations suivants
on pu être faites. Les variétés Beaver Armadillo, Sajame,
Musala,
, Kavco, Ainglet, Jup-Anc, Au-Maya et le
Triticale 65 se sont montrées resistantes.
- Dans les deux cas l'aspect des plants est en général
bon.
4. Un essai de rotation
- Le but de cet essai est de trouver la place du blé dans
la rotation.
Il est connu que les légumineuses enrichissent de sol en
azote atmosphérique indispensable pour la culture du blé.
Le problème est celui de savoir laquelle de légumineuses
pourra précéder le blé en laissant à celui-ci la chance
de donner le maximum de son potentiel de production.
5. Un essai variétal composé uniquement de quatre variétés jugées
comme meilleures dans la région.
- Nous osons croire que les résultats de ces diferénts
essais et introductions nous d~nneront l'idée sur la
variété de blé ou de triticale à retenir et qui fera
l'objet de la culture intensive dans la région.
- Nous avons également la conviction que ce symposium
organisé par l'ISAR contribuera à la promotion de la
recherche du blé au Zaïre grâce à vos différentes critiques
et suggestions.
- Et nous comptons finalement sur votre collaboration
pour la bonne marche de ce programme de relance de la
culture du blé au Zaïre.
°
Nous vous en remercions.
- 82 ­
ESSAI VARIETAL NDIHIRA CAMPAGNE DE MARS 1980 OBSERVATION SUR LA ROUILLE JAUNE ET ASPECT DES PLANTES.
DATE DE SEMIS 18/04/80.
No.
NOM DE LA VARIBTB
DATE D'OBSERVATION 1/06/80.
ROUILLE JAUNE
ASPECT
VS
B.A.
S
B.A.
VS
B.A.
KENYA NUNGU
S
B.A.
5.
KENYA NYOKA
S
B.A.
6.
KENYA KIBOKO
MS
7.
KENYA NGIRI
MS
B.A.
8.
KENYA FAHARI
MR
B.A.
9.
AFRICA MAYO
VR
B.A.
10.
T 65
VR
B.A.
1l.
ALONDRA
MR (Stem rust)
B.A.
12.
MUSALA
VR
B.A.
13.
SAJAME
R
B.A.
14.
DZI
S
B.A.
15.
BEAVER ARMADILLO
VR
B.A.
16.
CML - PATO
VR
B.A. Tardif.
1.
KENYA KIFARU
2.
KENYA TEr'ŒO
3.
KENYA LEOPARD
4.
N • B. :
VS
S
VR
=
TRES SUSCEPTIBLE
= SUSCEPTIBLE
=
TRES RESISTANT
R = RESISTANT
BA
=
BEL ASPECT
- 83 ­
BA PRECOCE AVEC BPIS
4th ACWYT 1980
CAMPAGNE DE MARS 1980
OBSERVATION SUR ROUILLE JAUNE ET ASPECT DES PLANTES.
No.
NOM DE LA
VARI~T~
ROUILLE JAUNE
ASPECT
l.
KENYA FAHARI
S
B.A.
2.
KAVCO
R
B.A.
3.
BEAVER ARMADILLO
R
T.B .A.
4.
KINGLET
R
B.A.
5.
6.
P 66 / 253
MS
B .. A.
R 233 "s"
VS
B.A.
7.
SAJAME
R
B.A.
8.
HARRIER
R
B.A.
9.
AU - MAYA
R
B.A.
10.
MUSALA
R
B.A.
Il.
WECI
MS
B.A.
12.
CHAT
R
B.A.
13.
SUP
R
B.A.
14.
T 65
R
B.A.
15.
MWEWE
R
B.A.
16.
BLE DE GRANDS MOULIN
VS
B.A.
-
ALD
- 84 ­
ESSAI VARIETAL NDIHIRA ET KI PESE RESULTATS DE L'ESSAI DE SEPTEMBRE 1979
,
No.
NOM DE LA VARIETE
,
ROUILLE JAUNE
NDIHIRA
,
,
KIPESE'
RENDEMENT MOYEN
NDIHIRA
(2190
ID
al t. )
,
,
KIPESE
(2400 m
al t. )
TRITICALE
l.
T 74
MR
S
2837
3104
2.
RAHUM
VR
R
1958
3200
3.
MAPACHE
MR
MR
2233
3060
4.
BEAVER ARMADILLO
VR
MS
2876
3053
5.
INIA - ARMADILLO
MR
S
2141
3315
6.
MAYA l - ARMADILLO
R
MS
1608
3660
7.
MAYA II - ARMADILLO
VR
MS
2546
3162
MS
MR
1276
1400
BLE
,
8.
FURY x Cno-ND 66(SAJAME)
9.
DZI - CM 6705
MR
S
1825
1224
10.
MUSALA
MR
MS
1411
1213
1l.
PICHIHUILA
VS
VS
916
1431
12.
CNo - NO x CC - IN lA
VS
VS
1099
1191
13.
ALONDRA
MS
VS
1590
1864
14.
KENYA SWARAN
VVS
151
153
VVS
,
TRITICALE
15.
BEAGLE
MR
MR
2733
3528
16.
CML - PATO
VR
R
2615
3486
17.
6TA 201 -
MS
MR
1381
1842
BC090
- 85 ­
UGANDAN WHEAT PRODUCTION
by Elizabeth Rubaihayo
Wheat is grown in Uganda at 1,500 meters and above,
although in sorne marginal areas it is found down to 1,200 m.
Wheat production is weIl below the country's requirements.
It therefore depends on imported wheat and wheat flour from
neighboring Kenya. In spite of high potentials for Ugandan
wheat production, little has been do ne to improve production
and virtually no research work to improve varieties and
production has been carried out.
The main wheat growing areas are found in the western
and eastern regions.
Western Region:
a)
The Toro District in the western region was the
first to grow wheat introduced by missionaries
about 1910. These varieties are locally known as
Kyoka, Kikonze and Kenya. Wheat was distributed by
the missionaries to the Bamba and Bakonjo at
Rwenzori Mountain, 2,100 m and above. Production
has continued at subsistence levels.
b)
In the Kigezi District (western region) wheat is
grown between 1,600 and 2,500 m with rainfall
favoring two crops a year. The area is highly
productive in wheat. Introduced varieties are
tested between 1,400 and 1,600 m at Kachwekano in
the northern Kigezi region, West Nile District.
One crop a year is grown annually at subsistence
levels although more areas are potentially capable
of wheat production.
Eastern Region:
a)
Wheat is produced at 1,500 m and above in the
Bugishu District in the eastern region. Buginyanya
in the district is the center for wheat research
activities.
b)
Wheat is grown in two areas of the Sebei District
(eastern region) - near Bukwa and Kapchorwa at
altitudes between 1,500 and 2,500 m. This is the
only district where production is high and mechanized.
Sorne wheat farms in the area are up to 800 hectares.
Popular varieties include Trophy, Kenya Mamba,
Kenya Kanga and Kenya Swara. Seed is obtained from
the Kenya Seed Company.
The Ugandan Government began placing emphasis on wheat
research in 1965 when a policy to diversify agriculture was
implemented. Researchers have been few, however, and activi­
- 86 ­
ties consequently have been lacking. Research which is being
carried out concentrates on two projects:
1)
Collection of wheat seed material for experimental
work. Initially collections were made within
Uganda and later involved wheat introductions from
Kenya, Tanzania and CIMMYT-Mexico.
2)
Planting observational plots (at Kachwekano) for
varietal study and evaluation of germplasm per­
formance. Assessments have been made as to how
varieties react to diseases at different altitudes
and environments. Attempts have been made to
estimate potential yields and other agronomic
characters, such as maturity, lodging and planting
dates.
Single location durum variety trials have been planted
at Kachwekano in Kigezi. Varieties which have been tested
include Primer, Taqui 50, No. 43, Yaktana, Tama, Lenana,
Menco, Salmayo, Gem, Cabrine, Africa Mayo, Fanfare, Coblet,
Catcher, Romany, Taken, No. 358 AA, Yake and Front Latch.
These varieties have been found to be sensitive to wheat
rust caused by Puccinia graminis tritici.
There have been problems with incomplete analysis of
experiments and difficulties in obtaining research materials
from outside the country. From 1973 to mid-1979 there was no
researcher working on wheat. Varieties were maintained at
Kachwekano where preliminary observations were made. A
fulltime researcher now wo~ks on wheat at Buginyanya. AlI
varieties collected in Uganda or introduced into the country
plus observations made at Kachwekano are now being handled
at Buginyanya. Wheat nurseries are also being received from
CIMMYT-Mexico and planted at Kachwekano. Results have been
sent to CIMMYT for analysis.
- 87 ­
WHEAT AND TRITICALE RESEARCH IN KENYA
by H.H.A. Mulamula
and M.W. Oggema
Bread Wheat
Wheat has become a major component of family diets in
Kenya since independence occurred 17 years ago. As a result,
the crop receives a sizeable amount of total capital spent
on crop research development from national as well as inter­
national funds.
During the past 50 years the objectives of bread wheat
research have been diversified to include:
a) Breeding for disease resistance. Major diseases
are stem rust (Puccinia graminis f spp tritici),
leaf rust (Puccinia recondita), stripe rust
(Puccinia striiformis), septoria leaf (Septoria
tritici), and glume blotch (Septoria nodorum).
b) Breeding for wide adaptability to varying tem­
peratures, rainfall and soil types, in part,
according to altitude (1,800 to 3,000 meters).
c) Breeding for high yield. The national average
yield has increased from 1,200 kilograms per
hectare to 1,800 kg/ha during the past 10 years.
d) Breeding for good baking quality. In the past,
little research emphasis was put on this vital
wheat character which necessitated importation of
wheat for blending purposes.
e) Developing cultural practices conducive to high
productivity. These include seedbed preparation
and moisture conservation; optimum seedrate;
fertilization with micro-nutrients as well as
macro-nutrients, and weed control for both general
broad-leaved weeds and grass weeds such as wild
oats (Avena fatua, and/or sterilis), setaria
(Setaria verticillata and Setaria pellidefusca)
and darnel (Lolium temulentum).
Wheat Breeding
Major improvements have been made in breeding for
disease resistance, wide adaptability, yield and baking
quality. Promising germplasm is received from countries
throughout the world, including CIMMYT-Mexico, Ecuador, The
-
88 ­
Netherlands, ICARDA-Syria, Ethiopia, India, Turkey and
Lebanon. Over 20,000 bread wheat lines are received and
tested annually. About 5 per cent of these lines are selected
for future multiplication. The remainder must be discarded
due to rust (Puccinia spp) susceptability.
Diseases
Although breeding for resistance to stem rust and to
some extent leaf rust has been successful, recently stripe
rust has become a major threat to existing varieties. In­
tensive screening among introductions to identify sources of
resistance to stripe rust is underway. As a temporary solu­
tion, various fungicides are being screened and a few pro­
mising ones have been identified. More stringent selection
is in progress for selecting lines resistant to wheat diseases
in Kenya. Several years ago stripe rust was considered a
minor disease while emphasis was put on stem rust. At pre­
sent, however, about 22 races of stripe rust varying in fre­
quency and distribution exist which has warren ted a change
in research policy.
Grain Chemistry
The grain chemistry section is continuing to identify
potential lines with superior quality. The Kenyan Govern­
ment, with the assistance of the Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA), has aided in the installation of
a laboratory in which baking quality can be assessed based
on samples as small as 5 grams.
Wheat Agronomy
a) Cost Studies and Moisture Conservation. Cost
studies have revealed that some techniques of
seedbed preparation are as much as 50 per cent
cheaper than others. It also has been shown that
moisture conservation from early seedbed prepara­
tion can increase yield by as much as 51 per cent
in,a dry year and 20 per cent in a good rainfall
year.
b) Use of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Fertilizers. A
decade of work on the use of nitrogen and phos­
phorus fertilizers has indicated the need for
better management and use of these fertilizers. In
general little or no relationship has been esta­
blished between soil and phosphorus level and the
expected crop response to added phosphorus.
c) Soil Amendment. Soils in Kenya are very acidic.
Some 40,000 ha of wheat are in the Uasin Gishu
area. One third of Kenya's total wheat hectareage
has soil pH ranging from 3.5 to 5.0 and calcium
- 89 ­
ranging from 0.01 to 0.2. Soils have high aluminum
and iron levels. These conditions largely favor
fixation or immobilization of phosphorus. Durum
wheat, wheats with durum germplasm, common wheats
and triticales are most likely to be affected by
soil deficiencies (in that order). Yields normally
average only 1,000 kg/ha. Some farmers increase
recommended phosphate levels by as much as three
times in an effort to overcome this problem.
Greenhouse tests conducted on soil samples from this
area show that soils could be ameliorated by heavy applica­
tion of lime. One ton of lime (90 percent CaCo 3 ) raises soil
pH by 0.2 units and increases soil calcium con~ent and
available native phosphorus. The following tables illustrate
this problem.
Grain Yield and Soil Properties (First Crop)
Treatment
N
0
Grain yield
Tons/ha
Kg/ha
P 0
2 5
0
Lime
gm/pot
E!!
%
Ca me
P ppm
8
0
4.8
1.8
0.2
0
4.8
5.3
Trace
16
20
100
0
0
5.0
6.2
17.7
9.4
18
20
100
5.0
6.4
18.1
9.6
24
0
0
10.0
7.1
13.9
17.8
22
20
100
10.0
7.1
18.3
16.0
27
- 90 ­
Fresh Weight and Soil Properties (Fourth Crop)
Treatment Kg/ha
N
0
20 0
20 0
20 Plant tops
Tons/ha
P 0
2 5
Lime
Fresh wt
gm/pot Soil
E!!
% Ca me
P ppm
0
0
14.25
4.9 0.9
20
100
0
27.50
4.6
0.4
29
0
5.0
22.95
6.3 8.4
22
100
5.0
35.60
6.3
8.8
27
0
10.0
29.95
7.3 18.1
41
100
10.0
39.85
7.2
19.5
35
Extensive field tests are in progress to provide further
information on the use of lime. Kenya has vast deposits of
lime which should enhance its use.
d) Micro-Nutrients. Some 44,000 ha of wheat are
located in what is classified as a copper de­
ficient area. Soils from this area have been
developed from volcanic ash in the Rift Valley.
Copper deficient plants pose particular problems
as they often do not set seed. Many years ago this
deficiency was mistaken for Take-all (Phobiolus
gramins). Since this time appropriate remedies
have been determined.
e) Weed Control. Kenyan researchers have carried out
much weed control work. Preventive weed control
through adequate up-to-standard cultural practices
is the mainstay of any weed control program.
Cereal seeds and other associated materials con­
tributed to the spread and multiplication of
noxious and, other weeds.
- 91 ­
f)
Other Work. Work is in progress on the use of
nitrogen-fixing legumes and cropping systems as a
means of cutting down farmers' reliance on in­
organic fertilizers.
Agrispon (a product from Texas) is being
tested for its nitrogen fixing properties. Pre­
tested for its nitrogen fixing properties. Pre­
liminary results have not been encouraging.
Triticale
Kenyans have been testing triticale for 12 years. Some
lines (T65, T74, T14, early to medium maturing, and T50, a
late maturing line) have been identified as appropriate for
local conditions. Triticale has demonstrated its superiority
in areas of marginal rainfall and acidic soils. For example,
during 1979, a dry year, one large-scale farmer registered
an average yield of 2,750 kg/ha for wheat and 4,500 kg/ha
for triticale.
Triticale research has followed similar lines as wheat.
The crop stands well against rusts and other diseases with
the exception of Septoria which is prevalent in high rain­
fall areas. The problem of high triticale susceptability to
storage weevils and occasional spouting in the field remains
to be solved. Large-scale processing tests by millers and
bakers have been successfully completed.
The government has tentatively priced triticale at 85
per cent the price of common wheat. In collaboration with
the Kenya Seed Company the Ministry has embarked on a large­
scale seed multiplication program. About 700 metric tons of
seed were available by December 1980. This seed was sufficient
to plant 5,600 ha of triticale in 1981. Meanwhile largescale testing of a wide range of consumers was favorable.
Work on the use of triticale in the livestock industry
is yet to be carried out. Most livestock feeds are based on
maize, the staple food. Under such circumstances, the live­
stock industry suffers when there is a maize shortage.
- 92 ­
REGIONAL VARIETY EVALUATION: CIMMYT
WHEAT PROGRAM IN KENYA
by Gerbrand Kingma
The first cooperative wheat test of the CIMMYT project
was distributed in 1976. The test was based on work at
Kenya's National Plant Breeding Station at Njoro. Several
years of wheat breeding results were tested in the most
important wheat areas of the country. Experiments included
yield testing and disease evaluation of the advanced lines.
Kenya Wheat Variety Trial I and II
Two national wheat tests held in 1976 were distributed
to several countries in the region as well as to the Near
East and CIMMYT-Mexico.
In the Near East, a Regional Disease and Insect Screen­
ing Nursery (RDISN) was organized years ago to evaluate
varieties for resistance to diseases and insects.
During the Seventh RDISN, 1976-1977 lines from 32
Kenyan selections were reported as exhibiting good levels of
resistance to leaf, stem and yellow rust. This disease
nursery is evaluated by wheat breeders and pathologists at
50 programs in 32 countries in North Africa, the Near East,
the Indian subcontinent and East Africa. The three lines
identified as resistant include K 6290-1, K 6670-4 and K
6852-1. The first, K 6290-1, was released as K. Kuro. In
Tanzania, another line, K 6664-10, showed low levels of
Septoria ~. This line was released in Kenya as K. Ngiri.
When this elite group was evaluated in the Mexican
highlands only four lines were discarded because of high
infestations of stripe and leaf rust. Stem, leaf and stripe
rust scored low for K. Kifaru, K 6867-10, K. Bongo, K.
Fahari, K. Mbweha, K 6867-2, K. Kanga, and K 6852-4.
A regional yield trial was prepared in 1977 largely
because the Kenyan germplasm showed good disease resistance.
Following this a series of yield trials were established. A
summary of these trials can be found in Table 1.
First African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial (First ACWYT,
1977)
In early 1977 seed of leading bread wheat, durum and
triticale varieties was distributed to countries in the East
African Region. Experiences in 1976, when high levels of
disease resistance in a range of environments were achieved,
suggested that these varieties could contribute significantly
to available germplasm in other countries.
- 93 ­
Twelve bread wheat, one durum, and two triticale varie­
ties were distributed. Over a two to three year period
results were received from 18 tests in 12 countries. The
best five yielders from each test have been included in
Table 2.
The most striking result was the· number of locations in
which the same two triticales yielded highest. It also must
be noted that K. Tembo, Africa Mayo and Durum 87 were not
among the five highest yielders in any location. Similarly
the varieties K. Kiboko, Bounty, K. Kanga, K. Nungu and
Trophy were not widely adapted if yield alone is considered.
The bread wheats most frequently found among the best five
in each location were K. Fahari, K. Nyoka, K. Kifaru, and K.
Mamba.
Local check varieties chosen by cooperators in each
test are indicated in Table 2 beside location names. Enkoy,
Romany, K. Paka, and Jupateco 73 or Mexicani were frequently
chosen. Enkoy is commercially important in Ethiopia. Romany
is well adapted to certain acidic soils such as those in
Burundi and Madagascar.
The Second ACWYT Distributed from Kenya
The best materials from the First ACWYT were included
in the Second ACvnT, along with the Ethiopian variety Enkoy
and two varieties from southern Tanzania. New varieties from
Kenya and two Brochis selections from Mexico were tested.
Triticale again showed the highest yields, especially
Tcl 65. Tcl 74 and Bacum from Ethiopia also yielded better
than the highest yielding wheats.
K. Nyoka, K. Fahari and K 6190-17 were the best bread
wheats, a confirmation of 1977-78 data for the first two
varieties. Yields of Enkoy and K. Kifaru were disappointing.
The two Brochis lines, Brochis A and R 204, were not among
the best yielders. The Kenyan varieties, K 6916-6, now
called K. Nyangumi, and K 6928-1, were not as frequently
among the best yielders as K. Nyoka and K. Fahari. K 6290-17
has performed well in Tanzania and Zambia, while sister
lines K. Nyati and K. Kuro have been productive in Kenya.
Among the varieties used as checks, K. Nyati performed
well in Malawi where it was first released. Trophy did well
in North Tanzania where it is a well-liked variety. R 200 or
Kavco was used as a check in Kenya.
The dominant yielding position of the three triticales
is shown in Table 3. However, triticale data was left aside
during a second ranking in order to better determine how
bread wheats performed.
-
94 ­
Highest yielders included K. Nyoka, K 6928-1, K. Fahari
and K 6916-6. The new lines K 6928-1 and K 6916-6 also had
good yield potential for the region.
The Screening Nursery for African Cooperative Wheat Yield
Trial (SNACWYT)
The Screening Nursery for African Cooperative Wheat
Yield Trial (SNACWYT) was initiated in 1978. The objective
of the trial is to obtain more and better selections from
the worldwide germplasm pool. Screening conditions in the
Kenyan highlands were found to be inadequate for certain
areas in South Africa. Results with dwarf varieties in
Mozambique (ACV1YT) indicated that a broad base of environ­
ments might improve selection of more widely adapted candi­
date varieties. Variety choice using data from countries
throughout the region will provide a broader germplasm base.
Sixty entries were included in the first screening
nursery for the ACWYT and the SNACWYT - 10 triticales, 10
durums and 40 bread wheats. These were sent to the same
recipients as the second ACWYT. Data was requested on agro­
nomic appearance, yield potential and disease resistance.
The distributed material was chosen from yield tests con­
ducted in Njoro, in addition to good agronomic types from
Turkish and Mexican screening nurseries.
Data on these lines were reported from Botswana, Burundi,
Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mexico, Mozambique, Rwanda, Swazi­
land, Tanzania and Zaire.
The two best from a group of 10 ACWYT triticales were
included as checks.
Entry 6 in SNACWYT, Beaver-Armadillo or 74 CT 301-6,
was the only triticale with an estimated yield performance
higher than T65 and T74. This entry is a candidate for
further yield tests.
These triticales had a relatively low disease reaction
for rusts. However, too little data were received to deter­
mine extent of foliar disease damage. The two most resistant
entries for leaf rust were 5 and 8, Mapache "S" and Maya I­
Armadillo.
In 1977-78 worldwide triticale tests, Beaver-Armadillo
was a high yielder, ranking just below Beagle and Mapache.
Yields of the 10 durums were generally disappointing
compared to triticales and bread wheats. A selection had
been made from international durum nurseries, but no out­
standing variety has been identified from these tests.
Durums do not tolerate acidic soils such as those in Burundi.
Disease virulence on durums is generally low. Seedling tests
were made with an aggressive stem rust race from bread
wheats in Kenya showed resistance, except Belcarceno Inta,
entry 17.
-
95 ­
In the bread wheat group several promising lines were
identified in the first SNACWYT.
In Table 4 lines are listed according to high yield
estimate scores. The last entry, K. Fahari, scored a 7. All
entries with a score 5 or better have been included.
Also in Table 4 the summary of the First SNACWYT shows
a group of bread wheats with good yields based on field
estimates. These bread wheats also have shown good to excel­
lent levels of stem and stripe rust resistance, and several
with good leaf rust resistance. In individual countries
various lines from this group have advanced to yield tests.
Alondra has yielded well in Tanzania. The line K 6295-4A is
recommended for release in Ethiopia. Entry 43, with DZ1 in
the parentage, has performed well in Zaire and Rwanda. Entry
45, or Musala, has been included in the fourth ACWYT, as well
as entry 41, Sajame.
These screening results will be used to broaden the
germplasm range in future ACWYT nurseries. In this way
superior tests can be distributed, and new parental lines
for crossing identified.
The Third ACWYT and the Second SNACWYT
The Third ACWYT and the Second SNACWYT were distributed
from the National Plant Breeding Station at Njoro, Kenya in
1979.
Several new triticales were identifi~d in 1978 yield
tests. These were included in the Third ACWYT. The best
bread wheat and triticale materials from previous tests were
used as check varieties. These included K. Fahari and Tcl
65.
Results from eight locations were received by May 1980.
Preliminary summary of the seven best yielders is reported
in Table 5. Tcl 65 continues to be the highest yielding
triticale, with Drira following. The remaining three triticales,
Octo Bulk-Bush, Mapache and Beagle, also yielded higher than
the bread wheats. Results of the bread wheats are not clear.
K 6916-6, which has been named K. Nyangumi in Kenya, Pavon
76 and Nacozari 76 were among the better yielders in four
locations. However, Kavco was among the best only in Kenya
where it competed with triticale. K 6919-1 was one of the
best bread wheats in Tanzania. In 1979 it was named K.
Zabadi in Kenya. Further results are expected from several
countries as the 1979 shipments arrived late.
The Second SNACWYT
The Second SNACWYT included 10 triticales, 10 durums,
31 bread wheats and 14 barleys. These selections were the
high yielding lines from international yield tests in
Kenya. A selection of advanced Kenyan bread wheat lines, and
Tanzanian wheat varieties, were included.
- 96 ­
The best triticales, durums and bread wheats are listed
in Table 6. The first group is made up of nine entries most
frequently selected by field observation in 10 locations.
Among these nine are four triticales and five bread wheats.
Also listed are entries with low stripe and leaf rust
infections in selected locations. Septoria scores were
returned by breeders in CIMMYT-Mexico, Ethiopia, Tanzania
and Malawi. The best triticales were entries 1, 4 and 9, and
as a group the triticales were low scoring. The durum group
scored high, with susceptibility to Septoria ~ in southern
Tanzania. The bread wheats were not generally found to be
resistant. Entries 49 and 51, K 6934-117 and K 6919-1,
scored lower than most others in Mexico, Ethiopia and Tanzania.
Holetta in Ethiopia and Njombe in Southern Tanzania can be
considered excellent sites for Septoria screening in bread
wheats.
During the Second SNACWYT, stem rust scores were gen­
erally low. In Kenya the following entry numbers were sus­
ceptible:
23
24
25
26
27
Emu
Moncho
Antizana
Glenlea
Ollanta 28
32
37
46
Pavon liS" Giza 155 Sannine K 6664-10 Disease data on the barleys were obtained in Ethiopia,
Kenya and Tanzania. In Ethiopia all varieties were extremely
susceptible to scald, and in Tanzania all scored high for
Helminthosporium ~. WI 2291 scored low for spot blotch in
Kenya as well as Riso Mutant 1508 and two Mexican barleys,
CM 67-M6685 and CMB74-996A. As a group the barleys showed a
high disease presence which will require careful crossing
and selection to accumulate necessary genes for safe barley
production.
The Fourth African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial
The number of triticales was reduced, and several new
advanced lines of bread wheat were included in the Fourth
ACWYT in 1980. The triticales include T65 and Beaver Armadillo
(first SNACWYT-6). Bread wheat checks are K. Fahari and
Kavco (Second SNACWYT-30). A durum from South America, P
66/253 (Second SNACWYT-15), was selected, in addition to D
87 or Mwewe (Second SNACWYT-15) from Kenya. The bread wheats
Sajame (First SNACWYT-41"S"), Harrier (Second SNACWYT-33),
Musala (First SNACWYT-45"S") and Weci (Second SNACWYT-35)
were also tested in the Fourth ACHYT. Three crosses with
good sister lines that were tested in Kenya in 1979 were
also tested in the Fourth ACWYT. Chat, CM 33090, Jupateco­
Alondra, CM 36867, and Kinglet, CM 33089, were also repre­
sented in the trial.
- 97 ­
Important genes for stem, stripe and leaf rust re­
sistance have been identified in several of the lines in the
Fourth ACWYT. The source of these genes is a translocation
of wheat and rye chromosomes. Several of these transloca­
tions have been identified over the last 40 years. In the
1960s the Russian wheats Kavkaz, Aurora and others were
found to possess this wheat-rye translocation. These varie­
ties have been widely crossed with CIMMYT spring wheats.
They have transmitted resistance to many lines which have
been selected in eastern Africa. The lines, Kavco, Kinglet,
Aurora-Maya, Chat, Alondra and Musala, have Kavkaz or a
related wheat in their parentage. Yield results for 1980 in
eastern and southern Africa have yet to be calculated.
The Third Screening Nursery for African Cooperative Wheat
Yield Trial
Selections from crosses provided by CIMMYT-Mexico,
ICARDA in the Near East, Kenyan's National Program and other
programs were multiplied in the main 1979 season at Njoro.
Lines which showed good resistance and apparent uni­
formity during two seasons in Kenya, were chosen for further
evaluation in the Third SNACWYT. A total of 208 entries were
distributed to 18 countries, most in Africa. One hundred and
eleven bread wheats, in addition to triticales, durums and
oats, have been sent (see Table 1). Triticale and durum
crosses which were previously received in Kenya have been
selected for good adaptation and apparent disease resis­
tance. Oat crosses received from the United States possess
good crown and stem rust resistance in the Kenyan highlands.
These were added to the Third SNACWYT for wide testing.
Results of the cooperative tests include yield data,
disease scores in several locations, and agronomic charac­
ters. In each country the new lines are compared with avail­
able germplasm. Subsequently the most promising are yield­
tested in the locations, and within three seasons a country
is able to fully utilize such materials.
Dynamic disease developments, well known in Africa,
force breeders and pathologists continuously to add new
varieties to available ones.
In some countries a variety becomes susceptible to one
of the rusts within four or five years. In some cases varie­
ties have become susceptible only one year after release to
farmers. International cooperation among breeders has been
particularly useful in bread wheat research. At least eight
growing seasons are needed to identify a new wheat variety
from a recently made cross. During these eight seasons,
disease evaluations are possible in many locations. Results
can be shared with all cooperating countries, thereby bene­
fiting all wheat breeding programs.
- 98 ­
Summary
Cooperative test results have been returned by wheat
and triticale improvement programs. Similar data from dif­
ferent countries have accentuated the advantages of coopera­
tion. Improved wheats and triticales obtained in Kenya have
shown good yields and disease resistance in many other
countries. Ongoing testing of crosses with new sources of
disease resistance will replace old wheats ' with new varie­
ties. More data are available, and colleagues can obtain
additional information as required by their national pro­
grams.
- 99 ­
Table 1: Nursery Preparation in CIMMYT Regional Wheat Program
in East and Southern Africa, 1976-1980
Nursery Name
Year
Number of Entries
1976
32
1st ACWYT
1977
4 x 15
2nd ACWYT
1978
4 x 15
1st SNACWYT
1978
Wheat Variety Trial I
&
II, Kenya
10 triticales
10 durums
40 bread wheats
3rd ACWYT
1979
4 x 15
2nd SNACWYT
1979
10 triticales
10 durums
31 bread wheats
14 barleys
4th ACWYT
1980
3rd SNACWYT
1980
3 x 15
111 bread wheats
52 triticales
34 durums
10 oats
Preliminary Triticale
Nursery
104 Beagle triticales
1980
- 100 ­
Table 2: First African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial, 1977-78
Ranking Five Top Yielders in Each Reporting Location
Location
Variety Name
ABC
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
1 K.Kiboko
2 K.Nyati
4
5
0
P
Q
4
2
4
5
4
3
5
5
R
4
5
5
M N
3 K.Tembo
4 K.Nyoka
4
5
5 K.Fahari
4
2
6 K.Kifaru
3
5
5
5
5
5
4
3
5
5
3
4
2
4
5
5
2
7 Afr.Mayo
8 Bounty
9 K.Kanga
1
5
5
3
10 D 87
11 Tcl 65
1
1
12 Tcl 74
2
4
4
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
4
13 K.Nungu
14 K.Mamba
1
3
3
3
3
1
3
3
2
3
4
4
3
4
Location Code
Local Check Variety
A Njoro, Kenya, 1977
K.Paka
B Njoro, Kenya, 1978
R 200
C CARS, Afgoi, Somalia
Mexicani
-
101 -
3
1
1
2
3
2
1
1
4
3
15 Trophy
16 Local check
5
3
3
2
4
Location Code
Local Check Variety
D Kulumsa, Ethiopia
Enkoy
E Holetta (RS), Ethiopia
Enkoy
F Tanzania
6290-17
G Burundi
Romany
H Rwerere, Rwanda 77 B
K.Paka
I Rwerere, Rwanda 78 A
K.Paka
J Rwerere, Rwanda 78 B
K.Paka
K Kabale, Uganda
Sajame
L FIFAMANOR, Madagascar
Romany
M Uningi Pans, Zambia + lime Jupateco
N Uningi Pans Zambia - lime
Jupateco
o Makhanga, Malawi
S 1137 AL
P Malkerns, Swaziland
Q Toluca, Mexico
R Rwerere, Rwanda, 79 A
?
K.Paka
- 102 ­
Table 3: Second African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial, 1978-79
Ranking of Five Top Yielders in Each Reporting Location
Location
ABC
D
E
F
H
I
1 Bacum
3
2
3
4
3
1
2 Tcl 65
1
3
3
4
3
3 Tcl 74
2
1
1
Variety Name
1
4 Brochis
J
2
2
K
1
L
M N
2
1
1
3
4
4
5
3
5
5 Enkoy
5
6 KD 2-6
1
4
7 W 3697
8 K 6290-17
5
9 K Fahari
2
10 K Nyoka
11 K 6916-6
2
2
5
2
4
12 R 204
4
3
5
4
1
5
3
4
1
5
3
1
5
4
2
14 K Kifaru
1
15 K 6928-1
4
16 Local Check 5
3
5
4
5
13 K Tempo
2
4
2
3
"2
5
Location Code
Local Check Variety
A Njoro, Kenya '78
Kavco
B Njoro, Kenya '79
K Fahari
C Lyamungu, Tanzania
Trophy
D Kisozi, Burundi
Romany
E Rwerere 78B, Rwanda
Norteno
-
103
­
Location Code
Local Check Variety
F Gochi, Malawi
K Nyati
H Lichinga,
Inia 66
Mozambique
I Malkerns, Swaziland
J
Tsaba Tseka, Lesotho
K.Sokkies
K Maseru, Lesotho
Bella
L Rwerere 79B, Rwanda
Norteno
M Rwerere 80A, Rwanda
Norteno
N Kabale, Uganda
Cno-Gallo/Son
- 104 ­
Table 4: Better Bread Wheat Selections in First Screening
Nursery for African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial
Ehtry lb.
Proigree Narre
Good
Yielding Lines Yield
Score
41 Fury x CncrNo66
OM421010Y4M-8Y-5M-1Y-OM
**
43
DZ1-Tbb66/Nad-LR64Bb/Bb-Nor-67
CMl6705-A-lM-1Y-6M-OY
**
47
FAO 24117-Nr.70
SE 513-2S-1S-0S
11
53
Alcndra
OM 11683-A-1Y-lM-2Y-OM
10
35
Pavon 76
OM 8399-D-4M-3Y-lM-1Y-lM-OY 6
39
Jar-KavkazxYr70
OM 20834-A-7Y-5lM-502Y-OB
* 44
Cncr7CxCC-Tbb/Bb-Nor
OM 1671-30M-1Y-4M-4Y-2M-OY 5
* 45
Lee-Kvs/CCxRan-cha
OM 16780-J-lM-2Y-500M-OY
5
2
.
Cno S-NoxCC-Inl.a
OM 15650-1S-3S-5S-0s
5
Bb-CnoxJar /Cncr 7c
OM 5546-A-5Y-3M-2Y-3M-OY
5
**
** 48
55
** Good
stripe rust resistance
*
Good
stem rust resistance
Good
11
8
Stem Rust Feacticns
32
Nacozari 76
OM 5287-J-1Y-2M-2Y-3M-OY
37
Chiroca
OM 8963-A-lM-1Y-lM-5Y-6M-OY
Kavkaz-UP301 Om 20596-12Y-lM-1Y-OY-3P-tz
* 38
40
Trophy 50 K Kil:x>ko
58
2
Tbb -7C
OM 5207-C-3Y-lM-1Y-2M-OY
* Good stripe rust reacticns
- 105 -
6
Gc:xrl Stripe Rust Reactions
Entries 39, 43, 47 and 48 were alrecrly inclukd in g:x:rl yielding
group. Entry 38 also has g:x:rl stem rust reactions.
Entry rh.
NaJre
Proigree
23
Bb-Kalyan
OM 9160-1lM-4Y-lM-OY
28
Brochis
OM 5872-C-1Y-lM-1Y-3M-OY
31
(0'10 xSon 64-K1 Rerrl/Ron) Sx
OM 8922-M-lM-1Y-3M-1Y-OM
33
Maya 74
Cno-Gallo
34
Cowbird
OM 16716-M-3M-2Y-3M-OY
46
Pichihuila
OM 7652-lM-1Y-1M-4Y-OM
49
K 6295-4A
54
Brochis
OM 5872-C-1Y-5M-2Y-2M-OY 56
Carpintero
1I-30724-1C-4C-7M-OY 57
HB 2169
59
(21953-Ch53xGto/C271) Kal
2
Pk 6226-0L-1L-7L-OL
Gc:xrl Leaf Rust Reactions
Entries 38, 39, 45, 47 and 51 have g:x:rl reactions to leaf rust
and
~e
alrecrly repJrte::l in this table.
21
Lyallpur 73
30
Bounty
60
K Fahari
Bb-Nor67/C273
-
106 ­
Table 5: Third African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial, 1979-80
Ranking of Top Yielders in Each Reporting Location
Variety Name
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
1 Kavco
BW
3
5
2 Drira
T
2
4
7
5
2
4
2
3 Tcl 65
T
1
1
1
1
3
(- )
1
4 K 6916-6
BW
5
(- )
5
5 K 6928-1
BW
6 K Fahari
BW
7 Pavon 76
BW
3
6
8 Brochis
BW
9 Octo Bulk-Bush
T
3
2
5
2
4
10 Mapache
T
2
6
4
3
5
11 Nacozari 76
BW
12 Beagle
T
13 D 83
D
14 K 6934-117
BW
15 K 6919-1
BW
1
7
2
6
4
6
6
5
5
7
3
3
1
4
1
6
7
6
(- )
1
6
2
Check
Location Code
Local Check Variety
A Njoro 79, Kenya
K Kifaru
B Lanet 79, Kenya
K Tempo
C Kasinthula, Malawi
K Nyati
- 107 -
7
4
7
4
7
7
3
Location Code
Local Check Variety
D Gochi,
K Nyati
Malawi
E Lyamungu, Tanzania
Trophy
F TANWAT, Tanzania
K 6290-17 G Mt.Makulu, Zambia
Jupateco
H
Mbala, zambia
Jupateco
- 108 ­
Table 6: Better Selections of Second SNACWYT
Entry N:>.
*
1
* 4
Narre Pedigree
Inia-Ann
X 1648-5N-2M-OY-2B-OY
Beaver-Ann
74
cr
Score
6
301-6
6
9
**
7
M2A2
X 8266-H-4Y-2M-2Y-OY
**
9
Beagle
X 1530A 9th ITYN 21
**
30
6
Kavco=R200
SE 375-3S-5S-0S-4Ke
7
* 33 Harrier
CM33435-H-lM-4Y-OM
7
* 47
K 7167-4B
RDISN 797/K.Fahari "s"
8
7
**
49
K 6934-117
K Tembo "S" /K450Q-2/Inia
**
50
K Fahari
K 6648-6
*
'Ihese entries also had low stripe rust scores.
10
** These entries also had low leaf rust scores.
Low
Levels of Stripe Rust Infection
Plot N:>.
Variety or Cross
Pedigree
Origin
2 FS 1534
X1648-5N-2M-OY-2B-OY
6th RFWY'l'
3 Drira
X7110-lN-37M-0N-l00Y-OY
9th~
5
5 Yoco lesel
X1648-2N-OM
9th ITYN
8
6 M2A - IRA
X 8417E-1Y-7M-3Y-OY
9th ITYN
14
9th ITYN
21
78 RN.Tel
203
Triticales
+
8
+
73 UM 8518
10 Abn/Tob-Cno-M2A
X 27849-1Ke-QKe (cont'd)
- 109 ­
19
Table 6 (cont'd)
~
11
Gediz D27534-lM-1Y-lM-OY Turkey/Mexico
9th IDYN
1
14
Q-lilafen
Chile
9th IDYN
17
15
Parana 66/253
Argentina
9th IDYN
19
By2E - TACE x M
Mexico
9th~
21
9th~
23
+ 19
20 walla "S"=Ple-RuffxGta-Rol CMl7904-B-3M-1Y-1Y-OSK
Brea.dwheats
24
M:)ncho
CM8288-A-3M-6Y-5M-1Y-lM-OY 14th ISWYN
27
Ollanta
Peru
14 ISWYN
32
Giza 155
Egypt
14th ISWYN
33
36
Alondra
CMl1683-A-1Y-lM-1Y-7M-OY
P. Iner
23
39 T. Joli
Trophy x K6106-1
Tanzania
44
K 7168-21
Pato-Ciano x K. 'l'em1:o
Kenya
45
K 7168-19B
Kenya
46
K6664-10
Pato-Ciano x K. Terrbo
Tbb2x(CI_Fr 2xWRT5-MIT3)
51
K 6919-1
CC-Inia/K4500-2//K.Swara/
Tbb-Cno.K6916.A.8L.4L
+
10
5
Kenya
Kenya
These entries also had low leaf rust scores.
Low Levels of Leaf Rust Infection
28
Pavon "5"
CM8399-D-4M-2Y-3M-3Y-lM-OY 14th ISWYN
7
29
Dougga
Tunisia/Mexico
14th ISWYN
32
41
23-73
Trophy x K6106-1 (awnless) Tanzania
43
K 7168-44
Pa to-Ciano
- 110 -
x K. 'l'em1:o
Kenya
MALAWI COUNTRY REPORT
by G.Y. Mkamanga
Introduction
Malawi is located south of the equator, between lati­
tude 9°45' and 17°16' south and longitude 33° and 36° east.
It has a total area of 118,485 square kilometers of which
94,079 sq km is land area. The population is 5,561,000 with
a 2.6 per cent annual growth. The country is predominantly
agricultural with over 90 percent of the population living
in rural areas and earning their living from agriculture.
Temperature and rainfall are greatly influenced by Lake
Nyasa and altitude varying from 37 to 3,047 meters. Malawi
has three seasons. A wet season occurs from November to
April. May to August is dry and cool, except in upland areas
such as the Shire highlands and Kirk Range when mist and
light showers fall. It is dry and hot from September to
October. Annual rainfall varies between 635 to 3,048 mm,
according to altitude and rain-bearing winds.
Maize is the main food crop. It is grown by over 95 per
cent of small farmers who occupy over 75 per cent of the
total cultivated hectareage. Other crops include wheat,
tobacco, tea, sugar cane, groundnuts, cotton, rice, cassava,
pulses, coffee and sorghum.
Wheat has been cultivated since the turn of the century
when missionaries arrived. Cultivation is limited to high­
land areas during the cool season, April to August, that
gradually merges into a hot dry harvesting period, September
to October.
Wheat is grown as a cash crop by small farmers but
there has been little extension effort. Farmers' seed is
mixed, of poor quality, and generally considered unsuitable
for bread manufacture. Varieties are susceptible to rust
diseases and are low yielding. As a consequence, production
has been low and static. Wheat fields vary in size, from .25
to 2.5 ha with a mean of 0.5 ha and an average yield of
about 700 kilograms per hectare. An estimated 1,000 ha is
under wheat. A survey conducted in the Tsang~DQarea in 1977
showed that a possible 2,200 ha of wheat C~d be cUltivated.
Demand for wheat products is increasing due to a grow­
ing population and improved standards of I,living. Growing
numbers of people consume wheat products, such as bread,
cakes, biscuits, chapati, mandazi and samosi. An estimated
20,000 tons of wheat is required annually and this is increasing.
The country is placing greater importance on wheat production,
however, due to increasing importations and the ability to
be self-sufficient in other food crops.
-
III ­
There are three wheat production systems in the country:
Upland Cool Season Crop
An upland cool season crop is grown above 1,200 m. from
the end of March to early May, depending on soil conditions
and rainfall. Plantings are late to avoid rust diseases.
Wheat is planted in specially cleared areas or inter cropped
with maize. It is planted when the maize crop has reached
physiological maturity. Lower maize leaves are stripped to
allow light to reach the wheat plants. The crops grow on
residual moisture and cool season showers.
'Dimba' Crop Cool Season
'Dimbas' are fields located in seasonally water-logged
areas on river or stream sides. Wheat yields are good due to
the rich alluvium soils. Wheat is planted when the land is
workable on a receding water table (end of March). Although
dimbas were previously the chief production areas, wheat has
been replaced largely by potatoes and various vegetables
which bring higher market prices.
Irrigated Cool Season Crop
Land which is otherwise idle during the cool season can
be brought into wheat production with irrigation. Until
recently irrigated wheat had been grown only for seed multi­
plication or as an experimental crop at research stations,
such as Makhanga, Kasinthula, Domasi Rice Scheme and Dwangwa.
Wheat has been grown during the cool season (Irrigated Rice
Schemes) as an alternate crop with rice, but water manage­
ment in paddy soils has been difficult.
Other areas which are being explored for irrigated
wheat production are the tobacco estates on the plateaus
(1,150 m) and the lake shore areas (500 to 650 m). Wheat can
be planted in early May following a tobacco crop. This is
being practiced in Zimbabwe and Zambia with success.
The main constraints to wheat production in Malawi are
limited knowledge of cultural requirements, diseases and
pests, and the absence of high yielding varieties.
Varieties
Wheat grown in Malawi is a mixture of ~an and Australian
introductions. These differ in respect to / plant type, quality
and disease reaction. However, many farme~s keep seed from
year to year without selection. The research department of
the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, in con­
junction with the agricultural development department, is
currently responsible for seed mUltiplication. The Agri­
cultural Development and Marketing Corporation markets and
distributes seed and fertilizer.
- 112 ­
Planting Time
Farmers plant in April/Mayas a measure against disease
development. Rains are often unreliable at this time and are
thought to be one reason for low grain yields in the Kirk
Range. Experiments have shown that wheat should be planted
between mid-March and mid-April in order to achieve higher
yields. Crops planted earlier suffer from severe rust attack
and weed competition during the main rains.
Seeding Rate and Spacing
Although there is a shortage of seed, farmers either
broadcast or dibble seed by hand into what are usually
poorly prepared seedbeds. This leads to poor crop emergence.
Strength of a stand depends on moisture status of the soil
at planting, seeding rate and spacing.
Experiments in the Kirk Range on seeding rate and
spacing have shown that seeding at 80 kg/ha in rows 30 cm
apart is superior to broadcasting or dibbling.
Fertilizer
Farmers rarely apply fertilizers to wheat because the
crop is grown at the end of the rains and they say wheat
gives small or no yield responses. Also, farmers do not
receive credit to buy fertilizers. However, experimental ap­
plication of fertilizer at 40 kg N/ha increased grain yields
of Kenya Nyati by 40 per cent over the zero control. Farmers
selected to grow this variety are given credit for both seed
and fertilizer.
Diseases
Stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici), leaf rust (Puccinia
recondita, stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis), Septoria spp,
loose smut and Helminthsporium sativa have been recorded in
Malawi. These diseases are found in most wheat fields but
not usually in epidemic proportions since wheat is grown
under dry conditions at the end of the main rains.
Insect Pests
Wheat is attacked by numerous insect pests which cause
severe yield losses. The most common pests in Malawi are
stem borers (Chilo partellus and Sesamia calamistis),
armyworms (Spodoptera exemota), cutworms (Agrotis spp) and
termites (Hodotermes mossambicus). Aphids also cause severe
damage.
Rodents and Birds
Rodents are most damaging at night. Like termites they
cut plants which drastically reduces wheat stands and yields.
- 113 ­
Birds, notably Quelea, are a notorious pest of wheat.
These birds occur in small groups and as such do not cause
severe damage. However, bird scaring (from July to October)
is an important aspect of wheat cultivation in Malawi.
Experiments on wheat growing in Malawi were initiated
with the arrival of Scottish missionaries. A wheat variety
trial was conducted in Dedza (in a dimba) in 1945. Yield
varied between 870 and 1,540 kg/ha. Tests also included
oats, rye and barley.
It was not until 1968, however, when a station was
established at Tsangano, that wheat improvement was given
research priority. The main objectives of the Wheat Improve­
ment Project are to select high yielding varieties suited to
the Malawian environment, maintain a high disease resistance
(stem rust, leaf rust, and Septoria), and have suitable
grain quality for bread making. Resistance to lodging and
minor diseases is also taken into account.
The project also tests new production technologies for
irrigated and rainfed wheat. In the future, wheat production
will be introduced at the large tobacco estates.
Emphasis is currently placed on introductions and se­
lections of screening and yield nurseries from CIMMYT­
Mexico, the Southern African Regional Wheat Evaluation and
Improvement Nursery (SARWEIN), Zimbabwe and Kenya.
National Variety Trials
The objective of the national variety trials is to
assess performance of promising Kenyan, CIMMYT and South
African materials under rainfed conditions at Tsangano Hill
Station and under irrigation at Kasinthula. Results from
1971 to 1975 were reported at the Small Grain Workshop at
Njoro, Kenya. Since then seven trials have been conducted at
Tsangano, Nsambi and Kasinthula. In addition to Kenya Nyati
(6290-4), the current recommended variety, K69l6-6, Pavon
76, Jupateco 73, K. Mamba, K. Fahari and Elrina all show
good adaptation. Triticale varieties Rahum, Bacum and Drira
continually have had superior yields and disease resistance
compared to the bread wheats.
Initial Wheat Variety Trials
In 1977 and 1978 18 high yielding lines from the 1976
IBWSN were yield tested at Tsangano. Their yields are sum­
marized in Tables 1 and 2. Materials from Australia, Mexico,
the United States, Zimbabwe and Lebanon were susceptible to
leaf rust. Similar selections were made and then yield
tested at Makhanga in 1976. Again, lines were found to be
susceptible to leaf rust.
- 114 ­
African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trials
Malawi has participated in three nurseries of the African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trials (ACWYT). Trials were conducted under rainfed conditions where 60 kg N, 40 kg P and 20 kg K were applied at planting. Under irrigated con­ ditions trials received 120 kg N, 40 kg P and 20 kg K. Results for the 1979 season are summarized in Table 3. The varieties K. Fahari, K. Kiboko, K. Kanga and K. Nuugu are early maturing and are being grown as alternate crops with rice in the cool season. Brochis, K. Nyoka, K69l6-6 and K6928-l have good disease resistance and a de­ sirable plant type. Southern Africa Regional Wheat Improvement and Evaluation
Nursery (SARWEIN)
SARWEIN trials have been conducted in Malawi for four
years. During this period a number of entries showed poor
adaptation. However, dwarf varieties El Fina, T4, Limpopo,
Gweni and 69/l2A showed promise under irrigated conditions.
It has been suggested that in the future fewer entries be
included in SARWEIN trials sent to Malawi.
Fertilizer Trials
Since the early 1950s numerous experiments have been
conducted on wheat fertilizer requirements under lowland
irrigated and upland rainfed conditions. Results show that
wheat does not respond to fertilizer application in fertile
soils with high inherent fertility and favorable moisture
conditions. In upland rainfed areas it has been found that
nitrogen is the only consistently responding nutrient. In
the light of these findings, an application of 30-50 kg N/ha
is considered sufficient for wheat grown under rainfed or
residual moisture conditions. Under irrigation wheat has
shown higher responses. One hundred kg N/ha or more is
recommended.
Phosphate application is also important because of its
low to medium availability in many soils. Applications of 40
kg P/ha is recommended.
Seed Production and Distribution
Prior to 1976 much of Malawi's seed requirements for
maize, tobacco, beans, sorghum and other crops were imported
from neighboring countries. Poor transportation and in­
creasing transport costs, however, pointed to a need to
change this dependency on imported seed. A Seed Technology
Center was established at Chitedze Research Station in 1976
_to nationalize seed production and provide necessary infra­
structure for field inspection services, official seed
testing and certification. The research department of the
- 115 ­
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources is responsible
for seed production. Production has been complicated by
insufficient land, staff and funds.
As a result of these problems the National Seed Company
of Malawi (NSCM) was established. Major shareholders include
the Admarc and the Commonwealth Development Cooperation
(CDC). The NSCM has an estate where it grows basic seed.
Seed is also grown on contract with large estate farmers and
some small farmers. The company has a modern seed processing
factory and long-term seed storage facilities.
Wheat Seed Production
Wheat seed production is in its infancy in Malawi. As
mentioned earlier, the wheat introduction 6290-4 (released
in Kenya as Kenya Nyati) has significantly outyielded all
entries at Tsangano and in farmers' fields in the Kirk Range
for four years. In 1977 350 kg of certified Kenya Nyati
wheat seed was imported for bulking for release to small
farmers in the Kirk Range.
The seed was bulked under irrigation at Dumasi Rice
Scheme in Zomba. The following year 7,500 kg of seed was
issued to selected farmers in the Kirk Range for further
bulking. Farmers were also given fertilizer on credit to
ensure better yields. The research department and extension
staff helped rogue the seed crop. The harvested seed was
subsequently purchased by Admarc, where it was treated and
sold to selected farmers in 1979. Approximately 16 tons of
seed were sold to the farmers. One hundred and twenty ha
were under Kenya Nyati in 1979. Yield was about 148 tons, 30
of which were sold by Admarc in 1980. The Ministry also
bulked seed under irrigation at Makhanga and Kasinthula in
1979. Seed was bulked under rainfed conditions at Tsangano
to augment seed bulked by small farmers. In total 3.24 tons
were produced and sold to Admarc.
The extension department is bulking Kenya Nyati wheat
seed in conjunction with small rice farmers on 6.1 ha at the
Likangala Rice Scheme. Its objective is to train farmers in
wheat growing and bulking of seed. Ultimate plans are to
issue -credit to these farmers in 1981. The scheme has been
earmarked to grow rice in the wet season and wheat in the
cool dry season under irrigation.
In addition plans are to bulk seed of the variety
Elrina in irrigated areas of Makhanga.
Seed Marketing and Distribution
It is essential that wheat seed produced either by the
Ministry or small farmers is available and distributed to
growers. Seed bought by Admarc is sold to small farmers at
the same price. All seed, once processed, is distributed by
- 116 ­
Admarc via its market network within the wheat growing
areas. There are 10 markets in the Tsangano/Nsambi area.
Triticale
Work on triticale was initiated in 1975 when a local
trader asked the research department to test an unknown
variety of triticale that was obtained from Texas.
A small plot was established at Tsangano in a farmer's
field. Growth was good, about 2 m tall, and the crop did not
lodge. It also showed good disease resistance. Yield was
estimated at 1,296 kg/ha. Low yield was due largely to low
test weight and poorly filled and shriveled grain.
A set of five triticale varieties (Bacum, Drira, Rahum,
Navojoa and Yoreme) was also planted next to giant triticales.
These yielded higher than the Texas triticale; yields varied
between 2,800 and 3,867 kg/ha.
Even more encouraging results were reported in the
triticale observation trial (Table 4). Twenty-five triticale
lines and nine wheat checks were compared in observation
plots. The plots received 40 kg each of nitrogen and phos­
phorus. Eight triticale lines yielded over 4,000 kg/ha and
six lines out-yielded Jupateco 73, a bread wheat.
Triticale Variety Trials
Wheat variety trials, in which several common triticales
were included, clearly demonstrated the superiority of
triticales over a number of established bread wheats. In
1978, 12 high yielding uniform entries were selected and put
in a yield test. Kenya Nyati, Erlina, Kenya Fahari and
23584/Inia/Calidad were included as checks.
The trial received 60 kg Nand 40 kg P at planting in
1979 at Tsangano. Grain yields, plant height and ear length
data are summarized in Table 5. This table shows that triticales
yielded significantly higher than the four wheat checks. The
selection Beagle '5' was top yielder. It yielded 37.5 per
cent higher than the recommended wheat variety Kenya Nyati.
This trial is being repeated at the same site.
Triticale Variety and Fertilizer Trial
Data from the
conducted in 1977,
Varieties included
were 0, 20, 40, 60
applied as a basal
triticale variety and fertilizer trials
1978 and 1979 are given in Table 6.
Bacum, Rahum and Drira. Nitrogen levels
and 80 kg/ha at planting. Phosphorus was
dressing at 40 kg/ha.
In 1977 Bacum significantly outyielded Rahum and Drira,
but in 1978 and 1979 Drira and Rahum outyielded the other
varieties.
- 117 ­
Triticale varieties responded formally to applied
nitrogeneous fertilizer, but as is true of wheat 40 kg N/ha
is optimum.
Outline for the Wheat Improvement Program
Introduction
Bread wheat and triticale yield trials (ISWYN, ITYN)
and screening nurseries (IBWSN, ITSN) from CIMMYT-Mexico
will continue to be planted at select locations.
Yield tests and screening nurseries (SARWEIN) will
continue to be tested. Materials from Zimbabwe and South
Africa are of interest for irrigation schemes. ACWYT and
SNACWYT from Kenya will continue.
Selection
Selection of adapted, disease resistant and early
maturing types will be carried out.
Segregating populations will be obtained once every
three years. Single plant selections will be made from these
populations. Promising materials will be preliminarily
yield-tested to reduce number of lines for full-scale
testing.
National wheat yield trials will be carried out with
the most promising lines from ACWYT, SARWEIN and standard
checks.
The most promising lines will be planted in multiplica­
tion plots. This year Kenya Fahari, Elrina and Jupateco 73
are being bulked.
Yield Testing
Materials from introductions and visual selections will
be compared with standard checks.
- 118 ­
Table 1: Initial Wheat Variety Trial - 1977 (Yield in kg/hal
Plant
Ear
Entry
Origin
Yield
Height (em)
Length
1
Bacum (T)
Mexico
4717
93.9
8.8
2
Tsa/355/76N
Mexico
4317
77.1
7.7
3
Cleopatra VF 74
Mexico
4234
75.1
7.6
4
S1137-AL
Zimbabwe
4217
78.8
11. 0
5
Drira (T)
Mexico
4217
73.4
8.8
6
Navojoa (T)
Mexico
4217
85.8
8.5
7
Tsa/148/76N
Mexico
3984
78.8
7.8
8
Zambezi I I
Zimbabwe
3967
78.3
7.8
9
Yoreme
Mexico
3884
83.8
8.4
10
(T)
USA
3834
67.5
7.4
11
Canario ' S '
Arz
Lebanon
3817
78.0
7.5
12
Tsa/38/76N
Mexico
3800
78.3
7.6
13
Jupateco 73
Mexico
3784
80.9
7.5
14
Chapingo VF 74
Mexico
3750
71.5
8.1
15
4500-4
Kenya
3567
76.5
7.6
16
Tsa/197/76N
Mexico
3500
92.3
8.3
17
Torim 73
Mexico
3400
61. 7
7.6
18
Tsa/148/76N
Mexico
3350
100.7
9.0
19
BTY
Kenya
3217
58.6
7.9
20
Condor 'S'
Australia
3134
71.3
7.2
21
Tsa/309/76N
Mexico
3100
90.2
8.2
22
Kenya Nyati
Kenya
3000
79.5
8.5
23
Tsa/Unknown 76
Brazil
2967
78.5
7.2
24
Proctor
USA
2850
80.5
8.9
25
Tsa/15/76N
Mexico
2417
70.6
7.2
3645
78.0
8.1
Mean
+596
S.E.
CV
16.4%
- 119 ­
+5.09
+0.75
6.4%
9.4%
Table 2: Initial Wheat Variety Trial - 1978 (Yield in kg/hal
Origin
Entry
Yield
Plant Ht.
Ear Length
(em)
(em)
Ears/M
2
Grain/
1000
Ear
Grair.
W. (g)
Tsa 355/76
Mexico
2312
75.3
6.6
239
33.4
43.8
Tsa 515/76
Mexico
2212
85.0
7.5
260
48.9
28.8
Bacum (T)
Mexico
2087
87.6
8.2
166
27.6
42.1
Kenya Nyati
Kenya
1930
87.9
8.3
238
30.9
42.8
Drira (T)
Mexico
1834
87.6
8.9
207
32.3
45.9
Chapingo VF74 Mexico
1767
73.4
8.8
167
36.9
53.0
Moncho
Mexico
1701
87.8
8.0
162
30.4
42.3
Yorene (T)
Mexico
1680
89.4
9.2
157
29.0
34.2
. Navojoa (T)
Mexico
1673
80.3
7.5
206
41. 5
37.6
Australia 1664
75.8
7.2
236
32.1
40.4
Condor
's'
Tsa 309/76
Mexico
1661
71.6
8.9
195
29.2
41.1
K 4500-4
Kenya
1651
89.5
7.4
201
32.2
34.2
Tsa 197/76
Mexico
1650
79.3
8.6
199
29.1
41. 9
Bounty
Kenya
1614
91.9
8.1
225
29.2
46.5
Sl137AL
Zimbabwe
1563
73.8
7.6
210
16.9
46.3
Jupateco 73
Mexico
1547
83.2
7.5
154
32.6
43.7
Unknown
Brazil
1502
79.7
7.6
195
40.1
39.6
Tsa 25/76
Mexico
1490
63.6
7.6
204
21.4
51. 4
Arz
Lebanon
1473
74.5
7.0
199
37.8
40.7
USA
1434
65.0
7.3
141
40.4
45.5
Torim 73
Mexico
1402
61.1
8.1
179
32.7
45.5
Zambezi II
Zimbabwe
1374
73.5
7.0
161
35.2
28.5
Proctor
USA
1176
79.3
7.1
180
17.8
40.7
VF74
Mexico
1141
72.5
8.3
188
23.1
49.4
Tsa 148/76
Mexico
1061
80.1
7.9
199
33.4
39.4
1624
78.8
7.8
194.7
31. 8
41.8
S.E.+
259.9
5.9
6.2
20.7
6.7
7.6
C.V.%
16.0
7.5
17.9
10.5
21.2
18.2
Canario
's'
Cleopatra
Mean
T
= Triticale
- 120 ­
Table 3: The Third African Cooperative Wheat Yield -
1979
(Yield in kg/hal
Variety
Grain Yield
i
I€~H¥~ ~Q+6-~
~
!f.l 65
J
~g~gi§
£1
~~8~F;h@
5
~~tQ
6,
~av;@n
(~ )
( '!l)
Plant Height
Ear Length
Septoria
(em)
(em)
4117
83.9
8.9
3.0
4§97
~4~~
8.5
2.3
3~§7
i~~~J
1~~4
l! ~
(0 -
10)
3tH?
~~
, -j
~~1
2,J
~~a~
~~~~
~!7
~~~
341,7
"/B.4
~!~
4~ a
~~~~
~~ ~ ~
lL4
~~7~
7~!Q
1!~
~! ~
~~1§
07 __ 0
ati
3.0
R206
.... ' .
~~~~
~~~J
?!~
3.3
(Ii' )
aulk = j:! ijl~ ( ~ )
18
1 §F!H!
tIf}
8
l<ia¥@§
-
9
Kenya Nyati
R~§§
~,
0
10
B~pqh.ts
+1
~~f\~e 9~?'§
-:
1
?111
91.4
~~l
3.S
12
IX@¥\¥?! 6~~4
=
111
~ r
4!l~l
~~.9,
i3!!l
3 .5
],.3
~e~ a~a ~ i 7~
442~
73.0
7~9
~.5
J,A
~~Wrs
W
'aft,e:ri
~~Hn
~S.6
8.&
2.8
!~
1'2~
(\? l
~~4~
(S.~
Q!9
2.8
l,~
~~~> ~9
~4.5
9.0
3,3
~> ~
..
-
1
~.
"
\
.
1~1~
+0.283
14.?~
20.0%
121
~
N
N
Drira
F5 1045
MlA
14
15
2666
Ccx;orit
Siete Cerros
IRA
19
20
21
2666
2666
EX::
2800
2933
2933
3066
18
493
17 M2A
16
Kaola 's'
3200
3600
3200
12
13
Rahurn
3-733
4133
8 Bacum
11 Yaco 's'
99
4133
7 Jupateco
3866
90
4266
6 Kaola
4000
9.0
128
4000
5 Beagle
9 Navojoa 's'
10 Arabian
7.5
93
4400
4 Inia-Ann 's'
111
90
87
191
106
101
120
107
7.6
8.0
7.3
7.8
6.5
7.5
6.5
9.4
7.5
346
376
356
.872
397
318
435
329
268
478
8.1
102
98
382
326
426
489
439
7.6
9.3
7.1
9.0
7.5
403
276
445
391
434
569
Ears/M
Number of
102
95
107
105
5.5
100
4466
7.8
6.5
98
4933
2 Cinnarron
3 Ycx;o
Length (em)
7.0
(em)
Ear
98
5990
~ight
Yield Plant
1 Ars 's'
Entry
Table 4: Triticale Obse rvation No. 1-1976 (Yield in kg/hal
68
53
68
111
68
68
68
55
53
53
53
68
68
68
53
76
53
68
53
68
68
Days to 50% Flo.vering
Nurrber of
of Days
151
151
151
203
151
157
167
203
203
157
157
167
157
151
151
157
167
157
151
157
167
to r-B turity
~r
"
~
'""""
N
92.9
67.1
101. 7
2804
2795
2729
M2A - Zaragoza (1)
7
!..
+308.9
Average Seed
11. 8%
+319.0
Seed Different Blocks
CV
+293.4
Seed Same Block
Mean
+0.74
9.2%
12.
6.8
+10.58
109.8
1282
23584/Inia/Calidad
16
6.5
+0.74
105.1
1571
Kenya Fahari
15
6.3
+10.79
76.0
1649
Eslina
14
8.4
+0.74
66.1
2254
Came 1 "S"
13
7.1
9.3
8.0
8.1
9.6
8.5
7.8
7.9
8.8
8.5
7.5
10.8
Ear Length (cm)
+10.25
99.1
2547
Kenya Nyati
12
79.6
Octo - Bulk 50 - IIA
11
2705
M2A x SD 6485 - 8156
10
62.6
M2A - Zaragoza (s)
9
2710
M2A - UP
8
301 x Bgl
67.9
2839
Octo - OC - Agro - T
6
~
74.2
3053
M2A - CIN
5
70.4
3121
IA - M2A
4
91.8
3255
Bacum
3
56.5
Plant Height (cm)
94.4
lA-Bulk E2
2
3503
Grain Yield
3260
Beagle"S"
1
Variety
Table 5: Triticale Preliminary Variety Trial-1979 (Yield in kg/ha)
2194
2528
2443
1711
1650
1665
3124
2304
2694
30%
21.1%
13:2%
+174
+292
+399
S.F. of VF
C.V.
+87
2931
2464
3168
+146
2674
2153
2789
+178
2141
2014
2206
3217
2875
N
40
S.E. of F
2839
2550
3317
3008
2747
N20
+87
2631
2333
2978
2300
2044
0
N
+146
3808
3578
2343
2381
Mean
2356
2644
2606
1767
2989
2567
2444
3424
N60
N
40
N20
3478
1522
0
N
3729
Mean
4056
N80
1 9 7 9
+320
3563
2933
3700
4367
N60
197 8
S.E. of V
Mean
3722
3400
3144
2567
Dr ira
2392
3622
3211
3111
Rahum
2745
4144
3522
2556
Bacum
K. Nyati
N
40
N
20
0
N
1 9 7 7
Table 6: Triticale Variety x Fertilizer Trials (Yield in kg/hal
2862
2725
2553
3439
2731
N60
233
267
299
259
Meal"
WHEAT
AND TRITICALE IN TANZANIA
By R. Ndondi
An estimated 27,000 hectares were planted to wheat in
Tanzania during 1979/80. An additional 40,000 ha were con­
sidered suitable for wheat production. Wheat yields range
from 1,100 to 2,646 kilograms per hectare. Tanzanian wheat
production is categorized by three production areas, each of
which has slightly distinct problems. The three include the
West Kilimanjaro/Arusha area, Hanang district plateau and
the southern highlands. These areas differ in amount of
rainfall which greatly affects both the number of wheat
diseases and their severity.
The Tanzanian wheat and triticale breeding program is
based on selection of introduced materials from CIMMYT­
Mexico, the CIMMYT East African program in Kenya, the Na­
tional Plant Breeding Station in Njoro, Kenya, and ICARDA­
Syria. This material ranges from early generation (F2) to
non-segregating populations of named or unnamed varieties
from the International Cooperative Yield Nurseries (ICYN).
Nurseries include the Preliminary Observation Nursery­
Bread Wheat (PON-BW), the International Bread Wheat Screening
Nursery (IBWSN), the International Spring Wheat Yield Nur­
sery (ISWYN), the African Cooperative Wheat Yield Trial
(ACWYT), the Screening Nursery African Cooperative Wheat
Yield Trial (SNACWYT), the Regional Disease Trap Nursery
(RDTN), and the International Triticale Yield Nursery (ITYN).
Tests are conducted at Lyamungu Agricultural Research Insti­
tute where ideal conditions for disease development exist
during most seasons and selection for disease resistance is
thereby effectively carried out.
Selection involves identifying lines or varieties
resistant to Helminthosporium spp, stem rust, leaf rust,
yellow rust, Septoria and FusarIUm. In addition, lines are
assessed for yield, tillering, straw strength and shattering.
Selections of bread wheat were first carried out in 1972.
Nine varieties are currently under commercial production.
These includeN Mbuni (26-73), Trophy (3503), Tai (3697),
Nyati (3742), Kororo (4140), Kweche (3654), Mamba (3679),
Kozi (6648-6) and Joli (6793-6).
Triticale selections began in 1975 using introduced
materials from CIMMYT-Mexico. Six lines with high disease
resistance and uniformity are now at an advanced testing
stage (Table 1).
- 126 ­
Table 1: Advanced Testing Stage of Triticale Lines
Tanzanian
Accession No. Cross or Variety Name Tcl 6024
Rahum
Tcl 6025
Tcl 6027
Rahum "S" 2
MXA - Cin x 7272 - 14M
Tcl 6028
Beever - Arm ·S· x 2743
Tcl 7000
Bacum
Tcl 7004
MZA Cm1 x 8210
Triticale is being evaluated to determine its place as
a food crop in Tanzania. At present triticale is limited to
agricultural research institutes. There are no triticale
varieties under farmer production, partly because research
has been ongoing for a short time. More research and selec­
tions will need to be carried out before varieties are
released for farmer production.
- 127 ­
WHEAT AND TRITICALE IN ZAMBIA
by R. Raemaekers
Zambia has a population of 5.5 million people who
consume approximately 165,000 tons of wheat annually. There
is an increasing demand for bread and other wheat products
in the country.
Most wheat is imported which often results in a damaged
product due to transit.
Local wheat production is 2,500 to 3,000 hectares with
a total yield of 10,000 to 12,000 tons. This amounts to a
little over 5 per cent consumption, or about three weeks of
the country's bread needs. Efforts are now being made to
increase wheat production and eventually reach self-suf­
ficiency.
Irrigated wheat is produced during the dry winter
season in Zambia and during the summer by rainfall.
The irrigated wheat crop is planted in May and harvested
September to October. Average yields are 4 to 4.5 tons per
hectare. Yields have reached over 7 t/ha on some farms.
Higher yields are only obtained with sufficient use of
fertilizer, herbicides, irrigation equipment and at times
fungicides. Nearly all commercially produced wheat (about 25
to 30 farmers) is irrigated. The European Economic Community
(EEC) is also assisting in the development of a more central
large-scale irrigated wheat production project.
The main varieties include Emu, Jupateco, Mexipak,
Limpopo, Tenori, Gwebi, Ram and Tai. However, some of these
cultivars are susceptible to stem rust. There is no triti­
cale produced commercially under irrigation.
Although the price paid for wheat (about US$28 per 90
kilogram bag) is attractive, it is not easy to convince
farmers to produce irrigated wheat because of high input
costs, such as irrigation equipment.
The main diseases which affect irrigated wheat are
stem rust, leaf rust and powdery mildew. Last season a boron
deficiency was observed and necessitated sterility in some
fields. Boron is now applied on all crops.
Research is concentrating on the introduction of re­
sistant and high yielding cultivars. New releases, especial­
ly with stem rust resistance, are especially needed. New
varieties are either released by the National Seed Services
or imported.
In order to speed up wheat production, Zambia has been
producing rainfed wheat with the assistance of the Canadian
International Development Agency (CIDA) in the summer season.
- 128 ­
However, Helminthosporium sativum attacked this crop
which has hampered the acceptance of rainfed wheat by in­
dividual farmers. This disease occurs in many countries but
appears to be particularly destructive in Zambia. Hot and
humid conditions during the rainy season provide the fungus
with optimum growing conditions.
Trials for rainfed wheat production were held in va­
rious areas of the country. The program was initiated in the
south but high soil temperatures, nematodes and H. sativum
destroyed all fields. At present, production is in the north
(about 1,100 kilometers from Lusaka) at an altitude of 1,600
meters.
About 800 ha were grown by the project and on nearby
small farms this season. The best fields only yielded 1.3
t/ha. The fields were planted to Jupateco which has a low
level of resistance to H. sativum. Higher yields are neces­
sary in order to make rainfed wheat production successful.
Rainfed wheat requires expensive inputs of fertilizer and
selective herbicides which drives up production costs. Soils
in the northern province are acidic and liming at 2 t/ha is
necessary.
Research concentrates on screening for disease re­
sistance, yield tests with resistant cultivars, increasing
the levels of resistance by crossing different resistant
selections and cultural methods concerning rainfed wheat
production.
During yield tests, the best bread wheat selections
yielded 3.2 t/ha and triticale 3.6 t/ha. In crop loss assess­
ment trials, yields of 3.5 t/ha have been reached during the
rainy season under conditions of high temperature and humidi­
ty.
Thousands of introductions have been screened for
resistance to Helminthosporium and other diseases such as
stem rust, bacterial and viral infections. Nursery selec­
tions are received each year from CIMMYT and ICARDA, in
addition to selections from the United States Department of
Agriculture World Collection and wheat and triticale from
the Passo Fundu Research Station in Brazil.
A few resistant lines of bread wheat and triticale
have been identified and will replace susceptible cultivars
when sufficient seed is available.
The variety Tai should replace Jupateco next season.
It has a better disease resistance and seed is available.
Additional resistant lines are currently being increased.
In summary, Zambia needs about 50,000 ha of wheat
under production to become self-sufficient. With the expansion
of irrigated wheat production and development of rainfed
wheat, this should be possible in the near future.
- 129 ­
TRITICALE: A NEW CROP
By B. Skovrnand, F. Zillinsky & A. Hernandez Munoz
Triticale is a new and relatively unknown crop and is
developed from crosses between wheat (Triticum) and rye
(Secale). Research and breeding work with this new crop have
been carried out to combine the best characteristics of
wheat and rye into one crop plant which could provide for
higher yields, especially where wheat is growing under
marginal conditions.
Early Triticale Improvement
The first successful crosses between wheat and rye
were done in the latter part of the last century, and con­
siderable cytological research was done before breeding
programs began. Details of this early research are provided
in reviews by Lorenz (1), Muntzing (2), and Zillinsky (3).
By 1950, triticale programs were started in Spain,
Hungary, and Russia on winter triticales, and shortly after
at the University of Manitoba on spring triticales. Each of
these programs worked on improving hexaploid triticale as a
cultivated crop, primarily for use as feed or forage.
In the 1967-68 season, breeding work was started at
the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)
and was directed toward developing triticale as a human food
crop for developing countries. The early work in Mexico was
spent on improving characteristics that would make triticale
adapted to the developing countries that are mainly located
between 30 0 N and 30° S latitudes. The objective was to
introduce triticales with insensitivity to daylength, short
straw and with yields competitive to wheat. This has been
accomplished by crossing hexaploid triticales to the Mexican
wheats, and by intercrossing octoploid and hexaploid triticales.
We must now determine where triticale has a competitive
advantage over wheat.
The Different Types of Triticales
There are basically three types of triticales: tetra­
ploid, hexaploid and octoploid. These different types have
been obtained by crossing rye to diploid, tetraploid, and
hexaploid wheat respectively. The tetraploid triticales are
difficult to obtain and even more difficult to maintain
because of chromosome instability. Therefore little work has
been done on this group.
The hexaploid triticales are obtained from crosses
between Triticum durum and Secale. This cross can be made
easily, but the growing embryos must be extracted about 21
- 130 ­
days after pollination or they will abort. The extracted
embryos must be grown on a special nutrient medium until a
plant is produced. This plant then has to be treated with
colchicine to double the chromosome number, and if success­
ful, a so-called primary triticale is obtained.
Octoploid triticales are even easier to obtain, since
no embryo culture is necessary. Crosses between hexaploid
wheat and rye produce viable seed, and when the hybrid
plants are treated with colchicine, octoploid triticales are
produced.
More breeding and research has been done with hexaploid
triticale, because the early triticale workers determined
that hexaploid triticale offered the greatest potential for
increased grain yields and had better chromosome stability.
Although octoploid has played a major role in the
improvement of hexaploid triticale, it has not so far been
considered as a crop in its own right, except in China where
winter type octoploids are grown as a commercial crop.
To improve hexaploid triticales, crosses were made
between hexaploid triticales and hexaploid wheat, and to
octoploid triticale. Through these crosses certain rye
chromosomes have been replaced by D-genome chromosomes from
hexaploid wheats. Such triticales have been called substi­
tuted triticales to distinguish them from triticales with
all seven rye chromosomes (complete triticales). Genotypes
with one or two rye chromosomes differ little from the
complete triticales in appearance, yield potential, adapta­
tion, disease resistance, and quality characteristics.
Adaptation
Presently, triticales are competitive in yield with
wheat in areas favorable to wheat production. However,
triticale generally shows better adaptation than wheat to
acid soils, in semi-tropical highlands, in certain rainfed
sandy soils, and in some specific disease areas (as well as
combinations of the above). Major areas where triticale has
shown yield advantages are the Himalayan foothills, East
Africa, parts of Europe, the Central Plateau of Mexico, the
Andean region, and Brazil.
Many 'countries now have active triticale breeding
programs and some have released varieties for commercial
production. In 1968, Dr. A. kiss in Hungary released two
winter triticales, K 57 and K 64, and the following year,
Dr. Jenkins released several winter or facultative varieties
in the USA. Since then, several winter triticales have been
released in Russia and China. The first spring triticale
variety was Rosner, and was released in Canada in 1970.
- 131 ­
In 1978 and 1979, fourteen spring triticale varieties
were released, as shown in Table 1. All of these resulted
from cooperative efforts between CIMMYT and the national
programs. This increased varietal release activity points to
the advantages of triticale as a commercial crop.
The Michoacan Experience
It is usually difficult to introduce a new crop,
especially into a subsistance type farming system. The
difficulty arises from a distrust of something unknown and a
lack of knowledge about production management, as well as
the uses of the new crop. CIMMYT has first hand experience
in the introduction of triticale in the Michoacan area of
Mexico.
Beginning in the early 1970's with experimental quan­
tities of seed, the area sown to triticale in the State of
Michoacan has expanded yearly, as shown in Table 2 (personal
comm. Ing. T. Morales). In 1979, triticale was grown by 89
farmers, of which many were growing 1 or 2 hectares. This
shows that once farmers have learned how to manage the crop
and what to do with the grain, acceptance is not a problem.
Since there is no official market for triticale grain, all
the production is cons~med in the farming community, some as
feed for pigs and chickens and the rest for human consump­
tion as bread or tortillas.
Commercial Production
Estimates of area under triticale production are
difficult to make since statistics are not published. How­
ever, production estimates for the 1978-79 season based on
information supplied by scientists participating in the
Triticale Symposium in Poland in 1979 are given below.
According to Dr. Shulyindin of Karkov, Russia, over 200,000
hectares are under triticale production, which is about
double that of the USA. Countries having between 10,000 and
20,000 hectares under production are Argentina, Canada,
South Africa, and possibly China, where estimates range from
7,000 to 20,000 ha. Countries with more than 1,000 hectares
are Australia, France, Hungary, Mexico, Spain, Portugal, and
Italy. East Africa and some areas of the Himalayas are just
starting commercial production. Most of the present produc­
tion is used as forage or as a feed grain. Smaller propor­
tions are used as human food, such as bread, pan~akes,
pastries, or in the production of alcoholic beverages.
Most of the areas where triticale appears to have a
production advantage over wheat are located between 30° N
and 30° S latitude. However, the major areas of production
are north and south of this zone. It is suspected that the
production in the higher latitudes is concentrated on grazing
and feed grain, because farmers in developing countries are
generally reluctant to feed grain to livestock. Furthermore,
- 132 ­
the developing countries also lack funds and the scientific
\ staff necessary to develop the new crop. Information on
utilization of triticale is scarce, and seed production
facilities are often meager. This picture is gradually
beginning to change.
- 133 ­
Figure 1. Triticale Varieties released in 1978 and 1979
Variety Name
Location
Year
Siskiyou
California, USA
Welsh
Manitoba, Canada
Beagle
Texas, USA
"
Rahum
Mexico
"
Mexitol
Bulgaria
"
Tyalla
Victoria, Australia
Satu
New South Wales, Australia
Dua
New South Wales, Australia
Mizar
Italy
Mandingera
Spain
Cananea 79
Mexico
Cabo rca 79
Mexico
Mapache
Texas, USA
"
"
"
Fs 1897
Texas, USA
"
- 134 ­
1978
"
1979
"
"
"
"
REFERENCES 1. Lorenz, K. 1974. The History, Development and Utiliza­
tion of Triticale. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Tech­
nology. P175-279.
2. Muntzing, A. 1979. Triticale: Results and Problems.
Advances in Plant Breeding 10, Supplements to Journal
of Plant Breeding. P1-103.
3. Zillinsky, F.J. 1974. The Development of Triticale.
Advances in Agronomy 26. P 310-348.
- 135 ­
RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN TRITICALE QUALITY
AT CIMMYT-MEXICO
by B. Skovmand and A. Amaya
Seed Improvement
The Tenth International Triticale Screening Nursery
(ITSN) was distributed to many countries throughout the
world in 1978. The 245 entries in this group were advanced
lines that had shown good yielding ability, improved grain
type and test weight at CIMMYT-Mexico.
Seed produced under irrigated high fertility conditions
in northwest Mexico was used to determine quality differ­
ences between the lines.
Test weights of these 245 lines had average levels of
70 kilograms per hectoliter. Three out of four lines had
test weights between 70 and 78 kg/hI. In contrast, lines
grown in 1972 under similar favorable conditions ranged from
65.6 to 70.2 kg/hI.
Good test weights are closely followed by better flour
extraction rates. Increases in flour yield of new triticale
lines varied from 65 to 72 per cent flour in 63.6 per cent
of the lines. In 1972, flour yields ranged between 51.7 and
59 per cent.
In the Tenth ITSN the top yielding triticale was RAM
(=lA-IRA x Bui) with 4,390 kilograms per hectare average
yield in 51 locations. The highest yielding bread wheat was
Pavon 76 which yielded 3,437 kg/ha. Test weight for RAM was
62 kg/hI and for Pavon 76 kg/hal. These averages were de­
termined in 26 locations in various countries. Environmental
influences result in much lower test weights for triticales
than wheat. In northwest Mexico, test weights for RAM were
64.1 and 68.4 kg/ha.
Bread Making with Triticale
Loaf volume is one measure of the suitability of dif­
ferent flours to make good quality bread. In 1973 loaf
volumes from triticale flours were infrequently above 600 cc
for selected lines. Only 13 per cent of flour samples were
producing such loaves. Seventy-two per cent of new lines
that were tested in 1978 had loaf volumes above 600 cc, and
among these 20 per cent were larger than 700 cc. RAM is a
cross that continually shows bread volumes as low as 500 cc.
On the other hand, crosses like Bongo and Impala have loaves
above 700 cc. These lines had flour yields of 67 and 60 per
cent respectively.
- 136 ­
Some analyzed lines of the CIMMYT quality laboratory
are shown in Table 1.
Flour from these triticale lines was baked in mixtures
with the wheat varieties Pavon 76, Pima 77 and Hermosillo 77
at 25, 50 and 75 per cent, and compared with bread loaves
made from 100 per cent wheat and 100 per cent triticale
flours.
The quality of bread prepared with triticale-wheat
mixtures was satisfactory and, in some cases, the loaf
volume of the mixtures was higher than the loaf volume of
100 per cent wheat or triticale breads. Hermosillo 77 and
triticale mixtures consistently produced good quality breads
(Table 2).
Flour from Hermosillo 77 bread wheat has good baking
quality with strong and balanced gluten. Pavon 76 wheat
flour is strong and good for mixing with other wheats. Pima
77 is a soft wheat like Lerma Rojo 64.
RAM, with an average test weight of 66 kg/hI and a
flour yield of 66 per cent, is producing as low a volume of
bread loaf as 100 per cent triticale flour. In flour mixtures
of RAM and the soft wheat Pima 77, volumes rapidly approach
normal. By mixing RAM (a poor quality triticale flour) with
50 per cent Pavon, volumes have reached 810 cc. With 50 per
cent Hermosillo wheat flour and RAM, volumes were 850 cc.
The best triticale flour for straight bread making use
was Impala'S', a cross between Beagle and a short triticale
from a bulk, X 11066. It produced loaves of 800 cc on its
own, and as high as 935 cc with a mixture of 75 per cent
Hermosillo and 25 per cent triticale flour.
The original yield advantages of RAM must also be
considered in balance with its quality.
Modifications in Bread Making with Triticale Flours
Early studies showed differences between triticale and
flours in bread making.
Protein and gluten content of triticale flour were
generally lower than in wheat flour. Quality was poor when
mixing properties were looked at in farinograph and mixograph
tests. Triticale flours had lower water absorption and
mixing tolerance, and shorter mixing time than bread wheat
flours.
Lorenz and Tsen have reported that with some modifica­
tions in fermentation time while baking, satisfactory bread
loaves can be produced with 100 per cent triticale flours.
Triticale flours have a higher level of alpha amylase and
protease activity, and therefore fermentation time should
be shortened.
-
137 ­
Triticale starch characteristics and baking performance
have changed considerably with improved triticale seed
types. A greater amount of flour can be milled out with less
shriveling in the grain. Also the high alpha amylase activi­
ty of earlier triticales has been decreased so it is less
detrimental during baking. Dough characteristics have been
improved with seed improvement. Efforts to find better seed
types have included new interspecific crosses with
bread wheat and durum. Accidental exchange of rye chromosomes
and chromosomes from wheat may have influenced starch and
protein properties of the new triticales.
Differences in enzyme activity and tolerance to mixing
have led to changes in baking procedures. By mixing the
dough more slowly and reducing fermentation time, baking
performance of triticale is improved.
However, triticale flours are still weaker than bread
wheat flours. The short fermentation time, therefore, makes
a more appropriate evaluation of baking performance pos­
sible.
The following procedure has been formulated at CIMMYT:
100 g triticale flour (14 per cent mixture)
3 g shortening
3 g non-fat milk solids
25 ml of a 12 per cent fresh-yeast suspension
25 ml of a 4 per cent salt-20 per cent sugar solution
Absorption and mixing time are optimized for each dough
(the dough should be slightly stiffer than a dough produced
with wheat flour). The doughs are punched after 40 and after
80 minutes fermentation, molded and panned 105 minutes after
mixing. Proof time is 55 minutes and oven time 25 minutes at
220°C. Loaf volume is determined by seed displacement.
Loaves are scored after cooking (2 hours) for crumb color
and crumb texture. More details of the procedure can be
obtained from the AACC official methods.
- 138 ­
1.0
w
f-'
Bongo
Bongo
501
1118
Pavon 76
Pima 77
11248
Ram
126g
11251
Ram
508
~lfin
Irrpala '8'
1173
507
Irrpala '8'
504
\
Cross
._
­
Lab. No.
Y78-79 Qx:xj
67.9
60.5
82.0
79.2
66.5
68.4
X12257-IN-OM
58.1
65.0
66.0
69.8
66.6
X11066-A-6M-100Y-10lB­
101-0Y
X15490-3Y-OM
61.0
64.1
65.7
X11066-A-6M-100Y-10lB-100Y
-oY
67.7
67.0
Flour
Yield
X12257-IN-OM 71.8
69.8
~ight
X8816-A-IY-IM-2Y-OY
X8816-A-IY-IM-2Y-OY
Pedigree Test
10.5
10.2
9.5
9.2
9.6
10.5
11.3
9.1
Protein
-%
8.2
735
244
815
747
725
500
500
630
780
175
120
120
184
810
720
192
70
IDaf
Vol.
Falling
Number
Q..t.ality Triticales and Bread Wheats for Grain Q.lality and Bread
Making Characteristics
Table 1: carparison of
60.0
64.4
57.8
61.0
61.0
59.7
58.0
58.4
60.0
Water
Abs.
0
*" I-'
720
740
760
780
800
805
740
780
790
500
501 Bongo
502
675
740
735
715
810
770
700
835
775
507 Delfin
508 Ram
509
870 740
775
790
506
=
685
770
790
505
Pavon 100%
840
825
825
504 Inpala "s"
715
780
503
790
725
755
805
499
725
765
760
25%
498
50%
75%
Pavon
Y78-79
PM 'lCL
690
665
700
725
= 700
690
660
700
660
800
705
760
PiITa 100%
710
760
665
700
710
675
800
760
725
725
750
730
710
720
740
750
750
820
= 920
800
730
670
770
720
830
795
780
800
730
690
760
25%
Hermosillo 100%
850
850
825
850
875
810
880
865
850
875
785
750
800
50%
Her1TOsillo
880
935
875
870
860
795
670
715
750
705
690
700
675
780
75%
750
25%
670
715
50%
665
75%
Pirra 77
Varieties Pavon 76, Pima 77, and Hermosillo 77
700
500
630
680
610
810
650
680
720
655
655
660
Tel 100%
Table 2: Loaf Volumes in CC. of Bread Baked with Mixtures of Triticale Lines and Wheat
References
Kaltsikes, P.J., and E.N. Larter. 1970. Milling and baking
characteristics of some new triticale lines. Wheat News
Letter 17:30.
Lorenz, K.
26:66.
1972. Food uses of triticale. Food Technology
Lorenz, K., J. Welsh, R. Normann, and J. Maga. 1972a. Compara­
tive mixing and baking properties of wheat and triticale
flours. Cereal Chemistry 49:187.
Lorenz, K., and J.R. Welsh. 1977. Agronomic and baking perfor­
mance of semi-dwarf triticales. Cereal Chemistry 54:1049.
Tsen, C.C., W.J. Hoover, and E.P. Farrel. 1973. Baking quality
of triticale flours. Cereal Chemistry 50:16.
Tsen, C.C. 1974. Bakery products from triticale flours. In
Triticale: First Man-Made Cereal, C.C. Tsen, Ed. AACC. St.
Paul Minnesota. 234 p.
Unrau, A.M., and B.C. Jenkins. 1964. Investigation of synthetic
cereal species. Milling, baking and some compositional
characteristics of some triticale and parental species.
Cereal Chemistry 41:365.
- 141 ­
CLOTURE DU SYMPOSIUM PAR SON EXCELLENCE LE MINISTRE DE
L'AGRICULTURE ET DE L'ELEVAGE
Mesdames et Mesieurs,
Nous voila a la fin de ce symposium sur la culture du
ble et du triticale dans nos pays respectifs.
Pendant trois jours vous avez passe au crible les
succes et les echecs enregistres tant au niveau de la recher­
che que de la production.
11 se degage des exposes des differents orateurs qu'il
sUbsiste encore certains facteurs limitants pour l'accroisse ment
de la production du ble a savoir:
Les maladies et les pestes de toute sorte; L'absence de techniques culturales ameliorees chez les petits agriculteurs; L'absence d'un vrai programme de production et de diffusion de semences; La pauvrete des sols; Les mauvaises herbes et j'en passe. Ces goulots d'etranglement constituent une barriere
d'adoption du ble pour les petis fermiers qui ne disposent ni
des produits phytopharmaceutiques, ni des fertilisants ni
des herbicides.
11 resort egalement de ce symposium que le triticale
produit plus et resiste souvent mieux aux maladies que le
ble. Cette espece peut etre consideree a maints egards co mme
une cereale d'avenir malgre certains defauts soulignes au
cours des debats.
Au regard des resultats obtenus dans les stations de
recherche at chez l'agriculteur, il semble qu'un effort de
transfert de la technologie des centres de recherche vers le
milieu rural est encore a faire.
Ce stade intermedaire entre la recherche et la production
doit etre envisage serieusement par les services de vulgarisation,
de production et de diffusion de semences, pour que l'agriculteur
puisse beneficier des acquis et des innovations de la recherche.
Certains scientifiques ont souligne combien il etait
necessaire de remplacer les varietes toutes les quatre
annees pour lutter contre les maladies comme la rouille et
autres.
Cette consideration vous incite encore une fois a
proner la mise sur pied des programmes regionaux de recherche
sur le ble et le triticale.
Nous l'avons souligne lors de l'overture de ce symposium,
il vous appartient de definir des objectifs clairs et de
developper la cooperation scientifique entre les Centres et
- 142 ­
Instituts de recherche des pays ci-representes a savoir
l'Uganda, le Kenya, la Tanzanie, la Zambie, le Malawi, le
Burundi, le Zaire et le Rwanda.
11 faut reconnaltre que la consommation du pain de ble
r e st e l'apanage des populations de ville dans les pays en de­
vel o ppement.
Cette situation ne peut perdurer; il faut que le producteur
soit le premier servi.
Mesdames et Messieurs, un symposium comme celui-ci doit
aboutir a des conclusions qui puissent etre mises en pratique.
Vos recommendations ne doivent pas rester Iettre morte
comme c'est souvent le cas lors de certains forums internatio­
naux.
Au nom du gouvernement rwandais nous remercions tous
les organisateurs et plus particulierement le Centre de
Recherche pour le Developpement International qui a bien
voulu financer une grande partie de ce symposium.
Nous ne pouvons oublier le Centre International d'Amelio­
ration du Mais et du Ble qui d'une facon ou d'une autre est
a
l'origine du symposium.
Nous ne pouvons terminer sans remercier Monsieur le
Prefet de Prefecture de Gisenyi pour l'accueil tres chaleurex
et les facilites offertes pour tenir ce colloque ici dans
cette ville de Gisenyi.
Que tous les delegues tant etrangers que nationaux
trouvent ici notre gratitude pour leur contribution au
succes du Symposium.
Au nom de Son Excellence Monsieur le Ministre de
l'Agriculture et de l'Elevage, je declare c los les travaux
de ce Symposium et souhaite qu'il ne soit pas le dernier
mais Ie premier d'une aerie qui trait era non seulement le
ble mais aussi d'autres cultures vivrieres a l'echelle de
notre region.
Vive la Cooperation Internationale.
Je vous remercie.
- 143 ­
PARTICIPANTS AU SYMPOSIUM REGIONAL SUR LE BLE ET LE TRITICALE A GISENYI, DU 11 AU 13 JUIN 1980
NOM 1. NZAMURAMBAHO,
Fr~d~ric
2. NSHUNGUYINKA, Frangois 3. IYAMUREMYE, Faustin 4. KINGMA, Gerbrand
ORGANISME
ADRESSE COMPLETE Ministre de l'Agriculture
et de l'Elevage Pr~fet de Prefecture Gisenyi
Directeur Gen~ral ISAR
CIMMYT East Africa
B.P. 621 KIGALI ,, 5. Mme. KINGMA, C.D.J.
6. NDONDI, Richard
Agronomie Research Project
7. MALLOUGH, Dave 8. RAEMAEKERS, Romain
Tanzania Canada Wheat Project
Mount Makulu Research Station
9. BONTHUIS, Henk
CIMMYT-East African Region
10. MULAMULA, Hunter H.A.
11. MKAMANGA,
Godwin Y.
12. MOLLMANN, Kurt
13. KASSONGO, Ngimbu
Ministry of Agriculture
National Plant Breeding
Station
Ministry of Agriculture
and Natural Resources
Minoterie de Matadi
14. Mrs.RUBAIHAYO, Elizabeth
Minoterie de Matadi
Project Bl~ / Nord-Kivu
Kawanda Research Station
15. SKOVMAND, Bent 16. BARAMPAMA, Daniel
CIMMYT
ISABU-Kisozi
17. BAGONA, Privat ISABU-Kisozi
18. SCHALBROECK, Jean Jacques Station de Recherches
Agronomiques de Kisozi
19. JANSSENS, Marc I.S.A.R.-Rubona
20. MPABANZI, Appolinaire LS.A.R.-Rubona
21. DURNEZ, C. LS.A.R.-Rubona
,,
22. BUTARE, I. ,, 23. GATARASI, Th.
,
,
24. KAYITARE, E.
,
,
25. NYABYENDA, P.
,
,
26. MARIJNISSEN, R.
I.S.A.R.-Karama
27. MULINDANGABO, J. ,, 28. NDAMAGE, G.
I.S.A.R.-Tamira
29. NTAMBABAZI, C. I.S.A.R.-Tamira
30. GOETEYN, R. I.S.A.R.-Rwerere
31. GAHARKWA, E. PNAP
32. TEGERA, P. -
144 ­
B.P. 173
B.P. 138
P.O. Box
NAIROBI,
,,
GISENYI
BUTARE
25171 KENYA P.O. Box 1807 Moshi - TANZANIA ,,
B.P. 7 Chilanga ZAMBIA P.O. Box 7292 Nakuru, KENYA P.O. NJORO KENYA
Box 30134,
LILILONGHE 3,r~AL;.~·,':::
B.P. 11497 KINS~A S ~
ZAIRE
B/P/ 491 Butembo /
Nord-Kivu, ZAIRE
P.O. Box 7065
Kampala, UGANDA
MEXIQUE
B.P. Bujumbura
BURUNDI
,,
,,
,,
B.P. 138
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
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B.P. 121
,,
,
BUTARE
I
KIGALI
B.P. 69 GYSENYI
B.P. 73 RUHENGERI
,,
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33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
VANDER ZAAG, P. BICAMUMPAKA, M. POATS, Susan GOFFINET, D. MUBERUKA, M. BAKOMEZA, A.
RWAYA, D.
MACUMI, R.
VERSTRAETE, Christian SIEGENTHALER, Rudolf CARNET, Jean Pierre SMID, Hann STEGER, Klaus
DELEPIERRE, G. GASENGE, J. GODDING, Jean Pierre NIYIBIGIRA, G. MWEMBU, Djembi
NYIRADENDE, Suzanne DIDACE, Kanyange MUTABARUKA, G. NZAYISENGA, J.P. BUNANI, Albert
LEMERCIER, J.P.
60.
61.
62.
63.
DAMASCENE, Kabalira J. NIYIBIZI, Stanislas HITIMANA, Joseph NTAWUYIRUSHA, E.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70 ;.
NDEREYE, Karoli KAYIJAMAHE, Athanase RUKAKA, Nzamwita MUNYABIKALI, Claude MPATSWE, Antoine ZAIROIS NSABIMANA, Deni s
71. BRALIRWA 72. HABIMANA, Aloys 73. HARELIMANA, Jean Marie
PNAP
PNAP
PNAP
PNAP
I.S.A.R.-Rubona
"
"
B.P. 138 BUTARE
"
"
"
"
"
"
FAO - Gikongoro
PAK Kibuye
M.F.R. Gisenyi
C.T.A. Karago-Giciye
B.P. 445 Kigali
B.P. 53 Kibuye
B.P. 52 Gisenyi
B.P. 149 Gisenyi
"
"
MINAGRI
MINEDUC
MININTER-Dpt. communal
C.E.P.G.L.
B.P. 1051 Kigali
B.P. 203 Gi.senyi
B.P. 1.76 Gisenyi
B.P. 58 Gisenyi
"
"
Inspection cooperatives
MINEDUC
Armee Rwandaise
Usine a the Mulindi
18 Gisenyi
198 Gisenyi
B.P.
B.P.
Camp
B.P.
"
Gisenyi
1 Byumba
"
Section Agricole du Groupe
Scolaire
MINIPLAN
OCIR-The
Agronome de Prefecture
Project Rwa 76/002
Project Intensification
Agricole
OVAPAM
Agronome de Prefecture
OCIR-The
OPYRWA
Agronome de Prefecture
C.E.P.G.L.
MINAGRI (Direction Generale
de l'Agronomie)
Directeur
Agronome de Prefecture
MINAGRI
74. BITIRIKI, Augustin 75. HITIMANA, Anastase 76. UWIMANA, Marthe
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
"
"
Agronome de Prefecture
C.E.P.G.L.
MINASOCOOP
Agronome de Prefecture
GASARASI, Ladislas Agronome de Prefecture
MIRASANO, Emmanuel Bourgmestre de Rubavu
NTAWABO, Fabien
Comptable de Prefecture
KABAGO, Jean Baptiste S/Prefet (Pref. Gisenyi)
GASHEGU, Ignace Surveillant P et C.
BUSHISHI, Mathias Substitut (Justice)
RUZINDANA, Andre Percep teur des Postes
MUKESHIMANA, Emmanuel Chef Telecoms
VANDEWALLE, R. CERAL
-
145 ­
B.P. 119 Butare
B.P. 46 Kigali
B.P. 1344 Kigali
B.P. 30 Ki buye
B.P.
40 Gikongoro
B.P. 178 Kigali
B.P. 40 Gikongoro
B.P. 1344 Ki g ali
B.P. 79 Ruhemgeri
B.P. 28 Byumba
B.P. 58 Gisenyi
B.P. 621 Kigali
B.P. 82 Ki ge. li
S.S.S., B. P . 5 35
Kigali
Ruhengeri
B.P. 58 Gisenyi
Centre Nutritionnel
de Nyundo
B.P. 80 Gisenyi
B.P. 107 Gisenyi
B.P. 197 Gisenyi
B.P. 173 Gisenyi
P, C Gisenyi
Parquet Gisenyi
Gisenyi
Gisenyi
B.P. 116 Ruhengeri
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
UTTIEN, T.J.G.
NZABONIMPA, D.
KANYAMIBWA, A.
URAYENZA, E.
NTILIKWENDERA, J. Bosco
RWAMBONERA
PREVOST, Suzanne
93. HOLSTERS, M.
94. NDAKAZA, Cassien
95. NDIMUTO, Augustin
96. BAVAKURE, P. Damien
97. HALINDINTWALI, Theobald
98. JOELLE, Magnier
99. NZINDUKIYIMANA, Augustin
100.GASANA, J.B.
101.DEREVA, Desire
102.RUKERAMIHIGO, Protais
103.NIYONZIMA
104.FRADDOSIO, Ugo
105.NERETSE, Fabien
106.MBONYUMUTWA
OCIR/The
Statistique Gisenyi
Aerodrome Gisenyi
ORTPN
Tabaculture
Project-The Karago-Giciye
SUCO Project encadrement
jeunesse
ETIRU
Inspection du Commerce
Cadastre Gisenyi
Inspectra
Usine a The Pfunda
Bulletin Agricole du Rwanda
Agronome de Prefecture
Agronome de Prefecture
Agronome de Prefecture
O.C.I.R.-The
FAO SENIOR ADVISER
Co-Directeur B.G.M.
FCA/MULPOC
- 146 ­
B.P. 1007 Kigali
Gisenyi
B.P. 159 Gisenyi
B.P. 205 Gisenyi
B.P. 80 Gisenyi
B.P. 151 Gisenyi
B.P. 173 Gisenyi
B.P. 25 Ruhengeri
B.P. 47 Gisenyi
B.P. 173 Gisenyi
B.P. 55 Gisenyi
B.P. 206 Gisenyi
B.P. 176 Gisenyi
B.P. 104 Kigali
B.P. 78 Butare
B.P. 15 Kibungo
B.P. 30 Gitarama
B.P. 1 Kabaya/Gisen
RWA 76002 Intensi­
fication Agricole
Gikongoro, B.P. 4u;
PNUD Kigali
B.P. 1263 Kigali
B.P. 170 Gisenyi
lT1NERAIHE JOURN~E EXCURSION 12/6/1960
8hOO:
Depart Gisenyi
On suit la route asphaltee jusqu'a Ruhengeri,
distance 60 km. La route passe par Nyunde (mission,
ecoles, atelier d'art), Ie marche de Kanama (a
droite, km 14) et Ie plateau de Mutura, ou il y a
un centre SSS avec multiplications Triticale et
pomme de terre (a gauche de 1a route, immediatement
a cote du camp militaire de Bigogwe, km 26). Apres
Ie sommet (a 2500 m) a Kora, la route descend vers
Ruhengeri. On passe les marches de Jenda, Mukamira
et Busogo.
9h15:
Visite ETIRU
Pour atteindre ETIRU, venant de Gisenyi, on traverse
completement la ville de Ruhengeri et on prend la
route vers Kigali a la sortie du centre commercial.
Apres a peine 2 km, on arrive a la minoterie, a
gauche de la route.
10h30:
Depart pour Rwerere (suivre fleches ISAR/Rwerere).
Pour rejoindre Rwerere, partant d'ETIRU, on continuera
encore environ 3 km sur la route vers Kigali, puis
on la quitte vers la gauche (fleches Rwaza et
Rwerere). La piste suit la Mukungwa et la traverse
aux chutes de Rwaza. On aura l'occasion d'apercevoir
Ie chantier de construction de la centrale hydro­
electrique sur cette riviere. Apres Ie pont sur la
Mukungwa (10 km de Ruhengeri), on tourne a gauche
et on remonte encore Ie long de la riviere, jusqu'au
foyer de Charite de Remera, qu'on laisse a gauche.
Le lac en bas est Ie Luhondo.
Au km 24 de Ruhengeri, on tourne a gauche pour
monter vers la region de Mucaca. Avant Mucaca, on
pourra voir a droite la mine de Wolfram de Kifurwe.
On laisse la mine et sa route d'acces a droite (km
35). Apres Ie marche de Mucaca, on descend vers Ie
niveau uu lac Bulera, on traverse Ie pont sur une
riviere, puis on remonte une pente pour arriver a
Kirambo (53 km), sous-prefecture de Ruhengeri
(Buberuka). On suit les fleches ISAR/Rwerere pour
arriver a la station apres une grimpee fort raide
de 5 km.
15h30:
Depart pour Gisenyi via Ruhengeri
On reprend pendant 2.5 km la route d'ou on est
venu. A 2.5 km on laisse a gauche la route, venant
de Kirambo, et on continue tout droit. La route
monte un peu pour suivre une crete qui longe Ie
- 147 ­
grand marais de la Rugezi. A gauche on pourra deja
apercevoir Ie lac Bulera. A 9 km de Rwerere, on
commence une descente vers Ie niveau du marais
(2050 m), qu'on atteint apres 5 a 6 km. On peut y
faire un arret pour visiter les chutes (Rusumu) de
la Rugezi. Apres avoir traverse Ie pont, on
continue tout droit (laisser a droite la route qui
mene vers Byumba, l'ancienne "route de l'orge").
On arrivera apres environ 4 km a un point de vue
sur Ie lac (Bulera) et les volcans.
Puis, la route descend au niveau du lac. En bas,
on laisse une route
droite et on continue
gauche.
a
a
La piste suit maintenant Ie lac jusqu'a Bugarama
(mine de Wolfram),
27 km de Ruhengeri. On y
quitte les collines pour retomber dans la region
de lave. On monte legerement pendant 4 km jusqu'a
la route Ruhengeri-Cyanika (frontiere avec l'Uganda).
On y se trouve au pied du volcan Muhabura. On
prend a gauche, direction Ruhengeri, qu'on atteindra
apres 23 km.
a
Devant la prefecture, on prend
asphaltee vers Gisenyi.
- 148 ­
a
droite la route
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