Compiled Student Research

Transcription

Compiled Student Research from
The Lewis Deane Nature Preserve
2005-2007
Green Mountain College
One Brennan Circle
Poultney, Vermont 05764
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Preface:
This document is an attempt to increase the visibility and accessibility of student
research on the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve, an 85-acre preserve owned by Green
Mountain College, on the slopes of Mount St. Catherine in Poultney and Wells, Vermont.
These documents are final reports from independent studies, senior capstone projects,
class projects, and summer research positions. These documents represent not only highquality student work, but also—and perhaps more importantly—they represent a
significant portion of our current knowledge of the Deane Preserve. They inform us about
the ecosystems on the preserve and the impacts of human use on the preserve; they
provide a baseline of what is known about the preserve. They also indicate gaps in our
knowledge, suggest areas for future student research, and give a base for future research
to build upon. As such, they are invaluable to both students and faculty.
For the most part, I have not changed or edited these works, instead choosing to
leave them as written. For a couple of these documents, only a single hard copy was in
existence. These were scanned into electronic files for this compilation. While most of
these documents already included internal page numbers, I have added page numbers for
the entire document to the bottom center of each page. Each new document is also
prefaced by a bordered title page; I hope that these measures will aid the reader in finding
the document in question. For my own part, I’ve tracked these documents down, and
present them here, as part of my own senior study project.
The Deane Preserve is a fantastic asset to the college, full of potential, for both
research and recreation. Get out. Use it. Enjoy it.
--Ruth Larkin
April 22, 2010
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Contents:
1. “Endless Brook Preserve Management Plan” by Adam Adorisio, Senior Study Project,
pages 6-84
2. “Forest History of Deane Preserve, Plot 3” by Shannon Bonney, Claire Davis, Corinna
Lowe, and Kyle Reid, Ecology Class Project, pages 85-98
3. “Pteridophyte Distribution at Endless Brook Preserve” by Megan Nugent, Independent
Study, pages 99-139
4. “A Spatially Explicit Study of the Environmental Influence on Beech Bark Disease” by
Robin Sleith and Dr. Natalie Coe, Honors Thesis, pages 140-161
5. “Deane Nature Preserve Wildlife Inventory Assessment” by Adam Adorisio,
Independent Study, pages 162-177
6. “Establishing Baseline Resource Impact Data for Trail Conditions at the Deane Nature
Preserve: A Sustainable Recreation Research Project” by Jim Harding and Jenna Calvi,
Trustees’ Research Project, pages 178-210
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1. Endless Brook Preserve
Management Plan
by Adam Adorisio
Progressive Program
Senior Study Project
James H. Graves
Faculty Senior Study Advisor
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About the Author:
Adam Adorisio, a member of the Progressive Program, completed a self-design major in
Forest Ecology and Management in 2007. Since then, Adam has worked as a free-lance
forester, creating forest management plans and completing stand inventories throughout
Vermont. In addition to his free-lance work, Adam has worked for three years as a logger
and forester for Fortek, Inc, a company based in Pawlet, Vermont.
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2. Forest History of the
Deane Preserve, Plot 3
by Shannon Bonney, Claire Davis,
Corinna Lowe, and Kyle Reid
Ecology Class Project
James H. Graves
Course Instructor
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Forest History of Deane Preserve Plot 3
By:
Shannon Bonney
Claire Davis
Corinna Lowe
Kyle Reid
Ecology- Bio2025
December 4, 2006
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Introduction
As one walks through plot 3 of Deane Nature Preserve she or he will notice an abundance of Hemlocks, sparse
saplings and little tree diversity. The goal of the completed tree coring was to create a forest history. There are
two questions shaping the goal. What stage of succession is plot 3 in, given the limited amount of data available
for analysis? Does weather relate to the size of the tree rings? We hypothesized that plot three is a second
growth post-disturbance, Hemlock Forest in mid-succession and that weather is impacting the size of the tree
rings. The significance of this study is the correlation, if one is found between tree ring data, weather data and
oral history. This study will also contribute to the body of knowledge concerning the correlation of tree rings
and forest history and more specifically continue to build our understanding of Deane Nature Preserve.
The plot’s most abundant tree species, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), can live up to 800 years old,
reaching maturity around 250-300 years. Ideal temperature for Tsuga canadensis is 10-60 degrees Fahrenheit
varying for the tree’s specific location in the native range. The northern part of the eastern hemlocks range has
about 80 frost-free days while the southern section has about 200. Hemlocks require a mildly acidic soil to
establish in, and the soil increases in acidity as the species becomes more dominate (Godman and Lancaster).
Hemlock growth is “generally restricted to
regions with cool humid climates… a moist
warm site is ideal for establishment,” (Godman
and Lancaster) while their continued
establishment and dense overstory emphasizes
the cool humid climate to a degree that actually
creates a microclimate. The heavy slowly
decomposing litter encourages leaching,
therefore increased acidity of the soil
(Godman and Lancaster).
Hemlock seed has very low viability with less
than 25% germination capacity. A study
conducted by the Northern Hardwood
Laboratory, found that out of the seeds of one
cone, 2.1 were viable, 2.2 were destroyed by
insects and the remaining 8 were empty
Map 1: Habibtate for Easstern Hemlock <http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch>
(Godman and Lancaster).
The ideal temperature for hemlock seed germination is 59 degrees Fahrenheit; this ideal temperature has less
variance than the required temperature for other species in its genus. Mature seeds are partially dormant and
require stratification or exposure to sunlight to complete germination. Other factors that can decrease the
number of hemlock saplings are numerous: fungi, insect, white tail deer, rodents, and fire. Hemlock hardiness is
evident in the species survival during very extreme weather conditions, which is demonstrated by the number of
tree rings that can be absent during suppression (Godman and Lancaster).
Another tree species found on plot three is the Northern Red Oak. Its natural habitat ranges from Nova Scotia
to Alabama. The acidity of soil for Quercus rubra L can range from a pH of 4.3-6.5, while moisture ranges 3280 inches of rain. According to Sander, in his account of the “Northern Red Oak”, light intensity appears to be
the most critical factor affecting not only first year survival, but also survival and growth in subsequent years.
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Red Maple grows from the tip of Nova Scotia to Florida and eastern Texas and has the widest climate variation
tolerance according to Walters and Yawney. The climate the Red Maple can live in is limited by cold
temperatures in the north, negative 40 degrees Fahrenheit and lack of precipitation in the west. Not many new
seedlings can survive under a closed forest canopy, (Walters).
Chestnut Oak ranges from southwest Maine to central Alabama. This species is most commonly found on
slopes with well drained soils that are conducive to a quick decomposing soil. Seedling germination can be
postponed if temperatures drop below 61 degrees F. In the Appalachian region, Chestnut Oak typically occupies
intermediate to poor sites where it is considered to be the physiographic climax (McQuilkin).
White Oak ranges from Maine to Florida and Georgia. It endures a wide range of temperature variation in its
large climate from - 50 degrees Fahrenheit in Wisconsin to 70 degrees in its average high temperature. The
major site factors influencing White Oak growth are latitude, aspect, and topography (Rodgers). White Oak can
produce seeds prolifically, but good acorn crops are irregular and occur only every four to ten years (Rogers).
Methods
Field Methods
Our study area was plot 3, in the Deane Nature Preserve on the east slope of St. Catherine Mountain, and a
north-south running ridge east of Lake St. Catherine. Plot 3 was .04 (ha); the radius was roughly 11.3 meters.
Data used in this observational study included data from past labs conducted by Jim Grave’s 2004 Ecology
class. The 2004 ecology class established and staked out permanent plot 3. The stake in the center of the plot
was there upon arrival so the area was set up for continuing research, and data collection. By assessing the area,
it became apparent that the thick canopy cover has prevented widespread ground vegetation; the few plants that
were established there are low laying woody plants. The trees that were cored in the plot were mostly Eastern
Hemlock, however a few Northern Red Oak, Red Maple, White Oak, Chestnut Oak were also cored.
We used data from roughly 120 trees from 2004 and 2006 coring. The tool used to remove tree cores was an
increment borer. After core was removed we carefully placed it into a straw, marked the straw, and recorded
information regarding species, tag number, and diameter. Diameter was measured at breast height (1.3m) for
consistent results. All trees were tagged and diameter was measured, however those trees less than 5 to 6cm
were not cored. The smaller trees were tagged by wrapping metal wire around the tree rather than nailing the
tag in place.
The historic environmental factors that may have affected these tree or tree rings are: a tent caterpillar
infestation in 1945, a surface fire in 48 as well as others during the 40’s, a strong hurricane in 51, extreme cold
for long period of time in 60, a warm winter in the 80’s, and then alternating extreme cold to warm winters in
the 1990’s. There is also evidence of logging until recently and remnants of an apple orchard.
Lab Methods
To allow these cores to dry, we removed them from the straws and stored at room temperature. Once dried,
cores were glued each core to a core mounting board, with white glue, being careful to leave the cores in the
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correct order they were taken from the tree. If a core was curved we gently broke it and glued it strait in proper
order. We wrote the proper tree number next to the core on the board. After the glue dried, we gently sanded
the top part of cores to make the annual rings easier to see. We counted rings with the aid of dissecting
microscopes.
Doing the best we could without the proper tools we counted, and recounted the tree rings on the cores from
plot 3. However, since we do not have the necessary tools to get down to the cellular and molecular level, we
do not have completely accurate data. On account of false rings and locally absent rings, it is difficult to nearly
impossible to get accurate data by only using the human eye. There are other tools (e.g. microdensitometer)
that are necessary to count correctly to find these absent or false rings, which you either can not see at all or
look like all the other rings. Based upon inadequate equipment our age estimates are at most educated guesses.
Results
Succession
Tree cores were collected during the years of 2004 and 2006. Only cores with both a diameter at breast height
(DBH) and an estimated age were utilized. The original sample pool included 158 cores. Out of these cores only
120 met the criteria for analysis.
Species composition was composed primarily of Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Other tree species found
in plot three include Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus), Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra), White Oak (Quercus
alba), and Red Maple (Acer rubrum). See figures 1 and 2 for a summary of composition results.
Composition of tree species
104
120
100
80
104
100
60
40
10
20
0
3
1
2
Frequency
Frequency
120
Hardwood and Softwood Frequencies
80
60
40
16
20
Eastern
Hemlock
Chestnut
Oak
Northern Red Red Maple
Oak
White Oak
0
Softwood
Tree by species
Hardwood
Type of Tree
Figure 1 (left) is a histogram of all the tree species found in plot 3. Figure 2 (right) shows the ratio of hardwood to softwood in plot 3.
Softwood includes Eastern Hemlock and hardwood includes Chestnut Oak, Northern Red Oak, Red Maple, and White Oak.
Softwood, more specifically Eastern Hemlock, clearly dominates the stand, with more than six times the amount
of hardwood. In general plot three is almost entirely composed of Eastern Hemlock; it occurs more than 10
times as frequently as the next most abundant tree, Chestnut Oak. Based upon these composition results the
stand was labeled as a Hemlock Forest (Thompson & Sorenson 2005). This label was given because Hemlocks
compose more than 75% of the stand.
Determining ages for the trees based upon increment cores was more difficult. Data from 2004 was modified by
adding two years onto all of the estimated ages. Deriving ages for cores that missed the center was done by
estimating the amount of missing rings based upon the arch of the inner rings; this method has been utilized by
other researchers (Ziegler 2000). Broken cores were analyzed only if they appeared to contain all of the
segments; cores that were missing segments or were too fragmented to properly count were disregarded.
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Multiple counts were made for many of the cores; ages were defined as the average of all of the counts. Figure 3
is the age distribution of all the tree species found within plot 3.
Frequency
All Species Age Distribution
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 More
Age in decades
Figure 3- age distribution of all the tree species of plot 3 in 10 year increments
The most common age cohort was 70 years old, followed by 80 years and 60 years respectively. There is a lack
of tree older than 100 years of age (with 2 individual exceptions). Trees younger than 50 were uncommon based
upon the analyzed cores. This trend could be biased because many of the trees too small to be cored were likely
younger than 40 years of age. Caution is used in predicting the age of un-cored trees because diameter of
Hemlock trees is not necessarily correlated with age (Ziegler 2000). Hemlock trees with the same diameter can
vary up to 176 years (Ziegler 2000). Figures 4 & 5 display the age distribution for each species.
Hardwood Age Distribution
Eastern Hemlock Age Distribution
30
Frequency
Frequency
25
20
15
10
5
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 More
Age in decades
100 More
Age by decade
Red Maple
White Oak
Northern Red Oak
Chestnut Oak
Figure 4 (left) include the age distribution in decades for Eastern Hemlock. Figure 5 (right) includes age distribution in decades for all
of the Hardwood (Chestnut Oak, Northern Red Oak, White Oak, and Red Maple) analyzed in plot 3. The frequency scales are not
equal among the graphs.
Figures 4 & 5 show a few trends in age distribution. The Eastern Hemlocks are on average younger than the
hardwood (deciduous) trees. Out of the deciduous trees Chestnut Oak seem to be the oldest. This may be an
actual trend, or it may be sampling bias because Chestnut Oak was the second most abundant species. Northern
Red Oak has relatively the same age distribution than the Chestnut Oak, though was confined to a narrower
range. White Oak and Red Maple were the youngest of all the hardwood. Caution is again used with making
overarching generalizations about these two species because they were the least abundant, so the sample size is
too low for accuracy. The general trend of age distribution is primarily trees less than one century old, with
younger Eastern Hemlocks and older hardwoods.
Diameter was analyzed for the purpose of determining stage in succession. It was not analyzed to make any
assumptions of age. Figures 5 & 6 display the diameters of Hemlocks and hardwoods.
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Hardwood Diameters
Eastern Hemlock Diameters
4
Frequency
Frequency
20
15
10
5
3
2
1
0
6
0
6
7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Diameter (cm)
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Diameter (cm)
Chestnut Oak
Northern Red Oak
Red Maple
White Oak
Figure 5 (left) is the diameter of Hemlocks. Figure 6 (right) is the diameter of hardwoods (Chestnut Oak, Northern Red Oak, Red
Maple, and White Oak). Diameters were rounded to the nearest whole number. The frequency scales are not equal among the graphs.
The graphs illustrate a trend of smaller diameter among the Hemlock trees as compared to the hardwood trees.
No further correlations can be made on account of small sample size and an unreliable relationship between age
and diameter.
Tree Rings and Weather
Once the ring counts were completed, ten Eastern Hemlock cores were selected for climatic analysis. Only
cores that had intact rings for the last eleven years were used. Cores that were difficult to accurately measure
were also excluded. The last ten rings of each core were used for the weather analysis. In order to account for
physical differences in trees that the cores were taken from, a standardization method was used to make the ring
measurements relative to one another. Factors that necessitate a standardization method include: position in
relation to the canopy, amount of light, soil conditions such as nutrient absence or presence, and other local
environmental factors that were not able to be considered.
Average ring width for each core was estimated and then used in relation to five grades of ring width: 1-At least
half the average ring width, 2-Less than average ring width, 3-Average ring width, 4-Greater than average ring
width, 5-At least twice the average ring width. Standard grades for all ten hemlock cores were then averaged
for the years 1996 though 2006.(Table 1).
Eastern Hemlocks’ response to climatic variables was based upon a study conducted at the Boise-des-Muir
forest, southwestern Quebec. In the study, Eastern Hemlocks responded positively to higher temperatures
during the winter months; a negative response was noted in relation to high temperatures during the summer
(Tardiff and others 2001). A positive relationship was found between ring growth and high levels of
precipitation during the summer, while a negative relationship with high levels of precipitation occurred during
the winter (Tardiff and others 2001). Climatic data for the summer and winter months during the period from
1996-2006 was obtained from the National Climatic Data Center and was then compared against the average
standardized ring growth as well as observations from southwestern Quebec.
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Core#
#190
#179
#69
#253
#94
#299
#640
#634
#182
#185
Average
1996
3
1
5
5
5
2
5
5
4
2
1997
5
1
4
5
4
3
3
4
3
2
1998
3
1
4
4
4
3
4
5
2
2
1999
5
1
4
5
3
1
3
4
2
2
2000
4
1
4
5
4
2
4
5
4
2
2001
4
1
4
5
4
2
4
4
3
2
2002
3
1
3
4
3
1
3
4
2
2
3.7
3.4
3.2
3
3.5
3.3
2.6
2003
3
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1.8
2004
4
1
3
3
4
1
4
2
2
2
2005
5
1
4
5
4
2
5
4
3
2
2.6
2006
5
1
4
4
3
2
4
5
4
2
3.4
2.6
Table 1: 1-At least half of the average ring width, 2-Less than the average ring width, 3- Average ring width, 4- Greater than average
ring width, 5- At least twice the average ring width
Once standardized, Eastern Hemlock core data and climate data were compared to the findings of the
southeastern Quebec study. It became apparent that there is no strong evidence of an exact correlation between
ring growth and either temperature or precipitation. However, some of the weather data did reflect a few of the
relationships noted above. Many of the correlations appear minor and most of the findings seem contradictory.
Relatively high temperatures were recorded during the winters of 1998, 2002, and 2006 (figure 8). Standardized
Eastern Hemlock core data (Figure 7) show no exceptionally high levels of growth during these periods. Cooler
than average temperatures during the summers of 1997, and 2004 (Figure 9) do not relate to above average
growth, while cool temperatures during the summer of 2000 do seem to be reflected in the standardized core
data with a spike in average ring growth. Above average precipitation during the summer months of 1998, 2004
and 2006 (Figure 10) are not evident in standardized core data. The winters of 1997, 2001 and 2005 (Figure 11)
all had above average precipitation which directly contradicts the findings of the southern Quebec study.
The results of the ring width-climate comparison do not support the second hypothesis; it was thought that
climatic factors would correlate directly to Hemlock ring widths.
Average Standarized Ring Growth Of Hemlocks 1996-2006
Vermont December-February Mean Temperature (F) 1996-2006
27
26
25
4
Temperature (F)
Average Growth (standardized)
5
3
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
2
17
16
1
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
15
1996
2006
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Year
Year
Figure 7: This graph represents the averages of table 1
Figure 8- winter mean temperatures
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Vermont June-August Mean Temperature (F) 1996-2006
Vermont June-August Precipitation 1996-2006
20
69
19
18
Precipitation (Inches)
Tem perature (F)
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
1996
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Year
8
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Year
Figure 9- summer mean temperature trends
Figure 10- summer precipitation trends
Vermont December-February Precipitation 1996-2006
Precipitation (Inches)
11
10
9
8
7
6
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Year
Figure 11- winter precipitation trends
Discussion
Succession
One question of this study aims to understand the stage of succession of plot 3. It is hypothesized that plot 3 is a
second growth post-disturbance hardwood forest in mid-succession. The plot was labeled as a Hemlock Forest
based upon the criteria brought forth by Thompson and Sorenson (2006); it was composed of more than 75%
Eastern Hemlocks. This composition was shown in Figures 1 & 2.
The post-disturbance second growth status is derived from the work of Ziegler (2000) in Adirondack Park.
Ziegler (2000) found a few trends common to post-disturbance second growth forests among the HemlockNorthern Hardwood Forests in Adirondack Park. Second growth forests were found to have trees of smaller
diameters. The smallest of the second growth forests in Ziegler’s study had a maximum diameter at breast
height (DBH) of 51.3 cm (p. 379). The maximum DBH found in plot 3 was 24.9 cm (refer to figures 5 & 6).
This indicates a high likelihood of second growth status as defined by Ziegler. Other factors Ziegler (2000)
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found among second growth forests (e.g. low density of canopy trees, small canopy gaps, and low volumes of
coarse woody debris) were not applicable to our study because the associated data was not collected in the 2006
Deane Nature Preserve study.
According to Ziegler (2000) the most common disturbance that initiates second-growth forests in Adirondack
park were “stand-replacing crown fires” (p. 376) caused by the logging industry during the early part of the 20th
century (p. 374-376). It is unclear whether logging related fire disturbances were also responsible for the plot 3
stand initiation in the Deane Nature Preserve. Historical records provided were not detailed enough to make this
conclusion. There is evidence of surface fires in the general vicinity during the 1940’s; though it was unknown
if they affected plot 3 (Ecology Lab 2004). If the fires did spread to plot 3 there is little indication of this. The
fires occurred approximately 70 years ago. The majority of the trees present are around the age of 70. This does
seem to imply that many of the trees could have begun to grow following the fires. A large portion of the trees
predate the fires (Figure 3). Most of the trees that do predate the fires are hardwoods (Figure 5). It is possible
that the older trees lived through the fire; though this relationship cannot be proved with current data. Future
studies can look for evidence of charring in the tree cores that outdate the hypothesized fire disturbances. In
addition the intensity and scope of the fire can be proved by analyzing the soil horizons, searching for evidence
of charcoal.
A severe hurricane that occurred in 1938 is another possible disturbance that initiated regeneration in plot 3.
The study of Hemlock-Hardwood Forests in the Great Lakes region (Frelich, Calcote, & Davis 1993) cited
hurricanes as the leading disturbance in northeastern Hemlock-Hardwood Forests. The tree ages (figures 3-5)
indicate a pulse of generation occurring just after the hurricane of 1938 (about 80 years ago). The hurricane is
thought to have hit the east side of St. Catherine Mountain (where plot 3 is located) most heavily (Graves,
response to “questions” 2006). Trees that predate this disturbance would have been small enough at the time of
the hurricane to be less affected from the brunt of the wind (Graves, response to “questions” 2006). Based upon
these factors, however circumstantial, hurricanes are a likely source of disturbance in plot 3.
One feature that most strongly points to a post-disturbance stand initiation is the complete lack of trees older
than 106 (Figure 3). Eastern Hemlocks and most of the other trees found in the plot have the capability to live
much longer than 100 years (Frelich et. al. 1993, Woods 2000, & Ziegler 2000). If there was not a disturbance
in recent history there would almost undoubtedly be representatives from older age cohorts (Ziegler 2000). The
general lack of old age cohorts point to disturbance within recent history (figures 3-5). The date, intensity, and
type of disturbance cannot be determined based upon our data. There are four types of disturbance
hypothesized: hurricanes, fires, grazing by agricultural animals, and logging (or a combination thereof). Proving
this hypothesis requires subsequent studies.
Although Eastern Hemlocks are considered a late successional species (Hibbs 1983 & Woods 2000), this stand
is not in the later stages of succession. The minimum age used by Ziegler to classify an old-growth stand was
200 years (p. 376). The oldest tree in plot 3 is 106, while most trees are in the range of 70 years old. The age of
plot 3 is far too young to be considered an old growth forest; an indication the plot is not late-successional. The
stand cannot be late successional based upon small tree diameter and young age cohorts. Other factors that were
untested could also be indicators that the stand is not late successional. The coexistence of hardwoods does
indicate the stand is still in mid-succession. Hemlocks tend to outcompete other hardwoods over long periods of
time because of higher shade tolerance and longer life spans; leading to complete dominance of the canopy
(Brown 1982, Frelich et. al. 1993, Hibbs 1983, & Ziegler 2000). The trend of Eastern Hemlocks being younger
than the hardwoods can imply the Eastern Hemlocks are in the process of replacing the hardwoods; though not
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enough information is available to support this hypothesis (figures 3-5). The plot was not considered to be early
successional because of the large number of trees in surplus of 50 years of age (figures 3-5) and the lack of
pioneer species.
This hypothesis was extremely difficult to resolve based upon a number of factors. Tree cores were often
incomplete or out of order. This made standard dendrochronological analyses difficult and/or impossible. For
instance, correlations between particular rings of the same year among various trees could not be made. Ages
were often estimated and many of the samples had to be disregarded. The sample size was extremely small,
given only one plot was analyzed. The range of data collected was also limited. The only data usable for
analysis collected during both 2004 and 2006 was tree type, diameter, and age. A more thorough investigation
of the hypothesis would require a plethora of additional factors including: ambient and ground temperature,
percent canopy cover, density of trees, density and type of seedlings, and volume of coarse woody debris
(Frelich et. al. 1993, Hibbs 1983, Woods 2000, & Ziegler 2000).
Tree Ring and Weather
Although the comparisons between Eastern Hemlock ring width and climatic factors did not show significant
evidence for a correlation. The lack of support for that hypothesis could indicate that local abiotic conditions
dictate the growth patterns of Eastern Hemlocks on the Deane Nature Preserve. Factors such as canopy density,
soil nutrition and ph, disturbance, succession and site specific climate (as NCDC data is based on statewide
climate information) could account for variations from the predicted results.
Other issues that may have impacted the value of the results are time and equipment limitations. A full
chronology of Eastern Hemlock ring growth patterns would require much more time than is available, as well as
extremely precise measuring equipment. Due to the difficulties related to gathering data, standardization of the
Eastern Hemlock cores used in the climate analysis prevented a level of precision of data analysis. This kept the
data from becoming too complex for analysis based upon equipment available; therefore giving us data that is
more relevant to the depth of this study.
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Literature Cited:
Brown, J. 1982. Floristic relationships and dynamics of hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) communities in Rhode
Island. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 109(3): 385-391. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17.
Frelich, L., Calcote, R., Davis, M. 1993. Patch formation and maintenance in an old-growth hemlock-hardwood
forest. Ecology, 74(2): 513-527. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17.
Hibbs, D. 1983. Forty years of forest succession in central New England. Ecology, 64(6): 1394-1401. Available
from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17.
Godman, R. M.; Lancaster, Kenneth. 1990. Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. eastern hemlock. In: Burns, Russell
M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technicalcoordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb.
654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 604-612.
<http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/tsuga/canadensis.htm> (2 December 2006).
McQuilkin, Robert A. Quercus prinus L. Carr. Cheastnut Oak. Silvics of North Ameraia. Volume 2.
Hardwoods. Agricultrual Handbook 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
<http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/quercus/prinus.htm> (2 December 2006).
National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). 2006. Vermont Climate Summary (Online). Available from:
http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/cag3/vt.html. Accessed 2006 Nov. 28.
Rogers, Robert. Quercus alba L. Carr. White Oak. Silvics of North Ameraia. Volume 2. Hardwoods.
Agricultrual Handbook 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
<http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/quercus/prinus.htm> (2 December 2006).
Sander, Ivan L. "Northern Red Oak." USDA Forest Service. USDA Forest Service. 6 Dec. 2005
<http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_2/quercus/rubra.htm>.
Tardiff, J. Brisson, J. Bergeron, Y. 2001. Dendroclimatic analysis of Acer Saccharum, Fagus Grandfolia, and
Tsuga Candensis from an old growth forest, Southwestern Quebec. Canadian Journal of Forest Research: Vol.
31: pages 1491-1502. Available from proquest.umi.com Full text(84767137). Accessed 2006 Nov. 14
Thompson, E. and Sorenson, E. 2005. Wetland, Woodland, Wildland: A Guide to the Natural Communities of
Vermont. Hanover and London: Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife and The Nature Conservancy.
Walters, Russel, S. and Yawney, Harry W. Acer rubrum L. Carr. Red Maple. Silvics of North Ameraia.
Volume 2. Hardwoods. Agricultrual Handbook 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service. <http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/quercus/prinus.htm> (2 December
2006).
Woods, K. 2000. Dynamics in late-successional hemlock-hardwood forests over three decades. Ecology 81(1):
110-126. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17.
11
Page 96
USDA, NRCS. 2006. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 3 December 2006). National Plant Data
Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.< http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch>
Ziegler, S. 2000. A comparison of structural characteristics between old-growth and post-fire second growth
hemlock-hardwood forests in Adirondack Park, New York, U.S.A.. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 9(5):
373-389. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17.
12
Page 97
About the Authors:
Shannon Bonney graduated in 2008 with a BA in Ecology and Sustainable
Development. Upon graduating she spent a year as an environmental analyst for the
Vermont Agency of Natural Resources Department of Environmental Conservation River
Management Program.
Claire Davis graduated from GMC in 2008 with a BA in Environmental Studies,
concentrating in Recreation, and a minor in Biology. Since graduating, Claire has
combined her interest in biology and recreation through working with the ski patrol at
Killington Ski Resort. She also manages a small country inn. In the fall of 2010, Claire
will begin pursuing a degree as a Registered Nurse at Vermont Technical College.
Corinna Lowe graduated in 2007 with a B.A. in Environmental Studies and a
concentration in Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production. After graduation she
spent six months in Italy working as a farm-hand. In 2009 Corinna earned a Certificate
of Permaculture Design from the Permaculture Institute. She lives in Santa Fe, NM
where she works in the Human Resources and Gardening Department at Ten Thousand
Waves, a Japanese Heath Spa. In her free time she enjoys rock climbing, hiking, cycling
and gardening.
Kyle Reid, unfortunately, could not be contacted for this project.
Page 98
3. Pteridophyte Distribution at
Endless Brook Preserve
by Megan Nugent
Independent Study
James H. Graves
Faculty Independent Study Advisor
Page 99
Pteridophyte Distribution at Endless Brook Preserve
Megan Nugent
October 22, 2007
Final Report for an Independent Study
Page 100
Pteridophyte Distribution at Endless Brook Preserve
I. Introduction
This study examines the ecological factors that determine distribution of pteridophytes at
Endless Brook Preserve.
II. Methods
Adam Adorisio’s stand designations from his Land Management Plan for Endless Brook
Preserve were utilized in order to break up the preserve into canopy related data
collection sites (Adorisio 2006). Adam’s Management plan broke the preserve into
eighteen stands. Two additional stands were added for this study. Stand nineteen was
created to include the field, and stand twenty included the steep slope to the southwest of
the platform located at the top of the preserve. I used the ‘Existing Conditions’ data from
the Land Management plan and a GIS map displaying the stand designations in order to
determine their location. The dominant tree cover data was employed most heavily in
distinguishing between stands. Once a stand was located, I would perform a rapid
community assessment in order to collect data such as topographic position, soil
drainage, unvegetated surface description, percent tree cover, percent shrub cover, and
percent herbaceous/non-vascular cover. Topographic position was determined by
descriptions in the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources Rapid Community Assessment
Guide. Soil drainage was determined in a similar fashion using the Guide. Soil drainage
classes are defined in terms of actual moisture content and the extent of the period during
which excess water is present in the plant-root zone. The values I used were an estimate
of the best fitting value provided. Unvegetated surface was an estimate of the percentage
of surface was covered by marterial besides vegetation including littler/duff, wood, rocks,
bare soil, etc. Percent tree, shrub and herb cover were an estimate of how much cover
was prodived by each particular group. All data was collected on Rapid Community
Assessment Data sheets (Appendix A). Each stand was then surveyed for existing
pteridophyte species using a Releve Method. In the simplest terms, I would walk back
and forth, zig-zagging across each stand to ensure than all areas were surveyed. Once a
species was located it was identified, recorded and data was collected regarding its
percent cover and percent distribution. A specimen was collected and prepared for the
Green Mountain College Herbarium for each fern species not previously collected at the
preserve. Percent cover is the percent of total land area covered by fern leaf area in cover
classes of >1% rare, >1% occasional, 1 – 5%, 6 - 25%, 26 – 50%, 51 – 75%, and 76 –
100%. Percent dispersion measures the distribution of the pteridophyte throughout the
stand, or how widely distributed individuals are throughout the stand. The combination
of these two measurements gives an accurate picture of the abundance of the pteridophyte
within the stand. Soil samples were also collected for each stand. Five samples were
collected at random locations within each stand and mixed together. Soil pH was
measured with a pH meter in a mixture of water and soil (1:1 by volume) after at least 5
minutes of equilibration time. The measurement was then repeated for each sample. The
two measurements were averaged to produce the pH results used in this study. Soil
texture was measured by hand using the Simplified Key to Soil Texture (Brewer and
McCann 1982).
Page 101
III. Observations/Results
Twenty-six pteridophyte species were identified during this study. All of the below
charts have the stands in order from xeric to mesic soil conditions rather than simply
numerical order. The purpose of the Ecological Data Chart was to give a summary of the
field data collected (Appendix A). The Pteridophyte Location Chart was made to give a
quick guide to the locations of any particular fern species of interest that might be
encountered on the preserve. Charts were also made for each species displaying its
percent cover and percent distribution within each stand. These charts display the
abundance of a particular species in a stand compared with its abundance in other stands.
Table 1
Ecological Data Chart
Stand
2
20
6
14
13
5
9
11
16
18
3
4
7
15
1
12
10
19
8
17
Forest
Type
DOW
DOW
DO/HNH
WP
WPNH
HNH
MC
MC
MC
MC
HH
HH
HH
HH
RP
MM
MM/MC
OF
RNH
SMOFR
pH
5.21
4.29
4.16
4.7
4.64
4.45
5.04
4.72
4.79
5.36
4.33
4.58
4.9
4.69
3.91
4.7
5.18
5.45
5.25
4.48
Soil
Texture
Drainage
SL
WD
SL
WD
SL
MWD
SCL
MWD
SL
SPD
SL
SPD
SCL
SPD
SCL
SPD
SCL
SPD
SCL
WD
SL
WD
SL
MWD
SCL
MWD
SCL
MWD
SCL
WD
SL
MWD
SL
MWD
SCL
SPD
SL
PD
SCL
PD
Percent Cover
Tree Shrub Herb
80
3
80
50
3
90
50
0
40
50
0
80
80
0
70
80
0
50
85
0
90
60
0
50
75
0
30
95
0
5
50
0
5
90
3
10
90
0
20
80
0
1
60
0
>1
65
1
75
90
1
60
3
5
95
70
0
90
90
10
55
Page 102
Topo.
Position
IF
HS
HL
SS
LL
MS
LL
LL
SS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
BS
LL
LS
CW
# Fern
Spp.
7
3
7
9
10
12
9
11
12
8
3
10
9
9
3
13
12
10
11
12
Table 1.5
Ecological Data Chart KEY
Forest Type
Drainage
DOW
HNH
WP
WPNH
Dry Oak Woodland
Hemlock Northern Hardwoods
White Pine
White Pine Northern Hardwoods
MC
HH
RP
MM
OF
RNH
SMOFR
Mixed Coniferous
Hemlock Hardwoods
Red Pine
Mesic Maple
Old Field
Rich Northern Hardwoods
Sugar Maple/Ostrich Fern Riverine
Texture
SL
SCL
Sandy Loam
Sany Clay Loam
Page 103
WD
MWD
SPD
PD
Well Drained
Moderately Well Drained
Somewhat Poorly Drained
Poorly Drained
Topo. Position
IF
HS
HL
SS
LL
MS
Interfluve
High Slope
High Level
Step in Slope
Low Level
Midslope
BS
LS
CW
Back Slope
Low Slope
Channel Wall
Table 2
Pteridophyte Location Chart By Stand In Order from Xeric to Mesic Soils
Pteridophyte:
2
20
6
14
N. Maidenhair
Hay-scented
Silvery Glade
Mountain Wood
Spinulose Wood
Crested Wood
Evergreen Wood
Marginal Wood
Sensitive
Interrupted
Narrow Beech
C. Polypody
Christmas
New York
MH Spleenwort
Fragile
Ground Cedar
Lady
Bracken
Rusty Woodsia
Royal
Oak
Marsh
Ostrich
Princess Pine
*
*
*
13
*
*
5
*
*
9
*
*
11
*
*
*
16
18
3
*
*
4
*
*
*
7
*
15
1
*
*
12
*
*
*
10
*
19
8
*
17
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Bulblet
Table 3
Percent Value Cover Class KEY for Table 3 Charts
1 >1% rare
2 >1% occa.
3 1 - 5%
4 6 - 25%
5 26 - 50%
6 51 - 75%
7 76 - 100%
Page 104
TwTw
en o
Fo S t y
u i
Th rteex
irt n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
v
N Te
in e
et n
e
Se E en
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
T
Tw wo
en
ty
Fo S
i
u x
Th rtee
irt n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
El ine
e
Si ven
x
Ei tee
gh n
te
e
Th n
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
ft e
en
Tw O n
el e
ev
e
N T
in en
et
ee
Se Ei n
ve g h
nt t
ee
n
Table 3.1
Maidenhair Fern
Adiantum pedatum
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.2
Maidenhair
Spleenwort
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 105
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
irt n
ee
Fi n
v
N e
El ine
Si eve
Ei xte n
gh en
te
Th en
r
Foee
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N Tve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
T h rte x
irt en
ee
Fi n
v
N e
El ine
S i e ve
E i xt e n
gh en
te
Th e n
re
Fo e
S ur
Fi even
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N Tve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve ig
n t ht
ee
n
Table 3.3
Lady Fern
Athyrium filix-femina
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.4
Bulblet Fern
Cystopteris
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 106
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
rit n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
Tw O
el ne
ev
N Te
in e
et n
e
Se E en
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
TwTw
ne o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
ir t n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
E l in e
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
v
N Te
in e
et n
e
Se E en
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.5
Fragile Fern
Cystopteris fragilis
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.6
Hay-scented Fern
Dennstaedtia punctilobula
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 107
T
Tw wo
en
t
Fo S y
ur ix
T h tee
irt n
ee
Fi n
v
N e
El ine
e
Si ven
x
Ei tee
gh n
te
T h en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
Tw O n
el e
ev
N Te
in en
et
e
Se Ei en
ve gh
nt t
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
ir t n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
E l ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
g h en
te
e
Th n
re
F e
Se our
Fi v e n
fte
en
Tw O
el ne
ev
N Te
in e
et n
e
Se E en
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.7
Silvery Glade Fern
Deparia acrostichoides
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.8
Mountain Wood Fern
Dryopteris campyloptera
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 108
T
Tw w o
en
t
Fo S y
i
u x
Th rtee
irt n
ee
Fi n
v
N e
i
El n e
e
Si ven
x
E i te
gh en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOne
el
v
N Te
in en
et
e
Se Ei en
ve gh
nt t
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rte x
irt en
ee
Fi n
N ve
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
r
Foee
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
e
Tw O n
el ne
e
N Tve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.9
Spinulose Wood Fern
Dryopteris carthusiana
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.10
Crested Wood Fern
Drtopteris cristata
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 109
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u
Th rte ix
irt en
ee
Fi n
N ve
El ine
S e ve
Ei ixte n
gh e n
te
Th en
r
F ee
Se our
Fi v e n
f te
en
TwOn
el e
N T ve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rte x
irt en
ee
Fi n
v
N e
El ine
S eve
E i i xte n
g h en
te
T h en
r
F ee
Se our
F i ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N T ve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve i g
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.11
Evergreen Wood Fern
Dryopteris intermedia
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.12
Marginal Wood Fern
Dyropteris marginalis
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 110
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u
Th rte ix
ir t e n
ee
Fi n
N ve
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
T h en
r
Foee
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N T ve
in e
et n
Se E een
v e ig
nt ht
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rte x
irt en
ee
Fi n
v
N e
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
S ur
Fi even
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N T ve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.13
Oak Fern
Gymnocarpium dryopteris
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.14
Ground Cedar
Lycopodium
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 111
TwTw
en o
Fo S t y
u
Th rte ix
i r t en
ee
Fi n
N ve
El ine
S ev
Ei ixteen
gh en
t
Theen
r
Foee
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N Tve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve igh
nt t
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rte x
irt en
ee
Fi n
N ve
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
r
Foee
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N Tve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.15
Princess Pine
Lycopodium obscurum
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.16
Ostrich Fern
Matteuccia struthiopteris
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 112
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u
Th rte ix
irt en
ee
Fi n
N ve
El ine
S ev
Ei ixteen
g h en
te
Th en
r
Foee
S ur
Fi even
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N T ve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve i g
nt ht
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u
Th rte ix
irt en
ee
Fi n
N ve
El ine
S e ve
Ei ixte n
gh e n
te
Th en
r
Foee
Se ur
Fi v e n
f te
en
TwOn
el e
N T ve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.17
Sensitive Fern
Onoclea sensibilus
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.18
Interrupted Fern
Osmunda claytoniana
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 113
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
irt n
ee
Fi n
v
N e
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
r
Foee
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N Tve
in e
et n
Se E een
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
irt n
ee
Fi n
v
N e
El ine
Si eve
Ei xte n
gh en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N T ve
in e
et n
e
Se E en
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.19
Royal Fern
Osmunda regalis
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.20
Narrow Beech Fern
Phegopteris connectilis
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 114
T
Tw wo
en
ty
Fo Si
ur x
Th tee
irt n
ee
n
Fi
Tw ve
el
ve
Te
N n
El i n e
e
Si ven
xt
Ei ee
gh n
te
e
Th n
re
Fo e
Se ur
v
F i en
fte
en
O
n
Se Eig e
ve ht
n
N teen
in
te
en
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
irt n
ee
Fi n
v
N e
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
N T ve
in e
et n
e
Se E en
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.21
Common Polypody
Polypodium virginianum
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.22
Christmas Fern
Polystichum acrostichoides
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 115
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
irt n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
T h en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
v
N Te
in e
et n
e
S e E en
ve i g
nt ht
ee
n
TwTw
en o
t
Fo S y
ur ix
Th tee
irt n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
El ine
e
S ve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
e
Th n
re
F e
Se our
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
v
N Te
in e
et n
e
Se E e n
ve i g
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.23
Bracken
Pteridium aquilinum
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.24
New York Fern
Thelyopteris noveboracensis
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 116
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
irt n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
El ine
S eve
Ei ixte n
gh en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
v
N Te
in e
et n
e
Se E en
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
TwTw
en o
Fo S ty
u i
Th rteex
irt n
ee
n
Fi
ve
N
El ine
S ev e
Ei ixte n
g h en
te
Th en
re
Fo e
Se ur
Fi ven
fte
en
TwOn
el e
v
N Te
in e
et n
e
S e E en
ve ig
nt ht
ee
n
Table 3.25
Marsh Fern
Thelyopteris palustris pubescens
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Table 3.26
Rusty Woodsia
Woodsia ilvensis
8
7
6
5
4
Cover
Dispersion
3
2
1
0
Stand Number
Page 117
IV. Discussion
Ecological Data
The Ecological Data chart shows that the five most mesic stands (Stands 12, 10, 19, 8,
and 17) on the preserve all express high fern diversity. High diversity, in this case, is
characterized by a high number of fern species present in that particular stand. The
numbers of fern species ranged from 3 to 13, with the majority of stands in the 7 to 13
range. The five most mesic stands had fern diversity ranging from 10 to 13. There were
three stands (Stands 20, 3, and 1) with a low fern diversity of 3. They ranged from xeric
to mesic in soil conditions. Though, a common trend found among them was a low pH
(ranging from 3.91 – 4.33) and low % tree cover (50-60%). The combination of acid
soils and not enough shade could have likely affected the presence of ferns in these
particular stands. The forest type that consistently had high fern diversity were the two
Mesic Maple stands (Stands 12 and 10). It was also found that the areas that had a high
fern diversity (with a species number between 8 and 13) had a higher pH ranging from
4.45 to 5.45.
Cover and Dispersion Charts by Species
Patterns emerged from these charts in which I placed into categories including Midrange
pH to Mesic, Rare, Rare in more than one stand, Once but not rare, Xeric, and Common.
Midrange pH to Mesic:
This pattern is when a peak occurred on the graph between stands 14 to 11 which was
fairly xeric soil conditions and a fairly consistent midrange pH (4.45 – 5) and another
peak would occur in on the mesic end of the graph with little action in between peaks.
Many pteridophyte species ended up falling constant with this pattern including the
Northern Maidenhair Fern (Table 3.1), Lady Fern (Table 3.3), Hay-scented Fern (Table
3.6), Silvery Glade Fern (Table 3.7), Sensitive Fern (Table 3.17), Interrupted Fern
(Table 3.18), Narrow Beech Fern (Table 3.20), and New York Fern (Table 3.24). Many
of these species had a peak in the midrange, but were most abundant in mesic conditions.
A few of the above species had peaks in the midrange and mesic, but where the most
abundant in the more xeric conditions of the midrange. There species included Hayscented Fern, Narrow Beech Fern, and New York Fern.
Rare:
There were a few rare species encountered with this study. A rare species is
characterized as being found in only one stand and with a cover class rating of 1. This
means that when the species was encountered at the particular stand, it was found very
rarely and in only one area. Rare species found included the Maidenhair Spleenwort
(Table 3.2), Bulblet Fern (Table 3.4), Crested Wood Fern (Table 3.10), Ground Cedar
(Table 3.14), Princess Pine (Table 3.15), Royal Fern (Table 3.19), Marsh Fern (Table
3.25). All of these species were encountered off of the established trails therefore will
likely not be affected by human activity.
Rare in more than one stand:
This pattern occurs when a particular species was found in more than one stand, but when
if was found, it was rare (cover class rating of 1). These species included Fragile Fern
Page 118
(Table 3.5) and Spinulose Wood Fern (Table 3.9). Other species that closely followed
this pattern but were rare in one or two stands but abundant in another include Oak Fern
(Table 3.13) and Bracken (Table 3.23).
Once but not rare:
A few species occurred in only one stand, but where abundant in that particular stand.
This would be, for example, the dense patches of Ostrich Fern along the stream banks in
stand 17. Ostrich Fern only occurred in that stand, but was certainly not rare. Species
that followed this pattern included Mountain Wood Fern (Table 3.8), Ostrich Fern
(Table 3.17) and Rusty Woodsia (Table 3.26).
Xeric:
It was uncommon to find species in abundance in particularly xeric soils. Ferns typically
flourish in areas with most soils. For the most part, this study found fern to be most
abundant in mesic soils. Only a handful of ferns were most abundant in dry soils. These
included Hay-scented Fern (Table 3.6), Narrow Beech Fern (Table 3.20), Common
Polypody (Table 3.21), and New York Fern (Table 3.24).
Common:
There were three fern species that were particularly common and occurred in abundance
in more than half of the stands they were found. These species are Evergreen Wood Fern
(Table 3.11), Marginal Wood Fern (Table 3.12), and Christmas Fern (Table 3.22).
Christmas Fern occurred in 19 out of 20 stands. Marginal and Evergreen Wood Ferns
both occurred in 18 out of 20 stands.
V. Conclusion:
There is a great diversity of pteridophytes to be found at Deane Nature Preserve. Every
stand surveyed had a minimum of 3 different fern species with as many as 13. Species
were most likely to occur in areas with mesic soil conditions and a midrange pH. In
general, it seemed that low pH’s led to a lower fern diversity. Christmas, Marginal
Wood, and Evergreen Wood were by far the most abundant ferns found. It is very
apparent simply walking on the established trails that these ferns are dominant in the
under story. Numberous rare species were also encountered including Maidenhair
Spleenwort, Bulblet Fern, Crested Wood Fern, Ground Cedar, Princess Pine, Royal Fern
and Marsh Fern. Many of these rare species (with the exception of the Crested Wood
Fern) were not encountered with my last study.
VI. Bibliography:
Adorisio, Adam. 2006. Endless Brook Preserve Management Plan. Senior Project, Progressive Program,
Green Mountain College, Poultney, Vermont.
Cobb B, Farnsworth E, Lowe C. 2005. Ferns of Northeastern and Central North America. New York:
Houghton Mifflin.
Mickel JT. 2003. Ferns for American Gardeners. Portland: Timber Press.
Rickard M. 2000. Garden Ferns: Plantfinder’s Guide to Growing Series. Portland: Timber Press.
Sneddon L. 1993. Field Form Instructions for the Descriptions of Sites and Terrestrial, Palustrine, and
Vegetated Estuarine Communities. Boston: The Nature Conservancy Eastern Heritage Task Force.
Thompson EH, Sorenson ER. 2000. Wetland, Woodland, Wildland: A Guide to Natural Communities of
Vermont. Hanover: University Press of New England.
Page 119
Appendix A:
Rapid Community Assessment Data
Stand 1
Location: Endless Brook Preserve
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Owner: Green Mountain College
Survey Date: 6.22.07
Land Area: .5 Acres
Forest Type: Red Pine
Tree Cover: Red Pine
Environmental Description:
Topographic Position: Midslope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Soil Drainage: Well Drained
Unvegetated Surface: 100% litter/duff
Vegetation Description:
Tree Cover: 60%
Shrub Cover: 0%
Herbaceous/Non-vascular: >1%
Fern Cover + Dispersion:
Species
Evergreen Wood Fern
Christmas Fern
Silvery Glade Fern
% Cover
1
1
1
Dispersion
6
5
1
Notes:
Area almost completely lacking in under story vegetation besides that occasional fern.
One of few stands containing no Marginal Wood Fern
Page 120
Stand 2
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 5 Acres
Forest Type: Dry Oak Woodland
Tree Cover: Northern Red Oak, Chestnut Oak, White Oak
Topographic Position: Interfluve
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Unvegerated Surface: 97% litter/duff, 3% large rocks (>10cm)
Tree Cover: 80%
Shrub: 1-5%
Herbaceous/Non-vascular: 80%
Fern Survey:
Species
Common Polypody
Marginal Wood Fern
Christmas Fern
Hay Scented Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
Maidenhair Spleenwort
Fragile Fern
% Cover
1
3
3
1
1
1
1
Dispersion
5
7
6
1
1
1
1
Notes:
Christmas Fern found mostly on outer edges of stand.
Hay Scented found on edge of stand 2 + 4.
Ferns rare at southern edge of stand bordering Hemlock Forest.
Page 121
Stand 3
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 4 Acres
Forest Type: Hemlock Hardwoods
Tree Cover: Hemlock, Northern Red Oak, White Oak, Chestnut Oak
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Unvegetated Surface: 96% litter/duff, 2% large rocks (>10cm), 2%wood (>1cm)
Tree Cover: 50%
Shrub: 0%
Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 5%
Fern Survey:
Species:
Christmas Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Common Polpody
% Cover
1
1
1
Page 122
Dispersion
1
1
1
Stand 4
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 15 Acres
Forest Type: Hemlock-Hardwoods
Tree Cover: Hemlock, Sweet Birch, Northern Red Oak, White Pine
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained
Unvegetated Surface: 95% litter/duff, 3% wood, 1% large rocks (>10cm), 1%
small rocks (<10cm)
Tree Cover: 90%
Shrub: 1-5%
Pteridophyte Survey:
Species
Hay Scented Fern
Evergreen Fern
New York Fern
Interrupted Fern
Christmas Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Silvery Glade Fern
Maidenhair Fern
Common Polypody
Ground Cedar
% Cover
4
4
3
1
4
4
3
1
1
1
Dispersion
3
7
2
1
7
7
2
4
1
1
Notes:
Evergreen, Christmas, and Marginal were most abundant.
Some areas with abundance of Hay Scented.
Page 123
Stand 5
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 10 Acres
Forest Type: Hemlock-Northern Hardwoods
Tree Cover: Sugar Maple, Sweet Birch, American Beech, White Ash, Red Maple, Hemlock,
Northern Red Oak
Soil Texture:
Soil Drainage: Somewhat Poorly Drained (vernal pools)
Unvegetated Surface: 98% litter/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm), 1% small rocks
(<10cm)
Tree Cover: 80%
Shrub: 0%
Species
Hay Scented Fern
Christmas Fern
New York Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Maidenhair Fern
Intermediate Fern
Interrupted Fern
Sensitive Fern
Lady Fern
Bracken
Common Polypody
Narrow Beech Fern
% Cover
3
3
4
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
Dispersion
7
7
7
5
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
Notes:
Many ferns occurring in large clusters:
5m2 patch of Hay Scented + New York
15m2 patch mostly Hay Scented, also New York + Christmas
10m2 patch of Hay Scented
8m2 patch of Hay Scented + New York
30m2 patch mostly Hay Scented, also New York + Christmas
4m2 patch of Hay Scented, Maidenhair, + Christmas
Page 124
Stand 6
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 4 Acres
Forest Type: Hemlock-Dry Oak Woodland
Tree Cover: Hemlock, Northern Red Oak
Topographic Position: High Level
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Unvegetated Surface: 85% litter/duff, 15% large rocks (>10cm)
Tree Cover: 50%
Shrub: 0%
Species:
Hay Scented Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
Spinulous Wood Fern
Christmas Fern
New York Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Common Polypody
% Cover
4
1
1
3
1
3
1
Dispersion
5
1
1
4
1
4
1
Notes:
Lack of ferns in Hemlock dominate area west of moss area.
Polypodys + Marginal in moss/rock area.
No Ferns in Dry Oak understory, Marginals just east into Hemlock
Page 125
Stand 7
Town: Poultney, VT
Survey Date:6.26.07
Land Area: 6.5 Acres
Forest Type: Hemlock-Hardwoods
Tree Cover: Hemlock, Red Maple, Northern Red Oak, Eastern White Pine
Topographic Postion: Midslope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Tree Cover: 90%
Shrub Cover: 0%
Species
Margainal Wood Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
Lady Fern
Christmas Fern
Common Polypody
Nothern Maidenhair Fern
Interrupted Fern
New York Fern
Fragile Fern
% Cover
3
2
2
2
1
3
1
1
1
Dispersion
7
3
3
6
1
3
2
2
1
Notes:
North of mountain stream: almost no ferns besides occasional Marginal.
South of mountain stream: significantly more ferns
Page 126
Stand 8
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 3 Acres
Forest Type: Rich Northern Hardwoods
Dominate Trees: Sugar Maple, White Ash, White Pine, Shagbark Hickory, White Birch
and Red Maple, Butternut Hickory, Northern Red Oak and Chestnut Oak, Basswood,
Quacking Aspen and White Oak, Eastern Hemlock
Topographic Position: Low Slope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Soil Drainage: Poorly Drained
Unvegetated Survace: 98% litter/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm), 1% small
rocks (<10cm)
Tree Cover: 70%
Shrub Cover: 0%
Species
Sensitive Fern
Lady Fern
Interrupted Fern
Silvery Glade Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
Christmas Fern
Margainal Wood Fern
Spinulous Wood Fern
Fragile Fern
New York Fern
% Cover
2
2
3
3
2
3
4
3
1
1
3
Dispersion
2
2
3
2
2
6
7
6
1
1
3
Notes:
Maidenhair was most abundant, cliff side completely covered in Maidenhair.
Large gap in canopy (full sun): patch of grasses, Maidenhair and New York.
Page 127
Stand 9
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area:1 Acre
Forest Type: Mixed Coniferous
Dominant Trees: White Pine, Eastern Hemlock, White Ash
Topographic Position: Low Level
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Soil Drainage: Somewhat Poorly Drained
Tree Cover: 85%
Shrub: 0%
Pteridophye Survey:
Species
Christmas Fern
Northern Maidenhair Fern
Interrupted Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
Silvery Glade Fern
Sensitive Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Lady Fern
Crested Wood Fern
% Cover
3
2
3
3
4
4
3
1
1
Notes:
Abundance of Sensitive Ferns at edge of field.
Only stand where Crested Wood Fern was found.
Numerous large patches of Interruped.
Stand with most abundant Silvery Glade Fern.
Page 128
Dispersion
6
3
6
6
7
6
3
1
1
Stand 10
Town: Poultney, VT
Forest Type: Mixed Coniferous-Mesic Maple, Ash, Hickory, Oak
Dominant Trees: Sugar Maple, Black Cherry, Eastern Hemlock, White Ash, Sweet Birch,
White Pine, Basswood, Northern Red Oak, White Oak, White Birch, Red Maple
Environmental Desciption:
Topographic Position: Back Slope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Vegetation Desciption:
Tree Cover: 90%
Shrub Cover: 0-1%
Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 55-65%
Species
Sensitive Fern
Christmas Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Silvery Glade Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
New York Fern
Interrupted Fern
Lady Fern
Narrow Beech Fern
Common Polypody
Fragile Fern
% Cover
1
3
3
3
3
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
Page 129
Dispersion
3
7
7
4
3
1
2
4
1
2
1
1
Stand 11
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 1 Acres
Dominant Trees: White Pine, Eastern Hemlock, Sweet Birch
Topographic Position: Low Level/Low Slope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Tree Cover: 60%
Shrub Cover: 0%
Species
Evergreen Wood Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Hay Scented Fern
Christmas Fern
Silvery Glade Fern
Lady Fern
Narrow Beech Fern
Sensitive Fern
Interrupted Fern
Spinulous Wood Fern
% Cover
3
3
4
3
3
3
1
3
3
3
1
Notes:
Large clusters of ferns along edge of field.
Large ferns (Sensitive, Evergreen, Interrupted, Lady, Silvery Glade)
Page 130
Dispersion
7
3
6
4
3
1
3
3
3
3
1
Stand 12
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 2 Acres
Forest Type: Meic Maple, Ask, Hickory, Oak
Dominant Trees: Shagbark Hickory, Hophorn Beam, White Ash, Sugar Maple, Basswood,
Northern Red Oak
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Unvegetated Surface: 99% littler/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm)
Tree Cover: 50-75%
Shrub Cover: 0-2%
Species
Christmas Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Nortern Maidenhair Fern
Lady Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
Narrow Beech Fern
New York Fern
Silvery Glade Fern
Interrupted Fern
Spinulous Wood Fern
Sensitive Fern
Fragile Fern
Hay Scented Fern
% Cover
4
4
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
Page 131
Dispersion
7
7
4
3
2
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
Stand 13
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area: 2 Acres
Forest Type: White Pine-Northern Hardwoods
Dominant Trees: White Pine, E. Hemlock, Sugar Maple, White Ash, Northern Red Oak
Topographic Position: Low Level
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Unvegetated Surface: 96% little/duff, 3% wood (>1cm), 1% large rocks(>10cm)
Tree Cover: 80-90%
Shrub Cover: 0%
Species
Hay Scented Fern
Christmas Fern
Interrupted Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
Lady Fern
New York Fern
Sensitive Fern
Royal Fern
Narrow Beech Fern
% Cover
3
4
4
4
3
3
1
1
3
1
Notes:
Only 2 Royal Ferns found in entire stand.
Page 132
Dispersion
6
7
4
5
3
3
3
1
3
3
Stand 14
Town: Poultney, VT
Survey Date:6.22.07
Land Area: 5 Acres
Forest Type: White Pine
Dominant Trees: 100% White Pine
Topographic Position: Step in Slope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Tree Cover: 50%
Shrub Cover: 0%
Species
Evergreen Wood Fern
Christmas Fern
Hay Scented Fern
Lady Fern
Narrow Beech Fern
Sensitive Fern
Oak Fern
New York Fern
Bracken
% Cover
3
3
4
1
2
1
1
4
3
Dispersion
7
7
3
1
1
1
1
3
1
Notes:
Narrow Beech + Sensitive found only on edge of 13 + 14.
Numerous large speratic patches of New York.
Two large patches of Bracken.
Understory vegetation consisted of roughly half maple regeneration and half ferns.
Bracken + Haydcented found together.
Page 133
Stand 15
Town: Poultney, VT
Forest Type: Hemlock-Northern Hardwoods
Dominant Trees: Hemlock, Yellow Birch, White Pine, Red Maple
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained/Somewhat Poorly Drained
Tree Cover: 80%
Shrub Cover: 0%
Species
Evergreen Wood Fern
Christmas Fern
Margainal Wood Fern
Interrupted Fern
Hayscented Fern
Lady Fern
Common Polypody
Mountain Wood Fern
Narrow Beech
% Cover
3
3
1
2
3
2
1
1
3
Dispersion
6
6
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
Notes:
Fern populations signicantly more abundant at egde of field
Marginal, interrupted, hayscented, lady, polypody, and mountain ferns - field edge only
Abundance of fallen/rotten logs
Fern populations rather sparse over entire stand - understory veg almost entirely ferns
Large patch of Narrow Beech at edge of 13 + 15
Page 134
Stand 16
Town: Poultney, VT
Dominant Trees: Hemlock, White Pine, Hophorn Beam, Sweet Birch, Quacking Aspen
Topographic Position: Step in Slope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Tree Cover: 75%
Shrub Cover:m 0%
Species
Silvery Glade Fern
Evergreen Wood Fern
Christmas Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
New York Fern
Lady Fern
Marsh Fern
Spinulous Wood Fern
Sensitive Fern
Maidenhair Fern
Narrow Been Fern
Interrupted Fern
% Cover
1
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
Dispersion
1
7
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Notes
New York found at lower most portion (river edge) + edge of 15
5m2 of Hayscented + New York
8m2 partch of Hayscented, Lady, + Christmas
Large fertlie area where canopy opens and dominate tree = Butternut (MICROCLIMATE)
Silvery Glade, Marginal, New York + Lady found at bottom close to stream
Small patch of interruped in canopy opening just above the TP
6m2 patch of Narrow Beech
Page 135
Stand 18
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area:
Forest Type:
Dominant Trees: Hemlock, White Pine, Maple
Topographic Position: Lowslope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Soil Drainage: Weell Drained
Unvegetated Surface: 55% Litter/duff, 40% wood, 3% small rocks (<10cm), 2%
large rocks (>10cm)
Tree Cover: 95%
Shrub Cover: 0%
Species
% Cover
New York
2
Christmas
3
Interrupted
2
Hayscented
2
Bracken
1
Evergreen
3
Marginal
3
Sensitive
1
Dispersion
1
6
1
1
1
6
1
1
Notes:
Evergreen most abundant
Sensitive Fern only found near stream
In general, fern cover is rather sparce in this stand
Page 136
Stand 19
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area:
Forest Type: Field
Dominant Trees: White Pine, Hemlock, Apple
Topographic Position: Lowslope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Soil Drainage: Mderately Well Drained
Unvegetated Surface: 1% litter/duff, 1% wood (>1cm)
Tree Cover: 1%
Shrub Cover: 5%
Species
% Cover
Sensitive
3
Lady
1
Evergreen
1
Hayscented
1
Christmas
1
Spinulose
1
Marginal
1
New York
2
Interrupted
1
Princess Pine
1
Dispersion
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Notes:
Interrupted Fern only found at edge of stand 15
5m2 patch of New York Fern at edge of stand 15
Fern diversity significantly more abundant on perimeters of field
Ferns found in actual field consisted primarity of sensitve and princess pine
Only stand where Princess Pine was found
Sensitive Fern was most abundant fern
Page 137
Stand 20
Town: Poultney, VT
Land Area:
Forest Type:
Dominant Trees:
Topographic Position: High Slope
Soil Texture:
Soil pH:
Soil Drainage: Rapidly Drained
Unvegetated Surface: 90% litter/duff, 5% wood (>1cm), 5% large rocks
(>10cm)
Tree Cover: 50%
Shrub Cover: 1-5%
Species
% Cover
Rusty Woodsia
1
Marginal
1
Polypody
1
Dispersion
5
1
5
Notes
Rusty Woodsia only found on rock face
Extremely steep slope
Area is nearly completely in full sun
39
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About the Author:
Megan Nugent graduated from Green Mountain College in 2007 with a degree in
Environmental Studies with a focus in Agroecology and a Minor in Biology. While in
college, she conducted several independent studies on the ecology, morphology and
distribution of ferns at Deane Preserve. Megan now lives in Brooklyn, New York
creating her own clothing line named Photosynthesis which is directly inspired by her
research, allowing her to combine a love of science and art.
Page 139
4. A Spatially Explicit Study of the
Environmental Influence on beech Bark
Disease
by Robin Sleith and Dr. Natalie Coe
Honor’s Thesis
Page 140
A Spatially Explicit Study of Environmental Influence on Beech Bark Disease
Robin S. Sleith and Natalie R. Coe
Green Mountain College, Box
Poultney VT 05764
Page 141
Abstract: This project used an 80 acre, GIS monitored, study site to determine if
environmental variables determine the spatial distribution of disease agents associated
with beech bark disease on American beech (Fagus grandifolia). Many studies have
investigated the contribution of environmental factors to the severity of BBD but the
resolution of these studies has missed the small scale patterns of the disease. By laser
surveying all American beech in a stand, we derived a method to determine the
aggregation of Nectria spp. and Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind. Moran’s Index of
autocorrelation found that disease agents were clustered in distribution (MI 0.44 Z 3.43).
Elevation, slope, aspect and curvature were used as parameters in a logistic regression
model set. Akaike’s Information Criterion was used to select the best model. The
environmental variables tested were strongly correlated to the presence of BBD causal
agents (p<0.0001). Four competing models were generated that explain the contribution
of environmental variables at our study site. A predictive model was generated from the
logistic regression. Further study is needed to determine the causes of environmental
conditions to the susceptibility of American beech trees to beech bark disease.
Page 142
1. Introduction
Invasions of exotic pests pose significant threats to forested ecosystems (Liebold
1995). The accidental or intentional release of pests by humans have exposed
Northeastern forests to a great number of forest disturbance agents such as the gypsy
moth, hemlock woolly adelgid, chestnut blight, and the beech bark disease complex
(Morin et al. 2007). The impact of these invasions on forest structure, management and
community dynamics have been significant (Lovett et al. 2006).
American beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.) has declined in abundance and vigor
since the introduction of the disease causing agents to Halifax, Nova Scotia around 1890
(Houston 1994). Beech Bark Disease (BBD) has been and continues to be one of the most
devastating tree epidemics affecting northeastern forests (Morin et al. 2005 and Lovett et
al. 2006).
The physiology and phytopathology of beech bark disease have been well
documented and characterized throughout the United States and Canada (Ehrlich 1934,
Griffen et al. 2003). BBD has been shown to affect all aspects of forest communities,
from stand structure to wildlife health (Foster 1988, Houston 2004, Storer et al 2004,
Latty et al 2002). Biogeochemical processes in forests are often closely tied to the
dominant tree species such as late successional American beech; declines in American
beech due to BBD could upset many of these processes (Latty 2004).The study of BBD
spans over 74 years of research that has characterized the disease agents, the distribution
of the disease and the potential management practices that must be used to maintain
American beech populations (Twery et al. 2004). However, many of the relationships
between BBD and ecosystems remain unclear (Houston 2004).
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Beech bark disease in northeastern North America results from the infection and
attack from the invasive beech scale insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.) and two
varieties of Ascomycete fungus, the nonnative Nectria coccinea var. faginata Lind. and
native Nectria galligena Bres. (Houston 2004). Feeding colonies of the beech scale
perforate the bark of American beech and allow the fungus to penetrate into the storage
and vascular cells eventually causing tree death (Ehrlich 1934).
Recent surveys of beech bark disease distributions in North America have
returned grim results. The disease is thought to cover an area of 434,548 km2 but
modeling and conservative projections predict that this range affects only 27% of the
potential habitat for the disease (Morin et. al. 2005). Whether or not the BBD complex is
able to inhabit the entire potential habitat is yet to be seen, but the potential damage is
immense (Morin et al. 2007).
North American forests through which BBD has passed experience changes at
many levels. Shigo (1972) succinctly described 3 main phases of beech bark disease: the
advancing front, the killing front and the aftermath stage. The advancing front consists of
the beech scale with very low amounts of Nectia fungus. Trees in this stage are healthy
and show few signs of stress. The killing front occurs when C. fagisuga and either
Nectria species inhabit the same forest. Beech trees at this stage show signs of severe
stress: many are cracked and cankered, some are dead, but others remain resistant to the
disease (Shigo 1972). The aftermath stage contains trees with all level of disease, from
dead individuals and severely sick trees to resistant stands (Shigo 1972).
Beech trees resistant to beech bark disease have perplexed researchers for more
than 50 years (Shigo 1972, Houston and Houston 2000, Koch and Carey 2004). The traits
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responsible for resistance have been studied in many different ways but no clear answer
has yet been formulated (Koch and Carey 2004). A research priority formulated from the
2004 Saranac Lake BBD Symposium was to determine the genetic mechanisms of
resistance and tolerance of American beech to the BBD complex (Koch and Carey 2004).
Environmental variables such as slope and aspect have been linked to the severity
and tolerance of BBD but few fine scale studies have been done to determine specifically
how environmental variables relate to BBD susceptability (Ehrlich 1934, Munk and
Manion 2006). The development of intensively monitored small plots aids the study of
how environmental conditions relate to BBD resistance (Twery et al. 2004).
We use a Geographic Information System (GIS) and a small, spatially explicit
study site to determine the patterns of BBD causal agents and the influence of local
environmental conditions on the causal agents. We hypothesize that (H1) causal agents of
BBD are clustered in distribution and that (H2) environmental variables are highly
correlated to the presence of BBD causal agents (Table 1). We use a GIS analysis and a
model selection framework to test these hypotheses.
2. Methods
Site Description
The Lewis Deane Nature Preserve (LDNP) is a diverse 85 acre forest parcel
located at the northern end of the Taconic Mountains. LDNP straddles the towns of
Poultney and Wells in Rutland County, Vermont. The Preserve was given to Green
Mountain College in 2002 and is home to several research and education projects. Lewis
Deane Nature Preserve is host to more than eight plant communities including: hemlock
forest, hemlock – northern hardwood forest, northern hardwood forest, white pine -
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northern hardwood forest, mesic red oak – northern hardwood forest, dry oak - hickory hophornbeam forest, dry oak woodland, and a temperate acidic outcrop community (Jim
Graves, personal communication). The Preserve lies on the eastern shoulder of Saint
Catherine Mountain, a north-south trending ridge. The site is characterized by slate
bedrock, mainly from the Lake Saint Catherine formation. The Preserve has relatively
steep slopes with predominantly eastern aspects. The steep slopes are broken by wide
terraces that accumulate pooled water and form wetland conditions (Jim Graves, personal
communication). Endless Brook runs northward at the base of the Preserve at about 200
meters elevation, the acidic outcrop at the top of the ridge is at about 370 meters
elevation.
Personal communication with landowners and aerial photographs have established
that the area of the Endless Book Preserve hosted sheep grazing at the turn of the
twentieth century and cattle grazing later in the 1900s (Jim Graves personal
communication). By 1940 no livestock remained in the area that is now Lewis Deane
Nature Preserve and forest reclaimed pastureland. Selective logging practices were
carried out in 1980 after which no extraction or grazing has occurred. The American
beech trees at the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve today have an average diameter at breast
height (dbh) of 15 centimeters. The dbh distribution (Figure 1) shows that the stand is
relatively young with some older trees that were likely spared in the selective logging
process.
Data Collection
Tree Identification
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In the spring and fall of 2003, 210 American beech trees >5cm dbh were
identified and tagged with aluminum-zinc tags. The 210 tagged trees do not represent
every American beech tree at the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve as some trees (<10) were
missed in the initial identification process.
Surveying:
In the winter of 2004, all trees were surveyed using a Topcon GTS-212 total
station. Survey methods followed standard back-sight fore-shot techniques and shot to
the center of each tagged American beech tree. Survey results were entered into Autodesk
and a coordinate file was created. The coordinate file was then entered into ArcGIS
Desktop 9.x (ESRI). A GIS shapefile was created representing each tagged American
beech tree. By adding the physical features of the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve and
individual American beech tree ranking results (see below) to the attribute table of the
shapefile we derived a robust dataset for the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve (Table 2).
Ranking Protocol:
All 210 American beech trees have been monitored and ranked each fall
beginning in 2004. The original ranking system used the standard 1-5 system published
by Griffen et al. (2003). A long term study site such as Lewis Deane Nature Preserve
allowed a higher level of evaluation and Dr. Natalie Coe developed a set of thirteen
characteristics that show significant correlation to overall infection with the insect-fungal
complex (unpublished data). Each individual category is summed to achieve a total
ranking number for the tree. This number has a range between 0 and 100 and relates well
to the 1-5 system developed by Griffen et al. (2003). Blind trials were conducted to
assure that ranking was consistent among individuals. To test our hypotheses we used a
Page 147
binary system of tree classification where 0 = no signs of the BBD fungal or insect causal
agents and 1 = signs of the insect or fungus. The binary system counted any historical
sign of either disease agent as a 1.
Data Analysis
Clustering and tree distribution
To analyze the clustering of the trees with respect to the disease agents (H1) we
used spatial autocorrelation (Morans Index) from the Spatial Statistics Toolbox within
ArcToolbox (ESRI). The input feature class used was the LDNP shapefile and the input
field was our binary tree status rank. Inverse distance was used as the spatial relationship
concept and Euclidian distance was used to measure the distance between the trees
(ESRI). ArcGIS Desktop 9.2 calculates Moran’s Index, an expected index, a variance and
a z-score. The tool calculates and presents data in script format (ESRI).
The Average Nearest Neighbor Distance tool was used to calculate average
nearest tree with BBD causal agents and average nearest tree without BBD causal agents.
The LDNP shapefile was used as the point feature class and the tool used Euclidean
distance measurements in the minimum enclosing rectangle. The Average Nearest
Neighbor Distance tool calculates nearest neighbor observed mean distance, expected
mean distance, nearest neighbor ratio and a z-score.
Environmental Variables and Model Selection
To analyze the relationship between BBD causal factors and environmental
variables (H2) we used a combination of GIS and model selection methods. We used GIS
layers described in Table 2 as parameters in logistic regressions tested in a model
selection framework.
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Model selection is based upon likelihood theory and allows testing of multiple
competing hypotheses in complex systems (Johnson and Omland 2004). Akaike’s
Information Criterion (AIC) can be used to judge multiple models representing
ecologically feasible hypotheses (Burnham and Anderson 2002). There are many factors
contributing to beech bark disease presence and severity and many possible mechanisms
of environmental and genetic influence (Houston 2004, Latty et al 2003, Munk and
Manion 2001). Beech bark disease is a highly complex phenomenon and warrants the use
of model selection methods. AIC allows multiple environmental variables to be compared
to BBD presence at Lewis Deane Nature Preserve.
Underlying environmental values (Table 2) for each tree were extracted using the
Extract Values to Points tool within the Extraction tool of ArcToolbox. The values of
each parameter for all 210 trees were extracted and entered into a series of competing
models based on ecologically plausible hypotheses (Table 2). We combined all
parameters and added two interactions into logistic-regression models (Table 3). The
binary tree rank was used as the dependant variable. We used R to run the models and
generate AIC values (Burnham and Anderson 2002). The dataset was tested for
overdispersion (ĉ =1.16) and small sample size bias (k< n/40) but passed both thresholds
(Johnson and Omland 2004).
3. Results
Lewis Deane Nature Preserve has 133 trees susceptible to BBD and 77 trees that
have no signs of either BBD causal agent. The larger diameter classes show higher levels
of BBD infection (Figure 1).
Page 149
A Moran’s Index of 0.44 indicates a clustered pattern of BBD causal agents on
American beech trees at LDNP (Table 3). The nearest neighbor distance for trees with
BBD causal agents was 4.4 meters and 5.6 meters for trees without BBD causal factors.
The results of AIC model selection (Table 4) revealed four competing models that
were within two ΔAIC units (Burnham and Anderson 2002). The goodness of fit for the
global model (Model 8, Table 4) was determined by calculating a P value of <0.0001
from the difference of null and residual deviance and degrees of freedom (Burnham and
Anderson 2002). The effects of aspect and curvature provided the strongest support for
the observed pattern of BBD causal agents at LDNP. However, four other models were
strongly supported by the data (Table 4). The only interaction that was supported was
elevation by curvature.
4. Discussion
Lewis Deane Nature Preserve is likely in the aftermath stage of BBD, a majority
of the trees are diseased while some appear to remain resistant or are free of BBD causal
agents (Shigo 1972, Houston 1983). The land use associated with LDNP and the logging
in the 1980s likely influenced the stand level of BBD infection (Hane 2004). Further
investigation of the site is needed to characterize how previous land use affects the
disease distribution.
The Moran’s Index shows that beech scale and the fungal species responsible for
BBD are clustered in distribution in our study site. The clustering of BBD could be due to
several factors (Houston 1993, Garnas 2007). Up to 99% of dispersing young beech scale
insects disperse <10 meters from their host tree (Wainhouse 1980). This could lead to
clusters of infected trees resulting from dispersing scale insects from host trees (Garnas
Page 150
2007). The clustered pattern could also be explained by the fungal distribution in the
LDNP. The fungal species are often related to geographic variables and proximity of
diseased trees (Houston 1993). The nearest infected tree distance was found to be less
than the nearest BBD free tree. This may be a result of the insect-fungal relationship that
decreases influence with distance from a host tree (Houston 1993). The clustered pattern
of disease agents could also be explained by environmental variables. Our model
selection found strong support for four environmental conditions that explain the
distribution of the disease agents at the LDNP (Table 4).
The hypotheses that were most strongly supported by the AIC selection method
were, in order of relative importance: Hc, Ha, He*c, and Hs (Table 1,4) (Burnham and
Anderson 2002). The support of the hypotheses listed in Table 1 does not indicate that the
mechanisms of the hypotheses are supported. Further testing is needed to determine
exactly how the individual parameters influence the causal agents of the disease or the
physiology of the tree. Aspect, elevation, and elevation by curvature were negatively
correlated with the infection of American beech trees at Lewis Deane Nature preserve.
Curvature was strongly positively correlated with presence of the disease agents while
slope had a weaker positive correlation. The logistic regression equation can be written to
give the probability (D) that a 30x30 meter area of American beech will have beech bark
disease.
Di =
e
(a+bx+cy+dz)
(a+bx+cy+dz)
1+ e
Page 151
Where Di is the probability of the area having BBD, a is an intercept, b, c and d
are correlation coefficients and x, y, z are observed environmental variables (Table 5).
This model can be used to predict areas where American beech trees have BBD at
the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve. Predictive models must not distract from groundtruthing our hypotheses. Having found a relationship between the given variables and
BBD susceptibility, further investigation and reassessment of the literature is needed to
determine how these environmental conditions promote the susceptibility or resistance of
beech trees to BBD.
Page 152
References
DiGregorio, LM., Krasny, ME., Fahey, TJ. 1999. Radial growth trends of sugar maple
(Acer saccharum) in an Allegheny northern hardwood forest affected by beech bark
disease. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 126, 3:245-254.
Faison, E.K., Houston, D.R. 2004. Black bear foraging in response to beech bark disease
in northern Vermont. Northeastern Naturalist. 11: 387-394.
Forrester, JA., Runkle, JR. 2000. Mortality and replacement patterns of an old growth
Acer-Fagus woods in the Holden Arboretum, Northeastern Ohio. The American
Midland Naturalist. 144: 227-242.
Gavin, DG., Peart, DR. 1993. Effects of beech bark disease on the growth of American
beech (Fagus grandifolia). Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 23: 1566-1575.
Gove, J.H., Houston, D.R. 1996. Monitoring the growth of American beech affected by
beech bark disease in Maine using the Kalman filter. Environmental and Ecological
Statistics. 3: 167-187.
Griffin, JM., Lovett, GM., Arthur, M. and Weathers, KC. 2003. The distribution and
severity of beech bark disease in the Catskill Mountains, N.Y. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research 33:1754-1760.
Hane, EN. 2003. Indirect effects of beech bark disease on sugar maple seedling survival.
Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 33: 807-813.
Houston, D.R. 1982. A technique to artificially infest beech bark with the beech scale,
Cryptococcus fagisuga (Lindinger). Northeast Forest Experiment Station. Research
Paper NE-507
Houston, D.R., O’Brien, J.T. 1983. Beech bark disease. USDA FS Forest Insect and
Disease Leaflet 75.
Houston, D.R. 1993. Temporal and spatial shift within the Nectria pathogen complex
associated with beech bark disease of Fagus grandifolia. Canadian Journal of Forest
Research. 24:960-968
Houston, D.R. 1994. Major new tree disease epidemics: beech bark disease. Annual
Review of Phytopathology. 32: 75-87.
Page 153
Houston, D.B and Houston, D.R. 2000. Allozyme genetic diversity among Fagus
grandifiolia trees resistant or susceptible to beech bark disease in natural populations.
Canadian Journal of Forest Research 30: 778-789
Houston, D.R. 2001. Effect of harvesting regime on beech root sprouts and seedlings in a
north-central Maine forest long affected by beech bark disease. Northeastern Research
Station. Research Paper NE-717
Koch, J.L., Carey, D.W. 2004. Identifying and enriching for American beech trees that
are resistant to beech bark disease. Proceedings of the NESAF 84th Winter Meeting.
GTR-NE-314
Latty, E.F., Canham, C.D., Marks, P.L. 2002. Beech bark disease in northern hardwood
forests: the importance of nitrogen dynamics and forest history for disease severity.
Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 33: 257-268.
Lonsdale, D., Wainhouse, D. 1987. Beech Bark Disease. Forestry Commission Bulletin.
69: 1-14
Lovett, G.M., Rueth, H. 1999. Soil nitrogen transformations in beech and maple stands
along a nitrogen deposition gradient. Ecological Applications. 9: 1330-1344.
Lovett, G.M., Canham, C.D., Arthur, M.A., Weathers, K.C., Fitzhugh, R.D. 2006. Forest
ecosystem response to exotic pests and pathogens in North America. Bioscience. 56:
395-405
Morin, R.S., Liebhold, A.M., Luzader, E.R., Lister, A.J., Gottschalk, K.W., Twardus,
D.B. 2004. Mapping host-species abundance of three major exotic forest pests.
Northeastern Research Station. Research Paper NE-726.
Morin, R.S., Liebhold, A.M., Tobin, P.C., Gottschalk, K.W., Luzader, E. 2007. Spread of
beech bark disease in the eastern United States and its relationship to regional forest
composition. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 37: 726-736.
Munk, I.A., Manion, P.D. 2006. Landscape-level impact of beech bark disease in relation
to slope and aspect in New York State. Forest Science. 52: 503-510.
Page 154
Figure 1
DBH Distribution
70
No. Trees
60
50
40
BBD free
30
BBD inf
20
10
0
5-10
10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45
DBH Class (cm)
Page 155
Table 1.
Variable
Elevation
Hypothesis
provides a measure of slope
position which has been
shown to affect BBD causal
agents (Ehrlich 1934)
Code
He
Aspect
influences solar radiation
levels which determines
invasability of the Beech
scale (Witter et al. 2004)
Ha
Slope
influences Beech tree water
availability necessary for
fighting scale infestations
(Lonsdale 1980)
Hs
Curvature
Influences local water
availability nutrient loads in
soils (Latty 2004)
Hc
Elevation*Curvature
Elevation by curvature
provides a moisture proxy
that affects BBD causal
agent presence.
He*c
Slope*Curvature
Slope by curvature
identifies trees that may
catch more wind and thus
more scale insect and
fungus
Hs*c
Page 156
Table 2
Data Type
(Units)
Description
Source
Parameter
Beech Trees
Point shapefile (Meters)
From survey data,
contains binary tree
rank and env. variables
in attribute table
Ken Coe and
Robin Sleith
Elevation
Raster Grid-Digital Elevation
Model (Meters)
30x30m resolution
Vermont Center
for Geographic
Information
Slope
Raster Grid calculated from
DEM (degrees)
30x30m resolution
DEM/ArcGIS
Desktop 9.2
Spatial Analyst
Aspect
DEM (degrees clockwise from
north)
Curvature
DEM (1/100 meters)
Page 157
30x30m resolution
30x30m resolution
Flat= 0
Upward convex= +
Upward concave= -
DEM/ArcGIS
Desktop 9.2
Spatial Analyst
DEM/ArcGIS
Desktop 9.2
Spatial Analyst
Table 3
Moran's
Index
Expected
Index
Variance Z Score
Nearest
American
beech
0.434493
-0.004808 0.016314 3.439445 3.4 meters
Page 158
Nearest BBD
free tree
Nearest BBD infected
tree
5.6 meters
4.4 meters
Table 4
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Model
Aspect+Curvature
Elevation+Aspect+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature
Elevation+Aspect+Curvature
Slope+Aspect+Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Aspect+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature
Slope+Aspect+Curvature+Slope*Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Aspect+Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Aspect+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature+Slope*Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Aspect+Curvature+Slope*Curvature
Slope+Curvature
Slope+Curvature+Slope*Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Curvature+Slope*Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature
Aspect
Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature+Slope*Curvature
Slope+Aspect
Elevation+Aspect
Elevation+Curvature
Elevation+Slope+Aspect
Elevation+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature
Elevation+Slope
Slope
Elevation
Page 159
Hypothesis
supported
H a Hc
H e Ha Hc
He*c
H e Ha Hc
Hs Ha Hc
k
AIC
ΔAIC
2
4
244.18
244.71
0
0.53
3
3
5
4
4
6
5
2
3
3
4
4
1
1
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
1
1
245.7
245.97
246.71
247.57
247.68
248.28
249.3
252.27
253.1
254.03
254.91
255.19
255.4
255.79
255.87
255.97
257.4
257.48
257.68
258.96
264.46
265.95
279.71
1.52
1.79
2.53
3.39
3.5
4.1
5.12
8.09
8.92
9.85
10.73
11.01
11.22
11.61
11.69
11.79
13.22
13.3
13.5
14.78
20.28
21.77
35.53
Table 5
Coefficients
Model Intercept
1
3.6047
2
6.506903
3
6.162360
4
2.76034
Curvature
1.65
20.555614
1.711757
1.61691
Aspect
-0.037
-0.042747
-0.037282
-0.03389
Elevation
E*C
-0.007283
-0.007282
-0.057924
Slope
0.04372
20
Page 160
About the Author:
Robin Sleith graduated in 2008 with a B.S. in Biology and a minor in Chemistry. Robin
worked with Dr. Natalie Coe on the Beech Bark Disease Project all four years that he
attended Green Mountain College, first as a work-study student and then as an
undergraduate research assistant. After graduating, Robin spent a year working at an
environmental education center in New Hampshire. He currently works for the Urban
Ecology Institute in Boston, Massachusetts as an Education Assistant. This AmeriCorps
VISTA position combines overseeing an after-school science enrichment program with
developing curriculum.
Page 161
5. Deane Nature Preserve Wildlife
Inventory Assessment
by Adam Adorisio
Independent Study
James H. Graves
Faculty Independent Study Advisor
Page 162
Deane Nature Preserve:
Wildlife Inventory Assessment
Adam Adorisio
May 2005
INTRODUCTION:
The purpose of this study was to inventory existing mammal populations,
habitats, and behaviors on the Deane Nature Preserve, part of the St. Catherine Mountain
range. Although this study had a focus on mammals, other wildlife classes were
documented to best fulfill my goal of understanding species interactions in biotic
communities, as well as the relationships between animals and the abiotic environment.
Understanding these relationships helps one to see what the ecosystem is composed of in
the immediate area, as well as at a landscape level. This knowledge can help to guide
management decisions that preserve the integrity of the ecosystems’ requisite parts.
Four main hypotheses were made based on reading aerial photographs of the area,
as well as experiences before starting the sampling.
1) This property is a small part of a home range for species requiring extensive
areas. This property is roughly 85 acres; there are 640 acres in one square
mile. Coyotes—which have been documented on this property—required a
home range of anywhere between 5 and 13 square miles (Frederick A.
Servello, Thomas L. Edwards, Bernice U. Constantina). This example, and the
evidence of coyote and bobcat indicating only a brief visit to this property, are
support for this hypothesis.
2) This property is seasonal habitat for species such as deer, migratory birds,
reptiles, and amphibians—possibly other species as well. The majority of this
land is composed of mature hemlock forest with a variety of deciduous and
mixed forest types. This landscape provides prime deer wintering habitat. The
bacteria that aid the digestion processes of deer changes in the spring and
summer to digest herbaceous, non-woody material. Because this land is
composed of mainly thick hemlock cover, it does not provide the light
resources needed by most herbaceous plant species without intermediate
disturbance processes. Therefore this property might not be as appetizing to
deer during warm weather months. This evidence supports the hypothesis that
this property might only be seasonal habitat for deer. Migratory birds, of
course, wouldn’t normally arrive to this latitude until warm weather months.
Although reptile and amphibian populations might exist on this property
during winter months, they are not active until warm weather months. It is
possible that other species may only come to this property during hard times
looking for food. This could also be related to the first hypothesis.
3) This property acts as a corridor between main areas of interest. This property
lies between a wetland and Endless Brook, both of which are main areas of
interest for many wildlife species. There is also the possibility of other high
use habitats on surrounding lands that have not been surveyed due to being
posted lands. This property has a steep cliff on the western facing side of the
mountain that provides a safe method of travel for many wildlife species.
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Evidence of larger species illustrates brief visits, but this could also be related
to the first hypothesis.
4) This property is a year-round home range for smaller species. Smaller species
such as mice and voles, or medium-sized species such as porcupines, require a
smaller home range than larger species. Therefore, this amount of land can
support their resource needs.
METHODS:
Transects—set paths one follows to collect data—were used to survey the
property. These transects ran NW to SE at a magnetic bearing of 326 degrees and were
set 50m apart up the slope. The bearing of these transects was determined by connecting
the two eastern most corners of the property, that were the farthest distance away from
each other, with a straight line. A right angle was created from that base line and then a
point was set to either side every 50m connected by a straight line. A compass bearing
was taken from these lines, reading 326 degrees.
A 50m measuring tape was used to find the starting point of each transect. From
there a compass was used to find a magnetic bearing of 326 degrees. Orange flagging
tape was tied around the tree that fell closest to the mark.
The reason for using this method was that it allowed for sampling to be done over
the whole property covering a large extent of the area, in a uniform fashion. This
prevented human bias from focusing on areas of interest. The reason the transects were
set up with the contour of the land was because this tends to simulate patterns of wildlife.
Every time clear sign was found along any of the transects, it was recorded on a
data sheet. These data sheets were designed to record data that may prove useful for
present and future applications. (See attached data sheets for details.)
Problems that arose during the sampling process are as follows:
-Transects set up in the field are not as straight or as accurate as they are on the map.
-Deer sign was too abundant for the data sheet technique. Recording patterns was the best
way to record deer sign.
-Distinguishing sign between small mammal species was difficult, if not impossible.
Track plates—a sheet of metal with suet from a candle—were placed along the runways
of small mammals to record the print of their feet. However, these plates weathered too
quickly and became unreadable.
-Posted land on all sides of the property created an arbitrary boundary that wildlife does
not need to follow. This inhibited my ability to see relationships at a landscape scale.
RESULTS:
The following is a list of species that have been documented on the Deane Nature
Preserve property as of May 1, 2005:
Mammals
Deer
Porcupine
Gray Squirrel
Chipmunk
Coyote
Reptiles/Amphibians
Garter Snake
Red Eft
Frog
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Birds
Partridge
Palliated Woodpecker
Turkey
Turkey Vulture
Blue Jay
Short Tailed Weasel
Small Mammals
Bobcat
Raven
Crow
Chickadee
Barred Owl
Nuthatch
From here forward, this document will cover only mammal populations.
Deer
Deer were the most abundant species found on this property between January and
May. Sign was found in every forest type, especially in hemlock stands where sign was
found on an average of about every ten meters. They seemed to all follow a specific
movement pattern, consisting of a main deer highway running up the slope and branching
off in a north to south pattern traveling mostly through the hemlock forest and western
facing cliff. The branching patterns seemed to start in heavily around transect #6 and
continued up the slope (See map). However, sign was found on every transect. The
hemlock forest showed mostly sign of deer beds and scat, whereas the deciduous and
mixed forest types showed mainly sign of browse—striped maple being the most heavily
browsed species. The following patterns were documented along transects 6 and up:
-Transect #6 showed mainly bedding areas in hemlock forest with openings revealing
browse.
-Transect 37 showed mainly bedding areas in hemlock forest. (Continues to #9).
-Transect #9 lies where the hemlock forest transitions into oak, hickory, maple, hop-horn
beam forest type. What little evidence is found here is mainly browse.
-Transect #11 starts to show evidence of bedding under pines, as well as browse.
-Transect #12 shows evidence similar to #11. This is also where the western facing cliff
starts.
Data could not continue to be documented beyond this point, due to the slippery
and dangerous conditions presented by the steepness of this slope. However, it has been
noted that deer use this cliff as a means for safe travel.
Porcupine
One porcupine was found; its den can be found along the southern boundary next
to an area that had been recently cut on the neighboring land. Interestingly, these was
little sign of activity in winter as well as little tree damage—which porpcupines are well
known for—in the surrounding area. This could be due to it spending time on the
neighboring property where data could not be collected.
Chipmunk
One chipmunk was found at the NW end of transect #9. It used a hollow log as its
den and travel system.
Gray Squirrel
Evidence of gray squirrel, mainly caches and tracks, was found in dry oak,
hickory, hop-horn beam, maple forest type as well as along the logging road. This is the
only place that evidence was recorded, but due to the close relationship between this
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species and oak mast, they are most likely to be found in many areas of the property, as
are oak trees.
Coyote
Sign of tracks and urine was found earlier in winter months. All sign was found
along transects 3, 4, and 5. The sign illustrated brief visits to the property passing straight
through from one end to the other, only stopping to urinate. This behavior indicates that
this property is a small portion of a larger home range, and/or is being used as a corridor
between areas of interest.
Short Tailed Weasel
Little evidence of this species was found on the property. Sign was found in dry
oak, hickory, hop-horn beam, maple forest as well as along the field edge.
Small Mammals
Unfortunately, sign such as tracks and patterns could not be distinguished
between species. Species that are expected to exist on this property are short-tailed shrew,
woodland vole, red-backed vole, meadow vole, white-footed mouse, deer mouse,
woodland jumping mouse, meadow jumping mouse, and perhaps the house mouse around
areas that have been influenced by human activity. Possible existing species that have
been recognized by the Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife as in need of
conservation are the long-tailed shrew, southern bog lemming, pygmy shrew, rock vole,
water shrew, woodland vole, hairy-tailed mole, masked shrew, and the Smokey shrew
(Vermont Fish and Wildlife). Identifying small mammal populations will be a main area
of concentration for warm weather studies, at which time live trapping can be done.
Bobcat
Sign of this species was only found once on this property during the winter
months. Tracks directly followed a deer trail and showed evidence of a sit down on a
small cliff face, signifying hunting techniques used by this species. This sign indicates
that this property is a small portion of a larger home range; it was using this property as a
corridor between areas of interest; or it represents seasonal activity using this land as a
prospect for food in the hard late winter months.
MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR WILDLIFE:
The current management is sufficient for now. There is no management for this
land as of not and there is no need for wildlife management. This land is composed of an
ecosystem that supports certain species of wildlife, and at this point, it seems to support a
fairly wide variety of wildlife at population levels in keeping with the resources of the
land. There could be possible management options for warm weather habitat, such as
opening areas in the hemlock forest, pending warm weather options. Also, management
at a landscape level will be required for the future. This basically refers to the
conservation of surrounding lands that as a whole make up a large enough area to support
home ranges for larger species—i.e. coyote and bobcat—as well as hot spot areas such as
the wetland and Endless brook, including its tributaries.
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Management for most forests focus on game and larger species. When
management is applied to this land, however, it will be essential to consider habitat for
small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. This will be the most difficult part of
managing for wildlife, but it must be done to preserve the integrity of the ecosystem.
FUTURE STUDIES:
This project will set a baseline for future studies by students and faculty relating
to subjects such as wildlife biology, mammalogy, and any study dealing with change over
time. This can also serve as a basis for developing educational material.
This project will also serve as information needed to design a positive impact
management plan that is in the works.
WORKS CITED:
Frederick A. Servello, Thomas L. Edwards, Bernice U. Constantin. Univerestiy of
Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/for/for37/for37.pdf
Vermont Fish and Wildlife.
http://www.vtfishandwildlife.com/library/Reports_and_Documents/Comprehensive_Wild
life_Conservation_Strategy/Mammal%20SGCN%20list.pdf
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About the Author:
Adam Adorisio, a member of the Progressive Program, completed a self-design major in
Forest Ecology and Management in 2007. Since then, Adam has worked as a free-lance
forester, creating forest management plans and completing stand inventories throughout
Vermont. In addition to his free-lance work, Adam has worked for three years as a logger
and forester for Fortek, Inc, a company based in Pawlet, Vermont.
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6. Establishing Baseline Resource
Impact Data for Trail Conditions at the
Deane Nature Preserve”
by Dr. Jim Harding and Jenna Calvi
Trustee’s Research Project
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Establishing Baseline Resource Impact Data for
Trail Conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve:
A Sustainable Recreation Research Project
Trustee’s Research Project
Summer 2007
FINAL REPORT
(1/16/08)
Principal Investigator: Dr. James Harding,
Associate Professor of Recreation and Natural Resources Management
Department of Recreation and Outdoor Studies
Student Research Assistant: Jenna Calvi
Natural Resources Management Major (‘09)
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Abstract
Between June and August 2007, a student, Jenna Calvi, and a faculty member, Jim
Harding, from Green Mountain College collected and analyzed data relating to trail
conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve, in Poultney/Wells, Vermont. The data
collection included information on trail length, width, slope, surface material in
addition to trail impediments. This trail information was analyzed with the
assistance of GIS software (ArcPad 7.0.1. and ArcGIS 9.2). The data analyses of the
trails at the Deane Nature Preserve are documented in this report. Identification of
important trail features is discussed and recommendations for future research and
management plans are given.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following individuals were helpful in the completion of this project. Dr. Jim
Graves made available data and reports compiled by students he has supervised—
these students gathered information on the natural and human history of the site.
This information was particularly helpful in writing up the Site Description. Dr.
John Van Hoesen was a great asset regarding the use of technology, specifically the
operation of the GPS unit and ArcPad and ArcGIS software. Without Dr. Van
Hoesen’s generous assistance, the data collection would have been quite onerous
and the production of the maps would have suffered in quality. Dr. Greg Brown
similarly assisted in the final stages of map production, helping with the
manipulation of graphics and features within each map. The student researcher,
Jenna Calvi was a help in the early stages of site surveying and data collection.
Former students, Matt Shannon and Adam George should be commended on their
efforts in laying out the New Trail. Finally, I’d like to thank Dean Mauhs-Pugh for
his efforts in establishing this research award. And a final note of gratitude goes to
the anonymous Green Mountain College Trustee whose financial contribution made
this research possible.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………… ii
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………. iii
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………….. . v
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………………….. vi
Project Description and Goals …………………………………………………………… 1
Timeline of work completed ……………………………………………………………… 2
Site Information …………………………………………………………………………… 2
Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………… 4
Data Analysis: Maps, Tables, Statistics, and Narrative ……………………………… 5
Results and Conclusions ………………………………………………………………… . 9
Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………….. 20
Appendix A: Data Collection Protocol ………………………………………………….. 21
Appendix B: Trail Sampling Form ………………………………………………………. 24
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Trail Attribute Data for Old Trail ………………………………………………. 7
Table 2: Trail Attribute Data for New Trail ………………………………………… … 9
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Aerial photo of the Deane Preserve with property boundaries………..….. 3
Figure 2: Old Trail (Blue) and New Trail (Red) at the Deane Nature Preserve .….. 6
Figure 3: Old Trail with trail segments identified through alternate color coding . 7
Figure 4: New Trail with trail segments identified through alternate color coding 8
Figure 5: Old and New Trail—Trail Segment Widths ...………………………….…. 11
Figure 6: Relationship between Trail Slope and Evidence of Erosion ……………. 12
Figure 7: Meters of trail length within seven slope categories (Old Trail)………… 13
Figure 8: Meters of trail length within seven slope categories (New Trail) ……….. 13
Figure 9: Old and New Trail—Trail Segment Slopes …………………………………. 14
Figure 10: Old and New Trail—Trail Segment Surface Material ………………….. 16
Figure 11: Old and New Trail—Trail Surface Material (Percents)………………… 16
Figure 12: Old and New Trail—Trail Impediments ………………………………... 17
Figure 13: Hypothetical relationship between use and impacts ……………………. 18
vi
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Project Description and Goals
The purpose of this research was to establish baseline data for trail conditions at
the Deane Nature Preserve. Prior to this research project, there existed no data on
the current resource conditions or a change in conditions over time. Ideally, any
natural resource-based recreation area will have some management system or tool
in place to monitor resource impacts to the site. A system monitoring trail
conditions is the most common as trail use is the predominate form of outdoor
recreation (Marion et al. 2006). The first step in any monitoring system is to
conduct an inventory of resource characteristics. For the purpose of this project,
this inventory included detailed data on trail conditions and environmental
conditions along the trail corridor. These trail/trail corridor conditions can be
monitored every year and can inform management decisions on how the trail should
be used and maintained. In absence of any baseline data, it is challenging to make
scientifically-based management decisions.
The goals of this project were to:
1. Identify the appropriate criteria to measure trail conditions at Deane
Nature Preserve.

This step of the project involved scholarly research devoted to
recreation resource impact studies and some site surveys.
Specifically, the PI reviewed the literature on how to identify and
measure resource impacts. A number of researchers working in the
field of Recreation Ecology/Sustainable Recreation have published
works detailing impact indicators and how they are to be measured
(see bibliography). Site surveys were conducted to determine how
well previously used impact indicators would correspond to the
trails at the Deane Nature Preserve.
2. Develop a sampling plan to measure trail conditions.

As the impact criteria were being determined, we also developed a
sampling plan or strategy for how to collect the data. This also
involved a literature review as well as site surveys. At this stage
we determined how to collect the data and how to set up our
inventory data sheet and database. Appendix A lists the trail data
collection protocol and Appendix B illustrates the Trail Sampling
Form. Previous work by Cole (1983) and Leung and Marion (1999)
provided the starting point for this step.
3. Conduct an inventory of trail conditions

The most intensive portion of this research was the field survey of
the trail conditions. Measurements included data on trail segment
length, width, slope, surface material, and presence/absence of
features or characteristics that would inhibit the effective use of the
trail (e.g., loose rocks, downed trees, potentially wet areas, severe
cross-slope, etc.) Additional data was collected on the predominant
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4. Set witness markers for yearly data collection

The original intent was to place witness markers along the trail to
allow for repeatable data collection over the years. These witness
markers were simple aluminum stakes that would have been sunk
into the ground adjacent to the trail and marked on a data sheet
with distance measures. These stakes would be retrievable with
the use of a metal detector during subsequent yearly surveying
sessions. However, once we began using the GPS unit for data
collection, this specific technique of the study goal was rendered
obsolete, as precise data points can now be located year after year
through longitude and latitude data.
5. Write a report on trail conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve for
Summer 2007.

This report serves as the baseline data for trail conditions at the
Deane Nature Preserve. The specific measures of resource
conditions are found in the data analysis section. Subsequent use
of the trail can be measured (i.e., how many trail users are there)
and resource conditions can be monitored for unacceptable changes
due to erosion, vegetative trampling, or widening of the trail, or
other measures of resource damage.
Timeline
The timeline of the work completed for this research project is graphically
represented below.
Identify Criteria
Develop Sample Plan
Conduct Inventory
Data Analysis
Report Write-up
June
July
August
XXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXX
XXXXXXX
Two changes were made from the original timeline. First, as mentioned above, we
did not set witness markers due to the use of the GPS unit. This step was originally
scheduled to occur between mid-June and late-July. Secondly, write-up of the final
report was delayed due to the increased teaching load assumed by the PI during the
Fall 2007 semester.
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Site Information
The site can be defined by both its physical characteristics and its social
characteristics. Physically, the site is defined by its topography, forest structure
and composition, water features, and native fauna. Social characteristics of the site
include historic and current land uses and land use patterns. Figure 1 below
represents an aerial photo of the Deane Nature Preserve with the property
boundary highlighted.
Figure 1: Aerial photo of the Deane Preserve with property boundaries.
Physical Characteristics: The Deane Nature Preserve is approximately 85 acres of
mixed hardwood and softwood forestland. Hardwoods found on site span the range
of typical northern hardwood species including Beech (Fagus grandifolia), Maples
(Acer saccharum, A. rubrum), Birches (Betula allegheniensis, B. lenta), Oaks
(Quercus alba, Q. prinus, Q. rubra), Hickories (Carya cordiformis, C. ovata) and
Hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana). Softwoods include Hemlock (Tsuga candadensis)
and Pines (Pinus resinosa, P. stroba). The property is primarily on the western
slope of St. Catherine Mountain. Soils range from xeric on the ridge top creating a
savannah-like forest community to hydric in various seeps and low-lying areas. A
number of bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species have been identified on
site including, wild turkey, red-tailed hawk, chestnut-sided warbler, blue jay,
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pileated woodpecker, white-tailed deer, moose, porcupine, coyote, garter snake, redspotted newts, spring peepers, and tree frogs.
Social Characteristics: The earliest documented human use of the land was for
sheep grazing beginning sometime in the 1800s. This use continued to some degree
until the 1970s. Remnants of stone walls and barbed wire pasture fencing are still
evident throughout the property. At least since the mid-1900s the land has been a
productive timber resource—a log road snaking from the meadow at the bottom of
the property to the oak-hickory savannah near the top is the most distinctive
anthropogenic feature on the site. The College assumed ownership of the property
in 2002 following a donation by Bill and Linda Osborne. Principle current uses of
the site revolve around education and recreation. The property remains a popular
destination for classes, student-faculty research, hiking, hunting, and camping.
There are two trails that were sampled in this project; henceforth referred to as the
“Old Trail” and the “New Trail”. The Old Trail is an old logging road that has been
the primary mode of access for all people visiting the Deane Nature Preserve. The
New Trail was designed through two different student projects and continues to be
constructed through a third student project. During Fall 2005, Professor Harding’s
REC 4031: Leisure Systems Design and Evaluation class developed a range of
alternative trails at the Deane Nature Preserve. This class produced six different
alternative trails. Following this, during the Spring 2006 semester, two students,
Matt Shannon and Adam George, in conjunction with the Deane Nature Preserve
Committee (Jim Graves, Teresa Coker, John Van Hoesen, Jim Harding, and Bill
Osborne) layed out plans for two alternative trails. These two trails would allow
visitors to see more of the property, to see a wider range of natural features, and to
decrease the steepness of the grade from the Old Trail. During Fall 2006, each
section of Images of Nature spent one to one and a half hours at Deane aiding in the
construction of the new trails. These students were armed with shovels, rakes, pick
axes, pry bars, and other tools necessary to define and carve two new trails onto the
property. Following the work conducted during the Fall 2006 semester,
approximately 1/3 of one trail was constructed and 1/5 of the other trail was
constructed. The trails remained in this level of completeness during the time
period of this research.
At some point between January 2007 and May 2007, evidence of the proposed new
trail on the northern half of the property disappeared. The yellow flagging marking
the proposed trail was removed. As a result, there are no on-site indications of
where this trail should be. Therefore, this research project focused on an inventory
of trail and trail corridor conditions for the Old Trail and the remaining flagged
New Trail.
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Methodology
Guided by previous researchers in recreation ecology/sustainable recreation, a data
sheet was developed that prescribed the range of data to be collected. The principle
unit of analysis of this research is the trail segment. Trail segments were deemed
to be the most meaningful unit of analysis as segments could be chiefly defined by
one or more of the particular variables of interest. For example, one segment may
differ from another based on slope, and may differ from another based on surface
material, and may differ from another based on width. In brief, these trail
segments are meant to capture the most meaningful information about the trail
regarding its physical condition and the potential for resource damage based on
recreation use.
Early in the data collection, trail segments were identified and relevant data were
logged onto data sheets (Appendix A). A range of tools were used by the Research
Assistant to gather the relevant data: measuring wheel, tape measure, clinometer,
compass, and 10 BAF prism.
A handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) with georeferencing softward (ArcPad
7.0.1) was purchased for this project. Unfortunately there was significant delay in
receiving this item from the vendor. As a result, this tool wasn’t employed until
nearly all of both trails had been surveyed using the data sheets. It became clear
that the entire range of data required for this project could have been collected
using just the handheld GPS unit. This, then, was done during the final stages of
data collection.
The method for collecting data using the data sheets was to walk a section of trail
with the measuring wheel stopping when that segment ended. Data were logged
onto the data sheet and this process was repeated for each trail segment.
The method for collecting the data using the GPS unit with ArcPad was to create a
new PolylineZ shape file which allowed three-dimensional data capture: X, Y, and Z
coordinates for various points along the trail. With this file open and the GPS
tracking system turned on, the Principal Investigator simply had to walk the trail
at a slow pace, stopping at the end of each trail section and logging the
corresponding trail data (trail segment width, surface material, and trail
impediments) into a customized data entry form. This method proved to be quite
favorable over the traditional data sheet (followed by database data entry). All the
data could be collected rather easily and this eliminated the need for three of the
tools (measuring wheel, clinometer, and compass). Further, this method eliminated
the tedious task of data entry as all the relevant information was put into a
database during data collection. Finally, the data analysis stage was greatly
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facilitated by having GIS software (ArcGIS 9.2) perform a range of analyses (see the
following section of this report), including maps, tables, and statistics.
Data Analysis
There were two trails sampled during this research project; the “Old Trail” and the
“New Trail.” Both trails are highlighted in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Old Trail (Blue) and New Trail (Red) at the Deane Nature Preserve.
As mentioned previously, the basic unit of analysis for this study was a trail
segment. A trail segment was identified by a combination of a range of trail
attributes, unique to that section. Trail segments are defined by: 1) Length, 2)
Width, 3) Slope, and 4) Surface Material. In addition, notation was made within
trail segments of the presence of trail impediments.
Old Trail Analysis
The Old Trail consists of 15 trail segments. These segments are illustrated through
alternate color-coding in Figure 3. The alternate color coding scheme is
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meaningless beyond providing a mechanism to easily distinguish one trail segment
from the next. Further, the relative length of each trail section can be visualized
through this as well.
Figure 3: Old Trail with trail segments identified through alternate color coding.
Table 1 summarizes all of the attribute data associated with the Old Trail,
including trail segment widths, lengths in meters, and trail segment slopes in
percents. Notations are also given for trail impediments where found.
Trail Segment (starting
from the top)
Surface
Material
Trail
Width
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Soil
Soil
Soil
Rock
Rock
Rock
Soil
Rock
Litter
Rock
Soil
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Wide
Trail
Impediments
Loose Rock
Water
Loose Rock
Loose Rock
Water
Loose Rock
Water
Loose Rock
Water
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Trail Segment
Length (meters)
113.342
55.665
56.389
114.653
94.536
68.229
79.338
37.858
45.417
52.239
48.121
Trail Segment
Slope (%)
4.5
23.7
17.2
11.9
15.5
18
20.2
13.2
8.8
11.5
8.3
12
13
14
15
Litter
Rock
Rock
Rock
Wide
Wide
Wide
Med.
Loose Rock
Loose Rock
35.9
49.872
83.067
60.172
24
33.1
7.1
11.5
Table 1: Trail Attribute Data for Old Trail.
New Trail Analysis
The New Trail consists of 17 trail segments. These segments are illustrated
through alternate color coding in Figure 4.
Figure 4: New Trail with trail segments identified through alternate color coding.
Table 2 on the following page summarizes all of the attribute data associated with
the New Trail, including trail segment widths, lengths in meters, and trail segment
slopes in percents. And trail impediments are noted where appropriate. Negative
values in the Trail Segment Slope (%) column indicate trail segments that run
downhill for their length when one is following the trail from the brook to the
summit.
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Trail Segment
from the
bottom #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Surface
Material
Litter
Litter
Litter
Soil
Soil
Litter
Soil
Rocks
Rocks
Rocks
Litter
Litter
Litter
Litter
Litter
Veg
Soil
Trail
Segment
Width
Wide
Medium
Wide
Narrow
Medium
Medium
Wide
Narrow
Narrow
Narrow
Narrow
Wide
Medium
Wide
Medium
Wide
Medium
Trail
Impediment
Brook
Roots
Vegetation
Rocks
Vegetation
Cross Slope
Cross Slope
Cross Slope
Cross Slope
Logs
Logs
Cross Slope
Logs
Trail Segment Length
(meters)
103.713
147.808
208.103
109.869
55.863
115.862
69.91
37.808
56.472
113.751
192.804
84.156
108.536
94.597
55.668
106.362
22.642
Trail Segment Slope
(%)
2.8
12
17.2
10.5
-13.1
-4.7
-15.3
13.5
8.9
7.6
13.8
12.5
6.7
9.2
18.5
14.1
6.6
Table 2: Trail Attribute Data for New Trail.
Results and Conclusions
The three months between June 1 and August 31, 2007 allowed for baseline data to
be collected on two trails at the Deane Nature Preserve. This baseline data will
allow for longitudinal interpretations of evolving resource conditions related to
trails. Further, this data will aid in future land-use decisions. The principle
outcome of this work is the inventory of trail conditions based on a number of
physical characteristics. Key findings include:





Trail Length
Trail Width
Trail Segment Slopes
Surface Materials
Trail Impediments
Trail Length:



Defined: Trail length simply refers to the overall length of each
trail as measured in both kilometers and miles. Trail segment
length (which is the principal unit of analysis for all trail features)
is given in meters.
Old Trail: 0.995 Kilometers = 0.615 miles
New Trail: 1.684 Kilometers = 1.09 miles
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
The New Trail is approximately 69% longer than the Old Trail.
Trail Segment Width:





Defined: Trail segments were inventoried as to their average
width. Three width classifications were used:
 Narrow: < 2 ft. in average width
 Medium: 2’ – 5’ in average width
 Wide: > 5’ in average width
Trail segment width is considered a high quality indicator of overall
trail condition. Increases in trail width are attributed to both type
and amount of trail use. As a result, the average width of trail
segments should serve to be a useful metric to monitor trail
conditions over many years. That said, there is some imprecision to
this trail attribute. As the New Trail is not fully constructed, some
trail segments that are flagged but not developed are categorized as
narrow, despite no evidence of tread width.
Old Trail: Largely of uniform width between 5-10 feet across for
94% of the trail length. The remaining 6% of the trail width varies
between 2-5 feet across. In all, the old trail is very wide compared
to a typical pedestrian trail--the standards for which are generally,
between 24”-36” wide.
New Trail: Highly variable in width. Six sections of the trail are
rated “Wide”; these sections tend to have unobstructed trail widths
of at least 5 feet across. However, five trail segments were rated as
“Narrow” which means the width across the trail was less than 24”
for the majority of that segment. The remaining six trail segments
were rated as “Medium” in width which translates to a trail
segment whose width fell between 2 and 5 feet.
Figure 5 illustrates the comparison of trail segments widths
between the two trails.
Page 194
Figure 5: Old and New Trail with trail segments color coded by relative trail
segment widths: Narrow (Yellow), Medium (Blue), Wide (Red).
Trail Segment Slopes

Defined: Slope is typically defined as Rise/Run. Thus, a 100 foot
long trail segment that gains 15 feet in elevation would be said to
have a 15% slope (15/100 x 100). The percent grade can be
converted to degrees by multiplying the arctangent by Rise/Run.
Thus, a 15% slope would have an 8.5o slope (arctangent x (15/100).
All discussions of slope in this document will be expressed as
percents. The overall slope of a trail is a moderately useful
indicator. However, a more relevant measure of slope is by trail
segment rather than overall trail length. A small number of very
steep sections (say greater than 15% slope), which can prove quite
challenging for the trail user, are easily obscured by slope
calculations when done over the whole length of the trail. A rough
guideline for trail construction is to aim for overall trail grade to
fall between 5 and 10% and to only exceed that percent under
certain circumstances and only for very short distances. For
example, a 10% grade in a trail segment shouldn’t exceed 30ft in
length, a 12% grade shouldn’t exceed 10ft in length, and a 14%
Page 195

Further trail slope is considered one of the most strongly tied trail
attributes to trail impacts, specifically erosion. Figure 6 illustrates
the relationship between trail slope and the percent of trail
segments experiencing erosion.
Percent of Trail Segments Experiencing Erosion by
Trail Segment Slope Categories (in degrees).
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
9-12%
12-15% 15-18% 18-21% 21-24% 24-27% 27-30%
Trail Slope (in percent)
Figure 6: Relationship between trail slope and evidence of erosion (Source: adapted
from Coleman, R. “Footpath Erosion in the English Lake District,” in Applied
Geography 1981).
Old Trail: The Old Trail is chiefly characterized by numerous runs of rather severe
slopes. The overall trail gained 140.9 meters in elevation over a length of 994.798
meters  (140.9/994.798) x 100 = 14.2% slope. Individual trail segments frequently
exceeded this overall grade for extended distances. Figure 7 illustrates the
distances (trail lengths in meters) in each numeric slope category.
Page 196
Old Trail: Meters of Trail Length within Seven Slope
Categories
0
5. -5
1
10 - 10
.1
15 - 15
.1
20 - 20
.1
25 - 25
.1
30 - 30
.1
-3
5
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Slope Categories (%)
Figure 7: Meters of trail length within seven slope categories (Old Trail)
New Trail: The New Trail has an overall slope of 8.5% with few trail segments
exceeding 10%. Figure 8 illustrates the distances (trail lengths in meters) in each
numeric slope category.
New Trail: Meters of Trail Length within Seven Slope
Categories
0
5. -5
1
10 - 10
.1
15 - 15
.1
20 - 20
.1
25 - 25
.1
30 - 30
.1
-3
5
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Slope Categories (%)
Figure 8: Meters of trail length within seven slope categories (New Trail)
Page 197
We can assign these slope percents into qualitative categories, such as Gentle,
Moderate, Steep, and Severe. For example, this analysis the following categories
were used:



Gentle/Moderate 
Steep

Severe

Slopes less than or equal to 10%
Slopes between 10.1% and 20%
Slopes greater than 20%
Using these categories we can compare the two trails based on their relative slopes.
Figure 9 illustrates this comparison.
Figure 9: Old and New Trail with trail segments color coded by relative trail
segment slopes: Yellow—Gentle/Moderate Slope, Blue—Steep Slope, Red—Severe
Slope.
Trail Surface Materials

Defined: Trail Surface Material refers to the predominant material
with which a pedestrian’s footwear comes in contact, per trail
segment. Trail surface material found at the Deane Preserve
Page 198



Old Trail: The predominant material of the Old Trail is rock. In
those segments where rock is the primary surface material (56.3%
of the trail length), the original vegetation, litter, and soil has been
removed from the trail. The removal of these other materials is due
in combination of the trail use both by mechanical means and foot
traffic as well as the design of the trail. There is a well-established
relationship between the amount and rate of erosion and trail
grade. This is a positive relationship with steeper slopes losing
more ground cover and losing it quicker than on less steep trails.
The second most predominate trail surface material was soil (over
35.6% of the trail length) followed by litter (over 8.1% of the trail
length). There were no trail segments defined as being largely
vegetative in surface material. Due to the length of time this trail
has been in existence and the amount of use it currently receives,
this is not surprising.
New Trail: Four different trail surface materials were identified for
the New Trail. Vegetation occurred over 6.3% of the trail, Rock
occurred over 12.4% of the trail, Soil occurred over 15.3% of the
trail and finally, Litter occurred over 66% of the trail. Conversely,
it is not surprising to see such a high percentage of litter for surface
material on the New Trail as this trail has seen very little use
compared to the old trail, leaf litter and plant material that would
otherwise be macerated or kicked off of the trail from foot traffic
remains on the trail surface as of the time of the data collection.
Figure 10 illustrates the predominant surface material found for
each trail segment.
Page 199
Figure 10: Old and New Trails with trail segments color coded by predominant
surface material: Yellow—Litter, Green—Vegetation, Blue—Soil, Red—Rock.

And Figure 11 gives a percentage comparison between the two
trails. For instance, about 8% of the Old Trail’s surface material is
litter, compared to over 40% for the New Trail.
60
50
40
Old Trail
30
New Trail
20
10
0
Vegetation
Litter
Soil
Rock
Figure 11: Comparison of the Old Trail and New Trail by Percent Coverage of Trail
Surface Material.
Trail Impediments

Defined: Trail impediments are defined as features that inhibit safe
pedestrian passage. In general, these features might include loose
Page 200


Old Trail: Over half (69.5%) of the trail length for the Old Trail has
some degree of trail impediment. Trail impediments are defined as
features which inhibit safe pedestrian passage. Although there are
only two types of trail impediment found on the old trail, singularly
or in concert they can be considered significant hazards. The two
trail impediments are the presence of loose rocks and frequent
water or mud on the trail surface.
New Trail: Much of the length of the New Trail also has areas of
trail impediments, however none of the trail impediment types from
the Old Trail are found on the New Trail and vice versa.
Impediments on the New Trail include the presence of roots,
encroaching vegetation, severe cross slope and downed logs. With
the exception of the presence of roots, each of the other trail
impediments is a function of the newness of the trail and certain
segments having not been developed.
Figure 12: Old and New Trails with trail segments color coded by trail impediment
types
Page 201
Conclusions
The New Trail is significantly longer than the Old Trail. Further, the New Trail
does not have any severely sloped trail segments with the majority of the trail (84%
of the length falling below 15% slope). There are issues with the new trail related to
cross-slope, downed woody material, and trail width. However, each of these factors
is a function of the trail not being fully constructed yet. In other words, the issues
of cross slope, downed woody material, and trail width will be rectified upon
completion of the trail construction.
The Old Trail will undoubtedly remain on site for a number of years regardless if it
receives continuous use. The current condition of the trail is such that natural
forms of soil and vegetative regeneration will take many decades to occur. Even
under ideal climatic conditions and no further trail use, we would not see any
significant change in the trail surface material for some time.
It should be noted that we do not consider the New Trail to be a replacement of the
Old Trail. Rather we see the Deane Preserve with two different trails providing
different sorts of experiences for hikers. We will certainly see more evidence of trail
impacts on the New Trail than on the Old Trail. This is relationship between
resource impacts as a function of amount of use. There is a non-linear relationship
between the amount of use and the amount of impact. Overwhelmingly, most of the
impact occurs under relatively low-levels of use and rather quickly. Figure 13
illustrates the hypothetical relationship between time and amount of impact and
rates of recovery following the elimination of visitor use.
Page 202
Low-resilience
Environment
IMPACT
High-resilience
Environment
TIME
Figure 13: Hypothetical relationship between amount of resource impacts and time
and rates of recovery following elimination of visitor use (Adapted from Cole 1994).
Although predicting the future is tricky business, of this we can be sure—trail
resource impacts will occur to the New Trail at the Deane Nature Preserve. At
issue is the degree and type of resource impacts that occur. With this report serving
as a baseline inventory of resource conditions, long-term monitoring of the trail can
be done. Further data collected regarding amount and type of use the trail receives
will prove to be a valuable addition to the process by which trail resources are
impacted over time.
Page 203
Bibliography
Cole, D.N. 1983. Assessing and Monitoring Backcountry Trail Conditions.
Research Paper INT 303. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture—Forest
Service, Intermountain Research Station.
Cole, D. N. 1994. Backcountry impact management: lessons from research.
Backcountry Recreation Management/Trends 31(3): 10-14.
Cole, D.N. 1995. Experimental trampling of vegetation: Relationship between
trampling intensity and vegetation response. Journal of Applied Ecology 32, 203214.
Cole, D.N. 2004. Impacts of hiking and camping on soils and vegetation: A review.
In Environmental Impacts of Ecotourism. R. Bucklye, ed. Wallingford, U.K.: CABI
Publishing, 41-60.
Coleman, R. 1981. Footpath erosion in the English Lake District. Applied
Geography 1: 121-131.
Hall, C.N., and F.R. Kuss. 1989. Vegetation alteration along trails in Shenandoah
National Park, Virginia. Biological Conservation 48, 211-227.
Leung, Y.-F., and J.L. Marion. 1999. The influence of sampling interval on the
accuracy of trail impact assessment. Landscape and Urban Planning 43, 167-179.
Leung, Y.-F., and J.L. Marion. 2000. Recreation impacts and management in
wilderness: A state-of-knowledge review. In Proceedings: Wilderness Science in a
Time of Change; Volume 5: Wilderness Ecosystems, Threats, and Management.
D.N. Cole, S.F. McCool, W.T. Borrie, and J. O’Laughlin, comps. Proceedings RMRSP-15-Vol-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture—Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, 23-48.
Marion, J.L, Y.-F., Leung, and S.K. Nepal. 2006. Monitoring trail conditions: New
Methodological Considerations. The George Wright Forum 23, 2: 36-49.
Page 204
APPENDIX A
Trail Data Collection Protocol
Page 205
Trail Data Collection Protocol
Trail Name
Trail A—River Trail
Trail B—Old Logging Road
Trail C—Northside Trail
Starting Point and Ending Point
 Description of features (trees, rocks, switchbacks, etc.) found at the start and end of
each trail section
Trail Segment
 Just start numbering each segment from the bottom up (i.e., the first/lowest trail
segment will be ‘01’).
Distance
 Using measuring wheel, calculate trail segment distance in meters
Slope In Degrees
 Using clinometer, calculate the slope of each trail segment in degrees (right-hand
column of numbers when looking through clinometer).
Compass Heading of Trail Segment
 Using compass, take a bearing of the trail segment—expressed in degrees.
Width M.P.
 Using tape measure, calculate the width of the trail in feet and inches at the midpoint
of the trail segment
Width 1st Quartile
 Using tape measure, calculate the width of the trail in feet and inches at the point 25%
of the distance from the start of the trail segment.
Width 3rd Quartile
 Using tape measure, calculate the width of the trail in feet and inches at the point 75%
of the distance from the start of the trail segment.
Trees Sampled M.P.
 Using the prism, count the number of “in” trees at the midpoint of the trail segment.
Tread Condition Characteristics:
 For the length of the trail segment, estimate to the nearest 10% (5% where necessary)
the aggregate lineal length occupied by any of the mutually exclusive tread surface
categories listed below. Be sure that your estimates sum to 100%.
Page 206
S-Soil:
All soil types including sand and organic soils, excluding organic litter unless
it is highly pulverized and occurs in a thin layer or smaller patches over bare
soil.
L-Litter:
Surface organic matter including intact or partially pulverized leaves,
needles, or twigs that mostly or entirely cover the tread substrate.
V-Vegetation:
Live vegetative cover including herbs, grasses, mosses rooted within the tread
boundaries. Ignore vegetation hanging in from the sides.
R-Rock:
Naturally-occurring rock (bedrock, boulders, rocks, cobble, or natural
gravel). If rock or native gravel is embedded in the tread soil estimate the
percentage of each and record separately.
M-Mud:
Seasonal or permanently wet and muddy soils that show imbedded foot or
hoof prints from previous or current use (omit temporary mud created by a
very recent rain). The objective is to include only transect segments that are
frequently muddy enough to divert trail users around problem.
G-Gravel:
Human-placed (imported) gravel.
RT-Roots:
W-Water:
Exposed tree or shrub roots.
WO-Wood:
Human-placed wood (water bars, bog bridging, cribbing).
O-Other:
Specify.
Portions of mud-holes with water or water from intercepted seeps or springs.
Page 207
APPENDIX B
Trail Sampling Form
24
Page 208
Trail Name:
Dist
(Meters) Slope in Compass Width
Deg. Heading M.P.
Trail Sampling Form
0 10
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50 60 70
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80 90 100
Date ________
G = Gravel
L = Litter
RT = Roots
V = Vegetation
R = Rock
WO = Wood, human-placed
O = Other (Specify)
20 30 40
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Tread Condition Characteristics
UTM:
Trail
Segment
(01, 02,
etc.)
Starting Point:
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UTM:
Width
Trees
3nd
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Quartile
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Ending Point:
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S = Soil
RT = Roots
W = Water
M = Mud
Page 209
About the Authors:
Dr. Jim Harding graduated from the University of Montana with a PhD. in Forestry and
has taught at Green Mountain College as an Associate Professor of Natural Resources
Management since 2003. In his teaching, Jim seeks to lessen the perceived distance
between humans and the natural world—humans are a part of the natural world, not apart
from it. He challenges students to consider both how humans impact the natural world
and how the natural world impacts us.
Jenna Calvi graduated in 2009 with a BS in Natural Resource Management from Green
Mountain College. She is now enrolled at the Vermont Law School, pursuing her
masters in Environmental Law.
Page 210

Compiled Student Research

Transcription

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