- University of Vaasa

ANU NORRGRANN
Symbolicially embedded
Essays on the creation and use of
symbolic resources in
furniture networks
ACTA WASAENSIA 327
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION 134
MARKETING
Reviewers
Professor Lars-Erik Gadde
Chalmers University of Technology
Technology Management and Economics
SE-412 96 Gothenburg
Sweden
Professor Elsebeth Holmen
NTNU - Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Department of Industrial Economics and
Technology Management
Alfred Getz vei 3
N-7491 Trondheim
Norway
III
Julkaisija
Vaasan yliopisto
Tekijä(t)
Anu Norrgrann
Yhteystiedot
Vaasan yliopisto
Kauppatieteellinen
tiedekunta
Markkinoinnin yksikkö
PL 700
65101 Vaasa
Julkaisupäivämäärä
Kesäkuu 2015
Julkaisun tyyppi
Artikkeliväitöskirja
Julkaisusarjan nimi, osan numero
Acta Wasaensia, 327
ISBN
978-952-476-611-1 (painettu)
978-952-476-612-8 (verkkojulkaisu)
ISSN
0355-2667 (Acta Wasaensia 327, painettu)
2323-9123 (Acta Wasaensia 327, verkkojulkaisu)
1235-7871 (Acta Wasaensia. Liiketaloustiede 134, painettu)
2323-9735 (Acta Wasaensia. Liiketaloustiede 134, verkkojulkaisu)
Sivumäärä
193
Kieli
englanti
Julkaisun nimike
Symbolisesti sidoksellinen – esseitä symbolisten resurssien muodostumisesta ja
hyödyntämisestä huonekalualan liikesuhdeverkostoissa
Tiivistelmä
Tämä tutkimus pyrkii rakentamaan ymmärrystä tuotteen kyvystä ja tavoista toimia symbolisena resurssina liiketoimintaverkostossa. Tutkimus rakentuu verkostoteorian (IMP) resurssilähestymistavan varaan ja pureutuu erityisesti resurssien
symboliseen ulottuvuuteen ja tuotteiden kykyyn toimia toimitusverkoston jäsenille ja kuluttajille arvoa tuottavina resursseina. Teoreettisesti tutkimus rikastuttaa
ns. 4Rs resurssivuorovaikutusmallia yhdistämällä siihen kulutuskulttuurin sekä
palvelukeskeisen logiikan tutkimuksen näkökulmia, ja laajentamalla analyyttistä
katsantokantaa liikesuhteiden piiristä kohti käyttäjä- ja kuluttajakonteksteja.
Tutkimus koostuu neljästä esseestä, joiden empiirisenä perustana on kolme toisiaan täydentävää tapaustutkimusta huonekaluvalmistuksen ja –kaupan alalta. Esseiden kautta nousee esiin erityisesti kolme teemaa: jakeluverkoston välikäsien
rooli symbolisten resurssien välittäjinä ja muovaajina, ja resurssien välillisinä
käyttäjinä; symbolisten resurssien inertia ja polkuriippuvuus ja näistä johtuva,
tietyssä liikesuhteessa kehittyneiden symbolisten resurssien hyödyntäminen uusissa liiketoiminnoissa, sekä brändien ja muiden symbolisten merkitysten rooli
liikesuhteiden dynamiikan hallinnassa ja arvoehdotusten vuorovaikutteisessa rakentamisessa.
Tutkimuksen löydöksissä korostuu tuotteen brändin, muotoilun ja arvoehdotuksen
kautta ilmenevien symbolisten resurssien yhtymäkohdat yrityksen liikesuhteiden
hallinnan haasteisiin. Suhteiden tyyppi ja luonne vaikuttaa resurssien syntymiseen
ja muovautumiseen, sekä niiden kykyyn olla hyödyllisiä ja arvoatuottavia niin
tuotteiden välillisille käyttäjille toimitusverokostossa, kuin kuluttajille heidän
tavoitteisaan ja arjessaan.
Asiasanat
Symbolinen sidoksellisuus, resurssit, huonekalut, vähittäiskauppa, jakelusuhteet,
liikesuhdeverkostot
V
Publisher
Vaasan yliopisto
Author(s)
Anu Norrgrann
Contact information
University of Vaasa
Faculty of Business Studies
Department of Marketing
P.O. Box 700
FI-65101 Vaasa, Finland
Date of publication
Type of publication
Selection of Articles
Name and number of series
Acta Wasaensia, 327
ISBN
978-952-476-611-1 (print)
978-952-476-612-8 (online)
ISSN
0355-2667 (Acta Wasaensia 327, painettu)
2323-9123 (Acta Wasaensia 327, verkkojulkaisu)
1235-7871 (Acta Wasaensia. Business Administration 134,
print)
2323-9735 (Acta Wasaensia. Business Administration 134,
online)
Number of pages
193
Language
English
Title of publication
Symbolically embedded – Essays on the creation and use of symbolic resources
in furniture networks
Abstract
The thesis aims at providing an understanding of how products function as symbolic resources in business networks. It builds on the resource interaction discussion within the network research tradition (IMP) and addresses the symbolic dimension of embeddedness and its importance for the ability of products to function as value-providing resources for intermediate and final customers. Conceptually, the four resource entities (4Rs) framework is enriched with elements from
consumer culture theory and the service-dominant logic of marketing and the
analytical boundary is stretched towards the user and consumer spheres.
The thesis comprises four essays, based on three, complementary case studies
from the field of furniture production and retailing. The essays highlight the role
of retailers as resource intermediaries in purveying, shaping and acting as intermediate users of symbolic resources; the path-dependence and inertia related to
symbolic resources, and the way such resources that are developed in one relationship, can be symbolically utilized in new ventures; and the role of brands and
other communicative signs in handling customer relationship dynamics and
building value propositions through interaction.
The findings highlight the connection between symbolic resources manifested in
a product’s design, brand and value proposition, and the relationship
mechanisms and characteristic affecting the way such resources emerge and
become useful and valuable for both intermediate network actors and consumers.
Keywords
Symbolic embeddeness, resources, furniture, retail, distribution relationships
VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Like the unit of analysis in the thesis at hand, also the research journey behind it
has been highly embedded into a network context. This thesis is an outcome of a
process, involving significant support from a number of persons and institutions
along the way, to whom I would like to wish to express my most sincere gratitude.
My supervisor Prof. Martti Laaksonen, thank you for your patient and persistent
support for me! You have given me space to develop my own ideas, yet always
guarding the big picture, providing food for thought, and posing questions to challenge and improve my reasoning and articulating. I highly appreciate your vision
and conceptual thinking, as well as your encouragement. No matter how stuck I
felt, I always left our thesis discussions recharged with hope and confidence.
Thank you Martti for believing in me and coaching me through this journey!
My pre-examiners, professors Lars-Erik Gadde and Elsebeth Holmen – thank you
for devoting your time and involvement to reviewing my manuscript, and for
sharing your expertise in the comments and suggestions that helped improve the
thesis.
I am very happy to have had the Department of Marketing as my home base during the research process. During these years, I came to know and work together
with many admirable, interesting and wonderful personalities, who made up the
spirit of the department. With these colleagues, we have not only shared bright
ideas, great discussions and fruitful collaborations, but also many hilariousspirited coffee breaks and great times also outside the office. Through the years,
there have been many, present and former colleagues who have encouraged,
helped and lived though the ups and downs of academic life with me, whom I feel
very grateful to. I would specifically like to mention few persons among these.
Prof. Pirjo Laaksonen, always full of enthusiasm and creative ideas! I am grateful
for the support you have provided as professor and as head of department. Your
involvement at a few critical stages in the process turned out to be quite crucial
for moving things forward in practice, and I greatly value this input!
I would also like to thank the other professors at the department for their encouragement. I would especially like to mention Jorma Larimo who supported my
process also from an administrative role, and Harri Luomala, my former office
co-habitant, who has been inspirational in his efficiency as a researcher and project initiator.
VIII
Special thanks go to those colleagues with whom I (at some point) shared the fate
of being a doctoral student. Many you managed to finish your PhDs ahead of me
and provided inspiration and courage for me to keep going, illustrating the joy of
a finished thesis and the new and interesting challenges appearing after it. I thank
Henna Syrjälä, Hanna Leipämaa-Leskinen, Jenniina Sihvonen, Minna-Maarit
Jaskari, Minnie Kontkanen, Johanna Hallbäck and Sami Rumpunen, among others, for showing me how it’s done and for actively pulling me in the same direction. Particularly during the homestretch of this process, I have also enjoyed having the peer support of Linda Turunen, who reaches goal just before me. Within
the marketing subject, the dynamic duo of Henna & Hanna are my oracles when it
comes to CCT, Jenniina a gem of a co-author in her efficiency and ease of cooperation, Minna-Maarit my idol in pedagogical innovativeness and Linda such a
breeze of joy. It has been great to co-operate with you, as with the marketing colleagues Ari Huuhka, Katarina Hellén and Päivi Borisov. Lotta Alhonnoro, Petra
Berg, and others in the next wave, thank you too, for your support and friendship,
I look forward to celebrating your PhD’s in the time to come.
Among my fellow PhD-students, Karita Luokkanen-Rabetino deserves a special
mention. We have shared the interest in the empirical realities of the furniture
industry and the ‘oddity’ of studying other things than consumer behaviour.
Thank you Karita for all the insightful and encouraging comments and ideas
along the way, the theoretical debates (sorry for the noise, office neighbours in
the researcher’s tower!) and above all, the numerous therapeutic discussions we
have had. I am so happy that you have been there for me as a close colleague,
collaborator and friend along this journey.
In addition to the department, another home base for me as a researcher has been
the community of business network researchers at e.g. IMP conferences, Nordic
workshops, seminars in Uppsala, and especially within the furniture project in the
beginning of this research journey. I am grateful to have had the opportunity to
learn from, get inspired by, and work with many great minds in this field. I have
also been supported by comments, ideas and interactions at KATAJA/FINNMARK’s tutorials and other conferences and research seminars. This has
been a true knowledge co-creation process, where also friendships have formed.
I would furthermore also like to thank my new colleagues Annika Ravald, Peter
Björk and others at Hanken for cheering me on during the final, crucial meters of
this endeavour. Your encouragement has meant a lot to me.
When it comes to the empirical side of the thesis, I am deeply grateful to all the
informants in my case studies who devoted their time and allowed access to the
fascinating stories of the case firms. Many thanks also to the University of Vaa-
IX
sa’s marketing students, who were involved in the gathering and generation of the
mystery shopping data.
The research journey has also had a number of financial supporters. I would like
to express my gratitude to Liikesivistysrahasto, Suomen kulttuurirahaston EteläPohjanmaan rahasto, Kataja/FINNMARK, Vaasan yliopistosäätiö, Kauppias Gustaf Swanljungin lahjoitusrahaston säätiö, Pohjanmaan kauppakamari/Ralf-Erik ja
Kirsti Klockasin rahasto, Huonekalusäätiö and Vaasan yliopistoseura for enabling
this research process through research and travel grants.
Last but not least, I want to thank my family and friends outside academia for
being so encouraging and supportive, and also for giving me other things in life to
balance work with. The latter also applies to my dear four-legged companions;
Viktor, who will always be in my memories, and Neppis, who continues to
brighten up my everyday life.
My mother Riitta, my father Erkki – you laid the foundation and equipped me
with the confidence that I can take on the challenge of the doctoral thesis. I want
to dedicate this achievement to you. You have both always been so genuinely
interested in my doings and so unconditionally supportive. It feels wonderful to
share the happiness over this accomplishment with you. I have a strong feeling
that my grandparents would also have been proud, had they lived to see this day.
At a milestone such as this, my thoughts are particularly with my late grandmother Anna-Liisa, who always enthusiastically spurred me on my educational path,
from first-grade homework towards an academic career. My brothers Juuso,
Joonas and Sebastian, and all other extended family members – thank you too for
your support!
Finally, my loved ones at home, my husband Matias and my son Neo. There are
no words to express how grateful I am to have you stand beside me on this moment of achievement. Thanks for bringing happiness to my life, for understanding
and living through the times when I have had to shut myself away to devote my
attention for work. Matte, I have always felt a solid backup from you, which I am
so grateful for. Whether I needed efficient motivation and a push forward, or gentle words of encouragement and understanding, you have always been there to
provide it. Thank you for helping me do this! Now it is actually, finally, done!
Vaasa, May 2015
XI
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... 7
ESSAYS ............................................................................................................... 15
1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1
1.1
The research setting .............................................................................. 3
1.1.1
Setting the conceptual scene ................................................ 3
1.1.2
Positioning of the study ....................................................... 5
1.2
Purpose of the study .............................................................................. 7
1.3
Structure of the study ............................................................................ 8
2
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION ................................................................. 10
2.1
Markets as networks ........................................................................... 10
2.2
The network model ............................................................................. 13
2.3
The resource dimension in business networks .................................... 15
2.3.2
Resource heterogenity ........................................................ 16
2.3.3
Embeddedness of resoucres ............................................... 18
2.3.4
The two-faced nature of resources ..................................... 20
2.4
The 4R framework .............................................................................. 22
2.4.1
The components of the 4R model ...................................... 22
2.4.2
Using the 4R model ........................................................... 26
2.4.3
The role of perceptions ..................................................... 30
2.5
Toward a multidisciplinary understanding of resources - network,
service and consumer perspectives ..................................................... 31
2.5.1
CCT and IMP? ................................................................... 32
2.5.2
S-DL and IMP? .................................................................. 33
2.5.3
Enhancing 4R with S-DL and CCT ................................... 35
3
METHODOLOGY......................................................................................... 39
3.1
Methodological considerations in investigating business networks ... 39
3.2
Case selection and complementarity................................................... 41
3.3
Methods of data collection .................................................................. 45
3.4
Assessing the quality of the study....................................................... 48
3.5
Complementarity of the essays ........................................................... 50
4
THE SYMBOLIC SIDE OF RESOURCE INTERACTION - EXPLORING
PRODUCT EMBEDDEDNESS IN THE RETAIL CONTEXT ................... 52
5
RETAILERS AND MEDIA AS RESOURCE INTERMEDIARIES ............ 79
6
INERTIA IN BUSINES RELATIONSHIPS: THE CASE OF A DESIGNER
FURNITURE MANUFACTURER ............................................................... 92
XII
7
SYMBOLICALLY VALUABLE FOR THE CUSTOMER? A
LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS OF THE INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN
THE BRAND AND RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES OF
A FURNITURE MANUFACTURER .......................................................... 111
8
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................ 131
8.1
Summary of the study........................................................................ 131
8.2
Integrated discussion of the empirical findings ................................. 134
8.3
Theoretical implications - towards an understanding of symbolic
embeddedness .................................................................................... 138
8.3.1.
Characteristics of symbolic embeddedness based on the
empirical cases.................................................................. 138
8.3.1.1
Type of symbolic embeddedness ................ 139
8.3.1.2
Origin of symbolic resourcing..................... 140
8.3.1.3
Governance and the management of symbolic
resources ...................................................... 142
8.3.2
Types of symbolic resources in furniture networks.......... 143
8.3.2.1
Design as a symbolic resource .................... 143
8.3.2.2
Brands and communication as symbolic
resources ...................................................... 144
8.3.2.3
Value propositions as symbolic resources .. 145
8.3.3
Symbolic embeddedness and the contexts of supplying,
retailing and consumption ................................................ 146
8.4
A note on managing the symbolically embedded product ................ 150
8.5
Limitations and avenues for further research .................................... 152
REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 155
APPENDICES .................................................................................................... 164
Figures
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Positioning of the study...................................................................... 7
Structure of the study ......................................................................... 9
The network model (Håkansson 1987: 17) ...................................... 14
Resource ties, resource collections, and resource constellations over
five companies (Håkansson & Snehota 1995: 31) ........................... 16
The four resource entities (4R) framework ...................................... 24
The focal product’s resource interfaces ........................................... 30
Understanding resources from IMP, SDL and CCT perspectives –
an overview ...................................................................................... 36
Theoretical framework of the thesis ................................................. 38
Symbolic embeddedness in different resource contexts ................ 147
XIII
Tables
Table 1.
Table 2.
Characteristics and complementarities of the cases ................... 44
Case integration ....................................................................... 135
XV
ESSAYS
[1] Norrgrann, Anu (2014). The symbolic side of resource interaction - exploring product embeddedness in the retail context Non-published essay
based on two earlier conference papers 1.
[2] Norrgrann, Anu & Halkoaho, Jenniina (2009). Retailers and Media as Resource Intermediaries 2. Proceedings of the 2009 Naples Forum on Service: Service –dominant logic, service science and network theory.
[3] Norrgrann, Anu & Luokkanen-Rabetino, Karita (2011). Inertia in business
relationships: the case of a designer furniture manufacturer. International
Journal of Entrepreneurial Venturing, 3: 1, 44-62.
Reprinted with kind permission by Inderscience Publishing.
[4] Norrgrann, Anu (2014). Symbolically valuable for the customer? A longitudinal analysis of the interlinkages between the brand and relationship
development activities of a furniture manufacturer 3.
1
The essay combines the paper The product as a resource for the retailer, Published in the proceedings of 21st IMP-conference in Rotterdam, Netherlands 2005, and the paper The symbolic
side of resource interfaces in the retail context, presented at the 18th Nordic workshop on Interorganizational Research 2008, Bergen, Norway.
2
An earlier, extended abstract version of the essay has been published in Revista Româna de
Marketing/Romanian Journal of Marketing, Nr 1-2010 (January-March) and in the Proceedings of the 38th EMAC conference, 2009, Audencia, Nantes, France.
3
An earlier version of the paper was published in the proceedings of the 13th International Conference of the Society for Global Business & Economic Development (SGBED) “Managing the
“Intangibles”: Business and Entrepreneurship Perspectives in a Global Context, Università
Politechnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy.
1 INTRODUCTION
The product can be seen as the tool with which a firm connects its resources with
the needs of users. The managerial challenge underlying this research deals with
the question of how to develop and manage products successfully so that a ‘fit’
between these interests can be achieved and the product may function as a resource that provides value.
According to different estimates, the failure rates for new products range between
40-90% (for a review, see Castellion & Markham 2013); in the business press, it
has been quite common to refer to the higher end of this spectrum (Trott 2012:
579). Considering the costs of product development, it would be quite central that
firms focus on how products interact with their context; if and how they are useful
resources for customers.
On its way downstream from the development phases towards use, a product becomes embedded into different contexts and is assessed and handled by a variety
of actors. Its physical features as well as its intangible properties are affected by
many factors; for instance, the designer’s ideas, component features, technical
and logistical considerations, marketing activities, and characteristics of the distribution environments. Different perceptions, motivations and strategies of such
different actors are directed at the product. In order to develop successful, valueproviding products, an understanding is required about how the product adapts
into the different structures or contexts, which stretch outside the boundaries of
the single firm. This suggests that it would be useful to examine products from a
network point of view, as resources, whose value is dependent on the ties to other
resources, actors and activities in the network. The managerial challenge thus also
extends to making products function as value-providing resources for the different
firms and individual actors that are involved with it.
This study focuses particularly on the product’s path from the manufacturer towards the consumer; the ways in which products and the distribution contexts
interact. This setting also offers a managerially challenging field. As we speak,
the retail sector in Finland is going through difficult times. Headlines in the Finnish press, such as ‘The retail sector’s crisis deepens’ (Numminen 2014) reflect
the difficulty of many retail actors to adapt to the major structural change at hand,
which has been brought about by the economic recession and declining consumer
demand, as well as changes in consumer behaviour when purchases are increasingly being made online instead of through traditional channels (Boxberg 2013;
Kervinen & Junkkari 2013).
2
Acta Wasaensia
The empirical field of this research, furniture retailing, is a branch in which these
challenges are also highly visible. According to the Finnish Ministry of Employment and the Economy’s Industry report on the furniture sector (Loukasmäki
2013: 26), the changes in consumer demand for furniture are most likely to be
linked to developments of the gross domestic product and the economic outlook,
rather than correlating with the output of the construction industry, as has been
previously assumed. The report also claims that nowadays, furniture purchases
largely result from changed fashions; the old pieces of furniture are replaced by
new ones when consumers have the economic possibility to do so, not when old
items are worn out. In other words, this sector is particularly sensitive to general
economic fluctuations. During the severe recession years between 1990 and 1995,
consumption of the product groups of interior products and home electronics
dropped by 21%, and then increased again in the period from 1995 to 2001 by
41%. (Loukasmäki 2013: 26). The economic downturn that is currently at hand
has again prompted furniture retail turnover into decline (Tilastokeskus 2013),
forcing furniture manufacturers to reconsider their distribution strategies in order
to survive.
Moreover, the furniture retail sector has become increasingly concentrated and
dominated by chains such as Ikea, Indoor Group (including Asko and Sotka),
Masku, Isku, Vepsäläinen, Jysk, Stemma and Kodin Ykkönen (Loukasmäki 2013;
Association of Finnish Furniture Retailers 2006). Concentration also characterises
the purchasing side; there has been a tendency among retailers to decrease the
number of suppliers (Loukasmäki 2013). Other challenges include increased
competition from abroad, even in the form of new international retailers such as
Habitat, who opened its first store in Finland in late 2014, at a time when existing
retailers are struggling and being forced to close down their stores (Kinnunen
2014).
In such a context, it appears that it is more crucial than ever to make careful
choices regarding distribution, to manage these relationships efficiently, and to
have an understanding of how the product that a manufacturer sells will align
with the retail context in order to provide value for the actors involved.
The chairman of the Association of Finnish Furniture Retailers (Sisusta Kotia
r.y.), Arto Melanko (2014), also acknowledges the effects of the recession but
sees opportunities in the belief that consumers have become increasingly trend
and quality conscious. He highlights the observation that even though the amount
of store visitors has decreased, a partial explanation is that the consumer activity
of browsing has moved from physical stores to the web. This presumption that
‘Those who just kick tyres are nowadays on the Internet’ would imply on the one
Acta Wasaensia
3
hand that firms need to master multichannel marketing strategies, and on the other
hand, that the role of the physical encounters has become increasingly critical to
handle, if the customers in the stores are not ‘just looking’, but seriously intending to buy. This trend highlights the importance of understanding the resources
that the retail context can provide for consumers, and implicitly, also the role of
the manufacturer in assisting in this process. Making the most out of the product –
the common interest of the manufacturer and the retail actors–is in such a setting
more crucial than ever.
1.1
1.1.1
The research setting
Setting the conceptual scene
This research process began from two more or less fixed points of departure,
which came to have a strong influence on the choices made in the study. One was
an interest in the furniture sector as an empirical field; the other, a theoretical
starting point in the business network research tradition, sometimes labelled industrial marketing and purchasing (IMP) and on-going conceptual development
work specifically related to resource interaction, a process in which the researcher
has an opportunity to participate in within the framework of an international research project 4. The research process related to this thesis involved finding a focus and an individual research contribution in the combination of these two points
of departure. In the spirit of abduction, and systematic combining of theoretical
and empirical insights (see Dubois & Gadde 2002), the research framework gradually evolved; subsequently, new theoretical concepts were added.
From the standpoint of theory, the main focus has throughout the process been on
one of the elements in the network model presented in Håkansson (1987) and
elaborated in Håkansson & Snehota (1995), namely resources. A framework for
studying particularly the resource dimension in networks, “the 4Rs model,” was
developed by Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002) and used in subsequent work by
Forbord (2003), Baraldi (2003), and Gressetvold (2004), among others. This resource interaction model is also a cornerstone in this research, although due to the
more specific choices in subject delimitation, elements from other conceptual
4
The furniture project was a research collaboration undertaken around 1999–2001 on the topic
of resource interaction in industrial networks in the European furniture industry, with researchers from Uppsala University, the University of Urbino, the University of Twente, the
University of Vaasa, and Aarhus University participating.
4
Acta Wasaensia
discussions have been included, such as the value discussions from the service
dominant logic of marketing (see Vargo & Lusch 2004) and the notions of symbolic and cultural resources from consumer culture theory (See Arnould &
Thompson 2005), as well as insights related to branding and communication.
Both service scientists and consumer culture theorists approach the notion of resources in a similar manner to network researchers, emphasizing the role of resource combining and integration, rather than seeing resources as given to their
value and considering them interesting mostly from a possession and control
point of view, as in earlier academic discussions on resources, such as the resource-based view of the firm (RBV). Service theorists also share the idea that
resources are co-created between providers and users. The difference between this
approach and the IMP perspective adopted in this thesis lies mostly in their different units and levels of analysis, with service research being more focused on
the marketing to final customers and IMP concentrating on processes and effects
at the broader network level.
Even if these other theoretical angles were useful in understanding the concept of
resources, the network approach was chosen as the main theoretical perspective
steering the thesis, as it provides useful analytical tools for the examination of
resources on an interorganisational level regarding how the resource interacts
with its context.
The additional conceptual approaches serve the purpose of illuminating resources,
particularly from the point of view of value for users, and consumers in particular.
The relevance of this level is connected to the choice of the empirical field (furniture) and its nature as a consumer good. Thus, in order to understand how furniture works as a resource, this research stretches the analytical horizon beyond the
usual scope of network studies to also consider the consumer as one of the resource evaluators and users within the broader network.
In the process of narrowing in on a more focused phenomenon to be investigated
in relation to resources in the furniture industry, prior and on-going resource interaction research was examined in the attempt to identify a research gap to contribute to. The majority of resource studies in the network field appeared to deal
with investigations of technological systems and processes as contexts for resources. The interest in this thesis, however, began to direct itself more towards
understanding the focal product type itself. The character of furniture as a consumer product, and products for which issues such as design, style, and aesthetics
come into play, steered the research interest towards the question of resource embeddedness of a less technical nature. Could the tools developed for understanding resource interaction and embeddedness also be used for examining the inter-
Acta Wasaensia
5
play between a product and the more immaterial and symbolic resources in its
context? How does the “selling system” affect the product and its ability to function as a value-providing resource? And vice versa, how does the product affect
the network in which it is embedded; does it work as a resource for the actors in
the selling context? Can an understanding of the symbolic dimension of embeddedness help address the challenges raised in the introduction? How can we
achieve successful products that fit well for customers and help them create value?
1.1.2
Positioning of the study
During the research process, there have been many possibilities to make choices
about which concepts and approaches to use in order to best grasp the phenomena
that we were attempting to understand. From quite early on, we opted for a network view on distribution instead of a channel perspective (see Gadde 2004 for a
closer comparison). A network perspective enabled us to better examine and understand the interaction and co-operation aspects involved in distribution relationships (Gadde & Ford 2008; Gadde 2010). As Gadde & Ford (2008: 49) point out:
“Business isn’t something that a company does. It is a process between
many different, but interdependent actors and which is completely controlled by none of them.”
Against such a view, accessing resources of others and combining various resources of different actors stand out as central phenomena, making the network
approach and the resource aspects of it suitable conceptual tools for understanding business realities also regarding distribution.
As stated earlier, the more detailed area of interest in this study concerns particularly the resources of different actors interacting in the retail context. This concerns resources provided by manufacturers, retail actors, and also consumers. The
setting where resources of business actors meet the final consumer sphere has
received less attention in the industrial network field, with a few recent exceptions, such as Röndell & Sörhammar (2010).
The interaction between firm-provided and consumer resources has nevertheless
been discussed in other theoretical streams in the marketing discipline, such as the
Service-dominant Logic of marketing (S-DL) and Consumer Culture Theory
(CCT). These streams and the industrial network approach share a number of
common touch points and underlying assumptions, which is also illustrated in an
array of articles discussing the similarities, differences, and potential contributions between these. For instance, they share an approach to marketing that stress-
6
Acta Wasaensia
es an interactive and co-creating practice of “marketing with,” rather than “to,”
customers, and thereby an active role assigned to users/consumers and supply
chain partners (Vargo & Lusch 2008; Cova & Salle 2008a). Furthermore, in their
understanding of products and the value they may provide, these approaches all
de-emphasise the significance of the physical goods in themselves and instead
draw attention to their heterogeneous and context-dependent nature (Ford 2011;
Baraldi, Gressetvold & Harrison 2012). We will return to a more detailed examination of these similarities and differences in chapter 2.
During the course of this research process, both S-DL and CCT appeared to provide concepts that were useful for understanding the focal idea in this thesis:
products as symbolic resources. CCT, and consumer research more generally,
offer tools to understand the role of symbolic meanings and ways in which consumers use firm-provided resources as cultural resources to advance their life
goals and create their identities (Arnould & Thompson 2005). S-DL in turn offers
tools to understand the role of brands as resources that consumers integrate to
create value for themselves. These two streams thus offer complementary perspectives addressing consumer-level resource issues, which business-to-business
focused network research has largely left outside of its scope.
This thesis addresses a phenomenon that is located in the intersecting points between these theoretical streams, as illustrated by Figure 1. The study positions
itself primarily in the IMP field and utilises the others in order to enrich the understanding of the nature of specifically symbolic resources. The study utilises the
analytical framework provided by the 4R model, rooted in the industrial network
approach, and aims at contributing to the development of it regarding the role of
the symbolic level.
Acta Wasaensia
Figure 1.
1.2
7
Positioning of the study
Purpose of the study
To sum up, the unit of analysis of this thesis is the interconnections between
product and context, and these interconnections will here be approached from a
resource perspective.
The thesis focuses in particular on the symbolic dimension of resources, which
has received less attention in previous business network research, but which we
consider to be of particular significance on the distribution side of the network,
where issues such as store atmosphere, brand and retailer image and service and
personal selling strongly affect the ultimate presentation of the product and the
value it is able to provide for intermediate, as well as final customers.
The purpose of the study is thus to gain an understanding of symbolic embeddedness of products. More specifically, we delimit our study to examining symbolic embeddedness in the selling system and will thus explore how symbolic
embeddedness manifests itself in different contexts.
This research question is approached though following, more detailed objectives:
8
Acta Wasaensia
•
•
•
•
Understanding the role of retailers’ resource environment in resource interaction. How does the retailer affect the symbolic properties of a product
and how in turn does it use it as a symbolic resource itself?
What is the role of a retailer as a resource intermediary in a network?
What is the role of inertia and path-dependence for the development and
utilisation of symbolic resources?
How can brands and signs be used as symbolic resources in customer relationships?
These more specific objectives are examined through the four separate essays of
this thesis and a synthesising discussion of how these contribute to the holistic
understanding of symbolic resources embeddedness is presented in the subsequent conclusions chapter.
The conceptual and empirical complementarities of the essays, and the case studies they are based on, are discussed in further detail in chapter 3.
1.3
Structure of the study
The structure of the thesis is illustrated by figure 2 below. After having presented
the research setting and the conceptual and empirical starting points, the positioning of the study and defined the purpose and aims of the thesis in this introductory
chapter, we move to the theoretical framework, which constitutes chapter 2 of the
thesis.
In the theory chapter, we move from the general towards the specific; from the
underlying perspective of markets-as-networks to a presentation of the network
model, further focusing on the resource dimension of it and the nature and characteristics of resources seen from this theoretical perspective. Subsequently, we
discuss the 4R framework for understanding resource interfaces. Finally, additional theoretical perspectives on resources from the CCT and S-D L fields are
introduced and integrated to enrich the theoretical framework of the study.
The third chapter accounts for the methodological underpinnings and choices
made in the research process and offers a discussion of the roles of the independent essays play for the totality of the thesis. An evaluation of the quality of the
research is also made in this chapter.
Acta Wasaensia
9
The four independent essays of the thesis constitute the following chapters. Chapter four corresponds to the essay “The symbolic side of resource interaction –
exploring product embeddedness in the retail context”, chapter five “Retailers and
Media as Resource Intermediaries”, chapter six discusses “Inertia in Business
Relationships: the case of a designer furniture manufacturer” and finally, chapter
seven takes the angle “Symbolically valuable for the customer? A longitudinal
analysis of the interlinkages between between the brand and relationship development activities of a furniture manufacturer”. The empirical material in the form
of three case studies are presented in essays 1, 3 and 4, while essay 2 has a conceptual focus, although building on the findings from the case in essay 1.
Chapter eight draws the findings of the essays together and offers an integrated
discussion on the notion of symbolic embeddedness and its forms of expression.
It summarizes the conclusions of the study and provides directions for further
research.
Figure 2.
Structure of the study
10
Acta Wasaensia
2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
This chapter presents the theoretical foundation of the thesis. It discusses the conceptual cornerstones that will be used in the subsequent essays and empirical investigations. The emphasis in this chapter is in providing an understanding of the
network approach, and its take on our focal topic, resources. In addition, the need
for and complementarities provided by other conceptual perspectives (CCT and
S-D L) for a better understanding of the symbolic aspects of resources are discussed. The chapter concludes with a presentation of the theoretical framework of
the study.
2.1
Markets as networks
The underlying perspective in this study is a view of markets, which differs from
the assumptions in traditional economic and marketing theory. That is, it adopts
the view of business markets as networks of relationships, rather than seeing the
market around the firm as an abstract and anonymous mechanism of individually
insignificant customers and actors with clear and distinct roles (Ford et al. 1998:
193). Instead, this view highlights the diversity of the business landscape that a
business manager operates in (Ford et al. 2011: 6), of the unique issues and problems posed by specific customers, and of the varying relative importance of different relationships to actors within this landscape.
In the next section, we shall briefly outline some of the features of the markets-asnetworks (MAN) perspective in order to provide a background to the theoretical
standpoint of the thesis. Contrary to microeconomic, reductionist approaches, the
MAN approach sees the market as an evolving and socially constructed institution, with a history and a dynamic nature. But even if history matters, it does not
rule. Economic action is thus dependent on but not predetermined by previously
made decisions and actions (Mattson 2002; Araujo & Harrison 2002).
According to Mattsson (2002), the market can be defined as an institutional form
of the co-ordination of activities and the allocation and development of resources
controlled by the actors in economic systems. The function of markets is to match
supply and demand, determine prices, allocate resources between alternative uses,
and select viable products and actors.
The network is a seen as a subjectively perceived context for activities and resources rather than an objectively given structure. In other words, the MAN approach takes a different ontological view of markets compared to the microeconomic standpoint (Mattsson 2002; Snehota 2004).
Acta Wasaensia
11
The term “markets-as-networks” has been used quite interchangeably with notions such as the Industrial Network Approach or the IMP perspective (McLoughlin & Horan 2002). The emergence of this research tradition can be traced to
Uppsala University, and it has also been labelled as the Uppsala School (e.g.,
Thorelli 1994). The term “IMP perspective” refers to the work by an international
group of researchers on the topic, the so-called IMP Group (originally standing
for International Marketing and Purchasing and later more commonly referring to
Industrial Marketing and Purchasing), who published the book, International
Marketing and Purchasing of Industrial Goods: An interaction approach, in 1982
(see Håkansson ed. 1982) (Gressetvold 2004: 28). Based upon this work, the term
“Interaction Approach” has been used to describe the same phenomenon. In this
thesis, we do not make a distinction between these terms but will use them interchangeably.
According to this perspective, a company's supply and customer markets do not
exist in isolation. The companies a focal firm buys from or sells to are not simply
seen as units in a linear supply chain or levels in a distribution or marketing channel. Instead, each of the company's diverse relationships with its suppliers and
customers are affected by their own relationships with their customers and suppliers, indirectly affecting the focal company (Ford et al. 1998). The MAN approach
thus takes a more dynamic view of markets, viewing actors as interdependent and
involved in longer-term relationships rather than as separate exchange episodes.
This interdependence also concerns the processes of value creation and innovation, also acknowledging the role of distributors and other intermediaries and end
users in the value creation process. A detailed comparison between the assumptions of traditional marketing models and empirical observations by network researchers has been made by Håkansson, Henjesand, & Waluszewski (2004). They
concluded “market exchange in the IMP interpretation is a process of handling
interdependency and incompleteness—and, therefore, development possibilities
and dynamics.” (Håkansson et al. 2004:10).
Companies are always rooted in specific contexts, which provide both constraints
as well as possibilities. They operate within textures of interdependencies that
affect development. The interdependencies can be related to technology,
knowledge, social relations, administrative routines, or legal ties (Håkansson &
Snehota 1995: 12–13).
The notion of interdependencies is related to the connectedness of business relationships. Interdependence implies that the things that happen in a relationship
have an effect on what occurs in other relationships. Relationships can be considered connected when a certain relationship affects or is affected by actions in an-
12
Acta Wasaensia
other relationship. Not all relationships are, however, connected in this manner.
Examples of connectedness are when a new business partner is evaluated through
the use of references, such as by examining how this actor has handled previous
relationships (ibid: 17–18).
Actors are connected to other actors in both positive and negative ways. Positive
connections refer to synergetic, co-operative relationships, while negative connections imply a situation where actors compete of an exchange relationship with a
third party. A connection between actors can also simultaneously be both positive
and negative (Mattsson 2002). A relationship can thus contain elements of both
co-operation and competition.
Generalized connectedness is one of the central propositions of the MAN approach (McLoughlin & Horan 2002). When business relationships are seen as
connected, it also has to be considered that there are chain dependencies between
relationships, or indirect connectedness. This connectedness between relationships of different companies is referred to by Håkansson & Snehota (1995: 19) as
generalized connectedness. The fact that business relationships are generally connected implies that there exists an aggregated structure or a network. Relationships are thus parts of this broader structure (Håkansson & Snehota 1995: 19).
Actors can also be seen to have a certain position within the network, which describes how the focal firm is connected to the other actors in the network (Mattsson 2002). The position is associated with certain norms, and thus the firm is expected to behave according to the norms associated with the position (Mattsson
1984 in Easton 1992). The position of a focal organisation is actually defined by
other organisations it has relationships with (Easton 1992: 19). A similar term
used by Håkansson & Johansson (1984) referring to the views about a firm’s role
and position in relation to other firms in the network, is strategic identity (Easton
1992:19).
Distinctive for the MAN approach is also that networks are not viewed as á priori
structures to be imposed on organisations. They are rather seen as structured by
the enactment of autonomous actors (McLoughlin & Horan 2002; Håkansson &
Snehota 1995).
MAN stresses the exchange relationship (not the individual transaction) as the
basic coordination mechanism. It focuses on their creation, development, and
termination, as well as the creation, increase and decrease of interdependencies
within the relationship (Mattsson 2002).
Acta Wasaensia
13
The consequence of these interdependencies is that companies need to interact
effectively with the actors with whom they have relationships.
.
2.2
The network model
The mechanism through which the previously mentioned interdependencies can
be handled is the business relationship. A relationship can tentatively be seen as a
mutually oriented interaction between two reciprocally committed parties
(Håkansson & Snehota 1995: 25). What distinguishes a relationship from transactions between actors in general is that they are often characterised by “structural”
features, such as continuity, complexity, symmetry, and informality, as well as
“process” characteristics like adaptation, co-operation and conflict, social interaction, and routinization (Håkansson 1987; Håkansson & Snehota 1995).
The main analytical device of the MAN tradition is the network model, which has
also been referred to as the Actors-resources-activities (ARA)-model by
Håkansson (1987). In this model, it is recognised that companies operate within
complex networks, which are defined as “two or more connected exchange relationships” (Cook & Emerson 1978: 725). The network model provides insights
into the interdependencies between the relationships that constitute the network
(Gressetvold 2004).
14
Acta Wasaensia
Figure 3.
The network model (Håkansson 1987: 17)
The basic variables in the network model (see Figure 3), actors, resources, and
activities, are the points of departure in depicting industrial networks. These three
variables are also related to each other within the general structure of the network.
That is, actors (individuals or collectives) control resources and employ them to
perform activities where the resources are transformed or transferred. Resources
(human and physical) function as the means used by actors to perform activities,
and they are also controlled by one or several actors. Activities link together resources either through transformation or transfer, and they are, like resources, also
controlled by actors. The networks of actors, resources, and activities are thus
related to each other through this circular definition (Håkansson 1987; Håkansson
& Johansson 1992: 28).
The basic ARA model was elaborated further in Håkansson & Snehota (1995) by
dividing the relationship between actors into three interdependent layers of substance: the actor layer, the resource layer, and the activity layer. The substance of
a dyadic business relationship was broken down into activity links, resource ties,
and actor bonds (Håkansson & Snehota 1995). In the following section, we shall
focus more specifically on one of these layers, the resources.
Acta Wasaensia
2.3
15
The resource dimension in business networks
Since the 1990s, the different layers of the aforementioned network model have
also been studied separately in order to increase understanding of the different
facets of the network. Studies with an actor focus have dealt with strategy, and
those with an activity focus are concerned with co-ordination and efficiency issues. Those examining the resource dimension more closely have to a large extent
been studies focusing on technological development (Baraldi 2003), innovation
and, more recently, also areas such as logistics and accounting (Baraldi et al.
2012). Concentrating on one of the layers, such as resources, does not, however,
mean that it would be studied in complete isolation from the other two layers
(Baraldi, Bocconcelli, & Söderlund 2002). Instead, as Dubois & Torvatn (2002)
point out, the chosen level of analysis needs to be understood in relation to its
context, such as resources in relation to actors and activities.
In this section, we will make a closer examination of the resource dimension of
the network model and discuss its underlying assumptions. The so called 4Rs
model, which is used as the analytical tool in this study and which describes interaction between resource items, will also be examined in this section.
2.3.1
Resources and the business relationship
The network model (Håkansson & Snehota 1995) identified that one of the layers
of substance is constituted by resources. A business relationship can be used to
access or acquire resources and also to bring resources of the two actors together
and confront and combine them. Interfaces between resources from the two companies can become broad and deep and therefore become specifically oriented
towards each other, forming resource ties between the interacting companies.
These ties can become useful through the emergence of new resource combinations and, since relationships in themselves also are valuable bridges for accessing
resources, even the relationship itself can therefore be considered a resource
(Håkansson & Snehota 1995: 30–31).
Resource ties thus connect the resource collections of individual firms. The resulting aggregated resource structure, in which a company is directly and indirectly
related to the resources of other actors, is described by Håkansson & Snehota
(1995) as the resource constellation, which is illustrated in Figure 4.
16
Acta Wasaensia
Figure 4.
2.3.2
Resource ties, resource collections, and resource constellations over
five companies (Håkansson & Snehota 1995: 31)
Resource heterogenity
A central assumption related to resources within the industrial network field
seems to be that of resource heterogeneity (Holmen 2001: 142; Holmen &
Pedersen, 2012: 212). This term has its roots in the resource based view (RBV) of
the firm, in which Edith Penrose (1959: 25) wrote that
“Strictly speaking, it is never resources themselves that are the inputs in
the production process, but only the services that they can render. The services yielded by resources are a function of the way in which they are
used.”
This statement implies that that the resources do not have given features (Baraldi
et al. 2012: 267) but that the same resource can have a different value if used for
different purposes and in different combinations. When resources are modified
and developed, new “services” emerge as a result.
Penrose (1959) used the term “heterogeneity” to describe the close relationship
between the resources of the firm and those of its context in the study of the
growth of firms. Alchian & Demsetz (1972) employed the heterogeneity argument to explain the very existence of firms. According to them, heterogeneous
resources give different marginal returns depending on which other resources they
Acta Wasaensia
17
are combined with. The relative importance of the properties that a resource has is
thus dependent on the combination in which the resource is used. The value that
these combinations provide differs; it is heterogeneous (Alchian & Demsetz
1972).
These ideas of resource heterogeneity have been adopted by the industrial network approach assuming that features of a resource are created as this resource is
combined with other resources. A consequence of this is that a resource always
has hidden qualities; since there are many new ways of combining this resource
with others, new qualities of it can be discovered in this manner. By being combined or activated in a new way, an existing resource can thus exhibit new features. At the same time, it is impossible to have full knowledge of any resource
and the potential ways in which it can be used (Håkansson & Waluszewski 2002:
32).
Holmen & Pedersen (2012) conducted a review of the variety of ways in which
researchers within the network have dealt with the notion of resource heterogeneity. They arrived at seven different sets of terms, five of which were grouped under the umbrella term “heterogeneity-as-potential,” which focuses on the contributions that resources can provide in line with the Penrosian (1959) idea of services, the complexity of resources, their unknown potential, their presently known
and utilized sides, as well as their accumulated potentialities over time. Another
set of vocabularies was the view of “heterogeneity-as-fit,” where the emphasis
was on the value/usefulness of the resource in a certain resource combination and
the systematic relating and combining of resources that this requires. Moreover,
the perspective “heterogeneity-as-variety” was identified as a way to group together and compare sets of resources, for instance, in the form of demands from
different types of customers or variety among suppliers (Holmen & Pedersen
2012).
From the notion that resources are heterogeneous, it follows that interaction is
important for the development of the resource and the value that it can provide.
Business relationships become important for relating the heterogeneous resources
of the interacting firms and allowing their combined effectiveness to increase.
Within the industrial network approach, it is believed that heterogeneity is highly
relevant for resource ties in relationships and that they explain why intercompany relationships often have a tendency to be broad in content and stable
over time (Håkansson & Snehota 1995: 135).
Heterogeneity is something that exists on both the demand and the supply side.
According to Alderson (1995: 22–23), materials that are useful to man occur in
nature in heterogeneous mixtures that have only random relationships to human
18
Acta Wasaensia
needs and activities. These materials, and the goods fabricated from them, are
matched with the needs of households or individuals through the marketing process. In other words, according to Alderson (1995: 23), the aim of marketing is to
cope with the heterogeneity of both needs and resources.
Researchers interested in the notion of resource heterogeneity, such as Penrose
(1959), Alchian & Demsetz (1972), and Alderson (1995), have also mentioned
the opposite of this concept, resource homogeneity. Within the industrial network
field, Holmen et al. (2003) have also drawn attention to this aspect. They suggest
that resource homogeneity should also be considered more explicitly, as actors
who face the task of handling the heterogeneous resources must in fact disregard
some of this heterogeneity in order to be able to frame and classify what they are
handling. Bounded rationality and cognition thus lead to actors assuming resource
homogeneity in some situations. (Holmen et al. 2003)
2.3.3
Embeddedness of resoucres
If resources are considered heterogeneous in the sense that their value depends on
which other resources they are combined with, it means that these resources need
to be evaluated in different constellations and combinations: as embedded instead
of given elements. The concept of embeddedness has its roots in economic sociology (see Granovetter 1985), where it is asserted that economic behaviour is
closely embedded in networks of interpersonal relations. Social relationships form
ongoing structures, which have their own histories. These two points thus imply
that firms are both socially and historically constructed (Granovetter 1985).
In the industrial network strategy, embeddedness has been approached through
the earlier mentioned notions of connectedness and network position as well as by
also seeing embeddedness in resource ties, activity links, and actors bonds (Halinen & Törnroos 1998). Holmen (2001: 133–134) points out two main differences in how the notion of embeddedness is approached within the IMP and how
it is seen in economic sociology. Firstly, there is a terminological difference in the
concepts that are used to describe single business transactions. Granovetter’s
(1985) term “actions” is very close to the term “episodes,” which is used within
the IMP literature. A second difference is related to how these views understand
“structure.” Economic sociology mainly concentrates on the social and cognitive
elements of structure, even if it is acknowledged that other factors, such as technological structures, may also influence economic action. According to the industrial network model, again, the notion of structure is related to all three layers of
the network; it does not only focus on the social structure (actor layer). In this
Acta Wasaensia
19
sense, it can be said that these two approaches overlap but are also complementary (Holmen 2001: 133–134).
Halinen & Törnroos (1998) use the concept of embeddedness to refer to companies’ relations with and dependence upon various types of networks. They provide different perspectives for the study of embeddedness, suggesting it could be
studied from at least three angles: the perspective of the actor-network, the dyadnetwork, and the micronet-macronet. The actor-network angle takes the viewpoint
of a focal actor and seeks to understand the interface between it and the network.
The dyad-network in turn has a focal dyad, such as a buyer-seller relationship as a
starting point, and analyses its connectedness in the broader network. The third
level, micronet-macronet, refers to the embeddedness of a group of actors involved in a distinct business activity as part of a broader national or institutional
network of actors with an effect on the micronet (Halinen & Törnroos 1998).
Halinen & Törnroos (1998) furthermore discuss different types of embeddedness
in business networks. They distinguish between temporal, spatial, social, political,
market, and technological embeddedness.
Temporal embeddedness relates to the fact that companies, dyads, and nets have
their histories, their current situations, and also their objectives and expectations
about their future. (Halinen & Törnroos 1998). The role of history is frequently
claimed to be important for the actions companies attempt to undertake, as actions
may be path-dependent. That is, future actions are dependent on the actions, decisions, and investments made in the past (Araujo & Harrison 2002). When activities or processes, such as product development, are viewed as embedded in time
rather than as an isolated process, it implies that the unit of observation changes
from a single development project to a more aggregated level. In other words, it is
considered that “history matters” in the development of the product but also that
the potentially valuable outcomes for the future are created beyond the product
itself (Gressetvold & Wedin 2005). We shall return to discussing the role of path
dependencies for resource development and use in more detail in Essay 3.
Spatial embeddedness refers to how business activities are located and organized
in space and how actors are internationally or locally embedded in networks. It
also pertains to the spacio-mental perspectives of how actors understand the spatial hierarchy around them (Halinen & Törnroos 1998). Embeddedness in space
can also be regarded more broadly in terms of a space or area where resources
meet (Gressetvold & Wedin 2005).
Social embeddedness is evident in business networks through the individuals who
work and interact in companies, providing possibilities for activities like ex-
20
Acta Wasaensia
change and learning. Political embeddedness again refers to interfaces with the
politico-social context, while market embeddedness denotes the connections
through products/services offered to the clientele served and the functions performed. Market embeddedness also relates to the connections of the firm with its
customers, suppliers, distributors, and other actors. Embeddedness can also be
viewed in terms of connections to and dependence on various technological systems, i.e. technological embeddedness (Halinen & Törnroos 1998).
Given the empirical and analytical context of this study, we would like to propose
that the notion of embeddedness can also be extended to the symbolic context of
resources. In the subsequent essays of this thesis, we will more closely examine
both the additional conceptual linkages and the empirical forms of expression of
symbolic embeddedness and return to discussing this notion in the conclusion
chapter.
2.3.4
The two-faced nature of resources
Companies make use of resources, acquire resources from others, and provide
resources for others in the form of the products and services that they offer. That
is, resources have both a provision side and a user side. This implies that companies on one hand economise on scarce resources but on the other hand use resources (both internal resources and those of others) in order to provide resources
for others (Håkansson & Snehota 1995).
Håkansson & Snehota (1995: 134) state that the value of a resource lies in its use;
a resource can only be regarded as a resource when use can be made of it, such as
when it is coupled to a context. Therefore, resources can be very broadly defined
as anything that has a known use.
Placing the emphasis not only on what individual firms can do with their resources but also how they can be used together with other resources is what distinguishes the industrial network perspective from the RBV of the firm (Dubois &
Torvatn 2002: 16). The RBV largely focuses on core competences that distinguish
firms, whereas the network approach emphasises resources as negotiated between
companies. Further, the RBV sees capabilities as sources to gain a competitive
advantage, while the network approach is more interested in how they are adapted
through interactions to fit in relation to existing resources (Dubois & Torvatn
2002: 2; Baraldi et al. 2012: 271).
The implications of the double-faced nature of resources are related to economical, performance-related, and activity-related issues. Firstly, resources are critical
Acta Wasaensia
21
for the economic performance of the firm as resources that are used up incur
costs. At the same time, however, revenues depend on how resources are developed. Secondly, the available resource collection also affects company performance. Some of the necessary resources are available internally, but others need
to be accessed through relationships. Thirdly, the access to resources that a company has limits the possibilities regarding what a company can do. Companies
must consider how to use their own resources efficiently and simultaneously determine how to best provide resources for others. To succeed with the latter, it is
important that the company is connected to demanding partners who will pull the
company to develop its products and services (Håkansson & Snehota 1995: 133).
To summarise the network approach’s understanding of resources, we refer to
Håkansson et al.’s (2009: 69–71) basic propositions, which were also discussed
by Baraldi et al. (2012: 267):
Proposition 1: The value of a resource is dependent on connections to other resources. Resources do not have a value in themselves but become useful and provide economic value only in combination with other resources or when they are
embedded into larger resource combinations (Håkansson et al. 2009: 69, 73), New
resources, such as new products, confront existing resource structures and need to
create their space and role in relation to the existing structure (ibid: 71).
Proposition 2: A resource changes and develops characteristics over time. Resources can be seen as results of prior interactions, enabling and restricting their
use (Håkansson et al. 2009: 70). Path dependencies and inertia (cf. Ford et al.
2003: 51; Araujo & Harrison 2002) affect how resources can be managed.
Proposition 3: A resource is embedded in a multidimensional context. Being a
part of several resource combinations and production and use contexts also limits
and enables resource use and can even create contradictions (Håkansson et al.
2009: 70).
Proposition 4: All changes of a resource create tensions. Given the interdependencies between and the embeddedness of resources, changes made in a resource
have implications for the costs, efficiency, or effectiveness of the other resources
connected to it (Håkansson et al. 2009: 80). Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002)
examined the tensions between resources through the notion of friction. Essay 3
of this thesis explores the same phenomenon partly from the point of view of positive effects through the notion of inertia (Norrgrann & Luokkanen-Rabetino
2011).
22
Acta Wasaensia
Proposition 5: The interaction intensity influences the effects of a change in a
resource. The greater the intensity of interaction between resources, the bigger a
change in one resource it may cause as a consequence in the other affected resources in terms of costs or benefits (Håkansson et al. 2009: 70–71).
Proposition 6: The interaction breadth influences the number of resources that
are affected by a resource change. The more broadly resources interact, the more
widespread the effects will be in terms of costs or benefits (Håkansson et al.
2009: 71).
2.4
The 4R framework
As stated earlier, the mechanism that permits companies to access, activate, and
develop resources in interaction is the business relationship. Interaction in the
business relationship is not only about social exchange but also involves an adaptation of the products exchanged and influences both the requirements and the
solutions offered (Håkansson & Waluszewski 2002: 27).
To understand interaction and its consequences for resource utilisation and development, Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002: 33) emphasise that it is not enough to
merely examine the interplay between the participating actors but to also understand the interplay between resources. Based on the previous discussion, if we
assume that resources to their nature are heterogeneous, and their value is dependent on with which other resources they are combined, then resources should
not be regarded as separate, stand-alone elements but rather be evaluated in different combinations and constellations (Håkansson & Snehota 1995: 135; Baraldi
2003: 17)
2.4.1
The components of the 4R model
Whereas the previously mentioned ARA-framework has its resources in an existing business relationship as a starting point, the so-called 4 resource entities (4R)
model provides an analytical framework for the interfaces between these connected resources themselves (Håkansson et al. 2009: 67). This framework is based on
a categorisation of resources into different types. Even if such categorisations are
found in prior literature that approached resources from different perspectives
(see for instance Grant 1991 and Das & Teng 1998 for RBV contributions), Gadde and Håkansson (2008: 36) concluded that there is no general agreement on
how resources are categorised, even within the industrial network approach, but
Acta Wasaensia
23
that the categorisations are dependent on the specific purposes of resource analysis.
The 4R framework, proposed by Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002), has been
used in numerous subsequent studies (see Baraldi 2012), makes a distinction between four types of resources that can be grouped into two main categories: physical and organizational. The physical resources comprise products and facilities,
while the organizational include business units and business relationships
(Håkansson & Waluszewski 2002; Gadde & Håkansson 2008; Baraldi et al 2013).
The terminological labels on the resource entities have changed somewhat from
the original wording used by Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002) so that production facilities have subsequently been termed facilities to reflect the broader definition of the item; similarly, business units and business relationships have in
more recent 4R work (Håkansson et al. 2009; Baraldi et al. 2012) been termed
organizational units and (inter-)organizational relationships.
In brief, the content of the four resource categories is as follows:
Products refer to what is exchanged between economic actors. While Gadde &
Håkansson (2008: 36) consider products to be physical resources and Håkansson
et al. (2009: 67) as ”usually combinations of tangible resources” [our emphasis],
we will in this thesis pay particular attention to the intangible and symbolic dimensions of the physical products. As Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002: 35)
highlight, the network perspective sees product features as a result of interaction:
for instance, the selling process creates imprints on the products. Given the context of this study, we would like to propose that such an interaction can also be
symbolic in nature, drawing on the well-established notion from consumer research that products are symbolic communication tools (Solomon 1983) and carriers of cultural meaning (McCracken 1986). Particularly the cultural approaches
in consumer research (Arnould & Thompson 2005; Peñaloza & Venkatesh 2006)
highlight the meanings as co-produced: a result of interaction.
Facilities refer to resources that are used for creating or transforming products,
such as production plants, information systems, machines, warehouses, and exhibition outlets (Gadde & Håkansson 2008; Baraldi et al. 2012). Particularly concerning facilities linked to marketing, we may also consider this resource category
not only from a physical resource point of view but also as symbolic resources,
including signs and meanings communicated through product displays in the retail environment or advertisements and other forms of marketing communication.
Business units (or organizational units) represent the knowledge, experience, and
skills in an organization, and they may refer to the firm, a part of it, or even sev-
24
Acta Wasaensia
eral firms (Håkansson et al. 2009; Gadde & Håkansson, 2008). Baraldi et al.
(2012: 268) mention identity and reputation as business unit resources, thereby
additionally highlighting this resource category’s relevance from a symbolic resource perspective. We would also suggest that brands and designs could be seen
as assets relating to the business unit, even if they might also be conceptualised as
features of products.
Business relationships (or inter-organizational relationships) refer to the substantial links, ties, and bonds resulting from the interaction between firms. They connect organizational units and are used for influencing routines and procedures and
for organizing products and facilities (Baraldi et al. 2012; Håkansson et al. 2009:
68), as this concept is related to both physical resource handling as well as the
social processes of interaction.
As Figure 5 below shows, all of the entities interact with each other. Facilities are
used for the transformation and transaction of products; products are exchanged
between business units within the framework of business relationships, etc. The
resource entities, such as products, should thus not be studied in isolation but
against interfaces with other resources.
Products
Facilities
Figure 5.
Business relationships
Business
units
The four resource entities (4R) framework
The 4R model thus provides a tool for analysing how resources interact and develop and how they receive their characteristics and value. To understand the value of a resource, the model explores how the resource is related to or embedded
into the surrounding ones (Baraldi 2003: 17).
Resource interfaces have been defined by Gadde & Håkansson (2001: 82) as
“what is between resources.” They differ from the notion of resource ties, which
refer to a more specific type of interface, such as a technical adaptation between
Acta Wasaensia
25
the resources of two interacting firms (for example, an adapted component and
the final product into which it is assembled). The notion of a resource interface is
thus broader and “cuts surgically into the texture of resource interactions by
pointing at the specific contact points between two resources, defined along relevant technical, economic, and social dimensions” (Baraldi 2003: 17–18).
Resource interfaces can vary in strength. The differences between interfaces have
been approached through the terms heaviness and variety (Håkansson &
Waluszewski 2002). Heaviness refers to how strongly the two resources are connected and related to each other. Heaviness increases with time, monetary investments, and adaptation, and such heavy interfaces are thus harder and more
expensive to break apart. On the other hand, variety refers to interfaces that are
more versatile and open for reconfigurations, thus offering possibilities for use in
different combinations (Håkansson & Waluszewski 2002; Baraldi 2003).
The task for companies in handling resources is thus not only that of dealing with
the individual resources but of handling the interfaces between resources. This
distinction implies a need to firstly recognize the relevant interfaces for a specific
goal and secondly to attempt to understand how they can be utilized or modified
(Baraldi 2003: 19). Understanding all the relevant interfaces can, however, be a
difficult task, as all interfaces may not be visible, or they may be too complex for
the actor to frame and make sense of, either because they are outside the actor’s
awareness boundary (see Dubois 1998) or because the bounded rationality of actors makes it difficult to grasp the complexity of the heterogeneous resources
(Baraldi 2003:19; Holmen et al. 2003).
For examining and measuring resource interfaces, Baraldi (2003: 21) suggests a
distinction between quantitative and qualitative interfaces. Quantitatively measurable interfaces can include the production capacity of a facility, the share of a
certain customer relationship in the sales of a specific product, or the lead time of
a product. Even social interfaces can to some extent be quantified, such as in
terms of the number of contacts or meetings between two interacting business
units (Baraldi 2003: 21).
Qualitative interfaces, again, can relate to the power of a producer on a distributor
business unit or the effect of the corporate image of a business unit on the sales of
a product (ibid). In this thesis, such qualitative and immaterial interfaces will be
closely examined.
26
2.4.2
Acta Wasaensia
Using the 4R model
Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002: 39) acknowledge that when attempting to
study resources that can mean one thing in one structure and again have completely different features if placed in another structure, some important contradictions need to be considered. To understand the interactive dimensions of a resource, resources must be seen as the following:
Both as a totality and as a set of interrelated components in a larger context:
At some point a resource needs to be treated as a totality in order to understand its
content. At the same time, by dividing it into smaller parts and examining how
they are related to each other, it can be revealed how the resource functions and
how it can be related to other resources. (ibid). Products, which are the focal resources in this thesis, can also be regarded as a totality, which consists of different
components and features or, as in the case when a collection is defined as the focal product, even of several complementary or alternative products that together
constitute a larger product entity with certain common features.
Both as an object in itself and as an image object: Physical and social resources
have their impact on economic life, but so do actors’ perceptions of them. Resources are formed through human interaction, a process in which image is a central ingredient. Interaction thus relates both physical resources and the images of
them to each other (Håkansson & Waluszewski 2002: 39-40). The image dimension of resources is thus related to perceptions formed and held by actors. Image
thus connects the concrete resource layer with the actor layer. We will return to
this concept more specifically in section 2.5.3.
Both as given and non-given: When resources are regarded as non-given, it implies that they can be developed from an economic point of view. However, when
decisions are made about a resource or when a researcher is attempting to study it,
it needs be treated as given and static at a specific point in time (Håkansson &
Waluszewski 2002: 40).
Both as a source of development and as a point of reference for other resources: When resources are seen as open for development possibilities and are
thus fragmented, it is difficult to take such a “slippery” resource as a point of reference in studying other resources. However, this is what has to be done when
companies relate their resources and the researchers who attempt to study them.
Then, the fixed point of reference is simultaneously also a source of development
(Håkansson & Waluszewski 2002: 40).
Acta Wasaensia
27
Gadde & Håkansson (2008) use the 4R model when considering the role of business relationships in the management and systematic combination of resources,
making a distinction between resource combinations within relationships and between different relationships. They point out two important ways in which relationships affect resource combining. On the one hand, when resources from different firms become connected, the result of this combination is a relationship
between the firms. On the other hand, the relationship is the resource that enables
resource combining across firms. In a continuous relationship, the resources become increasingly intertwined, and if/when one of the firms changes the resource
combination, the relationship as a resource is affected and becomes vulnerable.
The relationship thus depends on how the firms manage the resource combinations, how resources are exploited, how their possibilities are explored, and how
problems related to them are handled (Gadde & Håkansson 2008).
Apart from managing resource combinations within a relationship, another resource combining challenge relates to utilizing (or deriving more value out of) a
specific resource in different relationships, thus connecting relationships by resource combining (ibid). In this way, managing a specific resource also becomes
a question of developing and managing different relationships and their requirements.
Gadde & Håkansson (2008) suggest making an analytical distinction between
three levels of resource combining. At the level of primary combining, a focal
resource’s interfaces that are most central for is use with such resources from the
other resource categories are examined. Such primary combinations involve resource adaptation to make the most out of the resource, but simultaneously, such
specific adaptations also create lock-in effects, which makes use of the resource
in other combinations more challenging. In secondary combining, three of the
resource types are held constant, but the fourth is allowed to vary: the resource is
considered in relation to other primary combination sets. When such secondary
combinations were analysed, tensions between handling resources from different
sets, were revealed as well as new opportunities. An additional, analytically distinct level is tertiary combining, in which at least two resource categories are allowed to vary, making resource management increasingly complex due to the
multiplicity of possible resource combinations and the possibilities and restrictions they may provide.
In two of the empirical cases of this thesis, we will more closely examine the tensions and path dependencies when resource combinations from existing relationships are contrasted with efforts to develop new products for new relationships.
Also in these cases, we direct our particular attention to the symbolic aspects of
28
Acta Wasaensia
resources in old vs. new combinations. This relates, among others, to the time
dimension of image: how experiences and representations received over time, in
combination with present experiences, form present images. This concept is referred to by Rindell (2013) as image heritage.
The 4R model has been applied in a number of empirical studies examining the
resource dimension in business networks. Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002)
originally developed the model in relation to a case study of technological development related to the efforts to make IKEA’s catalogue paper more environmentally friendly. It follows how two companies, the paper user IKEA and the paper
producer SCA, when driven by a common environmental threat, work to arrive at
a solution in the form of a new kind of catalogue paper.
Wedin (2001) also used the model in a technological setting by studying the provision side and the utilization side of a specific resource, namely electricity. That
is, he studied how the demand for electricity in an industrial process is formed
and how the use of electricity is embedded in a broader network context, comprising different business units and the facilities and products within them. This study
was empirically set in the paper and printing industry, although the focus was on
electricity as a product in these processes. Wedin’s (2001) study also concentrated
on the knowledge dimension of resources, highlighting that the use of a single
resource requires knowledge about several other resources from different contexts. This idea implies that the role of relationships becomes highlighted as an
important mechanism for coordinating knowledge about the resources.
The 4Rs model was also the conceptual cornerstone in the Furniture Project to
which we referred in the Introduction section. It initially attempted to study resource interaction in the European furniture industry in a quantitative way (see
Baraldi & Bocconcelli 2001) but then shifted to qualitative case studies focusing
on different aspects of resource interaction, namely IT, distribution, and design
(Baraldi, Bocconcelli, & Söderlund 2001).
Baraldi’s (2003) thesis deals with the interplay between resources and information technology. It focuses on the role if IT tools and systems as facilities that
are used in order to manage physical resources, such as products. The role of IT
systems is explored in two case studies from the furniture sector, and the focus is
on managerial tasks.
Applications of the 4R framework with a more specific product development focus include the studies by Forbord (2003), von Corswant (2003), Gressetvold
(2004), and Hjelmgren (2005).
Acta Wasaensia
29
Hjelmgren’s (2005) study of an ERP-system provider’s product development efforts centres upon how a company handles the interplay between developing
standard products and customer-specific solutions. It analyses how specific product features are developed through interaction and mutual adaptation and explores
how the two interacting parties handle the effects that a certain adaptation may
have on other parts of the network. Similarly to Baraldi’s study, it discusses the
managerial issues of exploration and exploitation of resources.
Gressetvold (2004) in turn focused on the connections between product development and relationship development in his case study with a semiconductor producer as the focal company. More specifically, the study explores how a company
can influence the development of its network of relationships through product
development. In the analysis, particular attention is given to the effects in terms of
time and visibility.
Whereas all of the studies referred to above could be said to be characterized by a
fairly high degree of technological complexity in the interfaces between the studied resources, in Forbord’s (2003) study in turn, the focal resource is a more simple one: goat milk. Changes in the utilization of this resource are followed over
time: how the value changes when being detached from certain resources in the
network and attached to others, in the form of being a component in different final products. In this study, the emphasis is on the economics of resource use, including how new ways of utilizing the resource may imply changes in seeing the
resource either as a cost or as a value.
Many of these applications of the 4Rs model, as well as other studies examining
the resource dimension in networks (Holmen 2001; Bengtsson 2003; Åberg 2013,
to name but a few), share the fact that the analysis concerns highly technical
products or processes. The analysis of the resource interaction therefore concentrates on fairly technical interfaces, and many of these studies also fall under the
umbrella of technological development in business networks.
Baraldi et al. (2012) conducted a comprehensive review of academic work, from
dissertations to books and journal articles, where the resource interaction approach has been used subsequent to the seminal work by Håkansson &
Waluszweski (2002), Their review revealed that the scope of these studies range
from the aforementioned types of work concerning innovation and technical development to Science and Technology Studies (STS) (see Waluszewski 2009) and
even accounting and management control (e.g. Lind & Strömsten 2006). Many of
the studies have also been conducted within the application field of logistics (see
e.g. Jahre et al. 2006).
30
Acta Wasaensia
In the previous 4R studies, such as the aforementioned works by Forbord (2003)
and Gressetvold (2004), it has not been uncommon to select a focal resource as a
starting point for the analysis; this study takes such a perspective. As this study
focuses on products and their properties, the focal entity out of the four elements
in the 4Rs model will naturally be the product. The level of our analysis is thus
the product-centred resource network relevant for the product’s development and utilisation. The rough analytical tool for the study can thus be illustrated as shown in Figure 6:
Figure 6.
The focal product’s resource interfaces
The white arrows from the surrounding context illustrate the effects of the other
resource items on the product; while the darker arrows outward from the focal
resource show how the product influences other resources with which it is connected and affects these other resources’ ability to provide value.
2.4.3
The role of perceptions
Forbord (2003) points out that a distinction must be made between a resource in
itself and the actual use of it. This highlights the role of the actor as the force that
sets the resources in motion and is able to discover the potential economic uses of
them. Therefore, the examination of resource use also largely becomes a question
of how actors perceive resources: in this case, particularly how they perceive
products, their properties, and the potential value that connecting to and interacting with such a product can provide. In conceptual terns, how to evaluate the heterogeneity-as-potential referred to by Holmen & Pedersen (2012).
Acta Wasaensia
31
As we mentioned earlier, resources can – and should – both be regarded as physical objects in themselves, and as image objects. In addition to technical or economic features, the resource thus also contains a symbolic dimension. Such images are related to how different actors perceive the product and thereby also the
value (or potential value) that it can provide in different contexts. These perceptions, assumptions, knowledge or representations (like images or blueprints) function as subjects of discussion and as a basis for actors to make decisions and actions regarding resources (Håkansson et al. 2009). The conceptual frame of the
four resource entities can thus be complemented by making a distinction between
resource interfaces at the image level and the level at which interfaces between
resources are concretely activated. It could be said that all resources can be
viewed also from this perceptional side; it is a dimension in all resources. Consequently, also the interfaces between interacting resources involve a connection on
the image level, in addition to e.g. technological interfaces on the activated level.
We suggest that a resource can be regarded as a symbolic resource, when the perception held of it suggests usefulness, i.e. its image is a representation of a way in
which it can provide value. Against the notion of resource ties and interfaces, that
have been discussed above, we can also extend the symbolic perspective to comprising what is between resources, i.e. that the connection between them can be
viewed as a symbolic interface and resources as interacting with each other also
on a symbolic level.
Since this aspect of resources is not particularly addressed within prior business
network literature, we identified a need to broaden our theoretical scope and seek
support in streams of literature where discussion of symbolic resources could be
found. In the section explaining the positioning of the study (1.1.2.) we already
briefly mentioned that our primary conceptual base is the network approach, but
that the two complementary perspectives of CCT and S-D L are used to shed additional light onto the symbolic aspects of resources, thereby justifying a shift
from one conceptual domain toward a multidisciplinary approach.
2.5 Toward a multidisciplinary understanding of
resources - network, service and consumer perspectives
Even though Essays 1, 2 and 4 of this thesis discuss the ways in which the other
selected theoretical streams cross-fertilize the resource interaction perspective’s
understanding of specifically the symbolic aspects of resource embeddedness in
detail, we will in this chapter provide a brief introduction of consumer culture
theory (CCT) and service-dominant logic (S-DL) and discuss the premises under
32
Acta Wasaensia
which their perspectives can be combined and the potential they offer for elaborating our conceptual framework.
2.5.1
CCT and IMP?
Consumer culture theory (CCT) refers to a “family of theoretical perspectives
that address the dynamic relationships between consumer actions, the marketplace, and cultural meanings” (Arnould & Thompson 2005: 868). They approach
the behaviours and choices related to consumption as social and cultural phenomena, in contrast to behavioural or purely economic perspectives (Cova & Salle
2008b). Their view of culture differs from the idea of homogenous, collectively
shared meanings, values, and ways of life expressed in national cultures by instead focusing on consumer culture as “a social arrangement, in which the relations between lived culture and social resources, and between meaningful ways of
life and the symbolic and material resources on which the depend, are mediated
through markets” (Arnould & Thompson 2005: 869). The marketplace is seen as
a source of symbolic resources, which people use as tools for their identities (ibid:
871). Such a view of resources, particularly symbolic ones, makes this an interesting field to investigate for possible contributions for understanding the projection
of a focal resource into the final consumer sphere, which is currently lacking in
IMP.
Our aim to find commonalities between the aforementioned streams of research is
not a completely new effort. Cova & Salle (2008a) have drawn attention to several similarities between IMP and CCT in their criticisms of traditional marketing
approaches and even pose the question of whether the assumed dichotomy between consumer markets and business markets is still completely justified, given
that consumer research has developed in new directions since the initial development of the IMP framework. Drawing on a comparison between IMP propositions
from Håkansson (1982) and also from the CCT characteristics summarised in
Arnould & Thompson (2005), Cova & Salle (2008a) pinpoint four particular areas
in which they believe the two perspectives align. The first is the time perspective; both streams stress a longer-term orientation. In IMP this is reflected in a
relational rather than a transactional approach to customers, but CCT also
acknowledges the longer-term relationship context, although with a focus on
brand relationships and loyalty. The second aspect is the role of the customer/consumer. The IMP view distinguishes itself by emphasising the active role of
the buyer as a counterpart in the business relationship, but such perspectives have
also emerged within consumer research. For instance, Pels (1999) claimed that
the use of the relationship approach can also be extended towards consumer mar-
Acta Wasaensia
33
kets and highlighted (at that time) that the assumed passivity of consumers as
relationship counterpart stems more from the lack of possibilities to interact than
a desire to be a passive recipient. CCT challenges prior marketing perspectives by
seeing the consumer as empowered and active (Arnould 2007). It views consumers as actively transforming symbolic meanings in marketer-provided resources,
such as physical products, brands, retail environments, or advertisements, into
their own personal or social circumstances or goals (Arnould & Thompson 2005:
871). Cova & Salle (2008a: 7) also pinpoint that in CCT perspectives, ”products
are only arbitrarily linked to their original functions, and therefore, infinitely
open to subversion and diversion through everyday life experiences,” making
product images and uses only partially controllable by suppliers and assigning the
consumers roles as producers of meaning, rather than as passive targets. According to CCT frameworks, market offerings provide “symbolic services,” services
that the offerings provide by symbolising things to the self and to others (Arnould
2007: 60).
The third intersecting point referred to by Cova & Salle (2008a) is the similarity
in the IMP’s emphasis on relationship mechanisms rather than atomistic markets, and the CCT notion of consumer tribes and subcultures of consumption,
which according to Cova & Salle (2008a: 7) “provide opportunities for marketers
to engage in symbiotic relationships.” A final common point that the authors have
identified is the focus on the context in studying both consumers as well as network phenomena In the CCT line of thought, consumers make firm-supplied operant resources perform for them, relating and reimagining value propositions in
relation to consumers’ projects of identity construction and community building
(Arnould 2007). Within CCT, the value of products is also referred to as “a dynamic, subjective, and context-dependent notion, which has been constantly cocreated within a network of actors” (Karababa & Kjeldgaard, 2014: 24).
Concerning the focus of this study, the idea of products as open to reinterpretation
and use seems to resonate well with the idea that IMP proposes regarding heterogeneous resources and their value being dependent on how they are used and
combined. In our opinion, the role of brands and other types of meanings as symbolic resources particularly suggests interesting avenues for further exploration;
we believe consumer research may provide useful input and prove to be complementarity to the 4R model.
2.5.2
S-DL and IMP?
The seminal starting point within S-DL is the Vargo & Lusch (2004) article,
which laid the foundation for subsequent work (see e.g. Lusch & Vargo 2006 eds;
34
Acta Wasaensia
Vargo & Lusch 2008). A distinction is made between a goods-dominant and a
service-dominant perspective on marketing, and the foundational premises of this
logic are postulated. Vargo & Lusch’s (2008: 258) summarisation of the transition
from goods logic to service logic includes a shift from “making things” to assisting customers in their value-creation processes and thus regarding customers as
resources, not targets; seeing value as co-created, rather than produced by the
provider; and seeing customers in context, rather than as isolated, and firms’ resources as operant, rather than operand.
Vargo & Lusch (2008: 257) specifically point to this perspective’s similarities
with the network perspective’s ARA model, which they consider to be “relatively
effortlessly isomorphic with the resource integrator/resource/service model of SD
logic.” Indeed, as we will discuss in the essays to follow, the terms “resource integration” (S-DL) and “resource interaction” (IMP) reflect a similar approach to
understanding the nature of resources. Cova & Salle (2008b: 14) also picked up
on this statement, pondering the implications of the two “academic brands” intersecting in this manner.
From the IMP angle, Ford (2011: 232) acknowledges the similarities in the approaches in “de-emphasising the importance of the physical product.” Both views
instead stress the context-specificity of the value (or service) they provide. Ford
(2011), however, regards the S-DL as being more focused on benefits for the customer, while IMP is concerned with the broader network context of interrelated
relationships also outside the focal buyer-seller dyad.
This difference in viewpoints also provides a distinction between the two perspectives’ otherwise similar take on resources. S-DL (see Vargo & Lusch 2006) distinguishes between operand and operant resources and emphasises the operant
ones in particular, “i.e. resources that produce effects” that become valuable
through a process of using, rather than possessing. This concept, also in Ford’s
(2011: 233) opinion, “relates closely to the IMP’s expression that resources are
heterogeneous and their form and usefulness is dependent on how and with which
resources they are combined.” However, one difference is that S-DL is analytically positioned on the level of the marketing actor and is overall more normative
than the typically more descriptive IMP, which focuses more on interaction processes and structures of interdependencies as its units of analysis (Ford 2011). In
Baraldi et al.’s (2012: 272) view “the resource interaction approach stresses that
while resource use is pivotal, both its use and its associated value can only
emerge when resources become combined across organizational boundaries from
both the producing/selling side and the using/buying side,” thus giving more emphasis to the relationship and network, than the more customer-oriented S-DL.
Acta Wasaensia
35
More recent S-DL work has nevertheless increasingly begun acknowledging the
networks and ecosystems (see Essay 4), which is also illustrated by the more recent viewpoint by Vargo & Lusch (2011) that “every economic actor is a resource
integrator.”
2.5.3
Enhancing 4R with S-DL and CCT
Even though the statement above by Vargo & Lusch (2011) appears to increasingly bridge the differences between the two approaches and bring them closer, Baraldi et al. (2012) point out a key difference between the two theoretical perspectives, which has a particular significance for the choices of this thesis. That is the
fact that S-DL mainly focuses on phenomena in the application field of marketing, whereas resource interaction studies have predominantly focused on topics
such as innovation, technological development, control, efficiency and economising at a system level. As this thesis is indeed located within the academic discipline of marketing and concerned with the symbolic aspects of resources, we feel
that this offers a justification to make use S-DL concepts, precisely because of
their marketing and customer focus.
Furthermore, this study’s focal resources are low-tech, but highly symbolic products, furniture. Moreover, the part of the network in which we are interested in
examining this product’s interrelationships, is the selling context, which is a context full of symbolic resources (see Arnould 2005). This raises a need for supporting concepts that could tackle these less technological, immaterial and symbolic
aspects of resources. In our opinion, given the sufficient similarities in the underlying premises and understandings related to the resource concept in the aforementioned theoretical perspectives, we are able to combine aspects from all three
discussions for a fuller understanding of our focal phenomenon, symbolic embeddedness. We agree with Baraldi et al. (2012: 273) in that the resource interaction
perspective offers more elaborated and specific analytical tools (such as the 4R
model) for understanding the process of interaction(/integration) than S-DL. That
is ultimately also why we haven’t abandoned our original theoretical “home” of
IMP and choose to position the study more within IMP than S-DL.
However, in this study, we focus the examination on customer relationships and
even stretch the horizon further in the direction of consumers, than IMP studies
typically do, and we do position it in the domain of marketing, rather than e.g.
technological development. Thereby we inevitably move closer to the user / customer sphere (see Grönroos 2008) and the notions of value and value propositions
36
Acta Wasaensia
(Frow & Payne 2011). As mentioned in the preceding discussion, the analytical
level within IMP studies is often the broader structure or network, and thereby
IMP researchers have tended to place less emphasis on the value dimension and
more on understanding resource embeddedness in a broader sense. Service scholars, on the other hand, are interested in resources specifically as a means of
providing value, thereby its research topics typically focus on value (co)creation
(Vargo & Lusch 2006; Grönroos, 2008). CCT, in turn, helps us bring the resource
concept even further into the consumer sphere and provide discussions particularly on symbols and meanings; a topic on which CCT and SD-L also strongly intersect, through a shared view of markets offering “symbolic services” (cf. Arnould
2007: 59-60).
In sum, even though we see the study foremost rooted and positioned in the
IMP’s resource discussion, we will draw on work within S-DL and CCT to the
extent that they provide help in understanding resources specifically in the customer / consumer sphere. By doing so, we aim at providing an increased understanding of the previously neglected symbolic dimension in the 4R model.
Figure 7 below summarises the complementarity of the perspectives in the context of this thesis.
Figure 7.
Understanding resources from IMP, SDL and CCT perspectives – an
overview
Acta Wasaensia
37
From the IMP discussion of resources, we pinpointed the analytial distinction
between the image level and the activated level of resources. Based on
Håkansson et al. (2009), the former implies the perceptions, assumptions,
knowledge and representations that make resources subjects of discussion in
business interaction. On this image level, the symbolic respresentations of the
actual, physical or social resource (product/facility or business unit/business relationship) is what this research focuses on understanding. The relevance of this
focus is lies in the fact that the decisions that business actors make related to resources, are based on these representations of the potential usefulness and valuableness of the resources. The image level of resources thus consists of representations that symbolize the value potential of a resource.
In section 2.4.3 we concluded that the symbolic dimension can be distinguished
as an aspect in any resource, and that the interfaces between interacting resources
also involve connections on the symbolic level. An example of such a symbolic
resource interface is e.g. the relationship between the image of a business unit and
the image of a product, or that between the images of different products in the
same retail environment. According to the same logic, resources can also be seen
as symbolically embedded, i.e. interconnected with their context on the image
level. In the case of this research, where the focal unit of analysis is a product,
which is studied particularly in its retail context, the notion of symbolic embeddedness can be seen as an elaboration of Halinen & Törnroos’ (1998) notion of
market embeddedness, i.e. connections between a product and the customers and
functions it serves.
The theoretical framework serving as a foundation for the individual essays, that
address the more specific research questions of the thesis, is presented in figure 8.
The framework has its foundation in the product-centred resource interface model
referred to in section 2.4.2, but given the focus on the symbolic, it analytically
separates the image level from the activated level, and draws attention to the connections specifically between the image levels of different resource items. The
framework draws, on the one hand, attention to a focal product’s symbolic interfaces with other firm-provided resources, i.e. its connections with resources that
symbolically affect and are affected by it. These resources may be products, facilities, business unit featres or business relationships, and they may be located within the supplier firm, or outside it, e.g. within the sphere of different distribution
and retail actors. The interfaces imply dependencies, and effects in both directions; hence the double-ended arrows.
On the other hand, for a better understanding of the symbolic dimension related to
resources, with a consumer product as the focal unit of analysis, we extend the
38
Acta Wasaensia
framework towards the marketing context. The supplementing theoretical perspectives of CCT and S-DL provide additional conceptual support and enrichment
of the theoretical framework by addressing the ways in which the firm-provided
symbolic resources in the form of brands, symbols and meanings become integrated with the customer/consumer sphere, and used as symbolic cultural resources for consumer life projects and goals (CCT) and operant resources, that
provide services and value for customers (S-DL).
Figure 8.
Theoretical framework of the thesis
The aim of the essays and case studies that will be presented in this thesis is to
enhance this preliminary understanding of symbolic resource embeddedness. The
cases address the questions of how symbolic features emerge in a distribition
network and how they are used by retailers; how symbolic resources from a certain business relationship can be used in other relationships, and how the development of brands, signs and symbols is linked to customer relationship developments. The next chapter offers a more detailed account for the roles and characteristics of the empirical material.
Acta Wasaensia
39
3 METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents and assesses the methodological choices made in the study.
It provides a discussion on the choice of cases and presents their characteristics
and complementarities regarding the topic under investigation. The different
methods used for data collection are presented, followed by an assessment of the
quality of the study. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how the four essays of the thesis provide complement each other.
3.1 Methodological considerations in investigating
business networks
As we concluded in the previous theoretical chapter, the phenomenon of our analytical interest is the product and its interconnections with the surrounding resource context. According to Håkansson & Snehota (1995: 12-13) context refers
to the connectedness and interdependencies a company has with other actors,
which on the one hand is an enabling, and on the other hand a restricting factor.
The context can thus offer possibilities in terms of utilisation or development of
the value of the resource – or provide restrictions so that the actors do not manage
to make use of it (see Håkansson & Waluszewski 2004: 255). Products do not
necessarily fit smoothly into their contexts. If placed in the “wrong” network, the
features and value of a product might stay un- or underutilised. Service scholars
refer to this phenomenon as value destruction (Plé & Cáceres 2010) Instead of
speaking of “fit”, it is perhaps more appropriate to use the term adaptation, which
also better reflects the dynamic and interactive nature of systematically relating
resources on the supplier side and the user side (Håkansson & Waluszewski,
2002: 254).
When it comes to finding a research strategy that would be well suited for achieving a qualitative understanding (illustrated by our research questions in the form
“how”) of a selected unit of analysis against its context, the case study methodology stands out as a particularly relevant and also commonly used approach in
business network studies. Halinen & Törnroos (2005) highlight the suitability of
the case strategy specifically for the study of business networks, thanks to the
method’s ability to provide many-sided views of situations, offer depth, comprehensiveness, and rich descriptions, as well as its strengths, in the study of both
contextual factors and processes related to change, being thus able to reveal the
complexities and dynamics of business markets.
40
Acta Wasaensia
The case study method enables the investigation of “a focal phenomenon within
its real-life context, where the boundaries between phenomenon and context are
not clearly evident” (Yin 1994: 13). As Johnston, Leech & Liu (1999) state, the
case study method does not attempt to isolate the phenomenon from its context,
but, on the contrary, sees the phenomenon as being of interest precisely because
of its context. According to Eriksson & Kovalainen (2008: 115), the context of
the case refers to to the historical, economic, technological, social and cultural
factors against which the case is understood.
Specifically applied to the study of business networks, Halinen & Törnroos
(2005: 1286) provide a definition of the case strategy as:
“an intentive study of one or a small number of business networks, where
multiple sources of evidence are used to develop a holistic description of
the network and where the network refers to a set of companies (and potentially other organizations) connected to each other for the purpose of doing
business”
For case studies of industrial networks Dubois and Gadde (2002, 2014) suggest
an approach they call systematic combining, grounded in an abductive logic. This
approach is also used in the present study. According to Dubois & Gadde (2002,
2014) systematic combining is a non-linear and non-positivistic, path dependent
process with the ultimate aim to match theory and reality. This matching implies a
process of “going back and forth” between framework, data sources and analysis.
In such as process, the preliminary analytical framework will be affected by what
will be discovered during data collection as well as during analysis and interpretation. Data analysis might identify new issues that must be covered in interviews,
etc.
The theoretical framework of this study has developed successively and it has
from early on been tested and ”fed with in input” from empirical material. This
early contact with the empirical world has enabled “going back and forth,” instead of only testing a given theoretical framework. Therefore, the initial conceptual starting point has been complemented with input from other theoretical
streams as the empirical work raised new questions regarding the interface between the product and the retail and even consumer sphere. Furthermore, the refinement of the conceptual framework also gradually raised some themes that
were revisited in the empirical setting, e.g. in the form of examining cases where
brands and design played a stronger role.
Acta Wasaensia
3.2
41
Case selection and complementarity
As mentioned in the Introduction chapter, this thesis comprises three case studies.
The cases have their strategic roles in illuminating different, complementary aspects of the focal phenomenon of the study. In this section, we account for the
process of case selection and discuss the roles and contributions of the different
cases.
The three cases were initially approached as somewhat separate projects, which
were integrated at a later stage, as the research framework and focus evolved.
There was thus no predetermined research-strategic intent to conduct a multiple
case study from the outset, but as the insights from the different cases began to
emerge, complementarities between them could be identified, which justified
their inclusion into one analytical whole. Dubois & Gadde (2014: 2080) refer to
common instances where “the case selects the researcher”, i.e. observations from
empirical reality raise research phenomena and shape the research task. This is
quite an accurate description of the process through which also the empirical investigation of this study unfolded.
Chronologically, the case of the joint venture Junet (see Essay 4), served as the
initial, empirical touch point in the beginning of the research process, when we
wanted to begin applying the ARA and 4R frameworks. The case company was
already familiar to the researcher from previous projects and it exhibited certain
characteristics, like the “network” nature of the firm itself, which made it appear
particularly interesting. However, the way the firm defined itself as a “network” is
not completely identical with how networks are understood in the academic, IMP
sense, as the network focus, albeit with its links, ties and bonds (Håkansson &
Snehota 1995) was on level of the internal organization of the firm as a joint venture between suppliers of complementary products, rather than extending in the
same manner to e.g. its customer relationships.
The initial applications of 4R on Junet, as a part of the international Furniture
project, that we referred to in the introduction chapter, resulted in a “mini-case”
illustrating the interlinked processes of product and network design (see Baraldi,
Bocconcelli & Söderlund 2001). The first analytical stage of this case study
served thus as a kind of pilot study in applying the 4R model. At the same time,
its role for the research process on the whole was to help narrow in on such aspects of resource interaction that would eventually become of increased interest.
In the case of Junet, this meant shedding light particularly on the process of brand
development as an aspect of symbolic resources, a topic that was later revisited in
the empirical setting.
42
Acta Wasaensia
Already quite early on in the process, we came in contact with another interesting
firm in the furniture sector: a private label bed and mattress manufacturer (see
Essay 1). Initial discussions raised our interest in this firm, which was bigger in
size and positioned on a different level in the supply network and which thereby
appeared to exhibit more clearly the business market behavior suggested by the
chosen theoretical approach in terms of interdependence and complexity (see e.g.
Ford et al. 2011). This case study offered a possibility to examine resource embeddedness in what appeared to be a more of a ‘relationship setting’, compared to
the first case. In other words, the case appeared to better display the structural and
processual relationship characteristics such as continuity, symmetry, adaptation
and interaction, referred to by Håkansson & Snehota (1995: 7-9). Indications of
this included the characterisations of key customer relationships as partnerships,
which both the buying and selling counterpart appeared to be strongly committed
to and engaged in. More importantly, this case and the firm’s character as a provider of private label products helped raise new questions related to the origin of
symbolic resources, and interaction and co-operation between different actors in
developing them.
The third case, which deals with the highly design-intensive manufacturer Korhonen (see essay 3), in turn, started off from a conceptual interest in the temporal
dimension of resource management and the role of their path dependencies.
Through a research collaboration, we gained access to longitudinal empirical material that, after being complemented with new data, offered a good illustration of
particularly the role of inertia in using symbolic resources from one business relationship in new ones. Moreover, this case contributed to describing the circumstances in which symbolic resources were represented in the form of a particularly
high design(er) intensity; something that this case illustrated exceptionally strongly.
Lastly, when considering the empirical inputs from the cases for understanding
the symbolic nature of resource embeddedness specifically, we decided to revisit
the first Junet case and examine more closely the brand and sign level considerations and how they had developed, as we were aware that the firm had increasengly invested in these efforts since the first round of data gathering. Simultaneously, this enabled us to stretch the analytical time horizon of the case study
and offered a possibility to examine also this case from a processs perspective.
While the bed manufacturer case offers a more typical, broad, cross-sectional picture of a network structure, the two other cases, Korhonen and Junet, provide longitudinal perspectives of resource development dynamics over time. Empirical
studies of processes and dynamics related to resource interaction have thus far
Acta Wasaensia
43
been quite limited and Baraldi et al. (2012: 274) call for future studies that would
increasingly capture this dimension. We attempt to contribute to answering this
challenge with the two case studies.
A longitudinal study is by Halinen & Mainela (2013: 200) defined as:
“a form of research in which a) data are collected with a temporal orientation on specified structural or processual elements, either continuously or in
one or several distinct time periods; b) the subjects or cases analyzed are for
some fixed part of the phenomenon the same from one period to the next;
and c) the analysis involves comparison of data between periods or integration of data related to past, present and future.”
In a longitudinal study, it is a difficult task to try to achieve both breadth in terms
of network understanding and a comprehension of the process focus at the same
time. In order to be parsimonious and selective for the sake of the quality of the
case study (see Eisenhardt 1989), the longitudinal cases take a focal actor perspective (Halinen & Törnroos 2005) in defining the boundaries of the case. According to Halinen & Törnroos (1998: 191) such a delimitation implies that the
network embeddedness is studied from the angle of the actor-network: the focal
point is a single firm (in contrast to e.g. a focal relationship or a micronet) and its
relationships. From this perspective, the “firm’s point of view” becomes largely a
question of individual actors’ perceptions and also their socialization into the
firm’s corporate culture (Halinen & Törnroos 1998). In the two longitudinal case
studies of this thesis, the firms were both small in size, so we considered that the
managing directors’ views can credibly represent the focal firm perspective. In
the Korhonen case, the interviews done at the different points time (see Appendix
3a) were all conducted with the same person, which provided a constant in the
examination of the firm’s resource development and use over time. In the Junet
case, the person in the managing director’s position changed towards the end of
the study period, but otherwise, the view of the company was also in the case represented by the voice of the same informant from 1999 to 2012 (see Appendix
4a).
When analysing the network context around the focal actors in the two longitudinal cases, we have adopted a perspective in line with Strandvik & Törnroos’s
(1997) notion of “relationscape,” which refers to “a relational landscape of a
company’s business environments from both the present and the more strategic
and future-oriented perspective.” Such a view seems an appropriate choice when
studying the attempts to develop and establish customer relationships (the Junet
case) and find new relationships in which to utilize resources developed in an
existing one (the Korhonen case).
44
Acta Wasaensia
The bed manufacturer case, on the other hand, goes deeper into structure and has
wider analytical boundaries. This case more specifically takes products (in existing relationships) as the analytical starting point, and follows their path upstream
towards its initial development activities and downstream all the way to consumers. The focus is thus on understanding, from a product-centric point of view, the
structures and contexts in which the resource is embedded, which is in contrast to
the two other cases’ viewpoint of resource utilisation in time, in new relationships, and not only in the existing network of relationships.
Table 1 below offers a summarised picture of the dimensions that the different
case studies address both in terms of case company characteristics and the analytical level complementarities they provide.
Table 1.
Characteristics and complementarities of the cases
Acta Wasaensia
45
We would like to stress that the intention of including three cases is not to make
comparisons between the cases as such. We agree with Halinen & Törnroos
(2005: 1288) who state that “as a result of context specificity and historical background, each network case is somewhat unique and thereby difficult to compare
with others.” Indeed, network researchers such as Halinen & Törnroos (2005),
Easton (1995) and Dubois & Gadde (2002, 2014) take a more critical stance towards the standpoints represented by Yin (1994) and Eisenhardt (1989), who
from a positivist line of thinking seem to consider that the use of multiple cases
offer better explanations and generalizability than single, as they rely on a replication logic. Single case advocates such as Dubois & Gadde (2002, 2014) highlight
instead that in the “analysis of a number of interdependent variables in complex
structures, the natural choice would be to go deeper into one case instead of increasing the number of cases” (Dubois & Gadde 2002: 260). In our case, we
would like to underline that the rationale behind the inclusion of three different
cases is to offer conceptual complementarity and to add to the richness of understanding the focal phenomenon and its forms of expression in variable contexts,
not to compare the contexts with each other.
3.3
Methods of data collection
More specific details concerning the data used in the different case studies can be
found within the individual essays and in the Appendices. In the nextsection, we
shall however offer an overview of the types of data that the study has drawn on.
As referred to earlier, one of the important features of case studies is the possibility to utilise rich and multifarious sources of evidence around a focal phenomenon. Yin (1994) refers to the notion of triangulation, the use of multiple sources
of data to form a holistic picture. Dubois & Gadde (2002) also point out that the
use of multiple sources may bring forward new aspects of the research problem
and discovery of “active data,” unanticipated findings, which the researcher has
not specifically set out to find.
In the bed manufacturer case, multiplicity of data was ensured by a network level
of analysis, which stretches the boundaries of the case to comprise a range of actors within the focal firm and across different companies that have a significant
connection with the focal product (see Appendix 1a). The perspectives of different actors/informants, ranging from persons involved in the original product concept development (at the focal firm’s sister company in Sweden), purchasing,
production, marketing (within the focal firm), and sales (customer chains and retailers), contributed to the holistic understanding of the different contexts (devel-
46
Acta Wasaensia
opment, production, various selling contexts) in which the focal products were
embedded. The selection of informants followed a snowball sampling logic,
where interviews helped localise other, subsequent informants who were relevant
for understanding the embeddedness of the product. The initial interviews with
the focal firm’s managing director were particularly important for laying the
foundation for the case and helping select two sub-units of analysis. These were
chosen on the basis that they were regarded as particularly significant relationships and development efforts from the perspective of the focal company.
The empirical work started out at the firm level and continued with a more detailed investigation at the product/relationship level. Thereby, this case study can
be characterised as a single, embedded case (see Yin 1994: 42). Two product collections, developed in/for two different customer relationships, were initially followed in more detail, and the findings related to these units of analysis could be
contrasted to one another, as well as the remaining context of the case in the form
of its other products and customer relationships. This is a particularly relevant
point concerning the nature of this specific case firm, since it highlights the heterogeneous symbolic outcomes of fairly generic products, when being sold in different retail environments. At a later stage (Essay 1), for the sake of focus and
depth, we concentrated our analysis on one of the product/relationship combinations. The other product/relationship was at that point used to constitute part of
the case context, against which the focal unit of analysis could be mirrored.
Initially, the issues examined in the network around the focal products were rather
broad, including topics related to e.g. logistical processes and component sourcing. However, at a later point in the research process, the analytical boundaries
were drawn around issues that had a relation particularly to the symbolic aspects
of resources, thus delimiting for instance purchasing and production issues more
to serve as contextual rather, than focal factors in the case. Examples of interview
themes in this case can be found in appendices 1b and 1c.
In the bed case, the in-depth interview data were supplemented with written materials and documents, such as brochures and advertisements and researcher observation of production and sales environments. Furthermore, a covert form of observation, mystery shopping (see Wilson 1998), was explored as a novel methodological angle to network research, shedding light on the interface between the
focal product and the final customer. Although initially intended first and foremost as a means of triangulating the findings from interviews with retail informants, this investigation in fact provided surprisingly important additional insight
by exposing instances where products were in fact unable to function as value
providing resources. The mystery shopping observation details can be seen in
Acta Wasaensia
47
Appendix 2a. The observers were briefed with an assignment description and a
recall form to fill in after their “shopping” visit (Appendix 2b). After the observations, a group discussion session was also arranged in which the “shoppers” accounted for and discussed their observations and impressions.
The role of the bed manufacturer case in this thesis is to serve primarily as a description of symbolic resource co-development in the distribution network, illustrating resource heterogeneity and variety in the forms in which the same product can be useful as a resource.
The other two cases in turn shed light on two different aspects of the focal phenomenon of symbolic resource embeddedness, namely brand development and
resource history. The Junet case depicts the dynamics of developing and embedding a brand and it follows a focal company’s network development (particularly
concerning the development of customer relationships) and the interlinked product and brand decisions. The data from this case are also primarily based on personal interviews with the firm and selected marketing actors (see Appendices 4 a
and 4b), carried out at several occasions during a period of 15 years (1999–2014),
which enables an analysis of resource development and utilisation over time. Also
in this case, observation is used as an additional method. Moreover, owing to the
specific research focus in this particular case on brands and signs as resources,
written and online materials in the form of brochures, catalogues, web pages and
other communications materials enabled an analysis of semiotic content.
Similarly, the Korhonen case is also based on longitudinal data, stretching over a
period from 1986 to 2005. The earlier stages of data gathering originate in other,
previous research projects, in which a case database of furniture companies had
been updated at repeated intervals, focusing on themes such as customer relationhips, products and product development, investments and production, marketing activities and horizontal co-operation. We selected this case firm purposefully
from this pre-existing material, as it appeared to particularly well illustrate how
resource investments made in and for a very dominant and long-lasting customer
relationship were later put into use in new ventures. From the point of view of
symbolic resource development, this case was also of special interest because its
resource structure included products, brands and designers (Alvar Aalto, Artek)
that enjoy a particularly high recognition and can even be characterised as classics
within the field of design. Thereby, we believed that such as case with a high
symbolic content would offer a special contribution to the whole.
The pre-existing interview material related to this case was updated with a new
in-depth interview (see Appendices 3a and 3b), which also helped gain a more
detailed picture of such resource aspects that were not covered by the earlier data.
48
Acta Wasaensia
Similarly, as in the other two cases, the Korhonen case material also relied on
observation and a variety of written materials such as brochures and web pages as
additional data sources supplementing the interview transcripts and field notes.
As the empirical investigation related to the Korhonen case was a collaborative
research effort, the analytical phase also benefitted from the work of two researchers’ separate and integrated efforts in interpreting and analysing the findings.
In the longitudinal cases, the data gathering through repeated revisiting of the
case, and the use the same informants enabled a combination of both real time
data and retrospective analysis. According to Halinen, Törnroos & Elo
(2013:1216) both these analytical orientations have their advantages; the real-time
snapshots provide insights into managers’ interpretations of current situations and
motives and goals for interaction, such as “how a process unfolds within its context”, while retrospective analysis—in this case carried out by also asking informants to reflect on developments and changes leading up to the current situations—make continuous processes more visible.
3.4
Assessing the quality of the study
We conclude the methodology chapter with an evaluation of the quality of the
study. Since the thesis at hand is a product of a qualitative research approach, we
can start out by saying that the most typical quality assessment tools used in quantitative studies, validity and reliability, are not particularly well suited in this instance. Case studies build on analytical, rather than statistical inference (Dubois
& Gadde 2002:559).
Instead of an application of criteria whose underlying rationale does not fit well
with the methods used, Dubois & Gadde (2002, 2014) suggest that the quality of
case studies should be ensured above all through sufficient transparency in the
account given of the research process, providing the reader enough detail to assess the plausibility of the conclusions drawn.
Apart from the more general criterion of transparency, Lincoln & Guba (1985)
offer a set of variables that are frequently used in the operationalization of the
trustworthiness of case research. They see trustworthiness as consisting of credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability. We found a number of
these aspects and techniques applicable for this study and will offer a short overview of the ways in which these criteria can be reflected in our cases.
Acta Wasaensia
49
Lincoln & Guba (1985: 294-296) refer to credibility as a naturalist’s substitute
for internal validity, a “truth value” that findings and interpretations can be “considered credible and approvable by the constructors of the realities being studied”.
For techniques to increase credibility, they suggest prolonged engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, and referential adequacy.
In the case studies of this thesis, prolonged engagement, the investment of sufficient time to form an understanding of the phenomenon, is met in all of the cases,
in some even better than others. The longitudinal nature of two of the case studies
serve this purpose, particularly in the Junet case where the researcher herself carried out all the phases of the fieldwork, allowing for the understanding of the case
to emerge over a long period of time. Even though the bed manufacturer case is
not analysed from a process perspective like the other two cases, and thus does
not have the same extended temporal horizon, this case in practice also exhibits a
prolonged engagement with the case, as the initial interviews led to new rounds of
interviews with different actors, enabling a revisiting of certain aspects of the case
n in the spirit of the logic of systematic combining (Dubois & Gadde 2002). In the
case, we also “went back” to implement the mystery shopping exercise. The engagement with this case stretched in all over a period of four years and comprised
a variety of different actors as informants, so we feel that corresponds quite well
to Lincoln & Guba’s (1985) criterion of prolonged engagement to ensure breadth
in understanding of the case and its context.
The prolonged engagement with the cases together with an abductive research
strategy that included conceptual inputs into the process also assisted in what Lincoln & Guba (1985: 304) refer to as persistent observation, depth, detail, and salience of the characteristics that are most relevant.
Our attemptsto increase credibility by means of triangulation were discussed already in the section on data collection. According to Denzin (1978, in Lincoln &
Guba 1985), triangulation refers to sources but also to methods, investigators and
theories. Our research meets the criterion of using both different multiple types of
the same source (different informants’ accounts of the same topic) as well as different types of sources of the same information (interviews-observationdocuments, etc). The somewhat less common triangulation dimensions of methods and theories are also to some extent visible in the study, though the use of
complementary theoretical perspectives, as well as the use of the additional methods of mystery shopping (Essay 1) and content analysis (Essay 4).
Peer debriefing and member check are also techniques referred to by Lincoln &
Guba (1985) that have been applied to the cases of this study. A dissertation pro-
50
Acta Wasaensia
cess, particularly one with qualitative empirical work that continues for a lengthy
period of time, does not take place in isolation. The tentative empirical findings in
evolving cases studies become repeatedly subject to presentation and review at
different types of academic forums, helping clarify the analysis and making implicit assumptions more explicit. Member checks refer to “data, analytic categories, interpretations and conclusions being tested with members of those stakeholder groups from whom the data were originally collected” (Lincoln & Guba
1985: 314). According to the authors, such testing can be both informal and formal and continuous. In the case studies of this thesis, this mechanisms has been
utilised both in the form of presenting conclusions to be checked by case actors or
by taking up more specific interpretations made at prior interviews or observations for discussion at subsequent interview occasions.
3.5
Complementarity of the essays
In the introduction, we referred to the fact that the three case studies will be presented in the form of separate essays, which correspond to Chapters 4-7 of this
thesis. This choice was not self-evident from the outset. Rather, the initial idea
was to be able to present the empirical findings as a linear, logical sequence. The
research process, however, with its abductive ”back-and-forth” directions between empirical observations and the inclusion of additional conceptual building
blocks, made the reporting of the study in such a manner somewhat challenging.
Instead, we chose to include the cases in the form of independent essays, as the
separate cases have, in addition to a common theoretical base, their own, more
specific supporting conceptual angles.
The essays all have their own, specific contribution to the overall purpose of the
thesis, to shed light of the notion of symbolic embeddedness of products and its
manifestations in different contexts.
Essay 1, which constitutes Chapter 4 of this thesis, is titled ”The symbolic side of
resource interaction –exploring product embeddedness in the retail context.” This
essay tells the empirical story of the embeddedness of the private label manufacturer’s bed collections. The analysis focuses particularly on the interface between
the focal resource and other resources in selected retail settings. The nature of the
case allows us to examine the two-faced nature of resources referred to in the theory chapter, i.e. in which ways they are symbolically marked by the retail context,
and on the other hand, how retail actors use them as symbolic resources.
Acta Wasaensia
51
Essay 2, ”Retailers and Media as Resource Intermediaries,” presented in Chapter
5, is a conceptual paper that elaborates on the themes of Essay 1 by bringing them
to a more general level, where the roles of retailers are paralleled with the case of
media, both playing a role as a resource intermediary. Essay 2 goes further in
depth into the conceptual approaches to resources by combining views from IMP,
CCT and S-D L.
Essay 3, corresponding to Chapter 6, has the title “Inertia in business relationships: the case of a designer furniture manufacturer”. This article addresses the
role of inertia and path-dependence for the development and utilisation of resources, particularly in a setting when symbolic resources from one relationship
are being put to use in new ones. The longitudinal case of Korhonen and its customer developments over time are used as the empirical basis in this article.
Essay 4, in Chapter 7, is named “Symbolically valuable for the customer? –A
longitudinal analysis of the interlinkages between the brand and relationship development activities of a furniture manufacturer.” This essay delves more specifically into the topic of brands and signs as symbolic resources. Empirically, this
essay follows the branding and communications development activities in the
Junet case and compares these symbolic resource developments with concurrent
events within customer relationship development.
52
Acta Wasaensia
4 THE SYMBOLIC SIDE OF RESOURCE
INTERACTION - EXPLORING PRODUCT
EMBEDDEDNESS IN THE RETAIL CONTEXT
Anu Norrgrann
Abstract
The manufacturer and the retailer of a product share a common interest in wanting to make the most of a product as a value-providing resource. Nevertheless, the
value proposition and the cues that the products signal, may change as the product
enters the retail context. Through marketing communication, branding, store atmospherics and personal selling etc. the retailers significantly shape the way the
product – the manufacturer’s and retailer’s joint resource - becomes ultimately
presented to consumers.
This article elaborates on the discussion on resource interaction by exploring its
symbolic dimension. Drawing theoretically on the notion of resource interaction
and by adding insights from literature on branding, retailing and images, this article examines the interaction between a product and the resources in its retail context. Based on a case study from furniture retailing, it analyses how the context
affects the symbolic properties of the product and discusses the retailer’s role in
transmitting and co-creating resources.
1. Introduction
The industrial network (IMP) perspective has criticised the assumption of homogeneity behind the traditional marketing mix model’s view of products (see
Håkansson, Harrison and Waluszewski, 2004). Instead, it has been suggested that
resources, such as products, exchanged in marketing processes are heterogeneous
to their nature, which implies that they need to be evaluated in different constellations and combinations; as embedded and result of interaction, rather than as given elements with a value that is independent of the system in which it is produced
or used.
According to the idea of resource interaction, the product affects, and is affected
by other products, facilities, business unit features and business relationships
Acta Wasaensia
53
(Håkansson & Waluszewski, 2002). In this article, we focus on examining the
interplay between a focal product and its interaction with the aforementioned other resource entities in the “selling system”, i.e. the retail context in which it is
embedded.
Of particular interest in this paper is the symbolic dimension of embeddedness.
This intangible dimension of interaction between a product and its context has so
far not received much attention within business network studies, but we find this
to be an important aspect in trying to understand how value is created, conveyed
and realized through the supply network towards the consumer. In this process,
the retailers have a powerful role in shaping the symbolic presentations of the
product and affecting the ultimate perceptions of it in a number of ways. Research
into atmospheric design and retail branding and images (Porter and Claycomb,
1997; Turley and Chebat 2002; Davies and Ward, 2005) has stressed the importance of factors such as store environment, layout, design, promotional materials as well as social variables like service as factors that surround the product similarly as a package. Different retail contexts can thus augment the same physical
product in differing ways, making the ultimate product value quite heterogeneous.
This article seeks to address the question how the retail environment affects the
product on a symbolic level and how the retailer in turn uses the product as a resource. It draws theoretically on the resource interaction discussion within IMP,
and touches also upon other streams of literature such as consumer culture theory,
which adopt a similar, interactive approach to the notion of resources. Inputs are
also taken from brand and image literature.
After the conceptual part, the article presents a case study of a bed collection to
illustrate the symbolic embeddedness of a product into the retail environment.
The empirical material consists of interview data and mystery shopping observations, which are analysed utilizing the categorization of four resource entities as a
tool. The article concludes with a discussion of retailer’s roles as resource intermediaries, in the creation and utilisation of value.
2. Resource interaction and value
Industrial marketing and purchasing (IMP) researchers (c.f. Håkansson & Snehota, 1995; Håkansson & Waluszewski, 2002) often emphasise the embedded and
interacted character of products, i.e. that the features and value of products are
54
Acta Wasaensia
considered to develop in interaction, rather than independently of the systems of
production and use.
The underlying argument is that products can be seen as a type of resources,
which are heterogeneous in nature. This notion of heterogeneity can be traced
back to Penrose (1959) according to whom “Strictly speaking, it is never resources themselves that are the inputs in the production process, but only the services that they can render. The services yielded by resources are a function of the
way in which they are used”. This implies that that the same resource can have
different value if used for different purposes and in different combinations. And
when resources are modified and developed, new “services” emerge as a result.
From the notion that resources are heterogeneous, follows that interaction is important for the development of the resource and the value that it can provide.
(Håkansson & Waluszewski, 2002)
The IMP perspective on resources has thus drawn the focus to the interorganizational level; that the question of resources is in contrast to the traditional
resource based view of resources, less on how a single firm handles its internal
resources, to how the resources of different firms are combined, adapted and developed together.
In recent years, also other theoretical streams of research have shown increasing
interest in the concept of resources from a more interactive point of view. In a
similar vein (see Cova and Salle, 2008 for a more thorough comparison) the service-dominant logic for marketing (Vargo and Lusch, 2006) also stresses the importance of operant, rather than operand resources. Viewing resources as operant
implies focusing on the instrumental use of resources, rather than only on their
possession and control. For example, a consumer does not buy groceries for the
sake of having them in store, but as a resource that is, together with other resources such as cooking skills, kitchen equipment etc. used for instance to produce a nice family occasion (Grönroos, 2008).
This concrete example also shows that resources interact and are open to different
combinations of use also in the consumption context. While IMP research has,
with a few exceptions, focused on interaction on the inter-organizational level,
Consumer Culture Theory (see Arnould & Thompson, 2005) has dealt with the
notion of resource interaction, or resource integration (see Baron and Harris,
2008), in terms of how consumers combine the firm-provided resources with their
own resources, in order to pursue their personal life projects and goals. Also according to this perspective, the products that firms provide, are not necessarily
used in the way the marketer has imposed (Aitken, Gray and Thompson, 2005),
Acta Wasaensia
55
i.e. their value is “open” and the product heterogeneous in the same manner as
considered in IMP resource research (c.f. Håkansson & Waluszewski 2004).
There is thus much similarity between how these different approaches define resources and value. Håkansson and Snehota (1995: 134) define resources in the
following way: “Various elements, tangible, or intangible, material or symbolic,
can be considered resources when use can be made of them”. Relatedly, the service-dominant logic by Vargo and Lusch (2006: 44) emphasizes that “there’s no
value until an offering is used – experience and perception are essential to value
determination” (Vargo and Lusch 2006: 44)”, similarly as Grönroos (2008: 303304) states that “If customers cannot make use of a good, value-in-exchange is nil
for them…Only during consumption, realised value in the form of value-in-use is
created.” The role of marketing becomes in this sense “a process of doing things
in interaction with customer” (Lusch, 2007: 265). Firm-provided resources in the
form of value propositions which consumers are invited to derive benefit from,
interact with consumer resources and the value-in-use. (Arnould et al., 2006).
If resources are heterogeneous and their value is dependent on with which other
resources they are combined, resources should also be analysed not as separate
stand-alone elements, but in different resource combinations and constellations.
(Håkansson & Snehota, 1995; Baraldi, 2003). In recent IMP studies with a resource focus (e.g. Wedin 2001, Forbord, 2003, Baraldi, 2003 and Gressetvold
2004) a research tool developed by Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002) has been
utilised for the analysis of resource interaction. This four resource entities (4R)
model comprises the following essential resource entities, which all are created
and / or formed in the interaction processes:
1. Products: artefacts exchanged between economic actors
2. Facilities: equipment and facilities used to create or transform products
3. Business units: the organizational structure, competence and personnel skills
characterizing firms
4. Business relationships: the substantial links, ties and bonds resulting from the
interaction between firms
As figure 1 below illustrates, these four entities are all interrelated; facilities are
used for the transformation and transaction of products, products are exchanged
between business units within the framework of business relationships etc. To
understand a specific resource entity and its value, such as a product, it should
thus not be analysed in isolation, but against the context of its interfaces with other resources.
56
Acta Wasaensia
Figure 1: The contextual embeddedness of a focal product
The 4Rs model thus provides a tool for analyzing how resources interact and develop and how they receive their characteristics and value. To understand the value of a resource, the model helps to explore how the resource is related to, or embedded into, the surrounding ones. (Baraldi 2003:17)
Resource interfaces have by Håkansson & Gadde (2001: 82) been defined as
“what is between resources”. It differs from the notion of resource ties
(Håkansson & Snehota, 1995), which refer to a more specific type of interface,
such as technical adaptation between resources of two interacting firms (such as
an adapted component and the final product into which it is assembled). The notion of resource interface is thus broader and “cuts surgically into the texture of
resource interactions by pointing at the specific contact points between two resources, defined along relevant technical, economic and social dimensions” (Baraldi 2003:17-18).
In the network model (Håkansson & Snehota 1995), the resource and actor (as
well as activity) layers are not isolated from each other. Even if the focus is on
understanding resources and how they interact, the role of the actor is still highlighted as the force that that sets the resources in motion and is able to discover
the potential economic uses of them. It also pinpoints the need to regard the re-
Acta Wasaensia
57
sources as image objects. Resources are formed through human interaction, a process in which image is a central ingredient. Interaction thus relates both physical
resources and the images of them, to each other. (Håkansson & Waluszewski
(2002:39-40)
Firm-provided resources or value propositions are thus subjectively experienced
and evaluated both by the business actors that are related to the product in various
ways, as well as by consumers. Even a physical resource is thus always considered on a symbolic level. In addition to evaluating it, actors add their skills and
other resources to the product, in order to make it useful and valuable for their
purposes.
3. Resources in the retail environment
Following the argument presented above, when consumers as well as firms buy
products, they do not necessarily obtain resources that are fixed or given. Rather,
on their way downstream towards the final user, products become embedded into
new contexts which affect the value of the product, not least on the symbolic level. Retailers as an intermediary between manufacturer-provided and consumer
operant resources, have a significant role in shaping the firm-provided value
propositions and activating the symbolic resources of final users.
Distribution intermediaries function in themselves as positional resources by connecting networks of suppliers with networks of customers. They also provide
technological resources through their ability to effectively handle distributionrelated tasks, such as physical logistics. (Ford et al., 2003: 134) Thereby, these
intermediaries affect the services that the products render for their intermediate
and final users.
In addition, the retail environment can also create a variety of symbolic imprints
on the products, as the product interacts with the facilities, business unit features,
relationships and other products in each, specific retail context. Depending on for
instance the rest of the assortment of an individual the store, the display facilities,
the efforts and motivation of sales personnel and the strategic aims of the individual retailer, the preconditions for the product to be able to function as a useful and
valuable resource may vary.
Philip Kotler wrote already in the 1970’s about the importance of atmospherics,
stating that
58
Acta Wasaensia
“one of the most significant features of the total product is the place where
it’s bought or consumed. In some cases the place, more specifically the atmospehere of the place, is more influential than the product itself in the
purchase decision. In some cases, the atmosphere is the primary product.”
(Kotler 1973: 48)
Retailers have at their disposal various branding and image creation tools that add
to the resource potential of the product. In addition to the more traditional image
elements such as names, symbols and advertising, also merchandise, store characteristics, service and promotion can be used as branding components (Davies
and Ward, 2005; a similar categorisation also used by Turley and Chebat, 2002).
Merchandise refers to assortment, brand mix, price and quality (Davies and Ward,
2005), i.e. the number and type of other brands in the store’s assortment thus influence the focal product and the way it is positioned and presented by the retailer. Store characteristics again include the location, atmosphere and internal and
external environment of the store (Davies and Ward, 2005), providing an environment for the product that can be likened to a package (Turley and Chebat,
2002), as it surround the product and adds on symbolic characteristics. A study by
Buchanan et al. (1999) indicates that retailers’ display decisions can even negate
brand equity.
Also the influence between retailer image and brand image has been acknowledged in previous research (c.f. Pettijohn et al., 1992). For instance according to
Porter & Claycomb (1997) a brand image can substantially improve or damage
the image of a retail store, depending on how the brand is evaluated. Brands affect
particularly the perception of the store’s fashion. In other words, retailers can use
products for their own profile building purposes, while on the other hand, an unknown brand might benefit from an established retailer image, provided that it is
in accordance with the type of meanings that are intended to be linked to the
product.
The retail context also has a social side, referring to the personnel in it, their characteristics and the level and quality of service they provide. (Porter & Claycomb,
1997; Turley & Chebat, 2002; Davies & Ward, 2005). Service, advice and staffcustomer interaction is an essential part of the offering or the brand (Ford et al.,
2002: 122-123; Newman & Patel, 2004) and thus a significant way in which the
retail context marks the product and affects its value. The retail atmosphere affects not only consumers and their shopping behaviour, but also the way the employees of the store function and behave. For example poorly constructed environments may negatively affect the possibility of employees to approach, interact
and influence customers (Turley & Chebat, 2002). In resource interaction terms;
Acta Wasaensia
59
facilities affect the people with the business unit and thus indirectly the way they
relate to the products they sell.
Arnould (2005) suggests that retailers should be regarded as resource purveyors,
who package cultural resources into a particular habitat, appliance, assortment,
personnel policy, pricing strategy, communications campaign, and/or other element of the retail mix, which consumers use as a source of cultural resources. He
distinguishes between four categories of cultural resources, which the retail environment can affect: 1) economic, 2) utopian, 3) ludic, and 4) temporal. In the economic sense, the retailer can communicate cues that promise the ability of the
consumer to engage in for instance thriftiness and gaining value for money,
whereby the total offering is in this sense a resource for the consumer in such a
pursuit. In a similar way, utopian resources help consumers “weave the ideals of
the perfect world into their everyday lives and selfhood” (Maclaran and Brown
2001, in Arnould 2005) and the retailer can have a role in evoking such utopia. At
the same time, however, they may also raise dystopian images for some consumers or in some respects. Ludic resources relate to consumers’ pursuit of play, and
also in this respect the retail environment can have a facilitating role. The retail
environment as a temporal resource, in turn refers to the enactment of consumer
timestyles. Variations in the retail habitat and servicescape (see Bitner, 1992)
provide consumers with different time perceptions and temporal experiences.
(Arnould 2005) Through servicescape management firms can try to affect and
predispose how consumers deploy their operant cultural resources (Arnould et al
2006).
4. Case study: a bed collection in the furniture retailing
environment
The empirical material presented in this section is a case study of a bed manufacturer and one of its products, a bed collection. To understand the context of the
case, we have collected in depth personal interview data from a variety of informants (see Appenxix 1a) within different functions in the focal firm and outside its
boundaries. This includes the managing director, key account managers for the
most significant customer relationships (including the focal one for this paper),
production manager, purchasing manager and an informant in the focal firm’s
sister company, who had a key role in the initial development process of the
product concept. The focal customer, who has exclusive distribution rights to the
case product, is a nationwide chain of fairly loosely co-operating individual furniture stores. Empricially, we have gathered interview data on the furniture chain
level (product manager) and in selected stores with store managers and sales rep-
60
Acta Wasaensia
resentatives, allowing the researcher to examine the embeddedness of a product in
a potentially quite heterogeneous setting. Examples of interview themes can be
found in Appendix 2. In addition to interviews, mystery shopping observations
were carried out to provide additional insight into how the product actually, and
not only as described by retail informants, presents itself towards the consumer in
the retail context. In the analysis, it is examined how the products are embedded
to these contexts by using the 4R framework described earlier.
4.1.
The focal resource
The focal product in the case is a bed collection, consisting of a number of different product items, some of which are complementary and some alternative. The
collection comprises different kinds of mattresses (box mattresses, spring mattresses, continental mattresses and motorised elevation beds) of different size and
firmness, categorised under three sub-brands, from basic models to mediumpriced and models for the more demanding customer. In addition, the collection
includes different types of top mattresses that can be combined with the selected
bed or mattress. There are also different models of bed legs or runners available
to choose among.
What makes all these items to be considered one product, i.e. a collection, is firstly the brand name and secondly a similar external appearance of all the models,
the actual differences between models are mostly found “on the inside”.
Many of the components that the product consists of are not specially adapted, but
can also be found in other products, while for instance the fabric is exclusively
designed with this collection in mind; with the brand logo woven into it. In order
for the product to communicate its more hidden features to users, the product
concept also includes prescriptions and materials that retailers can use for store
display. Uniform appearance of the pillows, pillowcases and other fabrics, as well
as an oak laminate floor, is thought to provide a suitable contrast to the blue and
white coloured beds. Manufacturer-provided brochures and posters also contribute to the concept of how the collection is presented. In addition, training is provided for sales staff in order to transmit knowledge about the more hidden product features and their effect on physiological well-being and comfort. With such
information it is thought that the sales staff will be better equipped to sell the
products successfully.
The original development philosophy behind the product concept, stemming from
the manufacturer’s sister company in Sweden, where the product concept was
initially developed, has been to offer beds for consumers who want value for their
Acta Wasaensia
61
money; a good bed without it costing too much and without the label of “vanity”
which some competing products are considered to carry, according to the product
developer.
Actors involved with manufacturing and selling the product in the Finnish context
have to a large extent adopted this product definition and also emphasise the
product’s good ratio between price and quality and also between price and appearance. In the Finnish context, the actors also emphasise the fact that the product is a ready concept, i.e. the local actors do not need to invest in the creation of
the features (including promotional materials) as a valuable product feature.
Moreover, there are some factors that become differently highlighted in the Finnish context and that offer a different type of value than compared to the original
Swedish product (in Sweden), i.e. where coupling to a new context creates a new
type of value for the product. Examples include the fact that manufacturing (assembly) takes place in a business unit in Finland), which allows for the utilization
of the “Finnishness” argument as attached to the product. Secondly, some technical as well as appearance related features (detachability and colour of fabric)
were novel to the Finnish market at the time the product was introduced, which
allowed their utilization to another extent, e.g. as a means of differentiation.
When assessing which features are significant in the focal product on the whole,
largely similar characteristics are highlighted by actors in the retail context as
those involved with the product’s development and manufacturing. In the interviews, physical and construction related features were mentioned, such as the
type of springs used, quality and durability of materials as well as the fact that the
fabric is detachable and thus washable, better maintainable and hygienic. Physical
product features also further affect sensory and thus more individually perceived
properties, such as comfort. The broadness of the collection was in this respect
highlighted as a significant characteristic, as it offers a range of different alternatives (related to firmness/softness) to match the variety of user definitions of what
is considered comfortable.
Characteristics related to the appearance of the product were also emphasised.
The appearance was described as appealing and youthful and attention was also
drawn to the colour of the fabric. The colour had been a significant feature particularly at the time when the collection was introduced, since this product was said
to have been the first dark blue mattress on the market. Initially this characteristic
was used not only in terms of differentiation or though the fact that a new looking
product is more “fresh” and interesting for sales people to sell, but also as an argument for customers in the form of a claim that “Other (manufacturer)s are also
heading in this direction (with fabric colours), but these are the first to have it.”
62
Acta Wasaensia
In other words, fashions and trends play a role in the assessment of the product’s
appearance, possibly trickling down also to product or company image, for instance as being perceived (or at least portrayed) as some kind of trendsetter or
forerunner. It highlights the fact that the utilisation value of product features is
time dependent and relative to the features of other products.
A much stressed product characteristic among all interviewees was the fact that
the product was perceived as “good value for the money”. Both the physical as
well as aesthetic properties were perceived valuable in relation to the price of the
product. The consumer may be told for instance that “You get this for the price of
a regular mattress”, which can be interpreted as a perception of the features as
something “more than regular”.
Related to the product’s price, the store owners/managers also made reference to
the producer and the group behind it. They pointed out that outside the core of the
product, important underlying aspects were the production technologies and cost
structures of the manufacturer and their qualities as a supplier.
Other significant features that were mentioned, were issues related to place. On
one hand, it was emphasized that the product had a domestic manufacturer, but on
the other hand, sometimes sales staff found it useful to emphasise the collection’s
origin as Swedish or as being provided by a large European group (of which the
local manufacturer is a part of), possibly in terms of embedded competence
which was seen as a potentially valuable cue. Moreover, the blue and white colour of the product also received a new symbolic meaning in the Finnish context.
4.2. The retail context
The business units responsible for retailing the collection on the Finnish market
are furniture stores belonging to a loosely co-operating chain of individual stores.
This chain has exclusive right to sell the collection in Finland and it comprises 55
independent furniture stores, with joint purchasing and marketing operations. The
collection is sold in all the stores of the chain, and its share of the total sales of
mattresses within this chain is estimated to nearly 50 %. For the manufacturer, the
relationship to this retail chain accounts for approximately 15 % of its sales.
As the stores in question are run by individual entrepreneurs, without strict chain
management, the stores differ remarkably from one to another with respect to
size, appearance, assortment, style of advertising, store layout etc., providing very
heterogeneous environments for the collection to be sold in. On the whole, the
key account manager of the manufacturer (with a personal history in this particu-
Acta Wasaensia
63
lar retail organization) characterised the stores as ordinary people’s furniture
stores; as not very exclusive but at best nice-looking and pleasant, although there
were also said to be some less well-managed ones.
The extent to which individual stores “make use” of the product can vary from
one store to another. Some have devoted more space to these products than others, and some display them more clearly and utilize more of the manufacturerprovided display materials (“sleeping studios”) than others. The way products are
located and displayed also affects the way consumers approach them and test
them, which in turn enables them to access and assess the sensory features of the
product. Variations in the conditions for testing the products (e.g. how separated,
peaceful or inviting the mattress section of the store appears and where in the sore
it is located) can thus affect the degree to which the product manages to convey
its characteristics to potential users. The retail environment could be said to affect
the product both on store level (atmosphere and layout of the store as a whole)
and on the product category level (how the products in question are displayed and
possibilities provided for testing).
As we referred to in the section on store image, other products also affect the way
a focal product is perceived in a retail context. Items that belong to the focal collection can create trade-offs or complementarities in relation to each other, which
both sales staff as well as consumers need to evaluate. Furthermore, the focal
product interacts with other products and brands in the store’s assortment, and
also these interfaces can be of either competing or complementary character, for
instance other mattress brands or other pieces of furniture or interior decoration
items, which may be used in connection to the focal product (e.g. bedside tables
or bedding). In studies of the effects of brand image on store image, particularly
influences related to customers’ perceptions of fashion have been emphasized
(Porter & Claybomb 1997). The “standard” set by other products in the store thus
also indirectly affects the image of the focal product, as customers may have certain expectations of what type (or fashion) of products they are likely to find in a
retail context with a specific image.
Observations from different stores also point at the fact that there may be tradeoffs between which type of resources the product is coupled with. For instance
some stores have opted for displaying mattresses in a more information focused
manner, with extensive use of stands, posters and other graphic material, others
have chosen to replace the promotional stands between each bed model with different models of night tables, in order to display the product in a way that more
resembles the actual user environment, i.e. the bedroom and thus focuses more on
ambience. It is notable in the empirical material that different store own-
64
Acta Wasaensia
ers/managers have their own “philosophies” in what they think is the best way to
display a mattress, whereby the same product may ned up in contexts that vary in
the extent to which they appeal to e.g. cognition or affect.
Typically, the assortments of the stores include two or three (sometimes even
more) other major brands in addition to the case collection. At the lower end of
the product category, they offer a private label brand, which is manufactured by
the same business unit that also makes the focal collection. A few other brands
are positioned above the focal collection, making the focal product the “middle
alternative”. It is not only consumers that evaluate the trade-offs between these
alternatives, but also the sales staff face the problem of deciding when and how
they demonstrate and argument for each of these products. Willingness of an individual sales person to sell a certain brand and the ability to see its potential as
matching with user needs becomes critical for the value the product can provide
for the retailer. Among the stores in this retail chain, there is variation in how well
they sell the different brands and how committed they are to them. It would appear as if even small episodes in relationship history (e.g. how product complaints
are handled) can affect these commitments and lead to a stronger focus on one
brand at the expense of another.
The case has shown that during the life cycle of the collection, it has continuously
adapted in relation to other products, and also vice versa. Initially, it was perceived that the higher end of the case collection had some overlap with one of the
premium competitors. Retailers were then not able to utilize the high end features
of the brand, as many of them appeared to consider the competing brand as a better choice if for the more demanding customers. To overcome this overlap, the
prices of the two collections were both adjusted in order to increase the perceived
difference between them. Recently also the higher end of the case collection has
received new physical features; a new top mattress material (a foam that adjusts
according to body temperature) has been included. The origin of this solution is in
a competing product (and thus not the Swedish sister company) and the foam
component is in fact bought from this competing manufacturer.
The last example describes both how another product affect the features of a focal
one, but simultaneously also how the product interacts with other business relationships that may indirectly affect it so that the product alters also its physical
properties in the new context. In the case of the focal collection and the relationship between the manufacturer and the retail chain, it could be said that the relationship forms a continuous and committed platform for joint development work
in the ongoing process of adapting the product to its retail context, of which the
adjustments in price and components are a few examples.
Acta Wasaensia
65
4.3. Consumer interpretations
In order to test how imbued product characteristics are transmitted all the way to
the consumer and to explore the ways in which retailer specific features mark the
perception of the product, a small scale mystery shopping inquiry was undertaken. Mystery shopping refers to the use of researchers acting as potential customers to monitor the processes and procedures used in the delivery of a service (Wilson, 1998). In this technique of disguised observation, the role of the researcher is
minimized, as those who are studied are unaware of the true purpose of the observer and treat him/her as a natural member of the group (Grönfors, 1982:104),
or in this case, as a real customer, whereby information is gained about how
product features become transmitted to consumers through e.g. sales argumentation.
The number of observations concerning the focal product and its retail context is
limited (6 observations, of which some were made individually, some by couples
or pairs) and most of them were done in the same store, which implies that the
findings cannot be generalized. Nevertheless, they provide some interesting illustrations of the interface between the focal product and its potential final user and
the role of the retail context in connecting these. The observers made notes of
their mystery shopping experiences and afterwards all the observers also participated in a focus group for a more thorough discussion of their experiences and
impressions.
The observers were instructed to go to one of the stores of the furniture chain in
question, looking to buy a box or spring mattress of good quality for a reasonable
price. The observers were specifically asked to pretend being particularly interested in the focal collection and pay attention to how the sales people would argument about it.
As a conclusion of the mystery shopping findings it could be said that the inquiry
failed somewhat in validating the picture of the product presented by the other
actors. On the other hand, it raised some new issues of interest. The most striking
and surprising finding was that despite these guidelines and the “attempts” of the
shoppers to (pretend to) buy the focal product, only one mystery shopper was
clearly offered one. This would imply that product features and value in this case
did not reach to final customer at all, and its value remained quite unexploited.
Instead, for most of the shoppers the sales persons tried to convince that another
product (a cheaper brand or a special offer of a more expensive brand) was the
best choice for them and seemed reluctant to demonstrate other alternatives, including the focal product. The shoppers even felt that the sales people did not let
them look sufficiently at other alternatives. This was reinforced by the fact that
66
Acta Wasaensia
different mattress brands were displayed in different parts of the store, some (the
cheapest special offers) even on another floor, making comparisons more difficult
than if all alternatives had been in the same section of the store. This store layout
thus requires the sales person to be more involved in the customer’s process of
finding what they want and appears to assign them more power to steer the purchase in a specific direction. Different stores however have different layouts, why
these findings only should be interpreted as examples of heterogeneity, rather a
general rule.
The fact that the observers were primarily offered other alternatives than the case
product despite their briefing, could perhaps be explained by how the sales people
categorized the shoppers. Instead of creating individual sales strategies to every
customer, creating typologies of customers helps the sales people to organize and
structure the sales process and form appropriate sales strategies for different customer categories (Mäki, 2003). Retail customer typologisation has been studied
from the point of view of how customers see themselves (e.g. Sharma & Levy,
1995; Reynolds & Beatty, 1999) and by Mäki (2003) from the point of view of
how sales people describe and characterise customers. In his study, criteria that
formed the basis for categorization were e.g. the appearance, behaviour, mood
and demographic features of the customer (Mäki, 2003: 148).
In the mystery shopping case, the sales persons seem to have drawn their conclusions based on such features of the shoppers (e.g. young age) and adopted a certain sales strategy in accordance with this categorization. This implied focusing
particularly on price and special offers and thereby on other products than the
case collection.
The mystery shoppers thus received much of their product knowledge of the case
product through other means than from service provided by the sales person.
Promotional materials such as product labels, posters, brochures and promotional
stands, pillowcases etc. made the product distinguishable in the store and provided information of its features. Likewise some observers had visited the furniture
store’s website to learn more about the focal product. This highlights the role of
the interface between the core product and its supporting promotional materials as
a reinforcer of its features.
The mystery shopping investigation also highlighted the question of store image
and the significance of the store environment overall; many shoppers commented
on this issue in the discussion of their visits and compared their impressions with
those from other stores where they might shop in reality. References were made
to both features of the external environment (appearance of the store from the
outside, other products in the window), and the internal environment, such as the
Acta Wasaensia
67
first impression encountered when entering the store and the layout and way of
grouping and displaying products. Variation in store appearance also among
stores within the same chain thus couples the product to quite differing image
contexts, which can have implications for the value of the focal product’s features.
5. Symbolic embeddedness into the retail context
The theoretical and empirical discussion above on how products interact with the
surrounding network of other resources regarding its symbolic interfaces are
summarised in figure 2 below.
Figure 2: Interaction between a focal product and other resources in the retail context
In the retail context, facilities could be characterised as resources supporting the
selling of the focal product, such as the store itself and physical and symbolic
68
Acta Wasaensia
elements in it such as the premises or layout of the store, or the marketing resources of the retailer. With atmospheric design retailers can significantly affect
the perceptions of the store and thereby also the perceptions of the products in it.
Even though, as in the empirical case presented here, the impulses, directions and
materials related to the display of the focal product are provided by the manufacturer, the retailer does exercise significant control over how the product is ultimately presented and to what extent the manufacturer’s strategy is followed. Buchanan, Simmons & Bickart (1999) point out that product presentation is indeed
often a source of conflict in the relationship between manufacturer and retailer.
On the symbolic level, the interface between the retail facilities and the focal
product, concerns the congruence between the image, atmosphere, appearance of
the store vs. that of the product. When it comes to resource use, the interface
could concern the ability of facilities to support to product in different ways, in
order for its features to become better visible and valuable to intermediate as well
as final users.
In managing this type of interface in the retail environment, the actors face the
challenge of “stagesetting” the product in the store environment, and developing
supporting display and communicative materials (signs, brochures, advertisements etc), that help deliver the wanted message of the product. While marketing
communication literature frequently stress the importance of message consistency
and the advantages of integrated marketing communication (IMC), the retailer
however may “localize” communication themes and images (Turley & Chebat,
2002) as has been done to some extent in the empirical case. While product brochures provided by the manufacturer feature more profile-building and atmospheric themes, the stores advertise the same product in local print media with
foremost a price and special offer focused argumentation.
In the retail context, the focal product interacts with other products that are alternative, complementary, overlapping, supporting or competing of space and
attention. The amount and type of other products interacting with the focal one
differs from one retail context to another, as the breadth and depth of the assortment varies from store to store. Thus, the availability of products already provides
differing opportunities for the product to be presented to a potential end customer.
The effect of other products in the environment is also indirect. The sales staff
evaluate the products against one another in their attempt to try to match customer
needs and wants with the alternatives that are available. As the empirical materials shows, the evaluations of resource combinations made by these actors, can be
crucial for the realisation of product value.
Acta Wasaensia
69
On the symbolic level, products are mirrored against others in the same context
on the level of images and meanings, e.g. related to fashion, aesthetic properties
or price or quality images. Products, in relation to others, can be used to create
and maintain a certain image. The challenges of managing the interface between
different products involves tasks such as positioning, assortment building,
through which the retailer can affect product communication and the value that a
resource thus can provide.
The retailer business unit also creates imprints on the product, and vice versa.
Factors of importance here are e.g. the image of the retailer, which is also related
to its facilities. Another significant element of the business unit is the people in it,
who enable interaction between (potential) consumer and the product. The service
and communication provided by salespersons is a factor that significantly contributes to the ultimate perception of the product. The competence, skills and motivation of the sales staff to promote the product to consumers is central for the
realisation of the value potential. Similarly as in the case of display and advertising materials, also here the manufacturers activities can “improve” the interface.
Sales promotion activities directed at intermediaries and sales staff include e.g.
training, incentives and co-operative advertising (Shimp, 1997: 463). As the extent of such activities may vary between manufacturers of different (competing)
products in the store, this may make the sales staff more able and/or motivated to
sell a certain product alternative, compared to another. Nevertheless, the case also
illustrated that there can be a positive effect of sales training from one producer
also on the selling of another product. An example of such an effect is that the
training and building of expertise that one manufacturer provided to sales staff
about the more generic aspects related to the use of the product group (e.g. physiological aspects of sleep), is a type of knowledge that could be utilised in the selling any brand of beds, i.e. spinning off from one product and business relationship to another.
On the symbolic level, the business unit – product interface has to do with issues
such as image congruence, interacting brands (product vs. retailer) and the competence, attitudes and motivation linked to the product held by people within the
business unit. On the resource utilisation side, a retailer can make direct or strategic use of a product for its own purposes, such as using it as an economic resource or for image building or differentiation. Indirectly, product-related actions
(such as training of sales force) can reinforce the business unit resources and their
ability to make use of the focal product. In the empirical findings, it was also referred to that new or improved products helped motivate the sales staff, since they
considered it more interesting and refreshing to sell.
70
Acta Wasaensia
The challenges of managing this interface thus relate to communication consistency between product messages and the messages delivered by salespersons.
The focal product is the physical manifestation of what is exchanged in the relationship between buyer and seller. A product may be influenced by relationship
history and structural or mental inertia stemming from previous relationships. As
the business relationship as a resource item is social in nature, this interface can
also not be characterised in physical terms. Symbolically, this connection relates
to the perception of how the product can be useful for the relationship. In a utilitarian sense, the product can be seen as means for the retailer to be able to providing services to consumers. These services van relate e.g. reliability, quality or
other desired properties of the product, speed of delivery etc. In the management
of this interface, the issues of product management and relationship management
become intertwined.
6. Resource usefulness for the retail actor
Products are carriers of both restrictions and opportunities. Such opportunities can
be taken advantage of, missed (as illustrated by the mystery shopping case) or
new ones created when combined in a new way. Different actors, such as managers of different stores, can also utilize the opportunities somewhat differently.
That is, the product exhibits different value when coupled to different contexts.
The product can thus be used to provide value, i.e. function as a resource for different actors, in different ways. In this section we shall look closer at the utilization side, that is, the features that retailers appear utilise and in which way.
Earlier it was referred to that one of the features characterizing the product is its
spatial dimension. Different actors seem to view this dimension differently,
which also provides heterogeneity in the ways of utilizing this dimension e.g. in
sales argumentation. On the one hand, it can be emphasized that the product is
domestically manufactured, which in fact is highlighted by many actors and also
e.g. in the promotional materials in the form of the Finnish flag symbolizing this.
Simultaneously, the product can also be viewed as Swedish to its origin and also
through its brand name. This feature again can be used both as implying something exotic or something appealing, depending e.g. on whether the product features are communicated to a consumer in western or central Finland, i.e. depending on the cultural distance to Sweden and how this is expected to affect how
consumers react to “swedishness” as a product attribute. Other actors in turn may
choose to downplay the Swedish origin altogether.
Acta Wasaensia
71
The issue of “place” manifests itself in the product also through the fact that the
business units that are involved in developing and manufacturing the product,
possess certain competencies and capabilities which actors in the retail context
see as assets which they may indirectly access. This shows e.g. in the form of
utilisation of logistical strengths as well as product development work elsewhere
in the company, which can potentially be utilized also for the benefit of this relationship.
The product as a building block in the assortment In a classical sense
the purpose of a retailer can be seen as to connect supply and demand and this
connection could be said to physically manifest itself in the product. Thus, when
looking at how retailers manage to utilize the value of (heterogeneous) products,
this can be looked upon in terms of how the actor manages to connect relevant
product properties with the needs, wants and preferences of the target customers.
Some differences prevailed in the way different retailers defined the target
group(s) of the focal product. Certain variation existed also in the retailers’ views
on how the focal product was positioned in relation to other brands in the assortment. However, on the whole, the case brand was seen as a way covering the medium price segment well. In this way, it could be said the retailers utilize the
product as a means of supplementing their assortment with products that have
features that are attractive for target customers. These features can be differently
emphasized depending on what type of features each individual customer is
thought to be interested in, ranging from technical features to hygiene, durability,
easy care, comfort, appearance etc.
It also appears as if many of the interviewed retailers have adopted a highly price
focused strategy, judging for instance by the type of advertising they carry out.
The focal brand seems to perform also as a means in this strategy, as an element
in the retailers special offer based marketing activities and a typical product
which is featuring in the retailers’ newspaper advertisements to “pull” customers
to the stores. However, as the mystery shopping findings indicated, the assortment
may also include other products which can offer better potential as means of
reaching the price sensitive consumer. On the other hand, the case brand is not
considered to possess the same amount of “pull” appeal as better recognised
brands. In this sense, it fills the gap in the assortment between the cheapest and
the most exclusive brands reinforcing the image of the retailer as a provider of a
72
Acta Wasaensia
wide variety of furniture for “ordinary people” to use the characterization provided by one of the interviewees.
The product as a means of offering reliability It was mentioned earlier that the
product is said to contain an element of reliability in terms of both product features as well as prompt and reliable deliveries, which stems from the interface
between the manufacturing and developing business units and the product. In a
way, the reliability aspect can be passed on or “duplicated” from the product to
the retailer level so that the retailer can utilize this strength factor itself. An example of this is the fact that when the collection was first introduced, it was portrayed in the form that “We now have mattresses from Europe’s biggest manufacturer”. The linkages to the competence and reputation of the supplier were thus
explicitly used as an argument that also says something about the retailer. Another example is the logistical arrangements and facilities, which enable the retailer
to claim that they can provide the products fast and promptly to consumers.
The product as a source of differentiation An important characteristic of the
product from the retailer’s point of view is the fact that the product is exclusively
sold in this furniture chain. Therefore it offers the retail actors the possibility to
provide its customers with an offering that is distinct and different from those of
other retailers in terms of appearance (colour), brand and certain physical features, such as the detachability of fabric and its implications for sales argumentation in terms of hygiene, durability etc.
The product as an enhancer of the store environment The product concept of
the focal product includes specifications of how products should be displayed and
materials that can be used for this purpose. In the best case, the brand’s own sections should resemble shop-in-shop type of sleeping studios. The extent to which
these elements have been utilized varies among the stores. However, the sleeping
studio can potentially be used as an enhancer of the retail environment. Some of
the other brands have perhaps devoted more effort and succeeded better in this
respect, while for others, this has remained less utilised.
The product as a motivator The focal product was often characterized as easy to
sell and argument about, as it perceived as “good value for the money”. It was
even said that the product could be presented as having “this kind of features for
the price of an ordinary mattress” (in contrast to some more expensive competing
products in some cases) Sales staff were said to like to tell customers about these
products as this enabled them to argument more, and provide information, than
Acta Wasaensia
73
they would be able to do in the case of a piece of furniture which is largely chosen according to individual tastes. Some store owners said that their sales staff
particularly want to provide service when a customer is looking for a mattress.
They were even sometimes said to become frustrated if the customer wants to
look alone as they have so much to tell about the products. Product related training which is provided also increases the sales people’s knowledge about the products and reinforces their expert role, which they can demonstrate in the service
situation.
The product as an economic resource Perhaps the most obvious way in which a
product functions as a resource for a retailer, is through the economic value that
its sales provide. In the case of the focal product, a particularly significant aspect
is that it provides good sales in relation to the floor space devoted to it.
The product as a platform for relationship development Related to the aforementioned issue of accessing competencies on the supply side, it could also be
seen that the retailer can utilize the product as a platform or point of reference for
further development and long term business relationships with the supplier. It was
mentioned as a strength of the product that its supplier does not only offer a core
product to be distributed, but a source of continuous, regular, clear and good
business and that they are able to keep up with both product and price developments.
These empirical observations appear to support the reinterpreted view of products
(as one of the classical four P’s) as non-given presented by Håkansson &
Waluszewski (2004: 253-254). In the case, both the physical/technical, as well as
immaterial features of the focal products are significantly affected by the buyer
(retailer). The retail context can be seen to leave its imprints on the product for
instance in terms of fully adapted components or specific combinations of standard components as was seen in this case when the original product concept was
transferred to the Finnish market. The context may also create adaptation towards
coherence with its own corporate identity and resource structure by emphasising
certain product features while downplaying others. Adaptation can also be noticed
in relation to other products in the context; the focal product and other e.g. competing brands are dynamically repositioned and the focal product may show different features depending on what other products it is “mirrored against”. The
retail context can also affect product properties by augmenting the core product
“in its own manner” though e.g. its own promotional activities, personal selling,
argumentation and additional services provided, as well as through the retail environment itself (product display etc). So far, it would appear that though such
means, the distributor could be able to utilise the product as a resource to serve
74
Acta Wasaensia
its own strategic purposes. This can be done either by using the product as a way
of reinforcing its current strategy or by using it to renew it in some way.
6. The retailer as a resource intermediary and value
creator/provider
In this paper, we have approached products as resources from an interactive point
of view, considering them on one hand as results of interaction and adaptation in
the inter-firm relationships, and on the other hand we have also considered the
relationship from the retailer to the consumer, in which the retail actor has a significant role in conveying the value proposition and providing the cues in order
for the consumer to be able utilise the product as an operand as well as operant
resource. This is illustrated in figure 3 below.
Figure 3: Actor utilisation of a product as a resource
The point of departure is the core product, which in itself is a carrier of traces of
its resource history, of interfaces with other resource entities in the phases prior to
its selling phase. The features of this core product have been marked by interaction with other resources in for instance design and manufacturing. If we take the
stance that meanings are not inherent in objects, but created in interaction, the
Acta Wasaensia
75
features and potential of the product to provide value are thus still at least partly
“open” as the product enters its retail context. The manufacturer/seller of the
product certainly holds a certain image of its envisioned utility (e.g. product concept), which it communicates through retailers to potential final users in varying
ways and with varying intensity. Or according to Arnould (2005) firms can communicate cues that promise resources. Whether these “promises” become realised
and the product performs as a value creating resource in the same sense as the
firm intended, is however a different question.
As discussed in section 3, the retail context contains many resource entities with
which the focal product interacts, and these interfaces provide a “package” around
the core product. This total product, to use the term by Kotler (1973), shapes the
actor level perceptions and images of resources. If the same product is placed in
retail environments with different configurations of resources that “package” it
and contains different actors (e.g. store managers, sales people) who may have
different histories, objectives and ideas, the total product will thus vary from one
context to another, as the meanings connected to it and its use is seen as interacted.
The retailer as an actor can be seen as an intermediate user of the product as a
resource. Ford et al. (2003) suggested that resources in distribution are positional
and technical in nature. In this paper, the discussion was extended to retail actors’
utilisation the product as a resource also on a symbolic level.
This paper also considered how the resource concept extends to the interface with
consumers. Researchers within consumer culture theory use the term operant resource, i.e. that consumers integrate firm-provided resources with their own cultural resources, thereby extending the value creation process to involving the consumer as well. Even if a more thorough analysis of the consumer side falls outside
the main focus of this study, it may still be useful to consider in which ways consumers use the retail context, which cultural projects they pursue through their
consumption in and of retail settings, in order to provide managerial insight for
manufacturer and distributor firms in how to communicate the product’s potential
use in a broader, symbolic sense.
76
Acta Wasaensia
References
Aitken, R., Gray, B. and Lawson, R. (2008), “Advertising effectiveness from a
consumer perspective”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp.
279-97.
Arnould, Eric, J. (2005) Animating the big middle. Journal of Retailing. 81 (2,
2005), pp.89-96
Arnould, E. J. and Thompson, C.J. (2005), “Consumer Culture Theory (CCT):
Twenty years of research”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp.
868-83.
Arnould, Eric, J.; Price, Linda L. & Malshe, Avinash (2006) Toward a cultural
resource-based theory of the customer. In: Lusch, Robert F. & Vargo, Stephen L.
The service-dominant logic of marketing, dialog, debate and directions. M.E.
Sharpe, New York, 2006.
Baraldi, Enrico (2003) When Information Technology Faces Resource Interaction
– Using IT tools to handle products at IKEA and Edsbyn. Uppsala University,
Department of Business Studies. doctoral dissertation No 105
Baron, Steve & Harris, Kim (2008) Consumers as resource integrators, Journal of
Marketing Management. Vol 24, No 1-2, pp. 113-130
Bitner, Mary Jo (1992) Servicescapes: The Impact of Physical Surroundings on
Customers and Employees. Journal of Marketing, vol. 56, April 1992, pp. 57-71.
Buchanan, L.; Simmons, C.J. & Bickart B.A. (1999) Brand Equity Delution: Retailer Display and Context Brand Effects. Journal of Marketing Research. August
1999, 36;3. pp. 345-355.
Cova, B. & Salle, R. (2008) The industrial/consumer dichotomy revisited: a case
of outdated justification? Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, vol23, No
1, 2008.
Davies, B. & Ward P. (2005) Exploring the Connections between Visual Merchandising and Retail Branding. An application of Facet Theory. International
Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. Vol 33, No 7. pp. 505-513.
Forbord, Magnar (2003) New uses of an agricultural product – A case study of
development in an industrial network. Department of industrial economics and
Acta Wasaensia
77
technology management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Trondheim. Norway. Doctoral thesis
Ford, David; Gadde, Lars-Erik, Håkansson, Håkan & Snehota, Ivan (2003) Managing business relationships, 2nd ed. Wiley.
Grönfors, M. (1982) Kvalitatiiviset kenttätyömenetelmät. WSOY Juva.
Grönroos, C. (2008), “Service logic revisited: who creates value? And who cocreates?”, European Business Review, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 298-314.
Håkansson, H. & Snehota I. eds. (1995) Developing Relationships in Business
Networks, Routledge, London.
Håkansson, Håkan, Debbie Harrison & Alexandra Waluszewski (eds.) (2004)
Rethinking Marketing. Developing a new understanding of markets. John Wiley
& sons. Chichester.
Håkansson, Håkan & Waluszewski, Alexandra (2004) Conclusions: Reinterpreting the four P:s. In: Håkansson, Håkan, Debbie Harrison & Alexandra
Waluszewski (eds.) Rethinking Marketing. Developing a new understanding of
markets. John Wiley & sons. Chichester.
Håkansson, Håkan & Waluszewski, Alexandra (2002) Managing Technological
Development, IKEA, the environment and technology. Routledge, London.
Kotler Philip (1973) Atmospherics as a Marketing Tool. Journal of Retailing.
Vol. 49, No 4, winter 1973-1974. pp. 48-64
Lusch, R.F. (2007), “Marketing’s evolving identity: Defining our future”, Journal
of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 261-68.
Mäki, M. (2003) Asiakaspohjainen palveluprosessin kehittäminen vähittäiskaupassa. Unpublished licenciate thesis. University of Vaasa, Faculty of Business
Administration, Department of Marketing.
Newman, A.J. & Patel D. (2004) The Marketing Directions of two Fashion Retailers. European Journal of Marketing, Vol 38; No 7, pp 770-789.
Penrose, E. (1959) The Theory of the Growth of the Firm. Oxford, Basil Blackwell & Mott, Ltd.
78
Acta Wasaensia
Pettijohn, Linda S.; Mellot, Douglas W. & Pettijohn Charles E. (1992) The Relationship between Retailer Image and Brand Image. Psychology & Marketing. Vol
9(4):311-328.
Porter, Stephen S.& Claycomb Cindy. (1997) The Influence of Brand Recognition on Retail Store Image. The Journal of Product and Brand Management. Vol
6, iss.6, pg. 373.
Reynolds, K. & Beatty S.E. (1999) “A Relationship Customer Typology”. In:
Journal of Retailing, Vol 75.
Shimp, T.A (1997) Advertising, Promotion and Supplemental Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications. 4. ed. The Dryden Press. Orlando.
Turley L.W & Chebat Jean-Charles (2002) “Linking Retail Strategy, Atmospheric
Design and Shopping Behaviour”. Journal of Marketing Management 2002; 18;
125-144
Vargo, S.L. and Lusch, R.F. (2006), “Service-Dominant Logic: What It Is, What
It Is Not, What It Might Be”, in Lusch, R.F. and Vargo, S.L. (Eds.), The Servicedominant logic of marketing: Dialog, debate, and directions, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, New York.
Wedin, Torkel (2001) Networks and Demand. The Use of Electricity in an Industrial Process. Doctoral thesis no. 83. Department of Business Studies, Uppsala
University. Doctoral dissertation.
Wilson, A.M. (1998) “The Use of Mystery Shopping in the Measurement of Service Delivery”. In: The Service Industries Journal, July 98; 18;3, pg. 148
Acta Wasaensia
79
5 RETAILERS AND MEDIA AS RESOURCE
INTERMEDIARIES
Anu Norrgrann
Jenniina Halkoaho
Abstract
Purpose: This theoretical paper examines the role of resource intermediaries in
value creation. We discuss the role of retailers and media as important actors
between the selling firm and the consumer, influencing and participating in the
process of resource provision and use.
Approach: We integrate three different approaches to resources in order to gain
a more comprehensive understanding of the role of intermediaries in value creation. Industrial network (IMP) research approaches resources from an interaction perspective, stressing resource ties and interfaces between companies. Resources are also a central concept in the Service-Dominant (S-D) logic of marketing. Both these perspectives focus on how resources are used and combined to
provide value, or “services”. Consumer Culture Theory (CCT) again focuses on
understanding the social and cultural roles that products play in consumers’
lives. According to this perspective, the services and products that firms provide
are operant and cultural resources for consumers to use.
Findings: Resources are not always directly available for customers, but are mediated through markets. In fact, customers often interact more with retailers and
advertisements, than with the producing firms. Therefore, the ultimate presentation of the product is thus not only in the manufacturer’s hands. We offer a conceptualization of the role of retail and media intermediaries in creating and managing the product, its meanings and value.
Value: This paper builds understanding on the notion of resources, particularly
when it comes to the interacted nature of the concept and the role of intermediaries in the creation of resources and value.
Keywords: resources, co-creation of value, intermediary, retail, media, conceptual paper
80
Acta Wasaensia
1. Introduction
The discussion regarding resources has gained increasing interest in marketing and management disciplines in the recent years. The traditional ResourceBased View (RBV), with its roots in the 1950’s (Penrose, 1959), has stressed the
ability of companies to access adequate resources for growth, core competence
development and competitive advantage. The focus has thus been on the organizational level, on resources internal to the firm (Theingi, Phungpol and Purchase,
2006; Dubois and Torvatn, 2002). The notion of resources has also been a central
theme among industrial network (IMP) researchers (c.f. Håkansson, 1987;
Håkansson and Snehota, 1995; Håkansson and Waluszewski, 2002), who in turn
have approached the concept from an inter-organizational perspective. They draw
attention to the resource ties and interfaces between companies, i.e. looking at
resources as embedded and negotiated between firms. In other words, the focus in
these studies is more on adapting and relating resources of one actor with those of
other actors.
In the recent years, the resource dimension has also received increasing attention through the introduction of the so called Service-Dominant (S-D) logic of
marketing (Vargo and Lusch, 2006). A common denominator for IMP and S-D
logic is that they in contrast to RBV focus less on resource possession as a source
of competitive advantage, and instead on how resources are used to provide value,
or “services”, for either consumers or intermediate customers. The phenomenon is
thus similarly as in the industrial network studies, approached from a more interactive point of view.
Consumer Culture Theory (CCT), for one, has been an important field of
research for understanding the social and cultural roles that products play in everyday lives of consumers (see Arnould and Thompson, 2005). Researchers have
increasingly also begun to emphasize the consumer perspective and empowerment of consumers as producers (Aitken, Gray and Lawson, 2008). There has
been an increasing interest in how consumers utilize their own resources and
firm-supplied resources to pursue their personal life projects and goals. In this
perspective, different kinds of services and products that firms provide, are seen
as operant and cultural resources for consumers to use. It is recognized that the
goal-derived use of products is not necessarily the same as the one imposed by the
marketer. It is thus essential to consider how consumers act as resource integrators and use different products and services to create value for themselves.
However, resources are not always directly available for customers, but
mediated through markets (Arnould, 2004). In fact, the customer is often more in
interaction with retailers and advertisements than with the firms that provide the
products. Therefore, it is essential to consider the role of resource intermediaries
in the process co-creation of value. In this study we analyze market intermediaries
as co-creators of value. Two important intermediaries are of particular interest;
retailers and media. In this paper, we will examine their role between the selling
Acta Wasaensia
81
firm and the consumer, as business actors mediating and participating in the process of resource provision and use.
Resource theories have been criticized for being firm centric (Arnould,
2005: 90). In this paper, we therefore draw on the interactive approaches to studying resources from the fields of both business and consumer marketing, i.e IMP,
S-D logic and CCT, in order to broaden the understanding of the resource concept
with regard to the role of intermediaries in value provision. We have chosen to
limit our discussion to symbolic resources instead of tangible, operand resources.
This delimitation is in our view relevant, given our focus on retailers and mass
media, which typically contribute to product management and value creation
through providing symbolic rather than material resources. Furthermore, a focus
on symbolic resources elicits the logic of value-creation networking relative to
one-directional supply chain and marketing promotion perspectives from the
goods-dominant logic (Lusch, et al., 2008: 7).
2. Interaction between symbolic resources
Håkansson and Snehota (1995: 134) define resources in the following
way: “Various elements, tangible, or intangible, material or symbolic, can be
considered resources when use can be made of them”. Relatedly, the servicedominant logic by Vargo and Lusch (2006: 44) emphasizes that “there’s no value
until an offering is used – experience and perception are essential to value determination” (Vargo and Lusch 2006: 44)”, similarly as Grönroos (2008: 303-304)
states that “If customers cannot make use of a good, value-in-exchange is nil for
them…Only during consumption, realised value in the form of value-in-use is
created.” The role of marketing becomes in this sense “a process of doing things
in interaction with customer” (Lusch, 2007: 265). Firm-provided resources in the
form of value propositions which consumers are invited to derive benefit from,
interact with consumer resources and the value-in-use. (Arnould et al., 2006).
If we try to understand resources and their value, these perspectives thus
suggest that we should focus on interaction and value in use, rather than look at
resources as something that is internal to a firm. The term operant resources, i.e.
“resources that produce effects” (Constantin and Lusch, 1994), has been proposed, i.e. the focus is placed on the services (c.f. Penrose 1959) that the resources render, rather than just on their control or possession. E.g. a consumer
does not buy groceries for the sake of having them in store, but as a resource that
is, together with other resources such as cooking skills, kitchen equipment etc.
used to for instance to produce a nice family occasion (Grönroos, 2008).
Operant resources are often invisible and intangible in nature (Vargo and
Lusch, 2004; Arnould et al., 2006). According to Arnould et al. (2006) marketers’
value propositions in the form of images, symbols and myths can provide consumers as well as consumption communities with operant resources for carrying
out behavioral performances such as social roles or life projects. For instance in
the retail context, consumers engage in shopping as a means of producing their
82
Acta Wasaensia
self-image and community membership (Arnould, 2005). Resource interaction in
this sense is largely a question of symbolic linkages between the resources of
business actors and those possessed by consumers, with the purpose of e.g. directing consumers’ mental attention and experiences.
The industrial network tradition (c.f. Håkansson & Snehota 1995;
Håkansson & Waluszewski 2002) stresses the nature of resources as being embedded and heterogeneous, drawing attention to the interaction between a focal
resource (such as a product) and its interaction with other resources it is connected with, and how the same resource (product) can provide different value when
combined with different other resources. Although this research field has mostly
dealt with resource interaction focusing on issues related to interorganizational
technological development (c.f. Håkansson and Waluszewski, 2002, Baraldi,
2003) Håkansson and Snehota (1995: 134) nevertheless state that also immaterial
and symbolic elements can function as resources. It is also stated that from a
methodological point of view resources should be regarded both as objects in
themselves and also as image objects (Håkansson and Waluszewski, 2002: 39) so
that the value of a resource is always also dependent on individual actors’ perceptions of them (Forbord, 2003).
Firm-provided resources (or value propositions according to Grönroos
(2008)) are thus subjectively experienced and evaluated both by business actors
as well as consumers. Even a physical resource is thus always considered on a
symbolic level. In addition to evaluating it, actors add their skills and other resources to the product, in order to make it useful and valuable for their purposes.
Furthermore, products also receive characteristics and value through interacting
with other resources in the network in which the product is embedded. On the
symbolic level, this could mean receiving symbolic imprints from the environment in which the product is sold or the media through which its image is communicated.
3. Resources and the consumer
Consumer Culture Theory, CCT (see Arnould and Thompson, 2005) emphasizes the social and cultural roles that products play in everyday lives of consumers. Basically, it is stated that firms should have an understanding of the consumer viewpoint, that is, how consumers use products as resources for their lives,
because this determines the ultimate choice criteria employed by the consumer
and the value sought in the products that firms provide. One of the research topics
of the CCT approach is to examine consumers’ identity projects. In this work,
consumers are conceived of as identity seekers and makers, and that consumers
actively rework and transform symbolic meanings encoded in advertisements,
brands, retail settings, or material goods to manifest their particular personal and
social circumstances and further their identity and lifestyle goals. (Arnould and
Thompson, 2005: 871).
Acta Wasaensia
83
This discussion has typically referred to the symbolic consumption approach, which emphasizes the symbolic meanings attached to consumption objects and self-expressive acts of consumers. Basically, it is stated that we employ
consumption symbolism to construct and express our self-concepts as well as to
identify our associations with others (Dittmar, 1992; Elliott, 1997) For example
Thompson (1995: 210) describes the self as a symbolic project, which the individual actively constructs out of the available symbolic materials. However it
should be noticed that things don’t create meanings by themselves nor are fixed,
but are created by consumers in contexts (Jansson, 2002: 23, 26).
Firms as well as consumers combine their resources to accomplish their
goals (Arnould et al., 2006). Generally, they are not primarily interested what
they buy and possess, but in what they can do with what they have (Grönroos,
2008). Consumers deploy firm-provided operant and operand resources to enact
their life goals, projects and roles (Arnould et al., 2006). However, firm-provided
resources are only one source of operant resources for achieving these life projects and goals. In fact, consumers’ own operant resources such as skills, social
relationships, cultural capital, emotions and imagination determine how and
which firm resources they are going to draw on (Arnould et al., 2006, Baron and
Harris, 2008) and it is the combination of these that provide value.
Life projects, as defined in previous research (Belk, 1988; Mick and Buhl,
1992 in Parker 1998), are subsets of life themes (goals) that consist of four categories, community, family, national, and self. Life projects could also be termed
as identity projects (Arnould and Thompson, 2005: 871), personal projects (Little,
1989) or consumer projects (Arnould, 2005). They are on the middle level, and
rather concrete goals (cf. Huffman et al., 2005). Little (1989) defines these projects as extended sets of personally relevant action. Life projects mean that people
try to maintain their key roles and identities, for instance to be a good mother,
loyal employee, or a successful teacher (Arnould et al., 2006). Typically consumers have various life projects (Arnould and Price, 2000), and each of us have different and unique projects depending on the nature of one’s life goals. Life projects are also in a continuous flux, in accordance with changes in circumstances
and life cycles (Mick and Buhl, 1992: 318). In the same vein McCracken (1987)
has characterized life projects as each person’s development, refinement, and disposal of specific concepts e.g. manliness, Americanism, from culturally established alternatives. To summarize, consumption objects should be understood as
symbolic resources that allow for multiple variations in consumer interpretation
and use (Holt, 1997: 334). Goods are not utilized as such but as resources for life
projects.
84
Acta Wasaensia
4. Resources and the role of intermediaries
Following the argument presented above, when consumers as well as
firms buy products, they do not necessarily obtain resources that are “fixed” in
nature, but resources that interact with other resources and purposes, which shape
the value that they will ultimately provide. On their way downstream in towards
the final user, products become embedded into different context. They are offered
in specific retail settings and presented through specific communication channels.
Therefore, the ultimate presentation of the product, or its value proposition, is not
only in the manufacturer’s hands. Next, we turn to discuss the role of two different types of intermediaries, retailers and mass media, which are situated between
the producing or marketing firms and consumers in the process of value creation.
These both intermediaries have possibilities to create and activate symbolic resources and shape the firm-provided value propositions.
4.1. Retail intermediaries
On the business-to-business relationship level, distribution intermediaries
function in themselves as positional resources by connecting networks of suppliers with networks of customers. They also provide technological resources
through their ability to effectively handle distribution-related tasks, such as physical logistics. (Ford et al., 2003: 134) Thereby, these intermediaries affect the services that the products render for their intermediate and final users.
In addition, the retail environment can also create a variety of symbolic
imprints on the products, as the product interacts with the facilities, business unit
features, relationships and other products 5 of each, specific retail context. Depending on for instance the rest of the assortment of the store, the display facilities, the efforts and motivation of sales personnel and the strategic aims of the
individual retailer, the preconditions for the product to be able to function as a
useful and valuable resource may become quite varied.
Retailers have at their disposal various branding and image creation tools
that add to the resource potential of the product. In addition to the more traditional image elements such as names, symbols and advertising, also merchandise,
store characteristics, service and promotion can be used as branding components
(Davies & Ward 2005; a similar categorisation also used by Turley & Chebat,
2002). Merchandise refers to assortment, brand mix, price and quality (Davies &
Ward, 2005), i.e. the number and type of other brands in the store’s assortment
thus influence the focal product and the way it is positioned and presented by the
retailer. Store characteristics again include the location, atmosphere and internal
and external environment of the store (Davies & Ward, 2005), providing an environment for the product that can be likened to a package (Turley and Chebat,
5
For a more detailed description of the four resource entities model, c.f. Håkansson &
Waluszewski 2002; Baraldi 2003; Forbord 2003.
Acta Wasaensia
85
2002), as it surround the product and adds on symbolic characteristics. The research of Buchanan et al. (1999) indicates that retailers’ display decisions can
even negate brand equity.
Also the influence between retailer image and brand image has been
acknowledged in previous research (c.f. Pettijohn et al., 1992). For instance according to Porter & Claycomb (1997) a brand image can substantially improve or
damage the image of a retail store, depending on how the brand is evaluated.
Brands affect particularly the perception of the store’s fashion. In other words,
retailers can use products for their own profile building purposes, while on the
other hand, an unknown brand might benefit from an established retailer image,
provided that it is in accordance with the type of meanings that are intended to be
linked to the product.
The retail context also has a social side, referring to the personnel in it,
their characteristics and the level and quality of service they provide. (Porter &
Claycomb 1997; Turley & Chebat 2002; Davies & Ward 2005) Service, advice
and staff-customer interaction is an essential part of the offering or the brand
(Ford et al. 2002: 122-123; Newman & Patel 2004) and thus a significant way in
which the retail context marks the product and affects its value. The retail atmosphere affects not only consumers and their shopping behaviour, but also the way
the employees of the store function and behave. For example poorly constructed
environments may negatively affect the possibility of employees to approach,
interact and influence customers (Turley & Chebat, 2002). In resource interaction
terms; facilities affect the people with the business unit and thus indirectly the
way they relate to the products they sell.
Arnould (2005) suggests that retailers should be regarded as resource purveyors, who package cultural resources into a particular habitat, appliance, assortment, personnel policy, pricing strategy, communications campaign, and/or
other element of the retail mix, which consumers use as a source of cultural resources. He distinguishes between four categories of cultural resources, which the
retail environment can affect: 1) economic, 2) utopian, 3) lucid, and 4) temporal.
In the economic sense, the retailer can communicate cues that promise the ability
of the consumer to engage in thriftiness and gaining value for money, whereby
the total offering is in this sense a resource for the consumer in such a pursuit. In
a similar way, utopian resources help consumers “weave the ideals of the perfect
world into their everyday lives and selfhood” (Maclaran and Brown 2001, in Arnould 2005) and the retailer can have a role in evoking such utopia. At the same
time, however, they may also raise dystopian images for some consumers or in
some respects. Ludic resources relate to consumers’ pursuit of play, and also in
this respect the retail environment can have a facilitating role. The retail environment as a temporal resource, in turn refers to the enactment of consumer timestyles. Variations in the retail habitat and servicescape provide consumers with
different time perceptions and temporal experiences. (Arnould 2005) Through
servicescape management firms can try to affect and predispose how consumers
deploy their operant cultural resources (Arnould et al 2006).
86
Acta Wasaensia
4.2. Mass media intermediaries
The categorization of cultural resources by Arnould (2005) can also be
applied to mass media. Mass media provides economic resources for consumers’
life projects when providing the kind of product and lifestyle information that can
enact consumer’s preferred ways of allocating and spending money. Mass media
can act as a temporal resource when the media consumption facilitates and accompanies consumer’s preferred time styles across different daily activities. Ludic resources, such as entertainment and game programs, and magazines, facilitate the consumer’s pursuit of play. Utopian resources, for one, facilitate the use
of one’s imaginary and realization of possible and desired selves. Indeed, many
television programs and web pages provide these kinds of escape experiences.
All in all, media, brands and advertising provide consumers with rich
symbolic resources for the construction of identity (Elliott and Wattanasuwan,
1998; McCracken, 1990; Mick and Buhl, 1992; Kellner, 1995). For example
McCracken (1987, 122) has proposed that consumers look at advertising for
“symbolic resources, new ideas and better concrete versions of old ideas with
which to advance their projects.” Media provide resources for identity and new
models if identity which look, style, and image replaces such things as action and
commitment as constitutives of identity, of who one is (Kellner, 1995: 259). In
the same vein, Hirschman and Thompson (1997) see that “consumers use the images conveyed by the mass media as a visual department store of symbolic possibilities that can be tried on, adopted, altered, or discarded in keeping with their
desired self”. This, in other words, manifests consumer’s freedom to choose, invent and create their own identity ‘to become any of one’s possible selves’ (cf.
Markus and Nurius, 1987: 594; Saren, 2007: 344).
As exemplified above, mass media should not only be understood as a
communicative medium, but as a symbolic resource in itself. For instance, the
increasingly popular genre of lifestyle programs on TV and lifestyle-related magazines illustrate the fact that mass media vehicles strive to act as important resources for consumers’ life projects. Naturally, it should be noted that the contents of mass media are very rich and heterogeneous, and this, in turn, can make
the management of product-offerings embedded in mass media vehicles quite
complex.
Mass media can be seen as valuable resources for firms, when providing
ways to emphasize and intensify product or company-related messages and when
providing consumers with symbolic resources for life projects. For example, media can connect symbolic resources of brands and television-programs, as it is the
case in product placement. In addition to product placements and advertisements,
the cultural nature of media products makes them communicate meanings related
to different life projects and styles. Therefore mass media can make the products
even richer and more valuable than originally meant by a product manager.
Acta Wasaensia
87
Clearly, media is also a conveyer of firms’ product information as a channel of
communications, marketing and selling. For example the Web consists of locations, or sites, for customers and stakeholders to visit. Those are first created by
firms, and then experienced by users in various ways. In the same vein, the meaning of a particular advertisement is not given, but rather constructed within interpretations.
5. Discussion
In this paper, we have approached the concept of resources from a holistic,
interactive point of view. Our perspective combines the inter-organizational aspects of resource interaction contributed by business network research, with service-dominant logic and consumer culture theory, which focus on the interaction
between firm-provided and consumer resources for the realization of value-in-use.
Together these views constitute a more comprehensive understanding of value
creation. Figure 1 illustrates the embeddedness of the product in different contexts
on its way towards final use by the consumer.
Product management
Points of interaction
Figure 1. Intermediaries as providers of symbolic resources and co-creators of value.
The manufacturer immerses the product with meanings and develops a
value proposition, which is mediated towards to final user through intermediaries,
such as retailers and media. The role of the intermediaries is from a resource point
of view twofold. On one hand, the act as intermediate users of the product, i.e.
they can for instance draw image benefits from the visibility of a certain brand in
their environment. In this sense, the product can function as a strategic tool for
them. Secondly, intermediaries function as a transmitting channel for how the
product becomes ultimately presented to consumers. The characteristics and activities of the intermediary thus add symbolic meanings to the initial value proposition of the manufacturer. We suggest that, depending on the “fit” between the
product and the context, the intermediary can either convey the value proposition
in the same or similar way as intended by the manufacturer, or improve, change
or even negate its value proposition and ability to be perceived useful in the life
projects of the consumer.
88
Acta Wasaensia
This draws attention to the critical role of intermediaries in product management, in helping to connect, combine and enhance the different firm-provided
resources with those of the consumers, to ensure that the product does provide
value.
It is through the different points of interaction between the actors that the
product is connected to in various ways, that symbolic resources are co-created,
adapted and realized. It is therefore crucial to pay attention to how these interaction points, such as the relationships between manufacturer and intermediary, and
intermediary and consumer, are managed. Furthermore, it is important from a
managerial viewpoint to aim to understand the different contexts in which the
product is embedded, i.e. what kind of strategic objectives of the intermediaries or
life projects of consumers the product can relate to, in order for the product to be
able to function as a valuable resource and advance the projects of the different
actors, be they final or intermediate users.
References
Aitken, R., Gray, B. and Lawson, R. (2008), “Advertising effectiveness from a
consumer perspective”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp.
279-97.
Arnould, E. (2005), “Animating the Big Middle”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 81
No. 2, pp. 89-96.
Arnould, E. (2004), “Research Frontiers in Consumer Culture Theory”, Presented
at ACR Doctoral Consortium, Portland Oregon, 7 October, available at:
http://www.acrwebsite.org/presentations/Eric%20Arnould.pdf. [accessed 12th
Nov 2008]
Arnould, E.J., Price, L.L. and Malshe, A. (2006), “Toward a cultural resourcebased theory of the customer”, in Lusch, R. and Vargo, S. (Eds.), The Servicedominant logic of marketing: Dialog, debate, and directions, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, New York.
Arnould, E. and Price, L. L. (2000), Authenticating acts and authoritative performances: Questing for self and community. In S. Rathneshwar, David Glenn Mick
& Cynthia Huffman (Eds.) The Why of Consumption, Routledge, London, pp.
140-63.
Arnould, E. J. and Thompson, C.J. (2005), “Consumer Culture Theory (CCT):
Twenty years of research”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp.
868-83.
Acta Wasaensia
89
Baraldi, E. (2003), When Information Technology Faces Resource Interaction –
Using IT tools to handle products at IKEA and Edsbyn, Uppsala University, Department of Business Studies. doctoral dissertation No 105.
Belk, R. W. (1988), “Possessions and Extended Self,“ Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 15 No. 2 , pp. 139-168.
Baron, S. and Harris, K. (2008), “Consumers as resource integrators”, Journal of
Marketing Management, Vol. 24 No. 1-2, pp.113-30.
Buchanan, L.; Simmons, C.J. and Bickart, B.A. (1999), “Brand Equity Dilution:
Retailer Display and Context Brand Effects”, Journal of Marketing Research,
Vol. 36 No. 3, pp. 345-55.
Davies, B. & Ward P. (2005)” Exploring the Connections between Visual Merchandising and Retail Branding. An application of Facet Theory”. International
Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. Vol 33, No 7. pp. 505-513.
Elliott, R. (1997), “Existential consumption and irrational desire”, European
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 34 No. 4, pp. 285-96.
Elliott, R and Wattanasuwan, K. (1998), “Brands as symbolic resources for the
construction of identity”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp.
131-144.
Ford, David et al.(2002) The Business Marketing Course. Managing in Complex
Networks. John Wiley & Sons.
Ford, David; Gadde, Lars-Erik, Håkansson, Håkan & Snehota, Ivan (2003) Managing business relationships, 2nd ed. Wiley.
Dittmar, H. (1992), The Social Psychology of Material Possessions: To Have is to
Be, Hemel Hempstead, Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Dubois, A. and Torvatn, T. (2002), “Towards understanding interaction and resource development – the firm as a network buffer”, in proceedings of the 18th
IMP conference, Dijon, France, September 2002.
Forbord, M. (2003), New uses of an agricultural product – A case study of development in an industrial network, Department of industrial economics and technology management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway. Doctoral thesis
Ford, D., Gadde, L-E., Håkansson, H. and Snehota, I. (2003), Managing Business
Relationships, 2nd ed. Chichester, John Wiley & sons.
90
Acta Wasaensia
Grönroos, C. (2008), “Service logic revisited: who creates value? And who cocreates?” European Business Review, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 298-314.
Hirschman, E.C. and Thompson, C. (1997), “Why Media Matter -Toward a richer
understanding of consumers relationships with advertising and mass media”,
Journal of Advertising, Vol. 26 No.1, pp. 43-60.
Holt, D. B. (1997), “Poststructuralist Lifestyle Analysis: Conceptualizing the Social Patterning of Consumption in Postmodernity”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 23 No.3, pp. 326-50.
Huffman, C., Ratneshwar, S., and Mick, D.G. (2000), “Consumer goal structures
and goal determination processes”, in Ratneshwar, S., Mick, D.G. and Huffman,
C. (Eds.), The Why of Consumption, Routledge, London and New York, pp. 9-35.
Håkansson, H. (Ed.) (1987), Industrial Technological Development - a network
approach. Croom Helm, London.
Håkansson, H. and Snehota, I. (Eds.) (1995), Developing Relationships in Business Networks, Routledge, London.
Håkansson, H. and Waluszewski, A. (2002), Managing Technological Development, IKEA, the environment and technology, Routledge, London.
Jansson, A. (2002), “The Mediatization of Consumption. Towards an analytical
framework of image culture”, Journal of Consumer Culture, Vol. 2 No.1, pp. 531.
Kellner, D. (1995), Media Culture. Cultural studies, identity and politics between
the modern and the postmodern, Routledge, London/ New York.
Little, B. (1989), “Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, magnificent obsessions, and the search for coherence” in Buss, D. and Cantor, N. (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions, Springer, New York and
Berlin, pp. 15-31.
Lusch, R.F. (2007), “Marketing’s evolving identity: Defining our future”, Journal
of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 261-68.
Lusch, R.F., Vargo, S.L. and Wessels, G. (2008), “Toward a Conceptual Foundation for Service Science: Contributions from Service-Dominant Logic”, IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 47 No. 1, pp. 5-14.
Markus, H. and Nurius, P. (1987), Possible selves: the interface between motivation and the self-concept, in Yardley, K. and Honess, T. (Eds.), Self and identity:
Psychosocial perspectives. John Viley & Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 157-72.
Acta Wasaensia
91
McCracken, G. (1990), Culture and consumption. New approaches to the symbolic character of consumer goods and activities, Indiana university press, Bloomington and Indianapolis.
McCracken, G. (1987), “Advertising: Meaning or Information?”, in Wallendorf,
M. and Anderson, P. (Eds.) Advances in consumer research, Vol. XIV, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, pp. 121-24.
Mick, D.G. and Buhl, C. (1992), A meaning-based model of advertising experiences, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 19 No.3, pp. 317-38.
Newman, A.J. and Patel, D. (2004) “The marketing directions of two fashion retailers”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol 38, Iss 7, pp. 770-789.
Parker, B.J. (1998), “Exploring life themes and myths in alcohol advertisements
through a meaning-based model of advertising experiences”. Journal of Advertising, Vol. 27 No.1, pp. 97-112.
Penrose, E. (1959), The Theory of the Growth of the Firm, Basil Blackwell &
Mott Ltd, Oxford.
Pettijohn, L.S., Mellot, D.W. and Pettijohn C.E. (1992), “The Relationship
between Retailer Image and Brand Image”, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 9 No.
4, pp. 311-28.
Porter, Stephen S.& Claycomb Cindy. (1997) “The Influence of Brand
Recognition on Retail Store Image”. The Journal of Product and Brand
Management. Vol 6, iss.6, pg. 373.
Saren, M. (2007), “To have is to be? A critique of self-creation through consumption”, The Marketing Review, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 343-54.
Theingi, Phungpol, Y. and Purchase, S. (2005), “Resource Use and Contribution
in Thai Business Networks”, in Batt, P.J. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2nd IMP Asia
conference, Phuket, Thailand, December 2005.
Thompson, J. (1995), The media and modernity. A social theory of the media,
Polity Press, Cambridge.
Turley, L.W and Chebat, J-C. (2002), “Linking Retail Strategy, Atmospheric Design and Shopping Behaviour”, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 18, No.
1, pp. 125-44.
Vargo, S.L. and Lusch, R.F. (2006), “Service-Dominant Logic: What It Is, What
It Is Not, What It Might Be”, in Lusch, R.F. and Vargo, S.L. (Eds.), The Servicedominant logic of marketing: Dialog, debate, and directions, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, New York.
92
Acta Wasaensia
44
Int. J. Entrepreneurial Venturing, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2011
Inertia in business relationships: the case of a
designer furniture manufacturer
Anu Norrgrann* and
Karita Luokkanen-Rabetino
Department of Marketing,
University of Vaasa,
P.O. Box 700, 65101 Vaasa, Finland
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
*Corresponding author
Abstract: This article discusses how inertia manifests itself in business
relationships. It examines how path dependencies shape the development of a
firm’s resources and accumulate inertia within them, which can affect how the
firm relates to other actors in its network. The article draws on different
theoretical perspectives that have dealt with the notion of inertia and provides a
holistic understanding of this concept, its antecedents and forms of expression.
The study uses a longitudinal single-case study of a company where a dominant
business relationship has accumulated inertia and affected the firm’s
engagement in other relationships and development efforts as an empirical
illustration. The analysis examines how change forces challenge the existing
paths and reveal both positive and negative inertia effects. The article provides
a discussion of the different types of inertia and its expressions on different
levels and functions.
Keywords: inertia; path dependence; business relationships; longitudinal case
study.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Norrgrann, A. and
Luokkanen-Rabetino, K. (2011) ‘Inertia in business relationships: the case of a
designer furniture manufacturer’, Int. J. Entrepreneurial Venturing, Vol. 3,
No. 1, pp.44–62.
Biographical notes: Anu Norrgrann is a PhD candidate and an Assistant
Professor at the University of Vaasa (Finland). Her areas of expertise in
research and teaching are business relationships and networks, and marketing
communication. Her current research focuses on product embeddedness, and
the ability of products to function as symbolic resources, and her work has been
published in journals, such as, Romanian Journal of Marketing and Nordiske
Organisasjonsstudier. She has an MSc degree in Economic Geography from
Åbo Akademi University (Finland) and has previously worked as Project
Manager in research and development projects at the University of Helsinki’s
Centre for Rural Research and Training.
Karita Luokkanen-Rabetino works as a Business Consultant in the Research
and Innovation Department at Atos Origin (Spain). She is the Exploitation
Leader of the BEinGRID project (EU research project), and participates in the
exploitation activities in other EU projects. She has expertise in the analysis of
enterprise competitive behaviour, strategic changes, and market dynamics. She
has an MSc in Marketing from the University of Vaasa (Finland), and has
Copyright © 2011 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
45
participated in the European Doctoral Programme in Entrepreneurship and
Small Business Management at Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona (Spain)
and University of Växjö (Sweden). Her prior working experiences are as
Researcher and Assistant at the University of Vaasa.
1
Introduction
Business relationships develop in dynamic environments marked by adaptive processes,
ranging from small and incremental changes to more radical ones. The processes of
change related to the establishment or adjustment of relationships, however, rarely go
smoothly. The decisions and investments firms made in earlier relationships will affect
the resource structure of the firm, and so set limitations on what the firm can do and with
whom.
A concept that describes the constraints and difficulties related to such changes is
inertia. This concept has been addressed in business network studies, and other
theoretical schools of thought. The different perspectives provide a broad and general
picture of the concept, and an opportunity to use the term in different ways in different
contexts.
The fragmented academic use of this concept also raises some issues and makes for
gaps in the literature. Firstly, the concept is often used on a fairly abstract level, on
multiple levels of analysis, and without analysing and exploring the specific effects of
inertia on change and adaptation. This results in the composition of the concept being
inconsistent within different studies and makes its treatment difficult to compare.
Additionally, inertia has been operationalised quite subjectively and abstractly (Miller
and Chen, 1994; Fear, 2001).
A second issue of concern is that an explicit and detailed discussion of the
antecedents of inertia is not commonly included in previous studies. Neither are the
effects of inertia often tested or analysed. “At the present theories have not specified
which factors have the greatest effect on constraining change, or whether there are
significant effects arising from the interaction of two or more factors” (Gresov et al.,
1993).
Thirdly, it is often generally stated that ‘history matters’, not least in relationship and
resource development. But what the role of history actually is, and whether history is
seen as a strength or as a constraint on change and future development, often remains
unanswered. The role of history in the discussion of inertia originates mainly from the
concept of path dependency, which can be seen as positive or negative, depending on the
theoretical approach [Fear, (2001), p.163]. However, the relationship between the
concepts of path dependence and inertia is not always clear in literature. It seems that
they are sometimes used almost as synonyms in describing the difficulties of change and
adaptation, while sometimes they are ascribed differing meanings, due to the differences
in the theoretical foundations of the two concepts.
Earlier research within different disciplines has thus dealt with the concept of inertia
in various ways, but this paper tries to address the need for conceptual clarification and a
more holistic treatment of the antecedents and forms of expression of this concept.
93
94
Acta Wasaensia
46
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
This article discusses inertia in the context of business relationships. It examines how
relationships create inertia in the structures and processes of a firm, and how that inertia
affects other business relationships. The article illustrates this empirically with a
longitudinal single case, in which a dominant business relationship has created path
dependencies and inertia in the set of resources, which affects the way the firm engages
in relationships and activities.
2
Conceptual framework
2.1 Path dependence as an antecedent of inertia
As mentioned above, the concepts of path dependence and inertia are often interlinked. In
this section, we discuss the notion of path dependence and its role in the accumulation of
inertia.
According to David (1985), a path-dependent sequence of economic changes is one in
which important influences upon an eventual outcome can be exerted by temporally
remote events. This can take the form of technological ‘lock in’ as a result of:
a
technical interrelatedness or a need for compatibility
b
economies of scale
c
quasi-irreversibility of investments.
Araujo and Harrison (2002) define path dependence as “a characteristic of sequences of
events, in which a particular economic process is unable to shake free from the influence
of its past states or motions”.
The decisions and actions that a firm has taken in the context of previous
relationships, thus open up or restrict future choices regarding products, markets and
technologies. By making specific investment decisions or by developing specific product
or market knowledge, or by establishing a repertoire of specific routines, organisations
limit and structure their options for the future (Teece et al., 1997, quoted in Booth, 2003).
When companies interact, they bear the burden of earlier interactions, creating
‘heaviness’ in both physical and immaterial resources, which affects how they can be
combined, utilised and economised on (Håkansson and Waluszewski, 2002b).
Path dependence stories have been criticised for attributing inefficiencies in
development processes mainly to historical accidents and thus minimising the role of firm
agency. More recently though, scholars have begun to focus on lock-in not only as a
random event or historical accident, but by examining the environment in which the
lock-in has occurred.
Araujo and Harrison (2002) stress that the view of events being dependent on history,
does not imply that events should then necessarily be predetermined or inevitable.
Instead, a more open-ended view of path dependence incorporates both contingency and
agency. While path dependence may limit the options to some extent, strategically
reflexive actors can make sense of their positions, interests and identities and change the
direction of their paths or even create new ones.
Araujo and Harrison (2002) divide path dependence into two types: self-reinforcing
and reactive sequences. The former refers to structural mechanisms that reproduce and
amplify the impact of earlier events, thus keeping development moving along a specific
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
47
path. Economists refer to such effects as increasing returns and positive feedback
mechanisms, which can originate from large set up or fixed costs, learning effects,
co-ordination effects or adaptive expectations.
Reactive sequences are again path-shaping actions, where disturbances do not
reinforce the existing path through positive feedback, but trigger responses that change
the direction of the path (Araujo and Harrison, 2002). Path creation studies, in contrast to
path dependency, focus on the active role of entrepreneurs and firms in helping shape the
evolution of markets and the rules by which they operate (Stack and Gartland, 2003).
However, actors may in fact not only alter paths, but also reinforce them. Barnes et al.
(2004) use the term behavioural lock-in to describe path dependencies arising from
situations where actors are stuck in a pattern of inefficiencies resulting from habits,
learning or culture. Behavioural lock-in can concern different types of actors; producers,
professional groups or consumers. Once a particular behaviour is embedded in an
organisation, strong status quo inertia may discourage other behaviour. Inefficient
processes can thus be locked in on the producer side, while on the consumer side,
inefficiencies can prevail in the form of consumer tastes and attachments locking in (or
locking out) certain products (Barnes et al., 2004).
Strategically, path dependence can give rise to competency traps where successful
organisations are less likely to seek change. If core capabilities are too finely tuned they
may ossify over time and become liabilities rather than sources of competitive success.
(Booth, 2003) In a relationship context, a reliance (and dependence) on a good and
profitable relationship, and the related path, constitutes a similar competency trap. This is
particularly the case in asymmetrical business relationships, where smaller suppliers need
to react to the demands of more powerful buyers and dedicate their resources to few
customers (Johnsen and Machat, 2006). The smaller firm thus becomes more specialised,
which can be a problem when new relationships and activities are required, for example
if a key relationship ends.
Crises, for instance periods of low profitability, can however stimulate actors to
challenge their competency traps and begin looking for new ways of doing things and to
seize upon new ideas more actively. Heffernan (2003) refers to this as entrepreneurial
alertness.
Håkansson and Waluszewski (2002a) discuss path dependencies on a network level,
emphasising that paths do not exist in a vacuum, but that different paths may intersect
and form crossroads. At such crossings, different actors, their resources and activities,
habits and routines meet. While these meetings may be confrontational, revealing
negative lock-in and clashes between the paths, they can also potentially lead to positive
outcomes, even technological innovation, as their empirical case study of the
development of a new type of catalogue paper for IKEA shows.
In summary, path dependencies can be characterised in both negative and positive
terms. They can create lock-in of inefficiencies or market imperfections as well as
technical, behavioural and cognitive constraints. Simultaneously, they can provide
opportunities to make use of established competencies and routines, as well as facilitating
development when new intersections between paths are exploited.
2.2 The concept of inertia
At the same time as paths are created and reinforced by firms’ activities and interactions,
inertia accumulates. Cumulative inertia often takes latent and implicit forms, until it
95
96
Acta Wasaensia
48
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
becomes explicit when external or internal forces challenge the former ways of acting, as
when there is a crossing in the established path as for instance in the case of establishing
a new business relationship.
The concept of inertia has been applied within theories of organisational ecology,
organisational evolution and metamorphosis, and adaptation (Gresov et al., 1993; Miller
and Chen, 1994). As a rough categorisation, the use of inertia started to develop in two
areas of academic inquiry. Studies on organisational adaptation and strategy saw inertia
as a negative issue, as inadequate adaptation to a changing environment, or as a resistance
to fundamental reorientations in policy. On the other hand, in the fields of evolutionary
economics and population ecology, inertia was related more to company development,
and its positive effects as a provider of reliability, development, continuity, and stability
were emphasised (Miller and Chen, 1994). In inter-organisational studies, inertia has
been discussed by Ford et al. (2003) in terms of a bias towards existing long-term
customer or supplier relationships, and by Håkansson and Waluszewski (2002a) related
to the notion of interacting resources of different firms in the network.
In organisational studies, inertia is commonly understood as structural inertia (see
Hannan and Freeman, 1977) within the context of population ecology. This theory asserts
that “existing organisations frequently have difficulty changing strategy and structure
quickly enough to keep pace with the demands of uncertain changing environments… it
depicts organisations as relatively inert entities for which adaptive response is not only
difficult and infrequent, but hazardous as well” [Baum, (1996), pp.77–78, 99 quoted in
Jaffee, 2001]. Hannan and Freeman (1984) define inertia related to environmental change
as: “Structures of organisations have high inertia when the speed of reorganisation [core
feature change] is much lower than the rate at which environmental conditions change”
(1984, p.151).
In the context of strategic change, Huff et al. (1992, p.55) describe inertia as an
“overarching concept that encompasses personal commitments, financial investments and
institutional mechanisms supporting the current ways of doing things… Absent other
forces, inertia describes the tendency to remain with the status quo and the resistance to
strategic renewal outside the frame of current strategy”. This definition leads us to regard
inertia as a phenomenon operating on a mental level, as mental inertia, which originates
in cognitive and learning approaches, thus linking the firm’s difficulties with change to
cognitive structures, perception and interpretation. For example, Dickson (1992)
illustrates mental inertia by citing Luchins and Luchins (1970) as follows: “one of the
most powerful psychological effects that can be observed in human behaviour is the
inability of the actor to shift mentally from a successful, but inefficient, habitual
production rule or activity sequence and ‘see’ a more efficient way of solving a problem
of achieving a goal”.
Gresov et al. (1993) define inertia as “a tendency not to move or act”, or as a concept,
which denotes the property of a system “by which it remains at rest or continues to move
in a straight line, unless acted upon by some external force”. According to Gresov et al.
(1993), the latter definition is more common in inertia studies, and it reflects inertia not
only in relation to external forces, but also against a firm’s own development. In this
sense, a firm can be bound by inertia even when it is making changes, if the changes are
following historical lines (Kelly and Amburgey, 1991).
Miller and Chen (1994) attempt to move the concept of inertia onto a more practical
level describing competitive inertia, which they define as “the level of activity that a firm
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
49
exhibits when altering its competitive stance in areas such as pricing, advertising, new
product introductions and market scope”. Competitive inertia reflects the number of
market-oriented changes a company makes in trying to attract customers and
outmanoeuvre competitors (Miller and Chen, 1994).
The definitions above each focus on inertia as a phenomenon affecting a single firm.
Inertia has also been discussed by researchers within the business network tradition
seeking to understand how it is linked to relationships. Ford et al. (2003, pp.51–52) refer
briefly to the notion of inertia in a firm’s reluctance or difficulty to change key suppliers
or customers. Inertia in that case can be found on both the customer and supplier side. For
example, a business buyer may not have the resources to evaluate each purchase or may
want to avoid the unknown problems or costs related to using a new supplier. Similarly
on the supplier side, sales staff may prefer to approach existing customers, who they have
already developed a bond with, rather than attempt to acquire new clients. These are
behaviours related to the avoidance of uncertainty and risks of new relationships.
Furthermore, the product modifications required by new customers can also have
considerable cost implications, making the firm reluctant to change.
In other words, existing relationships, and the dependencies caused by investing in
them, can limit both the ability (structural inertia) and the willingness (mental inertia) of
firms to develop new relationships and the paths that they would necessitate.
The concept of resources is a useful aid to understanding the link between the
different (old and new) relationships a firm has and its level of inertia. Business
relationships and the interactions within them shape the resources of a firm. Drawing on
the notion of resource heterogeneity, resources acquire their qualities and value through
being combined – through the interaction with other resources. Hence, the value of a
resource is not a given, but dependent on which other resources it interacts with
(Håkansson and Snehota, 1995; Håkansson and Waluszewski, 2002a; Baraldi, 2003;
Gressetvold, 2004). The resources of a single firm thus carry traces of its relationships
and previous interactions, and create a need for the firm to seek stability and economise
on investments made previously (Håkansson and Waluszewski, 2002b), this indicates that
there is inertia encapsulated in the resource. Håkansson and Waluszewski (2002b)
simultaneously point out that there are also reasons to try to develop the resource, but that
must at least partly use existing resources. An inert resource could in this sense also be
seen as not only causing stagnation, but as a starting point for change.
Håkansson and Waluszewski (2002a) propose a model for understanding resource
interaction and embeddedness. The framework was subsequently (c.f. Baraldi, 2003;
Gressetvold, 2004) christened the four resource (4R) entities model. It distinguishes
between four types of interacting resources:
1
products, referring to the artefacts exchanged between firms
2
facilities, the artefacts related to transformation, production and use of products or
information
3
business units, the immaterial resources within companies such as image, personnel,
competence
4
business relationships, the result of interaction between business units, which can
thus be seen as a resource in its own right.
97
98
Acta Wasaensia
50
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
Inertia can cement itself in these resource entities as a result of interaction, and when the
firm attempts to break away from existing path dependencies and combine resources in
new ways, the latent inertia becomes exposed.
2.3 The sources of inertia
The definitions presented in the section above reveal several sources of inertia.
According to Gresov et al. (1993), resistance to change is inherent in organisational
design, where existing organisational arrangements create and maintain stability, and
control or inhibit change. Conversely, forces that promote change are considered
primarily external (Gresov et al., 1993; Huff and Huff, 2000). According Hannan and
Freeman (1977), internal inertia arises from an organisation’s investments, the constraints
on the information received by the organisational decision makers, internal political
constraints, and constraints generated by their own history. Inertia increases through
established routines, institutionalisation, and increasing commitment to current ways of
doing things [Huff et al., (1992), p.57]. This perspective could also be extended from the
single firm to the relationship level. Routinisation and commitment are characteristic of
business relationships (Håkansson and Snehota, 1995; Ford et al., 2003), and so inertia
could accumulate in the interactions between firms too, not only within individual
organisations.
In addition, organisations are assumed to become more inert as they grow and age,
and as their complexity increases [Huff et al., (1992) p.57]. As duration and complexity
also affect business relationships (Håkansson and Snehota, 1995; Ford et al., 2003) it
could be that relationships create inertia in a similar manner.
From a cognitive or mental point of view, Huff and Huff (2000) argue that resistance
to change at the level of individual cognitive processes is the primary source of inertia in
organisations, and further that inertia “results not from any external force but rather from
properties inherent to the use of knowledge structures. The very properties that make
schema useful sense making structures (i.e., efficiency, expectancy) also stand in the way
of change” [Huff and Huff, (2000), p.46]. Within the business networks approach, the
notion of framing has been used (e.g., by Torvatn, 2004), to describe how actors view
resources and how their perceptions of them affect the extent to which they (are able to)
make use of them in combination with resources from other actors.
Mental models, historical experience and organisational capabilities are all related to
internal sources of inertia (Wong-MingJi and Millette, 2002; Senge, 1994) According to
Miller and Chen (1994) actors’ incentives to act and their awareness of alternatives are
sources of competitive inertia. Incentives to act are related to previous performance,
where past success is in general linked to resistance to change and reinforcement of
former ways of acting, whereas failure is more commonly seen as a trigger of change
(Miller and Chen, 1994). In this sense, a successful past can cause a competence trap and
an illusion of continuous success.
The actors’ awareness of alternatives is also partly dependent on the previous and
current ways of acting. Organisations competing with many different rivals or for a wide
variety of customers can learn much about the demands and opportunities of their
environments and are thus more aware of new opportunities. Organisations that compete
in a narrow market against similar competitors, or that have only one type of customer,
face a more sterile and homogeneous environment, one that may foster inertia (Miller and
Chen, 1994). Similarly, Håkansson et al. (1999) have also shown that the more the actors
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
51
in a network are connected, the more learning takes place, which would imply that actors
with fewer relationships would be in a less favourable position regarding e.g.,
identification of new opportunities. Managers’ past experience in taking action also
determines their managerial knowledge base, thereby influencing how they perceive their
environments (Miller and Chen, 1994).
2.4 Positive and negative aspects of inertia
Earlier research has dealt with both positive and negative effects of inertia. Especially in
the strategic field, inertia is often seen in a negative light because it makes firms
unadaptive, and in this sense it may impair performance or even survival. Additionally,
the structural inertia model assumes that the past is inert until exogenous forces impel
change, overcoming a sluggish past. In this sense, the past is seen as a constraint that
organisations need to overcome [Fear, (2001), p.163].
However, inertia and path dependency are not just restrictive characteristics of a firm;
they can also be the stock of accumulated knowledge and resources [Fear, (2001), p.163].
They may give managers time to think about their actions and to choose them more
judiciously, or stabilise product offerings so that customers will not be alienated by
unpleasant surprises. Moreover, parsimony in the number of competitive actions allows
organisations to learn efficiently to concentrate on and exploit what they do best. It also
reduces the chances of error that come with making changes, especially major ones
(Wong-MingJi and Millette, 2002; Huff et al., 1992; Miller and Chen, 1994).
Even if the resource structure of the firm is inert as a result of relation-specific
investments, this need not only be a restriction. The resources and competencies
developed in one relationship can also be useful when combined in a new way, as the
resource interaction model by Håkansson and Waluszewski (2002a) suggests.
2.5 Manifestation of inertia
Previous studies have tried to recognise the inertial factors in organisations. Structural
inertia is discussed on two organisational levels, core and peripheral, and they are
classified according to their bearing on resource mobilisation (Hannan and Freeman,
1984). The core structure includes stated goals, forms of authority, core technology, and
marketing strategy. Peripheral structures include horizontal and market-extension
mergers, joint ventures, and interlocking directorates, and they protect an organisation’s
core from uncertainty by buffering it and by broadening the organisation’s connections to
its environment. The changes are assumed to be easier to manage in peripheral features,
thus the inertia in core features is supposed to be stronger than in the peripheral features
(Kelly and Amburghey, 1991; Hannan and Freeman, 1984).
Also strategy and adaptation studies often analyse adaptation and inertia in a
hierarchical way (i.e., core features, strategic, competitive, and operative levels), where
the core features are seen as more prone to inertia, and changes are more common at the
operative or competitive levels and in actions (Vesalainen, 1995). Miles and Snow
(1978), in turn, see adaptation taking place in a firm’s administrative, technological and
product-market areas, which view includes, to some extent, the same elements as the
categorisation by Hannan and Freeman. In the cognitive field, it has been concluded that
changes in a firm’s identity, mental models and belief systems are not common, and
inertia is relatively high.
99
100
Acta Wasaensia
52
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
In its empirical section below, the study combines the insights from the different
perspectives outlined above to gain a broader and more detailed picture of the concept of
inertia in the context of a business relationship. Our discussion will focus on the
following aspects:
1
Cumulative inertia – embeddedness and path dependence. It is often argued that
history has a strong effect on firms’ actions, and at the same time inertia accumulates
in different structures of organisations. The first empirical phase concerns path
dependence as an antecedent of inertia. This is in the IMP perspective related to the
notions of embeddedness, adaptation and mutual orientation.
2
Perception. Furthermore, we want to address the importance of perception when
evaluating inertia – do the actors perceive resources as something inert or as a source
of innovation? – and how the actors recognise and utilise the crossings in pathdependent structures and the opportunities presented by new resource combinations.
We also address the issue of time in assessing inertia; how a structure or resource
may seem bound by inertia and cemented at one point, but when exposed to new
forces or interfaces, becomes easier to change.
3
The nature of inertia. As stated earlier, inertia is a broad concept, and it manifests
itself at different levels, and in different structures and functions. It also seems to
have both positive and negative consequences for a firm’s later actions. Empirically,
this study particularly examines the mental and structural aspects of inertia, the ways
in which inertia manifests itself, and its positive and negative aspects.
For the purposes of this study, path dependence can be described as a firm’s historical
development, (including both past-reinforcing and past-breaking paths) that provides a
basis for inertia to accumulate. Inertia, in turn, can be described as a multidimensional
and latent phenomenon, which develops and accumulates in the different functions and
structures of a firm, as a result of the interaction in its relationships. Inertia becomes
explicit when internal and external forces challenge the status quo, and in the crossings
where actors are confronted with new challenges and opportunities, relationships and
ways of utilising existing resources in combination with new ones.
In the case description below, the concept of inertia is reflected against and analysed
with reference to the firm’s ‘core path’, which results from its historical development.
Our aim is thus not to establish whether the firm is stifled by inertia, but to discuss in
which sense and where inertia exists, and which positive and negative forms of
expression it takes.
3
Methodology
Our empirical analysis is based on a case study of a furniture producer. The case study
method was chosen in order to gain an understanding of the studied phenomenon in
relation to its context (Yin, 1994) as we are interested in the degree of inertia observable
in the firm in relation to its business relationships.
The case was selected from a pre-existing database of structured telephone interviews
of 60 companies, gathered longitudinally from 1986 to 2000. The case firm was selected
for two reasons. Firstly, it exhibits a strong dependence on a single business relationship,
which has significantly affected its history, so a clear development path was identifiable.
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
53
Secondly, the firm has at various points in the past attempted to simultaneously pursue
other complementary business activities. It is hoped that this case will illuminate how a
dominant relationship could cause inertia that could hinder or facilitate engagements in
other relationships and business activities.
The aforementioned longitudinal data provided a background and a starting point for
understanding the firm’s development over time in terms of size, investments, products
and relationships. Additionally, a semi-structured personal interview with the managing
director of the company (the same informant as in the earlier interviews) was carried out
in May 2005. This interview stage gave an update of the firm’s more recent activities, but
also helped explore the focal issue of inertia in more depth. Both authors of the article
were present during the interview, which later facilitated the discussion and analysis of
the data. The same researchers also visited the production facilities and observed the
production processes, which further helped enhance understanding of the firm and its
resources. Furthermore, secondary data such as product brochures, company web pages
and annual reports were also used as sources of evidence to triangulate the findings.
The case report was based on the more structured, longitudinal data, fully transcribed
personal interview data and field notes and discussions between the two researchers. A
timeline, depicting when the development of the dominant, path-dependent business
relationship was challenged by other strategic endeavours and relationships and related
resources was drawn (see Figure 1); the timeline assists in the identification and analysis
of the facets of the concept of inertia in the case.
4
Case: HKT Korhonen
This section presents a case study as an illustration of where and how inertia can occur,
and the positive and negative implications it can have.
We begin by providing a general description of the case company and then examine
its core path, which is largely defined by the firm’s most significant customer
relationship. Finally, we explore certain crossings (c.f. Håkansson and Waluszewski,
2002a, 2002b) or change points, where the core path is challenged as it intersects with
other paths and reveals latent inertia.
4.1 Background
The focal firm, HKT Korhonen Oy, is a Finnish furniture manufacturer. It could be
classified as a medium-sized firm, with 75 employees and a 4.4 million euro turnover.
According to the company history (available on http://www.hkt-korhonen.fi) the
entrepreneur/carpenter Otto Korhonen began in the late 1920s to collaborate with the
internationally renowned Finnish architect Alvar Aalto in developing the production
techniques for Aalto’s innovative, functionalistic furniture designs. Ever since, the
manufacture of Aalto furniture has been the backbone of Korhonen’s business. During
the last decade, the share of the Aalto collection of the firm’s turnover has ranged
between 75 and 95%, indicating a very high dependence.
Korhonen’s role in the supply network of Aalto products has been, and still is, to be
nothing but a producer. The marketing of the products has been the responsibility of a
firm called Artek Oy, which was set up in the 1930s (by among others Alvar Aalto
himself) to market Aalto’s furniture, lamps and textiles, particularly internationally.
101
102
Acta Wasaensia
54
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
Artek has showrooms in the biggest cities in Finland, as well as a national and
international network of distributors (http://www.artek.fi).
Alongside the production of Aalto furniture, sold through Artek, Korhonen has
periodically engaged in supplementary business activities. These activities have ranged
from subcontract manufacturing for office furniture producers and caravan manufacturers
to more recent investments in its own new product development ventures. At the time of
data collection, Korhonen’s own products accounted for about 10% of turnover, while
subcontracting and projects accounted for around 5%.
4.2 Path dependencies from the Artek relationship
The history and development of Korhonen has been closely intertwined with that of its
main customer, Artek, and it is clear that 70 years of cooperation between these
businesses has left its mark on the parties, and created paths which can be difficult to
diverge from. This study identifies how the relationship with Artek has affected
Korhonen and how the path dependencies of the relationship affect the firm’s ability to
engage in business activities other than those directly resulting from the Artek
relationship. We have chosen to call the Artek-related path dependencies the company’s
core path.
Drawing on Håkansson and Waluszewski (2002a) this study distinguishes four ways
that history can affect a company’s resources (in terms of either hindering or facilitating
them). That is, it highlights effects on facilities, products, business relationships and on
the business unit itself. In line with our earlier discussion on the two sides of inertia –
structural and mental – we also stress that history leaves its mark on a company’s
resources not only in a physical sense, but also mentally in the actor’s perceptions of
those physical or social resources.
The fact that the focal firm has been the manufacturer of Alvar Aalto’s designs since
its inception and that this production has persistently dominated the activities of the firm,
implies that the facilities have developed concurrently with developments within Artek.
Artek’s products have defined what kinds of production facilities are needed and
production has been organised with those products in mind.
Also developments related to the amount of facilities are linked to the Artek
relationship. Investments in machines and premises have followed Artek’s expansion in
sales and the number of products offered, as the collection has been extended by
renewing and re-issuing original Aalto designs. Correspondingly, Artek’s expansion can
also be seen as dependent on Korhonen’s production capacity.
The Artek relationship has also created a certain inheritance related to products. The
Aalto collection’s products are primarily made of massive birch, birch veneer and
plywood, resulting in the accumulation of material-specific competence. Also the firm’s
orientation towards high-quality and durable products stems from experience with the
classic Aalto/Artek products. Nevertheless, when they were introduced Aalto products
were considered quite radical and the managing director was keen to stress that Korhonen
remains open to producing innovative and radical designs: “we attempt to make products
in the spirit of Aalto…That is what is most characteristic of us”.
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
55
4.2.1 Business unit/strategic level
As stated above, the manufacturing of Aalto furniture has provided the firm with a
specific set of production facilities suited to manufacturing Aalto furniture. On the
business unit level, this has also been coupled with the development of certain skills and
competencies, related for instance to specific technical manufacturing solutions, which
distinguish the products from their imitators. Korhonen’s strategy is to produce products
‘in a proper way’ as the informant put it. This also defines the business that the firm is in,
and how it positions itself; namely as a custom producer – focusing on superior
competence in the production of timeless, design-intensive, quality furniture – rather than
a mass producer.
The Aalto/Artek relationship has had a significant effect on Korhonen’s
organisational structure. Due to the connection with Aalto, the designer, and Artek, the
product marketer, Korhonen has clearly remained a production-oriented firm with limited
in-house resources for marketing, product development or design.
However, being used to accessing such resources externally, may have contributed to
a general preparedness to deal with external actors, and also provided the experience
necessary to do so. It could be argued that Korhonen might thereby be better equipped
than many other firms to for instance ‘speak the same language as a designer’, something
which is often considered a challenge to cross-functional interaction.
On the business relationship level, the Artek relationship has created a strong mutual
dependence between the two firms. As the managing director stated, they ‘operate hand
in hand’, much like the production and marketing departments of a single firm.
When the time came to explore activities beyond those related to the Aalto collection,
Korhonen was able to utilise its relationship with Artek to source domestic and
international distributor contacts, and so the relationship provided a commercial reference
to help establish new business relationships.
4.3 Examples of the manifestations of inertia
It appears the relationship with Artek and its structural and mental impact has defined a
certain path forming the core of Korhonen’s business activities. This path has been
gradually reinforced by the status quo or small, incremental changes, accumulating latent
inertia.
This inertia is activated and exposed at crossings between different paths and when
internal or external change challenges the core path. Next, we shall examine some
selected intersection points, revealing either negative or positive inertia effects. The
different crossings/changes are summarised in Figure 1, and described chronologically
below.
The external change force underlying both the first and the second crossing is the
economic recession of the early 1990s that caused sales of Artek-furniture to plummet, in
stark contrast to the previous decades of stable demand. The economic situation forced
Korhonen to actively consider other business opportunities alongside the sales to Artek,
i.e., it prompted entrepreneurial alertness and made the firm challenge the inertia brought
about by the competency trap (c.f. Heffernan, 2003; Booth, 2003).
103
104
Acta Wasaensia
56
Figure 1
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
Korhonen‘s core path and its crossings (see online version for colours)
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
57
Crossing 1 Subcontracting
The first crossing identified is between the Artek-related core path and Korhonen’s
decision to start subcontracting for other manufacturers.
In our interpretation, the economic crisis referred to above contributed to, if not
impelled, the initiative to establish a relationship with office furniture manufacturer
Martela, for whom Korhonen started supplying certain product components like
tabletops. In addition to Martela, Korhonen had also been involved in a similar
subcontracting relationship with the caravan manufacturer Lohja/Solifer, but in that case
the relationship predated the recession.
The decision to produce as subcontractors, instead of manufacturing complete,
designer brand products, is an illustration of how a firm can challenge mental inertia, by
repositioning the company in relation to new actors in the network. It also illustrates a
crossing of paths, the Artek-related core path and the subcontracting path. At this
intersection, Korhonen made use of excess production capacity in a situation when the
revenues generated by the core path decreased. Korhonen thus appears to have been able
to utilise the existing (Artek-related) facility structure for new purposes. Also the fact that
the other customers were business market actors bears a resemblance to the existing path,
that is, the new activities did not require investments in developing competence to market
the products to consumers, as this was (as in the Artek relationship) the customer’s task.
This crossing implied a new path in terms of new products and a new customer, but
still also reinforced the core path by relying on similarities in the activity structure. It also
utilised the core path’s free capacity, thus not leading to development of different
resources within the firm, but only combining existing facilities with new products and
customers.
Crossing 2 Own-product development
In addition to the subcontracting path depicted above, the recession and the decreased
demand for Artek furniture also triggered Korhonen to begin to develop its own products.
This is referred to here as the own-product development path.
According to the informant, Korhonen’s first own-product development effort was
the result of coincidence. Firstly, Korhonen and Artek had discussed that the Aalto
collection lacked a shelf system. Secondly, a suitable designer was also seeking work and
available for this project. The recession thus pushed Korhonen to seize upon this
opportunity, and the combination of these factors eventually resulted in the development
of Korhonen’s first own product, a shelf and cabinet system. This product was sold both
via Artek and other furniture retailers, and complemented the Aalto collection, both in
terms of raw material (massive birch) and in its aesthetics and quality.
We argue that this product is an illustration of positive inertia, where strengths in the
core path are utilised in the development of something new. The new own-products path
required combining existing resources with new ones, both externally e.g., (designers,
customers, marketing actors) as well as internally (product development and marketing
competence development within the business unit) As Korhonen also used Artek in the
distribution of their new product, this crossing can also be seen as a reinforcement of the
Korhonen-Artek relationship and strengthening the core path, even as a new one was
developing.
105
106
Acta Wasaensia
58
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
When the recession had passed in the mid-1990s, it was noticeable that the two new
paths, the subcontracting and the own-product development activities, were strengthened.
This reflects the firm’s willingness to increase the relative importance of these activities
for the firm and in a sense also reduce its dependence and sensitivity to fluctuations in the
Artek relationship. It can in other words, be seen as a mental change which reinforced the
developments in the two earlier crossings.
At this point cooperation with new designers as well as other furniture manufacturers
increased, but new products were also developed for Artek. 1998 brought the one
hundredth anniversary of Alvar Aalto’s birth, and a surge in sales of Aalto
furniture – reinforcing the core path again.
Crossing 3 Design-intensive subcontracting
Early in 2000, Korhonen again sought opportunities to supplement its existing paths, and
chose to explore what is here called a design-intensive subcontracting path. That involves
adopting a component supplier position in a network related to other designer furniture
brands, particularly for public spaces. An underlying factor behind the establishment of
these new relationships, involving yet more new products, was the personal relationships
between the actors involved (referred to as ‘a design family’ by the informant), which
facilitated the process.
The engagement in this activity illustrates positive inertia and the utilisation of path
crossings. The facility and competence resources of the Artek-based path could be further
utilised, likewise the bonds between its actors that had not previously been directly
related to exchange relationships. The new customers were similar to Artek in the sense
that the customer’s customers were more often business than domestic buyers, and that
the products and business units were associated with a design image. In this sense, this
path is more aligned with the core path than was the subcontract manufacturing of
components (Crossing 1), as it reinforces the corporate identity of the firm as an actor in
the designer furniture network; a relationship heritage developed from its interactions
with Artek.
In this sense, this crossing unleashed positive inertia in terms of clear strategic
direction and corporate identity.
Crossing 4 Second wave of own-product development
The saturated demand for Aalto/Artek products in the 2000s further continued to spur
Korhonen to seek supplementary opportunities provided by other paths. The experience
gained from the firm’s own-product development (Crossing 2) encouraged Korhonen to
continue in that direction. It established relationships with new partners, and thus access
to new competencies. The resulting co-operation has been with both marketing
organisations and external designers, and has resulted in new products and customer
relationships.
Although Korhonen’s own products have been developed largely with external design
resources, they have implied a shift in the orientation within Korhonen, from a purely
production focus, towards a more product-development orientation, thus appearing to
decrease its inertia and lock-in into the dominant relationship.
Interestingly, several of the new product development initiatives were proposed by
freelance designers. Presumably, Korhonen’s image and association with respected actors
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
59
on its paths have contributed to attracting new actors (designers) – surely an example of
positive inertia.
Apart from instilling a product development orientation and co-operation with
external designers, the new product ventures have also led to an in-house marketing
competence. In the distribution of the own new products, the previous paths are still used
to offer new products to existing customers before seeking new distribution channels, so
exemplifying supplier inertia in the form of preference for convivial contacts (c.f. Ford et
al., 2003, p.52).
Crossing 5 New business customers
In 2005, at the end of the period studied, Korhonen was also seeking new opportunities in
business-to-business projects furnishing public spaces, reflecting another type of crossing
with the core path. Characteristic of these activities is the co-operation with architects and
new types of customers. Such interaction would again appear to be a way of tapping into
the design-focused core path and an example of utilising the accumulated, Artek-related,
experience gained from furnishing public buildings to exploit new relationships and
resources.
5
Discussion and conclusions
In the empirical section, using the resource entity categorisation by Håkansson and
Waluszweski (2002a) as an analytical tool, this study analysed how the dominant
business relationship accumulated inertia in the focal firm by marking the different
resource entities with the traces of past interaction. Thereafter, we pinpointed events
during the development of the firm, where the core path was confronted by a new one. In
several of these cases, the inertia that these crossings revealed was in fact of a positive
type.
Our empirical illustration of the accumulation and expression of inertia has
highlighted its mental/perceptional dimension. For instance, in times when production
capacity was fully absorbed by the existing relationships, the firm could be interpreted as
being in a competence trap, and not particularly observant or interested in new avenues.
On the other hand, when pressure from external forces (the economic situation) activated
entrepreneurial alertness, the firm pursued new activities that made use of the firm’s core
path in terms of capacity and strategic orientation. Moreover, the firm’s first successful
experiences with in-house product development decreased the mental inertia and led the
company to instigate new projects with new partners.
With regard to core level inertia, a well-defined idea of the firm’s mission and
identity indicates an apparently positive inertia. This core mission influences the firm’s
willingness to develop its own products and establish relationships with external
actors – or more precisely, the kinds of products made and who they are made with and
for whom.
At the core level, Korhonen has, despite its product development efforts, remained
fairly faithful to its production-oriented path. This might be explained by mental inertia
(its corporate identity as a producer) or path dependency in the sense that resources and
competencies have not been developed within the firm itself.
107
108
Acta Wasaensia
60
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
The sources of inertia can also be external, such as the ‘designer’ label that marks the
firm’s image and reputation, and thus affects how other actors perceive it and what they
expect of it. Korhonen’s design-oriented image is not only related to Aalto/Artek, but is
also reinforced by strongly emphasising the role of contemporary designers it has
affiliated itself with more recently.
On the technological/operative level, again we can see inertia accumulating over time
into a clear path, both in terms of technical investments and learning. As stressed before,
it seems the degree of inertia related to production is also linked to perception. The
technological structure can be a restriction or a facilitator, also depending on what the
firm can or cannot imagine doing, given its resources. Despite, and thanks to, the core
path, Korhonen has supplied other customers with products that clearly differ from its
mainstay, but which still to some extent make use of the core path.
On the restriction side, the existing structure does not easily allow the firm to take on
orders from large volume customers for instance. Furthermore, as the core technologies
are primarily focused on the processing of certain raw materials, activities related to other
materials would be likely to be restricted by inertia.
At the strategic level we have identified positive inertia in the form of utilising
existing customer relationships for the firm’s own new products. On the other hand, the
own-product development ventures have also raised totally new issues for the firm, such
as building new competences.
Competitive inertia is in some respects quite highly developed in this case. The firm
follows the established path, instead of frequently altering its pricing, advertising
approach and products. As it is largely bound by its core path to the production of
expensive, high-quality designer furniture, it seeks opportunities mainly from within
these boundaries. Furthermore, long-term relationships and a preference for dealing with
convivial contacts are characteristic of this firm. The subcontracting path, however, is an
example of a highly competitive setting where Korhonen’s strengths related to its core
path remained relatively underutilised due to the generic nature of the product supplied,
and the pressure on price.
This study contributes to existing literature by offering a cross-disciplinary and
comprehensive theoretical treatment of the notion of inertia. Through its in-depth review
of the literature, the article demonstrates the theoretical versatility of the concept, as well
as addressing the importance to carefully specify and define the type of inertia referred to
in future research. The paper presents empirical examples of types and levels of inertia
and discusses how business relationships both create it and become affected by it. The
longitudinal orientation of the case study made it possible to take the dynamic nature of
inertia into account. Methodologically, we consider the identification of a core path to be
a useful analytical tool, as it offers a good reflection surface, against which the
manifestations and effects of inertia can be analysed.
The article has highlighted inertia as not only a phenomenon that inhibits resource use
and actions in relationships, but as a concept that may also bring positive
consequences – even for other relationships. As the case illustrates, even a very dominant
relationship which accumulates inertia can be seen as a springboard for the development
of new resources and new relationships.
Acta Wasaensia
Inertia in business relationships
61
References
Araujo, L. and Harrison, D. (2002) ‘Path dependence, agency and technological evolution’,
Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp.5–19.
Baraldi, E. (2003) ‘When information technology faces resource interaction. Using IT tools to
handle products at IKEA and Edsbyn’, Doctoral Thesis No. 105, Department of Business
Studies, Uppsala University.
Barnes, W., Myles, G. and Stack, M. (2004) ‘Old habits die hard: path dependency and behavioral
lock-in’, Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp.371–377.
Baum, J. (1996) ‘Organizational ecology’, in Clegg, S.R., Hardy, S. and Nord, W.R. (Eds.):
Handbook of Organizational Studies, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Booth, C. (2003) ‘Does history matter in strategy? The possibilities and problems of counterfactual
analysis’, Management Decision, Vol. 41, Nos. 1/2, pp.96–104.
David, P. (1985) ‘Clio and the economics of QWERTY’, The American Economic Review, Vol. 75,
No. 2, Papers and Proceedings of the Ninety-Seventh Annual Meeting of the American
Economic Association, May, pp.332–337.
Dickson, P.R. (1992) ‘Toward a general theory of competitive rationality’, Journal of Marketing,
Jan. 1992, Vol. 56, pp.69–83.
Fear, J.R. (2001) ‘Thinking historically about organizational learning’, in Dierkes, Berthoin, Antal,
Child and Nonaka (Eds): Handbook of Organizational Learning & Knowledge, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Ford, D., Gadde, L-E., Håkansson, H. and Snehota, I. (2003) Managing Business Relationships,
John Wiley & sons, London.
Gresov, C., Haveman, H.A. and Olivia, T.A. (1993) ‘Organizational design, inertia and the
dynamics of competitive response’, Organizational Science, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.181–208.
Gressetvold, E. (2004) ‘Product development – effects on a company’s network of relationships’,
Doctoral Thesis No. 33, Norwegian University of Science and Technology.
Håkansson, H. and Snehota, I. (1995) Developing Relationships in Business Networks, Routledge,
London.
Håkansson, H. and Waluszewski, A. (2002a) Managing Technological Development, IKEA, the
Environment and Technology, Routledge, London.
Håkansson, H. and Waluszewski, A. (2002b) ‘Path dependence: restricting or facilitating
technological development?’, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 55, No. 7, pp.561–570.
Håkansson, H., Havila, V. and Pedersen, A-C. (1999) ‘Learning in networks’, Industrial Marketing
Management, Vol. 28, No. 5, pp.443–452.
Hannan, M.T. and Freeman, J. (1977) ‘The population ecology of organizations’, American Journal
of Sociology, Vol. 82, No. 5, pp.929–964.
Hannan, M.T. and Freeman, J. (1984) ‘Structural inertia and organizational change’, American
Sociological Review, Vol. 49, No. 2, pp.149–164.
Heffernan, G. (2003) ‘Path dependence, behavioral rules, and the role of entrepreneurship in
economic change: the case of the automobile industry’, Review of Austrian Economics,
Vol. 16, No. 1, pp.45–62.
Huff, A.S. and Huff, J.O. (2000) When Firms Change Direction, Oxford University Press.
Huff, J.O., Huff, A.S. and Thomas, H. (1992) ‘Strategic renewal and the interaction of cumulative
stress and inertia’, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 13, pp.55–72.
Jaffee, D. (2001) Organization Theory: Tension and Change, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Johnsen, R. and Machat, K. (2006) ‘Managing the competency trap of asymmetric relationships’,
Proceedings of the 22nd Annual IMP Conference, Milan, Italy.
109
110
Acta Wasaensia
62
A. Norrgrann and K. Luokkanen-Rabetino
Kelly, D. and Amburgey, T.L. (1991) ‘Organisational inertia and momentum: a dynamic model of
strategic change’, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 14, pp.591–612.
Luchins, A. and Luchins, E. (1970) Wertheimer's Seminars Revisited: Problem Solving and
Thinking, Vol. 3, State University of New York at Albany, Albany.
Miles, R. and Snow, C. (1978) Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process, McGraw-Hill
Kogakusha, ltd., Tokyo.
Miller, D. and Chen, M. (1994) ´Sources and consequences of competitive inertia: a study of the
U.S. airline industry’, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 39, pp.1–23.
Senge, P.M. (1994) The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the Learning Organization,
Currency Doubleday, New York.
Stack, M. and Gartland, M.P. (2003) ‘Path creation, path dependency and alternative theories of the
firm’, Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp.487–494.
Torvatn, T. (2004) ‘Control, use and development; connecting the actor and resource layers’, Paper
presented at the 14th Nordic Workshop on Interorganisational Research, August.
Vesalainen, J. (1995) ‘The small firm as an adaptative organization’, Acta Wasaensia, No. 42,
p.223, Universitas Wasaensis, Vaasa.
Wong-MingJi, D. and Millette, W. (2002) ‘Dealing with the dynamic duo of innovation and
inertia’, Organisation Development Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.36–51.
Yin, R.K. (1994) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 2nd ed., Sage Publications, Newbury
Park, CA.
Acta Wasaensia
111
7 SYMBOLICALLY
VALUABLE
FOR
THE
CUSTOMER? A LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS OF
THE INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN THE BRAND
AND RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES
OF A FURNITURE MANUFACTURER
Anu Norrgrann
Abstract
This paper addresses the symbolic dimension of providing resources for value
(co-)creation in business relationships. Prior research on resources in business
relationships has predominantly examined their connectedness and embeddedness
from more technical, economical and organisational perspectives, while discussion on the immaterial and symbolic aspects of resources has been sparse. To fill
this gap in the existing network literature, we draw on frameworks developed
within the service-dominant logic, where brands and symbols as resources have
recently begun to receive more attention in terms of the significant role they play
in the value co-creation process. This paper improves knowledge of the role of the
symbolic dimensions of the firm’s offering for the acquisition, development and
retention of customer relationships. A longitudinal case study on a furniture manufacturer is used to empirically illustrate the role of symbolic resource development manifested in design and branding efforts, and its interlinkages with customer relationship development.
Key words: symbolic value, brands, customer relationship management
1. Introduction
Within the marketing discipline, the acknowledgement of symbols
and intangibles as a fundamental part of exchange goes back many decades. As
far back as 1959, Sidney Levy emphasised that sellers of goods are, wilfully or
not, engaged in selling symbols, and Theodore Levitt (1981), in a similar vein,
drew attention to the intangibility inherent in all products, whether being a good
or service. He pinpointed the difficulty of assessing, experiencing or pre-testing
not only services, but even physical products in advance. When the buyer cannot
fully do that, metaphorical surrogates for tangibility are emphasised. Levitt
(1981:97) stated that ‘the less tangible the product, the more powerfully and per-
112
Acta Wasaensia
sistently the judgment about it gets shaped by the packaging – how it’s presented,
who presents it and what is implied by metaphor, simile, symbol and other metaphors for reality’.
The vast literature on brands and meanings, which has followed
along these footsteps, has mainly had a consumer marketing focus, while branding research in B2B settings has been sparse (Ballantyne & Aitken, 2007). The
nature of business markets does indeed differ from consumer markets in many
respects, for instance with regard to the number of individual buyers and the degree and depth of interaction between buyer and seller (see for instance Ford et
al., 1998). But even though the brand literature is mostly interested in the final
customer and business marketing in the relationships between companies, it does
not mean that the symbolic aspects of exchange would not be of relevance also in
business-to-business interaction. The intermediate actors, such as retailers and
resellers, do also act as customers who evaluate the offerings of their suppliers.
Business network scholars Håkansson & Waluszewski (2002) and Håkansson et
al. (2009) for instance point out that when actors are making decisions about
physical resources (such as products) it is not only the resource in itself that is
considered, but also the image of it. This means that the actors evaluate the business partners’ resources also on an intangible level, based on perceptions, assumptions, knowledge and representations.
Discussions on the roles of these intangible and symbolic aspects –
and empirical studies examining them – have been particularly limited in the
business network research tradition. For such discussions, we can turn to another
theoretical stream that shares a similar perspective on the interconnected nature of
business exchange and focuses on the interaction (although usually labelled ‘integration’) of resources for joint value creation (or ‘co-creation’): the servicedominant (S-D) logic of marketing (see Vargo & Lusch, 2006, for the principles
of S-D L, and Ford, 2010, for a comparison with the business network approach).
Within this theoretical stream, there has recently been increasing interest towards
brands, meanings and symbols as a significant part of the value co-creation process (see e.g. Peñaloza & Venkatesh, 2012; Flint, 2006; Ballantyne & Aitken,
2007; Brodie, Glynn & Little, 2006; Brodie, 2009). Some of the S-D L based
studies, such as Fyrberg & Jüriado (2008) and Akaka, Corsaro, Kelleher, Maglio,
Seo, Lusch & Vargo (2014) even focus more explicitly on the network level,
aligning the discussion even closer to the starting point of this research. Even
though Akaka et al. (2014) use the term service ecosystem (see Lusch & Vargo,
2014) rather than network, they still refer to market interactions at a network level, involving multiple firms, suppliers and customers, which in our opinion resonates well with our business networks viewpoint.
Acta Wasaensia
113
Akaka et al. (2014) call for more empirical studies on the role of
symbols in value co-creation, as they state that researchers ‘only have begun to
scratch the surface for understanding the particular processes by which symbols
guide the coordination, communication, integration and evaluation in service ecosystems’. This provides an indication of the significance of the topic of our study,
also from the perspective of the service-dominant logic.
Even more importantly, our aim is to fill the gap in the business
network literature’s discussion of resources concerning the role of symbolic resource aspects. To do this, we draw on the aforementioned S-D L based conceptualisations in order to explore how brands and other signs are used as symbolic
resources that firms provide for their (retail) customers and their value proposition to final users. We delimit our perspective by focusing particularly on the provision side of resources, i.e. the selling firm’s perspective. To this end, we examine how the selling firm attempts to relate its offerings to its various customers
(business relationship level), thereby indirectly helping the customers provide
value propositions for consumers.
After presenting the theoretical standpoints of the paper in the next
section, we continue with an empirical account of a case study from the furniture
industry. The case, which comprises longitudinal data from a period of 15 years,
illustrates how brand and product design provide symbolic resources for business
relationships. In the analysis, we examine the dynamics and interlinkages between
the development of symbolic resources and customer relationships, and we conclude with a discussion on the role of symbolic resources in providing value to the
customer.
2. Theoretical background
The concept of resources
Our conceptual starting point is the notion of resources. We apply
the business network research tradition’s (IMP) broad view of resources as anything that has known use, be it a product, facility, organisational unit or a relationship (Håkansson & Snehota, 1995; Håkansson & Waluszewski, 2002). The
IMP view on resources has particularly emphasised the interconnectedness and
embeddedness of resources, i.e. that the value of a resource is dependent on which
other resources it is combined with. Therefore, it is argued that resources are best
understood from an interaction perspective, as a relative phenomenon, rather than
regarding them as ‘given’ assets of an organisation. In the context of this paper,
this approach to understanding resources draws attention to the way in which the
focal company attempts to align the resources it offers (the focal resource here
being the product it sells) with the resources of the customer, e.g. its assortment,
that it in turn offers to the final customer. This reflects the dual nature of re-
114
Acta Wasaensia
sources discussed by Håkansson & Snehota (1995): resources have both a provision side and a user side, with the resource provided by the selling firm being
used as a resource by the buying firm. From the management point of view, the
question is thus how to provide resources that are as useful as possible for one’s
business partners.
The service-dominant logic (see Vargo & Lusch, 2006) basically
adheres to the same notion, although with more emphasis on the outcome of resource use, i.e. value (see Ford, 2010) and how it is co-created. The S-D L literature also approaches resources from a more networked perspective, with the semantic distinction that scholars in this field use the term ‘resource integration’ to
correspond to IMP’s ‘resource interaction’. The service literature, being more
concerned with value realisation for the final user than the IMP perspective, uses
in our perspective the useful concept of value proposition (see Vargo & Lusch,
2006) for dealing with the interface between resource provision and resource utilisation to describe the selling firm’s aims of providing valuable resources, without fully knowing if and how value will actually become realised for the customer. Service scholars (see e.g. Grönroos, 2008) refer to the notion of value-in-use,
i.e. value is not delivered by the supplier, but is instead something that takes place
in the customer’s sphere. Grönroos (2008) argues that the role of the supplier is
thus to be a value facilitator in the process of value creation. In this paper, we will
not delve into the value discussion, but remain focused on resources, seeing them
from the focal firm’s point of view as value propositions for its B2B customers
and, eventually, the final users.
Symbolic resources
As noted in the introduction, the IMP discussion on resources has
not dealt particularly with the symbolic aspects that are in the focus of this paper.
Also within the service literature, Brodie, Glynn & Little (2006) criticised the
lack of attention to branding in the original S-D L article by Lusch & Vargo
(2004). Subsequent work within S-D L has to some extent begun to address these
aspects as well, even though Akaka et al. (2014) still call for more empirical studies to arrive at a deeper understanding of the role of symbols.
Symbols can be seen as institutions that influence resource integration and exchange (Vargo & Lusch, 2011). Levy (1959:119) defines them as ‘instances where experience is mediated, rather than direct; where an object, action,
word or picture, or complex behavior is understood to mean not only itself but
also some other ideas or feelings’. A way to study symbols and signs is through
semiotics, which suggests that actors assign meanings to signs, which then become symbols, according to particular ‘rules’ of interpretation that define their
social world (Peirce, 1932 in Akaka et al., 2014). Symbolic interactionism explores how individuals attach meaning to interactions within a social context,
Acta Wasaensia
115
which is largely facilitated by symbols. (Akaka et al., 2014). Meaning is not seen
as inherent in objects, but as emerging from social interaction, with humans as
active interpreters and modifiers of meanings (Flint, 2006). An interactive perspective to meanings is also proposed by Peñaloza & Venkatesh (2006), who
suggest that the S-D L value discussion should be expanded to include the exchange and use of meanings in order to better capture the nature of exchange relations. Venkatesh et al. (2006) even propose the idea of a sign economy, consisting
of more nuanced, interactive, enacted markets, which are jointly produced by
consumers, marketers and other culturally constituted forces in the economic system as they engage in exchanges according to mutually negotiated systems of
language and meanings.
Extending the more interactive co-creation perspective to comprise
meanings, however, raises a question similar to that which Grönroos (2008) addresses with value, i.e. is it a question of co-creation, with multiple actors as active participants in the creation of symbols (Akaka et al., 2014), or something that
happens in the customer’s sphere – images formed in actors’ minds – like valuein-use? To what extent are the meanings actually shared, or do symbolic meanings emerge that are different from the ones the supplying firm intended to propose?
At the network level, Akaka et al. (2014) propose that symbols
guide actors in the enactment of practices that enable the co-creation of meanings.
In this way, symbols help actors coordinate interaction, communicate information, integrate resources and evaluate value. They further argue that the interpretation of symbols is important for the overlapping and integration of institutional logics; symbols become reinterpreted in new social contexts and new symbolic meanings emerge, possibly varying across the micro, meso and macro levels
of analysis. According to Akaka et al. (2014) the notion of shared understanding
does not mean that symbols have exactly the same meaning for different actors, as
they all have their own, unique socio-historical backgrounds, but rather that
shared understandings occur when actors with varying viewpoints interact. In
other words, even if the phenomenological value of symbols may vary from one
actor to another, for interaction to occur, there must be overlap in the meanings of
value for particular resources. Critical for this process is that the potential value
(value proposition) is articulated and communicated, and symbols constitute a
central tool for doing so.
116
Acta Wasaensia
Brands as resources for customer relationships
Brands have been a much-researched marketing topic for several
decades and have been defined in a variety of ways. For instance the AMA definition (2004) sees a brand as ‘a name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature
that identifies one seller’s good or service as distinct from those of other sellers’.
Brands have been approached from multiple perspectives, such as a consumer
angle, focusing on identity, image and similar issues; from an organisational perspective stressing issues such as positioning; a financial viewpoint focusing on
equity, for instance; or a relational perspective, which examines commitment,
experience and other such matters. Some of the definitions regard the brand as an
entity, whereas broader perspectives also consider brands as processes. (Brodie,
2009.) According to such a process perspective, Brodie et al. (2006) see service
brands as facilitating and mediating the marketing processes used to realise experiences that drive the co-creation of value. Brands provide sign systems that symbolise meaning in the marketing network and hence function as fundamental resources.
Brodie et al. (2006) base this definition on the foundation of the
promises framework or value triangle, initially presented by Calonius (1986) and
elaborated by Bitner (1995) and Grönroos (2006). The value framework focuses
on the marketing processes of making promises (by the organisation to customers), enabling and facilitating promises (internal marketing within the network)
and keeping and supporting promises (interaction between the organisation’s representatives and the customer). (Brodie et al., 2006.)
In empirical studies where this perspective has been extended to include intermediate actors in the supply network (see e.g. Glynn & Brodie, 2004
on manufacturer-reseller relationships) brands were identified to act as facilitators
of relations in channels, creating meaning and experience for the resellers. Glynn
& Brodie’s (2004) study revealed three types of value provided by brands to resellers: (1) non-financial benefits such as advertising benefits, (2) customer brand
equity and (3) benefits for the reseller’s customers. Brands thus create value not
only in the end customer relationship, but also within other marketing relationships (Brodie et al., 2006).
Fyrberg & Jüriado (2009) extend the aforementioned value triangle
through a closer investigation of its network aspects. They conceptualise the key
actors in the co-creation process as (1) brand governor, (2) providers and (3) customers, which comprise the three corners of the brand relationship value triangle.
The link between governor and providers deals with internal interaction in the
network and an exchange of meanings and experiences; the interface between
providers and customers in turn represents the co-creation of meanings, while the
Acta Wasaensia
117
brand governor-customer axis involves the reciprocal development of a value
proposition suggested by customers. (Fyrberg & Jüriado, 2009.)
3. Methodology
The empirical basis of the paper is a longitudinal case study on a
furniture manufacturer. The case firm, Junet, was chosen because it is a company
whose development the researcher has had an opportunity to follow during a 15year time period, from 1999 to the present. This provides a unique possibility to
identify the process nature of symbolic resource development, including the
launch of new collections, designs and designer co-operations, as well as other
brand development efforts, and the parallel processes of how the firm has developed its network of customer relationships. Against the conceptual notion of resource value changing over time (Håkansson & Snehota, 1995), a longitudinal
time perspective is of particular advantage for understanding the dynamics and
longer-term effects of investments made in resources and their implications at the
network level.
The case study method enables the investigation of a focal phenomenon within its real-life context, where the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident (Yin, 1989). As Johnston, Leech & Liu (1999)
state, the case study method does not attempt to isolate the phenomenon from its
context, but, on the contrary, sees the phenomenon as being of interest precisely
because of its context. In this paper, we adopt a focal firm perspective (see Halinen & Törnroos, 2005) where the main units of analysis are the symbolic dimensions of the resources that the case firm is providing and their manifestations in
brands, designs and semiotics in communication. These resources are mirrored
against the context of the events, changes and developments that the focal company faces, particularly with regard to the processes of customer relationship development. It also takes into account developments in the network context of the
focal company, which affect the aforementioned processes. Such network effects
are considered both at the meso level, i.e. relating to the most central partners on
the supply side, as well as more macro level developments, which affect the
product-market decisions of the focal firm.
One of the strengths of case study research is the ability to draw on
several different types of data and triangulate them to provide a holistic picture of
the studied phenomenon (Yin, 1994; Johnston et al., 1999). In this research, the
construction of the case study report relies above all on qualitative personal interview data from repeated occasions within the study period, in the form of thematic
interviews as well as ‘situation update’ discussions in connection with the managing director’s recurring guest lectures/company presentations. The empirical material consists of five personal interviews/discussions with the managing director (a
new person took up this position in 2013), one with the firm’s brand agency repre-
118
Acta Wasaensia
sentative (responsible for measures such as a brand investigation carried out
among retailer sales staff) and a telephone interview with a reseller. Most interviews were fully transcribed. In other instances, interview notes were taken and
used for case description write-up. The interviews took place in 1999, 2000, 2010,
2012, 2013 and 2014. The earlier stage findings related to product and network
design have been discussed in an article by Baraldi, Bocconcelli & Söderlund
(2001).
In addition to interview data, the researcher was able to utilise observation as a technique for triangulation, since several of the interviews took
place on the premises of the focal firm. This, in addition to observations from
retail settings, allowed for instance a concrete examination of the firm’s products
and the ways in which they are displayed, as the office and production facilities at
the beginning of the study period also functioned as a showroom for the company.
Furthermore, various printed and electronic documents, such as company presentation materials, brochures, catalogues, price lists, company web pages and social
media profiles have also been used as sources of case evidence. A content analysis of this material contributed in particular to the interpretations of the symbolic
and semiotic aspects of the value proposition of the firm.
In the longitudinal analysis, the snapshots of reality gained during
the different interview occasions as well as the informants’ reflections on developments over time are analytically used to make interpretations of continuity and
gain a holistic understanding, rather than making comparisons of the different
cross-sectional points in time in a linear and objective manner (see Hassett &
Paavilainen-Mäntymäki, eds., 2013).
Acta Wasaensia
119
4. Symbolic resources and customer relationships in practice: case
Junet
Case firm description
The focal firm of the case study is Junet, which is a joint venture
founded by five SMEs in 1993. The five original partners were manufacturers of
complementary pieces of furniture – one specialised in cabinets, another in upholstered furniture, etc. – who decided to join forces with the aim of creating and
selling a new joint furniture collection, initially mainly aimed at export customers. Thanks to the businesses’ complementary nature, the founding partners have
simultaneously also acted as the main suppliers for Junet, hence the term ‘net’ in
the corporate brand name. The prefix in turn has its origin in the location of the
firms in the village of Jurva, Finland, which has historically had a high concentration of carpenters and furniture makers, and is associated in Finland with a tradition of quality and skills in carpentry; Junet has been drawing on this heritage
both in terms of concrete competence and as a symbolic element in its communication.
The Junet venture represents only one customer relationship for the
partner firms, who alongside this engagement have also continued to sell their
own products to other customers under their own company brands. The Junet relationship has varied in importance for the partner firms. For some of the smaller
member firms, the Junet relationship has been of great significance in their portfolio, while for others, it has played a more minor role. Also, the significance of
the Junet involvement for each partner firm has varied over time, depending on
developments in their other customer relationships and also on the furniture items
that the Junet collection has featured at different points in time.
The focal firm (Junet) and its resources are thus significantly characterised by the joint venture member firms/suppliers. The freelance designers
that the firm has used have represented additional, externally sourced resource
contributors. In this manufacturing sector, companies are differentiated partly
based on the design(er) intensity of their products and Junet opted from the very
beginning for an approach that emphasises product aesthetics and a distinct style,
as illustrated by the following brochure excerpts: ‘The design and form is essentially Finnish country style, with modern elements added where appropriate …
All Junet furniture has consistently been based on these elements and that is why
we can now call it the Junet style’ (Junet brochure, 1999). It is also characteristic
of its designer focus that the designers’ names and biographies have been prominently featured in marketing communications, both printed and online.
120
Acta Wasaensia
Analysis of symbolic resources and customer relationships
A summary of the longitudinal case analysis is presented as a table
in Appendix 1. When examining the case from a longitudinal time perspective
based on the developments of both the symbolic resources and the customer relationships, four distinct phases were distinguished. The phases illustrate shifts in
brand-related and market decisions and new directions regarding product design
and form, resulting from strategic choices, as well as change forces in the network
outside the firm. The phases are mostly chronologically sequential, but some of
them overlap in time.
The first phase, which took place in the 1990s, is here termed the
Landhausstil phase. This involves the initial formation of the Junet venture and
the creation of its first joint collection between the partner firms. The aim was to
overcome the severe domestic recession by joining forces and exporting to the
European market, which was at the time beginning to open up to free trade. The
collection of products developed for this purpose was ‘based on traditional Finnish carpentry skills and craftsmanship, combined with the technology used in
modern furniture production’ (1990s Junet brochure). Furthermore, in the communications materials it was stressed that ‘the colour scheme is based on historic
styles … adapted to match present day’s needs’ and that ‘all pieces have been
designed to be fully compatible, giving the customer a wide choice of furniture
and upholstery’. The products were/are also made to order, enabling customers to
choose their own colours and fabrics. When Junet started building up brand
awareness among customers, it emphasised the quality of its raw materials as
‘ecologically sound… pine and birch from renewable Finnish forests’ as well as
its superior craftsmanship, including the wax treatment of product surfaces, which
was not only a production-related novelty for the firm, but also a feature that distinguished the early collection aesthetically and haptically. As the main customers
during this phase were in Germany, the term ‘Landhausstil’ (country house style)
was used as a characterisation.
At the peak of its operations in this phase, Junet had up to a hundred resellers, the most significant of which was a German furniture chain known
for its environmentally friendly products. As Junet was a small Nordic company
providing a full spectrum of high-quality, massive wood products made of sustainable materials, it was well aligned with this retailer.
Towards the end of the 90s sales on the German market dropped
radically due to the general economic situation as well as the entry of Eastern
European competitors. The availability of similar looking, but cheaper alternatives revealed that the Junet brand itself appeared not to hold sufficient content
for customers in such an economically depressed and competitive setting. The
next phase was therefore marked by a gradual withdrawal from exports and refocusing on the domestic market, here termed the Nezz phase. The Junet brand was
Acta Wasaensia
121
not unknown in Finland in the 90s, even though its customers had mostly been
international at that point. The export joint venture had received a fair share of
attention in the industry due to its novel way of organising itself, and the existing
domestic retailers of the partner firms were curious about the Junet collection.
Junet’s brand-building efforts targeting export customers as well as the existing
parallel customer relationships of its partner firms thus paved the way for its domestic brand building and symbolic valuableness. For the domestic market, Junet
launched both its existing collection of traditional furniture and a new collection
in a more contemporary style, featuring straight lines, new materials and metal
details. As their appearance differed from the earlier products, the modern collection received its own sub-brand name, ‘Nezz’.
The name itself also differed from the previous collection names
such as Viena or Wiljami, which were more associated with tradition and folklore. This phase was characterised by increased brand awareness building that
also targeted consumers through print advertising and presence at furniture fairs.
Approximately a decade later, the brand was reassessed and refined, leading into the Feels like Sunday phase, named after a slogan coined by
Junet’s new advertising agency. Somewhat prior to this, the customer portfolio
also underwent reorganisation. Distribution had thus far been very scattered and
the number of retailers high. According to the managing director, the retailers had
too little time to devote to all customers to ensure proper product display, for instance. Junet chose to enter an exclusive retail distribution agreement with the
chain Vepsäläinen, which is well-known as a brand furniture retailer, with for
instance Artek, Fritz Hansen, Vitra and similar high-end brands in its assortment.
Thereby, Junet was able to achieve a tighter focus in its relationship management
activities. The Vepsäläinen context however demanded ever-increasing brand
building investments and also efforts to clarify Junet’s position among the brands
in the retailer’s assortment, which was done through an investigation of sales
staff’s product/brand perceptions. As a managerial consequence, the company
logo was redesigned, the product naming policies unified and new products by
new designers introduced. The new products reflected the new brand strategy
emphasising warmth and cosiness, marking a clearer distinction from other, more
clinically modern design brands in the retail setting in question. The new slogan
‘feels like Sunday’ promised a stress-free, enjoyable Sunday morning – evoking
and reflecting the relaxed and genuine, yet high-quality nature of the brand. The
form language of the new products was also softer and rounder, the colours were
still mostly light and ‘Nordic’, and the products were given names in Finnish,
with meanings such as ‘joy’ (Ilo) and ‘for you’ (Sinulle).
The branding efforts and focused distribution were initially successful, and at best, Junet was even chosen as supplier of the year at Vepsäläinen.
122
Acta Wasaensia
However, the general downturn in the economy in the 2010s had a severe impact
on the furniture sector and caused Junet to reconsider both its offerings and relationships. At the retailer’s suggestion, the firm launched a cheaper collection of
products, but even this did not compensate for the loss of sales. The economic
pressures mounted when one of the Junet partners (which was also its biggest
supplier) filed for bankruptcy in 2013. In 2014, the exclusive distribution agreement with Vepsäläinen was terminated and a second chain, Kruunukaluste, was
introduced as an additional retailer in the hope of generating more sales. In August 2014, sales to furniture chains were down to 18% of turnover, marking a
clear shift away from retail customers towards direct sales to consumers and project customers.
The fourth phase, the project track is a public space furnishing
path that runs through the entire history of the firm, parallel with its retail relationships. Its relative role has varied over time, but it has gained particular strategic importance over the last years. In the 90s, Junet utilised the design of its new
collection and its flexible and versatile production possibilities in its value propositions for project customers, such as in hotel and holiday housing construction
projects in Germany. In such projects, the country style appearance and durability
of the products were valuable characteristics for the customers, coupled with the
capacity of the firm to offer customised solutions. Junet was involved in similar
types of projects in its domestic market as well. One of the advantages was that
even though the projects varied, the customer interface often remained the same.
Junet was thus in closer and more continuous business relationships with the purchasing side architects, compared to the more ‘market mechanism’ nature of its
numerous retailer relationships of the time. In the late 2000s Junet began tapping
into a new sector, which has become increasingly important, namely furnishings
for elderly care. Such project customers include private firms running elderly
homes. The symbolic resources that Junet proposes make use of for instance its
durable and sturdy product quality, natural materials, domestic origin and warm
and cosy imagery along the lines of the latest brand renewal.
Junet believes that its consumer branding efforts have also been
useful for building recognition among senior housing decision makers. Therefore
Junet chose to introduce ‘Junet seniori’ as a sub-brand for this project market,
along with a web shop for these products. Even if brand recognition spins off positively from consumer products to the senior market, as suggested by the managing director in the 2014 interview, it remains to be seen if there will be image effects – possibly also negative ones – the other way around.
On the whole, the time span that has been analysed shows a number
of general-level developments. The first is the shift from more arm’s length customer relationships, first abroad but then also to some extent in Finland, towards a
Acta Wasaensia
123
greater concentration on fewer significant customers, where the value proposition
of the firm and the profile of the customer are more aligned. This tendency is illustrated by, for instance, Junet’s reasons for entering specific projects and its
choice to focus on Vepsäläinen as an exclusive distributor in the first decade of
the 2000s. Another, more general observation is the role of the brand and its
gradual evolution from being merely a trademark or a name for a new venture
into an actual brand with a symbolic content, one that customers and consumers
recognise and associate with meanings. This process has taken time and required
investments in visibility, for example regular advertising in the leading interior
decoration magazines, using advertorials, social media, being present at fairs and
introducing new products at a steady pace to ‘stay on the agenda’, in the minds of
consumers and industry actors.
When looking at the study period on an aggregated level, what can
be said about the role of the symbolic resources in the firm’s efforts to be valuable, i.e. to provide a lucrative value proposition for its customers? Our interpretation is that on the one hand, the process of brand development and the underlying
strategic orientation of attempting to make high-quality, well-designed products
in a flexible and adaptable manner has been guiding the firm’s activities all along,
although somewhat different product styles and communicative choices have
been used to this end at different times.This brand building can be seen as an incremental development process. Particularly with respect to project customers and
retail buyers, the symbolic resources appear to relate to the capabilities of Junet as
a supplier and a brand holder, rather than to its individual products. The craftsmanship tradition is a similar example of an undercurrent that branding has
tapped into in a variety of ways at different times.
On the other hand, the study period with its economic ups and
downs and the consequent shifts in product-market strategies show that the Junet
brand has not only followed a linear path of becoming gradually stronger and imprinted with meaning, but has also had to repeatedly reassess and refine its way
and means of relating to its customers. Here, the roles of the material vs. symbolic
dimensions of the offering are particularly interesting. In situations where the firm
faces lesser competitive pressures, it appears that the tangible features can already
be sufficient for the value proposition (e.g. in the early, more successful phases of
exporting and selling to domestic retailers), while when other, strong resources
compete for the customer’s attention (e.g. in the Vepsäläinen environment or the
later years on the German market), the role of the immaterial/symbolic characteristics becomes emphasised. In our interpretation, the Junet brand faced such higher-pressure situations when it was not able to provide sufficient symbolic resources to remain interesting enough for its customers once the physical or economical features of the offering were no longer to the firm’s advantage. This
would support the notion proposed by Hellén & Gummerus (2013) that a prod-
124
Acta Wasaensia
uct’s tangibility/intangibility is a rather ambiguous concept, and should be assessed in terms of (consumer) perceptions rather than seen as an inherent feature
of the offering. Therefore, instead of claiming that branded furniture would by
nature be something ‘very symbolic’, the role played by the symbolic aspects in
the assessment of the offering might better be framed as varying according to the
perceptions of actors. Seen from a network point of view, these perceptions are
again linked to the actors’ perceptions of other resources, such as the competing
products. Thus, at a certain point in time, with a certain network of resources surrounding it, the product may be judged more on its tangible properties, whereas in
other situations, the symbolic ones may become more emphasised.
5. Concluding discussion
In this paper, we set out to shed more light on the resource dimension in business interaction by examining how brands serve as symbolic resources
for business relationships. We drew on discussions based on the S-D logic of
marketing on symbols and brands and applied them to a business relationship
management context.
Based on our findings, we agree with Brodie (2009) and Brodie et
al. (2006) in regarding brands not only as entities, but also as processes that facilitate and mediate in the marketing processes used to realise experiences driving
value co-creation. Brands provide sign systems that symbolise meaning for different actors in the marketing network and hence function as fundamental resources. Our empirical account shows that in order for a firm to survive on the
market, it must continuously be able to provide resources that its customers perceive as valuable. On the brand management level, this draws attention to the dynamics of the brand and the need to evaluate it against the firm’s network of marketing relationships and the changes occurring in them. Our findings thus indicate
that the role of the symbolic content of brands is a dynamic concept, where the
valuableness of the resource varies depending on the resource constellation
around it, as network theory (see Håkansson & Snehota, 1995) suggests. That is,
when the focal brand is in the customer context challenged by other brands offering competing symbolic, utilitarian or economic benefits (e.g. acknowledged design or a lower price), this puts pressure on resource management to ensure better
alignment with customer resources.
In addition to addressing the identified research gap concerning
symbolic resources in network literature, we believe that our findings offer valuable empirical insight into the understanding of the interactive nature of brands and
symbols also from a S-D L point of view. The paper makes a methodological contribution through the use of longitudinal and semiotic analysis, which we consider
Acta Wasaensia
125
to be useful tools for an increased understanding of the dynamics of symbolism,
when mirrored against changing customer relationships over a longer time perspective.
Particularly from a network theoretical point of view, a limitation
of the study is the focus on the brand governor and the provision side of resources. Extending the perspective to cover selected customers’ viewpoints would
be recommended in further research on the topic.
Figure 1: Junet products illustrating the four analytical pha
The ‘Landhausstil’ phase (1990’s)
The ‘Nezz’ phase (early 2000’s)
126
Acta Wasaensia
The ‘Feels like Sunday’ phase (2010’s)
The project path (elderly care, 2014)
Acta Wasaensia
127
References
[1] Archpru Akaka, M., Corsaro, D., Kelleher, D., Maglio, P., Seo, Y., Lusch, R.,
Vargo, S. (2014) The role of symbols in value cocreation. Marketing Theory. published online 23 May 2014. pp.1-16.
[2] Ballantyne, D. & Aitken, D. (2007) Branding in B2B markets: insights from
the service-dominant logic of marketing. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing. 22/6. pp. 363-371.
[3] Baraldi E., Bocconcelli, R. & Söderlund, A. (2001) Resource Interaction in
Furniture Networks - Relating Design, Distribution and IT. Nordiske Organisasjonsstudier 4/2001: 110-134
[4] Bitner, M.J. (1995) Building Service Relationships: It’s All About Promises.
Journal of Academy of Marketing Science 23 (4), pp. 246-51.
[5] Brodie, R.J. (2009) From goods to service branding: an integrative perspective. Marketing Theory, 9 (1). pp. 107-110.
[6] Brodie, R.J., Glynn, M.S., & Little, V. (2006) The service brand and the service-dominant logic: missing fundamental premise or the need for stronger theory? Marketing Theory, Vol. 6, No 3. pp 363-376.
[7] Calonius, H. (1986) A market behaviour framework. 15th EMAC conference,
Helsinki, Finland.
[8] Flint, D.J. (2006) Innovation, symbolic interaction and customer valuing:
thoughts stemming from a service-dominant logic of marketing. Marketing Theory 2006 6:349.
[9] Ford, D. (2011) IMP and service-dominant logic: Divergence, convergence
and development. Industrial Marketing Management. 40 (2011), pp. 231-239.
[10] Ford, D., Gadde, L-E., Håkansson, H. & Snehota, I. (1998), Managing Business Relationships, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.
[11] Fyrberg, A. & Jüriado, R. (2009) What about interaction? Networks and
brands as integrators within service dominant logic. Journal of Service Management. Vol 20, Iss: 4. pp 420-432.
128
Acta Wasaensia
[12] Glynn, M.S. Brodie, R.J (2004) The Role of Brands in Creating Value in
Supplier-Reseller Relationships. 33rd EMAC conference, Murcia.
[13] Grönroos, C. (2006) On defining marketing. An analysis of the updated
AMA definition and an alternative. Working paper 514, Hanken, Swedish School
of Economics and Business Administration, Helsinki.
[14] Grönroos, C. (2008) Service logic revisited: who creates value? And who cocreates? European Business Review, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 298-314.
[15] Håkansson, H., Ford, D., Gadde, L-E., Snehota, I. & Waluszewski, A. (2009)
Business in Networks. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester, UK.
[16] Håkansson, H. & Snehota, I. eds. (1995) Developing Relationships in Business Networks, Routledge, London.
[17] Håkansson, H. & Waluszewski, A. (2002), Managing Technological Development: IKEA, the Environment and Technology, Routledge, London.
[18] Halinen, A. & Törnroos, J-Å (2005) The meaning of time in the study of
industrial buyer-seller relationships. In K. E. Möller, & D. T. Wilson (Eds.),
Business marketing: An interaction and network approach, (pp. 493–529). London/Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishing Co.
[19] Hassett, M.E & Paavilainen-Mäntymäki, E., Eds. (2013) Handbook of Longitudinal Research Methods in Organisation and Business Studies. Edward Elgar
Publishing
[20] Hellén, K. & Gummerus, J. (2013) Re-investigating the nature of tangibility/intangibility and its influence on consumer experiences. Journal of Service
Management, vol 24, No 2. Pp. 130-150.
[21] Johnston, W.J., Leach, M.P. & Liu, A.H. (1999) Theory Testing Using Case
Studies in Business-to-Business Research. Industrial Marketing Management. 28.
pp. 201-2013
[22] Levitt, T. (1981) Marketing intangible products and product intangibles.
Harvard Business Review, 5-6 1981.
[23] Levy, S. (1959) Symbols for sale. Harvard Business Review. 37: 117-24.
Acta Wasaensia
129
[24] Peñaloza, L. & Venkatesh, A. (2012) Further evolving the new dominant
logic of marketing: from services to the social construction of markets. Marketing
Theory, vol 6 (3), pp. 299-316.
[25] Vargo, S.L. & Lusch, R.F. (2004) Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for
Marketing. Journal of Marketing. Jan 2004. Vol 68, Issue 1.
[26] Vargo, S.L. & Lusch, R.F. (2011) It’s all B2B and Beyond: Toward a Systems Perspective of the Market. Industrial Marketing Management. 40, pp. 181-7.
[27] Vargo, S.L. & Lusch, R.F. (2006) Service-Dominant Logic: What It Is, What
It Is Not, What It Might Be. In: Lusch, R.F. & Vargo, S.L. (Eds.), The ServiceDominant Logic of Marketing: Dialog, Debate, and Directions, M.E. Sharpe,
Armonk, New York.
[28] Venkatesh, A., Peñaloza, L. & Firat, F. (2006) The Market as a Sign System
and the Logic of the Market In: Lusch, R.F. & Vargo, S.L. (Eds.), The ServiceDominant Logic of Marketing: Dialog, Debate, and Directions, M.E. Sharpe,
Armonk, New York.
[29] Yin, R. (1989) Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Sage: London,
UK.
Junet
(corporate and product)
International retail
International projects
Brand
Customers
Export promotion
Competitive pressure, plagiarism
EU-membership
Increased imports
Ikea’s market entry
Developments in
the network
context
(macro/meso)
TIME
Junet seniori
Junet
new designers
new advertising agency
key customers and projects
brand management
RECESSION
member
bankruptcy
Exclusive retail (Vepsäläinen) Vepsäläinen +
Subcontracting
Kruunukaluste
Elderly care housing projects
Junet, new logo and
slogan ”Feels like Sunday”
renaming Nezz products
new, contemporary products by new designers
introduced at a faster pace
1993
2000
2009
2014
From trademark to brand (and sub-brands)
From markets to relationships
From international to domestics
From home furniture market to increasing focus on projects
ANALYTICAL TRAJECTORIES
RECESSION
Organizing the net
Internationalizing
establishing position on
the domestic market
Numerous domestic retailers
Hotel & holiday housing projects
Junet /
Nezz (the modern collection)
contemporary designs
heat-treated materials
Managerial focus
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS
New collection,
massive, waxed wood
’Landhausstil’
Customised colors, sizes
Products
MAIN UNITS OF ANALYSIS
Appendix 1: Longitudinal analysis of Junet
130
Acta Wasaensia
Acta Wasaensia
131
8 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
In this final chapter, we provide a summary of the study and its essays, followed
by an integrated discussion of the empirical findings of the separate case studies.
Thereafter, we discuss the theoretical conclusions and implications of these findings for the understanding of symbolic embeddedness. After presenting the managerial implications of the study, we conclude with a discussion of the limitations
of the study, and suggest potential avenues for further research.
8.1
Summary of the study
This research has identified and addressed a research gap in the understanding of
resource embeddedness, and explored how resources, specifically products as a
resource category, can be understood as symbolically embedded. In doing this, we
have extended the focus from our conceptual starting point in business networks
and the 4R framework, by bringing in complementary viewpoints from consumer
culture theory related to products as symbolic, cultural resources, and from the
service dominant logic of marketing regarding co-creation and integration of resources, in order to enrich the understanding of resource embeddedness on the
distribution side of the network – a context, which is in itself laden with symbolic
meanings and representations, directed at providing value propositions for consumers.
We approached our aim of providing an understanding of symbolic embeddedness through a set of more specific objectives, each of which was addressed in
the form of a separate essay/article. Essay 1 (chapter 4) addressed the connections
between a focal product and a retailer’s resource environment. It examined on the
one hand, how a retailer affects the symbolic properties of a product, and, on the
other hand, how the retailer itself uses the product as a symbolic resource. Essay 1
also extended the analytical horizon towards consumers, by contrasting the perceptions held of the focal resource and its value providing features by the different business actors in the network, with the perspectives of consumers. This latter
angle was enabled though the use of mystery shopping as a complementary data
collection method to interviews, observations and documents as case study material.
In this essay, the 4R framework was applied in order to gain a detailed understanding of the symbolic resource interfaces between a focal product and other
resources in its context that it was significantly marked by. We found that the
symbolic level connections between a focal product and other products, was re-
132
Acta Wasaensia
lated to managerial level marketing decisions such as positioning and assortment
building. Through such processes, the focal resource is handled in relation to other products, as e.g. alternative, complementary, supporting or competing of attention, and at the symbolic level, the focal product’s features become mirrored
against the other products. A focal product’s symbolic level interfaces with facilities were largely found to be related to symbolically extending the presentation of
the product with marketing and display materials and other promotional and atmospheric facilities in the retail context that facilitate in selling the product. The
symbolic presentation of products towards consumers is ultimately in the hands of
the retailer, and in this empirical case, the outcomes of how different stores handled this “stagesetting”, showed a great deal of variation. Hence, the same resource presented itself in different ways, depending on the couplings to the reseller’s promotional facility resources.
Similar symbolic interfaces could also be identified on the product – business unit
axis. Symbolic level business unit characteristics like the retailer’s corporate image and its personnel and their level of knowledge, involvement and motivation
related to the focal product had a significant effect on the product’s presentation
and value proposition to consumers. The product was connected to business relationships in terms of being the concrete object or topic of business interaction.
Relationship history and traces of events within the relationship were identified to
have an effect.
When it comes to the utilisation side, the essay identified a number of ways in
which retailers assessed the product as a means of providing useful value propositions for their customers, but also in relation to their own utilisation of it. This
included the usefulness of the product as a building block in the retailer’s assortment, a means of differentiation, as enhancer of the store environment, as sales
staff motivator and offering services such as reliability. The product could also be
seen as an economic resource and as a platform and point of reference for continuous relationship development between retailer and manufacturer.
Essay 2 (chapter 5) elaborated on the themes of Essay 1 by focusing on the special role of the retailer at the interface between the business network and the consumer sphere. The essay also drew parallels between retailers and media as resource mediators. This essay contributed with a theoretical discussion of the notion of resources from the conceptual standpoints of the network approach, service dominant logic and consumer culture theory, and provided a conceptualization of the retailer as an intermediary of symbolic resources, with a role in developing and mediating a resource, but also in using it as a resource its own strategic
purposes. In the essay, we discussed the intermediary’s role in the process of
Acta Wasaensia
133
symbolic resource formation, as the focal product is mediated through the symbolic resource context of the intermediary towards the goals and life projects
where consumers finally use it as resource. We concluded, that a focal product’s
ability to function as a valuable symbolic resource could be affected by the intermediary in positive, negative or neutral ways. The intermediary, with its own set
of symbolic resources and its role as an actor who exercises control over the ultimate presentation of the product to consumers, can either a) convey the firmprovided value propositions and channel the meanings imbued upstream in the
manufacturer sphere; b) improve them through connecting the original symbolic
resource with such symbolic resources of the retailer that make it more valuable
for final uses; c) change the meanings by emphasising other symbolic aspects,
such as sales arguments, that are different from the ones highlighted by upstream
actors; or d) even negating/destroying them and thus making the product fail in its
purpose to communicate its potential value to users.
From the point of view of product management, this paper highlighted the importance of the interaction points between manufacturer, retailer and consumer
spheres, and the need for actors to communicate and become aware of the broader
network in which the product is embedded, and of the factors in these contexts
that can affect the product’s ability to provide value.
Essay 3 (chapter 6) drew attention to symbolic resource management across business relationships. It addressed a central resource feature, inertia, which we regarded as a result of resource path-dependencies and lock-in. To examine the role
of inertia and path-dependence for the development and utilisation of symbolic
resources, this article contributed with a very particular empirical case of a long
lasting and dominant business relationship (constituting what we called the focal
firm’s core path) and the inertia that this relationship had accumulated in the resource structure. We examined this inertness in the resources in relation to the
firm’s efforts and abilities to engage with new customers and products, i.e. new
types of resource combinations, and found that inertia could, in contrast to the
perspective in many other studies of inertia, also be seen as a positive phenomenon. That is, even inert resources could be made use of in new resource combinations of new business ventures. The valuableness of the resource investments
stemming from the “core” relationship, were not limited to e.g. excess capacity
utilisation or economization on accumulated competence, but strongly related also
to symbolic resource use. Path-dependencies had in the case firm of this essay
accumulated inertia e.g. in the form of a clear and stable corporate identity and
reputation, that the firm did not want to deviate from in its new ventures, but
which became utilised in new ways in the other relationships. This article contributed to the whole of the thesis also through providing symbolically rich empir-
134
Acta Wasaensia
ical setting, featuring focal products, which could be characterised as iconic designs from a renowned and widely recognised architect. The case products in this
essay were in other words strong in symbolic meanings.
While Essay 3 offered a unique setting to examine design as a symbolic resource,
Essay 4 (chapter 7) brought more specifically forth how brands and signs function as symbolic resources in business relationships. The case in this essay contributed with providing a more interacted view of the brand: as a resource that is
exposed to major adaptation and “fit-seeking” in the network, illustrating how
closely intertwined processes relationship development and brand development
processes in fact may be. This essay comprised, similarly as the preceding one, a
longitudinal study. It examined temporal phases in the case firm’s involvement in
different markets and customer relationships, and compared these developments
with the efforts and decisions related to product development, brand management
decisions and the meanings and symbols used to communicate about it. As a conclusion, we emphasised the interacted and dynamic nature of the brand: that the
value of the brand as a symbolic resource needs to be understood in relation to the
network of marketing relationships and the changes occurring in them.
8.2
Integrated discussion of the empirical findings
The cases depicted in the essays above illustrate a variety of ways in which resources can be seen as symbolically embedded. This chapter provides a discussion of these findings on an aggregated level.
Referring back to the methodological discussion in Chapter 3, it was stated that
the intent with the three separate case studies is to utilise them in a complementary manner to shed light on our conceptual issues of interest, rather than aim at
providing a cross-case analysis according to a replication logic. The integrative
discussion of the case findings thus focuses on the heterogeneity that the cases
exhibit, and takes into account the contextual conditions under which the focal
phenomenon of symbolic embeddedness takes different forms of expression.
Table 2 below illuminates these differences between the empirical findings along
the dimensions of type of embeddedness, origin of symbolic resourcing, type of
governance, and the ways in which symbols are managed. In the next, the two
different sub-units of analysis (two different collections, offered to two different
customer chains) within the bed manufacturer case are analytically separated.
Acta Wasaensia
Table 2.
135
Case integration
The bed manufacturer case contains two sub-units of analysis in the form of
customer relationships with furniture chains A and B. The products sold to both
these customers are adapted collections of beds, with features that make the collections identifiable as products of specifically the customer chain in question.
This is enabled e.g. though a specifically adapted, unique product appearance and
a brand that is exclusive to the retailer. The products can be seen as co-created
through the close interaction processes taking place between seller and buyer,
particularly at the operative level of the key account manager - product manager
dyad, but with connections also at other levels and functions between the firms.
Co-creation refers in this context both to an interactive process of developing,
negotiating and agreeing on the physical composition of the products or the
amount and types of product varieties, and a co-creation of symbolic resource
features through means such as advertising, product display or product information to support personal selling.
Of the two sub-units of analysis in this case, the relationship to customer chain A
involves a focal resource, which is strongly symbolically imprinted by both customer (chain) and provider (manufacturer) through a close, interactive relationship. The selling counterpart contributes to the product with tangible, as well intangible resource features, of which the latter could be seen as relating to the experiential and interpretive aspects of the tangible product or the business-tobusiness offering in broader terms (see Ford et al. 2011) e.g. in the form of prod-
136
Acta Wasaensia
uct comfort or supplier reliability, which were symbolic features that the retailer
was able to put to use also further on in its interactions with consumers. The customer (retail chain)’s contribution in its turn was strong at the imagery level, as
the brand, under which the collection is sold, is the retail chain’s own, wellestablished bed brand, i.e. the retailer is the brand governor (c.f. Fyrberg & Jüriado 2009). The retailer furthermore contributes symbolically through its own resources in e.g. the design and visual management of store environments. This
case can thus be seen as an example of a situation where the product’s symbolic
imprints originate strongly from the customer, also reflected along the dimension
of the degree of meaning management. In this case, the ultimate presentation of
the product in the different retail settings, the contact surfaces between the intermediary and the consumers, are symbolically fairly coherent, as also the mystery
shopping observations confirmed regarding this sub-case. We believe this to be
due to the higher degree of chain management and control; the different stores
belonging to the same company are managed to have a similar and recognizable
appearance, and the same assortment of products and marketing communications.
However, even this case of a retailer’s private label product exhibits a relationship
mechanism of close buyer-seller co-operation as a context for resource management. Therefore, even in such as case when the product is more clearly the property of the retailer, the resource can be seen as interacted in nature. It is this not
only the retailer-dominated outward presentation of what the product symbolically contains, but also the manufacturer-provided underlying substance of the immaterial meanings that constitute the symbolism in the product in this case. In a
closely tied relationship setting such as this, the product is approached as a jointly
managed and developed resource, rather than the question being of contract manufacturing where the supplier would only passively respond to the specifications
given by the customer.
The second sub-case in the bed manufacturer study, the relationship to the furniture chain B (discussed in more detail in Essay 1) has in contrast a more loosely
networked relationship context. This indicates the existence of a relationship
mechanism, but its role is most clearly visible at the level of the manufacturer chain management dyad (also in this sub-case largely between the seller’s key
account manager and the buyer’s product manager), while at the retail actor level,
this case demonstrates a broader heterogeneity of the ways in which the focal resource is embedded. That is, the resource endowments of the individual selling
environments, as well as the extent and way in which the focal resource is able to
provide value propositions to consumers in them, vary from one store to the other.
As this case context is constituted by a retail chain that is, compared to the previous sub-case, less governed by chain management (i.e. the stores are run by individual entrepreneurs as individual businesses, only loosely co-operating in pur-
Acta Wasaensia
137
chasing and marketing), the case suggests in comparison with the other sub-case,
that the symbolic outcomes of resources, when distributed through such settings,
become highly heterogeneous. In Essay 2 we discussed the roles of the intermediary from the point of view of symbolic resources. This sub-case provides empirical illustrations of different retail resource contexts conveying, improving, changing and even negating (or destroying, in S-D L terminology) the value proposition
of the product and thus significantly affecting the ability of the product to be used
as a symbolic resource.
The Junet case offers a different viewpoint from the others, in the sense that is
has partly been operating in what could somewhat more be characterized as a
market than a network context, when it comes to relationships on the distribution
side. The longitudinal perspective however reveals the dynamics in the firm’s
efforts of shifting from being involved in numerous arm’s length relationships,
towards fewer, more involved and committed customer relationships. The firm’s
intertwined processes of developing products and their symbolic content in the
form of brands and signs, has paralleled its efforts in matching these resources
with suitable customers. In this case, the origin of the symbolic resources are to a
relatively high degree designer and marketer generated, but managed to match
with user resources, that utilize the firm provided symbolic imprints in differing
ways, such as on the one hand, being a domestic quality and design brand in the
assortment of a selective design retailer, or, on the other hand, as a product in an
elderly housing (project market) context, which utilises the aesthetic and qualitative resource aspects of the focal products in an environment where issues such as
ergonomics, functionality and atmosphere receive a completely different type of
emphasis. The case mirrors the more recent multiple-stakeholder perspective on
brands (see Merz, He & Vargo 2009): that brands are a matter of interaction between different actors in the network.
The Korhonen(-Artek) case in turn exemplifies a setting where the symbolic
imprints clearly originate upstream (from designer) and are exposed to less negotiation and modification in the network, like we pointed out in the summary. We
relate this conceptually to the notion of inertness of resources, which has in prior
studies been examined in relation to technological or organisational pathdependencies at structural or mental levels. While much of the previous research
has approached inertia from a negative point of view, as inability to change resulting from lock-in; in this case, we drew attention also to the positive aspects of
inertia along the symbolic resource dimensions. We saw how the dominant business relationship between Korhonen and Artek, including the pivotal role of the
design actor (Alvar Aalto), strongly defined the physical product and facility resources of the focal firm, but also manifested itself symbolically in for instance
138
Acta Wasaensia
the business unit’s corporate identity or acknowledged role as a “design actor” on
the market. This is illustrated for instance in the form of the reference value of the
dominant relationship when establishing new distribution channels for new products, and also in the firm’s attractiveness (a spontaneous “pull”) as a potential
partner for designers seeking manufacturers to commercialise their prototypes.
The term image heritage (Rindell 2013) has been suggested to address the temporal aspects of image formation. Regarding the Korhonen case, a kind of image
heritage can even be seen in an inter-relationship context, symbolic resources
developed in one relationship context becoming activated in also new relationships involving products that are seemingly unattached to the preceding/parallel
relationship, as discussed in Essay 3.
To summarize, the cases examined have offered empirical complementarities in
understanding cross-sectional as well as longitudinal settings, settings of a differing intensity if relationship mechanisms as business context and focused on resource development and management both in on-going and developing relationships and networks as well as examined the tension between resource investments
from old/existing relationships and attempts to establish new ones, where the resource could be put to use and provide value.
8.3 Theoretical implications - towards an
understanding of symbolic embeddedness
This section addresses the theoretical implications and contribution of the study.
Based on the empirical findings that we have summarised above, we discuss the
concept of symbolic embeddedness, its forms of expression and underlying factors that influence a product’s ability to function as a symbolic resource. In the
discussion, we present four propositions to help conceptually clarify our conclusions. Moreover, we return to the theoretical framework presented in chapter 2,
and discuss the ways in which the theoretical approaches of IMP, S-D L and CCT
each contribute to the understanding of symbolic embeddedness.
8.3.1.
Characteristics of symbolic embeddedness based on the empirical cases
In this section, we shall return to aspects of symbolic embeddedness raised by the
aggregated level analysis of the empirical findings. These correspond to the columns of Table 2, in sub-chapter 8.2. That is, the type and origin of symbolic re-
Acta Wasaensia
139
sources, the underlying governance mechanism and the type of resource use and
management.
8.3.1.1
Type of symbolic embeddedness
The case studies illustrated a variety in terms of the type and extent of symbolic
embeddedness of the products. With this, we mean how, and how strongly, the
products are affected and imprinted in a symbolic sense by interfaces with and
dependencies of other resources in its network context, for example the marketing
resources of the retailer.
Proposition 1: The degree, to which products are symbolically embedded, can
vary from symbolically more given, to open and heterogeneous.
The resource discussion within IMP has stressed the “openness” of resources and
their reinterpretation in new resource combinations. (Håkansson & Waluszewski
2004) When it comes to the symbolic dimension of resources, our findings suggest a continuum of symbolic resources from open and interacted to products that
have at some point been so strongly imprinted with symbolic meanings that they
are less influenced by connections to other resources. This latter end of the continuum is in the empirical material exemplified by the Artek products, which feature a strong and iconic brand and a highly design-intensive, well-recognised
identity, and physical products with a status as “classics”: an appearance that has
remained more or less unchanged through decades. In this sense, the product
“stands for itself” and is less influenced by other symbolic resources around it.
At the other end of the spectrum are the products from the bed manufacturer.
These products are both to their physical and communicative properties developed as a process of interaction, receiving significant symbolic imprints from the
retail context and being more open for negotiation than products in the two other
cases. In the retailer A relationship, the brand is the property of the retailer,
whereas in the retail chain B setting, the product concept, including the brand,
originates from the manufacturer’s sister company and has been adapted to the
requirements of the Finnish customer. However, as the different retail environments of the customer vary considerably to their appearance, product assortment,
communications etc., the imprints left on the product in these environments are
heterogeneous.
From the Korhonen example it could be assumed that a symbolically given product would be a result of strong brand building and/or design. To a certain extent
this is plausible; with investments in a resource, their heaviness is increased
(Håkansson & Waluszewski 2002). However, the Junet case also exhibits prod-
140
Acta Wasaensia
ucts that are positioned as design(er) brands, but which do not quite have the
symbolic strength or manifested design history to draw on as Korhonen. Instead,
the products have developed through faster changing and adapting processes, as
negotiation between designer inputs, brand identity considerations, customer relationship management efforts and reactions to the changing business environment.
These products might thus be placed more to the middle of the continuum, as
symbolically semi-given, in the sense that the designs, product aesthetics and
symbolism in the brand and communications have reflected a certain identity defined by the brand governor, but changed in nature over time and affected by
product-market decisions.
A further conceptual observation regarding the degree of symbolical embeddedness, is the ambiguity of the concept of materiality/immateriality of an offering, referred to Hellén & Gummerus (2013) and discussed in Essay 4. That is,
instead of strictly categorising products as material or immaterial by nature, and
following to this logic, branded furniture as something “very symbolic” in itself,
focus should rather be on different actors’ perceptions of the product, which may
or may not stress the symbolic aspects of it.
8.3.1.2
Origin of symbolic resourcing
A characteristic of symbolic embeddedness, which is closely linked to the discussion of its type and degree, is the origin of the symbolic imprints.
Proposition 2: Symbolic imprints can originate from different levels of the supply/distribution network.
The empirical cases illustrate a variety in the origin of symbolic resourcing, the
examples range from designers (the Korhonen case), to designer/brand governor
combinations (Junet) and manufacturer-retailer interactions (bed case), sometimes
with a clear retailer emphasis (bed case, customer chain B). These examples illustrate that even symbolic resources such as brands, can be formed in more complex
and interacted ways than the traditional one-directional and managerial branding
literature suggests, and in this sense, our findings are more in line with the perspectives of the multiple-stakeholder approach (see Merz et al 2009).
Put another way, it can be asked whose the product is perceived to be in the network. For instance in the case of the Alvar Aalto designed products for Artek,
Korhonen as the manufacturing business unit remains an invisible background
actor to the consumer; the identity presented is that of the product’s designer and
retailer, which are also interconnected by the fact that Alvar Aalto himself was
one of the founders of Artek. Interestingly though, the strength of the symbolic
Acta Wasaensia
141
content of the Aalto/Artek association has proven to be a symbolically usable
resource for Korhonen in new ventures; despite its symbolic “invisibility” in the
Artek products’ network.
Junet’s products have adapted to individual customers more on the level of customisation of physical product features and by finding project customers where it
can make use of the symbolic character of its prior/parallel products (e.g. warmth,
cosiness, eco-friendliness) in “symbolically fitting” settings such as in the furnishing of holiday homes or elderly housing. In this sense, this case illustrates a
combination of symbolic resources from several sources: designer, manufacturer,
retailer or other type of business customer.
The bed case provides examples of one product that is branded by a retailer, but
otherwise developed in interaction, and another product, where an existing brand
has been transferred from another market, and adapted for a domestic retailer.
Both these cases are rich in interaction, implying that even though the retailer
might imprint the presentation of the product towards consumers most strongly,
the resources also further upstream in the network have their influence through
the underlying relationships in which products and their presentations are interactively managed.
Proposition 3: Resources can be symbolically path dependent and inert
Håkansson et al (2009: 70) proposed that “a resource changes and develops
characteristic over time.” As an elaboration of this proposition, we claim that the
path-dependencies that accumulate inertia in resources can also concern the resource’s symbolic features. Conceptually, also the notion of image heritage (Rindell 2013) addresses a similar tendency. The role of resource history is illustrated
in an exceptional way by the Korhonen case and discussed in depth in Essay 3,
but also the other empirical cases provided support for the role of prior symbolic
resource developments, for subsequent symbolic resource management efforts.
An aspect worth highlighting regarding the role of prior resource investments, is
that this creates both possibilities and restrictions (Håkansson et al 2009: 70).
Investments in brand building or a reputation of designer collaborations can later
provide new possibilities and advantages in the form of e.g. reference value or a
strengthened corporate identity and image. At the same time, it can limit the
available options to engage in other types of symbolic resource combinations.
However, in Essay 3 (Norrgrann & Luokkanen-Rabetino 2011) we discussed also
the positive effects of such lock-in, and mental and competitive inertia (Dickson
1992; Miller & Chen 1994). Inertia relates not only to the inability to change, but
it can be a question of deliberate unwillingness to do break from path-
142
Acta Wasaensia
dependencies; to stabilise product offerings and enable a firm to strategically concentrate on what it does best, thereby also strengthening its core identity.
8.3.1.3
Governance and the management of symbolic resources
In the analysis of our cases, we also wanted to examine the type of interaction and
mechanisms behind the management of product. At this level, the following conclusion can be drawn:
Proposition 4: The underlying the governance mechanism influences how symbolic resources are used and managed.
In the cases, we could identify both close forms of interaction and co-operation,
defined by the informants as partnerships, and more loose, market-like relationships between manufacturer and customer; complexity of interaction seeming
generally to work as a mechanism to create coherence in the symbolic presentation of the products, and an increased mutual commitment to regarding the product as a value providing resource of mutual interest to the parties.
In cases of close co-operation and interaction, the joint resource presents itself in
a fairy coherent manner from one retail setting to another, while if the degree of
product management and control is lesser, the symbolic characteristics remain
more varied; at best usable in new, flexible ways (e.g. adapting well to individual
selling situations), but with the inherent risk of ‘losing’ meanings on the way. The
way that retail chains in themselves were governed, also appeared, in our interpretation, to influence the way in which symbols and meanings are produced, connected and utilised. A higher degree of chain management and control implied
that the contact surfaces to consumers provided by the individual stores of a chain
were more uniform and recognizable, and similar to one another regarding symbolic retail resources such as other products and marketing communications. This
constitutes managerially a more stable and predictable context for the product to
become embedded into, compared to a chain that is more loosely connected,
where the different stores control the “stagesetting” of the product more individually. It is hardly unexpected that a variation in these selling contexts, with differing store sizes, locations, product assortments, marketing strategies etc. provides
rather varying resource contexts for the focal product both when it comes to symbolic alignment and economic performance.
The cases of products that were symbolically imprinted further upstream (Junet
and Korhonen) than through interaction with the customer, demonstrated resource
management and utilisation of symbolic imprints through a process of matchseeking between the existing, and new potential uses for those resources. The
Acta Wasaensia
143
Junet case provides an illustration of a tendency to strive from more of a market
mechanism towards strategically significant relationships. This is also coupled
with the aim to find customers where the already established symbolic resources
of the firm (brand, product aesthetics and symbolism) would fit and be useful.
Korhonen’s Artek relationship, on the other hand, shows an example of a governance mechanism that could be characterised as a kind of a symbiosis between
manufacturer and retailer, the firms functioning much alike the production and
marketing departments of a single firm. As an epilogue to the case study, it can be
mentioned that in a press release from 31. January 2014, Artek announced that it
has acquired Korhonen’s furniture production ‘to ensure the continuity and further development of Aalto products’ (Artek 2014), sealing the long-lasting and
close co-operation into full integration.
8.3.2
Types of symbolic resources in furniture networks
Conceptually, the empirical cases and the supporting conceptual tools have
brought forth particularly the following three important symbolic aspects of resources: design, brands, and value propositions. In the next, we will discuss the
ways in which these manifest themselves.
8.3.2.1
Design as a symbolic resource
In a product category such as furniture, the meanings that consumers attach to
products often relate to product appearance and aesthetic properties. For instance
according to Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton’s (1981) work on meanings
related to the most cherished objects in the home, style accounted for 12 % of the
reasons why a piece of furniture was considered a special and meaningful object
in a consumer’s home environment, i.e. the context of final use.
In this study, the cases of Junet and Korhonen provide good illustrations of the
ways in which design is used as a symbolic resource. The products of these firms
are profiled and marketed more or less as design objects, illustrated by e.g. the
emphasis on the designer persona in communication, and in the choice to handle
distribution through a retailer that has clearly profiled itself as a design brand reseller. In this retail context, other design products and brands become connected
with the focal design products, influencing the perceptions of them. In an analogous way to how IMP has dealt with the influence of actor bonds on the identity
of a specific actor (Ford et al. 2003), also resource identities are affected by other
resources in their context. Other, strong design brands in the same store, or the
144
Acta Wasaensia
design-intensive corporate identity of the retailer, are examples of such effects in
the cases of this thesis.
When a resource interaction perspective is applied to the dimension of design, we
can also see that design is not only a feature that is added to the product by a designer, but that this imprint is something that can be utilised and economized on
as a form of image heritage (see Rindell 2013) manifested in the business unit
through experiences, learning, corporate identity or even strategic orientation. The
usefulness of this symbolically embedded resource became “exposed” through
what could conceptually be referred to as secondary and tertiary combining of
resources (Gadde & Håkansson 2008) in new ventures, involving new business
relationship and new products, which our longitudinal cases were able to demonstrate.
Drawing on the conclusions from our empirical material, “design-as-symbolic
resource” can take different forms of manifestations when it comes to the origin
of this symbolic content. Design as a resource can concern highly “given” products, that are so strongly imbued with symbolic meaning from the designer, that it
receives fewer imprints from other resources downstream in its selling context. In
other instances, product appearances are influenced by a broader varity of actors
related to production or marketing, and their resource restrictions and possibilities
regarding for instance facilities. Even consumers can participate in the design
process through customisation of product appearance and style within a certain
scope of alternatives, e.g. being able to affect the size dimensions, colour or material choices of the piece of furniture. Also retail actors may have a co-creating
role in design, as all of the studied cased showed, from very concretely interactive
negotiation around specific product features, to provision of more general ideas
and impulses for product development.
8.3.2.2
Brands and communication as symbolic resources
The importance of symbols, signs and other metaphors is firmly established in
consumer marketing literature (Levy 1959; Levitt 1981; Solomon 1983;
McCracken 1990; Venkatesh, Peñaloza & Firat 2006). In our empirical material,
we could particularly see signs and meanings imbued into brands and marketing
communications as symbolic resources that the business actors provide, connect
and co-create in interaction. These symbolic resources can then be used as representations of the resource’s possibilities for the consumer. Brands are embedded
resources in the sense that their properties are influenced by those in the network,
and brands are also used by network actors for their own strategic purposes, as we
illustrated in Essay 1. Furthermore, apart from perceiving brands as entities, or for
instance dimensions of a focal product, they can also be regarded as processes
Acta Wasaensia
145
(Brodie 2009). Such a perspective ‘opens up’ the concept to a more interactive
view, of the symbolic content of the brand being developed with inputs from the
different actors connected to it. Brands also symbolize meanings to any network
actor, not only to the final user. Within branding literature, there has recently been
an increased interest in understading brands more from such an interacted viewpoint. The so-called multiple-stakeholder perspective (Merz, He & Vargo 2009;
Kornum & Mühlbacher 2013; Vallaster & von Wallpach 2013) differs from the
more traditional one-directional, managerial or the primarily consumer-focused
approaches by viewing brands as co-created in the interactions between different
stakeholders, providing value not only for end customers but also in other marketing relationships.
The Junet case (Esssay 4) provided a particular illustration of how strongly the
brand and its positioning can be influenced by developments and interaction in
customer relationships: brand management being a network level issue rather than
something the brand governor builds and strategizes about independently. Brands
are, in the light of our findings, not “given” entities that are provided for consumers, but heterogeneous resources that can be interactively developed. In the same
manner, also marketing communication resources, which might be categorised as
facilities according to the 4R model, were in our empirical material resources that
were to a large extent subject for interaction between network actors. In the same
vein, the ultimate presentation of a focal resource can be seen as a result of symbolic resource combining, in terms of other communicative elements surrounding
the product and influencing its interpretations, from manufacturer’s corporate
image and communications materials, combined with the chain’s or individual
store’s various promotional resources, store environment, design, layout and other
atmospheric elements (c.f. Turley & Chebat 2002; Davies & Ward 2005), as well
as communication conveyed in personal selling and service encounters.
8.3.2.3
Value propositions as symbolic resources
A third form of symbolic embeddedness we would like to draw attention to, is
perhaps the most interactive in nature, compared to designs and brands. That is,
the development of the value proposition to be offered further on to consumers,
for their resource combining activities and the creation of value-in-use (see Grönroos 2008). Manufacturers and retail actors in our cases co-operate in development processes directed at managing the product in such a way, that it corresponds to the envisaged final use of the product, in CCT terms, the goals and life
projects that the product is a resource for. Examples in the empirical material of
product characteristics with such projections into the consumer sphere are for
instance eco-friendliness, allergy-friendliness, cosiness or domesticness. In the
146
Acta Wasaensia
development of such symbolic resources that potential consumers can then use in
their everyday lifes in their quest for e.g. an ecologically sound life, it was notable
how this value proposing process was indeed an interacted effort. In some of the
cases, it took the form of interactive development between manufacturer and retail actors in adaptation of physical product properties, or joint development of
marketing tactics. In the retail context, an important way in which the focal products value proposition was negotiated because of network embeddedness, was
through positioning. This was particularly visible in the bed case and the Junet
case; the close interaction with customer implied adaptive efforts to make the
product and its value proposition ‘fit in’ with the retailer’s assortment of other
brands, implying changes in the focal products regarding e.g. price, product
names and other imagery, to justify the particular product’s usefulness in relation
the other products/value propositions in the context.
8.3.3
Symbolic embeddedness and the contexts of supplying, retailing and
consumption
In the introduction of the thesis, we formulated the purpose of the study as to gain
an understanding of symbolic embeddedness of products, and more specifically,
how symbolic embeddedness manifests itself in different contexts in the selling
system.
Next, we will provide a discussion related to these contexts that a product is managed through: the supplier context, the distribution and retail context and the consumer context, and relate the contributions of the conceptual approaches of IMP /
4R, S-D L and CCT to them.
Figure 9 offers a visualisation of a focal product’s symbolic embeddedness in the
different resource contexts, through which it is managed on its way from manufacturing towards the final user. These contexts are here separated into fairly
rough analytical categories: the supply resource context, which can be understood
in a broad sense as consisting of a resource network of interconnected resource
items both within the manufacturing firm and outside it. At this level, a focal resource – in our case, product– can be understood through the business networkbased 4R framework as a resource that embedded into the context of other resources that affect its development and use. It receives symbolic properties as an
effect of these interfaces, and correspondingly affects other resources that it is
connected to also on a symbolic level. The two different “layers” of the focal
product refer to the distinction that was made in the theoretical framework (section 2.5.3) between the image level and activated level of resources. This means
that the surrounding resources in this context affect the focal product both regard-
Acta Wasaensia
147
ing its actual/physical characteristics (in a similar manner as technological embeddedness would), but also its symbolic characteristics on the image level. For
instance the effect of a manufacturer’s corporate image (a symbolic dimension of
a business unit (BU) - resource) on the product’s image (symbolic dimension of a
product (P) resource) can be seen as a symbolic interface, i.e. a connection between the image dimensions of two resources.
Figure 9.
Symbolic embeddedness in different resource contexts
The supplier resource context is here depicted as a rough and simplified visualisation. In reality, the various resources in this context are, like we mentioned, located within a broader and more complex network, not only limited to the manufacturing business unit. In the empirical cases of the thesis, resources of e.g. partner
firms, suppliers, marketing agencies and other significant partners on the business-to-business level form the resource context, which the focal product becomes symbolically imprinted by.
The next broadly defined resource context is the distribution/retail sphere, which
can include actors of different type, ranging from individual project customers to
extensive distribution networks of retail chains with numerous stores. When the
product moves from the supplier context to the distributor/retailer context, it faces
new types of resources and new business logics that steer their management and
use. Ford et al. (2003: 134) highlight the roles of distribution intermediaries in
providing positional resources, i.e. connecting the networks of customers and
suppliers, technological resources, which relate to the practical and logistical pro-
148
Acta Wasaensia
cesses. In addition to these, we suggested in Essays 1 and 2 that intermediaries
also have a role in providing symbolic resources that interact with the focal product. On one hand, the resources of the retailer, that can be divided into the 4R
framework’s resource types – other products or business unit characteristics, for
instance, can be seen from an image perspective, like in the supply context. The
perceptions of other products in a retailer’s assortment or the atmosphere experienced when shopping in their facilities connect create symbolic imprints on the
focal product.
The 4R tool could thus be used to pinpoint also symbolic interfaces between the
focal product and other resources in this context. However, the retail context was
found to provide resources also of a type that was not covered in the IMP –based
resource conceptualisations, that is, resources for the consumer. In following this
lead, we came to broaden our theoretical horizon. Within CCT, Arnould (2005)
had also discussed the resources of retailers, however from the perspective of how
they function as resource purveyors, packaging cultural resources into a retail
mix, through which the retailer could provide cultural resources related to consumers’ economic goals (e.g. using pricing as a signal for consumer thriftiness),
or providing utopian, ludic or temporal resources through managing the servicescape. Seen from the consumer research perspective (Arnould 2005; Solomon
1983) the retail context is full of symbolic meanings, and the products in it symbolic communication tools.
At the point when the focal product is entering the distribution/retail context and
becoming assessed as a resource in it by its intermediate users, the symbolic resource dimension becomes increasingly relevant. In this sense, we contribute to
the prior 4R research by bringing the framework more clearly into the domain of
marketing. The focal product, imbued with traces of its resource interfaces from
the supply context, is in the customer context regarded also concerning its symbolic resource features. It carries certain characteristics that are results of resource
development upstream, which can be symbolically utilised in this selling/marketing context. Even concrete features like materials or processes, can be
symbolically utilised in e.g. sales argumentation or other marketing communication. That is, the intermediaries convey and often ultimately control the presentation of the product further on downstream. As we discussed in the precious section, the strength of the relationship mechanism between supplier and the distribution/retail actors affects the extent to which the product’s presentation is more
jointly and interactively managed, or whether the retail actors exert more own
control over the symbolic resource aspects that are conveyed towards consumers.
Whether the brand, design or other communicative elements of the focal product
are symbolic resources that originate in the supplier sphere, the retail sphere, or
Acta Wasaensia
149
the interaction between them, is partly linked to the closeness of the relationships
between supplier and intermediate customer.
When it comes to the focal product’s interfaces with the variety of resources in
the retail context, we mentioned that the 4R analytical tool is helpful in pinpointing effects of specific interfaces, and that CCT offers additional contribution by
addressing the symbolic meanings in the context and the way they can provide
cultural, symbolic resources for consumers. Moreover, the theoretical input from
S-D L helps us better address the connection of the focal resource with the customer. The S-D L addresses, in a similar manner as IMP, resources as interesting
from an interaction and combination point of view. They however have a stronger
focus on integration of resources to a combination that is valuable for the customer. We find particularly the notion of value proposition useful. In figure 9, we
have placed this term in the intersection between the retail and the consumer
spheres, illustrating the integration of firm-provided resources, including the imprints on the product from various business actors up to this point into a concrete
and symbolic presentation of the offering to consumers. At this point, the focus
shifts increasingly from understanding resource embeddedness to understanding
resource value. S-D L moreover makes a distinction between operand and operant
resources. What is interesting from our perspective is the operant category; intangible resources that provide effects and services. This is closely related to our idea
of resources symbolising their potential usefulness.
As the product, imprinted with symbolic traces now also from the distribution and
retail context, enters the consumer sphere (see figure 9) it becomes once again
connected with new resources. These resource combinations ultimately determine
the product’s ability to realize its value proposition. In the consumer sphere, consumers use symbolic resources provided and mediated by the market to provide
symbolic services for their own life projects and goals (Arnould 2007). According
to the CCT’s view of consumers as active and empowered, even they can still
transform the symbolic meanings in products, brands, retail environments or
communications to their own personal or social circumstances (Arnould 2007;
Arnould & Thompson 2004). How the products manage to either convey the
meanings and value propositions co-created by network actors, or provide consumers with such symbolic resources that they find it a useful cultural resource, is
what ultimately determines the value of the product.
150
Acta Wasaensia
8.4 A note on managing the symbolically embedded
product
Referring to the summary of the essays and their conclusions, a common theme
that they all raise, is role of relationships for managing products and their symbolic representations.
The bed manufacturer case draws attention to interaction within existing relationships, and highlights the importance of close actors bonds as a prerequisite for an
efficient management of products, for the product to function as value-providing
resource across the network. Joint resource management of symbolic resource
dimensions can imply interaction around for instance agreements on product features, pricing, positioning and sales argumentation, to ensure that the product
meets the needs of intermediate and final user needs. A close relationship mechanism can contribute to a better awareness and understanding of the interfaces,
restrictions and possibilities of resource use in the spheres outside that of a specific actor, thereby increasing the possibility of developing resources that provide a
better match with the resources and uses in contexts, where the actor exerts less
direct control and has a more limited awareness of.
Managing the product’s interfaces with other products in the manufacturing, distribution and retail contexts, involves the management of complementarities. By
that, we mean adjusting and balancing product features against other (competing
or supporting) products in the specific context, and the images of them. The empirical cases provided examples of situations where the manufacturer/brand governor made both concrete and symbolic/communicative product adaptations in the
form of product renaming, changed design, use of new types of imagery, appeals,
textual descriptions, slogans and other means of communication, in order to realign the offering to better match with strategically selected customer contexts. We
see the importance of the interaction mechanism in such as setting as significant
for enabling a sufficient understanding of the producing/creating, the selling, and
the using contexts that the product is embedded in.
In a similar manner, the product’s interfaces with symbolic facilities, such as
marketing materials, atmospheric cues in the retail environment and other tools to
facilitate selling, need to align for the purpose to provide or mediate a desired
value proposition. This applies also more generally to product perceptions and
knowledge: the actor’s views on what is significant and valuable, and thus desirable to communicate, about the product. In a study of product meanings among
different members of a marketing channel Lautamäki (2000: 171) examined the
connections between the economic performance of products and the degree to
Acta Wasaensia
151
which the different members’ product knowledge was shared or overlapping: assuming, based on previous research, that the more meanings different channel
members share, the better product performance. Lautamäki’s (2000) results
showed a difference in the quality of meanings attached to products that sold well
vs. less well. Even though meanings assigned to products were strongly influenced by the member role (as manufacturer, retailer or designer), particularly in
economically successful products, there was a clearer overlap in the meanings and
a shared understanding of the product.
Our findings did not explicitly aim to assess the economic successfulness of the
case products, but the study did include a comparative setting between a customer
relationships with highly managed and shared meanings across distribution actors,
with a relationship where meanings were less steered by chain management and
thus more heterogeneous. Even though the advantages of a coherent image
throughout the marketing channel are evident against the viewpoints and objectives of integrated marketing communication (c.f. Kitchen & De Pelsmacker
2004) of message consistency and complementarity across channels and shared
meanings contributing to a common understanding between marketing channel
actors (Lautamäki 2000:189). However, even heterogeneity in meanings may
have positive effects, for instance for product innovation (Lautamäki 2000: 205).
Based on our empirical findings, it can be stated that in instances when the focal
resource and its symbolic presentation is less controlled by hierarchical (chain
management) or close relationship mechanisms, e.g. through sales argumentation
at sales encounters, the product is, figuratively speaking, “left to its own devices”,
open for reinterpretation in connection to the heterogeneous resources it becomes
connect with. At best, this can allow new, significant context-specifically adapted
meanings to emerge, which were even unforeseeable at previous resource management levels. A case in point this is meanings related to product colour of one
of the case products; the “blue-and-whiteness” of the product received a particular
significance in the Finnish retail context as a symbolic consumer resource related
to preference for domestic production. As the product concept was originally developed by a Swedish company for other markets, this feature only received its
particular meaning once coupled to this specific sales context. The other side of
the coin of this openness of the value proposition is that resource characteristics
that actors have invested efforts in developing, may remain under- or unutilised
when the sufficient interaction does not take place to communicate of such resource combination possibilities.
The longitudinal cases of the thesis exposed how products symbolically embedded in existing customer relationship contexts are challenged when the firm seeks
152
Acta Wasaensia
new ventures in the form of new products and customers. In such a setting, the
firm may be experiencing inertia and lock-in, finding it challenging to break from
the resource investments into ventures requiring new types of resource combinations and investments. Our cases however highlight not only the negative, restricting aspects of resource path dependencies (in the form of primary resource combinations in Gadde & Håkansson’s (2008) terms), but also the possibilities provided by such interdependence, not least when it comes to the symbolic level. For
instance, facility structures, production capacity, knowledge, corporate identity
and brand symbolism, that could be seen as a result from a previous primary resource combination, were aspects the case firms managed to utilise in new ways
in new relationships, either symbolically, economically or technically. Managerially, this draws attention to for instance the advantages in sustaining and nurturing a coherent corporate or brand identity linked to certain symbolic and/or activated resources, such as high quality production competence, use of ecological
materials or a reputation as a “high design” actor, to name a few of the empirical
examples. Such symbolic and communicative resources, which are rooted in actual resource investments, can form a credible foundation for relating to new customers through new products in parallel or future relationships.
Managing the symbolic interfaces between a focal product and the social resource
entities, business units and business relationships, relates to questions such as
utilising brands and images, identities, reputations and connections that the business units and relationships in the resource context can provide. Also along these
interfaces, the findings of the study pinpointed the advantages of close relationships. For instance keeping marketing actors and e.g. sales staff well-informed
and knowledgeable about the products and engaging them to sell through sales
promotion activities directed at retailers, can function as a way to increase the
strength of the business relationship and the bonds between actors in the business
units. The empirical results showed clearly the role of the sales person as a gatekeeper for if and how the product actually meets the customer in the retail context
and provides her/him value. The symbolic interface of what is communicated and
how in this interface, represents a critical point for resource management.
8.5
Limitations and avenues for further research
In this study, we have introduced the notion of symbolic embeddedness and illuminated some of its characteristics and forms of expression, based on three case
studies. The delimitations we have made regarding types of unit of analysis (focal
Acta Wasaensia
153
resource item and type of products), and the nature, depth and extent of the empirical material gathered, affect the conclusions that can be drawn. In the next, we
present some directions that future studies could examine closer than what was
done within the scope of this thesis.
When it comes to the empirical choices, a shortcoming of the Junet and Korhonen
cases is their focal actor focus. Even if our analytical interest was on the relationscape (Strandvik & Törnroos 1997) the cases still represent the voice of only one
relationship counterpart. These two cases were, nevertheless, longitudinal studies,
which enabled an identification of relationship dynamics, but extending these
cases empirically to comprise the viewpoints of customers, to a dyadic or network
setting, would be have enriched the findings through a stronger representation of
the customer perspective and the contact surfaces with consumers.
The bed manufacturer case depicts a very broad network, making it challenging to
cover empirically to ensure sufficient depth and extent. Also in this case, the resources and activities in the retail environment and the management of the interface with the consumer could have received more emphasis, and to cover these
aspects more in this case, could be an avenue for further empirical effort.
For an increased understanding of the concept of this thesis, symbolic embeddedness, we suggest that subsequent work could be carried out in new types of
empirical settings than the one studied in this thesis, in order to build a more multifaceted understanding of the characteristics and forms of expression of this concept. In this study, we have highlighted specifically three dimensions of symbolic
resources, when the focal resource is a product: design, brands and communication, and the value proposition. These dimensions could be explored in more
depth in future studies.
In this thesis, we have used the 4R framework from the IMP field and complemented it with perspectives and selected concepts from the service dominant logic
of marketing and consumer culture theory, as the focus of the study has been
geared toward the selling, rather than producing part of the network. The intersections between these theoretical approaches offer still many possibilities for further
investigation and cross-fertilization, that could be addressed in future studies. For
example a closer examination of interfaces in the selling context, concerning role
of different actors, such as sales staff, might be an interesting avenue to explore in
future research.
In all, in this study, we took a point of departure in resources of a focal firm and
its (business) customers and stretched the perspective toward the consumer
sphere. The intersections between firm-provided symbolic resources and the re-
154
Acta Wasaensia
sources of the customer, and the process of combining them for creation of value
for customers is a further, interesting topic, where the focus would be more in the
consumer/customer sphere and thus perhaps more suitably positioned within the
domain of S-DL/CCT. If the resource interface framework would take in consumers as actors, and study the consumption context in more empirical detail, we
could also gain new understanding of the types of symbolic interfaces. The possibility of extending the area of application of the 4R framework to be used as an
analytical tool for understanding how different firm-provided resources interact
with consumers’ resources, could also be a potential future task. Could even consumer resources be categorised into the four types of resource entities? For instance, with furniture as a focal product, an investigation of its symbolic embeddedness to the resource structure of consumption might involve examining interactions with other products such as other pieces of furniture, objects and décor
elements; the facilities might be framed as elements in the space (home, or other
environment of use) that serve a specific function or purpose. The business unit
resource type could perhaps be translated into consuming unit, involving e.g. the
economic resources as well as knowledge and competence that are needed for the
combining and utilising operant resources. Business relationships as the final resource type could in a consumer context be seen as the social relationships and
contexts where meanings are culturally produced and used. Future studies could
explore if such a categorisation is plausible in the consumer sphere, which would
in fact increasingly deepen the connections between IMP (resource embeddedness), S-D L (integrated, operant resources) and CCT (culturally produced
meanings).
Another similar conceptual intersection worth exploring could also be to consider
the linkages between business network, actor-network (ANT) and CCT angles in
the understanding of the relationships between the actor and resource layers, the
roles that products and other objects play, and the formation of symbolic value for
consumers. If the aforementioned 4R categorisation were applied to consumer
resources, the distinction between a product and a facility might need additional
clarification: when is a product a product, and when does it perform some sort of
facilitating services? Here, exploring the notion of object agency might be useful
as a concept in addressing this distinction.
Acta Wasaensia
155
References
Alchian, A. & Demsetz, H. (1972). Production, Information Costs and Economic
Organization. American Economic Review 62: 5, 777-795.
Alderson, W. (1995). The analytical framework for marketing. In: Enis B & K.
Cox: Marketing classics. A selection of influential articles. Boston: Albyn and
Bacon Inc.
Araujo, L. & Harrison, D. (2002). Path dependence, Agency and Technological
Evolution. Technology Analysis and Strategic Management 14: 1, 5-19.
Arnould, E. (2005). Animating the big middle. Journal of Retailing 81: 2, 89-96.
Arnould, E. (2007). Service-dominant logic and consumer culture theory: natural
allies in an emerging paradigm. In: Belk, R. & Sherry, J. (Eds) Consumer Culture
Theory. Bingley: Emerald Group publishing Limited.
Arnould, E. & Thompson, C. (2005). Consumer Culture Theory (CCT): Twenty
years of research. Journal of Consumer Research 31: 3, 868-877.
Baraldi, E. (2003). When Information Technology Faces Resource Interaction.
Using IT Tools to Handle Products at IKEA and Edsbyn. Doctoral Thesis No. 105
2003. Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University.
Baraldi, E & Bocconcelli, R. (2001). The quantitative journey in a qualitative
landscape. Developing a data collection model and a quantitative methodology in
business network studies. Management Decision 39:7, 564-577.
Baraldi, E., Bocconcelli, R., Söderlund, A. (2001). Resource interaction in the
furniture industry - relating design, distribution and IT. Nordiske organisasjonsstudier 4/2001, 110-134
Baraldi, E., Gressetvold, E. & Harrison, D. (2012). Resource interaction in interorganizational networks: foundatons, comparisons, and a research agenda. Journal of Business Research 65, 266-276.
Bengtson, A. (2003). Framing Technological Development in a Concrete Context
– the Use of Wood in the Swedish Construction Industry, Doctoral Thesis, Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University.
Brodie, R.J. (2009). From goods to service branding: an integrative perspective.
Marketing Theory 9: 1, 107-110.
156
Acta Wasaensia
Castellion, G. & Markham, S.K. (2013). New Product Failure Rates: Influence of
Argumentum ad Populum and Self-Interest. Journal of Product Innovation Management 30: 5, 976–979.
Cook, K.S. & Emerson, R.M (1978). Power, Equity and Commitment in Exchange Networks. American Sociological Review 43, 712-39.
Cova, B. & Salle, R. (2008a). The industrial/consumer marketing dichotomy revisited: a case of outdated justification? Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing. 23:1, 3-11.
Cova, B. & Salle, R. (2008b). From Scientific Controversies to Brand Communities: Welcome to a Branded World. Proceedings of the 24th IMP conference, Uppsala, 2008.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. & Rochberg-Halton, E. (1981). The meaning of things –
Domestic symbols and the self. Cambridge: Cambridge university press.
Das, T. & Teng, B. (1999). Resource and risk management in the strategic alliance making process. Journal of Management 12:1, 21-42.
Davies, B. & Ward P. (2005). Exploring the Connections between Visual Merchandising and Retail Branding. An application of Facet Theory. International
Journal of Retail & Distribution Management 33: 7, 505-513.
Dickson, P. R. (1992). Toward a General Theory of Competitive Rationality,
Journal of Marketing 1992: 56, 69-83.
Dubois, A. (1998). Organizing Industrial Activities Across Firm Boundaries.
London: Routledge.
Dubois, A. & Gadde, L-E. (2002). Systematic combining: an abductive aproach to
case research. Journal of Business Research 55, 553-560.
Dubois, A. & Gadde, L-E. (2014). Systematic combing – A decade later. Journal
of Business Research 67, 1277-1284.
Dubois A. & Torvatn T. (2002). Towards understanding interaction and resource
development – the firm as a network buffer. Paper presented at the 12th Nordic
workshop on interorganisational research, Kolding, Denmark. August 2002.
Easton, G. (1992). Industrial networks: a review. In: Axelsson B. & G. Easton
(eds): Networks, a new view of reality. London: Routledge.
Easton, G. (1995). Methodology and Industrial Networks. In: Möller, K. & Wilson, D. (eds): Business Marketing, an interaction and network perspective. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Acta Wasaensia
157
Eisenhardt, K. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of
Management Review, 14: 4, 532-550.
Eriksson, P. & Kovalainen, A. (2008). Qualitative Methods in Business Research,
London: Sage Publishing.
Forbord, M. (2003). New uses of an agricultural product – A case study of development in an industrial network. Department of industrial economics and technology management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim. Norway. Doctoral thesis.
Ford, D. (2011). IMP and service-dominant logic: divergence, convergence and
development. Industrial Marketing Management 40, 231-239.
Ford, D., Gadde, L-E., Håkansson, H., Lundgren, A., Snehota I. & Wilson, D.
(1998). Managing Business Relationships. Chichester: John Wiley & sons.
Ford, D.; Gadde, L-E., Håkansson, H. & Snehota, I. (2003). Managing Business
Rrelationships, 2nd ed. Chichester: John Wiley & sons.
Ford, D., Gadde, L-E., Håkansson, H. & Snehota I. (2011). Managing Business
Relationships 3rd edition. Chichester: John Wiley & sons.
Frow, P. & Payne, A. (2011). A stakeholder perspective of the value proposition
concept. European Journal of Marketing 45: 1/2, 223 – 240.
Fyrberg, A. & Jüriado, R. (2009). What about interaction? Networks and brands
as integrators within service dominant logic. Journal of Service Management 20:
4, 420-432.
Gadde, L-E. (2004). Activity Coordination and Resource Combining in Distribution Networks - Implications for Relationship Involvement and the Relationship
Atmosphere. Journal of Marketing Management 20: 1-2, 157-184.
Gadde, L-E. (2010). Distribution network evolution – challenges for practice and
theory. The IMP journal 4: 3, 160-169.
Gadde, L-E. & Ford, D. (2008). Distribution research and the industrial network
approach. The IMP Journal 2: 3, 36-52.
Gadde L-E. & Håkansson, H. (2001). Supply Network Strategies, Chichester:
John Wiley & Sons.
Gadde, L-E. & Håkansson, H. (2008). Business relationships and resource combining. The IMP Journal 2:1, 31-45.
Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of
Embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology 91: 3, 481-510.
158
Acta Wasaensia
Grant, R.M. (1991). The Resource-Based Theory of Competitive Advantage Implications for Strategy Formulation. California Management Review 33: 3,
114-135.
Gressetvold, E. (2004). Product Development – Effects on a Company’s Network
of Relationships. Doctoral thesis at NTNU 2004:33. Norwegian University of
Science and Technology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management.
Gressetvold, E. & Wedin, T. (2005). Managing and Measuring Product Development: Challenges related to Embeddedness in Time and Space. Proceedings of
the 21st IMP Conference, Rotterdam.
Grönroos, C. (2008). Service logic revisited: who creates value? And who cocreates? European Business Review 20: 4, 298-314.
Halinen, A. & Mainela T. (2013). Challenges of longitudinal field research in
process studies of business networks. In: Hassett, M.E & Paavilainen-Mäntymäki,
E. (eds) Handbook of Longitudinal Research Methods in Organisation and Business Studies. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Halinen, A. & Törnroos, J-Å. (1998). The role of embeddedness in the evolution
of business networks Scandinavian Journal of Management 14: 3, 187-205.
Halinen, A. & Törnroos, J-Å. (2005). Using case methods in the study of contemporary business networks. Journal of Business Research 58, 1285-1297.
Halinen A. & Törnroos, J-Å. & Elo, M. (2013). Network process analysis: an
event-based approach to study business network dynamics. Industrial Marketing
Management 42, 1213-1222.
Hjelmgren, D. (2005). Exploring the Interplay between Standard Products and
Customer Specific Solutions. Doctoral thesis. Department of Technology Management and Economics, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.
Holmen, E. (2001). Notes on a conceptualisation of resource-related embeddedness of inter-organsiational product development. PhD dissertation, Institute
for Marketing, University of Southern Denmark.
Holmen E. & Pedersen, A-C. (1999). The Resource-Related Embeddedness of
Product Development. In: McLoughlin, Damien and C.Horan (eds.) Proceedings
of the 15th Annual IMP Conference, University College, Dublin 1999.
Holmen, E. & Pedersen, A.-C. (2012). What is resource heterogeneity, and how
can a firm handle the resource heterogeneity encountered in its business relationships? A case of handling heterogeneity of fish farms in outbound logistics of fish
feed. The IMP journal 6: 3, 210-232.
Acta Wasaensia
159
Holmen, E., Forbord, M., Gressetvold, E., Pedersen A.-C. & Torvatn, T. (2003).
A paradox? Homogeneity in the IMP perspective. Proceeding of the 19th annual
IMP conference, Lugano, 2003.
Håkansson, H., ed. (1982). International marketing and purchasing of industrial
goods. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Håkansson, H., ed. (1987). Industrial Technological Development, a network approach. London: Croom Helm.
Håkansson, H., Ford, D., Gadde, L-E., Snehota, I. & Waluszewski, A. (2009).
Business in Networks. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Håkansson, H., Henjesand I-J. & Waluszeweski, A. (2004). Introduction: Rethinking marketing. In: Håkansson, Håkan, Harrison Debbie & Alexandra
Waluszewski (2004) Rethinking marketing. Developing a new understanding of
markets. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Håkansson, H. & Johansson J. (1992). A model of industrial networks. In: Axelsson B. & G. Easton (eds): Networks, a new view of reality. London: Routledge.
Håkansson, H. & Snehota, I. (1995). Developing relationships in business networks. London: Routledge.
Håkansson, H. & Waluszewski, A. (2002). Managing Technological Development, IKEA, the environment and technology. London: Routledge.
Håkansson, H. & Waluszewski, A. (2004). Conclusions: Reinterpreting the four
P:s. In: Håkansson, H., Harrison, D. & Waluszewski, A. (eds.) Rethinking Marketing. Developing a new understanding of markets. Chicester: John Wiley &
sons.
Jahre, M., Gadde, L-E., Håkansson, H., Harrison, D. & Persson, G. (2006). Resourcing in logistics. The art of systematic combining. Lund: Liber.
Johnston, W.J., Leach, M.P. & Liu, A.H. (1999). Theory Testing Using Case
Studies in Business-to-Business Research. Industrial Marketing Management 28,
201-2013.
Karababa, E. & Kjeldgaard, D. (2014). Value in marketing: toward sociocultural
perspectives. Marketing Theory 14: 1, 119-127.
Kitchen, P. & De Pelsmacker P. (2004). Integrated marketing communcations: a
primer. Abingdon: Routledge.
Kornum, N. & Mühlbacher, H. (2013). Multi-stakeholder virtual dialogue: introduction to the special issue. Journal of Business Research 66, 1460-1464.
160
Acta Wasaensia
Lautamäki, S. (2000). Product Knowledge in an Interdisciplinary Context. Analysing Product Meanings among the Member Roles of the Marketing Channel.
Acta Wasaensia no 75. Doctoral thesis. University of Vaasa.
Levitt, T. (1981). Marketing intangible products and product intangibles. Harvard
Business Review 59: 3, 94-103.
Levy, S. (1959). Symbols for sale. Harvard Business Review 37, 117-124.
Lincoln, Y. & Guba. E. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. California: Sage publications.
Lind, F. & Strömsten, T. (2006). When do firms use different types of customer
accounting? Journal of Business Research 59, 1257-66.
Lusch, R.F. and Vargo, S.L., Eds (2006). The Service-dominant logic of marketing: Dialog, debate, and directions, Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe.
Mattsson, L-G. (2002). Dynamics of markets: How “actor-network-theory” and
“markets-as-networks” can learn from each other. Proceedings of the Nordic
workshop on interorganizational research, Kolding 2002.
McCracken, G. (1986). Culture and Consumption: A Theoretical Account of the
Structure and Movement of the Cultural Meaning of Consumer Goods. Journal of
Consumer Research 13: 1, 71-84.
McCracken, G. (1990). Culture and Consumption – New approaches to the symbolic character of consumer goods and activities. Bloomington and Indianapolis:
Indiana University Press.
McLoughlin, D. & Horan, C. (2002). Markets-as-networks: notes on a unique
understanding. Journal of Business Research 55, 535-543.
Merz, M., He, Y. & Vargo, S. (2009). The evolving brand logic: a servicedominant logic perspective. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 37:3,
328-344.
Miller, D. & Chen, M. (1994). Sources and consequences of competitive inertia:
A study of the U.S. airline industry, Administrative Science Quarterly 39, 1-23.
Norrgrann, A. & Luokkanen-Rabetino, K. (2011). Inertia in business relationships: the case of a designer furniture manufacturer. International Journal of
Entrepreneurial Venturing 3: 1, 44-62.
Pels, J. (1999). Exchange relationships in consumer markets? European Journal
of Marketing 33: 1 / 2, 19-37.
Acta Wasaensia
161
Peñaloza, L. & Venkatesh, A. (2012). Further evolving the new dominant logic of
marketing: from services to the social construction of markets. Marketing Theory
6: 3, 299-316.
Penrose, E. (1959). The Theory of the Growth of the Firm. Oxford: Basil Blackwell & Mott Ltd.
Plé, L. & Cáceres, R.C. (2010). Not always co‐creation: introducing interactional
co‐destruction of value in service‐dominant logic. Journal of Services Marketing,
24: 6, 430 - 437.
Rindell, A. (2013). Time in corporate images: introducing image heritage and
image-in-use. Qualitative Market Research, 16: 2, 197-213.
Röndell, J., Sörhammar, D. (2010). The Post-Industrialism/post-capitalism citizen: a heterogeneous actor in a complex exchange and value creating environment. Journal of Customer Behavior 9:4, 335-344.
Snehota, I. (2004). Perspectives and theories of market. In: Håkansson, H., Harrison D. & Waluszewski, A. (2004) Rethinking marketing. Developing a new understanding of markets. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Solomon, M. (1983). The Role of Products as Social Stimuli: A symbolic interactionsim perspective. Journal of Consumer Research 10, 319-329.
Strandvik, T. & Törnroos, J-Å. (1997). Discovering Relationscapes – extending
the horizon of relationship strategies in marketing. Proceedings of the American
Marketing Association Special Conference, New and Evolving Paradigms: the
Emerging Future of Marketing. Dublin.
Thorelli, H. (1994). Prologue, In: Internationalization, Relationships and Networks. Publications of the Uppsala University, Studia Oeconomicae Negotiorum
36, 19-22.
Trott, P. (2012). Innovation Management and New Product Development. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Turley L.W. & Chebat J-C. (2002). Linking Retail Strategy, Atmospheric Design
and Shopping Behaviour. Journal of Marketing Management 18, 125-144.
Vallaster, C. & von Wallpach, S. (2013). An online discursive inquiry into the
social dynamics of multi-stakeholder brand meaning co-creation. Journal of Business Research 66, 1460-1464.
Vargo, S. & Lusch R.F. (2004). Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing. Journal of Marketing 68: 1, 1-17.
Vargo, S.L. & Lusch, R.F. (2006). Service-Dominant Logic: What It Is, What It
Is Not, What It Might Be. In: Lusch, R.F. & Vargo, S.L. (Eds.): The Service-
162
Acta Wasaensia
Dominant Logic of Marketing: Dialog, Debate, and Directions, Armonk, New
York: M.E. Sharpe.
Vargo, S. & Lusch R.F. (2008). From goods to service(s): Divergences and convergences of logics. Industrial Marketing Management 37, 254-259.
Venkatesh, A., Peñaloza, L. & Firat, F. (2006). The Market as a Sign System and
the Logic of the Market In: Lusch, R.F. & Vargo, S.L. (Eds.): The ServiceDominant Logic of Marketing: Dialog, Debate, and Directions, Armonk, New
York: M.E. Sharpe.
von Corswant, Fredrik (2003). Organizing Interactive Product Development,
Doctoral thesis. Department of Operations Management and Work Organization,
School of Technology Management and Economic, Chalmers University of
Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.
Waluszewski, A. (2009). When science shall mean business. From multifaceted to
to limited use of science? IMP Journal 3:2, 3-19.
Wedin, T. (2001). Networks and Demand. The Use of Electricity in an Industrial
Process. Doctoral thesis. Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University,
Sweden.
Wilson, A.M. (1998). The Use of Mystery Shopping in the Measurement of Service Delivery. The Service Industries Journal 18: 3, 148-163.
Yin, R. (1994). Case study research, design and methods, 2nd edition. Thousand
Oaks: Sage.
Åberg, S. (2013). Science in Business Interaction: A Study of the Collaboration
between CERN and Swedish Companies. Doctoral thesis. Department of Business
Studies, Uppsala University, Sweden.
Newspaper and magazine articles and online sources
Artek [online] (2014). Artek Oy has acquired the Alvar Aalto furniture production
of HKT Korhonen. Press release. 31.1.2014 [cited 20.10.2014] Available on the
internet <http://www.artek.fi/news/pressreleases/453>
Boxberg, K. [online] (2013). Kauppa kieltäytyi näkemästä muutosta. Helsingin
Sanomat. Talous 18.9.2013 2:00 [cited 29.9.2014] Available on the internet:
<http://www.hs.fi/talous/a1379390483291>
Kervinen, E. & Junkkari, M. [online] (2013). Verkkokaupan tuoma kriisi sai Soklähdön myötä kasvot. Helsingin sanomat, Talous 18.9.2013 8:20 [cited
29.9.2014] Available on the internet: <http://www.hs.fi/talous/a1379391009726>
Acta Wasaensia
163
Kinnunen, T. [online] (2014). Suomeen uusi sisustusjätti. Helsingin Sanomat,
talous, 28.6.2014 7:23 [cited 29.9.2014] Available on the internet:
<http://www.hs.fi/talous/a1403855952272>
Loukasmäki, P. (2013). Huonekaluteollisuus. Toimialaraportti 2/2013. [online]
Työ- ja elinkeinoministeriö. [cited on 29.98.2914] Available on the internet <
http://www.temtoimialapalvelu.fi/files/1893/Huonekalujen_valmistus_2013.pdf>
Numminen, M. [online] (2014). Kaupan kriisi syvenee, Suomen Kuvalehti
31.8.2014
08:30
[cited
29.9.2014]
Available
on
the
internet:
<http://suomenkuvalehti.fi/jutut/kotimaa/kaupan-kriisi-syvenee-stocmannintoimitusjohtaja-loikkasi-jo-nyt-pois/>
Tilastokeskus. [online] (2014) .Huonekalujen, sisustus- ja taloustavaroiden myynti
2010-2013.
[cited
29.9.2014]
Available
on
the
internet
<http://www.temtoimialapalvelu.fi/files/1926/ArtoMelanko_katsaus_ja_haasteet_
2013.pdf>
Sisusta kotia r.y. [online] (2013). Presentation [cited 29.9.2014] Available on the
internet:
<http://www.temtoimialapalvelu.fi/files/1926/ArtoMelanko_katsaus_ja_haasteet_
2013.pdf>
164
Acta Wasaensia
APPENDICES
Appendix 1a
case
List of interviews in the bed manufacturer
Interviews marked with * provided sources of observational data from company
premises (e.g. production and storage, physical products, store appearance). Unless indicated otherwise, all interviews were personal interviews.
Managing director (LW), Case firm, 5.4.2002
Managing director (LW), Case firm 18.3.2003 *
Key account manager (SK), Case firm, 9.5.2003
Key account manager (JJ) Case firm 22.4.2003
Product manager (LK) Retail chain A, head office, 14.5.2003
Area manager, product manager at time of product launch (RJ) Retail chain A,
head office, 5.8.2003
Product manager (TL), Retail chain B, head office, 16.6.2003
Production manager (JH) Case firm, 9.5.2003*
Purchasing manager (NB), Case firm, 22.4.2003
Marketing and product development manager (OC) Sister company, 8.12. 2003
(telephone interview)
Store manager (HS), Store of retail chain B, Pirkkala, 5.11.2004*
Sales person (AP), Store of retail chain B, Jyväskylä, 10.11.04*
Store owner/manager (JR), Store of retail chain B, Jyväskylä, 10.11.2004*
Store owner/manager (YN), Store of retail chain B, Vaasa, 19.10.2004*
Store owner/manager (MM), Store of retail chain B, Jakobstad, 16.6.2005*
Store owner/manager (MN), Store of retail chain B, Kristinestad, 17.6.2005*
Acta Wasaensia
165
Appendix 1b
Example of interview themes, key account
managers, bed manufacturer case
0. BACKGROUND OF THE INFORMANT
Job description / area of responsibility, (previous) experience
Products and customers that the informant works with
1. PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS
What does the collection consist of?
What are its most important characteristics? Strengths?
2. PRODUCT DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
Description of the product development process?
What is the role/contribution of the parties involved in the process?
Forms of interaction, benefits and problems in co-operation?
Most important knowledge/competencies behind the product?
3. SALES ENVIRONMENT AND MARKETING ACTIVITIES
The key account retail chain as a sales context?
As a co-operation partner?
What do you want to communicate about the product to consumers, and how?
166
Acta Wasaensia
Appendix 1c
Interview themes for retailer interviews,
bed manufacturer case
1. Product characteristics (from the retailer’s perspective)
•
•
•
•
•
Strengths/weaknesses of the collection (valuable/problematic issues)?
What makes this a product that you wanted to include into your assortment? (is it ”your kind of a product”)
What other brands do you sell in this category? The case collection in
relation to them?
The present collection in relation to the prior one from the supplier?
In which direction do you think the collection should be developed?
2. Customers
•
•
What kind of customers (segments) buy this?
Which features do you want to highlight to customers about this collection, what kind of argumentation do you use?
o
o
o
o
o
o
•
•
•
•
Geographical origin
Brand
Physical / physically experienced features (quality, comfort)
Appearance
Value for money
Usability (washable, allergy friendly..)
What is important to them when buying a bed?
Does sales argumentation differ between customer segments?
Feedback from customers?
Sales volumes (in relation to other brands in the product group)?
3. Sales process / customer service
•
•
•
•
Customers’ prior knowledge of the product?
Personal selling – how does it proceed, how much service is needed
(e.g. compared to other products)
What kind of information does the customer receive in the sales encounter?
What is it like to sell this product compared to others?
Acta Wasaensia
167
4. Advertising / promotion
•
•
•
•
What kind (media, content, by whom)?
How often?
Manufacturer’s support?
Product display?
5. Relationship with the manufacturer
•
•
How would you characterise the supplier and your relationship with them?
What kind of interaction; around what issues, how often, with whom?
o
o
o
Product education
Complaint handling
Product development ideas
168
Acta Wasaensia
Appendix 2a
Mystery shopping, background information
Visits to stores of retailer A (6)
Time
Observer description
18.2.05 (Friday afternoon)
2 women, age 20’s
24.2.05 (Thursday early afternoon) 2 women, age 21 and 24
4.3.05 (Friday early afternoon)
2 men, age 23
5.3.05 (Saturday noon)
Man, age 24
5.3.05 (Saturday early afternoon) Couple, age 21 and 25
8.3.05 (Tuesday early afternoon) Woman, age 28
Visits to stores of retailer B (6)
Time
Observer description
25.2.05 (Friday morning)
26.2.05 (Saturday afternoon)
4.3.05 (Friday noon)
7.3.05 (Monday morning)
7.3.05 (Monday afternoon)
15.4.05 (Friday morning)
Woman, age 23
Woman, age 23
2 women, age 24
Couple, age 29
Man, age 48
Woman, age 22
The mystery shoppers were university students with marketing as major or minor
subject, participating in the course “The symbolic character of consumption”.
A few had recently bought, or were currently looking for a similar product for
real.
Acta Wasaensia
Appendix 2b
169
Mystery shopping briefing and recall form
Mystery shopping assignment: Buying a
bed/mattress
Aim of the assigment:
To clarify which product characteristics are
trasmitted to the consumer and how?
The fictive need:
A reasonably priced quality bed that feels good
Product:
A box mattress or spring mattress
Place of purchase:
A store belonging to furniture chain A or B
The observation situation:
Before your visit to the store, familiarize yourself with the themes mentioned in the recall form and try to pay attention to these issues during
your visit. Think beforehand about your own, fictive needs and preferences, e.g. in what kind of a space you would place the product, how
much you would be prepared to pay, what kind of durability requirements
you would have etc. Go to the store as if you were a regular customer
interested in buying a bed/mattress. The goal is to let the sales situation
advance up to the point where you would actually be prepared to make
a purchasing decision. Try to let the sales person demonstrate different
alteratives and product features spontaneously, but when needed, ask
questions of issues you think are relevant for the situation.
For instance:
•
•
•
•
Different product alternatives within the focal collection (”How
does this differ from that”) or other brands (”What about this?”)
Origin of the product?
Price?
Delivery time?
In gerenal, try to be as natural and neutral as possible.
Write down your observations as soon as possible after the visit; but not
while still in the store.
Recall form (fill in afterwards, not in the store)
170
Acta Wasaensia
Background information:
Name and age of mystery shopper(s):
_____________________________________________________________
Place and time of observation (date, time of day):
_____________________________________________________________
The sales situation:
How quickly were you attended to?
_____________________________________________________________
How did the sales person find out what you wanted and were
interested in?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
What kind of background information did you give of yourself/
yourselves and the use environment of the potential purchase
in the service encounter?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Did the sales person encourage you to test the products?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Did the sales person actively offer/promote a certain alternative? Which product(s)________________________________________
Acta Wasaensia
171
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
What kind of argumentation and appeals did the sales person
use?
a)
About the case product
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
b)
About other products___________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
What kind of product information did the sales person provide
you with? (springs, softness/hardness, care instructions etc.…)
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Did the sales person demonstrate any additional products?
(mattress pads, mattres protectors, head boards, nightstands
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
172
Acta Wasaensia
_____________________________________________________________
Other observations from the sales/service situation?
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Observations and impressions from the retail environment:
a) as a whole?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
b) of the bed/mattress section of the store____________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
The display of the focal product ______________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Acta Wasaensia
173
The environment/atmosphere for testing the products? _______
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
How visible or distinguishable were brands in the retail environment?
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Other observations or comments?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
In addition:
•
How did the sales process advance?
What kind of factors did you need to ask the sales person, that
he/she did not tell you about spontaneously?
Appendix 3a
List of interviews, the Korhonen case
Managing director Jukka Korhonen 20.5.2005 (personal interview, facility visit)
Managing director Jukka Korhonen 2000 (structured telephone interview)
Managing director Jukka Korhonen 1995 (structured telephone interview)
174
Acta Wasaensia
Managing director Jukka Korhonen 1993 (structured telephone interview)
Managing director Jukka Korhonen 1990 (structured telephone interview)
Managing director Jukka Korhonen 1986 (structured telephone interview)
Acta Wasaensia
Appendix 3b
175
Personal interview themes (Korhonen)
Example 4. Korhonen / Jukka Korhonen interview 20.5.2005
•
Basic company information update: changes in turnover, amount and type of
personnel, designers used?
•
The Artek relationship
o How has it influenced the firm (competence, investments, role, image)?
o The content of this relationship, type of interaction?
o Particular events or phases, challenges in that relationship?
o Artek products vs other products Korhonen makes?
•
Project sales
o type of customers?
o relative significance?
o how are new projects initiated?
•
Subcontracting relationships
o What/for whom, when?
o Why?
•
Own products
o What kind of development processes behind them?
o Resellers? Exports?
o Nature of the own products?
•
Korhonen
o Competencies, technologies (links with partners)?
o Strategic orientation (production, product development, marketing, design?)
176
Acta Wasaensia
Appendix 4a
List of interviews, the Junet case
Interviews marked with * provided sources of observational data from company
premises (e.g. production and storage, physical products, display). Unless indicated otherwise, all interviews were personal interviews.
Managing director Jari Hakola, Junet, 18.10.1999 *
Managing director Jari Hakola, Junet, 16.3.2000
Shop owner Maarit Kiiskinen, Stelliina, Turku (reseller), 17.11.2000 (telephone
interview)
Brand consultant Maarit Kallio Contium Oy (brand agency), 20.11.2009
Managing director Jari Hakola,. Junet, 24.8.2010 *
Managing director Jari Hakola, Junet, 9.10.2012
Managing director Minja Kivinen, Junet, 23.1.2013
Managing director Minja Kivinen, Junet, 27.2.2014
Acta Wasaensia
Appendix 4b
177
Example of interview themes (Junet)
Junet/Jari Hakola interview 24.8.2010, 10 am
JUNET’s BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS
• Concentration in teh distribution network; what has happened? Why? What has
been learned?
• Partner firms: any changes in their roles, commitment?
• Other supplier or other relationships, whhose importance has changed
• Developments in the business environment, competition?
VEPSÄLÄINEN
• Significance of the relationship? (How is Junet and its products valuable for
Vepsäläjnen , and vice versa)
• What kind of interaction in practice, around what issues, how closely?
• Role in new product development?
END CUSTOMER
• Different profiles (e.g. what kind of homes do the products end up in), what
kind of customer information about them, how?
• What does a piece of Junet furniture give the consumer (how is it valuable for
them?)
THE JUNET - BRAND
• What does the Junet brand stand for; why, what is it not
o Which features are important in it, what do you want to emphasise and
bring forth?
• Junet’s development as a brand
o Concrete product changes, communicative changes?
• Relation between single product items and the brand as a whole (continuum)
• Actors behind the brabd, their relationship with it – what kind of contribution
do different actors bring?
o designers
o owners/partners
o Contium
o others?
•
How do you communicate the brand; means and channels of communication,
appeals, division of responsibilities between the actors involved
o What do you want to say with the chosen visual and verbal imagery?