literary terms - SCIS Teachers

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4HE POINT OF VIEW IS THE PERSPECTIVE THAT A NARRATIVE TAKES TOWARD THE EVENTS IT DESCRIBES
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&IGURES OF SPEECH ARE EXPRESSIONS THAT STRETCH
WORDS BEYOND THEIR LITERAL MEANINGS "Y CONNECTING OR
JUXTAPOSING DIFFERENT SOUNDS AND THOUGHTS lGURES OF
SPEECH INCREASE THE BREADTH AND SUBTLETY OF EXPRESSION
&IRSTPERSON NARRATION ! NARRATIVE IN WHICH THE NARRATOR TELLS THE STORY FROM HISHER OWN POINT OF VIEW AND REFERS TO HIMHERSELF
!LLITERATION 4HE REPETITION OF SIMILAR SOUNDS USUALLY CONSO
AS h)v 4HE NARRATOR MAY BE AN ACTIVE PARTICIPANT IN THE STORY OR JUST AN OBSERVER 7HEN THE POINT OF VIEW REPRESENTED IS SPECIl
CALLY THE AUTHORS AND NOT A lCTIONAL NARRATORS THE STORY IS AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL AND MAY BE NONlCTIONAL SEE #OMMON ,ITERARY
&ORMS AND 'ENRES OTHER SIDE
NANTS AT THE BEGINNING OF WORDS &OR EXAMPLE 2OBERT &ROSTS
POEM h/UT OUTˆv CONTAINS THE ALLITERATIVE PHRASE hSWEET
SCENTED STUFFv
4HIRDPERSON NARRATION 4HE NARRATOR REMAINS OUTSIDE THE STORY AND DESCRIBES THE CHARACTERS IN THE STORY USING PROPER NAMES
!POSIOPESIS ! BREAKINGOFF OF SPEECH USUALLY BECAUSE OF
AND THE THIRDPERSON PRONOUNS hHEv hSHEv hITv AND hTHEYv
RISING EMOTION OR EXCITEMENT &OR EXAMPLE h4OUCH ME ONE
MORE TIME AND ) SWEARˆv
s /MNISCIENT NARRATION 4HE NARRATOR KNOWS ALL OF THE ACTIONS FEELINGS AND MOTIVATIONS OF ALL OF THE CHARACTERS &OR EXAMPLE
THE NARRATOR OF ,EO 4OLSTOYS !NNA +ARENINA SEEMS TO KNOW EVERYTHING ABOUT ALL THE CHARACTERS AND EVENTS IN THE STORY
s ,IMITED OMNISCIENT NARRATION 4HE NARRATOR KNOWS THE ACTIONS FEELINGS AND MOTIVATIONS OF ONLY ONE OR A HANDFUL OF CHARAC
TERS &OR EXAMPLE THE NARRATOR OF ,EWIS #ARROLLS !LICE IN 7ONDERLAND HAS FULL KNOWLEDGE OF ONLY !LICE
s &REE INDIRECT DISCOURSE 4HE NARRATOR CONVEYS A CHARACTERS INNER THOUGHTS WHILE STAYING IN THE THIRD PERSON 'USTAVE &LAUBERT
PIONEERED THIS STYLE IN -ADAME "OVARY AS IN THIS PASSAGE h3OMETIMES SHE THOUGHT THAT THESE WERE AFTER ALL THE BEST DAYS OF
HER LIFE THE HONEYMOON SOCALLEDv
OR TO AN OBJECT QUALITY OR IDEA 7ALT 7HITMANS POEM h/
#APTAIN -Y #APTAINv WRITTEN UPON THE DEATH OF !BRAHAM
,INCOLN IS AN EXAMPLE OF APOSTROPHE
!SSONANCE 4HE REPETITION OF SIMILAR VOWEL SOUNDS IN A SEQUENCE
OF NEARBY WORDS &OR EXAMPLE !LFRED ,ORD 4ENNYSON CREATES
ASSONANCE WITH THE hOv SOUND IN THIS LINE FROM h4HE ,OTOS
%ATERSv h!LL DAY THE WIND BREATHES LOW WITH MELLOWER TONEv
5NRELIABLE NARRATION 4HE NARRATOR IS REVEALED OVER TIME TO BE AN UNTRUSTWORTHY SOURCE OF INFORMATION (UMBERT (UMBERT IN
#ACOPHONY 4HE CLASH OF DISCORDANT OR HARSH SOUNDS WITHIN A
6LADIMIR .ABOKOVS ,OLITA AND 3TEVENS IN +AZUO )SHIGUROS 4HE 2EMAINS OF THE $AY ARE GOOD EXAMPLES OF UNRELIABLE NARRATORS
3TREAMOFCONSCIOUSNESS NARRATION 4HE NARRATOR CONVEYS A SUBJECTS THOUGHTS IMPRESSIONS AND PERCEPTIONS EXACTLY AS THEY
OCCUR OFTEN IN DISJOINTED FASHION AND WITHOUT THE LOGIC AND GRAMMAR OF TYPICAL SPEECH AND WRITING -OLLY "LOOMS MONOLOGUE IN
THE lNAL CHAPTER OF *AMES *OYCES 5LYSSES IS AN EXAMPLE OF STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS 7HILE STREAMOFCONSCIOUSNESS NARRATION
USUALLY IS WRITTEN IN THE lRST PERSON IT CAN BY MEANS OF FREE INDIRECT DISCOURSE SEE ABOVE BE WRITTEN IN THE THIRD PERSON AS
IN 6IRGINIA 7OOLFS -RS $ALLOWAY
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! CHARACTER IS A PERSON ANIMAL OR ANY OTHER THING WITH A PERSONALITY THAT APPEARS IN A STORY
0ROTAGONIST 4HE MAIN CHARACTER AROUND WHOM THE STORY REVOLVES )F THE PROTAGONIST IS ADMIRABLE HE OR SHE IS CALLED THE HERO OR
HEROINE OF THE STORY ! PROTAGONIST WHO IS NOT ADMIRABLE OR WHO CHALLENGES OUR NOTIONS OF WHAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED ADMIRABLE
IS CALLED AN ANTIHERO OR ANTIHEROINE &OR EXAMPLE 7ILLY ,OMAN IN !RTHUR -ILLERS $EATH OF A 3ALESMAN IS AN ANTIHERO BECAUSE HE
!NTAGONIST 4HE PRIMARY CHARACTER OR ENTITY THAT ACTS TO FRUSTRATE THE GOALS OF THE PROTAGONIST 4HE ANTAGONIST TYPICALLY IS A CHAR
50495
3TOCK CHARACTER ! COMMON CHARACTER TYPE THAT RECURS THROUGHOUT LITERATURE .OTABLE EXAMPLES INCLUDE THE WITTY SERVANT THE
ISBN 1-4114-0063-1
ACTER BUT MAY ALSO BE A NONHUMAN FORCE &OR EXAMPLE #LAUDIUS IS THE ANTAGONIST IN 3HAKESPEARES (AMLET WHEREAS THE MILITARY
BUREAUCRACY IS THE ANTAGONIST IN *OSEPH (ELLERS #ATCH
0,/4
! PLOT IS THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE EVENTS IN A STORY INCLUDING THE SEQUENCE IN WHICH THEY ARE TOLD THE RELATIVE
EMPHASIS THEY ARE GIVEN AND THE CAUSAL CONNECTIONS BETWEEN EVENTS
SCHEMING VILLAIN THE FEMME FATALE THE TRUSTY SIDEKICK THE OLD MISER AND SO ON ! STOCK CHARACTER THAT HOLDS A CENTRAL PLACE IN
A CULTURES FOLKLORE OR CONSCIOUSNESS MAY BE CALLED AN ARCHETYPE SEE 4HEMATIC -EANING BELOW
&OIL ! CHARACTER WHO ILLUMINATES THE QUALITIES OF ANOTHER CHARACTER BY MEANS OF CONTRAST )N *OHN +EATSS h/DE TO A .IGHTINGALEv
THE SWIFTLY TRAVELING NIGHTINGALE SERVES AS A FOIL TO +EATSS SLEEPY OPIUMLADEN NARRATOR
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!POSTROPHE ! DIRECT ADDRESS TO AN ABSENT OR DEAD PERSON
INTERPRETATION OF THEIR ACTIONS OR THEIR INNER STATES %RNEST (EMINGWAY PIONEERED THIS STYLE
/BJECTIVE NARRATION ! STYLE IN WHICH THE NARRATOR REPORTS NEUTRALLY ON THE OUTWARD BEHAVIOR OF THE CHARACTERS BUT OFFERS NO
SENTENCE OR PHRASE #ACOPHONY IS A FAMILIAR FEATURE OF TONGUE
TWISTERS BUT CAN ALSO BE USED TO POETIC EFFECT AS IN THE WORDS
hANFRACTUOUS ROCKSv IN 43 %LIOTS h3WEENEY %RECTv !LTHOUGH
DISSONANCE HAS A DIFFERENT MUSICAL MEANING IT IS SOMETIMES
USED INTERCHANGEABLY WITH hCACOPHONYv
#HIASMUS 4WO PHRASES IN WHICH THE SYNTAX IS THE SAME BUT
THE PLACEMENT OF WORDS IS REVERSED AS IN THESE LINES FROM
3AMUEL 4AYLOR #OLERIDGES h4HE 0AINS OF 3LEEPv h4O BE BELOVED
IS ALL ) NEED !ND WHOM ) LOVE ) LOVE INDEEDv
#LICHÏ !N EXPRESSION SUCH AS hTURN OVER A NEW LEAFv THAT HAS
BEEN USED SO FREQUENTLY IT HAS LOST ITS EXPRESSIVE POWER
#OLLOQUIALISM !N INFORMAL EXPRESSION OR SLANG ESPECIALLY
IN THE CONTEXT OF FORMAL WRITING AS IN 0HILIP ,ARKINS h3END .O
-ONEYv h!LL THE OTHER LADS THERE 7ERE ITCHING TO HAVE A BASHv
#ONCEIT !N ELABORATE PARALLEL BETWEEN TWO SEEMINGLY DIS
SIMILAR OBJECTS OR IDEAS 4HE METAPHYSICAL POETS SEE ,ITERARY
-OVEMENTS BELOW ARE ESPECIALLY KNOWN FOR THEIR CONCEITS
AS IN *OHN $ONNES h4HE &LEAv
%PITHET !N ADJECTIVE OR PHRASE THAT DESCRIBES A PROMINENT
FEATURE OF A PERSON OR THING h2ICHARD @THE ,IONHEART v AND
h @3HOELESS *OE *ACKSONv ARE BOTH EXAMPLES OF EPITHETS
%UPHEMISM 4HE USE OF DECOROUS LANGUAGE TO EXPRESS VULGAR OR
%LEMENTS OF A PLOT ! PLOT CAN HAVE A COMPLICATED STRUCTURE BUT MOST PLOTS HAVE THE SAME BASIC ELEMENTS
#ONmICT 4HE CENTRAL STRUGGLE THAT MOVES THE PLOT FORWARD 4HE CONmICT CAN BE THE PROTAGONISTS STRUGGLE AGAINST FATE NATURE
SOCIETY OR ANOTHER PERSON )N CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES THE CONmICT CAN BE BETWEEN OPPOSING ELEMENTS WITHIN THE PROTAGONIST
2ISING ACTION 4HE EARLY PART OF THE NARRATIVE WHICH BUILDS MOMENTUM AND DEVELOPS THE NARRATIVES MAJOR CONmICT
#LIMAX 4HE MOMENT OF HIGHEST TENSION AT WHICH THE CONmICT COMES TO A HEAD 4HE WORD hCLIMAXv CAN REFER EITHER TO THE SINGLE
MOMENT OF HIGHEST TENSION IN THE PLOT OR MORE GENERALLY TO ANY EPISODE OF HIGH TENSION !N ANTICLIMAX OCCURS WHEN THE PLOT
BUILDS UP TO AN EXPECTED CLIMAX ONLY TO TEASE THE READER WITH A FRUSTRATING NONEVENT *ANE !USTENS NOVELS SUCH AS 3ENSE
AND 3ENSIBILITY ARE FULL OF ROMANTIC ANTICLIMAXES
&ALLING ACTION !LSO CALLED THE DENOUEMENT THIS IS THE LATTER PART OF THE NARRATIVE DURING WHICH THE PROTAGONIST RESPONDS TO
THE EVENTS OF THE CLIMAX AND THE VARIOUS PLOT ELEMENTS INTRODUCED IN THE RISING ACTION ARE RESOLVED
2EVERSAL 3OMETIMES CALLED BY ITS 'REEK NAME PERIPETEIA A REVERSAL IS A SUDDEN SHIFT THAT SENDS THE PROTAGONISTS FORTUNES
FROM GOOD TO BAD OR VICE VERSA
2ESOLUTION !N ENDING THAT SATISFACTORILY ANSWERS ALL THE QUESTIONS RAISED OVER THE COURSE OF THE PLOT
4YPES OF 0LOT 0LOTS CAN TAKE A WIDE VARIETY OF FORMS RANGING FROM ORDERLY SEQUENCES OF CLEARLY RELATED EVENTS TO CHAOTIC JUMBLES
OF LOOSELY CONNECTED EVENTS
s #HRONOLOGICAL PLOT %VENTS ARE ARRANGED IN THE SEQUENCE IN WHICH THEY OCCUR %RNEST (EMINGWAYS 4HE /LD -AN AND THE 3EA
FOR EXAMPLE TELLS A ROUGHLY STRAIGHTFORWARD STORY FROM BEGINNING TO END
s !CHRONOLOGICAL PLOT %VENTS ARE NOT ARRANGED IN THE SEQUENCE IN WHICH THEY OCCUR &OR EXAMPLE (OMERS )LIAD IS FULL OF mASH
BACKS AND DIGRESSIONS THAT RELATE WHAT HAPPENED BEFORE AND AFTER THE CENTRAL CONmICT OF THE POEM
s #LIMACTIC PLOT !LL THE ACTION FOCUSES TOWARD A SINGLE CLIMAX !ESCHYLUSS !GAMEMNON IS A CLASSIC EXAMPLE OF A CLIMACTIC PLOT
s %PISODIC PLOT ! SERIES OF LOOSELY CONNECTED EVENTS #ERVANTESS $ON 1UIXOTE IS EPISODIC
s .ON SEQUITUR PLOT -ORE OF AN hANTIPLOTv THE NON SEQUITUR PLOT DElES TRADITIONAL LOGIC BY PRESENTING EVENTS WITHOUT ANY CLEAR
SEQUENCE AND CHARACTERS WITHOUT ANY CLEAR MOTIVATION 4HE THEATER OF THE ABSURD SEE ,ITERARY -OVEMENTS BELOW IS PAR
TICULARLY FAMOUS FOR ITS NON SEQUITURS
s 3UBPLOT ! SECONDARY PLOT THAT IS OF LESS IMPORTANCE TO THE OVERALL STORY BUT MAY SERVE AS A POINT OF CONTRAST OR COMPARISON
TO THE MAIN PLOT &OR EXAMPLE THE SUBPLOT INVOLVING 'LOUCESTER AND HIS SONS IN 3HAKESPEARES +ING ,EAR SERVES THIS FUNCTION
3%4 4).'
3ETTING IS THE LOCATION OF A NARRATIVE IN TIME AND SPACE )T MAY BE SPECIlCALLY HISTORICAL OR GEOGRAPHICAL AS IN THE
ANCIENT 2OME OF 2OBERT 'RAVESS ) #LAUDIUS OR IT MAY BE IMAGINARY AS IN THE .EVERLAND OF *- "ARRIES 0ETER 0AN
4HE SUGGESTIVE MOOD THAT THE SETTING MAY CREATE IS CALLED THE ATMOSPHERE &OR EXAMPLE THE OPEN WINDOWS OF THE
NURSERY IN 0ETER 0AN CREATE AN ATMOSPHERE OF INNOCENCE AND MAGIC
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! NARRATIVE IS A SEQUENCE OF EVENTS THAT A NARRATOR TELLS IN STORY FORM ! NARRATOR IS A STORYTELLER OF ANY KIND
WHETHER THE AUTHORIAL VOICE IN A NOVEL OR A FRIEND TELLING YOU ABOUT LAST NIGHTS PARTY
IS ORDINARY AND PATHETIC WHEREAS -EURSAULT IN !LBERT #AMUSS 4HE 3TRANGER IS AN ANTIHERO BECAUSE HE CHALLENGES THE TRADITIONAL
CONCEPTION OF WHAT A HERO SHOULD BE
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!LL RIGHTS RESERVED
3PARK#HARTS IS A REGISTERED TRADEMARK
OF 3PARK.OTES ,,#
! "ARNES .OBLE 0UBLICATION
0RINTED IN THE 53! #!.
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UNPLEASANT IDEAS EVENTS OR ACTIONS &OR EXAMPLE hMAKE LOVEv
INSTEAD OF hHAVE SEXv hETHNIC CLEANSINGv INSTEAD OF hGENOCIDEv
%UPHONY ! PLEASING ARRANGEMENT OF SOUNDS -ANY CONSIDER
hCELLAR DOORv ONE OF THE MOST EUPHONIOUS PHRASES IN %NGLISH
(YPERBOLE !N EXCESSIVE OVERSTATEMENT OR CONSCIOUS EXAG
GERATION OF FACT h)VE TOLD YOU ABOUT IT A MILLION TIMES ALREADYv
)DIOM ! COMMON EXPRESSION THAT HAS ACQUIRED A MEANING
THAT DIFFERS FROM ITS LITERAL MEANING SUCH AS hITS RAINING CATS
AND DOGSv OR hA BOLT FROM THE BLUEv
,ITOTES ! FORM OF UNDERSTATEMENT IN WHICH A STATEMENT IS
AFlRMED BY NEGATING ITS OPPOSITE h(E IS NOT UNFRIENDLYv
-EIOSIS )NTENTIONAL UNDERSTATEMENT AS FOR EXAMPLE IN
3HAKESPEARES 2OMEO AND *ULIET WHEN -ERCUTIO IS MORTALLY
WOUNDED AND SAYS IT IS ONLY hA SCRATCHv -EIOSIS IS THE OPPO
SITE OF HYPERBOLE AND OFTEN EMPLOYS LITOTES TO IRONIC EFFECT
-ETAPHOR 4HE COMPARISON OF ONE THING TO ANOTHER THAT DOES
NOT USE THE TERMS hLIKEv OR hASv 3HAKESPEARE IS FAMOUS FOR HIS
METAPHORS AS IN -ACBETH h,IFE IS BUT A WALKING SHADOW A
POOR PLAYER 4HAT STRUTS AND FRETS HIS HOUR UPON THE STAGEv
s -IXED METAPHOR ! COMBINATION OF METAPHORS THAT PRO
DUCES A CONFUSED OR CONTRADICTORY IMAGE SUCH AS h4HE
COMPANYS COLLAPSE LEFT MOUNTAINS OF DEBT IN ITS WAKEv
-ETONYMY 4HE SUBSTITUTION OF ONE TERM FOR ANOTHER THAT
GENERALLY IS ASSOCIATED WITH IT &OR EXAMPLE hSUITSv INSTEAD
OF hBUSINESSMENv
/NOMATOPOEIA 4HE USE OF WORDS SUCH AS hPOPv hHISSv AND
hBOINGv THAT SOUND LIKE THE THING THEY REFER TO
/XYMORON 4HE ASSOCIATION OF TWO CONTRARY TERMS AS IN THE
EXPRESSIONS hSAME DIFFERENCEv OR hWISE FOOLv
0ARADOX ! STATEMENT THAT SEEMS ABSURD OR EVEN CONTRADIC
TORY ON ITS FACE BUT OFTEN EXPRESSES A DEEPER TRUTH &OR EXAM
PLE A LINE IN /SCAR 7ILDES h4HE "ALLAD OF 2EADING 'AOLv h!ND
ALL MEN KILL THE THING THEY LOVEv
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0ARALIPSIS !LSO KNOWN AS PRAETERITIO THE TECHNIQUE OF DRAW
"ATHOS ! SUDDEN AND UNEXPECTED DROP FROM THE LOFTY TO THE
ING ATTENTION TO SOMETHING BY CLAIMING NOT TO MENTION IT &OR
EXAMPLE FROM (ERMAN -ELVILLES -OBY$ICK h7E WILL NOT
SPEAK OF ALL 1UEEQUEGS PECULIARITIES HERE HOW HE ESCHEWED
COFFEE AND HOT ROLLS AND APPLIED HIS UNDIVIDED ATTENTION TO
BEEFSTEAKS DONE RAREv
TRIVIAL OR EXCESSIVELY SENTIMENTAL "ATHOS SOMETIMES IS USED
INTENTIONALLY TO CREATE HUMOR BUT JUST AS OFTEN IS DERIDED AS
MISCALCULATION OR POOR JUDGMENT ON A WRITERS PART !N EXAM
PLE FROM !LEXANDER 0OPE h9E 'ODS !NNIHILATE BUT 3PACE AND
4IME !ND MAKE TWO LOVERS HAPPYv
0ARALLELISM 4HE USE OF SIMILAR GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES OR
#ARICATURE ! DESCRIPTION OR CHARACTERIZATION THAT EXAGGER
WORD ORDER IN TWO SENTENCES OR PHRASES TO SUGGEST A COMPAR
ISON OR CONTRAST BETWEEN THEM )N 3HAKESPEARES 3ONNET h"EFORE A JOY PROPOSED BEHIND A DREAMv 0ARALLELISM ALSO CAN
REFER TO PARALLELS BETWEEN LARGER ELEMENTS IN A NARRATIVE SEE
,ITERARY 4ECHNIQUES BELOW
ATES OR DISTORTS A CHARACTERS PROMINENT FEATURES USUALLY TO
ELICIT MOCKERY &OR EXAMPLE IN #ANDIDE 6OLTAIRE PORTRAYS THE
CHARACTER OF 0ANGLOSS AS A MOCKING CARICATURE OF THE OPTIMIS
TIC RATIONALISM OF PHILOSOPHERS LIKE ,EIBNIZ
0ATHETIC FALLACY 4HE ATTRIBUTION OF HUMAN FEELING OR MOTI
VATION TO A NONHUMAN OBJECT ESPECIALLY AN OBJECT FOUND
IN NATURE &OR EXAMPLE *OHN +EATSS h/DE TO -ELANCHOLYv
DESCRIBES A hWEEPINGv CLOUD
ORIGINALLY REFERRED TO A TECHNIQUE IN ANCIENT TRAGEDY IN WHICH A
MECHANICAL GOD WAS LOWERED ONTO THE STAGE TO INTERVENE AND
SOLVE THE PLAYS PROBLEMS OR BRING THE PLAY TO A SATISFACTORY
CONCLUSION .OW THE TERM DESCRIBES MORE GENERALLY A SUDDEN
OR IMPROBABLE PLOT TWIST THAT BRINGS ABOUT THE PLOTS RESOLUTION
0ERIPHRASIS !N ELABORATE AND ROUNDABOUT MANNER OF SPEECH
THAT USES MORE WORDS THAN NECESSARY 3AYING h) APPEAR TO BE
ENTIRELY WITHOUT lNANCIAL RESOURCESv RATHER THAN h)M BROKEv IS
AN EXAMPLE %UPHEMISMS OFTEN EMPLOY PERIPHRASIS
0ERSONIlCATION 4HE USE OF HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS TO DESCRIBE
ANIMALS THINGS OR IDEAS #ARL 3ANDBURGS POEM h#HICAGOv
DESCRIBES THE CITY AS h3TORMY HUSKY BRAWLING #ITY OF THE
"IG 3HOULDERSv
0UN ! PLAY ON WORDS THAT EXPLOITS THE SIMILARITY IN SOUND
BETWEEN TWO WORDS WITH DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT MEANINGS &OR
EXAMPLE THE TITLE OF /SCAR 7ILDES PLAY 4HE )MPORTANCE OF
"EING %ARNEST IS A PUN ON THE WORD hEARNESTv WHICH MEANS
SERIOUS OR SOBER AND THE NAME h%RNESTv WHICH lGURES INTO A
SCHEME THAT SOME OF THE PLAYS MAIN CHARACTERS PERPETRATE
2HETORICAL QUESTION ! QUESTION THAT IS ASKED NOT TO ELICIT A
RESPONSE BUT TO MAKE AN IMPACT OR CALL ATTENTION TO SOME
THING &OR EXAMPLE THE QUESTION h)SNT SHE GREATv EXPRESSES
REGARD FOR ANOTHER PERSON AND DOES NOT CALL FOR DISUSSION
3ARCASM ! SIMPLE FORM OF VERBAL IRONY SEE ,ITERARY
4ECHNIQUES BELOW IN WHICH IT IS OBVIOUS FROM CONTEXT AND TONE
THAT THE SPEAKER MEANS THE OPPOSITE OF WHAT HE OR SHE SAYS
3ARCASM USUALLY BUT NOT ALWAYS EXPRESSES SCORN 3AYING h4HAT
WAS GRACEFULv WHEN SOMEONE TRIPS AND FALLS IS AN EXAMPLE
3IMILE ! COMPARISON OF TWO THINGS THROUGH THE USE OF hLIKEv OR
hASv 4HE TITLE OF 2OBERT "URNSS POEM h-Y ,OVE )S ,IKE A 2ED
2ED 2OSEv IS A SIMILE
3YNAESTHESIA 4HE USE OF ONE KIND OF SENSORY EXPERIENCE
TO DESCRIBE ANOTHER SUCH AS IN THE LINE h(EARD MELODIES ARE
SWEETv IN *OHN +EATSS h/DE ON A 'RECIAN 5RNv
$EUS EX MACHINA 'REEK FOR h'OD FROM A MACHINEv 4HE PHRASE
%PIPHANY ! SUDDEN POWERFUL AND OFTEN SPIRITUAL OR LIFE
CHANGING REALIZATION THAT A CHARACTER REACHES IN AN OTHERWISE
ORDINARY OR EVERYDAY MOMENT -ANY OF THE SHORT STORIES IN
*AMES *OYCES $UBLINERS INVOLVE MOMENTS OF EPIPHANY
&ORESHADOWING !N AUTHORS DELIBERATE USE OF HINTS OR SUGGES
TIONS TO GIVE A PREVIEW OF EVENTS OR THEMES THAT DO NOT DEVEL
OP UNTIL LATER IN THE NARRATIVE &OR EXAMPLE IN %MILY "RONTÑS
7UTHERING (EIGHTS THE NIGHTMARES ,OCKWOOD HAS THE NIGHT HE
SPENDS IN #ATHERINES BED PRElGURE LATER EVENTS IN THE NOVEL
)N MEDIAS RES ,ATIN FOR hIN THE MIDDLE OF THINGSv 4HE TERM
!LLUSION !N IMPLICIT REFERENCE WITHIN A LITERARY WORK TO A HIS
TORICAL OR LITERARY PERSON PLACE OR EVENT &OR EXAMPLE THE TITLE
OF 7ILLIAM &AULKNERS NOVEL 4HE 3OUND AND THE &URY ALLUDES TO
A LINE FROM 3HAKESPEARES -ACBETH !UTHORS USE ALLUSION TO
ADD SYMBOLIC WEIGHT BECAUSE IT MAKES SUBTLE OR IMPLICIT CON
NECTIONS WITH OTHER WORKS &OR EXAMPLE IN (ERMAN -ELVILLES
-OBY$ICK #APTAIN !HABS NAME ALLUDES TO THE WICKED AND
IDOLATROUS BIBLICAL KING !HABˆA CONNECTION THAT ADDS DEPTH
TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF !HABS CHARACTER
!NAGNORISIS ! MOMENT OF RECOGNITION OR DISCOVERY PRIMARILY
USED IN REFERENCE TO 'REEK TRAGEDY &OR EXAMPLE IN %URIPIDES
4HE "ACCHAE !GAVE EXPERIENCES ANAGNORISIS WHEN SHE DIS
COVERS THAT SHE HAS MURDERED HER OWN SON 0ENTHEUS
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0OETIC DICTION 4HE USE OF SPECIlC TYPES OF WORDS PHRASES
OR LITERARY STRUCTURES THAT ARE NOT COMMON IN CONTEMPORARY
SPEECH OR PROSE &OR EXAMPLE 7ILFRED /WENS h3ONNET /N
3EEING A 0IECE OF /UR !RTILLERY "ROUGHT )NTO !CTIONv THOUGH
WRITTEN IN THE TH CENTURY USES ANTIQUATED DICTION AND THE
TIMETESTED SONNET FORM 4HE INTENTIONAL DISCREPANCY CREATES
AN IRONIC CONTRAST BETWEEN THE HORRORS OF MODERN WAR AND
THE WAY POETS WROTE ABOUT WAR IN THE PAST h"E SLOWLY LIFTED
UP THOU LONG BLACK ARM 'REAT GUN TOWERING TOWARD (EAVEN
ABOUT TO CURSEv
0OETIC LICENSE 4HE LIBERTY THAT AUTHORS SOMETIMES TAKE WITH
ORDINARY RULES OF SYNTAX AND GRAMMAR EMPLOYING UNUSUAL
VOCABULARY METRICAL DEVICES OR lGURES OF SPEECH OR COMMIT
TING FACTUAL ERRORS IN ORDER TO STRENGTHEN A PASSAGE OF WRITING
&OR EXAMPLE THE POET EE CUMMINGS TAKES POETIC LICENSE IN
VIOLATING RULES OF CAPITALIZATION IN HIS WORKS
)NTERIOR MONOLOGUE ! RECORD OF A CHARACTERS THOUGHTS
UNMEDIATED BY A NARRATOR )NTERIOR MONOLOGUE SOMETIMES
TAKES THE FORM OF STREAMOFCONSCIOUSNESS NARRATION SEE
0OINT OF 6IEW ABOVE BUT OFTEN IS MORE STRUCTURED AND LOGICAL
THAN STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS
4(%-!4)# -%!.).'
,ITERATURE BECOMES UNIVERSAL WHEN IT DRAWS
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE PARTICULAR AND THE GENERAL
/FTEN CERTAIN LEVELS OF A LITERARY WORKS MEANING ARE NOT
IMMEDIATELY EVIDENT 4HE FOLLOWING TERMS RELATE TO THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE WORDS ON THE PAGE AND THE
DEEPER SIGNIlCANCE THOSE WORDS MAY HOLD
)NVOCATION ! PRAYER FOR INSPIRATION TO A GOD OR MUSE USUALLY
PLACED AT THE BEGINNING OF AN EPIC (OMERS )LIAD AND /DYSSEY
BOTH OPEN WITH INVOCATIONS
)RONY ! WIDERANGING TECHNIQUE OF DETACHMENT THAT DRAWS
AWARENESS TO THE DISCREPANCY BETWEEN WORDS AND THEIR MEAN
INGS BETWEEN EXPECTATION AND FULlLLMENT OR MOST GENERALLY
BETWEEN WHAT IS AND WHAT SEEMS TO BE
s 6ERBAL IRONY 4HE USE OF A STATEMENT THAT BY ITS CONTEXT
WITH LANGUAGE /FTEN BUT NOT ALWAYS WIT DISPLAYS HUMOR /SCAR
7ILDES PLAYS ARE FAMOUS FOR THEIR WITTY PHRASES WHICH EXPOSE
THE HYPOCRISIES OF THE INTELLECTUAL BELIEFS OF 7ILDES TIME
!RCHETYPE ! THEME MOTIF SYMBOL OR STOCK CHARACTER THAT
HOLDS A FAMILIAR AND lXED PLACE IN A CULTURES CONSCIOUSNESS
&OR EXAMPLE MANY CULTURES ACROSS THE WORLD FEATURE AN ARCHE
TYPE OF THE RESURRECTED GOD TO HERALD THE COMING OF SPRING 4HE
&ISHER +ING *ESUS #HRIST AND THE GODDESS 0ERSEPHONE ARE
THREE FAMILIAR INSTANCES OF THIS ARCHETYPE IN 7ESTERN CULTURE
IMPLIES ITS OPPOSITE &OR EXAMPLE IN 3HAKESPEARES *ULIUS
#AESAR !NTONY REPEATS h"RUTUS IS AN HONORABLE MANv
WHILE CLEARLY IMPLYING THAT "RUTUS IS DISHONORABLE 3ARCASM
SEE &IGURES OF 3PEECH ABOVE IS A PARTICULARLY BLUNT FORM
OF VERBAL IRONY
3ITUATIONAL IRONY ! TECHNIQUE IN WHICH ONE UNDERSTANDING
OF A SITUATION STANDS IN SHARP CONTRAST TO ANOTHER USUALLY
MORE PREVALENT UNDERSTANDING OF THE SAME SITUATION &OR
EXAMPLE 7ILFRED /WENS h$ULCE %T $ECORUM %STv COM
MENTS ON THE GROTESQUE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POLITICIANS
HIGHMINDED PRAISE OF THE NOBLE WARRIOR AND THE UNSPEAK
ABLY AWFUL CONDITIONS OF SOLDIERS AT THE FRONT
2OMANTIC IRONY !N AUTHORS PERSISTENT REMINDING OF HIS
OR HER PRESENCE IN THE WORK "Y DRAWING ATTENTION TO THE
ARTIlCE OF THE WORK THE AUTHOR ENSURES THAT THE READER OR
AUDIENCE WILL MAINTAIN CRITICAL DETACHMENT AND NOT SIMPLY
ACCEPT THE WRITING AT FACE VALUE ,AURENCE 3TERNE EMPLOYS
ROMANTIC IRONY IN 4RISTRAM 3HANDY BY DISCUSSING THE WRITING
OF THE NOVEL IN THE NOVEL ITSELF
$RAMATIC IRONY ! TECHNIQUE IN WHICH THE AUTHOR LETS THE
AUDIENCE OR READER IN ON A CHARACTERS SITUATION WHILE
THE CHARACTER HIMSELF REMAINS IN THE DARK 7ITH DRAMATIC
IRONY THE CHARACTERS WORDS OR ACTIONS CARRY A SIGNIlCANCE
THAT THE CHARACTER IS NOT AWARE OF 7HEN USED IN TRAGEDY
DRAMATIC IRONY IS CALLED TRAGIC IRONY /NE EXAMPLE IS IN
3OPHOCLES /EDIPUS 2EX WHEN /EDIPUS VOWS TO DISCOVER
HIS FATHERS MURDERER NOT KNOWING AS THE AUDIENCE DOES
THAT HE HIMSELF IS THE MURDERER
#OSMIC IRONY 4HE PERCEPTION OF FATE OR THE UNIVERSE AS
MALICIOUS OR INDIFFERENT TO HUMAN SUFFERING WHICH CREATES
A PAINFUL CONTRAST BETWEEN OUR PURPOSEFUL ACTIVITY AND ITS
ULTIMATE MEANINGLESSNESS 4HOMAS (ARDYS NOVELS ABOUND
IN COSMIC IRONY
%MBLEM ! CONCRETE OBJECT THAT REPRESENTS SOMETHING
-ELODRAMA 4HE USE OF SENTIMENTALITY GUSHING EMOTION OR
RATORS ATTITUDE TOWARD THE STORY OR READER &OR EXAMPLE THE
TONE OF &YODOR $OSTOEVSKYS .OTES FROM 5NDERGROUND IS OUT
RAGED DElANT AND CLAUSTROPHOBIC
s
:EUGMA 4HE USE OF ONE WORD IN A SENTENCE TO MODIFY TWO
,)4%2!29 4%#(.)15%3
7HEREAS lGURES OF SPEECH WORK ON THE LEVEL OF
INDIVIDUAL WORDS OR SENTENCES WRITERS ALSO USE A
VARIETY OF TECHNIQUES TO ADD CLARITY OR INTENSITY TO A
LARGER PASSAGE ADVANCE THE PLOT IN A PARTICULAR WAY OR
SUGGEST CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ELEMENTS IN THE PLOT
WORK OF LITERATURE THAT EVOKES HIGH EMOTION MOST COMMONLY
SORROW PITY OR COMPASSION #HARLES $ICKENS EXPLOITS PATHOS
VERY EFFECTIVELY ESPECIALLY WHEN DESCRIBING THE DEATHS OF HIS
CHARACTERS
7IT ! FORM OF WORDPLAY THAT DISPLAYS CLEVERNESS OR INGENUITY
IS USED TO REFER TO THE WHOLE FOR EXAMPLE hMY WHEELSv FOR
hMY CARv
OTHER WORDS IN THE SENTENCE TYPICALLY IN TWO DIFFERENT WAYS
&OR EXAMPLE IN #HARLES $ICKENSS 4HE 0ICKWICK 0APERS THE
SENTENCE h-R 0ICKWICK TOOK HIS HAT AND HIS LEAVEv USES THE
WORD hTOOKv TO MEAN TWO DIFFERENT THINGS
0ATHOS &ROM THE 'REEK WORD FOR hFEELINGv THE QUALITY IN A
REFERS TO THE TECHNIQUE OF STARTING A NARRATIVE IN THE MIDDLE
OF THE ACTION &OR EXAMPLE *OHN -ILTONS 0ARADISE ,OST WHICH
CONCERNS THE WAR AMONG THE ANGELS IN (EAVEN OPENS AFTER THE
FALLEN ANGELS ALREADY ARE IN (ELL AND ONLY LATER EXAMINES THE
EVENTS THAT LED TO THEIR EXPULSION FROM (EAVEN
3YNECDOCHE ! FORM OF METONYMY IN WHICH A PART OF AN ENTITY
4ROPE ! CATEGORY OF lGURES OF SPEECH THAT EXTEND THE LITERAL
MEANINGS OF WORDS BY INVITING A COMPARISON TO OTHER WORDS
THINGS OR IDEAS -ETAPHOR METONYMY AND SIMILE ARE THREE
COMMON TROPES
0ARALLELISM 3IMILARITIES BETWEEN ELEMENTS IN A NARRATIVE
SUCH AS TWO CHARACTERS OR TWO PLOT LINES &OR INSTANCE IN
3HAKESPEARES +ING ,EAR BOTH ,EAR AND 'LOUCESTER SUFFER AT
THE HANDS OF THEIR OWN CHILDREN BECAUSE OF THEIR BLINDNESS TO
CHILDREN ARE GOODHEARTED AND WHICH ARE EVIL 0ARALLELISM CAN
ALSO OCCUR ON THE LEVEL OF SENTENCES OR PHRASES SEE &IGURES
OF 3PEECH ABOVE
s
s
s
SENSATIONAL ACTION OR PLOT TWISTS TO PROVOKE AUDIENCE OR READ
ER RESPONSE -ELODRAMA WAS POPULAR IN 6ICTORIAN %NGLAND
BUT CRITICS NOW DERIDE IT AS MANIPULATIVE AND HOKEY #HARLES
$ICKENSS 4HE /LD #URIOSITY 3HOP FOR EXAMPLE IS A PARTICULARLY
MELODRAMATIC WORK
ABSTRACT &OR EXAMPLE THE 3TAR OF $AVID IS AN EMBLEM
OF *UDAISM !N EMBLEM DIFFERS FROM A SYMBOL IN THAT AN
EMBLEMS MEANING IS lXED THE 3TAR OF $AVID ALWAYS REPRE
SENTS *UDAISM REGARDLESS OF CONTEXT
)MAGERY ,ANGUAGE THAT BRINGS TO MIND SENSEIMPRESSIONS
ESPECIALLY VIA lGURES OF SPEECH 3OMETIMES CERTAIN IMAGERY IS
CHARACTERISTIC OF A PARTICULAR WRITER OR WORK &OR EXAMPLE MANY
OF 3HAKESPEARES PLAYS CONTAIN NAUTICAL IMAGERY
-OTIF ! RECURRING STRUCTURE CONTRAST OR OTHER DEVICE THAT
DEVELOPS OR INFORMS A WORKS MAJOR THEMES ! MOTIF MAY
RELATE TO CONCRETE OBJECTS LIKE %ASTERN VS 7ESTERN ARCHITEC
TURE IN %- &ORSTERS ! 0ASSAGE TO )NDIA OR MAY BE A RECUR
RENT IDEA PHRASE OR EMOTION LIKE ,ILY "ARTS CONSTANT DESIRE TO
MOVE UP IN THE WORLD IN %DITH 7HARTONS 4HE (OUSE OF -IRTH
3YMBOL !N OBJECT CHARACTER lGURE OR COLOR THAT IS USED TO
REPRESENT AN ABSTRACT IDEA OR CONCEPT &OR EXAMPLE THE TWO
ROADS IN 2OBERT &ROSTS POEM h4HE 2OAD .OT 4AKENv SYMBOL
IZE THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO PATHS IN LIFE 5NLIKE AN EMBLEM A
SYMBOL MAY HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS
4HEME ! FUNDAMENTAL AND UNIVERSAL IDEA EXPLORED IN A LITER
ARY WORK &OR EXAMPLE A MAJOR THEME OF *OHN 3TEINBECKS %AST
OF %DEN IS THE PERPETUAL CONTEST BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL
4HESIS 4HE CENTRAL ARGUMENT THAT AN AUTHOR MAKES IN A WORK
!LTHOUGH THE TERM IS PRIMARILY ASSOCIATED WITH NONlCTION IT
CAN APPLY TO lCTION &OR EXAMPLE THE THESIS OF 5PTON 3INCLAIRS
4HE *UNGLE IS THAT #HICAGO MEATPACKING PLANTS SUBJECT POOR
IMMIGRANTS TO HORRIBLE AND UNJUST WORKING CONDITIONS AND THAT
THE GOVERNMENT MUST DO SOMETHING TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEM
4ONE 4HE GENERAL ATMOSPHERE CREATED IN A STORY OR THE NAR
30!2+#(!243Í ,ITERARY 4ERMS PAGE OF 2-3
,)4%2!29 4%2-3
%,%-%.43 /& 0/%429
0OETRY IS A LITERARY FORM CHARACTERIZED BY A STRONG SENSE OF RHYTHM AND METER AND AN EMPHASIS ON THE INTERACTION BETWEEN SOUND AND SENSE 4HE STUDY OF THE
ELEMENTS OF POETRY IS CALLED PROSODY &OR AN INDEPTH EXPLANATION OF POETRY AND POETIC FORMS SEE THE 0OETRY 3PARK#HART
2(94(- !.$ -%4%2
2HYTHM AND METER ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF POETRY 2HYTHM IS THE PATTERN OF
SOUND CREATED BY THE VARYING LENGTH AND EMPHASIS GIVEN TO DIFFERENT SYLLABLES 4HE
RISE AND FALL OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE IS CALLED ITS CADENCE
-%4%2
-ETER IS THE RHYTHMIC PATTERN CREATED IN A LINE OF VERSE 4HERE ARE FOUR BASIC KINDS
OF METER
!CCENTUAL STRONGSTRESS METER 4HE NUMBER OF STRESSED SYLLABLES IN A LINE IS lXED BUT THE
NUMBER OF TOTAL SYLLABLES IS NOT 4HIS KIND OF METER IS COMMON IN !NGLO3AXON POETRY SUCH
AS "EOWULF 'ERARD -ANLEY (OPKINS DEVELOPED A FORM OF ACCENTUAL METER CALLED SPRUNG
RHYTHM WHICH HAD CONSIDERABLE INmUENCE ON THCENTURY POETRY
3YLLABIC METER 4HE NUMBER OF TOTAL SYLLABLES IN A LINE IS lXED BUT THE NUMBER OF STRESSED
SYLLABLES IS NOT 4HIS KIND OF METER IS RELATIVELY RARE IN %NGLISH POETRY
!CCENTUALSYLLABIC METER "OTH THE NUMBER OF STRESSED SYLLABLES AND THE NUMBER OF TOTAL
SYLLABLES IS lXED !CCENTUALSYLLABIC METER HAS BEEN THE MOST COMMON KIND OF METER IN
%NGLISH POETRY SINCE #HAUCER IN THE LATE -IDDLE !GES
1UANTITATIVE METER 4HE DURATION OF SOUND OF EACH SYLLABLE RATHER THAN ITS STRESS DETER
MINES THE METER 1UANTITATIVE METER IS COMMON IN 'REEK ,ATIN 3ANSKRIT AND !RABIC BUT
NOT IN %NGLISH
4(% &//4
4HE FOOT IS THE BASIC RHYTHMIC UNIT INTO WHICH A LINE OF VERSE CAN BE DIVIDED 7HEN
RECITING VERSE THERE USUALLY IS A SLIGHT PAUSE BETWEEN FEET 7HEN THIS PAUSE
IS ESPECIALLY PRONOUNCED IT IS CALLED A CAESURA 4HE PROCESS OF ANALYZING THE
NUMBER AND TYPE OF FEET IN A LINE IS CALLED SCANSION
4HESE ARE THE MOST COMMON TYPES OF FEET IN %NGLISH POETRY
s
s
s
s
s
s
)AMB !N UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE FOLLOWED BY A STRESSED SYLLABLE hTODAY v
4ROCHEE ! STRESSED SYLLABLE FOLLOWED BY AN UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE hCAR RYv
$ACTYL ! STRESSED SYLLABLE FOLLOWED BY TWO UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES hDIF lCULTv
!NAPEST 4WO UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES FOLLOWED BY A STRESSED SYLLABLE hIT IS TIMEv
3PONDEE 4WO SUCCESSIVE SYLLABLES WITH STRONG STRESSES hSTOP THIEF v
0YRRHIC 4WO SUCCESSIVE SYLLABLES WITH LIGHT STRESSES hUP TOv
-OST %NGLISH POETRY HAS FOUR OR lVE FEET IN A LINE BUT IT IS NOT UNCOMMON TO SEE AS FEW AS
ONE OR AS MANY AS EIGHT
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
-ONOMETER /NE FOOT
$IMETER 4WO FEET
4RIMETER 4HREE FEET
4ETRAMETER &OUR FEET
0ENTAMETER &IVE FEET
(EXAMETER 3IX FEET
(EPTAMETER 3EVEN FEET
/CTAMETER %IGHT FEET
4 90%3 /& !##%.45!,39,, !")# -%4%2
!CCENTUALSYLLABIC METER IS DETERMINED BY THE NUMBER AND TYPE OF FEET IN A LINE
OF VERSE
)AMBIC PENTAMETER %ACH LINE OF VERSE HAS lVE FEET PENTAMETER EACH OF WHICH CONSISTS
OF AN UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE FOLLOWED BY A STRESSED SYLLABLE IAMB )AMBIC PENTAMETER IS ONE
OF THE MOST POPULAR METRICAL SCHEMES IN %NGLISH POETRY
"LANK VERSE 5NRHYMED IAMBIC PENTAMETER "LANK VERSE BEARS A CLOSE RESEMBLANCE TO THE
RHYTHMS OF ORDINARY SPEECH GIVING POETRY A NATURAL FEEL 3HAKESPEARES PLAYS ARE WRITTEN
PRIMARILY IN BLANK VERSE
"ALLAD !LTERNATING TETRAMETER AND TRIMETER USUALLY IAMBIC AND RHYMING "ALLAD FORM WHICH
IS COMMON IN TRADITIONAL FOLK POETRY AND SONG ENJOYED A REVIVAL IN THE 2OMANTIC PERIOD WITH
SUCH POEMS AS 3AMUEL 4AYLOR #OLERIDGES h4HE 2IME OF THE !NCIENT -ARINERv
&REE VERSE 6ERSE THAT DOES NOT CONFORM TO ANY lXED METER OR RHYME SCHEME &REE VERSE
IS NOT HOWEVER LOOSE OR UNRESTRICTED ITS RULES OF COMPOSITION ARE AS STRICT AND DIFlCULT AS
TRADITIONAL VERSE FOR THEY RELY ON LESS EVIDENT RHYTHMIC PATTERNS TO GIVE THE POEM SHAPE
7ALT 7HITMANS ,EAVES OF 'RASS IS A SEMINAL WORK OF FREE VERSE
,).% !.$ 34!.:!
0OETRY GENERALLY IS DIVIDED INTO LINES OF VERSE ! GROUPING OF LINES EQUIVALENT TO A
PARAGRAPH IN PROSE IS CALLED A STANZA /N THE PRINTED PAGE LINE BREAKS NORMALLY
ARE USED TO SEPARATE STANZAS FROM ONE ANOTHER
4 90%3 /& 2(9-%
/NE COMMON WAY OF CREATING A SENSE OF MUSICALITY BETWEEN LINES OF VERSE IS TO
MAKE THEM RHYME
%ND RHYME ! RHYME THAT COMES AT THE END OF A LINE OF VERSE -OST RHYMING POETRY USES
END RHYMES
)NTERNAL RHYME ! RHYME BETWEEN TWO OR MORE WORDS WITHIN A SINGLE LINE OF VERSE AS IN
h'ODS 'RANDEURv BY 'ERARD -ANLEY (OPKINS h!ND ALL IS SEARED WITH TRADE BLEARED SMEARED
WITH TOILv
-ASCULINE RHYME ! RHYME CONSISTING OF A SINGLE STRESSED SYLLABLE AS IN THE RHYME BETWEEN
hCARv AND hFARv
&EMININE RHYME ! RHYME CONSISTING OF A STRESSED SYLLABLE FOLLOWED BY AN UNSTRESSED SYL
LABLE AS IN THE RHYME BETWEEN hMOTHERv AND hBROTHERv
0ERFECT RHYME !N EXACT MATCH OF SOUNDS IN A RHYME
3LANT RHYME !N IMPERFECT RHYME ALSO CALLED OBLIQUE RHYME OR OFF RHYME IN WHICH THE
SOUNDS ARE SIMILAR BUT NOT EXACTLY THE SAME AS BETWEEN hPORTv AND hHEARTv -ODERN POETS
OFTEN USE SLANT RHYME AS A SUBTLER ALTERNATIVE TO PERFECT RHYME
2(9-% 3#(%-%3
2HYMES DO NOT ALWAYS OCCUR BETWEEN TWO SUCCESSIVE LINES OF VERSE (ERE ARE
SOME OF THE MOST COMMON RHYME SCHEMES
#OUPLET 4WO SUCCESSIVE RHYMED LINES THAT ARE EQUAL IN LENGTH ! HEROIC COUPLET IS A PAIR OF
RHYMING LINES IN IAMBIC PENTAMETER )N 3HAKESPEARES PLAYS CHARACTERS OFTEN SPEAK A HEROIC
COUPLET BEFORE EXITING AS IN THESE LINES FROM (AMLET h4HE TIME IS OUT OF JOINT / CURSED SPITE
4HAT EVER ) WAS BORN TO SET IT RIGHTv
1UATRAIN ! FOURLINE STANZA 4HE MOST COMMON FORM OF %NGLISH VERSE THE QUATRAIN HAS
MANY VARIANTS /NE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT IS THE HEROIC QUATRAIN WRITTEN IN IAMBIC PENTAM
ETER WITH AN !"!" RHYME SCHEME
4ERCET ! GROUPING OF THREE LINES OFTEN BEARING A SINGLE RHYME
4ERZA RIMA ! SYSTEM OF INTERLACED TERCETS LINKED BY COMMON RHYMES !"! "#" #$# ETC
$ANTE PIONEERED TERZA RIMA IN 4HE $IVINE #OMEDY 4HE FORM IS HARD TO MAINTAIN IN %NGLISH
ALTHOUGH THERE ARE SOME NOTABLE EXCEPTIONS SUCH AS 0ERCY "YSSHE 3HELLEYS h/DE TO THE
7EST 7INDv
/4(%2 4%#(.)15%3
0UNCTUATION ,IKE SYLLABLE STRESSES AND RHYME PUNCTUATION MARKS INmUENCE THE MUSICAL
ITY OF A LINE OF POETRY
s 7HEN THERE IS A BREAK AT THE END OF A LINE DENOTED BY A COMMA PERIOD SEMICOLON OR
OTHER PUNCTUATION MARK THAT LINE IS ENDSTOPPED s )N ENJAMBMENT A SENTENCE OR CLAUSE RUNS ONTO THE NEXT LINE WITHOUT A BREAK
%NJAMBMENT CREATES A SENSE OF SUSPENSE OR EXCITEMENT AND GIVES ADDED EMPHASIS TO
THE WORD AT THE END OF THE LINE AS IN *OHN +EATSS h/DE TO A .IGHTINGALEv h4HY PLAINTIVE
ANTHEM FADES 0AST THE NEAR MEADOWS OVER THE STILL STREAMv
2EPETITION 7ORDS SOUNDS PHRASES LINES OR ELEMENTS OF SYNTAX MAY REPEAT WITHIN A POEM
3OMETIMES REPETITION CAN ENHANCE AN ELEMENT OF MEANING BUT AT OTHER TIMES IT CAN DILUTE
OR DISSIPATE MEANING
s !LLITERATION 4HE REPETITION OF SOUNDS IN INITIAL STRESSED SYLLABLES SEE &IGURES OF 3PEECH
ABOVE
s !SSONANCE 4HE REPETITION OF VOWEL SOUNDS SEE &IGURES OF 3PEECH ABOVE
s 2EFRAIN ! PHRASE OR GROUP OF LINES THAT IS REPEATED AT SIGNIlCANT MOMENTS WITHIN A POEM
USUALLY AT THE END OF A STANZA
0/%4)# &/2-3
#ERTAIN TRADITIONAL FORMS OF POETRY HAVE A DISTINCTIVE STANZA LENGTH COMBINED WITH
A DISTINCTIVE METER OR RHYME PATTERN (ERE ARE SOME POPULAR FORMS
(AIKU ! COMPACT FORM OF *APANESE POETRY WRITTEN IN THREE LINES OF lVE SEVEN AND lVE
SYLLABLES RESPECTIVELY
,IMERICK ! FANCIFUL lVELINE POEM WITH AN !!""! RHYME SCHEME IN WHICH THE lRST SECOND
AND lFTH LINES HAVE THREE FEET AND THE THIRD AND FOURTH HAVE TWO FEET
/TTAVA RIMA )N %NGLISH AN EIGHTLINE STANZA WITH IAMBIC PENTAMETER AND THE RHYME SCHEME
!"!"!"## 4HIS FORM IS DIFlCULT TO USE IN %NGLISH WHERE IT IS HARD TO lND TWO RHYMING TRIP
LETS THAT DO NOT SOUND CHILDISH )TS EFFECT IS MAJESTIC YET SIMPLE 7ILLIAM "UTLER 9EATSS POEM
h!MONG 3CHOOL #HILDRENv USES OTTAVA RIMA
3ESTINA 3IX SIXLINE STANZAS FOLLOWED BY A THREELINE STANZA 4HE SAME SIX WORDS ARE REPEAT
ED AT THE END OF LINES THROUGHOUT THE POEM IN A PREDETERMINED PATTERN 4HE LAST WORD IN
THE LAST LINE OF ONE STANZA BECOMES THE LAST WORD OF THE lRST LINE IN THE NEXT !LL SIX END
WORDS APPEAR IN THE lNAL THREELINE STANZA 3IR 0HILIP 3IDNEYS !RCADIA CONTAINS EXAMPLES
OF THE SESTINA
3ONNET ! SINGLESTANZA LYRIC POEM CONTAINING FOURTEEN LINES WRITTEN IN IAMBIC PENTAM
ETER )N SOME FORMULATIONS THE lRST EIGHT LINES OCTAVE POSE A QUESTION OR DILEMMA THAT IS
RESOLVED IN THE lNAL SIX LINES SESTET 4HERE ARE THREE PREDOMINANT SONNET FORMS
s )TALIAN OR 0ETRARCHAN SONNET $EVELOPED BY THE )TALIAN POET 0ETRARCH THIS SONNET IS DIVID
ED INTO AN OCTAVE WITH THE RHYME SCHEME !""!!""! OR !""!#$$# AND A SESTET WITH THE
RHYME SCHEME #$%#$% OR #$##$#
s 3HAKESPEAREAN SONNET !LSO CALLED THE %NGLISH SONNET OR %LIZABETHAN SONNET THIS
POETIC FORM WHICH 3HAKESPEARE MADE FAMOUS CONTAINS THREE QUATRAINS AND A lNAL COU
PLET 4HE RHYME SCHEME IS !"!" #$#$ %&%& ''
s 3PENSERIAN SONNET ! VARIANT THAT THE POET %DMUND 3PENSER DEVELOPED FROM THE
3HAKESPEAREAN SONNET 4HE 3PENSERIAN SONNET HAS THE RHYME SCHEME !"!" "#"#
#$#$ %%
6ILLANELLE ! NINETEENLINE POEM MADE UP OF lVE TERCETS AND A lNAL QUATRAIN IN WHICH ALL
NINETEEN LINES CARRY ONE OF ONLY TWO RHYMES 4HERE ARE TWO REFRAINS ALTERNATING BETWEEN
THE ENDS OF EACH TERCET AND THEN FORMING THE LAST TWO LINES OF THE QUATRAIN $YLAN 4HOMASS
h$O .OT 'O 'ENTLE )NTO 4HAT 'OOD .IGHTv IS A FAMOUS EXAMPLE
#/.4).5%$ /. /4(%2 3)$%
4HIS DOWNLOADABLE 0$& COPYRIGHT Ú BY 3PARK.OTES ,,#
30!2+#(!243Í ,ITERARY 4ERMS PAGE OF #/--/. ,)4%2!29 &/2-3 !.$ '%.2%3
.OVELLA ! WORK OF lCTION OF MIDDLE LENGTH OFTEN DIVIDED INTO
!LLEGORY ! NARRATIVE IN WHICH LITERAL MEANING CORRESPONDS
&ICTION !N INVENTED NARRATIVE AS OPPOSED TO ONE THAT
CLEARLY AND DIRECTLY TO SYMBOLIC MEANING &OR EXAMPLE THE LIT
ERAL STORY IN *OHN "UNYANS 4HE 0ILGRIMS 0ROGRESSˆ#HRISTIANS
JOURNEY FROM THE #ITY OF $ESTRUCTION TO THE #ELESTIAL #ITYˆIS
AN ALLEGORY FOR THE SPIRITUAL JOURNEY FROM SIN TO HOLINESS
REPORTS TRUE EVENTS
A FEW SHORT CHAPTERS SUCH AS (ENRY *AMESS $AISY -ILLER
,EGEND ! STORY ABOUT A HEROIC lGURE DERIVED FROM ORAL
/DE ! SERIOUS LYRIC POEM OFTEN OF SIGNIlCANT LENGTH
TRADITION AND BASED PARTLY ON FACT AND PARTLY ON lCTION 4HE
TERMS LEGEND AND MYTH SEE BELOW ARE OFTEN USED INTER
CHANGEABLY BUT LEGENDS ARE TYPICALLY ROOTED IN REAL HISTORICAL
EVENTS WHEREAS MYTHS ARE PRIMARILY SUPERNATURAL 4HE STO
RIES OF +ING !RTHUR AND 2OBIN (OOD ARE EXAMPLES OF LEGENDS
THAT USUALLY CONFORMS TO AN ELABORATE METRICAL STRUCTURE
!N EXAMPLE IS 7ILLIAM 7ORDSWORTHS h/DE )NTIMATIONS OF
)MMORTALITYv
!NECDOTE 4HE BRIEF NARRATION OF A SINGLE EVENT OR INCIDENT
!PHORISM ! CONCISE EXPRESSION OF INSIGHT OR WISDOM h4HE
VANITY OF OTHERS OFFENDS OUR TASTE ONLY WHEN IT OFFENDS OUR
VANITYv &RIEDRICH .IETZSCHE "EYOND 'OOD AND %VIL
!UTOBIOGRAPHY 4HE NONlCTIONAL STORY OF A PERSONS LIFE
TOLD BY THAT PERSON 3T !UGUSTINES #ONFESSIONS IS AN EARLY
CANONICAL WORK IN THIS GENRE SEE ALSO MEMOIR BELOW
"ALLAD 4RADITIONALLY A FOLK SONG TELLING A STORY OR LEGEND IN
SIMPLE LANGUAGE OFTEN WITH A REFRAIN ! NUMBER OF POETS OUT
SIDE THE FOLK TRADITION HAVE ADOPTED THE BALLAD FORM AS 3AMUEL
4AYLOR #OLERIDGE DID IN h4HE 2IME OF THE !NCIENT -ARINERv
"IOGRAPHY 4HE NONlCTIONAL STORY OF A PERSONS LIFE *AMES
"OSWELLS ,IFE OF *OHNSON IS ONE OF THE MOST CELEBRATED
WORKS OF BIOGRAPHY 7HEN THE AUTHOR OF A BIOGRAPHY IS ALSO
ITS SUBJECT THE WORK IS AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY SEE ABOVE
"LACK COMEDY $ISTURBING OR ABSURD MATERIAL PRESENT
ED IN A HUMOROUS MANNER USUALLY WITH THE INTENTION TO
CONFRONT UNCOMFORTABLE TRUTHS *OSEPH (ELLERS #ATCH IS
A NOTABLE EXAMPLE
"URLESQUE ! HUMOROUS IMITATION OF A SERIOUS WORK OF
LITERATURE 4HE HUMOR OFTEN ARISES FROM THE INCONGRUITY
BETWEEN THE IMITATION AND THE WORK BEING IMITATED &OR
EXAMPLE !LEXANDER 0OPES 4HE 2APE OF THE ,OCK USES THE
HIGH DICTION OF EPIC POETRY TO TALK ABOUT A DOMESTIC MATTER
,YRIC ! SHORT POETIC COMPOSITION THAT DESCRIBES THE
THOUGHTS OF A SINGLE SPEAKER -OST MODERN POETRY IS
LYRICAL AS OPPOSED TO DRAMATIC OR NARRATIVE EMPLOYING
SUCH COMMON FORMS AS THE ODE AND SONNET
-EMOIR !N AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL WORK 2ATHER THAN FOCUSING
EXCLUSIVELY ON THE AUTHORS LIFE IT PAYS SIGNIlCANT ATTEN
TION TO THE AUTHORS INVOLVEMENT IN HISTORICAL EVENTS AND
THE CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIVIDUALS OTHER THAN THE AUTHOR
! FAMOUS EXAMPLE IS 7INSTON #HURCHILLS -EMOIRS OF THE
3ECOND 7ORLD 7AR
-ETAlCTION &ICTION THAT CONCERNS THE NATURE OF lCTION
ITSELF EITHER BY REINTERPRETING A PREVIOUS lCTIONAL WORK OR
BY DRAWING ATTENTION TO ITS OWN lCTIONAL STATUS %XAMPLES
OF THE FORMER INCLUDE *OHN 'ARDNERS 'RENDEL WHICH RETELLS
THE !NGLO3AXON EPIC "EOWULF FROM A NEW PERSPECTIVE
AND -ICHAEL #UNNINGHAMS 4HE (OURS WHICH PORTRAYS
THREE WOMEN CONNECTED TO 6IRGINIA 7OOLFS -RS $ALLOWAY
INCLUDING 7OOLF HERSELF !N EXAMPLE OF THE LATTER IS -ILAN
+UNDERAS 4HE 5NBEARABLE ,IGHTNESS OF "EING IN WHICH THE
NARRATOR TELLS THE STORY AND SIMULTANEOUSLY COMMENTS ON
HIS OWN TELLING OF THE STORY
-YTH ! STORY ABOUT THE ORIGINS OF A CULTURES BELIEFS AND
WHICH THE POET DISCUSSES INTENSELY PERSONAL SUBJECT MATTER
WITH UNUSUAL FRANKNESS 4HE GENRE WAS POPULAR FROM THE
LATE S TO THE LATE S DUE IN PART TO 2OBERT ,OWELLS
,IFE 3TUDIES PRACTICES OR OF SUPERNATURAL PHENOMENA USUALLY DERIVED
FROM ORAL TRADITION AND SET IN AN IMAGINED SUPERNATURAL
PAST /VIDS -ETAMORPHOSES IS A FAMOUS EARLY EXAMPLE
3OME WRITERS SUCH AS 7ILLIAM "LAKE AND 7ILLIAM "UTLER
9EATS HAVE INVENTED THEIR OWN MYTHS -YTHS ARE SIMILAR
BUT NOT EQUIVALENT TO LEGENDS SEE ABOVE
$IDACTIC LITERATURE ,ITERATURE INTENDED TO INSTRUCT OR EDU
.OIR ! lCTION GENRE POPULARIZED IN THE S WITH A CYNI
#ONFESSIONAL POETRY !N AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL POETIC GENRE IN
CATE &OR EXAMPLE 6IRGILS 'EORGICS CONTAINS FARMING ADVICE
IN VERSE FORM
$IRGE ! SHORT POETIC EXPRESSION OF GRIEF ! DIRGE DIFFERS
FROM AN ELEGY SEE BELOW IN THAT IT OFTEN IS EMBEDDED
WITHIN A LARGER WORK IS LESS HIGHLY STRUCTURED AND IS MEANT
TO BE SUNG !RIELS SONG h&ULL FATHOM lVE THY FATHER LIESv IN
3HAKESPEARES 4HE 4EMPEST IS AN EXAMPLE OF A DIRGE
$RAMA ! COMPOSITION THAT IS MEANT TO BE PERFORMED 4HE
TERM OFTEN IS USED INTERCHANGEABLY WITH PLAY SEE BELOW
BUT DRAMA IS A BROADER TERM THAT INCLUDES SOME FORMS THAT
MAY NOT STRICTLY BE DElNED AS PLAYS SUCH AS RADIO BROAD
CASTS COMEDY SKETCHES AND OPERA
$RAMATIC MONOLOGUE ! POEM THAT CONTAINS WORDS THAT A
CAL DISILLUSIONED LONER PROTAGONIST .OIR OFTEN INVOLVES CRIME
OR THE CRIMINAL UNDERWORLD 4HE TERM STEMS FROM hlLM NOIRv
WHICH DESCRIBES lLMS OF SIMILAR STYLE AND CONTENT #LASSIC
EXAMPLES OF NOIR lCTION INCLUDE 2AYMOND #HANDLERS 4HE "IG
3LEEP AND $ASHIELL (AMMETTS 4HE -ALTESE &ALCON
.ONlCTION ! NARRATIVE WORK THAT REPORTS TRUE EVENTS
IMAGINED FUTURE SOCIETY THAT PURPORTS TO BE PERFECT AND
UTOPIAN BUT THAT THE AUTHOR PRESENTS TO THE READER AS
HORRIFYINGLY INHUMAN 5SUALLY THE AUTHOR INTENDS TO WARN
CONTEMPORARY READERS THAT THEIR OWN SOCIETY RESEMBLES OR
IS IN DANGER OF RESEMBLING THIS mAWED FUTURE WORLD 'EORGE
/RWELLS AND !LDOUS (UXLEYS "RAVE .EW 7ORLD ARE
WELLKNOWN WORKS OF DYSTOPIC LITERATURE
%CLOGUE ! SHORT PASTORAL POEM SEE BELOW IN THE FORM OF A
SOLILOQUY SEE BELOW OR DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO SHEPHERDS
THE NOVEL FORM BECAME POPULAR IN THE S HOWEVER THE
TERM HAS COME TO DESCRIBE OTHER WORKSˆNONlCTION NOV
ELS NOVELS IN VERSE SHORT NOVELS AND OTHERSˆTHAT DO NOT
NECESSARILY lT THIS STRICT DElNITION
s
s
s
%LEGY ! FORMAL POEM THAT LAMENTS THE DEATH OF A FRIEND OR
s
s
%PIC ! LENGTHY NARRATIVE THAT DESCRIBES THE DEEDS OF A HERO
IC lGURE OFTEN OF NATIONAL OR CULTURAL IMPORTANCE IN ELEVATED
LANGUAGE 3TRICTLY THE TERM APPLIES ONLY TO VERSE NARRATIVES
LIKE "EOWULF OR 6IRGILS !ENEID BUT IT IS USED TO DESCRIBE
PROSE DRAMA OR lLM WORKS OF SIMILAR SCOPE SUCH AS ,EO
4OLSTOYS 7AR AND 0EACE OR 6ICTOR (UGOS ,ES -ISÏRABLES
s
%PIGRAM ! SUCCINCT WITTY STATEMENT OFTEN IN VERSE &OR
EXAMPLE 7ILLIAM 7ORDSWORTHS OBSERVATION h4HE CHILD IS
THE FATHER OF THE MANv
s
%SSAY ! FORM OF NONlCTIONAL DISCUSSION OR ARGUMENT THAT
-ICHEL DE -ONTAIGNE PIONEERED IN THE S %SSAYS ARE
mEXIBLE IN FORM ALTHOUGH THEY USUALLY ARE SHORT PROSE
WORKS THERE ARE ALSO EXAMPLES OF BOOKLENGTH ESSAYS BY
*OHN ,OCKE AND VERSE ESSAYS BY !LEXANDER 0OPE
&ABLE ! SHORT PROSE OR VERSE NARRATIVE SUCH AS THOSE BY
!ESOP THAT ILLUSTRATES A MORAL WHICH OFTEN IS STATED EXPLIC
ITLY AT THE END &REQUENTLY THE CHARACTERS IN A FABLE ARE ANI
MALS THAT EMBODY DIFFERENT HUMAN CHARACTER TRAITS
4HIS DOWNLOADABLE 0$& COPYRIGHT Ú BY 3PARK.OTES ,,#
STYLE OR PARTICULAR WORK OF ANOTHER AUTHOR (ENRY &IELDINGS
3HAMELA IS A PARODY OF 3AMUEL 2ICHARDSONS 0AMELA
0ASTICHE ! WORK THAT IMITATES THE STYLE OF A PREVIOUS
AUTHOR WORK OR LITERARY GENRE !LTERNATIVELY THE TERM MAY
REFER TO A WORK THAT CONTAINS A HODGEPODGE OF ELEMENTS OR
FRAGMENTS FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES OR INmUENCES 0ASTICHE
DIFFERS FROM PARODY IN THAT ITS IMITATION IS NOT MEANT AS A
FORM OF MOCKERY &OR EXAMPLE *OHN &OWLESS 4HE &RENCH
,IEUTENANTS 7OMAN WAS WRITTEN IN THE S BUT IMITATES
THE STYLE OF THE 6ICTORIAN NOVEL
0ASTORAL ! CELEBRATION OF THE SIMPLE RUSTIC LIFE OF SHEPHERDS
AND SHEPHERDESSES USUALLY WRITTEN BY A SOPHISTICATED
URBAN WRITER #HRISTOPHER -ARLOWES POEM h4HE 0ASSIONATE
3HEPHERD TO (IS ,OVEv EPITOMIZES PASTORAL THEMES
0LAY ! STORY MEANT TO BE PERFORMED IN A THEATER BEFORE AN
AUDIENCE -OST PLAYS ARE WRITTEN IN DIALOGUE FORM AND ARE
DIVIDED INTO SEVERAL ACTS -ANY INCLUDE STAGE DIRECTIONS AND
INSTRUCTIONS FOR SETS AND COSTUMES
s #OMEDY ! LIGHTHEARTED PLAY CHARACTERIZED BY HUMOR
AND A HAPPY ENDING
s %PIC THEATER "ERTOLT "RECHTS -ARXIST APPROACH TO
s
s
s
s
s !UTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOVEL ! NOVEL THAT TELLS A NONlCTION
6IRGILS %CLOGUES IS THE MOST FAMOUS EXAMPLE OF THIS GENRE
PUBLIC lGURE OR OCCASIONALLY A MEDITATION ON DEATH ITSELF
)N 'REEK AND ,ATIN POETRY THE TERM APPLIES TO A SPECIlC TYPE
OF METER ALTERNATING HEXAMETERS AND PENTAMETERS REGARD
LESS OF CONTENT BUT ONLY SOME ELEGIES IN %NGLISH OBEY THAT
METER 0ERCY "YSSHE 3HELLEYS POEM h!DONAISv WHICH
MOURNS THE DEATH OF *OHN +EATS IS AN EXAMPLE OF AN ELEGY
0ARODY ! HUMOROUS AND OFTEN SATIRICAL IMITATION OF THE
.OVEL ! lCTIONAL PROSE NARRATIVE OF SIGNIlCANT LENGTH 3INCE
lCTIONAL OR HISTORICAL CHARACTER SPEAKS TO A PARTICULAR AUDI
ENCE !LFRED ,ORD 4ENNYSONS h5LYSSESv IS A FAMOUS EXAMPLE
$YSTOPIC LITERATURE ! GENRE OF lCTION THAT PRESENTS AN
0ARABLE ! SHORT NARRATIVE THAT ILLUSTRATES A MORAL BY MEANS
OF ALLEGORY SEE ABOVE
s
AL AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STORY BUT USES NOVELISTIC TECHNIQUES
SUCH AS lCTIONALIZED DIALOGUE OR ANECDOTES TO ADD COLOR
IMMEDIACY OR THEMATIC UNITY -AYA !NGELOUS ) +NOW
7HY THE #AGED "IRD 3INGS IS AN AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOVEL
"ILDUNGSROMAN ! 'ERMAN TERM MEANING hFORMATION
NOVELv FOR A NOVEL ABOUT A CHILD OR ADOLESCENTS DEVEL
OPMENT INTO MATURITY WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON THE PROTAG
ONISTS QUEST FOR IDENTITY *AMES *OYCES ! 0ORTRAIT OF THE
!RTIST AS A 9OUNG -AN IS A NOTABLE EXAMPLE
%PISTOLARY NOVEL ! NOVEL WRITTEN IN THE FORM OF LETTERS
EXCHANGED BY CHARACTERS IN THE STORY SUCH AS 3AMUEL
2ICHARDSONS #LARISSA OR !LICE 7ALKERS 4HE #OLOR 0URPLE
4HIS FORM WAS ESPECIALLY POPULAR IN THE S
(ISTORICAL NOVEL ! NOVEL SET IN AN EARLIER HISTORICAL PERI
OD THAT FEATURES A PLOT SHAPED BY THE HISTORICAL CIRCUM
STANCES OF THAT PERIOD -ICHAEL /NDAATJES 4HE %NGLISH
0ATIENT WRITTEN IN THE EARLY S PORTRAYS A TRAGIC
ROMANCE SET AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF 7ORLD 7AR ))
.OVEL OF IDEAS ! NOVEL SUCH AS *EAN0AUL 3ARTRES
.AUSEA THAT THE AUTHOR USES AS A PLATFORM FOR DISCUSSING
IDEAS #HARACTER AND PLOT ARE OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE
.OVEL OF MANNERS ! NOVEL THAT FOCUSES ON THE SOCIAL
CUSTOMS OF A CERTAIN CLASS OF PEOPLE OFTEN WITH A SHARP
EYE FOR IRONY *ANE !USTENS NOVELS ARE PRIME EXAMPLES OF
THIS GENRE
0ICARESQUE NOVEL /RIGINALLY A REALISTIC NOVEL DETAILING
A SCOUNDRELS EXPLOITS 4HE TERM GREW TO REFER MORE
GENERALLY TO ANY NOVEL WITH A LOOSELY STRUCTURED EPI
SODIC PLOT THAT REVOLVES AROUND THE ADVENTURES OF A
CENTRAL CHARACTER #ERVANTESS $ON 1UIXOTE IS A CLASSIC
PICARESQUE NOVEL
3OCIAL PROTEST NOVEL ! NOVEL IN WHICH THE AUTHORS AIM
IS TO TELL A STORY THAT ILLUMINATES AND DRAWS ATTENTION TO
CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL PROBLEMS WITH THE GOAL OF INCITING
CHANGE FOR THE BETTER (ARRIET "EECHER 3TOWES 5NCLE
4OMS #ABIN WHICH EXPOSED THE HORRORS OF !FRICAN
!MERICAN SLAVERY AND *OHN 3TEINBECKS 4HE 'RAPES OF
7RATH WHICH POPULARIZED THE PLIGHT OF PENNILESS MIGRANT
WORKERS DURING THE 'REAT $EPRESSION ARE EXAMPLES
6ERSE NOVEL ! FULLLENGTH lCTIONAL WORK THAT IS NOVELISTIC
IN NATURE BUT WRITTEN IN VERSE RATHER THAN PROSE %XAMPLES
INCLUDE !LEKSANDR 0USHKINS %UGENE /NEGIN AND 6IKRAM
3ETHS 4HE 'OLDEN 'ATE
s
s
s
s
s
THEATER WHICH REJECTS EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
ENGAGEMENT IN FAVOR OF CRITICAL DETACHMENT (IS PLAYS 4HE
4HREEPENNY /PERA AND -OTHER #OURAGE ARE TWO FAMOUS
WORKS IN THIS GENRE
&ARCE ! FORM OF HIGHENERGY COMEDY THAT PLAYS ON
CONFUSIONS AND DECEPTIONS BETWEEN CHARACTERS AND
FEATURES A CONVOLUTED AND FASTPACED PLOT &ARCE OFTEN
INCORPORATES BUFFOONERY SLAPSTICK AND STOCK CHARACTERS
TO PROVOKE UPROARIOUS LAUGHTER -OLIÒRE WAS A MASTER OF
FARCE WITH SUCH PLAYS AS 4HE )MAGINARY )NVALID
-IRACLE PLAY ! PLAY FROM THE -IDDLE !GES FEATURING
SAINTS OR MIRACULOUS APPEARANCES BY THE 6IRGIN -ARY
-ORALITY PLAY ! PLAY WRITTEN IN THE lFTEENTH OR SIXTEENTH
CENTURIES THAT PRESENTS AN ALLEGORY SEE ABOVE OF THE
#HRISTIAN STRUGGLE FOR SALVATION
-YSTERY PLAY ! SHORT PLAY BASED UPON A BIBLICAL STORY
-YSTERY PLAYS POPULAR IN THE -IDDLE !GES OFTEN WERE
PRESENTED IN CYCLES IN WHICH DOZENS OF PLAYS WERE PER
FORMED AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS THROUGHOUT A CITY AND COL
LECTIVELY PRESENTED THE MOST SIGNIlCANT MOMENTS IN THE
"IBLE
.OH DRAMA ! RITUALIZED FORM OF *APANESE DRAMA THAT
EVOLVED IN THE S INVOLVING MASKS AND SLOW STYLIZED
MOVEMENT
0ROBLEM PLAY ! PLAY THAT CONFRONTS A CONTEMPORARY
SOCIAL PROBLEM WITH THE INTENT OF CHANGING PUBLIC OPINION
ON THE MATTER (ENRIK )BSEN POPULARIZED THIS FORM IN PLAYS
SUCH AS (EDDA 'ABLER
4RAGEDY ! SERIOUS PLAY THAT ENDS UNHAPPILY FOR THE
PROTAGONIST 3OPHOCLES !NTIGONE IS ONE OF THE BEST
KNOWN 'REEK TRAGEDIES
4RAGICOMEDY ! PLAY SUCH AS 3HAKESPEARES ! 7INTERS
4ALE THAT MIXES ELEMENTS OF TRAGEDY AND COMEDY
/NEACT PLAY ! PLAY CONSISTING OF A SINGLE ACT WITH
OUT INTERMISSION AND RUNNING USUALLY LESS THAN AN HOUR
%DWARD !LBEES :OO 3TORY IS A WELLKNOWN EXAMPLE
0RIMITIVIST LITERATURE 7ORKS THAT EXPRESS A PREFERENCE FOR
THE NATURAL OVER THE ARTIlCIAL IN HUMAN CULTURE AND A BELIEF
THAT THE LIFE OF PRIMITIVE CULTURES IS PREFERABLE TO MODERN
LIFESTYLES 0RIMITIVISM IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH A NOSTALGIA
FOR THE LOST INNOCENCE OF A NATURAL CHILDLIKE PAST *EAN
*ACQUES 2OUSSEAU WAS ONE OF THE FOREMOST ADVOCATES OF
PRIMITIVISM IN WORKS SUCH AS ,A .OUVELLE (ÏLOÕSE
0ROPAGANDA ! WORK OF DIDACTIC LITERATURE THAT AIMS TO
INmUENCE THE READER ON A SPECIlC SOCIAL OR POLITICAL ISSUE
4HOMAS 0AINES #OMMON 3ENSE IS AN EXAMPLE OF PROPAGAN
DA INSTRUMENTAL IN THE !MERICAN 2EVOLUTION
0ROSE !NY COMPOSITION NOT WRITTEN IN VERSE 4HE BASIC
UNIT OF PROSE IS THE SENTENCE WHICH DISTINGUISHES IT FROM
FREE VERSE SEE POETRY PREVIOUS PAGE IN WHICH THE BASIC
UNIT IS A LINE OF VERSE 0ROSE WRITING CAN BE RHYTHMIC BUT ON
THE WHOLE RHYTHM IN PROSE IS LESS PRONOUNCED THAN IN VERSE
0ROSE WORKS ENCOMPASS EVERYTHING FROM (ENRY *AMESS
4HE !MBASSADORS WITH ITS ELABORATE SENTENCES TO !MY
4ANS INTERCONNECTED STORIES IN 4HE *OY ,UCK #LUB
0ROSE POEM ! POETIC WORK THAT FEATURES THE STRONG
RHYTHMS OF FREE VERSE SEE 2HYTHM AND -ETER PREVIOUS
PAGE BUT IS PRESENTED ON THE PAGE IN THE FORM OF PROSE
WITHOUT LINE BREAKS !RTHUR 2IMBAUDS )LLUMINATIONS IS AN
EXAMPLE OF A PROSE POEM
30!2+#(!243Í ,ITERARY 4ERMS PAGE OF #/--/. ,)4%2!29 &/2-3 !.$ '%.2%3 #/.4).5%$
2OMANCE ! NONREALISTIC STORY IN VERSE OR PROSE THAT FEATURES
3ATIRE ! WORK THAT EXPOSES TO RIDICULE THE SHORTCOMINGS OF
3HORT STORY ! WORK OF PROSE lCTION THAT IS MUCH SHORTER THAN
IDEALIZED CHARACTERS IMPROBABLE ADVENTURES AND EXOTIC SET
TINGS !LTHOUGH LOVE OFTEN PLAYS A SIGNIlCANT ROLE THE ASSO
CIATION OF hROMANCEv WITH hLOVEv IS A MODERN PHENOMENON
2OMANCES SUCH AS %DMUND 3PENSERS 4HE &AERIE 1UEENE WERE
PARTICULARLY POPULAR IN THE -IDDLE !GES AND 2ENAISSANCE
INDIVIDUALS INSTITUTIONS OR SOCIETY OFTEN TO MAKE A POLITICAL
POINT *ONATHAN 3WIFTS 'ULLIVERS 4RAVELS IS ONE OF THE MOST
WELLKNOWN SATIRES IN %NGLISH
A NOVEL RARELY MORE THAN FORTY PAGES AND FOCUSED MORE TIGHTLY
ON A SINGLE EVENT +ATHERINE -ANSlELDS h4HE 'ARDEN 0ARTYv IS
A MASTERFUL SHORT STORY
3CIENCE lCTION &ICTION THAT IS SET IN AN ALTERNATIVE REALITYˆ
3HORTSHORT STORY ! PARTICULARLY COMPRESSED AND TRUNCATED
OFTEN A TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED FUTUREˆAND THAT CONTAINS
FANTASTICAL ELEMENTS 4HE GENRE TRACES ITS ROOTS TO THE WORKS
OF *ULES 6ERNE AND (' 7ELLS IN THE LATE S .OTABLE TH
CENTURY SCIENCE lCTION WRITERS INCLUDE 2AY "RADBURY AND )SAAC
!SIMOV
SHORT STORY 3HORTSHORT STORIES ARE RARELY LONGER THAN WORDS
s #HIVALRIC ROMANCE ! ROMANCE THAT DESCRIBES THE ADVEN
TURES OF MEDIEVAL KNIGHTS AND CELEBRATES THEIR STRICT CODE OF
HONOR LOYALTY AND RESPECTFUL DEVOTION TO WOMEN 3IR 'AWAIN
AND THE 'REEN +NIGHT IS AN EXAMPLE OF A CHIVALRIC ROMANCE
3OLILOQUY ! SPEECH OFTEN IN VERSE BY A LONE CHARACTER 3OLILOQUIES
ARE MOST COMMON IN DRAMA PERHAPS THE MOST FAMOUS EXAMPLE
BEING THE h4O BE OR NOT TO BEv SPEECH IN 3HAKESPEARES (AMLET
,)4%2!29 -/6%-%.43 !.$ 0%2)/$3
,ITERATURE CONSTANTLY EVOLVES AS NEW MOVEMENTS EMERGE
TO SPEAK TO THE CONCERNS OF DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PEOPLE
AND HISTORICAL PERIODS
!BSURD LITERATURE OF THE C n ! MOVEMENT PRIMAR
ILY IN THE THEATER THAT RESPONDED TO THE SEEMING ILLOGICALITY AND
PURPOSELESSNESS OF HUMAN LIFE IN WORKS MARKED BY A LACK OF
CLEAR NARRATIVE UNDERSTANDABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES OR EMO
TIONAL CATHARSIS 3AMUEL "ECKETTS 7AITING FOR 'ODOT IS ONE OF
THE MOST CELEBRATED WORKS IN THE THEATER OF THE ABSURD
!ESTHETICISM C n ! LATETHCENTURY MOVEMENT
,OST 'ENERATION C nS ! TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THE
0RE2APHAELITES C n 4HE LITERARY ARM OF AN ARTISTIC
GENERATION OF WRITERS MANY OF THEM SOLDIERS THAT CAME TO
MATURITY DURING 7ORLD 7AR ) .OTABLE MEMBERS OF THIS GROUP
INCLUDE & 3COTT &ITZGERALD *OHN $OS 0ASSOS AND %RNEST
(EMINGWAY WHOSE NOVEL 4HE 3UN !LSO 2ISES EMBODIES THE
,OST 'ENERATIONS SENSE OF DISILLUSIONMENT
MOVEMENT THAT DREW INSPIRATION FROM )TALIAN ARTISTS WORKING
BEFORE 2APHAEL n 4HE 0RE2APHAELITES COMBINED
SENSUOUSNESS AND RELIGIOSITY THROUGH ARCHAIC POETIC FORMS AND
MEDIEVAL SETTINGS 7ILLIAM -ORRIS #HRISTINA 2OSSETTI $ANTE
'ABRIEL 2OSSETTI AND #HARLES 3WINBURNE WERE LEADING POETS
IN THE MOVEMENT
-AGIC REALISM C nPRESENT ! STYLE OF WRITING POPULAR
IZED BY *ORGE ,UIS "ORGES 'ABRIEL 'ARCÓA -ÉRQUEZ 'àNTER
'RASS AND OTHERS THAT COMBINES REALISM WITH MOMENTS OF
DREAMLIKE FANTASY WITHIN A SINGLE PROSE NARRATIVE
THAT BELIEVED IN ART AS AN END IN ITSELF !ESTHETES SUCH AS /SCAR
7ILDE AND 7ALTER 0ATER REJECTED THE VIEW THAT ART HAD TO POS
SES A HIGHER MORAL OR POLITICAL VALUE AND BELIEVED INSTEAD IN hART
FOR ARTS SAKEv
-ETAPHYSICAL POETS C n ! GROUP OF THCENTURY
!NGRY 9OUNG -EN SnS ! GROUP OF MALE "RITISH WRIT
-IDDLE %NGLISH C n 4HE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD BETWEEN
ERS WHO CREATED VISCERAL PLAYS AND lCTION AT ODDS WITH THE
POLITICAL ESTABLISHMENT AND A SELFSATISlED MIDDLE CLASS *OHN
/SBORNES PLAY ,OOK "ACK IN !NGER IS ONE OF THE SEMINAL
WORKS OF THIS MOVEMENT
"EAT 'ENERATION SnS ! GROUP OF !MERICAN WRIT
ERS IN THE S AND S WHO SOUGHT RELEASE AND ILLUMINA
TION THOUGH A BOHEMIAN COUNTERCULTURE OF SEX DRUGS AND :EN
"UDDHISM "EAT WRITERS SUCH AS *ACK +EROUAC /N 4HE 2OAD
AND !LLEN 'INSBERG (OWL GAINED FAME BY GIVING READINGS IN
COFFEEHOUSES OFTEN ACCOMPANIED BY JAZZ MUSIC
"LOOMSBURY 'ROUP C nS !N INFORMAL GROUP OF
FRIENDS AND LOVERS INCLUDING #LIVE "ELL %- &ORSTER 2OGER &RY
,YTTON 3TRACHEY 6IRGINIA 7OOLF AND *OHN -AYNARD +EYNES WHO
LIVED IN THE "LOOMSBURY SECTION OF ,ONDON IN THE EARLY TH
CENTURY AND WHO HAD A CONSIDERABLE LIBERALIZING INmUENCE ON
"RITISH CULTURE
#OMMEDIA DELLARTE SnS )MPROVISATIONAL COMEDY
lRST DEVELOPED IN 2ENAISSANCE )TALY THAT INVOLVED STOCK CHARAC
TERS AND CENTERED AROUND A SET SCENARIO 4HE ELEMENTS OF FARCE
AND BUFFOONERY IN COMMEDIA DELLARTE AS WELL AS ITS STANDARD
CHARACTERS AND PLOT INTRIGUES HAVE HAD A TREMENDOUS INmUENCE
ON 7ESTERN COMEDY AND CAN STILL BE SEEN IN CONTEMPORARY
DRAMA AND TELEVISION SITCOMS
$ADAISM n !N AVANTGARDE MOVEMENT THAT BEGAN IN
RESPONSE TO THE DEVASTATION OF 7ORLD 7AR ) "ASED IN 0ARIS AND
LED BY THE POET 4RISTAN 4ZARA THE $ADAISTS PRODUCED NIHILISTIC
AND ANTILOGICAL PROSE POETRY AND ART AND REJECTED THE TRADI
TIONS RULES AND IDEALS OF PREWAR %UROPE
%NLIGHTENMENT C n !N INTELLECTUAL MOVEMENT IN
&RANCE AND OTHER PARTS OF %UROPE THAT EMPHASIZED THE IMPOR
TANCE OF REASON PROGRESS AND LIBERTY 4HE %NLIGHTENMENT
SOMETIMES CALLED THE !GE OF 2EASON IS PRIMARILY ASSOCIATED
WITH NONlCTION WRITING SUCH AS ESSAYS AND PHILOSOPHICAL TREA
TISES -AJOR %NLIGHTENMENT WRITERS INCLUDE 4HOMAS (OBBES
*OHN ,OCKE *EAN*ACQUES 2OUSSEAU 2ENÏ $ESCARTES
%LIZABETHAN ERA C n ! mOURISHING PERIOD IN %NGLISH
LITERATURE PARTICULARLY DRAMA THAT COINCIDED WITH THE REIGN OF
1UEEN %LIZABETH ) AND INCLUDED WRITERS SUCH AS &RANCIS "ACON
"EN *ONSON #HRISTOPHER -ARLOWE 7ILLIAM 3HAKESPEARE 3IR
0HILIP 3IDNEY AND %DMUND 3PENSER
'OTHIC lCTION C n ! GENRE OF LATE THCENTURY LIT
ERATURE THAT FEATURED BROODING MYSTERIOUS SETTINGS AND PLOTS
AND SET THE STAGE FOR WHAT WE NOW CALL hHORROR STORIESv (ORACE
7ALPOLES #ASTLE OF /TRANTO SET INSIDE A MEDIEVAL CASTLE WAS
THE lRST MAJOR 'OTHIC NOVEL ,ATER THE TERM h'OTHICv GREW TO
INCLUDE ANY WORK THAT ATTEMPTED TO CREATE AN ATMOSPHERE OF
TERROR OR THE UNKNOWN SUCH AS %DGAR !LLAN 0OES SHORT STORIES
(ARLEM 2ENAISSANCE C n ! mOWERING OF !FRICAN
!MERICAN LITERATURE ART AND MUSIC DURING THE S IN .EW
9ORK #ITY 7%" $U"OISS 4HE 3OULS OF "LACK &OLK ANTICI
PATED THE MOVEMENT WHICH INCLUDED !LAIN ,OCKES ANTHOL
OGY 4HE .EW .EGRO :ORA .EALE (URSTONS NOVEL 4HEIR %YES
7ERE 7ATCHING 'OD AND THE POETRY OF ,ANGSTON (UGHES AND
#OUNTEE #ULLEN
4HIS DOWNLOADABLE 0$& COPYRIGHT Ú BY 3PARK.OTES ,,#
POETS WHO COMBINED DIRECT LANGUAGE WITH INGENIOUS IMAGES
PARADOXES AND CONCEITS *OHN $ONNE AND !NDREW -ARVELL ARE
THE BEST KNOWN POETS OF THIS SCHOOL
!NGLO3AXON AND MODERN %NGLISH 4HE CULTURAL UPHEAVAL THAT
FOLLOWED THE .ORMAN #ONQUEST OF %NGLAND IN SAW A
mOWERING OF SECULAR LITERATURE INCLUDING BALLADS CHIVALRIC
ROMANCES ALLEGORICAL POEMS AND A VARIETY OF RELIGIOUS PLAYS
#HAUCERS 4HE #ANTERBURY 4ALES IS THE MOST CELEBRATED WORK
OF THIS PERIOD
-ODERNISM SnS ! LITERARY AND ARTISTIC MOVEMENT
THAT PROVIDED A RADICAL BREAK WITH TRADITIONAL MODES OF 7ESTERN
ART THOUGHT RELIGION SOCIAL CONVENTIONS AND MORALITY -AJOR
THEMES OF THIS PERIOD INCLUDE THE ATTACK ON NOTIONS OF HIER
ARCHY EXPERIMENTATION IN NEW FORMS OF NARRATIVE SUCH AS
STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS DOUBT ABOUT THE EXISTENCE OF KNOW
ABLE OBJECTIVE REALITY ATTENTION TO ALTERNATIVE VIEWPOINTS AND
MODES OF THINKING AND SELFREFERENTIALITY AS A MEANS OF DRAW
ING ATTENTION TO THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ARTIST AND AUDIENCE
AND FORM AND CONTENT
s (IGH MODERNISM S 'ENERALLY CONSIDERED THE GOLDEN
AGE OF MODERNIST LITERATURE THIS PERIOD SAW THE PUBLICATION
OF *AMES *OYCES 5LYSSES 43 %LIOTS 4HE 7ASTE ,AND 6IRGINIA
7OOLFS -RS $ALLOWAY AND -ARCEL 0ROUSTS 2EMEMBRANCE OF
4HINGS 0AST
.ATURALISM C n ! LITERARY MOVEMENT THAT USED
DETAILED REALISM TO SUGGEST THAT SOCIAL CONDITIONS HERED
ITY AND ENVIRONMENT HAD INESCAPABLE FORCE IN SHAPING HUMAN
CHARACTER ,EADING WRITERS IN THE MOVEMENT INCLUDE ³MILE :OLA
4HEODORE $REISER AND 3TEPHEN #RANE
.EOCLASSICISM C n ! LITERARY MOVEMENT INSPIRED BY
THE REDISCOVERY OF CLASSICAL WORKS OF ANCIENT 'REECE AND 2OME
THAT EMPHASIZED BALANCE RESTRAINT AND ORDER .EOCLASSICISM
ROUGHLY COINCIDED WITH THE %NLIGHTENMENT WHICH ESPOUSED
REASON OVER PASSION .OTABLE NEOCLASSICAL WRITERS INCLUDE
%DMUND "URKE *OHN $RYDEN 3AMUEL *OHNSON !LEXANDER 0OPE
AND *ONATHAN 3WIFT
.OUVEAU 2OMAN h.EW .OVELv C n ! &RENCH
2EALISM C n ! LOOSE TERM THAT CAN REFER TO ANY WORK
THAT AIMS AT HONEST PORTRAYAL OVER SENSATIONALISM EXAGGERA
TION OR MELODRAMA 4ECHNICALLY REALISM REFERS TO A LATETH
CENTURY LITERARY MOVEMENTˆPRIMARILY &RENCH %NGLISH AND
!MERICANˆTHAT AIMED AT ACCURATE DETAILED PORTRAYAL OF ORDI
NARY CONTEMPORARY LIFE -ANY OF THE TH CENTURYS GREATEST
NOVELISTS SUCH AS (ONORÏ DE "ALZAC #HARLES $ICKENS 'EORGE
%LIOT 'USTAVE &LAUBERT AND ,EO 4OLSTOY ARE CLASSIlED AS REAL
ISTS .ATURALISM SEE ABOVE CAN BE SEEN AS AN INTENSIlCATION
OF REALISM
2OMANTICISM C n ! LITERARY AND ARTISTIC MOVE
MENT THAT REACTED AGAINST THE RESTRAINT AND UNIVERSALISM OF
THE %NLIGHTENMENT 4HE 2OMANTICS CELEBRATED SPONTANEITY
IMAGINATION SUBJECTIVITY AND THE PURITY OF NATURE .OTABLE
%NGLISH 2OMANTIC WRITERS INCLUDE *ANE !USTEN 7ILLIAM "LAKE
,ORD "YRON 3AMUEL 4AYLOR #OLERIDGE *OHN +EATS 0ERCY "YSSHE
3HELLEY AND 7ILLIAM 7ORDSWORTH 0ROMINENT lGURES IN THE
!MERICAN 2OMANTIC MOVEMENT INCLUDE .ATHANIEL (AWTHORNE
(ERMAN -ELVILLE %DGAR !LLAN 0OE 7ILLIAM #ULLEN "RYANT AND
*OHN 'REENLEAF 7HITTIER
3TURM UND $RANG S 'ERMAN FOR hSTORM AND STRESSv THIS
BRIEF 'ERMAN LITERARY MOVEMENT ADVOCATED PASSIONATE INDI
VIDUALITY IN THE FACE OF .EOCLASSICAL RATIONALISM AND RESTRAINT
'OETHES 4HE 3ORROWS OF 9OUNG 7ERTHER IS THE MOST ENDURING
WORK OF THIS MOVEMENT WHICH GREATLY INmUENCED THE 2OMANTIC
MOVEMENT SEE ABOVE
3URREALISM SnS !N AVANTGARDE MOVEMENT BASED
PRIMARILY IN &RANCE THAT SOUGHT TO BREAK DOWN THE BOUNDARIES
BETWEEN RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS
THROUGH A VARIETY OF LITERARY AND ARTISTIC EXPERIMENTS 4HE SURRE
ALIST POETS SUCH AS !NDRÏ "RETON AND 0AUL %LUARD WERE NOT AS
SUCCESSFUL AS THEIR ARTIST COUNTERPARTS WHO INCLUDED 3ALVADOR
$ALÓ *OAN -IRØ AND 2ENÏ -AGRITTE
3YMBOLISTS SnS ! GROUP OF &RENCH POETS WHO REACT
ED AGAINST REALISM WITH A POETRY OF SUGGESTION BASED ON PRI
VATE SYMBOLS AND EXPERIMENTED WITH NEW POETIC FORMS SUCH
AS FREE VERSE AND THE PROSE POEM 4HE SYMBOLISTSˆ3TÏPHANE
-ALLARMÏ !RTHUR 2IMBAUD AND 0AUL 6ERLAINE ARE THE MOST WELL
KNOWNˆWERE INmUENCED BY #HARLES "AUDELAIRE )N TURN THEY
HAD A SEMINAL INmUENCE ON THE MODERNIST POETRY OF THE EARLY
TH CENTURY
4RANSCENDENTALISM C n !N !MERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL
MOVEMENT LED BY !LAIN 2OBBE'RILLET THAT DISPENSED WITH
TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE NOVEL SUCH AS PLOT AND CHARACTER
IN FAVOR OF NEUTRALLY RECORDING THE EXPERIENCE OF SENSATIONS
AND THINGS
AND SPIRITUAL MOVEMENT BASED IN .EW %NGLAND THAT FOCUSED
ON THE PRIMACY OF THE INDIVIDUAL CONSCIENCE AND REJECTED MATE
RIALISM IN FAVOR OF CLOSER COMMUNION WITH NATURE 2ALPH 7ALDO
%MERSONS h3ELF2ELIANCEv AND (ENRY $AVID 4HOREAUS 7ALDEN
ARE FAMOUS TRANSCENDENTALIST WORKS
0OSTCOLONIAL LITERATURE C SnPRESENT ,ITERATURE BY AND
6ICTORIAN ERA C n 4HE PERIOD OF %NGLISH HISTORY
ABOUT PEOPLE FROM FORMER %UROPEAN COLONIES PRIMARILY IN
!FRICA !SIA 3OUTH !MERICA AND THE #ARIBBEAN 4HIS LITERA
TURE AIMS BOTH TO EXPAND THE TRADITIONAL CANON OF 7ESTERN
LITERATURE AND TO CHALLENGE %UROCENTRIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LIT
ERATURE ESPECIALLY THROUGH EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONS OF OTHER
NESS IDENTITY AND RACE 0ROMINENT POSTCOLONIAL WORKS INCLUDE
#HINUA !CHEBES 4HINGS &ALL !PART 63 .AIPAULS ! (OUSE FOR
-R "ISWAS AND 3ALMAN 2USHDIES -IDNIGHTS #HILDREN %DWARD
3AIDS /RIENTALISM PROVIDED AN IMPORTANT THEORETICAL
BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING POSTCOLONIAL LITERATURE
0OSTMODERNISM C nPRESENT ! NOTORIOUSLY AMBIGUOUS
TERM ESPECIALLY AS IT REFERS TO LITERATURE POSTMODERNISM CAN
BE SEEN AS A RESPONSE TO THE ELITISM OF HIGH MODERNISM AS WELL
AS TO THE HORRORS OF 7ORLD 7AR )) 0OSTMODERN LITERATURE IS CHAR
ACTERIZED BY A DISJOINTED FRAGMENTED PASTICHE OF HIGH AND LOW
CULTURE THAT REmECTS THE ABSENCE OF TRADITION AND STRUCTURE IN A
WORLD DRIVEN BY TECHNOLOGY AND CONSUMERISM *ULIAN "ARNES
$ON $E,ILLO 4ONI -ORRISON 6LADIMIR .ABOKOV 4HOMAS 0YNCHON
3ALMAN 2USHDIE AND +URT 6ONNEGUT ARE AMONG MANY WHO ARE
CONSIDERED POSTMODERN AUTHORS
BETWEEN THE PASSAGE OF THE lRST 2EFORM "ILL AND THE
DEATH OF 1UEEN 6ICTORIA REIGNED n 4HOUGH REMEM
BERED FOR STRICT SOCIAL POLITICAL AND SEXUAL CONSERVATISM AND
FREQUENT CLASHES BETWEEN RELIGION AND SCIENCE THE PERIOD ALSO
SAW PROLIlC LITERARY ACTIVITY AND SIGNIlCANT SOCIAL REFORM AND
CRITICISM .OTABLE 6ICTORIAN NOVELISTS INCLUDE THE "RONTÑ SISTERS
#HARLES $ICKENS 'EORGE %LIOT 7ILLIAM -AKEPEACE 4HACKERAY
!NTHONY 4ROLLOPE AND 4HOMAS (ARDY WHILE PROMINENT POETS
INCLUDE -ATTHEW !RNOLD 2OBERT "ROWNING %LIZABETH "ARRETT
"ROWNING 'ERARD -ANLEY (OPKINS !LFRED ,ORD 4ENNYSON AND
#HRISTINA 2OSSETTI .OTABLE 6ICTORIAN NONlCTION WRITERS INCLUDE
7ALTER 0ATER *OHN 2USKIN AND #HARLES $ARWIN WHO PENNED THE
FAMOUS /N THE /RIGIN OF 3PECIES 30!2+#(!243Í ,ITERARY 4ERMS PAGE OF ,)4%2!29 4(%/29 !.$ #2)4)#)3-
ART AS THE IMAGINED FULlLLMENT OF WISHES THAT REAL
ITY DENIES !CCORDING TO &REUD ARTISTS SUBLIMATE THEIR
DESIRES AND TRANSLATE THEIR IMAGINED WISHES INTO ART
7E AS AN AUDIENCE RESPOND TO THE SUBLIMATED WISH
ES THAT WE SHARE WITH THE ARTIST 7ORKING FROM THIS
VIEW AN ARTISTS BIOGRAPHY BECOMES A USEFUL TOOL IN
INTERPRETING HIS OR HER WORK h&REUDIAN CRITICISMv IS ALSO
USED AS A TERM TO DESCRIBE THE ANALYSIS OF &REUDIAN IMAGES
WITHIN A WORK OF ART
s *UNGIAN CRITICISM SnPRESENT ! SCHOOL OF CRITICISM
THAT DRAWS ON #ARL *UNGS THEORY OF THE COLLECTIVE UNCON
SCIOUS A RESERVOIR OF COMMON THOUGHTS AND EXPERIENCES
THAT ALL CULTURES SHARE *UNG HOLDS THAT LITERATURE IS AN
EXPRESSION OF THE MAIN THEMES OF THE COLLECTIVE UNCON
SCIOUS AND CRITICS OFTEN INVOKE HIS WORK IN DISCUSSIONS OF
LITERARY ARCHETYPES
s ,ACANIAN CRITICISM C nPRESENT #RITICISM BASED
ON *ACQUES ,ACANS VIEW THAT THE UNCONSCIOUS AND OUR
PERCEPTION OF OURSELVES IS SHAPED IN THE hSYMBOLICv
ORDER OF LANGUAGE RATHER THAN IN THE hIMAGINARYv ORDER OF
PRE LINGUISTIC THOUGHT ,ACAN IS FAMOUS IN LITERARY
CIRCLES FOR HIS INmUENTIAL READING OF %DGAR !LLAN 0OES h4HE
0URLOINED ,ETTERv
-ARXIST CRITICISM !N UMBRELLA TERM FOR A NUMBER OF CRITICAL
APPROACHES TO LITERATURE THAT DRAW INSPIRATION FROM THE SOCIAL
AND ECONOMIC THEORIES OF +ARL -ARX -ARX MAINTAINED THAT
MATERIAL PRODUCTION OR ECONOMICS ULTIMATELY DETERMINES
THE COURSE OF HISTORY AND IN TURN INmUENCES SOCIAL STRUCTURES
4HESE SOCIAL STRUCTURES -ARX ARGUED ARE HELD IN PLACE BY THE
DOMINANT IDEOLOGY WHICH SERVES TO REINFORCE THE INTERESTS OF
THE RULING CLASS -ARXIST CRITICISM APPROACHES LITERATURE AS A
STRUGGLE WITH SOCIAL REALITIES AND IDEOLOGIES
s &RANKFURT 3CHOOL C n ! GROUP OF 'ERMAN
-ARXIST THINKERS ASSOCIATED WITH THE )NSTITUTE FOR 3OCIAL
2ESEARCH IN &RANKFURT 4HESE THINKERS APPLIED THE PRIN
CIPLES OF -ARXISM TO A WIDE RANGE OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA
INCLUDING LITERATURE -AJOR MEMBERS OF THE &RANKFURT
3CHOOL INCLUDE 4HEODOR !DORNO -AX (ORKHEIMER 7ALTER
"ENJAMIN (ERBERT -ARCUSE AND *àRGEN (ABERMAS
TO hESSENTIALISTv APPROACH TO GENDER AND SEXUALITY THAT ASSERTS
THAT GENDER ROLES AND SEXUAL IDENTITY ARE SOCIAL CONSTRUC
TIONS RATHER THAN AN ESSENTIAL INESCAPABLE PART OF OUR NATURE
1UEER THEORY CONSEQUENTLY STUDIES LITERARY TEXTS WITH AN EYE TO
THE WAYS IN WHICH DIFFERENT AUTHORS IN DIFFERENT ERAS CONSTRUCT
SEXUAL AND GENDER IDENTITY 1UEER THEORY DRAWS ON CERTAIN
BRANCHES OF FEMINIST CRITICISM AND TRACES ITS ROOTS TO THE lRST
VOLUME OF -ICHEL &OUCAULTS (ISTORY OF 3EXUALITY 2USSIAN &ORMALISM n ! SCHOOL THAT ATTEMPTED
A SCIENTIlC ANALYSIS OF THE FORMAL LITERARY DEVICES USED IN
A TEXT 4HE 3TALINIST AUTHORITIES CRITICIZED AND SILENCED THE
&ORMALISTS BUT 7ESTERN CRITICS REDISCOVERED THEIR WORK IN
THE S 5LTIMATELY THE 2USSIAN &ORMALISTS HAD SIGNIlCANT
INmUENCE ON STRUCTURALISM AND -ARXIST CRITICISM
(ERMENEUTICS 4HE STUDY OF TEXTUAL INTERPRETATION AND OF THE
WAY IN WHICH A TEXT COMMUNICATES MEANING
)NTERTEXTUALITY 4HE VARIOUS RELATIONSHIPS A TEXT MAY HAVE
WITH OTHER TEXTS THROUGH ALLUSIONS BORROWING OF FORMAL OR
THEMATIC ELEMENTS OR SIMPLY BY REFERENCE TO TRADITIONAL LIT
ERARY FORMS 4HE TERM IS IMPORTANT TO STRUCTURALIST AND POST
STRUCTURALIST CRITICS WHO ARGUE THAT TEXTS RELATE PRIMARILY TO
ONE ANOTHER AND NOT TO AN EXTERNAL REALITY
,INGUISTICS 4HE SCIENTIlC STUDY OF LANGUAGE ENCOMPASSING
AMONG OTHER THINGS THE STUDY OF SYNTAX SEMANTICS AND THE
EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
,OGOCENTRISM 4HE DESIRE FOR AN ULTIMATE GUARANTEE OF MEAN
ING WHETHER 'OD 4RUTH 2EASON OR SOMETHING ELSE *ACQUES
$ERRIDA CRITICIZES THE BULK OF 7ESTERN PHILOSOPHY AS BEING
BASED ON A LOGOCENTRIC hMETAPHYSICS OF PRESENCEv WHICH
INSISTS ON THE PRESENCE OF SOME SUCH ULTIMATE GUARANTEE 4HE
MAIN GOAL OF DECONSTRUCTION IS TO UNDERMINE THIS BELIEF
3TRUCTURALISM SnS !N INTELLECTUAL MOVEMENT THAT
MADE SIGNIlCANT CONTRIBUTIONS NOT ONLY TO LITERARY CRITICISM
BUT ALSO TO PHILOSOPHY ANTHROPOLOGY SOCIOLOGY AND HISTORY
3TRUCTURALIST LITERARY CRITICS SUCH AS 2OLAND "ARTHES READ
TEXTS AS AN INTERRELATED SYSTEM OF SIGNS THAT REFER TO ONE
ANOTHER RATHER THAN TO AN EXTERNAL hMEANINGv THAT IS lXED
EITHER BY AUTHOR OR READER 3TRUCTURALIST LITERARY THEORY DRAWS
ON THE WORK OF THE 2USSIAN &ORMALISTS AS WELL AS THE LINGUIS
TIC THEORIES OF &ERDINAND DE 3AUSSURE AND #3 0EIRCE
-ETALANGUAGE ! TECHNICAL LANGUAGE THAT EXPLAINS AND
INTERPRETS THE PROPERTIES OF ORDINARY LANGUAGE &OR EXAMPLE
THE VOCABULARY OF LITERARY CRITICISM IS A METALANGUAGE THAT
EXPLAINS THE ORDINARY LANGUAGE OF LITERATURE 0OSTSTRUCTUR
ALIST CRITICS ARGUE THAT THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS A METALAN
GUAGE RATHER THEY ASSERT ALL LANGUAGE IS ON AN EVEN PLANE
AND THEREFORE THERE IS NO ESSENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LITERA
TURE AND CRITICISM
,)4%2!29 4%2-3 !.$ 4(%/2)%3
,ITERARY THEORY IS NOTORIOUS FOR ITS COMPLEX AND
SOMEWHAT INACCESSIBLE JARGON 4HE FOLLOWING LIST
DElNES SOME OF THE MORE COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED
TERMS IN THE lELD
-ETANARRATIVE ! LARGER FRAMEWORK WITHIN WHICH WE
UNDERSTAND HISTORICAL PROCESSES &OR INSTANCE A -ARXIST
METANARRATIVE SEES HISTORY PRIMARILY AS A HISTORY OF CHANGING
MATERIAL CIRCUMSTANCES AND CLASS STRUGGLE 0OSTSTRUCTURAL
IST CRITICS DRAW OUR ATTENTION TO THE WAYS IN WHICH ASSUMED
METANARRATIVES CAN BE USED AS TOOLS OF POLITICAL DOMINATION
!NXIETY OF INmUENCE ! THEORY THAT THE CRITIC (AROLD "LOOM
PUT FORTH IN 4HE !NXIETY OF )NmUENCE ! 4HEORY OF 0OETRY
"LOOM USES &REUDS IDEA OF THE /EDIPUS COMPLEX
SEE BELOW TO SUGGEST THAT POETS PLAGUED BY ANXIETY THAT
THEY HAVE NOTHING NEW TO SAY STRUGGLE AGAINST THE INmU
ENCE OF EARLIER GENERATIONS OF POETS "LOOM SUGGESTS THAT
POETS lND THEIR DISTINCTIVE VOICES IN AN ACT OF MISPRISION OR
MISREADING OF EARLIER INmUENCES THUS RElGURING THE POETIC
TRADITION !LTHOUGH "LOOM PRESENTS HIS THESIS AS A THEORY OF
POETRY IT CAN BE APPLIED TO OTHER ARTS AS WELL
#ANON ! GROUP OF LITERARY WORKS COMMONLY REGARDED AS
CENTRAL OR AUTHORITATIVE TO THE LITERARY TRADITION &OR EXAMPLE
MANY CRITICS CONCUR THAT THE 7ESTERN CANONˆTHE CENTRAL
LITERARY WORKS OF 7ESTERN CIVILIZATIONˆINCLUDES THE WRITINGS
OF (OMER 3HAKESPEARE 4OLSTOY AND THE LIKE ! CANON IS AN
EVOLVING ENTITY AS WORKS ARE ADDED OR SUBTRACTED AS THEIR
PERCEIVED VALUE SHIFTS OVER TIME &OR EXAMPLE THE lCTION OF
7 3OMERSET -AUGHAM WAS CENTRAL TO THE CANON DURING THE
MIDDLE OF THE TH CENTURY BUT IS READ LESS FREQUENTLY TODAY
)N RECENT DECADES THE IDEA OF AN AUTHORITATIVE CANON HAS
COME UNDER ATTACK ESPECIALLY FROM FEMINIST AND POSTCOLO
NIAL CRITICS WHO SEE THE CANON AS A TYRANNY OF DEAD WHITE
MALES THAT MARGINALIZES LESS MAINSTREAM VOICES
$EATH OF THE AUTHOR ! POSTSTRUCTURALIST THEORY lRST
ADVANCED BY 2OLAND "ARTHES THAT SUGGESTS THAT THE READER
NOT THE AUTHOR CREATES THE MEANING OF A TEXT 5LTIMATELY THE
VERY IDEA OF AN AUTHOR IS A lCTION INVENTED BY THE READER
$IACHRONICSYNCHRONIC 4ERMS THAT &ERDINAND DE 3AUSSURE
USED TO DESCRIBE TWO DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE
4HE DIACHRONIC APPROACH LOOKS AT LANGUAGE AS A HISTORICAL
PROCESS AND EXAMINES THE WAYS IN WHICH IT HAS CHANGED OVER
TIME 4HE SYNCHRONIC APPROACH LOOKS AT LANGUAGE AT A PARTIC
ULAR MOMENT IN TIME WITHOUT REFERENCE TO HISTORY 3AUSSURES
STRUCTURALIST APPROACH IS SYNCHRONIC FOR IT STUDIES LANGUAGE
AS A SYSTEM OF INTERRELATED SIGNS THAT HAVE NO REFERENCE TO
ANYTHING SUCH AS HISTORY OUTSIDE OF THE SYSTEM
4HIS DOWNLOADABLE 0$& COPYRIGHT Ú BY 3PARK.OTES ,,#
-IMESIS 3EE DIEGESISMIMESIS ABOVE
-ONOLOGIC 3EE DIALOGICMONOLOGIC ABOVE
.ARRATOLOGY 4HE STUDY OF NARRATIVE ENCOMPASSING THE
DIFFERENT KINDS OF NARRATIVE VOICES FORMS OF NARRATIVE AND
POSSIBILITIES OF NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
30!2+#(!243
1UEER THEORY SnPRESENT ! hCONSTRUCTIVISTv AS OPPOSED
%XPLICATION ! CLOSE READING OF A TEXT THAT IDENTIlES AND
EXPLAINS THE lGURATIVE LANGUAGE AND FORMS WITHIN THE WORK
#!.
s &REUDIAN CRITICISM C nPRESENT 4HE VIEW OF
PRISED AMONG OTHER THINGS $ECONSTRUCTION ,ACANIAN CRITI
CISM AND THE LATER WORKS OF 2OLAND "ARTHES AND -ICHEL
&OUCAULT )T CRITICIZED STRUCTURALISM FOR ITS CLAIMS TO SCIENTIlC
OBJECTIVITY INCLUDING ITS ASSUMPTION THAT THE SYSTEM OF SIGNS
IN WHICH LANGUAGE OPERATES WAS STABLE
%XEGESIS !N EXPLANATION OF A TEXT THAT CLARIlES DIFlCULT
PASSAGES AND ANALYZES ITS CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE OR
APPLICATION
0SYCHOANALYTIC CRITICISM !NY FORM OF CRITICISM THAT DRAWS
ON PSYCHOANALYSIS THE PRACTICE OF ANALYZING THE ROLE OF
UNCONSCIOUS PSYCHOLOGICAL DRIVES AND IMPULSES IN SHAP
ING HUMAN BEHAVIOR OR ARTISTIC PRODUCTION 4HE THREE MAIN
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS ARE NAMED FOR THE THREE LEADING
lGURES IN DEVELOPING PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY 3IGMUND &REUD
#ARL *UNG AND *ACQUES ,ACAN
0OSTSTRUCTURALISM SnS ! MOVEMENT THAT COM
$ISCOURSE ! POSTSTRUCTURALIST TERM FOR THE WIDER SOCIAL AND
INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT IN WHICH COMMUNICATION TAKES PLACE
4HE IMPLICATION IS THAT THE MEANING OF WORKS IS AS DEPENDENT
ON THEIR SURROUNDING CONTEXT AS IT IS ON THE CONTENT OF THE
WORKS THEMSELVES
/EDIPUS COMPLEX 3IGMUND &REUDS THEORY THAT A MALE CHILD
FEELS UNCONSCIOUS JEALOUSY TOWARD HIS FATHER AND LUST FOR HIS
MOTHER 4HE NAME COMES FROM 3OPHOCLES PLAY /EDIPUS 2EX
IN WHICH THE MAIN CHARACTER UNKNOWINGLY KILLS HIS FATHER AND
MARRIES HIS MOTHER &REUD APPLIES THIS THEORY IN AN INmUENTIAL
READING OF (AMLET IN WHICH HE SEES (AMLET AS STRUGGLING WITH
HIS ADMIRATION OF #LAUDIUS WHO FULlLLED (AMLETS OWN DESIRE
OF MURDERING (AMLETS FATHER AND MARRYING HIS MOTHER
3EMANTICS 4HE BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS THAT STUDIES THE MEAN
INGS OF WORDS
3EMIOTICS OR SEMIOLOGY 4ERMS FOR THE STUDY OF SIGN SYSTEMS
AND THE WAYS IN WHICH COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS THROUGH
CONVENTIONS IN SIGN SYSTEMS 3EMIOTICS IS CENTRAL TO STRUC
TURALIST LINGUISTICS
8
&EMINIST CRITICISM SnPRESENT !N UMBRELLA TERM FOR
A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT CRITICAL APPROACHES THAT SEEK TO DIS
TINGUISH THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE FROM THE MALE EXPERIENCE
&EMINIST CRITICS DRAW ATTENTION TO THE WAYS IN WHICH PATRI
ARCHAL SOCIAL STRUCTURES HAVE MARGINALIZED WOMEN AND
MALE AUTHORS HAVE EXPLOITED WOMEN IN THEIR PORTRAYAL OF
THEM !LTHOUGH FEMINIST CRITICISM DATES AS FAR BACK AS -ARY
7OLLSTONECRAFTS ! 6INDICATION OF THE 2IGHTS OF 7OMAN AND HAD SOME SIGNIlCANT ADVOCATES IN THE EARLY TH CENTURY
SUCH AS 6IRGINIA 7OOLF AND 3IMONE DE "EAUVOIR IT DID NOT GAIN
WIDESPREAD RECOGNITION AS A THEORETICAL AND POLITICAL MOVE
MENT UNTIL THE S AND S
.EW (UMANISM C n !N !MERICAN MOVEMENT LED
BY )RVING "ABBITT AND 0AUL %LMER -ORE THAT EMBRACED CON
SERVATIVE LITERARY AND MORAL VALUES AND ADVOCATED A RETURN TO
HUMANISTIC EDUCATION
)N A PLAY FOR INSTANCE MOST OF THE ACTION IS MIMETIC BUT
MOMENTS IN WHICH A CHARACTER RECOUNTS WHAT HAS HAPPENED
OFFSTAGE ARE DIEGETIC
20593 00631
$ECONSTRUCTION nPRESENT ! PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH TO
READING lRST ADVANCED BY *ACQUES $ERRIDA THAT ATTACKS THE
ASSUMPTION THAT A TEXT HAS A SINGLE STABLE MEANING $ERRIDA
SUGGESTS THAT ALL INTERPRETATION OF A TEXT SIMPLY CONSTITUTES
FURTHER TEXTS WHICH MEANS THERE IS NO hOUTSIDE THE TEXTv AT
ALL 4HEREFORE IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR A TEXT TO HAVE STABLE MEAN
ING 4HE PRACTICE OF DECONSTRUCTION INVOLVES IDENTIFYING THE
CONTRADICTIONS WITHIN A TEXTS CLAIM TO HAVE A SINGLE STABLE
MEANING AND SHOWING THAT A TEXT CAN BE TAKEN TO MEAN A
VARIETY OF THINGS THAT DIFFER SIGNIlCANTLY FROM WHAT IT PUR
PORTS TO MEAN
DOWN DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN hLITERATUREv AND hHISTORICAL CON
TEXTv BY EXAMINING THE CONTEMPORARY PRODUCTION AND RECEP
TION OF LITERARY TEXTS INCLUDING THE DOMINANT SOCIAL POLITICAL
AND MORAL MOVEMENTS OF THE TIME 3TEPHEN 'REENBLATT IS A
LEADER IN THIS lELD WHICH JOINS THE CAREFUL TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF
.EW #RITICISM WITH A DYNAMIC MODEL OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
$IEGESIS-IMESIS 4ERMS THAT !RISTOTLE lRST USED TO DIS
TINGUISH hTELLINGv DIEGESIS FROM hSHOWINGv MIMESIS 7
#HICAGO 3CHOOL S ! GROUP FORMED AT THE 5NIVERSITY
OF #HICAGO IN THE S THAT DREW ON !RISTOTLES DISTINC
TIONS BETWEEN THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS WITHIN A NARRATIVE TO
ANALYZE THE RELATION BETWEEN FORM AND STRUCTURE #RITICS AND
#RITICISMS !NCIENT AND -ODERN IS THE MAJOR WORK OF
THE #HICAGO 3CHOOL
.EW (ISTORICISM SnPRESENT !N APPROACH THAT BREAKS
4-
#AMBRIDGE 3CHOOL SnS ! GROUP OF SCHOLARS AT
#AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY WHO REJECTED HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHI
CAL ANALYSIS OF TEXTS IN FAVOR OF CLOSE READINGS OF THE TEXTS
THEMSELVES
$IALOGICMONOLOGIC 4ERMS THAT THE 2USSIAN CRITIC -IKHAIL
"AKHTIN USED TO DISTINGUISH WORKS THAT ARE CONTROLLED BY A
SINGLE AUTHORIAL VOICE MONOLOGIC FROM WORKS IN WHICH NO
SINGLE VOICE PREDOMINATES DIALOGIC OR POLYPHONIC "AKHTIN
TAKES ,EO 4OLSTOY AND &YODOR $OSTOEVSKY AS EXAMPLES OF
MONOLOGIC AND DIALOGIC WRITING RESPECTIVELY
7RITERS #HRISTINA 2OSENBERGER $AVID %GAN
%DITOR -ATT "LANCHARD
$ESIGN $AN / 7ILLIAMS
3ERIES %DITOR 3ARAH &RIEDBERG
3#(//,3 /& ).4%202%4!4)/.
.EW #RITICISM SnS #OINED IN *OHN #ROWE 2ANSOMS
4HE .EW #RITICISM THIS APPROACH DISCOURAGES THE USE OF
HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY IN INTERPRETING A LITERARY WORK )NSTEAD
IT ENCOURAGES READERS TO DISCOVER THE MEANING OF A WORK
THROUGH A DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT ITSELF 4HIS APPROACH
WAS POPULAR IN THE MIDDLE OF THE TH CENTURY ESPECIALLY IN
THE 5NITED 3TATES BUT HAS SINCE FALLEN OUT OF FAVOR
2EPORT ERRORS AT
WWWSPARKNOTESCOMERRORS
,ITERARY THEORY AND CRITICISM ARE INTERPRETIVE TOOLS
THAT HELP US THINK MORE DEEPLY AND INSIGHTFULLY ABOUT
THE LITERATURE THAT WE READ /VER TIME DIFFERENT
SCHOOLS OF LITERARY CRITICISM HAVE DEVELOPED EACH
WITH ITS OWN APPROACHES TO THE ACT OF READING
3IGNSIGNIlERSIGNIlED 4ERMS FUNDAMENTAL TO &ERDINAND
DE 3AUSSURES STRUCTURALIST LINGUISTICS ! SIGN IS A BASIC UNIT
OF MEANINGˆA WORD PICTURE OR HAND GESTURE FOR INSTANCE
THAT CONVEYS SOME MEANING ! SIGNIlER IS THE PERCEPTIBLE
ASPECT OF A SIGN EG THE WORD hCARv WHILE THE SIGNIlED IS
THE CONCEPTUAL ASPECT OF A SIGN EG THE CONCEPT OF A CAR
! REFERENT IS A PHYSICAL OBJECT TO WHICH A SIGN SYSTEM REFERS
EG THE PHYSICAL CAR ITSELF
3YNCHRONIC 3EE DIACHRONICSYNCHRONIC ABOVE
30!2+#(!243Í ,ITERARY 4ERMS PAGE OF