Exof_2o Vivlio.cdr

Transcription

Exof_2o Vivlio.cdr

Geology of Sitia Aspiring Geopark
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Abstract
The geology of Sitia Nature Park is composed by its particular features make it unique and of
international value. The abundant Pleistocene mammal fossil sites, the discovery of three
Deinotherium giganteum fossils, the extensive cave systems, as well as the palaeo-shorelines
of Zakros area are unique for Crete and of national importance. The prevalent rocks are
mainly limestone, marble and slate, grouped into three main nappes, covered by more
recent sediments. As the majority of rocks are of sedimentary origin, abundant fossils are to
be found here. The current geological structure of the region displays vertical changes due
to the various groups of rocks, particularly the limestone and marble, which are permeable
to water and thus intensely karstified, and the phyllites, schist and clays that are
impermeable and affect water movement to a great extent. In addition, over the last 12
million years, the region has been fragmented by numerous faults, many of which have at
times created drops that the sea filled depositing new rocks, whereas in other cases, the
land rose significantly, leaving visible traces of past shorelines (terraces).
1. Introduction
The western Alpine Mountain Chain
Crete consists of a mosaic of characteristic features which make it unique and special
throughout the Mediterranean. It is very well known for its antiquities, its civilization and its
biodiversity; it also has however a hidden treasure, its outstanding geological wealth. It was
formed as a part of the Hellenic mountain chain, the southern continuation of the Alpine chain
system.
The geological structure of Crete is characterized by the existence of rocks formed before,
during and after the Alpine orogenesis. Most of these are the remains of the sediments which
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fell into the Tethys Ocean, a most ancient sea which is now limited to the present day
Mediterranean. Some others were islands in the ocean or submarine volcanoes which were
frozen at the great depths.
The closure and the catastrophe of Tethys, which in the eastern Mediterranean began about
100 million years ago, forged the sediments into hard rocks, it smashed them and cracked them
to such an extent that one began to go up and to climb on top of the other. Great groups of
rocks, where each one is also a piece of the sunken Tethys Ocean, were found to cover each
over like successive blankets. Tectonostratigraphically, Greece is subdivided into several
isotopic zones that are merged into two groups the internal and external ones. The internal are
arranged around the Rhodope massif occurring at the northeastern Greece and Bulgaria, and
from east to west are the Perirhodopic unit, the Servo-Macedonian unit, the Vardar-Axios
Ophiolitic belt and Pelagonian massif. Pindos Oceanic basin resulted into the so called unit, the
first to form the external zones, then westwards occur the Tripolitsa unit, the Phyllite-quartzite
unit (or Arna Unit), the Ionian and Plattenkalk unit and finally the pre-Apulia zone cropping out
at the Ionian islands to the west. Generally, the external units are the result of the most recent,
late Tertiary orogenesis that formed the Pindos mountain chain and its southern continuation in
Peloponnese, Crete and Dodecanese islands.
The Cretan nappes: 1. Plattenkalk series (Φ. Fodele, Σ. Sisses, Σδ. Stromatolithic dolomite, Gg. Gigilos,
Pk platy marble, Μφλ. Metaflysch); 2. Trypali unit; 3. Phyllites-quartzite nappe; 4. Tripolitsa nappe
(Rd. Ravdoucha beds, A. Carbonates, Φλ. Flysch); 5. Pindos nappe (R. Radiolirites, Πφλ. First flysch, Pk.
Platy limestone, Φλ. Flysch); 6. Tektonic mélange (Π. Preveli, Σπ. Spili and Β. Vatos groups); 7.
Asteroussia nappe (Μ. Marble, Γν. Gneiss, X. Quartzite); 8. Ophiolites (from Fassoulas 1999)
In Crete, those nappes, as geologists call them, created the mountain ranges which came up
from the sea, about 23 million years ago and which made the first dry land that was covering all
the Aegean, joining with Europe and Asia, and which was called Aegais. A polymorphic relief has
thus been formed on Crete as a result of the physical processes which have been bringing
Europe and Africa closer together for millions of years. Natural processes, often violent and
extreme such as the catastrophic earthquakes, have shaped the mountains and the seas,
shaping the land of the Aegean and of Crete.
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Geographical distribution of the nappes of Crete (From Rahl et al. 2004). Sitia area in box.
Just like the whole Aegean, Crete has undergone various stages of evolution and change. At
the initial stages of its formation, during the Middle Miocene and up to about five million
years ago, Crete was either part of the major land area called Aegis, which covered present
day Aegean Sea, or was joined to Asia Minor and the Peloponnese. During the last 12 million
years, the territory has been fragmented by faults, many of which created depressions at
times, which were filled by sea water dragging and depositing new rocks, called meta-alpine,
such as clays, marls, sand and white-yellow limestone. In other cases, the land was
significantly elevated and left apparent traces of the old coastlines (terraces), as is the case
in the broader area of Kato Zakros.
Formation of Cretan landscape
The pile of the rocks which the mountain building process (orogenesis), and the convergence
of the two plates created in the area of Crete (the accretionary prism) was not destined to
last for long. The Earth’s crust, as stable as it may seem (since it is made up of solid rocks),
becomes so sensitive and changeable in the scale of geological time.
The more the mountain ranges of Crete went up, the more unstable it became. The rocks of
the “Plattenkalk” and of “Phyllite-quartzite” groups which were covered by all the other
groups reached a depth of greater than 30 km in the Earth, and there were metamorphosed
under low temperature and high pressure conditions. Their small density however did not
allow them to remain at that depth for long and just like a ball in the sea they bounced up
towards the surface, and thus these too, approximately 16 million years ago, began their
upwards path towards the surface. By such processes and through detachment faults the
high pressure metamorphosed rocks were exhumed in surface conditions. The studies of the
recent sediments of the island have shown however, that the high mountains of Crete, such
as Psiloritis or Lefka Ori, began to be raised, most rapidly and for about 1,5 km, just over the
last 3,5 million years. Only for the last two million years has all of Crete been whole, raised
up, and Crete attained the shape which it roughly has today.
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Palaeogeography of Greece
in Miocene, Pliocene and
Pleistocene times (from
Dermitzakis
and
Papanikolaou 1981)
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Palaeogeographically, approximately, 12 ma ago the unified dry land at the south of Aegais
began to break up into smaller pieces, and great faults began to move up and across the
surface rocks, making space for the deepest rocks of the “Plattenkalk” and “Phyllitesquartzites” to reach the surface. Today these faults mark out the limits of the mountain
ranges. Thus, the continuous landmass in the area of Crete became a mass of large islands
which continually varied in extent and height for about 10 million years. The sea covered
great areas of present day Crete and new, soft sediments were laid out at the depths. Those
are the fertile rocks which we meet in the basins of the island and are constituted by marls,
sandstone and hard yellow-white limestone, all with an abundance of fossils.
Crete however is a place which is always on the move and continually changing. Many of the
faults which shattered its rocks in the past are today still active resulting in sometimes
moving parts of the dry land upwards and other times horizontally. In many coastal areas of
south Crete are to be seen the traces of the movements of the earth with old coast lines
having been raised several hundreds of meters in relation to the present sea level, like the
area of Zakros in Sitia.
The most impressive phenomenon, however, is related with its continuous “journey”
towards the south and which explains also the intense seismicity of the island. Present day
technology allows us, by using satellites, to measure the slightest movements of every area
on the surface of our planet. It has subsequently been found that Crete, just like the whole
of the south Aegean, is pushed southwards by the Anatolia plate extrusion, and thus is
moving approximately 3 centimeters every year towards the south and likewise is distancing
itself from north Greece. Africa on the other side is coming further north by about one
centimeter a year with the result that the two areas, Crete and Africa are coming closer
together by about 4 centimeters every year. All of these movements are happening on the
faults which appear because of the relative movement of the African plate below the
European one with all that it entails. These movements are often accompanied by strong
earthquakes which are not infrequent for the island.
Present day plate kinematics, stress regime and GPS velocities in respect to stable Europe (after Flerit
et al 2004)
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2. The rocks of Sitia Nature Park
The rocks prevailing in the territory of the Sitia Nature Park are mainly of alpine age,
limestone, marble and shale (see geological map). There are three basic rock zones, namely,
the inferior one, which is the Plattenkalk nappe (J?-Ek) and appears at Cavo Sidero area and
north of Mouliana village in the form of platy marble, the intermediate, comprising purple
phyllite and quartzites, of the Phyllites-quartzites nappe (Phq, a, b, c, π, G), and the
superior, made up of limestone, dolomite, flysch, sandstone, clay and conglomerate rocks of
the Tripolitsa nappe (Ts?-E, f). In the Zakros mountain zone and above the other rocks there
occur remnants of the Magassa rock (J-E), comprising mainly white limestone, which are
parts of the Pindos nappe. Over a more limited area, mainly in the northern and central
part, there are more recent post-alpine rocks.
The neogene basin of Zakros and the alpine rocks of Tripolitsa and Phyllites-quartzites on the back
ground. Zakros detachment separates the two units, while a normal fault at the hill side is responsible
for basin development.
Alpine rocks
The Plattenkalk unit, also known also as the ‘Crete-Mani’, is the backbone of Crete, along
which all other rock zones of the island are placed. A variety of different geological
formations constitute the unit, such as white marble, dolomite, shale and others. Sitia region
is best represented by typical platy marble (Plattenkalk). This is a metamorphic limestone
(marble), which appears in thin layers, similar to plates. Between them, there are thin, white
strips or lenses of white silicon material and sponge remnants, which, in many parts of the
island, were used to sharpen metal (grindstone). These rocks were formed from 140 to 30
million years ago, during the Jurassic period. They are encountered in the northeast part of
the Nature Park, namely in the Cavo Sidero cape, as well as in the northwest part near
Kalavros village, where the so called, Kalavros beds, the youngest of Plattenkalk crop out.
The Phyllites-Quartzites zone includes very old metamorphic shale and schist, which goes
back until 380 million years in the area of Chamezi and which was dragged by faults and
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General geological map of Sitia Nature Park based on Creutzburg et al. (1977). Explanation of rock labels in text
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The platy marble in Cavo Sidero
Silica in the platy marble
The purple phyllites of Zakros
Red marbles of PQ in Erimoupolis
Multi-colored schist of PQ near Vai
Quartzite walls near Karydi
Garnet bearing schist near Chamezi
The basal rocks of Tripolitsa in M. Toplou area
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dropped onto the previous nappe. Within these rocks, besides the shale, there are also
marble, volcanic rock and quartzite. Likewise however, we also meet older volcanic rocks
such as andesites and rhyolites which have now also been changed into green schist. Within
the park territory, the most characteristic rocks are purple phyllites, reddish marble, shale
and quartzite, with impressive sites above the village of Karydi and on the coast south of Vai
up to Maridati. There are also impressive rocks in the Zakros and Karydi areas, the most
typical of which are purple phyllites, as well as at the villages of Chamezi where nice garnet
crystals can be found.
Due to being subjected to re-heating and high pressure 23 million years ago, when they
were found buried 40 km deep, the Plattenkalk and Phyllites–quartzite rocks appear strongly
metamorphosed. Today apart from the garnets, quartz crystals can be found within phyllitequartzite rocks and near the faults, iron ores, such limonite.
The rocks prevailing in the region, however, are of the Tripolitsa zone, covering the PhyllitesQuartzites. Tripolitsa was formed during Alpine orogeny and then transported to its present
site by faults. It makes up two main zones, namely, limestone/dolomite and flysch.
The Tripolitsa limestone
Karstified Magassa limestone
The Magassa nappe in Vrysidi area
The flysch of Magassa
Limestone/Dolomite was formed in the Triassic and up to the upper Eocene epochs (i.e. 20050 million years ago) in the surrounding shallow marine waters. This is why it contains
numerous characteristic fossils. Due to its content (made of carbonated calcium, or
magnesium, in the case of dolomite) it has undergone intense karstic erosion and includes
almost all karstic geoformations, such as caves and gorges, while it creates the aquifers of
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the region. At its base the rock tapers into thin dolomite and is mixed with clay sediments
and clay. Such rocks are typically seen in the territory around Toplou Monastery, where
several folds are created. Flysch is more recent (around 50 million years) comprising clay,
sand, shale and conglomerate. Typical sites where it is found are around Kato Zakros,
Karoumes, Mavros Kambos, Skalia, Agia Eirini and along the Xerokambos-Kato Zakros road.
Only in the area of Nature Park the Magassa rocks a typical group of Pindos nappe, can be
found lying over the Tripolitsa zone. The group contains deep-sea, light-coloured limestone
(micro-breccias and oval-shaped limestone), formed around 100 million years ago. Such rock
appear within the territory of the Nature Park around Magassa village (Vrysidi), where they
take their name from, while there are also typical sites along Agia Eirini coast, in the region
between Ziros and Sitanos, as well as on the Platyvolo plateau. Limestone of the Magassa
zone lies over Tripoli rocks, because it was dropped onto this site by thrust faults; these
formations are called nappes and can be found along the Ziros-Xerokambos road and in the
area surrounding the village of Magassa.
Post-Alpine rocks
The more recent rocks of the territory, i.e. the post-Alpine ones, were created when land
already existed in the location of Crete, either in areas that were temporarily covered by the
sea or on dry land. In the region of Sitia these rocks were formed in the Miocene, Pliocene
and Pleistocene (See geological map).
The older Miocene rocks (Mm-s) are known as Scopi formation and include clastic, shallowmarine, sedimentary rocks, namely fossil-bearing sandstone, micro-breccias and clay formed
some 12-10 million years ago. Within the Nature Park grounds, the most characteristic sites
lie in its north part, mainly near the village of Skopi, around Toplou Monastery and around
the Marvro Mouri hill.
The next younger rocks were formed 10-8 million years ago on dry land and they belong to
the Kastri formation. They include layers of reddish conglomerate, sandstone and clay,
typically appearing on Kastri Hill, in the district of Chiona and on Bodalaki beach.
The most recent Miocene rocks (Ms-Pli) are those of the Palekastro formation (7-6 million
years old), comprising more lightly coloured white-yellow limestone and marl, which contain
numerous coral and sea urchin (clypeaster) fossils. Typical sites of such limestone lie north of
Karoumes beach, within Kato Zakros gorge, northwest of Toplou Monastery gorge, along the
central tectonic basin and east of the city of Sitia in the areas near Pantanassa beach and
bay.
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Skopi formation in Toplou area
Kastri hill formation
Palekastro formation in Pantanassa area
Pliocene sediments in Agia Fotia
Quaternary red soils at Rousso Spasma
Quaternary sand dunes on top of Miocene seds
Pliocene rocks (Pl) of the Nature Park (5-3 million years old) appear on the Argilos beach in
Xerokambos, while smaller sites are found along the Katsounaki-Kato Zakros footpath. They
mainly include white to green marls, which contain fragments of fossilized shells. It is worth
noting that the Argilos beach marls present some particular features, namely their high clay
grain content and very dense fissures that create small fragments, easily broken off
manually without any mechanical means. This is what has made the beach famous, because
visitors break off marl clay-rich fragments to smear their bodies.
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The neogene rocks of Sitia area (Modified from Meulenkamp et al. 1979 and Fassoulas 2001)
Finally, the Pleistocene rocks (Pt) of the area appear along the coastal zone and they are 1.5
million – 50.000 years old). These were formed in the most recent geological periods, usually
at sites covered by the sea. They are mainly made up of sandstone and conglomerate with
calcite connective matter and ample fragments with fossilized organisms, such as
echinoderms, gastropods and bivalves. Among them mammal fossils have been found
(hippopotami and deer). These are mainly encountered in the shores of the park, specifically
at Xerokambos, Ambelos, Kato Zakros, the coast of Traostalos and Karoumes Bay.
Besides marine Pleistocene sedimentary rocks, in particular on Katsounaki beach, Agia Fotia
beach and Tenta bay, there is a special type of aeolian rocks, the famous aeolian sandstone
or aeolianite. This is lithified marine dune sand held together by limestone. Due to the
glacier and inter-glacier periods of the Pleistocene, these rocks are found today above sea
level; in antiquity they were often used as building materials and this is confirmed by
numerous ancient quarries found in such locations.
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3. Geodiversity
The area of the Sitia Nature Park is home to a significant geological heritage, representative
of the natural characteristics and the formation of Crete. A total of approximately 100
geosites have been recorded within the limits of the Park, most of which were evaluated on
the basis of their importance to education, tourism and their need to be protected and
preserved. The geosites of the Natural Park have been categorized based on their natural
and scientific characteristic features in various categories.
Landforms
Chandras plateau
Kato Peristeras’ cave entrance
Tafoni in Moni Toplou gorge
Tafoni near Moni Toplou
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The impressive territorial relief is due to the particularity of its rocks, its geological evolution
and, mainly, the changes that occurred to dry land and the sea. Rock fragmentation due to
faulting is reflected on the steep banks and imposing cliffs. The prevailing limestone, albeit
hard and rough, is literally dissolved by rainwater through karstic erosion and it leads to
gradual limestone removal.
The outcome of this process is the presence of smaller or bigger cavities scattered on the
mountain massif; there are potholes, dolines and large plateaus, within which erosion debris
is collected. This is rich in clay, sand and various iron and manganese containing metals; their
rich colouring creates the fertile terra rosa. Typical of this area are the plateaus of Chandras,
Ziros, Zakanthos, Platyvolo, Sitanos, Mavros Kambos and numerous smaller ones. Most of
them were used for various agricultural activities, some of which are still continued in the
larger ones among them.
In a similar manner the wind erodes the loose conglomerate rock of the coastal zone; these
aging formations are known as tafoni. Tafoni are small, mainly irregular cavities created by
the erosive action of the wind on coastal zones. The term comes either from the Greek word
‘taphos’ meaning ‘tomb’ or, more likely, from the Sicilian and Corsican word ‘taffoni’
meaning ‘window’. These formations are usually created on volcanic rock or sandstone;
because they keep evolving they may soon be destroyed.
Tafoni vary in dimensions from a few centimetres to tens of metres and may appear as
single cavities or in cellular arrays. In effect, the humidity drifts in along the coastal zone,
due to the wind from the sea, and dissolves – similar to karstic erosion - the connective
substance of the rocks, i.e. calcium carbonate. This results in continuous removal of harder
materials and enlargement of the cavity.
Such formations are quite rare and the diversity of their shapes and transient appearance
render them particularly important. Within the Nature Park they dominate the Toplou
Monastery gorge and the surrounding area, where Miocene sandstone, as well as foci of
volcanic rocks are encountered around Vai.
Tectonic structures
Being on top of the Hellenic subduction zone and the result of the most recent in Europe,
orogenic process the island of Crete exposes all kind of tectonic structures at all its extend.
In the area of Sitia Nature mark these structures comprise mainly of big thrusts, normal
faults and small scale folding.
The characteristic nappe structure of Crete is obvious in many areas especially at the Sitia
Mountains where compressional tectonics have emplaced rock units over others. The most
impressive nappes are those of Magassa group over Tripolitsa at Adravastoi and Xirolimni,
and of Tripolitsa over Phyllite-quartzites in the areas of Katsounaki, Katsidoni and Karydi. In
the broader area of Erimoupolis the contact between Tripolitsa and Phyllites-quartzites is an
impressive detachment fault.
The normal faults are bounding the Neogene basins forming the steep cliffs at the mountain
foothills. Their impact on landscape development as well as on underground water
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Magassa thrust on top of Tripolitsa flysch in Chametoulo
Tripolitsa thrust in Karydi
Chametoulo normal fault
Mouliana active fault
Large scale folding and thrust in Phyllite-quartzites
Small scale folding in Phyllite-quartzites
The Kato Zakros coastal fault-fountain
The Kato Zakros coastal fault-fountain(detail)
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circulation is fundamental. Such faults can be seen all around the mountainous areas, while
nice fault scarps occur at the areas of Chametoulo and Agrilia. A big fault scarp on the
mountainous area of Mouliana is considered as possible active.
A spectacular structure however, can be seen on the northern end of Kato Zakros bay.
There, a normal fault margining the Tripolitsa limestone of Traostallos Mountain with flysch
deposits of the basin penetrates in the sea. Fresh water rises up from the limestone just at
the sea level, from a small hole on the fault scarp creating, depending upon tide and waves,
a small fountain.
Foldings can be also found mainly within the Phyllite-quartzite rocks and at the base of
Tripolitsa nappe. These are due to the Alpine orogenessis and occur in all scales. A large
syncline is formed in the area of Erimoupolis from the bending of the red marble horizons,
while much smaller occur within Phyllitic and calcareous rocks of the nappe.
Caves
Caves are of the most spectacular features of Sita Nature Park. Most of the caves in the area
are found in “Tripolitsa” limestone. Due to the great extent of these rocks and the existence
at their base of impermeable slate and phyllitic rocks, the caves are not very deep; yet, they
are very long. To date, exploration of the caves just in the broader area of Karydi has
revealed subterranean courses longer than 10 kilometers, a feature unique to Crete. They
appear as an effect of karstic erosion on carbonate rocks. This process creates a plethora of
surface and subterranean cavities within carbonate rocks, resulting in water penetrating
them and being lost from the surface of the Earth. Thus, caves are nothing more than
subterranean rivers in the position where surface rivers are absent, which lead the water
either to springs or to the sea. When a cave ceases to function as a subterranean river,
either because it runs out of water or because the water finds a different, deeper route, the
cave decoration is formed. In many of the caves in the area, the water dripping from the
small cracks in its walls, leaves behind part of the dissolved calcium carbonate that it carries,
in the form of multicoloured and multiform stalactites, stalagmites, curtains and other
distinctive forms of speleodecoration.
Many of the caves of the area have wonderful decorations and characteristic lithomatic
formations which are living monuments of the geological heritage of the region. These are
accessible to ordinary travelers – visitors to the Nature Park, with or without a cave guide
escort. These caves have not been touristically developed, and, therefore, have no safe
access infrastructure. This means that visitors must at least be equipped with a speleological
helmet and torch (which they can borrow from the Visitor Information Center in Karydi) and
appropriate footwear. Some of the easiest caves to access in the area are:
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Pelekita cave
Vorino Cave
Ano Peristeras cave
Chonos Sitanou cave
Karydi area
A markedly large cave number has been noted in the area of Karydi, throughout the entire
limestone formation. The caves of the area have the distinctive feature of a small surface
opening and steep slopes, and in many cases they are very long, heading deep into the
bowels of the Earth. Due to these dimensions, only specialized and experienced
speleologists can enter and explore the interior in most of them. In some of the caves,
mainly those at the edges of plateaus, the entrance is no more than a sinkhole or chasm,
which requires climbing or use of special equipment so as to gain access, and, thus, only a
few meters from the cave’s entrance is visible, some examples being the caves of Oxo
Latsidi, Chonos and Ano Peristera, while the rest of their length remains a secret.
In the broader region more than 170 caves have been recorded to date, with a total of more
than 10 kilometers of charted tunnels. This unique speleological park is a real paradise for
speleologists, biospeleologists and other researchers of the subterranean world.
Speleogocial teams from Greece, France and other countries have been active in the area
since 1997 and have turned Karydi into a center for research and study of caves and other
karst geoforms.
Speleological research and records in the area started in 1997 by French speleologist Jean
Luc Carron, of the French L.U.C. (Lille Universitaire Club) speleological team. Alongside him
on his annual missions are members of the Speleological Society of Crete. Other associations
are also involved exploratory and recording activity in the area, such as the Cretan Branch of
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Plane map of Karydi area caves
the Greek Speleological Society, and others. Information and infrastructure for the
speleological research of the area is available at the Information Center in Karydi.
Pelekita (meaning ‘hewn’)
It has been named after the broader area where there is an ancient quarry. With a length of
approximately 310 meters, it lies to the north east of the hamlet of Kato Zakros, at an
altitude of 100 meters. Apart from its great aesthetic value, thanks to the rich decoration
that covers almost all its halls, it is one of the most important archaeological caves in the
region, as traces of habitation dating back to the Neolithic era were discovered inside. One
can access it by following European hiking trail E4 that starts in Kato Zakros and follows
almost the entire coastline.
Kato Peristera
It is one of the most important caves in what was formerly known as the province of Sitia. It
lies approximately two and a half kilometers to the east of the hamlet of Karydi, at Platyvola
position, at an altitude of 540 meters. It is rich in stone decoration and has a total explored
length of 170 meters of corridors. In Kato Peristera traces of a Neolithic settlement were
found, as well as human bones contained within stalagmites at the lowest point of the cave.
Petsofas
At an altitude of 80 meters, approximately 500 meters to the south west of the sanctuary of
Rousolakkos, the mouth of the cave of Petsofas is clearly visible. It received its name from
the hill of the same name. It is a very small cave (approximately 5 x 3 meters) of great
archaeological value. This is because of the broken amphoras and a carved “libation table”
found in it that echo of the hypothesis also made about Anemospilia and Hosto Nero caves
in Giouchtas, that ceremonies performed here included human sacrifices (Paule Faure,
2004:159).
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Impressive stalagmite at Platyvolo cave
Platyvolo cave
Galliko Kefali
One of the most beautiful caves is the area of Sitanos. It can be reached by approximately
half an hour’s walk through intensely karstic scenery. The cave has a small opening in the
ground and it is no longer than 100 meters. It is, however, steep and requires some mild up
and down climbing in order for one to go from one chamber to the next. Visitors must be
particularly careful to avoid spoiling any of the rare speleodecorations that cover the
entirety of the walls.
Distinctive caves that are, however, open only to experienced speleologists, are Oxo Latsidi,
Chonos in Sitanos, Platyvolo, Latsida in Chonos, Dadoulas and Ano Peristeras, which
compose a system of underground ducts that are very dangerous during the winter.
The value of the area’s caves for life is enormous. Through them water returns to the
surface, forming the springs of Zakros, Flega, Zou and many others, smaller in supply, but
not small in ecological value. Many animals, such as bats, invertebrates and insects find
refuge or live only in caves, while people used many of the caves as places of refuge, of
worship, such as Pelekita, or for the burial of their dead, as in Farangi ton Nekron (Gorge of
the Dead).
The caves of the region have not been touristically developed, and access to them is
forbidden by Archaeological legislature. This fact does not take away from the enjoyment of
taking a tour of them; on the contrary, it increases the fun of touring, as visitors entering
such a ‘virgin’ environment, experience the magic and awe of exploring and discovering. In
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any case, entrance to the area’s cave requires prior notification of and permission from the
Local Antiquities Authority.
Gorges – Old coastlines
Sitia, more than anywhere else on Crete, is where vertical land shifts are so apparent. In
particular along the coastal zone, from Xerokambos to Karoumes, the old coastlines appear
as flat zones parallel to the shoreline or terraces, in the form of successive steps. In the
lowest terraces of the Zakros-Xerokambos area, hippopotamus and deer fossils have been
found. The bones of these animals drifted along the water after the organisms died and
were dropped onto the coastline of that time, where they were buried in the sand and
fossilised.
Xerokampos coastal area
Kato Zakros palaeo-teracces
Kato Zakros or Dead’s gorge
Agia Eirini gorge
Where vertical land elevations are combined with the presence of limestone, gorges are
created. The higher the rocks elevate above sea level, the more intense the dissolution of
limestone and marble becomes. This means that the water digs the rocks more deeply and
gorges are formed. Gorges start at the feet of mountains, where the old faults that elevated
the rocks are, and penetrate inwards. In older times gorges were the only gates through
which humans had access into the hinterland mountain zone. Even today, there are
cobblestone stretches left along the old footpaths. The most impressive gorges are those of
Ano and Kato Zakros, Chochlakies, Maza and Toplou.
21
Coastal gorges can also be created following the collapse of sea cave roofs: the process
starts with an elongated inlet, which is gradually widened further by surface and marine
water. This is how Agia Eirini, Katsounaki and Vathis Potamos gorges were formed.
Fossils
The oldest fossils have been found in the phyllites of Palekastro district and are plant
residues (ferns) of the carboniferous period (~380 million years). Typical and fairly common
for this territory are also rudist fossils, around 70 million years old, located at several sites
within the Tripolitsa limestone; the most typical site is the gorge above the Epano Zakros
spring.
The Miocene era is represented within the park by one of the most impressive and
significant fossils, that of the Deinotherium giganteum, an animal related to the elephant.
Parts of the deinotherium’s skeleton have been found at three sites within the park, near
the hamlets of Agia Fotia, Epano Zakros and Maronia. These are the only places in Crete
where such fossils have been found. Today, the deinotherium findings from the Kato Zakros
excavation are on display at the Natural History Museum of Crete, in Heraklion, and some of
their copies are exhibited at the Natural History Museum of Zakros.
The Cretan Deinotherium belongs to the gigantic species, 4,5 meters high and 6 meters long,
that lived on the island 9 million years ago. On the basis of the bones collected to date from
Agia Fotia excavation site, which include 20 of the 22 teeth of the animal, it is estimated that
it was 4.5-5 m tall and 6 m long. All findings and excavation data indicate that the bones
come from the same individual. The Deinotherium of Sitia is a rare find, since only few whole
skeletons have been found around the globe. According to related international literature,
the Deinotherium of Sitia is one of the largest animals that have ever lived. It was third
largest terrestrial mammal ever lived on the Earth and definitely the largest animal that ever
lived on the island and the whole of Greece!
Besides the Deinotherium, a swine ancestor and a mastodon also lived here in the Miocene
period, as indicated by findings of fossilised teeth discovered near Agia Fotia and in the Kato
Zakros gorge, respectively. Just recently tourists found a tooth from Gomphotherium, an
ancestor of Elephants in Kato Zakros gorge, indicating how important scientifically is the
particular area of eastern Crete.
Marine organism fossils of this period have been found at various sites and include:
• Fishes, found within Palekastro limestone in the area of Pantanassa;
• Corals, typically found within reef limestone, mainly on Karoumes beach, within the
Kato Zakros gorge and north-west of the Toplou Monastery gorge;
• Sea-urchins (Clypeaster) and bivalves (Chlamys) within marl and marlstone, typical
specimens found north of Karoumes beach;
• Various foraminifera.
22
Roudists in Epano Zakros gorge
The Deinotherium findings in Agia Fotia
Miocene corals in Moni Toplou gorge
Clypeasters in Karoumes bay
Fish fossil in Palekastro limestone
Late Miocene Bi-valves from Tenda bay
Hippo jaw from Kato Zakros
Pleistocene mollusks in Rousso Spasma
23
The Pleistocene era is represented within the park territory with significant mammal fossils
that used to live in the region; today are encountered in many sites, mainly on coastal
locations; these mammals include the following:
• Deer (Candiacervus cretensis),
• Hippopotami (Hippopotamus creutzburgi),
• Elephants (Elephas antiquus),
• Mice (Kritimys catreus, Kritimys, Clemmys)
Bone fragments of such animals have been found mainly on coastal caves and karstic cavities
created within limestone rocks of the region, and, particularly, within the thin red clay
sediments of their floors. Such sites have been identified in the area surrounding Mt.
Traostalos, around Karoumes Bay, on Fangromouro Hill and at Xerokambos. Exceptionally,
similar fossils have been found on surface locations (benches) of these red clay sediments,
as in the cases of Kato Zakros and Fangromouro.
Besides mammals, on marine Pleistocene terraces there are marine organism fossils, such as
bivalves (Glycimeris) in the Ambelos Bay region at Xerokambos, on Katsounaki beach and
over the entire coastal front from Xerokambos to Karoumes Bay.
Fossilized coral reef at Karoumes bay
24
4. Geosite Assessment
The area of Sitia Nature Park is the host for several important and peculiar geosites, some of
them unique not only for Crete but also for Greece, whereas some can also be considered as
of international scientific value. The most complete study for the identification and
evaluation of geosites of Crete (Fassoulas et al 2007) has identified four geosites of National
and possible International importance, that of Vai beach and palm forest, the Hercynian
rocks at Chamezi, Kalavros beds and the Zakros palaeo-shorelines. In addition, Itanos
(Erimoupoli) detachment, Epano Zakros spring, and Pelekita cave and have been evaluated
as of regional importance.
During the implementation of an INTERREG IIIC project called GEOTOPIA a detailed
inventory of geosites haves en undertaken focused on the central and eastern part of the
Sitia Nature Park. A total number of about 96 geosites have been finally recorded within the
limits of the Park, most of which (83, as caves were not included) were then evaluated on
the basis of their importance to education, tourism and their need to be protected and
preserved, following international methodologies like the one proposed by Fassoulas et al.
(2012).
Various criteria, like scientific, aesthetic, ecological, cultural, economic etc., have been used
to assess the touristic and educational values, as well as the conservation needs for each of
the afore mentioned geosites. The detailed results are to be found in the following table.
The geosites of the Park are characterized by a specific reference code and most of them are
presented on the website of the park and the geotrail leaflets and maps. The most important
geosites from each category will be presented in brief below.
Vai beach and Palm Forest
25
Sitia Nature Park geosite assessment based on the formula proposed by Fassoulas et al. (2012). Vedu
refers to the educational value; Vtour to the touristic value; and Vprot, to the conservation needs; 10 is
the top score; not applied for caves.
Geosite Code
1.
1.1.
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.2.
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6
1.2.7
1.3.
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.3.6.
1.3.7.
1.3.8
1.4.
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
1.4.6
1.4.7
1.4.8
1.4.9
1.5.
1.5.1.
1.5.2.
1.5.3.
1.5.4.
1.5.5.
Geosite Name
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL
ROCK FORMS
Mavro Mouri
Toplou Tafoni
Limestone sculptures
Quartzite walls in Karydi
Small meteora
Kastri hill
COASTAL LANDFORMS
Katsounaki sand dunes
Psili Ammos sand dunes
Xerokampos Salt Marsh
Chiona salt marsh
Agia Anna bay
Vai palm forest and bay
Vathis Potamos bay
KARSTIC LANDFORMS
Mavros Kampos plateau
Zakanthos plateau
Chandras plateau
Ziros plateau
Karrens
Sitanos doline
Lamnoni doline
Limnes plateau, Mouliana
GORGES
Katsounaki gorge
Kato Zakros gorge
Epano Zakros 1 gorge
Epano Zakros 2 gorge
Chochlakies gorge
Xerokampos gorge
Maza gorge
Moni Toplou gorge
Richtis gorge and waterfalls
CAVES
Pelekita
Kato Zakros gorge
Kato Peristeras
Ano Peristeras
Charalampi Latsida
26
Vedu
Vtour
Vprot
2,88
5,23
4,15
4,26
3,68
5,05
2,44
5,61
4,31
5,64
4,37
6,63
2,44
3,38
3,17
2,63
2,90
2,88
4,89
4,41
5,63
4,05
3,70
5,98
2,96
3,02
2,68
3,78
3,93
3,20
6,97
3,28
3,41
3,24
4,42
3,56
4,83
3,17
2,57
2,73
3,53
2,90
2,90
3,31
3,38
3,48
4,62
4,62
2,94
4,17
4,00
4,50
4,50
1,91
2,98
3,58
3,90
6,00
7,58
3,38
4,80
3,88
4,25
3,73
6,95
6,30
4,80
6,48
3,11
5,17
3,77
4,14
3,55
5,68
7,10
3,83
4,17
4,33
3,00
3,83
2,06
2,83
4,33
4,17
1.5.6.
1.5.7.
1.5.8.
1.5.9.
1.5.10.
1.5.11.
1.5.12
1.5.13
2.
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.1.8
2.2.
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
3.
3.1.
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.1.7
3.2.
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.3.
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
4.
4.1.
4.1.1
Plativolo
Chonos Chonou
Oxo Latsidi
Chonos Sitanou
Galiko Kefali
Dadoula latsida
Mikro Katofygi
Megalo Katofygi
GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS
PETROLOGICAL
Kavo Sidero platy marble
Megali Kefala schists
Erimoupoli Red marbles
Adravasti purple phyllites
Maridati multicolored metamorphics
Tripolitsa flysch
Clay at Argilos beach
Kalavros beds
STRATIGRAPHIC
Karoumes unconformity
Rousso Spasma
Agia Fotia unconformity
TEKTONIC
TECTONIC CONTACTS
Erimoupolis thrust
Katsidoni thrust
Kato Zakros thrust
Xirolimni thrust
Adravastoi thrust
Skalia thrust
Katsounaki thrust
FAULTS
Xerokampos scarp
Chametoulo scarp
Mouliana fault
FOLDS
Phyllites-quartzites fold
Magassa fold
MICROTECTONIC STRUCTURES
Magasa microtectonic structures
Magassa Tectonic conglomerate
HYDROGEOLOGIC
SPRINGS
Karydi
27
4,60
4,60
4,16
3,41
5,78
4,45
4,95
4,18
3,64
2,94
3,70
5,17
6,28
5,30
3,83
4,24
2,71
2,78
2,34
3,80
4,00
3,83
3,44
3,50
3,43
5,45
3,80
4,12
3,94
4,77
2,50
3,28
3,50
4,00
2,90
4,10
6,10
4,25
2,68
3,85
3,40
3,40
4,17
5,83
5,20
3,22
4,17
3,04
3,17
3,04
3,83
3,67
2,33
2,71
4,85
3,80
3,30
4,00
4,07
3,95
4,38
3,73
3,17
4,80
4,20
3,47
3,87
2,88
3,21
4,80
3,50
4,94
3,50
3,67
3,67
4,58
5,52
4,67
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.7
5.
5.1.
5.1.1
5.2.
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.2.7
5.2.8
5.2.9
5.3.
5.3.1.
5.3.2.
6.
6.1.
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.7
6.2.
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.2.7
Epano Zakros
Flega
Skalia
Moni Toplou gorge
Zou
Zakros fault-fountain
FOSSILIFEROUS SITES
UPPER CRETACEOUS
Roudists
MIOCENE
Zakros deinotherium
Gela deinotherium
Kato Zakros corals
Karoumes corals
Moni Toplou corals
Tenda echinoids and bivalves
Trapeza echinoids and bivalves
Agia Fotia echinoids and bivalves
Faneromeni echinoids and bivalves
PLEISTOCENE
Fangromouro cave
Vorino cave
GEOCULTURAL
GEOARCHAEOLOGIC
Petrokopio ancient quarry
Katsounaki ancient quarry
Molivokamino ancient quarry
Pelekita ancient quarry
Petsofas peak Sanctuary
Voila Venetian castle
Voila spring
GEO FOLKLORE
Chonos abandoned stone buildings
Lydia abandoned stone buildings
Kamares abandoned stone buildings
Skalia abandoned stone buildings
Cobble trails Magasa-Mitato
Lamnoni cobble path
Karydi – Agios Ioannis cobble trail
6,43
5,43
3,95
5,95
3,55
4,58
5,49
3,14
3,08
3,11
3,05
4,53
5,00
3,67
4,00
3,61
4,17
4,33
3,11
2,33
3,27
1,91
3,23
2,83
3,95
3,25
2,88
3,08
2,55
3,53
1,96
2,22
2,81
3,01
2,34
2,12
2,32
2,90
5,44
4,63
5,73
3,03
4,17
2,04
3,40
2,73
3,00
3,50
3,83
3,73
3,73
4,33
3,83
6,11
2,58
3,94
3,27
3,27
3,87
3,94
5,81
3,18
3,57
2,04
2,04
2,28
3,57
3,32
4,17
3,51
3,31
3,31
2,55
4,34
3,44
3,51
4,10
4,10
4,10
2,90
5,23
5,08
4,30
3,97
3,80
3,80
3,67
5,13
3,97
3,80
4.4.1 Geomorphological
The most characteristic terrestrial geosites of the area are the Tafoni in the canyon of
Toplou Monastery (1.1.2). It consists of impressive sepulcher type erosion born geoforms,
28
Tafoni at Moni Toplou gorge
Sand dunes at Katsounaki beach
Alatsolimni at Xerokampos area
Zakanthos plateau
Waterfalls at Richtis gorge
Chochlakies gorge
29
which are created in the conglomerates and sandstones of the Miocene, and which form
cavities of various dimensions and forms.
Of the coastal geosites, particularly important, mainly for the ecosystems they are home to,
are the various forms of sand dunes on Katsounaki beach in Xerokambos (1.2.1) and in Psili
Ammos, next to Vai (1.2.2), as well as the salt marshes of Xerokambos (Alatsolimni, 1.2.3)
and in Chiona (1.2.4).
The karstic geosites appear in the limestone formation, which mainly concern plateaus, such
as those of Zakanthos (1.3.2), Chandras (1.3.3) and Ziros (1.3.5).
The canyons, however are the most important and most numerous geosites of the Nature
Park. Most of them are of special aesthetic beauty, crossed by streams for the greatest part
of the year (Katsounaki 1.4.1, Kato Zakros 1.4.2, Chochlakia 1.4.5, Toplou Monastery 1.4.8
and Richtis 1.4.9), and are home to rare and indigenous species of local flora; some, like
those of Kato Zakros (1.4.2) and Chochlakies (1.4.5), are also of archaeological importance.
Most canyons in the territory are crossed by paths and routes easily accessed by visitors.
4.4.2 Geological positions
Positions of special geological interest concern unique sights of typical rocks of the Nature
Park. The district of Plakoures in Cavo Sidero cape (2.1.1) is the only place in the region
where visitors can observe the lower rocks of the platy marbles of the Plattenkalk group, as
well as the Kalavros (2.1.8) is the only area where the youngest rocks of the group are to be
found.
On the beach of Megali Kefala (2.1.2), south of Vai, as well as on the beach of Maridati
(2.1.5), there are multicoloured metamorphic Phyllite – quartzite rocks, which create a
unique seaside landscape. A similar position of special aesthetic beauty can be found in
Adravasti (2.1.4), where characteristic purple phyllites of the Phyllite – Quartzite group are
visible and dominant in the entire area of Zakros.
Megali Kefala Bay
30
Another position of geotourism interest is the southern edge of Xerokambos, on the wellknown beach of Argilos (2.1.7) where Pliocene marl is found. This marl has two special
features: a high content of clay and intense fragmentation. Thus, it can be easily broken off
by hand and used by bathers who want to apply natural clay to their body!
4.4.3 Stratigraphical
In several areas of the Nature Park there are consecutive layer deposits which indicate
significant gaps in the geological evolution of the area or crucial turning points in-between
the formation of the rocks. Thus, on the beach of Karoumes (2.2.1) and on Agia Fotia (2.2.3),
there are strata unconformities, of very different ages and compositions placed one on top
of the other.
4.4.4 Tectonic
Tectonic geosites concern breaks in the Earth on which either whole groups of rocks have
moved horizontally (thrust), or there is significant vertical repositioning of rocks (faults). The
most characteristic ones are the thrust of Erimopoulis (3.1.1), Kato Zakros (3.1.3) and
Katsidoni (3.1.2), which are appearances of the Cretan Detachment Fault that places the
rock formations of Tripolitsa on the Phyllite – quartzite rocks, and also the thrust in
Katsounaki (3.1.7) of the Magasa unit on the Tripolitsa rock formations.
Lastly, the mirrors of the faults in Agrilia (3.2.1) and Chametoulo (3.2.2) are typical of the
territory.
4.4.5 Hydrogeological - Springs
The rich springs of the region compose its hydrogeological geosites. Most of them are of
vital importance for the hamlets and the town of Sitia, while several more, of smaller water
supply, are particularly important, as they sustain small seasonal bogs and sensitive
ecosystems. The most important springs, hydrologically speaking, are those of Epano Zakros
(4.1.2), Flega (4.1.3), Zou (4.1.6) and Karydi (4.1.1), while particularly important for the
ecosystems are Skalia (4.1.4) and the gorge of Toplou Monastery (4.1.5). The Zakros faultfountain (4.1.7) is a site of combination between tectonic, coastal and hydrologic origin and
very rare.
4.4.6 Fossil bearing positions
Overall there are many sites in the area with important or characteristic fossils of the Sitia
Nature Park. The most important ones concern the finds of the Deinotherium giganteum, in
Gela, Agia Fotia (5.2.2), where the most important fossils were found, and in Agios Efraim
(5.2.1) in Zakros. Excavations in both sites have been completed. Equally important positions
with Miocene coral and bivalve fossils are located on the beach of Karoumes (5.2.4) and in
the gorge of Toplou Monastery (5.2.5), while in the rock formations of Tripolitsa and in
many other positions, there are rudist fossils approximately 70 million years old, as, for
example, in the gorge of Epano Zakros (5.1.1).
31
Small pools and fresh water spring at M. Toplou gorge
4.4.7 Geocultural
Geocultural geosites mainly refer to sites of ancient quarries and traditional constructions
using local rocks. The most important quarries are the Petrokopio in Kalamaki, Itanos
(6.1.1), which is said to have provided the construction materials for ancient Itanos. In the
ancient quarry one can see the characteristic man-made incisions in the rolled limestone, as
well as rudimentary pillars. Equally important are the quarries in Pelekita (6.1.4), next to the
cave of the same name, and in Molyvokamino (6.1.3) on the Katsounaki – Zakros route,
located within Pliocene limestone sandstone.
Lastly, as far as typical constructions and traditional hamlets are concerned, the Venetian
castle of Voila in Chandras, with its small springs (6.1.6), is one of the most important sights
of the area, along with the traditional hamlets of Chonos (6.2.1), Kamares (6.2.3), and Skalia
(6.2.4). It is also worth mentioning the parts of old cobbled roads that connected the
hamlets, which have been preserved to this day between the hamlets of Magasas – Mitato
(6.2.5), Karydi – Agios Antonios (6.2.7), as well as in Lamnoni location (6.2.6), which
compose part of the park’s geopath route.
32
5. Selected literature
Antonarakou, A., Dermitzakis, M.D., Drinia, H., Triantaphyllou, M. & Tsaparas, N. (2000).
Study of the Late Miocene fauna of Faneromeni section, eastern Crete.
Biostratigraphical implications and cyclostratigraphical patterns. Proceedings Interim
Colloquium RCMNS, Patras, May 1998, Geological Society of Greece, Special
Publications, No 9, 3-8.
Baumann, A., Best, G., Gwosdz, W. & Wachendorf, H. (1976). The nappe pile of eastern
Crete. Tectonophysics, 30, 33–40.
Bonneau, M. (1984). Correlation of the Hellenic Nappes in the south-east Aegean and their
tectonic reconstruction. In: The Geological Evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean (Ed.
by J.E. Dixon and A.H.F. Robertson), Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 17, 517–527.
Caputo R. Catalano S., Monaco C., Romagnoli G., Tortorici G. & Tortorici L. (2010). Active
faulting on the island of Crete, (Greece). Geophys. J. Int. (2010). doi: 10.1111/j.1365246X.2010.04749.x
Craddock, J.P., Klein, T., Kowalczyk, G. and Zulauf, G., (2009). Calcite twinning strains in
Alpine orogen flysch: implications for thrust-nappe mechanics and the geodynamics of
Crete. Lithosphere, 1, 174–191, doi:10.1130/L31.1
Creutzburg, N., Drooger, C.W., Meulenkamp, J.E., Papastamatiou, J., Seidel, E. & Tataris A.,
(1977). Geological map of Crete (1:200.000). IGME, Athens
Dermitzakis M. & Papanikolaou D. (1981). Paleogeography and geodynamics of the Aegean
region during the Neogene. Ann. Geol. De Pays Hellen., Hors., 3: 246-290.
Dermitzakis, M.D., Pomoni-Papaioannou, F. & Drinia, H. (1996). Lithofacial, sedimentological
and technical characteristics of the Neogene Building stones extracted from Skopi-Sitia
(E.Crete). Eurocare-Euromarble EU 496, Workshop 7, October 21-23. p. 121-127.
Dermitzakis M., & de Vos J., (1987). Faunal succession and evolution of mammals in Crete
during the Pleistocene. Neues Jahrbuch Geologischer und Palaeontologischer, Abh., 173,
377-408.
Dermitzakis, M.D. & H. Drinia, (1998). Sedimentology and paleoenvironmental conditions of
origin of concretions in Sitia region, E. Crete. Bull. of the Geological Society of Greece,
Proceedings of the 8th International Congress, Patras, May, 1998, vol. XXXII/2, p. 351357.
Drandaki – Theodosiou I., Nakov R., Wimblendon, W.A.P,….& Mijovic D. (2004): IUGS
Geosites project progress- A first attempt at a common framework list for south-eastern
European Countries. In: Parkes. M.A. (ed) "Natural and Cultural Landscapes: the
geological foundation", Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 81-89.
Fassoulas, C. (1999). The structural evolution of central Crete: Insight into the tectonic
evolution of the South Aegean (Greece). J. Geodynamics, 27/1, 23-43
Fassoulas, C. (2001). Field Guide to the Geology of Crete, Natural History Museum of Crete
Publ., Irakleion, pp.104.
Fassoulas C. & Staridas S. (2012a). Peculiar Tafoni Structures at Sitia Nature Park: A
preliminary study. In:11th European Geoparks Conference, Proc. V. 105-106pp. Aruca,
Portugal.
33
Fassoulas C. & Staridas S. (2012b). The use of modern technologies in assessing geosites and
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* The present report has been prepared by Nature Park staff based on the Management Plan and the
relative reports contacted under the implementation of “GEOTOPIA” project, funded under INTERREG IIIC
Greece- Cyprus transnational collaboration.
35

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