Russian Orthodox Church

Russian Orthodox Church
1
Russian Orthodox Church
Russian Orthodox Church
(Patriarchate of Moscow)
Church of Christ the Saviour in Moscow
Founder
Apostle Andrew, Vladimir the Great "Baptism of Rus'" in 988
Independence 1589
Recognition
as a separate patriarchate in 1589 by Ecumenical Patriarchate
Primate
Patriarch Kirill
Headquarters Moscow, Russia
Territory
Possessions
Russian Federation
Russia
Ukraine
Belarus
Moldova
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Tajikistan
Azerbaijan
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
Israel
Language
Church Slavonic
Adherents
150,000,000 adherents to Russian Orthodoxy estimated worldwide (2011)
Website
www.patriarchia.ru
[1]
[2]
The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; Russian: Русская Православная Церковь, Russkaya Pravoslavnaya
Tserkov') or, alternatively, the Moscow Patriarchate (Russian: Московский Патриархат, Moskovskiy
Patriarkhat,[3] also known as the Orthodox Christian Church of Russia, is a body of Christians who constitute an
Russian Orthodox Church
autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Moscow, in communion with the
other Eastern Orthodox Churches.
The ROC is often said[4] to be the largest of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world; including all the
autocephalous churches under its umbrella, its adherents number over 150 million worldwide—about half of the 300
million estimated adherents of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Among Christian churches, the Russian Orthodox
Church is second only to the Roman Catholic Church in terms of numbers of followers. Within Russia the results of
a 2007 VCIOM poll indicated that about 75% of the population considered themselves Orthodox Christians.[1] Up to
65% of ethnic Russians[5] [6] and a similar percentage of Belarusians and Ukrainians identify themselves as
"Orthodox".[1] [5] [7] According to figures released on February 2, 2010, the Church has 160 dioceses including
30,142 parishes served by 207 bishops, 28,434 priests and 3,625 deacons. There are 788 monasteries, including 386
for men and 402 for women.[8]
The ROC should not be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (also known as the Russian
Orthodox Church Abroad, or ROCOR), headquartered in New York. The ROCOR was instituted in the 1920s by
Russian communities outside then-Communist Russia who refused to recognize the authority of the Moscow
Patriarchate headed by Metropolitan Sergiy Stragorodsky. The two Churches reconciled on May 17, 2007; the
ROCOR is now a self-governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The ROC also should not be confused with the Orthodox Church in America (OCA), an Eastern Orthodox church in
North America.
Structure and organization
Administratively, the Church is organized in a hierarchical structure. The lowest level of organization, which
normally would be a single church building and its attendees, headed by a priest who acts as Father superior
(Russian: настоятель, nastoyatel), constitute a parish (Russian: приход, prihod). All parishes in a geographical
region belong to an eparchy (Russian: епархия — equivalent to a Western diocese). Eparchies are governed by
bishops (Russian: епископ, episcop or архиерей, archiereus). There are around 130 Russian Orthodox eparchies
worldwide.
Further, some eparchies are organized into exarchates, or autonomous churches. Currently these include the
Orthodox Churches of the Belarusian exarchate; the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia; the Latvian, the
Moldovan, and the Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate. The Chinese and Japanese Orthodox
Churches were granted full autonomy by the Moscow Patriarchate, but this autonomy is not universally recognized.
Smaller eparchies are usually governed by a single bishop. Larger eparchies, exarchates, and autonomous Churches
are governed by a Metropolitan archbishop and sometimes also have one or more bishops assigned to them.
The highest level of authority in the Church is vested in the Local Council (Pomestny Sobor), which comprises all
the bishops as well as representatives from the clergy and laypersons. Another organ of power is the Bishops'
Council (Архиерейский Собор). In the periods between the Councils the highest administrative powers are exercised
by the Holy Synod which includes 7 permanent members and is chaired by the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia,
Primate of the Moscow Patriarchate.
Although the Patriarch of Moscow has extensive powers, unlike the Pope he does not have direct authority over
matters pertaining to faith. Some of the most fundamental issues (such as the ones responsible for the
Catholic-Orthodox split) can not be adequately and definitively addressed by a meeting of the Local Council and
have to be dealt with by an council of representatives from all Eastern Orthodox Churches. The last time such a
council was held was in 787. In 787 there was only a single Christian church. The split into Western and Eastern
parts occurred with the Great Schism in the 11th century.
2
Russian Orthodox Church
History
The Christian community that became the Russian Orthodox Church is traditionally said to have been founded by the
Apostle Andrew, who is thought to have visited Scythia and Greek colonies along the northern coast of the Black
Sea. According to one of the legends, Andrew reached the future location of Kiev and foretold the foundation of a
great Christian city.[9] [10] The spot where he reportedly erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrew's Cathedral.
By the end of the first millennium AD, eastern Slavic lands started to come under the cultural influence of the
Eastern Roman Empire. In 863-869, Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius translated parts of the Bible into Old Church
Slavonic language for the first time, paving the way for the Christianization of the Slavs. There is evidence that the
first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatios,
circa 866-867 AD.
By the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of
Greek and Byzantine priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first
ruler of Kievan Rus to convert to Christianity, either in 945 or 957. Her grandson, Vladimir the Great, made Kievan
Rus' a Christian state.
As a result of the Christianization of Kievan Rus' in 988, Prince Vladimir I of Kiev officially adopted Byzantine Rite
Christianity — the religion of the Eastern Roman Empire — as the state religion of Kievan Rus'. This date is often
considered the official birthday of the Russian Orthodox Church. Thus, in 1988, the Church celebrated its millennial
anniversary. It therefore traces its apostolic succession through the Patriarch of Constantinople.
The Kievan church was originally a Metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Byzantine
patriarch appointed the metropolitan who governed the Church of Rus'. The Metropolitan's residence was originally
located in Kiev. As Kiev was losing its political, cultural, and economical significance due to the Mongol invasion,
Metropolitan Maximus moved to Vladimir in 1299; his successor, Metropolitan Peter moved the residence to
Moscow in 1325.
Monastic reform of St. Sergius and its aftermath
Following the tribulations of the Mongol invasion, the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival and life of the
Russian state. Despite the politically motivated murders of Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver, the Mongols
were generally tolerant and even granted tax exemption to the Church. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and
Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tatar oppression, and to expand both economically and
spiritually.
The monastic reform of St. Sergius, which culminated in the foundation of the monastery known as Trinity-St.
Sergius Lavra near Moscow, was one of the defining events of medieval Russian history. The monastery became the
setting for the unprecedented flourishing of transcendent, spiritual art, exemplified by the work of Andrey Rublev,
among others. The followers of Sergius founded four hundred monasteries, thus greatly extending the geographical
extent of his influence and authority.
The spiritual resurgence of the late 14th century, associated with the names of St. Sergius, the missionary Stephen of
Perm and the writer Epiphanius the Wise, contributed to the consolidation of the Russian nation. Lev Gumilev has
observed that, having received the blessing of St. Sergius to make a stand against the Tatars, "the Suzdalians,
Vladimirians, Rostovians, Pskovians went to the Kulikovo Field as representatives of their principalities but returned
after the victory as Russians, although living in different towns",[11] a dictum which has been endorsed by modern
church functionaries.[12]
At the Council of Florence (1439), a group of Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Church leaders agreed upon
terms of reunification of the two branches of Christianity. The Russian Prince Basil II of Moscow, however, rejected
the concessions to the Catholic Church and forbade the proclamation of the acts of the Council in Russia in 1452,
after a short-lived East-West reunion. Metropolitan Isidore was in the same year expelled from his position as an
3
Russian Orthodox Church
4
apostate.
In 1448, the Russian Church became independent from the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Metropolitan Jonas,
installed by the Council of Russian bishops in 1448, was given the title of Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia.
This was just five years before the fall of Constantinople in 1453. From this point onward the Russian Orthodox
Church saw Moscow as the Third Rome, legitimate successor to Constantinople, and the Primate of Moscow as head
of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Consolidation and codification
The reign of Ivan III and his successor was plagued by numerous heresies and controversies. One party, led by Nil
Sorsky and Vassian Kosoy, called for secularisation of monastic properties. They were oppugned by the influential
Joseph of Volotsk, who defended ecclesiastical ownership of land and property. The sovereign's position fluctuated,
but eventually he threw his support to Joseph. New sects sprang up, some of which showed a tendency to revert to
Mosaic law: for instance, the archpriest Aleksei converted to Judaism after meeting a certain Zechariah the Jew.
Monastic life flourished in Russia, focusing on prayer and spiritual growth. The disciples of St. Sergius left the
Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra to found hundreds of monasteries across Russia. Some of the most famous monasteries
were located in the Russian North, even as far north as Pechenga, in order to demonstrate how faith could flourish in
the most inhospitable lands. The richest landowners of medieval Russia included Joseph Volokolamsk Monastery,
Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and the Solovetsky Monastery. In the 18th century, the three greatest monasteries
were recognized as lavras, while those subordinated directly to the Synod were labelled stauropegic.
In the 1540s, Metropolitan Macarius codified Russian hagiography and convened a number of church synods, which
culminated in the Hundred Chapter Synod of 1551. This assembly unified Church ceremonies and duties in the
whole territory of Russia. At the demand of the Church hierarchy the government canceled the tsar's jurisdiction over
ecclesiastics. Reinforced by these reforms, the Church felt strong enough to challenge the policies of the tsar. Philip
of Moscow, in particular, decried many abuses of Ivan the Terrible, who eventually engineered his defrocking and
murder.
Autocephaly and schism
During the reign of tsar Theodor I his brother-in-law Boris Godunov contacted the
Ecumenical Patriarch, who "was much embarrassed for want of funds,"[13] with a view to
establishing a patriarchal see in Moscow. As a result of Godunov's efforts, Metropolitan Job
of Moscow became in 1589 the first Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus', making the Russian
Church autocephalous. The four other patriarchs have recognized the Moscow Patriarchate as
one of the five honourable Patriarchates. During the next half a century, when the tsardom
was weak, the patriarchs (notably Hermogenes and Philaret) would help run the state along
with (and sometimes instead of) the tsars.
At the urging of the Zealots of Piety, Patriarch Nikon resolved in 1652 to centralize power
that had been distributed locally, while conforming Russian Orthodox rites and rituals to
those of the Greek Orthodox Church, as interpreted by pundits from the Kiev Ecclesiastical
Academy. For instance he insisted that Russian Christians cross themselves with three
fingers, rather than the then-traditional two. This aroused antipathy among a substantial section of the believers who
saw the changed rites as heresy, although the extent to which these changes can be regarded as minor or major ritual
significance remains open to debate. After the implementation of these innovations at the church council of
1666–1667, the Church anathematized and suppressed those who acted contrary to them with the support of
Muscovite state power. These traditionalists became known as "Old Believers" or "Old Ritualists".
The three-barred
cross of the Russian
Orthodox Church
Russian Orthodox Church
Although Nikon's far-flung ambitions of
steering the country to a theocratic form of
government precipitated his defrocking and
exile, Tsar Aleksey deemed it prudent to
uphold many of his innovations. During the
Schism of the Russian Church, the Old
Ritualists were separated from the main
body of the Orthodox Church. Archpriest
Avvakum Petrov and many other opponents
of the church reforms were burned at the
stake, either forcibly or voluntarily. Another
prominent figure within the Old Ritualists'
movement, Boyarynya Morozova, was
An Old Believer Priest, Nikita Pustosviat, Disputing with Patriarch Joachim the
starved to death in 1675. Others escaped
Matters of Faith. Painting by Vasily Perov
from the government persecutions to Siberia
and other inhospitable lands, where they would live in semi-seclusion until the modern times.
Peter the First
With the ascension of Emperor Peter the Great to the throne of Russia (1682–1725), with his radical modernization
of Russian government, army, dress, and manners, Russia became a formidable political power.
Expansion
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Russian Orthodox Church experienced a vast geographic expansion. In
the following two centuries, missionary efforts stretched out across Siberia into Alaska, then into California which
would become part of the United States. Eminent people on that missionary effort included St. Innocent of Irkutsk
and St. Herman of Alaska. In emulation of Stephen of Perm, they learned local languages and translated the gospels
and the hymns. Sometimes those translations required the invention of new systems of transcription.
In the aftermath of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ottomans (supposedly acting on behalf of the Russian regent Sophia
Alekseyevna) pressured the Patriarch of Constantinople into transferring the Metropoly of Kiev from the jurisdiction
of Constantinople to that of Moscow. The controversial transfer brought millions of faithful and half a dozen
dioceses under the pastoral and administrative care of the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus', leading to the significant
Ukrainian domination of the Russian Orthodox Church, which continued well into the 18th century, with
Theophanes Prokopovich, Epiphanius Slavinetsky, Stephen Yavorsky and Demetrius of Rostov being among the
most notable representatives of this trend.[14]
In 1700, after Patriarch Adrian's death, Peter the Great prevented a successor from being named, and in 1721,
following the advice of Feofan Prokopovich, Archbishop of Pskov, the Holy and Supreme Synod was established
under Archbishop Stephen Yavorsky to govern the church instead of a single primate. This was the situation until
shortly after the Russian Revolution of 1917, at which time the Local Council (more than half of its members being
lay persons) adopted the decision to restore the Patriarchy. On November 5 (according to the Julian calendar) a new
patriarch, Tikhon, was named through casting lots.
The late 18th century saw the rise of starchestvo under Paisiy Velichkovsky and his disciples at the Optina
Monastery. This marked a beginning of a significant spiritual revival in the Russian Church after a lengthy period of
modernization, personified by such figures as Demetrius of Rostov and Platon of Moscow. Aleksey Khomyakov,
Ivan Kireevsky, and other lay theologians with Slavophile leanings elaborated some key concepts of the renovated
Orthodox doctrine, including that of sobornost. The resurgence of Eastern Orthodoxy was reflected in Russian
5
Russian Orthodox Church
literature such as the figure of Starets Zosima in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Brothers Karamazov.
Fin-de-siècle religious renaissance
During the final decades of the imperial order in Russia many educated
Russians sought to return to the Church and revitalize their faith. No
less evident were non-conformist paths of spiritual searching known as
"God-Seeking". Writers, artists, and intellectuals in large numbers
were drawn to private prayer, mysticism, spiritualism, theosophy, and
Eastern religions. A fascination with elemental feeling, with the
unconscious and the mythic, proliferated along with visions of coming
catastrophe and redemption.
The visible forms of God-Seeking were extensive. A series of
'Religious-Philosophical Meetings' were held in St. Petersburg in
1901–1903, bringing together prominent intellectuals and clergy to
explore together ways to reconcile the Church with the growing of
undogmatic desire among the educated for spiritual meaning in life.
Especially after 1905, various religious societies arose, though much of
this religious upheaval was informal: circles and salons, séances,
Russian Orthodox Church in Dresden, built in the
private prayer. Some clergy also sought to revitalize Orthodox faith,
1870s
most famously the charismatic Father John of Kronstadt, who, until his
death in 1908 (though his followers remained active long after), emphasized Christian living and sought to restore
fervency and the presence of the miraculous in liturgical celebration. In 1909, a sensation-creating volume of essays
appeared under the title Vekhi ("Landmarks" or "Signposts"), authored by a group of leading left-wing intellectuals,
including Sergei Bulgakov, Peter Struve, and former Marxists, who bluntly repudiated the materialism and atheism
that had dominated the thought of the intelligentsia for generations as leading inevitably to failure and moral disaster.
One sees a similarly renewed vigor and variety in religious life and spirituality among the lower classes, especially
after the upheavals of 1905. Among the peasantry we see widespread interest in spiritual-ethical literature and
non-conformist moral-spiritual movements; an upsurge in pilgrimage and other devotions to sacred spaces and
objects (especially icons); persistent beliefs in the presence and power of the supernatural (apparitions, possession,
walking-dead, demons, spirits, miracles, and magic); the renewed vitality of local "ecclesial communities" actively
shaping their own ritual and spiritual lives, sometimes in the absence of clergy, and defining their own sacred places
and forms of piety; and the proliferation of what the Orthodox establishment branded as 'sectarianism', including
both non-Orthodox Christian denominations, notably Baptists, and various forms of deviant popular Orthodoxy and
mysticism.[15]
6
Russian Orthodox Church
7
Russian revolution
In 1914 in Russia, there were 55,173 Russian Orthodox churches and 29,593 chapels, 112,629 priests and deacons,
550 monasteries and 475 convents with a total of 95,259 monks and nuns.
The year 1917 was a major turning point for the history of Russia, and
also the Russian Orthodox Church. The Russian empire was dissolved
and the Tsarist government - which had granted the Church numerous
privileges - was overthrown. After a few months of political turmoil,
the Bolsheviks took power in October 1917 and declared a separation
of church and state. Thus the Russian Orthodox Church found itself
without official state backing for the first time in its history. One of the
first decrees of the new Communist government (issued in January
1918) declared freedom from "religious and anti-religious
propaganda". This led to a marked decline in the power and influence
of the Church. The Church was also caught in the crossfire of the
Russian Civil War that began later the same year, and many leaders of
the Church supported what would ultimately turn out to be the losing
side (the White movement).
Tsar Alexis praying before the relics of
The Russian Orthodox Church supported the White Army in the
Metropolitan Philip
Russian Civil War (see White movement) after the October
Revolution. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church.
Even before the end of the civil war and the establishment of the Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox Church came
under pressure from the secular Communist government. The Soviet government stood on a platform of antireligion,
viewing the church as a "counter-revolutionary" organization and an independent voice with a great influence in
society. While the Soviet Union officially claimed religious tolerance, in practice the government discouraged
organized religion and did much to remove religious influence from Soviet society.
Russian Orthodox Church
8
Under Communist rule
Further information: Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union
After the October Revolution of November 7, 1917, the officially
proclaimed objective of the Soviet Union was to unite all of the people
of the world in a communist state free of "capitalist exploitation" (see
Communist International). In such a worldview any ethnic heritage
closely tied to traditional religion and its clergy was targeted by the
Soviet authorities.[16] [17]
The Soviet Union was the first state to have as an ideological objective
the elimination of religion. Toward that end, the Communist regime
confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and
propagated atheism in the schools. Actions toward particular religions,
however, were determined by State interests, and most organized
religions were never outlawed. Orthodox priests and believers were
variously tortured, sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental
hospitals, and executed.[18] [19] Many Orthodox (along with people of
other faiths) were also subjected to psychological punishment or
torture and mind control experimentation in order to force them give
up their religious convictions.[20] [21]
Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow who anathematized
the communist government
Thousands of churches and monasteries were taken over by the
government and either destroyed or converted to secular use. It was impossible to build new churches. Practising
Orthodox Christians were restricted from prominent careers and membership in communist organizations (the party,
the Komsomol). Anti-religious propaganda was openly sponsored and encouraged by the government, which the
Church was not given an opportunity to publicly respond to. The government youth organization, the Komsomol,
encouraged its members to vandalize Orthodox Churches and harass worshippers. Seminaries were closed down, and
the church was restricted from using the press.
The history of Orthodoxy (and other religions) under Communism was not limited to this story of repression and
secularization. Bolshevik policies toward religious belief and practice tended to vacillate over time between, on the
one hand, a utopian determination to substitute secular rationalism for what they considered to be an unmodern,
"superstitious" worldview and, on the other, pragmatic acceptance of the tenaciousness of religious faith and
institutions. In any case, religious beliefs and practices did persist, not only in the domestic and private spheres but
also in the scattered public spaces allowed by a state that recognized its failure to eradicate religion and the political
dangers of an unrelenting culture war.[22]
In November 1917, following the collapse of the tsarist government, a council of the Russian Orthodox church
reestablished the patriarchate and elected the metropolitan Tikhon as patriarch. But the new Soviet government soon
declared the separation of church and state and nationalized all church-held lands. These administrative measures
were followed by brutal state-sanctioned persecutions that included the wholesale destruction of churches and the
arrest and execution of many clerics. The Russian Orthodox church was further weakened in 1922, when the
Renovated Church, a reform movement supported by the Soviet government, seceded from Patriarch Tikhon's
church (also see the Josephites and the Russian True Orthodox Church), restored a Holy Synod to power, and
brought division among clergy and faithful.
In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.[23]
Russian Orthodox Church
Stalin era
The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had
the largest number of faithful. Nearly all of its clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to labor camps.
Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited.
The sixth sector of the OGPU, led by Yevgeny Tuchkov, began aggressively arresting and executing bishops, priests,
and devout worshippers, such as Metropolitan Veniamin in Petrograd in 1922 for refusing to accede to the demand to
hand in church valuables (including sacred relics). In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox
Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1935, 130,000 Orthodox
priests were arrested. Of these, 95,000 were put to death. Many thousands of victims of persecution became
recognized in a special canon of saints known as the "new martyrs and confessors of Russia".
In January 1918 Patriarch Tikhon proclaimed anathema to the Bolsheviks (without explicitly naming them),[24]
which further antagonized relations. When Tikhon died in 1925, the Soviet authorities forbade patriarchal elections
to be held. Patriarchal locum tenens (acting Patriarch) Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky, 1887–1944), going
against the opinion of a major part of the church's parishes, in 1927 issued a declaration accepting the Soviet
authority over the church as legitimate, pledging the church's cooperation with the government and condemning
political dissent within the church. By this declaration Sergius granted himself authority that he, being a deputy of
imprisoned Metropolitan Peter and acting against his will, had no right to assume according to the XXXIV Apostolic
canon, which led to a split with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia abroad and the Russian True
Orthodox Church (Russian Catacomb Church) within the Soviet Union, as they allegedly remained faithful to the
Canons of the Apostles, declaring the part of the church led by Metropolitan Sergius schism, sometimes coined
Sergianism. Due to this canonical disagreement it is disputed which church has been the legitimate successor to the
Russian Orthodox Church that had existed before 1925.[25] [26] [27] [28]
With aid from the Methodist Church, two Russian Orthodox seminaries were reopened.[29] Moreover, in the 1929
elections, the Orthodox Church attempted to formulate itself as a full-scale opposition group to the Communist
Party, and attempted to run candidates of its own against the Communist candidates. Article 124 of the 1936 Soviet
Constitution officially allowed for freedom of religion within the Soviet Union, and along with initial statements of it
being a multi-candidate election, the Church again attempted to run its own religious candidates in the 1937
elections. However the support of multicandidate elections was retracted several months before the elections were
held and in neither 1929 nor 1937 were any candidates of the Orthodox Church elected.[30]
After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to
intensify patriotic support for the war effort. On September 4, 1943, Metropolitans Sergius, Alexy and Nikolay had a
meeting with Stalin and received a permission to convene a council on September 8, 1943, which elected Sergius
Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. This is considered by some violation of the XXX Apostolic canon, as no
church hierarch could be consecrated by secular authorities.[25] A new patriarch was elected, theological schools
were opened, and thousands of churches began to function. The Moscow Theological Academy Seminary, which
had been closed since 1918, was re-opened.
Between 1945 and 1959 the official organization of the church was greatly expanded, although individual members
of the clergy were occasionally arrested and exiled. The number of open churches reached 25,000. By 1957 about
22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign
against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000
churches remained active. Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile
clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB. This decline was evident from the dramatic decay of many of the
abandoned churches and monasteries that were previously common in even the smallest villages from the
pre-revolutionary period.
9
Russian Orthodox Church
Persecution under Khrushchev and Brezhnev
A new and widespread persecution of the church was subsequently instituted under the leadership of Nikita
Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev. A second round of repression, harassment and church closures took place
between 1959 and 1964 during the rule of Nikita Khrushchev.
The Church and the government remained on unfriendly terms until 1988. In practice, the most important aspect of
this conflict was that openly religious people could not join the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which meant
that they could not hold any political office. However, among the general population, large numbers remained
religious.
Some Orthodox believers and even priests took part in the dissident movement and became prisoners of conscience.
The Orthodox priests Gleb Yakunin, Sergiy Zheludkov and others spent years in Soviet prisons and exile for their
efforts in defending freedom of worship.[31] Among the prominent figures of that time were Father Dmitri Dudko[32]
and Father Aleksandr Men. Although he tried to keep away from practical work of the dissident movement intending
to better fulfil his calling as a priest, there was a spiritual link between Fr Aleksander and many of the dissidents. For
some of them he was a friend, for others - a godfather, for many (including Yakunin) - spiritual father.[33]
By 1987 the number of functioning churches in the Soviet Union had fallen to 6893 and the number of functioning
monasteries to just 18. In 1987 in the Russian SFSR, between 40% and 50% of newborn babies (depending on the
region) were baptized and over 60% of all deceased received Christian funeral services.
Glasnost and evidence of KGB links
Beginning in the late 1980s, under Mikhail Gorbachev, the new political and social freedoms resulted in many
church buildings being returned to the church, to be restored by local parishioners. A pivotal point in the history of
the Russian Orthodox Church came in 1988 - the millennial anniversary of the Baptism of Kievan Rus'. Throughout
the summer of that year, major government-supported celebrations took place in Moscow and other cities; many
older churches and some monasteries were reopened. An implicit ban on religious propaganda on state TV was
finally lifted. For the first time in the history of Soviet Union, people could see live transmissions of church services
on television.
Gleb Yakunin, a critic of the Moscow Patriarchate who was one of those who briefly gained access to the KGB
archive documents in the early 1990s, argued that the Moscow Patriarchate was "practically a subsidiary, a sister
company of the KGB".[34] Critics charge that the archives showed the extent of active participation of the top ROC
hierarchs in the KGB efforts overseas.[35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] George Trofimoff, the highest-ranking US military
officer ever indicted for, and convicted of, espionage by the United States and sentenced to life imprisonment on
September 27, 2001, had been "recruited into the service of the KGB"[41] by Igor Susemihl (a.k.a. Zuzemihl), a
bishop in the Russian Orthodox Church (subsequently, a high-ranking hierarch - the ROC Metropolitan Iriney of
Vienna, who died in July 1999[42] ).
Konstanin Kharchev, former chairman of Soviet Council on Religious Affairs, explained: "Not a single candidate for
the office of bishop or any other high-ranking office, much less a member of Holy Synod, went through without
confirmation by the Central Committee of the CPSU and the KGB".[38] Professor Nathaniel Davis points out: "If the
bishops wished to defend their people and survive in office, they had to collaborate to some degree with the KGB,
with the commissioners of the Council for Religious Affairs, and with other party and governmental authorities.".[43]
Patriarch Alexy II, acknowledged that compromises were made with the Soviet government by bishops of the
Moscow Patriarchate, himself included, and publicly repented of these compromises [44]
10
Russian Orthodox Church
Post-Soviet recovery and problems
Under Patriarch Alexy II (1990-2008)
Metropolitan Alexy of Leningrad, ascended the Patriarchal throne in 1990 and presided over the partial return of
Orthodox Christianity to Russian society after 70 years of repression, transforming the ROC to something
resembling a state religion; some 15,000 churches had been re-opened or built by the end of his reign. The Church
also sought to fill the ideological vacuum left by the end of communism, and even, in the opinion of some analysts,
became "a separate branch of power".[45]
In August 2000 the ROC adopted its Basis of the Social Concept[46] and in July 2008 its Basic Teaching on Human
Dignity, Freedom and Rights.[47]
Under Patriarch Alexy, there were difficulties in the relationship between the Russian Orthodox Church and the
Vatican, especially since 2002, when Pope John Paul II created a Catholic diocesan structure for Russian territory.
The leadership of the Russian Church saw this action as a throwback to prior attempts by the Vatican to proselytize
the Russian Orthodox faithful to become Roman Catholic. This point of view was based upon the stance of the
Russian Orthodox Church (and the Eastern Orthodox Church) that the Church of Rome is in schism, after breaking
off from the Orthodox Church. The Catholic Church, on the other hand, while acknowledging the primacy of the
Russian Orthodox Church in Russia, believed that the small Catholic minority in Russia, in continuous existence
since at least the 18th century, should be served by a fully developed church hierarchy with a presence and status in
Russia, just as the Russian Orthodox Church is present in other countries (including constructing a cathedral in
Rome, near the Vatican).
There had been increasing friction between the
Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Russian Orthodox
Church, one example of such friction could be
observed at the meeting in Ravenna in early October
2007 of participants in the Orthodox-Catholic
Dialogue: the representative of the Moscow
Patriarchate, Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev, walked out of
the meeting due to the presence of representatives from
the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church which is in
the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. At the
meeting, prior to the departure of the Russian
Russian Orthodox Episcopal Consecration by Patriarch Alexius II of
delegation, there were also substantive disagreements
Moscow and All Russia
about the wording of a proposed joint statement among
the Orthodox representatives.[48] After the departure of the Russian delegation, the remaining Orthodox delegates
approved the form which had been advocated by the representatives of the Ecumenical Patriarchate.[49] The
disagreement occurred because Moscow insists that Estonia is its canonical territory for historical reasons, and has
incorporated Orthodox parishes in Estonia into the Orthodox Church of Estonia, a self-governing part of the Church
of Russia. The Ecumenical Patriarchate, however, has set up its own jurisdiction in Estonia, called the Estonian
Apostolic Orthodox Church, an action that prompted the Holy Synod of the Church of Russia to announce, in 2000,
that it will not take part in any pan-Orthodox meeting where members of the EAOC are present. The Ecumenical
See's representative in Ravenna said that Hilarion's position "should be seen as an expression of authoritarianism
whose goal is to exhibit the influence of the Moscow Church. But like last year in Belgrade, all Moscow achieved
was to isolate itself once more since no other Orthodox Church followed its lead, remaining instead faithful to
Constantinople."[50] [51]
Canon Michael Bourdeaux, former president of Keston Institute, believed in January 2008 that "the Moscow
Patriarchate acts as though it heads a state church, while the few Orthodox clergy who oppose the church-state
11
Russian Orthodox Church
12
symbiosis face severe criticism, even loss of livelihood."[52] Such view is backed up by other Russia's political life
observers.[53] Clifford J. Levy of New York Times wrote in April 2008: «Just as the government has tightened
control over political life, so, too, has it intruded in matters of faith. The Kremlin’s surrogates in many areas have
turned the Russian Orthodox Church into a de facto official religion, warding off other Christian denominations that
seem to offer the most significant competition for worshipers. <...> This close alliance between the government and
the Russian Orthodox Church has become a defining characteristic of Mr. Putin’s tenure, a mutually reinforcing
choreography that is usually described here as working “in symphony”.»[54]
Throughout Patriarch Alexy's reign, the massive-scale program of costly restoration of re-opened churches and
monasteries (as well as the construction of new ones) was criticized for having eclipsed the Church's principal
mission of evangelizing.[55] [56]
On 5 December 2008, the day of Patriarch Alexy's death, the Financial Times said: "While the church had been a
force for liberal reform under the Soviet Union, it soon became a center of strength for conservatives and nationalists
in the post-communist era. Alexei's death could well result in an even more conservative church."[57]
Under Patriarch Kirill
On January 27, 2009, the ROC Local Council (the 2009 Pomestny Sobor) elected Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk
Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus;[58] [59] with 508 votes out of 700.[60] ) He was enthroned on February 1, 2009.
In 2010 news broke of a child abuse scandal involving a monastery in the city of Vladimir where children are said to
have been "hit multiple times, forced to do agricultural labor from 3 a.m. till 10 p.m. with 30-minute breaks for
breakfast and lunch".[61]
In February 2011 the official spokesman of the Synodal Department of the Patriarchate denied reports that the
Church was about to merge with the Russian State. He said, "The Russian Church has never in its history been so
independent of the state as it is now. It treasures this independence. However, it also treasures the dialogue that it has
with the modern state. No doubt, this dialogue cannot be called easy, but it can be called constructive."[62]
Orthodox Church in America (OCA)
Russian traders settled in Alaska during the 18th century. In 1740, a
Divine Liturgy was celebrated on board a Russian ship off the Alaskan
coast. In 1794, the Russian Orthodox Church sent
missionaries—among them Saint Herman of Alaska -- to establish a
formal mission in Alaska. Their missionary endeavors contributed to
the conversion of many Alaskan natives to the Orthodox faith. A
diocese was established, whose first bishop was Saint Innocent of
Alaska. The headquarters of this North American Diocese of the
Russian Orthodox Church was moved from Alaska to California
around the mid-19th century.
Orthodox churches are common in Alaska,
particularly in the southern and southwest
portions of the state.
It was moved again in the last part of the same century, this time to
New York. This transfer coincided with a great movement of Greek-Catholics to the Orthodox Church in the eastern
United States. This movement, which increased the numbers of Orthodox Christians in America, resulted from a
conflict between John Ireland, the politically powerful Roman Catholic Archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota; and
Alexis Toth, an influential Ruthenian Catholic priest of St. Marys church in Minneapolis. Archbishop Ireland's
refusal to accept Fr. Toth's credentials as a priest induced Fr. Toth to convert St. Marys to the Orthodox Church, and
further resulted in the conversion of tens of thousands of other Greek-Catholics in North America to the Orthodox
Church, under his guidance and inspiration. For this reason, Ireland is sometimes ironically remembered as the
"Father of the Orthodox Church in America." These Greek-Catholics were received into Orthodoxy into the existing
Russian Orthodox Church
North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church. At the same time large numbers of Greeks and other
Orthodox Christians were also immigrating to America. At this time all Orthodox Christians in North America were
united under the omophorion (Church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow, through the Russian
Church's North American diocese. The unity was not merely theoretical, but was a reality, since there was then no
other diocese on the continent. Under the aegis of this diocese, which at the turn of the 20th century was ruled by
Bishop (and future Patriarch) Tikhon, Orthodox Christians of various ethnic backgrounds were ministered to, both
non-Russian and Russian; a Syro-Arab mission was established under the episcopal leadership of Saint Raphael of
Brooklyn, who was the first Orthodox bishop to be consecrated in America.
In 1920 Patriarch Tikhon issued an ukase (decree) that dioceses of the Church of Russia that were cut off from the
governance of the highest Church authority (i.e. the Holy Synod and the Patriarch) should be managed independently
until such time as normal relations with the highest Church authority could be resumed; and on this basis, the North
American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church (known as the "Metropolia") continued to exist in a de facto
autonomous mode of self-governance. The financial hardship that beset the North American diocese as the result of
the Russian Revolution resulted in a degree of administrative chaos, with the result that other national Orthodox
communities in North America turned to the Churches in their respective homelands for pastoral care and
governance.
A group of bishops who had left Russia in the wake of the Russian Civil War gathered in Sremski-Karlovci,
Yugoslavia, and adopted a pro-monarchist stand. The group further claimed to speak as a synod for the entire "free"
Russian church. This group, which to this day includes a sizable portion of the Russian emigration, was formally
dissolved in 1922 by Patriarch Tikhon, who then appointed metropolitans Platon and Evlogy as ruling bishops in
America and Europe, respectively. Both of these metropolitans continued to entertain relations intermittently with
the synod in Karlovci.
Between the World Wars the Metropolia coexisted and at times cooperated with an independent synod later known
as Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR), sometimes also called the Russian Orthodox Church
Abroad. The two groups eventually went their separate ways. ROCOR, which moved its headquarters to North
America after the Second World War, claimed but failed to establish jurisdiction over all parishes of Russian origin
in North America. The Metropolia, as a former diocese of the Russian Church, looked to the latter as its highest
church authority, albeit one from which it was temporarily cut off under the conditions of the communist regime in
Russia.
After World War II the Patriarchate of Moscow made unsuccessful attempts to regain control over these groups.
After resuming communication with Moscow in early 1960s, and being granted autocephaly in 1970, the Metropolia
became known as the Orthodox Church in America.[63] [64] However, recognition of this autocephalous status is not
universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America) and some other
jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless the Ecumenical Patriarch
and the other jurisdictions remain in communion with the OCA. The Patriarchate of Moscow thereby renounced its
former canonical claims in the United States and Canada; it also acknowledged an autonomous church established in
Japan that same year.
13
Russian Orthodox Church
Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR)
Russia's Church was devastated by the repercussions of the
Bolshevik Revolution. One of its effects was a flood of refugees
from Russia to the United States, Canada, and Europe. The
Revolution of 1918 severed large sections of the Russian
church—dioceses in America, Japan, and Manchuria, as well as
refugees in Europe—from regular contacts with the main church.
Based on an ukase (decree) issued by Patriarch Tikhon, which
stated that dioceses of the Church of Russia that were cut off from
the governance of the highest Church authority (i.e. the Holy
Synod and the Patriarch) should be managed independently until
Russian church of Holy Trinity in Belgrade, Serbia.
such time as normal relations with the highest Church authority
could be resumed, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia was established; by bishops who had left Russia
in the wake of the Russian Civil War. They first met in Constantinople, and then moved to Sremski-Karlovci,
Yugoslavia. After World War II, they moved their headquarters to New York City, New York, where it remains to
this day.
On December 28, 2006, it was officially announced that the Act of Canonical Communion would finally be signed
between the ROC and ROCOR. The signing took place on the May 17, 2007, followed immediately by a full
restoration of communion with the Moscow Patriarchate, celebrated by a Divine Liturgy at the Cathedral of Christ
the Saviour in Moscow, at which the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexius II and the First Hierarch of
ROCOR concelebrated for the first time.
Under the Act, the ROCOR remains a self-governing entity within the Church of Russia. It is independent in its
administrative, pastoral, and property matters. It continues to be governed by its Council of Bishops and its Synod,
the Council's permanent executive body. The First-Hierarch and bishops of the ROCOR are elected by its Council
and confirmed by the Patriarch of Moscow. ROCOR bishops participate in the Council of Bishops of the entire
Russian Church.
In response to the signing of the act of canonical communion, Bishop Agafangel and parishes and clergy in
opposition to the Act broke communion with ROCOR, and established ROCA, or the Russian Orthodox Church
Abroad.[65] Some others opposed to the Act have joined themselves to other Greek Old Calendarist groups.[66]
Currently both the OCA and ROCOR, since 2007, are in communion with the ROC.
14
Russian Orthodox Church
Belarusian Orthodox Church
The Belarusian Orthodox Church is part of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Russian church architecture
Many Russian Orthodox Church buildings differ in design from
many modern-type churches. Firstly, their interiors are enriched
with many sacramental objects including holy icons, which are
hung on the walls. In addition, murals often cover most of the
interior. Some of these images represent Mary, the mother of
Christ - the Theotokos - (who is particularly revered in the Russian
Orthodox Church), saints, and scenes from their lives.
Gold is the color which resembles the Heavenly Kingdom. It is
also used to add a sense of indefinite depth to icons, which would
otherwise be perceived as flat. Painted icons are intentionally
composed in a two-dimensional, non-perspective fashion to allow
equal viewing regardless of the placement, position, and/or angle
of the observing person, as well as to emphasize that the depiction
is primarily of a spiritual truth rather than of visible reality (which
emphasis is also achieved through other iconographic techniques
and traditions).
Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), showing
Most Russian Orthodox churches have an iconostasis, which
the onion dome typical of many Orthodox churches.
separates the nave from the holy altar, which signifies the
Heavenly Kingdom. Covered with icons, the iconostasis is
intended to stop physical sight, and allow the worshipers to achieve spiritual sight. The iconostasis may reach all the
way up into the dome (or domes).
On the ceiling of many churches (inside the main dome) is the iconography of Christ as Pantokrator ("Ruler of All").
Such images emphasize Christ's humanity and divinity, signifying that Christ is a man and yet is also God without
beginning or end.
There are no pews. Most churches are lit with candles rather than electric light. Virtually all churches have multiple
votive candle stands in front of the icons. It is customary for worshippers to purchase candles in church stores, light
them, and place them on the stands. This ritual signifies a person's prayer to God, the Holy Mother, or to the saints or
angels asking for help on the difficult path to salvation and to freedom from sin.
Sometimes the bottoms of crosses found in Russian Orthodox churches will be adorned with a crescent. The
common misconception attributes these to the fact that in 1552, Tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered the city of Kazan
which had been under the rule of Muslim Tatars, and in remembrance of this, he decreed that from henceforth the
Islamic crescent be placed at the bottom of the crosses to signify the victory of the cross (Christianity) over the
crescent (Islam). In fact, crescents on crosses were widespread during the pre-Mongolian period of Russian history
and have no relation to the Islamic symbol. The crescent symbol actually is meant to resemble an anchor, which
symbolizes the hope for salvation.
15
Russian Orthodox Church
Ecumenism and Interfaith relations
In May 2011, Hilarion Alfeyev, the Metropolitan of Volokolamsk and head of external relations for the Moscow
Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, stated that Orthodox and evangelical Christians share the same
positions on "such issues as abortion, the family, and marriage" and desires "vigorous grassroots engagement"
between the two Christian communions on such issues.[67]
The Metropolitan also believes in the possibility of peaceful coexistence between Islam and Christianity as the two
religions have never had religious wars in Russia.[68] However, Alfeyev stated that the Russian Orthodox Church
"disagrees with atheist secularism in some areas very strongly" and "believes that it destroys something very
essential about human life."[68]
References
[1] Русская церковь объединяет свыше 150 млн. верующих в более чем 60 странах - митрополит Иларион (http:/ / www. interfax-religion.
ru/ ?act=news& div=39729) Interfax.ru 2 March 2011
[2] http:/ / www. patriarchia. ru
[3] ROC Statute, Chapter I, § 2 (http:/ / www. mospat. ru/ index. php?mid=162)
[4] Because the ROC does not keep any formal membership records the claim is based on public polls and the number of parishes. The actual
number of regular church-goers in Russia varies between 1% and 10%, depending on the source. However, strict adherence to Sunday
church-going is not traditional in Eastern Orthodoxy, specifically in Russia.
[5] Опубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польше (http:/ / www. religare. ru/ article42432. htm)
Religare.ru June 6, 2007
[6] Большинство, напоминающее меньшинство (http:/ / www. gazeta. ru/ comments/ 2007/ 08/ 20_a_2060804. shtml) Gazeta.ru 21 August
2007
[7] "Russian Orthodox Church denies plans to create private army" (http:/ / en. rian. ru/ russia/ 20081121/ 118458478. html). RIA Novosti (BBC
News). 2008-11-21. . Retrieved December 13, 2008.
[8] (Russian) Доклад Святейшего Патриарха Кирилла на Архиерейском cовещании 2 февраля 2010 года (http:/ / www. patriarchia. ru/ db/
text/ 1061651. html) patriarchia.ru February 2, 2010
[9] Damick, Andrew S.. "Life of the Apostle Andrew" (http:/ / www. chrysostom. org/ firstcalled/ life. html). chrysostom.org. . Retrieved
2007-06-25.
[10] Voronov, Theodore (2001-10-13). "The Baptism of Russia and Its Significance for Today" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20070418065947/ http:/ / www. orthodox. clara. net/ baptism_rus. htm). orthodox.clara.net. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.
orthodox. clara. net/ baptism_rus. htm) on 2007-04-18. . Retrieved 2007-06-25.
[11] "Российские Вести - Федеральный Еженедельник" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070928113051/ http:/ / www. rosvesty. ru/ print.
php?f=/ numbers/ 1789/ culture/ a_03. phtml& i=1). rosvesty.ru. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. rosvesty. ru/ print. php?f=/
numbers/ 1789/ culture/ a_03. phtml& i=1) on 2007-09-28. . Retrieved 2007-06-26.
[12] "АРХИЕПИСКОП ИСТРИНСКИЙ АРСЕНИЙ ВОЗГЛАВИЛ В МОСКВЕ ТОРЖЕСТВА ПО СЛУЧАЮ 625-ЛЕТИЯ
КУЛИКОВСКОЙ БИТВЫ" (http:/ / www. pravoslavie. ru/ news/ 050922125558). pravoslavie.ru. . Retrieved 2007-06-26.
[13] Karl August von Hase. A history of the Christian Church. Oxford, 1855. Page 481.
[14] Yuri Kagramanov, " The war of languages in Ukraine (http:/ / magazines. russ. ru/ novyi_mi/ 2006/ 8/ ka10. html)", Novy Mir, 2006, № 8
[15] A. S. Pankratov, Ishchushchie boga (Moscow, 1911); Vera Shevzov, Russian Orthodoxy on the Eve of Revolution (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2004); Gregory Freeze, 'Subversive Piety: Religion and the Political Crisis in Late Imperial Russia', Journal of Modern
History, vol. 68 (June 1996): 308-50; Mark Steinberg and Heather Coleman, eds. Sacred Stories: Religion and Spirituality in Modern Russia
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007)
[16] President of Lithuania: Prisoner of the Gulag a Biography of Aleksandras Stulginskis by Afonsas Eidintas Genocide and Research Center of
Lithuania ISBN 998675741X / 9789986757412 / 9986-757-41-X pg 23
[17] Christ Is Calling You : A Course in Catacomb Pastorship by Father Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa Published by Saint Hermans Press April
1997 ISBN 978-1887904520
[18] Father Arseny 1893–1973 Priest, Prisoner, Spiritual Father. Introduction pg. vi - 1. St Vladimir's Seminary Press ISBN 0-88141-180-9
[19] Sullivan, Patricia (November 26, 2006). "Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/
wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 11/ 25/ AR2006112500783. html). The Washington Post: p. C09. .
[20] Dumitru Bacu, The Anti-Humans. Student Re-Education in Romanian Prisons (http:/ / litek. ws/ k0nsl/ detox/ anti-humans. htm), Soldiers of
the Cross, Englewood, Colorado, 1971. Originally written in Romanian as Piteşti, Centru de Reeducare Studenţească, Madrid, 1963
[21] Adrian Cioroianu, Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc ("On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the
History of Romanian Communism"), Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2005
[22] John Shelton Curtis, The Russian Church and the Soviet State (Boston: Little Brown, 1953); Jane Ellis, The Russian Orthodox Church: A
Contemporary History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986); Dimitry V. Pospielovsky, The Russian Church Under the Soviet
16
Russian Orthodox Church
Regime 1917-1982 (St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1984); idem., A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies
(New York; St. Martin’s Press, 1987); Glennys Young, Power and the Sacred in Revolutionary Russia: Religious Activists in the Village
(University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997); Daniel Peris, Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); William B. Husband, “Godless Communists”: Atheism and Society in Soviet Russia (DeKalb:
Northern Illinois University Press, 2000; Edward Roslof, Red Priests: Renovationism, Russian Orthodoxy, and Revolution, 1905-1946
(Bloomington, Indiana, 2002)
[23] Ostling, Richard. "Cross meets Kremlin" TIME Magazine. June 24, 2001. http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/
0,9171,150718,00. html
[24] Tikhon's Proclamation as of January 19, 1918 (Julian calendar) (http:/ / st-elizabet. narod. ru/ raznoe/ anafema_sovetchikam. htm)
[25] (Russian) Alekseev, Valery. Historical and canonical reference for reasons making believers leave the Moscow patriarchate (http:/ / www.
ipc. od. ua/ 14spravka. html). Created for the government of Moldova
[26] Talantov, Boris. 1968. The Moscow Patriarchate and Sergianism (http:/ / www. orthodoxinfo. com/ ecumenism/ cat_tal. aspx) (English
translation).
[27] Protopriest Yaroslav Belikow. December 11, 2004. The Visit of His Eminence Metropolitan Laurus to the Parishes of Argentina and
Venezuela (http:/ / www. russianorthodoxchurch. ws/ 01newstucture/ pagesen/ news04/ meylavrinsa. html)."
[28] Tserkovnye Vedomosti Russkoy Istinno-Pravoslavnoy Tserkvi (Russian True Orthodox Church News). Patriarch Tikhon's Catacomb
Church. History of the Russian True Orthodox Church (http:/ / catacomb. org. ua/ modules. php?name=Pages& go=page& pid=1099).
[29] Rev. Thomas Hoffmann; William Alex Pridemore. "Esau’s Birthright and Jacob’s Pottage: A Brief Look at Orthodox-Methodist Ecumenism
in Twentieth-Century Russia" (http:/ / www. demokratizatsiya. org/ bin/ pdf/ DEM 12-3 Pridemore . pdf). Demokratizatsiya. . Retrieved 19
October 2009. "The Methodists continued their ecumenical commitments, now with the OC. This involved a continuance of financial
assistance from European and American resources, enough to reopen two OC seminaries in Russia (where all had been previously closed). OC
leaders wrote in two unsolicited statements: The services rendered . . . by the American Methodists and other Christian friends will go down in
history of the Orthodox Church as one of its brightest pages in that dark and trying time of the church. . . . Our church will never forget the
Samaritan service which . . . your whole church unselfishly rendered us. may this be the beginning of closer friendship for our churches and
nations. (as quoted in Malone 1995, 50-51)"
[30] Fitzpatrick, Sheila. 1999. Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s. New York: Oxford
University Press, pp. 179-182.
[31] Dissent in the Russian Orthodox Church, Russian Review, Vol. 28, N 4, October 1969, pp. 416-427
[32] Father Dmitri Dudko. The Independent Obituaries (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ obituaries/ fr-dmitry-dudko-550017. html)
[33] Keston Institute and the Defence of Persecuted Christians in the USSR
[34] Born Again. Putin and Orthodox Church Cement Power in Russia. (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB119792074745834591.
html?mod=hpp_us_inside_today) by Andrew Higgins Wall Street Journal Dec 18, 2007.
[35] Выписки из отчетов КГБ о работе с лидерами Московской патриархии (http:/ / www. krotov. info/ acts/ 20/ 1960/ 1967_loubyanka.
html) Excerpts from KGB reports on work with the leaders of the Moscow Patriarchate
[36] Russian Patriarch 'was KGB spy' (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 1999/ feb/ 12/ 1) The Guardian February 12, 1999
[37] Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West, Gardners Books (2000), ISBN
0-14-028487-7
[38] Yevgenia Albats and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia - Past, Present, and Future. 1994.
ISBN 0-374-52738-5, page 46.
[39] Konstantin Preobrazhenskiy - Putin's Espionage Church (http:/ / cicentre. com/ Documents/ putin_espionage_church. html), an excerpt from
a forthcoming book, "Russian Americans: A New KGB Asset" by Konstantin Preobrazhenskiy
[40] Confirmed: Russian Patriarch Worked with KGB (http:/ / www. cwnews. com/ news/ viewstory. cfm?recnum=13868), Catholic World
News. Retrieved 29-12-2007.
[41] George Trofimoff Affidavit (http:/ / cicentre. com/ Documents/ DOC_Trofimoff_Affidavit. htm)
[42] Ириней (Зуземиль) (http:/ / ortho-rus. ru/ cgi-bin/ ps_file. cgi?2_599) Biography information on the web-site of the ROC
[43] Nathaniel Davis, A Long Walk to Church: A Contemporary History of Russian Orthodoxy,(Oxford: Westview Press, 1995),p .96 Davis
quotes one bishop as saying: "Yes, we -- I, at least, and I say this first about myself -- I worked together with the KGB. I cooperated, I made
signed statements, I had regular meetings, I made reports. I was given a pseudonym -- a code name as they say there... I knowingly cooperated
with them -- but in such a way that I undeviatingly tried to maintain the position of my Church, and, yes, also to act as a patriot, insofar as I
understood, in collaboration with these organs. I was never a stool pigeon, nor an informer."
[44] He said: "Defending one thing, it was necessary to give somewhere else. Were there any other organizations, or any other people among
those who had to carry responsibility not only for themselves but for thousands of other fates, who in those years in the Soviet Union were not
compelled to act likewise? Before those people, however, to whom the compromises, silence, forced passivity or expressions of loyalty
permitted by the leaders of the church in those years caused pain, before these people, and not only before God, I ask forgiveness,
understanding and prayers.". From an interview of Patriarch Alexy II, given to "Izvestia" No 137, June 10, 1991, entitled "Patriarch Alexy II:
-- I Take upon Myself Responsibility for All that Happened", English translation from Nathaniel Davis, A Long Walk to Church: A
Contemporary History of Russian Orthodoxy,(Oxford: Westview Press, 1995),p 89. See also History of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad
(http:/ / orthodoxinfo. com/ ecumenism/ roca_history. aspx), by St. John (Maximovich) of Shanghai and San Francisco, December 31, 2007
17
Russian Orthodox Church
[45] Charles Clover (December 5, 2008). "Russia's church mourns patriarch" (http:/ / us. ft. com/ ftgateway/ superpage.
ft?news_id=fto120520081735416422& page=1). Financial Times. . Retrieved December 8, 2008.
[46] The Basis of the Social Concept (http:/ / www. mospat. ru/ en/ documents/ social-concepts/ )
[47] The Russian Orthodox Church’s Basic Teaching on Human Dignity, Freedom and Rights (http:/ / www. mospat. ru/ en/ documents/
dignity-freedom-rights/ )
[48] Europaica Bulletin, No 130 (October 21, 2007) (http:/ / orthodoxeurope. org/ page/ 14/ 130. aspx#3)
[49] Interfax, Bishop Hilarion requests the Theologian Commission to examine the ambiguous document adopted at the Orthodox-Catholic
conference in Ravenna, 16 November 2007 (http:/ / www. interfax-religion. com/ ?act=news& div=3945)
[50] Progress in dialogue with Catholics, says Ecumenical Patriarchate (http:/ / new. asianews. it/ index. php?l=en& art=10597) new.asianews.it
October 19, 2007.
[51] Ecumenical progress, Russian isolation, after Catholic-Orthodox talks (http:/ / www. cwnews. com/ news/ viewstory. cfm?recnum=54270)
CWNews.com October 19, 2007.
[52] President Putin and the patriarchs. (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ comment/ faith/ article3172785. ece) by Michael Bourdeaux The
Times January 11, 2008.
[53] Piety's Comeback as a Kremlin Virtue. (http:/ / www. cdi. org/ russia/ johnson/ 2008-30-16. cfm) By Alexander Osipovich The Moscow
Times February 12, 2008. Page 1.
[54] Clifford J. Levy. At Expense of All Others, Putin Picks a Church. (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 24/ world/ europe/ 24church.
html?_r=1& scp=4& sq=russia& st=nyt& oref=slogin) New York Times April 24, 2008
[55] Патриарх Алексий Второй: эпоха упущенных возможностей (http:/ / portal-credo. ru/ site/ ?act=news& id=67353& topic=618) RISU
December 11, 2008
[56] Ветряные мельницы православия (http:/ / kommersant. ru/ doc. aspx?DocsID=1094071& ThemesID=1011) Vlast December 15, 2008.
[57] Charles Clover (December 5, 2008). "Russia's church mourns patriarch" (http:/ / us. ft. com/ ftgateway/ superpage.
ft?news_id=fto120520081735416422& page=2). Financial Times. . Retrieved December 8, 2008.
[58] На Московский Патриарший Престол избран митрополит Смоленский и Калининградский Кирилл (http:/ / patriarchia. ru/ db/ text/
542649. html) MP official web site, January 27, 2009.
[59] (Russian) Имя нового Патриарха названо: Кирилл (http:/ / newsru. com/ religy/ 27jan2009/ gewaehlt. html) NEWSru January 27, 2009.
[60] Незнакомый патриарх, или Чему нас учит история храма Христа Спасителя (http:/ / www. izvestia. ru/ obshestvo/ article3124663/ )
Izvestia January 26, 2009.
[61] Interfax news article (http:/ / www. interfax-religion. com/ ?act=news& div=7844)
[62] "Interfax-Religion" (http:/ / www. interfax-religion. com/ ?act=news& div=8228). Interfax-Religion. . Retrieved 2011-06-03.
[63] Very Rev. John Matusiak, Director of Communications, Orthodox Church in America. A History and Introduction of the Orthodox Church
in America (http:/ / www. oca. org/ MVhistoryintroOCA. asp?SID=1)
[64] OrthodoxWiki. ROCOR and OCA (http:/ / www. orthodoxwiki. org/ ROCOR_and_OCA).
[65] "Russian Orthodox Church Abroad (ROCA), Synod of Bishops" (http:/ / sinod. ruschurchabroad. org/ engindex. htm).
Sinod.ruschurchabroad.org. . Retrieved 2010-01-25.
[66] Communique of the Synod of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia, June 30, 2007 (http:/ / www.
russianorthodoxchurch. ws/ synod/ eng2007/ 7ensfcommunique. html); DEEPENING OF SCHISM: Some clergy of the diaspora church
created their own higher church administration, by Pavel Krug, NG-Religiia, 18 July 2007 (http:/ / www. stetson. edu/ ~psteeves/ relnews/
0707a. html)
[67] "From Russia, with Love" (http:/ / www. christianitytoday. com/ ct/ 2011/ may/ fromrussialove. html?start=1). Christianity Today. .
Retrieved 2007-12-31. "Many evangelicals share conservative positions with us on such issues as abortion, the family, and marriage. Do you
want vigorous grassroots engagement between Orthodox and evangelicals? Yes, on problems, for example, like the destruction of the family.
Many marriages are split. Many families have either one child or no child."
[68] "From Russia, with Love" (http:/ / www. christianitytoday. com/ ct/ 2011/ may/ fromrussialove. html?start=4). Christianity Today. .
Retrieved 2007-12-31. "If we speak about Islam (and of course if we mean moderate Islam), then I believe there is the possibility of peaceful
coexistence between Islam and Christianity. This is what we have had in Russia for centuries, because Russian Islam has a very long tradition.
But we never had religious wars. Nowadays we have a good system of collaboration between Christian denominations and Islam. Secularism
is dangerous because it destroys human life. It destroys essential notions related to human life, such as the family. And here we disagree with
atheist secularism in some areas very strongly, and we believe that it destroys something very essential about human life. We should be
engaged in a very honest and direct conversation with representatives of secular ideology. And of course when I speak of secular ideology, I
mean here primarily atheist ideology."
18
Russian Orthodox Church
External links
• Russian Orthodox Church official website (http://www.patriarchia.ru/)
• Russian Orthodox Church's channel (http://www.youtube.com/user/russianchurch) on YouTube
• Department for External Church Relations of the Russian Orthodox Church official website (http://www.
mospat.ru/en/), in English
• Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia official website (http://www.rocor.org/)
• Orthodox Church in America official website (http://www.oca.org/)
Russian Orthodox resources
• Russian Orthodox Church links in Orthodox Christianity Directory (http://www.orthodox-christianity.org/
orthorus/)
• Russian Church in OrthodoxWiki (http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Russia)
• Orthodox Christian's Library (http://www.wco.ru/biblio/)
• Orthodox Calendar (http://www.holytrinityorthodox.com/calendar/)
• Orthodox Calendar and other information at Pravoslavie.ru (http://www.pravoslavie.ru/english/)
• A Brief Summary of the Russian Patriarchal Period (http://www.orthodoxtheologicalschool.org/journal/
VanOpstall_Ruspat.html)
• The Tragedy of the Russian Church. 1917-53 (http://www.regels.org/Russian-Church.htm)
• A repository with scientific papers on various aspects of the medieval history of the Russian Orthodox Church in
English and in German (http://www.oeaw.ac.at/byzanz/repos.htm)
19
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Russian Orthodox Church Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=453299149 Contributors: 16@r, 4twenty42o, 78.26, A. Parrot, ADimiTR, Adam Bishop, Afghana, Afterwriting,
Agne27, Alansohn, Alex Bakharev, Alexeykh, Alexyalex, Allstarecho, Altenmann, Amire80, Andres, Andrew c, Andreyx109, Angusmclellan, Ans-mo, Antandrus, Anton Khorev, Antonios
aigyptos, Anupam, Anvish, Aphaia, Apoivre, Aprock, Aram33, Arseni, Ashadeofgrey, Atrebatus, AuburnPilot, Awartha, B7elijah, Balcer, Beetstra, Bejnar, Bluejay Young, Bluerasberry,
Bnwwf91, BoLingua, Bobblewik, BokicaK, Bokpasa, Bolo1910, Born2cycle, Born2flie, Brevan, Briaboru, Cactus.man, Calculus, Calmer Waters, Camptown, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Carlaude, Carmichael95, Carter, Catmoongirl, Causa sui, Charles Borromeo, Chesterg, Cholmes75, Chrisminter, Colchicum, ColenFace, Colin chee, Commish1219, Coroboy, Costela,
Criostoir1971, Cuchullain, Curps, Czalex, DanielM4, DarkFalls, Darwinek, Delirium, DevOhm, Deville, Didactohedron, Diego pmc, Dinarsad, Dirrival, DmitryKo, DonDaMon, Dorftrottel, Dpr,
Dr.alf, Drestros power, Drieakko, Dufus00, Duja, Dvavasour, E94050703, ESkog, Eewanco, El Otro, ElationAviation, Elendal, Elizium23, Emperorbma, Ender mandalore, Equitor, Esrever,
Etherialemperor, Eugrus, Euryalus, Everyking, Evrik, Fedoroff, Feedmecereal, FeelSunny, Felix Folio Secundus, FiachraByrne, Fisenko, Flrn, Freyr35, Frietjes, Frjohnwhiteford, Frsymeon,
Fti74, Gabr-el, Gadfium, Geezerbill, Genyo, Georgekonyev, Geregen2, Ghaly, Ghirlandajo, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Gjalexei, Gnomz007, Goldencako, Gongshow, Good Olfactory, Googles123,
Greenshed, Greyhood, Grue, Gthyu, Gz33, HOAEditor, Hadžija, Halcatalyst, HamburgerRadio, Happyman22, Heliomance, Hmains, Hodja Nasreddin, Homagetocatalonia, Howcheng, Hroðulf,
IVasilov, Illyria05, Illythr, InfernoXV, Ingolfson, Int19h, Iorsh, Irishguy, Irpen, Ithinkhelikesit, Itinerant, Itinerant1, Itskamilo, J.delanoy, JALatimer, JKBrooks85, JamieStapleton, Jason
Vanderhill, Jauerback, Jc3schmi, Jevansen, Jezzerk, Jfruh, Jimena1, Joeyjoeyjoey33, Johanneum, John of Reading, JohnCD, Johnbod, Johnnybird, JonHarder, Jorunn, Joseph Solis in Australia,
JoshuaD1991, JuJube, Jurrgis, KNewman, Kallakbar, Kcordina, Kharaku, Killer Swath, Koavf, Kochd, Kuban kazak, Kuralyov, Lacester, Lacrimosus, Latinitas, Leewonbum, Lightmouse,
LilHelpa, Logan, Lothar von Richthofen, LoveMonkey, LovesMacs, Lregelson, MLPachali, Magister Mathematicae, Manicsocks, Marco polo, Marcus2, Marek69, MarshallPoe, Martin451,
MartinHarper, MartinSpamer, Mattissa, Maxamegalon2000, Maxis ftw, Mcarling, Mcpaul1998, MelbourneStar, Menchi, Mentifisto, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Metricopolus, Michael Hardy,
Mike Rosoft, MishaPan, Mmmready, Momirt, Monedula, Moryak, Moxy, Mr. Neutron, Muscovite99, Mxn, Mygerardromance, Mysdaao, Nanobear, Neelix, NewEnglandYankee,
Nicetoknowyou, Nikitadanilov, Nikodemos, Nikola Smolenski, Niroman, Nixer, Oldfaith123, Oldorthodox123, Olgerd, OrthoArchitectDU, Pakhomovru, Palaeologos, Palmleaf, Parhamr,
Parisbestlodge, Peaceduck, Pectore, Peshkov, PeterNuernberg, Petri Krohn, Pgunn, Phanar, PhilKnight, Philippe, Pinkstargazer, Polotet, Prayspot, Preost, ProhibitOnions, Pseudo-Richard,
Puddhe, Pádraic MacUidhir, Qirex, Raikutis, RandomP, Rattakorn c, Razorflame, Rb000, Rchamberlain, Rdsmith4, RedWolf, Reginmund, Rich Farmbrough, Richard David Ramsey, Rickjpelleg,
Rknasc, Robertkgb, Rome1453, Rursus, SJP, Sanddune777, Sardanaphalus, Scorpiona, Scwlong, SeNeKa, Shoot here, Shuffdog, Silence, SimonP, Simratpal, Smith2006, Snocrates, Sotnik,
SpookyMulder, StaticGull, Stefan Milosevski, Sub-deacon, Summer Song, Superzohar, Supine, Tellervo, Tetromino, TheMidnighters, TheOldBug, Tixity, Toledoartist, TomViza, Tosic100,
Tovojolo, Trevor MacInnis, Trusilver, Ttiotsw, Tuulispask, Twin21956, Uuu87, Valip, Vanished user 2345, Vanjagenije, Vasilij, Vectro, Verit, Vithum, Voyevoda, WODUP, WVhybrid, Wesley,
Whiskers01, WhisperToMe, Woohookitty, Xyzzy n, YBeayf, Yulia Romero, Yutt, Zloyvolsheb, Zscout370, Жужжание, Лев Регельсон, Федоров, 624 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Christ the Savior Cathedral Moscow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Christ_the_Savior_Cathedral_Moscow.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Katedra_Chrystusa_Zbawiciela_w_Moskwie_2.jpg: Voytek s derivative work: B7elijah (talk)
File:Flag of Russia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Colonies Chris, Csernica, Hroðulf, Smith2006, 2
anonymous edits
File:Flag of Ukraine.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Created by: Jon Harald Søby, colors by Zscout370
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File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: unknown Contributors: -xfiFile:Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Made by Andrew Duhan for the Sodipodi
SVG flag collection, and is public domain.
File:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Turkmenistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Vzb83
File:Flag of Tajikistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: -xfi-, AnonMoos, Artem Karimov,
Bsadowski1, Davepape, F. F. Fjodor, Fry1989, Giro720, Homo lupus, Juetho, Klemen Kocjancic, Krinkle, Mattes, Mnmazur, Nightstallion, OAlexander, Potatoswatter, Reisio, Rocket000,
Vonvon, Winterheart, Zscout370, 22 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Azerbaijan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: SKopp and others
File:Flag of Lithuania.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Latvia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Estonia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour
changed by User:PeepP to match the image at .
File:Flag of Israel.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Cross of the Russian Orthodox Church 01.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cross_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church_01.svg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: RickP 19:18, 15 August 2006 (UTC)
File:Nikita Pustosviat. Dispute on the Confession of Faith.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nikita_Pustosviat._Dispute_on_the_Confession_of_Faith.jpg License:
Public Domain Contributors: File:Russisch Orthodoxe Kirche Dresden.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russisch_Orthodoxe_Kirche_Dresden.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Bernd
Hutschenreuther
File:PhilipandNikon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PhilipandNikon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Tikhon of Moscow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tikhon_of_Moscow.jpg License: anonymous-EU Contributors: Michael Goltz
File:Russian Orthodox Episcopal Ordination.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Russian_Orthodox_Episcopal_Ordination.jpg License: unknown Contributors: File:Alaska Russian Orthodox Church.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alaska_Russian_Orthodox_Church.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
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