Vol. 01, No. 01, July 2012 - International Journal of Basic and

Transcription

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCE
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P-ISSN: 2301-4458
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Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
::
Editors in Chief
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ali Ramdhani, Indonesia
::
Executive Editor
Abdullah Ramdhani
::
Editorial Board
• Prof. Dr. Entun Santosa; University of Padjadjaran, Indonesia
• Dr. Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed; Menoufia University, Egypt.
• Dr. Ahmadkamel Hj. Wan Yusuf; Prince of Songkla University, Thailand
• Dr. der Phil. Gustiana Isya Marjani; State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati,
Indonesia
• Dr. Eng. Ana Hadiana; Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI), Indonesia
• Dr. M. Subandi; State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati, Indonesia
• Dr. Mohammad Reza Iravani, Azad University of Khomeinishahr, Iran
::
Advisory Editor Board
• Prof. Dr. Ummu Salamah; University of Pasundan, Indonesia
• Prof. Dr. Ali Anwar Yusuf; University of Pasundan, Indonesia
• Dr. Dindin Jamaluddin; State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati, Indonesia
• Dr. Abdusy Syakur Amin; University of Pasundan, Indonesia
• Dr. Hilmi Aulawi; University of Garut, Indonesia
• Dr. Nizar Alam Hamdani; University of Garut, Indonesia
• Gugun Gumilar; Divinity School, Harvard University, USA
• Cepy Slamet; State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati, Indonesia
• Fakri Hamdani; State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati, Indonesia
• Hafid Ali; State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati, Indonesia
• Fauzi Miftakh; State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati, Indonesia
• Andri Ikhwana; Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Garut, Indonesia
• Yuli Yasin; Cairo University, Egypt
• Irwan Maulana; Institute of Islamic Studies Cairo, Egypt
• Kym Miller; Australia
• Dinar Mariam; Australia
• Deden Suparman; Universiti Industri Selangor, Malaysia
• Tengku Jukdin Saktisahdan; Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia
• Muhsin Mohd. Sholeh; Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
• Khania Meillany bt Hayyun Nasmi Saaduddin; Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
• Muhammad Yusuf; Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Insan Akademika
Publications
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
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Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Content
Title and Author(s)
Page
Rice Organic Farming is a Programme for Strengtenning Food Security in
Sustainable Rural Development
01-06
Entun Santosa
Key Succes Factors for Organic Farming Development
07-13
Muhammad Ali Ramdhani and Entun Santosa
Synthesis of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Sensor Based on Nanostructure
Zinc Oxide Using Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD) Methods
14-22
Muhammad Iqbal, Brian Yuliarto, and Nugraha
Corporate Entrepreneurship at Public Service Sector: Measurement and the
Influence Toward Government Performance
23-35
Astri Ghina
Analysis of Consumer Attitude Using Fishbein Multi-Attributes Approach
36-42
Abdullah Ramdhani, Dini Turipanam Alamanda, and Hendri Sudrajat
The Influence of Gender in Determining the Language Choice of Teenagers:
Sundanese Versus Bahasa
Fakry Hamdani
43-46
The Understanding and Behavior of First Level Students on Premarital Sexual
Behavior
Siva Hamdani
47-49
The Use of Silent Reading in Improving Students’ Reading Comprehension and
Their Achievement in TOEFL Score at a Private English Course
Hapid Ali
50-55
Cultural Mirrors: Materials and Methods in English as a Foreign Language
Dian Ekawati and Fakry Hamdani
56-61
Several Scientific Facts as Stated in Verses of the Qur’an
M. Subandi
62-67
Position on The Village Head in Indonesia Law
Asep Suparman
68-77
World Government: Utopia?
Vahram Ayvazyan
78-84
Title and Author(s)
Page
Implementation Project Based Learning on Local Area Network Training
Dhami Johar Damiri
85-90
The Implementation of Strategic Planning for Information System
in Educational Foundation
Cepy Slamet
91-96
High Operation Efficiency of Semiconductor Electrooptic Modulators in
Advanced Lightwave Communication Systems
Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed
97-117
Design and Validation of Wind Turbine’s Power Simulation by Remote
Controlled Motor
A. K. Azad, M. M. Alam and M. Masud Kaysar
118-130
Physiochemical Characteristics of Water and Challenges for Community
Development: A Case Study of Igbo-Ora Community of Oyo State, Nigeria
Kofo A. Aderogba
131-140
Climate Change and Sustainable Growth and Development in Lagos Metropolis,
Nigeria
Kofo A. Aderogba
141-155
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
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Rice Organic Farming is a Programme for Strengtenning Food Security in
Sustainable Rural Development
Entun Santosa
Professor of Faculty of Agriculture,
Padjadajaran University, Bandung-Indonesia
Jl. Raya Jatinagor, Sumedang-Indonesia
[email protected].
Key Words
Abstract
Organic Farming;
Sustaibability;
Rural Development
Rice domestic demand is steadily increase due to population’s growth, to increase
rice production by increasing dosage of inorganic fertilizer and pesticide could
not increase rice yield due to bad soil condition. These condition need
improvement because soil is the source of life for soil micro-organism and
biological activities. To overcome the problem, the farmers are supposed to be
educated and trained to be able to analyze and study and practice plant
cultivation emphasizing on local potential management. Rice Organic Farming
(ROF) is intensive and efficient paddy cultivation with the management process of
root system based on soil, plant and water management. The method of ROF was
Rapid Rural Appraisal with Partisipatory Rural Appaisal, continue with Farmers
group Development Plant and farmers learning by doing the programme in their
own land. The result after three planting season indicate that farmers confident
with ROF, used 10 tons/ ha organic fertilizer and natural enemies for plant
protection, increased rice production from 5.440 ton/ ha to 9.733 ton/ ha and
natural enemies is the best solution to manage pest and diseases.
© 2012 Insan Akademika All Rights Reserved
1
Introduction
Rice domestic demand is steadily growth due to population’s growth and better income. To meet the
demand, there is strong desire of the society that domestic production should be a primary source and import
should be minimized. Transforming paddy farming and better meetting human needs from avaliable
resources will require mobilization of social energy from rural communities. Dedicated and motivated agents
of change, both govermental and farmer, acting as catalyst for local initiative and responsibility are central
success of the programmes involving social energy (Sudaryanto, 2003).
The attempt to increase income from rice has long time been done, but in fact, the rice yield tends to
decrease. The followings are the causes of the problem:
1.
The decrease of the healthy and the fertility of soil. These conditions need improvement because soil
is the source of life. The quality and the balance of soil content: organic substance, micro-organism,
biological activity, the existence of elements and nutritions are important for sustainability.
2.
The trend of paddy potential to yield higher is in fact stagnant. Due to experien-ces, this results from
point one mentioned above, and from paddy cultivation that has not developed according to its
potential.
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International Journal of Basic and Applied Science,
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 1-6
3.
4.
Santosa
The use of inorganic chemical element, both fertilizers and pesticides is higher and higher. This results
in that the makrob in the soil doesn’t function well anymore.
Farmers’ behavior at the moment is far from wisdom in taking advantage of local potential, for
example, rice stalks as food for micro-organism in the soil is now only burned or left just like that.
The problem is whether or not the farmers are aware of those problems mentioned above. Something has to
be done. To overcome the complex problem of rice farming at the moment as mentioned above, the farmers
are supposed to be educated and trained so that they are able to analyze and make decision on their land and
are able to study and practice plant cultivation emphasizing on local potential management.
1.1
Objective
The objective of this program is to educate farmers using indegenous micro organisme and local potential
resources in paddy cultivation to increase paddy productivity with friendly environmentaly
1.2
Methodology
Methodology of this programme was Rapid Rural Appraisal with Partisipatory Rural Appraisal, continue
with Focus Group Development and implemented by Demonstration plot (Kusnaka, 2000)
2
Rice Organic Farming
Rice Organic Farming (ROF) is intensive and efficient paddy cultivation with the management process of
root system based on soil, plant and water management. For the first time this cultivation implemented wit
Farmer Partisipatory Appraisal method was studied together with farmers in their own land incooperation
with Farmers Organization (FO) and Agricultre Extention Service at Tirtabumi Cikoneng, Ciamis District,
West Java, started from February 2000, integrated with Soil Ecology Study. At the moment, ROF has
developed well enough, being studied and socialized by Farmer’s Study Group of Tirtabumi, Cinta Alam,
Turangga, Bunirasa, Alam Sejati, Tirtamukti, Bumisejati.
Support from Ciamis regional government was started in 2001 in the form of financial support for studies
done by Tirtabumi Farmer’s Study Group for Organic Fertilizer Study and ROF. Soil Ecology Study was
done by other FO. In 2003, regional govern-ment of Ciamis supported the development of ROF in 3 subdistricts, each of which get 2 hectares of land, for training and implementation. The regional government also
supported FO Tirtamukti, Sub-district Banjarsari by giving 60 goats to provide organic fertilizer. The
government of West Java supported ROF study at FO Tirtamukti, Banjarsari, by providing 10 ha of land
including agriculture field school taking care of environment, farmer’s laboratory for developing Indigenous
Micro Organism (IMO), for decomposer and liquid organic fertilizer, and conducting Farmers Field Days at
the end of planting season. Soil organic matter is the main source of C, N, P, and S elements.
Healthy soil is generally defined as the ability of soil that is continuously in function as important life system
in ecosystem and takes advantage of soil to produce biologically and catches much oxygen and water from
the environment to keep the healthy of plant, animal and human being. Principally, the healthy soil produces
also the healthy plant.
3
The Implementation of ROF
Experiences show that the farmers who follow Soil Ecology Study understand more about the concept of
healthy soil. When they adopted ROF, and found out that the leaves of their paddy plant were yellow, they
were not panic, because they understand that organic fertilizer has slow effect. They know exactly that the
colour of the leaves will gradually turn green until harvest time. On the contrary, the farmers who do not
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 1-6
follow Soil Ecology Study will be panic when they found out that the leaves of their plants were yellow.
They tend to give fertilizer to the plant as soon as possible.
3.1
Soil tillage and fertilization
To get a good growing media, land is tilled as usual (plowing, harrowing and leveling), but at the second
tillage (harrowing) there is organic fertilization. The dosage of organic fertilizer ranges from 7 to 10 tons per
hectare. At the time of organic fertilizing and land leveling, effort should be done to avoid water’s carrying
away the nutrition. Ditches should be made at the edge and center of rice field’s parcels to get easy water
management.
3.2
Preparing seeds and seedbed
Only seeds underwater are taken and washed to raise seedling. The chosen seeds are germinated for one
night. For each hectare of land, only 5-7 kg of seeds are needed. To make seedbed for ROF, 420-490 pipitis
per hectare (pipiti = square basket of plaited bamboo of 20 X 20 cm) are needed. Pipiti is used to get easy
observation and selection of seed. Soil as growing media is mixed with organic fertilizer in proportion of 1:
1.
The followings are stages to make seed bed:
1.
Mixing soil with organic fertilizer (Henceforth, this mixture will be called fertilized soil).
2.
After being covered with banana leave, fill three fourth of the pipiti with fertilized soil, pour water on
it, so that the fertilized soil is damp.
3.
Sow 300-350 seeds per pipiti, cover them with thin layer of fertilized soil, pour water on it again. Put
the seedbeds in a safe and shaded place in the backyard of the house. Keep the seedbeds damp by
pouring them daily with water.
3.2
Planting
At the age of 7-10 days, the seeds are planted, one seed per one hole at the depth of 1-1.5 cm, at the
condition of muddy soil. Per hectare will need 4.9-7 kgs of seeds. When the seeds are planted at the same
time, there will be competition among each other to get nutrition, oxygen and sun shine. The seeds are
planted shallowly and and with horizontal root (L shaped). If it’s not so treated, the seed would need big
energy to start regrowing.
Based on the experience of Farmer’s Group Study, good distance among plants at ROF are, among others, 25
X 25 cm, 27 X 27 cm or 30 X 30 cm. The wider the distance, the more the number of productive young
plants, because the less the competition to get nutrition, oxygen and sun energy. The need for organic
fertilizer is 7-10 tons per hectare plus paddy stalks already available in the rice field.
3.3
Water management and weeding
Paddy plant cultivated based on ROF is apparently not water plant but it needs water in its growth. ROF is
cultivated in the uninundated soil condition, so that there is more oxygen available in the soil, that is taken
advantaged by root. In the condition of uninundated, root will grow rapidly, so that the plant can take
nutrition as much as possible. At the age of 1-8 days of paddy, the soil condition is muddy (0 cm water
level). At the age of 9-10 days, the water level is 2-3 cm, so that it will be easier to do weeding. Until the
age of 18 days, the water is drained, at the age of 19-20 days the plant is inundated to make the second
weeding easier. Henceforth, the drain, inundation, and weeding are done with the same interval, until the
plant is in bloom. When the plant is in bloom, the plant is watered, and when the plant starts ripening, then
the water is again drained until harvest time.
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3.4
Santosa
Pest Management
In sustainable agriculture integrate biocontrol agent such as parasitoid, predator and bio-insecticide should be
used if insect pest population more than economic threshold level, there were managing agro-ecosystem
(Santosa, 2004)
3.5
Production
Based on the Farmer’s Group Study analysis, the yield of paddy cultivation using ROF reaches 7.36-12.6
tons per hectare. This data is supported by the number of productive tillers e.g., 33, medium number of: 45,
and the higher number of 72, even of 92. This is not a miracle. This resulted from the process of soil, plant,
and water management that meet the need of paddy plant. The combination of Soil Ecology Study and ROF
has established the basic concept of right organic agriculture. The following is data on field experience of
paddy cultivation using ROF:
Table 1.
Data on Rice Organic Farming from Farmer Organization at Ciherang, Ratawangi and Kawasen
village, planting season 2002/2003
No
Name of Farmers
Village
Variety
Age
Number of Tiller
1
H. Suharjadinata
Ciherang
Towuti
95
29-50
2
D. Supriatna
Ciherang
Ciherang
95
25-53
3
Sutar
Ratawangi
Towuti
95
22-59
4
Endin
Kawasen
Ciherang
98
28-59
5
Dadan
Kawasen
Ciherang
99
22-53
6
Omed
Kawasen
Ciherang
98
25-49
7
Masturmudi
Kawasen
IR 64
98
24-55
8
Kanang
Kawasen
Ciherang
99
26-65
9
Usin
Kawasen
Ciherang
98
23-47
10
Iro
Kawasen
Ciherang
95
26-37
11
Totong S
Kawasen
Sintanur
94
29-59
12
Hadman
Kawasen
Ciherang
94
28-47
13
Parta
Kawasen
Ciherang
95
27-74
14
Darto
Kawasen
Ciherang
83
26-56
15
Suherman
Kawasen
Ciherang
95
22-49
16
Didin
Kawasen
Ciherang
95
25-32
17
Endang
Kawasen
Ciherang
94
28-48
18
Danu
Kawasen
IR 64
95
28-49
19
Sahro
Kawasen
Ciherang
95
24-46
20
H. Karsa
Kawasen
IR 64
83
26-49
21
Komarudin
Kawasen
IR 64
85
25-48
3.6
Farm Analysis
From data above it’s shown that the average yield of Ciherang variety at Kawasen is 9.733 ton/ha GKP (dry
harvested unhusked paddy), the yield of the same variety using traditional system was 5.440 ton/ha GKP. At
4
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 1-6
Ciherang village average yield were 9.885 and Ratawangi was 9.92 ton/ha GKP.It’s apparent from those data
that ROF still has better benefit compared to traditional system. Further analysis can be seen from the
following table:
Table 2. Comparison of Rice Farm Analysis (ROF and Traditional System) at Kawasen Village
No.
A
Description
ROF (Rp.)
The Component of Input/Ha
-
Seed (Rp 3.400/kg)
-
Fertilizer
1.
Organic
2.
Inorganic
-
Soil Tillage
-
Cultivation
1.
Seedbed
2.
Seedbed Media
3.
Transplanting
4.
Weeding
5.
Pest Control
166,600.-
1,050,000.-
-
-
873,250.-
500,000.-
500,000.-
30,000.-
105,000.-
112,000.-
-
75,000-
75,000.-
735,000,-
735,000,-
-
100,000,-
Cost of Harvest
1,358,000.-
705,600.-
-
Labour for daily maintenance 90 MD x
Rp 15.000
1,350,000.-
1,350,000.-
4,682,190.-
4,610,450.-
(9,733 kg)
11,971,590.-
(5,440 kg)
6,691,200.-
7,289,400,-
2,080,750.-
The Component of
Output ( price of paddy Rp 1.230.-/kg )
Profit
C
16,660.-
-
Total Input/ha
B
Traditional (Rp.)
Difference between ROF - Traditional
9,733 kg-5,440 kg = 4,293 kg
Rp. 11,971,590.- - Rp. 6,691,200.- =
Rp 5,210,237.-
The table above shows that ROF is more profitable compared to traditional system, however, it doesn’t mean
that ROF will also be successful in other locations, because those locations have their own difference
characteristics of soil conditions and farmers’ behavior. Therefore, it’s suggested that the farmers make trial
of ROF first in a small scale at their own locations.
Table 3. The behavioral changes of farmers from traditional system of paddy cultivation to ROF
No.
Activities
Before ROF
After ROF
1.
Soil Tillage
-
Using tractor: Plowing,
Harrowing, leveling
-
Using tractor: Plowing, Harrowing,
organic fertilizing, leveling
2.
Seed Treatment
-
No special seed treatment
-
There is seed treatment to get
qualified seed. Seeds are submerged
in salty water. Only seeds underwater
are used for seedbed
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No.
Activities
Santosa
Before ROF
Make special seedbed at rice
field
After ROF
3
Land for seedbed
-
-
4
The need for seed
35 \-49 kg of seeds are needed per
hectare
5-7 kg of seeds are needed per hectare
5
Seed treatment before
being planted
Seeds are pulled out. Part of their
leaves are cut. Left one hour or one
day before being planted
Seeds are directly planted From pipiti
6
Planting
The age of seed is 18-25 days. 5-8
seeds are planted at the depth of 4-6
cm
-
7
Water manageMent
The height of water is 5-7 cm
No need much water. Wet condition is
needed, except at time of soil tillage, water
is managed based on weeding frequencies
with interval of 10 days.
8
Fertilizing
Use 200 kg Urea, 100 kg TSP, and
100 kg KCl per hectare.
-
4
Using pipiti of 20x20 cm.
400-500 pipitis are needed per
hectare.
The age of seed is 6-7 days.
One seed is planted per one hole at
the depth of 1-2 cm.
Use organic fertilizer in the amount of
10 ton per hectare.
Additional fertilizer: fermented kitche
waste and MOL (Micro-Organism
Local)
9
Weeding
Objective: only to get rid of weeds
Objective:
to get rid of weeds
to improve soil structure, so that
there is supply of oxygen in the soil.
10
Pest Control
-
-
Using pesticide
Using botanical insecticide, raise
parasitoid and predators.
Conclusion
After three planting seasons, farmers confidence that ROF environmentally friendly and using organic
fertilizer and natural enemies increase rice production from 5.440 ton/ha to 9.733 ton/ha.
Refferences
Adimihardja, K. and Harry (2000), Partisipatory Rural Appraisal, LPM Unpad.
Pusat Pengembangan Ketersediaan Pangan. 2002. Analisis permintaan dan produksi beras Indonesia 20012004. Available at http://www.deptan.go.id., on August 22th, 2011.
Santosa, E. (2004) Pemanfaatan Parasitoid dan Predator dalam Pengendalian Hama Utama Padi Secara
Berkelanjutan. Unpad Bandung
Sudaryanto, T. (2003). Sustainable Food Crops Production Programm to Strengthen Food Security,
Directorate Geneneral of Food Crops Production Development, Ministry of Agriculture. Jakarta.
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Vol. 01, No. 01
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Insan Akademika
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Key Succes Factors for Organic Farming Development
Muhammad Ali Ramdhani1 and Entun Santosa2
1
Professor of Faculty of Science and Technology,
Islamic State University of Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung- Indonesia
Jl. A. H. Nasution No, 105, Bandung
[email protected]
2
Professor of Faculty of Agriculture,
Padjadajaran University, Bandung-Indonesia
Jl. Raya Jatinagor, Sumedang – Indonesia
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Analytic Hierarchy Process;
Weight;
Criteria;
Organic Farming
The aim of this research is to determine the weight from determinant factors in
developing organic farming in Garut District, West Java, Indonesia. Determinant
factor in the research are determined based on judgment from the respondent.
Determinant factors in developing farming are classified by some aspects such as
technology, social and politic, economic and environment. The weight of each
factor is counted by using weight method based on Analytic Hierarchy Process
(AHP) Model. The result of synthesis shows that respondents prefer organic
farming method than conventional method. However, to implement organic
farming extensively needs program or policy support from stakeholders on subcriteria who tend to make organic farming better. The programs including
orientation on quantity improvement in organic farming yield, provision of
equipments, and raw materials, farmer’s performance, financial support,
provision of market, and decreasing organic farming business risk.
1
Introduction
One of approaches to maintain food security by implementing organic farming. Organic farming according
to CCOF (2002) in Dung (2005) is defined as “methods of growing and processing foods that rely on the
earth’s natural resources.” Pest and weeds are managed by using eat-friendly means such as beneficial insect
and mechanical controls. Organic farmers work to build natural nutrients in soil which help fertilize plant
without relying on synthetic fertilizer.
Ching (2002) describes a sustainable farm must produce adequate high quality yields, be profitable, protect
the environment, conserve resources and be socially responsible in the long term. Specifically, the indicators
used were soil quality, horticultural performance, orchard profitability, environmental quality and energy
efficiency.
Organic farming largely excludes synthetic inputs-pesticide, herbicides and fertilizers and focuses instead on
biological process such as composting and other measures to maintain soil fertility, natural pest control and
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Ramdhani and Santosa
diversifying crops and livestock. Organic agriculture gives priority to long-term ecological health, which
concentrate on short-term productivity gains.
Generally, organic farming has more advantages than conventional method developed in the research site.
However, in the implementation, it needs studying of determinant aspects in developing organic farming so
that the decision maker in agriculture can see its role in developing organic farming.
2
Methodology
A review on the various methods and procedures for weighing the factors on organic farming development
assistance program currently suggested in the literature reveals considerable difference in a number of points.
Then, determination on determinant factors involved in the model determined based on judgment from the
respondent. In the research, the participants/ the respondents are employees of Bappeda (Regional
Developing Planning Agency) and Agriculture Department in Garut District. The appointment of the
participant based on consideration that introduction level and their expertise towards the grading system of
farming method.
Figure 1. Research Methodology
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Problem system begins from basic idea of development of multi-criteria decision making, especially AHP
developed by Saaty (1986; 1989; 2004). The analysis then linked with decision maker’s problem in
determining the organic farming development. It is shown in Figure 1.
AHP model application is the task of assigning weight to various criteria and the construction of pairwise
comparison matrices. It starts as the top level of the hierarchy, and proceeds to the other level until the
lowest level of the tree is reached. The calculations are made by using commercially available micro
computer software package EXPERT CHOICE (EC).
3
Result and Discussion
Introduction to the Environment of the Problem
One of to the aims of this research is to measure the weight of each aspect needs to be considered in selecting
farming model development, especially for organic farming and conventional methods. Determination of
criteria is determined by four criteria; that is aspect of technology, social and politic, economic, and
environment.
Figure 2. Hierarchy Structure in Deciding the Selection of Farming Method
Classification of the above criteria is made based on influential suggestion or thought on criteria toward the
decision for selection of farming method in research location. Based on library review and field observation,
the group can be developed and detailed more into sub hierarchy groups.
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Analysis and Synthesis
Synthesis process is meant to get priority of synthesis and likehood total due to the objective of priority
determination for farming method. In this process, aggregation is made for the relative demand from design
hierarchy.
Objectives of Selecting Farming Method
Selecting the farming method will consider technological, social and political, economical, and
environmental aspect from those methods. Selected commodity will be declared as farming methods
preferred, and appropriate assistance program will be taken for its development.
Table 1. Weight of Criteria and Alternative
Factor
Sub factor
Technology
0,145
Social-Politics
0,138
Economy
0,454
Environment
0,263
Product Quantity
Product Quality
Equipment Provision
Raw Material
Manpower’s Skill
Likehood
Government Support
Work change
Likehood
Profitability
Investment
Risk
Market
Likehood
Sustainability
Friendly Environment
Likehood
TOTAL LIKEHOOD
0,036
0,036
0,018
0,036
0,019
0,075
0,063
0,170
0,083
0,041
0,161
0,125
0,138
Alternative
Conventional
Organic Farming
0,019
0,017
0,011
0,025
0,010
0,008
0,021
0,014
0,010
0,009
0,072
0,073
0,038
0,038
0,037
0,025
0,075
0,063
0,091
0,079
0,047
0,036
0,011
0,031
0,119
0,042
0,268
0,187
0,014
0,111
0,011
0,126
0,025
0,237
0,428
0,572
Table 1 shows determinant factors which become the key aspects or criteria in selecting farming method
preferred by the respondents. In fact that conventional method is used extensively by the farmers in Garut
District. However, the results of synthesis and research show that the researched respondents prefer organic
farming method.
Based on the research result, the most important aspect in selecting farming method is economic. It is based
on the fact that consideration in economic is the main aspect; furthermore, it is followed by environmental,
technology, and finally social and political aspect.
Criteria Analysis
1.
Technology
One of strategic issues in the farming development is technology. Analysis towards this aspect is a
measurement how far a farming method can affect product quality and quantity, equipment availability, raw
material provision, and the level of the farmers’ skill. In the technological aspect is identified some
10
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 7-13
important factors in implementing organic farming followed by quality and quantity aspect, raw material
provision, manpower’s skill, and equipment availability.
a.
Product Quantity
Product quantity measured in this research is productivity level from each method. The use of
inorganic fertilizer and pesticide based on field observation has yield higher product quantity by
conventional farming method than that of organic farming method. Sahai (2005) identifies if the
comparison is made in a short-term, the organic farming has lower productivity (5 to 20 percent) than
that of conventional method. But if the comparison is applied in longer term, organic farming will
produce higher product. It is based on the improvement of soil quality in organic farming, which will
improve more followed by the time travel, improve plant productivity.
b.
Product Quality
Product quality stated in this research is not product esthetic but product-consumption feasibility.
Based on analysis result, I find out that respondent prefer organic farming method products. It is
parallel with what mention in Brandt and Kidmose (2003) who the use of organic methods can benefit
the nutritional value of food in several ways. The organic production system is believed to influence
the nutritional quality of foods. As a result of maturity of organic plant products tend to have a higher
content of dry matter and vitamin C, and a lower concentration of nitrate. It has been documented in
several studies although a number of exceptions have also been found (Woese et al, 1997). Some of
the exceptions may be as a result of not comparing with the same variety. In other cases, mature
growth termination in the organic production system. When comparing the same wheat variety in the
two production system, the protein content of the organic wheat is reduced (Hauglund et al, 1998 in
Molgaard, 2004).
c.
Equipment Provision
Equipment provision is defined as “access ability of ownership and equipment borrow used for each
method”. Based on analysis result and finding in the research object site, the supporting equipment for
convention model are easier than that of organic farming. To implement organic farming more
extensively, it need stakeholders’ involvement to provide equipment for organic farming method.
d.
Raw Material
The provision of raw materials is an important component in implementing a farming method. Based
on research result, for organic farming, the farmers’ are faced with difficulty in finding or obtaining
organic fertilizer, but for conventional method various kinds of raw material fertilizers and pesticides
are available sufficiently in the market.
e.
Manpower’s Skill
Habitual aspect is one of manpower’s’ skill formatting. The farmers’ habit nowadays is applying
conventional method besides they often hold training un the utility of inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides. Meanwhile for organic farming method, which is being redeveloped, needs to change the
work patterns which need training and education to improve the farmers’ skills in implementing
organic farming.
2.
Social and Politic
One of aspect which becomes attention in the research is social and politic. Analysis made to see the effect
of a farming method linked with government’s support and the work pattern change. The result of the
research shows that government’s support is more important than work change.
a.
Government Support
Government support is an important aspect in implementing a farming program. In this case, the
government has given attention for organic farming, but the support has not been realized in the form
of policy which gives significant effect. The support for organic farming has just realized in the form
of intensification in research based on implementation in organic farming research.
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 7-13
b.
Work Change
One of social aspect used in this study is a work change aspect. Based on analysis result, the farmers
usually apply conventional method that it needs work cultural change to implement organic farming.
It is parallel with mention in Santosa and Ramdhani (2005), in order to implement organic farming,
the farmers are supposed to be educated and trained so that they able to analyze and make decision on
their land and are able to study and practice plant cultivation emphasizing on local potential
management.
3.
Economic
On of strategic issues in the farming development is economic. Analysis towards this aspect is a
measurement how far a farming method in giving economic value for the farmers. Through this aspect is
identified some important factors in the implementation of organic farming followed by profitability,
marketing, investment and risk aspect.
a.
Profitability
Calculation result shows that respondent, from profitability side, think that conventional method is
more profitable than that of organic farming. Based on research about the implementation of organic
farming shows that in the first part of implementation of organic farming result that that harvest yields
are less than the capital the farmer must bear or pay compared with the conventional method. The cost
component whish must be added are the purchase of organic fertilizer and manpower addition. For
example, on rice organic farming, the need for fertilizer for every hectare of land is 7-10 tones/ha. The
provision of organic fertilizer are more difficult because they are not available in market. But in the
long term, the farmers can make organic fertilizers themselves by utilizing the rest of plant from their
harvest yield.
b.
Investment
Respondent seem to respond that investment they must pay for organic farming is cheaper than that of
conventional method. It is based on their knowledge that organic faming needs not cost to buy
fertilizer and pesticide.
c.
Risk
From the side of risk, respondent think that conventional method is more risky than that of organic
farming. It is realized based on experience of the farmers that conventional method has a high risk
toward harvest failure because it depends on an organic fertilizer and pesticides. If the pests are
adapted to artificial pesticides and fertilizers, it will increase the trouble to the plants automatically and
foil the harvest.
d.
Market
Respondent seem to think that the market product from the conventional method is better than that of
organic farming. It is because the product yield by conventional method tends to be better from the
sides of shape an appearance.
4.
Environment
Environment aspect is important to be considered. Environment al issue in the farming is promoted in
various fields, to think that the use of chemical matters in farming is bad. The criteria used in this aspect are
sustainability and friendly environment. The respondent think that friendly environment is more important
than sustainability.
a.
Sustainability
Respondents see from the sustainability side that organic farming method is better than that of
conventional method. Ching (2002) describes the uses of chemical matter such as an organic fertilizer
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 7-13
and pesticides in conventional method make soil condition bad. The use of organic fertilizer in
organic farming will improve the soil condition to be better. The good soil condition will guarantee
sustainability of farming and environment.
b.
Friendly Environment
Respondent see that organic farming method is more friendly towards environment than conventional
method. Organic farming is natural farming process without involving artificial fertilizers and
pesticides. Pesticides is thought as pollution which endangers environment that it needs to be avoided.
In organic farming, pesticides is replaces natural enemies from the pest will be blustered.
4
Conclusion
Organic farming guarantees food security through sustainable farming by improving the soil quality. Based
on respondents’ perception, the organic farming has advantage in various aspect such as product quality, low
risk, and environment criteria, especially in the sustainability and friendly environment.
In general, based on likelihood evaluation, organic farming is chosen as priority in the development program.
However, to further implementation, it needs stakeholders’ support for development of organic farming
through the program of orientation on quality improvement in organic farming yield, provision of equipment,
and raw materials, farmers’ performance, financial support, provisions of market, and decreasing organic
farming business risk.
Refferences
Brandt, K. and U. Kidmose (2003). Nutritional Consequences of Using Organic Agricultural Methods in
Developing Countries. In: Impacts of Agriculture on Human Health and Nutrition, in Encyclopedia
of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO.
Ching, L. L. (2002).
Organic Agriculture Fights Back.
organic_agriculture_fights_back.htm on August 22th, 2011.
Available at http://www.cadi.ph/
Dung, P. T. (2005). Organic Farming; The Curent Statusand Future Development in Vietnam. Journal of
ISSAAS. Vol 11. No. 1. June 2005.
Kristensen, E. S., H. F. Alrøe and B. Hansen (2002). Food safety in an Organic Perspective. Paper
presented at 14th IFOAM Organic World Congress, Cultivating Communities, Victoria, Canada, 2124 August 2002. Available at http://orgprints.org/19/ on August 22th, 2011.
Mølgaard, J. P. (2004). The Perspective in Organic Farming in Relation to Human Health. Paper presented
at 1st International Symposium on Healthy Diet and Organic Foods, Ankara, Turkey, 9 May 2004.
Available at http://orgprints.org/00003997 on August 22th, 2011.
Saaty, T. L. (2004). Scales from Measurement not Measurement from Scales. Proceedings. Indonesian
Symposium on Analytic Hierarchy Process, 6-7 August 2004, Bandung.
Saaty, T. L. (1989).
Pittsburgh.
Multi-Criteria Decision Making; the Analytic Hierarchy Process, University of
Saaty, T. L. (1986). Exploring Optimization through Hierarchies and Ratio Scales, Socio-Economic
Planning Science, Vol. 20, No.6, pp. 355-360.
Sahai, S.
(2005). Strategies for Sustainable Increase In Food Production.
http://www.genecampaign.org/General/ag&foodsecurity/ on August 22th, 2011.
Available at
Santosa, E. (2004). Pemanfaatan Parasitoid dan Predator dalam Pengendalian Hama Utama Padi
Secara Berkelanjutan. Universitas Padjadajaran, Bandung.
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Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
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Synthesis of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Sensor based on Nanostructure
Zinc Oxide using Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD) Methods
Muhammad Iqbal1,2, Brian Yuliarto2, Nugraha2
1
Research and Community Service Institute, Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Garut
Jl. Mayor Syamsu No. 1, Garut – Indonesia
[email protected]
2
Engineering Physics Research Group, Institut Teknologi Bandung
Jl. Ganesha No. 8, Bandung-Indonesia
Key words
Abstract
Zinc Oxide;
Porous Thin Layer;
Liquefied Petroleum Gas;
Chemical Bath Deposition
Porous thin layer of zinc oxide have been made using chemical bath deposition
method with the precursor of zinc nitrate tetrahydrate on a substrate of alumina
(Al2O3). The morphology of the formed layer has the form of sheet structure and
flowerlike structure. ZnO layers showed the lack of oxygen. Conductivity sensors
varies with changes in operating temperature, the higher the operating
temperature, the higher the conductivity. The best performance shown by the
sensors with 100% solvent composition of water (sheet structure) at a temperature
of 200oC with a sensitivity of 44.83%, 80 seconds response time and 90 seconds
recovery time. The sensor is able to detect the presence of LPG and also can
measure the concentration of LPG.
1
Introduction
Metal oxide semiconductors that featured on the optical and electrical properties, have been widely used as
an electrochemical device, such as chemical sensors (Hashimoto, et. al., 2005], photocatalyst (Yuliarto, et.
al., 2006), and dye-sensitized solar cell (Gratzel, 2003). One use of metal oxide semiconductor materials as
chemical sensors is to sense and to detect the presence of harmful gases, among others, carbon monoxide,
VOCs, and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). As we know, gas is a chemical compound consisting of the
elements and can react with other elements. In particular, it has learned that certain gases can react with the
nanostructure metal oxide semiconductor sensitive layer. This fact is what makes nanostructure metal oxide
semiconductor sensitive layer used as the gas sensor or detector. Gas sensors made from metal oxide
semiconductors are good for detecting hazardous gases such as SnO2, ZnO, TiO2, and MoO3. Types of
semiconductor sensors are highly sensitive, economical, has a fast response, and low energy consumption
(Elmer, et. al., 2007)
Utilization of metal oxide semiconductor as an electrochemical device, must have a porous structure. Recent
research has shown that the sensitivity of the sensor can be improved if the use of sensors that have a
mesoporous or nanoporous structure. Layer with a porous structure will have a specific surface area large
enough to improve the process of electrochemical reactions take place at the contact area between the oxide
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Iqbal, et. al.
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 14-21
material with a reagent substance. Materials with pore size or even smaller micro can support a more
effective mass transfer.
The development of material processing techniques in the early years, allows us to get the shape in the form
of metal oxide semiconductor thin films with nanometer-sized pores. Has been learned from previous studies
that a thin layer of porous metal oxide semiconductor can be made using the Chemical Bath Deposition
(CBD) (Wu, et. al., 2008) CBD is a simpler method and less expensive than its predecessor with some
methods such as Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), one-step soft solution, spray pyrolisis, and anodization.
CBD method is done by simply immersing the substrate into a solution of “aqueous metal salt” which are
controlled by temperature condition, pH and duration of immersion (Wang and Xie, 2006).
Meanwhile, the metal oxide semiconductor materials are widely used for the fabrication of gas sensors is
zinc oxide (ZnO). This is due to ZnO is n-type semiconductor which has some very good electrical
properties for use as sensors, such as having a high mobility of conduction electrons, is stable to chemical
treatment and heat treatment, conductivity varies with the concentration of adsorbed gases and contains no
toxins (Wu, et. al., 2008; Wang and Xie, 2006)
2
Experiment
To prepare ZnO, CBD solution was synthesized from zinc nitrate tetrahydrate and the dissolving of urea in
the DI water. Zinc nitrate tetrahydrate and aqua DM + ethanol was dissolved at room temperature and stirred
using a magnetic stirrer for 30 minutes. Urea is added to the solution and stirred for 30 minutes to produce a
homogeneous solution. Alumina substrate has been cleaned up soaked and placed in a standing position on a
clear solution. Substrates were immersed in clear CBD solution, kept in the urnace at a temperature of 60oC
for 24 hr. Substrates have been deposited are removed from the place of immersion and washed using
acetone to stop the growth of crystals. Then the films were rinsed in DI water several times and dried at 60oC
for one hour in air atmosphere. A transformation into zinc oxide was conducted by calcination of the films at
300oC in air atmosphere for 30 minute with 20oC/minute heat rate (Ariyanto, et. al., 2009).
The resulting nanostructure ZnO film is confirmed using several materials characterization tools including
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), and X-Ray Diffraction
(XRD). Morphology of the nanostructure ZnO is known by Scanning Electron Microscopy measurement.
Purity of nanostruscture ZnO formed on the substrate was analyzed by Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy
measurements and crystalline phase of ZnO was analyzed by X-Ray Diffractometer using Philips Analytical
X-Ray. Diffraction patterns obtained with Cu radiation (λ = 1.54060 Å) through generator voltage of 40 kV
and current 25 mA. Tool set in step scan mode with 0.02° 2θ step size and 0.5 seconds step time in the range
20o-90o 2θ degree.
3
The Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 shows the results of XRD and EDS measurements on samples of the sensor which is
made from solvent with composition 100% of water. From XRD results, indicated that the zincite crystalline
phase was successfully formed and not indicated of another formation crystalline phase. Intensity of a
significant peak occurs at certain angles and this is in accordance with the standards of the Joint Committee
on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS).
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 14-21
Iqbal, et. al.
Figure 1. X-Ray Diffraction patterns of nanostructure ZnO
Figure 2. Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy spectrum of nanostructure ZnO
The Fig. 2 shows EDS spectrum measurements of nanostructure ZnO. From the spectrum, can be seen that
there are no elements in the sample other than that of Zn and O. Table 1 shows the results of quantitative
analysis performed by EDS instrument. From the table can be known mass and atomic percentage of Zn and
O. Comparison of the percentage of Zn and O atoms are not exactly 1:1, but 1:0.996. This shows that the
ZnO layer is formed, there are lattice defects such as oxygen vacancy.
Table 1. EDS quantitative analysis result
16
Elements
Mass%
Atom%
O
19.60
49.90
Zn
80.40
50.10
Total
100.00
100.00
Iqbal, et. al.
Figure 3.
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 14-21
Surface morphology of two sensors, (a) sheet structure and (b) flowerlike structure, (c) porous
of nanostructure ZnO
Fig. 3 shows the micrograph of the surface morphology of the sensors which synthesized with 100% water
and 75% water + 25% ethanol solvent composition. Sensors with 100% water solvent composition, grain
could be sheet-shaped structure. While the sensor is at 75% water + 25% ethanol solvent composition, which
formed a flowerlike morphological structure.
The LPG-sensing mechanism of the nanostrucure ZnO may be explained as follows. The adsorption of
atmospheric oxygen on the film surface forms ionic species such as O2− and O− which acquire electrons from
the conduction band (Sahay and Nath, 2008). The reaction kinetics is as follows:
O2 (gas) ↔ O2 (ads)
O2 (ads) + e- ↔ O2- (ads)
O2- (ads) + e- ↔ 2O- (ads)
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 14-21
Iqbal, et. al.
Although the reaction mechanism for LPG is quite complex and proceeds through several intermediates
which are yet to be fully understood, but the overall reaction of LPG molecules with adsorbed oxygen
species may be explained as follows:
CnH2n+2 + 2O- → H2O + CnH2n:O + eCnH2n: O + O- → CO2 +H2O + eHere, CnH2n+2 represents CH4, C3H8, C4H10, etc. while CnH2n:O represents partially oxidized intermediates on
the ZnO surface. Thus, during oxidation LPG liberates electrons into the conduction band, thereby
decreasing the resistance of the film upon exposure to LPG (Sahay and Nath, 2008)
The Fig. 4 shows the relationship between the resistance (ohms) and time (seconds). This figure is one
example that shows the typical dynamic characteristics of the dynamic response of sensors in this study. The
Fig. 4 shows that the exposure of LPG gas yield change in resistivity indicate that the sensor has sensitivity
for LPG gas. The resistivity decrease as the exposure of LP gas and back to the initial line when the LP gas is
stopped. This phenomenon indicate that the nanostructure of ZnO absorp the LP gas and desorp very well.
Figure 4. Typical dynamic response of nanostructure ZnO
The Fig. 5 shows the gradient of conductivity of the sensor sheet structure and flowerlike structure. From the
figure could be seen that the higher operating temperature, the higher the conductivity sensor. Differences in
conductivity sensors increased along with the higher operating temperatures. With increasing temperature the
concentration of electrons in the conduction band will increase because electrons originating from lattice
defects (for ZnO are oxygen vacancies) are thermally excited into the conduction band. This phenomenon
can be explained by the equation:
=
/
.
....(1)
where ne is the electron charge carrier concentration and energy gap Eg is the width of the gap energy, k
Boltzmann constant, and T the absolute temperature sensor in Kelvin. While Nc and Nv are the effective
density of conduction band energy level and the valence band. From equation (1) above is known that higher
operating temperatures will cause the increase of charge carrier so that the conductivity will increase.
Conductivity sensors appear higher sheet structure due to the dense morphology of the surface layer, as
shown in Fig. 3(a).
If we analyze performance based on the morphology formed in each solvent composition, the performance of
the detection sensor to the shape of sheet structure would be better because the grains look more densely. In
other words, as shown by Fig. 3(a), a closer linkage of the grains making it easier for electron transfer from
one grain to another grain. Meanwhile, as shown by Fig. 3(b), grains on the morphology of flowerlike
structure, look relatively less densely.
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Iqbal, et. al.
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 14-21
Figure 5. Conductivity of sensors
The Table 2 shows differences in response time and recovery time from a variety of sensor. From the table it
can be seen that the operating temperature has an influence on the sensor response time. Response time and
recovery time become faster at the higher operating temperatures.
Table 2. Response time and recovery time of sensors
Sensors
Operating Temperature
Response Time (secs)
Recovery Time (secs)
100oC
120
150-160
150 C
110
140
200oC
80
100
250 C
80
90
100oC
110
140
150oC
o
Sheet structure
o
Flowerlike structure
110
130
o
90
90
o
90
90
200 C
250 C
The sensitivity of sensors is calculated using convensional formula of sensitivity (Eq. 1) as LPG possesses
the properties of reducing gas.
 Ra − R g
Sensitivit y = 
 Ra

 × 100 %

...(1)
where Ra is the resistance of the sensor in air and Rg is that upon exposure to LPG.
The comparison of sensitivity as a function of operating temperature has also been studied. The sensitivity
for all sensors increase as the increasing of operating temperature from 100o C until 250o C. The significance
increasing happened when the operating temperature increase from 100oC to 200oC. The optimum sensitivity
of sensors is happened at the sheet structure sensor operated at 250oC. This phenomenon shows that the
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 14-21
Iqbal, et. al.
higher temperature make the surface structure of materials being open so that it can receive the LP gas better
than that is lower temperature. From the Fig. 6 could be seen that the higher operating temperature, the
higher sensitivity sensor.
Figure 6. Comparison of sensitivity at 100oC, 150oC, 200oC and 250oC operating temperatures.
The sensitivity for different concentration of LP gas also has been investigated. The sensor received different
concentration at 200 ppm, 400 ppm and 800 ppm. The resistivity change in different value for those
concentrations indicate that the sensors has different sensitivity for different concentration of LP gas. The
different sensitvity will make the sensor can be used as the concentration detection instruments.
Figure 7. Comparison of sensitivity at 200 ppm, 400 ppm and 800 ppm concentration of LPG
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Iqbal, et. al.
4
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 14-21
Conclusions
Electrochemical sensors made from nanostructure zinc oxide has been successfully synthesized by chemical
bath deposition with zinc nitrate tetrahydrate precursors. Studies on the effect of solution composition on the
morphology of the sensitive layer indicates that the sensor sheet structures (100% water solvent composition)
has a higher sensitivity than the sensor flowerlike structures (solvent composition of 75% water + 25%
ethanol).
The sensor sheet structures has a maximum sensitivity of 44.83% at a temperature of 200oc and 800 ppm lpg
levels. While the sensor flowerlike structures has a maximum sensitivity of 37.02% at the same temperature
and level of LPG. Furthermore, the sensor sheet structures has the smallest response time of 80 seconds and
the smallest recovery time of 90 seconds at a temperature of 250oc. While sensor flowerlike structure has the
smallest response time of 90 seconds and the smallest recovery time of 90 seconds at a temperature of 200oc
and 250oc. LPG sensor can be used not only to detect the presence of LPG, but also can be used to measure
the concentration.
Acknowledgments
The work was financially supported by the Ministry of National Education, Republic of Indonesia, National
Strategic Research Grant (Hibah Strategis Nasional) which is gratefully acknowledged. The paper has been
presented at The 3rd Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Symposium Bandung, Indonesia, 16th June 2010,
Intitut Teknologi Bandung.
References
Ariyanto, N. P., H. Abdullah, S. Shaari, S. Junaidi, and B. Yuliarto. (2009). Preparation and
Characterisation of Porous Nanosheets Zinc Oxide Films; Based on Chemical Bath Deposition,
World Applied Sciences Journal 6 (6): 764-768.
Elmer, K., A. Klein, and B. Rech. (2007). Transparent Conductive Zinc Oxide. Springer Series in Materials
Science, pp. 1-2, August 2007.
Gratzel, M. (2003). Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews 4, (145-153)
2003.
Hashimoto, K., H. Irie, and A. Fujishima. (2005). Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 44, (8269-8285).
Sahay, P.P. , and R.K. Nath. (2008). Al-doped zinc oxide thin films for liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
Sensors, Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, Available online 16 February 2008.
Wang, H., and C. Xie. (2006). Controlled Fabrication Of Nanostructured ZnO Particles and Porous Thin
Films via a Modified CBD Method, Journal of Crystal Growth, Availabel online February 25th
2006.
Wu, Z.Y., J.H. Cai, and G. Ni. (2008). ZnO films Fabricated by CBD from Zinc Nitrate and Ammonium
Citrate Tribasic Solution, Thin Solid Film, Availabel online Januari 17th 2008.
Yuliarto, B., I. Honma, Y. Katsumura, and H. Zhou. (2006). Sensors and Actuators B:Chemical 114, (109111).
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Insan Akademika
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Corporate Entrepreneurship at Public Service Sector:
Measurement and the Influence toward Government Performance
Astri Ghina
School of Business and Management - Institut Teknologi Bandung
Jl. Ganesha No. 8, Bandung-Indonesia
[email protected]
Key words
Abstract
Corporate
Entrepreneurship,
Entrepreneurial,
EOS,
ELQ,
Path Analysis,
Public service
The purpose of this research is to build conceptual model of corporate
entrepreneurship within the public service sector as a baseline to improve
government performance in order to provide the best service toward society. The
study is based on questionnaires sent to the public service employees of
Pelayanan Perizinan Terpadu Satu Pintu (PPTSP) at Bandung City and Regency.
The relationship between the constructs is analyzed through path analysis. The
results showed that there was a positive and significant relationship between
entrepreneurial orientation, entrepreneurial leadership on job satisfaction and
society satisfaction. It means that the higher of entrepreneurial orientation and
entrepreneurial leadership then the higher of government performance, evaluated
from job satisfaction and society satisfaction. According to Entrepreneurial
Orientation Survey (EOS) and Entrepreneurial Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ)
results, there was a significant difference in characteristics between PPTSP at
Bandung City and Regency, evaluated from entrepreneurial orientation,
entrepreneurial leadership, job satisfaction and society satisfaction. This
research will help management within civil government organization regarding
any things that should be done to provide the best practice toward employees and
public society. This research also helps the top leaders to conduct change which is
encouraging corporate entrepreneurial mindset in order to create good
governance.
1
Introduction
The paradigm of good governance has been pervasive in the minds of many stakeholders at central and local
government, and fosters the spirit of the local government to remedy and improve their performance in order
to provide the best service quality toward public society. The implementation of regional autonomy as
mandated in Law No. 32 of 2004 is expected to be able to improve the government performance, changing
the mental attitude and behavior of service providers, to build awareness and commitment of local
government leaders and official staffs, and to remedy and improve the quality of public service performance.
In general, according to Revida (2007) the quality of public services in Indonesia does not provide
satisfaction for the society as users of services. Society as users of services should pay more expensive (high
cost economy) for getting the public service. Uncertainty of time and cost make people have a negative
perception toward the bureaucracy. While the role of public servants, especially in the areas of licensing is
22
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very important to bring change and growth of the economic fundamentals, which is the licensing sector
becomes one of the determining factors of the successful economic development besides other factors such
as a conducive business climate, legal certainty, clear scheme of work, and so forth.
This research was conducted on the basis of issues that arise in public service area, either direct complaints
or indirect complaints through print and electronic media. The research was done by Komisi Pemberantasan
Korupsi (KPK) in 2008 stated that the quality of public services in Bandung City is in the second rank lowest
in Indonesia with a score of 5.07 (the score range 0-10). Based on the results of unstructured interviews
with official staff from the information and complaint department of PPTSP at Bandung City, there were
many complaints from the society, mostly regarding with issues of cost and time in licensing process that is
not appropriate with the rules and regulations in the Regional Regulation on Licensing.
In connection with such matters, the government should be more priority to find strategic factors that affect
the performance of public service toward the society. Some studies reveal that the entrepreneurial activity
within the public service sector will improve the performance of public services (Kuratko, 2004; Thornberry,
2006). Furthermore, there have been some limitations in the existing research regarding the impact of
corporate entrepreneurship (entrepreneurial activity within the organization) on performance in the context
of civil government organization, either in local or international scope. Many studies have used corporate
entrepreneurship related to organizational performance (Covin and Slevin, 1991; Zahra, 1993; Hornsby et al.,
1993 in Adonisi 2003; Lumpkin and Dess, 1996; Adonisi, 2003; Antoncic and Hisrich, 2004; Heinonen and
Korvela, Unpublished; Kearney et al., 2008; Cangahuala and Chen, 2010). There has been limitation that
conducted in the context of civil government organization. Whereas many studies in Indonesia have
conducted in the context of civil government organization (Suryanita, 2006; Sofyan, 2008; Mariam, 2009;
Mariana, unpublished), but very limited that concern to corporate entrepreneurship concept to improve their
performance.
This study was initiated from research conducted by Heinonen and Korvela (unpublished) as a starting point
for understanding the phenomenon of corporate entrepreneurship (intrapreneurship). This model provides an
integrated picture of the phenomenon of intrapreneurship, which involves elements of potential prerequisite
of intrapreneurship; the elements are composed of internal organizational factors such as management
activities, organizational culture, organizational arrangements, skills and attitudes of employees. In addition,
this model also explains the impact of the phenomenon of intrapreneurship, which is the organizational
performance that includes job satisfaction, society satisfaction, and financial performance. This paper
follows the approach of that study and eliminates the financial performance variable because the context of
this research is non-profit organization. Besides, this paper makes reference to corporate entrepreneurship
concept that developed by Thornberry (2006), which has been limited in the existing literature.
As discussed, certain gaps have been identified in the literature. Accordingly, this paper proposes an
integrated framework that incorporates a cohesive set of corporate entrepreneurship and tests their impact on
organizational performance that includes job satisfaction and society satisfaction within the civil government
organization at public service sector. Specifically, the researcher investigates the following research
question: to what extent is the relationship between corporate entrepreneurship and job satisfaction, society
satisfaction from internal process approach. This research question will enable us to contribute to theory by
means of better understanding the corporate entrepreneurship in the context of civil government organization
at public service sector. It will lead the managers about anything that should be done to provide the best
service quality toward their employees and society. This paper is organized as follows. The next section
presents a literature review of the main constructs and related hypotheses. The research design and
methodology are then addressed before the hypotheses testing. The study concludes with a discussion of the
theoretical and managerial contributions of the results, and it recognizes its limitation and provides
suggestions for future research.
2
Literature Review and Hypotheses Development
Corporate Entrepreneurship is a concept related to entrepreneurial orientation within the organization.
Corporate Entrepreneurship is more than just new product development, but also include innovation in
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services, networks, and so forth. The organization will create added value by making innovations in
accordance with the functions and activities within existing business (Wolcott and Lippitz, 2007).
Corporate Entrepreneurship is essential for the survival, growth, profitability, and the renewal of an
organization, especially in large organizations (Zahra 1995, 1996). Corporate Entrepreneurship supports
entrepreneurial activity in organizations (Echols and Neck, 1998 in McFadzean, 2007). It also can stimulate
innovation in the organization through the exploration of potential new opportunities, resource acquisition,
implementation, exploitation and commercialization of new products or services (Thornberry, 2003 in
McFadzean, 2007). Zahra (1991, 1995) stated that corporate entrepreneurship also includes a variety of
attitudes and actions that can improve the organization's ability to take risk, seize opportunities and to
innovate.
According to Hornsby et al., 1993 (in Adonisi, 2003) stated that individual factors and internal organization
will influence on performance. According to Kearney et al. (2008) that internal organizational factors and
external environment will influence on public sector performance. Based on existing literature review,
individual factors, organizational factors, and environmental factors have a positive influence on corporate
entrepreneurship. This study will evaluate the performance of public service bureaucracy from the internal
process. This approach was done on the basis that the performance of output given to the environment will
largely depend on the level of internal process performance.
Based on the position of this research that has been described, the next step the researchers will explore more
about the internal factors which will affect the performance of public services. The exploration is started
from a study conducted by Lumpkin and Dess (1996), where researchers were testing the entrepreneurial
orientation factors on performance with organizational factors and environmental factors as mediators.
According to the results of unstructured interviews with several practitioners in PPTSP at Bandung City and
Regency, the most important thing in implementing the regulations in order to improve the performance of
public services is how a top management can provide role models, and support to all activities of their
employees. This could create conducive working environment for employees that will provide a positive
impact on job satisfaction in particular and society satisfaction in general. The most important thing for all of
this implementation could be run well is the mindset from the practitioners of the public service.
Given the context of this study is non-profit organization, whose main purpose is not to seek profit as much
as possible, the researcher only focus for evaluating non-financial performance that includes the variables of
job satisfaction and society satisfaction. These variables have a priority for further investigation, considering
that the public service sector is directly contact with the public interests of general society.
Lumpkin and Dess (2005 in Kenney, 2007) states that the organization must have an entrepreneurial
orientation in order to realize the entrepreneurial activity within the organization,. They proposed five
dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation, namely autonomy, innovativeness, Proactiveness, Competitive
aggressiveness, and Risk taking. Based on research conducted by Thornberry (2006), entrepreneurial
orientation consists of fast, flexible, focused, friendly, frugal, far-reaching and futuristic. Entrepreneurial
orientation affects overall organizational performance that also includes the level of stakeholders satisfaction
(Lumpkin and Dess, 1996), for example employees, shareholders, and consumers. In the context of public
service is defined as the interests of society. According to Holt et al., Linking corporate entrepreneurship by
21% between individual characteristics, context and process with job satisfaction, and corporate
entrepreneurship connecting 29.7% between individual characteristics, context and processes with
organizational performance. Based on research conducted by Chang and Lee (2007), suggests that leadership
and organizational culture has a positive and significant impact on job satisfaction with organizational
learning as an intermediate variable. Seashore and Taber (1975 in Chang and Lee, 2007) proposed a model in
which all internal organizational environment, including organizational climate, leadership, inter-personnel
relationships, could influence job satisfaction. Transformational leadership has a positive effect by
improving the work environment of subordinates, job satisfaction and organizational performance (Liu et al.,
2003; in Chang and Lee, 2007). According to Thornberry (2006), entrepreneurial leadership is quite similar
to transformational leadership than transactional leadership. Based on literature review, the researcher has
been developed the hypothesis as follows:
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Ha1 :
Entrepreneurial Orientation and Entrepreneurial Leadership simultaneously have a positive
and significant impact on job satisfaction.
Based on the study was conducted by Heinonen and Korvela (unpublished), showed that the presence of a
potential element in the organization such as management support, culture, skills and attitude of the
employees will provide a positive and significant impact on job satisfaction and customer satisfaction.
Although research that connects directly between orientation and entrepreneurial leadership with people
satisfaction is still very limited, but some research suggests that corporate entrepreneurship has a positive
influence on the intangible outcomes, such as increased skills, knowledge, job satisfaction, and customer
satisfaction (Adonisi, 2003; Ireland, Kuratko, and Covin, 2003; in the Holt et al., 2007). Corporate
Entrepreneurship (CE) can be assessed as the ability of organizations that are not visible and implied in the
organizational culture, which can contribute towards improving the competitiveness of the organization
(Scheepers et al., 2008). Some previous studies also stated that the entrepreneurial orientation at the
organizational level is an indicator of the ability of CE. In addition, according to Zahra (1993 in Adonisi,
2003), internal key factors influencing CE is the leadership, culture or orientation, value systems, structures
and processes, systems and resource availability. Meanwhile, according to Covin and Slevin (1991), internal
key factors influencing the CE is the top leadership and organizational culture. Based on the literature
review, it can be conclude that the variable of entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial leadership is
part of the process of corporate entrepreneurship. Therefore, researcher has been developed the hypothesis as
follows:
Ha2 :
Entrepreneurial Orientation and Entrepreneurial Leadership simultaneously have a positive
and significant impact on society satisfaction.
In this study, researcher also will test the effect of Entrepreneurial Orientation and Entrepreneurial
Leadership as part of the process of CE, to the overall organizational performance. Jogaratnam et al., (2006)
and Covin and Slevin (1991), shows that the entrepreneurial strategic posture / entrepreneurial leadership has
a positive influence on organizational performance. Based on the study was conducted by Wang and Zhang
(2009) showed that corporate entrepreneurship has a positive and significant influence on the performance of
organizations in China. Therefore, in this case the researcher has been developed hypothesis as follows:
Ha3 :
3
Entrepreneurial Orientation and Entrepreneurial Leadership simultaneously have positive and
significant impact on overall organization performance.
Methodology
The data was collected through a survey sent to 204 total employees of civil government organization at
PPTSP Bandung City and Regency. It is expected that those organizations will have different performance
significantly. The tools to assess entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial leadership were adapted
from Entrepreneurial Orientation Survey (EOS) and Entrepreneurial Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ), which
is developed by Thornberry. Whereas The tools to assess the job satisfaction was adapted from the study
conducted by Heinonen and Korvela (unpublished), and to assess society satisfaction was adapted from study
conducted by Market and Opinion Research International (MORI, 2004).
The questionnaires were tested by academics and practitioners, and subsequently pilot-tested with the civil
government organization at PPTSP West Java Province. This organization was selected because the
researcher was going to avoid response bias from the target respondents. All employees of target respondents
were selected to fill out the questionnaires. A total of 85 questionnaires were returned from PPTSP Bandung
City, 80 of which were usable (response rate of 59.03%). Whereas 56 questionnaires were returned from
PPTSP Bandung Regency, 54 of which were usable (response rate = 93.3%). Both response rates can be
regarded as satisfactory in this type of survey.
In this study, data obtained from questionnaires by the respondents will be analyzed by using Path Analysis.
Researcher used SPSS 16.0 to obtain a description of the data analysis, also use Microsoft Excel to show the
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characteristics of entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial leadership at PPTSP at Bandung City and
Regency.
4
Analysis of EOS
Based on the processing of Microsoft Excel 2010 were obtained the following results as seen in Table 1.
Generally, the characteristics of public service at PPTSP at Bandung Regency are better than PPTSP at
Bandung City (all the mean value are greater than 3.4). Public service at Bandung City should be concern
toward the implementation of risk taking and reward and punishment, because the results are not really good
(the mean values are less than 3.4).
Table 1. The Results of EOS at PPTSP Bandung City and Regency.
Category
Mean of City
Mean of Regency
Strategic Planning
3.800
4.463
Cross Functionality
3.525
3.877
Support for new ideas
3.471
3.864
Market Intelligence
3.958
4.311
Risk Aversion
3.108
3.784
Speed
3.856
4.074
Flexibility
3.506
4.083
Focus
3.696
4.056
Future
4.028
4.236
Reward and Punishment
3.193
3.841
Individual Orientation
3.472
3.954
Analysis of ELQ
The purpose of ELQ survey is to learn about entrepreneurial behavior from top management within the
organization. This survey could be used to measure the gap (symbol: ∆) between the importance of certain
behaviors by the employees (symbol: I) and the frequency of those behaviors conducted by their top leaders
within organization (symbol: F). The measurement classifications of ELQ are seen in Table 2 and the results
of ELQ at PPTSP Bandung City and Regency are seen in Table 3.
Table 2. Measurement Classifications of ELQ Variables
Score Range (SR)
General
Explorer
Accelerator
Miner
Integrator
High (H)
>15 - 20
>11 – 15
>19 - 25
>15 - 20
>15 - 20
Medium(M)
>10 - 15
>8 – 11
>14 - 19
>10 -15
>10 - 15
4 - 10
3–8
5 - 14
4 - 10
4 - 10
Low(L)
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Table 3. The Results of ELQ at PPTSP Bandung City and Regency
Typology of
Leadership
Mean of City
Mean of Regency
I
F
SR
Gap
I
F
SR
Gap
General
13.588
11.213
M/M
2.375
13.093
12.889
M/M
0.204
Explorer
13.338
10.863
H/M
2.475
10.852
10.148
M/M
0.704
Accelerator
22.825
17.275
H/M
5.550
16.370
16.019
M/M
0.352
Miner
17.125
14.088
H/M
3.038
15.296
14.630
H/M
0.667
Integrator
15.813
12.813
H/M
3.000
13.685
13.204
M/M
0.481
Generally, characteristics of entrepreneurial leaders in Bandung City and Regency are similar; they have the
same range score which is medium. The gap in Bandung Regency is less than Bandung City; it shows that
the frequency of certain behaviors which assumed important by the employees is almost appropriate with
employees’ expectation. Although those condition still need to be improved.
Analysis of Conceptual Model through Path Analysis
The conceptual model is divided into two models, model I (job satisfaction as outcome) and model II
(society satisfaction as outcome), beside that the researcher was going to see the influence of conceptual
model with the whole organizational performance as outcome (model III). The summary of regression
analysis is seen in the following Table 4.
Table 4. The Summary of Regression Analysis
Location
Model
Model I-1
Adjusted
R2
0.780
0.609
0.599
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
S.E
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
0.247
Orientation
0.552
0.062
0.647
Leadership
0.196
0.037
0.381
0.665
0.443
0.496
0.399
Orientation
0.666
0.100
0.576
Leadership
0.198
0.060
0.285
0.619
0.772
0.260
Orientation
0.609
0.065
0.668
Leadership
0.197
0.039
0.359
0.459
0.211
1.243
(0.218)
6.654
(0.000)
3.288
(0.002)
2.965
(0.004)
9.332
(0.000)
5.012
(0.000)
6.803
(0.002)
0.180
(Constant)
1.295
0.664
Orientation
0.461
0.155
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4.243
(0.000)
8.922
(0.000)
5.253
(0.000)
60.927
(0.000)
0.609
(Constant)
Model I-1
t
(Sig.)
29.809
(0.000)
0.428
(Constant)
0.787
F
(Sig.)
58.406
(0.000)
1.048
Model III-1
Bandung
Regency
R2
(Constant)
Model II-1
Bandung
City
R
0.369
1.951
(0.057)
2.968
(0.005)
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Location
Model
R
R2
Gina
Adjusted
R2
Leadership
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
S.E
0.167
Model II-1
0.898
0.806
0.080
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
105.67
(0.000)
0.798
-1.265
0.370
Orientation
1.227
0.087
0.875
Leadership
0.125
0.044
0.174
0.780
0.609
t
(Sig.)
2.100
(0.041)
0.261
(Constant)
Model III-1
F
(Sig.)
-3.417
(0.001)
14.173
(0.000)
2.810
(0.007)
39.687
(0.000)
0.593
(Constant)
0.066
0.426
Orientation
0.832
0.100
0.732
Leadership
0.145
0.051
0.249
0.155
(0.877)
8.357
(0.000)
2.838
(0.006)
According to the results in Table 4, based on Sig. value for model I, model II and model III at both location,
then it can be concluded that entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial leadership have the positive
influence toward job satisfaction, society satisfaction and the whole organizational performance.
Regarding the regression analysis results of PPTSP Bandung City; for model I-1, the contribution of
orientation (X1) and leadership (X2) which are influence job satisfaction (Y1) simultaneously is 0.599 or
59.9%. The remains of 40.1% are influenced by other factors which are excluded from this study. For model
II-1, the contribution of orientation (X1) and leadership (X2) which are influence job satisfaction (Y1)
simultaneously is 0.428 or 42.8%. The remains of 57.2% are influenced by other factors which are excluded
from this study. For model III-1, the contribution of orientation (X1) and leadership (X2) which are influence
job satisfaction (Y1) simultaneously is 0.609 or 60.9%. The remains of 39.1% are influenced by other factors
which are excluded from this study. The structure equation for model I-1, model II-1 and model III-1 are
seen as below:
Model I-1
Model II-1
Model III-1
:
:
:
Y1 = 0,647 X1 + 0,381 X2 + 0,401 ε
Y2 = 0,576 X1 + 0,285 X2 + 0,572 ε
Y = 0,668 X1 + 0,359 X2 + 0,391 ε
Regarding the regression analysis results of PPTSP Bandung Regency; for model I-2, the contribution of
orientation (X1) and leadership (X2) which are influence job satisfaction (Y1) simultaneously is 0.180 or
18.0%. The remains of 82.0% are influenced by other factors which are excluded from this study. For model
II-2, the contribution of orientation (X1) and leadership (X2) which are influence job satisfaction (Y1)
simultaneously is 0.798 or 79.8%. The remains of 20.2% are influenced by other factors which are excluded
from this study. For model III-2, the contribution of orientation (X1) and leadership (X2) which are influence
job satisfaction (Y1) simultaneously is 0.593 or 59.3%. The remains of 40.7% are influenced by other factors
which are excluded from this study. The structure equation for model I-1, model II-1 and model III-1 are
seen as below:
Model I-2
Model II-2
Model III-2
:
:
:
Y1 = 0,369 X1 + 0,261 X2 + 0,820 ε
Y2 = 0,875 X1 + 0,174 X2 + 0,202 ε
Y = 0,732 X1 + 0,249 X2 + 0,407 ε
The results in this study are support for all of the hypotheses, which are entrepreneurial orientation and
entrepreneurial leadership have positive influence simultaneously either toward job satisfaction (model I) or
society satisfaction (model II) or the whole organizational performance (model III)
.
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Discussion
According to EOS and ELQ results, public service’s profiles for both Bandung City and Regency have a
difference in terms of reward and punishment and risk taking. Regarding reward and punishment, PPTSP
Bandung Regency has a higher score than Bandung City, it shows us that Bandung Regency has already give
the reward based on employees’ performance such as support, motivation, praise, trust from the top leaders
or even incentives. Those things have a positive influence to employees’ motivation to work then will be
enhance job satisfaction and society satisfaction as the outcomes. Whereas Bandung City less give
appreciation to the employees, then their employees are not totally support for doing the innovative things.
Regarding risk taking in the context of public service is related to take risk in making decision, resolved the
problems and implementation of ideas or doing service innovation toward society. In terms of risk-taking is
strongly associated with the type of leadership that exist in each region, in the City of the largest gap is type
of accelerator leadership, while in the Regency this type of leadership is the smallest, meaning that
leadership in the Regency more support to entrepreneurial activities conducted by their employees by
creating policies that can facilitate the process of licensing services, making greater chance to be able to
create innovative things in doing service. While in City this accelerator leaders type does not appropriate to
the expectations of their employees, so the level of risk taking would be lower because less supported by
management policies that can facilitate the process of service.
The performance of a public service agency must refer to the creation of conditions which are conducive, in
the sense of how the society served by the local governments in meeting to their needs. The results showed
that entrepreneurial orientation is more dominant influence than entrepreneurial leadership, this occurs
because the government organization in providing services based on the Standard Operation Procedure
(SOP) set by the Local Government, so that the employees will have a perception of good and homogeneous
on the orientation of the organization and supported by a powerful bureaucracy climate. Leadership role in
this case is just as decision makers in the public service institution, only to create synergy between the SOP
to be implemented by public service personnel with the policies to be issued. This means anyone leaders
within these institutions; the effect is not too dominant to the performance because it will always be
constrained by rigid rules and bureaucracy that has become a culture within government organizations.
Profile of public services in Bandung Regency looks better than the public service in the Bandung City; this
is caused by the difference in work load they own. Request permission received by Bandung Regency each
day less than the permit application received by the Bandung City. In addition, public service in Bandung
Regency is smaller in scope so that they are more agile, faster, and more flexible in dealing with
environmental changes.
In general, the typology of leadership in the City and Regency have a very big difference in terms of score
gaps behaviors that are considered important by their employees with the practice in the field. This type of
leader who most considered important by the employees is the type of accelerator because the government
organization that is very close to the bureaucracy, the role of a leader who can support their employees is
very important. Employees in doing service activities is not always free resistance, so they need a leaders
who can provide effective solutions in addressing the problems that occur, through the policies from their
leaders that can simplify the service process. This is especially affecting the job satisfaction of employees.
Government organizations are also very closely related to administrative matters, so that the employees
assume the role of miner leaders’ type is very important because the leader is able to rearrange the existing
resources and know in detail of the bureaucracy processes in the service that enable them to see the
opportunities to run service process in a different way and results in better performance.
Explorer leaders’ type are also needed because this type is very keen in seeing the market opportunity and
pulled out innovative ideas to turn these opportunities into successes for the institution. This type of leader is
required by the PPTSP Bandung City because they can see how resources can be optimized within the
organization. The Gaps of this type is smaller in Regency so that it affects higher society satisfaction. While
in City, the gaps of this type is bigger so its impact on society satisfaction also decreased.
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In a government organization that is closely associated with bureaucratic practices which sometimes the
actual is not in accordance with the applicable rules, the institution in this case requires the type of integrator
leaders’ type which is considered to be able to create entrepreneurial strategies and build human resources,
structures, processes and culture that support the strategy, and encourage two-way communication. This type
of leader is also to encourage entrepreneurial activity within the institutions, which is expected to integrate
all the internal factors in order to create people's satisfaction as its impact in general and employee
satisfaction as its impact in particular.
In general, individual entrepreneurial orientation in the City and Regency have shown a fairly good score,
meaning that employees already have the high potential to be entrepreneurial which is very supportive to the
success of the organization in the future, but it is very difficult to poured into activity in the organization
because of stumbled by bureaucratic rules that have become cultural.
5
Conclusions
The results of this study indicate that an important factor affecting the performance of public services is the
system of rewards and punishment and the courage to take the risk. Based on these results, it is expected that
the practitioners in public service to implement a reward system based on performance or provide
appropriate incentives so that will increase employees’ job satisfaction and employees will be motivated to
work to provide excellent service to the society.
In terms of risk-taking in the context of public service is closely associated with leaders’ policy. An
entrepreneurial leader who is going to dare to question the status quo, dare to support employees in
simplifying bureaucracy within the organization by issuing policies that can facilitate the process of service
to the society, so that the service problems which occur can be resolved quickly.
The results of this study revealed that government organizations in the public service sector will be able to
provide excellent service to the society if the internal factors within the organization are to set up properly,
especially in terms of the awards and risk taking. In other words, to provide best service to the society,
welfare standards of these public servants must be considered and improved first. In addition, if the welfare
of employees is feasible, then the enforcement of sanctions for those who violate the rules can be done, it
will prevent the occurrence of corruption, extortion, and bribery.
The conceptual model in this study only involve internal organizational factors, not involving the individual
and external environmental factors which are likely to influence the public service performance. The scope
of this study also is limited in the public service sector at PPTSP Bandung City and Regency. Future
researches are advised to develop a conceptual model by involving other factors beyond internal
organizational factors and applied in a broader scope that can be generalized to a higher degree of accuracy.
In addition to supporting the results of this quantitative method, it is advisable to use qualitative method
beside quantitative one; this can be help in the process of forming a conceptual model beside to conduct the
literature review or to assist in providing interpretation of the final results.
Acknowledgments
The paper has been presented at Indonesia International Conference on Innovation, Entrepreneurship, and
Leadership (IICIES), 13-15 July 2010, Serpong - Indonesia
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Analysis of Consumer Attitude Using Fishbein Multi-Attributes Approach
Abdullah Ramdhani 1, Dini Turipanam Alamanda1, and Hendri Sudrajat1
1
Faculty of Economics, University of Garut
Jl. Raya Samarang No. 52A, Garut 44151-INDONESIA
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Consumer attitude,
Product attribute,
Theory of reasoned action
The development of today's economy growing rapidly, accompanied by
increasingly sophisticated technological advances that led to the emergence of
competition among firms.Increasing number of motorcycle brand in circulation
led to a very tight competition in the motorcycle market, particularly in the type of
motorcycle. This makes the consumer faced with various choices of brands, so the
motorcycle manufacturers need to know the tastes and desires of consumers to
create and sell a motorcycle can be favored by consumers. The purpose of this
study were to determine what attributes are considered important by consumers to
the product brand motorcycle Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki, and to assess
consumer attitudes toward product attributes motorcycle Honda, Yamaha, and
Suzuki, The model used is multi-attribute attitude model of Fishbein Attitude
Toward to Object Model and the Theory of Reasoned Action. The results of this
study indicate that (1) that are considered important attributes are attached to the
product brand motorcycle Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki is the attribute Price has
the highest positive score compared * with a score of other attributes for each of
the Honda brand motorcycle , Yamaha, and Suzuki. (2) consumer attitudes
showed a positive attitude in which the score for the Honda is +60.03, +56.14
Yamaha, and Suzuki is +55.00. (3) the dominant factor influencing purchasing
decisions motorcycle products for the Honda brand is a member of the family,
while for the brand Yamaha, and Suzuki are the others
1
Introduction
Globalization and developments in science and technology provide a very wide impact on all sectors of
human life. The growth of technology allows simplicity for people in living activities. The bike is one result
of technological advances in the automotive field. In view of the size, price, and its operation, motorcycle is
a very practical transport, people use motorbike to help their daily activities such as working, trading,
schooling, lecturing and other activities that require transportation.
Amid the many industries in Indonesia which had a significant reduction, the motorcycle industry continue
to show encouraging growth. By exploiting the economic situation, the motorcycle industry is able to explore
the gap and the opportunity to persist. Motorcycle industry in Indonesia is filled by some dominant players
are: Honda, Yamaha, Suzuki, and Kawasaki serving individual consumers in a very large number. The
number of motorcycle users indicate a growing trend adds to the attraction industry. This is in response to the
entry of new players such as the motor of china in the early 2000s and the last is from India Bajaj and TVS.
33
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 33-39
Ramdhani, et. al.
The increasing number of motorcycle brands on the market, causing a very tight competition. It also makes
the consumer faced with various choices of brands, so the motorcycle manufacturers need to know the tastes
and desires of consumers in order to create and sell motorcycle products that can be liked by consumers in
one way is to analyze consumer attitudes toward products based on their assessment motorcycles of various
attributes that exist in the product.
Attitude as one of the internal environmental factors, can affect a person's decision to purchase the product.
Consumer attitude is a response or assessment given by consumers consistently, favorable or unfavorable,
positive or negative, like it or not, agree or not to an object. Attitudes have significance role in making
marketing decisions and there is a strong tendency to assume that this attitude as the most powerful factor for
predicting the future behavior and can help companies predict product demand and to develop appropriate
marketing programs. One's attitude toward the product attributes may vary due to the belief and evaluation of
the product attributes. Besides, there are other factors that influence that will ultimately determine his interest
in buying a product, namely the external factors are reflected in the individual influence of others (subjective
norm) on the behavior of the decisions taken, such as family members, other people, peers and vendors.
Thus the objectives of this study are:
1.
To find out what attributes are considered important by consumers of the product brand motorcycle
Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki.
2.
To determine consumer attitudes towards product attributes brand motorcycle Honda, Yamaha, and
Suzuki.
3.
To find out which one is more dominant factor in influencing the purchasing decisions of products
motorcycle brands Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki based approach to Theory of Reasoned Action.
2
Literature Review
2.1
Definition of Attitude
According to Sumarwan (2004), attitude is an expression of feelings about the object whether consumers like
it or not, and also describes the attitude of consumer confidence in the various attributes and benefits of such
objects. Attitudes are statements or evaluative judgments relating to an object, person or an event
.Meanwhile according to Schiffman and Kanuk (2008) attitude is a learned tendency to behave in a way that
pleasant or unpleasant to a particular object. There is general agreement that the attitude of studied, such an
attitude is related to purchasing behavior is formed as a result of direct experience regarding the products,
information was obtained verbally from others, or exposure by advertising in mass media, internet and
various forms of direct marketing.
2.2
Components of Attitude
There are three components of attitude by Sumarwan (2004), as follows:
1. Cognitive component (knowledge)
2. It is associated with trust (belief), ideas and concepts, such as knowledge about an object, beliefs about
the object or evaluative beliefs.
3. Affective component (emotional)
This involves one's emotional life such as feeling happy or unhappy about a situation, object, person or
concept.
4. Conative component (behavioral tendencies)
This is a tendency to behave or will behave to an object.
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Ramdhani, et. al.
2.3
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 33-39
Characteristics of Attitude
Attitudes by Sumarwan (2004) has several characteristics:
1. Attitude Has Object
In the marketing context of consumer attitudes should be connected to the object, the object may be
connected to a variety of consumer and marketing concepts such as products, brands, advertising,
pricing, packaging, media and so on. If we want to know the attitudes of consumers, then we must
clearly define the attitude consumers against what.
2. Attitude Consistency
Attitude is a picture of a consumer's feelings, and it will be reflected by his behavior. Because of that
attitude has a consistency with the behavior. Behavior of a consumer is a picture of her attitude.
3. Positive Attitude, Negative, and Neutral
Someone may like something (positive) and do not like something (negative) or did not even have an
attitude (neutral).
4. Attitude Intensity
Consumer attitudes toward a brand of products will vary its level, there is really like or even dislike.
When a customer states the degree of liking for the product, then he reveals his intensity, the intensity is
called the characteristic attitude of the attitude extrimity.
5. Resistance Attitude
Resistance is how much consumer attitudes can change. It is important for marketers to understand how
the resistance of consumers is, in order to establish appropriate marketing strategies. Offensive
marketing can be applied to change the high resistance attitudes.
6. The persistence of attitude
Persistence is a characteristic attitude illustrates that attitudes will change as time passes.
7. Beliefs Attitudes
Consumer confidence is the belief of the truth of the attitude he had.
8. Attitude and Situation
Attitude toward an object often appears in the context of the situation. This means that the situation will
affect consumer attitudes toward an object.
2.4
The Function of Attitude
Attitudes according to Schiffman and Kanuk (2008) has four functions:
1. Function Benefits
This function indicates that the individual attempts to avoid the minimum things that are not desirable.
Thus the individual will form a positive attitude toward things that bring in profits and predicted a
negative shape attitudes toward the things that harm.
2. Ego Defense Function
When individuals experience things that are not desirable and is considered to threaten the ego, or to
know the facts and truth are not expected, then attitude can serve as an ego defense mechanism that will
protect him from the bitterness of that reality.
3. Function Value Statement
Attitude is a statement of values or a reflection of the values, lifestyles, and the general view of
consumers. In this function states that a person often has a certain attitude to obtain satisfaction in
stating the value that was followed in accordance with the personal and the concept itself.
4. Knowledge function
The individual usually has a strong need to know and understand people or things associated with them.
Multi-attribute attitude model of Fishbein
Attitude theories illustrate that consumer attitudes towards a product will affect consumer behavior or action
against these products, marketers need to know the attitude of consumers towards the products it markets,
and then formulate strategies to influence consumer attitudes. Market research or consumer research is one
important activity to determine consumer attitudes toward an object.
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Ramdhani, et. al.
Measurement of attitudes of the most popular used by consumer researchers is a model of the Multi Attribute
Attitude Model of Fishbein, which consists of three models: the attitude toward to the object model, attitude
toward behavior model, and the theory of Reasoned Action. (Sumarwan, 2004).
Attitude toward the object model is very suitable for measuring attitudes toward the class of products (or
services) or a particular brand. According to this model of consumer attitudes toward products or specific
product brand is a function of the presence (or absence) and evaluation of a conviction or certain properties.
In other words, consumers usually have level of adequate properties and positive values, and they have an
unpleasant attitude towards the brands they feel do not have adequate levels of undesirable traits or have too
many properties negative or undesirable (Schiffman and kanuk, 2008).
Furthermore, in this model Fihbein (1967) says that a person's attitude toward an object is a function of his
belief that the object is associated with certain attributes and evaluative responses that connected to that
belief. Mathematical formulation of the model of attitude toward the object, by Fshbein can be formulated as
follows:
Ao
=
n
∑
i=1
Ao
n
biei
...(1)
= Attitude toward an object
= Strength of belief that the object has attribute i
= The evaluation of attribute i
= Number of convictions
According to Schiffman and Kanuk (2008), a model of attitude toward the behavior of individual attitudes to
behave or act against a specific object, rather than attitudes toward the object itself. The appeal of attitudes
toward behavioral model is that this model looks a little closer to the actual behavior rather than attitudes
toward the object model.
Theory of Reasoned Action
Theory of Reasoned Action is a theory of reasoned action that describes the integration of the components of
attitude as a whole into a structure that is intended to produce a better explanation and better forecasting of
the behavior (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2008).
In accordance with this extended model, to understand the purpose, we also need to measure subjective
norms that influence individual's intent to act. Subjective norms measured directly by assessing the feelings
of consumers as well as what others (family, friends, roommates, friends, coworkers) think about the actions
being carried out, ie whether they look happy or unhappy about actions to be performed.
Consumer researchers can study the subjective norm to other basic factors that can bring it. They do this by
assessing the normative beliefs that individuals connect with others, as well as individual motivation to obey
any other person.
The theory of reasoned action incorporating the cognitive component, affective component, and conative
components, but these are arranged in different patterns with patterns of three-component model.
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Ramdhani, et. al.
3
Research Method
3.1
Research Design
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 33-39
The method used in this research is descriptive method by using survey techniques. The research is
descriptive research that aims to provide an overview of the study variables by photographing the object
under study conditions through the examination and measurement of symptoms. The study includes survey
data collection, processing, and then analyze the data obtained.
3.2
Population and Samples
The population used in this study is the owner and userf brands Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki motorcycle in
district of Garut City. Sampling technique used is simple random, with the number of 105 respondents who
were divided into three categories for each respondent so that the motorcycle category required sample of 35
respondents.
3.3
The definition of the concept and measurement
Consumer attitudes toward motorcycle attributes are the attributes of consumer response to the motorcycle
expressed in six statements that are divided into two categories: first, very important, important, moderate
important, moderate unimportant, not important, and very unimportant. The second category is strongly
agree, agree, moderate agree, moderate disagree, disagree, strongly disagree. Measurement of positive
attitudes and negative attitudes by using a scale of staple.
Variable attitude toward the behavior in this study are the attributes attached to the motorcycle products,
namely:
a. Price is a value was exchanged to obtain a product (Simamora, 2001)
b. The product quality is a characteristic of the product in the ability to meet the needs - needs that have
been determined and are latent (Kotler and Armstrong in Novandri, 2010).
c. Brand as a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of a whole which are intended to
identify goods or services from a seller or group of sellers, to be different to its competitors (Shimp,
2003).
d. Advertising, as the impersonal presentation of ideas, goods, or services paid by a sponsor (Cannon,
Perreault, McCarthy, 2008)
e. Sales promotion, a promotional activity other than advertising, publicity, and personal selling that drives
interest, willingness to try, or purchase by the customer or other party to the channel (Cannon, Perreault,
McCarthy, 2008).
While the normative selected beliefs and motivation variables are:
a. Family members: the people who live together in a house that is because there are bonds of marriage,
blood relationship or adoption that can provide influence and motivation to purchase, the measurement
has ever received advice from the father, mother, sister, child, husband / wife.
b. Others: is a person known or unknown that have provided information about products, measurement
advice and information has been received from people known or unknown.
c. Peer friend: Your age is the person who has been known previously by consumers who can influence
purchasing decisions, measurement of advice and information from people who have been known
previously.
d. Salesperson: is a person who sells or offers his products to the respondents, measurement advice or
information received from the seller of motorcycle products.
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4
Ramdhani, et. al.
Results and Discussion
These research findings have several implications, including a relatively positive consumer attitudes towards
product attributes that attach to motorcycle brands Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki. In addition to attitudes,
subjective norms also show a positive figure who encourages consumers to make purchases.
Consumer attitudes are quite positive toward attributes attached to the product brand motorcycle Honda,
Yamaha, and Suzuki, proving that consumers are buying motorcycles provide a good attitude. However, if
viewed from the consumer attitude toward each of these attributes, to attribute the price in terms of low price
is the primary choice, and price cuts is the attribute that most favored by consumers Honda motorcycle brand
for 2.66. As for Yamaha motorcycle brand, the most favored attribute is the attribute price in terms of price
is the primary choice (2.66), and for Suzuki motorcycle brand, the most favored attribute is the attribute price
in terms of conformity with the price of purchasing power of 2.74.
Among the three brands of motorcycles, the most favored attributes are all equal in terms of price, for that
the management must keep and maintain price stability with purchasing power. Prices are too high, will
cause the consumer can’t afford the product, so that the expectations of consumers can enjoy the product in
accordance with the money they have spent and low price as well as good quality is still an important source
of satisfaction, but the price is too low can also cause unequal costs of production with sales price, for that
company can set prices according to quality of product for example by producing products that vary with
varying prices as well, and for management to avoid a deficit of income and profits is necessary to set a
policy, when to the regular price and when to be at a discount.
The results of the analysis of consumer attitudes towards product attributes motorcycle brand Honda,
Yamaha, and Suzuki with Multi-Attribute Approach Fishbein, it can be concluded that the product attributes
are attached to the product brand motorcycle Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki can affect consumer behavior in
making a purchase. Based on the evaluation of the interests of (ei) shows that all the attributes considered by
consumers are all positive with a value above 1.00. Overall, consumers think that the Honda brand is better
than Yamaha, and Suzuki, as shown by comparison of the attitude of total for all three brands, namely the
Honda brand for 60.03, 56.14 for Yamaha, and Suzuki by 55, 00.
Promotion is one of the marketing strategies used to communicate the product or service by the producer to
the consumer, where the campaign consists of advertising, sales promotion, and personal selling. The results
of consumer research that the social environment influence the subjective norm of consumers in making
product purchasing decisions motorcycle brands Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki formed by normative beliefs
(NBj) and Consumer motivation (MCj). Based on the motivational value obtained from consumers’ opinions
about the motivation they received from reference groups related to the purchase decision motorcycle brands
Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki, it is known that the highest motivation for Honda motorcycle brand is the
variable of family members (2, 26), while the highest score for the Yamaha brand is other people variable
(2.34), and the Suzuki brand for the highest score is other people variable (2.26).
Among the three brands of motorcycle is derived equations to variables that are considered to have the
lowest ratings among the three groups of variables that reference other sellers, even though the respondents
had a positive assessment against the seller. In order for salespeople more productive again in influencing
consumer purchase decisions on a product, then manufacturers are required to carry out a strategy that is able
to motivate the sales force by providing training about the knowledge of product reliability. Thus, the seller
may well provide good explanations about the products he marketed, causing excitement for consumers to do
purchasing. In addition, sellers can create a variety of ads that highlight the strong attributes of the product
by selecting advertising media that can reach all levels of society for example, television and radio. Because
both of these media is media that owned and reachable by most of levels of society.
Based on the subjective norm (SN) consists of consumers who normative beliefs (Nbj) and motivation (MCj)
which influence consumers in making purchasing decisions based on the advice and opinion from a reference
group consisting of family members, peers, other people, and the seller showed positive scores are all above
1.00.
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 33-39
From the results of attitude and subjective norm (SN) may be known to mean the behavior (behavioral
intent) of consumers who consider that overall respondents have a desire to buy a Honda products, compared
to Yamaha and Suzuki brands, this is indicated by value comparison third behavior intent for Honda brand is
37.5, 35.3 for Yamaha, and 32.5for Suzuki.
5.
Conclusion
Consumer attitudes towards product attributes brand motorcycle Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki showed that a
positive attitude, where the overall score from all three brands is positive. The results of consumer ratings of
Honda brand has a higher valuation than the two other brands that is (60.03), while for Yamaha (56.14), and
Suzuki (55.00). From the comparison of these values could mean that consumers prefer the brand Honda to
Yamaha and Suzuki because consumers evaluate that product attributes Honda brand is better than on the
attributes of Yamaha and Suzuki.
The social environment can affect consumer subjective norm in buying products motorcycle Honda,
Yamaha, and Suzuki consist of family members, peers, other people, and the seller. Dominant factor
affecting the customers in buying products Honda is a family member with the highest score of 2.26. As for
Yamaha, the highest scores are the others (2.34), and for Suzuki is the dominant factor affecting the
consumer in making a purchase is other people (2.26).
Future research is suggested in the sampling and questionnaires used to disseminate research sites should use
larger object and evenly distributed throughout the Garut city, so this research area is not only the range in
some areas only.
References
Cannon, J. P., W. D. Perreault, and E. J. McCarthy. (2008). Pemasaran Dasar; Pendekatan Manajerial
Global. Salemba Empat, Jakarta.
Umar, H. (2002). Riset Pemasaran dan Perilaku Konsumen. Gramedia Pustaka, Jakarta.
Kotler, P., and G. Armstrong. (2008). Prisip-Prinsip Pemasaran. Erlangga, Jakarta.
Marhaini. (2008). Analsis Sikap Konsumen dalam Pembelian Komputer Merek Acer. Jurnal Manajemen
Bisnis,Vol. 3., Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan.
Marmodo, P. (2009). Analisis Sikap Nasabah Terhadap Atribut-Atribut Lembaga Keuangan Baitut Tamwil
Muhammadiyah Baturetno Wonogiri, Universitas Islam Indonesia Yogyakarta.
Ekawati, R. N. (2009). Analisis Sikap Konsumen Terhadap Atribut Produk Rokok Kretek Mild dengan
Pendekatan Multi Atribut Fishbein. Fakulty Economics, Universitas Garut, Garut.
Sukirno, S. (2006). Mikro Ekonomi. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta.
Schiffman, L., and L. L. Kanuk. (2008). Perilaku Konsumen. Indeks, Jakarta.
Sugiyono. (2010). Metode Penelitian Riset Kuantitatif dan Kualitatif Bisnis R&D. Alfabeta, Bandung.
Sugiyono. (2010). Statistika untuk Penelitian. Alfabeta, Bandung.
Sumarwan. (2004). Perilaku Konsumen; Teori dan Penerapannya dalam Pemasaran. Ghalia Indonesia,
Jakarta.
Zulkifli, B. J. (2009). Penjualan Sepeda Motor pada 2009 Anggota AISI berdasarkan Merek dan Kategori,
www.kompas.com.
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The Influence of Gender in Determining the Language Choice of Teenagers:
Sundanese versus Bahasa
Fakry Hamdani
Faculty of Education and Teacher Training
State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati, Bandung
Jl. A. H. Nasution No. 105, Bandung-INDONESIA
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Gender;
Language;
Sundanese
The aims of the research are to discover and analyze the phenomenon of language
choice and gender toward teenagers, which will indicate the language death of
Sundanese Language. The query was discovered around 134 (53 males and 81
females) university students, the first and three grade of Pharmacy and
Management Programs at University of Garut. The participants were given ten
questions contained the use of language toward their males and females friends.
Using Chi Square test, the results showed that the influence of gender in
determining the language choice of teenagers was identified. For code-switching,
there was no specific difference between males (48) and females (50). However,
the difference occurred when females were using code-mixing (75) and the
number was bigger than males (32). From this information, the study concluded
that gender totally influenced the code-mixing among teenagers.
1
Background
The language choice is a part of human behavior to express the way of speech. Anyone can reveal his
feeling, pride, and even identity by using it in his daily life. Bilinguals often explore their languages when
they communicate with another person who also speaks both languages. For teenagers, the phenomenon was
interested to find, especially in the teenagers environments. Lambert (on Wardhaugh, 1987) reported the
reactions of Canadian and men and women, both English and French speaker, to subjects who spoke English
on one occasion and French on another. Both English and French listener reacted more positively to English
guises than French guises, Among 80 English Canadian (EC) and 92 French Canadian (FC) first year
college-age students from Montreal, he found that the EC listeners viewed the female speakers more
favorably in their French Guises while they viewed the male speakers more favorably in their English
Guises. The facts also have been investigated by psychologists, linguists, and anthropologists (for examples
Sapir, 1929a; Hass, 1944; Taylor, 1951b; Dixon, 1971; Kramer, 1974; Brend, 1975; Dubois and Crouch,
1975, and Brower, Gerritsen, and De Haan, 1979)
A bilingual or multilingual situation can produce the loss of a language. It is also connected with the
language shift and maintenance and the variety of language. Fishman reported (1977) that: A government
functionary in Brussels arrives homes after shopping off at his club for drink. He generally speaks standard
French in his office, standard Dutch at his club, and a distinctly local variant of Flemish at home. There are
40
Hamdani
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 40-43
also occasions at the club when he speaks or addressed in French. Finally there are occasions at home when
he communicates Dutch or even French (1972).
Fishman’s report had proved the existence of language choice in multilingual person. Thus, there will be a
language which is ‘sacrificed’ and another language is ‘safe’. It is just like a natural law, whereas the
powerful language defeats others. Then again, the language choice is still a choice and we cannot deny how
it works. For Hammers and Blanc (1989), a distinction can be drawn between two types of language choice:
(1) code mixing ─ the use of elements, most typically nouns, from one language in utterance predominantly
in another language; and (2) code switching ─ a change from one language to another in the same utterance
or conversation.
Conversational code mixing involves the deliberate mixing of two languages without an associated topic
change (Wardhaugh, 1987). Kachru (1978) identifies that there are three main varieties of code mixing in
India. First, English may be mixed into regional language. Second, philosophical, religious, or literary
discourse may proceed in High Hindi and regional language, as mark of caste identity. Finally, the Indian
Law Courts mix Persian vocabulary with Indian, and Persianized code mixing may serve Muslim identity
(Hamers and Blanc, 1989).Those mean that the case of code mixing can also be made by the use of language
choice in the context of role play in a society. Yet, what Labov proves in his report combines the statements
above. He reports such conversional code mixing that used in a society of Spanish and English primarily as a
solidarity marker (1971). Language mixing can also be used to express emotion, close personal relationship
and solidarity, and to exclude a third person from part of a conversation (Harding and Riley, 1986).
Since this study tries to find the relation between gender and language choice, the hypothesis used in this
study is null hypothesis. This hypothesis is settled to predict either positive or negative relationship between
them.
2
Method
The participants were 134 (53 males and 81 females) university students at University of Garut. Since the
age of teenagers were 14-20, then the participants had to be selected around the first and three semester
students. Then, this population were divided into 82 (21 males and 61 females) students of Pharmacy and 52
(32 males and 20 females) students of Management.
Using Chi Square test, this study later used the questionnaire that held 10 questions referred to the use of first
and second language in their daily lives. The questions were typed in a paper and followed by three
alternative answers (Sundanese, Bahasa Indonesia, Mixed).
3
Procedures
Firstly, the participants were presented questionnaire that had been done only 5-10 minutes. Presented in a
paper, the questions were talked about the uses of language in their daily lives. The questionnaire also
provided three multiple choices with allows them to choose Sundanese, Bahasa Indonesia and Mixed as the
instrument of speech.
The steps taken form this study contained seven steps. First, the data were collected, and then divided into
the category of gender. After placing the formula of expected frequencies, the expected table appeared in the
value of numbers. According to the expected table, the computation of X² was counted after counting
degrees of freedom. Since the nominal variables were two levels (code-switching vs. code-mixing and males
vs. females), the data needed to be corrected using Yates correction factors.
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4
Hamdani.
Results
According to the explanation above, to find the influence of gender in determining language choice, the chisquare test had been made to prove it. Male, when talked to Female Friend, used 35 Sundanese, 6 Bahasa,
and 12 mixed language. Female, when talked to Female Friend, used 39 Sundanese, 9 Bahasa, 30 mixed
language. Male, when talked Male Friend used 28 Sundanese, 7 Bahasa, and 18 mixed language.
Meanwhile, the computations for Females until the results were found. For code-mixing, the overall data had
been taken by the overall data of mixed language that was used by males and females.The number of d.f was
1 d.f. Thus, the critical value X² with 1 d.f. was 3.84 for the.05 level. This fact had supported the statement
that there was influence of gender in determining language choice.
Since the table was 2 X 2 and d.f. was 1, the correction step had to be accomplished by using Yates
correction factor and then putting the formula to correct them. The computations were done until the
numbers appeared. Since the number of d.f was 1, the critical value X² with 1 d.f. was 3.84 for the.05 level.
This fact rejected the null hypothesis and concluded that there was influence of gender in determining the
language choice of teenagers.
Conclusion
The aim of this study was to know whether gender could influence the determining the language choice of
teenagers or not. In general, the results showed two basic points. First, there was influence of gender in
determining the language choice of teenagers with the value result 6.59 was bigger than critical value in the
table (3.84). Thus, it could be concluded that the influence of gender pointed the language choice of
teenagers such as code-switching and code-mixing. Second, for code-switching, there was no specific
difference between males (48) and females (48). However, the difference occurred when females were using
code-mixing (75). The number was bigger than males (32). From this information, the study could assume
that gender totally influenced code-mixing among teenagers. This also proved that the null hypothesis was
rejected and the relation between the influence of gender and determining the language choice was positive.
Briefly, the influence of gender was assumed as the language behavior of teenagers. They are potential group
in a society that uses languages as their identities. Calvert (2002) says that identity is a central task that
begins infancy and ends with the culmination of one’s life. The anonymity affords to youth within virtual
world allows adolescents more flexibility in exploring their identity through their languages, their role plays,
and the personae they assume. From his opinion, the teenagers are the period whereas they are still finding
their identities, including language.
The observable fact shows something that must be done with them. They have to choose what language is
comfortably taken during their conversations. The study tries to examine how far the teenagers explore their
first and second language, in the content of the language choice such as code switching and code mixing.
Paradis (1980c) reported that a bilingual simply decided to use one language rather than other, just as s/he
might decide to speak or to remain silent. This indicated that the language choice was a system of language
that made someone to decide his/her own perception of a topic.
As mentioned above, the language choice might be happened for someone who spoke in two or more
languages as well as teenagers. From the statements, the phenomenon was triggered by several factors, such
as: a) the exploration of identity; b) the difference of role among males and females in a society; c). the
negotiation of language. These factors would be a system of social language and made a great view that
linguistics spread around our daily lives. The study of language choice and gender were interesting and
required to be explored endlessly.
References
Beaugrande, R. A. (1991). Lingustic Theory; The Discourse of Fundamental Works. Longman, London.
42
Hamdani
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 40-43
Behrens, S., and J. Parker. (2010). Language in the Real World. Routledge, New York.
Crystal, D. (2000). Language Death. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Fishman, J. A. (1977). Readings in The Sociology of Language. Mouton Publishers, New York.
Harrison, K. D. (2007). When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of
Human Knowledge. Oxford University Press Inc, Oxford.
Jakobson, R. (1971). Word and Language. Mouton & Co, Paris.
Nettle, D and S. Romaine. (2000). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages. Oxford
University Press Inc, Oxford.
Rampton, B. (2006). Language in Late Modernity: Interaction in an Urban School. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Sumarsono and Paina. (2002). Sosiolinguistik. Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta.
Wardhaugh, R. (1987). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
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43
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
www.insikapub.com
The Understanding and Behavior of First Level Students
on Premarital Sexual Behavior
Siva Hamdani
Bogor Husada Academy of Midwifery
Jl. Soleh Iskandar No. 4, Bogor, Indonesia
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Understanding,
Attitude,
Premarital Sexual Behavior
This study is a descriptive research in creating a phenomenon or a description of
situation objectively as the main objective. The data is taken from the primary
data documentation study and subsequent data presented in charts and tables.
The respondents are all first-level university student age (16-19 years) at the
Bogor Husada Academy of Midwifery which by holding the questionnaires. The
results found that the incidence of premarital sexual behavior was 0.87% (one
person), and non-incidence of premarital sexual behavior is 99.13% (114 people).
Premarital sexual behavior related to student understanding showed that they
were familiar (91.30%), moderate (7.83%), and poor (0.87%). Instead, students’
attitudes toward premarital sexual behavior reflected disagree (98.26%) and
agree (1.74%). The results of this research may be used as information material
and a comparison for future research related to sexual behavior among
teenagers.
1
Introduction
Indonesia faces the fact where teenage pregnancy is increasing and becoming a serious problem. The
Impacts of premarital sex are the occurrence of sexual diseases and pregnancy outside of marriage. A survey
shows that the number of teens (around ages 10-19 years) in Indonesia is around 43 million or 19.61% of the
whole population. About one million young men (5%) and 200 thousand young women (1%) openly states
that they have intercourse (MOH, 2006).
Moreover, a recent study conducted by the University of Indonesia Center for Health Research estimated that
the incidence of abortions in Indonesia each year are about 2 million (Utomo et al 2001). Thus, unsafe
abortion in Indonesia is currently contributing to 30-50% maternal mortality rate (MMR), make it the highest
rate in ASEAN.
Bogor city owns approximately 2.30% of adolescents that have engaged in premarital sex, not for
commercial practice, generally 80% done with their boyfriends. On the other hand, the city of Bogor
contains 28.9% of adolescents aged 21-25 years which are infected with HIV / AIDS (Arini, 2010).
X is an institution of health education in the city of Bogor, which not only seeks to provide academic
understanding to their students but also to provide moral education to ward off a variety of negative
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 44-46
behaviors. Until this research has been done, there are two students who had been excluded from the
institution concerning to their negative behaviors.
Premarital sexual behavior has become a trend among teens; the number of events is increasing rapidly. One
of the contributing factors is the lack of understanding about premarital sex. It impacts not only individuals
but also to the community and even country. Based on the background above, the author is interested to
know the phenomenon of first grade students’ understanding and attitudes on the premarital sexual behavior
in one of Educational Institutions located in Bogor.
2
Literature Review
Premarital sexual behavior is done without going through the formal process of marriage by law, religion,
and belief of each individual (Luthfie, 2002). Meanwhile, Srisardjono (2002) argues that premarital sex is
sexual behavior carried out by women and men without marriage. Sharif (2008) concludes that sexual
intercourse outside of marriage is showing no sense of responsibility and raises a series of new problems that
cause physical disruption of the human psycho.
Some researchers have done their studies to find the phenomenon recently, as done by Kirana in 2002.
Collecting sample from a leading medical faculty students in Indonesia, She found that the respondents had
premarital sex (16%), free sex (14.2%), sex with friends (12.3%) , sex with boyfriend (12, 2%), sex with
fiancé (13.2%) and even with prostitute or gigolo (8.5%). This study also found that 72.6% of respondents
had watched a porn video, 43.4% had kissed, 29.2% had petting behavior, 15.1% had oral sex and 11.3% had
done sexual intercourse.
In 2004, Kardawati discovered the students of SMAN 6 Jakarta by the number of 106 respondents.
Kardawati found that 55.7% of respondents had positive attitudes toward sexual behavior and 55.7% of
respondents had negative attitudes toward premarital sex behaviors.
3
Methodology
The research is a descriptive study by taking a cross sectional method. The research data is primary data
obtained from 115 respondents. The data was collected using a questionnaire instrument, according to the
conceptual framework of open questions and closed questions.
The process of analyzing research data was done by using univariate analysis in order to describe statistical
method, to see the frequency distribution for the variable characteristics and to reveal information technology
and the role of parents; as well as in the calculation of the percentage of correct answers for the variable of
understanding and value scores for the attitude variable.
The descriptive analysis variable was implemented by a simple statistical calculation of the percentage. On
the other hand, the attitude variable was performed by a Likert scale using five scales such as strongly agree,
agree, undecided, disagree, strongly disagree.
4
About 92.3% of the respondents understood concerning to the reproductive health. Afterward, the
Respondent attitudes toward premarital sexual behavior were in good level (95.7%). Types of mass media
which reflected sources of information about sex were internet, television and magazines. Later, the mass
media of the most widely selected as the access to pornography are television, vcd , dvd, and internet. Most
of respondents (81, 7%) had boyfriends by which their behavior activities were in the low (65, 2%),
moderate (24, 3%) and high (10, 5%) levels.
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Hamdani
The incidence of premarital sexual behavior was 0.87% (one person), and non-incidence of premarital sexual
behavior was 99.13% (114 people) where premarital sexual behavior understanding showed that they were
familiar (91.30%), fair (7.83%), and poor (0.87%). Instead, students’ attitudes toward premarital sexual
behavior reflected disagree (98.26%) and agree (1.74%).
To respond this phenomenon, the educational institutions should increase several positive activities that can
distract the student to do some unusual activities, including sex behavior. They also can transfer the
understanding through seminars, talk shows, anti-premarital sex campaigns, providing some peer educators
or counselors, making clinical education and improve religious activities on campus.
5
Conclusion
The research concludes that the understanding of sex education should be viewed as one of important matters
in today’s teenagers phenomenon. Sexual behaviors do not affect anything, but some can lead into serious
examples of unwanted pregnancy, abortion or even sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) including the
common STDs Chlamydia, Genital warts, Herpes, Gonorrhea, Hepatitis and Syphilis. Schools, parents,
religious leaders and government must elaborate their visions and missions, concerning to save the nation
and build a better civilization in the future.
References
Abdullah, J. (2007). Hak dan Kewajiban Wanita Muslimah Menurut Al-Qur’an dan As-Sunnah. Pustaka
Imam Asy-Syafi’i, Jakarta.
Anshor, M. U. (2006). Fiqih Aborsi Wacana Penguatan Hak Reproduksi Perempuan. Kompas. Jakarta.
Luthfi, A. M. (2008). Reproduksi Sehat dalam Perspektif Islam. Aula Pustaka, Jakarta.
Manuaba, A. C. (2009). Memahami Kesehatan Reproduksi Wanita. EGC, Jakarta.
Nazir, M. (2003). Metode Penelitian. Ghalia Indonesia, Jakarta.
Notoatmodjo, S. (2002). Metodologi Penelitian Kesehatan. Rineka Cipta, Jakarta.
Nugraha, B. D. (2010). Problema Seks dan Solusinya. Bumi Aksara, Jakarta.
Widyastuti, Y. (2009). Kesehatan Reproduksi. Fitramaya, Jakarta.
Wijaya, D. (2009). Fakta Penting seputar Kesehatan Reproduksi Wanita. Diglosia Printika, Jogjakarta.
46
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
www.insikapub.com
The Use of Silent Reading in Improving Students’ Reading Comprehension and
Their Achievement in TOEFL Score at a Private English Course
Hapid Ali
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Silent Reading;
Achievment
TOEFL Score
The purpose of the study is to analyze the use of silent reading in improving
students’ reading comprehension and their achievement in TOEFL Score at a
Private English Course. The methodology used in the study is quantitative model
of analysis base by using inferential statistics analysis; the measurement of
correlation coefficient and t-test. The respondents used are students of Private
English Course, and the sampling technique used is random stratified sampling
with 55 people as the respondents. The result of the research shows that the use
of silent reading has a significant and positive influence toward improving
students’ reading comprehension and their achievement in TOEFL Score on the
study object.
1
Introduction
People around the world use and learn language. They use language to express or communicate their feeling
and thinking. Language can not be separeted from human being need because it is the most important tool of
communication in the world. People can get much information from language because it’s the first tools that
connect many variables among society of people. There are various definition of the language. Many
linguists define language in many different views. A number of definition of languages have compiled by AlWasilah (1993) as follows:
Language is albitraty, social of symbol,with permits all people in a given culture of other people who
have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or to interect (Finochiaro, 1974). A system of
communication by sound, ie; through the organ of speech and hearing, among human being of certain
group or community,using social symbol prossessing arbitraty conventional meaning (Pei and Gayar,
1975)
Those definitions clarify that the main function of language is communication and understanding one
another. It indicats that language is something needed in human being’s daily life. Especialy English, it is the
international language. English is the most important language in the world. It is the important thing in their
daily’s life because English becomes one of languages that understood by the people from all over the world,
so they who can use the language feel no worry that the other people will not know it.
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Ali
Furthermore, English is also well known in Indonesia. English in our country is as foreign language and one
of main subject in the certain course institution. Nowadays, the students who come from collage study
English by certain media, such as; book, newspaper, television and others. It proves that English is an
important language that should be mastered by students either through listening or reading skill. They can
acquire information and knowladge by reading all related information or knowladge through written of book,
newspaper, magazine, spreading in many places or certain language courses. The act of reading facilitates
them more expand their knowledge and mastery of English language proficiency without being limited by
times, or other people like teacher.
In this term, the subjects would focus on students’ reading comprehension ability in getting TOEFL score.
So that, it gives the writer some curiosities and encorages the writer to find out what acually factor that put
the students in getting TOEFL score. This would work by knowing first the strategy they used to
comprehend a reading text is surely often found in their daily reading activity.
In fact, there are many obstacles in learning reading comprehension as the requirement to get the high value
in TOEFL scoring. The writer is interested in studying and analyzing the students’ learning reading
comprehension as the requirement on TOEFL process in teaching English. It expressed to contribute to the
practice of reading teaching in the future. Based on the phenomenon, the author assumes that reading
teaching media has its own effect on student’s motivation in learning English. How far the correlation of it
will be identified in this investigation? Dealing with the problem above, the author is interested in reading
in-depth investigation.
2
Literature Riview
The Purpose of Reading
Reading process of a books, novel, newspaper are likely to be different when people read a sentence on the
billboard on the street, these different skills frequently depend on what we are reading for. Furthermore,
Harmer (2001) stated there are six reading purposes, as follows:
1.
To identify the topic
Good readers are able to receive the topic of a written text very quickly. By the supporting of their prior
knowledge, they can get an idea. This ability allows them to process the text more efficiently.
2.
To predict and guess
Readers sometimes guess in order to try to understand what written text is talked about. Sometimes they
look forward; try to predict what is coming and sometimes make assumptions or guess the context from
the initial glance.
3.
Reading for detail information
Some readers read to understand everything they are reading in detail this is usually case with written
instructions or description procedure.
4.
Reading for specific information
Sometimes readers want specific details to get much information. They only concentrate when the
particular item that they are interested came up they will ignore the other information of a text until it
comes to the specific item that they are looking for. We can call this activity as scanning process.
5.
Reading for general understanding
Good readers are able to take in a stream of discourse and understand the gist of text, without worrying
too much about the detail. It means that they do not often look for every word, analyzing everything on
the text. We can called this activity is skimming process.
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TOEFL Score Achievement
The comprehenssion, which the process of TOEFL offers to prove a wanderful motivation and
comprehension for the students to read it by themselves. Reading comprehension is the way to identify
contain of texts in other that students know what the purpose of it. By the TOEFL test on students’ reading
comprehension, it is the tool which can improve students’ ability in reading comprehension.
1
The definition of TOEFL
TOEFL, Test of English as a Foreign Language, is probably the most often examination in the
admission process of foreign students to college and university in the United State (Pyle and Munoz,
1995). TOEFL score is the result of English academic to students who want to study at certain
universities or the requirement of work. It is the accumulation of students’ achievement in learning
English quality. From the definition, it implies that TOEFL is a tool to predict students ability in
reading comprehension by the process of TOEFL test.
Loughead (2000) in Ashuri (2003) stated that TOEFL stands for test of English for international
communication which used as a standard assessment of English proficiency that has been developed by
language experts, linguists and staff at the Chauncey group international to evaluate the English
nonnative speakers of English in the field of business. In other word, TOEFL is an international test, it
measure the everyday English skills of people working in an environment. It tests all four language
skills that effective communication requires: Reading, Listening, Speaking, and Writing. It emphasizes
and measures English usage and communication ability in academic setting (TOEFL IBT Tips).
2
The definition of achievement
Achievement is an indicator of the success in the whole of the learning process. A good or bad learning
quality refers to the students’ success of failure in their learning activities. Arifin (1990) stated that
“achievement” is an activity, a skill, and people attitude in solving something. According to Sukarta
(2000) “achievement is an information about; knowledge, attitude, behavior, and skill achieved by
students after taking part in teaching learning process during certain period.
Arifin (1988) stated that the main functions of the achievement are as follows:
a. It is on indicator of quality and quantity of knowledge that must be mastered by the students.
b. It is a symbol of distributional desire or needs to be known
c. It is a informational matter in educational innovation
d. It is an external and internal indicator of educational instructions. It can be formed as an indicator
to the students’ intelegance
3
Research Methodology
The method of research is quantitative method by using a correlative research. “Correlative research attempts
to investigate possible relationships among variables without trying to influence those variables. (Fraenkel
Wallen, 1993:287). A correlative research is also sometimes referred to as a form of descriptive research
because it describes an existing relationship between variables. (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1993). The purpose of
correlation research is to carry out for one of two basic purposes either t help explaination important human
behaviors or to predict likely outcomes. (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1993).
Technique of collecting data is done by triangulation, data analysis has inductive meaning, and result of
quantitative research is more stress to significance date. The writer uses quantitative method based on
situation of students in that area. The writer also wants to understand the capacity of the intelectual of
students, and students’ reading comprehension. This phenomenon reveals the practice of a conventional
reading comprehension strategy and the writer assums that reading comprehension in TOEFL score
achievement will help the students to overcome the difficulties they encounter and will improve their reading
comprehension ability. Some techniques to collect data as to strengthen the argument are described as
follows: (a) observation; (b) reading comprehension test; (c) TOEFL test; and (d) interview.
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Ali
The location of this research is focused on the Elfast English Course, at Pare, Kediri, East Java. This location
is chosen because it is appropriate with the study to be my research. On the other hand, students who study at
University can learn the methodology of it deeply. Elfast English course is the new one of the qualification
courses at Pare getting good quality on TOEFL learning process.
Population of research is taken by the researcher from the students of the “Private English Course (Elfast
English Course) at Pare, Kediri, East Java”. The total population of students is 500 students. The students
who study Elfast English Course get good score in TOEFL learning process. The sample involves an Elfast
English Course in Pare, Kediri, which total population is 55 students. The numbers of students in the
population of this research are 500 students. So, the writer takes 55 populations of students as the sample.
4
Results
Results of the research of analysis about the correlation between students’ silent reading comprehension and
their achievement in TOEFL score at Elfast English course at Pare, Kediri, East Java, the results as follows:
1. The achievement of students in reading comprehension is identified as fair qualification. It based on the
result of test that the mean score of the students’ reading comprehension achievement as variable X is
48.41. Refer to the content grade of scale; it exists in between 46-65 of range which indicates fair
qualification.
2. The achievement of students’ TOEFL score at Elfast English course at Pare, Kediri is identified fair
qualification. The result of the test known that mean of variable Y (students’ TOEFL score
achievement) is 54.35. It refers to the constant scale grade; the score exists in 46-65 of range.
3. Meanwhile, the correlation between students’ ability in silent reading comprehension and TOEFL score
achievement are shown by the score of coefficient correlation 0.70. It is laid on the interval between
0.60-0.80. It means that the students’ ability in silent reading comprehension and TOEFL score
achievement are high correlation.
The writer concludes that there is a coefficient correlation between silent reading comprehension as variable
X and students’ achievement in TOEFL sore as variable Y at Elfast English course at Pare, Kediri.
Meanwhile, the influence of silent reading comprehension toward students’ achievement in TOEFL score is
as much as 29%. It means that there are other 71% indicators that can influence students’ achievement in
TOEFL score.
Discussion
Reading is one of the four language skills should be placed by students’ priority in their daily activities
(Tarigan, 1979). In language perspective, reading is one of the language skills that should be mastered by
learners. Reading considered an important aspect for students because it has valuable in developing
knowledge. It is also the most important skills for English students especially in academic context because
students need to comprehend and deal with all reading aspects and difficulties. Reading is the one of
academic skills become the important material in TOEFL scoring. It indicates that reading subject is an
appropriate way in reading comprehension to improve TOEFL score.
Tampubulon (1987) described that reading is the way to develop logic capacity in comprehending text. It
indicates that developing of logic capacity depends on their reading in comprehending text seriously. When
people have to comprehend the reading text, but they cannot comprehend it, it means that they do not read
yet. What they have done would be just in plain. Their logic capacity will develop if they comprehend texts
seriously.
Accoording to Tarigan (1979), the key of improving comprehension skill is silent reading. It consists of two
steps; extensive reading and intensive reading. It can be comprehended either in TOEFL process or reading
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academic. Some facts above tell clearly, there is a problem paced by people especially students who would
see variety of texts to comprehend it well and improve their TOEFL score.
Sometimes the students do not realize about the factors which influence their learning on TOEFL practice.
They only focus on TOEFL test, how to fill out, and identify the TOEFL practice quickly. From that reason,
to see to the factors which influence TOEFL test is the important thing because those factors will influence
TOEFL score achievement in TOEFL test.
According to (http:/balancepers.com/tipsscoretoefltinggi/) there are eight factors that influence TOEFL score
achievement in TOEFL test but it is taken six factors as follows:
1. Skill of learning autodidact
2. Reading practice
3. Questioner practice
4. Relax
5. Concentration
6. Not too focus on one question
The statement above explains about the extent of students’ achievement in learning process. It is impossible
to reach a good achievement in TOEFL score if there is no hard study in teaching learning because the
learning itself is their own motivation in improving reading comprehension.
Factually, there are many students who find reading subject difficult. It may be caused by their ability in
understanding text is still low. In mastering reading comprehension subject, the students must master some
reading components such as reading load and silent reading consists of extensive reading and intensive
reading. It is appropriate with the Tarigan (1979) statement he described that the key of improving
comprehension skill is silent reading. It consists of two steps; extensive reading and intensive reading.
From statement above, reading comprehension skill is silent reading that consists of two steps “extensive and
intensive reading. From that reason, that students must have comprehension ability in understanding text
quickly. Not only word, language structure, and vocabulary but also silent reading comprehension ability
will help students’ reading in understanding text.
If connected to students’ TEOFL achievement in the use of silent reading comprehension, written text is
regard as the way which improves students’ reading comprehension on TOEFL achievement. From the
explanations from the above, it can be concluded that silent reading comprehension has correlation toward
students’ reading comprehension in TOEFL score achievement. In addition, silent reading comprehension in
improving students’ reading comprehension is the one of important factors that gains students to improve
their achievement in TOEFL score.
5
Conclusion
The result of the research shows that the use of silent reading has a significant and positive influence toward
improving students’ reading comprehension and their achievement in TOEFL Score on the study object.
Having investigated the influence of the students’ ability in silent reading comprehension on their
achievement in TOEFL score, the writer suggests the following:
1.
Students’ comprehending
Generally, students’ silent reading in improving reading comprehension is in sufficient qualification.
Therefore, there are some suggestions to improve students’ reading comprehension toward their
achievement in TOEFL score:
a. It will be better for the students to read more from other book to improve their ability in reading
comprehension.
b. It will better for students to give more concentration while they read by looking for a go condition
and situation.
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c.
d.
2.
Ali
It will better for students to improve their effort in guessing unknown words based on context while
they read.
It will be better for students to actualize the strategies of reading comprehension more. In other that
students get achievement in TOEFL score.
The role of teacher
Teacher role, he or she can help the students’ silent reading in improving reading comprehension toward
their achievement in TOEFL score:
a. Teacher can use one or more of the following ways to develop the students’ silent reading
comprehension such as tries to find the synonym and antonym words, main idea in written text of
descriptive, narrative, procedure and report form by scanning and skimming method.
b. The teacher at Elfast private English course should get informed of the finding so that they can take
the important steps to address the situation.
References
Al-Wasilah, H. (1993). Linguistik; Suatu Pengantar. Angkasa, Bandung
Arikunto, S. (2006). Prosedur Penelitian, Suatu Pendekatan Praktek. Asdi Mahesa, Jakarta.
Douglas, B. H. (2007). Prinsip Pembelajaran dan Pengajaran Bahasa. United States Embassy Press, Jakarta.
Cristofer, B. (1985). Language and Linguistic Teaching from Practice to Principle. Oxford, New York.
Fraenkel, Z., and N. Walen. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education Second Edition.
Library Congress Cataloging- in Publication Data. International Edition
Gaos. (1983). Dasar-dasar Statistik Pendidikan. Fakultas Tarbiyah Institut Agama Islam Negeri sunan
Gunung Djati, Bandung.
Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching English. Longman, New York.
Hornby, A. S. (2003). Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary. Oxford University, New York.
Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary, 2000. Oxford University, New York
Pyle. (1995). TOEFL Preparation Guide. Clifts, USA.
Smith, F. (1985). Reading. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Sudjana. (1996). Metode Statistik. Pustaka Setia, Bandung.
Sugiono. (2010). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R & D. Bandung. Alfabeta.
Syach, M. (2003). Psikologi Pendidikan dengan Pendekatan Baru. Remaja Rosdakarya, Bandung.
Tampubolon. (1987). Kemampuan Membaca Teknik membaca Efektif dan Effisien. Angkasa, Bandung.
Tarigan, (1979). Membaca Sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Bahasa. Angkasa, Bandung.
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Cultural Mirrors: Materials and Methods in English as a Foreign Language
Dian Ekawati1 and Fakry Hamdani2
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Culture,
Material,
EFL
This study tries to review the role of culture in the textbooks and methods used in
the classroom. With the documentation and observation as the center of data, the
study also tries to arise students’ awareness of the target culture. The study found
that some EFL (English as a Foreign Language) textbooks and EFL methods did
not reflect not only the target culture, but also source culture and international
culture. Thus, the students and teacher could experience the cultural mismatch.
However, the cultural mismatch aroused from different culture of learning
between teacher and students or between students and textbooks can be handled
by ethnographic stance and explicit teaching
1
Background
It is obvious that the teaching of English should consider both language and its culture. Brown (1994) states
that whenever we teach a language we also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of
thinking, feeling and acting. Parallel to Brown, Brooks in Valdes (1986) supports that assumption by saying
that the teacher must relate language to culture if a coordinate system is to result from the learners’ efforts.
Here, the culture of the language plays an important role in educational language excellence.
In addition, according to Cahyana in Pikiran Rakyat (2001), textbook will directly and indirectly lead to the
quality of educational system. However, there cannot be faithful representation of the culture in the Englishlanguage teaching materials or textbooks that the EFL teachers are teaching. The textbooks, generally, only
present the international uses of the language but they, actually, should include the aspects of the target
culture or in other words the elements of the culture. Therefore, in this chapter, we will analyze some
textbooks that figure culture of the English language, highlight the difference between cultural content and
cultural medium that we call it culture of learning, and evaluate the textbooks for cultural elements.
The culture embedded in the textbooks cannot be separated from the culture of learning because the medium
for learning used in the classroom is a part of culture of learning. Its culture of learning is an indicator of
knowing the learning process in the classroom that will lead to possible misunderstanding or mismatch
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between culture in the textbooks and culture of learning that used by teachers or students to acquire the
knowledge, skills, or attitudes about the target culture.
It is assumed that learning foreign language is only mastering the object of academic study whereas it is for
learning a means of communication. Thus, it is recognized that language learning and learning about target
cultures cannot be separated (Valdes, 1986; Robinson, 1988; Byram, 1989; Harrison, 1990; Kramsch,
1993a). It is very important to include culture in the textbooks in order to arise students’ awareness of the
target culture. EFL method also reflects culture of learning. That’s why the writer is interested in presenting
the cultural mirrors in the textbooks and methods used in the classroom.
2
Language Teaching and Intercultural Competence
As stated above, language learning and learning about target culture cannot be separated. Byram in Hinkell
(1999) shares that foreign language teaching show three broad aims which should be integrated in the
process of teaching and learning of foreign language. The aims are: the development of communicative
competence for use in situations the learner might expect to encounter; the development of awareness of the
nature of language and language learning; the development of insight into the foreign culture and positive
attitudes toward foreign people.
Culture, in fact, consists of various elements. Some experts define culture in many ways. Culture in broad
sense, according to Valette in Valdes (1986), has two major components. One is anthropological or
sociological culture: the attitudes, customs, and daily activities of the people, their ways of thinking, their
values, and their frames of reference. The other component of culture is the history of civilization.
Traditionally representing the “culture” element in foreign language teaching, it includes geography, history,
and achievement in sciences, social sciences, and the arts. This second component forms the framework for
the first: it represents the heritage of a people and as such must be appreciated by the students who wish to
understand the new target culture. In addition, some language teacher use the terms refer to cultural products
(e.g. literary works or works of art) and background information (e.g. facts about the history or geography of
countries).
Moerman in Hinkel (1999) defines culture as a set —perhaps— a system of principles of interpretation,
together with the products of that system. Thus, culture, as a whole, can be seen as the framework of
assumptions, ideas, and beliefs that are used to interpret other people’s action, words, and patterns of
thinking. However, it is very important for language learner to know the different cultural frameworks,
either their own or those of others so that with their knowledge of different culture, the language learners can
adapt themselves in learning the language as well as the culture of it.
Hinkel (1999) analyses that communicative competence consisting of grammatical, sociolinguistic,
discourse, and strategic competences seems insufficient in relation to the learning. He believes that
communicative competence is still too broad while the need of intercultural competence is very urgent here.
Intercultural competence defined as the ability of person to behave adequately in a flexible manner when
confronted with, actions, attitudes, and expectations of representatives of foreign culture (Meyer, 1991: 137).
The learners actually can be aware of this from various media such as TV, multimedia, newspaper etc.
Sooner or later, they encounter the member of other cultural groups.
In line with this point of view, one would expect the EFL or ESL textbooks reflects a range of cultural
contexts and include intercultural elements either in curriculum design or evaluation. Therefore, it is
expected that cultural materials on text book will support the students’ awareness of intercultural issues that
enable them to communicate in various communicative context with an appropriate and effective manner.
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Evaluating Textbooks for Cultural Elements
Recently, the role of textbooks has extended as follows.
1. a teacher: the textbooks contains the materials that instructs the students about the English speaking
cultures.
2. a map: the textbooks give the overview of a structured program.
3. a resource: the textbooks give a set of materials and activities from which the most useful items will be
chosen.
4. a trainer: the textbooks guide the an inexperienced teacher and untrained teacher accomplishes step-by
step instruction.
5. an authority: the textbooks are valid and written by the expert and carry the authorization of important
publishers or minister of education.
6. a de-skiller: the textbook gives the interpretation, critical approach to use the materials as the teacher
isn’t trained to do.
7. an ideology: the textbooks reflect a worldview or cultural system, a social construction that maybe
imposed on teachers and students and construct their perspective of a culture. Also, English textbooks
may function as a form of cultural politics.
More specifically, Richard (1993) in Hinkell (1999) states, “I see textbooks as sourcebooks rather than
coursebooks. I see their role as facilitating teaching, rather than restricting it. However in order to be able to
serve as sources for creative teaching, teachers need to develop skills in evaluating and adapting published
materials”.
Evaluating the textbooks, now, is a normal part in EFL or ESL teacher training (Hinkel, 1999). The usual
way to do this is by getting the teacher to examine textbooks based on the evaluative checklists
Textbook Evaluation Checklists
Since there are some textbooks do not include culture in their publications, it is useful for us to know in what
ways the materials involve learners’ values, attitudes, and feelings. Cunningsworth’s list (1984) tries to see
the cultural content of the textbooks from cultural skill as well as cultural knowledge perspectives. It is
intended to check whether a cultural setting is acceptable to learners, whether culture is only for the
linguistic materials, and whether the cultural contexts help learners in perceiving and categorizing social
situations they may find themselves in. Cunningsworth encourages teachers to ask whether the social and
cultural contexts are interpretable by students because he argues that language textbooks are bound to
express some social and cultural values.
Supporting the former, Byram’s list specifies on cultural content. He examines evaluating the treatment of
cultural content in language textbooks. Meanwhile, Risager (1991) used the same criteria to examine
elementary EFL textbooks used in Scandinavia. She found that in the social and geographic definition of
textbook characters, the people featured are predominantly middle-class, young people, isolated individuals
who are often tourists or visitors to urban centres. They engage in trivial linguistic interaction in mainly
leisure activities or consumer situations. They reveal few feeling or opinions and never engage in social,
moral, or philosophical problems. The table below will show the Byram’s list:
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Criteria for textbook evaluation
Focus on cultural content
• Social identity and social groups
(social class, regional identity, ethnic minorities)
• Social interaction
(differing levels of formality; as outsider and insider)
• Belief and behaviour
(moral, religious beliefs; daily routine)
• Social and political Institution
(state institution, health care, law and order, social security)
Figure 1. Criteria for Text Book Evaluation
Evaluating Treatment of Cultural Content in Textbooks
•
•
•
•
•
•
Giving factually accurate and up-to-date information
Avoiding (relativizing) stereotypes by raising awareness
Presenting realistic pictures
Being free from (questioning) ideological tendencies
Presenting phenomena in context rather than an isolated facts
Explicitly relating historical material to contemporary society
Figure 2. Evaluating treatment of cultural content of textbooks
Textbooks Based on Source Cultures
There are EFL textbooks produced at a national level for particular countries mirror the source culture (rather
than target culture) so that the source and target culture are identical. For example, a textbooks for
Venezuela and Turkey. The textbooks have a text describing the country’s chief geographic of Venezuela or
the food and history of Turkish. The implication is that students learn English to talk to the visitors who
come to the country. They may talk to the visitor by using their own culture; they don’t become aware of
their own cultural identity.
However, people should have intercultural communication. Intercultural communication is defined as an
effective identity negotiation process in novel communication episodes, or demonstrated ability to negotiate
mutual meanings, rules, and positive outcomes. Now, why do people use source culture? The reason is that
it can help students their own cultural identity, deprives learners that identity. Then the result is students
cannot engage in intercultural negotiation with a text portraying another culture, unable to engage in dialog
with the text to identify and confirm their own cultural identity, or ascertain the differences and similarities
with another culture
By having this type of communication it is expected that they will cope with the situation and the teacher
who has the role as mediator, mediates the textbook in classroom interaction, indicating which aspects the
source culture would be interesting or problematic for TL speaker. But it demands intercultural knowledge,
skills, and awareness of teacher.
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Textbooks Based on Target Culture
There are large number of books focus on target culture—social, commercial values in order to promote
awareness of gender, environmental issues etc. For example, elementary school textbooks which are
marketed worldwide portrayed a multicultural nature of American society—husband as being responsible for
child care and house work, while their wives are breadwinners. Another example is in social issue such as
child abuse, students are asked to give opinions and comments. From this, we divide the texts into two:
closed-text and open-text. Closed-text provides unproblematic world that confirms or reinforces learners’
views and beliefs. While open-text invites possible interpretation, elaborations, and learners responds such as
slavery issues in America.
Textbook Aimed at International Target Culture
This kind of textbooks include a wide variety of cultures set in English speaking countries or in a country
where English not a first and second language but used as international language. International target culture
means that English is used in international situation by the speaker who do not speak as first language, For
example Belgian teacher taught Chinese people and they learn it in order to have the ability to talk to
Germany and Italian engineering. This book offers interesting culture mirror, the learning of culture and the
development of intercultural skills depend in large part on how the textbooks are used in the classroom, the
quality of interaction between students, texts, and teachers.
Culture Learning as Dialogue
Culture learning through textbook is a process of dialogue in which students negotiate the meaning and
identity with the author of the textbook and its cultural content. Here, the role of teacher is as mediator and
manager of the way students see the culture mirror in the textbooks and also as a “ambassador of culture”.
Then, a three party-dialogue with the culture content comes when the textbook is used in classroom
interaction. The result shows that source cultures dominate the interaction, so that culture content becomes
filtered or distorted by the participant’s approach to interaction with the text.
The Implication for Language Teaching
Textbook with different approach of learning seems to be difficult if the teacher and learners still do not have
cultural awareness. For example, Chinese students expect western teacher to explain the textbooks while
they learn it with attentive listening because the teacher is regarded as an authority and provider of
knowledge while western teacher expects Chinese students to be active, hard working, well-motivated etc.
Then, they have negative view of each other’s culture. This cultural mismatch can be avoided by teaching
culture in the classroom.
Teaching culture is conducted through:
• textbooks have cultural content.
• teacher and student should have ethnographic stance toward cultural content and methodology to
develop cultural awareness: being aware of members of another cultural groups: their behaviour,
expectation, perspectives and values.
• more textbooks which include explicit intercultural elements.
• teacher help students to understand the culture of their own and target culture, how to learn culture.
• explicit teaching, that is by asking student how target culture member interpret the expression, give
situation and let them choose to give cultural consequences they have chosen.
By paying attention and doing those points, the cultural mismatch could be avoided or reduced so that
successful learning can be reached.
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Similar Research Findings
Fearey and Lalor in “English Language and Culture in Soviet Textbooks, as cited in (Harrison, 1990) found
ideology is set out all levels of education including the textbooks. The pursuance of political goals
education in both Soviet and English classroom is strongly influencing the presentation of subject matter.
The product is technically excellent, even outstanding but linguistic success frequently prevents the students
from realising how much the substance and reality of the culture is absent from his awareness, especially
modern idiom terms. The tragedy is that their knowledge, cannot be backed by depth of cultural
understanding.
Curtain and Pesola in Savignon (1988) proposed some criteria for evaluating textbooks and other printed
materials when they examined materials used in Spanish, German, English-speaking classrooms. They
investigated whether culture is integrated into the program materials or not, whether the emphasis of the
program is on experiencing culture rather than on learning that culture, whether culture is presented from
global perspective rather than focussing on a single country, region, or ethnic group, whether the situations
and language presented are culturally authentic, or whether the materials promote an appreciation of the
value and richness of cultural diversity or not.
They found that materials (1) did not reflect the insight of communication and language acquisition, (2) are
not completely transferable to elementary school foreign language classroom, (3) developed for the children
of guest workers in Germany or the children of German-speaking families living abroad are often too
advanced and proceed too rapidly when they used with American speakers of English.
Those findings show that there are still a lot of textbooks that do not have cultural content and result from
mismatch between the learners and the textbooks especially their cultural understanding.
3
Conclusion
EFL textbooks reflect not only the target culture, but also source culture and international culture. EFL
methods or cultures of learning also reflect culture. It is very crucial to learn culture because without it the
students and teacher could experience the cultural mismatch. However, the cultural mismatch aroused from
different culture of learning between teacher and students or between students and textbooks can be handled
by ethnographic stance and explicit teaching.
Regarding to this kind of condition, it is very urgent to teach culture in the classroom especially when we
teach foreign language (and also second language). Bear in your mind that when we teach culture, do not
teach the students culture explicitly but implicitly so that students will infer the culture by themselves and
there is not time-consuming. By doing so, we hope then, the cultural mismatch will be avoided either by
students or by the teachers.
References
Brown, H. D.. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Prentice
Hall Regents, New Jersey.
Cahyana, H. G. (2001). Reposisi Textbook Pendidikan Tinggi. Pikiran Rakyat. February, 24. Granesia,
Bandung.
Hinkel, E. (1999). Culture in Language Teaching and Learning. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Savignon, J. S. (1988). Languages and Children; Making the Match.
Company, New York.
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 53-59
Valdes, M. (1986). Culture Bound: Bridging the Cultural Gap in Language Teaching. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
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Vol. 01, No. 01
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Several Scientific Facts as Stated in Verses of the Qur’an
M. Subandi
Faculty of Science and Technology,
Islamic State University of Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung- Indonesia
Jl. A. H. Nasution No, 105, Bandung
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Facts,
Nature,
Photosynthesis,
Verse 80
The first verses revealed to prophet Muhammad SAW is begun with the word to
read. This word is an instruction to all Moslem to read in the sense of to think of
the creation of the creator. Someone still has the opinion that Islam discourages the
development of science. This accusation is absolutely not true. The process of
conclusion making in the science and the religion is something different. Religion is
based on faith and science is based on human investigation or rational and logical
facts. Quranic verses contain hints and a lot of scientific facts, but they are not
scientific theories. Reading in the meaning of studying the nature is the first order
from the Almighty God to prophet Muhammad. Nature and all creatures are
created in balance. Creatures are all in pairs. Nature is prepared and
maintained in systematic mechanism. Photosynthesis is considered to be the first
chain of living mechanism of creatures which depend on food and on the supply of
fire (energy) as stated in verse 80 chapter Ya Sin. The photosynthesis proses is the
process of synthesis of carbon dioxide and the water. Water has unique physical
and chemical properties. We can heat it, evaporate it, freeze it and use it for
solving or combining other things. All living creatures require water, and almost
the processing happening need water. Through the scientific observations and the
natural evidences revealed, now we believe in the Qur’an that it is true all the
times. Man is ordered to utilize their all capacities of mind and intellect lo reveal the
secret of the nature and the whole universe. In this way people may come to conclusion
to have firmer belief in God, the Creator
1
Scientific Encouragement
Studying the verses guiding or enlightening the development of science may commence from any verses
saying about the creation. Such the verse is verse number 2 of al-'Ala chapter : Alladzi khalaqa fasawwa (Who has
created (everything) and proportioned it) . It is very interesting subject. We are all aware of this verse is applied to
plant and animal and also to inanimate things.
From micro subject point of view, we got the understanding that all maters are composed of extremely small
particles called atoms consisting of charged particles and uncharged particles called neutrons. While the
charged particles are of two kinds, negative called electrons and positive called protons. There are always in
pairs and in equalibrium. In the world of vegetation, plants are propagated with two ways of propagation
generatively (by generative cells : seeds) and vegetatively (somatic cells). There are male and famale flowers to
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generate new individual plant. It is very clear in animal world, there will be no ancestor without the matching of
the different sexes meaning male and female.
There are a lot of references to the pursuit of knowledge in the Qur’an. Allah orders us to travel through the
earth even to the outer space (if we afford) to see how Allah originated creation. In the sight of Allah people
are equal. However, Allah describes they are not equal between a knowledgeable person and an ignorant
person, they are in opposite positions, they are different.
Prophet Muhammad (saas) cried on the eve of receiving revelation of verses 190 and 191 of surah al-Imron.:
“Verily in the creation of the heavens and the earth and (in) the alternation of night and day –there are
indeed signs for men of understanding; Men who remember Allah, standing, sitting, and lying down
on their sides, and contemplate the creation of the heavens and the earth (with the thought) “Our Lord!
Not for nothing have You created (all) this. Glory to You! Give us salvation from the suffering of the
Fire.”
Tears streaming on prophet Muhammad’s cheek, because he knew the future fate of his followers. There
would be very little number of muslims who industriously seeing and thinking of natural phenomenon. Now
a days, as we are all realized, the concerned of the prophet about the fate of ummah (muslims) are appearing
in the very sight. We are split in factions, quarrelling each other, poor and lack of food (hunger), backwards
in mastering the science and technology as if we are retarded people.
Natural phenomena of physical material and the life of organisms in our surrounding are the facts to be
studied. When we understand the phenomena and master how to deal with them, then we are able to manage
them for the sake of our properity.
The Almighty God keeps and maintains the creatures in balance in numbers and in qualities. Population of
rabbits are controlled by the predator wolves, the birds population are controlled by the short of feed supply and so
ford.
The gas elements in atmosphere must be in set components as it is in natural status if the other creature is to go on
alive. This balance components of atmospheric gas will be discussed in detail later to see the Quranic verse
number 80 in chapter Yaa Siin informing this occurance.
2
First Order in Quest for Knowledge
The first verses revealed to prophet Muhammad SAW is begun with the text "to read". The word "read" is the first
that descended from Heaven to Prophet Muhammad.
The five first verses are :iqra' bismirabbika al-ladzi khalaqa: Khalaqa al-insana min c a’laq: Iqra' warabbuka alakram; Alladzi 'allama bilqalam: :A’llam insana ma lam ya'lam. (Read, in the Name of your Lord Who has
created (all that exists): He has created man from a clot ( a piece of thick coagulated blood). Read by your most
beneficent Lord; Who by the pen teacheth man that which he knows not. These verses are the guide and the
instruction for al l muslim to read in the sense to think of. In the time the verses descended there were no written
fact or scripture to read. Indeed, there were many poets or writer works of arts, it was famous among qureish as
the best poetry composition and poet reader, but the verses says Read, in the name of your Lord Who created.
This instruction to read is the order to think of the creation of the Creator, not think of a poet or a composition
of writer. Creature, man and the nature, human body that created from a clot, the nature and the universe. Muslim
has to do research to fulfil the order,
The second instruction is read by your most beneficent Lord, Who by the pen teacheth man that which he know
not. Teaching or education is obvious order in these verses. Muslims have to formulate the integration of research
and education.
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Subandi
These verses show clearly that Islam not only encourages investigation on which science is based on, but also Islam
in very concerned with scientific investigation. The first verses are not "believe” as the principle of faith. This
evidence is the answer to some people who still hold the opinion that religion discourages the development of
science. Such the opinion tending to accuse the religion is far from being true.
The difference between religion and scientific research is that religion is based on faith, while science is based on
investigation. You may believe or disbelieve in religion, but Islam gives us to urguing its principle before we
conclude to be believer or disbeliever. It is obvious that Islam encourages investigation.
Early muslim may not need scientific facts because of the entire religious atmosphere in which they existed.
The exposition of verses to those having very limited knowledge could not comply with what they had already
learnt. This character of mind may become the reason why Islamic world is unvapourable and cast aside in the Held
of research and development of science.
3
Weakness and Seeing the Last
The current situation of research and education in Islamic world is quite alarming and disappointing. As it was
stated by Khalid Ahmad Qureshi (1999) scientific research and higher education in Arab states remains weak. When
it was compared to other nation expenditure for research activities In Islamic states is very low. For illustration
purpose. Israel elone spended one billion dollars on applied research, while the total expenditures of the whole Arab
world do not exceed one hundred million dollars. In the Arab world number 120 Universities, 256 research
centres and 1.5 million students in higher education. Only expectition this number would be double in the year
2000. Nevertheless this expectation was not reached and the result of scientific research do not match the figure.
That condition is not due to a shortage of resources but to a lack of appropriate condition for accurate and
challenging scientific research. Yet this figure are very low in compaction with the developed states. Indeed, the
developing states including the Arab states contribute less than 4 % in the overall research, while the contribution of
industrial states attains 73%, The number of scientists and engineers in Arab world is 318 scientists for every one
million people in comparation with 3600 scientists for the same number of people in developed countries.
The Prophet says the acquisition of knowledge is a duty incumbent on every muslim. The acquisition of
knowledge is a must which should be carried out. Another Prophet says seek knowledge from the cradle to the
grave, and Thai person who shall pursue the path of knowledge, God will direct him to the path of Paradise.
In the period of Caliph Harun AI-Rashid and his successors, appreciation and rewards were given to those
learned men who translate into Arabic the hooks of Greek philosophers. At those time, no restriction were imposed
to ban, they were initiated and encouraged and fully welcome as the spirit of Islam is in fact a scientific one.
The function of mosques for muslim are not strictly just for divine worshipping, they are often used for lecture
halls or schools. Many works, books and innovations in the field of philosophy, sciences: medicals, astronomy are
created that enhanced muslim world to the reputable condition.
4
Some Mufasirins Interpretations on Verse 80 of Chapter Yaa Siin
Alladzi ja'ala lakum mina assyajar al akhdlari nara, faidza antum minhu tuqidun: (He who produces for you fire
out of the green tree, when behold you kindle therewith). Among words having nearly the same meaning are
fa'ala, khalaqa and ja'ala, but the words have different understanding. The word ja'ala found in al-Quran in
several meaning. Expressing the meaning aujada (create or making). The different between khalaqa (create)
and ja'ala means aujada is that khalaqa means create, the ability to present something new without prior
example and need not resources or any real substance. As for ja'ala means aujada give the understanding of
formation and assemblence of existing components.
At-Tabari interpreted the verse by correlating it with the previous and succeeding verses, ja'ala means to produce.
God gives out from green tree fire, Ibnu Katsir explained the meaning alladzi ja'ala lakum as God Who
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commences the creation of tree (assyajar) out of water (kullu syaiin khuliqa min ma'in), growing and developing
the green leaves and bearing fruits, then the tree senesccned turns brown and dried as Ure wood. Ibnu Katsir
explain further by quating Qatadah view on this, that is meant by syajaril akhdlar are al-marh and al-afar two
varieties of tree growing in Hijaz region. The green wood of the trees will give out fire when they are hit or in friction.
Assuyuti gave views on the verse, that God is the merciful to the whole creatures, The verse is the evident of the
supreme will of God as the creator. He lights out of green or wet wood fire, while the character of water is fire
extinguisher.
Almaragi gave interpretation that annual process of green wood is the existing of water, then God turns the green
wood to he imflamable. God created something unrealistic to man (Badi'u assamawat wal ardl), created fire out
of watery wood, and no one could reject to the willingness of God.
Sayid Quthb related the verse to three verse (verses nos 77,78 and 79) and the succeeding verse (no 81). He
opined there are interrelation among the verses, all describe the will of God in creating everything of unrealistic to
man. Sayid Quthb said, the verse is scientific miracle. He mentioned term "energy “ for light energy in active
inside the green wood derived from solar energy absorbed.. The result of the process is an element of component
forming green tree as timber. However, he did not explain the process of solar energy absorption. Ultimately, he
was frankly not a competent for revealing (he secret of scientific miracle in al-Quran. He said, if I were able to
know, I would be the pious and would live just for worshipping the Almighty God.
Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah (Hamka) explained and said something related with chaircoal (organic fossile). Out of
the chaircoal man light fire. The genesis of chaircaol is begun with the buried wood along time ago under the
massive of the earth.
Muhammad Quresh Shihab said of botanical term of chlorophyll, and God created energy out of the
chlorophyll the green pigment contained in leaf or green tree (wood) or every of plant organ that green in colour.
That is why, the verse used the word syajar (tree) instead of waraq (leaf), subhanallah, scientific secret is now
revealed clearly. Quresh Shihab also said the process of photosynthesis and solar radiation and respiration process
and chemical energy. As a modern scholar, he can relate verse interpretation knowledge with the progress of
science.
5
Fire or Energy Product of Photosynthesis in the Syajaril Akhdhar
Actually, the formation of fire as stated in the verse or energy (Sayed Quthb and Quresh Shihab) is clearer since the
finding of the formulation in photosynthetic process. The equation is as follow
6 CO2 + 6 H2O
C6H12O6 + 6 O2
In chlorophyll the extraordinary energy derived from green tree is the result of a extremely complex process
involving of many coordinated biochemical reactions. Shortly, photosynthesis is the process of synthesis of sugar
(glucose) from carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in the presence of sunlight taking place in chlorophyll and
gives out the waste product oxygen (O2)
The chlorophyll (the green tree) as the dominant factor plays a role as the captive in the so called light dependent
reaction, the pigment chlorophyll absorbs light, while in the light independent or dark reaction CO2 is captured
from the atmosphere and in a complex process releases 3-carbon sugar which are later combined to form
glucose C6H12O6 Simply, photosynthesis may be defined as the conversion of light energy into chemicals by living
organism (syajarul akhdlar/green plant).
Syajarul akhdlar or green organism as stated in the verse may be considered as the first producer (from nature:
water and carbon dioxide) supplying food (energy) for animal feeding on vegetation (herbivores), in turn the
herbivore animal will become t he supplying food for animal (predator) feed on meat (carnivore). The cycle goes
on that the living in the earth maintain in balance. The same happening in the equilibrium of gas components in the
atmosphere.
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Figure 1: Chlorophyll in a leaf
Atmospheric gas is vital for the human life, man inhalls oxygen and exhalls carbon dioxide. The atmosphere
contains 78 % nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0,03 % carbon dioxide, and other trace gases. Carbon dioxide is small in
quantity but it is toxic for human and animal. The persentage of the gas must maintain, decreasing or increasing is
detrimental to life. The emission of carbon dioxide (toxic gas) out of vehicle and burning organic matter in
factories or industries endanger the human health. Fortunately God created automatic machanism of this
balance, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed through photosynthesis in "syajaril akhdlar", and at the
same time the oxygen is released to make the atmosphere fresh. Subhanallah, rabbana ma khalaqta hadza bathila.
Substances which are produced in photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen as the by product. Digestive process
in human nutrition is the process to produce sugar to maintain body warm, growth and development. Glucose
solution is utilized in medical treatment (tranfusion) to heal the dehydrated sick body. All at one or may be in
gradual, the lame body due to dehydration turns stronger. Oxygen is the real fire, it is easily burn and
imflamable in higher consentration. Chemist uses symbol +O2 as to represent oxidation or burning process. Our
body inhalls oxygen to burn nutrition conveyed in blood. Man can only withstand within 4 minutes without
oxygen.
It is revealed, reasonable, that the fire deriving instantly from green tree is the product of photosynthesis process
occurs in the green tree. Man of modern time will not accept if fire comes out of the green or wet wood, but
physiologically oxygen come out of green parts of tree as the by-product of photosynthesis. The wet wood must be
dried in in the sun to make firewood. Like wise, the earlier muslim accepted fire comes out of the green wood in
case of Ibnu Katsir’s interpretation of light comes out of al-afar and al-marh wood.
The photosynthesis proses is the process of synthesis of carbon dioxide and the water. Through the scientific
observations and the natural evidences revealed, now we believe in the Qur’an that it is true all times, and
within this writing, my own observations on the natural phenomena those fully revealing the verses of
Qur’an and the saying of prophet. Of course, my observation on the nature will relate to my academic
competence and to my experiences in doing so little research works in the field of agricultural science .
Agricultural science is belong to the applied science. A student of agriculture has to sit for the prerequisite
basic science classes of chemistry, physics, basic geology, and fundamentally the theories of biology.
Without these bases of sciences an agronomist could do wrong practices, if not do nothing in the field of
modern agriculture.
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In thinking of nature, it is unavoidable to think of the important roles of water. Water which is mentioned in
the Qur’an is source of all life. Water is also mentioned as the layer having position under “Arsy= the
throne”. Surah al-Hud verse 7: “And He it is Who created the heavens and the earth in six Days - and His
Throne was upon the water”
In the beginning of universe formation water is also mentioned in surat al-Abasa verse 25. Water was
poured after the separation of the heaven and the earth to cool the hot earth. In another context, there are
verses name the water in relation to sending down it from the sky as gift in the form of precipitation or rain
for the whole creatures.
Water has unique physical and chemical properties. We can heat it, evaporate it, freeze it and used it for
solving or combining other things. All living creatures require water, and almost the processing happening
need water.
Verses in chapter al-ghasiah say ; Afala yandhuruna ila al-ibili kaifa khuliqat: Wa ila as-samai kaifa rufiat: Wa ila
al-ardli kaifa nushibat; (Do they not consider the camels, how they are created?; And the Heaven, how it is raised?;
And the mounts, how they are set up?; And the earth, how it is extended?). These verses ask people to think of the
environment and themselves, and indirect order to utilize their all capacity of mind and intellect to reveal the
secret of the nature and the whole universe.
6
Conclusion
Any effort to reveal the secret of scientific miracle of al-Quran in various periods was, is and will be suitable
to man ration. Scientific trends in interpreting verse will at the end to the compassion of man that the almighty God is
the Supreme Creator. Verse 80 of Yaa Siin chapter informs the formation of food (glucose or sugar) and energy
(oxygen). Photosynthesis proses is the process of synthesis of carbon dioxide and the water. Through the
scientific observations and the natural evidences revealed, now we believe in the Qur’an that it is true all
times. In this way people may come to conclusion for having firmer belief in its creator.
References
Abdushshamad, M. K. (2004). Mukjizat Ilmiah dalam Al-Quran (Terjamahan). Akbar Media Eka Sarana,
Jakarta.
Al-Qur’an dan Terjemahnya. (1971). Yayasan Penyelenggara Penterjemah/ Penafsir Al-Qur’an. Jakarta.
Hamka. (2004). Tafsir Al-Azhar. Pustaka Panjimas. Jakarta
Mustofa, A. (2006). Pusaran Energi Ka’bah. Padma Press, Surabaya.
Oldeman, L. R. (1975). An Agroclimate Map of Java. Central Research Institute of Agriculture. Bogor.
Schmidt, F. H. and Ferguson. (1951). Rainfall Type Based on Wet and Dry Period Ratios for Indonesia and
Wester New Guinee. Verhaandelingen No. 42. Kementerian Perhubungan . Djawatan Meteorologi
dan Geofisika R.I. Djakarta.
Shihab, M. Q. (2007). Tafsir Al-Mishbah. Perpustakaan Nasional, Jakarta.
http/www.USC.Edu/dept/MSA. (2008). The Qur’an, Knowledge and Science. USC-MSA. Compedium
Muslim Text
http/www.Map.gsfc.nasa.gov. (2008). Introduction to Cosmology
http/www.Chem.duke.edu. (2008). Posible Site for Origin of Life.
http/www.geocities.com/Origin of life.
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65
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
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Position on The Village Head in Indonesia Law
Asep Suparman
Sekolah Tinggi Hukum Bandung
Jl. Cihampelas No. 8, Bandung, INDONESIA
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Law,
Administration,
Village Head,
Position
The exact definition of “administration” term is not clear yet, and still in
discussion among the scholars. Administration is a term which is derived and
translated from administratie (Duch), or administration (English). Those are
actually derived from the Latin "Administrate" which means "to serve", in the
Indonesian language it means “melayani” or “mengabdi.” In the implementation
of the government is the activities undertaken to achieve the set up goals by
State’s authorized officer in advance. This position administratively conducts
government activities, therefore this position in the Law of the State
Administration can be classified into administrative positions or can be referred
to as the State Administration. It is of the government apparatus (at central or
local levels) that govern the administration. In the contrary of the terms used in
the positive law was on Act No. 5 year of 1986 regarding the State Administrative
Court does not use the term Administration of the State, but the term Tata Usaha
of the State, although the terms contained State Administration terminology. This
is as defined in Article 1, sub 1 of Act No. 5 of 1986, which said the authorized
officer of State’s Tata Usaha who performs the function to conduct the affairs of
government both at central and regional levels is the Government’s official of
administration, as it is confirmed by Article 1, sub 2, which said Board or
Administrative Officer is the agency or officials who carry out the affairs of
government based on applicable laws and regulations, then how when connected
to the government Administration of village, especially from the position of village
head. Village head as the village authorized official has an authority in running
the affairs of government, either under the authority of the village administration
and affairs of the district/city. And besides that it also performs the task of
assistance from the Government, the provincial and/ or the district/ city.
Therefore, his position as Acting Head of the authorized official of State
Administration, as it is regulated in Article 204 of Act No. 32 Year of 2004 and
Article 14 of Government Regulation No. 72 of 2005 and in line with expert
opinion both E.Utrecht, Prayudi A, and Sjahran Basah. However, in contrast to
what is regulated in the provisions of Article 1 sub 1 and 2 of Act No. 5 of 1986,
which provides that the State Administrative Officials should the employment of
government’official. Therefore it occurs disharmony to the meaning of State
Administration, it should ideally be done Revitalization to the Act Number 5 Year
1986.
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Introduction
The exact definition of “administration” term is not clear yet, and still in discussion among the scholars.
Administration is a term which is derived and translated from administratie (Duch language), or
administration (English). Those are actually derived from the Latin "administrate" which means "to serve",
in the Indonesian language it means “melayani” or “mengabdi.”
In every day use of word administration commonly has two meanings, namely:
1). In litarely, administration means kind of activities related to writing, tiping, making note, or compiling
data activities, where is done in any organization. Generally it is an official work such as tiping, sending
letter, noting its incoming and outgoing letter, filing and keeping the letters and any seckretarial works,
those are included in administration.
2) Administration in a broad sense (lexically), is the activities undertaken to achieve the goals setting in
advance. These activities include planning, organizing, mobilization and supervision. In terms of
administration in broad sense it is included definition of administration.
Administrative activities is not only found in the government agencies, but there is also in the private entity.
Administrative work in these agencies (either government or private) is different from one another, this can
be seen from the objectives to be achieved. In connection with the Public Administration by Prajudi
Atmosudirdjo divided into:
1)
Public Administration Publik, consists of:
a. Public Administration (Public) International;
b. Public Administration (Public) National:
1. General Public Administration,
2. Regional Administrative Sciences (Autonomous), and
3. Public Administration Special
2)
Private Administrative Knowledge, consists of:
a. Administration of Commerce (Business Administration),
b. Administration of Private Non Commercial.
By analyzing the above meanings, then the local government administration included in the Knowledge of
Public Administration. Regional Administrative knowledge is the whole process in the administration of the
autonomous regional authority for the benefit of a group of residents in an area that is the government
administrative regions. Therefore the area an autonomous region there is a village with the village
government official, the village administration is essentially included in the Regional Administrative
Klowledge.
Based on the above description, it is clear what is meant by administrative region (including the
administration of the village). However, because the autonomous (including rural) are within the State of the
Republic of Indonesia Unity with the same purpose, it is essentially the State as well, so therefore study of
the district administration is included in State Administration.
As it is described above, the implementation of the administration not only in government agencies, but there
are also the private agencies. Administrative work in these agencies (both government and private agencies)
is different from one to another, this can be seen from the objectives to be achieved .
According to Logemann, the meaning of “state” is an organization (gezag organisatie). The State has an
abstract meaning to be appeared on the activity position held by the government, hereinafter referred to
government authorized official. These positions formed by the State in order to implement and achieve the
objectives outlined and defined in advance. Officials who carry out state administration, in the State
Administration Law manes by administration authorized officials (state administration).
As it is described in advance, the implementation of the state government to achieve the government’s goal it
has been established government authorized officials. This position, administratively conduct of government
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activities, so this position in the Law of the State Administration can be classified into administrative
positions or can be referred to as the State Administration. By the administration posisition or the
government administrative rises some problems, among others, what is the State Administration as well as
what is the job field of the State administration?
E.Utrecht stated that: “Administration is a joint position (van ambten complex) officials/ administrative tools,
which under the leadership of the Government (the President, assisted by the Minister) to implement part of
government’s jobs (overheidstaak) administrative functions that are not assigned to the Court agencies,
legislative and government agencies (overheidsorganen) of the fellowship of law (rechtsgemeenschapepen)
lower than the State (as the supreme law partnership) are government agencies (bestuursorganen) of the legal
community at autonomous regions I, II and III and the Special Region that each is given the power to and
based on his own autonomy or pursuant to a delegation from the Central Government (medebewind) to
govern their own territory”.
Begin from the definition of Utrecht presented above, the State Administration is the joint position who
perform most of the work of government administrative functions. However, the definition of the State
Administration of Utrecht that did not include the administration of the autonomous region (of course
includes the village administration) into understanding the scope of the State Administration. Yet, if we look
at the definition of State, Autonomous Regions and Villages both are part of the State. District is the Country
area and the Country is the country of the autonomous regions. And also country village is the village and
the country is the country of the villages, so it is not just an administrative function of the autonomous
regions (including rural) are not included within the scope of the State Administration. It was different with
definition expressed by Syachran Basah, which states: the State Administration is the state personnels
(central and local levels) that run the government administration
State Administration of the above definition, seems to be clear that what is meant by the State
Administration is the personnel/ equipment at both the state and local (including villages) which organizes
the government, this is in line with the opinion of Prajudi Atmosudirdjo, who said: “ In the daily practice of
many people (who still lay) who can not distinguish between the government run by the government, and
administration which is run by the administration state, because of government has always serves as the State
or the Government Administrator”
Serves as an official government when the authorized official has the authority and functions of government
to be run. Government function is the political function and the government means the same as the
enforcement and/ or use (aanweding) of authority (gezag) and power (macht) state. Government governs the
country by decision making (regerings besluit) which is a strategy, policy or general rules (algemene) to
enforce public order, law, state authority and state power. Decisions and government actions are not directed
to specific individuals, but it is always the general rule (algemene regel), policy or principle.
The governments’ decision are held and realized by the government administrator or the administrative
officers and their apparatus, or abbreviated: by the Administration. Where the administration has stepped on
stage then the government is changing its position to the Administrator, and then being served and handling
individuals and their cases. So when the Government changed the official Administration position then
change of their mental attitude from the "Official State Authority" to "Executive Officers of the State".
Prajudi Atmosudirdjo say, that if the terms of the law, the State Administration has three meanings, namely:
1. As the "apparatus" of the country is headed and driven by the Government to hold legislation, policies
and desires the Government;
2. Understanding the State Administration as a function or activity or the administration in terms of
dynamic or functional. Administration as a function of the law (juridische functie) is the operation of the
Act or the implementation concrete rules, casual and (mostly) individual. As an activity, administration
or public administration is the activities of the state apparatus called the Administration referred to
above;
3. Understanding of the state administration or administration of the third is the administration as a
"process of working procedures of the organization" or in other words the administration as a process.
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Administration in an institutional sense is the total of the officials who organized the task/ state activities
under the leadership of the Government. We use the term Administration of the State in its broadest sense,
which consists of:
1. Administration (Government) Center; Central administration is the administration under the leadership
of the Central Government
2. Administration (Government) Region; Regional Administration is the Administration is headed by the
Local Government (Autonomous Region Level I, II and Village)
3. Administration Agency - State Enterprises; Administration of Agencies is the State Administration
under the leadership of the Board of Directors of the Public Company - State enterprise, or similar
entity. Agencies are engaged in the business (business), but other pattern of administration is private
companies administration (private).
Therefore, the definition of "Public Administration" in the broad sense it covers all three areas of
administration.
In the contrary of the terms used in the positive law was in Act No. 5 year of 1986 regarding the State
Administrative Court did not use the term State Administration, but the Tata Usaha of the State, although the
terms contained the term of the State Administration. This is as defined in Article 1, sub 1 of Act No. 5 year
of 1986, which said the State Administration is the State Administration of performing the function to
conduct the affairs of government both at central and regional levels. The officials who carry out the
functions to conduct the affairs of government both at central and regional administration officials are, as it
is confirmed by Article 1, sub 2, which said Board or Administrative Officer is the agency or officials who
carry out the affairs of government based on applicable laws and regulations, then how it is link to the
Village Administration, especially the position of village head or not.
2
Village Government
The period of the Dutch East Indies Government
As it is well to be understood that Indonesia has experienced up and down to the history of political and
socioeconomic life since the kingdoms of Mataram, Cirebon, Aceh, deli, Kutai, Pontianak, cave, bone,
ternate, Klungkung, Karang Asem, Bandung, bima and others. Indonesians had lost their nation's sovereignty
and independence. Kingdoms one by one hand overed their political sovereignty to the VOC in 1602 and the
Dutch East Indies government. (Hindia Belanda). Dutch East Indies government ruled from 1798 until
March 1942, had set most of the aspects of political life, economic and social development of Indonesia.
Various laws and regulations that were either temporarily or for long periods of time, which gave benefit to
the Government of the Netherlands East Indies, and should be fully adhered by the nation of Indonesia.
Many rules regulated especifically to regulate the villages or similar rules. Formally the Dutch Government
and politics seemed to respect and to admite "to pleasei" the customary I Law can be used as a legal basis for
the various activities of the law "Natives" and as the legal basis for the villages, as par as it was not contrary
to the political interests and system of colonialism.
Legislation that is important and as basic guidelines for the villages, there are:
1. Indische Staatsregeling, (1854);
2. Inlaandsche Gemeente Ordonnantie Java en Madoera, abbreviated into IGO (1906 – 83) with all
changes;
3. Inlaandsche Gemeente Ordonnantie Buitengewesten,abbreviated into IGOB (Stb.1938 – 490 jo 681)
with all changes ;
4. Reglement op de verkeizing, de schorsing en het onslag van dehoefden der Inlandsche gemeenten op
Java de Madoera (Stb.1907 – 212) with all changes;
5. Niewe regelen omtrent de splitsing en samenvoeging van desa op java en Madoera met uitzodering van
de Vorstenlanden (Bijblad -9308);
6. Herziene Indonesische which revised and abreviated into RIB (Stb. 1848 – 16 jo Stb.1941 – 44).
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Under the constitution the Dutch East Indies, as expressed in Staatsregeling Indies, Dutch East Indies
government gave the right to selfgovern. To the law community units "Natives" as called Inlandsche
Gemeente consists of two forms, namely Swapraja and similar to village. Those autonomous, the former
kingdoms were conquered but still have the right to organize the administration (self bestuur) based on
customary law with the supervision of the Dutch authorities and with certain restrictions called landschap.
Furthermore, for the law society of villages or similar rural (outside of Java, Madura and Bali) are called
Inlandsche Gemeente and Dorp in HIR. For the purposes of the implementation of governance and
strengthening the system of colonialism, the Dutch government officials in providing Inlandsche Gemeente,
as summary as follows:
"A public entity residing in a particular region, which has the right to conduct its own domestic affairs
under Customary Law and Regulation of the Dutch East Indies for certain issues, and their authority
position is the lowest of the composition of the Government and the Autonomous District and
Swapraja". Meaning of Inlandsche Gemeente is nothing but the villages where were not explicitly
stated and detailed in the IGO and IGOB.
Japanese Occupation Army
In March 1942 the Dutch East Indies around the region felt into the Japanese military power. The Japanese
military government did little to change the legislation that created by Netherlands, as par as did not break
the strategy of "Greater East Asia War" to be won by Japan. Similarly, Customary Law was not disturbed,
and still to be used by the Indonesian nation. During the Japanese invaded, three and a half years, IGO and
IGOB formally continue in force only for the village head’s name was standardized, namely as Kuco. So did
for the election and dismissal were set forth in Seirei Osamu 7 years from 1944 to 2604. Thus the villages at
once changed into "Ku". These changes are consistent with changes for the unit of government over it.
As we know by Osamu Seirei No, 27 in 1942, the composition of government are as follows:
1. Government Top Leaders in the hands of the Japanese Military Commander of the army - 16
specifically for the island of Java were namely gunsyireikan or Armed Forces, later called Saikosikikan
2. Under the Heads of Government military commanders had called Gunseikan;
3. Under Gunseikan were existed coordinator of Military Government for West Java, Central Java and
East Java called Gunseibu;
4. Gunseibus were held by Japanese people, but to be taken by the representatives of Indonesia;
5. Gunseibu supervised residents who called syucokan. During the Japanese, the Residency (Syu) is the
highest government. The Syukokan consists of Japanese people;
6. Syu area is divided into municipalities (Si) and District (Ken).
7. Ken, are divided over some of the Gun (Kewedanaan);
8. Gun, divided over several Son (District);
9. Son, divided over several Ku (the Village);
10. Ku, divided over several Usa (Kampung);
According to government structure, the Residency is the highest local government, means to be importance
category for military strategy, but in fact the Japanese had high concern to the village. Village was
considered as a vital part of winning strategy of "Greater East Asia War". Therefore, the village used as the
basis of logistics war, the village had increased responsible and numerous heavy burden. The village must
provide food and manpower romusya called for Japan's military defense. Thus the Japanese sense of Ku
(village) means:
"A whole society is based on customary laws and the Government of the Netherlands East Indies and
the Japanese Military Administration, who resides in a particular region, has the right to conduct the
affairs of his own household, is a constitutional Syu smallest in area, has a chief chosen by the people
who is called Kuco, and is part of the military rule system "
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The meaning which is described above to be no longer appropriate when the Japanese Army surrendered to
the Allies on August 14, 1945.
Birth of Independence Until the New Order
After the restoration of sovereignty, many activities can be seen to prepare the Rules/ Acts to govern the
village administration as a replacement IGO IGOB which was still in used. But the situation of drafting
legislation and replacement IGO IGOB lags well. As a result, incorrespond issues to the development
contained in the IGO and IGOB are anticipated by any regulations where the position is under the law
degree.
The Rule issued by the Government of Indonesia was Act No. 14 in 1946 about changing the requiremet to
vote for village headman. Then, after Act of Desapraja (as a replacement and IGOB IGO) was issued in
1965, can be gained official definition of the village under the Laws of the Republic of Indonesia. And the
regulation of Article 1 of Act No. 19 of 1965 was said to that Desapraja is a certain unity of the legal
boundaries of their area, have a right to manage his own household, choosing rulers and has its own property.
If we look at it according to the authors Desapraja contained in the Act is merely a new name for the village
that has existed since centuries ago. (Underline the author).
The New Order until Now
Meaning of the village which is based on legislation that could be used to handle for a variety of interests,
both among the public and government officials, the provisions contained in Article 1, letter a of Law on
Village Government (Act No. 5 year of 1979), namely:
"A region that is occupied by a number of people as the unity of the legal community, which has the
lowest government organizations directly under the district head (camat) and has the right to conduct
its own domestic affairs in association with the Republic of Indonesia"
During the 25 years refers to the Village Government Act No. 5 of 1979 and the enactment of Act No. 32 of
2004 on October 15, the previous Act Act No. 5 of 1979 was remained unavailable. Further about village is
regulated in Chapter XI Act No. 32 in 2004 that in Article 1 number 12 said to the Village or called by
another name, hereinafter referred to as the village, is the unity of the legal community who have boundaries
that are authorized to regulate and manage the interests of local communities, based on the origins and
customs of the local recognized and respected in the system of Government of the Republic of Indonesia.
With the regulation of the village in Act No.32 year of 2004 does not necessarily apply, since there is Article
216 paragraph (1) which said that further regulation of the village set in the rule with reference to
government regulation. As a follow-up of Article 216 Paragraph (1) Then issued Government Regulation
No.72 out of 2005 that governs the Village.
The Village Head is the caretaker and primary responsibility in the areas of Governance, Development,
Social Affairs and Public Administration include fostering security and discipline society. The Village Head
is a government administrator, developing administrator and administrator of community development at the
stage and scope of village, remains how widespread is, it can be said that the mayor serves as a personnel of
the government, regional personnel in charge for government and village, this is in line with the opinion of
the Bayu Surianingrat, who said that the position of Village Head and its function is as Head of Region and
Regional Head.
It can be concluded that the village is an administrative region as well as the autonomous region. As an
autonomous region can be seen from Article 1 point 5 of Government Regulation No. 72 of 2005 About the
Village which is the unity of the legal community who have boundaries that are authorized to regulate and
manage the interests of local communities, based on the origin and customs recognized and respected local
government system in the Republic of Indonesia.
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Based on the description above, available regulations, the village head position is as:
1. Instrument of the Government (both central and local levels where the village) Village Head is due to
conduct government public affairs, and
2. Village apparatus, since the Village Head must conduct village affairs and the region of Level II where
it is located in his environment.
Therefore, based on Article 14 Government Regulation No. 72 in 2005, Village Head has duties, powers, and
rights, as follows:
1. The Village Head has an implementation task on government affairs, development, and community;
2. In carrying out the tasks referred to in paragraph (1) the village head has the authority:
a. Leading the village governance based on policies established with BPD;
b. Submit a draft village regulations;
c. Establish village regulations that are approved with BPD;
d. Prepare and submit regulations draft concerning rural village budget to be discussed and
determined with BPD;
e. Fostering the villagers;
f. Fostering village’s economy;
g. Coordinate participatory rural development;
h. Represent the village on and off the court and may appoint legal counsel to represent him in
accordance with laws and regulations, and
i. Execute other authority in accordance with statutory regulations.
The regulation of Article 15 Paragraph (1) village head, in carrying out the duties and the authority, referred
to Article 14, the Village Head has obligation, as follows:
a. Uphold and the practice of Pancasila, carry out the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia Year 1945
and to maintain the integrity of the Republic of Indonesia;
b. Improve the livelihoods of communities;
c. Maintain the peace and public order;
d. Implement democratic life;
e. Implement the principle of village governance is clean and free from collusion, corruption and
nepotism;
f. Working relationships with partners around the village government;
g. Abide by and enforce all laws;
h. Organize a good village administration;
i. Implement and be accountable for financial management of the village;
j. Carry out its responsibilities under the authority of the village;
k. Conciliate disputes in village communities;
l. Increase villagers income;
m. Nurture, protect and preserve the socio-cultural values and customs;
n. Empowering people and institutions in the village, and
o. Developing the potential resources and preserve the environment.
Besides as the obligation referred to paragraph (1) Village Head has an obligation to provide governance
report to the Regent/ Mayor, provide accountability report details to BPD, and inform the village governance
report to the public. The Village Head run his right, authority and obligation of village government leaders,
namely:
Carrying out his own household;
Primary responsible for governance areas, development and society in order to implemet its village
households, general government affairs include fostering peace and order in accordance with available
regulations.
In Act No. 32 of 2004 the authority is provided in Article 206 which is as follows: administrative affairs
under the authority of the village includes:
Government Affair which existed which based on the origin of the village;
Government Affairs under the authority of the district/ city handed over to the village;
Duty of assistance from the government, provincial governments, and/ or the district/ city governments;
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Other government affairs by legislation submitted to the village.
Based on the above description, it can be concluded that the head of the village is the sole ruler in the region
and government administrators. So, essentially, the Village Head is a chief of executive agency. The Village
Head, in addition to the task of what leads to the affairs of his household, is also the task of assistance from
the government, provincial governments, and/ or the district/ city to the village along with the financing,
facilities, infrastructure and human resources, it is stipulated in Article 207.
Thus, the duty and authority of the Village Head is enormous, it directly serves the needs of village residents
and assists the implementation of state administration tasks within the village. This extensive duties and
functions of the Village Head, it is quite hard to describe Village Head detail’s job. In line with that, the
Taliziduhu Ndraha, stated that:
"Today there are no exact guidelines of job description for the Village Head. Each Ministry of State
Administration has direct interest in the village, such as the Ministry of Religious Affairs, Ministry of
Agriculture, Ministry of Home Affairs and others. Therefore, the Village Head on his job, at least
reflects government duties.)
Based on he above description there is question arised whether the Village Head is included State Authorized
Officials? To answer this question, it will be described some opinions from some experts.
E.Utrecht stated that:
“Administration is a joint position (van ambten complex) - officers/ administrative personnel’s under
the leadership of the government (president, assisted by the secretary) to do most of the work of
government (the government's job/ overheidstaak) - administrative functions - which are not assigned
to agencies court, legislative and government agencies (overheidorganen) of legal fellowships
(rechtsgemeenschapepen) lower than the State (as the supreme law partnership) are government
agencies (bestuursorganen) of the legal community level autonomous (swapraja) regions I, II and III
and special region were given the power based on their own initiative (autonomy, swatantyra) or
pursuant to a delegation from the Central Government (medebewind) to region’s self-govern.”
From the definition from Utrecht, State Administration is a joint position (personnel/ administrative
apparatus) which conducts part of the government duties or administrative functions.
Sjachran Basah stated that the State Administration is government apparatus of the State (central and region
levels) that runs the governance activity.) The State Administration consists of, as follows;
a. Joint Position (fixed) attached to the government officials (the person may be replaced) which ensures
to continue its rights and obligations both at central and regional.
b. That (Joint) official to conduct an executives activities.
c. The activities must be based on existing regulations and binded the community.
Based on the description above, it is obvious that State Administration is government apparatus which is
Joint positions that performs executive activities, while the State Administration itself is a Government
Official (Civil Servant). Thus, the the Agency or the State Administrative Officer implements government
affairs at both the central and regional levels based on available laws and regulations as it is specified in
Article 1 sub 1 and 2 of Act 5 year of 1986, civil servants is the person who appointed and entrusted with
government position or other government duties. Therefore, connected to the position of Village Head,
obviously that Village Head is not authorized Officer of Government Administration (Pejabat Tata Usaha
Negara), although he conducts government general affairs, regional government and Villageaffair. And this
is clearly contrary to the Regulation, on Article 206 and 207 of Act No. 32 year of 2004 and Article 14 of
Government Regulation No. 72 year of 2005. But if we thoroughly look at E.Utrecht, Prayudi.A, and
Sjachran Basah opinions; it does not pay attention to the employment status of the Village Head as the
administrator who carry out part of the government works’ function, for both central and regional
government.
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Considering the above description, clearly found out, there is disharmony to the definition of the State
Administration on Act Number 5 year of 1986 with the regulated in Law Number 32 year of 2004 and
Government Regulation No. 72 year of 2005. Therefore ideally, it shouldl be done revitalization to the Act
Number 5 Year of 1986.
3
Conclusion
Agency or the State Administrative Officer implements government affairs at both the central and regional
levels based on available laws and regulations as it is specified in Article 1 sub 1 and 2 of Act 5 year of
1986, civil servants is the person who appointed and entrusted with government position or other
government duties. Therefore, connected to the position of Village Head, obviously that Village Head is not
authorized Officer of Government Administration (Pejabat Tata Usaha Negara), although he conducts
government general affairs, regional government and Village affair. And this is clearly contrary to the
Regulation, on Article 206 and 207 of Act No. 32 year of 2004 and Article 14 of Government Regulation
No. 72 year of 2005. But if we thoroughly look at E.Utrecht, Prayudi.A, and Sjachran Basah opinions; which
does not pay attention to the employment status of the Village Head as an Administrator who carry out part
of the government works’ function, in both central and regional governances.
Considering the above description, clearly found out, there is disharmony to the definition of the State
Administration on Act Number 5 Year of 1986 with the regulated in Law Number 32 year of 2004 and
Government Regulation No. 72 year of 2005. Therefore ideally, it shouldl be done revitalization to the Act
Number 5 Year of 1986.
References
Gie, T. L. (1977). Kumpulan Pembahasan Terhadap UU tentang Pokok-Pokok Pemerintahan Daerah
Indonesia. Karya Kencana, Jogyakarta
Gondokusumo, D. (1950). Tata Hukum Daerah Otonom. Menara Pengetahuan, Jogyakarta
Hoesen, D. (1978). Fungsi dan Struktur Pamongpraja. Alumni, Bandung.
Hoesen, D. (1978). Peranan Kota dalam Pembangunan. Binacipta, Bandung
Hoesen, D. (1979). Pengantar ke Arah Sistem Pemerintahan Daerah di Indonesia. Binacipta, Bandung
Joeniarto. (1967). Pemerintahan Lokal. Gajahmada, Jogyakarta
Joeniarto. (1976). Perkembangan Pemerintahan Lokal. Gajahmada, Jogyakarta
Kartasapoetra. (1986). Desa dan Daerah. Bina Aksara, Jakarta
Kuntjoro, P. (1980). Perkembangan Hukum Administrasi. Alumni, Bandung
Magnar, K. (1983). Pokok-pokok Pemerintahan Daerah dan Wilayah Administratif. Armico, Bandung
Momon, S., and Sjachran. (1981). Pokok-pokok Pemerintahan di Daerah dan Desa. Alumni, Bandung
Muchsan . (1981). Beberapa Catatan Hukum Administrasi Negara dan Peradilan Adminsitarsi Negara,
Liberty, Jogya
Muchsan . (1981). Peradilan Administrasi Negara. Liberty, Jogya
Nasroen, M. (1995). Daerah Otonom Tingkat Terbawah. Beringin, Jakarta
Ndraha, T. (1981). Dimensi-Dimensi Pemerintahan Desa. Bina Aksara, Jakarta
Prajudi, A. (1981). Hukum Administrasi Negara. Ghalia Indonesia, Jakarta
Saleh, S. (1953). Otonomi dan Daerah Otonom. Pustaka, Jakarta
Saparin, S. (1972). Tata Pemerintahan dan Administrasi Pemerintahan Desa. Ghalia Indonesia, Jakarta
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Sjachran, B. (1985). Eksistensi dan Tolok Ukur Badan Peradilan Administrasi di Indonesia, Alu,mni, Bdg,
Sjachran, B. (1986). Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Sikap Tindak Administrasi Negara, Orasi Ilmiah pada
Dies Natalis XXIX UNPAD tanggal 24 September 1986
Sjachran, B. (1986). Tiga Tulisan Tentang Hukum, Armico, Bandung
Soetardjo, K. (1984). Desa. Balai Pustaka, Jakarta.
Sudirwo, D. (1978). Pokok-Pokok Pemerintahan Daerah dan Desa. Angkasa, Bandung
Sujamto (1984). Otonomi Daerah yang Nyata dan Bertanggung Jawab. Ghalia Indonesia, Jakarta
Sunarjo, U. (1984). Tinjauan Singkat Pemerintahan dan Kedudukan Desa. Tarsito, Bandung
Suryaningrat, B. (1976). Pemerintahan dan Administrasi Desa. Yayasan Beringin, Bandung.
Suryaningrat, B. (1980). Desentralisasi dan Dekonsentrasi Pemerintahan. Aksara Baru, Jakarta.
Suryaningrat, B. (1980). Mengenal Ilmu Pemerintahan. Aksara Baru, Jakarta.
Suryaningrat, B. (1984). Desa dan Kelurahan Menurut UU No.5/ 1979. Aksara Baru, Jakarta.
Syafrudin, A. (1973). Pasang Surut Otonomi Daerah. Orasi Ilmiah pada Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung.
Syafrudin, A. (1976). Pengaturan Koordinasi Pemerintahan di Daerah. Tarsito,Bandung.
Syafrudin, A. (1982). Hubungan Kepala Daerah Dengan DPRD Tarsito,Bandung.
Utrecht, E. (1964). Pengantar Hukum Administrasi Negara Indonesia. Balai Buku Ikhtiar, Jakarta.
Act:
• Undang-Undang Dasar Tahun 1945
• Undang-Undang Nomor 5 Tahun 1974
• Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 72 Tahun 2005
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75
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
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World Government: Utopia?
Vahram Ayvazyan
PARTICIPANT of the Youth Peace Ambassadors project of the Council of Europe: http://youthpeace.coe.int/
Spitak, Republic of ARMENIA
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
World government,
Global sociey;
Human nature,
Individualism
The aim of this paper is to analyze the possibility of having a world government,
which world has been facing overarching changes since the end of Cold war,
where bipolar world order has evolved into multipolar system through
unipolarity. Analysis method in this paper have the sistematics: discussion of
human nature and philosophical dimensions vis-à-vis individual, society and
government, as well as society of societies; then briefly analyse globalization, the
impact of individuals on interdependency of the current international arena and
examine the individualism as the ongoing ideology “by individuals and for
individuals.”; and then take the conclusion that the world government is not a
utopia
1
Introduction
World has been facing overarching changes since the end of Cold war. Bipolar world order has evolved into
multipolar system through unipolarity1, that’s to say global shift of power from the West to the East and
diminishing gap between the West and the Rest2 are undisputable facts that shape current international
relations. The key by-product of these changes is the capricious international climate: quasi-peace to quasiwar, quasi-war to war let alone hazardous challenges coming from non-state actors (terrorist groups, mafia
and so forth). Additionally, globalization has emerged as a socio-economic trend intervening in every sphere
of human life. Terrestrial life has become more interdependent ever. State sovereignty and national security
have become major concerns for states. But what do we need to have at our disposal to tackle those
problems? Or do we need political globalization ultimate target of which will be the establishment of world
government? Is this a utopia or can it come to force even in the foreseeable future? This is the salient point of
this article and I have tried to make the institute of world government realistic and robust.
I am trying to prove the possibility of having a world government. First I focus on the human nature and
philosophical dimensions vis-à-vis individual, society and government, as well as society of societies3. Then
I briefly analyse globalization, the impact of individuals on interdependency of the current international
arena and examine the individualism as the ongoing ideology “by individuals and for individuals.” Then I
sum up the article that the world government is not a utopia.
1
In my opinion, unipolarity was a preceding necessary step to multipolarity.
The term Rest is very common in current writings on international relations and can be referred to all the
countries except the West (Western Europe and North America).
3
In other words, global society.
2
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 76-82
I have mainly used the Yale College course materials by Ian Shapiro on Moral Foundations of Politics and
the book “International Relations Theory for the Twenty-First Century” which are important materials for
the furtherance of scientific and empiric research. A couple of dozen articles delineate the international
order, anarchy and cooperation and are worth considering for students in international relations
2
Human Nature
Who can be defined as a human-being? The one who speaks, who sees, who feels…? No, I would posit the
one who thinks! In Rene Descartes’ (1596-1650) words, “I think, therefore I am.” Human mind is superior
to anything else, so we can derive from this that human being is a thinker. As a result, society is an
association of thinkers. Moreover, the individual thinker per se is not the means, but is the end of a society.
Individual thinkers think and decide to form a society in order to guarantee security and happiness for
themselves-individuals/ thinkers. Thus, society is the means for individuals/ thinkers. The thinker alone
cannot be happy, so he thinks to interact with another thinker in order to be happy. What does happiness
mean then? Happiness can be defined as an ideal feeling when you consider yourself and your actions worth
and right in a particular situation and that other thinkers (of the society) think of you and your actions in a
similar way. If this does not apply to you, then you are not happy or there your happiness is fake. If we try to
interpret John S. Mbiti’s words “I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am,” we’ll see that I
cannot be alone, without us because I will not be happy but we cannot exist without me. A thinker is both the
beginning and the end of the society whereas the latter is an institution established by a thinker to meet the
needs of a thinker. But how do we form a society? Through shaping common ideas of thinkers, which (ideas)
are amalgamated into common worldviews and understandings of bad versus good, evil versus kind and so
forth. But why do we need a government then and what can be defined as a government? My own definition
of government is the following: “Government is a group of thinkers from the society (society is the
association of thinkers, see above) who think that they think better enough than other thinkers of the society
and that they are thought to be better thinkers by other thinkers of the society.” In other words, government
considers itself intellectual elite and other thinkers (not involved in government) consider them (government)
intellectual elite as well.
What are the functions of the government? One of prominent proponents of Classical Utilitarianism, Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832), for example, stresses that “A measure of government (which is but a particular kind
of action, performed by a particular person or persons) may be said to be conformable to or dictated by the
principle of utility when in like manner the tendency which it has to augment the happiness of the
community is greater than any which it has to diminish it.”4 In other words, government’s task is to provide
the society with latter’s wants (happiness). But since the society is the union of individuals, then government
is doing its best to make individuals happy. If a society is not happy, then government is not able to think
prudently and therefore is not a smart (or democratic, as nowadays democratic government is accepted to be
the right model) government, but a system actions of which are motivated by greed and self-aggrandizement.
But since the society comprises of individuals (thinkers), and since always there are individuals who think
differently and have different worldviews apart from the common (worldviews), then they can challenge the
happiness of the society. What will the government do then? Jeremy Bentham notes here that “The great
enemies of public peace are the selfish and dissocial passions—necessary as they are... Society is held
together only by the sacrifices that men can be induced to make of the gratifications they demand: to obtain
these sacrifices is the great difficulty, the great task of government.”5 But public peace is the sum of private
ones, that’s to say if individuals are happy, than the public peace will be guaranteed. In brief, government is
to make the holders of those insular passions “return to the kingdom of happiness.” Here I would usher
4
Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789): please note that this is an
extract from the Lecture series at Yale University, “PLSC 118: The Moral Foundations of Politics”, Spring 2010. Link:
http://oyc.yale.edu/political-science/plsc-118
5
Jeremy Bentham, The Psychology of Economic Man: please note that this is an extract from the Lecture series
at Yale University, “PLSC 118: The Moral Foundations of Politics”, Spring 2010. Link: http://oyc.yale.edu/politicalscience/plsc-118
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governments to apply to soft power6 techniques in order to convince them that you think about them and get
to a situation in which they will also think that you think (care) about them. If government fails to do so, than
it is exploiting a thinker or enslaves him. Robert Nozick (1938-2002) underlines, “There is no social entity
with a good that undergoes some sacrifice for its own good. There are only individual people, different
individual people, with their own individual lives. Using one of these people for the benefit of others uses
him and benefits the others. Nothing is more.” Nozick (1974) underpins the idea of individual superiority.
Government’s difficult undertaking is the provision of a consensus among individuals. Though Nozick is a
proponent of The Social Contract Tradition and Bentham of Classical Utilitarianism, I don’t thus see a
dichotomy between their propositions; they are the different sides of the same coin. Both prove that society
is the means for individuals and those individuals are the ultimate goal of the society. Society is
individualistic culture.
Global society
Global society (or society of societies) has the same characteristics as the society. It is the association of all
thinkers (everyone on earth who thinks). Global society is a broader conception than those of international
society or international system labeled by The English School theorists. According to Bull (1977), an
international system is formed whenever states are in regular contact with one another and where “there is
interaction between them, sufficient to make the behaviour of each a necessary element in the calculation of
the other”. By contrast, a society of states (or international society) exists when a group of states, conscious
of certain common interests and common values, form a society in the sense that they conceive themselves to
be bound by a common set of rules in their relations with one another, and share in the working of common
institutions (Bull, 1977). Both definitions fail to address the central role of an individual (thinker) in
international society or international system. By contrast, “world society” tends to have closer ties with my
definition of global society. Manning (1962) describes it as the society of “all mankind” which exists
“within, beneath, alongside, behind and transcending” the society of states. Wight (1991) has something
different on offer. For Wight, all international societies are subsystems of this wider world society. Bull
(1977) considered world society as “a degree of interaction linking all parts of the human community to one
another which was held together by a sense of common interest and common values.” Later Bull (1984) went
further identifying “human rights” as the basic value that bound world society together. Notwithstanding,
global society is a simple remedy for this puzzle: it is the population of the world. Society of societies is
based on individuals too. What is then the major hindrance to the formation of global institutionalised
society? And what does institutionalised society mean? The first indicator of an institutionalised society is
the established government. One can claim that there are more than 200 hundred such institutionalised
societies in the world taking into account the overall number of nation-states and state-like entities. Global
society lacks institutionalisation, it does not have a government. Robert Nozick claims that there is no world
government because necessary institutions have not been evolved yet. In other words, there are not thinkers
in global society yet who think that they are better thinkers than others in global society and that those
others think of them (better thinkers) to be better thinkers. But if there is more than 200 such governments
(evolved institutions) in the world that’s to say if 200 societies have evolved governments, it can be assumed
that one day global society will establish such a government as well. If individuals have formed an
institutionalised society in a particular place, can’t they form a similar one in a larger place (in the world)? Is
it hampered by ethnic boundaries, religion, and national identity? If that is the case, ostensibly it would be
impossible to have an institutionalised society in a particular place as an individual would not “abandon” his
family and interact with others in the society. We can assume that the institutionalised society-S (society
which has a government) is a large family, and then we can draw a parallel between “individual in a
particular place (Ip) – family (F) – institutionalised society in a particular place (Sp)” evolution and
“individual in a global society (Ig) – institutionalised society of a country in a global society (Sc) - global
society (GS)” phenomenon. This parallel gives us a rare glimpse into the grasp of human nature. We can find
the equivalence between F and Sc.
6
Soft power is a concept developed by Joseph Nye of Harvard University to describe the ability to attract and
co-opt rather than coerce and rather than using force or money as a means of persuasion. In other words, it is the
ability to attract somebody to want what you want.
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Ip ============= F ============ Sp
Ig ============= Sc ============ GS
Ip=Ig as they are the same individuals: one is considered in a particular place and one is in a global society,
but I is the same thinker. Sp=GS because they are the same structures: the union of thinkers whether it
matters in a particular place or in a global society. Sp can be assumed to be equal to Sc but Sp remains within
the confines of the particular place whereas Sc is compared with a larger variable-GS. A seminal derivative
of this equation is F=Sc because Family is a bridge to the Society in a particular place (Sp) and Society in a
country (Sc) is a bridge to Global Society (GS). They do the same functions, so they are equal. The byproduct of this assumption is the possibility of the formation of a global institutionalised society. Individuals
in Sc-s (in societies of more than 200 countries) will want more happiness and security and they will select
best thinkers from within global society (GS) to develop a world government-like institution which will
guarantee higher security for individuals and will provide them (individuals) with their wants (happiness).
This will become an avowed axiom in the foreseeable future when globalization reaches its highest peak.
Human nature does not contradict global institutionalised society.
3
Individualism
What can be defined as the main driving force for globalization? Religion? Economy? or Twentieth
century’s ideologies? Though religion has played a tremendous role in globalization during centuries, it has
also created barriers and stereotypes, even sectarianism which are difficult to overthrow even now.
Ideologies have had an overwhelming role in globalization in the 20th century, but huge discrepancies in
ideologies, strategies and policies of superpowers put a halt to the post-war flourishing integration. American
ideology, free-market based system versus Russian (Soviet) communism spurred hierarchical world order,
where “the superpowers were relationship makers and others relationship takers” (Lake, 1996).
Superpowers were not considered best thinkers and were motivated by greed and self-aggrandizement that’s
why they failed to “globalize the world.” Third world states were forced to bandwagon with superpowers,
but the economic growth of the Global South allowed them to balance against superpowers at the end of
Cold war. Economy and developing economic ties were of paramount importance in the process of
globalization and catalysed the movement of goods, services and people across the world and made national
borders more transparent. However, I would argue that the underpinning of the globalization is the
innovative human mind. Drastic development in ICTs (information and communication technologies) has
made the world more connective, individuals-more accessible, ideas-more pluralistic and innovative. The
usual bonanza of the dissemination of social networks (Facebook, Twitter) is the decisive victory over
political virginity in many parts of the world. Freedom of thought and freedom of speech fueled the leverage
of individuals on key decision-making processes over sensitive issues almost everywhere. Individual thinker
has become robust and powerful. His ideas now shape the world order. Community ambitions have been
subjugated to the wants of the individual. Human-centrism is a dramatic phenomenon linked with human
mind. As Pulitzer Prize winning New York Times columnist Thomas Friedman stated on the MIT campus,
“Everything that can be done will be done” (Friedman, 2007).
Any idea that comes to man’s mind will become a reality then. I can even go further and claim that
“globalization encapsulates the interactions between individuals; it is the product of individuals.” Thomas
Friedman as a champion of globalization, once stated that "This era of globalization is based around
individuals...I'm not sure economics has fully been able to capture far below the firm level. I call it gross
individual product". (http://news.cnet.com/ 8301-10784_3-9825103-7.html).
Since institutionalised society (Sp) is a bearer of individualistic culture, global institutionalised society (GS)
should also be characterised as individualistic. It can be inferred from this that states (institutionalised
societies) are motivated by individual goals. Neoliberal institutionalists postulate that states define their
interests in strictly individualistic terms (Grieco, 1988). Are states selfish then? Yes, they are, but individuals
are selfish as well. But individuals, being selfish, can form a society, why states, being selfish, cannot? They
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can and they will! Axelrod, for example, indicates that his objective is to show how actors “who pursue their
own interests” may nevertheless work together (Axelrod, 1988). Globalization, global society (GS) and
society (Sp) are individualistic patterns and the ultima end of the global society and globalization is global
institutionalised society-world government. The formation of a world government can become faster when
individuals face vehement challenges which they cannot deal with alone in a particular place (Sp). This will
spark an allocation of gross individual products. And now the world seems to face such hazards such as
climate change, terrorism, poverty, nuclear weapons and the like.
What is then the prevailing ideology in the 21st century? Individualism! Individual-thinker is in the centre of
everything. Political globalization is a difficult, but plausible and profitable venture for a 21st-century
thinker. Thanks to new technologies, individuals in Indonesia can interact with individuals in France freely,
without any assistance by their governments. ICTs are now reaching even remote areas-picteresque villages
in Africa and Asia, information access is no longer a dream, interdependency is obviously felt on both sides
of the Atlantic and elsewhere. Information access and interdependency among individuals are substances
to political globalization. The world is entering a new era, full of opportunities and challenges.
If the Europeans could afford themselves of having such a government (European Council, EU Council,
European Commission, European Parliament), why will not the world make a similar one come to force?
Europeans started to think that they were Europeans and formed the European Union. The EU is based on
European identity, European thinking. Imagine such a high-level integration if you don’t believe in its
advantages, if you don’t think that it is the best way to achieve happiness. Could Europeans be successful in
economic integration without that belief? Is not the UN the prototype of the future world government? It is.
One day the UN will become the only legitimate institution which can use force, which can have an army,
which can exercise power and all that for the human-being, by the human-being. Individualism is the innate
characteristic of the human nature. Individuals are concerned about themselves and they are planning a world
government to meet their individual needs. For individuals, this philosophy will be at the top of the agenda.
4
Conclusion
I tried to give an insight into human nature and tried to prove that it is individualistic. Philosophical analyses
of human behavior are the locus of the comprehensive study of international politics and globalization.
Human mind causes pain, human mind causes pleasure, and human mind creates challenges and overcomes
them. Human mind exerts its influence on everything. International politics is the pool of ideas. Those ideas
are clues to settling conflicts or combating poverty, eschewing political havocs and economic recessions and
so on.
The capricious international climate has made the actions of individuals and societies entirely
unpredictable, the world is teetering on the brink of conflict escalations, flourishing terrorism, uncontrolled
borders. States are incapable of tackling these puzzles. A huge demand from individuals will change the
situation. They will be forced to create new bodies, stronger ones, to deal with gloomy picture of the world
future. That is the historical mission of neo-individuals who consider themselves change makers and
champion for individual power, individual’s mind power. They are global individuals (Ig), globalization is
the product of global individuals and individual power, the current ideology of humanity is individualism.
Information access and interdependency among individuals make states succumb to globalizing dynamics.
Globalization is entering a new phase, a preceding phase to political globalization. One sentence can
encapsulate the picture: World government is not a utopia!
Deep and comprehensive research on this topic is a must and comments, feedbacks and contributions are
welcome to enrich the subject with new ideas.
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References
Axelrod, R. (1984), The Evolution of Cooperation, Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-02122-07
Bull, H. (1984). Justice in International Relations. University of Waterloo, Ontario.
Bull, H. (1977). The Anarchical Society. Macmillan, Basingstoke
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7
Please note that I’ve read only a passage from Axelrod in Joseph M. Grieco’s article ”Anarchy and the Limits
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Ayvazyan
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Web resources:
http://www.academicearth.org/lectures/the-world-is-flat
Pulitzer Prize winning New York Times columnist Thomas Friedman speaks on the MIT campus to discuss
the 2007 update to his bestseller The World is Flat. He also provides a preview of his latest book, Hot, Flat,
and Crowded.
http://news.cnet.com/8301-10784_3-9825103-7.html
MIT OpenCourseWare expands for high school students (CNET News)
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Implementation Project Based Learning on Local Area Network Training
Dhami Johar Damiri
Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Garut
Jl. Mayor Syamsu N0. 1, Garut-INDONESIA
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Project based learning,
competence,
Computer and Network
The main indicators of vocational technology education student’s learning
outcomes is the achievement of competence according to the demands and job’s
requirements. In reality the constraint prosecution’s has not yet achieved
optimally because of lack of competence on the suitability of the industry with
technological competence in vocational schools. This problem requires vocational
education technology to innovative measures to empower all components of
education in schools to improve and enhance the quality of learning. Innovative
learning model can be used in vocational technology schools is project-based
learning. This model is a contextual learning through the activities of the complex
job. Project focus on concepts and principles learning‘s discipline of study’s core,
involving learners in problem-solving investigations and other meaningful tasks,
giving students the opportunity to work autonomously construct their own
knowledge and ultimately produces a real product. Scope of this project-based
learning model includes components: lesson plans, learning implementation, and
evaluation of learning outcomes. While the implementation of an integrated model
of learning is jobsheet, consisting of: information sheets, instruction sheets,
operation sheets, self check, and test
1
Introduction
Vocational education is special education planned to prepare students to enter the workforce and develop a
professional attitude in certain areas of the profession and prepare students to be more capable of working at
a job group or field of work than other employment sectors. Vocational education has unique characteristics
that seen in the following aspects: education orientation, justification for its existence, curriculum, success,
susceptibility to the development of society, logistical supplies, and its relationship with the business
community.
Implementation of learning in vocational education and technology industry, particularly in computer
engineering and network aims to develop academic and personal potential students, to master standardized
competency and internalize the attitudes and professional values as a qualified workforce that excels in
accordance with the needs and development of the world of work and current technology, processes and
learning activities in accordance with the training participants should plan has been established to achieve
mastery of competence. Technological learning process aimed to develop vocational and academic potential
of student personality in mastering science and technology and development of the world of work and
learning/ training in the world of work that will produce a professional workforce.
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Damiri
Project-based learning is an innovative learning model as emphasizes contextual learning through complex
activities. Project Based larning focused on learning the core concepts and principles of a discipline of study,
involving learners in problem-solving investigations and other meaningful tasks, giving students the
opportunity to work autonomously construct their own knowledge and ultimately produces a real product.
Project-based learning can be used to achieve a certain competency through a project within a specified
period through the steps of planning, execution, reporting, communicating the results and evaluation
activities. (Kamdi, 2008). Blumenfeld et al (1991) describe that model of project-based learning based on the
relative maturity of the process, focused on the problem, meaningful learning unit by integrating concepts
from a number of components of knowledge either discipline or field of study. When students work in teams,
they find the skills to plan, organize, negotiate and build consensus on issues of work to be done, who is
responsible for each task, and how information will be collected and presented.
Project-based learning thoroughly the principle of mastery learning. Therefore the assessment is an integral
part of the process must be consistent with the principle of completeness. The students just finished learning
if actually have qualified for competent under the applicable standards. Project-based learning has the
principle that learning a particular skill can be optimized in the form of exercises to do and actually finish the
job or task in accordance with program expertise, so that the competencies to be mastered is really achieved
through a process of direct experience (learning by doing). through project-based learning the students
expected to have competence in accordance with demands of business and industry while increasing the
quality of competence quality as human resources to engage in industrial activities.
2
Methodology
This study used Research and Development method According to Borg and Gall (1993:624) 'Educational
research and development (R&D) process is used to develop and validate educational products ". The use of
the term has a meaning that educational products not only includes a form of research materials such as
textbooks or other learning support tools, but also related to the development of learning processes and
procedures such as the development of methods of teaching or learning methods to organize, so that research
and development approach seems to have relevance to higher learning to develop a model of productive
programs in the framework of the implementation of vocational curriculum. In this study the respondent/
participant involved is productive teachers and students of vocational high schools in Garut districk.
Research and development is done as a simplification of three stages, a preliminary study stage, the stage of
development and model validation stage. The third step includes a step in the implementation and
development of research methods as proposed by Borg and Gall (1993). The study design was conducted
with the stage and the stage of development steps as depicted in the figure 1.
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Damiri
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Implementation of project-based learning model is designed based on competency-based learning concept,
production process and field conditions, especially organized on productive learning program with an
emphasis on three things, (a) the learning task is given by the principle of the project, emphasis on individual
services according to the stages of learning and packaged in a learning module, (b) implement the project
includes the implementation guide project format, job sheets, operation sheets, self check, and the optimal
evaluation, (c) apply the modular learning. General description of development project-based learning model
in a local area network installation training subject is described in Figure.2 below.
Figure 2. Development Project-Based Learning Model
Description of project-based learning model for installation of local computer networks developed based on
teacher and student activities are made in three stages: preparation, learning and evaluation, the phases
described into sis stages as follows.
STAGE 1. Preparation
Projects preparation designed by teachers based on the local computer network subjects to
identificate training needs based on national standard competence and local computer network
competence. The results of preparatory phase is design project contains: Project Description,
Project Management Planning, Scenario Learning activities, products will be produced, Project
schedule, Learning Outcomes and Evaluation
STAGE 2. Project Theme
Project theme should meet the following indicators: contain common and original ideas and
interesting, describing a complex problem includes the relationship of ideas and problemsolving emphasis
STAGE 3. Development Computer Network Project Activities Planning.
Students work in groups between 2 to 5 people. Students determine the activities and steps to be
taken in accordance with sub-topic, plan processing time from design to create network
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Damiri
performance evaluation. Each student in the group has task to every jobs and have a sense of
responsibility. The teacher is obliged to deliver the project contents plan and as facilitator.
Students work Activities are: (1) Draw Network development site plan; (2) Network Topology
Making; (3) Servers and client computers Placement; (4) measurement UTP cable length to be
used; (5) Preparation of computer network topology planning; (6) Work Schedule computer
networks development.
STAGE 4. Project Works Process
At this stage students work on the project based on the process design that has been created and
implemented in accordance with observed the objects/ locations previously. Project work
activities include: equipment project preparation needed, building a network in accordance with
the network topology plan created, installation of network protocol making, configuration TCIP/
IP addresses, testing the connectivity between the computer server with computers client,
computer connection testing with a network with ping, install the modem into the computer
network and network performance evaluation.
STAGE 5. Finishing
Students create reports, presentations, images, and others a result of its activities. Teacher and
students take project notes for further development. Students receive advice in the form of
feedback on what they done in the group, friends, and teachers. Online feedback facility
provided to allow each individual is directly comment, contribute, and useful to the others.
STAGE 6. Evaluation
Teachers assess all process of the student projects based on participation and productivity in
project construction. These steps are carried out, is: Evaluate projects based on the topology that
has been made, Testing steps and the results obtained, Evaluating the results, Revised results
have been obtained and Classifying the best results.
Student’s project work result procesed by sample paired test (t-test). Data showed that There is a significant
competence difference between the groups using project-based learning model with the group did not use
project-based learning at 95% significance level describes the technical competence of the students who
studied with implementation of competency-based learning project showed that there is a significant increase
students' competence before and after implementation of the design of project-based learning model for
productive subjects of local computer networks. The result shown at table 1.
Table 1. Result of Paired Sample Test (T-test)
School Object
Vocational High
School A
Vocational High
School B
Vocational High
School C
Vocational High
School D
86
Activity
Current Learning
Sample
Number
(N)
Correlation
(r2)
20
Standard
Deviation
20
Current Learning
20
20
Current Learning
20
20
Current Learning
20
20
19
2,093
-16.141
19
2,093
-9.675
19
2,093
-15.046
19
2,093
2.39297
3.79576
1.86731
4.03105
0,246
Project Based Learning
-13.827
3.88816
0,185
ttable
3.82512
0,146
Df
5.02173
0,402
tcount
2.30332
Damiri
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Paired Sample Corellation of the two-way test (t - test) obtained that the value of the correlation level
students competence on local area network buliding training subject before and after learning with projectbased learning model for vocational high school A=40,2,0%. This means that the model of project-based
learning in vocational A contributes to the students competence by 40.2%, while 58.8% is determined by
other variables. For vocational high school B=14.6%. This means that the model of project-based learning in
vocational B contributes to the improvement of students' practical abilities of 14.6%, while 85.4% is
determined by other variables, for vocational high school C=18.5%. This means that the model of projectbased learning in vocational C contributes to the improvement of students' practical abilities of 18.5%, while
82.5% is determined by other variables and at vocational high school D=26.6%. This means that the model
of project-based learning in vocational D contributes to the improvement of students' practical abilities of
26.6%, while 73.4% is determined by other variables.
4.
Conclusion
Conclusion based on the results development competence of vocational high school students with projectbased learning model are as follows:
1. Project-based learning model can be developed and applied in a productive program at Computer
Engineering and Networks department where which vocational high school does not yet have the right
industrial partner. The model has two main parts, framework model and standard operating procedures
of model application. Framework model include the design of lesson plans, learning implementation,
and learning outcomes evaluation.
2. Project-based learning model has a highly applied to: a) students competence enhancement, b) support
for Provides the ease of preparing lesson plans, implement the learning process, and carry out evaluation
of learning outcomes, c) the substance of the description lesson plans, learning implementation, and
evaluation of learning outcome contents, d) support resource and materials; e) Potential role of relevant
stakeholders support.
3. Specifically major impact project-based learning models Implementation are improving students
competence and provide the ease in implementing the learning task for teachers in preparing lesson
plans, implement learning and evaluating learning outcomes
Refferences
Al-Atabi, M. and S. B. Chin. (2007). A Case Study in Project Based Learning Using FLOW Visualization.
Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 2, No. 3 (2007) 290-297 © School of
Engineering, Taylor’s University College.
Anonim. (1999). Project-Based Learning. http://www.bgsu.edu/organizations/etl/proj.html. Buck Institutute
for Education
Atkinson, J. (2001). Developing Teams Through Project-Based Learning. Gower Publishing Limited.
Humpshire, England
Barbazette, J. (2005). The Trainer’s Journey To Competence Tools, Assessment and Model. Wiley Market
Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741 www.pfeiffer.com
Blank. (1982). Handbook for Developing Competency-Based Training Programs. Prentice-Hall Inc, New
Jersey
Blumenfeld, P.C., E. Soloway, R.W. Marx, J.S. Krajcik, M. Guzdial, and A. Palincsar. (1991). Motivating
Project-Based Learning: Sustaining the Doing, Supporting the Learning. Educational Psychologist,
26(3&4), 369—398.
Borg dan M. D. Gall. (1989). Educational Research: An Introduction. Longman, New York and London.
Boss, S., and J. Krauss. (2007). Reinventing Project-Based Learning : Your Field Guide to Real World
Project in the Digital Age. International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE)
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Calhoun, C. C., and A. V. Finch. (1980). Vocational and Career Education: Concepts and Operation.
Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont, Califonia.
Calhoun, C. C., and A. V. Finch. (1982). Vocational Education: Concept and Operations. Wadsworth
Publishing, Belmont, Califonia.
Hiscocks, P. D. (2010). Project-Based-Learning: Outcomes, Descriptors and Design, [Online] Available at
http://www.ineer.org/Events./ICEE2000/Proceedings/papers./TuA2-1.pdf,
Kamdi, W. (2001). Pembelajaran Berbasis Proyek: Model Potensial untuk Peningkatan Mutu Pembelajaran.
Jurnal Gentengkali, 3(11-12).
Thomas, J.W. (2000). A Review od Research on Project-Based Learning. California: The Autodesk
Foundation. [Online] Available at: http://www.autodesk.com/foundation. [December 20, 2010]
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The Implementation of Strategic Planning for Information System in
Educational Foundation
Cepy Slamet
Faculty of Science and Technology,
State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung, Indonesia
Jl. A.H. Nasution No. 105, Bandung
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Strategic policy,
Strategic planning,
PEST,
BCG,
Five Forces Porter,
SWOT analysis,
Value Chain,
Recommendation
In a competitive business environment, The Educational Foundation may decides
two strategic business policies related to information system (IS) and information
technology (IT) implementation. These are, optimalization of IS/ IT
implementation for increasing services quality and its utilization as a core
business competitiveness as a whole. However, a strategic planning for
information system (SPIS) is required to implement these business policies. SPIS
is a process for determining required IS to support business strategy, so that the
strategy concentrates to identify required information and ensuring IS is aligned
to business strategy. According to the Ward and Peppard’s approach, some
activities of SPIS are conducted by using four main phases such as initiation,
assessing and understanding the current situation and interpreting business
requirement, setting priorities for IS/ IT, and determining IS/ IT strategy. Some
analysis, Politic-Economic-Social-Technology (PEST), Boston Consulting Groups
(BCG), and Five Forces Porter are used to identify external business
environment, SWOT analysis and Value Chain to identify internal business
environment.The research resulting a recomendation for organizational
development priorities which devided into two related matters, IT Unit
establishment and computer based system development for financial, human
resource, and infrastructure management.
1
Introduction
One of set mission by the educational foundation is provinding education services. It is implied with the
excellence in creating, communicating, maintaining and applying science, and develop human resources who
are ready to ride into the realm of better future.
In an effort to accelerate achievement of the vision, mission and goals, management has to consider their
internal readiness to deal with competitive business environment. Since information technology (IT) and
information systems (IS) can be considered as a strategic competitive resources, however, they should have a
specific formulation in strategic policy through the IS/ IT implementation in a context of strengthening
quality of service. The formulation of strategic policy can be:
a) Optimizing the implementation of IS/ IT to improve the quality of service;
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b)
Slamet
Implement the use of IS/ IT as a core business competitiveness.
To Implement the formulation of strategic policy, it requires a comprehensive planning supported by
strategic reasoning in effectiveness and efficiency achievement of existing business process to gain value
creation which manivested in a form of competitive advantages. Strategic planning for information systems
is a process to define information systems required in supporting business strategy, so that the strategy
concentrates for identifying a number of informations and confirming that information systems are relevant
with business strategy (Earl, 1996).
Strategic planning of information system (SPSI) is an interesting topic to be discussed in both research or
practice. The role of SPSI in organizations can bring some advantages as one of the main factors which can
accelerate the achievement vision, mission, and corporate level strategic policy. There are several
frameworks which can be used in SPSI. Ward and Peppard (2003) introduced a concept of SPSI which
started concerning to the conditions of previous IS/ IT investment which contributed a low impact to
business, captured some potentials of business, and the presence of large increases competitive advantages
phenomenon of organizations as an implication of their ability to implement IS/ IT. However, the most
important in this theory is they made a business requirement based framework.
2
Methodology
The study design was conducted with the sistematics in the figure 1.
a)
SPIS Initiation
Starting the initiation by providing some preliminary analysis by (1) setting an objective, target and
scope, (2) determining required approaches and resources, (3) identifying the business participants, (4)
management mechanism observation, (5) identifying the correlation of works to the business plan, and
(6) defining work plan.
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 89-94
b)
Analyzing the Existing System and Business Requirements interpretation
The analysis is required to gain some critical informations which configure the context of business and
IS/ IT, some further business requirements and the opportunities of IS/ IT implementations. The
analysis starts from identifying major data of the organization in order to define some critical success
factors (CSF). The further major step are analysis of internal and external business environment, and
analysis of internal and external IS/ IT environment.
c)
Target setting
The aim of the target determination is to identify a number of obstacles as well as subsequent analysis
of potential IS/ IT utilizations in relation of providing more valuable business strategy, gap anaysis of
information requirements, formulating policy platform of IS/ IT strategy to the organization as a whole.
d)
Setting IS/ IT Strategy
The aim of this phase is to define the applications target that supposed to be a strategic solution in IS/
IT. The selections are conducted by giving rank or rank of the target application. The availabled rating
is based on the criteria of business value, technical, and risk. Applications target with high ratings will
be used as a strategic solution IS/ IT. The resulting strategies are Management strategies of IS/ IT,
business strategies of IS/ IT, and IS/ IT strategies
3
The further main step are to define set of goals and scopes documented in a strategic planning of information
systems that will direct to a complicated process of more progressive documentation. There will be some
requirements to identify the corporate information, to analyze internal and external business environment,
and to analyze internal and external IS/ IT. These analysis are conducted in order to figure out the existing
contition of the corporate and it leads to an interpretation about business requirements.
Based on the results of prior analysis, an identifying of business opportunities in the same prespective
(internal and external), internal problems and the proposed solutions, gap analysis in required information
and proposed IS/ IT policy platform are all conducted. The first proposed result in the form of aplication
portfolio is figured as table 1.
Table 1. Aplications Portfolio 1
Corporate Level
No.
1
2
3
Service Domain
IS Candidates
Planning and budgeting
Financial Management
Accounting Management
Reporting Management
HRD Procurement
HRD Management
HRD Development Center
Reward and allowances
Financial Management Systems
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Resource Management Systems
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5 HRD report and evaluation
Infrastructure Management Systems
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
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Requirement Management
Planning
Maintenance Management
Inventory Data Management
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Slamet
Corporate Level
No.
4
5
No
6
7
8
Service Domain
IS Candidates
4.1 Integrated Admission Management
4.2 Integrated Registration Management
Strategic Business Unit Management System
4.3 Academic Management
4.4 Scholarship Management
5.1 Web based Integrated Information
Publication Management Systems
Services
Strategic Business Unit Level
Service Domain
IS Candidates
Transaction Management
Financial Management Systems
Reporting Management
HRD Management
Resource Management Systems
Reward and allowances
Front based services admission
Admission
Back based services admission
Alumni-carrier
The four final phases of this reseach are setting some categories of IS/ IT strategies.
IS/ IT Policy Platform
IS/ IT potential competitive advantages deliberation.
IS/ IT development requires some competencies of the organization in managing business and technology.
Either best practices and methodologies are required in a whole of activities. As well as relevant
development methodology and project management to corporation typology. The combination among the
values of aplications are:
• Substitution, how large is the investment can influence and change the human resource to improve
efficiency?
• Complementary, how optimal are IS/ IT investments in improving productivity
• Innovative, changing process and creating market opportunities to achieve competitive advantages
Policy and instruments in selecting IS/ IT strategy
•
•
•
•
•
Efficiency level assessment in corporate business process produced by otomation;
Business performance estimation obtained by the relation between retrenchment and changes in
business process;
Efective time reviewing of the arisen value reached by all strategic business units through IS/ IT
investment;
Productivity level assessment produced by changes of process, organization structure and its role of
every function.
Value assessment of IS/ IT investment for organization implicated by new strategy implementation of
IS/ IT utilization.
Reasoning of Investment policy in IS/ IT
•
•
92
The requirement of policy making mechanism in IS/ IT investment based on priority formulated in
aplication systems prortfolio;
The requirement of principle and corporate policy to assessment of IS/ IT investment which are able to
be reference for legitimated decision and setting of investment priorities
Slamet
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Managing strategy of IS/ IT
Considering the existing systems, the avaibility of IT infrastructures, and IS/ IT development planning in the
organization, it shows a huge of facts that they require a specific division responsible for IS/ IT management.
In a single prespective, basically refers to financial perspective that the role of IS/ IT management can be
devided to be four basic classes, cost center; profit center; service center; and investment center. Each class
has its own characteristics that differ responds from the corporate. The identical classification can be
imposed to every aplication modules or technology portfolio in order to facilitate to assess which better
technology to implement, long term investment, supports qulity of services to the stakeholder, or being a part
of routine overhead. These theoretical approaches confirm that IS/ IT administrator should be defined as a
service center which having ‘coordination-line’ to all section of organization in aligning the IS/ IT strategy to
business strategy.
Portfolio 2
There are some applications mapped to four categories as the result of the analysis to business environment
and IS/ IT in both internal and external perspectives, figured as table 2.
Table 2. Aplications Portfolio 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Strategic
Planning and budgeting management systems
Financials reporting management systems (Top)
Human resource management systems
Students registration reporting management systems
Graduation reporting management systems
Financials reporting management systems (Mid)
Functional data management system
Key Operational
Admissions data management systems
Graduation data management systems
Financial administration management systems
Accounting administration management systems
Labour management Systems
Integrated scheduling management systems
Integrated infrastructure management systems
Business to business Integrated transaction management systems
Support
Procurement management systems
Quality development management systems
Infrastructure development management systems
Infrastructure Mantenance schedule Management systems
Integrated data management systems
High Potential
Akademic management information systems
Integrated management information systems
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 89-94
4.
Slamet
Conclusion
The research contributes a technical framework which can be used by an educational organization based on
strategic allignments. The framework guides to identify some important and strategic factors in aligning
bussiness strategy with IS/ IT strategy to gain coherent, consistent, dan directional outputs.
The analysis results a recomendation of organizational development priorities which deivided into two
groups, the IS/ IT unit establishment and computer based systems development in financing management
systems, resource management systems, and Infrastructure management systems.
Refferences
Anonim. (2000). Strategic Plan for Enterprise Administrative Information System V1.0. University of
Michigan, Michigan,.
Choldun, M. I. And S. A. Rumapea. (2007). Perencanaan Strategi Sistem Informasi Studi Kasus Institusi
Pendidikan XXX, Berbagai Makalah SISTEM INFORMASI. Infromatika, Bandung.
Earl, M.J. (1996). Management Strategies for Information Technology. Prentice Hall, London.
Flodstrom, R. (2006). A Framework for the Strategic Management of Information Technology Dissertation from the Swedish Research School of Management and Information Technology (MIT),
Licentiate Thesis No. 23. Sweden.
Hudiarto, C., and H. Normala. (2007). Perencanaan Strategi Sistem Informasi dan Teknologi Informasi
pada PT. Karya Mitra Seraya (KMS) Jakarta, Berbagai Makalah SISTEM INFORMASI.
Infromatika, Bandung.
Indrajit, R. E. (2000). Pengantar Konsep Dasar Manajemen Sistem Informasi dan Teknologi Informasi.
Elex Media Komputindo, Jakarta.
Jackson, M. P. (2007). Nonprofit Strategic Planning. John Wiley & Sons, USA.
Jogiyanto H. M. (2003). Sistem Teknologi Informasi, Pendekatan Terintegrasi: Konsep Dasar, Teknologi,
Aplikasi, Pengembangan dan Pengelolaan. Andi Offset, Yogyakarta.
Kim, W, and Mauborgne. (2000). Blue Ocean Strategy. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Kusumo, D.S. (2007). Perancangan Strategic Alignment Model Sebagai Framework Kesesuaian Strategis,
Berbagai Makalah SISTEM INFORMASI. Infromatika, Bandung.
Laudon, K.C., and J. P. Laudon. (2001). Management Information Systems, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Ramdhani, M. A., dan A. S. Amin. (2004). Manajemen Strategis. Insan Akademika, Bandung.
Rangkuti. (2005). Analisis SWOT; Teknik Membedah Kasus Bisnis. Jakarta.
Slamet, P.H. (2005). Handout Kapita Selekta Desentralisasi Pendidikan di Indonesia. Jakarta: Direktorat
Pendidikan Lanjutan Pertama, Depdiknas RI., Jakarta.
Ward, J., and J. Peppard. (2003). Strategic Planning for Information Systems. John Wiley & Sons, USA.
Wibowo, A. M. (2008). Urgensi Mewujudkan IT Master Plan. Elex Media Komputindo, Jakarta.
Zamroni. (2008). School Based Management. Yogyakarta: Pascarsarjana Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta,
Yogyakarta.
94
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
www.insikapub.com
High Operation Efficiency of Semiconductor Electrooptic Modulators in
Advanced Lightwave Communication Systems
Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed
Electronics and Electrical Communications Engineering Department
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menouf 32951, Menoufia University, EGYPT
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Device modeling,
Integrated optics,
Optical modulator,
EO modulator, and
Silicon optoelectronics
Photonic links have been proposed to transport radio frequency (RF) signals over
optical fiber communication systems. External optical modulation is commonly
used in high performance RF photonic links. The practical use of optical fiber
communication systems to transport RF signals is still limited due to high RF
signal loss. In order to reduce the RF signal loss, highly efficient modulators are
needed. For many applications, modulators with broad bandwidths are required.
However, there are applications that require only a narrow bandwidth. For these
narrow band applications, the modulation efficiency can be improved through the
resonant enhancement technique at the expense of reduced transmission
bandwidth. Therefore we have been investigated to get the best performance of the
transmission bit rate capacity and product of different semiconductor materials
based electrooptic (EO) modulators over wide range of the affecting parameters.
1
Introduction
Electro optic modulators are a kind of device important in optical networks and communication systems. The
demand for electro-optic modulators has to a large extent, been driven by the desire for greater bandwidth,
for high capacity local area networks (LANs), for video and audio transmitters (Mohammedet al, 2009a), for
optical detection of radar and phased-array radar signals, for ultra-fast information processing such as analog
to digital conversion, and for many other applications. There are several kinds of modulators, depending on
their structure, such as electro optic, acousto-optic, magneto-optic and electro-absorption modulators
(Nawatheet al, 2008). Each employs a different physical mechanism and has different applications. The
electro-optic modulator is the most important type in optical communication systems. Different
configurations have been adopted, such as the Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) modulator, and the
directional coupler modulator (Mohammedet al, 2009b). High speed integrated electro-optic modulators and
switches are the basic building blocks of modern wideband optical communications systems and represent
the future trend in ultra-fast signal processing technology. As a result, a great deal of research effort has been
devoted to developing low-loss, efficient and broadband modulators in which the RF signal is used to
modulate the optical carrier frequency (Mohammedet al, 2009a). Most of the work done in the area of
designing electrooptic modulators has been strongly focused on using LiNbO3 (Kirmanet al, 2004). Interest
in research in this field has arisen as lithium niobate devices have a number of advantages over others,
including large electro-optic coefficients, low drive voltage, low bias drift, zero or adjustable frequency
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Rashed
chirp, and the facility for broadband modulation with moderate optical and insertion losses and good
linearity (Mohammedet al, 2009c).
However, on the other hand, LiNbO3 devices cannot be integrated with devices fabricated using other
material systems such as semiconductors and as a result they are best suited to external modulation
applications. However, with the recent developments in semiconductor technology, modulators based on
semiconductor materials have been receiving increasing attention (Mohammed et al., 2009d). In particular,
AlGaAs/GaAs material offers the advantage of technological maturity and potential monolithic integration
with other optical and electronic devices in creating better optoelectronic integrated circuits (Geiset al,
2007). Recently, electrooptic polymer modulators have also emerged as alternatives for optical modulators,
particularly for low cost and high performance applications for the next generation metro and optical access
communication systems. Today 2.5 Gbit/sec and 10 Gbit/sec modulators are standard commercial products
and 40 Gbit/sec modulators are also being developed for the market after successful prototype
demonstrations: however, the continuous demand to increase the high data transmission bit rate further will
push their operating frequency well into the millimeter wave range (Brouckaertet al, 2007).
In the present study, external modulators utilizing the electroptic effect are one class of devices currently
being investigated for converting electrical signals to optical signals in applications involving high data
transmission bit rate within different transmission techniques. Modulators fabricated on semiconductor
substrates such as Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) and Silica-doped materials are particularly
attractive in that these exists the possibility of monolithic integration of these devices with other
optoelectronic components.
2.
Mach-Zehnder Optical Modulators
Most demonstrations of electro-optic modulation in complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
compatible waveguides have relied on carrier injection within a forward biased PIN structure (Park et al,
2007). Schematic diagrams of selected electro-optic waveguide profiles from the literature are shown in
Figure 1. This approach operates on the plasma dispersion effect where the overlap between carriers and the
optical field in an optical waveguide is modulated, thereby changing the waveguide effective optical
refractive index and loss.
Figure 1. Cross sections of selected forward biased carrier injection modulators. Electrical contact is made
in the n+ and p+ regions. a.) Modulator interaction region cross section as demonstrated by Park
et al, (2007), b) Modulator interaction region cross section as demonstrated by Cui and Berini
(2006), c) Modulator interaction region cross section as demonstrated by Shinet al, (2007).
Significant improvements in silicon electro-optic modulator bandwidth have been demonstrated using a
variation on the carrier dispersion effect where a relatively low doping level is created in the waveguide and
a reverse bias is applied to modulate the overlap between the carriers and the optical field as shown in Figure
2.
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 95-115
Figure 2. Cross sections for a carrier depleted modulator as demonstrated by Shojiet al, (2007).
An approach proposed for trying to provide a degree of control over the balance between high sensitivity and
large bandwidth is to damage the Si crystal lattice within the intrinsic region of a PIN junction to increase the
carrier recombination rate (Lee et al, 2008). The reduction of the carrier lifetime in the electro-optic region of
the modulator could significantly increase the waveguide temporal response but also would have the effect of
reducing the overall carrier concentration, and the associated index changes, within the waveguide. This
approach would make the modulator less efficient since the increased carrier recombination rate would cause
additional heating in the modulator interaction region. Furthermore, the modulator could show a
disproportionately large electro-optic response in the megahertz frequency range due to heating, which
would make the lower end of its frequency response range unusable without some form of additional control
like electrical filtering or the electrical predistortion of the drive signal (Liuet al, 2008).
3.
Theoretical Model Analysis
3.1.
Materials Based Active Region of Electro Optic Modulators
Aluminum Gallium Arsenide (AlxGa1-xAs)
The refractive index of AlxGa1-xAs in the near infrared as a function of operating signal wavelength λ in µm
and the aluminum mole fraction can be calculated using the determined Sellemier equation (Boyed, 1972;
and Greenet al, 2007):


B
n ( x, λ ) =  A ( x ) + 2
− D (x )λ2 


λ − C (x )


1
2
,
...(1)
Where A(x)= 10.906-2.92 x, B= 0.97501, C(x)= [0.52886-0.735x]2 for x ≤ 0.36; C(x)= [0.30386-0.105x]2 for
x ≥ 0.36; and D(x)= 0.002467 (1.41x+1). Then the first and second differentiation of Eq. (1) with respect to
operating signal wavelength λ yields as in (Mohammed et al., 2009a; Mohammed et al., 2009b; and
Mohammed et al., 2009c).
Silica-doped (GeO2(y)+SiO2(1-y))
The refractive-index of silica-doped material EO modulator based on Sellemier equation is given in
(Mohammed et al., 2009a; and Zhou and Poon, 2006). The Sellmeier coefficients of the refractive index of
this waveguide is cast as (Zhou and Poon, 2006):
A1= 0.691663+0.1107001* y,
A2=(0.0684043+0.000568306y)2 (T/T0)2,
A3=0.4079426+0.31021588y,
A4=(0.1162414+0.03772465y)2(T/T0)2,
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A5=0.8974749-0.043311091y, and
A6= (9.896161+1.94577y)2.
Where T is the ambient temperature in K, T0 is considered to be as 300 K (room temperature), and x is the
ratio of germanium dopant added to silica material to improve its optical performance characteristics within
the range of 0.0 ≤ y ≤ 0.3 (Zhou and Poon, 2006). Then the first and second differentiation of Sellemier
equation with respect to operating signal wavelength λ which yields as in (Mohammed et al., 2009b; and
Mohammed et al., 2009d).
3.2
Optical Device Model
The induced real refractive index and optical absorption coefficient variations (∆n and ∆α, respectively)
produced by free carrier dispersion (highly doped regions and injected carriers) of p-i-n structure at a
wavelength of 1. 3 µm and 1.55 µm respectively are calculated by using (Xuet al, 2007 ;and Leeet al, 2007):
∆n = −7.9 x10−23 (Ne )1.05 − 4.8 x10−18 (N h )0.805 ,
(at λ= 1.3 µm)
...(2)
∆α = 1.1x10−20 (Ne )1.15 + 3.8 x10−20 (N h )1.11 ,
(at λ= 1.3 µm)
...(3)
∆n = −1.7 x10−22 (Ne )1.04 − 3.9 x10−18 (N h )0.818 ,
(at λ= 1.55 µm)
...(4)
∆α = 2 x10−21 (Ne )1.2 + 3.5 x10−20 (N h )1.12 ,
(at λ= 1.55 µm)
...(5)
Where ∆n is the relative refractive index difference, Ne is the electron concentration in cm-3, Nh is the hole
concentration in cm-3, and ∆α is the absorption coefficient in cm-1. Fig. 3. shows a schematic cross-sectional
view of the p-i-n diode Mach–Zehnder electrooptic modulator. The intrinsic active region has height h and
width w.
Figure 3. Schematic cross-section view of the p-i-n diode Mach–Zehnder electrooptic modulator with
active region has height h and width w.
The total phase shift accumulated during propagation through one arm of the modulator is given by Vlasov,
et al, (2008):
∆φ =
98
2π
λ
Γ ∆nactive Lm
,
...(6)
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Where Γ is the optical confinement factor for the waveguide core, Lm is the modulator length, λ is the
operating signal wavelength, and ∆nactive is the change in refractive index of the active region due to carrier
injection. With equal injection of electrons and holes and carrier recombination and leakage out of the active
region neglected, an injected current level I will result in carrier concentrations Ne and Nh given
approximately by Lee et al, (2008):
Ne = N h =
It
q h w Lm
...(7)
Here h and w are the active region height and width in µm, and t is current injection time. If the change in
index is nearly linearly related to the carrier concentration. Assuming charge neutrality (Nh=Ne=N), ∆nactive
can be written as the following equation Lee et al, (2008):
∆nactive ≈ − f N
...(8)
Where f has a value of 2.96×10−21 cm3 and 2.11×10−21 cm3 for N= 1018 cm−3 at 1.55 µm and 1.3 µm,
respectively. Together with (11)–(13) yields:
∆ϕ ≈
2π f I t Γ
λ hw
...(9)
,
For value of the applied voltage the minority carrier current density on each side of the p-i-n junction and the
carrier concentration N in the active region are obtained. The total minority carrier current density is a good
estimate of the current which leaks out of the active region Jleak. The electron and hole density leaving the
active region are each given by Jleak/qh, which must be equal to Lee et al, (2009):
τ leakage ( N ) =
qhN
J leakage
,
...(10)
Where the leakage current density Jleakage is equal to injected current per unit area.
3.3
Transmission Bit Rates within EO Modulator
The total bandwidth is based on the total chromatic dispersion coefficient Dt = Dm + Dw are given by (for the
fundamental mode):
Dm = −
λ  d 2n 
, n sec/ nm.mm
c  dλ2 
 ncladding
Dw = − 
 cn
  ∆n 

  λ  Y , n sec/ nm.mm

...(11)
...(12)
Where c is the velocity of the light, 3x108 m/sec, n is the refractive-index of material based EO modulator, Y
is a function of wavelength, the relative refractive-index difference ∆n is given by the following expression:
∆n =
n − ncladding
n
,
...(13)
The total pulse broadening due to total dispersion coefficient can be expressed as follows Zhou and Poon
(2006); and Xu et a, (2008):
∆τ = Dt . ∆λ . Lm ,
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nsec
...(14)
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Then the transmission bit rate is given by:
BR =
1
0 .5
=
,
2 ∆τ ∆τ
Gbit/sec
...(15)
The transmission bit rate length product within EO modulator can be expressed as follows Zhou and Poon
(2006):
PR = BR . Lm ,
4.
Gbit.mm/sec
...(16)
Simulation Results and Discussions
We have investigated semiconductor electrooptic modulators over wide range of the affecting operating
parameters as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Proposed operating parameters for our suggested electrooptic modulator device.
Operating
parameter
Λ
∆λ
T
∆nsilica-doped
∆nAlGaAs
Q
Aeff
N
Lm
C
I
H
W
X
Y
Description
Operating signal wavelength
Spectral line width of the optical source
Ambient temperature
Relative refractive-index difference
Relative refractive-index difference
Electron charge
Effective area
Carrier concentration
Modulator length
Speed of light
Injected current
Active region height
Active region width
Aluminum mole fraction
Germanium mole fraction
Value
1.3 µm ≤ λ ≤ 1.65 µm
0.2 nm
300 K ≤ T ≤ 340 K
0.005 ≤ ∆nsilica-doped ≤ 0.009
0.05 ≤ ∆nAlGaAs ≤ 0.09
1.6x10-19
85 µm2
1010 cm-3
2 mm ≤ Lm ≤ 10 mm
3 x108 m/sec
5 mA ≤ I ≤ 100 mA
0.1µm ≤ h ≤ 1µm
0.5 µm ≤ w ≤ 5 µm
0.1 ≤ x ≤ 0.5
0.1 ≤ x ≤ 0.3
Based on the model equations analysis, assumed set of the operating parameters, and the set of the Figures.
(4-37), the following facts are assured as the following results:
i)
100
As shown in Figure 4. has assured that as aluminum mole fraction increases, this leads to decrease in
refractive index of Aluminum Gallium Arsenide at constant operating wavelength. As well as
operating wavelength increases, this results in decreasing of refractive index of Aluminum Gallium
Arsenide at constant aluminum mole fraction.
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Figure 4. Variations of refractive index of AlxGa1-xAs versus aluminium mole fraction at the assumed set of
parameters
Figure 5. Variations of refractive index of silica-doped versus germanium mole fraction at the assumed set
of parameters
Figure 6. Variations of hole contrentation versus relative refactive index difference at the assumed set of
parameters
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parameters
parameters
parameters
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Figure 10. Variations of absorption coefficient versus electron concentration at the assumed set of
parameters
parameters
parameters
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parameters
Figure 14. Variations of confinement factor versus active region height at the assumed set of parameters
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Figure 18. Variations of carrier leakage time versus donor doping at the assumed set of parameters
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Figure 22. Variations of carrier leakage time versus injected current density at the assumed set of parameters
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Figure 26. Variations of turn on time versus injected current density at the assumed set of parameters
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Figure 30. Variations of transmission bit rate againts germanium mole fraction at the assumed set of
parameters
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Figure 31. Variations of transmission bit rate againts germanium mole fractin at the assumed set of
parameters
Figure 32. Variations of bit rate lenght product againts modular lenght at the assumed set of parameters
Figure 33. Variations of bit rate lenght product againts modular lenght at the assumed set of parameters
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Figure 34. Variations of transmission bit rate againts aluminium mole fraction at the assumed set of
parameters
Figure 35. Variations of transmission bit rate againts aluminium mole fraction at the assumed set of
parameters
Figure 36. Variations of bit rate lenght product againts modular lenghth at the assumed set of parameters
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Figure 37. Variations of bit rate lenght product againts modular lenghth at the assumed set of parameters
ii)
Figure 5 has indicated that as germanium mole fraction increases, this leads to decrease in refractive
index of silica-doped at constant ambient temperature. Moreover as ambient temperature increases,
this results in decreasing of refractive index of silica-doped at constant germanium mole fraction.
iii)
As shown in Figures (6-9) have demonstrated that as relative refractive-index difference increases for
both Aluminum Gallium Arsenide and silica-doped materials, this result in increasing in hole
concentration at constant electron concentration. As well as electron concentration increases for both
Aluminum Gallium Arsenide and silica-doped materials, this lead to increase in hole concentration at
constant relative refractive-index difference. We have observed that Aluminum Gallium Arsenide
material presents higher hole concentration than silica-doped material at different operating
wavelengths under the same operating conditions.
iv)
Figures (10-13) have proved that as relative refractive-index difference increases for both Aluminum
Gallium Arsenide and silica-doped materials, this result in increasing in absorption coefficient of
carriers at constant electron concentration. As well as electron concentration increases for both
Aluminum Gallium Arsenide and silica-doped materials, this lead to increase in absorption coefficient
of carriers at constant electron concentration. We have indicated that Aluminum Gallium Arsenide
material presents higher absorption coefficient than silica-doped material at different operating
wavelengths under the same operating conditions.
v)
As shown in Figures (14, 15) have indicated that as active region height increases, this leads to
increase in confinement factor at aluminum mole fraction. As well as aluminum mole fraction
increases, this results in increasing of confinement factor at constant active region height foe different
operating wavelengths.
vi)
As shown in Figures (16, 17) have assured that as active region height increases, this leads to increase
in confinement factor at germanium mole fraction. As well as germanium mole fraction increases, this
results in increasing of confinement factor at constant active region height foe different operating
wavelengths.
vii)
Figures (18, 19) have demonstrated that as doping concentration increases, this leads to increase in
carrier leakage time at constant germanium mole fraction. As well as germanium mole fraction
increases, this results in increasing of carrier leakage time at constant doping concentration at different
viii) As shown in Figures (20, 21) have proved that as doping concentration increases, this leads to increase
in carrier leakage time at constant aluminum mole fraction. As well as aluminum mole fraction
increases, this results in increasing of carrier leakage time at constant doping concentration at different
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 95-115
ix)
Figures (22, 23) have demonstrated that as injected current density increases, this leads to decrease in
carrier leakage time at constant germanium mole fraction. As well as germanium mole fraction
increases, this results in increasing of carrier leakage time at constant injected current density at
different operating wavelengths.
x)
Figures (24, 25) have proved that as injected current density increases, this leads to decrease in carrier
leakage time at constant aluminum mole fraction. As well as aluminum mole fraction increases, this
results in increasing of carrier leakage time at constant injected current density at different operating
wavelengths.
xi)
Figures (26, 27) have demonstrated that as injected current increases, this leads to decrease in turn on
time at constant aluminum mole fraction. As well as aluminum mole fraction increases, this results in
decreasing of turn on time at constant injected current at different operating wavelengths.
xii)
As shown in Figures (28, 29) have assured that as injected current increases, this leads to decrease in
turn on time at constant germanium mole fraction. As well as germanium mole fraction increases, this
results in decreasing of turn on time at constant injected current at different operating wavelengths.
xiii) Figures (30, 31) have demonstrated that as germanium mole fraction increases, this results in
increasing transmission bit rates at constant relative refractive-index difference. Moreover as relative
refractive-index difference decreases, this leads to decrease in transmission bit rates at constant
germanium mole fraction.
xiv) As shown in Figures (32, 33) have assured that as modulator length increases, this results in increasing
bit rate length product at constant relative refractive-index difference. Moreover as relative refractiveindex difference decreases, this leads to decrease in bit rate length product at constant modulator
length.
xv)
Figures (34, 35) have demonstrated that as aluminum mole fraction increases, this results in increasing
transmission bit rates at constant relative refractive-index difference. Moreover as relative refractiveindex difference decreases, this leads to decrease in transmission bit rates at constant aluminum mole
fraction.
xvi) As shown in Figures (36, 37) have assured that as modulator length increases, this results in increasing
bit rate length product at constant relative refractive-index difference. Moreover as relative refractiveindex difference decreases, this leads to decrease in bit rate length product at constant modulator
length.
5.
Conclusions
In a summary, we have investigated semiconductor materials based electoptic (EO) modulator devices under
the assumed set of operating parameters. It is observed that the increased relative refractive-index difference,
the increased hole concentration, and the increased absorption coefficient for semiconductor materials based
electoptic modulator devices at different operating wavelengths. As well as the increased dopant
concentration, and active region height for both current research materials based EO modulator devices, the
increased both confinement factor, and carrier leakage time. Moreover it is indicated that as the increased
dopant concentration and relative refractive index difference for current research materials based EO
modulator devices, the decreased turn on time, and the increased transmission bit rates and bit rate length
products.
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P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
www.insikapub.com
Design and Validation of Wind Turbine’s Power Simulation by Remote
Controlled Motor
A. K. Azad1, M. M. Alam2 and M. Masud Kaysar3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
[email protected]
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
[email protected]
3
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi-6204, Bangladesh
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Weibull’s shape factor,
Weibull’s scale factor,
Wind turbine design,
Microcontroller,
PWM signal
The study presents the statistical analysis of wind data at different location of
Bangladesh over a period of years. The data has been shorted in sequence of
appropriate frequency as hourly, daily and monthly mean wind speed. Two
important parameters like Weibull’s shape factor “k” and Weibul’sl scale factor
“c” have been obtained from the data. Weibull’s function F(v), Weibull’s
probability density function f(v), and available power in the wind (w/m2) have also
been obtained from the wind data. Then a horizontal axis wind turbine has been
designed for the selected site. For the simulation of power in replaced of designed
wind turbine a remote controlled motor has been coupled with a generator. The
motor speed has been controlled by PWM signal in its ten steps. Couple
microcontrollers have been used for the simulation. High radio frequency remote
have been designed to control the motor. At any step, the motor RPM, generator
output voltage and switch position have been digitally displayed in the LCD
display screen.
1
Introduction
Now-a-days the world has two major crises like energy and environment. So, many scientist and engineers
are trying to develop new technologies for harnessing power from the universe without hampering its
environment (Azad, et al, 2012; Azad, et al., 2011). For this reason, the wind power is fastest growing
technology in the world because it’s a clear, friendly environment, available and free of cost in everywhere.
Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air (Mandal, et
al., 2001; Hossain, et al., 1982). It is caused by differences in pressure. When a different in pressure exists,
the air is accelerated from higher to lower pressure. On a rotating planet the air will be deflected by the
Coriolis Effect, except exactly on the equator. Globally, the two major driving factors of large scale winds
(the atmospheric circulation) are the differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in
absorption of solar energy leading to buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the planet (Azad, et al., 2010;
Janssen, et al., 2002).
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Azad, et. al.
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 116-128
A wind turbine converts the energy of wind into kinetic energy. If the mechanical energy is used directly by
machinery, such as pumping water, cutting lumber or grinding stones, the machine is called a windmill
(Azad, et al., 2011; Gustafson, et al., 1980). If the mechanical energy is instead converted to electricity, the
machine is called a wind generator, wind turbine, wind power unit (WPU), wind energy converter (WEC), or
aero-generator (Hirsch, 1984; Azad, 2010). There are two types of wind turbine, first one is horizontal axis
wind turbine and second one is vertical axis wind turbine. Wind turbine designs are utilized to create wind
turbines that exploit wind energy (Janse, et al., 1977). The design of a horizontal axis wind turbine in which
lift forces on airfoils are the driving forces is described in this chapter. The design of a wind rotor consists of
two steps (Mandal, et al., 2001;Janse, et al., 1977):
(i) The choice of basic parameters such as the number of blades B, the radius of the rotor R, the type of
airfoil and the design tip speed ratio λd.
(ii) The calculations of the blade twist angle βT and the chord C at a number of positions along the blade, in
order to produce maximum power at a given tip speed ratio by each section of the blade.
After designing of the turbine, power simulation can be tested by controlling motor speed in same rotation of
the designated wind turbine for validation check. A motor controller is a device or group of devices that
serves to govern in some predetermined manner the performance of an electric motor. A motor controller
might include a manual or automatic means for starting and stopping the motor, selecting forward or reverse
rotation, selecting and regulating the speed, regulating or limiting the torque, and protecting against
overloads and faults (NFPA, 2008). More complex motor controllers may be used to accurately control the
speed and torque of the connected motor (or motors) and may be part of closed loop control systems for
precise positioning of a driven machine (Wikipedia).A microcontroller is a small computer on a single
integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/ output peripherals. A
Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a
typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the
microprocessor used in personal computer or other general purpose applications. Microcontrollers are used
in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable
medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys (Data Sheet of
microcontroller, 2003). By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate
microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control
even more devices and processes. Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate
frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally
have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt,
power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nano-watts, making
many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve
performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with
higher clock speeds and power consumption (Vries, 1979).
2
Wind Data Analysis
Monthly mean wind speed is the averaging of all wind speeds through the whole month of the sites in meter
per second. By this data it is easy to identify overall wind energy potential of the site through the month.
Both 10 m and 20 m height wind data are calculated for find out monthly mean wind speed.
Table 1: Monthly mean wind speed from January-December, 2009 (Above 20 m height)
Location
Kuakata
Kutubdia
Khagrachari
Sitakunda
Pakshey
Rauzan
www.insikapub.com
Jan
3.11
3.11
2.85
3.52
2.55
1.55
Feb
3.57
2.80
3.45
3.17
2.33
2.08
Mar
3.54
3.15
3.88
3.86
2.53
2.09
Apr
5.07
3.77
4.16
5.41
3.26
2.94
May
4.97
4.24
3.44
5.46
3.04
2.74
Month
Jun
Jul
5.10
5.74
4.53
5.42
4.67
3.36
6.8
6.35
2.93
3.5
4.55
3.14
Aug
5.97
4.74
3.1
7.15
3.83
2.79
Sep
4.95
3.39
3.19
10.1
3.26
2.14
Oct
2.57
2.25
2.38
3.25
1.89
1.21
Nov
3.01
2.85
2.53
2.64
2.02
1.33
Dec
3.22
2.65
2.37
2.32
2.20
1.20
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Azad, et. al.
From the above Table 1, it has shown that the monthly variation of wind speed for selected sites. Here
Sitakunda has height wind speed than other sites. The maxm velocity is 10.01 m/s at September in Sitakunda
and minm1.20 m/s at December in Rauzan.
Figure 1. Velocity Duration Curve for the selected sites.
One can find a good idea about a site, if he studies wind duration curve of that site. In the above Figure – 1
shows a wind duration curve for five wind sites. From the above Figure, it has been cleared that the each
point on this curve shows the number of hours in a year for which time either the corresponding velocity or
higher velocity occurs. It also cleared from the above figure that Kuakata have higher wind velocity than
other sites. In this site have 68.7% wind velocity 4 m/s or above and 45% wind velocity 5 m/s or above
throughout the whole year. In the case of other sites, the wind velocity variation from 1 to 4 m/s has higher
numbers of hours throughout the year. All sites are included in the same figure, so that one can easily
visualize which site is the best and the most promising one.
Figure 2. Frequency distribution of wind speed at Sitakunda from January to December
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 116-128
The frequency distribution of each site from January to December has shown in Figure 1. Most of the sites
the wind velocity 2 to 4 m/s has higher frequency. But in Kuakata and Khagrachari the frequency of wind
speed has 5 – 19 m/s from April to September.
Figure 3.Theoretical available power in the wind and practically extractable power by the wind turbine.
The above Figure 3, has shown the theoretical available power in the wind and practically extractable power
by the wind turbine. The maximum the theoretical available power in the wind has been obtained in 193.26
Watt/m2 at Sitakunda. The wind mills extract approximately 30% power from the wind. The practically
extractable power by wind turbine is 130.21 Watt/m2 which are the available power for electricity generation.
3.
Weibull’s Distribution Analysis
The Weibull distribution shows its usefulness when the wind data of reference station are being used to
predict the wind regime in the surrounding of that station. The idea is that only annual or monthly average
wind speeds are sufficient to predict the complete frequency distribution of the year or the month. This
section deals with methods to extract the Weibull parameter k and c from a given set of data. There are
several methods by which k and c can be determined. Three different methods are:
(i) Weibull paper/ Regression analysis
(ii) Standard - deviation analysis
(iii) Energy pattern factor analysis
Cumulative distribution function is the integration of Weibull Density Function or Weibull’s function. It is
the cumulative of relative frequency of each velocity interval.The equation of Weibull Functionis given by,
v
F (v ) =
∫ f (v ' ) d (v ' )
Or
F (v ) = 1 − e
v
− 
c
k
...(1)
0
The probability density function means the relative frequency of wind speeds for the site. Therefore, the
shape of wind speeds distribution can be guessed when it is plotted. The equation of Weibull Density
Function is given by -
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 116-128
dF(v)  k  v 
f (v) =
=   
dv
 c  c 
k −1
×e
v
− 
c
Azad, et. al.
k
...(2)
By applying above three methods for find out the Weibull parameters are given below where k is a
dimensionless number and c in m/s.
Table 2. Closest values of k and c in m/sec for Sitakunda
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Weibull paper method
k
c (m/sec)
2.05
2.80
2.60
4.00
2.45
3.60
2.10
4.97
1.90
5.03
2.00
5.43
2.20
6.02
1.95
5.66
1.32
10.83
1.90
2.56
2.75
3.00
2.00
2.60
Std. deviation method
k
c (m/sec)
1.81
2.72
2.5
3.97
2.55
3.82
2.40
4.98
2.41
5.04
2.32
5.43
3.19
4.88
2.09
3.47
1.10
2.23
2.19
2.57
2.85
2.97
2.14
2.64
Energy method
k
c (m/sec)
1.91
2.67
2.58
3.88
2.58
3.74
2.40
4.97
2.42
5.04
2.28
5.43
3.00
5.97
> Range
> Range
> Range
> Range
2.52
2.56
2.89
2.92
2.26
2.58
From the above Table Weibull’s shape factor (k) has been determined and analysed. It has been shown that
in almost every month except November and December the value of k is greater than two i.e. Weibull’s
functions follow very close to the Raleigh function (k=2) for the selected sites. The Weibull’s shape factor is
very important factor to know about the characteristics of the wind wave of a particular wind site. The
Weibull’s scale factor (c) remains between 2.60 to 10.83 m/sec which indicates the potentiality of the wind
power of that site.From the above discussion, it has been clear that Sitakunda monthly average wind speed
varies from 3.17 to 10.1 m/s. So, the designed wind velocity is 5.5 m/s. The turbine extracting minimum 800
W for cut in speed 5.5 m/s and maximum 23.9 KW for cut off speed 15 m/s. So, it can be seen that wind
speed in Sitakunda is suitable for extracting wind energy for water pumping and electricity generation.
4
Design of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
Wind turbine design algorithm has been followed and determines different design parameters like design lift
coefficient, angle of attack, and design tip speed ratio, number of blades, design power coefficient and
diameter of the blade for the wind turbine. Then linearized the blade chord and twist angle of the designed
wind turbine. Minimum drag coefficient (Cd) to lift coefficient (Cl) equal to (Cd/Cl)min= 0.01. For the design
purpose, and (Cd/Cl)min= 0.0, let us consider the airfoil section of NACA 4418 for horizontal axis wind
turbine blades. The design lift coefficient, Cld = 1.07 and design angle of attack, αd = 7º. For (Cd/Cl)min = 0.01,
maximum power coefficient occurs in the range of design tip speeds ratio, 1 ≤ λd≤10. For the design
purposes, let us consider the design tip speed ratio, λd = 6. On the basis of λd = 6, and from the above Table
let us consider the number of blades, B = 3.Considering, λd = 6, B = 3 and (Cd/Cl)min = 0.01, choose
maximum power coefficient, (Cp)max = 0.5. For conservative design, Cp= (Cp)maxx 0.8 = 0.5x0.8 = 0.4. (See
appendix).
Thus, the design values for the model wind turbine are as follows-
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 116-128
Table 3. The design values for the model wind turbine
Blade airfoil type
Rotor radius
Root chord length
Tip chord length
Root twist angle
Tip twist angle
Hub radius
Number of Blades
Solidity
Turbine height
5
NACA 4418
250 cm
7.52 cm
0.702 cm
10.60°
0°
25 cm
3
0.014
1524 cm
Power Simulation
The project has been designed according to the block diagram mention above. Here, the remote has generate
the radio frequency and transmit it through RF transmitter by electromagnetic spectrum. Its frequency is
13.56 MHz because is an industrial standard and the frequency range is 30 KHz to 300 GHz. This radio
frequency received by RF receiver and sent to the signal to main microcontroller chip. This microcontroller
generate PWM (Pulse-width modulation) signal and sent it to the motor driver. According to this PWM
signal, the motor driver supply different voltage to the motor terminal. Finally the motor rotate according to
this supply terminal voltage. By different terminal voltage the motor rotate different RPM. The motor has
couple to a generator by a coupling shaft. The generator output voltage also sent to the microcontroller. This
microcontroller sent this output voltage to the LCD display device and shows the digit in the LCD screen.
Figure 4. Block diagram for the power simulation of the designated wind turbine.
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6
Azad, et. al.
Designated Controlled Circuit Diagram
Figure 5. Controller and display circuit diagram for the project.
Figure 6. Circuit diagram for the Remote controller.
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Azad, et. al.
7
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 116-128
Experimental setup
Figure 7. Experimental setup of the designated power simulated model.
In the front site of the project box, the LCD display device has been assembled for display different
characteristics. In the big PCB board with microcontroller chip which contain the total program for the
project and controlled the motor in ten steps. The another circuit in the top most right corner of the project
box is known as motor drover circuit which drive the motor by receiving signal from the microcontroller.
The circuit in the bottom left corner of the box is radio frequency receiver circuit with radio frequency
antenna.
Figure 8.View of the inside construction of the controller box including controller and display circuit.
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Azad, et. al.
There are two microcontrollers is used for this project one is PIC16F877P in the main controller circuit and
another one is PIC16F690-I/P DIP in the remote circuit. First one microcontroller contains the main program
and run the program inside the microcontroller. This microcontroller generate PWM signal in its terminal
point 18. Other helping circuits are also connected with the microcontroller chip such as motor driver circuit,
unipolar triangular wave generator circuit, radio frequency receiver circuit, generator output receive circuit,
display circuit etc. At the same in the remote the second microcontroller also connect some circuit such as
DC source with biasing circuit, radio frequency transmitter circuit with IR LED, switching and antenna etc.
At the starting position the motor rotate at a full load. When the remote switch is on then the program for the
radio frequency transmitter rum automatically inside of the microprocessor. A couple multi functional press
switch in the remote, one is for increasing and another is for decreasing. The radio frequency is 13.56 MHz
because is an industrial standard and the frequency range is 30 KHz to 300 GHz. If the switch is pressed then
the program compare it is > 1 or < 10 and the microcontroller sent a signal to RF transmitter circuit and this
circuit transmit a radio signal by it antenna. This signal chance by the RF receiver circuit and this circuit sent
a signal to main microcontroller. The program inside the microcontroller checks and compares it and
generates a PWM signal corresponding of this signal. The PWM signal frequency is 100 kHz and the
operating frequency range is 30-80 kHz. In every steps increase or decrease 5% of the PWM signal
frequency. This pulse sent to the motor driver circuit and the circuit sent a certain amount of voltage to the
motor terminal and motor run of the voltage. The motor couple to a generator and for different RPM of the
motor the generator output voltage is different. The generator output voltage taken by a circuit and sent it to
the microcontroller. The microcontroller shows the motor RPM, generator voltage and switch position of that
moment in the LCD display. By this procedure the motor was controlled by ten steps.
The following simulated data has been recorded –
Table 3: Simulated data for the model of power simulation.
Wind
velocity
Turbine
speed
Turbine
power
Motor
speed
Generator
Voltage
Output
Current
Power
m/s
rpm
KW
rpm
V
A
W
1
5.5
126
0.80
5.85
737
1.42
0.09
0.128
2
6.5
152
1.95
12.96
1970
2.28
0.11
0.25
3
7.5
172
2.99
11.11
1912
2.24
0.12
0.27
4
8.5
195
4.35
9.97
1945
2.26
0.19
0.43
5
9.5
218
6.07
13.72
2992
2.78
0.16
0.44
6
10.5
240.6
8.21
12.53
3015
2.83
0.23
0.65
7
11.5
263.5
10.78
11.96
3155
2.84
0.32
0.91
8
12.5
286.5
13.85
11.44
3278
2.96
0.41
1.21
9
13.5
309.4
17.44
11.17
3456
3.49
0.44
1.53
10
14.5
332.3
21.61
10.99
3652
3.57
0.55
1.96
Step
Correction
factor
For the power simulation of the designed turbine by a motor considering some factors has been discussed
here. The motor has been controlled in ten steps in the cut in speed and cut off speed range. During the
simulation of theoretical designed wind turbine and the model a correction factor has been considered in the
program which has shown in the above table. Most of the values of the correction factor are near about 10.
So, it can easily say that the model is 1/10 scale of the prototype.
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Azad, et. al.
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Conclusions
In regard to the present statistical wind data analysis,design of horizontal axis wind turbine and model for
power simulation the following conclusions are drawn:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
9
Monthly mean wind speed of Sitakunda was found to be relatively higher velocity (2.32 to 10.01 m/s)
than that of the other sites. As a result our selected site is Sitakunda for generation of electricity.
Weibull’s shape factor “k” and Weibull’s scale factor “c” have gone out of range for energy pattern
factor method at August and September in Sitakunda. However, for the rest period the range of k value
is from 1.10 to 3.19 and that of c value is from 2.23 to 10.83. The value of Weibull’s shape factor
follows very closer to the Raleigh function k=2 for the selected site.
A horizontal axis wind turbine has been designed for the selected site Sitakunda, Bangladesh. The
same design procedure can be applied for any prospective wind site.
The model for power simulation is a system for automation and remote control motor simulated to
generator in which motor RPM, generator output voltage and step position shows digitally in the LCD
screen. The motor speed was controlled by PWM signal in the microcontroller chip.
In the remote, the radio frequency is 13.56 MHz, which has some remarkable properties like high
transmitivity, high reflectivity, multi-directional radio link etc. The radius of the remote is higher than
any other conventional remote. It becomes active outside a wall or any other restrictions.
Nomenclature
Symbol
Unite
k
Weibull’s shape factor
c
Weibull’s scale factor (m/sec)
F(v)
Weibull’s function
f(v)
Probability density function
v
Mean wind speed, (m/sec)
A
Area (m2)
B
Number of blades
C
Blade chord
λd
Design tip speed ratio
αd
Design angle of attack (°)
CD
Turbine overall drag coefficient= FD/½ρAVα2
Cl
Blade lift coefficient
Cld
Design lift coefficient
CP
Turbine overall power coefficient=P0/½ρAVα2
(CP)max
Maximum power coefficient
D
Rotor diameter
h
Height of turbine, hub height from ground level
References
Azad, A. K., Alam, M. M. and Islam, M. Rafiqul.(2010). Statistical Analysis of Wind Gust at Coastal Sites
of Bangladesh. International Journal of Energy Machinery, Vol. 3, No. 1, pages 9-17.
www.insikapub.com
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Azad, et. al.
Azad, A. K., and Saha, Manabendra.(2011). Weibull’s Analysis of Wind Power Potential at Coastal Sites in
Kuakata, Bangladesh. International Journal of Energy Machinery, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 36-45.
Azad, A. K., and Alam, M. M. (2012).Analysis of Wind Power Potential inSandwip Sea Belt of Bangladesh.
Proceedings of IEEE, 2nd International Conference on the Developments in Renewable Energy
Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp.143-146.
Azad, A. K., Alam, M. M., and Saha, Manabendra.(2011). Effect of Wind Shear Coefficient on Wind
Velocity at Coastal Sites of Bangladesh. Proceedings of ICME, Dhaka, Bangladesh. ICME11-RE-12,
pp. 1-6.
Azad, A. K., and Alam, M. M. (2010). Statistical Analysis of Wind Power Potential at Pakshey River Delta
Region, Bangladesh. 13th Asian Congress of Fluid Mechanics, Dhaka, Bangladesh, Vol.1, pp. 517520.
Data Sheet of the Microcontroller PIC16F87XA, 28/40/44-pin Enhanced flash microcontrollers, @ 2003
Microchip Technology Inc. page no. 1-12.
Data Sheet of the Microcontroller PIC16F631/677/685/687/689/690, 20-pin flash-based, 8-bit CMOS
microcontrollers with nano Watt Technology, @ 2008 Microchip Technology Inc. page no. 1-20.
Gustafson, L.A., Lundgren, S. and Frisk, B. (1980). Application of a method for Aerodynamics analysis and
design of horizontal axis wind turbine. Technical note AU-1499 Part – 1, The Aeronautical research
Institute of Sweden, Stockholm.
Hirsch, Ch. and Derdelinckx, R. and Islam, M.Q. (1984).A Theoretical Investigation of the Design of a
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. Proceeding of the European wind energy conference, Hamburg,
October 22-26.
Hossain, M. A. and Islam, M. Q. (1982). Sailwing Rotor for Pumping Water in Bangladesh. Renewable
Energy Journal, AIT, Bangkok, Thailand, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 29-35.
Janse, W. A. M and Smulders, P.T. (1977).Rotor Design for Horizontal Axis Windmill.Steering Committee
for Wind Energy in Developing Countries. P.O. Box 85, Amersfoort, the Netherlands.
Janssen, L.G.J. and Wingerde van, A. M. (2002). Reliable Optimal Use of Materials for Wind Turbine Rotor
Blade. Semiannual progress report Europe, pp 1-18.
Mandal, A. C. and Islam, M.Q. (2001). Aerodynamics and Design of Wind Turbines. A Hand Book, pp 2237, 53,137-149.
National Fire Protection Association (2008).NFPA 70 National Electrical Code 1 Batterymarch Park,
Quincy, MA 02169: NFPA. pp. 24.
The
microcontroller chip overview, Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller.
Types
of
motor
speed
controller,
Wikipedia,
at:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controller.
the
free
the
encyclopedia,
free
Available
encyclopedia,
at:
Available
Vries, O. (1979). Fluid Dynamics Aspect of Wind Energy Conversion. NATO Advisory Group for
Aerospace Research and Development, the Netherlands.
126
Azad, et. al.
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 116-128
APPENDIX
Determination of Wind Turbine Design Factors
Appendix Table – 1: Determination of minimum Cd/Cl ratio.
Airfoil name
Geometrical description
(Cd/Cl)min
αº
Cl
Sail and pole
0.1
5
0.8
Flat steel plate
0.1
4
0.4
Arched steel plate
0.02
4
0.9
0.02
3
1.25
2
1.0
4
0.1
f/c = 0.07
f/c = 0.10
Sail wing
0.05
Sail trouser
0.1
NACA 4412
0.01
4
0.8
NACA 23015
0.01
4
0.8
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Appendix Figure – 1: Determination of Design Lift Coefficient and Design Angle of Attack.
128
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
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Physiochemical Characteristics of Water and Challenges for Community
Development; A Case Study of Igbo-Ora Community of Oyo State, Nigeria
Kofo A. Aderogba
Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences
Tai Solarin University of Education
Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Water problems,
Community development,
Rain water,
Igbo-Ora
Water is known to be an inexhaustible resource because the total supply of it in
the biosphere is not affected by human activities. Recycling time depends on
various factors. It is not uniformly distributed all over the world and not readily
available in the quantity and quality required in most parts on the earth surface.
This piece has examined the sources, the crisis of scarcity, and development of
water and alternatives in Igbo-Ora, Nigeria. The climate is tropical continental.
The major occupation is farming. Major sources of water supply are the ponds,
rivers, lakes, and rainfall. Opeki Dam is perpetually dry, that is, not to talk of the
pipeline networks and taps that are spent. The consequences of the crisis of
inadequacies have been so grievous. Whatever is available must be conserved and
preserved to meet all needs. A revisit to Opeki Dam for purpose of rehabilitation
is imperative. At the interim, rain water should be harvested, stored and put to use
on a large scale on farms and for small scale industrial productions. Farmers
should make maximum use of dews. Oyan Dam could be made to serve Igbo-Ora
community. Damming Ofiki River is also suggested.
1.
Introduction
Of all human settlement services, provision of potable water is perhaps the most vital: Every person depends
on water for drinking, washing, carrying-away waste and other domestic needs, (Radlet and Radlet, 2004;
Still and Thomas and Encyclopaedia Britanica, 2004). According to this document, water supply system
must also meet requirements for public, commercial and industrial activities. These explain why, during
drought, floods, earthquake or other emergencies, vigorous efforts must be made to maintain water supplies,
(Aderogba, 1987; Stephenson and Peterson, 199; Griggs, 1997 and Mayer, 2005).
The availability of water is an important factor in the establishment of the earliest settled communities and
even today, the evolution of public water supply systems is tied directly to the growth of cities and towns. In
the development of water resources, beyond their natural condition in rivers, lakes and springs, the digging
of shallow wells was probably the earliest innovation. As the need for water increased and tools were
developed, wells were made deeper. According to the Britanica, brick-lined wells were built by city dwellers
in the Hindus river basin as early as 2500BC, and well more than almost 500 meters (1,600 feet) deep are
known to have been used in ancient China.
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 129-138
Aderogba
It may be considered an inexhaustible resource because the total supply of water in the biosphere is not
affected by human activities. Water is not destroyed by human uses, although it may be held for a time in
combination with other chemicals. To be useful, however, water must be in a particular state and place and
of a certain quality and quantity and so, it must be regarded as renewable and often scarce resources. The
recycling times depend on its location and uses.
Water is present in abundant quantities on and under the earth surface but less than 1% of it is liquid fresh
water. Most of the earth’s estimated 1.4 billion cubic kilometer (326 million cubic miles) of water is in the
oceans or is frozen in polar ice caps and glaciers. Ocean water contains about 35 g/litre (4.5 ounces per
gallon) of dissolved minerals or salts. These make it unfit for drinking and for most industrial or agricultural
uses. Although it may not always be available at the times and place it is needed, and it is not uniformly
distributed over the earth. In many locations, however, the availability of good quality water is reduced as a
result of rapidly increasing urbanization and industrialization with their attendant environmental pollution
problems.
However, the objective of this paper is to examine the salient sources of water, the crisis of its scarcity and a
developmental alternative if the Igbo-Ora community must survive and play its vintage roles. The population
of the town was about 35,000 by the 1963 census. It has grown to about 100,000 today, (Aderogba and
Afelumo, 2012) (an estimate).
2.
The Study Area
The town, Igbo-Ora has its history dating back to early 18th Century. The town started with seven different
quarters Igbole (the smallest), Pako, Iberekodo, Saganun, Idofin, and Igbo-Ora (the largest). Like every
others, Igbo-Ora quarters had expanded so fast even since the earliest days to include Isale Ogede, Isale Oba
and Okeserin. Each of these quarters had a traditional administrative head, the Baale. But the whole of the
area is bounded by political, geographical location, proximity, language, ethics and values. By consent, the
name Igbo-Ora was adopted for all of them. Igbo-Ora had always been the Administrative Headquarter of
Ibarapa Local Government Area, that is, when the seven towns Lanlate, Eruwa, Igbo-Ora, Idere, Tapa,
Aiyete and Igangan were one as a Local Government Area in Oyo State. Still, the creation of three Local
Government Areas from the former led to the creation of Ibarapa Central and Igbo-Ora remains the
administrative Headquarters.
Physically, there are a number of inselberge but they do not disturb the large expanse of guinea savannahthat is, open for agricultural practices. There are some rivers that surround and traverse the town. They are
very seasonal. That is, having water flowing only during the rainy season. They include Ofisa, Afekiti and
Agogo rivers. Aside these rivers, there are some swampy locations and ponds that are good sources of water
to the inhabitants. Rainfall is not less than 2,500 mm any year. The temperature is high throughout the year
(about 27oC). Relative Humidity is not less than 70% on the average. The climate is tropical continental.
Two seasons can be distinctively experienced: wet and dry seasons. The wet season is characterized by low
temperature and high rainfall. All the wetness gets culminated in the months of June and July. It is the
planting season. There is always a double maxima which allows for double planting seasons. On the other
hand, the dry season is characterized by haze and dusty wind that prevails from North Eastern Nigeria (the
harmattan). The harsh weather gets culminated in January and February of every year. It is the major
harvesting season. The land is fertile and can sustain all year round planting if there is sufficient moisture
(Ayoade, 2000). The community and the town at large is a major source of food and labour supply to the
neighboring cities of Lagos, Abeokuta and Ibadan in the southwestern part of the country. Igbo-Ora is
substantially sustaining availability of major perishable food items such as cassava (in its various forms),
plantain, yam, pepper, banana, tomatoes, fruits and others. More than 80% of the charcoal and fire wood
consumed in these neighboring urban centres (of Ogun, Lagos and Oyo States) come from Igbo-Ora and
immediate environment. The community also accounts for over 2.5% of petty traders and labourers of every
trade and profession in these urban centres (Mabogunje, 1980). Most of these are big merchants trading in
cassava, yam, maize, pepper, tomato, cashew, banana, plantain, orange, guava and some other fruits. Oil
palm and coconut are only growing wild not much of them are really cultivated.
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Aderogba
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 129-138
The population of about one hundred thousand people is Yoruba speaking, (Mabogunje, 1980). Major
occupations are farming and trading but in the recent time, more men and women are diversifying into
artisan jobs, banking, tourism management, construction, evangelism; and of course quite a number have
white collar jobs. Thus, there are hospital and health workers, nurses, doctors, attendants, secretariat workers,
teachers and lecturers, and office workers. Interestingly, all of these need water directly or indirectly in their
offices, at homes, schools, hospitals, construction, agricultural and other purposes. Coincidentally, the
community is presently witnessing an unprecedented development in terms of the number of dwelling
houses, population size, small and medium scale industries and other commercial activities. This spatial
expansion has drastically affected the traditional sources of water-the ponds, rivers streams and water sheds.
In spite of the uniqueness and significance of the town and the community politically, socially and
commercially, major sources of water are rainfall and dew. Opeki dam meant to supply water to the
community is perpetually dry, that is, not to talk of the pipeline networks and taps that are spent
3.
Methodology
755 (0.76%) members of the community were interviewed. The respondents to the interview schedule were
randomly selected across the quarters, sex, age and professions in the town. All the seven heads of the seven
quarters were interviewed. They provided a little history each about the sources of water, the uses of water
and the seriousness of the present crises of scarcity. The stream characteristics and the physical environment
around them were studied for a period of eight years. Samples of the water from Agogo stream, the largest of
them was carefully collected and transferred to the Water Laboratory of 33 Sona brewery, Imagbon, IjebuOde for analyses four times during the period under study.
4.
Uses and Sources of Water
At all times, there are always traces of water in the air, which is essential to live. Every individual depends
on water for drinking, cooking, washing, waste disposal and other domestic needs. Table 1. shows the major
uses into which water is put among the members of the community-just like it is common to most
communities, too (Schaoke, 1970 and Phillips, 2003).
Table 1. Major Uses of Water in Igbo-Ora
Major Uses
Drinking
Cooking
Washing
Hospitals and Laboratories
Waste Disposal
Research and Development
Education and Schools
Religion/ Recreation and Entertainment
Local Industrial Productions
Construction
Heavy Industrial Productions
Farming and Horticulture
Others
Number
755
755
755
647
321
335
647
134
641
748
161
755
332
Dependence (%)
100.00
100.00
100.00
85.69
42.52
44.37
85.43
17.75
84.90
99.02
21.32
100.00
43.97
Source: Field Work (2011)
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Aderogba
100.00% of the people interviewed and responded to the question on uses of water used water for drinking,
cooking and in agricultural practices. 92.00% use it in construction and milling. About 80% of them also use
it in hospital and laboratory practices,(85.69%), Education and Schools (85.43%), and Local Industrial
Productions (84.90%). 17.75% and 21.32% for religion/recreation and entertainment and heavy industrial
productions, respectively might have been that low because of the low level of development and
industrialization of the entire region. (See Table I below). In other words, as it is in other human settlements
known, (Aderogba, 1999, Griggs 1997 and Mayer 2005), water is a significant element in this community.
Comparing water with some other facilities and amenities, electricity, roads, hospitals, and others, the
community rated water highest and as the most significant infrastructure for development. 620 (82.12%)
rated it as the most significant.
Table 2. Water Compared with Some other Facilities and Amenities
Amenities
Electricity
Water
Transportation
Hospital
Market
Schools
Others
Total
Number
101
620
30
387
11
44
12
755
Proportion (%)
13.38
82.12
3.97
4.90
1.45
5.83
1.59
100.00
Interestingly, Table 2 shows that none of the respondents rated it lowest as priority. Electricity (13.38%),
hospitals and maternity homes (4.90%), transport and communication (3.97%), markets and stores (1.46%),
schools and colleges (5.83%) are not as important as water to members of the community. Without water the
other facilities and amenities may not be useful to mankind in human settlement. Though, at times, one
complements the other, water has no rival. With water, probably every other thing is possible-agricultural
practices, industrial production, education and research, tourism and recreation, waste management and
others. (Viessman and Welty, 1985)
Table 3. Sources of Water to Members of Igbo-Ora Community
Sources of Water
Swamps, Ponds and Lakes
Steams and Rivers
Rain Water
Dew
Pipe Borne Water
Bore Holes
Wells
Sachet and Bottled Water
Others
Proportion of Dependence (%)
69.47
88.85
96.52
6.65
0.05
1.50
17.50
0.01
1.02
Table 3. shows the sources of the water the community uses to meet their needs on the farms, in industries,
domestically, for recreation, religious, educational and research purposes and for waste disposal. Table III is
revealing. A respondent picked more than one source. 96.50% depend on rain water. Over 80% depend on
streams and rivers. Swamps, lakes and ponds are the sources for over 60% of the respondents. See Table III.
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Aderogba
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 129-138
In spite of the widespread proliferation of bottled and sachet waters, only 0.01% of the respondent use
bottled and sachet water. Wells (17.50%), boreholes (1.50%) and pipe-borne water (0.05%) are not common
either.
The Opeki River Dam built in the early 1960s (over forty years ago) is no longer reliable. It has its peculiar
problems:
it was constructed for a population of less than 90,000 i.e. less than one third of the present population
of the entire Ibarapa region that is made up of seven major towns including Igbo-Ora;
the headwater (supply source) to the dam are grossly becoming inadequate as the major tributary to
Opeki River are going into extinction-they are drying up;
there were virtually no maintenance of the Dam and the reservoir and it is gradually getting sealed off
with pebbles, debris and others brought about by the supply sources;
the pumping systems and the piping (transmission) networks are faulty and inadequate. Most of them
have long been abandoned;
the extension and connections of the pipeline networks are limited to the old suburbs, the new layouts
were left out and neither were they planned for;
House connections to the public pipes are far less than five per cent of the entire households in the
community;
Even at that, the pipes that connected the old suburbs are of too small diameters and they are spent.
Most of them had been damaged, leaking and even got removed in the processes of road maintenance
and constructions; and
The remaining public taps in each of the quarters could be counted on finger tips and they are
perpetually dry.
For over ten years, there has never been any drop of water from any tap in the whole town. Thus, one can
infer that pipe borne water should not be regarded as any source of water for any sector or section of the
town. Members of the community have resulted into alternatives in their dwellings and in their industrial and
social lives. But it is challenging to meet the demands:
households spend so much money and time per day to fetch enough quantity to use; and
very poor waters from unhygienic sources are common and consumed.
Bore holes and wells that have been reliable alternatives to pipe borne water among most members of the
communities are either too expensive for individuals to drill and maintain; and or its technology is not yet
acceptable to them. It appears the community is not favoured enough to command and own enough number
of bore holes. Table IV shows the number of boreholes by ownership throughout the community. The
Federal Government provided 1 (10.00%), the State Government 2 (20.00%) and the Local Government
provided the largest number 3 (30.00%). The community has 2 (20.00%) and two individuals combined
efforts to have one. A nongovernmental organization provided one. Unfortunately, the production of these
bore holes are not very reliable; and the water table is so deep down and the cost of boring and maintaining
any is so enormous, (Aderogba and Afelumo, 2012). Local members of the community could not attempt to
own one therefore.
Table 4. Ownership Status of Bore holes
Owners
Federal Government
State Government
Local Government
Community
Individuals
NGO
Others
Total
Number
1
2
3
2
1
1
0
10
Percentage (%)
10.00
20.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
10.00
0.00
100.00
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Aderogba
Consequently, the surest sources appear to be rainfall and dew. Dew may occur throughout the year but it is
limited in quantity. This is often insufficient for planting and for the survival of few arable crops, especially
during the dry season. Similarly, rainfall though abundant during the rainy season (April to October), is
limited to the quantity that could be harvested during its seasons and mostly for raising crops. Even, the
farmers have to supplement for cultivation of some arable crops, too.
The traditional sources, streams, ponds, rivers, lakes, and springs are many. See Table V. Each ward in the
community depends on different pond, stream, and river and/or spring water sources. Agogo stream traverses
the town and it serves other communities. It is given different local names throughout its stretches even
within the community.
Table 5. Quarters, Estimated Population and Major Ponds and Streams in Igbo-Ora
Quarters
Igbole
Igbo- Ora
Sagaun
Iberekodo
Pako
Isale Pembo
Isale Oba
Isale Ogede
Oke Odo
Oke Iserin
Idofin
Total
Estimated Population (’000)
9.10
17.00
12.20
16.40
10.20
5.20
8.50
2.40
4.80
8.20
6.00
100.00
Swamps/ Ponds/Streams.
Gaa, Baba Kutu.
Agogo, Abetu, Afekiti.
Ameyen, Agogo, Afekiti, Idiroko.
Agogo, Gbaawe.
Gbaawe, Odo Efo, Odo Igbo.
Gbaawe, Odo Efo.
Agogo, Isale Ayin.
Agogo.
Agogo.
Ameyen, Afekiti.
Agogo, Gbaawe, Abetu.
Gaa, and Baba Kutu served Igbole quarters of about 9,100 people. Gbaawe and Odo Efo served Pako and
Isale Pembo quarters with an estimated population of about 13,700 people. Ameyen, Afekiti and Agogo
served Okeserin (with 8,200 people) and Saganun (12,200 people); and these can no longer be referred to as
any river or stream or pond of water. They are not reliable:
Urbanization processes have exposed their water sheds and banks to excessive harsh weather;
The remaining waters have been polluted by defecation, urban wastes and animals feedings around
them;
The waters have dried- up in most of them. What remain for each is bare ground and little quantity of
water only during the raining season. That is, when their waters may not be required; and
The aquatic environment hitherto found around those places has completely changed to terrestrial. Only
patches of interface of both aquatic and terrestrial life forms could be found in a few places.
Table 6. shows the physicochemical characteristics of the sampled water from the streams, ponds and
swamps. On the average, the colour is grey/green, turbidity unit is 29 mg/l, organic matters, phenolic
compounds (as phenol), and other chemical compositions are higher than the WHO permissible standards.
They are more basic than water-the pH is 8.01.
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Aderogba
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 129-138
Table 6. Comparison of Sampled Agogo Water Parameters with WHO Standard. (mg/l)
Parameter
Colour
Turbidity Units
Organic Matter
Phenolic Compound (as phenol)
Fluoride (as F 2+)
Nitrite (as NO3)
COD (Mg O2/l)
pH
BOD (Mg O2/l)
Copper (as CU 2+ )
Iron (as Fe 2+)
Manganese (as Mn 2+)
Zinc (as Zn 2+)
Magnesium (as Mg2+)
Sulphate (as SO4 2-)
Hydrogen Sulphate (as H2S)
Chloride (as Cl)
Anionic detergent
Ammonia (as NH4)
Calcium (as Ca 2+)
WHO permissible standard
Nil
5.00
0.50
0.001
1.70
50.10
6.5-8.5
0.50
0.10
0.50
5.00
50.00
150.00
0.05
600.00
0.20
0.50
75.00
Sample Reading
Grey/ green
29.00
24.00
0.002
2.20
72.50
280.00
8.01
250.00
1.01
1.10
0.75
10.01
165.50
240.00
0.60
640.00
3.20
0.91
110.00
Source: WHO (2005) and Field Work (2011)
The crisis of scarcity and poor quality
The results of the inadequacies, poor quality and changes in ecological systems have been so grievous on the
domestic lives, commerce, education, production and others. In particular:
Community dwellers put to use all sorts of water for drinking, washing sanitation, food processing
amongst others, even when they are not potable;
Water borne diseases are very rampant and sometimes lead to epidemics across the quarters;
Though the proportion has gone down so greatly in the recent time, guinea worm is very common at a
rate of almost every home experiencing it once in a year;
All productions that have to do with water are hindered and/or limited. In most cases, they are
outrightly impossible;
Though the soil is fertile and can support all season planting, the lack of water places great limitations;
Cottage industrialists that would have been attracted to the agricultural produce and the cheap labour of
the region cannot come to establish;
Laboratory experiments in schools and colleges, and tests in hospitals are limited and sometimes
impossible;
Families, homes, firms and those industries that managed to survive within the region fend for water at
very high cost of money, time and labour; and
For those firms and cottage industries that managed to survived, it tells so much on the unit cost of
production.
The problems of inadequacies and scarcities are very grievous and devastating. Sometimes, it takes the entire
family the whole day to fetch enough water for domestic use let alone sourcing for the quantity that may be
put into use for industrial production. It is most pathetic during the dry seasons; this is when rainfall is very
minimal, if there is any at all. The issues of scarcity, the inadequacies and the poor supply of water in these
communities require urgent attention that need to be urgently addressed if the community must survive and
develop. As remarked, water is definitely a limiting factor to development in Igbo-Ora and among members
of the community.
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Aderogba
General Comments and Discussions
There are inadequacies of water for every purpose in Igbo-Ora. Alternatives are not many too. These place
serious limitation on developmental efforts and certain forms of livelihood-the economy, recreation and
entertainment and even research and development. Whereas, the town is fast assuming urban attributes. The
needs to rehabilitate and/or develop the existing sources are obvious. There must be enough quantity of
quality potable water to meet every need. It has no rival and there have never been any alternatives to it.
Although water is a renewable resource, the many demands for it in a desired quantity and quality in a
particular place require careful husbandry of the supply. After reaching the surface of the earth as rain, it
enters a supply system either by penetrating the ground and/or by moving through run off into streams,
rivers, ponds and lakes. The quantity and quality of supply therefore depend, in part, on the management of
the vegetation and soil in the water shed areas. Also involved is the control of stream flow or the control of
pumping from underground sources. Where rainfall is seasonal, streams run at flood levels during the wet
season but are extremely low or completely dry at other times of the year.
Although water is required for a variety of purposes, the community neither requires water for transportation
nor for generating hydroelectric power. Neither does it require it for cooling engines nor for use in any steel
and or pulp mills or chemical factory.
Towards Water Development and Sufficiency
From the foregoing, water scarcity appears to be a major problem that limits development in Igbo-Ora.
Whatever is available must therefore be conserved and/or further developed at all costs so as to meet the
expected needs. Thus:
there should be a revisit to the Opeki Dam with the purpose of re-dredging and or expanding it;
- the population has increased fourfold, second and third dams are required to supplement the existing
Opeki Dam i.e. if the large scale expansion cannot be carried out on the later;
the pipes and pumping systems need to be overhauled and or replaced and maintained to be able to
support the supply system;
- seasonal water sources such as streams, springs and rivers could be developed and the waters from them
preserved for fishing, planting and other agricultural processing;
rain water should be harvested on a large scale and stored as such. The water could be put to use in
small scale agricultural and industrial productions. Domestically, it could be used for washing, flushing;
- farmers can make maximum use of the ever fresh dews by preparing their fields towards that and
supplement it with watering from harvested rain water. This could be particularly so for arable food
crops.
members of the community should be educated on how to conserve water; and adopt appropriate
technologies for water conservation;
all levels of government-Federal, State and particularly the three Local Governments should endeavor to
form concerted efforts to refurbish and maintain Opeki Dam; and
Both State and Federal governments should endeavour to build additional dams on Ofiki and Oyan
rivers-all within the region.
Ofiki river passes through a relatively narrow and long stretch of valley of hard rocks. This singular attribute
will reduce cost of construction. The volume of water is large throughout the year. Regardless of the point(s),
the river should be damned. The proximity to Tapa, Aiyete and Igangan will also further reduce the total cost
of construction of the pipe line network. Oyan Dam on Oyan River was initially designed to serve Abeokuta
and parts of Lagos metropolis. Productions and reserves from the Dam can still serve substantial part of
Ibarapa Community, especially Idere and Igbo-Ora communities. Other required structures are in place
except the connecting pipeline network between Abeokuta and Igbo-ora. This is an area the three tiers of
government may have to look into.
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Aderogba
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 129-138
In other words, while rain water may retain its vintage position as a source of water to the community (at the
interim), with concerted efforts, there could be better sources of water that, if well developed, will meet
every need.
5.
Conclusion
Igbo-Ora community is so significant to the adjacent metropolitan Lagos, Abeokuta and Ibadan cities. Water
is not readily available to support lives. The existing Opeki Dam and the entire network of pipe lines are just
there for nothing. Boreholes and wells are not developed. Springs, streams and rivers are not common. Rain
water, which is the most significant source of water, is seasonal, and it is limited to the quantity that could be
harvested and stored. The resultant effects of lack of all season water have been:
limited production on the farms and in the planting seasons;
limited production in the local industries and inadvertently increased cost of production;
limited opportunities for recreations and other uses water could be put;
members of the community invest so much before they could get enough to satisfy their daily needs;
preponderance of water borne diseases and ailments on the entire populace and longevity; and
investors in light and heavy industries that would have depended heavily on water and or consume
much water do not venture to establish in the region.
Therefore the challenges call for urgent attention. This paper is thus calling on individual philanthropists,
Community Development Associations, Local, State and Federal Governments to assist in the provision of
water to meet every need. It is not at this age of technological development that a community should depend
solely on rain water.
The region is a good supplier of labour; a reliable source of food supply to the southwestern part of Nigeria;
and the soil is fertile enough to support all year round agricultural production-cultivation of crops, raising of
birds, grazing of animals and breeding of fish and others - only if there could be adequate supply of water.
Suffice it to say that the dwellers are very hardworking, energetic and dependable-very resourceful.
While construction of new dam(s) and rehabilitation of the old one may be so huge investments, boreholes
and wells may be constructed and equipped with submersible pumping machines. Waters from the boreholes
and wells could be pumped to overhead tanks which will be connected to pipeline networks that will
distribute the water to points of consumption-homes, hospitals, schools, industries, farms, recreation centers,
hotels and others. The number per area of the community should definitely depend on the population density
and the demand. It is essential that planning and forecasting take into cognizance the fast growing population
and the extent of the built-up areas, and of course, the consequent expansion of such schemes.
References
Aderogba, K. A. (1987). Rain Water Harvesting. Paper presented at the 1987 Annual Conference of
Nigerian Geographical Association. Imo State University, Okigwe.
Aderogba, K. A. (1999). Quality Potable Well Water for all in Urban Centres of Ogun State by the year
2010 AD. Arts and Social Sciences Forum Journal Vol. 1 No 1 pp 1-11 (January).
Aderogba K. A. and Afelumo, A. A. (2012). A Study of Ground Water potentials for sustainable
Decelopment in Igbo-Ora, Oyo State, Nigeria. Journal of Urban and Rural Development. Vol. II No
3, pp. 11-25.
Ayoade, J.O. (2000). Climatic Factors Affecting Pollution in Waste Disposal Sites in Developing Countries
in Rogers W’o Oku-Uma et al (ed): Pollution Control and Waste Management in Developing
Countries. The Commonwealth Secretariat, London.
Encyclopadia Britanica. (2004). A World of Knowledge at Your Fingertips. Encyclopaedia Britanica (Delux
Edition), Bristol.
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Griggs, N.S. (1997). System Analyses of Urban Water Supply and Growth Management’ Journal of Urban
Planning and Development. Vol. 123. No 2 pp 23-33
Mabogunje, A.L. (1980). Development Process: A Spatial Perspective. Hutchinson University Library,
London. pp 182-196.
Mayer, L.W. (2005). Urban Water Supply: Hand Book. New York, Culinary and Hospitality Industry
Publication Services pp. 102 –113.
Phillips, A. (2003). City of Tucson Water Harvesting Guidance Manual. City of Tucson, Tucson.
Radlet, J. and Radlet, P. (2004). Rainwater Harvesting Design Installation Workshop. TX Save The Rain,
Boerne.
Schaoke, J.C. (1970). ‘Water and the City in Detwyta, S and Marcus, R (Eds.) Urbanization Environment.
Happer, New York. pp. 97 –134.
Stephenson, D. and Peterson, M. S. (1991). Water Resources Development in Developing Countries.
Elsevier Science, New York.
Still, G.T. and Thomas, T.H. (2003). Sizing and Optimally Locating Guttering for Rainwater Harvesting.
Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Rainwater Catchment Systems; August 25-29.
Mexico City (MX)
Viessman, W. Jr. and Welty C. (1985) Water Management: Technology and Institutions. Harper and Row,
New York.
World Health Organization. 2005. Guidelines for Portable Water for Travelers. Geneva. World Health
Organization Global Update. WHO. http:/www/euro.who.int/document/E8790.pdf
138
P-ISSN: 2301-4458
E-ISSN: 2301-8038
Vol. 01, No. 01
July 2012
Insan Akademika
Publications
www.insikapub.com
Climate Change and Sustainable Growth and Development in Lagos Metropolis,
Nigeria
Kofo A. Aderogba
Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences
Tai Solarin University of Education
Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria
[email protected]
Key Words
Abstract
Inclement warmth,
Acid rain,
Sustainable development,
Lagos Metropolis
Ozone depletion and the ravaging effect on climate, lives and physical
environment are global. The objectives of this paper are to describe atmospheric
chemistry leading to ozone depletion, global warming and unravel the
consequences of global warming in Lagos Metropolis with a view to making
suggestions for sustainable growth and development. Recent literatures were
contacted. News paper cuttings were read. Reports and communiqués of
conferences, workshops, seminars and committees were read and used. Radio and
television documentaries and programmes were listened to and used. Empirical
observations were made of weather elements, plants and animals and others. Data
on weather elements were derived from Federal Meteorological Station, Oshodi.
Members of the public were interviewed and they provided information on recent
changes in weather phenomena, acid rain, inclement warmth, vegetation and
others. Compositions of the air differ significantly from the WHO permissible
standards. Cloud cover is unusually thicker; early rains are cloudy and more
acidic. Runoffs have increased, and aquatic ecosystems are gradually getting
depleted and giving way to terrestrial type of ecosystem. There are threat to lives
and property. There may be need for additional research to further establish the
findings. But for sustainable development, every stake holder must rise against the
adversities of global warming and harness its advantages
1.
Introduction
There had not been serious attention given to the depleting ozone layer, global warming and climate change
until about four decades ago when it became obvious that anthropogenic damage to the earth’s stratospheric
ozone layer will lead to an increase in solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching the earth’s surface, with a
consequent adverse impact, (Brain, 2004). According to him, more recently, there has been an increased
awareness of the interactions between ozone depletion and climate change, which could also impact on
human exposure to terrestrial UV. “The most serious effect of UV exposure to human skin is the potential
rise in incidence of skin cancers”. He went further to explain that risk estimates of this disease associated
with ozone depletion suggest that an additional peak incidence of 5,000 cases of cancer per year in the
United Kingdom would occur around the mid-part of this century. At the global level, among the major
challenges of combating the menace is finance. But the next global meeting on climate change came up in
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Aderogba
Cancum, Mexico in December 2010 “where issues of financing saw significant progress,” (Kortenhorst,
2010).
Shaheen (1992) asserts that although ozone is a serious pollutant at ground levels around the atmosphere, in
the upper atmosphere (around 25-44 kms) the ozone layer in the stratosphere protects the earth and the
people living on it by blocking ultraviolet radiation (UV) coming from the sun. According to him, it has been
estimated by the American Environmental Protection Agency (AEPA) that each 1% decline in worldwide
average of ozone will cause an increase in skin cancer by nearly 5%. It is the chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
produced by humans that reach the upper atmosphere, where they cause destruction of the ozone; by doing
so, they allow the harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth’s atmosphere. In the upper atmosphere, the
ultraviolet light breaks off a chlorine atom from chlorocarbon molecule, and then the chlorine attack the
ozone molecule, causing its break up. By then, an ordinary oxygen molecule attaches itself to the chlorine to
give chlorine monoxide. Subsequently, free oxygen atoms breaks up the chlorine monoxide and free the
chlorine again to start its process of destruction by attacking another ozone molecule and the cycle goes on.
The importance and the gravity of the situation, led to an international conference sponsored by the United
Nation Environmental Programme that was held in Montreal, Canada; and recently the Copenhagen Climate
Change Conference. It was since the Montreal conference that 24 nations signed a milestone accord which
promised to cut the production and use of ozone-destroying chemicals by 50% around the year 1999. The
chairman to the conference declared: “There has never been an agreement like this on a global scale”.
Similarly, the administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency said:
“The signing shows an unprecedented degree of cooperation among nations of the world in balancing
economic development and environmental protection”.
Chlorofluocarbons such as Freon are used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, and they are
important component in aerosol and plastic foams. The United States and European Community produce
annually about 75% of the total world production of 1 million tons of CFCs. All of these will be reduced
according to the Montreal Protocol; and which have actually started reducing (Fahey, 2007; and Barnett, et
al, 2005). This international pact also will limit the use of an ozone destroying group of fire suppressant
chemicals called halons.
Fahey (2007); Barnett et al (2005) and; Cox, et al, (2000) believe that these compounds cause as much as 20
times the damage of CFCs. They are also of the view that up to 7% of the ozone belt, stretching 6 to 50 kms
above the earth, has already been depleted. With the depletion of the ozone layer and its deterioration,
ultraviolet radiation from the sun will cause a dramatic increase in skin cancer and cataracts. It will also
lower resistance to infection and damage plant life, either directly or through a general warming of the earth
– global warming. Hansen, et al, (2007) assert that the earth and its atmosphere are warming up due to the
greenhouse effect: The surface of the earth receives visible light and radiates heat back into the atmosphere
as infrared rays. Some move on to outer space while a number of gases (mainly carbon dioxide CO2) in the
troposphere (the atmosphere, 0-16kms) catch these rays and reflect them back to earth. This causes warming
of the earth similar to the conditions in a greenhouse.
Under normal and moderate conditions, CO2 helps gases which come from man-made sources (electrical,
transportation, industry and commercial building and homes) end-up trapping more heat and thus contribute
to global warming. It is believed that the increase in gas concentration and especially CO2 has caused an
increase in global average temperature of about 0.4 OC since 1950 (Shaheen, 2000).
However, why do we care about atmospheric ozone? The ozone in the stratosphere absorbs some of the sun’s
biologically harmful ultraviolet radiation. Because of this beneficial role, atmospheric ozone is considered
“good ozone.” In contrast, excess ozone at earth’s surface that is formed from pollutants is considered “bad
ozone” because it can be harmful to man, plants, and animals. The ozone that occurs naturally near the
surface and in the lower atmosphere is also beneficial because it helps to remove pollutants from the
atmosphere. In the absence of human activities on earth’s surface, ozone would still be present near the
surface and throughout the troposphere and stratosphere because ozone is a natural component of the clean
atmosphere (Fahey, 2007). When ozone is massively ”affected” and it reduces in amount, it leads to
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Aderogba
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 139-153
depletion of ozone layer which subsequently lead to global warming and climate change (Seinfeld and
Dandis, 1998 and Hansen, et al, 2007). The detailed chemistry of the processes is beyond the scope of this
work.
When coal, oil or other fossil fuels are burned, acid-rain precursors are emitted into the atmosphere. These
include nitrogen oxides (NOx) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2). Once in the atmosphere, NOx and SO2 are
transformed, depending upon atmospheric conditions, into acid nitrate and acid sulphate otherwise known as
nitric acid and sulphuric acid and fall back in rain, snow, fog, cloud water, particles, and gas. The term acid
deposition encompasses all forms of inputs to acid.
But the questions therefore arise: what are the consequences of these phenomena, ozone depletion and global
warming on the physical environment and social lives in Lagos Metropolis. Thus, the objectives of the paper
are to briefly describe selected atmospheric chemistry that lead to depletion of ozone layer, global warming
and unravel selected consequences of global warming in the metropolis with a view to making suggestions
for sustainable growth and development. Emphasis is on inclement warmth and acid rain.
2.
Materials and Methods
Modern transformation of cities and towns in Africa owes its growth and development largely to European
colonial urban policies aimed at building markets and colonial administrative centres, (Emordi and Osiki,
2008). According to them, these policies later broadened to make cities places of social, receptacles for
talents and manpower, and places of investment (Bardo and Hartman, 1982). The policies and programmes
gave rise to rapid urbanization, which not only resulted in the massive rural-urban migration, but also
brought about changes in everyday lives of residents and visitors in the city. These changes came with
improved communication system such as roads, railway, sea and airport facilities and of course telephone.
All of these elevated Lagos to a pre-eminent position in the nation’s economic, political and social activities.
No other city of Nigeria has such advantage as joint termini of major land, rail, sea as well as air routes. The
position also attracted other urban functions, facilities and amenities; and a growing and relatively affluent
population which formed a main consumer market when the process of industrial development began. These
attributes, in addition to the sheer magnitude of the size of the city puts her in a class of its own; and
compounded many of its problems (Mabogunje, 1968; and Barnes, 1986).
Table 1. Local Government Areas of Lagos Metropolitan Area, Population, and Land Use
Local Government
Areas
Agege
Ajeromi-Ifelodun
Alimosho
Amuwo Odofin
Apapa
Eti-Osa
Ifako Ijaiye
Ikeja
Kosofe
Lagos Island
Lagos Mainland
Mushin
Ojo
Oshodi-Isolo
Somolu
Surulere
Metropolitan Area
Land Area
(Km2)
12.2
12.3
185.2
134.6
26.7
192.3
26.6
46.2
81.4
8.7
19.5
17.5
158.2
44.8
11.6
23.0
999.6
Population
(2006 Census)
459,939
684,105
1,277,714
318,166
217,362
287,785
427,878
313,196
665,393
209,437
317,720
633,009
598,071
621,508
402,673
503,975
7,937,932
Population
Density/ km2
41,671
55,474
6,899
2,364
8153
1,496
16,076
6,785
8,174
24,182
16,322
36,213
3,781
13,886
34,862
21,912
7,941
Major Land Use
Residential/ Agricultural
Residential/ Industrial
Residential/ Industrial
Transport/ Industrial
Residential/ Commercial
Commercial/ Industrial
Commercial/ Residential
Residential/ Commercial
Residential/ Commercial/ Industrial
Commercial/ Industrial/ Educational
Industrial/ Commercial
Residential/ Commercial/ Educational
Residential/ Commercial/ Educational
Industrial/ Commercial/
Transportation/ Education/ Residential
Source: National Population Commission Abuja; and Field Survey.
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Aderogba
The location is highly favourably capitalizing on vast resources of Nigeria and West Africa as a whole. Table
I shows the local government areas, area extent, and the population densities of the local government areas
that make-up the metropolis. She has a population of 7.937 million that is unevenly distributed over 999.6
km2 of the land area. Ikeja, the state capital, is also located within the Metropolis. Figure 1 shows the growth
of the metropolis between 1900 and the present day.
Figure 1. Map of Lagos showing growth of the Metropolis
Most of the Nigerian’s corporations chose to have their headquarters located within the Metropolis. Also,
apart from being the administrative headquarters of the 16 Local Government Areas that make-up the
metropolis, she was the capital of Nigeria until 1991 when the political power was moved to Abuja.
Manufacturing, transportation, port activities, commerce, recreation and other hospitality activities,
construction, reconstruction, renovation and related activities and others are highest probably more than in
any African city. All of these have implications for the environment.
Today, Lagos metropolis stands as the commercial and financial centre of Nigeria and by extension, of West
Africa; a major educational centre, ”a onetime best Nigerian city, best supplied with urban infrastructure
such as potable water, road network and railway, electricity and employment opportunities,” (Emordi and
Osiki, 2008). All these transformed the city into a major focus of the urbanization process. The Guardian of
22nd February 1987: 64 remarked that Lagos was seen by rural people as:
“... place away from home. A place to catch up with the wind of change sweeping across the world, to
help wrestle the traditional gods of mud-huts, palm wine, cutlasses and hoes, and enthrone the western
one of skyscrapers, champagne, and tractors...”.
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 139-153
Even more recently, that is, over two and a half decades after, the same paper describes Lagos as:
... Great and beautiful, a heaven on earth endowed with everything and lacking nothing; a place where
life is nothing but enjoyment: and a land of opportunities where jobs are provided and where fortunes
are made easily...
Guardian 23 April, 2003: 17
Inspite of these, the metropolis is not without its challenges, noticed and/ or unnoticed by the residents and
governments. Lagos would have been living in its past glory if not for the current government that is
magnanimously embarking on concerted efforts of renovation, construction and reconstruction, resuscitation
and introduction of policies and programmes, projects and others to bring back the old glory and build on it.
Painting a graphic of slums in the metropolis, Socio-Economic Rights Initiatives (SRI) in 2006, a nongovernmental organization as quoted by Emordi and Osiki (2008) noted:
The houses are drab, dirty, and wrecking with unclean and decaying refuse. Water is scarce and must
therefore, be rationed, excreta disposal is inadequate with litters of human waste being a common
sight in a neighbourhood …. [There] are also inadequate drainage facilities with waste water forming
mini puddles within the compound where mosquitoes and insect vectors exercise their respective
potentials. The degree of environmental pollution emanating from such high level of squalor can be
imagined by realizing that epidemics of cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery are frequent occurrence.
Vanguard, September 18, 2006:42
They went further to assert that despite the relative urbanized nature of the metropolis and its modernity, it
exhibits all the characteristics of a villagised city accommodating a large number of slum areas.
Recent literature on ozone layer, global warming, and climate change were read, and so also those on urban
land use, pollutants and pollutions. Newspaper cuttings were read. Reports, communiqués and/ or
proceedings of conferences, workshops and seminars on ozone layer and depletion, global warming, climate
change and acid rain were perused. See the Appendix. The Appendix shows the developments in the study of
Acid Rain between 1954 and 2002, (Cowling 1982 and Driscoll and Lawrence 2001). The researcher listened
to television and radio documentaries on climate change, global warming and depleting ozone layer. Data/
information derived from these sources is significantly represented in this work. Empirical investigations
were carried out particularly on air and rain water. Data on weather elements were obtained from the Federal
Meteorological Station, Oshodi. But emphases were on temperature, rainfall, Relative Humidity and
particulates in the air.
In April, August and December 2010, as it was in the last five years before then, rain water was collected in
12 designated locations and analysed to ascertain the composition of the water particularly as acid rain was
speculated. Federal Ministry of Environment, Lagos Office and Federal Environmental Protection Agency
were visited and so also the State Ministries of Environment and Physical Planning. Documents/ records
were perused; and a director each from each of the Ministries and agency visited was interviewed. They
responded to questions on pollution, pollutants, controls and challenges. Areas of concern were enumerated
and suggestions for adaptation to effects of global warming were made.
Familiarization tours of the different suburbs of the metropolis and the rural suburbs were carried out in two
months – March and April, 2009. During the period, the researcher came to understand the different land use,
predominant human activities, and types of industrial processes, rural activities, productions and resultant
effluents.
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3.
Aderogba
Results
Inclement warmth
Table 2. shows the variance from the established average monthly readings of temperature, rainfall and
Relative Humidity. There is no noticeable variation shown for the five years of rainfall in the months of
January, February and December. November shows a negative of 0.01mm. Other months of the year show
positive variations. The least are 0.11 mm and 0.12 mm in March and April. It is as high as 1.10 mm in June;
and 0.91 mm, 0.94 mm, 0.82mm, 0.61 mm and 0.68mm in the months of May, July, August, September and
October respectively. The mean variation is 0.44 mm.
Table 2. Average weather (climate) variability – Rainfall, temperature and humidity
Months
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Mean
Rainfall (mm)
0.00
0.00
0.11
0.12
0.91
1.10
0.94
0.87
0.61
0.68
-0.01
0.00
0.44
Temperature (oC)
+ 0.4
+ 0.4
+ 0.8
+ 0.6
+ 0.2
0.0
0.0
+ 0.1
+ 0.1
+ 0.2
+ 0.2
+ 0.4
+0.3
Relative Humidity (%)
+1.1
+1.3
+1.6
+3.1
+4.2
+4.8
+4.2
+4.2
+4.1
+4.1
+3.8
+3.1
3.4
Source: Field Survey
Similarly, the temperature has shown some positive variations for every month except June and July only,
0.0oC. March experienced the highest, 0.8oC. January (0.4oC), February (0.4oC), and April (0.6oC) similarly
experience positive change from the established figures. The mean is 0.3oC. The mean Relative Humidity is
3.4%. There is no month with negative deviation. It is plus throughout. It is highest in June (4.8%), May
(4.2%), July (4.2%), August (4.1%) and October (4.1%). It is lowest only in January, February and March,
1.1%, 1.3% and 1.6% respectively; Table II. More importantly, the August break is no longer obvious in the
month of August; and neither do the double maxima noticeable.
Furthermore, Table 3. shows average change observed in elements of weather and composition of air around
a landfill. The elements noted include cloud cover, temperature, air pressure, wind direction and speed,
rainfall, sun illumination, organic bacteria, ionization (total) and others. There have been remarkable
changes. Cloud covers increase by 2.6%, temperature by 1.7%, air pressure by 1.1%, and Relative Humidity
by 4.8%. Wind speed decreased by -2 - -3%, visibility by -20 - -30%; organic bacteria is 75- 145 times more,
nuclei solid is 41 times more and ionization (total) is 8-16 times more. Wind direction and rainfall do not
show any noticeable change, but wind speed reduced by -2 - -3%.
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 139-153
Table 3. Average Change in Elements of Micro-Climate Around a Landfill.
Element
Cloud Cover
Temperature
Air Pressure
Relative Humidity
Wind Direction
Wind Speed
Visibility
Radiation Intensity
Rainfall
Illumination
Gaseous (SO+) Pollutant
Nuclei Solid
Solid Dust
Organic Bacteria
Ionization (Total)
Others
Average Change
2.6%
1.7%
-1.1%
4-8%
Unnoticeable
-2- - 3%
-20 - -30%
-17- -25%
Unnoticeable
-12 - -50%
10-30%
41 times
35 times
75-145 times
8-16 times
8-20 times
Source: Filed Survey
Though these variations appear localized to the dumpsite and immediate surroundings, there seemed to be
similar situations round the year and at least for average radius of 50 - 100 meter for each of the several
massive landfills in the metropolis.
Again concentrations of particulates and sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the dry air, on the average, were found to
be 135 ug/ m3 and 171 ug/ m3, respectively. Highest concentrations of particulate were found at Amukoko,
Ajegunle, Surulere, Oshodi and Ikeja with 148 ug/ m3, 144ug/ m3, 140 ug/ m3, 151 ug/ m3 and 154ug/ m3
respectively. It is lowest at Ikoyi (94 ug/ m3), Lagos Island (108 ug/ m3), Ajah (131 ug/ m3) and Victoria
Island (98 ug/ m3). Similarly, the Sulphur dioxide concentration is lowest, less than 150 ug/ m3 at Agege
(148 ug/ m3), Ebute Meta (142 ug/ m3), Ikoyi (119 ug/ m3), Lagos Island (129 ug/ m3) and Victoria Island
(128 ug/ m3). It is as high as 201 ug/ m3 at Oshodi, 211 ug/ m3 at Yaba, and 281 ug/ m3 at Ikeja. These
conditions are favourable for formation of water droplets and acid rains, (Seinfeld, et al, 1998; Walther, et al,
2002; and Wikipedia 2002). Both particulates and SO2 are highest along road transport routes, (Akanni,
2010).
Table 4. Typical concentrations of particulates and SO2 in the atmosphere
Community
Amukoko
Ajegunle
Itire
Agege
Surelere
Ebute meta
Oshodi
Ikoyi
Yaba
Ikeja
Ketu
Maryland
Mushin
Egbeda
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Particle Concentration ug/ m3
148
144
127
138
140
132
151
94
139
154
138
126
131
128
SO2 Concentration ug/ m3
166
201
158
148
204
142
310
119
211
281
188
169
158
181
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 139-153
Community
Isolo
Alapere
Lagos Island
Ajah
Shomolu
Victoria Island
Bariga
Average
Particle Concentration ug/ m3
129
131
108
91
134
98
131
135
Aderogba
SO2 Concentration ug/ m3
171
188
129
131
182
128
161
171
Source: Field Survey/ Federal Environmental Protective Agency, Lagos Office.
Acid Rain
Occasional pH readings in rain fog and dew water of below 5.8 were observed for industrialized Ikeja (5.1),
Ilupeju (6.2), Mushin (5.7), Isolo (6.1) and Apapa (5.2) industrial axis of the metropolis, leading to industrial
acid rain. Table 5. Combustion of fuels creates sulphur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into
sulphuric acid and nitric acid (Berresheim, et al, 1995): In the gas phase, sulphur dioxide is oxidized by
reaction with the hydroxyl radicals via an intermolecular reaction thus:
Table 5. Locations and dew/ fog/ rain water with their pH readings
Locations
Ikeja
Ilupeju
Mushin
Isolo
Apapa
pH Readings
5.1
6.2
5.7
6.1
5.2
Source: Field Survey
SO2 + OH
HOSO2.
This is followed by:
HOSO2. + O2
HO2 + SO3
In the presences of water, sulphur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulphuric acid
SO3(g) + H2O(l)
H2SO4(l)
When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 appears to be faster than can be explained by gas phase
chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets, (Likens, Discoll and Buso, Mitchel,
Lovett, Bailay, Siccama, Reiner and Alewell 2002). There are hydrolyses reactions – sulphur dioxide
dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions follows:
SO2(g) + H2O
SO2.H2O
SO2. H2O
H+ + HSO3-
Large volumes of traffic, electricity generating plants and facilities, wastes generated from different sources,
pollutants and pollutions of the air, water and land, landfills, poor management and others resulted in the
presence of these oxides, particulates and the reactions, (Akanni, 2010; Ogunnowo and Aderogba, 2006; and
Emordi and Osiki, 2008). Other noticeable changes are found in the:
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 139-153
Total amount of rainfall per annum that is slightly increased but the spread per year and intensities have
reduced, and other forms of precipitation have reduced; and
Cloud covers appear to have increased
.
4.
Discussion
The foregoing has shown drastic departure from the known weather elements and characteristic components
of normal air at normal temperature and pressure: inclement warmth and acid rain are becoming obvious.
Specifically, there are various symptoms and behaviours of man and other life forms exhibiting these:
Animals and birds prefer to stay more under shades, look for and drink more water;
Human being complain more about heat, drink more, and preferably cool drinks;
Umbrella and sunshades are becoming more popular and useful;
Residents request for more ventilations in their new buildings, and offices while old structures are being
renovated to provide for more and better ventilations;
Though no electricity from national grids to effect cooling of houses and offices, residents were forced
by circumstances to buy electricity generating plants and facilities to fan/ cool their offices, houses and
drinks;
There have been unbearable stifling humidity that pervaded the atmosphere for weeks and the dense
haze has been producing uncomfortable heat and dust in the months of dry seasons;
Both days and nights are extremely very hot and the temperature becomes inclement- this is particularly
unbearable during hot seasons - December to April. The extreme inclement warmth in March/ April of
2010 is what Lagos residents are yet to come to terms with;
Early rains are more acidic and turbid – wearing dull appearances;
Sachet water (pure water) is now very common and it is taken sporadically and frequently by travellers
and traders at parks, markets and business centres;
Children now play more with water than they do with sand.
Relatively, residents of the metropolis now patronise beaches, restaurants and bars more often to cool
off from the hot days and inclement warms of offices and homes;
Relatively, more drinks, bear, stout, beverages, soft drinks, chocolates drinks and others are sold and
consumed more than ever before; and
Heat related ailments/ diseases are reported more often in hospitals for children, adults and aged;
Some plant species are going into extinction, others are now emerging and aquatic ecosystems are
assuming terrestrial attributes.
The suspected elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH) caused by the emission of compounds of ammonia,
carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur react with water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acid; and acid rain “acid deposition,” (Likens, et al, 1996; and Dinrinfor, et al, 2010).
The smoke stacks, and exhausts of electricity generating plants spew out basic ingredients of acid rain
namely sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These are suspected to have combined with water
vapour in the atmosphere and return to the earth’s surface in the form of acid rain. This has been taking place
for a number of years, but little or nothing has been done about it. The problem is becoming graver.
Incidentally, winds carry the acid rain pollutants for long distances, and the pollutants emitted from one
community travel to cause serious arm to other communities far away from the source of emission.
There were fears and pandemonium about acid rain all over the metropolis (and in the entire country)
probably as a result of all of these observations and the fallout of e-mails and text messages sent to
individuals by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), warning of an impending acid
rain that read thus:
There is a possibility of acid rain. The dark circle appeared around the moon on March 17 and this was
an indication of an acid rain. Apparently, this happen once in 750 years. It rains like normal rain, but it
may cause skin cancer if you expose yourself to it. This is coming from NASA, warn your family and
friends.
www.insikapub.com
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Aderogba
The acid rain has gradual adverse impacts on forests, fresh water and soils, killing insects and aquatic life
forms as well as causing damages to buildings, historical monuments (especially those made of lime stones,
marble or other rocks containing large amount of calcium carbonate) and having impact on human health,
(Bernessheim, et al, 1995; and Weathers and Likens, 2006).
Wet deposition of acids have been occurring when any form of precipitation (rain, dew and fog) removes
acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the earth surface, on plants, buildings, rocks, and on man and
animals. These result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops or by precipitation removing the
acids either in clouds or below clouds. “Wet removal of both gases and aerosol are both of importance for
wet deposition,” (Seinfeld and Pandis, 1995). Those that occur via dry deposition in the absence of
precipitation were formed as a result of particulates and gas sticking to the ground, plants, building roofs,
crops and other surfaces.
Though unconscious of the magnitude, it is already a threat to lives and property. In the weeks of 28th March,
2010, there were threats of rain and there were frenzied outburst made by residents as they dash in different
directions following the shower that fell in various parts of the metropolis- Ogba, Agege, Mafolukun, Oshidi,
Ijesha, Mushin and a few other suburbs. Within the few minutes of the light shower, all hell broke loose as
people scampered from what they feared and earlier been announced as acid rain:
Comot for road, comot for road this rain no go meet me for here! E no go touch my body! I no won die
for Lagos under acid rain: ... acid rain! I cannot afford to die in Lagos through this rain. My people dey
expect me at home ... Oh! No! acid rain... Mba ... God forbid acid rain ... hey...
The phenomena of inclement warmth must be addressed. Emission of oxides and particulates that are
impetus (ingredients) to acid rain must be reduced to zero. These are necessary because the inclement
warmth is undesirable, makes lives uncomfortable and more expensive; and the effects of acid rain can last
for generations.
For adaptability and sustainable growth and development
Lagos metropolis, in all ramifications, is significant to Nigeria, Nigerians and of course, to the world of
commerce and industry. Therefore sustainability of the physical environment must be ensured:
drastic and cogent measures must be taken to ensure that electricity is readily available and cheaper for
urban dwellers to enable them cool their houses, offices, indoor recreation centres (towards adaptation)
and to prevent heat related diseases such as stroke and measles and for other uses;
The design and construction of buildings for both commercial and residential purposes must take
cognisance of inclement warmth;
Though the state government has embarked on tree planting, this should be intensified, encouraged and
supported by all tiers of government, individuals, corporate bodies and philanthropies. The government
could institute a programme to be titled “A Family, a Tree Project;”
Water is life, sanitation is dignity: there must be concerted efforts to make potable water readily
available for cooling, bathing, washing, drinking, recreation and production processes; and for sanitation
so as not to compound the inclement warmth and likely associated ailments and diseases;
Industrial, vehicular and domestic activities giving rise to air pollutants and pollutions, depleting ozone
layer and also resulting in acid rain must be further comprehensively studied towards reducing it from
sources. The developed world is targeting zero emission, Lagos, and of course Nigeria, should join the
raise.
Following from above, Nigeria should pass a bill that will be very decisive on emission, and target zero
emission by 2015 while the existing Acts on Environment should be implement to the letter;
The resources for environmental sustainability should be given very serious priority and in turn;
Environmental education should be given high priority in schools’ curricular and at the adult and nonformal levels of education; and
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and certification of every project, be it government or nongovernmental, must be carried out without prejudice.
148
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Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 139-153
Above all, governments must make effort to reduce the production of oxides and particulate into the
atmosphere. Whatever could lead to acid rain within and around the metropolis need to be prevented as the
effects of acid rain can last for generations: The effects of pH level change can stimulate the continued
leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources; killing of vulnerable insects and
fishes; and blocking efforts to restore native life.
A number of international treaties on the long range transport of atmospheric pollutants have emerged and
agreed, for example, Sulphur Emission Reduction Protocol under the Convention on Long-Range Tran
boundary Air Pollution. Government of Nigeria and Metropolitan Lagos in particular, should apply to be part
of such bodies and their policies and programmes.
There are now emission trading. In the regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given, or may
purchase on an open market, an emission allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it emits.
Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of the emission allowance they no
longer need for their own operations, thereby recovering some of the capital cost of their investment in such
equipment. The intention will be to give operators economic incentives to install pollution controls.
5.
Conclusion
The foregoing has established that the metropolis has come a long way; and it is now a melting port of
nations. The various activities of man in the metropolis has given rise to pollutants that have aggravated the
effect of global warming noticeable and specifically result in inclement warmth and acid rains among others,
that are most worrisome during the dry seasons and early raining seasons respectively. With efforts towards
reducing the emission and other air pollutants, the incidence/ fear of acid rain should be allayed but the
Appendix shows efforts that had been made in respect of acid rain. Nigeria also needs to be futuristic about
urban activities that are producing ingredients for acid rain.
But for sustainable environment, and if the metropolis in particular and Nigeria as a whole is going to benefit
from the Millennium Development Goals, every stakeholder must rise against global warming where and
when necessary and harness its benefits to the fullest. Also research and development should be intensified
and focused on global warming and its effects. Nigeria and Nigerians should also be identified with ozone
recovery.
References
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city development: Opportunities and challenges. Paper presented at the FIG Congress 210 Facing the
Challenges. Building the Capacity. Sydney, Australia 11-16 April 2010.
Akanni, C. O. (2010). Spatial and seasonal analysis of traffic related pollutant concentration in Lagos
Metropolis, Nigerian. African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 5 No. 11 pp 1264 – 1272
American. Environmental Protection Agency. (2008). Clean Air Market 2008 Highlight. New York:
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Barnett, T. P.; Adam, Y. C. and Lattenmaier, C. (2005). Potential impact of a warming climate on water
availability in snow dominated regions Nature No 438 pp. 303 – 309 (November).
Berresheiin, H., Wine, P. H. and Davies, D. D. (1995). Sulphure in the atmosphere in H. B. Singh (Ed.)
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Brian, D. (2004). Climate change, ozone depletion and the impact of ultraviolet (UV) exposure on human
skin. Physics in Medicine and Biology 49 RI – RII.
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Barnes, S. T., (1986). Patrons and Power: Creating a Political Economy in Metropolitan Lagos. London:
Manchester University Press.
Barnett, T. P., Adam, Y. C. and Lattermaier, C. (2008). Potential impact of a warm climate on water
availability in a snow dominated region. Nature No 438 pp 303 -309 (November).
Cowling, E. B. (1982). Acid precipitation in historical perspective. Environmental Science and Technology
Vol. 16 No 2 pp 110 A – 21 A
Cox, P. M., Betts, R. A., Jones, C. D., Spall, S. A. and Tortterdell, I. J. (2000). Acceleration of global
warming due to carbon cycle feedback in a coupled climate model. Nature No 408.
Dinrinfor, R. R. Babatunde, S.O.E. Bankole Y.O. and Demu, Q.A. (2010). Pyssio – Chemical properties of
rain water collected from some industrial area of Lagos State, Nigeria. European Journal of
Scientific Research Vol. 41 No 3 pp. 383 – 390.
Driscoll, C. T. Lawrence G. B. (2001). Acidic deposition in the north-eastern US; sources and inputs,
ecosystem effects, and management. Bioscience No 51 pp. 80 91.
Dow, K. and Downing, T. E. (2007). The Atlas of Climate Change: Mapping the World’s Greatest
Challenge. Brighton: Earthscan, pp. 19-26.
Emordi, E. C. and Osiki, O. M. (2008). Lagos: The “villagized” city. Information society and justice. Vol. 2
No 1 December, pp. 95 – 109.
Fahey, D. W. (2007). Twenty questions and answers about the ozone layer: 2006 update. Communiqué of the
update of scientist that attended the panel review meeting for the 2006 ozone assessment (Les
Diablerets, Switzerland. (19 – 23 June, 2006). Question nos 1, 5, 6, 9 and 10.
Hansen, J., Schnitzler, K. G., Strassmann, K., Doncey, S. and Roecknor, K. G. (2007). Climate change and
trace gases Phil. Trans Roy. Soc. A 365: 1925 – 1954.
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impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contributions of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment
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Punch by Executive Secretary of World Congress on Climate Change (Monday July 5) p. 48.
Likens, G. E, Driscoll, C. T., and Buso, D. C. (1996). Long –term effects of acid rain response and recovery
of a forest ecosystem. Science No 272 pp 244 – 246.
Likens, G. E., Driscoll, C. T, Buso, D. C., Mitchel, M. J., Lovett, G. M., Bailay, S. W., Siccama, T. G.,
Reiner W. A. and Alewell, C. (2002). The Biochemistry of Sulphur at Hubband Brook. Biochemistry
Vol. 60 No 3 pp. 235 – 216.
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National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA). (2010). Acid rain message/ mail sent to citizens of
Lagos Metropolis alerting them of impending Acid Rain (March 21-26).
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Commission.
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and Looking to the Future: A Primer. New York: NYSERDA.
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Aderogba
APPENDIX
Developments in the Study of Acid Rain
1954-61 Gorham demonstrates the acidity in precipitation markedly influences geological weathering
process and the chemistry of soils.
1963
Gordon and Gorham describe serious damage to vegetation downwind of an iron sintering plant.
They categorize the damage as ranging “very serious” (reddened needles and crown thinning of
hardwoods).
1968
Oden describes biological uptake and ion-exchange process whereby the natural acidification of
soils would be accelerated by the atmospheric deposition of ammonia and other cautions. Acidity
in precipitation is postulated as the probable cause of impoverished forest soils decreased forest
growth, increased disease in plants, and other effects.
1972
Jonsson and Sundberg establish an experimental basis for the suspicion that acidic precipitation had
decreased the growth of forests in Sweden. Overrein demonstrates accelerated loss of calcium and
other cations from soils receiving acid precipitation. Likens documents the problem of acid
deposition and its effects in North America.
1973
Wiklander proposes a general theory to account for the effects of acid precipitation on soil
chemical properties.
1974
Shriner demonstrates that simulated rain that is acidified with sulfuric acid can accelerate erosion
of the protective waxes on leaves, inhibit nodulation of leguminous plants, and alter plants' hostpathogen interactions.
1976
Schofield's work shows a decline in fish populations in the lakes of New York's Adirondack
Mountains.
1979
Cronan and Schofield discover that aluminum ions in soils are leached by acid precipitation into
streams and lakes in concentrations that are toxic to fish.
1980
Abrahamson determines that the negative effects of acid deposition on growth are most likely to
occur when it increases nutrient imbalances or deficiencies.
Ulrich demonstrates a significant correlation between the amount of soluble aluminum in forest
soils, the death of feeder roots in spruce, fir, and birch forests, and widespread decline in the
growth of these forests.
1981
The National Academy of Sciences notes that while the effects on soils, forests, and plants have not
been proven, "long-term permanent damage to the ecosystem may result" from the leaching out of
necessary nutrients.
1982
Siccama et al. describe the decline of red spruce on Camel's Hump in Vermont, noting foliar injury
similar to drought under conditions of ample water availability. Nearly half of the large canopy red
spruce died over an 18-year period.
Vogelmann points out that the aluminum present in soil water at Camel's Hump could be
responsible for the lack of water uptake through roots. He also reports a 15% - 30% decline in the
basal area of sugar maple and beech since 1965 on Camel's Hump.
1983
The President's Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) panel asserts that it is "especially
concerned" about the deleterious effects of acidity on soils.
Johnson and Siccama report high mortality among red spruce in New York, Vermont, and New
Hampshire, which they attribute to synergistic effects of acid deposition and drought.
1984
Johnson et al. document a correspondence between incidents of highly acidic cloud water and red
spruce winter injury in the Adirondacks and Green Mountains.
1988
Shortle and Smith identify aluminum-induced calcium deficiency in soils and its association with
fine-root dysfunction.
152
Aderogba
1989
Vol 01, No. 01, July 2012, pp. 139-153
Nilsson and Grennfelt define critical loads of sulfur and nitrogen as levels below which harmful
effects on sensitive elements of the environment are not expected to occur.
Based on critical analysis of available information, the NAP AP forecasts that up to 30% of
southern forest soils would show major changes in soil chemistry within the next 50 years.
Aber et al. introduce the possibility that atmospheric inputs of nitrogen could exceed vegetation
demand in the Northeast, with possible negative effects on forest productivity.
1991
Craig and Friedland quantify forest decline in the White Mountains to be ~25%.
1993
DeVries determines critical loads of sulfur and nitrogen for acidification of watersheds in the
Netherlands.
1995
Cronan and Grigal determine that Ca:Al ratios < 1 in the soil correspond to a greater than 50%
probability of impaired growth in red spruce.
1996
Likens et al. quantify the loss of available calcium from the ecosystem at Hubbard Brook, NY,
finding that ~50% has been leached out by acid rain over the preceding 50 years.
1997
Long et al. find that liming significantly increases sugar maple growth and flower and seed crops,
increases exchangeable base cations, and decreases exchangeable aluminum in soil.
1999
DeHayes et al. describe the mechanism for tree decline associated with acid deposition, including
the loss of membrane-associated calcium in foliage.
Horsley et al. find that dieback of sugar maple at 19 sites in PA and NY is correlated with a
combination of defoliation and deficiencies of magnesium and calcium.
2001
Driscoll et al. predict that even reductions greater than 50% of SO2 and NOx emissions from electric
utilities would not restore soil chemistry to critical thresholds at sensitive sites for decades. They
cite the slow rate of base generation from mineral soil and the accumulation of sulfur and nitrogen
in soils as causes for the protracted recovery.
2002
Watmough and Dillon use a "critical loads" approach to estimate that sulfate deposition would have
to be reduced by 37% - 92% in watersheds that are harvested in order to maintain ANC above
critical levels in Ontario.
Sources:
Cowing, E. B. (1982). Acid precipitation in historical perspective. Environmental Science and
Technology. Vol. 16 No 2 pp110A-21A; and Driscoll, C. T. and Lawrence, G. B. 2001. Acidic
Deposition in the northeastern US: Sources and inputs, ecosystem effects, and management
strategies. Bioscience No 51; pp. 180-98.
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