cassell douglas educated haig soldier

Battle of the Somme
“The Somme” redirects here. For the region, see Somme
(department).
For other meanings, see Battle of the Somme (disambiguation).
Anglo-French armies failed to capture Péronne and were
still 3 miles (4.8 km) from Bapaume, where the German
armies maintained their positions over the winter. British
attacks in the Ancre valley resumed in January 1917 and
forced the Germans into local withdrawals to reserve lines
in February, before the scheduled retirement to the Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) began in March. The
battle has been controversial since 1916 over its necessity, significance and effect.
The Battle of the Somme (French: Bataille de la Somme,
German: Schlacht an der Somme), also known as the
Somme Offensive, was a battle of the First World War
fought by the armies of the British and French empires
against the German Empire. It took place between 1
July and 18 November 1916 on both sides of the River
Somme in France. It was one of the largest battles of 1
World War I, in which more than 1,000,000 men were
wounded or killed, making it one of the bloodiest bat- 1.1
tles in human history. A Franco-British commitment
to an offensive on the Somme had been made during
Allied discussions at Chantilly, Oise, in December 1915.
The Allies agreed upon a strategy of combined offensives
against the Central Powers in 1916, by the French, Russian, British, and Italian armies, with the Somme offensive as the Franco-British contribution. The main part of
the offensive was to be made by the French Army, supported on the northern flank by the Fourth Army of the
British Expeditionary Force (BEF).
When the German Army began the Battle of Verdun
on the Meuse on 21 February 1916, many French divisions intended for the Somme were diverted and the
supporting attack by the British became the principal effort. The first day on the Somme (1 July) was a serious
defeat for the German Second Army, which was forced
out of its first line of defence by the French Sixth Army,
from Foucaucourt-en-Santerre south of the Somme to
Maricourt on the north bank and by the British Fourth
Army from Maricourt to the vicinity of the Albert–
Bapaume road. The First Day on the Somme was also
the worst day in the history of the British Army, which
had c. 60,000 casualties, mainly on the front between
the Albert–Bapaume road and Gommecourt, where the
attack was defeated and few British troops reached the
German front line. The British Army on the Somme was
a mixture of the remains of the pre-war regular army,
the Territorial Force and the Kitchener Army, which was
composed of Pals battalions, recruited from the same
places and occupations.
Background
Strategic developments
The Western Front 1915–1916.
Allied war strategy for 1916 was decided at the Chantilly
Conference from 6–8 December 1915. Simultaneous offensives on the Eastern Front by the Russian army, on
the Italian Front by the Italian army, and on the Western
Front by the Franco-British armies, were to be carried
out to deny time for the Central Powers to move troops
between fronts during lulls. In December 1915, General Sir Douglas Haig replaced General Sir John French
as Commander-in-Chief of the BEF. Haig favoured a
British offensive in Flanders close to BEF supply routes,
to drive the Germans from the Belgian coast and end the
U-boat threat from Belgian waters.[1] Haig was not formally subordinate to Joffre but the British played a lesser
role on the Western Front and complied with French strategy. In January 1916, Joffre had agreed to the BEF making its main effort in Flanders, but in February 1916 it
was decided to mount a combined offensive where the
The battle is notable for the importance of air power and
the first use of the tank. At the end of the battle, British
and French forces had penetrated 6 miles (9.7 km) into
German-occupied territory, taking more ground than any
offensive since the Battle of the Marne in 1914. The
1
2
1
BACKGROUND
French and British armies met, astride the Somme River
in Picardy before the British offensive in Flanders.[2] A
week later the Germans began an offensive against the
French at Verdun. The costly defence of Verdun forced
the French army to commit divisions intended for the
Somme offensive, eventually reducing the French contribution to 13 divisions in the Sixth Army, against 20
British divisions.[3] By 31 May, the ambitious FrancoBritish plan for a decisive victory, had been reduced to
a limited offensive to relieve pressure on the French at
Verdun with a battle of attrition on the Somme.[4]
May, Joffre and Haig had changed their expectations of
an offensive on the Somme, from a decisive battle to a
hope that it would relieve Verdun and keep German divisions in France, which would assist the Russian armies
conducting the Brusilov Offensive. The German offensive at Verdun was suspended in July, and troops, guns,
and ammunition were transferred to Picardy, leading to a
similar transfer of the French Tenth Army to the Somme
front. Later in the year, the Franco-British were able to
attack on the Somme and at Verdun sequentially and the
French recovered much of the ground lost on the east
[9]
The Chief of the German General Staff, Erich von bank of the Meuse in October and December.
Falkenhayn, intended to end the war by splitting the
Anglo-French Entente in 1916, before its material supe1.1.2 Brusilov Offensive
riority became unbeatable. Falkenhayn planned to defeat the large amount of reserves which the Entente could
Main article: Brusilov Offensive
move into the path of a breakthrough, by threatening a
sensitive point close to the existing front line and provoking the French into counter-attacking German positions. The Brusilov Offensive (4 June–20 September), absorbed
Falkenhayn chose to attack towards Verdun to take the the extra forces that had been requested on 2 June by
Meuse heights and make the city untenable. The French General von Below, the Second Army commander, for a
would have to conduct a counter-offensive on ground spoiling attack on the Somme. On 4 June, Russian armies
dominated by the German army and ringed with masses attacked on a 200-mile (320 km) front, from the Rumaof heavy artillery, leading to huge losses and bring the nian frontier to Pinsk and eventually advanced 150 kiloFrench army close to collapse. The British would then metres (93 mi), reaching the foothills of the Carpathian
have to begin a hasty relief offensive and would also suf- mountains, against German and Austro-Hungarian troops
fer huge losses. Falkenhayn expected the relief offen- of Armeegruppe von Linsingen and Armeegruppe Archsive to fall south of Arras against the Sixth Army and duke Joseph. During the offensive the Russians inflicted
be destroyed.[Note 1] If such Franco-British defeats were c. 1,500,000 losses including c. 407,000 prisoners.[10]
not enough, Germany would attack the remnants of both Three divisions were ordered from France to the Eastern
armies and end the western alliance for good.[6] The un- Front on 9 June and the spoiling attack on the Somme was
expected length of the Verdun offensive and the need abandoned. Only four more divisions were sent to the
to replace many exhausted units at Verdun, depleted the Somme front before the Anglo-French offensive began,
German strategic reserve placed behind the Sixth Army, bringing the total to 10 1 ⁄2 divisions. Falkenhayn, and
which held the Western Front from Hannescamps, 18 then Hindenburg and Ludendorff, were forced to send
kilometres (11 mi) south-west of Arras to St. Eloi, south divisions to Russia throughout the summer to prevent a
of Ypres and reduced the German counter-offensive strat- collapse of the Austro-Hungarian army and then to conegy north of the Somme, to one of passive and unyielding duct a counter-offensive against Romania, which declared
war against the Central Powers on 27 August.[11] In July
defence.[7]
there were 112 German divisions on the Western Front
and 52 divisions in Russia and in November there were
1.1.1 Battle of Verdun
121 divisions in the west and 76 divisions in the east.[12]
Main article: Battle of Verdun
1.2 Tactical developments
The Battle of Verdun (21 February–18 December 1916)
began a week after Joffre and Haig agreed to mount an offensive on the Somme. The German offensive at Verdun
was intended to threaten the capture of the city and induce the French to fight an attritional battle, in which German advantages of terrain and firepower would cause the
French disproportionate casualties. The battle changed
the nature of the offensive on the Somme, as French
divisions were diverted to Verdun, and the main effort
by the French diminished to a supporting attack for the
British. German overestimation of the cost of Verdun to
the French contributed to the concentration of German
infantry and guns on the north bank of the Somme.[8] By
The original British Expeditionary Force (BEF) of six
divisions and the Cavalry Division, had lost most of the
army’s pre-war regular soldiers in the battles of 1914 and
1915. The bulk of the army was made up of volunteers of
the Territorial Force and Kitchener’s New Army, which
had begun forming in August 1914. Rapid expansion created many vacancies for senior commands and specialist functions, which led to many appointments of retired
officers and inexperienced newcomers. In 1914, Haig
had been a Lieutenant-General in command of I Corps
and was promoted to command the First Army in early
1915 and then the BEF in December, which eventually
2.1
Anglo-French plan of attack
3
2.1 Anglo-French plan of attack
Men of 10th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment of the 31st
Division marching to the frontline, 28th June 1916.
British intentions evolved as the military situation
changed after the Chantilly Conference. French losses
at Verdun reduced the contribution available for the offensive on the Somme and increased the urgency for the
commencement of operations on the Somme. The principal role in the offensive devolved to the British and on
16 June, Haig defined the objectives of the offensive as
the relief of pressure on the French at Verdun and the
infliction of losses on the Germans.[16] After a five-day
artillery bombardment, the British Fourth Army was to
capture 27,000 yards (25,000 m) of the German first line,
from Montauban to Serre and the Third Army was to
mount a diversion at Gommecourt. In a second phase,
the Fourth Army was to take the German second position,
from Pozières to the Ancre and then the second position
south of the Albert–Bapaume road, ready for an attack on
the German third position south of the road towards Flers,
when the Reserve Army which included three cavalry divisions, would exploit the success to advance east and then
north towards Arras. The French Sixth Army, with one
corps on the north bank from Maricourt to the Somme
and two corps on the south bank southwards to Foucaucourt, would make a subsidiary attack to guard the right
flank of the main attack being made by the British.[17]
comprised five armies with sixty divisions. The swift increase in the size of the army reduced the average level
of experience within it and created an acute equipment
shortage. Many officers resorted to directive command,
to avoid delegating to novice subordinates, although divisional commanders were given great latitude in training
and planning for the attack of 1 July, since the heterogeneous nature of the 1916 army made it impossible for
corps and army commanders to know the capacity of each
division.[13]
2.2 German defences on the Somme
Despite considerable debate among German staff officers, Falkenhayn continued the policy of unyielding de- After the (Herbstschlacht or Autumn Battles) of 1915, a
fence in 1916.[Note 2] On the Somme front Falkenhayn’s third defence line another 3,000 yards (2,700 m) back
construction plan of January 1915 had been completed. from the Stutzpunktlinie was begun in February 1916 and
Barbed wire obstacles had been enlarged from one belt 5– was almost complete on the Somme front when the bat10 yards (4.6–9.1 m) wide to two, 30 yards (27 m) wide tle began. German artillery was organised in a series of
and about 15 yards (14 m) apart. Double and triple thick- sperrfeuerstreifen (barrage sectors); each officer was exness wire was used and laid 3–5 feet (0.91–1.52 m) high. pected to know the batteries covering his section of the
The front line had been increased from one trench line to front line and the batteries ready to engage fleeting tarthree, 150–200 yards (140–180 m) apart, the first trench gets. A telephone system was built, with lines buried 6
occupied by sentry groups, the second (Wohngraben) for feet (1.8 m) deep for 5 miles (8.0 km) behind the front
the bulk of the front-trench garrison and the third trench line, to connect the front line to the artillery. The Somme
for local reserves. The trenches were traversed and had defences had two inherent weaknesses which the rebuildsentry-posts in concrete recesses built into the parapet. ing had not remedied. The front trenches were on a forDugouts had been deepened from 6–9 feet (1.8–2.7 m) to ward slope, lined by white chalk from the subsoil and eas20–30 feet (6.1–9.1 m), 50 yards (46 m) apart and large ily seen by ground observers. The defences were crowded
enough for 25 men. An intermediate line of strongpoints towards the front trench, with a regiment having two bat(the Stützpunktlinie) about 1,000 yards (910 m) behind talions near the front-trench system and the reserve batthe front line was also built. Communication trenches ran talion divided between the Stutzpunktlinie and the second
back to the reserve line, renamed the second line, which line, all within 2,000 yards (1,800 m) and most troops
was as well-built and wired as the first line. The second within 1,000 yards (910 m) of the front line, accommoline was beyond the range of Allied field artillery, to force dated in the new deep dugouts. The concentration of
an attacker to stop and move field artillery forward before troops at the front line on a forward slope guaranteed that
it would face the bulk of an artillery bombardment, diassaulting the line.[15]
rected by ground observers on clearly marked lines.[18]
2
Prelude
3 Battles of the Somme, 1916
4
3 BATTLES OF THE SOMME, 1916
3.1
First phase: 1–17 July 1916
3.1.1
First day on the Somme, 1 July
sualties and the German 2nd Army had 10,000–12,000
losses.[19]
3.1.2 Battle of Albert, 1–13 July
Main article: First day on the Somme
The first day on the Somme began 141 days of the BatMain article: Battle of Albert (1916)
The Battle of Albert was the first two weeks of AngloFrench offensive operations in the Battle of the Somme.
The Allied preparatory artillery bombardment commenced on 24 June and the Anglo-French infantry attacked on 1 July, on the south bank from Foucaucourt
to the Somme and from the Somme north to Gommecourt, 2 miles (3.2 km) beyond Serre. The French Sixth
Army and the right wing of the British Fourth Army inflicted a considerable defeat on the German Second Army
but from the Albert–Bapaume road to Gommecourt, the
British attack was a disaster where most of the c. 60,000
British casualties were incurred. Against Joffre’s wishes,
Haig abandoned the offensive north of the road, to reinforce the success in the south, where the Anglo-French
forces pressed forward towards the German second line,
preparatory to a general attack on 14 July.[20]
3.1.3 Battle of Bazentin Ridge, 14–17 July
Main article: Battle of Bazentin Ridge
The Fourth Army attacked the German second defensive
British objectives, 1 July 1916
tle of the Somme and the opening day of the Battle of
Albert. The attack was made by five divisions of the
French Sixth Army either side of the Somme, eleven
British divisions of the Fourth Army north of the Somme
to Serre and two divisions of the Third Army opposite
Gommecourt, against the German Second Army of General Fritz von Below. The German defence south of the
Albert–Bapaume road mostly collapsed and the French
had “complete success” on both banks of the Somme, as
did the British from the army boundary at Maricourt to
the Albert–Bapaume road. On the south bank the German defence was made incapable of resisting another attack and a substantial retreat began; on the north bank the
abandonment of Fricourt was ordered. The defenders on
the commanding ground north of the road inflicted a huge
defeat on the British infantry, who had an unprecedented
number of casualties. Several truces were negotiated, to
recover wounded from no man’s land north of the road.
The Fourth Army lost 57,470 casualties, of which 19,240
men were killed, the French Sixth Army had 1,590 ca-
The British 21st Division attack on Bazentin le Petit, 14 July
1916.
position from the Somme past Guillemont and Ginchy,
north-west along the crest of the ridge to Pozières on the
Albert–Bapaume road. The objectives of the attack were
the villages of Bazentin le Petit, Bazentin le Grand and
Longueval which was adjacent to Delville Wood, with
High Wood on the ridge beyond. The attack was made
by four divisions on a front of 6,000 yards (5.5 km) at
3:25 a.m. after a five-minute hurricane artillery bombardment. Field artillery fired a creeping barrage and the
attacking waves pushed up close behind it in no man’s
land, leaving them only a short distance to cross when the
barrage lifted from the German front trench. Most of the
3.2
Second phase: July – September 1916
5
objective was captured and the German defence south of
the Albert–Bapaume road put under great strain but the
attack was not followed up due to British communication
failures, casualties and disorganisation.[21]
After the Battle of Albert the offensive had evolved to the
capture of fortified villages, woods, and other terrain that
offered observation for artillery fire, jumping-off points
for more attacks, and other tactical advantages. The mutually costly fighting at Delville Wood eventually secured
the British right flank and marked the Western Front
3.1.4 Battle of Fromelles, 19–20 July
début of the South African 1st Infantry Brigade (incorporating a Southern Rhodesian contingent), which held the
Main article: Battle of Fromelles
wood from 15–20 July. When relieved the brigade had
lost 2,536 men, similar to the casualties of many brigades
[24]
The Battle of Fromelles was a subsidiary attack to sup- on 1 July.
port the Fourth Army on the Somme 80 kilometres
(50 mi) to the south, to exploit any weakening of the
German defences opposite. Preparations for the attack
were rushed, the troops involved lacked experience in 3.2.2 Battle of Pozières Ridge, 23 July – 7 August
trench warfare and the power of the German defence
was “gravely” underestimated, the attackers being outnumbered 2:1. On 19 July, von Falkenhayn had judged Main article: Battle of Pozières
the British attack to be the anticipated offensive against
the 6th Army. Next day Falkenhayn ordered the Guard The Battle of Pozières began with the capture of the vilReserve Corps to be withdrawn to reinforce the Somme lage by the 1st Australian Division (Australian Imperial
front. The Battle of Fromelles had inflicted some losses Force) of the Reserve Army, the only British success in
on the German defenders but gained no ground and de- the Allied fiasco of 22/23 July, when a general attack
flected few German troops bound for the Somme. The combined with the French further south, degenerated into
attack was the début of the Australian Imperial Force on a series of separate attacks due to communication failthe Western Front and “the worst 24 hours in Australia’s ures, supply failures and poor weather.[25] German bomentire history”.[22] Of 7,080 BEF casualties, 5,533 losses bardments and counter-attacks began on 23 July and conwere incurred by the 5th Australian Division; German tinued until 7 August. The fighting ended with the Relosses were 1,600–2,000, with 150 taken prisoner.[23]
serve Army taking the plateau north and east of the village, overlooking the fortified village of Thiepval from
the rear.[26]
3.2
3.2.1
Second phase: July – September 1916
Battle of Delville Wood, 14 July – 15 September
3.2.3 Battle of Guillemont, 3–6 September
Main article: Battle of Delville Wood
The Battle of Delville Wood was an operation to secure Main article: Battle of Guillemont
The Battle of Guillemont was an attack on the village
which was captured by the Fourth Army on the first day.
Guillemont was on the right flank of the British sector,
near the boundary with the French Sixth Army. German
defences ringed the British salient at Delville Wood to the
north and had observation over the French Sixth Army
area to the south towards the Somme river. The German
defence in the area was based on the second line and numerous fortified villages and farms north from Maurepas
at Combles, Guillemont, Falfemont Farm, Delville Wood
and High Wood, which were mutually supporting. The
battle for Guillemont was considered by some observers
to be the supreme effort of the German army during the
battle. Numerous meetings were held by Joffre, Haig,
Foch, Rawlinson and Fayolle to co-ordinate joint attacks
Positions on 14 July 1916
by the four armies, all of which broke down. A pause
in Anglo-French attacks at the end of August, coincided
the British right flank, while the centre advanced to cap- with the largest counter-attack by the German army in the
ture the higher lying areas of High Wood and Pozières. Battle of the Somme.[27]
6
3.2.4
3 BATTLES OF THE SOMME, 1916
Battle of Ginchy, 9 September
Main article: Battle of Ginchy
In the Battle of Ginchy the 16th Division captured the
début of the Canadian Corps, New Zealand Division and
tanks of the Heavy Branch of the Machine Gun Corps on
the Somme.[29]
3.3.2 Battle of Morval, 25–28 September
A young German Sommekämpfer in 1916
German-held village. Ginchy was 1.5 kilometres (0.93
mi) north-east of Guillemont, at the junction of six roads
on a rise overlooking Combles, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to
the south-east. After the end of the Battle of Guillemont,
British troops were required to advance to positions which
would give observation over the German third position,
ready for a general attack in mid-September. British attacks from Leuze Wood northwards to Ginchy had begun on 3 September, when the 7th Division captured the
village and was then forced out by a German counterattack. The capture of Ginchy and the success of the
French Sixth Army on 12 September, in its biggest attack of the battle of the Somme, enabled both armies to
make much bigger attacks, sequenced with the Tenth and
Reserve armies, which captured much more ground and
inflicted c. 130,000 casualties on the German defenders
during the month.[28]
British troops moving up to the attack during the Battle of
Morval, 25th September 1916.
Main article: Battle of Morval
The Battle of Morval was an attack by the Fourth Army
on Morval, Gueudecourt and Lesboeufs held by the German 1st Army, which had been the final objectives of the
Battle of Flers–Courcelette (15–22 September). The attack was postponed to combine with attacks by the French
Sixth Army on Combles, south of Morval and because
of rain. The combined attack was also intended to deprive the German defenders further west, near Thiepval
of reinforcements, before an attack by the Reserve Army,
due on 26 September. Combles, Morval, Lesboeufs and
Gueudecourt were captured and a small number of tanks
joined in the battle later in the afternoon. Many casualties inflicted on the Germans but the French made slower
3.3 Third phase: September–November, progress. The Fourth Army advance on 25 September
1916
was its deepest since 14 July and left the Germans in severe difficulties, particularly in a salient near Combles.
3.3.1 Battle of Flers–Courcelette, 15–22 September The Reserve Army attack began on 26 September in the
Battle of Thiepval Ridge.[30]
Main article: Battle of Flers–Courcelette
The Battle of Flers–Courcelette was the third and final
general offensive mounted by the British Army, which
attacked an intermediate line and the German third line
to take Morval, Lesboeufs and Gueudecourt, which was
combined with a French attack on Frégicourt and Rancourt to encircle Combles and a supporting attack on the
south bank of the Somme. The strategic objective of a
breakthrough was not achieved but the tactical gains were
considerable, the front line being advanced by 2,500–
3,500 yards (2,300–3,200 m) and many casualties were
inflicted on the German defenders. The battle was the
3.3.3 Battle of the Transloy Ridges, 1 October – 11
November
Main article: Battle of Le Transloy
The Battle of Le Transloy began in good weather and
Le Sars was captured on 7 October. Pauses were made
from 8–11 October due to rain and 13–18 October to allow time for a methodical bombardment, when it became
clear that the German defence had recovered from earlier defeats. Haig consulted with the army commanders
3.3
Third phase: September–November, 1916
and on 17 October reduced the scope of operations by
cancelling the Third Army plans and reducing the Reserve Army and Fourth Army attacks to limited operations, in co-operation with the French Sixth Army.[31]
Another pause followed before operations resumed on 23
October on the northern flank of the Fourth Army, with
a delay during more bad weather on the right flank of the
Fourth Army and on the French Sixth Army front, until 5
November. Next day the Fourth Army ceased offensive
operations, except for small attacks intended to improve
positions and divert German attention from attacks being made by the Reserve/Fifth Army. Larger operations
resumed in January 1917.[32]
3.3.4
Battle of Thiepval Ridge, 26–28 September
7
dun. September became the worst month for casualties
for the Germans.[33]
3.3.5 Battle of the Ancre Heights, 1 October – 11
November
Main article: Battle of the Ancre Heights
The Battle of the Ancre Heights was fought after
Haig made plans for the Third Army to take the
area east of Gommecourt, the Reserve Army to attack north from Thiepval Ridge and east from Beaumont Hamel–Hébuterne and for the Fourth Army to
reach the Péronne–Bapaume road around Le Transloy
and Beaulencourt–Thilloy–Loupart Wood, north of the
Albert–Bapaume road. The Reserve Army attacked to
complete the capture of Regina Trench/Stuff Trench,
north of Courcelette to the west end of Bazentin Ridge
around Schwaben and Stuff Redoubts, during which bad
weather caused great hardship and delay. The Marine Brigade from Flanders and fresh German divisions
brought from quiet fronts counter-attacked frequently
and the British objectives were not secured until 11
November.[34]
3.3.6 Battle of the Ancre, 13–18 November
Main article: Battle of the Ancre
The Battle of the Ancre was the last big British oper-
British Mark I male tank near Thiepval, 25 September 1916.
Main article: Battle of Thiepval Ridge
The Battle of Thiepval Ridge was the first large offensive mounted by the Reserve Army of Lieutenant General Hubert Gough and was intended to benefit from the
Fourth Army attack at Morval by starting 24 hours afterwards. Thiepval Ridge was well fortified and the German defenders fought with great determination, while the
British co-ordination of infantry and artillery declined after the first day, due to confused fighting in the maze
of trenches, dug-outs and shell-craters. The final British
objectives were not reached until the Battle of the Ancre Heights (1 October – 11 November). Organisational
difficulties and deteriorating weather frustrated Joffre’s
intention to proceed by vigorous co-ordinated attacks
by the Anglo-French armies, which became disjointed
and declined in effectiveness during late September, at
the same time as a revival occurred in the German defence. The British experimented with new techniques
in gas warfare, machine-gun bombardment and tank–
infantry co-operation, as the Germans struggled to withstand the preponderance of men and material fielded by
the Anglo-French, despite reorganisation and substantial
reinforcements of troops, artillery and aircraft from Ver-
Mametz, Western Front, a winter scene by Frank Crozier
ation of the year. The Fifth (formerly Reserve) Army
attacked into the Ancre valley to exploit German exhaustion after the Battle of the Ancre Heights and gain ground
ready for a resumption of the offensive in 1917. Political calculation, concern for Allied morale and Joffre’s
pressure for a continuation of attacks in France, to prevent German troop transfers to Russia and Italy also influenced Haig.[35] The battle began with another mine being detonated beneath Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt. The
attack on Serre failed, although a brigade of the 31st
Division, which had attacked in the disaster of 1 July,
took its objectives before being withdrawn later. South
8
4 AFTERMATH
of Serre, Beaumont Hamel and Beaucourt-sur-l'Ancre
were captured. South of the Ancre, St. Pierre Division
was captured, the outskirts of Grandcourt reached and
the Canadian 4th Division captured Regina Trench north
of Courcelette, then took Desire Support Trench on 18
November. Until January 1917 a lull occurred, as both
sides concentrated on enduring the weather.[36]
4
Aftermath
4.1
Analysis
British army, with 57,470 British casualties, 19,240 of
whom were killed.[40][41]
British survivors of the battle had gained experience and
the BEF learned how to conduct the mass industrial
warfare, which the continental armies had been fighting since 1914.[39] The continental powers had begun
the war with trained armies of regulars and reservists,
which were wasting assets. Crown Prince Rupprecht
of Bavaria wrote, “What remained of the old first-class
peace-trained German infantry had been expended on
the battlefield”.[42] A war of attrition was a logical strategy for Britain against Germany, which was also at war
with France and Russia. A school of thought holds that
the Battle of the Somme placed unprecedented strain on
the German army and that after the battle it was unable
to replace casualties like-for-like, which reduced it to a
militia.[43][42]
The destruction of German units in battle was made
worse by lack of rest. British and French aircraft and
long-range guns reached well behind the front-line, where
trench-digging and other work meant that troops returned
to the line exhausted.[44] Despite the strategic predicament of the German army, it survived the battle, withstood the pressure of the Brusilov Offensive, and conducted an invasion of Romania. In 1917, the German
army in the west survived the large British and French
offensives of the Nivelle Offensive and the Third Battle
of Ypres, though at great cost.[45]
Progress of the Battle of the Somme between 1 July and 18
November.
Falkenhayn was sacked and replaced by Hindenburg and
Ludendorff at the end of August 1916. At a conference at Cambrai on 5 September, a decision was taken to
build a new defensive line well behind the Somme front.
The Siegfriedstellung was to be built from Arras to St.
Quentin, La Fère and Condé, with another new line between Verdun and Pont-à-Mousson. These lines were intended to limit any Allied breakthrough and to allow the
German army to withdraw if attacked; work began on the
Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line) at the end of September. Withdrawing to the new line was not an easy decision
and the German high command struggled over it during
the winter of 1916–1917. Some members wanted to take
a shorter step back, to a line between Arras and Sailly,
while the First and Second army commanders wanted to
stay on the Somme. Generalleutnant von Fuchs on 20
January 1917 said that,
Enemy superiority is so great that we are
At the start of 1916, most of the British Army had
not in a position either to fix their forces in
been an inexperienced and patchily trained mass of
position or to prevent them from launching an
volunteers.[37][38] The Somme was the debut of the Kitchoffensive elsewhere. We just do not have the
ener Army created by Lord Kitchener’s call for recruits at
troops.... We cannot prevail in a second batthe start of the war. The British volunteers were often the
tle of the Somme with our men; they cannot
fittest, most enthusiastic and best educated citizens but
achieve that any more. (20 January 1917)[46]
British casualties were also inexperienced soldiers and it
— Hermann von Kuhl
has been claimed that their loss was of lesser military significance than the losses of the remaining peace-trained
officers and men of the German army.[39] British casual- and that half measures were futile, retreating to the Siegties on the first day were the worst in the history of the friedstellung was unavoidable. After the loss of a consid-
4.2
Casualties
erable amount of ground around the Ancre valley to the
British Fifth Army in February 1917, the German armies
on the Somme were ordered on 14 February, to withdraw
to reserve lines closer to Bapaume. A further retirement
to the Hindenburg Line (Siegfriedstellung) in Operation
Alberich began on 16 March 1917, despite the new line
being unfinished and poorly sited in some places.[47]
The British and French had advanced about 6 miles (9.7
km) on the Somme, on a front of 16 miles (26 km) at
a cost of 419,654 British and 202,567 French casualties,
against 465,181 German casualties.[48] Until the 1930s
the dominant view of the battle in English-language writing, was that the battle was a hard-fought victory against
a brave, experienced and well-led opponent. Winston
Churchill had objected to the way the battle was being
fought in August 1916, Lloyd George when Prime Minister criticised attrition warfare frequently and condemned
the battle in his post-war memoirs. In the 1930s a new orthodoxy of “mud, blood and futility” emerged and gained
more emphasis in the 1960s when the 50th anniversaries
of the Great War battles were commemorated.[49]
4.2
Casualties
Main article: World War I casualties
The Battle of the Somme was one of the costliest battles
of World War I. The original Allied estimate of casualties
on the Somme, made at the Chantilly Conference on 15
November 1916, was 485,000 British and French casualties and 630,000 German. A German officer wrote,
Somme. The whole history of the world
cannot contain a more ghastly word.
— Friedrich Steinbrecher
In 1931, Wendt published a comparison of German and
British-French casualties which showed an average of
30% more Allied casualties to German losses on the
Somme.[51] In the first 1916 volume of the British Official History (1932), J. E. Edmonds wrote that comparisons of casualties were inexact, because of different methods of calculation by the belligerents but that
British casualties were 419,654, from total British casualties in France in the period of 498,054, French Somme
casualties were 194,451 and German casualties were c.
445,322, to which should be added 27% for woundings, which would have been counted as casualties using
British criteria; Anglo-French casualties on the Somme
were over 600,000 and German casualties were under
600,000.[52]
9
Edmonds calculations, but counted 729,000 German casualties on the Western Front from July to December
against 631,000 by Churchill, concluding that German
losses were fewer than Anglo-French casualties, but the
ability of the German army to inflict disproportionate
losses had been eroded by attrition.[53] Sheffield wrote
that the calculation by Edmonds of Anglo-French casualties was correct but the one for German casualties
was discredited, quoting the official German figure of
500,000 casualties.[54] In the second 1916 volume of the
British Official History (1938), Miles wrote that total
German casualties in the battle were 660,000–680,000.
against Anglo-French casualties of fewer than 630,000,
using “fresh data” from the French and German official
accounts.[55]
In 1938, Churchill wrote that the Germans had suffered 270,000 casualties against the French, between
February and June 1916 and 390,000 between July and
the end of the year (see statistical tables in Appendix
J of Churchill’sWorld Crisis) and 278,000 casualties at
Verdun.[58] Some losses must have been in quieter sectors but many must have been inflicted by the French at
the Somme. Churchill wrote that Franco-German losses
at the Somme, were “much less unequal” than the AngloGerman ratio.[59] Doughty wrote that French losses on the
Somme were “surprisingly high” at 202,567 men, 54%
of the 377,231 casualties at Verdun.[60] Prior and Wilson used Churchill’s research and wrote that the British
lost 432,000 soldiers from 1 July – mid-November (c.
3,600 per day) in inflicting c. 230,000 German casualties and offer no figures for French casualties or the
losses they inflicted on the Germans.[61] Sheldon wrote
that the British lost “over 400,000” casualties.[62] Harris
wrote that total British losses were c. 420,000, French casualties were over 200,000 men and German losses were
c. 500,000, according to the “best” German sources.[63]
Sheffield wrote that the losses were “appalling”, with
419,000 British casualties, c. 204,000 French and perhaps 600,000 German casualties.[64]
In a commentary on the debate about Somme casualties, Philpott used Miles’s figures of 419,654 British casualties and the French official figures of 154,446 Sixth
Army losses and 48,131 Tenth Army casualties. German losses were described as “disputed”, ranging from
400,000–680,000. Churchill’s claims were a “snapshot”
of July 1916 and not representative of the rest of the battle. Philpott called the “blood test” a crude measure compared to manpower reserves, industrial capacity, farm
productivity and financial resources and that intangible
factors were more influential on the course of the war.
The German army was exhausted by the end of 1916,
with loss of morale and the cumulative effects of attrition and frequent defeats causing it to collapse in 1918,
a process which began on the Somme, echoing Churchill
The addition by Edmonds of c. 30 percent to Ger- that the German soldiery was never the same again.[65]
man figures, to make them comparable to British criteria, was criticised as “spurious” by M. J. Williams in
1964. McRandle and Quirk in 2006 cast doubt on the
10
5
5.1
7
Subsequent operations
Ancre, January – March 1917
HISTORIOGRAPHY
6 Commemoration
See also: Thiepval Memorial
The Royal British Legion with the British Embassy
Main article: Operations on the Ancre, January – March
1917
After the Battle of the Ancre (13–18 November 1916),
British attacks on the Somme front were stopped by the
weather and military operations by both sides were mostly
restricted to survival in the rain, snow, fog, mud fields,
waterlogged trenches and shell-holes. As preparations for
the offensive at Arras continued, the British attempted
to keep German attention on the Somme front. British
operations on the Ancre from 10 January – 22 February 1917, forced the Germans back 5 miles (8.0 km)
on a 4-mile (6.4 km) front, ahead of the schedule of the
Alberich Bewegung (Alberich Manoeuvre/Operation Alberich) and eventually took 5,284 prisoners.[66] On 22/23
February, the Germans fell back another 3 miles (4.8 km)
on a 15-mile (24 km) front. The Germans then withdrew
from much of the R. I Stellung to the R. II Stellung on
11 March, forestalling a British attack, which was not noticed by the British until dark on 12 March; the main German withdrawal from the Noyon salient to the Hindenburg Line (Operation Alberich) commenced on schedule
on 16 March.[67]
Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme
in Paris and the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, commemorate the battle on 1 July each year, at
the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.
For their efforts on the first day of the battle, The 1st
Newfoundland Regiment was given the name “The Royal
Newfoundland Regiment” by George V on 28 November 1917.[69] The first day of the Battle of the Somme
is commemorated in Newfoundland, remembering the
5.2 Hindenburg Line
“Best of the Best” at 11:00 a.m. on the Sunday nearest to 1 July.[70] The Somme is remembered in Northern
Main article: Operation Alberich
Ireland due to the participation of the 36th (Ulster) Division and commemorated by veterans’ groups and by
Defensive positions held by the German army on the unionist/Protestant groups such as the Orange Order. The
Somme after November 1916 were in poor condition, British Legion and others commemorate the battle on 1
[71]
the garrisons were exhausted and censors of correspon- July.
dence from front-line soldiers reported tiredness and low
morale. The situation left the German command doubtful that the army could withstand a resumption of the 7 Historiography
battle. The German defence of the Ancre began to collapse under British attacks, which on 28 January caused
Rupprecht to urge that the retirement to the Siegfriedstel- Since the 1960s the “futility” view, that the battle was
lung (Hindenburg Line) begin. Ludendorff rejected the an Anglo-French disaster has been criticised as a myth.
proposal next day but British attacks on the First Army, In recent years a nuanced version of the original orthoparticularly the Action of Miraumont (also known as the doxy has arisen, which does not seek to minimise the huBattle of Boom Ravine, 17–18 February) caused Rup- man cost of the battle but sets it in the context of indusprecht on the night of 22 February to order a prelimi- trial warfare, compares it to the wars in the United States
nary withdrawal of c. 4 miles (6.4 km) to the R. I Stel- from 1861–1865 and Europe from 1939–1945 and delung (R. I Position). On 24 February the Germans with- scribes the development of the armies of 1914 into moddrew, protected by rear guards, over roads in relatively ern all-arms organisations, using the scientific application
good condition which were then destroyed. The German of fire-power on land and in the air, to defeat comparawithdrawal was helped by a thaw, which turned roads be- ble opponents in a war of exhaustion. Little German and
hind the British front into bogs and by disruption to the French writing has been translated, leaving much of the
railways which supplied the Somme front. On the night continental perspective and detail of German and French
operations inaccessible to the English-speaking
of 12 March the Germans withdrew from the R. I Stel- military
[72][73][74][75][76][77]
world.
lung between Bapaume and Achiet le Petit and the British
reached the R. II Stellung (R. II Position) on 13 March.[68] Haig and General Rawlinson have been criticised ever
11
since 1916 for the human cost of the battle and for failing
to achieve their territorial objectives. On 1 August 1916
Winston Churchill criticised the British Army’s conduct
of the offensive to the British Cabinet, claiming that
though the battle had forced the Germans to end their
offensive at Verdun, attrition was damaging the British
armies more than the German armies. Though Churchill
was unable to suggest an alternative, a critical view of
the British on the Somme has been influential in Englishlanguage writing ever since.
decisions about withdrawal were still reserved to army
commanders.[14]
[3] Churchill, W. S. C. The World Crisis (1923–1931)[56]
Philpott, W. Bloody Victory: The Sacrifice on the Somme
and the Making of the Twentieth Century (2009)[57]
10 Footnotes
[1] Hart 2006, pp. 27–37.
A rival conclusion by some historians (Terraine,
Sheffield, Duffy, Chickering, Herwig and Philpott et al.) [2] Hart 2006, p. 37.
is that there was no strategic alternative for the British in
[3] Doughty 2005, p. 291.
1916 and that an understandable horror at British losses
is insular, given the millions of casualties borne by the [4] Philpott 2009, pp. 81, 86.
French and Russian armies since 1914. This school of
thought sets the battle in a context of a general Allied [5] Foley 2007, pp. 248–249.
offensive in 1916 and notes that German and French [6] Foley 2007, pp. 206–207.
writing on the battle puts it in a continental perspective.
The Battle of the Somme has been called the beginning [7] Wynne 1939, p. 104.
of modern all-arms warfare, during which Kitchener’s
[8] Sheffield 2003, pp. 18–19.
Army learned to fight the mass-industrial war, which the
continental armies had been engaged in for two years. [9] Philpott 2009, pp. 412–413.
This view sees the British contribution to the battle as
part of a coalition war and part of a process, which [10] Dowling 2008, pp. xv, 163.
took the strategic initiative from the German Army and [11] Sheffield 2003, p. 27.
caused it irreparable damage, leading to its collapse in
[12] Miles 1938, p. 555.
late 1918.[78][79][80]
[13] Simpson 2001, p. 34.
8
See also
[14] Sheldon 2005, p. 223.
[15] Wynne 1939, pp. 100–101.
• Order of battle for the Battle of the Somme
• List of Canadian battles during the First World War
[16] Miles 1938, p. 86.
[17] Sheffield 2003, pp. 21, 64–65.
[18] Wynne 1939, pp. 100–103.
9
Notes
[19] Sheffield 2003, pp. 41–69.
[1] Despite the certainty by mid-June, of an Anglo-French
attack on the Somme against the Second Army, Falkenhayn sent only four divisions, keeping eight in the western strategic reserve. No divisions were moved from the
Sixth Army, despite it holding a shorter line with 17 1 ⁄2
divisions and three of the reserve divisions in the Sixth
Army area. The maintenance of the strength of the Sixth
Army, at the expense of the Second Army on the Somme,
indicated that Falkehnayn intended the counter-offensive
against the British to be made north of the Somme front,
once the British offensive had been shattered.[5]
[20] Sheffield 2003, pp. 76–78.
[2] Falkenhayn implied after the war that the psychology of
German soldiers, shortage of manpower and lack of reserves, made the policy inescapable, since the troops necessary to seal off breakthroughs did not exist. High losses
incurred in holding ground by a policy of no retreat, were
preferable to higher losses, voluntary withdrawals and the
effect of a belief that soldiers had discretion to avoid battle. When a more flexible policy was substituted later,
[27] Sheffield 2003, pp. 98–100.
[21] Sheffield 2003, pp. 79–85.
[22] McMullin 2006.
[23] Miles 1938, p. 133.
[24] Philpott 2009, p. 251.
[25] Sheffield 2003, pp. 94–95.
[26] Sheffield 2003, pp. 94–96.
[28] Philpott 2009, p. 355.
[29] Sheffield 2003, pp. 112–124.
[30] Philpott 2009, p. 383.
[31] Miles 1938, pp. 458–459.
12
11
[32] Miles 1938, p. 474.
[70] Steele 2003, p. 192.
[33] Sheffield 2003, pp. 130–131.
[71] Robinson 2010, pp. 86–87.
[34] Miles 1938, pp. 447–456 & 460–466.
[72] Terraine 1963, p. 230.
[35] Miles 1938, pp. 476–477.
[73] Sheffield 2001, p. 188.
[36] McCarthy 1995, pp. 148–162.
[74] Duffy 2006, pp. 324, 327.
[37] Miles 1938, pp. 570–572.
[38] Philpott 2009, pp. 150–151.
[39] Sheffield 2003, p. 186.
[40] Edmonds 1932, p. 483.
[41] Prior & Wilson 2005, p. 119.
[42] Sheffield 2003, p. 156.
[43] Philpott 2009, pp. 436–437.
[44] Duffy 2006, p. 326.
[45] Sheldon 2009, p. 398.
[46] Sheldon 2009, p. 4.
[47] Sheldon 2009, pp. 4–5.
[48] Miles 1938, p. xv.
[49] Bond 2002, pp. 1–104.
[50] Boraston 1919, p. 53.
[51] Wendt 1931, p. 246.
[52] Edmonds 1932, pp. 496–497.
REFERENCES
[75] Chickering 1998, pp. 70–71.
[76] Herwig 1996, p. 249.
[77] Philpott 2009, p. 625.
[78] On the German historiography see Foley, Robert T.
(2011). “Learning War’s Lessons: The German Army and
the Battle of the Somme 1916” (PDF). Journal of Military
History 75 (2): 471–504. ISSN 1543-7795.
[79] On the French historiography see Philpott, William
(2009). Bloody Victory: The Sacrifice on the Somme and
the Making of the Twentieth Century. London: Little
Brown. ISBN 9781408701089., and Greenhalgh, Elizabeth (July 2003). “Flames over the Somme: A Retort to
William Philpott”. War in History 10 (3): 335–342. ISSN
1477-0385.
[80] On British historiography see Philpott, William (2006).
“The Anglo–French Victory on the Somme”. Diplomacy & Statecraft 17 (4): 731–751. ISSN 1557-301X.,
Deverell, Christopher (Spring 2005). “X. Haig versus
Rawlinson-Manoeuvre versus Attrition: The British Army
on the Somme, 1916”. Defense Studies 5 (1): 124–
137. OCLC 55201531., and Coleman, Joseph (2014).
“Historiographical Essay on the Battle of the Somme”.
Retrieved 26 February 2015.
[53] Philpott 2009, pp. 601–602.
[54] Sheffield 2003, p. 151.
[55] Miles 1938, p. 553.
[56] Churchill 1938, p. 1423.
[57] Philpott 2009, pp. 600–602.
[58] Churchill 1938, pp. 1427, 1004.
[59] Churchill 1938, p. 966.
[60] Doughty 2005, p. 309.
[61] Prior & Wilson 2005, pp. 300–301.
[62] Sheldon 2005, p. 398.
[63] Harris 2008, p. 271.
[64] Sheffield 2011, pp. 194, 197.
[65] Philpott 2009, pp. 602–603.
[66] Boraston 1919, p. 64.
[67] Falls 1940, p. 115.
[68] Falls 1940, pp. 95–107.
[69] Steele 2003, p. 10.
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• Chickering, R. (1998). Imperial Germany and the
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• Doughty, R. A. (2005). Pyrrhic Victory: French
Strategy and Operation in the Great War. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University. ISBN 0-67401-880-X.
13
• Dowling, T. (2008).
The Brusilov Offensive.
Bloomington IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253-35130-8.
• Sheffield, G. (2001). Forgotten Victory, The First
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• Duffy, C. (2006). Through German Eyes: The
British and the Somme 1916 (Phoenix 2007 ed.).
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• Sheffield, G. (2003). The Somme. London: Cassell.
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• Foley, R. T. (2007). German Strategy and the Path to
Verdun: Erich von Falkenhayn and the Development
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978-0-521-04436-3.
• Harris, J. P. (2008). Douglas Haig and the First
World War (2009 ed.). Cambridge: CUP. ISBN
978-0-521-89802-7.
• Sheffield, G. (2011). The Chief: Douglas Haig and
the British Army. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 9781-84513-691-8.
• Sheldon, J. (2005). The German Army on the Somme
1914–1916 (Pen & Sword Military 2006 ed.). London: Leo Cooper. ISBN 1-84415-269-3.
• Sheldon, J. (2009). The German Army at Cambrai.
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• Steele, O. W. (2003). Facey-Crowther, D. R.,
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• Wendt, H. L. (1931). Verdun 1916 Die Angriffe
Falkenhayns im Maasgebiet mit Richtung auf Verdun
als strategisches Problem. Berlin: Mittler. OCLC
503838028.
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Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 0-34057-348-1.
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London: Faber. ISBN 0-8371-5029-9.
• McCarthy, C. (1993). The Somme: The Day-by- Journals
Day Account (Arms & Armour Press 1995 ed.).
London: Weidenfeld Military. ISBN 1-85409-330• Robinson, H. (2010). “Remembering War in the
4.
Midst of Conflict: First World War Commemorations in the Northern Irish Troubles”. 20th Century
• Miles, W. (1938). Military Operations France and
British History XXI (1). doi:10.1093/tcbh/hwp047.
Belgium, 1916: 2nd July 1916 to the End of the BatISSN 1477-4674.
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on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence Websites
II (Battery Press 1992 ed.). London: Macmillan.
• McMullin, R. (2006). “Disaster at Fromelles”.
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• Prior, R.; Wilson, T. (2005). The Somme. Yale UniArchived from the original on 25 July 2009. Reversity Press. ISBN 0-300-10694-7.
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14
12 FURTHER READING
• “The Somme in Oral Histories of the First World
War: Veterans 1914–1918”. Ottawa: Library and
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12
Further reading
• MacDonald, L. (1983). Somme 1916. London:
Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-017867-8.
• McLaughlin, P. (1980). Ragtime Soldiers: the
Rhodesian Experience in the First World War. Bulawayo: Books of Zimbabwe. ISBN 0-86920-232-4.
• Middlebrook, M. (1971). The First Day on the
Somme. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-139071-9.
• Ball, S. (2004). The Guardsmen: Harold Macmillan, Three Friends, and The World They Made. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-653163-0.
• Neillands, R. (2004). The Great War Generals
on the Western Front 1914–1918. Magpie Books.
ISBN 1-84119-863-3.
• Buchan, J. (1917). The Battle of the Somme (PDF).
New York: George H. Doran. OCLC 699175025.
Retrieved 15 December 2014.
• Mitchell, S. B. T. (2013). An Inter-Disciplinary
Study of Learning in the 32nd Division on the Western Front, 1916–1918 (PDF) (PhD). University of
Birmingham. OCLC 894593861. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
• Dugmore, A. R. (2014). Blood in the Trenches:
A Memoir of the Battle of the Somme. Pen &
Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-78346-311-4. OCLC
880197742.
• Gilbert, M. (1994). The Somme: Heroism and Horror in the First World War (2006 ed.). Henry Holt
and Company. ISBN 0-8050-8127-5.
• Green, A. (2003). Writing the Great War: Sir
James Edmonds and the Official Histories 1915–
1948. London: Frank Cass. ISBN 0-7146-8430-9.
• Nicholson, G. W. L. (1962). Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 (PDF). Official History
of the Canadian Army in the First World War. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer and Controller of Stationary.
OCLC 557523890. Retrieved 27 December 2012.
• Nomenclature Committee as Approved by Army
Council (1922). Report of the Battles of the Somme
(Cmnd 1138) (N & M Press 1994 ed.). London:
HMSO. ISBN 1-84342-196-8.
• Histories of Two Hundred and Fifty-One Divisions
of the German Army which Participated in the War
(1914–1918) (PDF). Washington: United States
Army, American Expeditionary Forces, Intelligence
Section. 1920. ISBN 5-87296-917-1. Retrieved 13
September 2013.
• Prior, R. (1999). The First World War (1st ed.).
London: Cassel. ISBN 0-304-35984-X.
• James, E. A. (1924). A Record of the Battles and Engagements of the British Armies in France and Flanders 1914–1918 (London Stamp Exchange 1990
ed.). Aldershot: Gale & Polden. ISBN 0-94813018-0. OCLC 250857010.
• Recouly, R. (1920). Jones, Mary Cadwalader, ed.
Foch, The Winner of The War. New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons. OCLC 2036520.
• Jones, H. A. (1928). The War in the Air, Being the
Story of the Part Played in the Great War by the Royal
Air Force (PDF) II (N & M Press 2002 ed.). London: Clarendon Press. ISBN 1-84342-413-4. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
• Keegan, J. (1998). The First World War. London:
Random House. ISBN 0-09-180178-8.
• Liddell Hart, B. H. (1932). Foch: The Man of Orleans. Boston, Little, Brown. OCLC 16161900.
• Liddell Hart, B. H. (1970). History of the First
World War (3rd 1973 ed.). London: Book Club Associates. OCLC 819218074.
• Masefield, J. (1917). The Old Front Line (PDF).
New York City: Macmillan. OCLC 1183536. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
• Prior, R.; Wilson, T. (2005). The Somme (1st ed.).
New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-30010694-7.
• Regan, G. (1993). The Guinness Book of More Military Blunders. London: Guinness Publishing. ISBN
0-85112-728-2.
• Robertshaw, A. (2006). Somme 1 July 1916:
Tragedy and Triumph. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
ISBN 1-84603-038-2.
• Sacco, J. (2013). The Great War: July 1, 1916: The
First Day of the Battle of the Somme. W. W. Norton.
ISBN 978-0-393-08880-9.
• Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire
During the Great War 1914–1920 (PDF) (1st ed.).
London: HMSO. 1922. OCLC 1318955. Retrieved
27 June 2013.
• Watson, A. (2008). Enduring the Great War: Combat, Morale and Collapse in the German and British
armies, 1914–1918. Cambridge Military Histories.
New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052188-101-3.
15
• Wilkinson, R. (2006). Pals on the Somme 1916.
Barnsley: Pen & Sword. ISBN 1-84415-393-2.
OCLC 64746633.
• van Hartsveldt, Fred R. (1996). The Battles of the
Somme: Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. London and Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
Press. ISBN 0-313-29386-4.
13
External links
• Tour de France 2015 route stage 5: Arras–Amiens
• Battle of the Somme, maps and photo essay
• The British Army in the Great War: The Battles of
the Somme, 1916
• New Zealand and the Battle of the Somme
• Peronne Great War Historial
• The Somme – Northern Ireland Remembers
• Map of Europe during the Battle of the Somme
• Official website of Delville Wood
• Experience of the German First Army in the Somme
Battle, 24 June – 26 November 1916, Below F., pp.
77–143 (1917)
• CWGC: 1916: The Somme
16
14
14
14.1
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text
• Battle of the Somme Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme?oldid=666016414 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen,
Szopen, Jeronimo, Eclecticology, Gsl, Deb, Ortolan88, Mintguy, R Lowry, Olivier, Leandrod, Bdesham, D, TeunSpaans, Llywrch, Tannin, Cyde, IZAK, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Erzengel, Ijon, Marco Krohn, Adam Bishop, JasonM~enwiki, Rednblu, Tpbradbury, Bartosz, Cjrother, Raul654, Lumos3, SD6-Agent, Dale Arnett, PBS, Baldhur, Romanm, Auric, Moink, Hadal, Profoss, Neckro, SoLando,
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14.2
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17
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51044364DG, Toffeemow, Michael W. Parker, Yadhplayer, Jjamesryan, TerryAlex, Henryarnold123, Malerisch, WatermillockCommon,
Crystallizedcarbon, Sdbunting92, Swagarms4reason44, Joekyriacou, Harvard bro, Rickson Scott, Olislade, JimMacAllistair, EnderBomb,
KasparBot, Longwaytotipperary and Anonymous: 979
14.2
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• File:Battle_of_the_Somme.ogg Source:
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• Derivative of Battle of the Somme Original artist: Speaker: Mangst
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• File:British_Mark_I_male_tank_Somme_25_September_1916.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/
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mediaLib//228/media-228650/large.jpg Original artist: Brooks, Ernest (Lieutenant) (Photographer)
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mediaLib//13/media-13181/large.jpg Original artist: Brooks, Ernest (Lieutenant) (Photographer)
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