members of the cspnb - Ministère de l`écologie et du développement

Transcription

T
he Scientific Council for the Natural Heritage
and Biodiversity was created by decree on March
26, 2004. The CSPNB (Conseil Scientifique du
Patrimoine Naturel et de la Biodiveristé) was placed under the Minister with responsibility for the
environment. The CSPNB’s role is to monitor,
advise, warn and look to the future with regard to
all scientific matters associated with the natural
heritage, both land and aquatic (fresh and sea
water), landscapes, ecosystems, species and
genomes. At the request of the Minister with
responsibility for the environment, the CSPNB
expresses scientific opinions to enlighten and
inform political choices. It can also address a
matter independently , by decision of its members,
with the Department of economic studies and
environmental evaluation responsible for coordination.
Its advice and recommendations can be consulted
on the ministry’s website
(www.ecologie.gouv.fr/-CSPNB-.html).
Conseil Scientifique
du Patrimoine Naturel
et de la Biodiversité
MEMBERS OF THE CSPNB
Yvon Le Maho, Président
Robert Barbault, vice-Président
Jacques Blondel
Gilles Boeuf
Philippe Bourdeau
Bernard Chevassus-Au-Louis
Henri Décamps
Jean-François Dobremez
François Houllier
Pierre Joly
Lucien Laubier
Jacques Lecomte
Jean-Claude Lefeuvre
Yves Luginbuhl
Jean-Marc Meynard
Catherine Mougenot
Serge Muller
Jean-Pierre Pascal
Jacques Portécop
Martine Rahier
Pierre Stengel
Georges Vachaud
Etienne Verrier
Jean-Gabriel Wasson
Collective work of the CSPNB
coordination : Véronique Barre, MEEDDAT/D4E/SRP,
scientific officer of CSPNB
Writting : Jean-Louis Michelot, Ecosphère
Creation and graphic design : Béatrice Saurel
Along with the control of greenhouse gases and the expected exhaustion of fossil fuel supplies, the
preservation of biodiversity is one of today’s great challenges, and the lives of our children and future
generations will depend on how effectively we act now. In the face of current social and economic
challenges, the preservation of biodiversity does not always appear to be a priority; and besides,
despite major extinctions in the past, life has always gone on on planet Earth… Yet, each species constitutes
a sort of "insurance" via the services that it provides today or may provide to future generations in an
infinite number of fields (food, health, industry, leisure etc.).
However, all extinctions are permanent and it takes several hundred thousand years for a new species
to emerge. So there can be no "sustainable development" without biodiversity. Even within the scientific
community, other than within the field of ecology, the study of biodiversity is sometimes considered to
be a less stringent area of study than those referred to as hard sciences. The study of evolutionary
processes, the morphological, physiological and molecular adjustments of living organisms, animal behaviour,
how ecosystems function, population dynamics and landscape ecology are definitely individual scientific
fields that are indispensable to the understanding of biodiversity and the services it provides to humans.
At the request of the Minister for Ecology and Sustainable Development, the Scientific Council for the
Natural Heritage and Biodiversity (CSPNB) was given the task of gathering examples which would illustrate
what is at stake: the importance of biodiversity, the threats it faces, and also recommendations for
restoring the balance between humans and the other species that populate our planet. This document
which is the product of a collective endeavour constitutes a set of examples based on the experience
of the members of the Council, from national and international scientific publications and from actual
operations carried out locally. It is in no way an exhaustive review of the issue, but a subjective selection
of particular factors which we feel are representative yet often not well known.
Yvon Le Maho
President of the CSPNB
4
5
VIEW
F
O
T
POIN
S
'
T
S
I
NT
A SCIE
F
orged in the eighties by biologists concerned about the continuous deterioration of the
diversity of living organisms, the concept of biodiversity developed principally at the Conference
on Environment and Development organized by the UN in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, which
gave rise to the biological diversity convention. That date marked a turning point in the use
of the term as it entered the realm of media and politics and since then hundreds of
definitions of it have been given. To summarise the situation, which could itself form the
subject of interesting epistemological research, three principal meanings of the concept
can be distinguished, each of which is perfectly legitimate so much so that no one can claim
exclusive ownership of it.
The
first approach is to consider biodiversity as an abstract concept designating the
"variety of life". This is a holistic, general view that cannot be reduced to scientific
knowledge. One archetype of it is the hypothesis of Gaïa de Lovelock who considers the
biosphere to be a self-contained organism whose function and survival are more important
than that of the different parts that constitute it.
A second approach is to acknowledge that biodiversity is a hierarchy of objective
entities, organised into constantly evolving systems (dimension of time), systems driven by
a certain dynamic (dimension of space) and performing certain functions. This is the
approach of biologists who have developed tools to name and study the objective entities
which are communities, species, populations and genes. They focus particularlyon the
mechanisms that generate biodiversity (dimension of time or evolution) and likewise those
that regulate them (dimension of time or ecology). The functional analysis comes down to
analysing interactions between entities within ecological systems, the services that these
entities provide for the ecosystems, and all the processes that ensure their day to day
functioning.
Finally, the third approach acknowledges that biodiversity is a social, economic, legal
and political construct, the challenges of which arise from interaction with human society
in connection with various aspects, namely access to the resources offered by biodiversity,
their use, the benefits that societies can gain from them, their equitable distribution,
their management, and the measures to take in order to ensure their durability.
If we were to position biodiversity on the arrow of time, its current content would only be
a snapshot, a tiny part of the total biodiversity that has existed on the face of the earth
at one moment or another in the history of life that stretches over three and a half
billion years.
After all, the lifespan of the species is not eternal and we have been able to calculate from
fossil archives that this lifespan, which is very variable from one group to another, is in the
range of two to ten million years. The natural rate of extinction is roughly one species per
thousand per millennium. At least five crises have overlapped this "routine" extinction rate,
the most severe of which were reflected by the disappearance of two thirds of all
families and species.
We have currently entered a sixth crisis, which differs from the previous ones which were
due to climatic or astronomical accidents, in that it is due to the impact of a single species
on the entire biosphere - human beings. Given that it takes several million years (between
5 and 25 million) to mend the damage caused by these major crises, we have to accept the
idea that the current erosion of biodiversity is an irreversible phenomenon on our scale of
perception of time…
Jacques Blondel
ity
s
r
e
v
i
d
o
i
b
useful
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BIODIVERSITY AND FOOD
Diversity
for productivity
the example of meadows
Tomatoes
get the buzz
Pollination, an essential function
Nomadic
experts
The example of banc d’arguin
Chrysanthemums, the flower of
mourning for an aphid
Pyrethrin and other natural insecticides
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The
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Searching
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24
25
enemy of my enemy is my friend
Biological pest control
for oryza nivara
Good things come in small packages –
with rice too
The
plant that feeds fish and shellfish
Forgotten environments in the bay of
mont saint-michel bay prove useful
BIODIVERSITY AND HEALTH
Why does the beaver never get
toothache?
A rodent which unknowingly self-medicates
26
The
41
‘Smurfilly’
49
27
The
42
Forests
50 BIODIVERSITY AS A REGULATOR
43
produce more than just wood
The utility of the ecosystem seen from
another angle
As
Beauty,
the bat and the laurelwood tree
Forest shopping with the help of our
winged allies
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43
44
The
54
45
Hang
46
The
47
The
28
yew and the periwinkle
A few examples from the thousands of
medicinal plants that exist
cone shellfish and the frog
A few examples from the thousands of
medicinal plants that exist
Fungi which kill our germs
From antibiotics to defensins
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The
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The
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The
king penguin's larder
a refrigerator that works at 38°c
squid and the nobel prize
Finding the right species for research models
bear and the fat man
The brown bear could teach us a few things
about weight loss diets
35
A
story that is hard to swallow
The discovery of digestion
36
Biodiversity,
it’s under our skin!
The epidermis, an ecosystem in its own
right
38 PRODUCTIVE BIODIVERSITY
39
Vercors,
nature on a plateau
Biodiversity creates jobs
40
Biodiversity,
we wash ourhands...'with' it!
saponins: natural detergents, soaps and
shampoos
interesting plants!
When natural products help west indians to party safely
many names as uses
Rock samphire
44 BIODIVERSITY AND INDUSTRIAL
INNOVATION
48
tree bark, the lizard and the flat tyre
Trees and reptiles lend a hand in car
repairs
on!
Using sticky species as a model
goat, the spider, and her threads
An unfinished tale
beetle and the glass of water
Namibian insect offers chilean farmers
a drink
The
dragonfly and the soldier
Tomorrow's army and the insects
inspiring it
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The bat, the blind man and the cane
Promoting the fantastic potential of sonar
Diversity rhymes with stability
Biodiversity helps ecosystems respond
to attack
A
drop of biodiversity in your water
wouldn't hurt
Using ecosystems to control nitrates
The water starwort and uranium
A plant able to decontaminate waterways polluted by uranium
An ecological dam
When the beaver carves out an entire
ecosystem
56 OTHER BENEFITS TOO
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The
currant bush, the hen and the child
In the garden, biodiversity helps form
the senses and the personality
Contemplation, a new industry
Ecotourism across the world
Connaissez-vous
le coût d’un Koudou ?
L’économie de la chasse et de la pêche
Do
you know how much a kudu costs?
The economy of hunting and fishing
er
g
n
a
d
n
i
y
t
biodiversi
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65 THE OVER-EXPLOITATION OF LIVING
RESOURCES
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hidden side of the 'development
of land
The disappearance of the functions of the
ecosystem
73
The
There
is no gorilla at this number
Humans and biodiversity, the victims of
an economic conflict
The newfoundland bank is empty
The cod, symbol of the over-exploitation
of the oceans
Death
86
Putting
Fast
87
Milking
of bathers in fresh water
When climatic change threatens one of
the main attractions of our coasts
but too fragile
The consequences of the genetic standardisation of cultivated crops
74
Pests
strike back
Pesticides have limits too
75
why
78
The
get rid of a free cleaner?
The dramatic decline in vultures
butterfly needed the rabbit
The rupture of a symbiosis
Where have all the old fish gone?
Size records are no longer broken
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71
travelling 'jellyfish'
A little known means of transport but a
source of serious problemsblèmes
ondsiversity
b
e
h
t
g
n
i
renew with biod
The
A
drama unfolding right under our feet
Soils, important yet fragile ecosystems
The cow dung invasion
When the soil can no longer eliminate
harmless waste
88
90
69 THE INDIRECT IMPACT OF HUMAN
ACTIVITIES
69
88
84 MAKING USE OF SPECIES
84 The purifying pike
Give back the predators their ecological role
85
The
bee and the apple tree
Re-establishing the insect's essential
role as pollinator
91
earthworms to work
Benefiting from the many abilities of a
humble animal
94
The peat bog, the mayor and the naturalist
When the natural environment forms
the basis for a sustainable development
project
plants instead of cutting them
down
An interesting innovation for medicine
and the preservation of species
95
Do we need to choose between the
butterfly or the orchid?
The diversity of habitats, a guarantee
of environment quality
98 MAKE CITIZENS STAKEHOLDERS IN
THEIR OWN RIGHT
IMAGINING THE MANAGEMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTS AND SPECIES
Allowing
oaks to migrate
Understanding genetic diversity of species
in order to better preserve them
CONNECTING BIODIVERSITY TO DEVELOPMENT
91
The
owl and the apple juice
A convergence of interests in favour of
orchards of standard trees
92
The
93
The
farmer and the bird
A new marriage between agriculture and
nature conservation
salburua lagoon
Giving nature its place in hydraulic plant
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100
101
Species
in the coin of the realm
Wild flora and fauna, a source of wealth
for southern countries
Water
for the big apple
New york hands back the power of purification to nature
Go green!
Citizens' gardens, privileged places for
the relationship between humans and nature
Skol ar c’hleuzioù
The embankment school
15,000
voluntary collaborators recruited
in one year!
The garden butterfly observatory
© Yvain Dubois
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AT THE FOUNDATION OF OUR ENTIRE LIFE IS... BIODIVERSITY
Human beings are totally dependent on other living organisms for their own
existence. The plant and animal species that populate the earth have always
provided them with essential resources. Modern life has changed our relationship
with nature, but not our reliance on it.
The air that we breathe
The water we drink
The food we eat
The clothes we wear
Our houses
Biodiversity is indispensable to atmospheric balance
( the production of oxygen by photosynthesis, trapping of
carbon, filtering of dust)
Bacteria are indispensable for natural purification of the
water supply
Everything except minerals and water!
Cotton, wool, leather, silk, oil etc.
Wood, hemp, limestone, slate, straw etc.
Our health
Thousands of plants and animals used in medicine
The energy that we consume
Oil, coal, wood, peat, cow dung
Our leisure activities
Fishing, hunting, hiking etc.
AT THE END OF OUR LIFE IS… BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity brings us life … and death that inevitably follows. The diseases from
which we suffer come mainly from viruses, bacteria and parasites, sometimes
transmitted by animals. Plants and animals can produce certain substances which
are powerful poisons. This is how biodiversity works, bound to us for better or
worse. The opium poppy, for example, can both drug us and relieve our pain.
And furthermore we are part of this biodiversity!
BUILDING THE MILLAU VIADUCT: A FEW MONTHS… AND THREE BILLION
YEARS
The Millau Viaduct, celebrated as a marvel of human ingenuity, also illustrates the
role of time in the formation of the "services" provided by biodiversity. Indeed,
the action of living organisms during the three great geological eras produced the
necessary raw materials for this structure:
3.5 billion years ago, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) began to produce oxygen
in the primitive ocean. This oxygen oxidised the dissolved iron and these oxides
settled and created mineral deposits from which steel is obtained today.
300 hundred million years ago, it was the plant biodiversity of the Carboniferous
period that captured carbonic gas and in so doing produced most of our coal
resources. The same applies for oil – which dates back about 100 million years – and
large quantities of this energy resource was used to build the viaduct.
Finally, 150 million years ago, numerous microscopic algae with calcareous shells
piled up to form the sediments we use today in quarries to produce cement.
Although the Viaduct of Millau was built in a few months, it nevertheless
benefited from million of years of biodiversity.
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d
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a
y
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Biodiversi A
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rsity
odive a few
i
b
from nts and
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mes
o
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f
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a few ecies pla f specie
ie
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u
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Alth
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ated
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ari
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to
ties
varie
,
it trees
ate fru other c
in
ll
o
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s
Insect
d many helpers
bles an
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vegeta plants. Thes articular
p
ed
ultivat protected, in r controlling
fo
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must b ing methods lpers can
e
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e
by
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. Th
iseases
introdu
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also be by making t ble
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D
DIVE
F MEA
© Jean-Louis Michelot
In North America, researchers sowed seeds in meadows by
randomly choosing a number and type of species from a range
of 32 plants. This experiment showed that productivity, i.e. the
quantity of plant matter produced each year, strongly increases
with the number of species (up to a certain point). The most
important factor for good productivity is the coexistence of
species which function differently from the ecological viewpoint
(for example the ability or otherwise to absorb nitrogen in the
atmosphere). Studies in Europe have confirmed the link
between biodiversity and productivity. This relationship is due
above all to complementarity and cooperation between species.
Barbault R., Chevassus-au-Louis B., 2005. Biodiversité et changements globaux (Biodiversity and Global Changes)
Enjeux de société et défis pour la recherche. ADPF, ministère des affaires
étrangères. 241 p
(The Issues Facing Society & Challenges for Research ADPF, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs)
e
cts hav
h proje increases
c
r
a
e
s
e
y
rsit
nt r
dows.
Differe at plant dive
in mea wn
th
y
n
a
h
w
f
o
o
h
s
no
duction
made k ate
the pro lt should be
c
o
v
n ad
su
This re who still ofte l meadows
e
ia
.
to thos ting of artific er of species
n
l
mb
the pla ry limited nu and a natura
ve
wn
la
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h
h
t
is
with a
n a Brit
ment is
Betwee hich environ nswer is not
w
a
,
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ie
h
prair
ive? T at comes to
roduct
most p ily the one th
r
necessa ntaneously.
po
mind s
© Alexandre Dudouble
EO
XAMPL
THE E
UZZ UNCTION
B
E
H
T
T
E
S G AN ESSENTIAL F
E
O
T
A
M
O
T
N,
NATIO
POLLI
In nature, flowering plants depend heavily on animals (insects,
birds, bats etc.) for reproduction: pollination, transport and
planting of seeds. In agriculture, cereals only need wind to
transport their pollen, but insects are necessary for most fruit,
vegetable and oil-producing crops. With tomatoes, for example,
pollination generally takes place without the weekend gardener
noticing. Insects come to flowers to drink the sweet nectar
they produce and then involuntarily transport the pollen from
the stamen to the pistil of another flower. In a greenhouse, this
mechanism functions poorly because there are so few insects.
The traditional solution was to pollinate the flowers mechanically by vibrations and airstreams.
For a few years now a more natural and less energy-hungry method has been in development. Hives of bumblebees are placed
in the greenhouse (honey bees do not visit these flowers as they
cannot reach the nectar). In the garden, anything that can encourage the presence of pollinating insects is good: limiting chemical treatment, letting a beekeeper place his hives there,
buying a hive of bumblebees, encouraging wild honey bees and
bumblebees to settle (different kinds of nest boxes can be easily made). Giving pollination a helping hand is a worthwhile investment for professionals: for each dollar invested in a
beekeeping service by an apple producer in Quebec, his orchard’s yield increased by 185 dollars!
To find out more:
http://www.inra.fr/presse/pollinisateurs_et_alimentation
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D’AR
BANC
F
O
E
L
XAMP
THE E
GUIN
RTS
E
P
X
E
C
I
D
NOMA
In an environment as tough as the desert, humans need to be
ure,
on nat
epend
d
ia,
t
n
a
a
h
it
t
r
Mau
tions
Popula e nomads in deep
th
d
such as ely tuned an onment,
in
f
a
envir
ir
e
h
have
t
lants
dge of
ty of p
,
knowle forage quali
nimals
a
s,
their
e
pasture ehaviour of
c
n
xperie
eb
and th he result of e enerations.
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t
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is
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.
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s
whic
served
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ir
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Their k
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CHRYSANRTNING FOR ANPYAREPTHHIRIN AND OTHER NA
OF MOU
PYRETHRIN is a natural insecticide extracted from the
perfectly familiar with its biodiversity and its potential uses –
this is the key to the survival of the nomads and their animals.
The nomads of the National Park of Banc d’Arguin (Mauritania)
have got to know the plant species in their environment, giving
them local names, some of which change according to the seasons, and they remember the characteristics and properties of
these plants. They can identify the species that serve as pasture for their animals (dromedaries), but also pick out plants
with therapeutic value (wormers, dermatology etc.) and toxic
species alike.
bacteria
gi and icular
n
u
f
,
s
t
n
rt
s in pa
ous pla
Numer as insecticide bstances
u
d
s
e
s
er of
These
are u
a numb
ulture.
in agric l origin have lective action
ra
se
of natu (no residue, used with
s
e
benefit they must b
.
t
nment
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o
b
,
ir
v
.)
c
n
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r the e
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resp
To find out more:
Correra A., 2006. Dynamique de l’utilisation des ressources fourragères
par les dromadaires des pasteurs nomades du Parc National du Banc d’Arguin
(Mauritanie). Thèse de doctorat MNHN – Paris. 247p.
(The Dynamics of the Use of Forage resources by dromedaries and nomad
shepherds of the National Park of the Banc d'Arguin (Mauritania) Doctorate
Thesis MNHN – Paris. 247p.)
ROTENON which is extracted from the roots of leguminous
plants. It is used to control caterpillars, worms, acarids and
aphids.
SLURRIES OF NETTLES, comfrey and ferns are well known
to organic gardeners. All these substances are attractive because they are organic and often less persistent and more selective than the old "chemical" insecticides. They nevertheless
need to be used prudently so that only insects causing real problems are destroyed. Inappropriate application destroys beneficial
insects, such as ladybirds
© Gérard Arnal
© Aminata Correra
A comparison of their evaluation of the forage value of species
eaten by the dromedaries with the results of chemical analyses
(bromatology) showed partial overlaps between this empirical
knowledge and biological facts. It also revealed a divergence
but this was explained by the fact that the nomads also based
their reasoning on their animal’s preferences and the combinations of the species consumed over the entire year. It is important to safeguard this local wisdom which merits
consideration by scientists. This empirical knowledge takes into
account plant changes over time and their distribution in space;
it could not only supplement scientific data but also be the surest means for the sustainable management of desert environments.
chrysanthemum flower which is grown and harvested in Kenya.
It is highly effective against the cochineal insect, aphids,
caterpillars and numerous other insects. This substance has low
toxicity to humans and other warm-blooded animals, which
means it can be used in houses. It has the major advantage of
degrading very quickly once spread, under the effect of light.
Knowledge of pyrethrin opened the way for the synthesis of
similar substances, pyrethroids which have the same characteristics
of low toxicity to humans, are less persistent and are widely
used as insecticides (e.g. permethrins). In addition, their active
principles are used in medicine, for example in the treatment
of lice. There are many other natural insecticides, such as:
Consoude
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SOME EXAMPLES OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT PLANT AND
ANIMAL GROUPS TO OUR FOOD
Viruses
Bacteria
Protozoa
Fungi
Seaweed
Higher plants
Species
described
Sub-groups
4 000
4 000
40 000
70 000
40 000
Orchideae
Palmaceae
Poaceae (gramineae)
Polygonaceae
Invertebrates
10 000
40 000
950 000
120 000
PStone pine – Fir-tree honey
Alliaceae
Garlic, onion, shallot, chives etc.
Apiaceae (Umbellifereae)
Carrot, dill, fennel, parsley, coriander etc.
Amygdalaceae
Asteraceae (composeae)
Apricot, peach, plum and cherry
Lettuces, chicory, sunflower etc.
Cactaceae (cactus)
Prickly pear cactus, tequila
Chenopodiaceae
Spinach, quinoa
Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)
Cucurbitaceae
12 000
Sugar maple (for maple syrup)
Cabbage, turnip, radish, rape
Water melon, cucumber, gherkin, melon, squash etc.
6 000
Vertebrates
1 500
26 000
4 000
7 000
9 700
4 300
Vanilla
Coconut
Maize, wheat, rice, oat, millet, barley etc.
Sponges
Wine, grapes
Vitaceae
Nematod
75 000
Banana
Orange, lemon
25 000
Truffle, girolle and boletus (mushroom) – The blue in Roquefort cheese. Yeast for bread and beer
Fig tree, blackberry bush
Solanaceae
Cnidaria
20 000
Medlar, quince, apple and pear etc.
Rhubarb, sorrel, buckwheat etc.
10 000
Without them the soil would not be fertile
nuts etc.
Rosaceae
Rutaceae
250 000
Aceraceae
Asparagus, saffron
Musaceae
50 edible species (sea lettuce, kombu, sea beans etc.)
Gymnosperm (conifers)
Malaceae
Moraceae
Examples of contribution to our food
They are involved in our digestion
They are essential for fermentation of dairy products
Various beans such as string beans, peas, lentils and pea-
Liliaceae
We sometimes think that we need only a few animal and plant species for our food.
In reality, studies show that our food comes from species that are as varied as
they are numerous. In Laos, of the country’s 6,000 plants, 3,000 are or have been
eaten; in the Argentine altiplano, of the 1,000 known plants, 700 were used and had
a name before the arrival of the Conquistadors.
Groups
Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
Strawberry, blackberry
Potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco etc.
Plathelminth
Arachnids
Crustaceae
Insects
Molluscs
Annelideae
Echinoderms
Velay cheese with its so-called “artisons” (acarids)
Spiny lobster, crab, shrimp
Honey – cochineal for colouring - In Africa, Asia and el-
sewhere: crickets, termites, ants etc.
Edible snail, winkle - oyster, mussel, scallop - squid, octo-
pus
Earthworms are essential for the fertilization of soils;
their use in the human diet is currently being studied
Sea-urchin , sea cucumbers
The purple one in France. Other species in Japan, China
Ascidiae
and Chile
Amphibians
Frogs and their legs
Fish
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
Sea bream, tuna, trout
Crocodile, iguana
Chicken, duck
Beef, rabbit, mutton
20
21
BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS is sold in the form of a powder containing spores and protein-filled
crystals from the Bacillus thuringiensis, a natural disease in caterpillars. It is used to control mosquito
larvae, pine processionary moths and certain other pests in vegetable plots.
Biological control requires a complex approach: identify a predator or effective parasite that is
usually indigenous to the region from which the problematic species comes, and then establish its
breeding and dissemination.
IEND EST CONTROL
R
F
Y
M
S
I
NEMY BIOLOGICAL P
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Y
M
F
O
Y
THE ENEM
the scale insect Icerya purchasi apparently from Australia. To
combat this scourge, the LADYBIRD Rodolia cardinalis was
introduced from Australia and released into Californian
orchards. The operation was a success and the ladybirds
gradually controlled scale insect numbers. So biological pest
control is nothing new; it was temporarily eclipsed by chemical
products, but for sometime now it has been making a strong
come-back. The principle is simple; controlling organisms ravaging
crops by introducing or encouraging their enemies, be they
predators, parasites, bacteria or viruses. These methods tend
not to completely eliminate the pest but to reduce its population
to such a level that they can no longer cause significant damage.
It is estimated that at present about 50 species of “weed”
(often invasive species) and 500 species of "harmful" insects
can be efficiently controlled by biological agents. The ladybird
is well known, but here are a few moreexamples:
TRICHOGRAMMA are tiny waspsbred and released in their
millions by farmers in the maize fields threatened by the corn
borer. Trichogramma lay their eggs inside the eggs of the corn
borer, thereby preventing their development.
The MOTH Cactoblastis cactorum was introduced to limit the
proliferation of the prickly pear cactus, an invasive species in
Australia.
© Franck Le Bloch
The SPORES OF THE FUNGUS Trichoderma viridae are used
to control various diseases of fruit trees and vines.
prickly pear
This approach is attractive because of its ecological character, but it does require expertise;
improvisation can result in the released species becoming a predator or a competitor of local
species, to the point of bringing about their disappearance.
Around 1870, in California, citrus fruit came under attack from
To find out more:
www.inra.fr/opie-insectes/lutte bio.htm
are
plants
ltivated enetic
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o
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© Jean-Pierre Montoroi-IRD
© Alexandre Dudouble
of
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Biolog imal and plan lematic
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RA
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L
R
A
G FO INGS COME IN SM
SEARCHIN
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T
GOOD
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RICE T
H
T
I
W
I
n the 1970s, the rice dwarf virus devastated the rice fields
of India and Indonesia where high yielding rice used to be
cultivated. The International Rice Institute tested 6,273 types
of rice before finding a variety with genes that were resistant
to this disease: it was an Indian species called Oryza nivara,
discovered by scientists just a few years earlier, but which was
of mediocre quality. It was crossed with the most commonly
cultivated type and the resulting resistant hybrid today covers
over 100,000 square kilometres of rice fields in Asia.
Barbault R. 2006. 2006, Un éléphant dans un jeu de quilles (An elephant in
a game of skittles).
L’homme dans labiodiversité (Humans in biodiversity). Seuil. 266 p.
.
22
23
LLFISH PROVE USEFUL
E
H
S
D
N
A
EL BAY
S FISH
D
E
-MICH
E
T
F
N
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A
A
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ONT S
THE PLANT MENTS IN THE BAY OF M
as a
ichel h
aint-M natural
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The Ba different typ lth of some
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wn: sea
environ is widely kno tion, etc.)
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of them mussel produ ucks, Brent
,
d
g
,
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in
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e
(fis
shes
(sh
ne mar
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salt me c.). Sea-pursla be interest
to
geese e considered
ntly,
t
til rece t
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Howev mations play their high
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or
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produc decompositio r the mussels
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s
.
e
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B
a
e
h in th
and fis
T
he Mont Saint Michel maritime character restoration project
raised the question of the utility of the salt marshes. Indeed,
natural environments requiring protection had to be identified
in order to define the work programme.
The usefulness of the salt meadows is known and acknowledged
by many stakeholders. For farmers, it is a place where the famous salt meadow sheep are raised. Hunters find widgeons
there that feed on alkali grass (Puccinellia maritima), a small favourite grazing plant, in winter. For naturalists, it is the favourite spot of a protected goose called the Brent goose.
Non-grazed 'natural' salt meadows initially seem altogether less
remarkable. Large areas in the middle of the salt marshes
in particular, are occupied by a very common species, the sea
purslane (Atriplex portulacoides) which forms dense vegetation
apparently of no interest.
After ten years of research in the bay, this environment is
being seen in a different light. Sea purslane is very productive:
an average of over 20 tonnes of dry organic matter per hectare
per year and even up to 36 tonnes without labour, fertiliser or
pesticides. In comparison, maize uses 140 to 180 kg of nitrogen
per hectare for a usable production of 10 to 13 tonnes of dry
matter.
Most of the organic matter produced by sea purslane is very rapidly decomposed on the spot, in
particular by bacteria and a small 'shredder' shellfish of the genus Orchestia. Thus, organic matter
is produced both in dissolved form and as fine particles, together with nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorous) which, once exported to the marine environment, enrich the neighbouring mud flats of
the salt marshes. This enrichment explains the capacity of these mud flats to produce micro algae
known as diatoms. Dead or alive, these diatoms and organic detritus transported by the tides are
part of the reason why the Bay of Mont Saint-Michel is capable of producing an average of 10,000
tonnes of commercialised mussels (the leading French centre for mussel farming), and 4 to 6,000
tonnes of oysters per year – not to mention the invertebrates eaten by migratory birds.
In addition, if we look at how these 'natural' salt marshes - which are incidentally flooded by less
than 40% of the tides during the course of a year - function, we can see that when they are
submerged (for less than one hour per tide), they are visited by fish such as mullet and young bass
during their first year of life. They often arrive with empty stomachs. The mullet gorge on diatoms
which they find at the bottom of the channels. The young bass leave with their stomachs full of
Orchestia; the capture of these little shellfish is responsible for up to 90% of the growth of the
bass during their first year of life. This new insight led to the protection of the salt marshes in the
context of the bay development project.
To find out more:
Lefeuvre J.C. 2000. La Baie du Mont Saint-Michel (The Bay of Mont-Saint Michel)
Actes Sud. 45p.
ON
ENVIR
TTEN
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Base ted on n
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cond lps our u y and th
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of
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25
HE ? SELF-MEDICATES
C
A
H
T
O
O
ET T CH UNKNOWINGLY
G
R
E
V
E
N
EAVER A RODENT WHI
B
E
H
T
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E
WHY DO
mans
ided hu at,
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r
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fur, me
aver ha
The be y resources: edical level,
n
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with
On t
licylic
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etyl-sa
cosmet trates the ac d
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it conc ained in its f
nt
acid co
10 of the 25 most sold drugs in the United States are derived from natural sources. A total of
approximately half of synthetic drugs have a natural origin.
The turnover for drugs derived from genetic resources was 75 to 150 billion dollars in the United
States in 1997.
The ginkgo tree alone led to the discovery of substances which are highly effective against
cardiovascular diseases, with a turnover of 360 million dollars per year.
75% of the world's population depend on natural traditional remedies.
In China, of the 30,000 recorded species of higher plants, over 5,000 species are used for
therapeutic purposes.
Many common plants around us have therapeutic value: St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum),
hawthorn (Crateagus monogyna), sage (Salvia officinalis), broom (Genista germanica), verbena
(Verbena officinalis) etc.
The therapeutic use of plants requires three conditions clearly illustrated by the Calophyllum, a
tree in Borneo recently discovered to have anti-AIDS properties:
correct identification: a closely related variety does not have the anti-AIDS effect;
protection of habitats: it is a rare tree;
respect of the countries and communities of origin of these plants: the patents arising from
this discovery will benefit Malaysia.
.
PLANTS AND HEALTH: HUGE ECONOMIC ISSUES
Acetyl-salicylic acid was discovered in the willow
© Denis Palanque
24
Beavers feed mainly on the bark and leaves of the willow and
poplar, trees in the family of salicaceae. It is not surprising therefore that 'castor' which is produced by one of the rodent's
glands, contains large quantities of salicin. Willow bark itself
has been known since Hippocrates as an antalgesic; salicin was
discovered in the early 19th century and, after the synthesis of
acetyl-salicylic acid, aspirin was brought onto the market in
1889.
Castor was widely used in pharmacopoeia as a headache remedy
but had many other uses as well (antispasmodic, stimulant etc.).
It is also used in the perfume industry. In the end, the poor
beaver was way too useful in France. Besides castor, it was hunted for its fur and for meat. Its aquatic habits and its scaly tail
led it to be considered as almost a fish, which meant it could be
eaten on Fridays! Beaver sausage was also renowned.
All these factors explain why the beaver almost disappeared
from France. Since its protection and reintroduction in certain
regions, its populations are on the increase.
26
A
TS TH
L PLAN
A
N
I
C
DI
OF ME
ANDS
S
U
O
H
THE T
NKLE
I
W
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E
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TH EXAMPLES FRO
porularly im rld :
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These a ts in the me Madagascar
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periwin t of certain rare; their
en
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treatm ies used to b erefore have
th
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T
Medicine uses thousands of plant species around the world, either by extracting the active principle in the plants or by using
them as a model for the creation of synthetic molecules.
QUININE
Quinine is an obvious example. In the 17th century, the Indians
of Peru introduced quinina, the 'sacred bark', to the Jesuit missionaries. In 1820, French pharmacists isolated the alkaloid
concerned (quinine). Total synthesis of the molecule was achieved in1944.
THE PACIFIC YEW
Paclitaxel (commercial name: Taxol), was isolated in 1967 in the
bark of the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). This drug is used in
the treatment of lung, ovarian and breast cancers. The very low
concentration of the molecule in the tree threatened the yew
itself with extinction but also an owl that is closely associated
with it.
Currently, a molecule very similar to paclitaxel and having the
same properties is produced from an actinobacterium, Nodulisporium sylviforme. In 2000, annual sales of this drug stood at
1.2 billion euro.
© Alain Gérérd
An anti-cancer drug, Navelbine®, was prepared using the Madagascar periwinkle and marketed in
the context of collaboration between the Institute of Chemistry of Natural Substances (ICSN - Institut de chimie des substances naturelles) in Gif-sur-Yvette, and a French pharmaceutical laboratory.
This successful scientific collaboration between the CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - National Scientific Research Centre) and the industrial sector also led to the Post Office
issuing an official stamp dedicated to the Madagascar periwinkle in March 2000. This issue was a
'first' for the CNRS.
Today this plant is endangered in Madagascar by deforestation and slash-and-burn agriculture.
THE MADAGASCAR PERIWINKLE
The Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus, formerly called Vinca rosea) is used in traditional medicine in the form of
tea. In the 1950s, researchers discovered that it contained a
series of alkaloids that inhibit cell division. Vinblastine and vincristine are taken from it and used as cytostatics in the treatment of certain cancers (leukaemias and Hodgkin's disease).
ALS CA
ANIM
P TOO
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FROG
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H
T
D
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S
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Animals also produce molecules that can be used in medicine.
es
bstanc
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o
r
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Anima used in medic rogs,
f
e
r
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a
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a
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shellfis made of spo
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in ca
mentio e of interest
ar
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treatm
© Yvain Dubois, Ecosphère
A FEW
T EXIS
27
American researchers at Wake Forest University discovered
that toxins from the venom of the cone shellfish (a marine mollusc) could help perfect new analgesic drugs able to relieve
stubborn neurological pain. These toxins produced excellent results when tested on mice suffering from neuralgia. Cone toxin
can stop neurological pain by blocking cellular receptors, which
opens up a wide area of research in the development of a new
class of antalgesic drugs.
Frogs also seem very interesting. Researchers have identified
a substance in one of them that prevents mosquito bites. Other
species produce particularly effective antibacterial substances.
28
29
© Céline Landon et coll.
s
tics wa
antibio um,
f
o
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r
cove
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The dis bserving Pen g bacteria.
o
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These
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ing inc
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becom
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and
antibio r dealing wit
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who pr ective
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against d pathogenic
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viruse
Three-dimensional structure of defensin
Much of medicine consists of finding means to protect against
the 'germs' which attack us, be they bacteria, viruses or fungi.
In the past and even today, this has relied on observation of
the natural defences of very diverse living organisms.
THE ADVENTURE OF ANTIBIOTICS
Without doubt one of the greatest discoveries of the 20th century
was made by the French military physician Ernest Duchesne
who, in 1896, noticed that the fungus Penicillium glaucum could
completely eliminate the bacterium Escherichia coli in a culture
containing only these two organisms. He also showed that an
animal survived a fatal dose of typhoid bacilli if first inoculated
with Penicillium glaucum.
In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming re-discovered penicillin when
his strain of Penicillium notatum fungus colonised some nearby
culture dishes of bacteria and eradicated these cultures.
Actually, it was recently discovered that antibiotics have been
used for thousands of years by certain species of ants... Antibiotics
have enabled diseases previously considered incurable to be
treated. This is a major medical success but bacteria are now
found to be developing resistance, in particular as a result of
the over-consumption of antibiotics. It is estimated that 50%
of pneumococcal strains are resistant to these substances.
Staphylococcus aureus has developed multi-resistance making
the first diseases successfully treated with antibiotics now
incurable. Diseases which develop in hospitals, places where the
concentration of microbes and treatments favour the occurrence
of resistance, are called nosocomial diseases. These new
diseases present a real challenge for medicine today.
THE SEARCH FOR NEW WEAPONS
The discovery of new antibiotics has been successful, but these substances also induce resistance.
Today, a new approach is being taken. New microbicidal agents were discovered in humans in 1985.
These are small proteins called defensins which, unlike conventional antibiotics, do not only attack
bacteria but also viruses and fungi. We thus produce several hundred milligrams of defensins per day,
which is considerable, especially in a warm and aqueous environment like our mouths.
However, from the late 1980s, defensins have been discovered in insects such as the flesh flies
Sarcophaga peregrina and Phormia terranovae and the dragonfly Aeschna cyanea which are incredibly
resistant to microbial infections. Next, defensins were discovered in plants, the mussels Mytilus
edulis and Mytilus galloprovincialis and the oyster Grassostrea gigas. A defensin was even recently
discovered in a saprophytic fungus which lives in dead pine needles in northern areas. It is called
plectasin and proves to have an antimicrobial structure and properties similar to those reported in
the defensins of vertebrates, mussels and the dragonfly. So defensins may have originated from an
ancestral gene about a billion years ago… In laboratory tests on animals, plectasin proves to be as
efficient as vancomycin and penicillin against pathogens responsible for peritonitis and pneumonia.
Moreover, it also acts on bacterial strains that are resistant to conventional antibiotics. Finally, the
method of action of defensins is different from that of the antibiotics which may mean that
defensins would make it much more difficult for microbes to become resistant to their lethal or
paralysing action.
To find out more:
Thomma, B. et coll., 2002. Plant defensins. Planta. 216(2):193-202.
Bulet, P., 2004. Anti-microbial peptides: from invertebrates to vertebrates.
Immunol Rev. 198:169-84.
Ganz, T., 2004. Defensins: antimicrobial peptides of vertebrates.
C R Biol. 327(6):539-49.
Mygind, P. et coll. 2005. Plectasin is a peptide antibiotic with therapeutic
potential from a saprophytic fungus. Nature 437: 975-980
mouche verte du genre Lucilia
© Daniel Zachary
S ICS TO DEFENSINS
M
R
E
G
R
U
ILL O FROM ANTIBIOT
K
H
C
I
H
W
FUNGI
30
31
However, in warm years her voyage at sea is longer and she does
not get back until about a week after hatching. In such cases,
the male has been found to be able to feed the chick for about
ten days with food kept in his stomach. This revelation considered
one of the main life science discoveries of the CNRS in the
organisation's annual report, 'made' the Christmas 2000 cover
of the magazine, Nature.
ER HAT WORKS AT 38°C
D
R
A
L
S
'
N
I
NGU REFRIGERATOR T
E
P
G
N
I
K
E
A
TH
BIG TRIP
Hundreds of thousands of King Penguins which breed on
Possession Island in the Crozet Archipelago swim hundreds of
kilometres from their colony to search for prey such as lantern
fish or squid at depths of 100 and 200 metres in an area called
the 'Polar Front'. This front is at the frontier between subantarctic waters and the colder polar waters is in fact the area
where the biggest populations of this prey are found. The
location of the front can change considerably from one year to
another, this change being basically due to the climatic
phenomenon called the ENSO-El Niño. The marine resources
along the coasts are suffering a strong decline as a result of
this warming which is spreading with a certain time-lag in the
Antarctic Ocean where it is pushing the polar front further
south. Consequently, in cold years the King Penguin has to
travel approximately 300-400 kilometres from the colony in
order to fish, while in warm years it has to travel 500-600
kilometres.
AN
A
© Cécile Touzeau et coll.
A
in vitro culture of Aspergilus fumigatus with spores
Male and female King Penguins take turns incubating their eggs.
The male is usually responsible for the final 2 to 3 weeks of
incubation while the female returns from hunting when the egg is
hatched in order to feed the chick. Since the distance between
the colony and the polar front is shorter in cold years, she is
able to return earlier and therefore before the egg is hatched.
REMARKABLE MOLECULE
A specific study of the bacterial flora found in these different
stomach contents revealed the presence of a high proportion of
dead bacteria or bacteria in a state of stress during the incubation
fast. An anti-microbial molecule was thus isolated and analysed
from the stomach content of male King Penguin' which did not
digest the food thus stored during the incubation fast.
The composition of this molecule, a small protein containing 38
amino acids and its three-dimensional structure were
established. The protein, called "spheniscine", has proven to be
very effective against certain microbial strains associated with
nosocomial diseases, in particular staphylococci and Aspergillus
fumigatus which is responsible for aspergillosis. It may also
prove to be very useful in food preservation.
To find out more:
Thouzeau C. et coll. 2003. Spheniscins, avian beta-defensins in preserved
In stomach contents of the king penguin, Aptenodytes patagonicus. J. Biol
Chem. ; 278(51):51053-8.
AMAZING ADAPTATION
© Cécile Touzeau et coll.
© Nicolas Chatelain
to feed
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e
y
d
r
they
iscove
their d ture of which cule corresle
uc
the str synthetic mo e proves to
e
ur
ned. Th to this struct robial and
ic
g
pondin resting antim hich opens
e
w
t
,
s
in
ie
e
t
hav
per
ation
gal pro
preserv
antifun ects for food drugs
sp
up pro eation of new
cr
e
h
or t
Spores loss is due to sphenicine
32
33
RIZE RCH MODELS
P
L
E
B
O
N
THE PECIES FOR RESEA
D
N
A
D
I
U
Q
THE SINDING THE RIGHT S
F
Researchers working in the field of human physiology use 'biospecies
animal known
y
n
a
m
dy of
hardly
The stu e sometimes insignificant
r
ar
a
ic
e
h
p
ic
p
h
w
ya
scientif
ich ma
major
and wh times led to
e
has som s.
ie
r
e
v
o
c
dis
logical models' to find answers to the questions they ask. While
the laboratory 'white mouse' is well known, few people know
that many other species are also used in laboratory experiments. Models must have a combination of particular features,
often specific to each study, to be worthwhile. An analysis of
Nobel prizes for medicine shows that marine models have often
been the source of major discoveries:
E. Metchnikoff, Nobel prize 1908, discovered phagocytosis
through research on the STAR FISH;
C. Richet, Nobel prize 1913, and P. Portier discovered anaphylactic shock after research with physalias during an oceanographic campaign;
A.L. Hodgkin and A.F. Huxley, Nobel prize in 1963, used the
nerve of the SQUID which is a thousand times bigger (in crosssection) than the human nerve, to demonstrate the basic mechanisms of the transmission of nerve impulses.
© Pierre Laboute-IRD
In 1980, E. Kandel received the Nobel prize for research on
the molecular bases of memory in a small SEA SNAIL; this led
him to the discovery of very important proteins and of basic
neuronal connections during memorisation which may have applications in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
T. Hunt received the Nobel prize in 2001 for the discovery of
the cyclincomplexes with CDCs, key molecules in the phenomenon of cancerisation, through research on the STAR FISH.
The discovery of the molecular codes of the self and non-self
(the ability of organisms to identify foreign bodies) from ascidians, the isolation and characterisation of the first membrane-bound neurotransmitter receptor in the electric organs of torpedo rays,
eye development in a jellyfish, and the immune system of sharks which is similar to that of infants,
may also be cited.
Finally, it should be noted that molecular biology has been able to make significant progress because
of the fluorescent proteins of jellyfish which are extraordinary molecules.
To find out more :
[email protected]
Boeuf, G., sous presse, 2007. Biomedical and ocean research. Journal de la Société Française de Biologie (The Journal of
the French Biological Society)
"… certain experiments would be impossible on certain animal species and the intelligent
choice of an animal with a happy disposition is often the basic condition for the success
of and for the solution to a major physiological problem... comparative physiology is one of the
most fertile sources for general physiology..."
Claude Bernard, 1865
" …for every physiological problem there is an ideal living model... "
August Krogh, Prix Nobel en 1920
"…to tackle an important problem and to have a reasonable chance of finding a solution for it,
biologists must seek suitable material…"
François Jacob, Prix Nobel 1965
34
MAN W THINGS
T
A
F
E
H
T
D
A FE
N
A
R
CH US
A
A
E
E
B
T
THE WN BEAR COULD
al
mamm
he only ernation
t
is
r
a
ring hib
own be
The br obilise fat du scle mass.
u
m
m
to
g
able
asin
enon
t decre
henom
withou nding this p eful in
a
s
t
u
Unders particularly
g
e
ntrollin
could b g ways of co
in
v
ans
impro
in hum
obesity
Obesity and excess weight have become major medical issues
because of diabetes and the cardiovascular risks that they
cause. However, to date, no diet sufficiently effective at making excess adipose tissue disappear can prevent the loss of
proteins and the consequent reduction in muscle mass (including
cardiac muscle). Theoretically, therefore, in severe obesity,
fat reserves may disappear under the effect of a strict one to
two-year diet, but at the same time protein loss would become
very dangerous after just two to three months…
However, there is a mammal, and apparently only one, which can
mobilise only its fat. The brown bear in hibernation is the animal in question...
O
erstand
us und .
d
e
lp
e
eh
tion
rey hav
f diges
ds of p ical nature o
m
the che
There is nothing new about the importance of animal observation
in medical discoveries.
In 1752, Réaumur attempted to understand the mechanism by
which birds of prey expel fur balls and bones. He had one of
them swallow a perforatedmetal tube containing meat. When
the bird spat out the tube in a ball, Réaumur noted that the
meat had disappeared. He then had a bird of prey swallow a
piece of sponge which the bird of prey spat out. In this way the
scientist was able to collect the gastric juice and help in the
understanding of the mechanism of digestion which thus
appeared to be a chemical rather than a physical phenomenon.
"As an economist I can recommend the adoption of various innovative policies to encourage
research and development leading to the manufacture of new drugs, but scientifically speaking
I do not really know what advice I could give researchers attempting to create new drug
products in 2050 from extinct species".
.
R
THE B
I
THE D
W
O
L
L
A
TO SW
D
R
A
H
S
I
HAT
T
Y
R
O
T
S
A
IETS
OSS D
L
T
H
G
T WEI
ABOU
TION
DIGES
F
O
Y
R
SCOVE
Jack Langford, Policy Advisor at Environnement Canada, during the international symposium on
biodiversity and health in Ottawa, Canada, October 2003.
Source : http ://www.idrc.ca
35
37
SKIN! ITS OWN RIGHT
R
U
O
R
E
D
’S UN , AN ECOSYSTEM IN
T
I
,
Y
T
I
S
R
BIODIVE THE EPIDERMIS
© Andrew Syred-Microscopise
y is an
an bod ht, occupied
m
u
h
e
tir
rig
,
s own
The en
, yeasts
em in it
acteria
ecosyst s of mites, b e
es
on
by billi tc. Usually th us in good
p
e
e
s
e
e
k
s
to
inority
viru
small m
ms help
organis d only a very .
an
es
health rce of diseas the skin but
u
o
o
t
s
s
a
e
al
are
relat
intestin
ample
This ex ld not forget ine provides
t
u
s
we sho human inte eria than
ct
he
flora: t for more ba dy! American
o
at
a habit cells in the b rs recently
e
e
r
h
d
a
c
r
e
a
r
e
e
th
res
roduce
ls and p
nadian
s
and Ca ree individua erent specie
th
iff
d
d
h
ie
0
ic
d
0
u
h
4
st
f
fw
ntory o
62% o cience.
an inve ia on them,
to s
n
r
w
e
o
t
n
c
of ba
ly unk
revious
were p
Demodex foluculorum (adult acarid) on a skin
(enlargement: 363)
Decidedly, biodiversity is everywhere, including in the most
unexpected places, like on our skin for example. From the viewpoint of micro-organisms, our skin is a vast landscape of hills
and valleys, nooks and crannies, inhabited by communities of incredibly diversified organisms. It is a sort of breeding ground
inhabited by a fascinating world, a discreet ecosystem following
the usual rules of any ecosystem.
The horny layer made up of small scales that are continuously
being renewed constitutes the most superficial layer of the skin
which is an unstable environment. The live epidermis is a culture
bath richly nourished by glandular secretions which ensure the
maintenance of a flora and fauna comprised of a myriad of organisms and microorganisms. Access to the deep layers is via
various orifices (the sweat glands, the capillary follicles from
which hair grows, and the sebaceous glands), the secretions
from which are nutrients for the microorganisms.
The organisms in the skin bathe in a veritable paradise where
everything is offered free of charge and in profusion, albeit to
varying degrees from one place to another since bacterial density can range from 314 bacteria per cm2 on the skin of the
back to some 2.5 million per cm2 in the areas with the highest
levels.
In a meadow, we can distinguish between the producers (grass),
the consumers (cows),and the decomposers (microorganisms in
the soil). On the skin, the system is somewhat different since
the producer is the skin itself; there is only one consumer animal, the small acarid called Demodex
On the skin, the system is somewhat different since the producer is the skin itself ; there is only
one consumer animal, the small mite called Demodex] folliculorum, which lives and reproduces in and
around the eyelashes, capillary follicles as well as around the nostrils. There are also some undesirable stowaway passengers such as lice and fleas which are not really components of permanent communities of the skin. Other organisms are yeast, bacteria, perhaps also some viruses that parasitize
bacteria. Most of the latter are completely harmless except one of them; the gilded staphylococcus which may cause severe infections, especially since it evolved antibiotic resistance. The skin
communities are far from closed microcosms isolated on their hosts like shipwrecked people on an
island. They travel from host to host on minute rafts which are small pieces of skin which fall off
them. Each of these small pieces can harbour thousands of passengers which just wait for finding
another host to colonise and invade.
WHAT IS THIS BIODIVERSITY USED FOR?
It is recognised that the myriad of organisms which live on our skin play a protective role for our
health. They contribute to eliminate the small scraps produced by the skin and restrain immigration
of pathogenic organisms. This is because, as in any ecosystem, it is more difficult for microbes to
colonize a skin which is already occupied by many organisms than if it was empty.
As a rule, don’t submit your skin to too many chemical aggressions, especially to aggressive deodorants… in short carefully wash yourselves but not too often!
© Yvain Dubois
36
38
y
t
i
s
r
e
v
i
d
io
b
e
v
i
t
c
u
d
Pro
W
they
wild, ed
e
r
a
ra
sifi
d flo nd diver
e
n
a
a
n
i n th
ta
t fau
rtan are used
o
o
n
p
y
r
n
m
a
i
er o
rials
nd m
very
heth
mate energy a rhaps
wi t h
w
s
a
u
r
,
s
e
pe
id e
Thes cosmetic ific and
prov
ces.
c
,
r
e
.
y
u
p
r
e
o
s
t
r
he
res
ew
d us
ng in . Only a f resented
i
d
l
i
p
bu
lds
s are
r fie
othe l example
ua
un us
TY CR
VERSI
I
D
O
I
B
ange
dium-r
y of me Vercors is
m
o
n
o
e
The ec
ssifs lik
lture,
ain ma ersity: agricu
mount
iv
d
.
etc
on bio
tourism
based
nature
,
y
r
t
s
e
for
Economists have tried to estimate the entire value of the goods and services that humankind has
received since its beginning, from discoveries relating to biodiversity. An average value of 400,000
euro was estimated for each species that inhabits the earth!
JO B S
EAU
T
A
L
P
A
N
RE O
U
T
A
N
,
S
R
VERCO
The Vercors Regional Nature Park straddles the départements
BIODIVERSITY: CONSIDERABLE ECONOMIC IMPACT
A few illustrations
In 1997, Nature magazine published the summary (Costanza et coll.) of around one hundred evaluations concerning 17 services provided by the ecosystem (the regulation of gases, climate and atmosphericor disturbances, pollination, food production, recreation etc.). After extrapolation on a
worldwide level, the authors of this study arrived at a value of 33 trillion dollars for these services
compared to 18 trillion dollars for the total of all the gross national products on the planet.
EATES
of Isère and the Drome, covering 140,000 hectares, and is home
to 40,000 inhabitants. The outstanding features of this PreAlp massif are its limestone geology, its cliffs, caves,
'grykes',etc.
Vercors is the habitat for an exceptional biodiversity: over
2,000 plant species, all of France's wild ungulate species (from
the ibex to the stag), vultures, the wolf, the lynx etc. Controlled
terms of origin have been established for breeds and wine,
cheeses and walnut products. Afforestation has reached 65%.
More than a third of the 13,500 jobs that exist in the area of
the Regional Nature Park are directly related to biodiversity:
jobs in the wood industry, in agriculture, tourism, nature
activities and in heritage conservation and preservation etc.
Another third is directly related to this first third: services,
the food industry, miscellaneous trade etc. Finally, the last
third only exists because of the other two thirds: public services,
education, health, roads etc. Therefore, without the current
biodiversity, Vercors' economic activity would not amount to
much...and without the past biodiversity, Vercors would not
exist at all, because this limestone massif is the result of an
accumulation of organisms that died on the ocean floor during
the secondary era!
39
40
41
! S AND SHAMPOOS
T
I
'
H
T
I
W
S...' TERGENTS, SOAP
D
N
A
H
R
U
ASH O NINS: NATURAL DE
W
E
W
,
Y
IT
SAPO
BIODIVERS
SOAPS
NTS !
NS TO
A
L
P
INDIA
G
T
N
S
I
E
T
HELP W
ERES
T
N
I
’
DUCTS
Y
O
R
L
P
L
I
L
RA
NATU
‘SMURF
WHEN
Y
L
E
F
SA
A
PARTY
D
© Jacques Portecop - dictame
Flag washed using sapindus
NATURAL
Plants have provided humans with the first soaps in every country
in the world. Today, Westerners enamoured of nature are
rediscovering the wonders of the soap nut, the fruit of the
Sapindus mukorossi, in the same way as they have discovered
the properties of the wood and the bark of the Quillaja
saponaria, the quillaja, and just as they have forgotten the use
of the flowers, leaves and roots of the Saponaria or Saponaria
officinalis.
Saponins which are very common in plant and some animal
organs, give these plants their detergent, surfactant and
lathering properties. These same properties make them toxic
by ingestion.
TREE PROVIDING MANY RESOURCES
The Sapindus mukorossi grows in India and Nepal. This tree
offers many resources that are valued by the local populations
and industry:
The cleaning properties already mentioned.
The antifungal and insecticidal properties valued as much in
terms of human health as in terms of agriculture.
Use
in the photography industry
Effective
© Jean-François Dobremez
Flag washed using sapindus
protection of soil against erosion
© Jacques Portecop
© Art Harris
Centennial Museum
nins
ce sapo
s produ ps. The soap
t
n
la
p
s
Variou e natural soa t can be
ar
ha
which
a nut t
ich has
oduces thes and wh
lo
tree pr
wash c
used to er uses.
h
t
o
y
man
Moreover, this hardy tree can survive in difficult terrain without fertilizer. Soap nuts, like other
natural soaps, are less effective but a lot less aggressive than modern detergents which contain
additives and phosphates that are a source of pollution. Therefore, they are worth rediscovering and
supporting. However, the rules of fair trade should be respected because the prices for the soap
nut in Europe and North America are 1,000 to 5,000 times higher than on the Indian or Nepal
markets…
uring Carnival, in the West Indies, people used to smear themselves with used motor oil as a disguise, which was neither healthy nor easy to remove! Henri Joseph, a doctor of pharmacy,
was able to create a natural product which was easy to remove
from the starch of a tuber, the arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) and a colorant made from the small blue flower of the butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea).
This solution was extraordinarily well adopted by the public and
this dye was given the name of a carnival organisation: ‘Voukoum
blue'.
Left column :
commonly measured
economic values
Right column :
nonmarketed and other
economic values
Grazing
Carbon sequestration
Timber and fuelwood
Watershed protection
Non-timber forest products
Recreation and hunting
Total economic value
dollars per hectare
Italy
Portugal
Croatia
Turkey
Tunisia
Marocco
Algéria
Source : Millennium Ecosystem Asseasment
Syria
T
THE U
Of course, the forest can represent an important source of
economic wealth by the sale of the wood it produces.
But it can generate many other resources: mushrooms, game,
forage, fruits (acorns, chestnuts etc.)
Finally, it performs major but less visible functions: climate
regulation by trapping carbon, protecting drinking water, the
landscape etc.
Economic evaluations in the context of the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, have demonstrated the importance of the stakes.
In Portugal, the benefits provided each year by a hectare of
forest are estimated at 160 dollars for conventional economic
productions and 180 for the other functions.
In Syria, there is little wood production, but the other functions
of the forest provide approximately 90 dollars per hectare
per year.
In France, this method has not been applied but the data that
are available indicate a similar situation. The value of the wood
that is harvested yearly (1.3 billion euro) is comparable to the
recreational value of the forests which is 2 billion euro
(evaluated by the displacement cost method), and to their value
for trapping CO2 which is 2.4 billion euro (with one tonne of
CO2 at €40). The contingency method of evaluation set the
'value' of their biodiversity at 364 million euro.
To find out more:
http://www.millenniumassessment.org
USES
S
A
S
E
M
A
AS MANY N
ch
on mu
hrives
t
is
e
it
ir
,
h
mp
day
Rock sa nch coast. To gathered
e
is
r
F
it
of the
utical
ecause
ered b
armace
endang metic and ph quate
cos
no ade
for its
there is place.
d
n
a
e
valu
rol in
of cont
system
© Sylvain Tourte, Ecothème
d,
of woo
duction functions:
o
r
p
e
er
,
s th
Beside ave many oth etc., hunting
h
s
forests ering of fruit nts, carbon,
ie
th
the ga holding nutr
,
grazing c.
igh
et
arry a h
water, nctions can c
u
These f weight.
l
financia
OOD GLE
W
T
S
U
J
N
THA FROM ANOTHER AN
E
R
O
M
E
C
RODU ECOSYSTEM SEEN
P
S
T
S
E
R
O
E
F
OF TH
ILITY
IRE
SAMPH
ROCK
Rock samphire (Crithmum maritimum) is known by several
names: Sea fennel, Samphire, 'Poor man's asparagus', etc.
This plant from the family of Apiaceaes (umbelliferes) lives on
sea shores all along the French coasts. It can be used fresh in
salads, cooked, or soaked in vinegar.
Rock samphire has long been known for its multiple properties:
digestive, diuretic, stimulant, antiscorbutic, anthelmintic etc.
It also has uses in cosmetics and parapharmacy (creams, lotions,
essential oil, etc.) for the treatment of skin or excess weight
problems etc.
The multiple benefits of this plant explain why so much of it is
now being collected on the Public Maritime Domain without authorisation and at the risk of its endangerment. Therefore sustainable management of its populations is obviously necessary.
TREE
D
O
O
W
L
E
E LAURRWINGED ALLIES
H
T
D
N
A
E BATH THE HELP OF OU
H
T
,
Y
T
U
IT
B EA
PING W
T
FORES
© Jacques Portecop
42
S HO P
T
he Laurelwood (Calophyllum calaba) is a tall West Indian tree
that produces fruits with a stone from which oil that is very
sought after in the cosmetic industry is extracted. Gathering
the stones can be difficult but certain bats, who feed only on
the outer part of the fruit, leave the oil-producing stones behind. These can be easily gathered by leaving a net stretched
out under the tree.
43
,
ction
l sele ible
a
r
u
t
d
of na
ncre
cess veloped i ough
o
r
p
yt
the
e de
line
n ver
se of
s hav
ofte he discip ions
o
ecau nd plant
t
t
g
t
n
i
t
s
a
'i
ap a
apt
als
l
etics these ad
anim ns for ad
m
stria
i
u
m
d
o
n
i
i
m
o
i
B
o
e
t
'
r
solu
nts.
in th
ion f
onme
pirat ovations
ally
n
envir raws ins
actu
to in
d
s
i
h
m
d
c
e
i
y
wh
s th
saril
ed an
pplie
en us ing neces was
e
b
and a
g
r
e
on
be
or.
has l
ople
l Tow
sect
oach thout pe he Eiffe est
r
p
p
i
a
t
g
This ommon w hape of
tron
s
c
our s
e
f
e
h
t
o
i
T
qu
i t.
one
e of
d by
awar y inspire
!
all
emur
actu
he f
t
,
s
bone
A
TREES
USING
YESTERDAY, VELCRO...
The 'Velcro’ closure gets its name from 'Velvet' and 'crochet'.
The story (or legend) is that Georges de Mestral imagined this
system after observing the burdock fruits that his dog always
had in his coat after a walk, under the microscope. This plant
developed this system to disperse its seeds ('zoochory' is the
term for animal dispersal) so there is nothing accidental about.
A patent was awarded for Velcro in 1951 in Switzerland and
today it is considered to be among the 50 most important inventions of the 20th Century.
TOMORROW, THE GECKO ?
Geckos are small lizards that are well-known for their ability to
climb the smoothest walls. They have small pads on the tips of
their toes with millions of small adhesive hairs which give them
this ability. Researchers at the University of Manchester reproduced this device in the creation of an adhesive strip covered with plastic polymer ‘hairs” two thousandths of a millimetre
long. On dry surfaces, the hairs are stuck to the support by
weak forces of attraction called 'van der Waals forces'. On wet
surfaces, the forces of 'suction' cause the hairs to stick to the
surface of the support.
This glue-free system could have an infinite number of applications: surgical use, notices that can be repositioned, adhesive
tyres etc. Tests have been done but researchers have yet to
reproduce all the sophistication of the gecko's foot and the durability of its effect.
ND R
A team of Swiss researchers discovered the mechanism by
which the damaged bark of a tree is repaired. This discovery
allowed the researchers to perfect a self-repairing film which
prevents a car tyre from deflating too rapidly when it is punctured, i.e. in approximately 5 hours instead of one minute, which
leaves ample time to have the tyre repaired without being
forced to change the wheel in often dangerous conditions. A
patent was awarded for this invention.
Another natural fairy tale regards tyres. One day, Mr Michelin
went to see a scientist specialising in locomotion at the comparative
anatomy laboratory of the National Natural History Museum;
an anti-skid tyre was invented as a result of the study of a small
lizard in the Guyanese forest which can climb vertically up
smooth tree trunks at top speed.
DEL
HANG OSTNI!CKY SPECIES AS A MO
…
YRE R REPAIRS
T
T
A
L
F
E
ND TLHEND A HAND IN CA
A
D
R
A
Z
I
L
ES
THE
EPTIL
© Gérard Arnal
RK,
A
B
E
E
R
T
THE
45
dhesive
o the a lants
t
s
it
m
p
re no li
ls and
There a s that anima re a precious
ie
a
t
.
r
y
e
e
prop
archers
ed; th
evelop ation for rese ere:
d
e
v
a
h
h
ir
of insp re presented r
source
les a
afte
p
d
m
e
t
a
a
x
e
Two e hich was cr
lant
rdock p
w
Velcro ion of the bu ko which are
at
ec
observ feet of the g
e
and th rly adhesive.
la
particu
To find out more: http://forums.futura-sciences.com/thread1624.html
burdock
© Michel Cambrony
n
o
i
t
a
v
o
n
n
i
l
a
i
r
t
s
u
d
n
i
d
n
a
y
t
i
s
r
e
Biodiv
B
44
46
DS
A
E
R
H
T
R
E
AND HNFINISHED TALE
,
R
E
D
I
P
S
AN U
, THE
T
A
O
G
E
H
T
thread that stretches and is flexible is five times stronger than
steel (45 tonnes per square centimetre!). What is even more extraordinary about this material is that it is produced in liquid
form by the spider who can supply several types of thread depending on its use (string, web, nest etc.).
Spiders' threads have been used directly in the fabrication of
carpets and optical instruments. An infinite number of uses
could be found for such a material today; armies dream of it
for bullet-proof vests as do surgeons for suture thread. But
how could this thread be mass-produced? Large scale spider
rearing has proved impossible because of the highly territorial
nature of these animals.
Unsuccessful attempts have been made to make butterflies or
bacteria produce the thread proteins. The most promising approach at this time would be to genetically modify goats so that
their milk would contain the protein that is in spiders' threads.
This process seems to be about to succeed on an industrial
scale in Canada.
© Olivier Grunewald
The spider's thread has always fascinated scientists. This
ATERDRINK
W
F
O
S
S
A
HE GLCHILEAN FARMERS A
T
D
N
A
E
L
THE BMEIBEITAN INSECT OFFERS
A NA
I
t never rains in many coastal deserts (Atacama, the Canary Islands, Namibia, for example) and this creates a significant problem in terms of water supply for human populations. However,
water is present in the form of sometimes thick and frequent
fog. The plants and animals have adapted to this situation, in
particular in the Namib Desert, the oldest desert in the world.
Andrew Parker, from Oxford University, and Chris Lawrence,
from QinetiQ, analysed the system used by the Stenocara
beetle. The insect faces the wind and drops settle on the hump
of its wings, then, when they are big enough they roll down
grooves leading to its mouth.
The results of this research have led to the design of simple
inexpensive materials, much more efficient than systems that
have existed up until now.
To find our more: http://www.innovationsreport.
com/html/reports/life_sciences/report-5713.html
To find out more: http://www.futura-sciences.com/news-fil-araigneearme-
biotechnologie_4934.php
A part from fog,
this desert is particulary very dry
he
been t
ds have decades now
a
e
r
h
t
’
r
Spiders f research fo properties
o
o
subject they have tw f reproducing
o
e
becaus ineers dream and
y
g
it
n
il
e
t
ib
a
x
th
fle
at last
terial:
h may
in a ma . This researc to a
s
h
strengt ceeded thank at.
o
c
g
u
s
d
e
ie
v
dif
ha
ally mo
genetic
ble to
tle is a
ert bee g from fog.
s
e
d
n
ibia
kin
A Nam ater for drin ism,
w
an
t
h
c
c
e
e
ll
m
o
e
c
by this able to creat tem
d
e
ir
p
ys
e
s
r
Ins
e
is
w
h
hers
uce t
s
researc that reprod astal desert
o
ls
c
ia
r
in
e
s
t
n
a
a
m
ide hum
to prov er.
at
with w
47
48
49
ANE F SONAR
C
E
H
T
D
N
AN A STIC POTENTIAL O
M
D
N
I
L
B
E
TH TING THE FANTA
,
T
A
B
E
H
T
PROMO
NG IT
R
E
I
SPIRI
D
N
L
I
O
S
THE SY AND THE INSECT
D
N
A
Y
L
F
RM
ON
THE DRAG TOMORROW'S A
In 2003, an innovative project was initiated by the Parisian cen-
© Denis Palanque
tre of expertise of the General Delegation for Armament. It
concerns a feasibility study for a 4th generation micro-drone
that responds to the needs of future warriors.
Tiny and discreet, it should be able to penetrate and explore
urban environments totally autonomously.
As a veritable remote eye of a soldier, this flying micro-robot
of less than 15 cm designed from a dragonfly model, is intended
for observation and stealth reconnaissance missions. The device attempts to reproduce the size and function of the insect:
120 milligrams, four wings about 3 cm wide, 180,000 muscles
measuring 150 micrometres distributed over the surface of
each wing, etc.
Bats are well-known for their extraordinary ability to find
© Yvain Dubois
f
a lot o
s taken erefore
a
h
h
c
r
ls. It is th ed
y resea
is
Militar n from anima
iniatur d
o
m
ti
a
a
ir
insp
g that
plete
in
m
is
o
r
c
p
r
e
not su ould soon b ervation of
sh
bs
drone
ult of o fly.
the res
that is onfly and the
g
the dra
their way around in the dark; during flight they emit ultrasounds that rebound on obstacles or potential prey which give
them information about their surroundings.
Dean Waters (Leeds University, Great Britain) drew inspiration
from this to revolutionise canes for visually handicapped persons, and to fit to gloves. A miniature electronic system emits
60,000 pulses per second and analyse the echoes; it produces vibrations on the handle of the cane when an obstacle is approached. After successful experimentation, this device should soon
be widely available.
For its part, the device's navigation system was inspired by the
eye of the fly. As with many military innovations, one can imagine numerous applications in other areas in the medium term.
To find out more: http://www.defense.gouv.fr/portal_repository/
1605526422__0001/fichier/getData
© François Vrignaud, DGA/COMM
r
o
t
a
l
u
g
e
r
a
s
a
y
t
i
s
r
e
Biodiv
L
e
i n th
role
l
t,
a
e
t
n
pla
men
unda ia of our logy:
f
a
y
r
ydro
s pla r equilib
nism
and h s and
o
a
j
e
g
a
t
r
a
m
o
t
ivin g
trien
ef clim
f the
ms o ing of nu tc. Ther
ion o
r
t
e
a
l
t
u
e
n
p
i
,
p
ks,
s
a
e
reg
s
l
r
i
mp
flow
n, t
in r
a
o
a
r
x
i
t
e
e
t
r
t
c
for
odu
g wa educe ce
sts
latin
en pr
er
e coa
r
h
o
oxyg nts, regu
t
f
t
here
ta
otec
pollu hey can t roves pr
g
t
n
,
fore
le ma
xamp aves.
e
r
o
w
f
tidal
from
tural
s in na
ganism portant role
r
o
g
in
The liv
y an im trapping or
y
ems pla
ecosyst purification b healthy
r
un
in wate g potentially
…
in
.)
d
a
tc
r
e
g
s
de
are
rate
ces (nit
t plant
substan ter treatmen
ciple
in
r
p
a
is
h
Wastew xtension of t
rk of
o
w
e
n the
o
d
n
only an
e
ey dep
since th
.
ia
r
e
bact
RT
U
H
T
'
N
D
L
WOU ITRATES
R
E
T
A
W
R
U
O
OL N
Y
N
I
CONTR
Y
O
T
T
I
S
DIVERS USING ECOSYSTEM
O
I
B
F
O
P
A DRO
BILITY ATTACK
A
T
S
H
T
I
ES W EMS RESPOND TO
M
Y
H
R
Y
T
I
DIVERS TY HELPS ECOSYST
VERS
BIODI
ies in a
of spec t helps it
y
it
s
r
e
n
The div
o
ironme
lar env dapt better t er
particu
a
oth
d
n
d
a
n
a
d
n
s
a
e
withst
l chang both natural
menta
environ his applies to ltural
u
.T
attacks ings and agric
d
n
u
o
r
r
su
tion.
produc
51
Bison, a symbol of american prairie
N
itrates are basic nutrients for plants but an excess can
deprive humans of potable water resources.
Natural ecosystems regulate these elements very effectively.
In wet areas, denitrifying bacteria transform them into nitrogen
gas. Nitrates are also trapped by plants and stored in their
tissues. In the North American prairies, researchers found that
the greater the number of grass species, the lower the quantity
of nitrates deep in the soil.
This phenomenon is probably due to the fact that each species
exploits the soil's nutritional resources in a different way;
a wide diversity is reflected by maximum use of resources, and
thus limited transfers into the groundwater.
It appears therefore, that wide biodiversity on the surface is
important for the preservation of the quality of the water table
which provides us with a large part of our potable water supply.
I
The
ability of an ecosystem to rebuild itself after a
disturbance is called resilience.
Most small disturbances (a tree falling, an isolated fire or flood,
etc.) do not jeopardise the future of the ecosystem and even
contribute to its diversity. On the other hand, disturbances
which are too big or too frequent prevent the ecosystem from
rebuilding itself.
Diversified ecosystems have been found to be better at
withstanding disturbances than others; they are more resilient.
The North American prairies' reaction to drought is an example
of this phenomenon.
The explanation appears to be simple. The more diversified an
ecosystem is, the more chances it has of being a habitat for
species that will adapt well to the new environmental conditions
(dryer, hotter, treeless etc.).
50
Flood forests are efficient in trapping
or degrading nutrient
52
53
IUM E WATERWAYS
N
A
R
U
D
N
ORT A TO DECONTAMINAT
W
R
A
T
S
R
E A PLANT ABLE RANIUM
THE WAT
BY U
LUTED
© Gérard Arnal
e
in
degrad
re used
lants a ” to store or e
p
y
n
a
h
n
M
io
plant (t
ed
mediat
“biore ts. An aquatic demonstrat
ly
n
t
a
n
t
e
ium.
c
n
e
a
r
r
)
pollu
u
t
r
starwo bility to trap
water
a
rkable
a
m
a re
POL
R
esearchers from Coimbra University in Portugal recently discovered that an aquatic plant, Callitriche stagnalis, is able to
'absorb' uranium as it can reduce the levels in a waterway by
half in 24 hours. This is a local indigenous species well-established in its ecosystem.
The use of this species presents two advantages:
it does not have the drawbacks of decontamination methods
using chemicals,
it can be adapted and produced at a low cost. After laboratory experiments, researchers are introducing this process in
the field. The stakes are high as as uranium has been used in
over sixty sites in several regions of Portugal, causing serious
environmental problems.
To find out more:
http://www.bulletins-electroniques.com/cgi/htsearch
DID YOU SAY BIOREMEDIATION?
Bioremediation' is a group of new techniques that employ microorganisms or plants to rid soils and waters of pollution.
Today, certain plants (the Arabis, water hyacinth etc.) able to extract
heavy metals such as lead and copper are commonly used.
Certain microorganisms (bacteria, algae, fungi etc.) can feed on organic
pollutants and break them down. They have been used, for example, to
help in the clean-up of oil spills(Erika and Exxon Valdez).
From the economic viewpoint, bioremediation is a promising technique.
Today it represents a turnover of 100 million euro and in a few years
from now could be worth 10 billion euro worldwide. It could help clean
up pollution in 20,000 sites in France. As with many new techniques, it
must be developed in full knowledge of its consequences on the
environment: the impact of genetic engineering processes, the fate of
the molecules resulting from the incomplete degradation of pollutants etc.
AM CARVES OUT
D
L
A
C
I
G
O
AN ECOL WHEN THE BEAVER
© Michel Gigan
cannot
pecies e; its
s
a
f
o
ce
lu
portan
insic va
The im ed to its intr ust also be
c
m
u
be red e ecosystem
th
gical
role in ed.
"ecolo
r
e
id
a true
is
d
r
n
cons
e
a
v
s
he bea
s dam
Thus, t '' able, via it t a process of
r
e
ar
e
t
s
in
g
o
,t
en
st: the
activity
he fore
cutting ortance to t ater rapidly
p
w
huge im of a body of ganisms, the
r
n
o
io
ic
t
t
a
cre
qua
ed by a
ts etc.
colonis tion of fores e' species in
a
on
rejuven aver, a 'keyst me extinct, a
e
co
b
e
e
b
appear
If th
ould
ould dis
em, sh
ecosyst ther species w ecome less
b
fo
series o forest would
e
h
t
and
g..
excitin
55
STEM
ECOSY
E
R
I
T
AN EN
Visitors to a big maple grove in Québec may discover a shallow
body of water during their stroll, with tufts of aquatic grass here
and there and, even stranger than that, dead trees all around, including in the middle of the lake. What is the meaning of these
skeletons? An examination of the site will quickly reveal to the observer that this body of water is the by-product of a dam built on
a small stream by a family of beavers.
The beavers' motivation is simply to improve their safety, especially against wolves. A lodge in the middle of the water is where
the family makes its home, and its routes to its feeding grounds
are all aquatic and thus safe.
The creation of the body of water has caused the trees to die
from asphyxia, but it has also allowed an entire ecosystem to develop. The observer will probably be surprised to discover a whole
aquatic flora and fauna dependent on this body of water, including
kingfishers, herons and other fish-eating birds.
Dams built by beavers are therefore of ecological interest, with
economic and social consequences, since bodies of water created
in this way attract Canadian moose (elks) - a major attraction for
hunters -, game fowl, fish etc.
These ponds are not everlasting. Having used all the trees growing
on their banks, the beaver must then go further and further on
land to search for food, with no guarantee of safety. The family
therefore moves to another location and builds another dam. Lack
of maintenance causes the old dam to deteriorate quickly and the
body of water then dries up. Little by little the forest then heals,
in particular with trees like the thuja only found as predominant
species in the landscape because of beavers.
This example demonstrates the importance of certain species that can be seen as real 'ecological engineers'. It also underlines the significance of disturbance to ecosystems. From the molehill that transforms the garden lawn to the giant Siberian forest fire, a disturbance breaks the monotony of natural
environments and leads to the diversification of habitats and species. Disturbances guarantee the daily
maintenance of the heritage of species handed down by history.
Monks reproduced this mechanism during the Middle Ages without knowing it: by building dykes on small
watercourses, they actually created the lakes of the Dombes or other regions known for their exceptional biodiversity which have been developed by hunting, fish production, and tourism. This biodiversity
cannot persist in the long run without some kind of disturbance, as is the case with natural systems;
thus, lakes dry up regularly to induce the mineralisation of organic matter and to rejuvenate the lake,
threatened by the invasion of vegetation.
54
56
57
s
thing
ther x and
o
y
n
o
a
ith m rom the bols
f
us w
(
m
s
y
n
e
s
o
d
i
,
)
vi
lig
y god water
y pro oods. Re
e
t
i
k
s
n
r
o
e
rial g an the m t's white t of
iodiv
mate
e
s
que
e
d
Anum rt (Mon
i
a bou
bes
a
y to
f
o
,
e
)
k
e
e
n
o
ur
ac
sity
the d ve of Pe ple pleas
diver
ew.
o
o
f
i
m
d
i
ic
b
a
s
e
f
t
he
(th
bu
so
onom
and t
d ec
tion
pect
n
s
n
)
ue
a
s
a
e
g
l
e
r
m
i
e
lil
to
ocia
ama
hes
s
t
C
s
t
t
e
r
u
c
e
o
th
ra
flow
wi t h
r of
abst
e not e a moto olland.
ever
r
les
w
a
o
y
H
xamp
rH
s ar
e
o
, the
d
f
t
r
e
i
s
e
b
r
.B
may
mode
lips a
nces
s tu few very
eque
a
s
n
t
o
s
c
a
ju
omy, here are
.
econ
d
i
e
p
t
o
t c
en
Pres immense
is
of th
o
o
t
s
t
i
f
e
n
Other be B
ening
n, gard d to
a
childre
r
le
o
ls
f
a
r
icula
anim
l
In part
omestic nses, manua
d
g
in
e
is
s
a
r
e
h
d
t
n
.
a
of
mple
covery
for exa
the dis
haring
s
d
n
a
work
(Editions Jasor .1990)
leaves, flowers, the coats of animals, feathers,
the
smell of plants, fruits, animals, aromatic herbs,
the
taste of vegetables, fruits, flavours,
seeing
shapes and colours,
the sense of time and waiting necessary for flowers and fruit
to grow,
.Extracts from the Creole Dictionary
-Français V R.LUDWIG, D. MONTBRAND, H. POULET, S.TELCHID
touching
the noises of tools, the cackling of the poultry, etc.
They can also discover:
« Sa ka glissé si mwen kon dlo si fèy à madè »
This is like water off Madeira leaves (This has no effect on me).
(A woman will rise from a fall like the chestnut tree that sprouts again but
not men who are like the breadfruit tree which does not grow back).
owever small, vegetable patches, orchards, flower beds and
poultryyards are real conservatories of biodiversity. They
contain many wild and domestic species with varieties and races
that are sometimes rare in productive agricultural spaces.
Finally, they constitute varied landscapes.
A garden or poultry yard is an extraordinary place of learning
and emotion for a family. Indeed, children and adults can
develop their senses:
hearing
Countless comparisons and proverbs use biodiversity.
This is particularly true for flora in the Creole language.
Fanm sé chatengn, nonm sé fouyapen » :
"Women are like chestnuts and men are like breadfruit".
TY
EG
IN TH
ONALI
E PERS
H
T
D
AN
H
PROVERBS AND EXPRESSIONS
«
ILD
H
C
E
H
T
D
HEN ARNM THE SENSES
E
H
T
,
H
S
T BUVERSITY HELPS FO
N
A
R
R
U
C
THE ARDEN, BIODI
patience, silence and the gentleness needed when approaching
animals,
the
use of tools, skills, know-how and the work needed to sow,
nurture and harvest,
the sense of pleasure, of gifts, of the exchange or rewards
using poultry, fruits, vegetables, flowers.
58
y
speciall
ture, e
oa
c
n
e
f
b
o
is
covery of animals,
is
d
e
a
h
T
m ny
n
servatio ant activity in of
the ob
t
m
r
r
o
n imp
This fo otecming a f the world.
pr
o
s
tool of even
a
io
e
b
reg
o
d
ls
ic
a
can
onom
tourism ature and ec is done in a
is
rn
tion fo as long as th
pment
t,
develo
ment
lopmen f sustainable
involve
to
stems,
y
contex
s
o
c
e
.
t of
etc.)
(respec populations
e
iv
t
a
n
f
o
TRY
S
U
D
N
I
W
, A NE ONDE
N
O
I
T
A
L
P
CONTEMRISME À TRAVERS LE M
TOWARDS A MORE RESPONSIBLE AND UNIFIED ECOTOURISM
Today, ecotourism must be designed on the principle of sustainable development, as recommended
by the Charter of the World Tourism Organisation. Many initiatives by public and private operators
aim to organise this activity and limit its impact. This involves avoiding the destruction of natural
environments (the building of infrastructure), the disturbance of fauna, the risk of introducing
undesirable species, taking gas emissions and the greenhouse effect into consideration (air transport) etc. Finally, long-dispossessed local populations are increasingly sharing in the control and
benefits of tourism.
OU
L’ÉCOT
IN ICELAND, old boats equipped for whale hunting today
transport tourists to observe these giants of the sea.
The discovery of nature is developing throughout the world and
constitutes an interesting alternative to more destructive
activities. The World Tourism Organisation estimates that in
2006 eco-tourists spent 750 billion euro across the world.
KENYA has 600,000 eco-tourists each year who are mainly
motivated by the observation of big fauna. Each lion reportedly
'brings in' 30,000 euro for the country, the figure for
elephants being 25 million euro.
OSTS? NG AND FISHING
C
U
D
U
K
CH A NOMY OF HUNTI
U
M
W
O
H
CO
W
O
N
K
THE E
U
O
Y
DO
Recreational hunting and fishing are leisure activities but they
ing,
d hunt
e
hing an ided a pastim
is
f
h
g
v
o
r
e
p
h
Throu
t
s
rsity ha
around
biodive ns of people in an
o
d
li
e
il
result
for m
his has
T
ctivity.
.
a
ld
ic
r
wo
econom
t
n
a
t
r
impo
IN AUSTRALIA, the national park of the Great Barrier Coral
Reef (Queensland) is the centre of tourist activity that is
mainly focused on biodiversity (diving, whale observation etc.),
corresponding to 625,000 visits and 1.8 million overnight stays.
The annual contribution of the marine park to the Australian
economy (tourism, leisure services for residents, commercial
fishing) is estimated to be 2.1 billion euro (added value).
The park generates 63,000 jobs.
IN FRANCE, the French National Parks and other protected
spaces (regional nature parks, nature reserves, sensitive natural
spaces etc.) receive as many visitors as all of the historical
monuments other than those in Ile-de-France. The Vanoise
National park in the French Alps alone receives 500,000 visitors each year, one of the main motivations being to observe
animals (chamois, marmots, ibexes etc.)
are also very important economic activities which can be illustrated by a few specific examples.
In France, in the Artois-Picardie basin alone, the 4,000 waterfowl
hunters and the 106,000 fishermen spend 30 and 60 million euro
respectively on their activity.
In the United States, recreational fishing is a 37 billion dollar
industry with over a million jobs. This activity justifies the
protection of wetlands: a study has estimated the contribution
of the salt marshes to recreational fishing in the Florida
estuaries to be between 4,000 and 26, 000 euro per hectare
per year.
Hunting tourism is also an important financial issue: a lion hunt
in Botswana involves as much as 80,000 euros. The tax for
slaughtering the most sought after species, the greater kudu,
the cheetah and the eland, reaches as much as 2,000 to 3,000
euro.
In the North of the Central African Republic, the main source
of income is the hunt for trophies. Naturally, this activity is
only sustainable if losses are controlled; it is only worthwhile in
terms of development if the benefits go to the local populations.
59
60
61
BIODIVERSITÉ INSPIRATRICE DES POÈTES
«Kinship
Last night, across the reaches of the sky,
The wild-goose squadrons clanging northward flew,
Across Orion's three-jewelled belt on high,
I scarcely caught their shadowy forms, but knew
Within my heart a wanderer's answering cry.
Today, though winds of March are raw and chill,
The melting snows, with rippling liquid song,
Re-echo to the junco's simple trill;
And homing russet fox-sparrows, lingering long,
With melody the naked thickets fill.
And here a tiny spider, spinning free
A filmy thread across her little sky,
Gropes blindly for some unknown destiny.
Did she too hear last night that clanging cry,
Akin to brook, and migrant bird, and me?
Allen E. Chesley
The
cold October sun would shine
on the orange-colored carrots, the
green, yellow and white pumpkins
and squash, the purple egg plants
and a few last red tomatoes. They
made for me more poignant colour
than any post-Impressionist picture.
Alice B.Toklas
Let the only consistency
In the course of my poetry
Be like that of the hawthorn tree
Which in early spring breaks
Fresh emerald, then by nature's law
Darkens and deepens and takes
Tints of purple-maroon, rose-madder
and straw.
Hugh Mac Diarmid
I
have heard the sunset song of the birches,
A white melody in the silence,
I have seen a quarrel of the pines.
At nightfall
The little grasses have rushed by me
With the wind men.
These things have I lived," quoth the maniac,
Possessing only eyes and ears.
But you—
You don green spectacles before you look at roses.
Stephen Crane
These
are the gardens of the Desert, these
The unshorn fields, boundless and beautiful,
For which the speech of England has no name-The Prairies. I behold them for the first,
And my heart swells, while the dilated sight
Take in the encircling vastness. Lo! they stretch,
In airy undulations, far away,
As if the ocean, in his gentles swell,
Stood still, with all his rounded billows fixed,
And motionless forever.--Motionless?-No--they are all unchained again. The clouds
Sweep over with their shadows, and, beneath,
The surface rolls and fluctuates to the eye:
Dark hollows seem to glide along and chase
The sunny ridges. Breezes of the South! (…)
Philip Freneau
© Davis Luquet
62
63
64
TODAY BIODIVERSITY IS EXPERIENCING A MAJOR CRISIS.
Species that have lived on our planet are now extinct. After five occurring major
extinction phases including that which witnessed the disappearance of the dinosaurs,
the Earth is today experiencing a new crisis, this time due to human activities. This crisis is
occuring much faster that the previous ones and it is thought that the rate of disappearance is a thousand times faster than in 'natural' situations. However, nature is
slowly continuing to create biodiversity: it has been estimated that several hundreds
of thousands of years is the time it takes for a new species to appear.
Finally, the other areas of biodiversity are also deteriorating: the genetic depletion of
species, the decrease in the variety of domestic species, the standardisation of
ecosystems and landscapes, to name but a few.
CORSICA, A WILD ISLAND?
Corsica may give the impression of being wild yet preserved nature but the work of
J.D. Vigne prompts us to re-examine this impression.
Before humans arrived, the Island of Beauty was a habitat for barely diversified but
very original mammals, such as field mice and giant voles. In Sicily, Malta, Cyprus and
Crete, even elephants and dwarf hippopotamuses could be found! These species, resulting
from an ancient isolation of the islands, were not able to withstand the natural changes
in the climate and the actions of humans (hunting, the introduction of animals etc.).
They all disappeared (except for the bats), and have been replaced by mammals from
the continent including many now feral domestic animals (this is how the sheep became
a mouflon (again).
This is a very common story. All around the world fragile and isolated islands have been
drastically changed by the arrival of humans.
s
e
c
r
u
o
s
e
r
g
n
i
v
i
l
f
o
n
io
t
a
t
i
o
l
p
x
e
A
The over-
aw
to d r
d
e
u
n
ti
ere
e con as if it w
v
a
h
e
s
d
of th
worl
uman
en, h y of the
stion of
t
u
f
a
o
h
ll too odiversit ll: the ex truction auna
e bi
des
of f
e we
on th haustibl
, the removal
s
e
c
r
e
u
ex
an in
gy so excessiv
ener
,
s
l
i
t
s
a
s
t
fo
abi
ral h c.
natu
et
lora
and f
LANDE ECOSYSF
O
T
N
E
M
ELOPFUNCTIONS OF TH TEM
V
E
D
'
E
H
T
DE OFPPEARANCE OF THE
I
S
N
E
D
D
I
ISA
THE H
THE D
The economic value of a number of ecosystems has been
evaluated by researchers who included all their functions
(production, water and climate regulation etc.) and compared
the situation of the 'natural' environment (or environments with
sustainable management) with the situation after transformation
for intensive production.
The study showed that the conversion of the ecosystem may be
worthwhile in terms of production but that it is negative in
global economic terms as it causes the majority of the natural
functions of these environments to disappear.
The agricultural use of land since the Neolithic era has allowed
humans to develop while vast unfarmed or little farmed spaces
have continued to exist. Today, natural and now rare ecosystems
should be preserved because of all the services they offer to
the community.
Source : Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
65
66
ffer an
rests o
o
f
of
l
ia
r
uato
tration
The eq inary concen e forests are
s
d
e
r
extrao ity. Today, th deterioration
rs
biodive ing very rapid due to
o
lso
underg aring but a pearance of
cle
ap
o
is
t
d
e
e
u
orest.
d
with th the African f
,
g
in
t
m
hun
o
r
f
als
big anim
CT
BER
M
U
N
ONFLI
S
I
H
MIC C
T
O
N
T
O
ILLA A E VICTIMS OF AN EC
R
O
G
O
N
S
THERE I ND BIODIVERSITY, TH
NS A
HUMA
MPTY HE OCEANS
E
S
I
K
N
A
AND B XPLOITATION OF T
L
D
N
U
O
F
THE NEWYMBOL OF THE OVER-E
OD, S
THE C
Large shoals of cod used to be found off the Newfoundland
shores and these were exploited by many American and
European fishermen. Excessive fishing in the 1960-70s led to a
severe decline in stocks which was not curbed by the quota
systems introduced during that period.
A moratorium on commercial fishing was imposed in 1992 which
theoretically meant the complete halting of fishing. But hopes
were dashed as numbers did not rise again for a number of
reasons. International fleets fish authorised species in this
sector (smelt etc.); they also fish 'trash fish', a name used for
species that are not authorised for fishing and are caught by
accident. Strangely enough, this trash fish is... cod. In 2003,
5,400 tonnes of cod were fished as ‘trash fish’ in the Grand
Banks area.
In addition, fishing techniques like trawling often destroy
habitats that are favourable to the reproduction and nutrition
of young fish, preventing the restoration of stocks even after
fishing has stopped. These apparently incidental catches and
this deterioration of habitats explains why cod stocks have not
recovered in the space of 15 years. A more holistic management
concept taking account of the entire ecosystem, therefore
needs to replace a vision focussed solely on the species fished.
There is nothing more ordinary and peaceful than picking up
your mobile phone and asking your spouse to buy some bread on
the way home. Right...? Wrong!
Cell phones, but also electronic games and computers require
the use of coltan, a highly heat-resistant ore. This rare ore is
found in Australia, Canada, Brazil and also in the east of the
Democratic Republic of Congo. This region is deeply involved in
a war between government forces and rebels who are assisted
by their Rwandan allies. The conflict has already resulted in
3 million deaths. One of its causes is the appropriation of the
area's natural resources: coltan, diamonds, precious woods etc.
Coltan is obtained from small open-cast mines often created in
the heart of the primary forest. Poachers provide the miners
with bushmeat: gorilla, elephant, okapi etc.
All these factors could lead to the disappearance of the gorilla
in the near future; they are part of the human drama that is
unfolding in this region of the world. With this in mind, before
you next change your mobile phone, you might perhaps ask
yourself whether you really need to...
Source : Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
© Martin Peeters - IRD
67
nt
bunda
to be a nd has
d
e
s
u
h
foundla
d whic
The co hores of New peared as a
s
ap
e
is
off th
spite
tely d
comple e fishing. De are
t
s
o
lm
iv
a
s
s
s
k
e
c
c
o
x
t
s
fe
g,
result o on cod fishin cause of
e
b
n
a
again
ration
the b
overing d the deterio
c
e
r
t
o
n
an
fishing
illegal
.
s
t
a
it
of hab
68
E?
N
O
G
OKEN
H
S
I
F
GER BR
D
N
L
O
L
O
L THE IZE RECORDS ARE NO
L
A
E
V
A
H
S
WHERE
s
e
i
t
i
v
i
t
c
a
n
a
m
u
h
f
o
t
c
a
p
m
i
t
c
A
The indire
A
n analysis of the world size records for each species of fish
reveals that all the records were broken between 30 and 100
years ago. The biggest bluefin tuna, the biggest swordfish, the
biggest turbot etc. were all caught before 1950.
Since this time, no individual fish has been caught that reaches
the species maximum size. It therefore stands to reason that,
since these species continue to grow all their lives, all the fish
are being caught before they get a chance to grow old.
ve
many li
ce
ts allow from one pla n
s
a
ll
a
b
a
e
ic
v
r
o
e
Boat
m
m
an A
ms t o
organis er. This is how liferate in
ro
th
le to p
to ano
ute to
was ab
contrib eries.
jellyfish Sea and so
cal fish
ck
the Bla rioration of lo
te
the de
SH'
I
F
Y
L
L
E
J
'
LLING
E
V
A
R
T
E
TH
In the 1980s, the comb jellyfish, Mnemiopsis leidyi (actually a
A REAL WASTE
It
has been estimated that every year fishermen have a bycatch of in
total around 50,000 marine mammals and 40,000 turtles, which are not
usually consumed and are therefore wasted.
.
© jean-Louis Michelot
To fish one kilogram (2.2 lbs) of marketable shrimps, several kilograms of other species are fished and thrown back in the sea without
being used. It has been estimated that there are 20 million tonnes of
by catch per year for all fishing.
To produce one kilogram (2.2 lbs) of farmed tuna, 10 to 20 kilograms
(20.2 - 40.4 lbs) of wild fish are needed as food for the tuna.
aand h
cies
e
p
s
f
e
vers le:
ion o
ruct
ry di
t
e
s
mp
v
e
a
e
r ex
he d
hav
o
t
s
f
e
,
m
i
fr o
ivit
tem
asion d
part uman act e ecosys gical inv
ere
iolo
s, h
dang
n th
bitat uences o arming, b lso be en d varieeq
al w
ay a
vate cies,
cons
culti
, glob ersity m
n
f
o
spe
o
i
t
pollu netic div selection , for wild
e
r
e
o
G
iv
s
etc.
cess
reed
e ex
tic b itats.
h
s
t
e
y
m
b
o
b
and d ion of ha
ties
is
v
i
d
e
b y th
ORT
RANSP
T
F
O
S
MEAN
BLEMS
NOWN ERIOUS PRO
K
E
L
T
A LIT
E OF S
SOURC
BUT A
Sailing boats may also carry unwanted species
with their anchors
ctenophora) was accidentally introduced into the Black Sea from
the ballast waters of a ship arriving from the east coast of the
United States.
This is not an isolated case. It is estimated that each year boats
transport 12 million tonnes of water in their ballast, and that 3,000
species are displaced in this way every day all over the world. In the
absence of a local predator, this jellyfish has proliferated at an
amazing rate: it was estimated that in 1989-90 it reached a biomass
of 1 million tonnes (fresh weight). The proliferation of this species
has undoubtedly been assisted by the deterioration of the environment
by pollution and the over-exploitation of wild stocks. It has not been
without consequence. Jellyfish consume zooplankton including fish
larvae. This loss of zooplankton has led to the proliferation of
phytoplankton which has increased the degree of eutrophication.
In the Black Sea, there has been a collapse in fishing due to the
deterioration of the environment, excessive fishing and the
proliferation of the jellyfish: anchovy catches went from 450,000
tonnes in 1985 to 60,000 tonnes in 1990.
69
70
71
t
ems bu
ecosyst ble
n
w
o
n
sa
-k
dispen
e little
Soils ar d health is in ion and the
t
o
c
o
u
g
their
al prod nctions of
icultur
u
for agr ance of the f
n
n
. Huma
mainte nvironments these
e
e
l
g
a
dama kments,
natur
s often
an
activitie irectly (emb irectly
d
d
s
in
m
r
syste
ion,
tc.) o
egetat
ction e
compa tion of the v sirable
e
a
d
ic
(modif arance of un
pe
the ap tc.)
e
species
world. In certain areas of Argentina, the decrease in the diversified soil fauna to practically one
single species of invasive ant has rendered the agricultural use of the land impossible unless costly
measures are taken to destroy the ant nests and populations.
In Holland, invasive earthworms have transformed the composition of the soils of certain polders to
such an extent that locally it has become impossible to harvest potatoes.
in the recycling of organic matter and the fertility of land live
in soils. This is a veritable diverse, useful and fragile ecosystem.
the disturbance of which can have serious consequences. The
Amazonian soils become more compact when the forest is
transformed into pasture, under the combined effect of heavy
machinery and the feet of livestock. The soil's fauna is
considerably reduced during this transformation by the invasion
of an opportunistic earthworm. This worm is able to form over
90% of the soil's animal biomass which it greatly modifies
thereby reducing the micro-porosity to the same extent as the
passage of heavy machinery, and causing the gradual disappearance
of the vegetation. This deterioration is not irreversible: when
blocks of this compact soil are placed in the forest, their
structure is completely restored in one year by the action of
the diversified animal community of the forest soils. Conversely,
when similar blocks of forest soils are placed in pastureland,
their structure deteriorates under the effect of the disappearance
of this community.
This example illustrates the essential role of a diversified
collection of fauna in the maintenance of soil structure and the
possible effect of replacing this fauna by an invasive species.
Similar examples have been described in other regions of the
INATE
N
O
I
S
R ELIM
E
A
G
V
N
N
O
I
DUNG THE SOIL CAN NO L
W
O
C
E
H
T
WHEN
ASTE
ESS W
L
HA R M
© Isabelle Michelot
© Alain Brauman - IRD
R FEETRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS
U
O
R
E
D
N
HT U IMPORTANT YET F
G
I
R
G
N
I
D
L
,
FO
N
SOILS
U
A
M
A
R
AD
Huge numbers of microscopic animals that play an essential role
I
n Australia, cows brought there by the colonists disturbed
dung-beetles and other coprophagous insects. Although these
insects were able to degrade kangaroo droppings, they could not
cope with cow dung. In 1972, up to a million hectares were
disappearing each year under the non-degraded cow dung.
This problem could only be resolved by the introduction of
coprophagous beetles from South Africa and Southern Europe.
The cost of this measure was one dollar per head of livestock
per year, for 15 years. The economic value of dung-beetles for
the country has been estimated at two billion dollars per year
in total!
Today, this phenomenon exists on a smaller scale in France.
Many sanitary treatments for bovines, in particular for the
control of nematodes, kill the larva of coprophagous insects,
thereby preventing the normal degradation of dung in the
meadows.
To find out more: J.P. Lumaret, Montpellier University
72
73
ease
he incr
nean, t waters
a
r
r
e
it
e
Med
f th
In the mperature o ortality of
m
te
in the led to a high jor attraction
a
ly
m
t
n
a
e
e
c
ar
re
s)which
he
sea fan s.
s that t
er
for div analysis show depending
tly
th
In-dep eacts differen sea bed.
r
e
species ructure of th
st
e
h
t
n
o
own right (accommodation, supervision, equipment etc.).
Between 25 and 40 metres, divers can discover the most beautiful
underwater landscapes in the Mediterranean, coral beds, with in
particular yellow and red sea fans, (Paramuricea clavata).
The summers of 1999 and 2003 (to a lesser extent) were
however, marked by a high mortality of sea fans and sponges in
a wide section of the north-western Mediterranean. The cause
of this massive mortality was a high temperature (23-24°C) for
an unusually long period (4-6 weeks).
While mobile species can find refuge at depth, stationary
species like sea fans and sponges are directly hit by the heat
stress. The recovery of the population is very slow considering
the rate of growth of these organisms: one fifty centimetre-high
sea fan plant in over half a century.
A more in-depth analysis reveals the existence of a wide variability
in the responses of individual plants to these episodes (they do
not all die). This variability appears to be related to the genetic
diversity of the sea fans. Larvae that comes from deep water
apparently cannot withstand these changes in temperature,
while those from shallower waters are less sensitive to
temperature changes.
GILE
A
R
F
O
O
T
FAST BUT
ield
f high-y
ction o ties has been
le
e
s
CROPS
e
tion
h
T
ATED
V
al varie enetic deple ts
r
I
u
T
lt
L
u
U
agric
yag
f plan
N OF C
anied b
ance o
SATIO
I
accomp its the resist
D
R
A
ND
lim
C STA
which
eases.
ENETI
ain dis
G
t
r
E
e
c
H
o
T
t
S OF
CE
QUEN
ONSE
THE C
© Jean-Paul Thorez
© David Luquet, obs. Villefr.
E
NS ON S
R
E
T
REATE
A
H
ST
T
A
W
E
O
H
S
ANG
E
UR C
H
R
O
C
F
F
C
O
I
N
ERS I WHEN CLIAMIANTATTRACTIONS
H
T
A
B
F
O
EM
DEATH
OF TH
In the Mediterranean today, diving is an economic activity in its
In the context of global warming, there is a major risk of this type of event recurring over the
forthcoming decades, with dramatic effects on the survival of sensitive species and on the marine
biodiversity of the Mediterranean in general.
The study of both specific and genetic biodiversity must be continued to gain an understanding of
the mechanism or mechanisms at work and to plan any measures necessary.
T
he cereals used today as the result of a rigorous and efficient selection, ensuring good yields. However, this selection
has also led to a large decrease in the genetic diversity of new
varieties.
The 136 varieties of soft wheat created in France between
1959 and 1982 were almost cousin varieties and all of the maize
cultivated in the north of the Loire come from the same line
(INRA 258). But because of this excessive genetic homogeneity, crops have become very vulnerable to pathogens and
other pests which can change quickly. In 1970, rust reappeared
in the United States and the epidemic caused substantial damage to maize, which had become too fragile.
In 1980, 90% of the Cuban tobacco harvest was destroyed by
mildew for the same reason!
Barbault R. 2006, Un éléphant dans un jeu de quilles (An elephant in a game
of skittles). L’homme dans la biodiversité (Humans and biodiversity).
Seuil. 266p.
74
BACKTOO
E
K
I
R
T
S
PESTSIDES HAVE LIMITS
C
PESTI
otect
d to pr
ely use ttack.
id
w
e
r
es a
s of a
Pesticid ainst all type
ative
ve neg l the
g
a
a
h
s
s
p
t
o
c
r
u
c
il
d
k
o
y
r
e
p
h
se
.T
But the n ecosystems the natural
o
o
ls
s
effect
s but a
hence
enemie ese enemies, ore to
crops'
m
h
t
t
f
a
o
e
tr
ors
predat to constantly ome
c
d
e
s
e
the ne ests which b he substance
t
p
l
o
t
o
r
t
t
n
y
n
a
co
sist
aturall e
ingly re
nger n
increas
e no lo roaches to th d
r
a
d
n
elope
used a d. New app
be dev
lle
contro then need to nt).
e
m
proble ed managem
at
r
g
e
t
n
(i
75
IMPORTANT TREATMENTS BUT UNCERTAIN EFFECTS
Pesticides are chemicals widely used in agriculture to destroy
crop pests.
France, which is the world's 3rd-largest consumer, used 75,000
tonnes of these products in 2004 after having exceeded
100,000 tonnes in the 1998-2000 period.
Pesticides have long been associated with modern intensive
agriculture and have contributed to making our food products
safe. Today, the concern is to better evaluate and control the
impact of these products on the ecosystems with a view to a
more sustainable agriculture. Crop pests have developed
resistances to these substances, which often necessitates
increasing the number and frequency of applications. Crops
could now be said to be dependent on pesticides. Tea plantations
in Southern India are given up to 40 applications / year of various substances while in Central America the protection of banana plantations against fungi alone requires a weekly
treatment. Yet this does not stop these pathogens from
creating billions of euro of damage to industrial banana, sugar
cane and rice crops.
© Michel Cambrony
THE DESTRUCTION OF THE ECOSYSTEM'S NATURAL
DEFENCES
Parasite attacks are frequent in nature and rarely end in the
massive destruction of the vegetation and the extinction of a
species. Natural ecosystems control parasites by various
mechanisms: the defences of the plant itself, the intervention
of competitors or predators of the parasite, or rotations
triggered in plant populations. The diversity of species also
limits the propagation of pests, sometimes with protective
effects between species.
In intensive cultivation of a single species, with genetically homogeneous varieties, a number of these
control mechanisms are already weakened. Moreover, pesticides kill many 'non-target' organisms
which could have naturally controlled the predators. Earthworms which would have protected plants
from nematodes are the first victims of these substances; birds and ants which would have been able
to control aphids, caterpillars and other parasitic insects, are themselves decimated. The plant is left
alone facing its parasite, which only repeated applications of pesticides can maintain at an acceptable
level for agricultural production.
TOWARDS
A SYSTEMIC APPROACH AND INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT
Conventional methods (selection, hybridisation) have allowed plants' genetic resistances to their
pests to be developed. 'Hardy' varieties of wheat therefore, resist fungal attacks (rust, stembreak),
but these resistances can be bypassed by the pests. Resorting to parasite-resistant GMOs does not
appear to address the problem of the temporary nature of resistances and raises other problems
with an environmental impact requiring case by case evaluation.
Other solutions are slowly beginning to take shape. The natural defence systems of plants are still
not well understood and may be stimulated by various natural or synthetic molecules. The study of
chemical signals emitted by plants to ward off pests or to attract pests predators is one avenue of
research for new, more specific synthetic molecules. Similarly, certain signals emitted by insects during reproduction (pheromones) could be used to disrupt this reproduction (sexual confusion). Ecological developments (hedges, areas planted with grass) can also contribute to the maintenance of
auxiliary populations of crops. Moreover, better forecasting of the risks of the proliferation of
pests by observation and climatic models would enable some unnecessary treatments to be avoided.
The concept of integrated management based on better knowledge of ecosystems and their
functioning, is the name of this new strategy combining different tools. It appears to be both more
sustainable and sometimes more profitable than the systematic massive use of pesticides. So the
methods exist …they just need to be developed and all the stakeholders need to be educated about
these new management methods, based on the expertise of farmers trained in gradual interventions,
in consultation with chemists and specialists in the biological functioning of agro-ecosystems.
To find out more:
Rapport d’expertise INRA-Cemagref (Export's report INRA-Cemagref). 2005. Pesticides, agriculture et environnement
(Pesticides, agriculture and the environment). Available at www.inra.fr
76
ES
LTUR
IN VU
?
E
R
N
E
I
L
N
CLEA THE DRAMATIC DEC
E
E
R
F
A
F
R ID O
WHY GET
Vultures are perhaps less appealing than hummingbirds and
s
vulture
cline in cluding
e
d
t
n
a
orld, in
signific
ere is a areas of the w enomenon is
h
y
p
n
is
in ma
ming
in. Th
nd Spa hanges in far ts for
a
ia
d
In
c
n
e
e
h
m
t
t
to
rea
related : veterinary t to birds,
s
e
ic
s.
x
ic
pract
are to
vulture
ck that ger left for
o
t
s
e
v
li
n
ct in
es no lo
r impa
carcass ge has majo nd the
a
n
a
h
This ch public healt
f
terms o eritage.
lh
natura
swallows but they play an important ecological role. They get rid
of domestic and wild animal carcasses at record speed thanks to
their flawless organisation: birds efficiently patrol the territory;
as soon as the keen eye of one of them detects prey, it dives
towards it thereby warning its fellow creatures of the find.
Once at the carcass, the appearance of several species of
vultures enables tasks to be shared, from the big vultures capable
of tearing leather to the bearded vulture that eats bones.
This free and natural clean-up service has played a fantastic
role in the prevention of animal and human disease for centuries. Today, it has been damaged by the change in agricultural
practices in different places in the world.
© Marc Thauront
IN
Griffon vulture
INDIA AND NEPAL
A few years ago, their number was estimated to be 40 million,
but the numbers of the three most common species of vultures
(the white-backed vulture, the Egyptian vulture and the
long-billed vulture) have decreased by 90% in just a few years.
The anti-inflammatory diclofenac used to treat livestock is the
cause for this decline. Its consequences have largely exceeded
the bounds of ecology in the strict sense of the word: the
accumulation of carcasses may pose a public health problem
(with the proliferation of dogs carrying rabies etc.); the Parsi
community has lost its ritual means of disposing of corpses. The
magnitude of the problem has led to the introduction of a
programme of vulture breeding in order to re-populate the
sub-continent, and a ban on the use of diclofenac which can be
replaced by a non-toxic drug. The problem however seems to be
persisting, maybe because of the residual stocks of diclofenac.
Unfortunately, similar problems seem to exist in other
regions of the world (Pakistan, Africa etc.).
IN
SPAIN
Until recently, dead livestock was left in the open, allowing the presence of
20,000 pairs of vultures (from 80 to 98% of numbers in Europe depending on
species). The rules were recently changed and carcasses had to be sent to
abattoirs when it was feared that bovine spongiform encephalopathy might
spread in this way.
The decrease in food resources has led to a big decline in the reproduction
of vultures and has disturbed the behaviour of these birds: a spread to
France and beyond, perching on houses etc. These changes are not
irreversible. In France, the large vultures had completely disappeared
except in the Pyrenees; the Egyptian vulture has become very rare.
Reintroductions have resulted locally in the return and establishment of
the lammergeier (the Alps), the griffon vulture, and the black vulture
(the Southern Pre-Alps and the south of the Massif Central). Attracted
by the presence of the others, the Egyptian vulture has naturally
returned and the chain of cleaners has now been completely rebuilt.
Once again they are replacing classic disposal at a low cost, in the
areas favourable to it. However, livestock drinking troughs need
to be protected from excrement and monitoring for zoonosis is
required to protect the health of humans and the environment.
© Michel Cambrony
77
78
79
ABBIT
R
E
H
T
D
E
NEED
Y
L
F
R
E
T
T
THE BU
ecies is
ce of sp s: the
n
a
r
a
e
app
.
ause
The dis e to simple c ls or habitats
u
ua
d
e
OSIS
id
n
m
e
iv
t
o
d
f
c
o
SYMBI
n of in ecies can be er
A
io
t
F
c
u
O
r
t
E
des
s, sp
long
UPTUR
in case
can no re
THE R
In certa ecause they
a
y
e
h
t
b
h
extinct ecies on whic t happened
sp
wha
is
is
find a
h
T
ent.
utterfly
depend e large blue b nd because
la
h
when t red from Eng ed in too
he large blue butterfly or Maculinea arion is a blue butterfly
lt
ea
disapp tosis had resu meadows
e
a
that
lives here and there in dry meadows.
h
ure
myxom getation in t
depart
e
e
h
v
t
h
o
a
c
t
es
mu
led
t provid
in turn
AN ASTONISHING REPRODUCTION
which ies of ant tha r during
la
c
il
e
of a sp or the caterp
The
adult female flies from May to August and lays her eggs on
tf
habita
.
s
wild
thyme or marjoram. Shortly after hatching, the young
h
t
e
grow
requir
species od of
f
o
e
caterpillar
feeds on the plant on which it was hatched, then
p
ty
th
ing this
f its me sible to
Protect nowledge o
s
after
the
third
moulting, it leaves the plant and moves to the
o
k
een p
specific tion. It has b y establishing ground where a new life awaits. Myrmica sabuleti ants attack
c
b
s
u
reprod ce this specie method
du
nt
and kill the caterpillars of all other butterflies, but they carry
re-intro manageme to return.
re
ts
the caterpillar of the large blue into their nest. There, they
a pastu abled the an
en
which
gently caress the caterpillar with their antennae until a sweet
T
of the disappearance of ant populations. Indeed, if grass grows beyond a certain height of about 2
to 3 cm, the ants abandon their nests and this inevitably leads to the disappearance of the butterfly.
Myxomatosis had caused the disappearance of the rabbits that maintained the meadows. The grass
grew too high and this led to the departure of the ants and the disappearance of the butterflies.
However, this situation was not irreparable. From 1983, the British attempted to restore the large
blue population in the south of England by introducing caterpillars from Sweden and by restoring the
habitat of the ants by re-establishing extensive sheep grazing in the areas concerned. The operation
was successful since close to 10,000 adult butterflies were counted during the summer of 2006.
honeydew produced by the dorsal glands appears, which they
then lick greedily. The caterpillar is kept for the entire winter,
feeding on ant larvae in exchange for the honeydew that it so
generously provides for the ants. The metamorphosis of the
butterfly takes place the following spring deep in the ants' nest.
After three weeks, the butterfly emerges from its chrysalis
and then has to leave the ants' nest as quickly as possible or it
will be killed and devoured by the ants.
© Michel Cambrony
AN
UNEXPECTED REASON FOR ITS DISAPPEARANCE
This pretty butterfly disappeared from England in the late
1970s despite many efforts to protect it and its habitat. A vast
research programme revealed that the essential symbiosis
between the large blue and the ant had been ruptured because
Dusky Large Blue,
a neibourg specie ofthe large blue butterfly
© Luc Dietrich, CSA
80
81
82
83
A FEW LEADS
The contract between humans and the other species that populate the earth is in urgent
need of renewal. In some cases, it would suffice not to lose relationships as old as those
that unite man, the bee and the fruit tree. In other cases, in-depth knowledge of
species and ecosystems may help envisage innovative solutions to the problems which
our societies face today.
MOBILISATION IN PROGRESS
Governments have been mobilised for about the past twenty years now to find ways of
putting an end to the erosion of biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity
adopted in Rio in 1992, set three main goals: the preservation of diverse life forms, the
sustainable use of biodiversity, and fair and equitable access to living resources.
In February 2004, France adopted its National Biodiversity Strategy, which announces
the ambitious goal of stopping the loss of biodiversity between now and 2010. With its
ten sectoral action plans adopted in 2005 and 2006 (natural heritage, agriculture,
urbanism, transport, territories, the sea, overseas, research, forests, and international),
this strategy is the main tool of national mobilisation for the protection of the living
heritage. Founded on concrete measures that mobilise partnerships with the business
world, local authorities, professional representatives and associations, these plans are
an important stage in the inclusion of conservation of ecosystems and species in all
public policies.
These are important factors, but the conservation of biodiversity will only be effective
if it becomes an issue for each one of us and if it is integrated into all human activities.
Although it is not possible here to provide an exhaustive analysis of the issue, a few interesting experiences are worth presenting.
Understand better
Species, varieties and ecosystems need to be inventoried, their functioning analysed, and
their development observed. How can an unknown plant be put to use in medicine? While the
total number of species on the planet has been estimated at over 15 million, only around 1.7
million species have been described by science.
Use without over-exploiting
Many living resources in the world are still hardly used by humans; we should try to find
solutions that will best draw on the benefits of these resources in a sustainable manner
without exhausting them. This goal requires both an effort to improve our knowledge and
a real redistribution of the benefits to all the populations concerned.
Protect and take care
The preservation and diversity of genes, species, ecosystems and landscapes requires
the implementation of conservation measures and also the improvement in techniques for
managing natural environments.
Find balances
Depending on how they are carried out, many human activities can be either destructive
or completely compatible with the protection of biodiversity. We therefore now need to
find and prioritise the most balanced approaches.
Make everyone a stakeholder in biodiversity
Whether you are a decision-maker or a simple citizen, each of us can participate in the
preservation of biodiversity. Today, many interesting initiatives come from a range of
stakeholders: farmers, hunters, fishermen, industrialists, naturalists etc. They need to
be encouraged.
84
es
i
c
e
p
s
f
o
e
s
u
g
n
i
k
a
M
P
r
offe
t to
ld be
o
l
o
a
sh u by
ve
h
a
t
h
i
l
w
l
d
s
ti
er an
als s
id e u
anim
prov hem bett from
y
d
n
e
a
h
t
t
it
lants ervices
enef
n d in g
s
rsta ions to b
e
e
h
d
T
n
us.
.
by u
olut
them
ical s
oved
impr ng techn angering
ti
nd
inven ithout e
w
m
e
th
Brochet
GIVE B
REE A
T
E
L
P
P
A
D THE INSECT'S ESSENTI
N
A
E
E
B
E
TH ABLISHING THE
T
RE-ES
In the Hindu Kush region which extends from the Western Hihe
ars in t
few ye which were
t
s
a
p
e
s
Over th s, apple tree resource,
ic
ya
Himala tant econom ase in
or
re
c
p
n.
e
d
im
g
n
a
n
llinatio
k of po
d a stro
suffere n due to a lac roduced to
t
tio
produc tegies were in e consisted
a
n
r
o
t
s
;
o
m
Tw
ork of
ble
o the w
this pro
tackle humans to d n); the other
io
g
of usin nual pollinat he age-old
t
a
g
(m
in
s
e
w
be
ts and
ene
n insec
ed of r
consist tion betwee sticides and
ra
e
collabo (decreasing p g etc.).
s
in
n
p
a
e
e
m
hu
s is
ee-k
ping b two strategie
develo
e
s
e
h
t
f
o
Which tainable?
us
more s
I
n a fishing lake, what do you do if the water starts turning
green due to phytoplankton (microscopic algae)?
The best solution would be to encourage predators like the pike
or the perch for example, by fishing them less. These more numerous predators will cause populations of smaller fish to decrease which will in turn encourage the growth of animal
plankton on which they feed. The phytoplankton will be controlled by the zooplankton and the water will become clearer!
Of course, this solution would not be enough if there were an
excessive input of fertilisers in the lake as this would cause an
explosion in phytoplankton growth.
Moreover,the introduction of predators outside of their habitat can lead to problems; in Lake Victoria, the Nile perch caused many species of native fish to disappear without limiting
the eutrophication of the lake.
© Maryse Delaplanche - MNHN
© Michel Cambrony
f
ance o
abund predators
e
h
t
g
latin
land
By regu , aquatic and
ibrium
ey
e equil
r
h
p
t
ir
in
e
th
le
y must
o
r
e
h
r
t
majo
efore,
r
e
h
play a
T
ible.
.
ystems
as poss
of ecos ted as much
tec
be pro
LE
E
AL RO
K
I
P
LOGIC
G
O
N
C
I
E
Y
R
THE PAUCRK ITFHE PREDATORS THEI
TOR
LLINA
AS PO
E
L
O
LR
malaya in China to Afghanistan, apple trees were the major
source of revenue for many families of small farmers. In eightyfour mountain districts from India to China and Nepal, the annual production was estimated at over 2.5 million tonnes and
provided a revenue of approximately 450 million dollars.
A wide range of pollinators could be found in these mountain
slopes including five species of bees and the well-known exotic
species, Apis mellifera. In short, everything was going well:
there was honey, beeswax …and the orchards were pollinated.
But during the last decade, apple production fell by 50% despite
a lot of care (irrigation, fertilisers and pesticides). What was
the problem? A lack of pollinators, victims of pesticides, and in
certain regions the absence of bee-keeping.
Two strategies were adopted to resolve this serious problem.
In China, in the county of Maoxian, women and children were
mobilised and trained in the practice of manual pollination, blossom by blossom. With the help of these new pollinators, production rose to its initial level but at the cost of tedious and
expensive work.
In India, in Himachal Pradesh, a more ecological strategy was
adopted which consisted of introducing bee-keeping, unknown
until then, after limiting treatment with pesticides. Colonies of
the domestic bee species, Apis mellifera, were introduced but
also one of the indigenous species, the Apis cerana, which is well
adapted to the climate. The apple trees improved and the farmers could smile again…
Barbault R. 2006. 2006, Un éléphant dans un jeu de quilles (An elephant in
a game of skittles). L’homme dans la biodiversité (Humans and biodiversity).
Seuil. 226p.
85
86
WORK
O
T
S
M
R
HWO NY
T
R
A
E
G
N
I
PUTTTING FROM THBELEMAANIMAL
I
M
The greatest biomass on the planet is represented by earthworms
BENEF
F A HU
IES O
ABILI
T
t but
portan
y an im iversity.
la
p
s
orm
iod
Earthw wn part in b ve shown
a
no
h
s
-k
t
le
n
t
e
t
ute in
li
experim ls can contrib and
s
u
io
r
n
a
Va
io
t
im
a
n
urific
ese a
that th agronomy, p
f
terms o ood.
f
indeed
with 4,000 species: often between 2 and 5 tonnes per hectare.
Today, it is high time that this humble animal be given all the space
that it deserves!
FERTILITY
Earthworms play an essential role in soil fertilization through the
aeration and decomposition of organic matter. Chemical treatment
residues can lead to the disappearance of earthworms, with dramatic consequences for soil fertility. Protecting these helpers is now
essential.
In India, an experiment on the reintroduction of earthworms led in
the very first year, to the doubling of tea production in soil depleted by agro-chemistry.
DOWN ON OF SPECIES
M
E
H
T
G
N
UTTI ND THE PRESERVATI
C
F
O
D
A
E
S INST ON FOR MEDICINE A
T
N
A
L
P
G
ATI
MILKIN
NNOV
TI
TERES
AN IN
cently
was re
rocess
p
plants
e
d
e
iv
t
t
ova
cultiva
e
k
An inn
a
peutic
a
m
r
h the
ed to
t
it
c
e
w
f
s
r
e
le
p
cu
ected
be coll
e mole
produc ich can then
r.
wh
manne it
value,
uctive
n destr should make
o
n
a
in
gy
ecious
chnolo
This te o produce pr at are
t
th
possible s from plants oiding their
v
le
a
u
c
e
whil
mole
es rare ironment
im
t
e
m
v
so
l en
natura
in the
PURIFICATION
To find out more: http://www.verslaterre.fr/vers/vers4.php
© Frédéric Bourgaud
© Michel Cambrony
FOOD
http://geo5.environnement.free.fr/exchron.html.
Some plant molecules used in medicine come from rare plants and
are difficult to synthesise, which is problematic both in terms of
nature conservation and the provision of drugs. The treatment
of some cancer patients requires one gram of taxol per year
which would correspond to the felling of 3 yews, each 150 years
old.
With this in mind, researchers from the mixed 'agronomy and
environment' research unit INPL (ENSAIA) - INRA developed a
simple and innovative process: they invented plants that can be
milked!
The plants are grown in a liquid medium and the roots produce
certain molecules due to various physical, chemical or biological
treatments. High added-value molecules are recovered from the
nutritional medium by the use of capturing , separation and
purification methods.
'Earthworm composting' recycles organic waste, for industry and on
someone’s balcony.
Recently, France and Chile have started using compost worms to purify the wastewater of small municipalities. In Combaillaux, a municipality of 1,000 inhabitants close to Montpellier, wastewater is
emptied into an 'earthworm station' where millions of worms do
their job in an organic support (bark). This innovative project has
been used for teaching purposes ('earthworm museum')
Worms have always been used as food for poultry, but tomorrow
they could also be a source of protein for humans. Trials are currently being conducted on the subject.
NG I
This method - non-destructive for the plant - allows the production
cycles to be repeated through successive 'milking' operations.
This process was implemented and validated using the angels
trumpet (Datura innoxia) which allowed neurosedatives to be
produced. It is also used in the production of taxol from the yew
tree (Taxus baccata), and furocoumarins, used in the treatment
of certain cancers and psoriasis, from the rue plant (Ruta
graveolens). It can be used for other species with medicinal or
cosmetic properties. A patent application was made for this
innovation and a company named 'Plant Advanced Technologies
SAS' was created.
Pour en savoir plus :
http://www.inra.fr/presse/des_plantes_a_traire
87
P
On the other hand, grazing results in the elimination of the
salad burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis), the sole food of the
caterpillar of the two very rare butterflies that are also in
appendix 2 of the same European Directive, the dusky large
blue butterfly (Masculinea nausithous) and the large blue
butterfly (Maculinea teleius). Management by mowing at the
end of spring has the opposite effect: it results in an abundant
summer bloom of salad burnet but causes the disappearance or
even the competitive exclusion of the fen orchid.
In this situation, which method of conservation management
should be chosen to maintain biodiversity in this marshland?
The solution is simple: the spatial diversity (if possible in a
mosaic pattern) of vegetation management methods can ensure
the coexistence of the maximum of habitats and therefore of
species. Certain areas can be left unmanaged to allow the
recovery of alder groves and their specific biodiversity
(mushrooms for example).
© Luc Dietrich - CSA
we
, b ut
e
l
b
a
erm
sir
is d e e l o n g - t n s
m
i
th
ste
uires
for
cosy
he e
ans
s req g a n d
i
t
e
h
g
m
T
n
n
r vi
nd
th.
tioni
o fi
rese
weal
func
.
e d t f their
r
e
i
e
n
c
e
oi s
o
th
still
nt ch
ation d g e o f
e
v
m
r
e
e
g
e
pres
mana
nowl
h k
plex
t
m
p
o
e
c
d
s
time
some
re
d Natu
arshlan
M
t
s
n
r
e
u
Lavo
nagem s the
In the
ure ma
a
e, past species such
v
r
e
s
ects
e
R
rtain
sely aff
r
e
e
c
v
s
r
d
a
u
is
are
h
r
t
favo
e
t
h
u
and t
hid, b
t
c
r
n
o
la
n
p
e
t
f
e
e
d burn
that ar
the sala e butterflies
this
id
o
v
lu
a
large b d with it. To
rsified
te
, a dive n
associa antagonism
la
t
men p
nt
appare osaic manage
m
spatial be devised.
to
needs
NT Q
THE D
ONME
R
I
V
N
OF E
The Lavours Marshland Nature Reserve, located in the alluvial
plane of the Haut-Rhône (the département of Ain), has a limestone marsh of 484 hectares that is of great ecological interest
with many rare, protected species.
In order to preserve this heritage, the management undertook
to establish a management of grazing by hardy livestock, Camargue horses, and Highland cattle. This management turned
out to be beneficial since it allowed very open areas to be created which are favourable to species which cannot cope with the
competition between plants, like the fen orchid (Liparis loeselii), an orchid that is protected in France and is in appendix 2 of
the European Directive Habitats of Fauna and Flora.
© Christophe Galet, Ecothème
DO WE NEE
HID?
C
R
O
E
H
T
FLY OR EE
R
E
T
T
U
B
T
THE
ARAN
N
E
E
, A GU
W
S
T
T
A
E
T
I
SE B
F HA B
Y
ITY O
UALIT
IVERS
D TO CHOO
To find out more:
Morand A., Majchrzak Y., Manneville O. & Beffy J.L., 1994. Papillons du
genre Maculinea (Lycaenidae) et pastoralisme : aspects antagonistes d’une
gestion conservatoire. Ecologie, 25 (1) : 9-18. (The Maculinea (Lycaenidae)
genus butterfly and Pasture Management; Antagonistic aspects of Conservatory Management)
Liparis
t
n
e
m
e
s
g
e
a
i
n
c
a
e
p
m
s
e
d
h
n
t
a
g
s
n
i
t
n
n
i
e
g
m
a
n
Im
of enviro
89
88
90
ATE IC DIVERSITY
R
G
I
M
O
T
AKS STANDING GENPERTESERVE THEM
O
G
N
I
W
O
L
AL
TTER
UNDER
TO BE
RDER
ECIES
OF SP
IN O
d
woul
ill, it
e
w
f
i
d
l
oo
or
and g spect f
n
n
a
o
c
i
inat
e re versity
imag reconcil
i
in
d
f
,
o
o
bi
nt
bit
le to
ses,
opme
l
a
b
i
i th a
c
e
s
v
s
y
e
n
d
po
n ma or for
uite
t
be q onomy. I
o
m
t
ec
rtan
and
eas.
impo
al ar
n
r
a
u
r
n
be
i
r
icula
part
r
e
v
i
d
o
i
b
g
Connectin
W
A
n unprecedented study was recently conducted in an effort to
learn more about the genetic diversity of 2,600 populations of
oaks distributed throughout Europe.
This study, coordinated by INRA (Institut National de Recherche Agronomique - The National Institute of Agronomic
Research) in Bordeaux along with many international partners,
revealed the current diversity of oak trees by creating a large
data base. It was possible to retrace the paths of re-colonisation of these trees after the Ice Age and more generally to understand the dynamics of this species.
Antoine Kremer, who was in charge of this programme, was
awarded the Wallenberg prize for this work. This research potentially has various applications: the preservation of genetic
resources, the traceability of the production chain of trees,
from the seed to the wood, etc. It should also help to put in
place policies for the preservation of biodiversity which prove
necessary in light of global warming. Oaks, like many other species, should move back northwards, but the speed of temperature rises and the scale of the hostile environments between
forested areas will force humans to lend a helping hand to this
migration (plantations, seedlings).
To find out more:
http://www.inra.fr/presse/des_plantes_a_traire
VOUR
IN FA
S
T
S
E
TER
OF IN
TREES
ENCE
G
DARD
R
N
E
V
A
T
N
S
O
C
F
A
SO
CHARD
OF OR
ICE
U
J
E
L
P
P
A
D THE
N
A
L
W
O
E
TH
rds
r orcha d
ures fo
s
pe
a
e
lo
e
m
ing dev
vation
Conser rd trees are be cological,
ye
da
of stan , motivated b concerns.
ce
pe
n
a
c
a
s
r
F
d
n
in
la
ic and
econom
© Michel Cambrony
© Cyrille Gaultier
y
diversit
genetic anage
e
h
t
f
dge o
etter m
Knowle an help to b opulations
c
p
s
k
w
a
o
of o
d all
cies an
anges.
this spe to climate ch
t
p
to ada
t
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
sity to dev
In the Northern Vosges as in many other regions, various
phenomena have led to a significant decline in orchards of standard
trees: the abandonment of farmland in the mid-mountain
ranges, the intensification of tree cultivation, the storm of
1999 etc.
This change is negative in many aspects: loss of biodiversity,
standardisation of the landscape and agricultural production
etc. In the North Vosges Biosphere Reserve, there is an
on-going operation to promote this type of landscape: the organisation of an orchard festival, the planting and maintenance
of orchards by insertion sites, the promotion of regional
products, Sustainable Agriculture Contracts etc.
These actions should enable a high-quality agricultural production
to be developed, while at the same time favouring endangered
species such as the little owl or shrike.
91
92
© Sylvain Tourte - Ecothème
but are
oding
lo
f
o
t
le
ubject
g are s
ws liab
.
Meado lly interestin ion in France
at
ica
ecolog uous degrad Angevin,
f
in
to cont sses Vallées o cal
lo
a
B
n
e
e
e
h
In t
etw
a
ation b
lted in
consult ers has resu project
ld
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o
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stakeh
ageme agricultural
f
ed man
balanc kes account o y.
ta
rsit
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iv
d
io
which
b
ts and
interes
BIRD TURE AND NATURE
E
H
T
D
N
A
CUL
ER
THE FAMRAMRRIAGE BETWEEN AGRI
Consultation with naturalists has resulted in the introduction of a balanced project: control of poplar plantations and pastureland conversion to crops, consideration of meadow maintenance (fertilisation, mowing dates etc.).
Thus, farmers have also become guardians of the fauna and flora of these exceptional valleys with
ecosystems that provide many services, from food production, reduction in ecological vulnerability
and water regulation, and also landscape management and renewed sociability.
A NEW
ION
ERVAT
CONS
Three rivers
flow in the Basses Vallées of Angevin: the
Mayenne, the Sarthe, and the Loir. Natural overflows of the
Loire, they comprise wide expanses that are liable to flooding,
located in the immediate proximity of Angers.
About fifteen years ago, the Basses Vallées of Angevin were
the subject of conflicts between naturalists wishing to protect
this open landscape and landowners wanting to grow poplar trees
there, as an alternative to the abandonment of farmland. There
were other conflicts between the developers of a nature reserve and the farmers who feared the disappearance of their
activity.
Today, the Basses Vallées of Angevin are a biotope of international value covering an area of approximately 4,500 hectares.
Indeed, they are acknowledge as wetlands, called Ramsar, and
as a Natura 2000 site. Of the large number of species recorded
here are the corn crake (Crex crex), a princely bird that is a
symbol of the meadows, and the pike that lays its eggs in the
flooded meadows.
To find out more:
http://www.lpo-anjou.org/action/bva/bva.htm - http://www.corela.org/leconservatoire/default.asp
een
long b
e
ol has
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curativ
t
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ly
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ased o
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Today,
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,
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ention
are imp l basis : prev
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a
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tion of , storage bas sity.
a
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o
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e
y
r
r
iodiver
necessa
good b
t
Where
s
o
h
ed to
design
corn crake
These areas that are enriched by the silt carried by the flood
waters, are maintained natural meadows; today the farmers
whose methods have shaped the landscape have joined forces to
protect their livestock production by using a trademark supported by the Chamber of Agriculture.
© Michel Cambrony
The Basses Vallées of Angevin , vast areas liable to frequent
and late flooding, protect the town of Angers from rises in the
water level and function as a purification system by absorbing
the nitrates and phosphates which are nutrients .
AGOON RAULIC PLANT
L
A
U
R
U
B
THE SAL TURE ITS PLACE IN HYD
G NA
GIVIN
The town of Vitoria, capital of the Spanish Basque Country, was
under threat of flooding by a small river. To decrease the peak
flow during high water, it would have been possible to create a
dam or storage basins designed from a purely hydraulic
viewpoint (a usually dry basin, of a geometric shape, with a high
flood-water level etc.).
The solution adopted consisted of creating a water retention
area by rehabilitating agricultural pieces of land of no ecological
interest.
Part of the site is always under water so it is of great ecological
interest. A herd of deer was introduced to maintain the
vegetation. Finally, a secured path leads to an observatory from
which visitors can admire the birds, deer and other animals
which frequent the area.
Similar operations have been implemented in France.
To find out more:
http://www.vitoria-gasteiz.org/w24/en/html/index.shtml
93
T T FORMS THE BASIS
S
I
L
A
R
U
T
E NA AL ENVIRONMEENNT PROJECT
H
T
D
N
A
R
YO HEN THE NATUARBLE DEVELOPM
A
M
E
H
T
,
W
IN
BOG
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FOR A
THE PEAT
che
e Ardè
s, in th
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s
u
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lg
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e-A
In Mon s, the Rhôn l Areas
in
a
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a
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moun
ation
of Nat
vatory t bog conserv he
T
Conser
a
.
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p
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a
pa
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launch agement cam d by the
e
n
t
a
ia
a key
and m
propr
was ap
made it
t
project hority which developmen
le
ut
local a of a sustainab a holiday
t
of
elemen he creation
in the
t
:
t
ement y this
c
lv
je
o
o
v
in
pr
a
),
d
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o
tc. T
e (gît
cottag 000 project e ndeavour
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2
Natura r-communal ed by the
te
w
is an in ould be follo ark.
lp
sh
which of a windmil es that the
at
n
r
t
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it
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r
This
io
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s
s
iv
discu
f biod
topic o constructive olders and
h
ry
e
e
k
v
a
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a
s
able
f
o
arious sis of sustain
v
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e
e
a
b
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betw
h
t
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come
lopmen
can be
ic deve
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o
n
o
ec
The small isolated municipality of Montselgues, on the Ardèche
plateau, may not, at first glance, have appeared to be predisposed
to a progressive policy on biodiversity management. The Regional
Conservatory of Natural Areas (CREN - Conservatoire Régional
des Espaces Naturels) identified there a 4-hectare peat bog,
rich in rare animal and plant species. A fruitful dialogue then
was initiated between the Conservatory and the local authority.
Everything gelled from the start asas the council did not see
biodiversity as a constraint but rather as a potential for
development centred on ecotourism projects and agro-environmental measures.
The peat bog was protected and maintained. A 38-room holiday
home was set up in the area; its activity is broadly based on the
theme of biodiversity and the peat bog. This dynamic led to the
creation of jobs and the opening of private bed-and-breakfast
facilities; the school was reopened after being closed for 20
years.
The local authority suggested the integration of its peat bog in
the Natura 2000 network; it even persuaded the neighbouring
villages to request the extension of the Natura 2000 site to
include them, taking it from 35 to 4,000 hectares! Today, there
is an on-going project to maintain these environments and to
connect them by ecological corridors.
European finance was requested to support of this programme.
This local approach organised as a community of local authorities,
took on other tasks such as household garbage collection.
Today, it is initiating to a windmill park project which would
offer economically fragile villages a regular source of revenue
via renewable energy.
TRIES
COUN
N
R
E
H
T
R SOU
REALMH FO
E
H
T
F
O
COIN OURCE OF WEALT
E
H
T
N
I
S
SPECILEORA AND FAUNA, A S
F
WILD
In sub-Saharan Africa, so-called traditional uses of nature have
cies
ild spe
tries w ited in a
n
u
o
c
n
lo
xp
her
In Sout d should be e build a
n
to
could a le way so as source.
b
e
a
r
in
ic
a
t
m
s
su
no
ant eco
signific
in many cases been replaced, and sometimes even spurned and
forgotten. Today, the only possibility for certain populations
remains the implementation of classic development models
which go far beyond the bounds of local resources and
knowledge.
In the north of Benin, as in the whole region, the single-crop
farming of cotton is one of the rare means of survival even
though it leads to complete clearing of the forests, the
disappearance of all wildlife and serious dependence on
international markets.
The rational use of the wild fauna and flora for economic
development offers an alternative or supplement to this model.
Indeed, dozens of animal species have been counted in this
country, from elephants to snails, and hundreds of plants with
potential food, medicinal, industrial and religious uses etc. As
long ago as 1964, Jean Dorst had identified this issue in his famous work 'Before Nature Dies' which was translated into
17 languages.
The re-appropriation and implementation of local knowledge are
essential prerequisites for the use of wild resources. Bushmeat,
the selling of trophies and wild animals free from disease, and
the marketing of plant products, precious or semi-precious
wood, are a few areas that, if kept on a reasonable scale, could
be developed, and the revenue from it could be used directly
and locally.
94
Impala (Aspyceros melampus),a wild species
especially usefull for bushmeat, the selling of trophies
or reproductive animals
Other measures taken in other African countries, at least in
poorly populated rural areas, have proven that biodiversity
development and conservation are not only compatible, but
synergetic too.
95
96
PLE THE POWER
P
A
G
I
B
E
BACK
R TH
WATER FO NEW YORK HANDS
New York and its suburbs, i.e. some ten million inhabitants, are
supplied with drinking water by the Catskill-Delaware drainage
basin, totalling of 5,000 square kilometres (1,930 square miles)
of cultivated valleys and mountains covered in forests through
which runs a network of rivers connected to nineteen reservoirs.
CHOOSING NATURE OVER A WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
Due to the deterioration of this resource, the city of New York
planned a few years ago to build a water treatment plant,
representing an investment of 6 to 8 billion dollars, plus 300 to
500 million dollars of annual maintenance costs. After reflection
and consultation, the authorities committed themselves to another
approach: a programme of restoration and protection of the
drainage basin able to guarantee water quality in the long term,
costing in total the sum of only 1.5 billion dollars.
molecules of contaminants. Half of the excess nutrients that flow in the rivers (nitrogen from
automobile emissions and fertilizers) are absorbed by plants. This natural purification work
continues in the reservoirs: plant debris and floating particles are deposited on the bottom while
pathogens are trapped in sediments.
THE
FRUIT OF BROAD CONSULTATION
This project was not implemented without difficulty, and the discussions between its promoters and
the supporters of a more artificial water management were fierce. Negotiations lasted two years and
relied on the support of over one hundred and fifty public meetings. They ended in a broad agreement
signed by all the stakeholders in 1997. One of its cornerstones was to make the city of New York
pay for the development measures on the territory located in the rural area.
This operation is emblematic because, for the first time, the services that ecosystems provide to
society were taken into account and preserved on a large scale. Similar measures were taken in
Germany (Munich) and in France, to protect the drainage basins that supply drinking water and
mineral water springs (Evian and Vittel).
Barbault R. 2006. Un éléphant dans un jeu de quilles. L’Homme dans la biodiversité. Seuil. 266p.
The principle of this project was to protect the water at source
and to hand back the power of purification to the ecosystem.
The sources of pollution were treated (the main drainage
system, septic tanks, landfill dumps etc.). Land was bought by
the local authority to form buffers between agricultural and
river areas.
The drainage basin regained its natural functions as a result of
these measures. In the forests and wetlands, soils and roots
filter the water while an invisible micro-flora degrades
© www..freeimages.co.uk
ose
York ch
of New system
il
c
n
u
eco
y co
The cit -scale use of g-water
in
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the lar s for its drink building a
n
n
a
io
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r
fu
, the
he
So, rat
t plant
supply. ter treatmen a global
a
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costly w s introduce the territory
ie
it
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o
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of a
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ystems
pment
develo ll of the ecos ntinue to
a
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so that basin could ater.
e
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-qua
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provid
TURE
TO NA
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O
I
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OF PU
97
s the
quire t h e
e
r
y
it
also
ivers
but
and
biod
s
f
e
i
o
t
i
ocal
l
n
r
o
o
i
s
t
h
s
tle
ic in
rva
aut
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Coun eral publ op
.
s
e
u
h
of
nt
gen
f ec
itme
the
each
ion o
comm ment of s include staurat
re
ve
ti v e
invol
n i ti a v e r y a n d
i
l
a
n
disco
natio
tudy
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th
eme.
syst
T
© Laurent Mignaux, MEDD
me
ve beco
ents ha nts. They
m
t
o
ll
e
'a
Former itizens’ allotm and
‘c
ty
today's s of conviviali s of
ce
ce
are pla g but also pla overy of
in
isc
well-be tation and d t and the
en
en
xperim le developm
ab
sustain ent.
m
environ
ES
TURE
!
N
E
D PLAC NS AND NA
E
E
R
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E
G
L
I
IV
GO
MA
NS, PR
EN HU
ETWE
GARDE
B
ENS'
NSHIP
CITIZ
LATIO
E
R
E
H
FOR T
Collective gardens have existed throughout history.
The first 'allotments were created in 1896 by the League of
allotments and homes' in an attempt to raise the 'moral standards’
of the working class and to provide it with an additional source
of income sheltered from the blows of fate.
In 1952, they became 'family gardens', a broader term, less
socially stigmatised.
In 1986, the first 'self-sufficiency' gardens were created
which from then on were assigned objectives of insertion and
combat against poverty and exclusion. For the past few years
now, some of these gardens have been affected by the 'green
wave': organic products are grown in them and the taste for old
varieties is being revived.
Today, these gardens are used by increasingly diverse people and can be seen as places where
people can experience the 'difference' of nature in the heart of daily life and in the heart of the
city. Everyone and anyone can discover a nature that is useful but also free and which may even have
a little 'wild' side.
These are living spaces in which gardeners can invest as stakeholders since they can appropriate
them and shape them as they please.
Collective gardens are ecosystems which have been greatly changed by human activity; some of them
are not protected from industrial and urban pollution. These gardens are subject to the effect of
fashion which can contribute to the loss of biodiversity, as in Eastern Europe where, once very
diversified, they are now becoming increasingly standardised (the fashion for lawns etc.).
If properly managed, these “ephemeral” gardens are however places for the expression of “sustainable”
development as they involve:
money saving practices, thanks to the creation of substitute income, reducing expenses by the
consumption of products from the garden,
socio-cultural practices, by the maintenance or regeneration of social links, leisure activities and
cultural expression,
and environmental practices, by the management of nature in town.
These gardens are spaces of well-being where it is possible to experience a sense of interdependence,
which is vital today; they thus are links between private spaces of individual development and public
spaces of social development and community action.
For these diverse reasons, today it seems necessary to incorporate these gardens in the “green
system” projects which are gradually taking shape in an effort to build or preserve towns that will
hopefully be ‘sustainable’.
To find out more:
Le jardin dans tous ses états : http://www.jardinons.com
Les jardins d’insertion en Ile-de-France, acteurs, enjeux et perspective perspectivehttp://www.fnarsidf.asso.fr/etudejardinsidf.pdf
© Ecole des Talus
s
r
e
d
l
o
h
e
k
a
t
t
s
h
s
g
i
n
r
e
n
z
i
w
t
i
Make c
in their o
99
98
© Ecole des talus
© Ecole des talus
,
dation
consoli
d
e
n
c
la
u
of
rod
ecades
o reint
After d s necessary t
ents
m
k
n
a
r
b
a
it appe y planted em utrients,
n
an
in Britt te water and
asing
la
e incre
u
g
im
e
t
r
e
o
t
m
a
s
e
t th
while a l diversity.
ciation
ol Asso
ica
o
g
h
c
lo
S
io
t
b
en
bankm
is.
The Em g towards th
in
k
is wor
ZIOÙ
U
E
L
H
’
C
R
SKOL A MENT SCHOOL
K
MBAN
THE E
E
veryone knows about the dramatic change in the Breton landscapes which have experienced the destruction and levelling of
thousands of kilometres of hedges, sunken lanes and wooded
embankments. These transformations have led to a significant
loss in biodiversity but also major hydraulic disturbances: the
increase in run-off and flooding, rapid migration of fertilizers
and pesticides into watercourses etc.
Faced with this situation, some stakeholders have launched
hedge-planting operations which unfortunately do not compensate for the levelling of embankments. These actions are worthwhile in terms of biodiversity but their effectiveness in terms
of water regulation is limited. Planted embankment and ditch
systems are more worthwhile if they are correctly placed, in
particular as they favour the infiltration of water in the soil
and the retention of arable earth by sedimentation.
The Embankment School Association (Skol ar C’hleuzioù) organises voluntary embankment-building sites. It also undertakes
training activities regarding embankments, their planting,
wicker work etc. – all activities which support the natural or
built rural heritage (construction of embankments, fences, the
restoration of flax retteries etc.). It has put in place a thematic walkers’ trail: 'the embankment and flax ratteries trail. It
also holds exhibitions, produces brochures and organises bilingual educational excursions (in French and Breton).
To find out more:
http://www.talus-bretagne.org/
RS
O
T
A
R
O
B
A
COLL
Y
R
A
T
N
U
L
15,000 VTOED IN ONE YEAERRV!ATORY
RECRURIDEN BUTTERFLY OBS
A
To protect biodiversity, it must be understood and its evolution
THE G
atory
observ g
tterfly
in
u
t
b
t
e
n
g
e
rd
at
and
The ga iative aimed
e study
h
t
it
in
in
d
e
n
lv
o
is an
o
m
v
uals in he most com ve
individ
s ha
g of t
in
r
o
it
garden
n
mo
15,000 roject.
.
s
e
li
f
r
this p
butte
joined
already
100
monitored. Universities, the National Museum of Natural
History (MNHN) and other institutional organisations have the
basic missions of data acquisition and organisation, but obviously
they do not have the manpower required to monitor the
situation throughout the country.
In this situation, amateurs have an essential role to play, by
their number, distribution and skill. To monitor changes in
butterfly populations in France, the Noé Conservation Association
and the National Museum of Natural History have launched the
Garden Butterfly Observatory.
This operation consists of asking individuals to regularly count
the butterflies in a garden, a public park etc. For this study to
be accessible to non-specialists, the organisers have selected
28 species or groups of species which are common and easily
identifiable. Identification cards and counting cards are
provided for the participants.
Launched in 2006, this operation is a true success: approximately
15,000 gardens are already monitored in this way!
For “enlightened” amateurs, the MNHN has introduced an identical
programme covering all species of butterfly, STERF (Suivi Temporel des Rhopalocères de France - The Monitoring over Time of
Rhopaloceres in France).
As the years go by, these two programmes will provide an understanding of the changes in these species due to climate
change, changes in agricultural practices etc. Remember that
an operation of this type, the programme STOC, revealed the
recent rarefaction of common birds in France.
To find our more:
http://www.noeconservation.org
101
Some
..
.
s
e
c
n
e
r
e
f
re
BOOKS
Barbault R., 2006. Un éléphant dans un jeu de quilles. L’homme
dans la biodiversité. Seuil. 266 p.
Barbault R., Chevassus-au-Louis B., 2005. Biodiversité et changements globaux. Enjeux de société et défis pour la recherche.
ADPF, ministère des affaires étrangères. 241 p.
WEB SITES
Ministère de L'écologie et du développement durable :
http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr
Institut
Français de la Biodiversité : http://www.gis-ifb.org/
Evaluation des Ecosystèmes pour le Millénaire (MEA) :
http://www.millenniumassessment.org/
Inventaire National du Patrimoine Naturel :
http://inpn.mnhn.fr/inpn/fr/inpn/index.htm
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The CSPNB would like to thank for their contribution : Frédéric Bourgaud, Philippe Caron,
Aminata Correra, Daniel Dollinger, Yvain Dubois, Gérard Dupont et Françoise Guillou (Ecole
des Talus), Corinne Etaix, Cyrille Gaultier, Bernadette Gilbertas, Sarah Hernandez,
Mathieu Jahnich, Jean-Christophe Kovacs, Antoine Kremer, Patrick Lavelle, Guillaume
Sainteny, Laurent Simon, Jacques Weber.
For the english version, special thanks to Philippe Bourdeau (CSPNB)
PICTURE CREDITS
Gérard Arnal,Art Harris Centennial museum (www.museum.utep.edu), Frédéric Bourgaud,
Alain Brauman (IRD), Michel Cambrony, Nicolas Chatelain (CNRS, IPHC-DIPCV), Aminata
Correra, Maryse Delaplanche (MNHN), Luc Dietrich (Conservatoire des Sites Alsaciens),
Yvain Dubois, , Alexandre Dudouble, Jean-François Dobremez, Ecole des Talus, Ecosphère,
Ecothème, Christophe Gallet, Cyrille Gaultier, Michel Gigan (MNHN), Alain Gérérd, Olivier
Grunewald, Pierre Laboute (IRD), Céline Landon et coll., Franck Le Bloch, David Luquet
(Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche-sur-mer http://www.davidluquet.com/),
Isabelle Michelot, Jean-Louis Michelot, Laurent Mignaux (MEDD), Jean-Pierre Montoroi
(IRD), Denis Palanque ([email protected]), Martin Peeters (IRD), Jacques Portecop,
Andrew Syred (http://www.microscopix.co.uk/), Marc Thauront, Cécile Thouzeau et coll.,
Sylvain Tourte, François Vignaud, Daniel Zachary, http://www.freei-mages.co.uk/
ADDRESS
CSPNB (président, Yvon Le Maho) : [email protected]
Véronique Barre, coordination : [email protected]
Jean-Louis Michelot, writting : [email protected]
Béatrice Saurel, création and graphic design : [email protected]
CITATION
CSPNB, 2007. La biodiversité à travers des exemples. MEDD/D4E. 104 p.
English version (Biodiversity illustrated) – mai 2008

members of the cspnb - Ministère de l`écologie et du développement

Transcription

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